PUBLIC DOCUMENT .... .... No. 4.

FORTY-FIFTH

ANNUAL EEPOKT OF THE SECEETAEY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

State Board of Agriculture,

TOGETHER WITH THK

TENTH ANNUAL EEPOET OF THE HATCH EXPEEI-

MENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

1897.

BOSTON :

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 Post Office Square.

1898.

TABLE OF COISTTEE^TS.

PACE

State Board of Agriculture, 1898, . v

Report of the Secretary, vxi

Minutes of Executive Committee Meetings, 3

Minutes of Special Meeting of the Board, 11

Public Winter Meeting of the Board at Taunton, .... 17
Lecture : Milch Cows, Structure as relating to Production. By

Dr. Geo. M. Twitchell, 23

Lecture : Milk Supply and the Public Health. By Prof. Wm. T.

Sedgwick, 46

Lecture : Market Gardening with Limited Capital. By IL W.

Collingwood, 65

Lecture : Advantages and Disadvantages of Modem Methods of

Poultry CvTlture. By Samuel Cushman, 95

Lecture : Raising and Marketing of Fruit. By Walter F. Taber, . 119

Lecture : Irrigation on our Farm. By Richard Hittinger, . . 141
Lecture : Insects Injurious to the Ci'anberry and other Fruits. By

Prof. C. H. Femald, 144

IMiuutes of the Annual Meeting of the Board, .... 173

Report of Examining Committee of the Agricultural College, . 184

Report of Committee on Agricultural Societies, .... 193
Report of Committee on Experiments and Station Work, . .195

Report of the Librarian, 197

Essay : Opportunities of New England Farmers. By Wesley B

Barton, 209

Essay : Farmers' Institutes. By F. W. Sargent, .... 215

Essay : Small Fruits in the Home Garden. By Prof. S. T. Maynard. 225

Essay : Three Shade-tree Insects. By A. H. Kirkland, M.S., . . 238
Essay : Why Milk sours, and how the Souring can be prevented or

at least delayed By Geo. M. Whitaker, 248

Essay : Systematic Feeding and Watering as a Preventative of

Disease in Horses. By Prof. Jas. B Paige, 254

Essay : Massachusetts Weeds. By Prof. G. E. Stone, . . . 268

iv CONTENTS. [P. D. No. 4.

Seventh Annual Report of the State Dairy Bureau, . . .281

Report on Extermination of the Gypsy Moth (with Appendix), . 309
Paper: Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide. By Prof. C 11.

Fernald, 353

Paper: Arsenate of Lead; its Manufacture and Chemical Com-
position. By F. J. Smith, M.S., r>57

Paper: Experiments with Insecticides. By A. II. Kirklaud and

A. F. Burgess, 370

Paper : Danger from the Use of Arsenate of Lead. By A. H. Kirk-
land, M.S., 390

Paper: Digestion in the Larviu of the Gypsy Moth. By A. II.

Kirkland and F. J. Smith 394

Paper : Notes on Predaceous Beetles, 1897. By A. F. Burgess, M.S., 402
Paper: The Species of Podisus occurring in the United States.

By A. H. Kirkland, M.S., 412

Report of Board of Cattle Commissioners, 443

Report on Farmers' National Congress at St. Paul, Minn., . . 585

Returns of the Societies, 601

Agricultural Directory, 633

Index, 647

State Board of Agriculture, 1898,

Members ex Oflicio.

His Excellency ROGER WOLCOTT.

His Honor W. M. CRANE.
Hon. WM. M. OLIN, Secretary of the Commonicealth.

H. H. GOODELL, M.A., LL.D., President Massachusetts Agricultural College.
C. A. GOESSMANN, Ph.D., LL.D., Chemist of the Board.
WM. R. SESSIONS, Secretary of the Board.

Members appointed by the Governor and CounciL

Term Expires

JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greenfield 1899

SPRAGUE S. STETSON of Lakeville 1900

D WIGHT A. HORTON of Northampton, 1901

Members chosen by the Incorporated Societies.
%'ort'lf, ""'? ^"'f''"'^^ (f ^'"■'^ ""''^ j F. W. SARGENT of Amesbury, .
Barnstable County,

Berkshire

Blackstone Valley,

Bristol County, ....

Deerfield Valley F

Eastern Hampden O

Essex,

JOHN BURSLEY of West BarnBtable
WESLEY B. BARTON of Dalton,
SAMUEL B. TAFT of Uxbridge,
N. W. SHAW of North Uaynham,

H. SMITH of Ashfield, .

P. ALLEN of Palmer, ,

\ F. H. APPLETON of Peabody (P. O

'{ Lynnfield),

Franklin County F. L. WHITMORE of Sunderland,

Hampshire, GEO. P. SMITH of Sunderland, .

Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, EDWARD E. WOOD of Northampton,

Highland SAMUEL M. RxVYMOND of Hinsdale,

Hillside, C. K. BREWSTER of Worlhington, .

Hingham (Ayr' land Hort'l), . . EDMUND HERSEY of Hingham,

Hoosac Valley ^^^ ^,- fAKER of Savoy (P. O. Savoy

* ( Centre),

Ifousatonic CHARLES B. BENEDICT of Egremont,

Man'/'rs' AgrW (No.Attleborough), . OSCAR B. THAYER of Attloborough,

. WALTON HALL of Marshfiold, .

. EVERETT A. DAVIS of West Tisbury,

. E. W. WOOD of West Newton,

Marshjield {Agr'land Hort'l),
Martha's Vineyard,
Massachusetts Horticultural,

Middlesex South,

Massachusetts Society for Promot- > -kt t nnnrT^TTintT t m • i.

ing Agriaature, . . . . . | N. I. BOWDITCH of Framingham, .

Middlesex North JOSHUA CLARK of Tewksbury,

(ISAAC DAMON of Waylaud (P. O

■ \ Cochituate),

Nantucket J. S. APPLETON, Jr., of Nantucket,

Oxford J. W. STOCKWELL of Sutton, .

Plymouth County ^Wu^gl"^ ^^^"^^ "^ ^'"'"' ^'^^^^

Spencer (Far's and Mech's Assoc'n),
Union (Agr'l and Hort'l), .
Weymouth (Ayr' I and fnd' I),

J. ELTON GREEN of Spencer, .

ALMON W. LLOYD, of Blandford, .

QUINCY L. REED of South Weymouth,

Worcester J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH of Worcester,

Worcester East W. A. KILBOURN of South Lancaster,

T/orcester North-west (Agr'l arid \ T. H. GOODSPEED of Athol (P. O. Alhol

Mech'l) I Centre)

Worcester South CD. RICHARDSON of West Brookfield

Worcester County West, . . . E. A. BAR WOOD of North Brookfield,

1900

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1899

THE FORTY-FIFTH ANNUAL EFFORT

SECRETARY

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

To the Senate and Hoicse of Representatives of the Commonwealth of

Massachusetts.

Replies received the last of May from 190 crop corre-
spondents indicated that the season of 1897 opened from
one to two weeks earlier than usual ; but that the cold,
wet weather, while having an excellent effect on vegetation,
tended to reduce the progress of the season more nearly to
the normal. The season seemed to be relatively earlier in
the western sections than in those nearer to the coast. All
crops were reported well advanced and making a good
growth. Not for several years were the early reports in re-
gard to pastures and mowings so favorable. Copious rains
gave both a good start, and grass was everywhere thick and
strong. Fall seeding generally wintered well, and the spring
rains aided it in securing a good start. Apples made a re-
markably full bloom, considering the heavy crop of last year ;
early varieties blooming more fully than did winter ones.
Pears, plums, cherries and quinces made a full average
bloom. The peach bloom could hardly be called full, al-
though still much above the usual bloom for this section.
Small fruits and wild berries generally blossomed well.
Rather less damage than usual was reported from insects.
Tent caterpillars were the most common, but appeared to be
doing rather less damage than usual. A new imported in-
sect pest, the brown-tail moth, was reported as doing much
damage to pear trees in portions of Somerville and Cam-

viii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

bridge. Spraying was reported as not practised to any
extent, except by those who make fruit growing a specialty.
Farm help was reported as plenty in most localities, though
considerable complaint was made of the difficulty of securing
really good help. Wages averaged about $18 per month, with
board. For day help the range reported was from $1 to $2
per day. The usual price paid in most localities, except in
haying and harvesting time, was $1.25. Most correspond-
ents reported that there were no marked changes in the
acreage of farm crops. Rather more corn than usual was
planted, the increase being mostly for the silo.

In June, considerable complaint was made of the failure
of corn to germinate, necessitating replanting or abandon-
ment of fields. Acreage of early potatoes about as in pre-
vious years, and the crop generally promised well, though
somewhat backward. Early market-garden crops late and
growing slowly, but where harvested the yield was usually
spoken of as satisfactory. Prices ruled about as usual, with
perhaps a slight upward tendency for some crops. There
appeared to be a slight increase in the sum total of dairy
products, probably due to the excellent feed in pastures.
There was a surplus of milk in many sections. Supply of
dairy stock, on the whole, none too great for the demand.
Strawberries were generally said to be a good crop, with
prices average, but the quality of the early berries suffered
somewhat from the wet weather and lack of sun, and the
crop was generally delayed in ripening.

In July, squash bugs, both the black and the striped
varieties, appeared to be rather more numerous than usual.
Indian corn was very backward, with color oft' and stand un-
even. Reports from all quarters agreed that the hay crop
was one of the largest ever known in the State ; the qual-
ity was also said to be excellent, as a rule, though trouble
was reported in some sections from the presence of weeds,
which throve unduly during the wet weather. Market-
garden crops suffered more or less from the severe rains.
Con8ideral)le complaint was made of potato blight. Prices
for early potatoes generally spoken of as much better than
for several seasons past. Rye was a good crop, if anything,
a little above the average.

No. 4.] EEPORT OF SECRETARY. ix

In August, Indian corn was still backward. Rowen prom-
ised to be the best crop for many years. Late potatoes were
very poor, with blight general throughout the State ; rot
also generally prevalent. Tobacco suffered from the exces-
sive rains, and was reported as mostly late, yellowish in
color and small in growth. Pastures were everywhere in
fine condition. Oats and barley were hardly "up to the aver-
age where allowed to mature the grain, and there was con-
sideral)le complaint of rust and lodging, also of grain not
being as full and plump as usual. Oats and barley did very
well indeed where sowed for forage.

In September, the corn crop materially improved in con-
dition, but at cutting time considerable complaint was- made
that it had not eared well, and also that the ears were not
well filled out. Sweet corn was also below the average.
Rowen was an unusually good crop, m-any correspondents
speaking of it as the best crop ever known, and it was se-
cured in good condition. Fall feed was also above the aver-
age in condition, and promised to hold out well. Onions
were considerably less than an average crop ; rot was re-
ported in some sections, and there was some complaint of
big necks. The potato crop was one of the poorest for many
years, many correspondents speaking of it as hardly worth
digging. Potato rot was general throughout the State on all
but the lightest lands, and on many fields it destroyed almost
the entire crop. There was -also much complaint of the
tubers being small and few. Pears were very abundant, and
were generally of good quality. Peaches made a better yield
than usual, and were mostly of large size and fair quality.
Grapes yielded well, but were late. Plums were generally
a good crop, though there was quite a good deal of com-
plaint of their rotting on the trees, as was also the case with
other tree fruits. Cranberries were only a fair crop.

In October, root crops were reported hardly up to the
usual average. Celery, where reported on, was generally
said to have done well. Farm stock everywhere was in fine
condition. Early sown fall seeding was generally reported
to have made a good catch, but less than the usual amount
was done, owing mainly to the ground being too dry to give
good promise of success. In regard to prices, it may be

X BOARD OF AGRICULTURP:. [Pub. Doc.

said that there appeared to ])e a general improvement in
prices paid for farm crops over those of recent years.

As to the profit from farm crops during the year 1897, it
may be said that the returns of correspondents November 1
showed a great diversity of opinion. One hundred and
three of the 162 correspondents making reply considered
hay to have been among the most profitable crops ; 22, corn ;
17, potatoes ; 13, sweet corn ; 9, onions ; 8, tobacco ; 7, cab-
bage ; 6, winter squash ; 5 each of milk, asparagus and straw-
berries ; 4 each of oats, apples, tomatoes and forage crops ;
3 each of small fruits, early potatoes and cranberries, etc.
One hundred and eight of the 162 correspondents gave pota-
toes as among the least profitable crops ; 28, corn ; 23, apples ;
8, cabbage ; 7 each of squash and peas ; 4, tomatoes ; 3, oats,
etc. In conclusion, it is thought that, for the State as a
whole, farmers probal^ly no more than held their own during
the season of 1897.

Massachusetts Weather, 1897.

[Compiled from data furnished by the Weather Bureau, Boston.]

January averaged warmer than usual, except along the
south-eastern coast, where slight deficiencies in temperature
occurred. A warm spell prevailed from the 3d to 5th in-
clusive, with the maxima rano^ino- in the fifties. Winter
temperatures were then the rule until the middle of the
month. A most pronounced cold wave set in on the 19th.
This produced remarkable temperature falls, averaging 40°
to 60°. By the 21st the weather was again moderate, and so
continued. The storm of the 5th gave general heavy rains ;
that of the 17th and 18th was also mostly rain. The storm
of the 20th and 21st began as snow, but changed to rain.
There was little snow during the month until the great
storm of the 28th. This was a typical coast storm. From
12 to 18 inches of snow fell, and the month closed with a
large body on the ground.

February was an agreeable change from the severe weather
conditions which generally characterize the month. Heavy
storms were not numerous. There were only two pro-
nounced cold waves. Zero weather was almost steady

No. 4.] REPOET OF SECRETARY. xi

throughout the tirst six mornings in all ])ut coast sections.
During the second decade and the greater part of the third
the mercury went below zero but few times, although the
closing days brought a cold spell. There were numerous
mild, spring-like days, and the general conditions presented
a marked contrast to those of the same month in 1896. The
precipitation averaged a departure below the normal of 0.95
inch. A good snow covering protected the ground. The
snowfall averaged 13 inches.

March was a stormy, disagreeable month, although it is
true that there was no great storm. In the first half of the
month there was precipitation on nine days, but the storms
were moderate. Fair weather prevailed from the 15th to
the 18th, followed by the second storm period, which lasted
until the 27th, with heavy rains on the 24th. The closing
days were fair and remarkably pleasant. The precipitation
was but slightly below normal. The average snowfall was
but 4 inches. At the end of the month, the ground was
bare and rivers and ponds were in general free from ice.
The month opened with a temperature ranging nearly as low
as on any day of the winter. Low morning temperatures
continued through the first ten days, and another cold period
prevailed from the 13th to 18th. From the 18th to the close
of the month the weather was almost uniformly mild.

The monthly mean temperature for April was above the
normal by 2.3°. The highest temperatures were mainly
recorded on the 25th, and were above 80°, as a rule. The
feature of the month with res^ard to this element was the
sudden and most decided fall on the 20th, amounting almost
to a cold wave. South-westerly winds on the 19th made
that a mild day, but all the time a large body of cold air was
proceeding eastward from the lake regions, following closely
in the rear of a storm which was moving down the St.
Lawrence valley. By the morning of the 20th the fall in
temperature amounted to from 40° to 50°, and the mercury
registered below freezing all over the State. The cold was
all the more bitter for being so unseasonable. No particular
damage was caused by this freeze.

The temperature of May ranged below the normal during
the first eight days, averaging a deficiency of about 2.5°

xii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

eiicli (lay. During this i)eri()(l the nights were altogether too
cold for rapid or even steady growth. It was very cool on
the morning of the 8th, and in western Massachusetts ice
formed and the ground froze in low lands, but a high wind
protected fruit. Farm work was nearly at a standstill from
the 10th to the 17th, owing to the prevalence of general heavy
rains. Copious rains fell on the 12th and 13th, amounting in
central sections to about two inches. The temporary delay
in planting caused by the wet weather was more than com-
pensated for by the immense good done to all vegetation.
Grass, especially, pushed forward w^onderfully fast. The
week ending the 24th was cool and very dry, with consider-
able high wind. In the central and western portions of the
State the rainfallwas little more than a trace. There was
an abundance of sunshine, but the cool nights checked
growth. Frosts on the 2 2d and 23d produced no great dam-
age. Heavy thunder-showers during nights of 24th and 25th.

The month of June opened unfavorably for the farmer.
During the week ending on the 7th, the weather was too cool
and wet for a good growth of any crop. There was very
little sunshine. The temperature ranged about normal
throughout the first four days, although on several mornings
the mercury registered below 50'^, and there was a narrow
escape from frost in low places on the 2d. Frequent rains,
accompanied by hail and high winds in some localities,
occurred, although, as a rule, the precipitation was not
heavy.

The week ending with the 14th l)rought no improvement
in the general conditions, but, on the contrary, the situation
was nearly at the worst. Only one clear day occurred during
this period, and with the cool temperature and the rain all
crops were greatly retarded. An exceptionally heavy rain-
fall came on the 9th and 10th. The temperature averaged a
daily departure below the normal of 8°, and by the 14th it
was more than 100° deficient for the month, while the pre-
cipitation was greatly in excess of the usual amount. The
week ending; with the 21st w^as the most favorable of the
season up to that time ; still, the lack of sunshine was a
detrimental factor. Several days were favorable for haying.
The temperature averaged about normal, and the rainfall con-

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xiii

sisted of light showers on three djiys. The mornings of the
17th and 19th were especially cool, the temperature falling
below 50° in all but coast sections.

A very satisfactory week was that which ended with the
28th. The rainfall was very light, and much sunshine pre-
dominated. A warm spell set in, commencing with the 22d,
when the temperature rose to 80°, and terminated on the
25th with maximum of over 85°.

July was characterized by meteorological features which
will cause it to l)e long remembered. The excessive heat
during the first decade, the abnormally heavy rains of the
13th and 14th, unequalled for many years, the occurrence of
severe local storms, and the spell of gloomy and unseason-
ably cool weather at the close of the month constituted a
chain of conditions which illustrate the variability of New
England climate.

The month began with temperature at the seasonal average.
A heated spell set in on the 5th and continued without inter-
ruption until the 10th. During this period maximum tem-
peratures of 90° and over were commonly registered, and
under the influence of the intense heat and bright sunshine,
with but little rainfall, all crops advanced rapidly and health-
fully. The warm spell was terminated, temporarily, on the
10th, by a so-called " sea-turn " on the coast, and which was
generally felt throughout the State. From the 12th to the
25th there was the usual number of days of summer warmth,
but no extreme heat, although many days were extremely
trying, owing to moist, south winds. A season of damp,
east winds, beginning with the 25th and lasting through the
29th, gave very cool temperatures, averaging a daily de-
parture below the normal of 8°.

The precipitation record was a remarkable one, and easily
takes front rank as the most important characteristic of the
month. The first five days witnessed but little rainfall, gen-
erally speaking, except that on the 2d a heavy local storm,
accompanied by hail, visited portions of Worcester County.
Heavy thunder- showers traversed the western part of the
State on the 7th, washing roads and beating down crops, but
on the whole the rain was a benefit. From that date up to
the time of the great storm of the 13th-14th, generally fair

xiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

weather prevailed. The last-named storm was of an excep-
tionally violent character, in fact, almost unprecedented at
this season of year. It came from the western States, moved
across the lake regions on the 12th, and became central in
western Massachusetts on the morning of the 13th. Its
centre remained nearly stationary through the 13th and 14th,
owing to the obstructing area of high barometer in the
north-east, and during these two days torrents of water were
poured over all the State except the extreme eastern and
south-eastern parts. The actual precipitation in interior and
western Massachusetts was from 5 to 8 inches. The gale
which attended the storm was of great violence. The wind
attained a velocity of fifty miles at Boston on the morning
of the 14th, and for one minute it blew at the rate of sixty
miles per hour.

The week ending with the 26th was damp and unsettled,
with hardly a single fine, clear day. Meadows and lowlands
continued too wet for cultivation, and much mown hay was
caught by rains and spoiled. Heavy thunder-storms passec
across the State on the 23d and 24th, damaging crops to
some extent. At Fitchburg more than three inches of rain
fell in a thunder-storm, and a general rain storm on the 22d
gave large amounts of water. The month was brought to a
close with heavy rains on the 29th, when a coast storm was
central off Nantucket.

It will be necessary to scan the records for many years
back to find a parallel July, especially with reference to pre-
cipitation.

In its chief meteoroloo:ical features the month of Auofust
was nearly normal, and it passed without many specially
noteworthy phenomena of any kind. There were several
days of unseasonably cool weather, and on the 21st the
escape from light frosts in the interior sections was by a
narrow margin. There was a remarkable paucity of so-
called "dog-days," which was one of the agreeable features.
Although there were some heavy rains, mostly local in
character and occurring during thunder-storms, very little
damage was sustained anywhere. In the eastern part of the
State rain fell on an average of ten days, while in cen-
tral and western portions the average was slightly greater.

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xv

Thunder-storms were frequent, but not more so than natur-
ally to be expected at this season.

The first week gave warm and good growing weather, with
less rain and abundant sunshine. The fair days greatly out-
numbered the foul.

The second week was rather more unfavorable in all but
the eastern and south-eastern counties. In the interior and
the western counties showers were quite numerous. There
were only three days that brought even one-fourth of the
usual amount of sunshine. In the eastern districts, the
week, generally speaking, was favorable, as the precipitation
was very small.

The third week opened with thunder-storm conditions.
The storms on the 15th were apparently the most general,
and in certain localities they assumed violent proportions.
The 18th again saw electrical disturbances in various parts
of the State. In fact, the week brought overmuch rain, and
the continued wet weather proved a serious drawback to
Ifarming operations. The night temperatures were low and
unseasonable, falling l)elo\v 50° on several occasions.

The week beffinnins: with the 22d ao-ain witnessed thunder-
storm conditions in the ascendency, and the storms which
occurred on this date kept good the character of the summer
for unusual doings. The first steady and general rainstorm
of the month was on the 24tli, occasioned by a storm which
moved up the Atlantic coast and centred off" our southern
coast on the morning of that day. It gave a large rainfall
at Boston, in the course of which more than one-half inch
fell in twenty minutes. The 23d and 24th were days of
cool temperatures, but the remainder of the week was warm
and seasonable, with very pleasant skies.

Probably the most important characteristic of the month
of September was the hot wave which set in on the 9th and
lasted through the 11th, with maximum temperatures rang-
ing in the 90's. The warmest day was the 10th, when the
mercury rose as high as on any day during the summer, and,
in fact, the heat was terrific, but fortunately it was not ac-
companied by excessive humidity. It is commonly sup-
posed that these September hot waves are a development of
recent years, but the records of the Weather Bureau indicate

xvi BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

that this month has nearly always produced its quota of
warm weather, and the highest temperature recorded at
Boston in the history of this Bureau occurred on a Septem-
ber day, — the memorable "yellow day" of 1881, the 7th,
when the mercury rose to 102°. Following the culmination
of this September's hot wave, the temperature fell decidedly,
and on no day throughout the remainder of the month did it
rise beyond seasonable figures. On the other hand, begin-
ning with the 15th, the nights became quite cool, the mer-
cury often falling below 50. The first general frosts were
on the morning of the 22d. In many localities the frost
was destructive, notal)ly on the lowlands of the interior, but
in the eastern part of the State the damage was slight.
Light frosts were aoain o-eneral on the mornino; of the 28th.
These dates are believed to be about the average.

The storm periods w^ere few, and there were no particu-
larly large rainfiills. The average number of days with an
appreciable amount of precipitation was less than ten. The
first decided storm of the month was that which commenced
on the evening of the 23d and ended before noon of -the 24th.
The bright and sunny days greatly outnumbered the cloudy
days, and the storms were of slight intensity as a rule.
Rain was needed to settle dusty roads, but there was no
lack of w^ater otherwise, owing to the excessive rains of the
preceding months.

October was characterized by weather conditions which, in
the main, were of the best. The temperature was unusually
mild and the precipitation very deficient. At many places
the total monthly rainfall was less than one-half inch. The
total of rainy days which would interfere with out-door work
was but one, and the entire numljer of days with an appre-
ciable amount of rain averaged not more than three for the
entire State.

The month came in with conditions strongly suggestive of
a return to summer. On the 1st the temperature rose above
85° in numerous localities, but late in the afternoon it began
to fall, and on the 2d its range was 30° or 40° lower. On
the 7th the mercury sought a lower range, and the cool wave
culminated on the morning of the 10th, with the temperature
varying from 25° in western and interior sections to slightly

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xvii

below 40° on the coast. The most marked feature of the
month was the wave of summer heat which prevailed through-
out the 15th and 16th. The 15th was, in every respect a
perfect summer day, and the heat was prolonged through the
l(3th, reaching almost 90° on the latter date. The highest
October temperature on record at the Boston Weather Bureau
office was 90° on the 1st, in 1881, and this record was very
nearly equalled by the temperature of the 16th of this Octo-
ber. The hot spell was brought to a close early Sunday
morning, the 17th, when the arrival of a cold north-west
wind forced the mercury rapidly downward. At 8 a.m. of
the 17th, the thermometer stood some 30° or 40° lower than
twelve hours previous, — a striking evidence of the versatility
which enables our New England climate to go at one jump
from midsummer temperature to autumnal chill. Low morn-
ing temperatures were the rule onward to the close of the
month, and after the 19th the day temperatures ranged below
60°.

The coast sections were visited on the 21st by a tropical
hurricane.

While the weather of November presented no especially
unusual features, it was on the whole quite unpleasant. The
large number of days with precipitation and the consequent
excessive cloudiness contributed in a great measure to the
generally disagreeable conditions. The days with a measure-
able amount of rain or snow averaged 14, and the precipita-
tion was in the main evenly distributed throughout the State,
and was above the average by about two and one-half inches.
The month opened with a heavy rainstorm, which gave ex-
cessive amounts in some localities, and not less than two
inches in any part of the State.

The first snowfall of consequence occurred in the early
morning of the 12th, and a large part of the precipitation
thereafter was in this form. The average date of the first
snowfall of the season is November 15. The temperature
was greatly in contrast with that of the corresponding month
of 1896, which, it will be remembered was remarkably mild.
The month was not without several warm days, however,
notably in the first decade, also the 16th, 21st, 26th and
27th. The minimum temperatures were almost invariably

xviii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

recorded on the 24tli, and were very near the zero point in
the interior. The rapid rise in temperature from the 24th
to the 26th deserves mention, the recovery within that period
beino- from 50 to 60 desfrees.

The atmospheric pressure fluctuated rapidly, some decided
changes were noted in comparatively short periods, and the
wind movement was characterized hy frequent violent gales,
particularly in the early part of the month.

Although rather given to stormy conditions, portions of
December were mild and pleasant. The month opened
somewhat cold, with a moderate snowfall. The cold in-
creased during the few succeeding days, but on the 5th the
temperature recovered from 40 to 50 degrees, followed by a
slight cold wave on the 7th. Mild weather was the ruling
feature from the 10th to the 18th. At Boston the maximum
temperature of 64° on the 10th has been exceeded in this
month but twice since 1872. Early on the 18th the tem-
perature began to seek a lower level, and Sunday morning,
the 19th, found the mercury at a low figure, with the atmos-
phere rendered more biting by thrashing north-west gales.
The period of cold weather thus instituted was carried on
almost without interruption until near the close of the
month. The coldest days were the 25th and 29th

The principal storms were on the 5th, 14th-15th, and that
which commenced on the afternoon of the last day. The
heaviest storm, in respect to amount of precipitation, was
that of the 14th-15th. The precipitation, almost wholly in
the form of rain, averaged from two to four inches. This
heavy rainfall brought on a freshet in the Connecticut River
valley, so that the stage of the water was but little lower
than that of the extraordinary July floods, while small streams
overflowed banks and flooded meadows. The snowfall of
the month was large in western sections, and merely nominal
in central and eastern. The open w^eather in the middle of
the month permitted ploughing to l)e done for several days.

No. 4.]

REPOKT OF SECRETARY.

XIX

Meteorological Observatory of the Hatch Experi-
ment Station (Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege), Amherst.

Annual Summary for 1897.

Pressure {in Inches).
Maximum reduced to freezing, 30.54, March

1, 7 A.M.
Minimum reduced to freezing, 28.82, Nov. 9,

7. P.M.
Maximum reduced to freezing and sea level,

30.88, March 1, 7 a.m.
Minimum reduced to freezing and sea level,

29.12, Nov. 9, 7 P.M.
Mean reduced to freezing and Bea level,

30.014.
Annual range, 1.76.

Air Temperature {in Degrees F.).*
Highest, 91.5, Sept. 10.
Lowest, —11, Feb. 1.
Mean, 46.C.

Mean of means of max. and min., 46.8.
Mean sensible (wet bulb), 43.7.
Annual range, 102.5.
Highest mean daily, 78.1, July 9.
Lowest mean daily, 5.0, Jan. 19.
Mean maximum, 57.1.
Mean minimum, 36.5.
Mean daily range, 20.6.
Greatest daily range, 47.0, Oct. 4.
Least daily range, 3.5, Nov. 19.

Humidity.
Mean dew point, 39.6.
Mean force of vapor, .402.
Mean relative humidity, 76.4.

Wind. — Prevailing Direction, West, or S.
79° W. Summary {Per Cent).

South, 19.

North-west, 12.

West, 11.

North, 10.

South-south-west, 8.

West. north-west, 8.

North-north-west, 7.

South-west, 7.

Other directions, 18.

Total movement, 54,220 miles.

Greatest daily movement, 400 m., Jan. 26,

Feb. 3.
Least daily movement, 11 m., Feb. 1.
Mean daily movement, 146.8 miles.
Mean hourly velocity, 6.1 miles.
Maximum pressure per square foot, 22

pounds = 66 miles per hour on May 10,

2 P.M , W. S. W.

Precipitation {in Inches) .
Total precipitation, rain or melted snow,

57.05.
Number of days on which .01 or more

rain or melted snow fell, 127.
Snow total in inches, 52.8.

Weather.
Mean cloudiness observed, 51 4 per cent.
Total cloudiness recorded by sun thermom-
eter, 2209 hours ^50.5 per cent.
Number of clear days, 108.
Number of fair days, 109.
Number of cloudy days, 148.

Bright Su7ishine.
Number of hours recorded, 2325 bourse
50.1 per cent.

Dates of Frosts.
Last, May 8.
First, Sept. 22.

Dates of Snoio,
Last, April 27.
First, Nov. 12.
Total days of sleighing, 38.

Oales of 50 or More, Miles per Hour.
Jan. 18, 61 m., W.; Jan. 23, 55 m., W. N.
W.; Jan. 25, 52 m., W.N. W. : Jan. 26,
55 m., N.N. W.; March 4,51m., N. W.;
March 13, 51 m., W. N. W. ; March 15,
52 m., W. N. W.; April 19, 53 m.,
N. W. ; May 10, 66 ra., W. 8. W. ; Aug.
15, 53 m., S. S. W.; Sept. 26, 64 m.,
N. W.; Nov. 9, 63 m., W.

J. E. OSTRANDER, Meteorologist.
A. C. MONAIIAN, Observer.

Temperature in ground shelter.

XX

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Massachusetts Crop Reports.

Monthly crop bulletins or reports were published as in
previous years, and six in all were issued (May-October),
aggregating 222 pages of printed matter. Twenty-four hun-
dred copies of No. 6 and 2,500 copies of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and
5 were printed and distributed.

The special subjects treated were : Bulletin No. 1, " Small
fruits in the home garden ; " Bulletin No. 2, " Three shade-
tree insects;" Bulletin No. 3, "Why milk sours, and how
the souring can be prevented or at least delayed ; " Bulletin
No. 4, "Systematic feeding and watering as a preventative
of disease in horses;" and Bulletin No. 5, "Massachusetts
weeds." These special articles will be found printed on
pages 225-277 of this volume.

Publications.

This oflfice issued the following publications during the
calendar year 1897 : —

Pages.

Number.

Date of Issue.

Catalogue of Abandoned or Partially

80

2,000

January 27.

Abandoned Farms, sixth edition.

Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1896, .

879*

16,000

April 16.

Crop Bulletin, No. 1, May, .

40

2,500

June 1.

Crop Bulletin, No. 2, June, .

37

2,500

July 1.

Crop Bulletin, No. 3, July, .

39

2,500

August 2.

Crop Bulletin, No. 4, August,

39

2,500

September 1.

Crop Bulletin, No. 5, September,

35

2,500

October 2.

Crop Bulletin, No. 6, October,

32

2,400

November 4.

Regulations of Board, speakers and

12

600

November 22.

subjects, farmers' institutes.

Catalogue of Abandoned or Partially

84

1,500

December 23.

Abandoned Farms, seventh edition.

* Including ninth annual report of the Hatch Experiment Station, 2.')4 pages.

No. 4.]

REPOKT OF SECRETARY.

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xxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Also the Legislature of 1897 made the following regular
annual appropriations : for maintaining an agricultural ex-
periment station at the Massachusetts Agricultural College,
$10,000 ; for the said college, for free scholarships, $10,000 ;
for the said college, for labor fund and extra instruction,
$10,000 ; for travelling and other necessary expenses of
the trustees of the said college, $800 ; and to defray ex-
penses of collecting and analyzing samples of concentrated
commercial feed stuffs, $1,200. The Legislature also appro-
priated $150,000 for carrying forward the work of exter-
mination of the gypsy moth, and $12,000 for repairs and im-
provements at the Agricultural College. The appropriations
thus listed amount to the sum of $242,027.13.

Legislation.

The legislation of 1897 having reference to the Board of
Agriculture or to the agricultural societies was "An act
making appropriations for sundry agricultural expenses"
(Acts of 1897, chapter 59) ; " An act making an appropria-
tion for continuing the work of extermination of the gypsy
moth" (Acts of 1897, chapter 107); "An act to require
local authorities to suppress the brown-tail moth " (Acts of
1897, chapter 516) ; "A resolve to provide for printing the
special report of the Board of Agriculture on the extermina-
tion of the gypsy moth" (Resolves of 1897, chapter 20).

Also, through the efforts of the State Board of Agricult-
ure and others interested, the Legislature of 1897 passed an
act " relative to concentrated commercial feed stuffs. " * This
act placed the work in the hands of the director of the Hatch
Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege, and appropriated the sum of twelve hundred dollars
annually to defray the expenses of collecting and analyzing
the samples and of publishing the results. It is understood
that since October last the station has had a man cover the
entire State, and some three hundred samples have been
taken, which are now being examined. It is intended to
publish the results in a bulletin within a very short time.
It is also intended to make another collection in March, and
also a special collection very soon for cotton-seed meal.

* See chapter 117, Acts of 1897.

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxiii

Spikes and Washers.

The appropriation for the purchase of M spikes and wash-
ers was the usual $200, and there was expended during the
year the following sums : —

1,069 pounds M spikes, 2^, 2|, 3^ inches, . . $41 79

One M stamp, 5 00

Cartage, 38

Total, $47 17

Spikes and washers were supplied during the year to the
towns of Athol, Boxford, Gardner, Hubbardston, Hudson,
Littleton, Lynntield, North Andover, North Attleborough,
Northborough, Northtield, Oaldiam, Oxford, Royalston,
Sandwich, Sutton, Ware and AVilbraham, an increase of
twelve towns over the number supplied in 1896. Since the
work of supplying these spikes was begun, Dec. 26, 1891,
three cities and sixty-six towns have availed themselves of
the provisions of the act. In all there have been furnished
approximately 155,000 M spikes during the period named.

Scales of Points.

As in past years, scales of points or score cards have been
supplied when called for. Quite a quantity of the cards still
remain in the office of the secretary, subject to call.

Abandoned Farms.

Because the supply of copies of the sixth edition of the
catalogue of abandoned and partially abandoned farms issued
Jan. 27, 1897, was nearing exhaustion, and because the
balance of the appropriation of 11,000 made by the Legis-
lature of 1896 was sufficient to pay the expense, it was de-
cided, in October last, to issue another edition of the cata-
logue. Therefore a return postal card was prepared and
mailed to each person having a description of a farm in the
sixth edition of the catalogue, in order to ascertain what
disposition, if any, had been made of the propert3^

Replies were received concerning 188 of the 236 farms
described in the sixth edition. Of these replies, 27 were

xxiv BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

notices of sales, !l of withdrawals and 152 of a desire to have
description continued.

Fourteen of the 27 farms reported sold in 1897 were sold
for farming purposes, 2 for a home, 2 for poultry, and 1 each
for pasture, for stock and poultry, for summer residence and
for wood and timber.

Of these purchasers of farms in 1897, 15 were residents
of Massachusetts at time of purchase, 3 of New York, and
1 each of Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Florida.

The act authorizing the State Board of Agriculture to
collect and circulate information relating to abandoned or
partially abandoned farms was approved May 4, 1891.

A summary of the work done to date is herewith pre-
sented : —

Number of farms reported by assessors, ....

Number of farms reported by individuals,

Total number of farms reported, .....

Number of farms in State, census of 1885,

Number of owners or agents making reply to request for

description,

Number reporting an intention to keep property.
Number reporting property already disposed of,
Number reporting informant to have been misinformed, .

Descriptions of farms received,

Circu.lar letters to owners returned by post-otiice department

as unclaimed,

Catalogued farms reported sold, . . . . .

Catalogued farms withdrawn at request of owners, .

1,187

748

1,935

45,010

914

164

59

53

638

100
269
104

In regard to residence of the 269 purchasers, the follow-
ing is shown : Massachusetts, 159 ; New York, 14 ; Con-
necticut, 10 ; New Hampshire, 5 ; Vermont, Rhode Island,
Ohio and Florida, 3 each ; New Jersey, 2 ; Nova Scotia,
Maine, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin, 1 each ; not re-
ported, 62.

In regard to the use which the purchasers intended to
make of the forms purchased, the returns showed the follow-
ing: for general farming, 108; for a home, 25; for an
investment, 13 ; for a summer residence, 13 ; for i)ouItry,
7 ; for poultry and farming, 7 ; for dairying, 7 ; for the
wood and lumber, 7; for sheep raising, 3-, for stock and
poultry, for cranberry growing, for fruit and poidtry, for

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxv

poultry and market gardening, and to cut into small lots
for emigrants, 1 each. No statement was received concern-
ing 74 of the farms reported sold.

The appropriations for carrying on this work have been
as follows: 1891, $2,000; 1893, $1,000; 1896, $1,000;
total, $4,000. However, of this amount, $1,230.95 reverted
back to the State treasury as unused, as it was not found
expedient to use it before the two-year limit had expired.

The expenditure of the $2,769.05 thus actually available
is shown by the following summary : —

Printing 15,000 catalogues, 7 editions, 1 supplement, . . $1,750 39
Postage stamps for mailing catalogues and circulars, . . 560 00

Services members of the Board of Agriculture in getting

names and addresses of owners, ....
Special envelopes for mailing catalogues, .

Printed circulars,

Advertising,

Express,

196 30

162 32

94 54

3 50

2 00

$2,769 05

Farmers' Institutes.

The 35 societies represented on the Board of Agriculture
held 125 farmers' institutes during the calendar year 1897.
Lecturers were furnished by this office for 97 institutes, at a
total cost of $1,479.08 for services and expenses, — an average
of $15.25 per institute. All of the societies but the Mas-
sachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, which holds
no institutes, held the required 3, and 8 held 4 or more.
For certain reasons it seemed wise during the year to arrange
institute meetings not directly under the control of the incor-
porated societies. Three such meetings were held, and the
lecturers were furnished through this office, at an expense
of $41.67, or $13.89 per meeting, — making the cost of the
one hundred institutes $1,520.75. As in past years, a pam-
phlet has been issued by this office, containing the regulations
of the Board of As^riculture concerninfic the holding of far-
mers institutes, with a list of available lecturers and their
subjects. It is hoped this pamphlet will be useful to officers
of societies and institute committees during the season of
1897-98.

xxvi BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. [Pub. Doc.

Dairy Bureau.

On account of the expiration of his term of sei"^dce on the
Board of Agriculture, Mr. Geo. L. Clemence, one of the
original members of the Bureau, has been retired, and Mr.
CD. Richardson of "West Brooktield has been appointed by
His Excellency to fill the vacancy thus caused in the Bureau.

The seventh annual report of the Bureau to the Legis-
lature will be found printed on pages 281-303 of this
volume.

Gypsy Moth (Ocneria dispar^.

The sum of $150,000 was appropriated by the Legislature
of 1897 for the continuation of the work of exterminating
this pest. The annual report of the committee in charge,
with appendix, will be found printed on pages 307—1:39 of
this volume. At the annual meeting of the Board, Jan. 12,
1898, the committee of 1897 was re-elected, to have charge
of the work in 1898, with the exception that Mr. N. I. Bow-
ditch of Framingham was elected in place of Mr. J. G.
Avery, whose term of service on the Board had expired.

Sax Jose Scale.

The ravages of injurious insects are an important factor
in the l)U8iness of agriculture, and the numl)er of kinds
with which our farmers and fruit growers have to con-
tend is being rapidly increased by the introduction of new
species from foreign countries. Among them are the San
Jose scale. The scale has been detected in a few nurseries
in the State by the agents of the Hatch Experiment Station.
I am happy to be able to state that in every case the owners
of such nurseries have taken suitable measures to rid their
premises of the pest. The scale has also been found on
fruit trees in private grounds in several localities in the
eastern part of the State, in which case treatment was ad-
vised. As an illustration of what may be accomplished, I
give an account of experience with an orchard of young
apple trees in Scituate, owned by Mr. E. E. Cole. The
orchard was inspected on ISlarch 2, 1897. Of 106 trees
in the orchard, 59 were found considerably infested, 12 of

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxvii

thera so badly that Mr. C-olc was advised to Imru them,
which lie did. The remainder were thoroughly treated with
whale-oil soap and water, one and a quarter pounds of soap
to one gallon of water. The weather at the time of treat-
ment was so cold that the ordinary formula, two pounds of
soap to one gallon of water, could not be used. On
Aug. 27, 1897, a careful examination of the orchard, at
which time I was present, did not reveal more than a half-
dozen living scales. The owner was advised to repeat the
treatment as soon as the leaves fell. This remedial treat-
ment should only l)e used when the trees are bare of foliage.
It is probaljly the cheapest and best means yet discovered
for holding the San Jose scale in check.

Imported Insects.

The Board of Agriculture has received notice, through
the Entomological Division of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, of the importation into Massachusetts
of several invoices of shruljs and plants from Japan, with the
re<j[uest that the consignees be notified that there is danger
of the introduction of new insect pests on such plants and
shrubs. In each case the parties receiving such goods have
been notified, and requested to have the importation care-
fully examined and treated in such a manner as to destroy
any eggs or insect that may possibly be present. As this
State has no legislation restricting importation or providing
for inspection of imported plants and shrubs, nothing more
could be done. It may not be out of place to state that the
State of California has laws that provide for the official in-
spection of all trees, shrubs and plants brought into the
State from foreign countries, or from other States of the
Union. The law also empowers the proper officer to apply,
at the expense of the owner, proper remedial treatment to
such incoming trees, etc., or, if in his judgment it is neces-
sary, to cause them to be destroyed.

A national convention of delegates from horticultural
societies, nurserymen's associations, boards of agriculture,
granges and agricultural colleges was held at Washington,
D. C, on March 5 and 6, 1897. This convention unani-
mously recommended that the United States Congress pro-

xxviii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

vido for inspection and treatment by national authority
of all trees, shrubs and plants imported into the country,
and also of all such articles transported from one State to
another. The danger is sufficiently great to warrant such
action, and it is hoped that the present congress may enact
the necessary legislation.

Browx-tail Moth.

An example of accidental importation of a new and dan-
gerous insect pest may be seen in the case of the brown-tail
moth, brought to public notice during the past season in
Somerville. This new pest was undoubtedly brought from
Europe on imported shrubs.

The last Legislature passed a law requiring officers of
municipalities and owners and managers of estates found
infested with the brown-tail moth to take immediate steps for
its extinction and to prevent its spread. The law also makes
it the duty of the Board of Agriculture " to cause inspections
to be made upon the receipt of notice from local authorities,
and also whenever the Board has reason to suspect the pres-
ence of this pest in any city or town, and to furnish the local
authorities an ample supply of printed directions as to the
best methods for its confinement and extinction."

No appropriation was made from which to defray the ex-
pense of performing the duties imposed. In the emergency
the Hatch Experiment Station issued a bulletin of informa-
tion on the new pest, which contained directions for destroy-
ing it, and, on payment of one hundred dollars from our
appropriation for dissemination of useful information in
agriculture, furnished a supply to be used as " printed direc-
tions." In the attempt to fulfil the duty of "inspection"
placed upon the Board of Agriculture by the law, the lack of
money to pay the bills has prevented a complete compliance
with the requirements ; but, on the advice of the Attorney-
General, as much work in this direction as was possible under
the circumstances has been done. As the habits of the in-
sect were learned, it was found that reliable inspection at the
minimum cost could not be accomplished until the leaves had
fallen. The young caterpillars pass the winter in small tents
or nests, which are constructed near the tips of the branches

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxix

of infested trees. One or more leaves are surrounded with
a silken web, which draws the leaves together, forming a nest.
The nests are readily seen during the late autumn and win-
ter, and should l)e taken off and burned. As large a sum as
could possibly be spared from the appropriation for inci-
dental expenses of the Board of Agriculture was used in
paying a competent inspector to examine the infested terri-
tory, and give written notice to owners or managers of in-
fested estates that the brown-tail moth was present on the
})remises. At the same time a copy of the before-mentioned
bulletin, which contained a copy of the law, was left with
the owner or manager. One hundred and seventy-two dol-
lars and sixty-six cents was expended in this manner, in
addition to the one hundred dollars paid for bulletins noted
above. Fourteen hundred and eleven estates in Somerville,
355 in Cambridge, 149 in Medford, 92 in Maiden, 72 in
Everett, 31 in Melrose, 31 in Stoneham, 29 in Arlington,
21 in Winchester, 19 in Woburn, 7 in Charlestown, 3 in Bel-
mont, 3 in Burlington, 2 in Saugus and 1 in Revere, were
found infested, and notice given and printed directions left
with the owners or managers of these estates.

This inspection is far from complete in all of these munic-
ipalities, but has covered as large a part of the infested
territory as the means at command would pay for. The
authorities of all these municipalities have been notified of
the presence of the moth, and a list of the estates found in-
fested in their city or town furnished them, with the state-
ment that the inspection was necessarily incomplete, and that
many other estates as well as street and park trees and
shrubbery are undoubtedly infested. Some of the owners
of estates have made commendable effort to rid their prop-
erty of the pest, while others have done nothing. I have
been informed that the authorities of the cities of Cambridge,
Everett, Maiden and Somerville are making plans to perform
the duties placed u.pon them by the law of last winter. It is
hoped that the other cities and towns may do likewise.

It will be impossible for the Board of Agriculture to fulfil
its duties under the law in future unless the Legislature pro-
vides the means. Steps have been taken to bring the matter
to the attention of the proper committee of the Legislature.

XXX BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Before leaving this subject, it may be well to say that the
brown-tail moth has by this inspection been found in a much
larger extent of territory than was expected. When the
creature was last summer identified as a nevv^ imported pest,
it was observed in large numbers in Somerville and Cam-
bridge, and a few were noticed in those parts of Medford,
Maiden and Everett nearest to the infested parts of Somer-
ville and Cambridge. The action of the Leo-islature was
taken at so late a date that it was impossible to procure ac-
tion by municipal authorities or private individuals before
the caterpillars had changed to the moth stage. The female
moth of this species, unlike those of the gypsy moth, moves
easily on the wing, and the air about the infested locality at
night was filled with immense numbers of the flying crea-
tures. Just at the time when they were most plentiful, July
13 and 14, a violent gale of wind from the south prevailed,
which it is believed scattered them through the cities and
towns above enumerated as infested. As a consequence, the
territory now infested is many times larger than was the case
at the time the fact of their presence was first noticed.

This creature seems certain to prove a great pest, as it is
not only very destructive to all fruit trees and many shade
and forest trees, but is also very annoying to people, by rea-
son of the painful irritation caused by the caterpillars when
coming in contact with the skin. In some instances much
suffering has been caused to individuals in this way, and the
services of a physician have been required in treating the
patients.

The plan of requiring municipalities and property owners
to destroy the pest is now on trial, and it is hoped that this
plan may be given a" thorough test, and that it may not fail
through a lack of interest of ofiicials and individuals. It is
very important that all our people in all parts of the State
should be on the lookout for evidences of the insect, and,
when it is found, the remedies recommended in the bulletin
should be thoroughly applied.

Agricultural College.
The report of the examining committee of the Agricultural
College will be found printed on pages 184-192 of this

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxxi

volume. The tenth annual report of the Hatch Experiment
Station of the college is by law bound with the report of
the secretary of the Board of Agriculture in this volume.

Returns of Societies.
These returns will be found printed on pages 601-630 of
this volume. A summary, contrasting the totals of 1895,
1896 and 1897, is printed on page 630 of this volume.

Agricultural Directory.
A directory of the agricultural organizations of the Com-
monwealth, with officers for 1898, will be found printed on
pages 633-646 of this volume.

Meetings or the Board.
The public winter meeting of the Board for lectures and
discussions was held at Taunton, Dec. 7, 8 and 9, 1897.
The lectures and discussions will be found printed on pages
17-169 of this volume. A special business meeting of the
Board was held at Taunton, Dec. 7, 1897, an account of
which will be found printed on pages 11-14. The annual
business meeting of the Board was held at the office of the
secretary, Jan. 11 and 12, 1898, and the minutes thereof,
etc., will be found printed on pages 173-222 of this volume.

Changes in the Board.
During the past year death removed from the Board
Atkinson C. Varnum, Esq., of Lowell, who had represented
the Middlesex North Agricultural Society on the Board since
February, 1880. Mr. Francis Shaw of Wayland, who had
represented the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agri-
culture on the Board since February, 1895, resigned from
the Board during the year, as did also Mr. Charles E. Sea-
grave of Uxbridge, who had represented the Blackstone
Valley Agricultural Society on the Board since January,
1897. The following gentlemen retired from the Board at
the recent annual meeting because of the expiration of their
term of service : Wm. P. Brooks of the Hampshire Agri-
cultural Society, after three years of service ; H. G. Norton
of the Martha's Vineyard Agricultural Society, after four

xxxii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

years of service ; W. M. Wellington of the Oxford Agri-
cultural Society, after three years of service ; John G. Avery
of the Spencer Farmers' and Mechanics' Association, after
three years of service ; Curtis M. Blair of the Union Agri-
cultural and Horticultural Society, after three years of ser-
vice ; and George L. Clemence of the Worcester South
Agricultural Society, after nine years of service.

Cattle Commission.
The report of the Board of Cattle Commissioners (Pub.
Doc, No. 51) is by law printed in the annual report of the
State Board of Agriculture, and the report for 1897 will be
found printed on pages 443-581 of this volume.

Farmers' National Congress.
The report of the delegates to the Farmers' National Con-
gress at St. Paul, Minn., Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, 2 and 6,
1897, is by request included in this volume, and will be
found printed on pages 585-598.

Work of the Board.

The work of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture
during the last ten years has been greatly extended both by
duties imposed by legislation and by the voluntary increase
of effort for the benefit of Massachusetts agriculture. Among
the duties imposed by legislation is that by the law of 1890,
providing that no agricultural society which receives State
bounty shall mortgage or sell its real estate until its vote to
mortgage or sell has been approved by the Board of Agri-
culture. As this Board has but two regular meetings an-
nually, and as applications for the necessary approval of
votes to mortgage or sell grow more and more frequent, its
executive committee is often obliged to hold special meetings
for this business.

The act of 1891, authorizing the Board to collect and cir-
culate information relating to abandoned forms, and which
still continues in force, has largely increased the work in the
office.

In 1891 a resolve was passed instructing the Board to in-
vestigate and ascertain the best methods to protect citizens

No. 4.] REPORT OF SECRETARY. xxxiii

of the Commonwealth against the dangers from tuberculosis
in the food products of cattle ; but the Board was soon re-
lieved of this work by its being placed upon the Board of
Cattle Commissioners.

The same year the duty of furnishing nails or spikes upon
application of city and town authorities, to be used in mark-
ing shade trees, was placed upon the secretary of this Board.

In the same year the Legislature created the Dairy Bureau
of the Board of Agriculture, making the secretary its ex-
ecutive officer, and making it the duty of this Bureau, under
the direction of the Board of Agriculture, to enforce all laws
relating to dairy products and to promote the improvement
of the products of the dairy.

The gypsy moth work was also put upon the Board of
Agriculture by act of the Legislature in 1891.

By a resolve of 1893 the secretary was directed to pre-
pare and have printed and bound for distribution five thou-
sand copies of a synoptical and analytical index to the
fifty-two annual volumes of the "Agriculture of Massachu-
setts."

The Legislature of 1897 made it the duty of the Board to
cause inspection to be made and notice given wherever it is
suspected that the brown-tail moth may be present.

Of the voluntary work undertaken by the Board, that
relatino; to the holding of farmers' institutes is among the
most important, and one which increases the work of cor-
respondence in a large degree.

The issuing of a monthly crop report and bulletin of in-
formation during the growing season is also a great addition
to the regular work of the office.

The Board, as overseers of the Agricultural College, by a
committee has given increased attention to the duty, with, it
is believed, good results.

The library in the rooms occupied by the Board in the
State House is a growing institution, which is being care-
fully looked after. It takes a large part of the time of the
first clerk, who is the librarian. A special report, prepared
by him, describing the library and his work in caring for it,
has been made at my request, and may be found printed in
this volume on pages 197-208. It is commended to the

xxxiv BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D. No. 4.

Board of Agriculture and the public in the hope that a
further knowledge of what the library contains may lead to
a more extensive use of its privileges. It is open to the
public during business hours.

In these and many other directions the Board of Agri-
culture and its secretary are endeavoring to be of use to the
agriculturists of the State. The volume "Agriculture of
Massachusetts" for 1897, containing, as it does, the lectures
and discussions at the public winter meeting, the reports of
the committees and business of the Board, the report of the
Hatch Experiment Station, the report of the Cattle Commis-
sioners, the statistics of the several incorporated agricultural
societies, a directory of the various agricultural organizations
of the State, together with other valuable and interesting
papers on agricultural matters, is believed to be the equal in
value to any of its predecessors, and is commended to the
attention of the farmers of the State, for whose benefit it is
printed and distributed by the liberality of the State of
Massachusetts.

WM. R. SESSIONS,

Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.
Boston, February, 1898.

Meetings of the Executive Committee

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

1897.

Meetings of the Executive Committee,

ACTING FOR THE BOARD.

Boston, Jan. 30, 1897.

The meeting was called in part to consider the request of
the Franklin County Agricultural Society for the approval
by the Board of Agriculture of the vote of the said society
"to mortgage the real estate of the society for a sum not
exceeding twenty-three hundred dollars, to liquidate the debt
of the society." There was presented an attested copy of
the call for the meeting and of the vote of the society above
quoted, which copy stated that the vote was passed by affirm-
ative vote of two-thirds of the members present and voting.

There was also presented a copy of the ' ' Greenfield Ga-
zette " of January 23, containing the required advertisement
of the hearing.

No person appearing in opposition to the vote of the so-
ciety, it was

Voted, To approve the vote of the Franklin County Agri-
cultural Society, above quoted, in accordance with the pro-
visions of chapter 274 of the Acts of 1890.

The matter of bills for the regulation of the sale of concen-
trated commercial feed stuff's, which matter was referred to
the executive committee at the recent annual meeting of the
Board, being in order, it was

Voted, To adopt the second bill, with twelve hundred dol-
lars as the amount to be inserted as the sum to be allowed
the Hatch Experiment Station for expense of enforcing the
law if enacted.

Voted, That Mr. Kelton, House chairman of the commit-
tee on agriculture, be requested to introduce the bill.*

The matter of taking membership in the American Asso-
ciation of Institute Managers, which matter was referred to

* See chapter 117, Acts of 1897.

4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the executive committee at the special meeting of the Board
at Greenfield, being in order, it was

Voted, To authorize the secretary to take such member-
ship, if he concludes that it is likely to result to the advan-
tage of institute work in Massachusetts.

Boston, March 3, 1897.

The meeting was called in part to consider the request of
the Berkshire Agricultural Society for the approval by the
Board of Agriculture of the vote of the said society, at a
special meeting duly called for the purpose, Feb. 23, 1897,
that "the president and treasurer be authori^ied to increase
the loan given by the Greenfield Savings Bank, and secured
by mortgage on the fair grounds, from $5,500 to |7,000."
There was presented an attested copy of the call for the
meeting and of the vote of the society above quoted, which
copy stated that the vote was by two-thirds of the members
present, and that a quorum was present at the said meeting.
There were also presented copies of the " Evening Journal"
of . February 9 and 16, and of the "Evening Eagle" of the
same dates, containing notice of the special meeting above
referred to, and also copies of the "Evening Journal" of
February 24, 25 and 26, containing the required advertise-
ment of the hearing.

No person appearing in opposition to the vote of the so-
ciety, it was

Voted, To approve the vote of the Berkshire Agricultural
Society, above quoted, in accordance with the provisions of
chapter 274 of the Acts of 1890.

A request having been received from the Worcester Agri-
cultural Society that it might change the dates assigned l)y
the Board of Agriculture for the holding of its 1897 fair, in
order that its dates might conform to the dates decided upon
by a joint committee of the Massachusetts State Grange and
the Worcester Agricultural Society for the holding of a joint
fair, namely, August 31 and September 1, 2 and 3, it was

Voted, That the Worcester Agricultural Society be allowed
to change the dates for its 1897 fair to August 31 and Sep-
tember 1, 2 and 3,

No. 4.] MEETINGS EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 5

A request having been received from the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society that it might change the dates assigned
by the Board of Agriculture for the holding of its 1897 fair
(annual exhibition of fruits and vegetables) to September 30
and October 1, it was

Voted, That the Massachusetts Horticultural Society be
allowed to change the dates for its 1897 fair to September 30
and October 1.

Boston, April 2, 1897.

A communication having been received from A. C. Var-
num, Esq., chairman of the committee on Agricultural College
and education, stating his wish that he be relieved of his posi-
tion on the committee on the ground of continued ill health,
the executive committee of the Board was consulted by letter,
and appointed Mr. George Cruickshanks, the second member
of the above-named committee, to be chairman ; filled the
vacancy thus caused by transferring Mr. Wesley B. Barton
from the committee on domestic animals and sanitation to the
committee on Agricultural College and education, and ap-
pointed Mr. Oscar S. Thayer to fill the vacancy thus caused
on the committee on domestic animals and sanitation.

Boston, June 24, 1897.

The meeting was called in part to consider the request of
the Plymouth County Agricultural Society for the approval
by the Board of Agriculture of the vote of the said society at
a special meeting of the society on June 12, 1897, " that the
president and treasurer be authorized and directed to execute
sixty bonds of one hundred dollars each, payable in ten years,
and bearing interest at the rate of five per cent per annum,
the same as the one which has just been read, viz." [here
follows a copy of the bond]. " Voted unanimously, on mo-
tion of R. W. Nutter, that the treasurer be and he is hereby
authorized and directed to sign, acknowledge and deliver, in
the name and as the act of the Plymouth County Agricultural
Society, the deed which has just been read, conveying to
Augustus Pratt and Charles C. Thayer and their heirs and
assigns all the real estate owned by this society, with the
buildinos thereon, in niortsaffe and in trust, for the benefit

6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

of the holders of the bonds the issue of which was above
authorized. Voted, That the State Board of Agriculture be
requested to approve the action of this society, authorizing
its treasurer to execute a deed in mortgage and in trust for
the benefit of the holders of the bonds the issue of which has
been authorized."

There was presented a newspaper published in the county,
the " Middlel)orough Gazette," of issue of June 4, containing
the call for the special meeting advertised in accordance with
the by-laws of the society ; also an attested copy of the vote
of the society above quoted, which copy stated that the vote
was passed by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members
present and voting. There was also presented a copy of the
"Bridge water Independent," of the issue of June 18, con-
taining the required advertisement of the hearing.

The president of the society, Mr. I. N. Nutter, appeared
and explained the condition of the society aiwl the necessity
for the action it had taken.

No person appearing in opposition, it was
Voted, To approve the above quoted vote of the Plymouth
County Agricultural Society, in accordance with the provis-
ions of chapter 274 of the Acts of 1890.

The committee on gypsy moth, insects and birds presented
a recommendation, as follows : —

" Voted, To recommend to the Board of Agriculture that
notice be immediately given to the mayor and aldermen of
the cities of Somerville, Cambridge, Maiden, Medford and
Everett, and the authorities of other places that may be found
infested with the brown-tail moth, that the pest has appeared
in their municipalities, and that with the notice there be sent
a copy of the law and a bulletin of information giving direc-
tions for dealing with the pest. Also that an inspection be
made of the territory supposed to be infested, at an expense
not to exceed one hundred and fifty dollars, and that one
hundred dollars be expended in printing bulletins of informa-
tion, and a sufficient sum be expended for printing notices,
and that the sums above mentioned be taken from the appro-
priation for incidental expenses of the Board."

Voted, To approve the recommendation of the committee
on gypsy moth, insects and l)irds.

No. 4.] MEETINGS EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 7

A written request having been received from Mr. Francis
S, Thacher for employment in cataloguing the library of the
Board, it appearing that there were no funds available for
such work, it was

Voted., To postpone action indefinitely.

Boston, Oct. 12, 1897.

The meeting was called to consider the request of the
Worcester Agricultural Society for the approval by the Board
of Agriculture of the vote of said society, passed at a special
meeting of the society on Oct. 2, 1897, "that the treasurer
be authorized to raise the sum of eleven thousand dollars by
a mortgage upon the property of the society, at a rate of
interest not to exceed four and one-half per cent, and that
the entire amount of the old mortgage and the eleven thou-
sand dollars additional be included in the mortgage." The
vote was unanimous in favor of such morti>:aoe.

A copy of the vote as above was presented, with certificate
of the secretary that it was ' ' a true and accurate copy of the
records of the Worcester Agricultural Society, so far as it
relates to the vote to mortgage their property, passed Oct.
2, 1897."

It was also shown that the special meeting of the society
was legally called in accordance with the by-laws of the
society, and that it was called for the purpose of voting upon
the matter of borrowing money to pay the indebtedness of
the society and of securing the loan by mortgage of the
property of the society. It was further shown that the hear-
ing by the Board of Agriculture on the matter had been
advertised according to the requirements of the Board by the
insertion in the "Worcester Spy" and "Telegram," on Oc-
tober 5, 6 and 7, of the necessary advertisement.

No person appearing in opposition to the request of the
society, and it appearing that the best interests of the society
would be conserved thereby, it was

Voted, To approve the vote of the Worcester Agricultural
Society, above quoted, in accordance with the provisions of
chapter 274 of the Acts of 1890.

SPECIAL MEETING

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

T^UISTTOlSr.

Deckmbeh 7, 1897.

SPECiAii Meeting

OF THE

Board of Agriculture, at Taunton.

Taunton, Mass., Dec. 7, 1897.

The Board of Agriculture met in Odd Fellows Hall, Taun-
ton, this day, at 9 a.m., for business.

Present: Second Vice-President E. W. Wood, who pre-
sided, and Messrs. Allen, Avery, Baker, Barton, Blair,
Brewster, Brooks, Bursley, Clark, Clemence, Cruickshanks,
Damon, Ellsworth, Goodell, Goodspeed, Hall, Harwood,
Hersey, Horton, Kilbourn, Norton, Pratt, Raymond, Reed,
Sargent, Sessions, N. W. Shaw, Smith, Stetson, Taylor,
Wellington and E. E. Wood.

The hearing on the request of the Spencer Farmers' and
Mechanics' Association for approval hy the Board of its vote
at its annual meeting, Nov. 11, 1897, "to instruct the presi-
dent to borrow seven hundred dollars and authorize him to
execute a mortgage to secure the same," l)eing in order,
the matter was heard. It appearing that the Association
had proceeded in a legal manner, that this hearing had been
properly advertised, and no person appearing to object, it
was

Voted, To approve the vote of the Spencer Farmers' and
Mechanics' Association, as above quoted.

The secretary presented and read the report of the gypsy

moth committee to the Legislature.

On motion of Mr. J. L. Ellsworth, it was unanimously
Voted, That the report of the committee on the gypsy

moth, to be presented to the Legislature, be approved by

this Board.

12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The report of the special committee appointed at the last
annual meeting to consider a communication from Dr. Jabez
Fisher of Fitchburg, indorsed by vote of the Worcester North
Agricultural Society, being in order, Mr. S. S. Stetson, chair-
man, presented the following report : —

Your committee, appointed to consider the letter of Dr. Jabez
Fisher of Fitchburg to the State Board of Agriculture, relative to
revised methods in the management of agricultural societies, re-
spectfully submit the following report : —

The committee upon organizing were unanimously of the opinion
that they should hold their first meeting with Dr. Fisher at Fitch-
burg, and therefore, agreeable to appointment, they assembled there
on the morning of March 18, where they were cordially received
by Dr. Fisher and Mr. George Cruickshanks, also a member of the
committee. A few other gentlemen especially interested, including
Secretary Wm. R. Sessions, were also present by invitation.

Dr. Fisher was asked to address the committee, after which he
embodied his views of the required changes by submitting the fol-
lowing : "Any agricultural society may hold, in lieu of an annual
exhibition, not less than six farmers' institutes or field meetings,
provided that it shall offer premiums at such institutes or field
meetings amounting in the aggregate to the sums otherwise now
required to be offered."

The subject was then discussed at length by all the gentlemen
present.

In the opinion of Attorney-General Pillsbury, published in the
"Agriculture of Massachusetts" for 1893, Mr. Pillsbury assumes
that the amount of State bounty to which a society is entitled must
be predicated by the amount of property, either real or personal,
held by said society the previous year, and that an invested capital
of Si, 000 shall constitute a suflficient guarantee, that the society
is doing or is prepared to do some actual work in the cause of
agriculture.

Also the Public Statutes, chapter 114, section 4, provide that
every society receiving bounty shall make such rules and regula-
tions for the distribution thereof as shall in its opinion best promote
the improvement of agriculture. No refjuirement is made by the
statutes relating to agriculture that societies shall necessarily hold
fairs or otherwise assume any undue expense in conducting their
affairs except the condition " that no society shall receive a larger
amount in one year (as bounty) than it has awarded and paid in
premiums during the year last preceding."

No. 4.] SPECIAL MEETING. 13

The committee are therefore of the opinion that no further legis-
lation, or amendment of the by-laws of the Board, is required, but
that societies may at their option continue their present methods or
adopt such other management not to conflict with the statutes as
seems to each most conducive to its especial prosperity.

On motion of Mr. J. G. Avery, it was
Voted, To accept the report of the committee.

The hearing on the request of the Worcester Agricultural
Society for approval by the Board of its vote at a special
meeting, duly called and held on Oct. 2, 1897, "that a com-
mittee of seven be empowered to sell the property of the
society at a sum not less than $200,000, and give a good and
sufficient deed thereof, and that the committee be appointed
from the floor," being in order, at the request of the officers
of the society, because of their inability to be present at this
hour, the hearing was adjourned to Thursday, December 9,
at 9 A.M., in Odd Fellows Hall, Taunton.

Taunton, Dec. 9, 1897.

The adjourned meeting of the Board was called to order at
9 o'clock, Mr. E. W. Wood in the chair.

The hearing on the request of the Worcester Agricultural
Society being in order, the secretary of the society, Mr. John
B. Bowker, presented the records of the society, from which
was read the call for and action of the special meeting held
on Oct. 2, 1897 ; also there was presented by him copies of
the papers containing the advertisement of the said special
meeting and also copies of the papers containing the required
advertisement of the hearing of the matter by the Board of
Agriculture.

The petitioners presented the reasons for the action of the
society in voting to sell its property. An opportunity was
then given for protests against the approval of the above-
' quoted vote, and several gentlemen spoke in opposition to
the granting of the request of the society. After rebuttal
testimony had been presented the hearing was closed.

14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. No. 4.

Action by the Board being in order, Mr. Cruickshanks
moved that the matter be passed over until the annual meet-
ing of the Board in Januar}-.

Mr. Pratt moved as an amendment that the Board take
action at the present time.

Voted, To accept the amendment.

A standing vote being taken on the question of approving
the vote of the Worcester Agricultural Society at a special
meeting held on Oct. 2, 1897, as above quoted, twenty-one
members voted in favor of approving the vote and three
members voted against approval, and the vote of the Worces-
ter Agricultural Society was thereby declared approved.

Adjourned at 10.15 a.m.

PUBLIC WINTER MEETING

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

TAUNTON.

December 7, 8 and 9, 1897.

PUBIilC WlNTEK MEETIIS^G OF THE BOAKD,

AT TAUNTOX.

The annual public winter meeting of the Board was held in
Odd Fellows Hall, Taunton, beginning Tuesday, December
7, and continuing through the two following days. The
weather was mild, with light rain and snow the first two days.
The attendance at the sessions was unusually large and the
meeting was in all ways a successful one.

The first session was called to order by Secretary Sessions,
who said : —

The hour has arrived when the meeting should come to
order. Gentlemen of the Board, you are each aware that
our venerable and beloved first vice-president is detained from
us by illness and weakness. I have been informed by our
second vice-president, Mr. Wood, that at his request Mr.
N. W. Shaw of North Raynham will preside at this session
of the meeting.

The Chairman. Gentlemen of the Board : I am glad to
see so many present at the opening of this meeting, not only
those older members with whom I have been so pleasantly
associated for the past few years, but also those who are just
taking their places on the Board. You all have come here,
no doubt,- feeling the responsibility of the situation, that there
is a large amount of work for you to do, and that it is of the
utmost importance that it be done faithfully and well. When
I look back on the past and recall to mind the men who
formed this Board of Agriculture, their earnest and tri-
umphant work, — such men as Marshall P. Wilder, Albert
Fearing, Professor Agassiz, John B. Moore and others equally
prominent ; when I call to mind that worker for your Board
for nearly all his active life as secretary, Charles L. Flint, and
he who immediately succeeded him, the enthusiastic and ener-
getic worker, John E. Russell, and not forgetting that worker
for the Board, our venerable and honorable first vice-presi-

18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

dent, whom I am sorry to say is not able to be with us to-
day,— it seems to me that we must put forth an extra effort
to keep the work of the Board up to the high standard it has
attained.

And, gentlemen, when you return to your homes, I hope
this meeting may be remembered as one that you are glad to
have attended, and in the future when you call up the mem-
ory of the meeting that you may have nothing but pleasant
recollections.

It has been customary in the past, and has been continued
to the present time, to invoke on our proceedings the Divine
blessing, and I now introduce to you Rev. John P. Forbes
of Taunton, who will offer prayer.

Prayer by Rev. Mr. Forbes.

The Chairman. I will now introduce the Orient
Quartette of Taunton.

Song by quartette.

The Chairman. Ladies and gentlemen: I presume you
have heard in times past of the Bristol County Agricultural
Society. In the absence of the president I have to intro-
duce to you one of the vice-presidents of that society, who
is noted throughout the Commonwealth and throughout the
United States for the poultry he exhibits in different places.
I now have the pleasure of introducing Mr. Philander
Williams of Taunton.

Mr. Williams. Gentlemen of the State Board of Agri-
culture and citizens of Taunton and vicinity : The Bristol
County Agricultural Society has just elected for president
the mayor of Taunton, who has another place to fill on the
programme. I was told last evening at six o'clock that I must
say a few words to you, but I had not seen the programme
and I did not know what was expected of me, so you will
excuse me if I give you only a few words of welcome. I
will admit that I have been very much interested in this agri-
cultural society, which I have served as treasurer and pres-
ident for many years, but for the last four or five years my
mind has naturally been filled with other business and I find
I have gotten rusty. You will excuse me if I do not give
you the beautiful address our past president would have
given you had he been here to-day.

No. 4.] ADDRESS OF MAYOR FISH. 19

We naturally think we have a beautiful city, and we hope
you will think so before you leave it. I could go on and tell
you about our Board of Trade, our public buildings and our
skilled mechanics, but that is not what I am here for. I am
here to impress your minds that Bristol County is quite a
county ; that we have three large cities and many flourishing
towns ; that all the people in these cities and towns belong
to the Bristol County Agricultural Society ; that we have
among our number some bright, successful farmers ; that
Dighton, Swanzey and other towns of the county shipped
more strawberries to Boston than all the other counties of the
State ; and that all our farmers are here or will be here to try
and learn from your honorable body something that will make
them more successful in their pursuits.

I certainly hope your stay among us will be very pleasant,
and that when you leave us you will wish your stay could
have been longer.

The Chairman. It has been said that it is always all hard
work on a farm ; that it is all prose and no poetry ; but I
wish to say to 3'ou that we have some poetry for this meet-
ing, and I will introduce to you the poet of the occasion,
Henry D. Atwood of Taunton.

Poem read by Mr. Atwood.

The Chairman. We have listened to the poetry of farm-
ing, and now we will listen to the wisdom of Taunton. I
have the pleasure of introducing to you Hon. Nathaniel
J. W. Fish, mayor of Taunton.

Mayor Fish. Mr. President, members of the State Board
of Agriculture, ladies and gentlemen : It gives me great
pleasure to welcome here to-day the State Board of Agri-
culture, which was established, as I understand it, by legis-
lative enactment in 1852. It is this Board that has done so
much to advance the interests of the agricultural communi-
ties in the State of Massachusetts. I desire at this time to
express regret, for I understand that His Excellency the
Governor is your president, that he is unavoidably absent
and could not be present here to-day.

The city of Taunton may well be called a manufacturing
city. We have cotton mills, tack shops, stove foundries and
a variety of other industries too numerous to mention. Sev-

20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

eral years ago William Mason laid the foundation in this city
for one of the greatest locomotive esta})lishments in this
country. Albert Field began here the manufacture of tacks
on a small scale, building up a business which in that line
was second to none in the world. Notwithstanding the fact
that Taunton is a manufacturing city, it is what I call the
basis of supplies for this section of the country, north, east,
south and west, whose inhabitants are particularly interested
in all that pertains to agriculture. Beside, we have the Bris-
tol County Agricultural Society, which is represented on your
Board by my friend Mr. Shaw, and it holds its annual fair in
this city from year to year.

So far as the city of Taunton is concerned, manufacturing
and agriculture go together, and any Board or agent of agri-
culture who honors us with their presence is bound to receive
a hearty welcome from the citizens of Taunton. It therefore,
gentlemen, as mayor of the city of Taunton and in behalf of
its citizens, gives me great pleasure to welcome you here
to-day, and I sincerely hope that your time may be profitably
spent, that you will enjoy yourselves and that your meetings
will be instructive. In looking over your programme of the
exercises I felt as though I ought to congratulate the citizens
of Taunton upon having an opportunity to receive such excel-
lent instruction. They probably will attend your meetings.
Once again, gentlemen, I welcome you in behalf of the city.

Song by quartette.

The Chairman. The Board will respond to the welcome
through the second vice-president, Mr. Wood of West
Newton.

Mr. E. W. Wood. Mr. Chairman, in behalf of the mem-
bers of the Board I desire to thank His Honor the mayor and
the vice-president of the Bristol County Agricultural Societ\^
for this most cordial welcome. It has been since 1863 the
practice of the Board of Agriculture to hold a public winter
meeting; at the annual meeting in January we select a place
of meeting, and at the same time select a committee from
members of the Board living near the locality where the meet-
ing is held to arrange a programme of exercises for such
meeting. That committee, with the secretary of the Board,
meet and select such subjects as seem most desirable for the

No. 4.] ADDRESS OF VICE-PRESIDENT WOOD. 21

locality in which the meeting is to be held, and secure experts
to make addresses upon the different subjects, after which an
opportunity is given all persons in the audience to ask cpies-
tions of the speaker or to enter into the discussion of the
subject being considered. The same course has been pur-
sued in the preparation for this meeting. This committee,
together with the secretary, have arranged such subjects as
were considered to 1)e of the most local importance. They
have also secured speakers of reputation to open the dis-
cussions and treat upon the different subjects, and then an
opportunity will be given for any persons in the audience to
ask any questions or to discuss the questions under con-
sideration.

The Bristol County Agricultural Society is one of the orig-
inal fifteen that organized the State Board of Agriculture,
which number has increased, as our poet told us this morn-
ing, to thirty-five at the present time. This organization was
formed in 1852, and during the forty-six years that have
intervened this society has had but six delegates upon the
Board : J. H. W. Page of New Bedford, Nathan Durfee of
Fall River, Samuel L. Crocker and Edmund H. Bennett of
Taunton, Avery P. Slade of Somerset, and your present dele-
gate, N. W. Shaw of North Raynham. These men have all
been interested in the agriculture of the State and have done
valuable service upon the Board. But it seems to me that I
may be permitted without any disparagement to the others
to mention the services of Mr. Slade. For twenty-one years
he represented this society on the Board of Agriculture, and
his long practical experience, united with sound judgment
and his long, continuous service, enabled him to render in-
valuable aid to the Board.

The Board, when it accepted the invitation of this society
to meet at Taunton this year, was aware that it was going to
a society whose interest as shown at the annual fair (it having
the largest attendance of any county society in the State)
would warrant good meetings, well attended. We hope these
meetings may prove not only a pleasure but that they may
be profitable and interesting to the members of the Board, to
the members of the Bristol County Agricultural Society and
to the public generally.

22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The Chairman. The lecture of the morning is to be
given by one of the best-known institute workers of the New
England States, Dr. Twitchell of Maine, who is here and
will take the platform and address you on the subject printed
in the programme, viz., "Milch cows, structure as relating
to production."

Dr. Tw ITCHELL. Mr. Chairman, Mr. Secretary and gentle-
men of Massachusetts : I am strongly tempted to use a little
closer term, and say " old friends." As I have been looking
over the audience I find many whom I have met in years past
and with wdiomi have enjoyed social intercourse.

I am not here to-day to instruct you upon this great ques-
tion which is at the foundation of success in your principal
industry in the State of Massachusetts. A friend said to me
as I left home yesterda}^ morning, "Are you going to Massa-
chusetts to tell them what to do?" I said, "Oh, no; I am
simply going up to talk with them a little." My desire this
mornino; is to promote a discussion, and if I am successful in
that I shall have accomplished my full purpose.

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 23

Mii^cii Cows, Structure as reijAtix(^; to
Production.

BY DR. GEO. M. TWITCHELL, AUGUSTA, ME., EDITOR "MAINE FARMER."

Not long ago I stood one day amidst the flying shuttles of
one of our many cotton mills, and as I looked I questioned.
On my left, where employees were at work, were looms cap-
able of yielding three hundred yards of woven fabric per
week. The attendant was caring for eight of these, making
her weekly output twenty- four hundred yards. Over on my
right were other looms so improved that one person could
care for eighteen to twenty-four, at the same output per
loom, making the total seventy-two hundred yards. " What
marks the diflference ? " we asked. " Chiefly the greater har-
mony in adjustment of parts and consequent reduction of
friction," said the official ; and then I began to hark back, as
the boys say.

Later I called at one of the saw mills on our river, and as
I stood there watching it devour logs, I noticed over yonder
the old up-and-down saw working its way laboriously through
the logs and throwing oft* daily about six thousand feet of
lumber. Hard by was the gang, set at swifter motion and
with capacity increased to twenty thousand feet. ' On the
upper slip was the band saw with its musical whirr as it flew
on its mission with friction seemingly reduced to the mini-
mum, eating its way through forty-five thousand daily, and
saving one inch in every eight cuts. "What marks the
difierence?" we asked. "Harmony of adjustment and re-
duced friction," was the reply ; and again I harked back. So
through the whole field of mechanics might we wend our way,
finding every where the same lesson and the same experience.

The tremendous energies of man are constantly being
turned to the invention of a screw, a hinge, a pivot or a
wheel, which will give finer adjustment, and larger as well

24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

a8 better product. Are uiy illustration.s applicable? Let
us see.

First we had the cow, whose maternal functions were nat-
ural, and the product, milk for her calf, proportionate thereto.
Then came its introduction as food for babes and family
use, and skill began to be manifested in directing the ener-
gies and developing the brain. So down through the cen-
turies the open book of progress is before us. The steps
correspond with those taken by the machinist, and, consciously
or unconsciously, the ol)jective point is always the same.
Into the whirl of the past quarter of a century the cow en-
tered, and in the rude awakening caused by sharp competition
the tremendous energies of man have been directed towards
an appreciation of the greater harmony of parts and more
complete adjustment of cow machinery. So intense and
exacting have been the conditions surrounding, that this
problem of structure and its relation to production in factory,
mill or tie-up becomes the all-absorbing, all-controlling ques-
tion with the manufacturer.

Remember that word for it has a deep significance. The
farmer who feeds the raw products, grass, hay, grain, etc.,
to the cow, manufactures milk, the cow being the machine.
His neighbor feeds cotton, wool, and sometimes, I fear, shodd}'
to his machine, and manufactures cloth. The only difference
I see between the two is that the farmer's machine is a co-
laborer with him, and also that he cannot successfully make
good milk from shoddy.

The cow standing before you with a yearly capacity of ten
thousand three hundred pounds of milk differs from her early
maternal ancestor in two ways, — harmony of adjustment of
parts of machine and developed brain capacity, the result of
education, this being the influence of the objective mind of the
owner on the subjective mind of the cow. Every step taken
in this study of animal structure confirms more strongly the
fact that mental influences sent out, or going forth from the
breeder, bring results in the individual animals of the breed.

Right here I pause to indicate what seems to be a fact lost
sight of, — that the will and wish of the breeder must be
active with the care-taker of the animals, else to a greater or
less degree that will is thwarted. If a dairyman, seeking to

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 25

lift the individual production of his herd by breeding, selec-
tion and care, employs one whose delight is in the round,
symmetrical quarters of the beef animal, he places an obstacle
in the pathway of development which will surely delay, if
not entirely prevent, the desired end being reached. So
much hinges on the will of the breeder expressed through
care, selection, handling and mental control, that harmony
is called for with all agents standing in any relation to the
breeder or the cow. So unnatural and intensified are the
functions of the profitable dairy cow, that, for further im-
provement to be possible, the steps already' taken, and objec-
tive point aimed at, must be clearly known and seen, and
every person employed be in full sympathy.

Meeting a young man lately who had received thorough
instruction at the hands of one of the best milk producers,
and who was returning from a visit to another large herd, I
began to quiz him, until finally he said: "It may be all
right for that man, but we cannot make milk in any such
way. Those cows were upon clean floors, and most of them
were standing. We hed our cows so freely that we invite
them to lie doivu, knowing that the more quiet they are, the
more milk they will give."" That young man will lift the
standard of production with any herd over which he has the
care. He is not only seeking the harmony of structure in
the machine, but he has a definite purpose in mind, and that
will control the animal.

Mr. C. M. Winslow, secretary of the Ayrshire Breeders'
Association, discarded last year every cow which did not
yield sixty-five hundred pounds of milk ; this year he sets
the standard at seven thousand pounds. But think you this
would be possible, even with this expert breeder, if the men
under his charge were filled with the idea of beefy structure ?
I may be leading your thought out of the field of actual
demonstration, l)ut I firmly believe it necessary, in order for
a breeder to succeed, that he have positive convictions
regarding structure and production, as well as color, etc.,
and that his thought be impressed on those who care for his
animals. In no other way could we have to-day the distinct
families of the same breed, known at a glance by the student
and breeder. A score of families of Jerseys might be

2G BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

named, each carrying a distinct family type, hut all true to
the Jersey standard, shading from the fineness of the
Rioter's to the strong, broad faces of the St. Lambert's and
Stoke Pogis. I am speaking to you not as a breeder, but a
student and observer. In other lines of breeding these facts
have been pressed home upon me as emphasizing the great
law of mechanics, where harmonj' of parts with reference to
purpose is the central thought.

Milk production is to be the great industry with Massa-
chusetts farmers. Will it pay you a net profit over cost of
production next year and the year after ? Will your herds
and barns be larger and your farm richer in ten years because
of your operations ? Much depends upon the farm, but more
on the selection of the animals which are to furnish the sinews
of war. Every cow must be so constituted in structure and
will power that under reasonable treatment she will yield
six thousand pounds of milk yearly. Every owner must be
made alive to the necessity of appreciating and selecting a
machine capable of this, and, beyond that, of directing its
energies towards greater results. Herein lies the pathway
to success in dairy work, and there are no by-paths open to
the indifierent traveller. A positive will, a distinct pur-
pose, an ideal, growing clearer ev^ery day, and a love for the
dairy cow, will give success, no matter what the breed.

As we read the story, written so plainly in the faces
and structure of our animals, of the widening process of
humanity, it is possible to note how important have been the
arbitrary standards, based perhaps on fancy, rather than
so-called practical points, and how, also, only by holding
firmly to these have the individuality of breeds been
preserved.

I am conscious to-day of a dual purpose in coming before
you. Our subject has to do with the every-day thought and
work of the dairyman, the milk producer or the beef maker.

It acts and reacts upon the pocketbook, through which
channel man is most easily and directly influenced, and fits
the needs of the hour as no other can. It has to do with the
food of support for the family and its production. But over
and above this there is in my mind the reflex influence
coming back to the individual who observes, or fails to

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 27

observe, the lessons which claim attention at the present
moment. These closing days of 1897 bring- us face to face
with complex conditions and relations, whether in the field
of commerce or agriculture. Competition is spreading its
net-work of feeders into most remote sections, and com-
pelling the eastern farmer and breeder to prepare for a
sharper contest than the past has ever known. Iron bands
are reaching out. Space is being annihilated, and sections
remote a few days ago are brought near to-day, and made to
contribute to the great cry for daily food.

The abnormal development of maternal functions in
animals is wasting nerve force witli tremendous rapidity,
and diseases once unnoticed creep into flock and herd
unbidden and unwelcome. Dealing, as you are, with the
food of support for so large, and yet so weak, a portion of
humanity, the question of health as well as production faces
you to-day as never before.

Driven by competition to seek the largest possible output,
you must, by a study of harmonious conditions and relations,
seek also, and with the same wise energy and constant study,
the health of every individual animal under your care.

As breeders, distinct characteristics are to be preserved,
and for success the fact of normal health, unequalled vitality,
large production and constant service must take the place oc-
cupied in some measure by fancy markings and symmetrical
proportions. The cow of to-morrow must be strong, vigorous,
able and 'willing, and with the great majority breed will here-
after be subordinated to these four essentials.

Are we creatures of circumstances ? Yes ; but we make
the circumstances, which are the stepping-stones of progress.
We are controlled by our environments, but these too are
largely our creations, or come by our neglect.

The cow is the creature of her environment, not willingly,
but by reason of subjugation to the will of her owner. She
but speaks the thought and purpose of her controlling
power, as she in return acts and reacts to control herself.
Here is the dual purpose to which reference has already
been made.

Man is at the head. Circumstances, environments and
conditions are the tests of manhood, the measure of capacity.

28 - BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

In the great realm of natural things he finds largest scope for
his powers, the broadest field for investigation. Only as he
seeks for the greater harmony at the heart of things can he
to-day realize, and only as he realizes can he make surround-
ing circumstances conserve the higher development of himself
and his animals.

Once the man who sought pleasure or profit in breeding
animals was looked down u})on with pity, if not contempt.
To-day, conscious that he is delving in the greatest myster\^
of mysteries, that of life itself, he stands the peer of any man
in any vocation.

Trace the development of the dair}^ or beef type from the
day when only the thought of perpetuating its species con-
trolled, and the evidence of man's intense application may
be read at every step. That cow to-day, yielding to higher
influences, conforms to the environments surrounding her,
and pours out the larger measure of blessing for mankind.
She is not an accident, but represents a wealth of time, study
and expenditure the world cannot appreciate.

A cow is not a cow simply because she has horns and gives
milk, no matter if her pedigree traces to the gates of the
mythical Garden of Eden. Here is where we have blundered
in the past. Don't be mistaken ; there are ciphers in the
animal as well as human kingdom, and ciphers do not swell
totals. The day has come when a broader conception must
be established for ever}^ man breeding or keeping stock.
Backed by blood, there must be individuality, and that is
based on structure and education.

We cannot comprehend structure for special purpose only
as we realize what is involved in purpose. You measure the
worth of the loom which doubles the daily output of a single
individual only as you feel the significance of what this in-
crease must mean to the manufacturer and consumer. Looms
come in response to demand for larger output at reduced
cost, that natural vantage may be retained.

Structure of animals may be accidental, but not to be
maintained save as men are made conscious of controlling
forces, and seek a better knowledge of frictionless relation
between parts, with special reference to output. No man
can breed and hold the type, in any department, who is not

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 29

fully alive to the necessity for ultimate product and able to
direct the environments of his animals.

I make these assertions, not new to any, because no study
of this great problem of structure can be of service save as
the man is master of the situation. If conditions are exact-
ing and the situation critical, be thankful for the opportunity
and the impulse to be larger men.

Admit that structure controls purpose, and at once the fact
comes home that there must be special lines of structural
conformation in order for greatest harmony in performing
special service. It is with special-purpose animals we have
to do, and this thought alone claims attention. One hundred
and twenty to fifty pounds of butter and three thousand j)Ounds
of milk mark the limit with the general-purpose cow. Two
hundred and fifty pounds of butter and five thousand pounds
of milk mark the minimum possible with any man who expects
to-day to sell the raw products of his farm, and realize mar-
ket rates in the resultant product following feeding. In the
sure increase of milk and dairy products, and sharper com-
petition next year, three hundred pounds of butter and six
thousand pounds of milk must he the standard. Get these
figures solid, for they will stand. Even though, as special-
ists, your herds range far and away above the limit, the
lesson bears as heavily on your shoulders as any.

Mark you, the word "average" does not appear, and it
will be well if it is stricken out of the breeders' vocabulary,
for there will be no room for averages in the work of 1898.
Animals must be regarded as individuals, their worth to be
determined solely by individual output, in proportion to cost
of production.

For this to be possible there must be a well-constructed,
evenly balanced, frictionless machine, every part in harmony
with every other part. The bearings and adjustments of this
wonderful machine will be in direct ratio to the appreciation
of the owner of ultimate purpose.

For this reason a thorough study of structure throughout
the entire animal economy becomes an absolute necessity with
every man breeding or keeping cows for profit, or expecting
to be recognized in the demand of to-morrow. Great as has
been the advance of the past, the greatest curse of Massachu-

30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

setts agriculture to-day is profitless cows, and the cause for
these rests upon this neglect of appreciation of the impor-
ance of structure and definite purpose. Breed has been the
one thought with the farmer, pedigree the chief standard of
merit with the specialist, and fancy points, arbitrarily fixed
by those whose chief conception has been beauty lines, have
influenced, and do influence, more than this question of utility.
We have sworn by the book rather than the cow. We have
stood by color of switch and tongue, until udders have been
lost ; width of stripe and size of spot have outranked evi-
dences of utility or constitution. Type must now be made
paramount to l)reed. Structure made the chief essential.

There will be found wider variations between animals of
the same breed than between those of any given type though
of difierent breeds. Blood there must be, for improvement,
but it must be based on individuality, and this rests on
structure. Never was there such a demand for the aggres-
sive, progressive specialist as to-day ; but arbitrary points,
not in harmony with the practical needs of the hour, based
on actual performance, must give way for the essentials by
which the door to profit is to be gained. The breeder of au}^
family or breed who has reached six thousand pounds of
milk or three hundred pounds of butter from each and every
mature animal, under business methods of feeding, has not
neglected his study or appreciation of blood, though his
cows show looseness of structure, angularity of frame and
lack of symmetrical contour.

My cows are Jerseys, Ayrshires, Holsteins or Guernseys,
say the farmers, as though that of itself solved the problem
of profitable production, whereas it simply indicates certain
characteristics. If for the dairyman one or more of these
breeds outrank others as dairy animals, the question is not
solved by selection of breed, for no man has been able to
eliminate all oflf conditions and able to control structure and
temperament in every animal. The high degree of excellence
and great uniformity seen in these essentials simply indicate
possibilities when efforts are concentrated along the one line of
utility.

For profitable dairying there must be an infusion of blood
of one of the breeds named, but with it there must also go a

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 31

sharp discrimination along structural lines. While it may
be questioned whether structure determines or controls tem-
perament, it must be conceded that there is a large degree of
harmony between the two. Interpret structure in its broadest
sense, and it covers the field completely. More than bony
frame or fleshy tissue is involved. No man will realize what
milk and butter production is until he comes to a study of
brain development and recognizes how intimately all are
connected with structure. Every breeder should stand be-
fore his animals able to say as did Pope, when speaking of
man, —

" There stands a structure of majestic frame."

The benefactors of the world have always been of the
nervous temperament. They conserve rather than serve
themselves. Trace the history of civilization to the present
moment, and each epoch adds increased emphasis to this fact.

The good coming from the phlegmatic reaches its ultimate
end only by conversion through other channels. Such tem-
peraments store up, gather in, house for their own good, but
never outpour. It is in the realm of active nervous force
that one finds the largest channel of benevolence ; and when
this is applied to animals it manifests itself in willing service,
the giving forth of energy to the utmost, the volume depend-
ing first upon harmony in structure and then on ability of
owner to appreciate capacity and direct environment.

Milk, and especially butter production, are the product of
nerve force, controlled and increased through brain develop-
ment. The dairy cow of to-day, sensitive, easily disturbed,
a bundle of nervous energies, demands far difl'erent treatment
from the general-purpose cow of other da^'s. We have here
an abnormal development of maternal functions, and the
measure of the output will be the capacity of the owner to
direct through education, and establish through sympathetic
relations. A close bond of sympathy there must be, the
owner standing in the relation of teacher and friend.

We are dealing with subtle forces, and large men are
necessary to comprehend ten thousand pounds of milk yearly,
or five hundred pounds of butter. He who grasps most of
the functions of motherhood, and in his breeding and care

32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

stimulates these by just and proper treatment, will reap the
larsrest harvest of crain both in dollars and in manhood.

No man can be a true student of this problem of structure,
as related to purpose, without being led out of himself and
made to see something of the largeness of little things lying
all about. He touches the hidden springs of life, reaches
after the mystery of creation, and out of research comes to
know the worth and dignity of life itself.

Study cows, but more than all study functions as indicated
by structure. Engaged as you are in establishing your own
individual family of this or that magnificent breed, let the
thouijht of type be uppermost, and weed, and breed, with
special emphasis laid upon the most harmonious structure
throughout.

Intensify powers of maternity by allowing them freer scope.
Set the trend of individual desires along the line of intensive
production. Cultivate natural tendencies, and bend all to-
wards one given centre. In this way there must follow a
family alike in type, uniform in production, prepotent in
breeding. Here is the doorway to future farm operations.
Men talk of the hardships of the farm as compared with the
mill and shop. There are hardships there, but they will never
be removed by keeping our eyes fixed on the small end of
the business.

Men with large conception, definite purposes and deter-
mination, will be reaching out after the solution of the great
problem we are discussing to-day, and, reaching, find that
larger life which will bring its compensations. Failure never
comes from positive, but negative, thinking ; and there is
nothing negative in a good dairy cow. She inspires and
reflects bright thino;s. If we believe in the farm home and
the home farm, there is a work for us to do in checking the
drift of the present moment, in bringing to the forefront the
fact that there is a way by which men may put their energies
into the prolilems on the farm, find substantial returns, and
make men of themselves while so doing.

Nowhere is there a better opportunity than when engaged
in transplanting our conceptions and desires upon the animals
under our care, and making them willing servants to work
out our purposes.

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 33

I 80 firmly believe in the fundamental truth at the heart of
this problem that I want to see the dairymen of the east cast
their lot for a larger comprehension of this principle of struct-
ure, because it, and it alone, will lead to that weeding out
of inferior animals, and that critical selection of blood lines
most likely to insure individual worth in coming genera-
tions, — cows possessing most positive virtues.

A generation must pass before the weeding process will be
intelligently applied, and to prepare for the future and estab-
lish types having special reference to purpose is the demand of
the hour. Could you wipe from the State of Massachusetts
to-day every cow incapable of yielding a net balance at the
end of the year, you would lift the heaviest burden now rest-
ing like a pall on many a farm. Could you arouse men to
make sharp and clear tests of their individual animals to-day,
giving or seeking to give each the food and treatment best
adapted to its needs, the cry of poverty on the farm would
be hushed to a whisper so faint that it could scarcely be
heard.

Let us be thankful for conditions which make mental growth
and activity a necessity, for it is out of these, and these alone,
that capacity is increased and full manhood insured. Let no
man be content with what he has, while furnishing every
opportunity for it to do its best. The limit of production
will ever be an unsolved problem, resting entirely on the
skill and intelligence of man. Not in dwelling on what is,
but in seeking for what may be, will there result improve-
ment. Ideal conditions must be made clear to the individual
man and animal, — ideal structure fixed as the sole purpose
in breeding. The larger the conception of what is involved,
of what one would have, the more rapid the approach towards
fruition. It is only in large conceptions that smaller results
are brought to full realization. Seeking for the higher, the
lower adjust themselves.

He who reaches for a herd every one of which will yield
five hundred pounds of butter yearly, will more rapidly bring
harmony in structure and increase in output than he whose
conception is on a lower level. For this reason more time
needs be given to the study and appreciation of structural
parts and their relation. In this study one's ideal takes more

34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

definite form, becomes more real, and through this environ-
ment the cow yields to the wish of her owner. It is impos-
sible for improvement save through our ideals ; and to fix
them clearly and distinctly in mind, so that consciously and
unconsciously they will exert their influence, requires a large
appreciation of the fundamentals expressed in structure.
Study variations in form, not in general, but detail, and with
an eye single to purpose. Note the effect upon temperament,
and finally production. Search for the machine constructed
throughout to perform the largest possible service with the
least waste of energy, and on that build mental activity by
judicious development of mental powers. Cows are ma-
chines ; like clay in the hands of the potter, they are to be
moulded and fashioned ; but over and above this there lies
the fact that they are intelligent beings, and that production
depends greatly upon the measure of education.

Nature stands waiting to reveal her secrets. All down the
ages has she been knocking at the door of man's intelligence,
asking admittance. In the roar of the thunder and flash of
the lightning she has voiced her power, until man arose to
the conception of the fact that she was bidding him harness
with silken cords the giant forces and use them for his ad-
vancement. So through individual animals she has been
bidding us enter and occupy the broader field of production,
come up higher into the larger conception of life, its uses and
purposes ; and as men have, here and there, answered the
call, nature has linked arms with them for results before im-
possible. Accidents were these, but they whispered possi-
bilities to the aspiring breeder as he sought to fix the channel
of their production and make it strong for future generations.
Good business to-day demands a clearer insight into the
gospel of cow structure, that, first of all, men may come to
see more clearly, have a better appreciation of what they now
have, and open the door to larger returns from individuals.
There must be an uplift of thought and purpose as to what is
possible, as well as a sharper insight into the fundamental
truth at the core. Out of all this will flow results, and
conditions will be controlled.

Centuries ago Michael Angelo wrought his ideals upon the
old cathedrals of Rome until his head grew back upon his

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 35

shoulders ; yet to-day his conceptions are the admiration of
the world, and thousands bow in reverence before them. He
wrought upon cold marble with chisel and mallet, he painted
world pictures with pigment and oil, but he made every
touch pregnant with life and inspiration. We are building
upon living structures, our tools are living tissues pulsating
with purpose. Consciously or unconsciously our ideals are
taking form, rising before us as monuments to our skill and
insight into life's great lesson, or the unmistakable evidence
of our feilure to grasp the true mission of living and find the
reflex influence of noble endeavor.

For a few minutes I want to turn to my charts. I have
brought with me to-day photographs of four cows. Two are
perhaps thoroughbreds, one of unknown breeding selected
from an immense herd in one of the ranches of the west, and
one represents the almost ideal beef type of the present time.
One cow produced twenty-two pounds and a fraction of
butter in seven days. Another has a record of ten thousand
three hundred pounds of milk a year. Over there is a cow
produced on a ranch in Nebraska and brought east. The
first year she made nine thousand three hundred pounds
of milk.

Glance at the three which constitute the dairy type, and
see the marks of similarity between them. There are points
to criticise in all, perhaps, for the perfect cow has not been
found ; but the points in each case are those which mar the
harmony of the machine and retard its operations. I spent
months and months trying to get a photograph of a cow that
I could put before an audience and criticise less than any
other. Notice the broad face, the intelligence of the eye,
the ample brain capacity and evidence of development, the
thin spinal column rising above the shoulder blades, with the
high pelvic arch, lacking perhaps somewhat in the size of
the barrel, but carrying in her general make-up so many
points of a good animal that she is able to make all that is
within her centre towards a large milk production.

Take this cow with a milk production of ten thousand
three hundred pounds a year. You see here some evidence
of the beefy type in the heaviness of the neck, the straight
back and a lack of the high pelvic arch. She ofisets that by

36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

her enormous capacity for food, the large udder with the
immense milk veins and the very flat shoulder and thin legs.

To measure an animal from tip to tip, and give due value
to each and every part, is something difficult to do when
selecting a herd ; but there must be some lessons of value in
structure. It must be the objective point with the individual
breeder to find the animal with as few obstructions in the
machine as possible. It is important to select a breed in
order that those points may be intensified.

Notice this cow : the distance between the horn and the
eye ; the breadth across the forehead ; the brain capacity ; the
immense nostrils, telling of great lung capacity ; the extremely
thin spinal column all the way through ; the thin neck ; the
withers rising very high ; the high arch ; the large barrel ; the
thin shoulder ; the large food capacity ; the udder, which is
of good size and shape ; and the milk veins, which tell the
story of circulation. I have never been able to find a cow
which I thought better illustrated the dairy type than this
animal, and the points of similarity between the three are
apparent at once. Against that put the round, heavy-quar-
tered beef animal, as indicating the opposite type, and be-
tween the two extremes you may range all the cows of Massa-
chusetts. Towards which will the great majority tend?

How are we to increase the number of large producers?
By the selection of individual cows, then by the selection of
the males to be used in breeding. More attention should be
given the dairy type of the males. Masculinity first, but
that may well end at the shoulders. Let the dairy conforma-
tion be manifest in the physical structure of the male. A
watchful eye should measure the udder development both of
the males and females. Look very carefully to the rudi-
mentary teats in the males. The time is coming, I think, when
breeders will discard the deep, pendant udder, that is always
carried at a loss of nervous energy, and approach what is
known as the Ayrshire type. Then there will be less loss of
nerve force when in motion. We have all seen some of the
best cows waste tremendously because of the force caused by
a breaking down of the udder, the tissues giving away as the
animal carries such an enormous amount of milk. The udder
I have mentioned will be higher behind, broad on the surface,

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 37

and also extend well forward. This udder conserves rather
than wastes nervous energy.

The more you seek the comfort of the dairy cows, the larger
will be the output.

Right here I want to raise another point. I leave it for
others to discuss. I have noticed repeatedly in my own
State that wherever there is an outbreak of tuberculosis it is
always in the best animals of the herd, — the heaviest pro-
ducers.

Is it not true that the animal which gives you six thousand
pounds of milk requires more oxygen than the animal giving
three thousand? Too many of our barns are built on the
three-thousand-pound plan. May we not find the solution
of this question by opening our tie-ups and increasing our
conception of what six thousand pounds of milk must mean
to the machine ? Are we not putting an obstacle in the way
of that machine performing as it would otherwise perform ?
By increasing the amount of air in our tie-ups may we not
find one of the steps by which we may increase the output
of the individual cow?

The Chairman. The Doctor will be ready to answer
any questions that may be asked him, and I hope many
will question him. He is able to bear it and ready to
answer.

Mr. Geo. E. Taylor (of Shelburne). I would like the
speaker to explain what he means by mental control.

Dr. TwiTCHELL (turning to chart). Here, at the brain, is
the seat of milk production ; here, at the udder, the source
of supply. As the channel between this point, the brain,
and the udder is most free and open, so, other things being
equal, will the supply be largest. I mean first of all the
development of the natural functions of the brain which tend
in a cow in one direction or the other, — tend, I say, either
in the direction of milk or beef. In one way or the other
the natural tendencies will be set if left to themselves.
We intensify through our own individual conceptions, our
treatment, our care, our feeding. No man can lift produc-
tion above the standard of his ideal. We come nearest to
that when it is more clear. It is the positive, purposeful

38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

mind of the owner controlling the animal which is by every
means and instrumentality leading out of itself to larger
conceptions and production.

Dr. J. B. LiNDSEY (of Amherst). How about the mental
capacity of the beefy type?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. The mental capacity of the beefy type
is more sluggish. We intensify that by our mental con-
ception, — by our idea of what a beef animal must be. Men
in my State who are lovers of the beefy type breed the white-
face almost altogether. Such men have not succeeded and
cannot succeed with dairy animals, but they reach a grand
success with beefy types. I believe firmly in the intelligence
of our animals,

Mr. Taylor. Do you believe a breeder can produce an
animal according to his idea?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. No ; and yet there is a qualification
there. I will say this, that the men who have been breeding
for the last twenty-five years by the most exact methods come
the nearest to it. Poultry raised by a man breeding with a
definite purpose for generations can be identified north, east,
south or west. But there has not been with our Jerseys or
with our Ayrshires that continuity in breeding there has
been in poultry.

Mr. Taylor. Does the capacity to produce depend on the
will power?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. There must be the capacity in the
machine to do the work, first. Having that, I believe
production depends on educated, intelligent, well-developed
power, physical and mental.

Mr. Geo. Cruickshanks (ot Fitchburg). How early in
the life of the animal will it show the type of the dairy
cow?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. Very early. I have said — and I want
to stand fiiirly and squarely — that I am not speaking from
the stand-point of a breeder, but from the stand-point of a
student. If there is any merit in what I say, accept it ; if
not, cast it aside, — but not until you have settled the fact
that it is useless. I am not speaking from theory wholly,
but from years of investigation and comparison, during which
time I have been in touch with some of the l)est breeders of

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 39

the country, as we have been working out these points to-
gether.

We fix the tendencies in our animals before they are six
months old, and I think that the dairy forms may be deter-
mined before the calf is two months old, in the evidence of
intelligence, in the dairy-udder development and in various
ways.

Mr. N. B. Baker (of Savoy). How long can that cow
that yielded that enormous amount stand up? Should we
not have a limit ?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I think so. All machines have a limit.
That cow was one of the most noted Ayrshire producers of
the country. The record she made was a remarkable record,
but she was always a remarkable producer.

Mr. Baker. I asked the question because of the fact that
a neighbor of mine brought up a cow to twenty-one and one-
half pounds of butter in seven days. The cow was about four
years old. In two years' time she gave out, broke down,
and to-day is dead.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. That might be a very natural result.
Before we bring our cows up to ten thousand three hundred
pounds of milk we must be prepared to care for them upon a
ten thousand pound basis, else they fail to maintain them-
selves. But it is true that we have not reached the normal
capacity of our animals except in very rare cases.

Dr. LiNDSEY. Why did that animal break down ? What
was the cause therefor ?

Mr. Baker. It was considered to be over-feeding, — try-
ing to keep her up to that standard.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. That is an assumption in part, and I
am going to admit that it is correct, l)ut I do not feel that
it determines anything. Before you can settle the ques-
tion, it must be known what the conditions were, where the
cow was housed, how fed, how she was treated through all
the time during that year and the year before, before you can
say absolutely what was the cause of the breaking down.

Question. I would like to ask the objection to allowing
a calf to suck its mother.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. You would obtain a good beef animal in
that way. The slightest approach to fatty tissues in a dairy

40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

animal is an obstacle in that animal's pathway. The feed
after the first twenty-four hours should be with special refer-
ence to the animal's ultimate product.

Mr. W. B. Barton (of Dalton). Which animals would
be most likely to reproduce ? the one of unknown breed or
those of known breed ?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. The one of unknown breed is uxore or
less an accident. Assuming that she is of unknown breed,
she would not be an ideal animal to breed from if she gave a
much larger quantity of milk, unless you mate with her a
prepotent sire. There would be an element of uncertainty
in breeding from that animal. The steps of progress in breed-
ing are slow, and they are not secured through accidents.
They come by continuous and persistent eflbrt along certain
lines. The hit-or-miss method of breeding is the chief cause
of having so large a per cent of inferior animals, and why we
make advance so slowly. Systematic work is what is needed.

Mr. . I want to cite an instance in reoard to raisins;

dairy animals on new milk. There was a certain party who
raised two calves that were equally well bred. One was fed
on new milk and the other on skimmed milk after the first
two weeks of its life. Both came in at about the same time, —
shortly after they were two years old. The one raised on
skimmed milk made on an average two pounds of butter a
week more than the one raised on new milk, and gave almost
two thousand pounds of milk a year more than the new-milk
calf. At a year old the new-milk calf was the more attrac-
tive, and in the majority of cases would have l)een the more
salable animal. The trouble is, we are looking for beauty, —
for attractive animals.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. It was with a great deal of difiidence
that I came before you to discuss this question, firmly as I
believe in the truth at the bottom of it. But, gentlemen, I
believe that the path to success in bretxling lies in wise selec-
tion and in continuous breeding along certain restricted lines.
The moment you introduce a new animal, that moment you
introduce foreign elements, which may or may not result
harmoniously.

Dr. LiNDSEY. I am intensely interested in this subject,
and I do not think we should for a moment wander awav

No. 4.] MILCH COWS, 41

from it. A very practical thought for us to carry away with
us is that we ought to endeavor to improve our herds in the
lines in which Dr. Twitchell has directed, and I think an
illustration can be made in this way.

You take a steam engine, or a locomotive, if you please.
There are some that can run thirty miles an hour, and the
moment you endeavor to force them to forty miles an hour
you are overworking them. Perhaps there is another with a
forty or forty-five mile capacity, and when you attempt to
force it to fifty or sixty miles an hour you are overworking
it, and it is going to give out very soon. What we should
aim at is to increase the capacity, so that an engine with a
capacity of thirty miles will run forty miles with a reason-
able amount of fuel. So it is in this case. We must have
a good machine that will take food and turn it into milk and
butter, and we must bear in mind this building up of dairy
type.

Just one illustration from experience. I had in our sta-
tion barn an animal which had been in the barn two years
before I had anything to do with the matter. At the end of
two more years, without any increase of feeding beyond what
I called a good normal feed, she broke down. I found she was
used up. I had another type w^hich was not a perfect dairy
cow by any means, but nevertheless had a large capacity,
thin shoulders and a good muscular development. For the
last two years she has never missed a feeding. She is built
for the business. She has been in milk fifteen months, and
is to-day giving twelve quarts of milk. As soon as you look
at her you Avill see she is built for business.

1 believe we are in a very critical condition relative to this
milk and butter question. We are having severe competi-
tion all about us. You have only to read the daily papers
of the west to see what tremendous efibrts thev are makino-
to improve their dairies. How are we in Massachusetts going
to compete with those men in the west who are working so
hard to attain success ? I believe we are to do it in three
ways : first, by improving our machine ; second, by reducing
our cost of production to the minimum, by studying how to
produce raw material at as low a cost as possible ; third, not
only to have good machinery and good raw material, but to

42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

learn how to convert that raw material into the best grade of
product possible. Let me urge upon you not only to en-
deavor to work along these lines which the Doctor has sug-
gested, but also encourage other farmers to do the same
thing. There is wonderful power in example. If we are to
put Massachusetts among the foremost dairy States in the
Union, I believe we must do it by educating the every-day
farmer. He has a tendency to shut his eyes. Let us go
home with these purposes fixed in our minds, to see if we
cannot help the farmers forward, first, by setting an example,
and then encouraging others to work along with us.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. There is one point I want to add to what
Dr. Lindsey has so well set forth. Let us not feel that we
have reached the capacity of our animals, but give that care
and attention by which we may be able to determine their
individuality and their value ; and in breeding for 1898 se-
cure animals which are distinctly of dairy type. I would
add to this a study of the internal structure of the udder.
Again I enter, perhaps, the realm of theory, but nevertheless
a point worthy of testing in individual experience. A fleshy
udder is always objectionable. The internal structure may
be determined by feeling of the bag.

Dr. Lindsey. I would like to inquire how the farmers in
Massachusetts may improve the quality of their dairy cows ;
how they are going to raise up a better herd of cows, — milk
producers or milk and butter producers.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would select with special reference to
the structure of the cows to be bred from, and then give sharp
attention to the evidences of intelligence in the animal, avoid-
ing those which lack in brain capacity (largely manifested by
the head and especially by the eye). Having the udder and
other points as good as possible, I would then add by the
selection of the male, — first masculinity, then the broad, flat
rib, the deep, full barrel, the light quarters with the flat
shoulder, the rudimentary teats and the udder-like develop-
ment, the teats being well apart and not attached to the
scrotum.

Dr. Lindsey. Would you suggest that they take the best
they have, and then purchase thoroughbred bulls ?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would always advocate selecting the

No. 4.] MILCH COWS. 43

best you have, and build upon it. Tliere is so much uncer-
tainty when you buy a thoroughbred cow as to whether you
are in full sympathy with, and appreciate all, the conditions
under which she has been cared for, all of which must be
known and appreciated in order to maintain her former stand-
ard. I would never use anything but a pure-bred male, and
I would get behind him and study his mother, reaching as
far back as I could. I would find the animal which repre-
sented my ideal, then, regardless of cost, I would buy.

Question. Do I understand the Doctor that the yield of
milk depends on the brain instead of the stomach ? That an
animal should be intelligent in order to be a large milker?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. There are exceptions. We must not
only have form of body and stomach capacity for the con-
sumption of food, but also intelligence of the brain, which
must be developed by the owner before we may expect heaviest
production.

Mr. Walton Hall (of Marshfield) . In regard to raising
heifer calves, how would you feed?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would feed on skimmed milk and good
hay, and turn to pasture when a year old. Feed only those
foods which will promote bony tissue rather than flesh. One
of the greatest blessings that ever came to the farmers of the
State of Maine is the milk separator. The farmers are find-
ing in the freshly skimmed milk the best possible feed on
which to raise dairy cows. I am proud of the State of Maine
when I speak of her dairy cows, for our farmers are keeping
and growing a grand lot of healthy, vigorous, heavy pro-
ducers.

Question. Would you recommend raising our own calves ?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. You can go to Brighton and buy cows
that have enormous udders, but 30U are not always sure to
get a valuable cow. Whether you can afibrd to raise your
own is for you to determine. It is the true step to take in
improvement.

Question. Why not turn a calf out the first year?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I have found that I could get better
growth in the l)arn on good hay, bran and oats. I would
never turn a calf out the first year ; I would turn it out the
second year. A great many growers in Maine give the calves

44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

a good warm pen in the barn, with bran and some oats and
skimmed milk.

Mr. Bliss. Do you mean to be understood that in select-
ing males to build up the herd there is danger of doing harm
by selecting males of different families of the same breed?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. No ; I would find the breeder whose
thought ran in practically the same lines with my own. Then
I would go back of the male and study his ancestors ; I would
find what was the production of his dam and grand-dam, if
possible. Seek to establish the fact of continuity. This
indiscriminate mingling of animals of diflferent families is, I
believe, the chief cause for the lack of uniformity in the
product. Build up by systematic breeding, and not by run-
ning after sons of phenomenal performers.

The Chairman. It is nearly time to close the morning
session. Later in the day, perhaps, you will have another
opportunity to question the Doctor. Secretary Sessions has
something he wants to say to you.

Secretary Sessions. I wish to call your attention to the
exhibit in the rear of the hall, which comes from the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College and the agricultural department
of the Hatch Experiment Station. You will find there on
the tables sheaves and seeds of about twelve varieties of
millet, three varieties of soya beans, eighty varieties of pota-
toes and some thirty or forty varieties of corn. The varieties
of corn were grown in rows side by side and may be some-
what mixed, but the type of ear is correct. The fertilizers
for the potatoes were applied in the drill in the following
proportions per acre : —

Pounds.

Nitrate of soda, 240

Superphosphate, 400

Sulphate of potash, 250

Tankage, 240

Dried blood, IDO

I would say also that Professor Maynard of the horticul-
tural department of the college and station expected to send
an exhibit of fruits and horticultural products, but on account
of the president. Professor Brooks, Dr. Goessmann, Dr.
Lindsey and Professor Fernald being in attendance at thia

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 45

meeting, and the necessity of their being away so much during
the week, and the fact that the college must go on, he could
not leave and could not arrange to send it. I am very sorry
that this is so.

The Chairman. After singing by the quartette, we shall
adjourn until two o'clock this afternoon.

Adjourned.

Afternoon Session.

The meeting was called together at 2 p.m. by the secre-
tar}^ who said : —

The time has arrived for the opening of the afternoon exer-
cises. The vice-president, in charge of the meeting, has
requested Dr. Goodell, president of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, to preside this afternoon.

Dr. Goodell. Gentlemen of the Board, ladies and gentle-
men : We have for our discussion this afternoon one of the
most important of the subjects that is to come before you at
this session. It is the "Milk supply and the public health."
We have with us to-day one who has studied for years the
question of sanitation and of public health, one who is con-
sidered an expert throughout this country. I have the pleas-
ure of introducing to you Prof. W. T. Sedgwick of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology of Boston.

4G BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

MII.K SUPPI.Y AND THE PUBI.IC HEAT.TH.

BY AVILLIAM T. SEDGWICK, PROFESSOR IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTI-
TUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.

It is of recent years only that milk supply has come to be
regarded as of importance to the public health. Previous to
1881 it was not very generally known that milk is a ready
vehicle of infectious disease. It is said that the first epidemic
of typhoid fever traced to milk was one in 1857, studied by
Dr. Michael Taylor. In 1867 the same epidemiologist showed
that scarlet-fever might be distributed in the same way, and
simultaneously Prof. Oswald Bell arrived at the same con-
clusion through his investigation of an outbreak of that disease.
In 1877 an epidemic of diphtheria was traced to a milk sup-
ply. These and other cases which had been reported were
brought together in 1881 by Mr. Ernest Hart, and laid before
the International Medical Congress of that year in a striking
paper which at once drew universal attention to milk supply
as a vehicle of infectious disease. Mr. Hart in his paper
gave the history of fifty epidemics of typhoid fever, which up
to that time had been charged to infected milk, besides fifteen
epidemics of scarlet-fever, and four of diphtheria. "The
record," says the eminent medical writer from whom these
statements are taken, " since 1881 has not been less striking ;
indeed, since the method of investigating these occurrences
has been more generally understood, milk has been constantly
and justly incriminated as a cause of zymotic disease in man."

The year 1881 was important to the milk-supply industry
in another and very different direction. In that year a method
was invented by which it became easy to investigate with
some accuracy the ordinary fermentations of milk, by ob-
serving the numerical increase of its bacterial ferments and
studying their progressive effects. The same method led

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 47

also in other fields to the discovery and elaborate study of
the special ferments or germs of such diseases as typhoid
fever and diphtheria, and their behavior in milk, from which
it appeared that they might readily thrive in that fluid.
Further reflection and investigation along these lines have
shown that city milk is often in an advanced stage of de-
composition, and therefore very far removed from " normal"
milk.

It had long been known that bottle-fed babies in cities show
a much heavier mortality than those fed normally ; and in-
vestigations have shown that this is due, in part at least, to the
highly unsatisfactory condition of city milk supplies. Inves-
tigation has also shown that city milk is often not only
falsified but also stale and half decomposed, as well as filthy.

In consequence of these facts, which have been steadily
accumulating, and which, taken together, compel physicians
and sanitarians to look with the utmost suspicion on city
milk, the general public is rapidly becoming convinced that
milk is not only of very doubtful purity, — of this it was per-
suaded long ago, — but, what is far more grave, actually
dangerous to use as human food, — at least in its raw condi-
tion. Moreover, the fact that tuberculosis is the cause of
death of one in every seven and is known to be common
in cows, has naturally led many to suppose that numerous
cases of this disease have arisen from the consumption of raw
milk. Pus, also, is said to be often found in milk.

Importance to Producers of the Good Reputation of
Milk from a Sanitary Stand-point.

I need not dwell on this aspect of the subject. Milk is too
valuable a product of Massachusetts farms to pass under a
cloud without serious damage to the whole community and,
above all, to the farmer. In my opinion, the sale and use
of milk as a food will soon be very seriously impaired — and
indeed ought to be — unless active steps are taken to free it
from the dark cloud of suspicion which now hangs over it.
If there is believed to be death in the pot, who will care for
the pottage?

So serious is this matter, in the minds of sanitarians, that
the Massachusetts Association of Boards of Health is seriously

48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

considering the recommendation to the boards of health of
Massachusetts of their adoption of a set of rules looking to-
wards the sanitary improvement of the public milk supplies
of the cities under their charge. I believe that nothing rash
will "be done, but I sincerely hope that the way will be pointed
out for a great reform in our milk supplies, similar to that
which, under the able and wise guidance of our State Board
of Health, has been effected in the public water supplies of
the State. Happy shall we be if Massachusetts will here
once more, as so often before, set an honorable example for
the whole nation to follow.

Thorough Understanding or the Problem the First
Condition of its Solution.

The milk supply problem, from the sanitary stand-point,
is by no means simple. Three great factors, at least, are
involved in it, and each has special duties to perform if the
problem is to be solved in the best way. These are the pro-
ducers, the middlemen and the consumers. But, in order to
understand the whole situation, let us examine it in detail and
in its evolution or origin.

Normal Milk. — The primitive, original and fundamental
form of milk supply is that in which the mammal — cow,
camel, elephant, goat, sheep or man — suckles its young.
In this case the milk supplied by the parent passes almost
instantaneously from the milk gland into the stomach of the
young, — without lapse of time ; without exposure to air or
vessels ; without human handling, manipulation or falsifica-
tion, — precisely as nature has prepared it. The only possi-
bility of fault to be found with it from the sanitary stand-point
is the possibility of damage from the parent, in case that
parent is unhealthy or ill fed. If the parent is healthy and
well fed such milk deserves the name of normal milk.

Normal cow's milk, then, may be defined as milk as it
flows from the udder of a healthy and well-cared-for cow.

Domestic or Country MiTk. — Next in complexity comes
the private or domestic supply, in which a family obtains its
milk from its own cow or c'ows. This is the system which
prevails on ordinary farms and in small villages, and survives
sometimes as a coveted luxury of the wealthy even in large

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 49

cities. In this case the milk is no longer strictly normal.
Between the producer (the cow) and the consumer (the indi-
vidual who swallows the milk) have come in one or more
middlemen, — the milker, the housewife, the housemaid, it
may be. Moreover, the milk has been more or less exposed
to air, possibly dust-laden and always carrying microscopic
germs of fermentation; to vessels — pails, pans, strainers —
often richly seeded with similar microscopic organisms ; and
time has elapsed, longer or shorter, so that these organisms
have, slightly or extensively, as the case may be, caused the
milk to ' ' work " or ferment. This in itself marks a departure,
often trifling but always real, from the absolutely normal
milk supply, such as calves and infants naturally enjoy.
The sources of danger here are much increased, for it is no
longer merely the question of a healthy, well-fed parent as
producer ; we have also to consider now a possible contami-
nation by the milker, the housewife or other "middleman"
before the milk enters the stomach of the consumer, and also
those natural alterations which it undergoes after being seeded
with the germs of fermentation during the time which elapses
between its exit from the teat of the cow and its entrance into
the mouth of the real consumer. In well-regulated families,
however, the risk of damage so resulting is from a sanitary
point of view comparatively slight, and they are fortunate
who may enjoy the privilege of possessing a milk supply of
this simple primitive kind.

Not by any means the least important fact in this domestic
system of supply is the possibility of complete personal ac-
quaintance on the part of the consumer with the sources of
his supply, and a consequent control over them. This, as
we shall see, he almost unconditionally surrenders when he
becomes an ordinary dweller in a great city.

Village or Suburban Milk. — As men come to live in larger
villages and towns, some give up the keeping of cows and
buy of their neighbors who, in order to supply them, keep
more cows. The personal acquaintance of the consumer with
the exact sources of his supply diminishes, and his personal
control is relaxed somewhat ; but he still keeps up a general
knowledge and supervision, and may, if he chooses, know
and do more at any time. But, as the neighbor who s,\\\>-

50 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

plies him keeps more cows and more men and more cans,
and needs more time to distribute his milk, each source of
possible damage to the milk is multiplied, and the departure
from normal milk is necessarily constantly greater.

City {Railroad) Milk. — Finally, as the city grows bigger
and bigger the milk farms are pushed further and further
away, until a state of things is reached in which the farmer
can no longer deliver his milk to the consumer, even with
the aid of fleetest horses. The railroad is called in, the con-
tractor, or some similar middleman, appears, and the farmer
now becomes merely the producer. But the consumer cannot
send to the railroad for his milk, and so another carrier, with
special wagons adapted to the purpose, passes to and fro
between the railroad and the consumer. This person is
known to the consumer as his " milkman ; " but as a rule he
is a very different kind of person from the farmer, the original
type of milkman. In this final form of milk supply the pro-
ducer may have no idea whatever of the final destination of
his milk, and the consumer as a rule neither knows nor cares
whether the milk which he buys comes even from his own
State. The personal relation between consumer and pro-
ducer is totally lost, and the middleman comes to hold the
position of principal importance, as the only person in touch
with all. These circumstances and the very size of the sys-
tem tend to make it largely mechanical, and all connected
with it merely subordinate parts in a great machine which
for good or ill works on incessantly.

With the rapid growth of our cities and the development
of railroad facilities it is likely that something like the system
last described, and which now holds good only for the largest
cities, will come to exist to a greater or less extent even in
smaller cities, and it is well that we should watch these
tendencies, which alike concern farmers, middlemen and
consumers.

Sources or the Pollution, Staleness and Infection
(if any) of City (Railroad) Milk, and their Removal.

There are three principal faults attributed to city milk,
namely : —

1, Filth, — very often observed.

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 51

2. Staleness, — usually discoverable.

3. Infection, — occasionally indicated.

Filth in Milk. — This has often been observed and com-
mented on. A dark deposit in a glass of milk is not rare in
the city; the so-called "cowy" taste, which often plainly
signifies dung ; the evidence of the unsavory-looking and more
unsavory-smelling separator * ' slime ; " the testimony of the
microscope, showing hair, dandruff, hay, dust, etc. ; and the
appearance of the material held back on the coarser strainer
on the farm, — all testify to the now too well-known fact that
milk is often filthy. The analyses of Renk and others have
simply shown surprising amounts of such filth.

This filth does not belong in the milk. Healthy cows give
milk — not filth — from their teats. It comes simply from
filthy handling ; from the dust of the stable ; from the hide,
bag, tail and too-often " caked" flank of the cow ; from the
milker's hands, or clothing, or hat ; from unclean pails, or
strainers, or cans. It can be avoided, and must be, if milk
is to be above suspicion. Cows should receive better care,
should be groomed and cleaned as carefully as, or more than,
horses. The hands of the milker should be washed before
he milks, and the cow's bag should also be carefully cleaned
before milking begins. All cans, pails, strainers, etc., should
be thoroughly scalded and sterilized before they are used to
receive milk. For this filth the producer is mainly respon-
sible, and to him we must look for reform in this matter.
The middleman, however, who "tastes "the milk as it arrives
in the city, " mixes," " sets up " or otherwise manipulates the
milk, and finally returns the large cans dirty to the producer,
is also in part responsible. His cans also are often very
dirty, usually imperfectly cleaned and seldom if ever sterilized.
Staleness of Milk. — If milk could be drawn absolutely free
from filth it would "keep" a long time; but as this is at
present impossible, it must be transported to its destination as
soon as possible. Staleness, with decomposition, arises from
slow delivery of milk originally seeded with bacteria. Here
we must look to the middlemen to do their part in securing
quicker delivery and in returning to the producer sterilized
cans. The present practice of returning to the farmer un-
clean and often filthy cans is highly objectionable, and the

52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

system of milk "handling" after the milk reaches Boston
and before it reaches the consumer might be much improved.
I have commented at length on this subject elsewhere in
another paper.

Infection in Milk. — The source of infection in milk is be-
lieved to be mainly, first, in the cow herself; and, second, in
the men who handle the milk. It may be also in the water used
to rinse the cans ; but in my judgment this source of trouble,
while not to be neglected, is much less important. I am
often asked whether or not a cow which has drunk infected
water can give the infection, — for example, of typhoid fever.
The answer is that we have no evidence that she can do so.
In regard to tuberculosis, I will only say that it makes very
little difference, practically, whether or not the tuberculin
test is trustworthy. So long as the milk-buying public is
alarmed on the subject, it would seem to be simple common-
sense for every milk seller to be able to show that so far as
our knowledge goes there is no evidence of the disease in his
herd. It ought not to be forgotten that it is a poor plan in
business for the seller to ignore or treat as of small conse-
quence the wishes or even the peculiarities of his customers.
I repeat, therefore, because it is a matter of practical impor-
tance, that the infection is believed to proceed sometimes —
in the case of tuberculosis, for example — from the cow her-
self, and sometimes from the men who handle the milk.
An example of the latter class is typhoid fever. Here
there is no evidence that the disease can be communicated by
the cow ; but there is abundant evidence that persons having
typhoid fever, either in a severe or a mild form, may, and
sometimes do, infect milk if they " handle " it or work about
it. Many cases of this kind are now on record ; and for
improvements in this particular we must look to both the
producers and the middlemen. Whoever works over or
about milk, whether on the farm, or in the milk-house in
the city where the milk is " mixed" and " set up" or trans-
ferred to little cans, ought to be especially careful to observe
the utmost personal cleanliness, as well as to secure the
cleanness of all utensils employed.

No. 4 ] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 53

The Duty of the Consumer in the City.

Finally, I believe that the consumer has also something to
do in this reform movement. I believe that the present ordi-
nary price of milk is too low to allow clean, pure, safe or sani-
tary milk to be produced, transported and delivered with a
reasonable profit. I dislike the idea of one price for milk,
— good, bad and indifferent. How absurd it would be to
have only one price for all butter and all cheese and all
meat. True, we have only one price for water and for gas,
but then we have only one quality in these. I know of no
other food, so variable in quality as milk, which is sold at a
uniform price. I do not at present wish to see milk cheaper.
I wish first to see it better and if it is necessary, — as I
believe that it is, — actually dearer; because milk that is
filthy and stale and possibly diseased is dear at an}- price. I
am willing to declare, in season and out of season, to the con-
sumers of milk in cities, that ten cents a quart is as little as
good milk, pure milk, clean and sanitary milk, can be got
for at present ; and all except the very poor can, and I believe
will, gladly pay as much as this if they can feel sure that
what they get is pure and safe.

Conclusion.

The present state of the milk supply industry is very much
like that of surgery previous to 1870. At that time surgeons
did their work with no suspicion that they were not clean
enough and careful enough. And when, about 1870, Lister
showed that air, water and even their instruments teemed
with microscopic life, causing inestimable damage in their
operations, they were incredulous, if not scornful. To-day
every one knows that Lister was right, and that operations
then beyond the highest hopes of surgery are now done with
safety, simply by observing the rules of absolute cleanliness
and exclusion of germ life.

So it is to-day with milk supplies. Farmers and middle-
men (and often the consumers also) think that they are clean
and careful in their handling of cow's milk, when the truth
is their standard of cleanness and freshness and purity is

54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

far too low. Science has moved forward, and they have
lagged behind. But as surely as day follows night the newer
ideas of absolute personal cleanness, healthy and well-cared-
for cows, sterilized utensils and quick delivery in the city, are
bound to prevail. Fortunate will they be who shall seize the
opportunity to be at the front in this new movement.

The Chairman. In operations of modern surgery it is not
merely the operator and the instruments that are sterilized
and kept clean, but the patient himself. So now when you
come to the milk question, where the cow is the patient, the
cow herself must be sterilized and clean. Before throwing
this question open for discussion, I will ask Mr. Geo.
M. Whitaker, the assistant executive officer of the Dairy
Bureau, to make a few remarks.

Mr. Whitaker. Mr. President and gentlemen : I have
listened with great interest to Professor Sedgwick, and I am
glad the State Board has invited him to be here to-day. It
is a fortunate event when the professor, or men of his stand-
ing, can state their views directly to the farmers. We oc-
casionally see their ideas reported in the daily papers, but
one of the first places for such statements is face to face with
the farmers themselves.

As I listened to the professor one thought came emphati-
cally to mind : a point half-way between the summit of a hill
and the foot of it may be either " up" or " down," according
to the point of view. We may properly use such opposite
words as " up " or " down " in referring to the same place or
thing. In the few years during which it has been my fortune
to be particularly interested in the milk supply, to study it,
to appear before legislative committees for a good standard,
and to use pen and voice in behalf of the milk question, I
have come to the feeling that the quality of the milk supply
has advanced part way up the acclivity. At the same time I
can see how a man of Professor Sedgwick's attainments may
truthfully look at it as pretty well down. Although we
agree as to the facts, I allude to them with the word "up"
while he uses the word ' ' down." Among my reasons for pre-
ferring the word " up " are these : Professor Conn of Connec-
ticut, an expert in dairy bacteriology, says the Boston milk
supply is relatively the best of that of any city of its size in

No 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 55

the world. I also find, on comparing notes with people from
other States, that the Massachusetts milk supply, Massachu-
setts dairy laws and the enforcement of them stand well in
other States. Only a few months ago, while in Detroit, at
the National Convention of Dairy Commissioners, I took
some pains to investigate the Detroit milk supply. I found
that Massachusetts milk legislation and its enforcement stood
high there. Still further : the exigencies of the case are
such that the supply must be fairly good. Milk cannot be
transported seventy to one hundred miles and delivered to
customers when it is twenty-four to thirty-six hours old with-
out a fair amount of care ; it must have been cooled soon
after being drawn, carried in that condition to the cars, kept
in refrigerator cars en route, and then kept in cold storage
till delivered, to ensure its delivery in a satisfactory condi-
tion. Of course I admit that among four thousand to five
thousand producers there will be many degrees of cleanliness
and care, and that there is much opportunity for improvement.

The trouble with using the word "down" in relation to
the milk supply, as Professor Sedgwick does, is that it may
lead the public to draw unwarranted conclusions, especially
if the criticisms of city milk should get into the daily
papers and possibly be dressed up with sensational head lines.
The milk supply ought to be improved, and yet milk has
been for years a cheap, popular and in the main beneficial
article of food. We all want to have it better than it is, but
we may unduly injure the business by stating the case from
such a stand-point as to fill consumers with unwarranted
alarm by presenting to them the most repulsive side of milk
production as represented by the most filthy and careless
surroundings. There is hardly any food product that would
stand such a test, even the making of bread by some city
bakers could be described so as to be very repulsive.

I am glad that the matter comes up for discussion here
before the State Board of Agriculture, before the representa-
tives of the milk producers, because here is a very proper
place for the reform to begin.

The freshness of the supply has been alluded to. Now
here is something which we can agitate among the con-
sumers. Boston consumers have the idea that milk must
be delivered in the morning, and would resent an afternoon

56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

delivery. But if milk that arrives iu the city about ten
o'clock in the morning could be at once run through the
mixer b}^ the wholesalers, then taken by the pedlers and de-
livered to the consumers at two or three o'clock in the after-
noon nearly all consumers could get milk drawn from the
cow that morning. The fashion of a morning delivery adds
some fifteen hours to its age. Those who can get the con-
sumers' attention can do good work by educating public
sentiment in the city toward an afternoon delivery of milk.

The professor has alluded to another thing which we should
consider. He has mentioned the possibility of the boards of
health moving this winter for legislation looking to a more
careful supervision of the milk supply. I am on record as
favoring that. In a paper read before this Board in Daltou
I said: "There should be some system of inspection of
herds supplying cities with milk, which should take cogni-
zance not only of the health of the animals but of the cleanli-
ness of the stable, the amount of air and sunlight it receives,
and the care of the milk before leaving the farm. . . . This
inspection should go so far as to include the existence of
contagious diseases among those who have the handling of
milk and milk utensils." But I added : " There should be
nothing about such a law or its enforcement that would sub-
ject the farmers to any undue hardship or to annoyance from
any arbitrary martinet. It would be well if the agitation
should be commenced by the farmers themselves, not only
to show that they are Interested in the quality of the product
they sell, but to insure legislation in sympathy with them,
and to see that the enforcement of the law is in the hands of
their friends. Such legislation is sure to come, and if the
farmers are prominent in securing it, it may be more satis-
factory to them than if it is forced upon them."

Though the boards of health have now taken the initiative,
yet the farmers should be consulted. The legislation to be
asked should if possible be agreed upon in advance by the
health interests and the producing interests. The result may be
a measure a little less radical than some extremists would like,
but it will be an advance step, one which will be workable,
one which will meet with no serious opposition in the Legis-
lature, and one which \vill be followed by no adverse reaction.

No 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 57

The Chairmax. The subject is, "Milk supply and the
public health." It is open for discussion, and I hope you
will improve this o])portunity to ask questions of Professor
Sedgwick.

Mr. Bliss. I would like to ask the professor two ques-
tions : The first is, Can the disease that we know as "garget "
be communicated from one cow to another by the hand of the
milker? The second question is. Can the impurities that
may get into the milk in the stable all be removed from the
milk by passing through a separator? I have always told
my boys and the hired man that they were to keep the dirt
out of the milk, then it would be pure and clean ; but if they
got dirt into the milk, it would be impossible to make the
milk pure.

Professor Sedgwick. I am glad to answer these questions
as well as I can. The statement I made was that a State vet-
erinarian and pathologist had found a pus epidemic affecting
seventy cows, which was attributed to the passing of the germs
through the hands of the milker from cow to cow. It is the
only case I know of on record, and I only give it as their
opinion. It seems to me entirely natural that it should be
so. If a man milked a cow that was suffering from some
disease and did not wash his hands before going to the next
cow, he might get some of the germs on the mouth of the
duct, and infect that cow. That is the only case I happen to
be familiar with.

In regard to the other question, the gentleman is perfectly
right. Some kinds of filth can be taken out by a separator,
and enough is taken out to make the separator slime, but it
is not all taken out. There are still left in the milk some-
times considerable numbers of bacteria, and of course any
dissolved material having the right specific gravity would not
necessarily be taken out.

Mr. N. B. Douglass (of Sherborn). I believe the pro-
fessor is correct. I believe garget can be conveyed by the
milker. I had an experience in my herd that such was the
case. The first I knew, one of my milkers was having trouble
with his cows. The disease began with one cow and had
been conveyed by him to the other cows. I dispensed with
his services at once, and got rid of the disease. I would

58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

like to know whether garget might be produced by giving
too much corn meal to a cow.

Professor Sedgwick. I am not a veterinarian. I do not
know. I shall have to refer you to some one familiar with
the subject.

Dr. LiNDSEY. I am not a veterinarian, but perhaps I can
make a suggestion. I think an inflammation of the milk
glands which sometimes is called "garget," might be brought
about by feeding. Sometimes garget is caused by bacteria,
which has been definitely proved and identified.

Mr. C. D. Sage (of North Brookfield). I would like to
ask if there is any reason why milk cannot be delivered as
fresh in Boston as in New York. It reaches New York some-
where about midnight, and is taken at once directly to the con-
sumers' houses. Is there anything to prevent milk coming
into Boston being delivered in the same way? I have dis-
cussed this matter with the contractors. I formerly shipped
milk to New York, and I never have seen any reason why it
cannot be handled as promptly in Boston as in New York.

Professor Sedgwick. I never could see any reason, either.
I was very much surprised to find that we had an inferior
system.

I was very much interested in Mr. Whitaker's remarks,
which seem to embody a great deal of sound sense. I do
not see any reason wh}'^ our milk cannot be delivered as
it is in New York, except that we are accustomed to the
other method. It is a very hard thing to overcome. A
change would mean practically a complete revolution of the
present system. We do not realize what a serious thing it
would be. I think a contractor told me it could be done if it
seemed worth while. Mr. Whitaker is right about an after-
noon delivery of milk. Some think if milk is delivered at
an unearthly hour in the morning it is fresh. The milk
arriving in Boston in the morning could be just as well
delivered at three or four o'clock in the afternoon, and
then the householder could keep it until the next morning.
The milk would be actually much fresher ; but I suppose if
milk wagons M^ent around in the middle of the afternoon, the
ladies would rise in arms. I was very much surprised to
find how peculiar our Boston system is. From an economic

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 59

financial point of view it is reduced to a fine point. The
covered wagon witli a place for the plugs under the milk-
man's feet is peculiar to Boston. One man and one horse de-
liver far more milk than in any other city on the face of the
globe. The thing is beautifully systematized from a finan-
cial stand-point. There has not been any intentional neglect
of sanitary precautions. In fact, the utmost care is taken to
prevent the souring of milk. The amount of acid in the
milk is very low indeed when it arrives in the city.

I see no reason why the New York system could not be
adopted here, except that we have a system that it is very
hard to change, precisely as it has been very hard in New
York City to get rid of horse cars, — not that New York is
necessarily less progressive, but there is a lot of capital in-
vested in the horse cars. In a town where a new road is
being put in, they use the latest plans because it is the
simplest thing to do. These eight and one-half quart cans
would have to be changed, — at least it would be convenient
to change them, if we were going to adopt the New York sys-
tem. I think in time it may come about. I do see the hope
for a great deal of cleaning up.

In regard to what Mr. Whitaker said, I want to second
his ideas. It is not that the consumer wishes to make trouble
for the producer. The much-abused middleman will find it
to his interest to co-operate with both consumer and pro-
ducer. I can say, although I am not here as a delegate, that
the boards of health would welcome any co-operation on the
part of the Milk Producers' Union, or any body of farmers,
or the Board of Agriculture, or anything of that kind. We
are all working to a common end, which is the perfection of
the system so that the consumer shall get good milk and the
producer shall receive fair pay for his pains and trouble. I
believe in co-operation rather than standing off and calling
one another names. I am delighted to face an audience
like this. The farmer sometimes comes to the city and is
interested in the milk he gets when he visits his friends.

Hon. T. S. Gold (Secretary Connecticut State Board of
Agriculture). I would like to ask when this milk that is de-
livered in Boston to-morrow morning is milked on the farm.
In New York the milk delivered to-morrow morning was

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

milked last night and this morning. Do you take a longer
time than that to get your milk supply to Boston?

Professor Sedgwick. That is true of some of the New
York milk. Some is a great deal older. I was assured by
Inspector Martin of the Board of Health in New York, a very
able man, that a great deal of the milk that gets to New York
at midnight is night's milk and this morning's milk. I do
not know what per cent. Obviously not nearly the whole
of it. But the Boston milk delivered at the same time
to-morrow morning arrived in Boston this mornino; at ten
o'clock, and some of it was this morning's milk, some last
night's milk and some of it still older. Mr. Whitaker will
correct me if I am wrong.

Mr. Whitaker. I would like to ask one question which
perhaps is not exactly in Professor Sedgwick's line. Would
not an afternoon delivery in daylight tend to throw daylight
on some of the methods that are not now in sight ? If the
milk was delivered by daylight instead of by night, the
chances for the hired man to adulterate it would be less.

Professor Sedgwick. I think the question is answered in
itself. The contractors' reply would be that it is essential
to the present system that the work should be done in the
night, because if the man who goes with the wagon were to
suffer any interruptions, if he were to stop and talk with the
servant girls, or some one in another wagon (not a milk
wagon, for there is supposed to be no other), he would not
be able to deliver the milk, and I suppose their profits would
fall off and the price of milk would rise. Grave consequences,
according to this contractor, would follow. I think it would
be a good plan, but it would look a little queer to see wagons
going around in the middle of the afternoon, and we should
have to get used to it. The milk I buy comes to the house
about eleven o'clock in the morning, but I would just as soon
it would come at three or four in the afternoon.

Secretary Sessions. There was an effort made a few years
ago to require the contractors to clean the cans before send-
ing them to the farmers. I remember at the hearing the plea
of the contractors was that it would be a great trouble to
them, that it would disarrange their business and require them
to keep another man, and the final result would be that they
would have to reduce the price they paid the farmers at least

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 61

one cent per can. My recollection is that they made so much
of an impression on the farmers in the Legislature that they
submitted to the laying aside of that bill, and nothing ever
came of it. Those of you who are familiar with the trans-
portation of cans and the condition in which they are sent
out from Boston for the farmers to fill, know that in many
cases they go out in a terrible condition. That does not
fairly express it. The men who buy the milk and retail it,
particularly the grocery trade, use these cans as a receptacle
for all sorts of waste and filth about the store. Rotten eggs,
dead cats and anything they want to dispose of are thrown
into these cans, and the cans are sent back to the farmers
without cleansing, for their wives to clean. This bill was to
compel by law the contractors to send clean cans, and I
believe they could do it at so slight an expense that it would
not make one bit of difference in the amount they would pay
the producers.

Professor Sedgwick. I am pleased to have that point
brought out. I have never been able to see why the contrac-
tor should not wash the cans. He says it injures the life of
the can. That does not seem reason enough. To show that
it is not a great expense, I want to mention the Springfield
Association. Any man from Springfield can tell you that this
association, acting as their own " middleman," receives milk
from a large number of farms, and wash their cans, steam-
ing them thoroughly, at a very trifling expense. I have
seen the wash-room, which is quite a small room. It has
always seemed to me that the Springfield Association has one
of the best arrangements for the care and delivery of milk
that I have seen anywhere in the State. They had a case of
typhoid fever, and I was called upon to investigate it. It
proved to be a man who got milk from the association. The
association people threw open their books to our inspection,
and did everything they could to hunt the thing down. We
found it came from a certain place, and that dairy was cut
off", and confidence was restored at once in the whole milk sup-
ply. I have always stood up for that association, although
I know them very slightly. I know that they wash their
cans, which shows that when a number of farmers combine
they do not find it difficult to wash the cans. Cans that had
been washed might, on account of dust, need rinsing in the

62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

usual way by the producer. The moral effect of unwashed
cans is bad on the producer's family. They see them coming
back from the city, and they must infer that that is what the
city people like, and see no reason why they should take any
great pains to clean up.

Secretary Sessions. In reference to the Springfield Asso-
ciation, my home is near by (the farm being carried on by
my son) , and the effect of their sending out clean cans has
been that most of the men who buy milk from the farmers
to peddle now return clean cans to the producers. They are
obliged to do it, to compete with the association. There is
no extra charge. The cans that come to my son's farm are
all clean. There is nothing to do but air them and fill them.

Mr. Walton Hall (of Marshfield) . I move that the sec-
retary be instructed to introduce a bill into the Legislature
requiring contractors to send clean cans to their patrons ;
that the Dairy Bureau be instructed to introduce a bill re-
quiring a sanitary inspection of stables of milk producers in
the State of Massachusetts. I can almost imasfine that Pro-
fessor Sedgwick has worked on some of the farms I know.

The motion was put and carried.

Professor Sedgwick. He has worked on farms, but not
the ones you know. He was brought up on a farm. It may
turn out that it is not necessary to secure this particular legis-
lation. It may turn out that the boards of health have already
sufficient power to do that. If so, it would probably save
some trouble. I should hope, if possible, that some addition
to this motion might be made looking toward fraternal co-
operation with boards of health.

Dr. LiNDSEY. We have a great deal of sympathy for the
farmer who is supplying milk to the Boston market. That
is where a large proportion of our milk goes. I know that
he is obliged to produce it for two and one-fourth or two and
one-half cents per quart. I know from personal experience
how small the margin of profit is. I have always realized,
on the other hand, that efforts are being made from time to
time by local boards of health to improve the quality of the
milk, and I believe that matter has got to be agitated more
and more. The contractor should make an effort, if possible,
to pay rather more for milk that he feels reasonably sure is
well produced and well cared for before it leaves the farmers'

No. 4.] MILK SUPPLY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. 63

hands. Farmers cannot all build new barns or plaster the
old ones. They have not the money to do it. But I think
they can take the old barns and improve the floor a little,
put in windows regulated to open from the inside to let in
fresh air ; they can sweep the barn thoroughly, and take a
five per cent solution of carbolic acid and spray all around
where the cattle stand, and fumigate the barn with sulphur;
then they will have a clean barn. I did it within two years
in an old barn that had been built for a great many years.
I purchased a sprayer for a few dollars, and a gallon of crude
carbolic acid which cost about seventy cents ; 1 reduced it to
make a five per cent solution, and sprayed all around the
platform and the place where the cattle fed ; then I shut the
barn up tight, and burned five or six pounds of sulphur in it,
you could not see a foot within the barn. When I was
through, the barn smelled very clean, and I feel reasonably
sure that it is in good sanitary condition. I purchased a
syringe for two dollars, and a little tuberculin, and I in-
jected all the cows with tuberculin. I believe almost every
farmer in this hall can do the same thing. I do not think it
is necessary to pay a veterinarian two dollars a case. I be-
lieve if the farmer has an ounce of common sense and a little
skill he can do that. I believe he can practically eradicate
the disease or keep it under control, and keep his barn clean
at a minimum expense. I believe if he has any interest in
taking care of his cows, he can, if he does not wish to do the
work himself, personally supervise it ; he can have the cows
kept clean ; he can have the milkers wash their hands, and
put on a cheap suit which costs seventy-five cents. If the
contractors could in any way, shape or manner give such
a man a fraction of a cent more per quart than he now gets,
I believe it would be a long step forward in the right direction.
Mr. Bliss. We have heard a good deal about three parties
in this business, — the producer, the middleman and the con-
sumer. We have not heard very much about the milk in-
spector. If my observation is right, the milk inspector is
very much alive in a good many of our cities. We hear ac-
counts of milkmen being prosecuted, usually because w^ater
is found in the milk. I do not remember a case where an
inspector found anything else. I never heard of a little water
hurting any one, but I am not in favor of putting it into milk.

64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

It seems to me this officer might go still further, and inspect
the milk for impurities and also examine the cans. It seems
to me the inspector should go very much further than simply
look for water in the milk. If a farmer loses two or three
hundred hens, an officer at once starts for the hen thief, evi-
dently to interview him and see if there are any feathers on
him. I believe there is a better way of setting in motion a
system of detection, and I believe if our officers would look
after the milk a little further, it would materially improve
the quality of our milk.

Adjourned at 3.50 p.m.

Evening Session.
In the evening Hon. William E. Simonds of Hartford,
Conn., delivered a most interesting and instructive lecture
on "The triumphs of invention." The lecturer considered
the four great inventions and discoveries, — spinning and
weaving, printing, steam engine and electricity. A hun-
dred or more stereopticon views beautifully illustrated what
the speaker said. By agreement the lecture is withheld
from publication.

SECOND DAY.

The meeting was called together at 10.15 a.m. by Secre-
tary Sessions, who said: The vice-president has requested
me to announce that Mr. J. L. Ellsworth of Worcester
will preside this morning.

The Chairman. Ladies and gentlemen : The subject
for this morning is " Market gardening with limited capital,'
and it gives me pleasure to introduce to you Mr, H. W.
CoLLiNGwooD, editor of the "Rural New Yorker."

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. Farmers of Massachusetts : I do not
know just how you conduct your meetings over here in the
old Bay State. Where I live, in New Jersey, which I
believe has not yet been admitted to the Union, we have a
free and easy, off-hand way, and if the speaker makes a
statement we do not believe, we make hash of him.

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 65

Market Gardening with LiImited Capital.

BY H. W. COLLINGWOOD, HACKENSACK, N. J.

A plain story of a small enterprise. That is what I hope
to tell you this morning. The enterprise is small, because
it is not yet past the growing stage ; the story is plain,
because sad experience has planed off some of the theories
that might have led to a " big story." I have felt for some
time that those of us who pretend to be in any sense agri-
cultural teachers are failing to make our meetings as
valuable as we might, by shooting too high, and forgetting
that ninety per cent of our farmers are still in the primer
class as far as scientific improvement is concerned. I want
to get to close quarters and use fine bird shot. It may not
bore a hole through any of you, but it may sting up a dis-
cussion. I have no big stories to tell. I cannot figure out
any enormous profits, because I cannot put into cold figures
the fun, the happiness and the health our family has dug out
of the soil. My little place is only a converted sand heap
of twenty acres, — a little bit shaky in the faith still, but
growing stronger all the time by the grace of crimson clover
and cow-peas. Our little corner of the earth gives us a
home and health, and I take it that is all any man ever gets
out of the soil. A rich man in New York once gave a great
dinner costing twenty-five dollars a plate. The very earth
was scoured to produce rich and varied food for the guests.
In the midst of that splendor, he who gave the feast sat at
the head of the table eating — a bowl of bread and milk.
That was all he dared put into his stomach. He would have
paid five hundred dollars a drop for the water that comes
into our mouths, or one hundred dollars a smack for the
way our lips come together, when, tired as a dog, we come
near a plate of baked beans. Others may tell what can be
done by those who can control large blocks of capital, and

66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

who are blessed with the ability to handle capital or labor to
advantage. I want to talk to the young man of small means,
who fears that he cannot compete with gardeners whose
operations run up into the thousands. And here let me say
that we do not envy you men who count your glass by the
acre, your onions by the million and your cabbage heads by
the regiment. On the whole, we feel sorry for you, that
you do not have the fun of substituting brains for horse
manure in building up your soil.

First let me say that I am an old Massachusetts boy. I
was born in Plymouth, and I have carried with me all over
the country a great respect for the hard and sterile soil that
raised a solid crop of men. In my ball-playing days I could
stand in my father's old garden and hit the Pilgrim Monu-
ment with two throws of a stone. My belief is that the old
garden has produced over two hundred crops of corn, pota-
toes and beans. The greater part of these crops has been
produced, I think, not from the manure that has been applied,
but from the soil itself. This must be true at least of the
potash, for manure and fish have added but little of that sub-
stance. That garden has been dug and raked and dug again
at least one thousand times, with implements varying from
the Indian's clam shell to perhaps the modern fulcrum spading
fork. The constant stirring and working of that soil has
made it give up its plant food. In my opinion, that is what
nature ground the rocks into soil for, — so that it might give
itself away to the plant. It seems to me a mistake to say,
as we do, that we mxx&i feed the soil. That is a good way to
make the soil lazy. I would say, make the soil give away
the plant food it is holding like a miser. I have observed
that many good garden lands have been cast aside as worth-
less, under the mistaken idea that they are exhausted. That
is not true. Poor culture has simply made them tired.
Many of such lands are still strong, but they have been so
handled that their plant food is locked up. My belief is that
the place for the man with small capital but large sense is on
such lands, where the mistakes of others have obscured their
values.

But why cannot the man of moderate means compete side
by side with the gardener of large capital and experience? I

No. 4.] MAEKET GARDENING. 67

may illustrate my point by a bit of my own history. When
I was seven years old I went to live in the town of Easton,
about ten miles from where we are now. Young as I was, I
learned a lesson in social and industrial economy that I can
never forget. Farming in those days just managed to hold
body and soul together by snapping a string now and then.
We lived on a little rocky place of three acres, with one
horse, a cow and possibly thirty stupid hens. We scratched
and hoed among the rocks in summer and cut the briers in
the graveyard for hay. Thirty years ago, if at this season
of the year we had a bin full of potatoes (Jackson AVhite) and
turnips, two barrels of apples and a barrel of cider, a bushel
of beans, a quintal of salt fish and a few sticks of " Taunton
turkeys," we were happy and care-free.

How, then, were taxes and grocery bills paid, and how did
the old gentleman save up money to send out west to build
towns or railroads? In other words, what was our money
crop ? It was labor !

We sold our fingers and our brains into servitude to the
shoemaker. Once a week they brought to the farm a case
of uppers and a case of soles. We pegged them together
with wooden pegs, and they took them away for sale. That
is all over now, but to-day one of the most melancholy objects
on the New England farm to me is the little weather-beaten
shoe shop, which was formerly the block house from w^hich
they fought the wolf from the door. I can well remember
the time when our shoe business came to an end. It came
just as hundreds of other small individual enterprises have
been wiped out. It was a machine, — there is always some
combination force of steel and wooden fingers that comes close
to putting mind into the brute force of a water fiill or a steam
engine, — a machine did that work faster and better than we
could. I will admit that it made a cheaper and better shoe
than we could with our wooden pegs. The world was better
off for the change. I am not disposed to deny that, but did
not the world also lose something that it needed when those
old-time farmers lost their individuality, and when those
little shoe shops were nailed up or turned into hen roosts ?
I think so, and from that day to this it has hurt me to the
heart whenever great industrial chano-es have driven the small

68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

farmer and gardener away from the old business that enabled
him to maintain the individuality of his own home. That is
why I come to-day to argue for the poor man as a gardener.

Now, what did these farmers do when their work was taken
away from them ? A few tried gardening, and failed because
they half starved their plants. This part of New England
was not a stock country, and these men believed in the old
orthodox doctrine that somehow nature has given special
privileges and miraculous qualities to nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid when in the form of stable manure. I spent
many a day when a little boy with wheelbarrow and shingle
picking up the manure which extravagant horses had dropped
on the public highway. We practised homoeopathic manur-
ing, and grew only the extract of the crop. An old darkey
in the south was tried for stealing a hog. The case against
him was clear, and his lawyer told him to stand up and throw
himself upon the mercy of the court. He forgot the word
and said, " I frows myself on de ignorance of dis court." In
like manner these farmers threw themselves upon the ignor-
ance of their tomatoes and cabbage, by assuming that these
plants didn't know enough to need plant food.

The American soil culture for the past fifty years has been
a succession of just such losses of products and hunts for
substitutes. At one time New England was the greatest
corn-producing section of the country ; but one by one great
industrial changes have swept over the country, and washed
away the ties that once held the individual small farmer to
his few home acres. The opening of the Erie canal took
New England people away from home, and set them to grow-
ing food which they sent back to compete with those who
remained at home. The great development of the trunk
lines of railroad, the war, the national homestead law, — all
these and dozens of others have changed society and indus-
trial development.

In the constant shuffle and jump for new positions that all
this has caused, it is no wonder that many of the duller ones
have given up and prefer to stand still rather than to whirl
with the tide. We sometimes wonder why "the average
farmer" is so slow to absorb what we attempt to feed him.
The trouble is that we have tried to feed him too much at a

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 69

time. We have tried to jump too fast, and he stands dazed
and discouraged at the rush of scientific research that is going
on about him.

Back in the days when the shoemaking business left us we
were told by learned men — most of whom had seeds or
plants or fertilizers to sell — that the east would be better oft*
for the change, because it would be the garden spot of the
world. Where I live, in New Jersey, that prophecy has
nearly come true ; yet it is a grave question as to whether
the small freeholder or farmer has profited by it. Where I
live, the market gardening business has been highly devel-
oped. One of my neighbors sells thousands of dollars' worth
of strawberries at Christmas. Others are forcing cucumbers,
tomatoes and asparagus, so that they will soon fairly com-
pete with you. I think most of them, one year with another,
make money ; but they make it largely at the expense of
those small farmers who have neither the skill nor the capital
to compete with them.

Just as our old shoe business was taken from us thirty
years ago, certain features of the market garden business
have been taken away from the small American freeholder
forever. Our little shoe shop went down before the mighty
factory in Lynn. Why? Because one engine in the base-
ment of that factory generated more power than one thou-
sand of our human arms could produce at hammering wooden
pegs. The little hand-hoed potato patch has been whipped
by the potato planter and digger, and, except in the most
favorable locations, the small greenhouse has been roasted
out by the acres of glass which you large gardeners have
acquired.

I have no doul)t that you will truly say that this concen-
tration of glass and heat is destiny, true and well-advised ;
I have no doubt that it has been a good thing for the world.
No one can deny that this change has made what was once a
luxury used only by the rich a regular article of food, even
for the poor. It is a fact that Americans consume only 3.7
bushels of wheat per capita, while the English eat nearly 6
bushels and the French nearer 8. If we were to eat as much
bread as the English do, we would have practically no wheat
left for export. That we do not eat more wheat is largely

70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

due to the fact that modern hardening; has made fruits and
vegetables so abundant and cheap that they have taken the
place of other foods. It is this concentration of force by the
corporations in market gardening that have made these things
possible. True, the world is better for them ; yet, as I said
of the old shoe lousiness, the world has lost much in inde-
pendence and I may say in character, in the wiping out of
the old business of the small freeholder. It would be better
if the American could have followed the trade to the large
garden as the old shoemakers followed their trade to the
factory. In our State he has not done so. Your average
American, at least the Jersey Dutchman, wants to stand up
straight at his work. His ancestors came to this country in
order to enjoy that privilege. Men from the other side,
whose people have been for generations on their knees, in
the dirt, not to say their prayers but to pick the tares from
among onions and lettuce, have left the American workman
standing idly upon his feet.

Another thing that crippled many of our American free-
holders is the belief that certain fruits and vegetables cannot
be grown successfully without the aid of stable manure. The
result of all this with us has been to produce a class of men
who are neither lish nor fowl. The counties back among the
hills beat them in milk production ; the west beats them at
growing corn, wheat, rye and hay; and the market gardens
of Jersey City beat them to death on what is usually called
garden truck. What are these men to do ? That is the ques-
tion of the hour, and to my mind it is of far more importance
to the agriculture of this country than any effort to still fur-
ther concentrate the business of market gardening. The
trouble is that most of the discoveries and possibilities which
agricultural scientists have dug out hav^e gone to help the few
who have been able to organize capital and labor. In other
words, science has been of more benefit to the corporation
than it has been to the individual.

The best and only answer that I can give to this question
is to tell you something of my own plan, and how it has been
worked out. I want to tell you just enough of my personal
aftairs to form a hook upon which you can hang discussion.
I have often wondered what my wife could do to support and

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 71

educate the children in case I should be taken away. It may
be well enough to carry a life insurance policy. I do that,
and I call it a good investment. But experience and hard
knocking against the world have taught me to believe that a
trade or profession or useful work of some pleasant sort is
one of the best things a woman can inherit. My conviction
is that if I can leave my wife on a little place back from the
town, with a knowledge of fruit and vegetable growing, she
will be far better able to make a good woman and a sound
man out of the baby and the boy tiian she would cooped up
in any town at teaching school or dressmaking. We just
made up our minds to go back to the land for the best part
of life. And it so happened that at about this time there
came into my family a young man of no special training in
any line, simply a big, strong fellow, with a good mind and
a love for country life. Twenty miles out of New York we
found a little place that for the past twentj^ years has been
sucked by tenant after tenant. There was not a piece of sod
on the place as large as my hand except along the old fence
rows. I will say that the first thing we did was to pull up
every inside fence and haul them to the wood pile for fuel.
Most of this land was so poor that little besides mullein would
grow on it. The soil, like that of many of your hill farms,
was originally a warm loam of fair quality, but there was
nothing which was available, at least so the tenants said,
except weed seed. We picked out this farm for a market
garden and a home, to the disgust and amusement of every
practical farmer in the neighborhood. I think we were set
down as lunatics, when I further said that I had taken a
solemn oath never to buy an ounce of stable manure. As a
matter of fiict, we break most of the rules of market garden-
ing ; l)ut my lielief is that every rule, except the Golden
Rule, was made to be broken, just as soon as the truth got
into it and has a chance to expand.

Gardeners in our country seem to consider the following
principles as fixed as the north 8tar : First, stable manure is
an absolute necessity, — there is nothing that can touch it in
efl'ectiveness. Second, soil is only a plate out of which the
plant must eat its stable manure. " Don't let the soil, itself,
be touched," say our market-gardening friends; "it is too

72 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

valuable, — you might hurt it if you made it give up any of its
plant food." Third, one must have a good area under glass
to provide a winter market, and one must be reasonably close
to the city. Now, all I have to say is, that it takes more
money than I have been able to hoard, and more labor than
I care to board, to run a garden on the rules laid down by
some of your expert gardeners. The book farmers and the
scientific men tell me that in every acre, one foot deep, of
that sandy farm, there are seven thousand pounds of nitrogen,
four thousand pounds of phosphoric acid and seventy-six
hundred pounds of potash. They also tell me that in the air
above each acre there are so many tons of nitrogen, worth over
three thousand dollars a ton. As I am not a scientist, I do
not find it convenient to dispute these statements ; and I
must say that the more I work upon that soil and that air,
the more I am inclined to think they underestimate the
amount. I saw no reason then, and I see less now, why this
immense store of plant food should not be utilized. We have
worked on the farm with that end in view. I know that some
of our scientific men tell us that, while we may grow crops
of wheat or grain in that way, we cannot produce profitable
market-gardening crops in the same manner. All I ask is
the chance to be permitted to differ with them.

Our plan as been to produce crops that compete least with
the large market gardens. With us, such crops are straw-
berries, sweet corn, Lima beans, potatoes, squash, tomatoes
and small fruits. We try to work the land so as to make it
as nearly self-supporting as possible. We have bought what
seems to us the best combination of tools with which two
men and one team can do the greatest amount of work. In
winter we study to keep the stock which will give the greatest
return for the labor of our two men. We did not buy stable
manure at first, because we had only a limited amount of
money, and preferred to invest it in tillage tools and fertili-
zers. Our first crop was a light one, but it was all grown
with fertilizers. Our soil is light and free from stones, and
therefore our tools are mostly of the harrow or cultivator
type. We plough but little, most of our work being done
with the new style Cutaway harrow. We like to dig and kick
the ground over, rather than to turn it completely over with

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 73

the plough. My observation has been that heavy dressings
of both manure and chemicals tend to carelessness in properly
fitting the ground. With the plough, the object seems to be
to turn the whole thing over, and bury trash, manure, weeds
and everything else out of sight. The harrow is then used
on the upper few inches, and then the seed bed is supposed
to be ready. I have always believed that one reason why
stable manure gives such excellent results is the fact that it
is alkaline, and thus reduced the sourness in the soil ; for I
am convinced that sour soils are about as prevalent as sour
tempers. We have noticed that something of this same result
is obtained by constant and thorough stirring of the soil so
that the air and sunshine may work all through it. As I
have said, we prefer the Cutaway to the plough on my soil,
because it stirs and kicks the earth instead of turninof it over
solid. With the time spent in ploughing an acre I can work
it over three times with the Cutaway, and I believe it pays
to work our soil over at least six times before putting seed
into it. My wife can drive the Cutaway or Iron Age two-
horse cultivator as well as any man, and she likes to do it,
because she thus sets the men free to work at other hand-
work.

Most of you have doubtless heard of the wonderful results
obtained by Edison in taking iron ore from the mountains
of New Jersey. Edison did not go to the rich iron deposits
far away from the seaboard. He knew that there was iron
in those Jersey hills. Others knew it also, but they passed
it by because they said the metal was so fine and so widely
scattered that it would not pay to try and mine it. Edison
knew it was there, and he set himself to work to devise some
scheme for gathering it. For years he has been quietly at
work back among the hills. The result is that he has revolu-
tionized the iron industry of the world. Great masses of the
rock are blown away from the mountain and crushed into
powder almost by their own force in falling. The crushed
rock falls past huge magnets, and on these magnets the par-
ticles of iron are safely gathered, where they can be removed,
melted into blocks and shipped to the seaboard. In one
way, we try to do on our little farm what Edison attempts to
do amid the rocks. The plant food is there in the sand.

74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

We try to crush and grind the soil, and then, l)}^ the aid of
crimson clover and cow-peas, to attract this plant food just
as Edison's magnets are attracting the iron.

We started with the poorest field on the farm as a manure
factory. Some people for whom I have the highest respect
seem to think that stal)le manure must be made in a stable in
the old-time way of feeding expensive timothy hay and oats
to a horse, and bedding him with rye straw. I know people
wdio in 1892 believed that they could not live without eating
porterhouse roast beef. Economy has forced them to it.
They find that they can eat a pot-roast or a shin bone, and
still retain their standing in church and State. In my
travels in Delaware I have seen the cow-pea and crimson
clover manufacturing manure faster than a whole regiment of
horses. We took a four-acre field, too poor to grow healthy
weeds, and worked it thoroughly with the Cutaway. We
then broadcasted sixteen hundred pounds of basic slag and
five hundred pounds of kainite, and sowed four and one-half
bushels of early black cow-peas. The result was an immense
growth of vine, w'-hich was cut August 15. A second growth
at once started from the roots, and this grew steadily until
frost. In the mean time we scattered crimson clover seed
over the field, and this finally started, and will grow during
the winter. The cow-pea vines may be fed to stock by
those who care to do so, or they may be used directly as
manure, or used in mulching strawberries. We can rent
cheap land and grow this crop at very light expense for very
much less than we can obtain stable manure. On poor land
it is by all odds the greatest manurial plant we can grow. I
shall, however, next year make an experiment with the
velvet bean, of which glorious things are spoken by southern
farmers. The scientific men tell us that the cow-peas and
clover will grow if fertilized with potash and phosphoric
acid alone, and that they will steal abundant nitrogen out of
the air. I have found that to be true to a certain extent,
and yet a little nitrogen added to the potash and phosphoric
acid will make a greater growth of vine every time. It is a
satisfaction to me to realize that every square inch of our
little sand heap, except that occupied by the small fruits, is
covered with a living crop of green. It was all criuison

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 75

clover, but part of the seeding failed to satisfy us, and we
broke it up and sowed rye. Another manure factory on the
farm is a four-acre swamp, which I will venture to say has
not paid for its taxes in the past ten years. We regard that
swamp as a bank. We believe that all the neighbors on
higher ground have been chipping in each year a little bit of
their fertility, which has run down hill and gathered for us
in that swamp. One of the neighbors said that he hauled
several loads of muck out of the swamp one spring and put
it directly upon the corn field, and nearly killed his corn. I
did not doubt that in the least. I can take raw crushed
oats, and kill the baby with a single tablespoonful. If,
however, we cook these oats and let them simmer and stew
fifteen hours until they are soft as mucilage, we can build
bone and brain in the baby without any trouble. The muck
or plant food in that swamp needs cooking, just as your raw
phosphate rock needs to be softened or dissolved with acid
before you care to put it on your ground. We haul load
after load of that muck to a high point on the farm, and mix
it with our stable manure and basic slag, and let it ferment
or cook all through the winter. Usually by spring it is soft
and fine, and in just the right condition to broadcast over
the crimson clover for a crop of sweet corn. These two
manure factories mean an end to the need of stable manure
for supplying vegetable matter.

Of course I understand perfectly that this sort of farming
may look like very small business to you men of large
operations, who are close to town and who command
abundant capital and labor. With due respect for you, I
want to say that your large operations have driven us to
throw oft* the yoke of stable manure and to concentrate our
labor upon the crops that may be best grown without it. I
have no doubt that you grow^ larger crops per acre than we
do, but I believe that ours are produced at as low a cost per
unit, and in addition to that I will say that we have neither
the capital nor the ability to handle your large operations.
Our little place back among the hills gives us a home and
holds a family together. It is a pleasure to think that one
is slowly gaining where others have failed ; and if you big
men with your large operations are able to get any better,

76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

truer fun than that out of life, 1 hope that when the time
comes you will stand up here and tell us what it is.

I will now try and speak of our crops and our methods of
growing them. First let us take strawberries. With us the
only berries that are worth growing are the large, dark-
colored, high-flavored fruit, that can be sold "twelve hours
from the vine." It is only with such fruit that we compete
with the larger growers. We use chiefly the varieties that
grow best in single hills, like Parker Earle, Marshall, Glen
Mary and Gardiner. We use the hill system for various
reasons, chief of which are the facts that we want sunshine
on all sides of the plant, and that we usually grow other
crops while the strawberry plants are gaining their size. Our
plan of growing is about as follows. And now you will
understand that when I say " I " and " we " I am simply the
talker representing the workers. My wife and the boys
really do the work, and about the best that I can do is to
play the dignified part assumed by the rooster who crows
when the hen lays an egg. Last spring we selected a strong
piece of land. I would prefer a level, well-drained field that
had been in cow-peas the previous year. This was first
worked several times with the Cutaway and thoroughly
chopped up. It was then deeply ploughed with a Swivel
plough, so that the Cutawayed soil was turned to the bottom.
On most of our soil I would omit this ploughing, as the soil
is so shallow that part of the subsoil would be ploughed to
the surface. After ploughing, the ground was well worked,
first with the Acme and then with the Iron Age two-horse
cultivator. The object of this was to have the soil well
pulverized and aired down to the subsoil. Large and strong
plants were dug with the Richards transplanter, and set three
feet apart in rows six feet wide. These plants never stopped
growing for a moment. Just after the strawberries were set
out we planted June Eating potatoes midway between the
rows of strawberries. The potatoes w^ere dug in July, and
the rows were levelled and worked with the two-horse culti-
vator. With the Richards transplanter we then set out plants
on the potato rows, fifteen inches apart and also in between
the old plants. This bed will probably be picked three
years, and will then be ploughed up and either planted to

No. 4.] MAEKET (xARDENING. 77

late cabbage or sowed to cow-peas. Next year we shall
change this plan, and set the plants four feet apart each way,
with hills of early potatoes between the plants. The pota-
toes will be started on sods in the hotbed and transplanted
after frost. We have also transplanted strawberries after
clearing the land of peas and Crosby sweet corn. Our Glen
Mary potted plants were set out this year on October 16.
We have transplanted Parker Earle strawberries as late as
election day, and picked a fair crop from them the following
spring. Of course such culture cannot be advised for gen-
eral practice. It suits our condition better than any other,
and that is why we follow it.

Peas. — These pay us reasonably well, and the money for
them comes at a convenient time. Our next .spring's crop
will be grown on a light, sandy soil, upon which crimson
clover is now growing. This clover will be worked under
with the Cutaway. We shall use in the drill a home-mixture
of potash, chicken manure, cotton-seed meal and basic slag.
Last year's varieties were Nott's Excelsior, New Life and
Telephone. The first-named variety may be planted closely.
We have grown them successfully between the rows of straw-
berries. We choose these varieties because they are of ex-
cellent quality and sell well in our local market, — a small
town, with a limited demand for the best.

Lima Beans. — Bergen County, N. J., where we live, is
the greatest Lima-bean section of the eastern States. Our
American farmers seem to be gradually dropping the crop,
and it is going very largely into the hands of the Germans.
The reason for this seems to be that there is an immense
amount of labor involved in tying and picking, which is
easily done by children. The Germans are growing a larger
child-crop than the Americans, and the few children that the
Americans do produce care more for a bicycle than for a
bean pole. One can often see little tots in the Lima- bean field
climbing on chairs and stools in order to tie the upper vines.
We grow only the bush variety, either Kumyle or Dreer.
Earliness counts greatly in Lima-beau culture. The very
first may bring six dollars a bag, while later in the season
the price may fall to seventy-five cents. My opinion is, from
what I have learned from others, that the bush Lima may be

^ 78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

expected to succeed in many sections where gardeners have
failed with the pole varieties. We endeavor to capture the
early bird by starting the plants in the hotbed on small pieces
of sod, and transplanting to warm early soil as soon after
May 15 as danger from frost is past. One trouble with bush
Limas is the fact that the bushes fall over, so that the pods
are left in the dirt. The best way to prevent this is to mulch
with straw, or, on clean soil, one may sow crimson clover
early in July. Most of our gardeners seem to agree that
fine stable manure is better than anything else for Lima beans
and celery. We do not grow celery yet, but have had good
results with Lima beans grown upon fertilizer alone.

Sweet Corn. — We find this one of the best crops for dis-
tant market gardening. Our experience is that farmers on
high-priced land do not attempt to grow very much sweet
corn. We generally use for this crop all the manure that is
left from the strawberries, and always plant on a rye or
crimson-clover sod. The most satisfactory early variety, all
told, with us, is Cory. As with Lima beans, a few days of
advanced earliness count for dollars. We start the first crop
in the hotbed on small sods, and transplant in the open field
or among spring-set strawberries. Crosby is our second
early, and with us is a profitable variety. Last year we
planted Shaker's Early and Early Mammoth, but they did
not fill the nick, as the plantings of Stowell's Evergreen came
on in time. The Evergreen corn is the standby in the mar-
kets near New York, and we made seven different plantings
of this variety last year. The Shoe Peg or Country Gentle-
man is sweeter than the Evergreen, but does not sell so well
with us. The kernels seem to be riveted to the cob, and
they are certainly death to a soft filling in an upper tooth.
At the last cultivation of the sweet corn we always sow
crimson clover between the rows, and work it in shallow
with a light and small-toothed cultivator. We followed the
same plan with squash, melons and tomatoes, — in fact, with
every crop where after the last hoeing or cultivating the crop
of weeds is likely to cover the ground. Our experience has
been that the clover is not only far more valuable than the
weeds for turning under, but that it actually crowds the
weeds out. I will say, too, that we do not raise or buy any

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 79

hay. Our stock is fed entirely upon sweet corn stalks and
cow-pea hay. Our work horses have had nothing since
October but sweet corn stalks, wheat bran and a little oil
meal.

Tomatoes. — Our next year's crop will be grown on a light,
sandy field, that produced a heavy crop of cow-peas last year.
Early Ruby is the local variety for first crop. The plants are
started in a hotbed and pricked out into small strawberry
boxes, which will be put right into the hill. Our home-
made fertilizer serves well for tomatoes, and, if they do not
make a satisfactory growth, it is easy to apply a small quan-
tity of nitrate of soda. My friend Professor Waugh of Ver-
mont tells me of a scheme for giving tomato and other seeds
an early start, which seems to me worth trying. He says
that a seed is like a baby with a patent automatic nursing
bottle tied to it. The little germ of the seed is to live on
the food that is stored up with it until the roots and leaves
are large enough to take hold of our manure and fertilizers.
Some seeds may be said to be troubled with dyspepsia. The
starchy part is so old or hard or tough that the little germ
cannot eat it. We have known people to use pepsin in chew-
ing gum and other forms to help digest their food. Pro-
fessor Waugh suggests the same treatment for dyspeptic seed,
namely, soaking them in a solution of pepsin. With him
this has given more plants and stronger ones. Any treat-
ment that puts a baby plant or animal on its feet will be felt
for good all through its life, and I shall certainly try this
treatment.

Potatoes. — Early varieties pay best with us, and we have
found June Eating and Bovee very satisfactory to our cus-
tomers. Most of our crop is grown between rows of straw-
berries, raspberries and other small fruits. We can use the
Robbins potato planter between raspberries, and the tool
answers for many other purposes. If we were to try to
raise a prize crop of potatoes, we would proceed about as
follows : start this year on a warm, well-drained piece of
ground, and work it up thoroughly with the Cutaway, prob-
ably giving it five or six dift'erent workings. We would then
use to the acre a mixture containing one hundred pounds
muriate of potash, four hundred pounds basic slag and one

80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

hundred pounds nitrate of soda. This would be broadcasted
and worked in with the Acme harrow. We would then sow
one bushel per acre of early black cow-peas and work them
in either with a Breed's weeder or a light-toothed harrow, fol-
lowed by a roller. We would not touch the field again until
the 1st of August, when we would go through and sow, as a
venture, twelve pounds of crimson clover over the acre.
The chances would be two to five that few of the seeds would
sprout on top of the ground among the cow-pea vines, but
we would take the chance. The field would then not be
touched till the following spring. The cow-pea vines will
be killed by frost, and fall to the ground. In the spring, as
soon as the soil would permit, we would go on with the
Cutaway harrow and chop and cut the soil and vines as
thoroughly as possible. This would require at least four
workings with the Cutaway, running in difierent directions.
If the soil were deep enough to warrant it, we would then
plough as deeply as possible, and not turn up the subsoil.
After leveling the ploughed field with the Acme, we would
plant the potatoes in rows three feet apart, using the
Robbins potato planter, ourselves riding behind, to see that
every piece was properly dropped, I think, however, it
would pay to plant by hand, in which case we would make a
wide, deep furrow by going both ways Avith the plough.
We would drop from six hundred to eight hundred pounds
of the high-grade fertilizer to the acre in the furrow. For
seed we would use, from our present experience, either
Orphan or Carman No. 3, which varieties seem to be par-
ticularly well suited to our soil. Three days after planting
we would begin work with the Breed's Aveeder or a light
cultivator, and keep the surface of the ground thoroughly
stirred up. As the plants appeared above the ground, we
would cultivate at least twice a week with the two-horse
Iron Age cultivator. This machine straddles the row, and
every tooth is under immediate control of the driver. At
first we would put the teeth down three or four inches deep,
but as the plants grew we would gradually lift them until
they merely scratched over the top of the ground. When
the plants were about six inches high we would fasten boxes
on either side of the pole of the cultivator, with holes in the

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING, 81

bottom. The boxes would be filled with fertilizer, so that
this would gradually trickle out in advance of the hoes.
This cultivation would be kept up as long as we could pos-
sibly get through the row. One excellent thing about pota-
toes of the Carman No. 3 or Rural New Yorker No. 2 type
is the fact that they grow upright. The vines do not fall
and sprawl on the ground until they have made a large
growth, so that it is possible to work up close to the plants
until late in the season.

If I were asked to grow a large crop of potatoes without a
year's preparation in cow-peas or some other similar crop, I
would not attempt to do it, at least on my farm. One of the
best crops we have ever grown on a large scale seemed to
upset most of the known theories of potato culture. The
ground was thoroughly worked and fair dressings of fertilizer
worked into it. Potatoes were planted in shallow drills
eighteen inches apart each way and lightly covered with soil.
The whole patch was then covered with a coating of stal)le
manure about three inches thick. No cultivating was done
during the season and but a little hand weeding; was neces-
sary. The plants grew up through the mulch and made a
very heavy growth. When they were dug, the ground was
perfectly alive with potatoes. It happened to be a dry sea-
son, and the mulch seemed to have good efiect. I shall try
this again next spring on about one-quarter of an acre of
early potatoes, using cow-pea vines and marsh hay for mulch-
ing. We are not prepared to recommend this method, al-
though, as I have said, it has given us perhaps the largest
yield on a small scale. As I said, we follow every possil)le
crop with crimson clover, generally mixing turnip seed with
the clover after such crops as late peas or sweet corn. The
turnip with us is not a particularly profitable crop. It pro-
vides excellent food for our stock, however, and the small
ones left with the crimson clover supply a good deal of
humus and also a terrible smell in the spring. I have found
that some of our neighbors have a greater respect for our
crimson clover if the frozen turnips let out large doses of
their peculiar odor when the time comes for ploughing under.
There are still many of our gardeners left who depend upon
their noses for their chemical analysis of manure or fertilizer,

82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

and we find that a frozen turnip gives them considerable re-
spect for the clover crop.

Our stock consists of two horses, one cow and at present
about three hundred hens. Most of our present flock of hens
were bought in the live poultry market in New York. We
watch these markets, and whenever an opportunity offers to
buy Brown Leghorn stock at fair prices, we generally buy
lots of forty or fifty. These hens cost us on an average of
thirty-nine cents each, which is cheaper than we can raise
them. We aim to follow the colony system, and keep our
hens in portable houses on various parts of the farm through
the winter. Our experience is that hens running upon the
crimson clover will pick up nearly thirty per cent of their
living from it. We feed them a mixed balanced ration, which
is easily supplied, and the greater part of the manure is
scattered over the field, where it will do the most good. The
hen manure saved from the houses is used as a filler for
making a home-made fertilizer. We use plaster under the
roosts, so that the manure is left hard and dry. It is kept
during the winter in a dry place, and usually comes out in
the spring in coarse, hard lumps. These are crushed and
smashed with a heavy spade and sifted through a coal screen,
so as to make it reasonably fine. A mixture of eight hun-
dred pounds of this hen manure and three hundred pounds
of nitrate of soda makes a good dressing for almost any crop
on our land. If used where the crimson clover was especially
heavy, we would drop out the cotton-seed meal and add one
hundred pounds more of dissolved rock and fifty pounds
more of muriate of potash. We have used a great deal of
basic slag or iron phosphate. This has been broadcasted on
the land at the time of sowing crimson clover or cow-peas.
In fact, we believe in using most of our potash and phos-
phoric acid on these green crops. The home mixture I have
mentioned is used chiefly in the drill, and generally not in
large quantities.

I am aware, as I have stated several times, that this method
of farming is not appropriate or particularly helpful to the
large grower. I do believe, however, that it is along some
such line that the man of limited means must hope to succeed
upon the soil. And, while I have no quarrel with the large

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 83

gardener, and while I hope some day to come nearer to his
methods than we can afford to do at present, I do believe it
to be good policy in every way to encourage the small man
of moderate means to go back upon the hills and take up the
neglected possibilities of the old soil, and make it yield for
him that greatest of New England blessings, "an indepen-
dent homestead."

Question. Should crimson clover be ploughed in now,
or left until spring?

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I should leave it until next spring.

Question. Will it be rotted enough to catch the crop
next spring by waiting until next spring to plough it in ?

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. Yes ; plenty. If not, we use a little
lime with it, but for corn that would rot in plenty of time.

Question. How would it act on potatoes?

Mr. COLLINGWOOD. I should prefer to use it for corn. I
cannot say that I have had any particular experience with
potatoes, for all our potatoes are grown between rows of
fruit. I would not like to make a statement in regard to it,
but my judgment would be that it would be perfectly safe
and good policy.

Mr. B. P. Ware (of Marblehead). You started in by
saying that the plough must be a back number; that you
could get along without it on your farm. Now, it seems to
me that you have based your success almost wholly on the
use of the plough and stable manure. You stated you could
get along without stable manure, but you took that muck
and mixed it with stable manure and made a compost that
was valuable ; you have used stable manure all through your
process of farming more or less, and your success has de-
pended largely upon it. You have used the plough, as you
could not get under ground the stuff that covers it and have
it fit to make a seed-bed for your crops without the plough.
I only want you to explain how you denounce the plough
and stable manure, when you based your whole success, it
seems to me, upon the use of the plough and stable manure,
in connection with muck.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I am very glad you brought up this
point. In regard to the stable manure, I use it on a par
with my Uncle Daniel Reed, whom I lived with, who made

84 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

patent medicine. When the shoe business was taken away,
we went into different kinds of business to keep things going.
He conceived the idea of making a patent medicine. He had
an idea he could sell it to good advantage. He took buds
and leaves of walnut trees, I chopped them, and we put them
into the cider press and squeezed out the juice (I am going
to give away a secret, — it never was patented). He took
one part of walnut juice, one part of well water, one part of
molasses and one part of old Medford rum. Then he offered
that for sale. It would cure anything, from a sore foot to
consumption. We called it " walnut extract." What pro-
portion of it was walnut extract? I look at it this way. I
must have the stable manure to start a fermentation in the
muck. If left to itself, it will not ferment as quickly as I
want to have it. I use it on the principle that Uncle Daniel
used his walnut extract. The only use I have for stable
manure is to start fermentation inside the pile of muck. If a
man should come to me and say, "I have a car-load of stable
manure that you can have," I would take it.

Mr. Ware. You used it in fertilizing your crop.

Mr. CoLLiNGWoou. I would rather have to-day a growth
of crimson clover on my field than twenty loads of the finest
stable manure that ever came out of a stable. It does not
cost me more than a dollar and a quarter which I pay for the
seed, and possibly three hours' time to work it into the soil.
Wouldn't it be foolish to go and buy stable manure ?

Mr. Sargent. We cannot grow crimson clover in all
parts of Massachusetts.

Mr. Colling WOOD. I am not so sure of it. I tried three
years before I could get it started.

Mr. Stetson. What time do you sow it?

Mr. CoLLiNGwooD. Part was sowed the 27th of July ;
the first was sowed the 17th of July. That was on a piece
of Evergreen corn which was then about ready for the last
cultivation.

Mr. Elbrtdge Cushman (of Lakeville). Would you use
rye and crimson clover both on your farm ? I have thirty
acres that I have sowed with winter rye. Would there be
any advantage in my introducing crimson clover on the light,

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 85

sandy soil of Plymouth County ? You were born there.
Would it grow crimson clover as well as it does men?

Mr. CoLLiNGWooD. I do not know whether I am the o-nly
man from Plymouth County here, or not. But, if I were to
go there and commence farming, the first thing I would do
would be to start crimson clover on my farm. I think that,
by working it continually, sooner or later you would get it
to grow.

Mr. CusHMAN. How do you get that crop you consider
worth twenty loads of stal)le manure without any manure ?

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I will pass this clover sod around, so
that you can see that it is not tied on with strings. I will
say frankly that I think the cow-pea to-day is a better and
more valuable plant than the crimson clover, if a man has
land enough to let it remain on the ground for a reasonable
time. If I had more land, I would have ten acres every year.

Mr. Stetson. Would it not be better to turn it in than
to leave it on the ground?

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. If I ploughed it in I would sow crim-
son clover in the fall. It sours under the soil.

Mr. Collingwood's attention was called to the fact that he
had not answered Mr. Ware's second question in regard to
the plough.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. My answer is, my plough is for sale.
I bought it under a misapprehension.

Mr. Ware. How are you going to cover that mess on
your ground four inches deep without a plough ? Your Cut-
away harrow would not do it. You could not make a seed-
bed unless you ploughed it under with a plough.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I have done it.

Mr. Ware. You said you turned it under with a plough.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I bought a plough in the springs
thinking I would need it, but it is now for sale. I will sell
it for less than I paid for it.

Mr. Ware. You have used your plough a great deal this
summer, and I do not see how you could get along without it.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I have used it on four acres.

Mr. Ware. Do you pretend to say you can make a good
seed-bed with that stuff on your ground without a plough ?

86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Mr. Colling WOOD. For what crop?

Mr. Ware. For potatoes.

Mr. CoLLixGwooD. I can for potatoes.

Mr. Ware. You plant corn.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I can for corn. I appreciate the fact
that I have a very light, sandy soil, that works up easily,
and I do not need as fine a surface for my crops as a man
would in planting finer seed. I can take a Cutaway and
work up the soil for cabbage or corn or potatoes, and those
are about the only crops we have. I can set out strawberries
without any trouble at all.

Dr. LiNDSEY. I want to make just a point. We have
grown crimson clover at the station, or tried to. We planted
it the first of Auo-ust or about that time, and it has o-rown
very nicely indeed and has gone through the winter very
well, but in the early spring we notice it winter-killed so
that when the season began we had hardly a sprig of clover
left. In Massachusetts, so far as our experience has gone,
it is not a success. I just wanted to make that statement
relative to our experience with crimson clover. If there is
any way to stop that early spring killing, it would be very
gratifying to us all to know how to do it.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. Let me ask you this. Do you think
that using manure or muck on the clover would help to carry
it through ?

Dr. LiNDSEY. I must reply that I do not know.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. How about the cow-pea? Have you
tried that?

Dr. LiNDSEY. Yes, sir ; but we have discarded it for the
soya bean, for this reason, we could not grow the seed of
the cow-pea, but we can grow the seed of the soya bean.

Mr. COLLINGWOOD. What is the price of beans for seed?

Dr. LiNDSEY. We have been selling it to the farmers
of Massachusetts in small quantities, and I think we have
charged about a dollar and a half a bushel ; the price has
escaped me at the present moment. The seed of the cow-
pea is about a dollar a bushel.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I get my seed in Delaware, but I can
grow my own seed.

Dr. LiNDSEY\ We have not succeeded in doing that.

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 87

Mr. James Rankin (of Easton). Allowing that crimson
clover would stand our climate, in what is it superior to our
common red clover?

Mr. CoLLiNGWooD. It is hardly a fair comparison, from
the fact that the crimson clover makes its growth in such a
short time. I can grow it on my soil when otherwise the
soil would be barren. It does not interfere with any other
crop. With the red clover, you have to make it a present
of a year's use of the laud before you can utilize it.

Dr. LiNDSEY. We have no trouble in growing the bean
at the station.

Mr. CoLLiNGwooD. You believe in the possibility of
farming with green crops and chemicals ?

Dr. LiNDSEY. Certainly. With your conditions, I think
•it is perfectly possible.

Mr. Colli NGwooD. If I were to come back to Massachu-
setts, I should try to use my present arrangement.

Mr. H. M. Thompson (of Easton). Do you think you
could raise it without any manure or fertilizer ?

Mr. COLLINGWOOD. Ycs ; some of this was grown with-
out anything at all.

Mr. W. F. Taber (of Poughkeepsie). Having grown all
these difi'erent kinds of green crops for sale and for plough-
ing under, I think perhaps I might say a word. I grow
crimson clover successfully, and have a line crop now. For
one or two seasons when I first commenced growing it, it
would not live through the spring. I believe that crimson
clover is worth more than it costs.

The question has been asked whether it is better to raise
red clover in the place of crimson clover. I wall answer in
the affirmative, if there is any danger of the crimson clover
being killed. I sow both, as the occasion requires. If we
can sow the red clover (I use the mammoth) at about the
time we would sow the crimson clover, the earlier in July
the better, we can get a fine growth of the red clover in the
fall to cover the ground throuo;h the winter. It starts in to
grow in the spring, and there is no danger of its being
winter-killed. I sometimes plough it under the first spring.
We get a greater growth of top than we get from the crimson
clover. There is not stored up in the roots quite as great an

88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

amount of nitrogen as there is in the crimson, but, taken
altogether, there is quite as much value in the red clover as
in the crimson.

Mr. . I have been growing crimson clover in a

small way for four years. We have had trouble by winter-
killing to some extent. For the last two years I have mixed
red clover and crimson clover seed and sown it, and the red
clover seems to help the crimson clover to live through.
They both make a healthy growth and cost very little but
the seed. I like to keep my ground covered with something
of the kind. We do not yet know the value of red clover.
It should be sowed before the first of August.

Mr. Taber. The clover grows stronger every year. We
know it will not grow unless the bacteria are in the soil,
unless the conditions are right. If you grow as we do in the
vineyards, we find every year the growth is stronger and
better, and the more likely it is to live through and not die
out by the changes of the season. I want to say that it is
now four or five years since I commenced to grow crimson
clover. Do not be discouraged because it suffers for a year
or two. It is necessary that the soil shall be inoculated with
these microbes, in order that the plant shall thrive and grow
and ])e strong enough to withstand the winters. I had it
killed for two winters, but for two years past it has lived
through. It is the freezing and thawing in the spring that
kills it. Yet the fact is that we get more than it costs, even
if the crop is killed. We have the richness in the soil, the
nitrogen that has been stored in the roots. To show you
just what it can do, I was one of the first to plant a crop on
a crimson clover seed-bed in our section, it being about half
an acre. It was adjoining a piece of corn stubble. The
whole was ploughed and treated exactly alike and fertilized
in the same way. I planted it to sweet corn, and the
growth of the corn was the same until it was about six inches
high, then you could almost see the changes every day.
That on the crimson clover sod was of a darker, brighter
color and grew faster than the other, and all through the
season it was from three to six inches hig-her than the other.
But the value came in when we took otf the ears for market.
In the portion where the clovei* sod was turned under we

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 89

picked from six to eight hundred ears to the row, and the
other part did not yield but a little over five hundred.

Secretary Sessions. How old was that sod?

Mr. Taber. The seed was sowed the July previous. It
is used to cover the ground in the winter and as a manurial
crop to turn under. I do not believe it is valuable for hay
here, although a great deal is used in Delaware and
Maryland.

Question. How late can you sow it?

Mr. Taber. Up to the 1st of September, but I would
advise sowing it by the middle of July, if possible. It
attains a better growth and is better able to withstand the
changes of winter and spring. I have it now covering my
vineyard from six to ten inches high. In fact, I had to
plough my vineyard a little early, because the clover was
getting so large I thought I would be unable to turn it
under.

Question. How much do you sow to the acre?

Mr. Taber. I sow twenty pounds. There is a great deal
ot talk about twelve and fifteen, but I have had the best re-
sults from increasing the amount. I know Georo-e Powell
sows only fifteen pounds, and he has nearly one hundred and
fifty acres covered with it now. I would advise sowing it
almost everywhere, that is, so as to cover the ground. I do
not believe in bare ground for the winter except heavy soil.

Question. Would you sow it in a young orchard?

Mr. Taber. Yes ; certainly. There are many advantages
from that. A great many are opposed to this work I have
done. In my institute work I found many who did not agree
with me at all in reference to ploughing in these green crops.
They would say that I better cut it ofi* and feed it and use
the manure ; but I have persisted in it, and I think I will
prove to you that I have been successful.

Mr. H. W. Foster (of Tewksbury). Would it not be
better to plough it in in the fall and have it rot, then, as the
ground is heaved by the eflects of the frost, it will be mellow
and fine in the spring and everything will be ready for the
crop.

Mr. Taber. I want every particle of my ground covered
with something durinij; the winter. It is far better, unless

90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

you have very heavy soil and you want the action of the frost
on it.

Mr. CoLLiNGwooD. My objection is this : some of my
land is level, but on a slope, and I do not want it washed if
I can help it. Again, my experience has been that when we
take the cow-pea and plough it under it is liable to sour in
the ground. There is so much water in the rank and heavy
stems that they start up a fermentation unless a person uses
lime constantly. For that reason I -svould rather leave it on
the ground until spring. I do not believe in ploughing it in
in the fall unless it is on very heavy soil. I would use the
plough on heavy soil, but I have none of that soil.

Secretary Sessions. I noticed, in the remarks of Mr. Col-
lingwood, what might be considered a slur on agricultural
colleges. He said he would rather have a young man without
any ideas than one from a college.

Mr. CoLLiNGWooD. I stand here a graduate of the Michi-
gan Agricultural College, class of 1883, and I thank God
to-day that I took that course at that college. I want to give
you just one leaf out of my life, and tell you what induced
me to take that course. When I ran away, I was thirteen
years old. I went to school two terms after that, then went
to work. When I w^as nineteen I drifted to Colorado as a
cow boy on a ranch, and one day there on the plains I saw
two old men talkino- too-ether and going over their lives.
One was a man of wealth. He had ten or fifteen thousand
head of cattle. The other was a poor man. The rich man
could barely sign his name. The poor man had a college
education. And I tell you, as I saw those two men there
at the evening of life, side by side, and compared them, the
thought came into my mind, What is life after forty-five or
fifty years? And I made up my mind then I would go
through fire and water if need be to educate myself, and that
was how I happened to go to the agricultural college. I
went there because that college offered me a chance to work
my way through. I milked cows, waited on tables, washed
dishes, tried to teach a district school and was thrown out,
but I went back again. When we get out of a college we
have to unlearn some things. I had to unlearn this, the fact
that at the college we had everything in first-class shape,

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 91

everything that money could buy. A poor man cannot farm
that way. A poor man has got to teach school or edit a
paper (no, I do not mean edit a paper) to make money
enough to farm on that scale. It took me a number of
years to get down to common things and get started on the
practical side of life. I said this young man who came to
me (my brother-in-law) knew very little about farming, but
he was ready to learn and begin anywhere. My honest con-
viction is that if I took a graduate of a college onto my farm,
the first thing he would want would be five hundred dollars
for a hot-house, six hundred or a thousand dollars for this or
that. Think of striking an editor of an agricultural paper
for a thousand dollars ! I cannot conceive of it. I speak
frankly because I believe these meetings are where we should
come face to face. I do think and say that our agricultural
colleges, my own college among the rest, have not been
reaching down and helping those l)oys who have nothing to
start with. I may be wrong, or stir up a hornet's nest, but
these are my convictions. With my limited means, building
from an ash heap, give me the boy who knows nothing, and
who is willing to work with his hands, rather than the boy
who has been educated to do things with capital and with
tools of the highest type.

Mr. P. E. Davis (of Taunton, Massachusetts Agricultural
College, 1894). Do you think a knowledge of scientific
agriculture prevents a man from working with his hands or
working with inferior tools or working under difficulties of
any kind? I believe thoroughly in the agricultural college,
and I believe it is in the man, not in the college, that makes
him want a thousand-dollar hot-house or engine. I do not
think the college intends to instil into a man any such
ideas. I think it is the man, not the college.

Mr. CoLLiNGWooD. I take men as I find them. I cannot
make them over. Let me go back five generations, and I
think I could bring out a pretty good sort of a man. I am
frankly stating what I believe. I have yet to learn of any
graduate of an agricultural college who has gone directly out
of the class room upon a farm, without capital, and gone to
work with his hands and been successful. I can name fifty
such men who work for other people. When I find such a

92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

man who has gone to work for himself, I will take off my
hat to him.

Mr. Davis. I would be pleased to step up to Mr. Colling-
wood as one of those. I was born on a Maine farm, and I
know what work is. I worked my way through college, and
I am still working with my hands.

Mr. CoLLiNGWOOD. I am proud to meet such a man as
that.

Secretary Sessions. We keep them in Massachusetts.

Mr. Edmund Hersey (of Hingham) . It is evident to me,
from the discussion which has been going on for the last half
hour, that what I have always supposed to be true has been
proved here ; and that is, that no rules can be laid down by
which you can run a number of farms alike. You have got
to understand your farm ; you have got to understand every-
thing in connection with your farm. If a man goes to col-
lege, he has the advantage of knowing how to plant and grow
crops and how to feed them to the best advantage ; he learns
how to select his herd of cattle and how to feed them to the
best advantage. When I hear any one speak against our
colleges, or who throws out anything which has a tendency
to leave on our minds that it is a damage for a boy to go to
an agricultural college or that it is not a benefit to him, I
always feel that I want to say a word in favor of an educa-
tion. Let me tell you that the agriculturist, to be success-
ful, requires an education better than that needed in any
other profession which man ever followed. You can use the
most diversified knowledge on a farm. I could take you to
a farm of a few acres where it has been run by direction for
more than sixteen years, and the real profits from that farm
have come to a point where to-day they will support a small
family. Now, why is this? It is simply because intelli-
gence has directed the hands that have worked on it. Now
let us, as friends of agriculture, remember that we are to
work for the uplifting of our fellowmen, and especially our
fellow farmers, by giving them a better education, for on that
rests the future prosperity of the farmers of New England.

Mr. CoLLiNGW OOD. I would be sorry to have you people
go away and misconstrue what I said about the college. I
am a graduate of a college, and proud of the fact that I spent

No. 4.] MARKET GARDENING. 93

four years of my life — four years of hardship and priva-
tion— in an agricultural college. But I do think that our
agricultural college system is not perfect by any means.

Mr. Hersey. Is anything perfect?

Mr. Colling WOOD. If I am not mistaken, our agricult-
ural colleges have in the past tended to make classes among
the farmers in this way : they have been able to take but a
limited number of students, and I do not think they reach
down in the homes of the lowly people and try to bring them
up in large numbers. I can look back, and I remember that
the feeling I had when I left college was that I had given up
four years of hard work, that I had not put a dollar in my
pocket during those years, and all the boys had been at work
laying aside from two to three hundred dollars a year. I
did not feel that I could go back and begin as a farm hand.
I had got to make that knowledge earn me more money. I
had got to make it useful to me. I found there were only
two ways in which I could do it ; one was in working for a
man who had capital, the other was to get hold of capital
myself. In other words, I do sincerely believe that the
agricultural college has been of more benefit to the capitalists
and the corporations than it has been to the individuals. I
felt it in my heart that I must go to work for some one who
had capital, or in some other line of business, to earn the
money with which to buy a farm. I got that idea at an agri-
cultural college. I do not say the college was to blame for
it. I believe one of the first thoughts of a graduate from an
agricultural college is to secure a position at a college or
experiment station, or with some man who can pay him a
salary, or work at something that will enable him to start a
farm as he would like to start it.

Adjourned at 12.35 p.m.

Afternoon Session.
The meeting was called together at 2 o'cIock by Secretary
Sessions, who said : Ladies and gentlemen : I want to
express, as I think I am warranted in doing, the feeling of
the Board of Agriculture that this meeting has been a suc-
cess, and we want to congratulate ourselves and the people

94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURP:. [Pub. Doc.

of the vicinity on the success thus far, and I doubt not it
will continue successful to the end. The vice-president of
the Board has requested me to call upon Mr. George L.
Clemence of Southbridge to preside this afternoon.

The Chairman. The sulyect we have on this afternoon's
programme is one not only of interest to farmers of Massa-
chusetts, but to many of the mechanics living in our manu-
facturing towns. We are fortunate in having one to speak
to us this afternoon whose reputation is known all over the
United States and through Canada as a gentleman who has
had great experience in this line. It gives me great pleasure
to introduce to you the speaker of this afternoon, Prof.
Samuel Cushman, who will speak to you on ''Advantages
and disadvantages of modern methods of poultry culture."

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 95

Advantages and Disadvantages of Modern
Methods of Poultry Cui^ture.

BY SAMUEL CUSHMAN, PAWTUCKET, K. I.

Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen : I am on the pro-
gramme as " Professor " Samuel Cushman. I make no claim
to being a professor. The title was sometimes given me by
courtesy, I suppose, when I was connected with the Rhode
Island Experiment Station.

My experience with poultry dates bad? to the time I was
ten years old, when my grandfather, a Massachusetts farmer,
presented me with a pair of fowls. A few years later he
gave me a hive of bees, and is therefore responsible for the
interest I have in poultry and bees. He is still living, I am
glad to say.

In my experience as a fancier, in breeding and selling
poultry for exhibition and breeding, also as an experimenter
along practical lines when at the Rhode Island Experiment
Station, I have gathered some ideas which perhaps are a little
different from those who have produced poultry only for
market.

A word about the poultry industry. Almost every one
now realizes its great commercial importance. It is esti-
mated there are 380,000,000 fowls in this country, that the
total earnings of poultry are $290,000,000, and that the in-
dustry represents a permanent investment of $240,000,000.
Whether these estimates are correct or not (they are prob-
ably too low rather than too high), it is a fact that from
1887 to 1890, when eggs came into this country free of
duty, there were from 13,000,000 to 15,000,000 dozen
imported each year. During the same period less than
2,500,000 dozen were exported any one year. In 1892,
under a duty, the yearly imports dropped clear down to
less than 2,000,000 dozen, and since then have gone no

96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

higher than 4,250,000 dozen. In 1897, fiscal year ending
June 30, only 579,681 dozen were imported. Our yearly
imports have dropped from $2,000,000 worth in 1889 to
only $47,760 in 1897. Meanwhile our exports have in-
creased from 372,772 dozen in 1887 to 1,300,183 dozen,
year ending June 30, 1897, — an increase in value in ex-
ports from $60,686 in 1887 to $180,954 in 1897, or nearly
three-fold.

Although there has been a very rapid development of the
poultry industry during the past few years, it has not been
overdone. This country can yet handle all the poultry prod-
ucts. There is a large increase in the number of eggs con-
sumed per head of population every year, and this, and the
market value of the product, would be much greater if they
were properly collected and distributed and delivered to con-
sumers without such great delay. There is an enormous loss
on the egg crop of this great country between its production
and consumption, and most of it is unnecessary.

Besides our home market, there is a foreign market for
eggs. England and Germany are the best egg markets of
the world. They do not produce 60 per cent of the eggs
they consume. During 1895 the United Kingdom imported
daily an average of 4,000,000 dozen eggs (209 tons), or paid
out nearly $50,000 every day for foreign eggs. During 1896
she imported $20,000,000 worth of eggs. Germany in 1895
imported over $17,000,000 worth, and in 1896 paid nearly
$19,000,000 for foreign eggs, — an increase in value of
$1,100,000. She also paid that year $4,000,000 for im-
ported poultry. Russia wins the lion's share of the egg
trade of both these countries, although many shipments
reach England by way of Germany. Other European coun-
tries secure some of it. Canada not only produces her own
poultry and eggs, but ships quantities to England. As yet
this country is out in the cold. Lately she has sent about
one-seventh as many as Canada. The United States sends
her wheat and corn to Europe, sells in competition with
Russia, India and South America, and leaves the bulk of the
foreign egg trade to other countries. It costs less to ship
poultry and eggs than grain, and these products take less
from the land.

No 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 97

We were told by Professor Alvord at a meeting in
Rochester, N. H., last week, of what the government was do-
ing to promote the market for American butter in England.
It would seem that Secretary Wilson was doing a very wise
thing. Should not steps also be taken to secure more of the
foreign market for eggs ? There may be no such congestion
of poultry products to make this very necessary, but it will
be easier to win the foreign trade now, while this country
leads all others in its methods of poultry production, and
when grain is high, than later.

Eggs from Iowa, Kansas, Missouri and Illinois can be
put on the English market just as well as butter from those
States, if fresh when collected and prepared for shipment.
French eggs reach English cities in better condition than
those produced in the interior of the home country, while
eggs from Australia have been sold in London as high as
fresh eggs from France. It is said that eggs from the
United States have sold in England next in price to those
from France, while Russian eggs have sold for less than
those from Germany and Belgium..

The State of Massachusetts imports millions of dollars'
worth of eggs from other States. Why is it that farmers all
over the State do not produce the home supply ? It is the
same in Rhode Island. A large part of the eggs consumed
come from without the State. We do not, perhaps, want to
sell our eggs for what western eggs bring, but we are not
obliged to do so. We can deliver them when fresh. If of
the highest quality, they also ought to bring an extra price.

The eastern farmer can surely make money on poultry,
even in competition with the product raised where grain is
cheap. What is the best way to do it? We all know there
has been a great improvement made in methods ; still,
people think there is very little to it until they have taken it
up as a business, then, after a few years, they change their
opinion, and realize they must know it thoroughly to suc-
ceed. Those who undertake to teach how to do it are gen-
erally fanciers and pure-bred breeders, who have stock they
want to sell, rather than poultry farmers, and the advice
given is not always disinterested. Even editors do not like
to publish the faults of the different breeds, as it offends

98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

their advertisers or subscribers who admire them. The
public really has hard work to get at the facts. The inex-
perienced have to try half a dozen breeds to learn which are
most suitable, and then may not know. Thousands repeat
the same experiments. This would be needless if the
reliable experiences of a few were made public. A great
expense would thus be saved the country.

There is a large number of poultry papers. The methods
taught in most of them are adapted to the fancier rather than
to the poultry farmer, A few have lately come out on other
lines, however, and accomplished much good. Too many of
the agricultural papers have simply echoed the teachings of
the fanciers' papers, but they are now looking more after the
poultry farmei's' interest.

As with market gardening, boot manufacturing and other
lines of business, the specialist and large producer is getting
a grip on the business ; but there is a chance for the small
operator, and especially for the farmer.

The more complicated the poultry specialist makes his
business, the more skill it requires and the greater his
chances of failure. The risks are greater, as well as the
profits. He uses breeds adapted to a special purpose, build-
ings planned to save labor, secure sanitary conditions and
best protect his stock, follows the best methods of feeding,
and, above all, has a defined plan to be adhered to and carried
out in every detail. He is thus enabled to secure at a slight
cost the very best product, even when there is a great
scarcity, and when it will bring him the very highest price.

There are all sorts of breeds, and perhaps each has some
particular special quality that is desirable. Each season they
are being improved, and new information gained as to the
best and cheapest methods of management. Therefore the
up-to-date man must constantly study the problem. There
is a demand for one-and-one-half-pound broilers in certain
cities. There are breeds specially suited for their produc-
tion. Years ago, practical men thought these were of no
account. The fancier kept them for his pleasure, and dis-
tributed them, and thus preserved them ; but the practical
poultryman took no stock in that breed, — now they make
practical use of them.

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 99

I do not believe it is best for every farmer to undertake to
follow the specialist ; that he can produce poultry and eggs
cheaper and at less risk, — if he does not adopt such extreme
methods. The farther he goes from the old methods, the
more work he must do, and the greater the care required and
the greater the chances of disease. The old pioneers did not
have to take the precautions against disease that people in
cities now do. If you keep large numbers and follow im-
proved methods, your obstacles are greater. The specialist
w^ho confines his flocks in yards and provides all their food
the year around, may secure a greater product than if they
were allowed free range ; but fowls thus cooped are wholly
dependent upon their keepers. If you do not give them
fresh water, gravel, meat and green food, they sufl'er. If the
yards and houses get foul, they cannot get away, and must
breathe the fumes. The successful specialist cannot be
guilty of such neglect, but it has been my experience that
many farmers who attempt to improve are. We do not
approve of dropping boards, as a rule, for this very reason.
Those who take up advanced methods, build modern build-
ings, get good breeds, and then fail to carry out the details,
are worse off than if they were following old methods.

I have seen men who kept bees try to improve, and have a
similar experience. They understood just how to keep them
in the old box hives, and make a little honey and money
every year. It was no great thing, but was pretty sure, as
far as it went. A few years after they had taken up modern
methods, there were no bees on the place. It was not the
fault of the new hives or methods, — they had simply gone
farther than they understood, or would carry out the details.
The farmer should remember that he must work from a
different stand-point usually than the fancier. My advice to
the farmer is to adopt the breed and management best suited
to his circumstances. It is better even to keep bees in box
hives, or poultry in the old way, than to strike too high a
key and fail entirely. If he cannot give the extra care,
labor and attention, he should not adopt the houses, breeds
and fixtures that are suited only to those that do.

It is usually desired that something definite be said in re-
gard to which is the best breed. It is the one best suited to

100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

your place and personality, and whose product sells the best
in your market. There are many different breeds, each
having qualities suited for some special purpose. In some
the various extreme qualities of several have been combined,
and they, although not as good for any one special purpose,
are fairly good for all purposes, and therefore popular with
the majority who do not follow a special branch.

Each breed differs under different management, and in dif-
ferent sections of the country. Each has undesirable, as well
as desirable, qualities. Some markets call for white eggs,
and others for brown eggs ; some require yellow poultry,
while others will take anything that is plump and soft, re-
gardless of the color of skin or legs. If you want to produce
winter eggs, you want one thing ; while for the largest num-
ber of eggs in summer you want another breed. Certain
breeds are very hardy, and can stand exposure and hardship ;
while others, more prolific, are very tender. Some are very
quiet, and fatten very readily ; and others are so active that
it is impossible to get them fat. There are those that excel
in flesh production, but in little else.

Brahmas. and Cochins are of great value to the industry, on
account of their hardiness, and always will be. They are not
hustlers, like the active breeds, but stand cold and confine-
ment well.

The non-sitters, the Minorcas, Leghorns, Hamburg, etc.,
are the greatest layers ; but, unless protected from cold and
damp and given considerable liberty, they will contract dis-
ease. The old English game, the Cornish Indian, the Malay,
Black Java and Aseels, as well as the Houdan and Creve
Cours, are great flesh-producers, but are less hardy than
Chinese breeds, and much less prolific than the non-sitters.
We have these diflerent classes combined in the Wyandottes
and Plymouth Rocks. They are rather too beefy to make
the best layers, and not as hardy as the Cochin, Brahma and
Langshan ; but, as they are fairly hardy, fairly good layers
and good flesh-producers, they meet the needs of the majority.
They have enough of the beef and hardy blood to be quiet
and withstand cold, and produce brown-tinted eggs and lay
well in winter. Their worst "out" is a tendency to get so
fat by the second year that they are no longer profitable egg-

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 101

producers, and therefore must be marketed after the first
season. The non-sitters, if given liberty, are profitable the
second and third years.

If your market prefers white eggs, and you do not care to
market table poultry, I believe the Black Minorca is the best
breed for you. If you wish a white egg-producer that has
yellow skin and legs, the largest strains of white and buff*
Leghorns would be my next choice. For a hardy winter
layer of brown eggs the Langshan stands at the head, but
the dressed poultry cannot be sold to advantage or at all in
some markets. It is, however, excellent for your own table.
Black pin-feathers are objectionable.

I cannot conscientiously advise every farmer to keep noth-
ing but pure-bred poultry, but I would like to see every one
without exception use at least })ure-bred males of the breed
that best suited their purpose. If the poultrymen of this
country could be induced to do this, the sale of pure-bred
poultry by breeders and fanciers would not only be ten times
what it is to-day, but many would succeed where they now
fail. Very often a fancier stands out against any teaching
like this. They say keep pure-bred fowls, pure-bred males
and females, have them all alike, and take pleasure in their
beauty. Let those who want to follow the business of
raising pure-breds do so ; let them do the improving, and
if it is practical buy your stock of them, whether you cross
or breed pure. The man who raises ten acres of potatoes
does not select the seed because it produces handsome blos-
soms. I believe that the mechanics and market producers,
the majority, want to get what will give the best returns,
regardless of anything else.

There is a legitimate field for fanciers who sell exhibition
and breeding birds, but they have to be artists, as well as
students of the laws of breeding. To make the business pay,
they must be also skilful advertisers. Those of this class
who succeed are few compared with the great number who
can make money producing eggs and poultry for market.
Skilful breeders, with only room enough to raise a few
pure-bred fowls, like the painter on canvas, do best to
produce a few choice artistic productions, that bring fancy
prices ; but the breeder who engages extensively, if he breeds

102 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the stock demanded by practical producers, and is sufficiently
well known, can sell all he can raise at a good price, and
make the most money. The skilful fancier will have a great
advantage if he is on a farm instead of a village lot. If I
were going into the business to-day, to sell pure-bred breed-
ing stock, I should follow either plan, according to circum-
stances, and I think I could make more money than by
breeding poultry or eggs for market.

Every year there is more and more demand all over the
country for pure-bred males to improve stock, and every
year there will be a greater demand. I have a friend who
sold eighteen hundred dollars' worth of pure-bred cockerels
last season. There is a chance in this line, but not every
one is cut out for the work. Others will do better to let the
breeder improve and perfect, and regularly get their males
fi'om him. The male is the most important part of the flock.
I am out of all patience with this idea of buying the meanest,
cheapest specimen of pure-breds. Get the best, — not the
exhibition birds, but those having in the greatest excellence
the qualities you desire, and pay what you must to secure
them. A good bird at from two to five dollars is a wise in-
vestment, even for grading up common stock or making
crosses. If you reckon the difference it makes in the in-
crease in egg-production alone, you wdll be convinced. The
size and marketable qualities of the whole flock depend
greatly upon the superiority or inferiority of the male.

Producers of cattle, sheep and hogs for market have
found they usually get stronger animals and better market
stock by producing first crosses and high grades. By using
a male of the same breed year after year, we secure grades
that are hardy and have the qualities of the pure breed. If
males of difierent breeds are used each season, the stock
soon becomes rather inferior. The more they are mixed in
this way, the more breeds they are composed of, the worse
they become. By crossing two pure breeds that are very
dissimilar, we secure an increase in hardiness in the first
cross, as well as the special qualities of each breed in a
high degree. More of the chickens will live, and the feed-
ing power is also greater. These first crosses, the males
especially, should be marketed, never bred from.

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 103

Choice fowls that have been weakened by overfeeding,
confinement and overshowing, that would not give satisfac-
tion if bred pure, may sometimes be used with safety for
crossing. Hardy stock that has been on the farm for five
or six years is too good stock to throw away. I would
advise no market raiser to discard it entirely, and depend
upon pure-bred stock that he knew nothing about. I see
that lately the Guernsey Cattle Club, instead of advocating
that farmers keep nothing but pure-bred Guernsey, advo-
cate the use of Guernsey grades, made by breeding
Guernsey bulls with good cows, — that such are best for the
ordinary farmer. One of the leading wealthy fancy farmers
of New York State has recently imported a foreign breed of
cattle to cross with his Jerseys, because he finds he can get
better results than from the pure-bred cows.

It is well to remember that those who write and work
only to sell their pure-bred stock are not perfectly disin-
terested. An exhibition bird, especially if of the nervous,
active varieties, jaded by being sent around from show to
show, and perhaps bred from stock managed the same, is
not what a market poultry raiser should depend upon for
his season's crop. He has not only been severely taxed,
but during transportation has been exposed to various
diseases.

I am a fancier as well as a student of the commercial end
of the industry. I admire the beautiful in poultry. If I
were to say what I feel about White Leghorns, I might
make some people enthusiastic ; but I have seen the disad-
vantages as well as the advantages of fancy stock for the
farmer, therefore I give you this advice.

The Chairman. This subject is open for discussion, and
I hope you will ask questions.

Mr. Dunbar (of West Bridgewater) . Is it safe to feed
gluten meal to young fowls ?

Mr. CusHMAN. I do not hesitate to say I have fed very
little gluten meal. Many of the best producers do feed
gluten meal. I see a man right here who has fed a good
deal of it, and will ask Mr. James Rankin to answer the
question.

104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Mr. Rankin. We feed gluten meal in our common ra-
tion. I should not care to feed it exclusively to very
young chickens. It has a tendency to bring out a high
color in the skin of the chicken.

Question. What is the best and cheapest hen house for
a farmer with one hundred hens ?

Mr. CusHMAN. For the specialist I suppose the long hen
house with an aisle on the back is an excellent plan. My
preference to lessen labor and risk is colony houses scat-
tered about the place. I believe in larger flocks than a
great many advocate if kept in that way. My preference
would be to have two liuildings for one hundred hens, and
have it so they could range about the building. It would
make a difierence what breed was kept. If Rhode Island
Reds, I should prefer two buildings, the simpler the better.
A large poultryman whom I know spends about fifteen dol-
lars on a house. He builds them not very tight, they are
not shingled; the roofs are of boards, battened; there is a
door on the south ; no floor ; filled to the sills with earth,
to have it higher that the surrounding land. He keeps from
twenty to forty hens in each house. He does not get the
profit that a great many do who have yards. He has one
hundred such houses on his place, and has conducted the
business on that plan for a great many years, at least ten.
The average farmer, I believe, will do best to follow that
plan, rather than be obliged to do so much work every day.
Most of the farm poultrymen I have seen neglect to attend
to all the details.

A great many put too much glass into the houses. I
think a house the longest from north to south, and facing
the south with a glass in the south side, and an ordinary
door, and the depth of the house extending back, so the
fowls will roost in the back the greatest possible distance
from the window and the door, is a very good house. I do
not think if I were to build a house I would build dropping
boards. Build the roosts in such a way that the droppings
will fall on the floor. By putting a little board edgeways
in front of the roosts and throwing dirt or plaster on the
ground every little while, I believe you would be much
better off" than to have the dropping board under the roost.

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 105

If one will clean it off every day and put in fresh plaster,
it is all right, but hardly one out of ten of the average
poultry keepers would do it, and the flocks are, I believe,
considerably injured in health.

Question. If you keep fifty fowls, will they not do better
twenty-five in a yard ?

Mr. CusHMAN. I think they will, luit if they have full
liberty I am not afraid of even forty in a house. Specialists
in poultry keeping advise about ten or fifteen hens in a
space ten by fifteen feet, and they claim that that number
of fowls will give more eggs than double that number kept
in the same space. But that applies to fowls kept in con-
finement, and where the quarters are restricted. On the
farm I do not believe in that. I think if every farmer
takes that scheme up he will make a mistake. I believe
it is a mistake to kill the hens every year. I do not
believe in having Brahmas two or three years old, and
depend on them for laying, or Plymouth Rocks or Wyan-
dottes either, if forced or kept confined. A three-year-old
White Leghorn or a two-year-old Minorca is better than a
pullet.

Mr. S. S. Stetson (of Lakeville). Is there a disease
known as apoplexy? If so, the treatment?

Mr. CusHMAN. I think fowls have a great many diseases
that people have and that other animals have, and we have
to exercise the same judgment in treating them that we
would with animals. I think that trouble usually comes
about from overfeeding or not enough exercise. Giving
light feed, exercise and green grass is about as good a
scheme as you can follow. Any fowl much out of sorts had
better have its head cut ofl' and be put under ground. If a
hen once has any trouble there is always a tendency to have
that trouble, and the chickens are liable to have the same
trouble. If you buy a fowl that has had the roup, you may
not see any signs of the disease in the chickens, but they
will get the roup, while those whose ancestors have not had
it will not have even colds. The hardiness of stock is one
of the most important pomts of the whole business. Roup,
according to my experience, comes from a cold that is
neglected and does not get well. In most cases disease in

106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

poultry comes from overfeeding and lack of exercise and
lack of sanitary precautions.

Mr. Stetson. I raise Plymouth Rocks, and occasionally
find one dead.

Mr. CusHMAN. How do you feed them ?

Mr. Stetson. On wheat and a mixture of shorts and
other grains and a very little corn.

Mr. CusHMAN. Three times a day?

Mr. Stetson. Twice a day, morning and night. They
are confined somewhat, although they have quite an ex-
tensive range in a yard. They are in an orchard sheltered
by trees.

Mr. CusHMAN. In my opinion, these troubles come
about from overfeeding more than from anything else.
They get too fat and too sluggish, and like a person, have
this trouble. Plenty of green food will prevent that condi-
tion as well as anything. Some breeds are more troubled
by it than others.

Mr. F. W. Sargent (of Amesbury). I would like to
ask a question in regard to the Hamburg breed. I have
had some trouble with the chicks this year. I saw a very
pretty flock in my travels last spring, and, thinking they
would please my boy, I bought a setting of eggs, and after
carrying them a week in my travelling bag arrived home
with them. He set them, and, very much to my surprise,
they all hatched but one, but they did not seem to enjoy
life. They started off well, but the wings got very much
out of proportion. They grew faster than the body, and
the chicks began to die, and we saved only three out of the
lot. I know that breed quite often does that way. I would
like to know if there is any way to prevent it. I would
like to raise it, if I can.

Mr. CusHMAN. Overfeeding will cause it. Feeding too
much nitrogenous food will cause it. In incubator chickens,
having the wings grow too long is one of the greatest
troubles. The food that was given in this case would have
to be considered, whether they had free range on grass or
not. Sometimes getting wet in the morning will upset them
and put them out of condition. Hamburgs are more tender
than many other breeds.

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 107

Mr. Sargent. They were kept in equal circumstances
with Brahmas and Plymouth Rocks, and we had no trouble
with the others.

Mr. Crocker. Is sickness not owing more to breeding
of lice than any other cause except the lack of brains ?

Mr. CusHMAN. I think there are a great many poultry
keepers who have sick fowls covered with lice. They do
not realize that there are lice on the birds. I have been
called many times to breeder houses where the keeper
has had trouble with his fowls, and has done everything,
but has not been able to help them. I have found these
birds covered with lice. Many poultry keepers make a rule
to treat their fowls with Persian insect powder regularly.

Overfeeding will cause bowel trouble, and there are lots
of difi'erent things that will upset a chicken and cause that
condition. One could determine the cause better by look-
ing at the chickens than in any other wa3^ I am always
careful not to feed sloppy food, and to have everjrthing clean,
and always fresh water, and have the cups and dishes cleaned
every day. Feeding too much will sometimes cause bowel
trouble, or a little too much of a certain kind of food. I
watch the droppings, and change the food as necessary.

Mr. Walton Hall (of Marshfield). In regard to laying
hens, I would like to know the best possible breed for lay-
ers, how many to be kept in one flock, and the best building
for their comfort.

Mr. CusHMAN. There are so many diflerent buildings
and so many diflferent breeds I should hate to mislead any-
body. A very good building is one about ten by fifteen
feet, with an open shed attached of the same size. That is
a most excellent building. The very best breed, in my
opinion, for producing eggs the year around is the Black
Minorca. If you want market poultry, you have to give
that up. If you want brown eggs and a nice dressed fowl
at the same time, the White Wyandotte cannot be beaten.
I consider the White Wyandotte ahead of the Plymouth
Rock. If you want market poultry to bring the highest
price, you have to have a white or buff fowl. A house ten
by fifteen with a ten by fifteen shed ought to keep fifteen or
twenty fowls if they have range. You can keep a larger

108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

number of Leghorns than you can Brahmas or White Wyan-
dottes or Plymouth Rocks. Very active fowls can get so
much exercise in the daytime that they can get along in
smaller quarters at night, especially if they have an open
house or open cracks on one side. I do not believe in close
houses. Fowls can stand cold air all right. It is draughts
they do not like. If you shut them up tight, they get
tender and take cold easily. If you feed very hot messes
it has the same eifect. I do not believe in either. You get
more eggs, but more risk. I like to get rid of all chance
of disease that is possible, even if I do not get quite the
profit.

The farmer I mentioned has one hundred houses and
keeps three thousand fowls. They have just ordinary board
houses, without any matched boards, but they batten the
cracks on the sides, so there is no draught over them. Of
course he is a little nearer the sea than this is. There is
a man in New Hampshire who keeps three thousand in
houses like a tent, and one end is open all winter. It is
better to have them exposed to cold winter air than to have
them shut up and not have all the air they want.

Mr. Hall. Would you let poultry go on the ground,
whether there is any snow there or not ?

Mr. CusiLviAN. I think if there was a heavy snow I
should let them stay in the house. I think, if you can dig
five or six feet square in front of the house, it is very de-
sirable. I do not like to have them on the snow. In New
Hampshire they have snow so that the hens have to stay in
weeks at a time.

Question. Would the shed houses be better than houses
in the side of a hill ?

Mr. CusHMAN. If you can keep them from getting damp,
such houses are very good. I have seen a great many fowls
kept in that way, and I think they lay better if partly
underground in the coldest weather, if it is perfectly dry,
than they do above ground. I think you get more eggs
when eggs are highest if partly underground. But if water
is going to come in and wet the floor, and you keep Leg-
horns, you are going to get into trouble.

Mr. . I know a poultryman who builds cheap houses

No. 4.] MODERN POULTEY CULTURE. 109

for summer, costing three dollars each. They are arranged
so two men can move them to any desired location.

Mr. CusHMAN. I think that is a good plan. Each man
has to have a little different arrangement. I do not believe
in advising ever}'' one to do the same thing. There is a
great deal to do, and people who think they can go into it
without studying it at all are going to make mistakes with
the competition we have now. Out west they are buying
pure-bred poultry, raising stock from it and shipping it east
and the farmers here who are not up to date are getting as
low prices for what they raise here as that raised on cheap
grain in the west. How can they keep it up ? We can get
the gilt-edge prices only by having something better than
the western product, b}^ having the eggs turned into Boston
market twelve hours old, as Mr. Collingwood said in regard
to strawberries.

Mr. Griffin (of Brockton). I have had several people
come to me and ask my advice about roup, and I always
tell them I think it is cheaper to dispose of the fowl. They
will say the fowls cost them a big price. I would like to
know if your advice would be to kill these fowls.

Mr. CusHMAN. When I bred white Leghorns and got
fifteen dollars for some of them, I hated to do it. A little
trouble along the roup line may be cured, but if it hangs
along it will go all through the fowl and injure it so that it
will never be as good again.

Mr. Griffin. What would be the best cure?

Mr. CusHMAN. The first thing I would disinfect the
nostrils with some solution like carbolic acid and water or
carbolic acid and sweet oil to kill the germs ; then treat
with something that is astringent, to check the discharge
and enable the fowl to get over the cold. A good many
use quinine pills, the same as for themselves, but do not
give as large a dose.

It is hard work to overfeed a Leghorn at liberty. I have
had one or two hundred in the winter taken with the roup.
I do not want any more. By careful prevention you can
get along all right with most anything. After you have
once got the roup into a flock, it is likely to go through
them all. If every one would take away and kill and bury

110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the first sick fowl, it would save a great deal of trouble. A
roupy fowl will give it to other fowls, if they drink from
the same receptacle. A vigorous, healthy fowl is not
likely to catch disease, but a weakened one will, the same
as with people and animals.

Mr. Turner (of Dighton). Is it profitable to feed wheat
to fall chickens or laying hens at the present price ?

Mr. CusHMAN. I should feed a little wheat. I believe it
is a most excellent egg-producer. We can feed gluten and
beef scraps to take the place of wheat. Wheat bran, beef
scraps, gluten and corn meal will enable any one to get
along without much wheat.

Mr. Turner. How would you feed clover?

Mr. CusHMAN. I believe in feeding it growing on the
ground. One can cut up cured clover and mix it with the
soft mess, but the latter should not be too soft. My expe-
rience has been that this is the best method. Cut fine and
fed soaked or dry it is very acceptable.

Mr. King. I would like to hear something about the
good qualities of the Rhode Island Red.

Mr. CusHMAN. It has not been bred for exhibition. It
is a buff fowl, probably originated from the old Cochin-
Chinas, some of the Leghorn varieties being crossed in and
perhaps a little Game. They are unusually hardy and
vigorous, and are hustlers. They have yellow legs and
flesh, and when dressed make very good table poultry.
Being a buff breed, they dress about as well as if white.
They are a most excellent fowl. The egg is light brown,
about like the Wyandotte. The three-year-old hens lay the
largest eggs for their size of anything I know of.

Mr. KmG. Is it large, or small?

Mr. CusHMAN. It is a little larger than the Leghorn, but
more stocky. It is nearer the Wyandotte than almost any-
thing else. The buff Plymouth Rock and buff Wyandotte
are made from the Rhode Island Red. I should rather to-
day, if I were going into the farm poultry business, have a
stock of Rhode Island Reds to grade up on than anything
else I know of, because they are so hardy.

There is a gentleman here who has been breeding a
breed of hens very much like the Rhode Island Reds, that

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. Ill

are hardy, and I think they have qualities that are better.

I refer to Mr. B . Perhaps he can tell something

about it.

Mr. B . The fowl is the Golden Sundown. It is

bred in this way : I take a light Brahma, Plymouth Rock,
Brown Leghorn and the Game. I have been breeding them
for thirteen years. They are good layers, are hardy and a
good table fowl. I came to the conclusion that I could get
a breed by a combination of the four best breeds I knew of.
I thought I could bring out what I have brought out.

Mr. W. B. Barton (of Dalton). We have Dr. Twitchell
with us, and I would like to hear from him.

Dr. Twitchell. Somehow, Mr. Chairman, ladies and
gentlemen, when I get into an audience where I find as
many " hen" men as there are here to-day 1 feel as I sup-
pose a good Methodist does when he gets into a good warm
camp meeting, — very much at home. I have thoroughly
enjoyed the valuable suggestions presented to us by the
speaker this afternoon. I enjoy the discussion which fol-
lows, and the questions which are presented from the
audience. This poultry industry is a many-sided industry.
They tell the story down in Maine of a Sunday-school
teacher who numbered the questions in a catechism and
gave each boy in her class one question, and told them
to prepare themselves to answer the questions at the con-
cert. They learned the answers, and when the time came
for the concert she got the children on the platform, and
did not notice that boy Number 1 was missing. She said,
"Johnnie, who made you?" Nobody answered. She re-
peated the question, and boy Number 2 said, "Please
marm, I was made out of the dust of the earth. The boy
that God made had a stomach-ache and could not come."
Yie are apt to think we can answer one question only in
this industry. We look at one side of the picture and see
it from our own point of view. I thought of that as we
have been discussing this question. The questions would
indicate to me the fact that the questioner favors some one
breed. The breeds are just what men make them. We
have taken them and built on them, and out of them in the
years have come the many breeds which are to-day so

112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

valuable to us, and from which we can select the ones best
suited to us, as the speaker so well said. I do not believe
a farmer can take a Rhode Island Red and a Plymouth Rock
and be equally successful. We should carry in our minds
continually the method in which they came, — the thought
of the men who have been behind the making of these
birds, the type which they represent. Mr. Cushman hinted
at that when he spoke of the beef type. I am going to put
against that the dairy type. You can trace it down through
the whole animal kingdom. I do not know but it is so with
man. When you find a producing animal, one always giving
out, you find the dairy type. When you find the type that
gathers in and stores up for its own benefit, it is the beef
type. Divide on that general line, then sub-divide according
to your fancy, and you have the breed best adapted to you.
First a variation, then a tendency, then a habit ; when we
get a habit we have fixed the type. It is the man behind
the breed always which fixes the type. I do not believe
every man is expected to be a successful hen breeder. It
takes a great deal of a man to be a successful " hen " man.
There is only one James Rankin on this continent. He is a
marked illustration of what man has been doing and can
continually do. I mention this because he has stimulated
others, and his influence is felt where he has never been
seen, because of his daily experience, his investigations and
the results which he has obtained, and the whole thing has
hinged upon his appreciation of the duck. A man who
appreciates a duck has got to be quite a man, I assure you.
If my wife were here, she would tell a story; I am glad
she is not here.

In regard to roup, the killing of the first hen, the pre-
vention of the first symptom of disease, is the only absolute
cure. Down in Maine we cannot have open barns. I have
already seen the thermometer fifteen degrees below zero
this year, and an open shed would be hardly the thing to
keep poultry in.

I was glad to hear Mr. Cushman emphasize colonizing.

In reference to the matter of adaptation : John Randolph
would go half a mile to kick a sheep. He never would be
successful in raising young lambs for Boston market. There

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 113

was an old lady of whom we tell the story in Maine who
borrowed a setting hen and went to another neighbor and
borrowed a dozen of eggs. She put them together, and in
due time the chickens appeared. After a few weeks the hen
weaned the chickens and the old lady kept the hen until she
had laid a dozen eggs, then returned the borrowed eggs
and carried back the hen and had the chickens left. That
woman will make a success in the hen business. That i-s
what I mean by adaptation. It makes but little difference
what breed you take. Having in 3^our mind a distinct type,
make your selection of breeds and build for type, making
color and fancy markings secondary. I believe, and have
urged it many times, what Mr. Cushman has said about
selecting hens from your flacks and using a pure-bred male.
I believe this is the course to be pursued, unless you desire
to enter the field of the specialist, — take what you have
and build upon it. When you have made your first cross,
then year after year lift that cross by using a male of the
same breed until you have established your breed.

Secretary Sessions. You would not object to the Rhode
Island Red for that ?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. I would not object to any breed fixed
by this method in its characteristics. I would not object to
your going into your flock and selecting your best hens for
1898, and then buying a male of the same type, using ever
after a pure-bred male of the same breed.

I have in mind a friend in the State of Maine who keeps
about eleven hundred hens. It is eighteen years since I
first started him in business. He raises three thousand
chickens yearly. They are hatched by hens and raised in
barrels. His farm and buildings would not sell for twenty-
five hundred dollars. He is twelve miles from a shipping
town on the extreme eastern coast of the State of Maine.
And yet that man has realized a net profit of one dollar and
twenty-five cents per head per hen yearly. He has Barred
Plymouth Rocks, and has bred them all these years, simply
introducing new blood. He has taken what he could get
for poultry, eggs being the central thought.

I have another friend who carries about a thousand hens.
His buildings are about twelve by twenty feet, and set so

114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the hens can get to the ground underneath, but has a second
floor with room enough for him to pass through himself. He
carries about fifty hens to the building. The buildings are
set about fifty rods apart. The hens mix in the daytime, but
are home at night and in their pens. That man has realized
a net income from that flock of more than a thousand dol-
lars a year for his labor. He has not Boston or Taunton
market at hand. His product has to be shipped two hun-
dred miles. The other gentleman has to ship by boat from
Eastport. There is no industry in my knowledge where
there is such an opportunity to-day for the man or woman
who has a liking for it to realize as much on the expenditure
as in the making of eggs and poultry.

Mr. CusHiMAN. What is your experience in regard to
killing hens the first, second or third year?

Dr. TwiTCHELL. My impression is that there is more
money in killing birds when about fifteen months old and
selling them for spring chickens than in keeping them longer.
There is always a time, between hay and grass, when things
are in demand, and chickens that are hatched in March or
the first of April will go through the year and finish their
laying about the next June, and if they are fed for business,
and are not fat, will sell very close to chicken prices. This
has been my experience, and I am always ready to take
the chicken prices. I do not question that hens can be
profitably kept three or four years. Something depends on
the breed.

Mr. James Rankin. I confess feeling a little hurt. I
cannot understand why my name is always associated with
that of the duck. I do not want these people to understand
that I raise only ducks. I raise hens, — all kinds of them.
I have crossed and recrossed them for some time, and I find
that there is nothing that will respond to kind and gentle
treatment sooner than a hen. After the war I sold chickens
for fifty cents a pound. My neighbors went into the busi-
ness, and cut the prices down. Then I branched off" onto
ducks. When they commence raising ducks, I do not know
what I shall do unless I take turkeys.

To go back to poultry raising, I will endorse what the
gentleman has said, — there is no farm product that will

No. 4.] MODERN POULTRY CULTURE. 115

make such bountiful returns as poultry. You can turn it
every three months. It is a cash product, a concentrated
product. I can grow a pound of chicken or duck just as
cheaply as I can grow a pound of beef or pork, and a little
cheaper, and it will command three times as much on the
market. We grow a surplus of wheat and corn, but we do
not grow enough poultry for home use. We import large
quantities of eggs from Sweden. We ship corn to Europe,
and they return it to us in eggs.

In regard to the number of fowls to be kept in one build-
ing, I think Mr. Cushman went hardly far enough. If one
is an amateur, a pair of fowls is all that he should be en-
trusted with ; if he is an expert, he can easily keep fifty in
one building. I do not like the word " disinfectant." They
should be kept clean enough without disinfecting.

Question. Are not Black Leghorns a good fowl ? Are
they not hardier than the White Leghorns ?

Mr. Cushman. I think any black fowl is hardier than a
white fowl, other conditions being equal. The only reason
I prefer White Leghorns to any other Leghorn is that a
yellow-legged fowl will sell best in market. For myself,
I had just as soon have a black-legged fowl to eat, if it is
plump. We do not know but the market will change, and
call for black-legged fowls. The Black Leghorn will lay
more eggs, but smaller, than the Black Minorca. A Leg-
horn does not amount to much when you kill it. If one
eats his own fowls, it does not matter what the market calls
for. But if fowls are raised for the market we have to
change as the market changes, no matter how unreasonable
the fancies and fads are. I do not believe there is a man
living who knows all the good and all the bad qualities of
all the different breeds. They will act differently in differ-
ent climates. I would not say I could describe six breeds,
and not be wrong. I bred White Leghorns for ten years for
exhibition, and perhaps I am a little in favor of White
Leghorns, for that reason. I think the Black Leghorn is
hardier than the White Leghorn.

Secretary Sessions. The president of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers' Association requests me to state that there
will be a meeting of the directors of the association to-

116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

morrow morning at the hotel at 8 o'clock. The time of
the banquet this evening will be as nearly 7 o'clock as
possible.

Adjourned at 4 p.m.

On Wednesday evening a banquet was given the State
Board of Agriculture in Odd Fellows' Hall b}^ the Taunton
Board of Trade. After the banquet speeches were made by
General Curtis Guild, Jr., representing the Commonwealth,
Dr. Geo. M. Twitchell of Maine, Hon. T. S. Gold of Con-
necticut, Mr. Walter F. Taber of New York, Mr. H. W.
Collingwood of New Jersey and Messrs. E. W. Wood, Hall,
Ellsworth and Sessions of the State Board of Agriculture.
Judge Hall of Taunton ably filled the position of toast
master. The occasion was well planned and was thoroughly
enjoyed.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 117

THIRD DAY.

The meeting was called to order at 10.15 a.m. by Secre-
tary Sessions, who said: Mr. E. W. Wood, vice-president
of the Board, a man as well posted on fruit as any member
of the Board, will preside at this meeting. The members of
the Board feel that they will be honored and favored by the
presence of our chosen vice-president in the chair. He has
very modestly and courteously avoided presiding heretofore,
and has named various gentlemen to fill the chair, and they
have all done well ; but we depend on the ' ' war-horse " this
morning.

The Chairman. Gentlemen : The committee has selected
for this forenoon's discussion a subject which, perhaps, is
the most interesting question to the horticulturists of this
section. While we have good growers of the strawberry in
many parts of the State, while we may claim to grow as
good fruits of that kind as any State in the Union, it still is
desirable to rub up against men from other portions of the
country. They may have some new method, as they are
constantly changing, that would be of benefit to the practical
growers in this vicinity ; and your committee has invited a
man of large experience in the growing of small fruits, and
a practical man, to address you this morning on the subject
of small fruits. I have the pleasure of introducing to you
Mr. W. F. Taber, president of the Eastern New York Hor-
ticultural Society, who will address you on that subject.

Mr. Taber. Ladies and gentlemen : As I looked out this
morning and saw the sun shining over the eastern hills, I
thought of the contrast and of the changes which had taken
place since, about one hundred and fifty years ago, the
Quakers, of whom I am a representative, were driven out of
Massachusetts to take refuge where my ancestors took refuge,
— in the State of New York. Received as I have been in
this community, there certainly is a great change. Perhaps
it is partly due to my ancestors having located upon land
adjoining the Connecticut line and my having received an
education partly in Litchfield. I have also taught school in
Connecticut. There is no line that divides us. We are
brethren. We meet here this morning to discuss a subject

118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

full of interest, and becoming more and more of interest as
we grow older. I am aware that I am talking to men who
have been in this business longer than I, and when your
secretary invited me to come before you and talk on this
subject, I was at a loss to decide as to what I could say
upon it.

As the manuscript is required for the use of the Board of
Agriculture, you will pardon me if I read from the notes I
have made.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 119

IlAisiNCi AND Marketing of Fruit.

BY WALTER F. TABER, POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y.

Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen : The subject upon
which I have been requested to address you, although it per-
tains principally to small fruits, is no small subject.

The business of fruit growing has attained to magnificent
proportions. Fruit by the car load is more common than
was fruit by the wagon load and I may say by the back load
in my boyhood days, for the fruit then was like Topsy, —
" it just growed."

The command given to Adam to dress and keep the gar-
den was in those days but poorly obeyed, but it holds good
and is applicable to every student of horticulture at the
present time. Truly speaking, man cannot grow fruit, but
a Power beyond the power of man is necessary to carry for-
ward all the changes from bud to leaf, from flower to fruit : —

To paint the leaf in living green,
The blush on tiny blossom seen,
The roseate tint, the crimson hue
That's painted by the Master's hand, —
Man does not, cannot e'er command.

How has he done this? By selection, by hybridization,
by fertilization and proper cultivation, and in later years
by intelligent care and vigorous application of every known
remedy to repel and destroy insect life and fungous growths
that seem to multiply with each succeeding year.

This subject is so broad and so much has been said and
written that it seems almost superfluous for me to attempt
to say anything new or instructive upon fruit growing ; but,
as I scan the pages of our horticultural and agricultural
papers, I find recorded there the methods })ursued and the

120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

results obtained in their various experiments in fruit culture
of persons in different sections of our country, and so varied
are these that the thought arises that possibly 1 may shed
some light upon the otherwise unknown causes of failure in
securing adequate compensation for the labor expended in
the production of crops.

I have found that the only way I could determine the
value of any particular kind of fruit, to me, was to grow it
on my own soil, as there seems to be many kinds that are
like some people, very particular, and even fail to respond
to good treatment. I am successful in growing some kinds
of fruit that cannot be grown two miles away because of
difference in soil.

Believing that successful experimenting teaches a better
lesson than any theory that may be presented, I trust you
will not think me egotistical if I draw from the records of
my own experience some results in confirmation of what I
may say in the further consideration of this subject.

The three o:reat essentials that underlie the successful
ofrowing: of fruit are : character and fertilitv of soil, selection
of varieties, and proper cultivation.

Just as sure as it is necessary to build a good foundation
under a house in order to insure its safety and permanence,
just so sure will it pay to prepare the soil in the very best
manner by fertilization and deep and thorough pulveriza-
tion before setting our plants or trees. My experience has
shown me that we do not work our soils deep enough nor
often enough for best results ; and this view is borne out by
the experiments of others, notably Professor Roberts of
Cornell University, who, on fairly good land, as he tells
us, without manure, increased the 3deld of potatoes thirty
bushels per acre by two extra cultivations and sixty bushels
by four extra cultivations. This was on gravelly soil, sixty
per cent sand, which was not retentive of moisture, but had
plenty of the mineral elements. This was in 1896. Again,
the past season, 1897, he has obtained three hundred bushels
per acre from this same land by cultivating seven times, and
ninety per cent of the crop was marketable. Contrast this
with results in a neighboring field, where but one hundred
bushels were grown, fifty per cent being marketable.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 121

The second of these essentials is the selection of varieties.
They must be selected with due regard to adaptation of soil,
the demands of the particular market where the fruit will be
sold, and the location of the individual grower.

The person who can place his fruit upon the market or in
the dealers' hands without the aid of transportation com-
panies or commission men has superior advantages, not only
in saving to himself these charges and commissions, but he
can grow and place upon the market in fine condition many
very attractive fruits that will not be salable when subjected
to the handling that our fruits often receive.

The subject of proper cultivation I will treat further on,
as I want here to call your attention to the formative ele-
ments of earth, air and water, and recognize the essential
importance of each as pertaining to the growth of plants.

We recognize the fact that the virgin soil responds to the
cultivator's art and rewards the toil of the husbandman.
Why? Because every element necessary for plant growth
is stored up within it. The chemist has resolved these
elements into the three forms of potash, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen, ignoring some of the baser but no less indispen-
sable elements that enter into the composition of plants or
form the medium through which the activities of these
three most essential elements are brought into a condition
necessary for plant growth.

Go with me to yonder forest, and note the luxuriant
foliage and healthy growth of those stately trees. What is
it that supports them ? I answer loater and humus. By the
aid of decaying leaves and wood a reservoir is formed to
hold the moisture in the soil, to dissolve its mineral elements
for its material growth, while the millions of open mouths
that their leaves present absorb the dews from heaven and
the free nitrogen of the air. Herein we see the operation
of the laws of nature, and the cultivator is wise who takes
note of these and conforms his methods in accordance with
them.

What is it that causes our hillsides and valleys in the
wooded sections of our country to be clothed in living
green? Water. What is it that makes our broad plains
arid? The absence of water. Water, then, is the synonym

122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

for life. Without it death comes to every living thing, be
it animate or inanimate. No man of ordinary intelligence
but knows enough of the methods in the laboratory of
nature to understand that all plant food mu»t be rendered
soluble before it can be assimilated by the plant ; therefore
all fertilizers of every name and nature are dependent upon
water to render them available. Therefore the first thought
of the cultivator of the soil should be, How best can I secure
the necessary moisture to enable the plant to fulfil its
mission ?

I am not here to-day to explain to you how this may be
done by some system of irrigation, although I believe that
the day is not far distant when our streams and lakes shall
be made to minister to the needs of the growing plant. In
proof of my faith in this I put in an irrigation plant last
spring, a fourteen horse-power gasoline engine (New Era) ,
and a rotary pump capable of pumping three hundred gal-
lons per minute, but the season was such that it was not
needed. In fact, some of my strawberry grounds were
flooded at times ; and just here comes in one of the advan-
tages secured by the system which I shall proceed to show
you as one of the ways, and one available to every man who
tills the soil, of conserving and retaining the moisture in it
for the uses of the plant.

Let us consider for a few moments the character of very
much of the soil that we see in travelling over the country.
Is it not a recognized fact that very much of it is compact
and hard? A compact soil is necessarily a dry one. Water
may fall upon it, but it will not be absorbed because of the
lack of vegetable matter, humus, to render it porous by
being incorporated with the soil by proper cultivation, which
must be done before it can be made productive.

Humus or vegetable matter thus becomes the key that
unlocks the resources of nature and enables that other
element, the air, to permeate the soil and deposit its mois-
ture, starting into activity what Professor Roberts so aptly
terms " our invisible friends," the microbes, and acting upoji
the mineral elements renders them soluble and food for
plants. The amount of moisture stored up in this way
must depend upon the depth of soil that is rendered porous

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 123

and permeable to the atmosphere, and the finer the soil is
made the more moisture it will retain.

My experience has led me to deepen my cultivation until
most of my land, a slaty clay soil, has been worked twelve
inches in depth. This serves a double purpose, especially
upon nearly level land : first, by storing up the moisture for
plant growth; and, second, in times of heavy rainfall to
absorb large quantities and to quickly carry away the sur-
plus, by its capacity for drainage, from the roots of small
plants that might otherwise suffer from the excessive supply.

I have one field that when first purchased destroyed one
crop by drought and another by flooding, which is now able '
to withstand both these elements because of deep cultivation
and the incorporation into it of large quantities of vegetable
matter.

How can we best and most cheaply supply this vegetable
matter to the soil? In my experience, it has been by
ploughing under in a green state such crops as clover, oats
and peas, rye and buckwheat, as time and opportunity ofier.
Clover undoubtedly stands at the head, because of its ability
to go down deep into the soil and bring up fertility from
below, and also to store up the free nitrogen .of the air
through the germ life that works upon the roots of the plant.
Crimson clover, wherever it can be grown, is one of the
most active agencies in restoring fertility to the soil. I have
received much benefit from it, and would recommend it in
vineyard and orchard culture as a cover crop during the
winter and for its efiects upon the soil, as will be shown
later on.

I have had excellent results from ploughing under heavy
crops of both clover and rye during the three dry seasons
previous to the last. About the 1st of June, 1894, I
ploughed under a heavy growth of clover, rolled the ground
and planted to sweet corn. No rain of any account fell
upon it after planting. The corn started slowly, but when
its roots got hold of the decomposing vegetable matter its
growth was very rapid, and more luxuriant, healthy growth
you never saw, and the outcome was a crop that paid me
over one hundred dollars per acre. The same season I had
a field of rye as thick as it could stand and eighteen inches

124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

in height ploughed under one foot deep, and the land rolled
and thoroughly compacted, as it was a loose black soil, the
particles being round like shot and becoming entirely desti-
tute of moisture under a hot sun. This was set to 'Straw-
berries. A few showers set them into growing, after which,
from about the middle of June to the 1st of September, no
rain fell on them. On September 1 each plant set had sent
out runners upon which had grown from fifteen to twenty-
five as strong, healthy plants as you ever saw, but not a root
on tliem^ as this black soil to the depth of two or three
inches was as dry as dust. These plants were sustained by
the parent plant drawing up moisture from the decomposing
mass of rye that was ploughed under. In two weeks from
the time the first rain came upon them they were all rooted,
showing the efficacy and power of water.

Pardon me if I have dwelt too long upon this part of the
subject, the preparation of the soil, for I deem it of great
importance. Now, having prepared our soil properly, we
can proceed to plant with a consciousness of duty done ;
and as we walk by faith with the star of hope to guide, let
us take up the work as the season opens upon us.

The currant and the raspberry are the first to start in the
spring. I therefore recommend to plant these in the fall,
the currant in hills five feet each way, the raspberry in rows
five feet apart and three feet in the row. No pruning or
trimming is required the first year. Set stakes to rasp-
berries, and in the following spring cut out old canes and
thin plants to four or five in a hill after the first year.
Keep currant bushes upright and thin, leaving no wood
more than three years old to bear fruit. The perfect red
raspberry is not in sight, unless it be some sort not yet fully
tried. I succeed very well with the Marlboro, but I
know of many who do not succeed. Miller's Red has not
done well with me except in growing plants. I am favor-
a])ly impressed with the Loudon, but have not fruited them
in sufiicient quantity to judge. The plant is very strong
and healthy. The Royal Church is a good table berry, but
crumbles easily and is too soft for market. The Columbian
is a great grower and i)roducer, l>ut I cannot sell it : it is
too dark for my market.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 125

Black Caps I set in the spring, five feet by three feet.
After trying various methods of training, we now use
posts and two wires, one each side of the row, which are
stapled to posts set along the row at intervals of fifty feet,
then bring the wires together every ten feet and tie. No
tying of canes is necessary. You who have not seen this
system tried may think it is a great deal of work, and I
thought it would be when I first concluded to try it. But
we found we could do the work a great deal quicker than
we could tie the canes to the wires, and when they were
once there they were safe. They would not fall down.
We use No. 11 grape wire. I have found the Souheganthe
most productive early black cap, and I prefer the Nemaha
to the Gregg for late, although I am growing both.

Blackberries must next be attended to, as they start early.
I have the Erie, the Minnewaska and the Eldorado, but have
not fruited the latter. I have formerly grown others. I set
them in rows eight feet apart and three feet in the row. I
prefer setting posts and stretching a wire on each side of
the row, stapling to the posts and tying the wires together
the same as with black caps. There is then no tying of canes
and no falling or blowing down. Top the shoots when about
three feet high, and keep cut back so you can pick the fruit.
Keep the space between the rows clear. Be boss all the
time, or they will boss you.

There is a seedling of the Lawton that is better than the
Lawton. It is found down in the lower part of Westchester
County of my State. The Snyder is a good, sweet berry,
and is perfectly hardy. You can rely on that, but there are
two troubles with it. After the first few pickings, especially
if the weather is dry, it becomes too small to sell, and it
will turn brown very soon after being picked. That is the
worst feature of it. You must fertilize that berry and treat
it first-rate if you want to get a good berry. I have not
grown the Agawam. I had not thought it superior to
others, and I do not want too many varieties. It is said to
be much sweeter than the Snyder.

We now come to the time to prepare the soil for the
planting of small fruits, and as only last week I had an
inquiry to answer through the columns of the ' ' Rural New

126 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Yorker," coming from a subscriber in this State, as to what
were the best tools to use in the cultivation of raspberries
and blackberries, I have thought that perhaps it would be
proper to state what tools I use and have found best suited
for the work in growing fruit.

A few days ago there came to me a notice of a proposed
publication entitled " Fifty years' improvements in farm-
ing," and my memory recalled the wrestling feats I and the
old plough had more than fifty years ago ; and as I look
adown the years and see the changes wrought, sometimes
for the better and sometimes not, I see the soft iron changed
to adamant and that supplemented by the steel, and last
with wheels and pole man sits astride with power to hold
and guide.

After using all the other kinds of ploughs, I have been
obliged to buy and use a reversible sulky plough in order to
have the work done as I wanted it done, in order to lay
the foundation for the after-culture that I consider neces-
sary. This plough, when properly used, takes precedence
of any and all other tools. With this plough I can loosen
the soil to the depth of twelve inches or more, and, if in
proper condition, pulverize it as no other plough can. It
lifts the furrow and turns it from the mould board, the
under edge of which pulverizes the surface as no other
plough can. It avoids making dead furrows and the tramp-
ing of the ploughed ground in turning. I hesitate to tell
you what I have seen it do. My son was ploughing corn
stubble for setting black caps. I took measurements of
depth of furrow, which was twelve inches. This same fur-
row, when left by the plough, was eighteen inches in depth.
One great advantage in its use is that, whether the ground
be mellow or hard, it cuts an even depth of furrow, and,
being very high under the beam, it does not clog in turning
under strawy manure or green crops. I use with this
plough fourteen-inch rolling steel coulters.

The next implement in order is the Cutaway harrow.
This will cut and turn the soil from four to six inches in
depth, and, unlike any other harrow, it covers M?itZer instead
of bringing to the surface coarse material, I next use a sec-

No. 4.] FKUIT CULTUEE. 127

tional all-steel harrow, with lever, so it can be adjusted to
use as a spike tooth or smoothing harrow.

To complete the work, 1 use the planker. This I made
of two-inch white oak plank, ten inches wide and eight feet
long. Lap the planks two and one-half inches, and bolt with
one-half inch bolts at each end and in the middle. Use five or
six of the plank. Attach a bail wire or chain in two places on
the front, and draw diagonal enough to prevent clogging.
Either weight with stone or ride it. I prefer the planker
to the roller. The roller compresses the land just as it finds
it ; but this planker fills the holes, makes it level, presses
the stone into the soil and leaves a fine mulch on the sur-
face. You will see that I use the plough. I believe in
keeping the roots of all plants down in the ground, where
they will have moisture. One of the difiiculties in mulching
is that you bring the roots of the plants to the surface, and
if they are subjected to the action of drought they are
afiected very much sooner.

For cultivation of my vmeyard I use the No. 5 vineyard
plough, with adjustable beam and handles. This is also
used in the spring between rows of blackberries, raspberries,
currants and other small bushes or trees. I have four kinds
of cultivators. The common five-tooth, with shovel teeth,
winged thistle teeth and the long-winged coverers, used in
hilling, is good for heavy work, where you need to break up
the soil. The next is the spring tooth, very serviceable
after ploughing between the berry and grape rows to level
and make the soil fine. It is a general-purpose cultivator,
but for cultivating between rows of newly set plants I use
the twelve-tooth Planet Junior and the fourteen-tooth Iron
Age. With these you can work very close to the plants
without covering them or disturbing their roots. After the
plants have rooted somewhat I use the Breed's Weeder to
break the crust over the entire surface.

Though not absolutely essential, I find the Mackenny
fertilizer sower, made in this State, a very great aid in fer-
tilizing rows or drills. The Kemp manure spreader is a
valuable aid in broad-casting manure and in covering straw-
berry rows with a manure mulch for winter protection.

128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Now, having ploughed, harrowed, smoothed and com-
pacted the ground, we will make ready for the planting of
the queen of fruits, — the strawberry. I mark my ground
with a corn marker with rows four feet apart, and, with a
fertilizer sower sowing two rows at a time, I distribute the
fertilizer in beds two feet wide, leaving two feet between
unfertilized, I now harrow and plank it again. If the
work is well done, the ground will be as smooth as a board
floor, and the dust mulch which it now has on the surface
will prevent evaporation of moisture. In this compacted
soil you may set your plants with an almost certainty of
their living. I have found no way of setting strawberry
plants as satisfactory as with a line and garden trowel.

I assume that the question of varieties to plant has been
settled, and the plants are at hand. In deciding this ques-
tion, location and nearness to market play an important
part. Those who can deliver their fruit to the dealer or
consumer can meet their tastes and demands by proper
selection of varieties. The markets are calling for large,
showy berries, and quality is being sacrificed to size and
beauty. Then grow the big berries if your land is adapted
to them ; but, if you must ship your berries by railroad or
boat, then firmness is the dominant quality, for they are
sometimes subjected to rough usage and positive abuse at
the hands of transportation companies and truckmen.

There is no strawberry with which I am acquainted that
when grown as it grows with me presents so many desirable
qualities of form, size, color, flavor and keeping and shipping
qualities as Gaudy's Prize. I sent a crate of them to the
World's Fair at Chicago, and every berry went on the plates
and remained on exhibition for nine days. And yet it is
fickle and peculiar in its likes and dislikes. Many of the
best frait growers in the Hudson valley cannot make it
profitable, being unproductive on their soil. The same may
be said of the famous Marshall from this State. It succeeds
splendidly in some places, but is worthless in other places.
I saw Mr. J. H. Hale's trial beds of forty-three varieties on
June 15 last, and the sixteen hills of the Marshall did not
have as much fruit on them as one hill should have, while
beside it were varieties heavily loaded, and in the field it

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 129

was badly rusted. I hope it may do better with me, as it
has made a strong, healthy growth.

I set four thousand plants of the Brandy wine in May,
1896. They surpassed all others in vigor of plant growth
and clean, healthy foliage. There were taken from these
rows last spring more than forty thousand plants. The first
berries that ripened were splendid in size, color and quality,
but later they were smaller, owing, I believe, to there being
too many plants in the beds. I shall have an opportunity
another season of testing it under difierent conditions, as I
have the one-half acre of old beds, one-half acre set last
spring and one-half acre in hills transplanted in August.

I fruited the Rio last season, a handsome early berry of
good quality. It blossomed profusely, but frost lessened
the production, so I could not judge it fairly. The Noble
and the Eleanor I found of fine form and color, of superior
flavor and excellent for the home garden. The Eureka,
Sunrise, Sunny side and Leader have nothing to commend
them above the Bubach, Greenville, Jesse and others of the
older varieties. I have growing, but have not fruited, the
Clyde, Bismarck, Glen-Mary, Hunn and Michigan. I plant
five or six of the new varieties each year that are so highly
extolled in the catalogues, and sometimes get one or two
good enough to keep.

Now, assuming that the plants are set, start the twelve-
tooth cultivator, and as soon as the roots have taken hold
of the soil, the weeder, loosening only the surface soil and
killing the weeds before they grow. As some kinds are
such plant makers that the row is likely to be too wide,
fasten two rolling-wheel coulters to the wings of a five-tooth
cultivator, set it the proper width, add weight sufficient to
make the coulters penetrate the ground three or four inches,
drive between the rows and cut the runners and bury the
ends. After the ground freezes, cover to keep the frost in
and protect against sudden changes. I use short, strawy
horse manure from the city stables, and apply evenly with
a Kemp manure spreader, the back part being contracted
to deliver it about three feet wide.

Much is being said and written about cultural methods,
particularly for the strawberry. Statements arc published

130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

of enormous yields, but the most surprising statement is
that a crop of strawberries can be produced as cheaply as
any farm crop, not even excepting ruta-bagas. The same
person tells us that potash and bone and ammonia as found
outside of stable manure are burning manures^ that burn the
roots of our plants and fail to make them grow. From the
same source I learn that ashes are almost pure potash. I
think there are many fruit growers here that would like to
know where they could buy such ashes, or even those that
would analyze ten per cent potash, and take all the chances
of burning up their crops. Maybe it is for want of all this
knowledge that I have continued growing most of my fruits
with commercial fertilizers in years past. This I have done
because I have found it cheaper to use them than to buy
stable manure.

I do not think I can bring an acre of strawberries up to
picking time for less than $100 per acre on my soil, and ex-
pect to get paying returns. The best results were in 1893,
when the sales from four and one-half acres of strawberries
amounted to $2,378, over $530 per acre, besides what were
consumed by the famil3^ I received last year, 1890, from
one acre of blackberries, $420 ; from live-eighths of an acre
of Souhegan black caps, $427 ; and from one acre of Marl-
boro raspberries, $350.

I alwaj's plant in the spring, excepting currants and red
raspberries, which I prefer to plant in the fall ; and have
never had returns sufficient from summer or fall set straw-
berries to pay for the extra labor involved, except by cut-
ting a shovelful from the row that has borne a crop, and set
in hills in furrows freshly prepared in moist soil.

The grape next claims our attention ; and I have been
something of a pioneer and maybe a crank in advocating
certain ways of pruning and training the vine. I first
trained the vine on what is termed the Kniffen system,
four arms to the vine on a trellis of two wires three to six
feet from the ground. I observed that the best fruit grew
upon the upper arms, and the older the vine the greater the
difference in size, lustre and value of the fruit. I removed
the lower arms and lengthened the upper, with the result of
producing larger clusters of better quality, and consequently

No. 4.] FEUIT CULTURE. 131

increased market value and in sufficient quantity. Another
advance was made in removing the old arm, with its three
or four bearing shoots with three or four buds on each, and
leaving in its place one single bearing cane, starting from
near the head of the vine with ten or twelve buds upon it.
This system distributes the new growth along the vine, and
when properly summer pruned gives the best possible chance
for the growth of large, perfect clusters of fruit. There are
other advantages resulting from this system, such as ease of
pruning and spraying and of gathering the fruit ; also, the
free circulation of the air under the vines is conducive to
healthy growth and freedom from mildew and rot.

My manner of fertilizing the vineyard is to grow crimson
clover to provide humus and nitrogen, and to apply about
eight hundred pounds of potash and bone per acre, in the
proportion of one of the former to two of the latter. I
believe the application of such fertilizers produces a sweeter
and better quality of fruit than where stable manures are
used.

Experiments in girdling the vine have been conducted in
my vineyard for two years past, at the request of the New
York State Experiment Station at Geneva. It is practised
quite extensively in many vineyards in the Hudson valley ;
but I have always in my State institute work condemned
the practice as a fraud upon the consumer and a damage to
the vine. Our experiments confirm these opinions. Two
Niagara vines girdled back to the renewal arm were killed
by the operation. The grapes from girdled vines are larger
and color earlier, but ore not ripe, but, being colored, are
sent to market to disgust the consumer and demoralize the
trade.

Besides the insect enemies and fungous growths common
to the vine, we have been beset by the larva of the saw-fly,
which has proved very destructive, eating the leaves and
denuding the vine as rapidly as the currant worm does the
currant bush, and no remedy has been found to destroy it
that did not also destroy the leaves.

Before passing from the small fruits, I want to say a word
for the gooseberry. I have the Industry, Red Jacket and
Whitesmith. I believe the time is comino; when we Yan-

132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

kees will appreciate the fruit as the English do, when we
understand the growing of them and how to use them ; for
a canned Whitesmith is certainly delicious, and a gooseberry
tart makes a rare dessert, and has only to be eaten to be
appreciated. Grow them under your grapevines or among
your trees, as these English varieties seem to flourish best
in partial shade.

Passing to the tree fruits, I will say that my experience
with peaches is a past number, and I am only growing plums
in a small way. I planted and greAV in health and beauty
some thousands of peach trees some fifteen years since, but
the extreme cold killed the buds and ruined the trees, so I
never obtained a paying crop. But the peach is a grand
fruit, and it was a grand sight that met my vision as I looked
over J. H. Hale's peach orchard on June 15 last, from the
tower erected for observation in the midst of trees covered
with their dark-green foliage and loaded with fruit, which I
learn has fulfilled every promise, even to filling a basket
with thirty-nine Elbertas. It is useless to attempt peach
culture unless you have a proper location. The influence of
the sunny days in winter is oftentimes as serious as the late
frosts of spring.

The culture of the pear and the apple has come to l)e
considered as almost identical. In either case success can-
not be assured without cultivation, fertilization and most
persistent work early and late with the spray pump and the
various fungicides and insecticides that are necessary to
keep in check and destroy the numerous enemies of these
fruits. Perhai)s in no year have the advantages derived
from spraying been more apparent than in the present year
of 1897 : first, because of sufiicient rainfall in the eastern
section of our country to render the fertilizers available for
the growth of both foliage and fruit ; and, second, because
of this rainfall fungous growths have been multiplied, and
only where the spray pump was persistently used do we
find clean, sound finiit. Farmers as a class are negligent in
this respect, and we have only to observe the character of
the fruit in our local markets to become convinced of the
fact ; and the low price at which most of their fruit is being
or has been sold in our markets is the result of this neglect.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 133

In contrast to this, and as an object lesson of great in-
terest, illustrating more forcibly than words can describe
the advantages resulting from thorough cultivation and
persistent spraying, I want to take you to tlie orchards of
W. H. Hart, about three miles east of Poughkeepsie, and in
your mind's eye see what I saw on the fifth day of last Sep-
tember, when I took Geo. T. Powell and Professors Clinton
and Duggar of Cornell University out there to visit the
orchards.

These orchards cover eighty acres, mostly upon a sidehill
facing the west. The land is broken by ledges of rock and
rises by plateaus as it extends eastward, not valuable for
general agriculture, but made valuable for fruit growing by
the treatment it has received. Much of the older portion
of the orchard was set to Greenings, Baldwins and other
varieties grown thirty to forty years ago. These trees were
heavily loaded. But go with me farther on, to the orchard
set twenty-five years since with Northern Spy, Baldwin and
Ben Davis, the trees bending and some breaking under their
loads of from five to eight barrels to the tree. Standing at
a central point, on a visit made when the fruit was ready to
pick, October 1, and looking adown these rows of trees ex-
tending on either hand till the fruit was lost to view, the
sight was grand. The dark red of the Baldwin, which hung
literally like ropes of onions ; the brighter blush and stripes
of the Spy, magnificent in size, many weighing twelve
ounces each and measuring twelve inches in circumference ;
the hundreds of trees of Ben Davis, fairly ablaze with its
briiiht red fruit, some of these trees set in 1889 bearing
two barrels of apples, — were objects of extreme beauty.
Consider that, standing at this place, the eye took in at a
glance at least one thousand barrels of this highly colored
and truly magnificent fruit, and that the entire crop of this
orchard was not less than five thousand barrels, and we are
ready to exclaim " The apple indeed is king."

You may well ask what produced this magnificent crop.
It is the outcome of years of trial and of work. The results
are for us to profit by. The soil, naturally thin, had been
fed in former years with stable manure, but latterly with
potash and phosphoric acid, and crops of crimson clover

134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

have been grown upon it. On September 5 the clover was
from six to ten inches in height, and the value of this crop
to the soil was estimated by Professor Clinton to be fifteen
dollars per acre. Walking over it, it was like treading
upon a carpet, so loose and mellow was the soil.

I visited this orchard by request of Mr. Hart in 1893, to
critically oliserve the effects of stable manure and potash
and l)one as applied to different parts of the orchard. This
was before crimson clover was grown on the land. I found
that the nitrogen in the stable manure had increased the
size of the fruit over that fertilized with the bone and
potash, but at the expense of color and firmness. The
latter was of much higher color, was smooth, hard and
glossy, and had a higher market value, particularly wdiere
wanted for shipment to foreign markets, as its carrying
properties were far better.

The effect of growing crimson clover upon orchards, as
shown by an analysis of the soil on the farm of George T.
Powell, where three successive crops had been grown, has
been a capacity for holding thirty per cent more moisture
than was found in an adjoining orchard where no clover had
been grown. This furnishes another proof that water in
the form of moisture in the soil can be obtained by the in-
corporation into the soil of humus, which can be supplied
by green crops, upon which the microbes in the soil work
and store up nitrogen, the most costly of all fertilizers.
Therefore water and humus are proved to be indispensable
to the successful production of crops in agriculture or hor-
ticulture.

This brings us to the consideration of the second part of
our subject — the marketing of fruit.

Marketing of Fruit.
It may be truly said of this subject that it is not a theory
but a condition that confronts us. Whether it be over-
production or under-consumption, the fact remains the same,
that our markets every year, under the varying circum-
stances of production and climatic conditions, become con-
gested, overloaded and demoralized. We must look for this
more or less, because of the perishable character of some

No. 4.] FKUIT CULTURE. 135

fruits, which, if not soon disposed of, become unsalable';
therefore very much depends upon the fruit offered for sale.

Therefore, the first condition that confronts us is the
character and market value of the fruit. If those conditions
have been complied with, to which your attention has been
called in the raising of fruit, then we are prepared to pro-
ceed to the consideration of the best methods of placing that
fruit upon the market.

This brings us to the question of packages in which to
transport our fruit to market, — a question that has very
much to do with the matter of profit or loss to the producer.

The selling of fruit by the package instead of by the
pound or measure has been a source from whence fraud and
deception on the part of the producer have been met by dis-
trust and unl)elief on the part of the dealer and consumer,
to the ultimate loss of the producer. It has led to the
making and using of packages of all sizes and shapes, the
chief aim and purpose being to give the consumer the least
possible amount for his money, — in a word to cheat as much
as possible ; and to such an extent has this been carried on
that one manufacturer near me has made to order eigJd
different sizes of grape tills, also skin quarts and pints.

I find that each fruit-producing section in our county has
some package peculiar to that section ; and while it is un-
doubtedly true that you must meet the demands of the
market using your fruit, I believe there is no necessity for
so many kinds. Some are better than others ; and action
should be taken by agricultural as well as horticultural
societies — for this is a matter that is of interest to shippers
of vegetables as well as shippers of fruits — to regulate the
size and kind of package, that this element of fratricidal
war between packages may cease to influence the market.
While it is right and proper to get the best price we can for
our fruit, let us be honest, and give full weight and measure.

Now, among all these different kinds of packages there is
none, in my opinion, that meets the requirements of the
shipper of small fruits as well as the thirty-two-quart crate,
as quarts and oval pints fit equally well, and tills for grapes
make it available for that purpose, obviating the necessity
of having any other size of package.

136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The expense of marketing our fruits in this package will
be less than when smaller packages are used, and when we
have uniform packages we will be in a situation to secure
lower and uniform rates for transportation, there being but
a few cents' difference in the cost of the thirty-two-quart
crate and the smaller sizes. It has been estimated that
many thousands of dollars would be saved to the producers
in the Hudson valley by using larger packages, especially
for grapes.

It being an accepted fact that we must use the gift pack-
age for most of our products, I believe it would be to the
advantage of all that the size of the package should be es-
tablished by national law, and the manufacture and sale of
snide packages be punished by fine or imprisonment or both.

It is a well-known fact that in many of our cities the
street pedler of berries makes forty baskets out of a thirty-
two quart crate. I am informed that one dealer in New
York City sold one million of these skin quarts in one
season.

Now, having our package, what shall we put in it, and
how shall we pack it? Standing in the front of a commis-
sion house in New York City on the twentieth day of Oc-
tober, and looking over the vast amount of fruit to be seen
on every hand, the proprietor made the remark, " If this
fruit had been assorted, and the best half of it sent here, it
would have netted more money to the sender than the whole
will now, for it is the poor fruit that depresses the market
and paralyzes trade." This shows the necessity of carefully
grading our fruit and keeping the inferior stock out of the
market. When this is done, and the purchaser finds that
he can depend upon a certain mark of fruit, the problem of
marketing that fruit is solved.

Believing that we cannot expect any material increase in
the selling price of our fruits so long as the present methods
are followed, I can but recommend for your consideration
these several points which I have presented, viz. : —

First. — Improved methods in culture and preparation of
the soil.

Second. — The selection of varieties suited to soil con-
ditions and the demands of the market where sold.

No. 4.] FRUIT CULTURE. 137

Third. — Standard packages established by law, suitable
for each class of fruit.

Fourth. — The proper grading and packing of fruit.

Fifth. — Organized effort, through State and local organi-
zations, to secure just and equitable charges for tranporta-
tion.

Could these measures be carried out, I believe the results
would be increased consumption of fruit, because of better
quality, a more satisfactory state of the market, ready sales,
quick returns, more profit for the producer and more satis-
faction to the dealer and consumer.

I plead the necessity for organized effort, because indi-
vidual effort avails but little. For ten years in our farmers'
club and fiirmers' institute work I have been pleading for it,
and yet I have to confess that I almost despair of ever see-
ins: the farmers unite to defend themselves asjainst other
organizations that live out of the products of their labor and
toil. But I believe that along the lines I have indicated
there is a chance of saving a profit that others are now
taking from us.

In conclusion, I want to say to you, my fellow laborers
in the fields of agriculture and horticulture, that, while dis-
couragements and trials frequently fall to our lot, we are
engaged in a noble calling ; that it is ours to live close to
the great heart of the universe ; that we can turn the curse
which fell upon Adam into the richest of blessings, because
in its exercise there comes to us a realizing sense of what
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness means. And, as
we breathe the pure air of heaven and contemplate the
bloom and fragrance of the springtime, or the rich fruitage
of the autumn, under the brightening skies of May or the
mellow hues of an October day, let us be mindful of the
fact that ours is the noblest profession of them all, and that
we should ennoble it by raising the standard of our ambition
high, and strive to leave the world better for our having
lived in it.

The Chairman. The gentleman has given us a very in-
structive and elaborate description of the methods by which
be grows fruit. I have no doubt there are those here who

138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

are pursuing that business, and I know many can draw benefit
from the suggestions he has made. No doubt there are
many who would like to ask questions. There is now an
opportunity.

Mr. Cruickshanks. How many crops of strawberries
do you find it profitable to take from a bed ?

Mr. Taber. Usually two. In some cases, because of the
weeds, particularly if white clover or sorrel comes in pretty
readily, it is better not to carry them over at all. There
would be too much labor involved to keep the bed clean.
While I say I cannot grow a new bed of strawberries under
one hundred dollars, I can carry over a bed for fifty dollars
that will give me generally just as good returns as I get the
first year.

Mr. Cruickshanks. Do you find some berries better
adapted to your method of carrying over than other varieties ;
and, if so, what are they?

Mr. Taber. In growing a number of varieties of course
I have treated them all alike, yet I have found that some
varieties do not do as well under that treatment as others.
I have not made any particular note of that point. Some
varieties send out so many runners that they fill the
ground full of roots. We cannot expect them to have the
life and vigor that the other plants have. I think we want
to avoid these varieties that fill the ground so full of roots
the first season.

Mr. Cruickshanks. Don't you think giving the Marshall
your treatment would overcome the lack of productiveness
in a measure.

Mr. Taber. I have not tried it. It is a very strong
grower.

Mr. HiNES (of Taunton) . I would like to ask how this
Mr. Hart came to raise such a cro}) of apples this year, when
everybody else had them last year. Has he some scientific
method by which he has changed the year of bearing?

Mr. Taber. We know that trees are in the habit of bear-
ing one year, and not the next. It is because they over-bear.
They cannot carry the large amount of fruit, and also perfect
fruit buds for another year. If we can divide the energy of
a tree so as to perfect a certain amount of fruit and leave
sufficient for another season, we have obtained the victory

No. 4.] FEUIT CULTURE. 139

over that trouble. The energ^'^ of the tree may be increased
by the methods of cultivation, so there will be strength
enough for both. Of course this is in a measure a matter
of varieties. Mr. H. secures a good crop of apples every
year. I cannot tell why there should be crops of apples in
the two counties of Dutchess and Columbia that almost
equalled the crop of the rest of the State, but such is the
case.

The ground in this orchard is so uneven that he cannot
plough it very well, so he cultivates it with the spring-tooth
harrow. He keeps it up until the first of July, then sows
crimson clover, and there is a mulch all over the ground that
keeps the apples growing and the trees in fine condition.
Two or three years ago I know he used five hundred dollars'
worth of potash and bone on his orchard in the fall. I be-
lieve it is the vigorous, healthy condition that he keeps his
trees in that causes the production of such apples.

Mr. HiNES. Were there many apples in those two coun-
ties last year ?

Mr. Taber. There was a very large crop of apples there
last year. You cannot easily imagine the difierence in the
fruit. While in our markets the apples are coming in from
different farmers, showing evidence of fungous growth and
insect troubles, the character of his Northern Spys, weighing-
twelve ounces and almost a foot in circumference, were just
as clean and smooth as could be. He sprays his orchard
twice or three times. You cannot get such fruit without
spraying. It is impossible to do it. Last year (1896)
there was very little difiference between the sprayed and un-
sprayed fruit. We did not have the fungous growth, be-
cause it was dry. But in 1897 those who did not spray did
not get much fruit. Spraying is one thing we have got to
do, and have got to do it every year. It is of just as much
value when your orchards are not producing as in the years
when they are.

Mr. Pratt. I am interested in that matter of mulching.
Does the crimson clover spring up the second year, or do
you reseed?

Mr. Taber. Crimson clover is an annual. It will renew
itself if you let it go to seed. But it has to be seeded every
year. It does not live over. If you sow it in the spring it

140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

will go to seed and die before winter, but by seeding in July
or August it does not attain to that growth, but lives over
through the winter and comes on in the spring if not winter-
killed.

Mr. Pratt. What is the advantage of the crimson clover
over the other for mulching?

Mr. Taber. I think I stated 3^esterday that I was grow-
ing both. The crimson clover makes a very quick growth,
and it is calculated that the work of the microbes on it will
store up more nitrogen than in the other. The fact is, that
there is but little difference if carried over to be ploughed
under in the spring. I am using both the crimson clover
and the mammoth. I have cut one crop of mammoth clover
in the spring, and then, as the clover grew up, I have been
over it with a smoothing harrow to break it right down, and
repeated the process. By keeping it down and preventing
its seeding, I carry it through the fall and cover the ground
perfectly with this mulch, and carry it through the winter
and turn it under in the spring ready for strawberry plants.

Mr. R. C. Breck (of Bridge water). Are quinces grown
in your State? It seems almost impossible to get a fair
quince about here. Our trees are liable to blight and black-
knot. I would like to know how they get fair quinces in
New York.

Mr. Taber. Very few quinces are raised in our section.
In New Jersey they raise very good quinces. I have seen
some very fine ones in our State, but do not know where
they come from. The experiment station showed some
splendid ones at the American Institute fair. At this fair
they had an exhibit of one hundred and ninety-three varieties
of apples, and at our horticultural meeting last winter they
had one hundred varieties. These apples kept over until
the 20th of March, and were as smooth and glossy as you
please. It was perfect fruit. I had the good fortune to
take them home and it was an object lesson to me.

The Chairman. We shall have to close this discussion,
as you will notice by the programme that a lecture will be
given at 11.30 on " Irrigation in fruit culture," by Richard
HiTTiNGER. He is not here, but he has prepared a brief
paper describing his plan of irrigating his grounds, and
Secretary Sessions will read it.

No. 4.] IRRIGATION ON OUR FARM. 141

Ikrigation on Ouk Farm.

BY RICHAKD IlITTINGEK, BELMONT.

About sixteen years ago we began to irrigate our farm to
a small extent. We first drilled an artesian well on the
highest part of our land to the depth of one hundred and
thirty-five feet. This well, six inches in diameter, yielded
ten gallons per minute, by means of a windmill, which in
windy weather pumped from two to five thousand gallons
in twenty-four hours. Close by the Avell is a reservoir of
brick, thirty feet in diameter, ten feet deep, and with a
capacity of fifty thousand gallons.

Four years later we put up several greenhouses. Our
water supply, however, was not sufficient for the green-
houses and other uses about the farm, inasmuch as the town
of Belmont had at that time no public water supply. We
therefore thought it advisable to drill another well near the
greenhouses themselves. This was bored to a depth of two
hundred and fifty-five feet. The diameter was eight inches
to one hundred and fifty-five feet below the surface, and six
inches the rest of the way. The Avell yielded fifty gallons
per minute, and when attached to a Dean deep well steam
pump the water was forced to the reservoir, sixty feet
higher than the top of the well. In this way the reservoir
was filled in about twenty hours.

After getting the supply, we undertook more extensive
irrigation in the form of lawn sprinklers. At first we used
them successfully over a hot-bed of cucumbers of four hun-
dred sashes. The sprinklers were divided into four sec-
tions, with eight sprinklers to a section. The whole system
was fed b}^ a two and a half inch pipe. The four sectional
pipes of one and one-fourth inches branched from the main
pipe at a distance of forty feet from each other. The

142

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

sprinklers, placed at the ends of three-eighths-inch pipes
projecting from the sectional pipes, were so arranged as to
be twenty feet apart.

h r

o —

— o o

— o o

c

O 0 —

— o

c

d

c

40 ft.

a = Main pipe. b = Sectional pipes. c = Sprinklers.

By this method there was an equal distribution of water
over the whole patch. These sprinklers, by the way, are
known as the Neora lawn sprinkler, olitained from the Wal-
worth Manufacturing Company, Boston.

Now, as regards our process of sprinkling, we were accus-
tomed to water every other day, weather })ermitting, and
used two sections at a time, for the main pipe was not large
enough to supply them all at once. The two sections
sprinkled from half to three-quarters of an hour, and thus
when all four sections had been used the patch was watered
in one or one and a half hours.

To illustrate the rapidity and convenience of this method,
it is enough to say that it would take two men with three-
fourths-inch hose three or four hours to do the same work
in a less thorough fashion. At the same time, this system
of sprinkling had its disadvantages. When the sprinklers
had not been used for some time a scale rust was apt to form
in the pipe. This collection of rust became loosened when
the water was again turned on, and at length stopped up the
sprinklers.

Owing to the large amount of rain during the past sum-
mer, we seldom used the sprinklers. Our experience has
taught us, however, that this mode of watering is now in a
rather crude state. Still, it has given thus far satisfactory

No. 4.] IRRIGATION ON OUR FARM. 143

results. One particularly noticeable feature of the method
is that the ground is kept in a soft and spongy condition, on
account of the gentleness of the spray.

It will be observed that the more pressure brought to bear
on the pipes the better will be the result, as the sprinklers
will revolve faster and throw the water to greater distances.
It is asserted, furthermore, that under a pressure of fifty
pounds the spray will form a circle of fifty feet in diameter.
Naturally the cost of watering is determined by the pressure,
for under heavier pressure fewer sprinklers are needed.
The watering can be done at all times with equal facility, as
one man can regulate the whole system.

Adjourned at 12 m.

Afternoon Session.

The meeting was called together at 1.30 p.m. by Secretary
Sessions, who said : The Orient Quartette have come here to
give us a treat, as a recognition of their appreciation of our
efforts here for the good of Bristol County agriculture.

Song by quartette.

Secretary Sessions. By special request the quartette
will now favor us with the song they sang on Tuesday, and
they will also sing again during the afternoon.

Song by quartette.

Secretary Sessions. Mr. Wood, our vice-president, has
directed me to say to you that Mr. Cruickshanks will pre-
side this afternoon. He is president of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers' Association, and is most thoroughly inter-
ested in fruit and its culture.

The Chairman. This forenoon we touched upon almost
every fruit, with the exception of the cranberry. We have
with us this afternoon a gentleman who is, perhaps, better
equipped to give instruction as to the enemies of the cran-
berry than any other individual in this country. The lecture
is entitled " Insects injurious to the cranberry and other
fruits," by Prof. Charles H. Fernald of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College. I assure you it gives me great pleasure
to introduce to you Professor Fernald, who will now
address you.

144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Insects Ijvjurious to the Cranberry and
Other Fruits.

BY I'ROF. CHA.S. H. FERNALD, AMHERST.

Cranberry Insects.

My attention was first called to the injuries caused by
cranberry insects seven years ago, and I was requested to
investigate the matter. My first thought was that the in-
dustry was not of sufficient importance to justify the ex-
penditure of time and money that would be necessary to
obtain results of practical value to those most interested.
I therefore looked into the matter, and learned, to my sur-
prise, that the cranberry industry was not only a large
and important one in this State, but that it was rapidly
increasing.

The "Yarmouth Register" of Dec. 20, 1890, gave some
very instructive statistics regarding this industry during the
years 1883 to 1890 inclusive, showing an increase, during
those years, from 32,079 barrels in 1882 to 89,886 barrels
in 1890. These statistics indicate only the number of bar-
rels shipped over the Old Colony Railroad, and represent
only a part of the entire yield of the State. The number
of barrels given in the above-named paper for the year 1885
was 66,063, but the State census for that year gave 105,106
barrels for the yield of the entire State ; and when we con-
sider how the data for the State census was obtained, we
may feel confident that the entire yield was more rather
than less than the amount given in that report. The yield
for 1891 has been given as 157,000 barrels, and I have else-
where estimated that the value of the crop for that year
could not have been much below $1,000,000. Whether
these estimates were at all accurate, I do not know ; but
they were sufficient to assure me of the importance of the

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 145

industry, and that I was warranted in spending time and
money in investigating the insects which I was assured by
practical cranberry growers destroyed on an average one-
half of the crop on such bogs as could not be reflowed. I
am not able to say how correct this estimate may be, but I
have visited many a dry bog where no insecticide was used,
and where not a cranberry was raised.

During the last seven years a large percentage of the
cranberry bogs in Barnstable, Bristol and Plymouth coun-
ties have been visited either by myself or one of my assist-
ants, and very careful studies have been made of the insects
attacking the cranberry. In this work we have found a
larger number than has generally been supposed to feed
on the cranberry, some of which are seriously injurious,
while others are not abundant enough to cause noticeable
injury, though they are liable at any time to increase in
numbers and become as destructive as those that are now
giving so much trouble, while still others are only oc-
casionally abundant in restricted localities, as the army
worm {Leucania unipuncta). There are three different
species that seem to cause the greater part of the damage
on the cranberry bogs in Massachusetts, so far as I have
been able to learn, and these are the vine worm, the fruit
worm and the cranberry span-worm.

The Vine Worm.

The vine worm, also known as the fire worm and black-
head \Iiliopobota vacciniana), is undoubtedly the most
destructive of all the cranberry insects occurring in this
State. This insect has two broods in a year. The moths
of the second brood fly about over the vines during the
middle of June or later, owing to the season or other cir-
cumstances, at which time they lay their minute, yellowish,
scale-like eggs on the underside of the leaves, where they
remain during the winter. The time of hatching in the
spring depends not only upon the season, but also upon the
time when the water is drawn off from the bog. If the
water is not drawn off till late, and the vines are not all
submerged, the eggs on the leaves above the surface of the
water will hatch, while those under the water will remain till

146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

after it is drawn off before they hatch, so that we may have
the vine worm in all stages of growth at the same time on a
bos: where these conditions have occurred. The first brood
of vine worms does not appear to be numerous enough to
cause a great deal of damage, so far as I have heard, but
they give rise to a progeny in the second generation which
is perfectly appalling. I have walked over bogs on Cape
Cod where at every step the moths of this species flew up by
the hundred, only to settle down again as soon as I had
passed. I do not wonder, in cases where the moths are so
numerous as this, that the vine worms hatching from their
eggs should be abundant enough to devour every leaf on the
vines. It is because of these varying conditions that the
cranberry growers are sometimes at a loss to know just
when to apply insecticides.

In dealing with this insect I would strongly advise those
in charge of the bogs to watch carefully for the hatching of
the eggs, and as soon as the young begin to appear, to spray
the vines with arsenate of lead in water in the proportion of
two or three pounds to one hundred and fifty gallons, adding
two quarts of glucose, to aid the insecticide in adhering to
the leaves. In my bulletin on cranberry insects published
in May, 1892, I recommended the use of Paris green, and
made no reference to arsenate of lead, which was not dis-
covered till in the summer of 1892, after the publication of
that bulletin. Since that time this new insecticide has been
tested so thoroughly, both in this State and elsewhere, that
I have little hesitation in expressing the belief that it will in
time entirely supersede Paris green as an insecticide. I gave
a full account of arsenate of lead and the experiments per-
formed with it in Bulletin No. 24, of the Hatch Experiment
Station, published in April, 1894. Since that time the gypsy
moth committee has used several tons each year in destroy-
ing the gypsy moth, and I am informed that it is now very
generally used by farmers and fruit growers in New York,
New Jersey and elsewhere. The use of this insecticide has
now gone beyond the experimental stage, and our knowledge
of it is as exact as that of Paris green.

The advantao;es of arsenate of lead are that it remains in

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 147

suspension in the water much longer than Paris green ; that
it is white in color and can be readily seen on the leaves, so
that one can tell at a glance what has and what has not
been sprayed, which is often a great convenience ; but the
greatest advantage is that it does not injure the foliage, even
when used in as large proportions as twenty-five pounds or
more to one hundred and fifty gallons of water. Many
people object to the use of Paris green, as it so frequently
injures the foliage. This is undoubtedly because they use
too large a proportion, or else they do not keep it properly
stirred all the time it is being sprayed on the plants. No
such trouble arises in the use of arsenate of lead, but it
should be constantly stirred during the spraying, to secure
an even distribution of the poison on the plants.

Several persons have reported to me that they have seri-
ously injured their plants by the use of arsenate of lead
when they followed the rule given in the above-mentioned
bulletin. This rule was to put eleven ounces of acetate of
lead and four ounces of arsenate of soda into a hogshead
containing one hundred and fifty gallons of water. In one
of the cases the man acknowledged that he reversed the
proportions, and used eleven ounces of arsenate of soda and
four ounces of acetate of lead. No Avonder the leaves were
burned. There were others, however, who found that
arsenate of lead burned the leaves even when the proper
proportions of the ingredients were used. In this case I
imagine that the arsenate of soda was put in first and dis-
solved, and then when the acetate of lead was put in the arse-
nate of soda at once formed a surrounding layer of arsenate
of lead, which, being insoluble, prevented the interior mass
from dissolving, and thus a large quantity of arsenate of
soda remained in the water, and when sprayed on the trees
would surely burn the foliage. To avoid all such difliculty
I would now recommend that eleven ounces of acetate of
lead be put in four quarts of water in a wooden pail, and that
four ounces of fifty per cent arsenate of soda be put in two
quarts of water in another wooden pail, and, when they are
entirely dissolved, pour each of them into a hogshead con
taining about one hundred and fifty gallons of water, when

148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

a chemical reaction will take place, forming arsenate of lead
as a fine white powder in suspension in the water. If cold
water be used, the solution of the acetate of lead will require
fifteen minutes or more ; but if the water be hot, the sub-
stance will dissolve very quickly. I do not need to remind
you that arsenate of lead is poisonous, and should be used
with the same care as Paris green. I have lieen somewhat
explicit in describing the preparation and use of arsenate of
lead, as I believe it to be the best insecticide we have at the
present time, not only for cranberry insects, but also for
all leaf-eating insects.* So far as our observations go,
arsenate of lead is not washed oft' from the foliage by
showers so easily as Paris green, and more or less of it
remains for a long time.

The Fruit Worm.

The fruit or 1)erry worm (^Mineola vaccinii) appears on
the bogs about the time the berries are beginning to set,
from the first to the middle of July, according as the season
is early or late. The female lays an q^^ at the blossom
end of the young berry, often beneath one of the triangular
lobes of the calyx. This egg hatches in five or six days,
and the young fruit worm feeds for a day or two on the out-
side of the berry before making its way into the interior of
the fruit. If the vines be sprayed at the time these eggs
are hatching, or a day or two earlier, the first meal would
prove fatal to the worms, and I have no doubt would
destroy a large percentage of them, just as in the case of
spraying apple trees for the destruction of the codling moth.
Whether it will pay to spray for this insect will depend
upon their abundance. If there are but few on a bog, it
would not be worth while ; but if they are abundant, it
would undoubtedly be wise to spray the vines with an
insecticide.

* This detailed statement of the method of preparing arsenate of lead will serve
as a further explanation of the recommendations given in Bulletin No. 24. Later
experience has shown that it is usually desirable to use a greater quantity of the
insecticide to one hundred and fifty gallons of water than is here mentioned, as will
be seen by recommendations on page 146 of this volume. In siich cases it is neces-
sary to adhere strictly to the relative proportions of the ingredients and manner of
mixing as given above.

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 149

The Cranberry Span-worm.

The cranberry span-worm {Ematurga faxonii) is oc-
casionally so abundant as to do much damage on bogs
where it occurs. I visited several bogs where it absolutely
ruined the crop for that season. Those which I bred laid
their eggs on May 28, 1896, and hatched in twelve days.
The caterpillars fed on cranberry leaves, reaching their full
growth July 13, when they went just below the surface of
the ground and changed into dark-brown pupae, in which
state they spent the winter, and the moths emerged during
the latter part of the following May. This insect has been
known to feed on arbor vitse or cedar ( Thuja occidentalism
as well as on the cranberry.

If the cranberry growers would learn to recognize these
insects in their different stages, it would aid them very
much in destroying them. If this particular moth which
gives rise to the cranberry span-worm should be seen flying
in large numbers over a bog late in May or early in June,
we may expect trouble from the span-worms, and should
make preparation to spray the bog with arsenate of lead at
the time the eggs are hatching, or about the 10th of June.
It is extremely unwise to wait till they have grown and de-
voured the leaves to such an extent as to ruin the crop for
that season, for it costs no more to spray early than it does
later ; and, further, the younger the caterpillars are, the
more readily do they succumb to the poison.

Other Cranberry Insects.

In addition to this, there is a second species of span-worm
{Eupithecia iriiplicata) which we have found feeding on cran-
berry vines. It is much smaller than the common species,
being only a])out as long as the vine worm. So far as I can
learn, they are nowhere very common on the bogs ; but I
know of no reason why they may not at any time become
abundant, and cause as much damage as the larger species.
This insect is known to feed not only on the leaves of the
cranberry but also on cedar {Thuja occidentalis) , juniper
{Junijperus coinmunis) and different species of oak.

The tip worm {Cecidoiayia vacciuii) is comparatively

150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub, Doc.

common on the Cape bogs, but I very much doul)t if it
does much harm, for, if it destroys the terminal bud, lateral
buds will develop into shoots the next year and give a crop
of fruit.

There are several different species which attack the roots
or base of the stems, as the so-called girdle worm, of which
there are two entirely different species that girdle the stems
near the ground. One is the caterpillar or young stage of
a small yellowish moth ( Crambus hortueUus) , which lives in
a vertical tube on the ground, which it constructs of bits of
vegetable material held together by silk spun by the cater-
pillar. They feed mostly by night, coming out of their
tubular dwellings and eating the bark near the ground, gird-
ling and killing the vines. I have seen this insect flying
about over nearly every bog I have visited. Another insect
( Carneades detersa) , belonging to the cutworm family, feeds
on the bark, but girdles it in a more irregular manner than
the other. Sometimes the army worm attacks the bogs, but
the work of this insect occurs only occasionally, and then
not over extensive areas. Spittle insects often occur on the
vines, and the froth which covers this minute sap-sucking
insect makes so much of a show that one might be led to
suppose that these spittle insects would ruin the vines ; but
if one should remove the froth, and discover how small the
insect really is and how little sap it requires for its nourish-
ment, he would realize how little damage is being done by
these insects.

I have now treated of the insects most injurious to the
cranberry, l)ut the second part of the subject is rather per-
plexing, for the reason that the number of insects attacking
fruits is legion. From this multitude 1 will first call your
attention to some observations that I have made on canker
worms, which are so common in various parts of the State.

Four years ago canker worms began to increase so rap-
idly in Amherst that public attention was called to them,
and a general account of the species occurring in Massachu-
setts was given with illustrations in Bulletin No. 20, jnib-
lished in January, 1893. In that bulletin the usual remedies
were given. These consisted of tacking bands of heavy pa-
per around the trunks of the trees and painting these bauds

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 151

with prepared printer's ink, repainting as often as it became
dry or hardened enough to permit the females to cross the
band. The method of protecting the trees with oil troughs
of zinc or tin around the trunks was also mentioned. It
was finally stated that probably the most effectual method
was to spray the trees with Paris green in water as soon
as the eggs hatched in the spring. A further account of
canker worms was given in Bulletin No. 28, published in
April, 1895.

A careful study of the different methods used to destroy
these insects, which are so prevalent in many parts of this
Commonwealth, has been made on thirteen apple trees on
my own premises in Amherst. Three years ago these trees
were carefully banded with heavy paper and painted with
Morrill's tree ink early in the spring, when the first females
began to ascend the trees, and the painting was repeated as
often as necessary. It was found that the ink would often
harden on the trees, even during the night following the ap-
plication, and remain hard on the shady side long enough in
the morning for some of the females to ascend the tree on
that side, so that this method did not prove to be a perfect
protection. The cost of the materials and of their ajjplica-
tion averaged about fifty cents to each tree.

The oil troughs are also quite expensive, and often leak
so that the rain displaces the oil and then evaporates, allow-
ing the females to ascend the trees ; or spiders spin their
webs across beneath the overhanging protection, forming a
bridge over which the moths may easily pass, so that this
device does not form a perfect protection.

Two years ago these trees were sprayed with Paris green
in water in the proportion of one pound of Paris green to
one hundred and fifty gallons, at a cost of five cents a tree,
allowing fifteen cents an hour for labor. There was a strong
wind blowing, and more time was required to do the work
than would otherwise have been the case. Last year the
same trees were sprayed with Paris green in tlie same pro-
portion as before. At this time it was nearly calm, and the
cost of spraying was three cents a tree. The contrast be-
tween these trees and those on adjacent lots was very
marked, for the sprayed trees retained their foliage and

152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

yielded a full crop, while the unsprayed trees were stripped
of leaves and bore no fruit. These trees were sprayed but
once, and this method appears to have been more effectual
and far cheaper than the others. In case of rain it might be
necessary to repeat the spraying, but even then it would be
the cheapest method.

Plant Lice.

Plant lice or aphids have been very abundant during the
past summer, not only on fruit trees but also on ornamental
trees and shrubs and in greenhouses. These insects have been
sent to me from all parts of the State, with letters request-
ing information as to methods of destroying them. There
is a very large number of species of these insects, and com-
paratively few of those in this country have been studied as
yet. They all have their mouth parts developed into a
sharp, piercing, sucking tube, which they force through the
outer covering of the leaves or twigs on which they rest, and
draw the sap from within. As these insects are very small,
a few would produce no appreciable effect upon the vigor
of the tree, but their powers of reproduction are so remark-
able that they multiply prodigiously.

The last brood in the fall, almost without exception, con-
sists of males and females, and after mating the females lay
their eggs and then die. Early in the spring, as soon as the
sap begins to flow, these eggs hatch, and the young lice,
which are wingless females, at once insert their tiny beaks
into the bark or leaf on which they are resting and begin to
pump up the sap. They wander but little, but devote their
entire time to feeding, hence they grow rapidly and soon
reach maturity, when, without the intervention of males,
they give birth to their young alive, one at a time ; and in
some species a single female gives rise during her life to
one hundred or more young ones, each of which quickly de-
velops, and after reaching maturity gives birth to wingless
females ; and so on, generation after generation, till the cool
weather of the fall causes a change to take place, and the
last o;ene ration consists of males and females. These mate,
and the females lay their eggs, which remain on the trees
and hatch in the spring as before.

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 153

A few years ago I attempted to determine the nmnber
of young a wingless female of our common apple louse
{Aphis mali) would give rise to, and how many generations
there would be in a year. For this purpose I selected a
branch of an apple tree suflSciently near the ground to be
easily observed, removed all the minute, polished, black
plant-lice eggs to be found in the crevices of the bark
except those reserved for the purpose in question, and
marked the branch so that I should not fail to recognize it.
These eggs hatched in due time, and the young lice crawled
to the nearest leaves, where they established themselves
and began to grow very rapidly. I carefully removed all
but one louse from each leaf, so that the chances of error
in the observation would be very small. Just at that time,
when everything was going on to my satisfaction, a cold rain
storm came on, which lasted twenty-four hours or more ;
and after it cleared off, much to my astonishment and dis-
may, there was not a plant louse to be found on that entire
tree, and yet before the storm they were swarming over all
parts of it except on the branch which I had cleared for my
observations. This led me to conclude that cold and
abundant rains were destructive to plant lice, and in wet
seasons we might expect a dearth of them on our fruit
and other trees. The experience of last summer, however,
which was the most rainy season we have had for years,
and at the same time one in which the plant lice were more
abundant all over the country than I have ever before
known them, leads me to the conclusion that I know very
little about what climatic or meteorological conditions are
favorable or unfavorable to the life of these insects.

Some very careful observations were made in Europe
many years ago on the woolly aphis (Schizoneiira lanigera)
of the apple tree, which is quite as common in this country
as in Europe. It was found that the wingless female hatch-
ing from the Qgg in the spring gave birth to about one hun-
dred young in the course of her life, and that each of these
also gave rise to about the same number, and so on for ten
generations. This led me to make some mathematical cal-
culations bearing on the possible progeny of a single })lant
louse hatched from an Q^y^g in the spring. If, as in the case

154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

of the woolly aphis of the apple, each female of a given
species should give rise to one hundred young, and if each
of these should reach maturity without mishap and also
give rise to one hundred young each, and so on for ten
generations, the number in the last generation, determined
by the rule of geometrical progression, would amount to
one quintillion. Most people have very little conception
of high numbers, and to gain a clearer idea of these figures
let us bear in mind that one of these plant lice is about one
tenth of an inch in length, and that ten of them, placed in
a line touching each other, would reach an inch, one hun-
dred and twenty so placed would reach a foot, and 633,600
would reach a mile. If we should divide one quintillion,
the number in the last generation, by 633,600, the number
required to reach a mile, it would give the number of miles
that whole generation would reach if all those aphids were
placed in a line and just touching each other, and this dis-
tance is 157,828,282,282 miles. This number again is
beyond our comprehension. The earth is about 25,000
miles in circumference, and this string of plant lice would
reach around the world more than 6,000,000 times, or it
would reach from the earth to the moon more than 655,000
times, and it would reach from the earth to the sun 1,715
times.

I have called your attention in this way, that you may
appreciate how very prolific plant lice are ; and there must
be a mortality among them every year that is perfectly
appalling, and concerning which we know as yet almost
nothing. Occasionally there is a season a little more favor-
able to the lice, as the past summer has been, when they
multiply and cover every green thing ; but even then the
mortality among the lice must be beyond all comprehension.
Wliat all the conditions are that cause the destruction of so
many plant lice it is impossible to say ; but we know that
the young of certain beetles feed voraciously upon them and
assist greatly in reducing their numbers, but I can scarcely
believe that there are not other forces at work that aid in
holding them in check.

Six years ago I performed an experiment on plant lice on
roses. Twelve potted rose bushes of ditt'erent varieties were

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 155

placed in the insectary greenhouse, and, as they were found
to have a few plant lice and red spiders on them, they were
carefully protected till they multiplied and covered every
green twig and more or less of the surface of the leaves. A
pailful of kerosene emulsion was then prepared, and each
rose bush was inverted, dipped into it and held there about
a quarter of a minute, or long enough to allow the emulsion
to reach every insect on the bush. An examination of the
bushes two days later failed to reveal a single plant louse or
red spider, and none appeared on them during the remainder
of the season, thus proving that the work was not only
thorough but effectual.

This method of killing the lice can only be applied to
small plants in pots ; but for trees and shrubs it becomes
necessary to spray with kerosene emulsion for the destruction
of plant lice. It must be remembered, however, that this is
a contact insecticide, and every individual must be drenched
with the emulsion to make it effectual. If a few of the lice
escape this drenching, so great are their powers of repro-
duction, as shown above, that they will soon increase to
such an extent that it will be necessary to spray the tree
again.

To prepare kerosene emulsion, dissolve one-quarter of a
pound of common bar soap in two quarts of boiling water,
and, while still hot, add four quarts of kerosene oil and
churn it for about five minutes through a small hand force
pump with a small nozzle turned into the pail. When
properly done, the whole forms a creamy white mass, which
becomes jelly-like when cold. Care must be taken to have
the solution of soap hot when the kerosene is added to it
and the churning done, but it must not be near a fire. Be-
fore applying this emulsion to the plants, it should be diluted
with water in the proportion of one quart of the emulsion
to nine quarts of water, and then thoroughly mixed. The
above will make sixty quarts of the insecticide ready for
use. The emulsion will keep for a long time without injury,
and may be diluted when needed for use. I have often had
the feeling that when I have advised this plan and it has been
tried, and a few insects have escaped and multiplied so that
it would be necessary to go over the whole thing again, the

156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

parties considered the recommendation worthless, while it is
the best and only thing I can recommend.

The San Jose Scale.

The San Jose scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus') is one of the
most dangerous and destructive insect pests that threaten
our fruit trees. This insect occurred in California as early
as 1870, but no one knows, at the present time, of what
country it is a native, or just how and when it was brought
into this country. Since the time of its discovery in Cali-
fornia it has rapidly spread, till it is now widely distributed
over the United States.

My attention was first called to this insect in this State
on March 29, 1895, when I was shown several 3^oung plum
trees, on the grounds of the horticultural department of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, which were infested
with the San Jose scale. These trees were received from
the J. F. Lovett Company, Little Silver, N. J., in the spring
of 1894. Knowing how extremely difficult it is to dis-
tinguish this from several other closely allied though far
less injurious species, I sent specimens to the Department
of Agriculture in Washington, to make sure that my de-
termination was correct. Prof. L. O. Howard, who ex-
amined these specimens, wrote me that, while they were
the true San Jose scale, the specimens sent were all dead.
Wishing to determine whether any of these insects had sur-
vived the winter, I had two of the trees taken up and set
out in the insectary greenhouse, and the remaining infested
trees were burned. Scales appeared on the growth of the
previous year, so that the insects flourished well, at least
during the summer of 1894. On June 10, live scales were
oliserved on the trees transplanted to the insectary green-
house, and on the 14th the young were swarming all over
them. As this settled the (juestion of the ability to survive
our winters in Amherst, I had these trees very carefully
burned, to prevent any further spreading of the pest.

As soon as it was discovered that the San Jose scale had
been received at Amherst on nursery stock from outside of
the State, T feared that other nurseries might have become
infested in a similar manner, and therefore sent one of my

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 157

assistants, Mr. Lounsbury, to examine nurseries in the east-
ern part of the State. A full account of Mr. Lounsbury 's
discovery in several places was published in the Crop Report
for August, 1895, and also in the report of the Massachu-
setts Agricultural College for 1896. By direction of the
committee of the Hatch Experiment Station, I sent Mr.
R. A. Cooley, one of my assistants, early last May to ex-
amine the nurseries in this State, and after careful and
painstaking examination of twenty-five, he was able to dis-
cover the San Jose scale in but three nurseries. Mr. A. H.
Kjrkland, my assistant in the gypsy moth work, had pre-
viously visited two of these three nurseries at the request
and expense of the owners, and, finding them infested with
the San Jose scale, had given them advice and explicit direc-
tions how to exterminate the pest. It was in one of these
nurseries that Mr. Lounsbury first found the San Jose scale.

I think the owners of these three infested nurseries are
keenly alive to the fact that it will prove ruinous to their
trade to send out infested stock ; and they are taking every
precaution to avoid it, two of them having employed Mr.
Kirkland to take charge of removing and burning all infested
stock, while the other one has employed Mr. Cooley. These
nursery owners seem to realize the ftict that the laws of
trade are as inexorable as the ancient laws of the Medes and
Persians, which were said to have been written in blood, and
that, if they wish to sell nursery stock, it must be free from
the San Jose scale.

There is one point to which I want to call attention.
Prof. F. M. Webster had some twigs sent him, to see if
there were any San Jose scales on them. There were no
scales to be seen on the twigs, but he happened to cut
through a bud, and there was a San Jose scale behind that
bud, entirely out of sight. If a person is going into a
nursery and is going to pronounce that nursery absolutely
free from the San Jose scale, it would be necessary to cut
every bud off the trees, and even then I should doubt if he
could be sure.

The young San Jose scales are born alive, and when they
escape from under the scale of the mother appear as minute,
dull orange-colored objects, scarcely visible to the naked

158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

eye. They crawl about for a short time, but are not able
to reach any great distance, though they may at this time,
be transported by other insects or on the feet of birds to
other trees in the same orchard or even to other orchards.
After these young have crawled about for a time they settle
in some suital)le place on a branch or twig or even on the
fruit, work their long, slender sucking beaks into the plant,
and, in the case of the females, remain during the rest of
their existence. Even before they become established, fine
threads of wax-like substance begin to issue through minute
pores on the surface of the body, and after they become
fixed these filaments grow more numerous and longer, till
the insect is entirely covered, and as they gradually fuse
together, form the scale. As the insects grow, the males
moult their skins once while the females moult twice, these
moulted skins forming a part of the enlarged scale.

From the observations made on this insect in Washing-
ton, we learn that the female produces her young alive on
an average of more than 10 a daj^ continuing for about six
weeks, and resulting in a progeny of from 480 to 500 young
from a single female. One female was seen to give rise to
587 young, by actual count. Professor Howard estimates
that there are four full generations in Washington, and that
the progeny of a single wintered-over female would amount
to 3,216,080,400. From observations made in Massachu-
setts, the earliest recorded appearance of the young was
June 14 and the latest November 4. This latter date is
probably unusual ; but, even if we accept a date in the fall
so late as this, we can have but three full generations in a
year. The fact, however, that each female gives rise to so
large a number of young, even three generations, makes
this a most formidable pest.

It was at first supposed that the San Jose scale would be
confined to plants belonging to the Rosacete, which include
among others our common orchard and garden fruits, as
peaches, pears, apples, plums, cherries, quinces, apricots,
raspberries, roses, etc. ; but it was found that it would
thrive on plants belonging to other families, including shade
and forest trees, as walnuts, willows, elms, maples, locusts,
persimmons, gooseberries and currants.

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 159

Natural Enemies.

The natural enemies of the San Jose scale, so far as
known, are comparatively few. Three or four minute
Hymenopterous parasites have been bred from it, but so
far as I can learn they produce no appreciable reduction in
the numbers of the scales. Several predaceous beetles are
known to feed on them, as the pitiful lady bird {Pentilia
misella) in the south and west, and the twice-stabbed lady
bird ( Ohilocorus hivulnerus) ; and Mr. Kirkland informed
me that he found the two-spotted lady bird (Adalia hipunc-
tata) feeding on the San Jose scale in Auburndale, Mass.,
on October 9.

Prof. P. H. Rolfs of the Florida Agricultural Experiment
Station issued a bulletin last August, in which he gave an
account of the discovery in that State of a fungus attacking
and destroying the San Jose scale and also other species of
scale. This fungus {8phaerostilbe coccophila) was found to
destroy the San Jose scale by penetrating all through the
substance of the insect, causing the death of large quantities,
and as they dried and shrivelled they fell off, leaving the sur-
face of the tree entirely clean, so that, when not too severely
aflfected, the tree entirely recovered. Professor Rolfs made
a careful study of this fungus, and, after experimenting with
it on various substances to obtain a pure culture, found that
he succeeded best when the fungus was grown on slightly
acid bread, for the fungus permeated the whole piece and
produced myriads of spores. A piece of this bread about an
inch square was placed in a quart of water and shaken until
it was broken up, and the spores evenly distributed in the
water. This was then applied to the scale-infested tree by
means of a sponge or cloth, or was sprayed on. Warm, damp
weather proved favorable to the development and multipli-
cation of the fungus and the consequent destruction of the
scales, while dry weather was unfavorable to its growth. It
was recommended to make the application after sundown on
a moist evening, or, if the weather was dry, to wrap moist
burlap or other cloth loosely around the treated limbs, for
he found that it was only a question of a few hours whether
the spores were to produce the disease, or die. If they were

160 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

in a moist atmosphere, they would grow; otherwise, they
would not.

While this fungus is a native of a aub-tropical climate, it
is an unsettled question whether it can be made effective in
the northern parts of the United States. Professor Craig
of Canada stated, at the meeting of the Association of
Economic Entomologists, held in Detroit last August, that
the San Jose scale occurred in British Columbia and m
Ontario, where it had been known to exist for at least four
years. He further said that fungous cultures, received from
Professor Rolfs, had been used in inoculation tests in the
laboratory, but with no practical results.

Artificial Remedies.
Many remedies have been tried for the destruction of the
San Jose scale, both on the Pacific coast and in the east ;
and of these, but three methods of treatment have seemed to
prove effectual in the east. These are fire, whale-oil soap
and hydrocyanic acid gas, — and the best of these is fire.
There is nothing quite equal to cremation for the San Jose
scale. When a number of trees in a nursery are found in-
fested, the safest and most effectual plan is to burn that
entire block of trees, and also treat all others in the vicinity
with whale-oil soap. This soap, two pounds to one gallon
of water, is the simplest and cheapest preparation that has
thus far been used ; and it has proved comparatively satisfac-
tory, though in some cases it is reported not to kill all the
scales, even when used as strong as three pounds to one gal-
lon of water. A solution should be made of not less than
two pounds of the soap to one gallon of hot water, and ap-
plied while warm Avith a spray pump. Prof. J. B. Smith,
who has had a large experience with the various methods of
destroying this insect, thinks that the best results on bearing
trees may be obtained by spraying them with whale-oil or
fish-oil soap, at the rate of one pound to a gallon of water as
soon as the trees are dormant in the fall, and a second time,
at the rate of two pounds to a gallon of water, early in the
spring, just before the buds begin to swell. After the spray-
ing the trees should be carefully pruned, to get rid of as

No. 4.] INJUEIOUS INSECTS. 161

many of the small terminal twigs as possible, and all of these
twigs should be burned.

The gas treatment, or fumigation, as it is called in Cali-
fornia, consists in covering the tree or plant with a tent or
cover of some kind, to prevent the escape of the gas, keep-
ing it covered from fifteen minutes to an hour. This tent
should be made of duck, and receive two coats of linseed oil
and lamp-black, the former to render it air-tight and the lat-
ter to exclude the actinic rays of light, as otherwise it would
injure the foliage. It would be better, however, to perform
this work by night, or on cloudy days. After putting the
tent over the tree, raise the windward side from the ground
and place an earthenware bowl, containing one fluid ounce
of sulphuric acid (66°) and three fluid ounces of water, on
the ground inside of the tent, and with a long-handled dip-
per or ladle pour one ounce of refined potassium cyanide
(98 per cent) into the bowl, and immediately close the tent.
This amount is sufficient for one hundred and fifty cubic feet
of space within the tent. The chemicals react and form
hydrocyanic acid gas, commonly called " Prussic acid,"
which is one of the deadliest poisons known, and must there-
fore be used with the utmost care.

It is a well-known fact that our nurserymen do not raise
all the stock they have a call for, and to fill many orders
they are frequently obliged to purchase from outside parties,
and in this way they are liable to handle and sell infested
stock unintentionally, even when their own nurseries contain
no scales. Messrs. Southworth Bros., nurserymen in Salem,
realizing this difiiculty, have constructed a fumigating box
twelve feet long and three feet high and wide, in which they
propose to treat small lots of stock ; but larger lots will be
treated in their storage cellar, which is twenty-nine feet long,
seventeen feet wide and eight feet deep. These gentlemen
propose to carry out this plan, in spite of all obstacles.

Pure kerosene, applied either with a sprayer or brush, is
the latest insecticide that has been recommended for the San
Jose scale. Prof. F. M. Webster first called attention to it
at the meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists,
held in Bufialo, N. Y., in August, 1896 ; and quite recently

162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Prof. J. B. Smith has issued a circular in which he strongly
recommends the use of pure kerosene for this insect. In a
bulletin by Professor Webster of the Ohio Station is a series
of carefully conducted experiments with kerosene on fruit
trees, which is very instructive. In this series were four
pear, six apple, six peach, five plum and two cherry trees.
One pear tree was killed, one injured and the other two were
uninjured. One apple tree was killed, two slightly injured
and three ^s^ere uninjured. Four peach trees were killed
and the other two were badly injured. One plum tree was
slightly injured and the remaining four were not affected.
The cherry trees were both killed. These trees were treated
in the month of March. Twelve of them were sprayed with
the kerosene, with the thermometer between 34° and 38°F.,
and it was applied to the remaining eleven with a brush, with
the thermometer ranging between 40° and 45°F. No per-
ceptible difference could be seen in the effect between the
two methods of applying the kerosene. In view of the re-
sults of these experiments, carefully conducted by Professor
Webster, I do not feel ready, at the present time, to advise
the use of kerosene for the destruction of the San Jose scale,
except for experimental purposes.

Before closing I want to call attention to this box, in which
are some of the more common cranberry insects. [Specimens
exhibited.]

The Chaie3IAN. Now, gentlemen, we have a short time
for questions.

Mr. Pratt. I would like to inquire if Professor Fernald
can tell us from whence we received the San Jose scale.

Professor Fernald. It was first introduced into Cali-
fornia. It was brought from there to New Jersey and
Missouri nurseries.

Mr. Pratt. You have no knowledge of its being im-
ported directly into Massachusetts ?

Professor Fernald. It occurs in Japan and some of the
Pacific Islands, but I presume New England does not import
any stock directly from there.

Mr. . A year or two ago arsenate of lead was for sale

at grocery stores. I bought some and went over my potatoes,

No. 4.] mjUEIOUS INSECTS. 163

and the potato bugs were about as lively after I had applied
it as before. I had to go over the vines with Paris green.

Professor Fernald. I have stated some proportions in
the paper which I did not read. In buying this commercial
material, you must have the proportions given. There are
two qualities of acetate of lead (the material to be mixed
with arsenate of soda to make arsenate of lead) on the mar-
ket. One has 50 per cent of arsenic, and the other has less.
It is the fifty per cent which these conclusions are based on.
In following the rules I have given, please observe the pro-
portions, and insist on getting the fifty per cent quality.

Question. Does this arsenate of lead come in a suitable
form to be applied dry with one of those guns ?

Professor Fernald. So far as I know, it is not on the
market in shape to be used dry ; but if there is a demand for
it, I have no doubt that there are people who will eventually
supply the demand.

Question. Is the formula in any of the bulletins of the
Hatch Experiment Station?

Professor Fernald. It has been published there, in the
report of the gypsy moth department and also in the news-
papers.

Mr. Pratt. Is it easy to detect this San Jose scale ?

Professor Fernald. It is not easy ; you can scarcely see
them.

Mr. Taber. Have you used the arsenate of lead in con-
nection with the Bordeaux mixture?

Professor Fernald. I do not think it has been tried.

Mr. Morse (of Medway). Will arsenate of lead kill the
larvae of the potato beetle ? I tried it, with unsatisfactory
results. I put it on according to the formuhi issued by the
experiment station. After waiting a day or two, I put it on
stronger ; then I put on Paris green.

Professor Fernald. Your potato beetles must have a
very different constitution from what they do at Amherst,
for I have killed them very easily. There is this about
arsenate of lead : You can use it in any proportion you
like, and not be afraid of hurting your foliage. Perhaps
you did not use it strong enough, or there might have been
some fault in the chemicals or in the way you prepared it.

164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Question. Does it have any effect on grape vines?

Professor Fernald. It does not hurt any foliage.

The Chairman. A large portion of the lecture referred
to the cranberry insects. We have some gentlemen here
from Cape Cod, notably the son of the cranberry king,
Mr. Makepeace. We would like to hear from him.

Mr. Makepeace. I feel that I have been entertained by
what Professor Fernald has told us this afternoon. Of
course we can ask many questions. I would like to ask
Professor Fernald if in his experiments he has ever found
anything which was effective in destroying the girdle worm?

Professor Fernald. I never had an opportunity to ex-
periment with insecticides upon them. We have done all
we can at Amherst. Now what we need is to send a man
onto the bogs to do field work. When we have performed ex-
periments under cover, then we want to go into the field and
see if we get the same results. That remains to be done, and
I have not the means at my command to do it. There should
be a man there to spend the entire summer.

Mr. Makepeace. Do you think there should be more
than one application of arsenate of lead for the fire worm ?

Professor Fernald. If they all hatched at once, and you
applied it immediately upon their hatching, unless there are
heavy rains, I should think one application would be quite
sufficient. That is a thing to be tested in the field.

Mr. Makepeace. We know that they do not all hatch at
one time.

Professor Fernald. Then I think you would be obliged
to apply this frequently. Would it not be the same as in
the use of tobacco water? You know many cranberry grow-
ers feel that it hurts the keeping qualities of the crop to flow
the bogs. I think I found cranberry growers who did not
flow their bogs, but preferred to use tobacco water instead.

Mr. Makepeace. When they get so numerous that they
eat bog and all, it is best to flow, if you can.

Mr. Crowell (of Dennis). Has this mixture ever been
tested in actual experience on a bog on the cranberry worm ?

Professor Fernald. It has, but I haven't my notes.
Tests were begun by my assistant, but he had to take the
report of the results from the people there. I think that it

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 165

has been found that, while sometimes the results appear to
be perfectly satisfactory, at other times and under almost
exactly the same conditions the results have been unsatisfac-
tory. In my long experience I find that caterpillars are de-
stroyed very much more easily when young than w^hen nearly
grown. Would it not be possible to draw the water early
from the bogs, and have the worms all hatch at the same
time ?

Mr. . I think that the changes of temperature have

considerable to do with that. Sometimes, if the temperature
is right, they begin to hatch ; and if there is a sudden change,
the hatching of the others is retarded. I think I have seen
something of that kind several times.

Professor Fernald. I wish to say that, because of the
peculiar country on Cape Cod, the hospitality of the people
and the kindness they showed me, I have taken a more lively
interest in the cranberry insects than in any other insects I
have ever touched in my life. If I could help them, I would
be glad to do it. But I am so bound up with my work that
it is impossible for me to go down there and give the time
the subject merits, and the station has not the money to pay
expenses. If you gentlemen can suggest any way by which
the expenses can be met, I would be very glad to go and see
if I can do any more for you. I have thought of hydrocyanic
gas, and wondered if it would be possible to put a tent over
a portion of a bog, and liberate this gas and destroy the eggs.
Nobody knows whether it would kill the eggs, or not. It
has not been tested, to my knowledge. If it would kill all
the eggs, I am not sure but it might pay to do it. The cost
of any remedy must be low enough to allow a margin of
profit.

Question. Does the berry worm go from one berry to
another ?

Professor Fernald. Yes, if it does not aret enough to eat
from the first one.

Mr. . I understood you that there is no known

remedy for the berry worm at present ?

Professor Fernald. I did not say that. You can kill
them in the same way you do the codling moth. Our fruit
growers spray for the codling moth on apple trees, and you

166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

can spray your vines for this worm. It is a question for the
grower to decide whether it would pay to do it, or not. If
there are only a few on the bog, it would not pay to spray
the whole bog. I know nothing better for this purpose than
arsenate of lead. It will not burn the foliage, and is a lit-
tle cheaper than Paris green. You cannot kill them with
tobacco water.

Mr. CD. Lincoln. We have on our strawberry bed a
small beetle which sometimes completely destroys our young
plants, and old ones too. It is about one-eighth of an inch
long, black and shiny, and eats holes through the leaves. I
have tried Paris green so strong that it would kill the leaves,
with no effect on the insect.

Professor Fernald. I have tried every insecticide I know
against this insect, and have found nothing satisfactory as yet.

Mr. A. H. KiRKLAND (of Maiden). One thing I think
misrht be mentioned in connection with the use of arsenate
of lead on cranberry bogs.

Secretary Sessions. Mr. Kirkland has had a very exten-
sive experience with insecticides.

Mr. Kirkland. This arsenate of lead remains on the
foliage in an effective condition for a long period of time.
We have had this last summer, trees sprayed early in June,
and we have found plenty of poison on the leaves in August.
I do not know about cranberry insects, but I want to sug-
gest that, if your bogs were sprayed with arsenate of lead at
about the time the eggs begin to hatch out, the poison would
probably remain on the vines for two or three weeks. Would
not that cover the hatching time? Paris green washes off,
but arsenate of lead will remain on the leaves during a great
deal of wet weather ; and the addition of from four to six
quarts of glucose to one hundred and fifty gallons of water
might cause the poison to adhere longer.

Question. How much would it cost per acre to spray
cranberries ?

Mr. Kirkland. I have no figures that I can give the
gentleman, but I might say that we have sprayed apple and
oak trees which we estimated had a leaf surface of about three
thousand square feet. We sprayed those trees for eighteen
or twenty cents each, where we had spraying gangs working

No. 4.] mjURIOUS INSECTS. 167

throughout the day. We used arsenate of lead at the rate of
twenty pounds to one hundred and fifty gallons of water.
That is about five times as strong as you would need to use
it. You could, therefore, save on the cost of the poison.
These figures may help you in making an estimate.

Secretary Sessions. When spraying on the ground, you
would save climbing trees. In the gypsy moth work we
have made extensive and exhaustive experiments with pumps.
We have a pump that we expect to use next year, with which
one man, without much exertion, can use two or three lines
of hose with a spray nozzle at the end of each. I think it
would be worth your while to go to Maiden to see the pump.
I should suppose, if it would pay to spray with tobacco water,
it would pay to spray with arsenate of lead.

Mr. KiRKiiAND. Where the vines are dense, the poison
would have to be used in a larger quantity, in order to wet
through the vines.

Secretary Sessions. With our experience, we cannot tell
what it would cost, because we have not come in contact
with these conditions.

Mr. Makepeace. In spraying for the gypsy moth, is it
common to make more than one application during the
season ?

Mr. KiRKLAND. Where we spray during the forenoon*
and there comes a heavy rain at noon, w^e sometimes have to
re-spray. If we spray when the caterpillars are small and the
spray dries onto the leaves, one spraying is sufficient. As
a rule, we do not have to re-spray.

Question. Would the spray falling on the grass injure
live stock or poultry ?

Mr. KiRKLAND. In the case of poultry, it is better to shut
the fowls up for a few days after spraying. In the case of
live stock, I do not think there is any danger. Two years
ago I sprayed an apple tree very thoroughly with arsenate
of lead at the rate of twenty pounds to one hundred and fifty
gallons of water. When I finished, the grass underneath
was not very thoroughly soaked, so I turned the nozzle into
the grass. I cut the grass and fed it in two feedings to an
old horse that was about to be killed. The horse had a bad
leg, but its digestion was all right. We fed some of the

168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

grass in the morning and the rest at night, and the keeper
said the horse felt better after that. There was no harm done.

Mr. Taber. I would like to say a word in regard to the
San Jose scale. If I had heard nothing before about it, and
had it on my place, I should be discouraged, because the pro-
fessor has told us it is almost impossible to find all of the
scales. That it is difficult to eradicate is true. But the
man who owned that large orchard I described has it on his
trees and he is not discouraged, for he knows he can keep
them in check. They came from two trees that he set out
some seven years ago, but after three years it had spread to
only about five trees, and within the last two years it has
spread to one hundred and fifty trees. I say, do not get
discouraged. If you have it, fight it. We have to fight all
these enemies. Professor Slingerland has had a great deal
of experience in that line, and he tells us not to destroy our
trees unless they are very thoroughly infested, because we
can by the use of insecticides destroy these scales. If you
have a tree that is not worth anything, you might just as
well destroy it, of course. But this scale is not such a
terrible enemy, after all, if we are ready to fight it. There
is no use in backing out. We want to go to work and
eradicate it.

Mr. W. A. KrLBOURN (of South Lancaster). I desire to
make a motion, which is especially deserved. It is that the
Board of Agriculture thanks the mayor of the city, the Board
of Trade, the poet, the Orient Quartette, the officers of the
Bristol County Agricultural Society, the Reed & Barton
Corporation and Senator Black for the courtesies and hospi-
table treatment which have made this public winter meeting
so enjoyable.

Secretary Sessions. I rise to second that motion. This
Board has been treated with great consideration and hospi-
tality in every place where the public winter meeting has
been held. Taunton is by no means behind in this respect,
and I heartily second the motion .

The Chairman. All in favor of the motion, please rise.
It is a unanimous vote. We are now about to close one of
the most profitable and interesting series of meetings that
this Board has ever held. I wish to announce also that the

No. 4.] INJURIOUS INSECTS. 169

average attendance from the first day has been rather larger
than usual. It has been unfortunate that there was not more
time for discussion. Undoubtedly a great many more ques-
tions would have been asked, if time had allowed. I now
have to announce that this meeting is closed.

Adjourned at 3.45 p.m.

ANNUAL MEETING

or THE

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

AT BOSTON.

January 11 and 12, 1898.

ANNUAL MEETING.

In accordance with the provisions of chapter IV. of the
by-laws, the Board met at the office of the secretary, in Bos-
ton, on Tuesday, Jan. 11, 1898, at 12 m., it being the Tues-
day preceding the second Wednesday of January. In the
absence of the Governor, the Board was called to order by
the first vice-president, Hon. James S. Grinnell.

Present : Messrs. Allen, F. H. Appleton, Avery, Baker,
Benedict, Blair, Bowditch, Brewster, Brooks, Bursley, Clark,
Clemence, Cruickshanks, Damon, Ellsworth, Grinnell, Hall,
Hersey, Horton, Kilbourn, Pratt, Raymond, Eeed, Sargent,
Sessions, Shaw, Smith, Stetson, Taylor, Wellington, E. E.
Wood and E. W. Wood.

The records of the special meeting of the Board at Taun-
ton were read and approved.

The executive committee, by Mr. Wood, chairman, re-
ported the list of qualified members of the Board for 1898.
The newly elected members are as follows : —

At large, appointed by the Governor : —

DwiGHT A. HoRTON of Northampton.
Elected by the societies : —

Barnstable County, John Bursley of West Barnstable.

Blackstone Valley, Samuel B. Taft of Uxbridge.

Franklin County, Frederick L. Whitmore of Sunderland.

Hampshire, George P. Smith of Sunderland.

Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, Nathaniel
I. Bowditch of Framingham.

Martha's Vineyard, Everett Allen Davis of West Tisbury.

Middlesex North, Joshua Clark of Tewksbury.

Oxford, J. W. Stockwell of Sutton.

Spencer, J. Elton Green of Spencer.

Union, Almon W. Lloyd of Blandford.

Worcester Nortli-west, Thomas H. Goodspeed of Athol.

Worcester South, C. D. Richardson of West Brookfield.

174 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The committee further reported that all the incorporated
societies except the Hampden and the Worcester North were
entitled to representation on the Board ; the Hampden Soci-
ety having been ruled out last year for failure to comply with
the law regulating representation on the Board and not hav-
ing taken necessary action to remedy its delinquency, the
Worcester North Society by its financial statement appearing
not to have the required capital stock to entitle it to repre-
sentation the present year.

The report of the committee was accepted and adopted.

Voted, That, recognizing the activity and usefulness of Mr.
George Cruickshanks as a member of the Board from the
Worcester North Society, the courtesy of the use of the floor
be extended to him during the progress of this meeting.

An abstract of the annual report of the secretary was pre-
sented and accepted.

Voted, That the Chair appoint a committee of three to
report resolutions on the death of Atkinson C. Varnum of
Lowell, a member of the Board who has passed away during
the past year. The Chair appointed Messrs. E. W. Wood,
Kilbourn and Cruickshanks.

At 1.15 P.M. the Board adjourned to 2.30 p.m.

Board called to order at 2.30 p.m.. Second Vice-President
Wood in the chair.

The secretary presented a letter from Hon. Alvan Barrus,
a member of the commission appointed to inquire into the
expediency of revising and amending the laws of the Com-
monwealth relating to taxation, accompanied by a copy of
the report of the said commission for each member of the
Board.

Voted, That the thanks of the Board be extended to Mr.
Barrus for his thoughtful consideration of the members of
the Massachusetts Board of A2:riculture.

No. 4.] ANNUAL MEETING. 175

The records of the executive committee, acting for the
Board, were read by the secretary and approved, and the
actions of the committee were adopted as the actions of the
Board.

Mr. Kilbourn, for the committee to report resolutions on
the death of Atkinson C. Varnum, reported as follows : —

Whereas, Since the last annual meeting of this Board Atkinson
C. Varnum of Lowell, one of the oldest members of the Board in
consecutive service, has passed away, —

Resolved, That this Board has lost one of its most valued and
honored members ; that the Middlesex North Agricultural Society
has lost a long-time supporter and efficient officer ; that the State
which profited by his honesty and sagacity as a legislator and the
country whose military service he entered in the dark days of re-
bellion and war have lost an honest and patriotic citizen ; that the
community in which he dwelt has lost a large-heai'ted friend, whose
first aspiration was to do good as he had opportunity.

Resolved, That the family of our deceased friend and fellow-
member has our warmest sympathy in the loss of a wise, con-
siderate and loving husband and father.

Resolved, That these resolutions be spread upon the records of
the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, and that the secretary be
instructed to send a copy to the family of Mr. Varnum.

After remarks by Messrs. F. H. Appleton, Sessions,
Brooks, Hersey, Clark, Cruickshanks, Bursley and Stetson,
the resolutions were adopted by a rising vote.

The report of the librarian was read by the secretary, was
accepted by vote of the Board and will be found printed in
this volume.

The committee on agricultural societies, by Mr. Kilbourn,
chairman, presented a written report, which was accepted and
adopted, and will be found printed in this volume.

The committee on domestic animals and sanitation, by
Mr. Damon, chairman, reported that no matters had been
referred to the committee, and it had not held a formal
meeting during the year. The report was accepted.

176 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The report of the committee on gypsy moth, insects and
birds was presented at the special meeting of the Board at
Taunton, Dec. 7, 1897, and was accepted and adopted by
vote of the Board at that time.

The report of the committee on Dairy Bureau and agri-
cultural products was presented hy the committee and read
by Mr. Geo. M. Whitaker, the assistant executive officer of
the Dairy Bureau, which report was accepted and adopted,
and will be found printed in this volume.

The report of the committee on Agricultural College and
education was read by Mr. George Cruickshanks, chairman,
and by vote of the Board was accepted and adopted as the
report of the Board to the Legislature. The report will be
found printed in this volume.

The committee on experiments and station work, by Pro-
fessor Brooks, chairman, presented a written report, which
was accepted and adopted, and will be found printed in this
volume.

The committee on forestry, roads and roadside improve-
ments reported verbally by Gen. F. H. Appleton, chairman,
that no matter had been referred to the committee and that
it had held no formal meeting during the year, but that the
chairman had attended meetings of societies and associations
devoted to forestry matters, and had represented the Board
at such meetings. The report was accepted.

Voted, That it shall be the duty of each of the standing
committees to hold at least one formal meeting each year,
and to make a written report to the Board at the annual
meeting;.

^G"

At 4.45 P.M. the Board adjourned to 10 a.m., Wednesday.

No 4.] ANNUAL MEETING. 177

SECOND DAY.
The Board met at 10 a.m., Mr. Wood in the chair.

Present : Messrs. Allen, F. H. Appleton, Baker, Benedict,
Bowditch, Brewster, Bursley, Clark, Damon, Ellsworth,
Goodspeed, Green, Grinnell, Hall, Hersey, Horton, Kilbourn,
Lloyd, Pratt, Raymond, Reed, Richardson, Sargent, Sessions,
Shaw, F. H. Smith, Geo. P. Smith, Stetson, Stockwell,
Whitmore, E. E. Wood and E W. Wood.

The records of the first day were read and approved.

Voted, That the by-laws be amended by inserting in the
seventh line of Article L, after the word " committees" the
words '■'■ Provided, that each appointed or elected member oi
the Board shall be assigned to one of the committees, and
that the members in excess of the thirty-five necessary to till
the committees be assigned to certain committees by vote of
the Board at each annual meeting."

Voted, That the two members over the number necessary
to fill the committees be assigned one to the committee on
domestic animals and sanitation and one to the committee on
Agricultural College and education.

Election of officers being in order, ballots were taken, and
the elections resulted as follows : —

President, ex officio, His Excellency Governor Roger Wolcott.
First vice-president, James S. Grinnell of Greenfield.
Second vice-president, Elljah W. Wood of West Newton.
Secretary, William R. Sessions of Hampden.

The chairman announced the following standins: committees
(the secretary is by rule of the Board a member ex officio of
each of the standing committees) : —

Executive committee : Messrs. E. W. Wood of West Newton,
W. A. Kilbourn of South Lancaster, Isaac Damon of Wayland, D.
A. Horton of Northampton, E. A. Harwood of North Brookfield,
Edmund Hersey of Hingham and Francis H. Appleton of Peabody.

178 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Committee on agricultural societies : Messrs. W. A. Kilbourn of
South Lancaster, Q. L. Reed of South Weymouth, N. W. Shaw of
North Raynham, O. P. Allen of Palmer and N. B. Baker of Savoy.

Committee on domestic animals and sanitation : Messrs. Isaac
Damon of Wayland, F. H. Smith of Ashfield, O. S. Thayer of
North Attleborough, F. L. Whitmore of Sunderland, Joshua Clark
of Tewksbury and A. W. Lloyd of Blandford.

Committee on gypsy moth, insects and birds : Messrs. E. W.
Wood of West Newton, Augustus Pratt of North Middlebor-
ough, F. W Sargent of Amesbury, S. S. Stetson of Lakeville
and N. I. Bowditch of Framingham.

Committee on Dairy Bureau and agricultural products : Messrs.
D. A. Hortou of Northampton, J. L. Ellsworth of Worcester, C.
D. Richardson of West Brookfield, C. B. Benedict of Egremont
and E. E. Wood of Northampton.

Committee on Agricultural College and education : Messrs. E. A.
Harwood of North Brookfield, John Bursley of West Barnstable,
C. K. Brewster of Worthington, Wesley B. Barton of Daltou, J.
W. Stockwell of Sutton and Geo. P. Smith of Sunderland.

Committee on experiments and station work : Messrs. Edmund
Hersey of Hingham, Walton Hall of Marshfield, J. S. Grinnell of
Greenfield, T. H. Goodspeed of Athol and J. Elton Green of
Spencer.

Committee on forestry, roads and roadside improvements :
Messrs. F. H. Appleton of Peabody, S. M. Raymond, of Hins-
dale, J. S. Appleton, Jr., of Nantucket, E. A. Davis of West
Tisbury and S. B. Taft of Uxbridge.

Which appointments were approved by the Board.

Election of specialists being in order, ballots were taken,
and the election resulted as follows : —

Chemist, Dr. C. A. Goessmann of Amherst.
Entomologist, Prof. C. H. Feknald of Amherst.
Botanist and pomologist, Prof. S. T. Maynard of Amherst.
Veterinarian, Prof. James B. Paige of Amherst.
Engineer, Wm. Wheeler of Concord.
Ornithologist, E. H. Forbush of Maiden.

Mr. Wesley B. Barton of Dalton, who was appointed
to present an essay on "Opportunities of New England
Farmers," being detained by sickness, his essay was read

No. 4.] ANNUAL MEETING. 179

by the secretary, was accepted and will be found printed in
this volume.

Mr. F. W. Sargent read an essay on "Farmers' Insti-
tutes," which was accepted and will be found printed in this
volume.

The committee on Agricultural College and education, by
Mr. Bursley, reported recommending that the next public
winter meeting be held at Amherst, on invitation of the
Hampshire Agricultural Society and the faculty of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College.

Voted, To accept the report, and that the next public
winter meeting be held at Amherst, Dec. 6, 7 aiid 8, 1898.

Voted, That the chair appoint a local committee of arrange-
ments, to act with the secretar}^ and the committee on Agri-
cultural College and education. The chair appointed Messrs.
H. H. Goodell, G. P. Smith, D. A. Horton, E. E. Wood
and F. L. Whitmore.

Mr. Bursley, for the same committee, reported recom-
mending that Messrs. Brewster and Bowditch be appointed
to present essays at the next annual meeting of the Board.

Voted, To accept the report, and that Messrs. Brewster
and Bowditch be appointed essayists. Mr. Brewster an-
nounced his subject as "The Massachusetts Agricultural
College: its criticisms; its benefits." Mr. Bowditch stated
that he would announce his subject later.

Voted, That Mr. J. G. Avery of Spencer be invited to
address the Board.

Mr. Avery gave an account of the three farmers' con-
gresses he had attended as delegate, and stated that he had
personally invited the congress of 1899 to meet in Boston,
and suggested that the Board adopt the following resolve : —

Resolved, That the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture
extends an invitation to the Farmers' National Congress to hold
its session in Boston in 1899, provided the Legislature makes an
appropriation to defray the necessary expenses, not to exceed
twelve hundred dollars.

180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

Oil motion of General Appleton, the resolve was adopted.
Voted, That the matter be referred to the executive com-
mittee.

At 12.25 P.M. the Board adjourned to 2.30 p.m.

The Board was called to order at 2.30 p.m., Mr. Wood in
the chair.

The records of the forenoon session were read and approved.

Voted, That a committee of two be appointed, to consider
and select a badge to he adopted, to be worn by the members
at the public winter meeting of the Board, and while on duty
as inspectors. The chair appointed Messrs. F. H. Appleton
and Walton Hall as the committee.

Voted, That the hour for the annual meeting to he called
to order be 11 a.m. instead of 12 m., as in the past.

The secretary reported the delinquencies of certain societies
in making required returns.

Voted, To refer the matter to the executive committee,
with power to excuse the delinquency, if in the opinion of
the committee a reasonable excuse is given.

In consideration of the fact that the secretary, when ac-
cepting the office to which he had been re-elected, had stated
that he should not expect or accept another re-election, and
that, as the present election was for the year from July 1,
1898, to July 1, 1899, the Board might expect his resigna-
tion of the office to take effect either at the close of the next
annual meeting or at the end of the month of January, 1899,
and that the resignation would be presented in time to be
acted upon at the next annual meeting, it was

Voted, That the secretary be requested to withdraw his
notice to the Board that he declines to be secretary after July
1, 1899.

The following preamble and resolution was presented,
discussed and unanimously adopted : —

No. 4.] ANNUAL MEETING. 181

Wliereas, It has come to the knowledge of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture that the Massachusetts Society for
Promoting Agriculture has granted the sum of twenty-five hundred
dollars annually for five years to the Arnold Arboretum, to be ex-
pended by that institution in paying the expense of an investiga-
tion of trees and the best methods of their propagation, and has
also granted the sum of one hundred dollars to the Massachusetts
Agricultural College, to be expended in prizes to the students in
the dairy school of that institution in the year 1898, —

Besolved, That the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture
assembled in annual meeting recognizes the generous financial aid
granted to agricultural institutions and to plans for agricultural
improvement by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agri-
culture from time to time during the past centui-y, and now unani-
mously tenders the thanks of the Board to that society for the
liberal grants described in the preamble to this resolution.

Voted, That matters of legislation concerning agricultural
interests be referred to the executive committee, with power
to appear before the committees themselves, or to appoint
certain members of the Board to assist before committees of
the Legislature.

Voted, That the recommendation of the librarian in his
report, that a catalogue of the library be prepared, giving
titles, authors and customary items, be adopted, and that the
catalogue be published in the "Agriculture of Massachu-
setts " which is published next after the completion of the
catalogue.

Voted, That the matter of increase of the salaries of the
assistants in the office of the secretary be referred to the
executive committee, with power to act.

Voted, That the librarian's report, read and accepted yes-
terday, be now adopted.

The committee on agricultural societies, by Mr. Kilbourn,
chairman, reported recommending that the date for the com-
mencement of the fair of the Hampshire Agricultural Society
be changed to the second Thursday after the first Monday in
September, that of the Oxford Agricultural Society to the

182

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

first Thursday after the first Monday in September, that of
the Weymouth Agricultural and Industrial Society to the
fourth Thursday after the first Monday in September, and
that of the Worcester North-west Agricultural and Mechan-
ical Society to the second Wednesday after the first Monday
in September.

Voted, To accept and adopt the report of the committee,
and to change the dates as recommended.

Mr, Kilbourn, for the same committee, reported recom-
mending the assignment of inspectors, as follows : —

Amesbury and Salisbury, at Amesbury, Septem-
ber 27, 28 and 29, T. H. Goodspeeu.

Barnstable County, at Barnstable, August 30, 31,

September 1, F. L Whitmore

Berkshire, at Pittsfield, September 13, 14 and 15, F. H Smith.
Blackstone Valley, at Uxbridge, Sept. 27 and 28, Geo. P. Smith.
Bristol County, at Taunton, September 20, 21

and 22, CD. Richardson.

Deerfield Valley, at Charlemont, September 15

and 16, O. S. Thayer.

Eastern Hampden, at Palmer, September 20 and

21, . . W.B.Barton.

Essex, at Peabody, September 20, 21 and 22, . E. A. Davis.
Franklin County, at Greenfield, September 22

and 23, S. S. Stetson.

Hampshire, at Amherst, September 15 and 10, . E. A. Harwood
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, at North-
ampton, October 5 and 6, . . . . Q. L. Reed.
Highland, at Middlefield, September 7 and 8, . Edmund Hersey.
Hillside, at Cummington, September 27 and 28, . S. B. Taft.
Hingham, at Hingham, September 27 and 28, . E. W. Wood.
Hoosac Valley, at North Adams, September 21

and 22, W. A. Kilbourn.

Housatonic, at Great Barrington, September 28

and 29, Isaac Damon.

Manufacturers' Agricultural, at North Attlebor-

ough, August 30 and 31, J. E. Green.

Marshfield, at Marshfield, August 24, 25 and 26, . Joshua Clark.
Martha's Vineyard, at West Tisbury, September

20 and 21, E. E. WooD.

Massachusetts Horticultural, at Boston, October

4 and 5, N. I. Bowditch.

Middlesex North, at Lowell, September 15, 16

and 17, S. M. Raymond.

No. A.-j ANNUAL MEETING. 183

Middlesex South, at Framingham, September 13,

14 and 15, Walton Hall.

Nantucket, at Nantucket, August 3 1 and Septem-
ber 1, O.P.Allen.

Oxford, at Oxford, September 8 and 9, . . Augustus Pratt.

Plymouth County, at Bridgewater, September 1 1,

15 and 16, J. L. Ellsworth.

Spencer, at Spencer, September 22 and 23, . . F. H. Appleton.

Union, at Blaudford, September 14, 15 and 16, . J. S. Appleton, Jr.
Weymouth, at South Weymouth, September 29

and 30 and October 1, N. B Baker.

Worcester, at Worcester, September 6, 7 and 8, . N. ^Y. Shaw.

Worcester East, at Clinton, September 15 and 16, F. W. Sargent.
Worcester North-west, at Athol, September 14

and 15, J. W. Stockwell.

Worcester South, at Sturbridge, September 15

and 16, C. B. Benedict.

Worcester County West, at Barre, September 29

and3<i, A.W.Lloyd.

The report of the committee was accepted and adopted.

Voted, That the thanks of the Board be unanimously pre-
sented to the first and second vice-presidents for the al)le and
pleasant manner in which they have performed the duties of
presiding officer.

The records of the afternoon session were read and ap-
proved.

Adjourned at 3.45 p.m.

WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,

Secretart/.

184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Report to the Legislature of the State Board
OF Agriculture, acting as Overseers
OF THE Massachusetts Agricult-
ural College.

[P. S., Chap. '20, Sect ">, adopted l.y the Board, Jan. 11, 1898.]

To the State Board of Agriculture, Overseers of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College.

In compliance with the by-laws of this Board, the com-
mittee on Agricultural College and education has visited the
college from time to time during the year, attended the ex-
amination for the Grinnell agricultural prizes, and was pres-
ent at the commencement exercises. The prizes were awarded
as follows : first, to Liberty Lyon Cheney, Southbridge ;
second, to Philip H. Smith, South Hadley Falls.

The Farm.

The following farm crops were grown on the college farm
this season : Japanese millet, 4^ acres ; field corn, 7 acres ;
celery, 1| acres ; potatoes, 12 acres ; corn for silage, 22\
acres ; soja beans, 3 acres ; oats and pease, 1 acre ; beets,
half an acre ; carrots, 1 acre, — the last two, however, prov-
ing total failures from excessive moisture. The total cost
of growing these crops was $2,000.06, charging the crops
for one-half the manure and three-fourths the fertilizer ap-
plied. The value of the crops obtained is estimated to be
$2,895.60, — all, with the exception of the field corn, soja
beans and roots, being grown at a profit over cost of
production.

There were 79 acres in grass, yielding 236 tons of cured
hay and rowen and 74 tons of soiling crops fed green. Six
acres of potatoes, grown on grass and clover sod, yielded

No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 185

903 bushels of merchantable tubers, worth $722.40, the cost
of production being $308.02 ; balance in favor of crop,
$414.38. Six acres of potatoes, following onions and roots,
yielded 463 bushels of merchantable tubers, worth $370.40,
the cost of growing being $257.25 ; balance in favor of crop,
$113.17, this field being somewhat injured by rot. A com-
parison of the two fields shows a difterence of $300 in favor
of those grown on grass and clover sod.

The 22^ acres of corn grown for silage yielded 287 tons,
at a cost of production of $2.42 per ton. An excellent
illustration of the eft'ects of drainage was shown in the corn
field. An area of about half an acre on one side of the field,
not having been underdrained, yielded only at the rate of 4
tons of silage per acre, while the average of the balance of
the field was over 15 tons per acre.

The celery crop again proved successful this season, 1^
acres being grown, at a cost of $254.30, the value of the
crop obtained being $400. The heavy rains caused much
extra cost in the production of all the crops, but they were
kept free from weeds.

The live stock are all in good, thrifty condition, a fine
herd of grade calves being grown this season and many of
the poorer milkers of last season's herd sold to the butcher,
only those showing a balance on the right side being kept.
Two fine-grade Percheron colts have l)een trained and worked
this season, and proved a valuable addition to the working
force.

Tools and Machinery.

No new tools have been added to the farm equipment this
season, all there appearing to be in excellent order and well
fitted for the uses required of them.

Improvements .
The only important improvement this season has been
the moving and fitting for use as a cow barn of the shed
formerly used at the State Experiment Station for sheep.
The total cost of the same, including the farm labor, was
$300. More or less student labor is continually employed
at the farm, thus giving the students the opportunity to

186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

observe and assist in practising what is taught them in the
class room.

A hasty examination of the dormitories was made, and we
note that new bath-rooms and closets have been constructed
at North College, and that the rooms in both North and
South colleges were -generally comfortably furnished. As a
few students may suffer from lack of means, it is suggested
that, if certain necessary articles were provided for each
room, the pupils of limited means would be better able to
compete Avith their more fortunate companions. The read-
ing room at North College is furnished by the students with
the leading periodicals and newspapers at a trifling cost.
The drill hall and armory next claimed our attention, where
everything was found bright and shining.

The Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College.
The field work in the several departments has suffered,
like the farm crops, from the excessive rainfall during the
summer months. This has demonstrated the necessity of
more underdraius, which have been put in during the late
autumn. The laboratory connected with the chemists' de-
partment has been completed, and several changes and im-
provements made in connection with the same. It would
seem advisable that an appropriation be made for the con-
struction of a small vegetation house, to be used in conduct-
ing fertilizer experiments. Electric lights have been intro-
duced in the barn used by the director in charge of the
department of foods and feeding. Experiments have here
been carried on in feeding milch cows and pigs, to determine
the comparative value of the various feeds which are by-
products from the cereal factories. Here also digestion
experiments have been conducted with sheep, to determine
the amount of protein it is advisable to feed.

Veterinary Department.
In view of the fact that at the present time so much veter-
inary science is required to keep our farm animals up to the
required standard, we recommend that more attention be
paid to this department, it now being taught in the senior
year only.

No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 187

Department of Zoology.

The work in this department begins in the winter term of
the sopliomore year, with human anatomy and physiology,
the study of which not only serves as an introduction to the
more advanced work later in this department, and in vet-
erinary science, but also gives the young men a knowledge
of the structure and uses of the ditierent organs of the human
body and the laws of health. In the fall and winter terms
the members of the junior class take zoology, which is taught
by means of lectures and laboratory work. In the labora-
tory each member of the class dissects and studies a series
of typical animals, making drawings of the various organs.
During the spring term of this year a course of lectures is
given on insects in general, their classification and habits
and the various methods of destroying those that are in-
jurious. There is a most excellent museum connected with
this department, in which are exhibited, as far as possible,
all the animals that occur in this Commonwealth, together
with such species from other parts of the world as are neces-
sary to give completeness, or are useful for the instruction
of the students. This museum furnishes specimens for illus-
tration in the lectures before the classes, and also for general
information to all visitors as well as members of the college.

During the senior year such members of the class as elect
advanced entomology take a course of more technical lectures,
in which the following subjects relating to insects are con-
sidered quite at length : external and internal anatomy, em-
bryology, transformations, duration of life, luminosity of
insects, the color of insects, parasitic insects, diseases of
insects, number of insects in existence, geographical and
geological distribution, insect architecture, fertilization of
plants by insects, economic entomology, bee-keeping and
the literature of insects. The laboratory work of this year
consists in part of the dissection of a caterpillar, a pupa and
a moth, and a critical study of the external anatomy of a
number of each of the orders of insects, followed by the ex-
ercise of determining a group of insects in each order ; and,
finally, each student is required to prepare a thesis on some
insect or group of insects pertaining to the business in which
he intends to engage. Each member of the senior class who

188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

elects entomology is asked what business he intends to fol-
low after graduation, and he is then advised to prepare his
thesis on those insects with which he will most have to deal
in the business of life. In the preparation of this thesis the
work is carried on in the most approved method, so that he
may obtain the most thorough scientific and at the same time
practical knowledge of the subject ; in fact, he is taught
methods of investigation, so that, if new insect pests should
appear on his crops, he will know how to properly investi-
gate them and discover the best and cheapest methods for
their destruction. If this thesis proves to contain matters
of public interest, whether of an economic character or
otherwise, it is published with whatever illustrations are
necessary.

Economic entomology is divided, for convenience, into
insects injurious in the greenhouse, in the garden, in the
orchard, in the field, in the forest, to domestic animals,
household pests, and the science and practice of bee-keeping.
Instruction is also given on insecticides and apparatus for
the application of insecticides. As the laboratory is in the
same building with the iusectary, all the members of the
class have the opportunity of frequently inspecting the vari-
ous experiments on different insects in this department of
the Hatch Station.

This department is now prepared for and is receiving
graduates from this and other colleges who wish to continue
the study of entomology beyond what they were able in their
undergraduate courses. These advanced studies will fit them
for positions in the experiment stations or as State or gov-
ernment entomologists, and also give them most excellent
training as teachers in our high schools and colleges.

Botanical Department.
The botanical museum contains a large collection of models
of fruit and specimens of all the woods found indigenous to
Massachusetts, and also the Knowlton Herbarium, the gift of
the late William Knowlton of Upton, numbering over ten
thousand specimens of plants from nearly all parts of the
world. Last winter the Legislature appropriated $1,200 for
an extension of the botanical laboratory. This extension

No. 4 ] AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 189

was greatly needed, for there was not room enough in the
old building to accommodate the students in this department.
With this appropriation the laboratory has been extended
eighteen feet, a new ventilating apparatus has been put in,
and the laboratory has been remodelled throughout, which is
a great improvement. The laboratory is now capable of ac-
commodating thirty-four students.

The course of study in botany remains the same as in
recent years. One feature may be mentioned in connection
with the sophomore worls, — more attention has been given
to the study of grasses, trees and shrubs. For this purpose
representatives of most of our grasses, trees and shrubs are
accessible to the students.

Station Work. — Some of the same problems which have
occupied the attention of this department during the last two
years are still being investigated, such as the drop on lettuce,
top burn, and nematode worms in tomatoes, cucumbers and
violets. The commercial growers are looking to the State
Experiment Station for remedies for these troubles. The
great importance of these investigations may be seen when
we learn that the estimated value of the cucumber crop alone
grown under glass is one million dollars, and the percentage
of loss caused by insect and fungous diseases is from twenty-
five to thirty per cent, which amounts to from two hundred
and fifty to three hundred thousand dollars a year to the
growers. Experiments are continuing with the tomatoes,
for the purpose of finding out which is the best way to hasten
the maturity of the fruit, and with difierent quality of glass
for certain crops in the greenhouse. Experiments are also
being made on the mechanical condition of the soil for let-
tuce. Extensive improvements have been made in the green-
houses for growing plants for the experiment work of this
department. There are now three separate houses, so that
each can be heated so as to suit the class of plants to be
grown. The conditions in these houses are now as complete
as it is possible to make them, and experiments can be carried
on on a larofe enough scale to draw conclusions from.

190 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

Horticultural Department.

In making our report of the condition of the horticultural
department of the college, we are pleased to observe that on
the whole this department is in better condition than ever
before. That portion of the Clark estate north of the reser-
voir has been fitted for a commercial orchard by ploughing
under a heavy crop of rye in June, a crop of oats and peas
in August, and a crop of barley and peas now lies on the
ground, which will prevent washing during the winter, and
will be turned under next spring. A young orchard of the
most important new varieties of the apple, pear, peach, plum
and cherry was set out in April, 1897, and made a good
growth. All new varieties of both large and small fruits, as
well as ornamental trees, shrubs and plants of very decided
promise, have been procured and planted in the experimental
plots and on the college grounds.

A collection of seedling grape vines originated on the
grounds show much promise in vigor of growth, but have
not fruited sufficiently to show their quality or time of ripen-
ing. A collection of seedling raspberries from choice seed
of the hybrid purple-cap "Shaifer" show a great many
types, from the black cap through to the vigorous red rasp-
berry. A large collection of seedling red currants are of
much interest, and some five hundred strawberry plants have
been tested for two years, and many of them compare favor-
ably with many of the new kinds, but further trial is needed
to prove if any of them have merits superior to the named
varieties. The new species and varieties of raspberries from
the Pacific coast and other countries, the Loganberry, may-
berry, salmon-berry, strawberry, raspberry, muskberry and
wineberry have been planted, and some fruit may be expected
the coming season.

The collection of ornamental trees and shrubs, probably
the best connected with any agricultural college in the coun-
try, is being increased each year. They are planted on the
plan that the entire grounds should be more or less decorated ;
and a very small sum expended for this purpose each year
will soon result in a beautiful and useful park, with speci-
mens of all the choice deciduous and evergreen trees and

No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 191

shrubs, which will be of great value to the students in land-
scape gardening and to all lovers of choice trees and shrubs.

Important changes have been made in the greenhouses on
the college grounds. The roof of the lower octagon has
been raised and altered to the same size as the upper octagon,
and the low roofs of the two Hatch greenhouses have been
replaced by one large roof, which is a great improvement.

In 1876 the Massachusetts Agricultural College was in an
embryonic state. Gov. Alexander H. Bullock, in his ad-
dress to the Massachusetts Legislature, said: " By an act
of the Legislature approved May 2G, 1866, an immediate
connection is created between these two institutions [refer-
ring to the State Board and the college] ; and there seems
to be no doubt that, with the influence of the Board binding
it to every agricultural society in the State, and thus to
almost every farm, the college may bec(^me not only the re-
ceptacle of a great amount of useful practical knowledge,
but also the source whence the highest light of science may
be shed to guide the farmer in his calling. For more than
three-quarters of a century Massachusetts has been awaken-
ing to the necessity of agricultural education, by the thought
and eftbrt of some of her ablest thinkers and wisest states-
men ; and she is entitled to a well-organized agricultural col-
lege, which shall form a part of her great system of university
education, which shall combine and direct all her efforts for
agricultural improvement, and shall l)e the special object of
her kindest and most generous care as an important instru-
ment in the work of popular cultivation. Under its present
management, which is pervaded with harmony, earnestness
and a wise spirit of economy, I predict the success of the
institution."

These words were uttered as a prophecy. To-day it is
different, — the success of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Colleo;e is an established fact. Yet its work needs to be
carried to the people by every representative of the State
Board. A large proportion of the soil of our Commonwealth
is not used for profitable purposes to-day. It has been ex-
hausted and become useless under old methods. In former
days the soil yielded her increase with a generous hand.
Now it is different. The successful farmer must study the

192 BOARD OF AGKICULTURP:. [Pub. Doc.

secrets of nature. Along with the changes of soil come
changes of methods. Invention and machinery have largely
supplanted physical force. Men must cultivate their minds
and skill more than then, or they will not be abreast of the
times. Success means work in newer and different channels.
"Schools ought to be fitted to the requirements of hu-
manity," said a noted German philosopher. We think the
Massachusetts Agricultural College comes as near this as any
school in the State. Practical knowledge and experimental
work go hand in hand with theory and ethics. The student
not only sees beauty in the flower, but also in the processes
that bring it to perfection. He comes closely in touch with
nature. The influence of this educational and experimental
work cannot be measured by its curriculum or number of
graduates. It reaches out in a thousand different ways. Not
a farm or meadow, not a hilltop or valley in this State but
what has, directly or indirectly, felt its magic touch, or re-
ceived some benefit from its work.

In conclusion, your committee would reiterate what it ex-
pressed in substance in last year's report, — its wish that
the people of Massachusetts interested in agricultural pur-
suits miffht come in closer touch and become more familiar
with the work of this institution, which is especially for
them.

" The riches of the Commonwealth
Are strong, free minds and hearts of health ;
And more to her than wealth or gain,
The cunning hand and cultivated brain."

Respectfully submitted,

GEORGE CRUICKSHANKS.
E. A. HARWOOD.
JOHN BURSLEY.
C. K. BREWSTER.
W. B. BARTON.

No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 193

Report of Committee on AgricuijTural
Societies. .

[Adopted at the Annual Meeting, Jan. 11, 1898.]

t

The committee on agricultural societies respectfully report
that they have examined in detail the reports of all the in-
spectors of the fairs held in the State.

Whatever society held a fair, which deserved the commen-
dations, and was not subject to the criticisms, contained in all
these reports, was indeed a model society and in excellent
condition.

By careful consideration of these several reports, we find
very few which speak of objectionable features ; and we
believe that more care has been exercised by the officers in
excluding from the grounds and vicinity of the fairs objec-
tionable shows, fakirs and attractions. We think the lines
can be drawn still closer, with advantage to all concerned,
and that many of the cane boards and other devices for gather-
ing money might reasonably be ruled out. Several reports
criticise the sanitary arrangements provided, and we hope
improvement will result.

Besides what is indicated in the reports, we find anxiety
among almost all the societies for the outcome of each year's
fair, and in many cases a loss of money, which every year
causes some society to apply to the Board for approval of a
mortgage. The problem which the societies yearly have to
meet is not yet solved.

They have to arrange for a fair, instructive, attractive and
creditable, and of necessity to incur large expense, and yet to
depend very much on favorable weather for a successful finan-
cial result. We can only advise to keep down the expense as
well as they can, by earnest effort and labor among their own
members.

194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The approval of mortgages and sale of land seems to your
committee to be too readily granted. They believe it was
the purpose of the law, in requiring such approval, that the
Board of Agriculture should interpose delay, in case action is
taken by a society, without full consideration, or against the
wishes of a considerable minority, or in case of sale of large
property. We believe it to be the duty of the Board to make
sure that it is the purpose of the society to use the proceeds
of such sale in the interests of agriculture.

Respectfully submitted,

W. A. KILBOURN.
N. W. SHAW.
Q. L. REED.
O. P. ALLEN.
N. B. BAKER.

No. 4.1 EXPERIMENTS AND STATION WORK. 195

Report of Coboiittee on Expp:riments and
Station Work.

[Adopted at the Annual Meeting, Jan. 11, 1898.]

The committee of the Board of Agriculture on experi-
ments and station work has the honor to report that one
meeting of the committee has been held in Amherst, on the
grounds of the Agricultural College, during the year. Owing
to the absence of the chairman of the committee during the
earlier portion of the year, the meeting was not held until
November 9, — a date too late to give much opportunity for
inspection of field experiments, which also is desirable.
Unless, however, more than one entire day can be devoted to
such a meeting, it will be found impossible to make even a
superficial acquaintance with the work of the experiment
station in all its branches. Your committee was early on
the ground and devoted the entire day to the work, and yet,
even with the omission noted above, found itself constantly
obliged to hurry more than it wished in order to cover the
ground laid out.

The programme of the day consisted in meeting in suc-
cession each of the heads of departments of the station
— seven in number — by appointment in the office or labo-
ratory especially devoted to his work, listening to a brief
statement of the nature and results of recent work and a
discussion of future plans. Since the reports of the ofiicers
of the experiment station accompany and comprise a part of
your report (Agriculture of Massachusetts), it does not
appear either necessary or desirable to summarize the facts
elicited here.

It sufiices to say, in conclusion, that members of the com-
mittee present expressed themselves as greatly interested in
what they saw and heard, as well as much impressed with
the scope and importance of the work of the station.

196 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Such meetings must prove highly useful in promoting
more sympathetic relations between the Board and station,
in extending a knowledge of the station and its work, not
alone among the members of the Board but throughout the
general public through these members ; and they should
prove helpful to the station as well through suggestions and
criticisms offered by members of the committee.

For the committee,

WILLIAM P. BROOKS,

Chairman,

No. 4.] REPORT OF LIBRARIAN. 197

Report of the Librarian and Curator.

[Adopted at the Annual Meeting, Jan. 12, 1898.]

To the Secretary of (he Slate Board of Agriculture.

Sir: — It is provided in article 3 of chapter III. of the
by-laws of the Board of Agriculture, that "the secretary
shall appoint one of his clerks librarian and curator, who
shall act under his directions."

The appointment of the present incumbent of this oflSce
was made Feb. 6, 1894, since which date as much attention
has been given by him to the building up of the office library
as circumstances would permit.

History of the Library.

The State Board of Agriculture was established by an act
of the Legislature of 1852, and was assigned rooms in the
basement of the State House. Books of reference began to
accumulate, and soon the nucleus of an office library was
formed. The first reference to such a library, in the volume
known as the " Agriculture of Massachusetts," is in the sec-
retary's report for 1857 ; the reference being as follows :
"The agricultural library connected with the office of the
secretary of the Board has now become the largest and most
valuable collection of the kind in New England, and is prob-
ably the most extensive in the United States. A complete
catalogue* is to be found in the Appendix, and is now pub-
lished for the use of those who are active in creating similar
agricultural libraries in the various towns of the Common-
wealth."

*This catalogue describes 844 volumes, 692 of which constituted the library
proper, 125 the library of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, and
27 belonged to the secretary of the Board, and were on deposit for public use under
the same regulations as the offlce library.

198 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The next reference is found in the secretary's report for
1860, and reads thus : " The State Agricultural library, con-
nected with my office, has received many valuable accessions
during the past year, and is now one of the largest, if not
one of the best selected, agricultural libraries in the United
States. The collection of works on the honey-bee is believed
to be the best and most extensive in the country."

Secretary Flint again refers to the library in his report for
1864, in the following language : " It is more generally used
for reference than ever before, especially during the sessions
of the Legislature, and it is important that some permanent
fund should be provided by which the new publications
should be procured as they appear."

Again, in 1865, the secretary says that "the library con-
nected with the office of the secretary has gradually but con-
stantly grown, till it has become the best, with very few if
any exceptions, to be found in the country. It is of great
service to the public, more especially during the sessions of
the Legislature, when it is largely used for consultation and
reference."

During the past thirty years the library has continued to
grow in size and quality, until at the present time it contains
2,700 bound volumes, many of them rare and valuable, cov-
ering a wide range of subject matter, as will be seen by
reference to the divisions as outlined in this report, and so
classified and arranged on the library shelves as to be of the
greatest service possible.

In this portion of the report it is desired to call attention
to the following item, which for many years has been printed
in the Manual for the General Court: "A valuable agri-
cultural library, connected with the office of the secretary of
the Board of Agriculture, is also open at all hours of the day
for the use of the members of the Legislature."

Classification of the LiBRARr.

The library is separated into three divisions : I., publica-
tions of the United States Department of Agriculture ; II.,
Experiment Station publications; III., general library.

No 4.]

REPORT OF LIBRARIAN.

199

Division I.
This division comprises bound volumes of the publications
of the United States Department of Agriculture. The sys-
tem of classification and indexing is that prepared by Miss
Hasse, and the index cards now number 240. This division
now consists of 126 volumes, classified as follows : —

Office of the Secretary,

Bureau of Animal Industry,

Division of Botany,
Division of Chemistry, .

Division of Entomology,

Office of Experiment Stations,

Division of Forestry, .
Office of Fiber Investigations,
Division of Oi'nithology and Mam-
malogy,

Office of Road Inquiry, .

Division of Statistics, .

Division of Vegetable Pathology,
Division of Agrostology,
Weather Bureau, ....

Division of Publications,
Miscellaneous Reports,

Besides these volumes there are a number of pamphlets
issued by the above-mentioned and other divisions of the
department, and the effort is constantly being made to secure
missing numbers.

Annual reports,
Messages and documents,
Special reports (old series),
Farmers' bulletins.
Special reports (unnumbered)
Annual reports,
Special reports,
Bulletins, ....
Contributions United States

national herbarium.
Special reports.
Bulletins, ....
Reports United States Entomo

logical Commission,
Bulletins, ....
Insect life (index), .
Special reports.
Experiment Station record,
Bulletins, ....
Miscellaneous bulletins, .
Bulletins, ....
Reports, ....

Bulletins, ....

Bulletins, ....
Monthly reports,
Miscellaneous reports, .
Special reports,
Journal of mycology.
Bulletins, ....
Bulletins,
Special reports,
Bulletins, ....
Bulletins, ....

48
2
3
1
4
8
6
2

1
1

3

5
2

200

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Division II.
This division comprises bound volumes of annual reports
and bulletins issued from time to time by the agricultural
experiment stations of the country. The 143 volumes now
in this division may be classified as follows : —

Maine,

1

Texas,

1

Vermont,

6

Missouri, .

1

Massachusetts,

^ State, .
\ Hatch, .

6
3

Kentucky,
Ohio,

2
10

Rhode Island, .

2

Indiana, .

1

Connecticut, .

^ State, .
\ Storrs, .

4
2

Illinois, .
Iowa,

2
2

New York,

K State. .
( Cornell,

14
6

Michigan,
Wisconsin,

3

10

New Jersey, .

13

Minnesota,

3

Pennsylvania, .

11

South Dakota,

2

Maryland,

2

Kansas, .

2

Virginia, .

1

Nebraska,

8

West Virginia

2

Colorado,

2

North Carolina

I •

. 7

Wyoming,

1

South Carolina

1

Utah,

2

Florida, .

. 1

Oregon, .

1

Alabama,

3

California,

. 3

Louisiana,

. 2

Besides these volumes there are many unbound bulletms
and reports of the above-named and other States, which will
be bound as soon as missing numbers can be secured.

A subject index of the literature of agricultural experiment
stations and kindred institutions is supplied by the Office of
Experiment Stations of the United States Department of
Agriculture. This index, so far as completed, is now in use
in the library room, and at the present time there are in the
card catalogue case 14,800 cards, covering years 1887-95.

Division III.
This division comprises the larger portion of the library,
and is sub-divided into eight classes, as follows : —

Number of
Volumes.

Class I. Agriculture, reports, 885

II. Agriculture, theory and jiractiee, . . . 268

III. Horticulture, 242

IV. Domestic animals, 204

V. Natural sciences, 227

No. 4.]

REPORT OF LIBRARIAN.

201

Class VI. Statistics, .
Vn Education, .
VIII. Miscellaneous,

Number of
Volumes.

. 198

192

184

2,400

These classes are again sub-divided into sections, as fol-
lows : —

Section 1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

Section 1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Section 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Section 1,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Class I. Agriculture, — Reiwr

Reports, boards of agriculture, etc..
Transactions agricultural societies,
Proceedings farmers' institutes.
Crop reports,
Grange proceedings,
Reports, dairy associations, etc..
Reports, produce exchanges, etc
Agricultural journals, .

is.

Number of
Volumes.

371

268

13

3

4

24

11

191

Glass II. AgrictiUure, — Theory and Practice.

General works,

Manures and fertilizers.
Drainage and irrigation.
Farm implements, machinery, buildings,

Soils,

Crops, field, . . . . .
Market gardening, vegetables, .
Milk, butter, cheese, ....
Bees and bee keeping,

Glass III. Horticulture.
Transactions horticultural societies, etc., .

General works,

Floriculture, flowers,

Forestry, arboriculture, ....
Landscape gardening, rural architecture, .
Plants, propagation, diseases,
Greenhouses, construction and management.
Grapes and grape culture, ....
Fi'uits, orchard, small, .....

Glass IV. Domestic Aiiimdl!^
Cattle, breeds, herd books, .
Cattle, general works, .
Veterinary science, animal diseases,
Sheep and wool, .
Swine, .....
Horses .....

Ill

20
20
18

5
40
17

7
30

69
4

27

41

31

5

3

7

55

46
38
40
21
3
33

885

268

24-2

202

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Section 7. Poultry,

8. Dogs, .

9. Cats, rabbits.

Section 1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8
9.

Class V. Natuvdl Sciences
Botany, plants, ....

Chemistry,

Geology,

Zoology, natural history,
Insects, injurious, beneficial,
Fish and fish culture, .

Birds

Climate, weather,

Number of
Volumes.

11

3
3

35
40
17
31
57
5
29
13

Class VI. Statistics.

Section 1. Agriculture, 8

2. Manufactures, 13

3. Labor 37

4. Transportation, 28

5. Census reports, 48

6. Finance, 29

7. Taxation, 11

8. Public health, 16

9. Miscellaneous, 8

Section 1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Section 1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

Class VII. Education.
Reports, boards of education, etc..
Reports, educational institutions,
Encyclopedias,
Dictionaries,
History,
Biography, .
Political economy,
Hand books, atlases.
Almanacs, calendars,

Class VII f. Miscellaneons

Law,

Roads and bridges,
Journals, Senate and House,
Reports, Smithsonian Institution,
LTnclassified scientific.
Scrap books,

9. General miscellany,

15
16
47
19
38
4
9
20
24

60

7

16

37

8
4

62

204

227

198

192

184

No. 4.] REPORT OF LIBRARIAN. 203

Pamphlets.
In addition to the bound volumes referred to, there is in
the library quite a number of pamphlets on various subjects,
many of which pamphlets are of considerable value. As yet
no special classification has been attempted, other than to
separate them according to subject matter and place them in
the drawers under the book shelves. It is thought, however,
that some of these pamphlets may be advantageously bound
in volumes.

CuERENT Publications, — Exchanges.

Certain daily newspapers, also papers and magazines pub-
lished in the interest of agriculture, horticulture, forestry,
etc., are received and are kept on file on the large table in
the library room. The library is the recipient almost daily
of publications from one or more institutions represented on
the exchange list.

Among the countries represented in the library by their
publications are England, Scotland, France, Italy, Germany,
Switzerland, Austria, Prussia, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden,
India, Japan, Canada and the Provinces, British Columbia,
Mexico, Colombia, Porto Rico, Hawaii and Brazil.

Some Old Books.
The oldest book in the library is "The Booke of the
English Husbandman," printed in London, and bearing the
date of 1635. In the back part of this book are a number
of pages describing "The Pleasures of Princes, or, Good
mens Recreations." Some of the other older books are : —

" Observations in Husbandry." Edward Lisle. London, 1757.

"Museum Rusticum." 6 vols. London, 1764.

"Illustrations of Natural History, — Exotic Insects." I). Drury. 3
vols. London, 1770-82

"Ellis's Husbandry." 2 vols. London, 1772.

"A Treatise on Cattle." John Mills. London, 1776.

" Flora Scotica." John Lighttbot. 2 vols. London, 1777.

"Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal (Economy." John
Hunter. London, 1786.

"Husbandry of the Ancients." Adam Dickson. 2 vols. Edinburgh,
1788.

204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

" The Botanic Garden " Darwin. 2 vols. London, 1791.
" The New England Farmer : or, Georgical Dictionary." Samuel
Deane. Worcester, Mass., 1797.

Massachusetts Library Club.
The library of the Board is represented in the Massachu-
setts Library Club, the present librarian having become a
member of the club very soon after his appointment.

Additions.
Additions to the library are made from time to time by
gift, by purchase, by exchange and by binding pamphlets and
similar publications. The expenses thus incurred are paid
from the annual appropriation for "incidental expenses in
the office of the secretary." The expenses for the calendar
year 1897 were as follows: books and pamphlets purchased,
$111.38; current publications subscribed for, $37; binding,
$33; library supplies, $16.50; total, $197.88.

Future Work.

The removal of the office of the Board of Agriculture to
rooms in the State House extension has enabled the librarian
to place the volumes forming the library in suitable book-
cases, and to arrange and classify them in a manner to make
them easier of access and consequently of more value for
reference than was possible in the former rooms of the
Board.

Now that the books are so arranged and classified, the
matter of a card catalogue of subjects becomes of importance.
It must be evident to all that, if the library is to be made of
the greatest use possible, the matter contained therein must
be made readily available. The librarian knows of no better
way to do this than by the use of a card catalogue of subjects.
There is no question in his mind, speaking from an experience
of over ten years, as to the great value of the library in the
regular work of the ofiice, for the need of it for reference
purposes alone has been recognized from the very first, and
its growth in size and range of subjects has resulted largely
from the demands which have been made upon it. Further-
more, in his opinion the time has come to card catalogue by

No. 4.] REPOKT OF LIBRARIAN. 205

subjects ; for he believes that such a catalogue, properly
made, will be of inestimable value in the future to all users
of the volumes.

To prevent the accumulation of a large number of perhaps
unnecessary cards, and to make the system as simple as pos-
sible, the librarian recommends the following : —

Books to be catalogued in the following manner : —

Agriculture; the new, or the waters led captive. A. N. Cole. Book.

New York. 1885. 223 pp. Illustrated.
Waters led captive, agriculture ; the new, or the. A. N. Cole Book.

New York 1885. 223 pp. Illustrated.

The first card to be put in the case under the letter A and
the second one under the letter W. The subject matter of
chapters in a book may be indexed if found desirable. Also,
if desired to number the books in the library, it would be a
very simple matter to add the appropriate number to the
card.

A lecture, essay or similar paper in a volume to be entered
on cards thus : —

Agriculture, the future of New England. Lecture. George W.
Atherton, LL.D. State College, Penna. Agriculture of Massachu-
setts 1896, pps. 92-119

New England agriculture, the future of. Lecture. Geo. W. Atherton,
LL.D. State College, Penna. Agriculture of Massachusetts 1896,
pps. 92-119.

The first card to be put in the case under the letter A and
the second under the letter N.

Finally, a reference to a particular subject in a book or
paper to be entered on cards thus : —

Birds of Maine, list of. Agriculture of Maine 1861, pps. 113-122.
Maine. Birds of, list of. Agriculture of Maine 1861, pps 113-122.

The first card to be put in the case under the letter B and
the second under the letter M.

In order that the public, especially those persons who
would be particularly interested in the office library, may
know what the volumes are which comprise the said library,

206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

it is recommended that there be prepared for publication in
the "Agriculture of Massachusetts" a catalogue, giving
titles, authors and other customary items. It is thought
that such a catalogue would prove of value to interested
parties.

Before leaving this subject of " future work " and as illus-
trative of ways in which the librarian may work, it is desired
to call attention to the book prepared by him, and printed
in 1893, entitled "Agriculture of Massachusetts, — Synop-
tical and Analytical Index, 1837-92." It was prepared
because of a seeming need of a comprehensive index to the
fifty odd volumes known as the " Agriculture of Massachu-
setts," and constituting in themselves a valuable agricultural
library.

Also there are in process of compilation by him copies of
all the laws and resolves of the Commonwealth relating to
agriculture, horticulture, etc., and to the organizations hav-
ing those interests in charge. This work has already received
a good start, and the librarian now has in his keeping copies
of the following : —

1 Agricultural and horticultural societies, acts of incorporation,
amendments, etc. 1792-1860.

2. Agricultural and horticultural societies, general laws. 1819-60.

3. State Board of Agriculture. 1852-60.

4. Commissioners on Contagious Diseases of Domestic Animals.
I860-*

5. Massachusetts Agricultural College. 1863-*

6. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. 1882-95.

7. State Dairy Bureau. 1891-*

8. Miscellaneous agricultural laws. 1780-1860.

The plan is to bind the sheets containing these copies and
place them on the library shelves. To this compilation
there might some time be added the appropriations made and
the amounts actually expended.

It has also been thought that it would be profitable for the
librarian to have in his keeping a directory of the agricultu-
ral and kindred organizations of the country having the title
*' National," "State" or their equivalents, with name and

* Dates when established.

No. 4.] REPORT OF LIBRARIAN. 207

address of the executive officer, location of office, and refer-
ence to law under which the organization was chartered or
incorporated.

During the past year, as in former years, considerable has
been done along the line of supplying back volumes of the
' ' Agriculture of Massachusetts " to libraries of societies and
institutions, and quite a number of desirable publications
have been received in exchange. Also duplicate publications
have been supplied to teachers in public schools for use in
class-room work. Along both of these lines it is thought
the librarian may find a field for useful work in the future.

Conclusion.

The by-law of the Board already alluded to provides that
" the secretary shall appoint one of his clerks librarian and
curator." As it is thought the word "librarian" is suffi-
ciently comprehensive, it is suggested that the words "and
curator " be dropped.

It will be readily seen that the care of the library and the
making of it as useful as possible along the lines suggested,
and others, will require that the clerk holding the appoint-
ment of librarian give to this work as much time and thought
as is possible, without neglecting his regular duties. This
appointment is now held by the first clerk, and it would seem
best that, all things considered, one person should be both
first clerk and librarian. It is suggested, however, that the
Legislature be asked to officially recognize this union of
offices and duties by amending the act authorizing the secre-
tary to employ a first clerk, and that it be also asked to
establish a salary which shall be in proper proportion to the
requirements and responsibilities of the suggested office of
first clerk and librarian.

During the past year many requests for information along
various lines have been received, and, by the help which the
library affords, they have been answered as fully as possible.
Also a number of persons have visited the office to consult
the books. It is thought that when it becomes more gener-
ally known that there is in the office of the State Board of
Agriculture such a valuable scientific library, and that it is
so classified and catalogued as to be readily accessible, many

208 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

persons, particularly students and writers, will come to con-
sult it or will write their desires to the librarian, and that the
good results of the work of building up the library will be-
come more and more apparent, and will be creditable to the
Board of Agriculture.

Respectfully submitted,

F. H. FOWLER, B.Sc,

Librarian ajid Curator.

No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND FARMERS. 209

Opportunities of Kew ENGiiAND Farmers.

BY WESLEY B. BARTON, DALTON.

I do not come before you to-day, gentlemen, prepared to
tell you how all farmers can increase their incomes and im-
prove their surroundings, but to make a few suggestions
that will perhaps start a line of thought that will prove to be
of some advantage either directly or indirectly in improving
the surroundings and conditions of some of my brother tillers
of the soil.

Opportunity is defined as a "fit time," " a chance." Now,
do the farmers of New England take advantage of the fit
times and chances ofiered them? Yes, some do, but many
do not ; some succeed, others make failures. And right
here, what constitutes success in life? Is it riches or hap-
piness? Last spring it chanced to be my lot to become
acquainted with two old people, the grandfathers of a friend
of mine, and I was entertained at the homes of both. One
whose sole aim in life had been the accumulation of property
was tottering on the brink of the grave, with scarcely a
friend or acquaintance who could enjoy a visit with him.
While he had succeeded in having broad acres and money at
interest, when the time came to follow his mortal remains to
their final resting place, the mourners were few and the tears
were more of joy than grief. The other had lived a simple,
quiet life, assisting many others in their efforts to battle with
the world ; and, although the cosy cottage where I was hos-
pitably entertained was covered with a mortgage, and it was
necessary for the sons and daughter to contribute to the
necessary expense, there was happiness and comfort shown,
and a contented spirit that is apparent only where life is a
success.

Now, the New England man has every opportunity to make
life worth living. Education can be had, social life enjoyed,

210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

and success in finances will depend more or less on the suc-
cess in the two mentioned ; and, last but not least, that
health and strength which the majority of New England
farmers can enjoy if they only will.

In education we cannot all enjoy the benefits of our agri-
cultural colleges obtained by taking a four years' course, but
we can make occasional visits to those institutions of learn-
ing and experimental farms, and also the many typical farms
perhaps owned by wealthy owners and managed by the hired
overseer, but nevertheless worthy of careful investigation,
and many lessons may be learned that will be of profit to the
careful observer and student of nature. I have often had
occasion to talk with an old man now past his four-score
years. He had no chance to attend college, leaving school at
twelve years of age, but he nevertheless was as well educated
and better posted than fifty per cent of the college-bred men.
How ? By careful reading and close study of nature, nothing
coming under his careful eye but what was diligently studied
and reasoned out. And the farmer above all others has
the opportunity to live close to nature and study how to
reveal her wonderful secrets. Who among you has ever
taken the kernel of corn and thought of the wonderful
changes necessary as we place it in the soil, apparently a
dead grain? But no! there is life. Soon the tiny blade
appears, and then another and another; then the stalk and
tassel and the ears appear ; and the wind has assisted in one
of the mysteries of nature, and the grain appears ; and again
w^e return to the original type of a kernel of corn. Who
cannot find enjoj^ment in studying these wonderful processes
of nature, which are constantly being repeated in this won-
derful and beautiful world ? Does the merchant, the manu-
facturer or the mechanic complete his work with the help of
the Divine Being, or must he work out his problems wholly
by the laws of mechanics ?

On the farm there are constantly opportunities to improve
the conditions. There is some little corner that is too wet,
that needs a few rods of tile or an open ditch ; a stump, that
has been neglected and brush started around it, to be re-
moved ; or stone that we have banged our mowing machine
against for several years ; an old wall that is of no further

No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND FAEMEKS. 211

use ; and many a little thing that costs but little time to do,
careful not to neglect that place where only life can be en-
joyed, — the home. Be sure wife, mother or sister has those
little conveniences which are so fruitful in saving time and
steps to those whose duties are many.

The most important spot on every farm is the garden,
which should be planned to contain all those different vege-
tables enjoyed by the several members of the family ; and
one needs only to try, to realize how well you can supply a
large famil}^ on a small area. My good father always wanted
fruit of some kind on the table at meals, either in its natural
or preserved state, and to that end all fruits were grown with
more or less success ; and to live without them would be a
hardship indeed, and all these can be had with but little time
and care if attended to properly. You can also adorn your
homes with many a shrub and flower by using care at time
of planting and pruning when needed. The better half en-
joys this part of home adornments, which with the well-kept
lawn helps to make the old homestead the favorite place for
the boy and girl who are among the essentials to an enjoy-
able home on the farm.

What crops shall we devote our energy to? These of
course we must adapt to our conditions. It would be folly
to attempt to grow cranberries among the Berkshire hills
to compete with our friends from Cape Cod. But our Cape
Cod people would hardly be able to compete with Worcester
County in the production of milk. And your distance from
market shall also decide what crop or specialty will be most
profitable for you to cultivate.

If the dairy is selected, study it carefully. Have a silo of
sufficient capacity to give your cows at least one succulent
feed per day, and add thereto such necessary feeds as will
make a properly balanced ration, and not waste a part of
your fodder for lack of proper assimilation. See to it
that they have proper care and proper stables. The most
successful dairy man is the owner who feeds and cares for
them himself. I believe feed and care show better results
than breeds. But select such cows for the dairy as will be
sure to pay a profit over cost of keep, when that cost is given
on an economical basis. Do not keep enough boarders to

212 BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

use up the profits. The scales and Babcock test are a posi-
tive need on the dairy farm.

New England farmers can grow more of their nitrogenous
foods in the shape of clovers, peas, soja beans, and, mixing
with the corn in silo, greatly decrease the cost of necessary
grain ration, and at the same time remove less of that most
costly fertilizing element from the soil, namely, nitrogen,
and with the careful saving of farm manures constantly im-
prove the condition of the farm.

Market gardening near the large markets is one of the
best openings for the farmer, but, like all other success-
ful farm operations, must be grown into and special lines
followed for success. In fruit growing there are many ex-
amples of what can be done both for those near to market
and at some distance from same. The apple can be grown in
all sections of New England, and seldom fails to show a profit
over cost of production. The peach in some sections under
proper conditions has proved profitable, and the demand
for small fruits is considerable. Strawberries, raspberries
and blackberries are always in demand in our markets,
especially for No. 1 goods, and right here comes the point :
whatever you have to sell, put it up in the best possible
condition to market, as buyers of such goods look at the
packages oftentimes as much as at the goods, and the extra
cost thereof is more than doubly paid for, besides giving
better satisfaction to the buyer.

The poultry industry is one of the opportunities too often
neglected, and should be carefully cared for, even as a side
issue, on every farm. I say side issue, for it is a business
of itself, but can be profitably carried on in connection with
other farm operations, especially fruit growing, and many
examples of success are abundant in our Commonwealth.
Here also, as in the dairy, careful selection, feed and detail
work are the bone and sinew of success. And right here
let me ask this question : Why not keep and grow an
established breed for the purpose you wish them for, rather
than the mongrel? Will not the Leghorn breed lay more
eggs in a year than one of mixed breeding? Will not the
dairy cow, be she Jersey, Guernsey or Holstein, the animal
bred for a specific purpose, give you better results as a pro-

No. 4.] NEW ENGLAND FARMERS. 213

ducer of butter or milk than the animal of hap-hazard breed-
ing ? The lifetime of man is too short to attempt to perfect
a breed of cattle, and success in that line has been largely
the results of work under the direction of the governments ;
and then only the specific purpose attempted has been at-
tained, although there are many men who have graded up a
herd so as to double their production by the use of the
pure-bred sire ; but when they have attained their highest
perfection they are largely the type of the breed selected for
sires, and are bright examples of the opportunity offered to
the enterprising breeder to develop a paying herd. And it
seems to mo. that the raising of dairy cows is one of the
branches of fa'rming that will soon be as profitable as in
former years, especially in sections where pasturage is abun-
dant and cheap. Cows are now commanding good prices, and
the tendency appears to be more and more in that direction.
The separator which as a farm machine has come to stay will
be found especially useful on the butter or cream raising
farm, enabling the farmer to feed his calves the warm skim-
milk, which, with the addition of a small quantity of flaxseed
meal, makes an ideal ration, and good thrifty animals can
be grown thereon ; and thus can the skim-milk be used per-
haps to better advantage than competing with cheap corn
and transportation of our western brethren in rearing pork
and placing pork products on the markets of the east.

There are some opportunities in regard to the social life of
New England farmers that are not taken advantage of as they
should be. First, the church, which every farm family
should endeavor to take an active part in, not only attend
its Sunday services, but also the mid-week meetings as well ;
and if the town you live in does not support your denomina-
tion, take part in the one it does support ; and all the time
the support will be amply repaid, perhaps not in dollars and
cents, but with a feeling of satisfaction enjoyed only by those
who have endeavored to do their share in making life's bur-
dens more easy to bear.

The farmers' institutes held under the direction of this
honorable Board are one of the opportunities that are
neglected. Many a farmer might save himself many a day
of labor, and money as well, by taking advantage of the

214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

lectures and discussions following them ; would know his
neighbors better, and form acquaintances that would be
lasting, and also give him some idea of the good emanating
from the fairs held in the different sections of the State.

The grange is also a place well worthy of the attention of
my brother farmers, both as to social and educational advan-
tages ; and many an awkward New England boy owes his
success in life to the learning and ambitions awakened in the
hospitable grange halls, where he was taught how to preside
and to think and command language to express his thought
in public ; and many a farmer's wife and daughter have
learned to look forward to the meetings, to which they are
welcomed and which they enjoy with the husbands and
brothers, — banquets which they alone know how to prepare.
I hardly believe there is a New England town which needs
the advice given to a western town by Henry Ward Beecher,
who, on being informed that they were discussing the advis-
ability of organizing a church or a grange, and being told
that they could not agree as to what denomination to choose,
replied : " Organize a grange ; you can all preach there."

And one opportunity which has been taken advantage ot
in the past, and is ever open. No country has ever pro-
duced a better class of honest yoemanry than the tillers of
the soil of old New England. She has produced men and
women who have been an honor to her nation, and whose
names are written in the history of our nation in letters so
indelible as to never be erased.

No. 4.] FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 215

Farmers' Institute!

BY F. W. SARGENT, AMESBURY.

It was a wise piece of legislation when the Board of Agri-
culture made the rule requiring each incorporated agricultural
society to hold each year three or more farmers' institutes.

The fairs held each autumn by the several societies we have
long had the benefits and pleasures from, but much more
recent was the establishing of a series of annual lecture
meetings. Now these meetings or institutes are, in most
cases, looked forward to by the progressive farmers with as
much eagerness as are the fall fairs ; and in my opinion
they are, when properly conducted, capable of increasing
an interest in practical agriculture.

Our societies are incorporated for what? For the promo-
tion and advancement of agriculture ; and the farmers' insti-
tutes, held during the winter months, the farmers' season of
comparative quiet and rest, are, when properly managed,
conducive to education, sociability and recreation. They are
the means of bringing together leading representatives of the
greatest business or occupation in the world, — that of food
production, — to listen, to discuss and to compare notes re-
garding subjects near and dear to them in their every-day
occupation.

There is not the excitement and bustle attending the meet-
ings that characterize the fall fairs, but rather there is quiet,
tone and dignity, educated and gentlemanly speakers, black-
board and chart illustrations, sometimes music and frequently
appetizing lunches or hearty dinners, all of which combined
make the institute days what they were designed for, — i.e.,
to place the calling of agriculture on a higher educational
level.

They are, I am certain, doing much good, and in many
cases the abolishing of them would be a serious loss to the

216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

community in which they have been held. They are a means
of bringing out new methods and theories for discussion,
and of bringing face to face agricultural teachers, and those
who are pleased to be their pupils, if for only a day. They
are a means of bringing us face to face with our favorite agri-
cultural writers, those whom we have followed perhaps for
years in the weekly papers, and often wished we could see
them and hear from their own lips their words of wisdom.
We have all enjoyed the pen work of such men as Cheever,
Hoard, Bailey, Roberts, Twitchell, Gould, Collingwood and
many others. Has it not been like meeting an old friend
when we are permitted for the first time to see them before
us on the lecture platform ? The institutes have given us the
opportunity.

My boyhood love for agriculture was intensified by the
writings of the first-mentioned in the " New England
Farmer," and when I was in position to put his teaching
into practice, I found pleasure and profit in his methods
of soiling cattle. Was it any wonder, then, that my first
meeting with him at an institute was a pleasure to me?

Then at the institutes the farmer, especially the young
man, gets in the habit of questioning the speakers, and after
a little he finds himself taking part in the discussions, and
the commencement made here leads to a future ability as
a speech-maker. I remember my first question asked at an
institute, with fear and trembling, and how the presiding
officer, the venerable Benjamin P. Ware, held me by his
peculiar ability as a chairman and his method of drawing one
out, until I had made quite a little speech. He did me good,
as he has scores of others in a similar way.

Arranging for Institute Meetings.

Although the number fixed by the l)y-law of the Board of
Agriculture is three meetings a year, this is no reason why
a society should limit thorn to this number, for twice this or
more can be held to a ])rofit by many societies. Still, there
is a possible danger of overdoing even the institute work in
some sections, and each society can besrt judge the number to
be held to advantage.

No. 4.] FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 217

Some societies hold an evening meeting; some a one-
session daytime meeting ; while the most common way is a
forenoon and afternoon meeting, with time for lunch between.
This latter way is the most advisable one, I think.

In order to decide upon the number of meetings to be held,
where they shall be held, and the subjects for discussion, it
is advisable for a committee on institutes to be appointed as
soon after new officers are elected as possible, which com-
mittee shall have in charge all arrangements, including
speakers and advertising. They should use care in selecting
the place, that the greatest number may be accommodated ;
a light, well-heated and well-ventilated hall must be pro-
cured ; if a place where dinners can be had at a moderate
charge, it is well, but if this cannot be, the picnic plan of a
lunch with coffee served by a local society or farmers' club
answers the purpose well.

The committee should try to meet the wants of each
locality in the selection of subjects ; still, such subjects must
be selected as will keep up an interest, and draw out ques-
tions and experience of those who attend. The most in-
teresting part of an institute is often after the speaker is
done with his manuscript or has finished his speech, and the
meeting is thrown open for questions.

In some sections I would advise a meeting; of three ses-
sions, the third one to be in the evening, and more in line of
a lecture, with or without a stereopticon, and where music
and elocution can be mixed in, but without the discussions.
One at least of our societies holds the institute only in the
evening, when an oyster supper follows the discussion and a
dance follows the supper. It is needless to say that this
institute is well attended, and may be the best way for that
society; but it is not my favorite way of " running" insti-
tutes, or one to be recommended.

Having decided what question to discuss, then the men —
or women — for speakers should be selected. We at the
present time are supplied with a goodly number to choose
from. The secretary of this Board has prepared a list, from
which the societies can select speakers. The list is a good
one, one that has not been approached by any other State,
so far as I am able to judge. It includes college professors

218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

in all departments, agricultural editors, doctors, chemists
and practical farmers, young men fresh from the colleges and
old men of acknowledged reputation and world-wide experi-
ence. The list is each year increasing in number. Much
credit is due our Secretary Sessions for the list of speakers.
It is a benefit to a man to be on the list and to come in contact
with the average farmer audience. Our college professors
and editors recognize the fact, and the office and laboratory
work go on the better after a day spent in such work, or
recreation, if you please.

The list of speakers sent out by the secretary should not
be the only source from which to select. Local talent can
often be called in, and men of ability from neighboring towns
can be selected, who for a trifling expense can be secured to
furnish a lecture. A very interesting meeting last winter
consisted of twenty-minute essays, from four or five repre-
sentative farmers in the town where the meeting was held,
all on the same subject ; with the dift'erent views expressed
by the speakers, the discussion which followed was a spirited
one.

One or two good blackboards should be procured and
placed in easy reach of the speakers in the hall, for the
speaker can often illustrate his point by figures, diagrams
and formulas better than by words, and the opportunity to
do so should not be denied him. A table large enough for
him to exhibit samples, photographs and models, is also
necessary. Often I have seen this table left out of the hall
furnishings entirely. Many speakers have charts illustrat-
ing their lecture, and a chance to hang them on the wall
must be arrano;ed.

Presiding Officer.
For the success of a meeting, much depends on the pre-
siding officer or chairman. He should know the subject
beforehand, and, if he is not familiar with it, he should post
himself to some extent upon it ; he should learn who in the
locality are interested in that subject, and see that they are
present to aid in the discussion. He should be a live, wide-
awake and capable man, quick to see a point, to hear a
question and to till in any vacant moments. He should not

No. 4.] FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 219

allow the meeting to drag or the interest to wane. With a
good speaker and a bright chairman an interesting institute
can be held, even though the attendance be small. But the
attendance 7nust not be small ; and, if the committee and
president or chairman do their full duty, the interest will
increase with each meeting.

The Speakers.

To them I will not attempt to dictate, and will only throw
out a few suggestions. Make your lectures so that all can
comprehend them. Use plain English for the common peo-
ple, for scientific terms are not easily understood or remem-
bered. Use the blackboard and charts in illustrating points
to be remembered. Show models and designs, if you would
have a new tool or contrivance understood. I have known a
man occupy ten minutes in trying to explain how a rude im-
plement was made, when by a half hour's work at home he
could have made a model that would have shown at a glance
a better description of it than he was able to give verbally,
and he would have had it for all his lecture work for the win-
ter, besides. Bring, if need be, an animal onto the stage, as
Dr. Twitchell does, to show the structural points. It is ob-
ject lessons that accomplish the best results in our teachings.

That was a happy thought of Professor Fernald's in his
lecture at Taunton, when he mixed before the eyes of the
farmers present the new insecticide known as arsenate of
lead. After seeing a thing done once, it is very much easier
for one to attempt it than if only a verbal description be
given. '

Let our fruit men carry samples of fruit to exhibit at the
meetings, our market gardeners can show selected vege-
tables, the dairymen fine samples of butter and cheese, and
the housekeepers canned goods and cooking. The testing
of milk with a Babcock tester has entertained many an
audience, and will continue to do so. It should not be con-
sidered out of place for dealers to show new implements,
seeds, feed-stuffs or fertilizing material at a meeting of this
kind, any more than to advertise them in an agricultural
paper, and such exhibits should be encouraged.

220 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Now, a few suggestions that I have never seen attempted
are practical for the coming institute season. There is, in
my opinion, no reason why any careful man cannot apply to
his cows the tuberculin test. Let our veterinarian instruc-
tors show by actual example just how this is done ; take a
cow into the hall, show how the physical examination is
made, and then apply the test by injecting the tuberculin,
and instruct the farmers how to note the temperatures. It
is not a difficult thing to do, and any bright man can do it for
his own satisfaction, — at least after seeing it done once,
with the necessary explanation ; and it may save him from
buying diseased cows. Then mix and show the use of dis-
infectants in cleansing a stable, show the simplicity of these
things, and the dairymen will be more ready to adopt them.
Then I would like to see an illustrated lecture by a master
mechanic, showing the use of tools of various kinds, and
how to sharpen and care for them ; the construction of diffi-
cult parts of buildings, machines and vehicles ; practical
lessons in fitting horseshoes, — and many other things which
the farmer occasionally has to do for convenience, and might
often do for profit.

Power of some kind in farm buildings — horse, steam,
gasoline or electrical — will be an important factor in future
farm operations, and a knowledge of such should be taught.

When our nursery and fruit men talk on their favorite
subjects, I would have them show in comparison an ill-
shaped tree and perfect ones, with methods of correcting
the growth, as the New Hampshire advocate of forestry,
Judge Lyman, does in his favorite theme, the pine tree. I
would have them show with the knife how the roots and
branches of a young- tree should be prepared for planting,
also how to propagate, bud and graft. These things are not
all new, but, if they are worth talking about, they are better
understood if so illustrated. Every farmer knows a plough ;
but some men will use one a lifetime, and still not know just
how to adjust or hitch onto it correctly.

I am not trying to make out that the Massachusetts farm-
ers are not intelligent, but rather that our institute speakers
must work on advanced lines in order to entertain and in-
struct them. I believe we are well up to the times. The

No. 4.] FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 221

ancient plough is in many cases replaced by the riding or
sulky plough ; and, while I hardly think that the plough can
ever be done away with, yet the single-furrow plough is too
slow for the times. I hope to see an implement that will
cut a furrow and pulverize it ready for planting at one
operation, working to the desired depth and two feet or
more wide. Some may smile at the idea, but such a tool
would only be in keeping with our planting machines and
harvesters.

1 I want to see our dairy cows all free from dangerous
diseases, and all bred up to a fifteen per cent butter-fat
standard.

It will please me to see on every farm general-purpose
horses fitted for all farm work, and yet capable of showing
a three-minute clip when hitched to the buggy. Some of
my older friends here may not be satisfied with this method
of travelling, however, and still look with eagerness for per-
fection in the horseless carriage. My sympathies are with
the horse ; and, although other methods of travel must be
resorted to for convenience, yet for the greatest enjoyment
the noble, well-cared-for and spirited horse, with a modern
carriage, furnishes that peculiar pleasure which is invigorating
and inspiring ; and when our State has perfected her system
of State highways so that we can drive from the seacoast to
Berkshire comfortably seated in a carriage in which the
mechanic's skill has perfected the comfortable upholstering,
the elastic springs and the pneumatic tires, a sense of enjoy-
ment equalled by none can be realized.

I want to see the free delivery of mails in every rural dis-
trict for the convenience of the Massachusetts farmers ; and
the establishing of postal savings banks, that his children
may learn to save their small accumulations, and his hired
men may deposit their savings with the assurance that the
receipts for the same are backed by the United States gov-
ernment.

And then, with the establishing of foreign markets for our
crops and dairy productions, with fraudulent imitations of
butter and cheese forced out of existence, with a knowledse
of the proper use of the plant food in commercial fertilizers
and an assurance of pure seeds and unadulterated feedstuffs

222 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc. No. 4.

placed upon the market, — the farmer will find more time
for educational and social features.

All these things I would have made subjects of lectures
and discussions in our farmers' institutes ; and if adopted,
and co-operation with the granges and other organizations
brought about, 1 am sure increased interest will result, and
our meetings be what they were intended for, — to advance
and promote agriculture and to help the common farmer
along educational lines.

BULLETINS

Massachusetts Board of agricultuee,

PUBLISHED IN

Massachusetts Crop Reports, 1897.

Small Fruits in the Home Garden.

BY S. T. MAYNARD, BOTANIST AND POMOLOGIST TO THE BOARD.

Small fruits are pre-eminently the fruit for the home gar-
den. They are easily grown, and do not require a large
amount of land to produce a liberal supply of fruit for home
consumption. The fruit can be put on the consumer's table
in a fresh, ripe condition, quite unlike the fruit purchased
from the market.

The increasing interest in fruit in the home garden and the
numerous inquiries as to the best methods, fertilizers and
varieties, have led to the preparation of this bulletin, in
which the practice of the best growers is given briefly, modi-
fied so as to adapt it especially to the home garden.

The Strawberry.

The strawberry is perhaps the most important fruit in
cultivation in the temperate zone, and especially as a home
fruit, although it takes a leading place as a money crop for
fruit growers in all sections of the country. In yield, meas-
ured in quarts or bushels, it will probably average through
a series of years more than that of any other fruit crop.
Reliable records have frequently been made of nearly one
thousand bushels per acre, and with an average of from two
hundred to three hundred bushels per acre under good aver-
age condition of cultivation, or one to two bushels per square
rod. The strawberry possesses unusual importance, in that
it is the first fruit to ripen in the summer, and is the one that
gives the quickest returns to the grower after planting.

Conditions of Successful Groivth.
The strawberry will succeed upon a variety of soils, but
to reach the best results on a given soil, varieties must be
selected that grow best on that soil. For most varieties,

226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

however, the best soil is a deep medium loam, made rich by
the addition of stable manure ploughed deeply under, and the
surface well dressed with fine-ground l)one and potash, or fine
stable manure. An unfavorable soil may often be greatly
improved at a little expense. If too heavy and moist, under-
draining or the addition of sand will improve its condition ;
while if too light and dry, ploughing or spading under a
heavy coating of stable manure or other organic matter will
enable it to retain more moisture, without which a large crop
cannot be produced. New land gives the best results, ^. e.,
that which has been in grass for many years ; but it should
not be planted with strawberries until some other hoed crop,
like corn or potatoes, has l)een grown on the laud one or two
years, to avoid injury from the "white grub" or larvae of the
May beetle, which are generally found in such land and would
continue feeding upon the roots of the strawberry when the
grass roots have decayed.

Time for Planting.
The best time to set strawberry plants is as early in April
as the land will work up fine and mellow. Never set plants
in soil that will cake and dry into hard masses when pressed
in the hand. Early in the season plants have but little
foliage, the soil is moist and cool, evaporation is much less
than when the foliage is large and the sun high, and plants
are much more certain to grow than when set later. Sum-
mer and fall planting cannot be recommended when the best
results are desired. If one has neglected to plant in the
spring, it may be better to plant late than not at all, but
little or no profit can be expected.

Setting the Plants.
Many persons fail to make strawberry plants grow, from
setting them too deep, others from too shallow planting, and
more from not pressing the soil about the roots firmly enough.
The following figures illustrate these conditions : Fig. 1, the
proper depth; Fig. 2, too deep, and Fig. 3, too shallow plant-
ing. A test of the proper firmness of the soil may be made
by taking hold of the leaf of the newly set plant, and if it is
properly firmed the leaf will break off, leaving the plant in

No. 4.]

SMALL FEUITS.

227

position, but if not tlie plant will be drawn out of the soil.
No fruit should be allowed to ripen on the newly set plants
the first season.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

Distance for Planting.

There is a great diversity among practical growers in the
distance at which the plants are set, and also under difterent
conditions. On a very rich soil the plants may be set further
apart than on thin soil, and it may vary under these condi-
tions from one by three feet to four by five feet, using from
twenty-five hundred to seven thousand plants per acre. In
the garden where the soil is not very rich and where the
plants are grown more or less in the hill or wide-distance
matted row, even less than the smaller number may be set.

Method of Training.

Two general methods of training are practised, the hill
and matted row, both of which are varied by different com-
mercial growers, and admit of greater variation in the garden
than in the field. The close matted row is where the runners
are allow^ed to grow over all the space except where the cuU
tivator runs between the rows. The modified or wide-space
matted row is where only a limited number of the runners
are allowed to grow, each plant having from four to six
inches space for development. By the hill system the plants,
put out in the spring, are not allowed to set any runners.
The advantage of the first method is that the plants serve to
protect each other during the winter, and a very large crop
is often produced ; but the plants do not have a chance to

228 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

fiiUy develop, and the fruit will be of small size and inferior
quality. In the modified or wide-space matted row each
plant has space for perfect development, and the crop is large
and of fine quality. This method is especially adapted to
the home garden. With the hill system, no runner being
allowed to grow, a large number of crown buds are formed
and a large number of flower buds produced, but the plants
are liable to become shallow-rooted and easily thrown out by
the frost. If the plants are in hills, heavily mulched during
the winter and during the fruiting time, fairly good results
will be obtained, but not equal to those from the modified
matted row.

Cultivation and Fertilization.

In fitting the land for the strawberry, the deeper it is
worked, provided the subsoil is not brought to the surface,
the better. Frequent stirring of the soil during the summer
must be followed if the best growth is desired.

Fertilizers containing a large per cent of potash and phos-
phoric acid should be used for the production of fruit.
Nitrogenous manures should be used sparingly, unless the
soil is very poor, as they tend to the production of foliage at
the expense of the fruit. A very good formula is from
twelve hundred to two thousand pounds of fine-ground bone
and five hundred pounds of potash per acre. Use one-half
at planting, sown broadcast, one-quarter early in August and
the balance early in April of the following year. If stable
manure is used for a surface dressing in the spring, it should
be well rotted and fine.

Winter Protection.
There are scarcely any conditions under which the straw-
berry crop is not improved by winter protection, for, although
the strawberry plants are perfectly hardy and grow much
farther north than this, in cultivated land the plants are
liable to be thrown out by the frosts in the fall and spring,
and some covering must be applied to prevent this. The
materials most commonly used are coarse hay, straw, strawy
manure, corn stover, pine boughs and pine needles, all of
which are good.

No. 4.] SMALL FRUITS. 229

If the cover or mulch is put on too early in the fall or too
deeply, the plants will often be injured by heating, and for
this reason the application is delayed until the ground is
somewhat frozen. If the ground were covered with snow
from December to April, little or no covering would be
needed, but this is not often the case. Only a thin covering
should be applied, just enough to shade the ground and pre-
vent alternate freezing and thawing when there is no snow
on the ground. When growth begins, the mulch may be re-
moved, the land carefully cultivated until the fruit begins to
approach maturity, when the mulch is put back to protect
the fruit from the soil, or, as is the most common practice,
left on the ground, and Avhen the plants begin to grow,
drawn away from the crown. The quantity and quality of
the fruit are undoubtedly improved by the former method,
but it is doubtful if it is more profitable.

Gathering the Fruit.

For home use the fruit should be allowed to become thor-
oughly ripe before picking, and the bed should be picked
over every day. Even for the market the fruit can be
allowed to become fully ripe, if it is carefully picked in
the cool of the day, and is kept in a cool, dry place until it
reaches the customers ; and the problem of securing the
local market to the grower would solve itself, if only per-
fectly fresh ripe fruit were ofiered to the consumers.

Best Varieties.

The varieties of strawberries may be divided into two
groups, i.e., "pistillate," those with pistillate flow^ers only,
and " perfect," those having flowers with both stamens and
pistils. The pistillate flowered varieties generally are more
productive than those with perfect flowers ; but, if the former
are planted alone, no fruit will be produced, therefore some
staminate or perfect-flowered varieties must be planted near
them. The proportion of the two kinds that are generally
planted is about three rows of the pistillate to one of the
perfect-flowered kinds. Of the thousands of varieties that
liave been introduced within the past ten years scarcely a

230 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

half dozen have proved superior in all particulars to the old
standard sorts, yet there has been considerable progress as
to quality and size of berry. Some varieties succeed in one
locality and not in another, and some on one kind of soil
and not on another, so that it is very difficult to give a list
of varieties that will succeed under all conditions. The best
way for one to decide as to the best kinds to grow in a given
locality is to consult successful growers in his own immedi-
ate vicinity. The list suggested that will probably give the
best results under a great variety of conditions is as follows :
Bubach (pistillate), Haverland (pistillate), Lovett (stam-
inate). Leader (staminate), Clyde (staminate), Brandy wine
(staminate) and Parker Earle (staminate).

Annual Cro2Jping.

It has now become the practice among the best growers to
grow but one crop from a planting. The advantage of this
is that it is easier to grow plants set in the spring up to fruit-
ing, than to renew an old bed, the fruit is much finer and
more of it, and a second crop of cabbages, beets, celery,
etc., may be grown after the strawberry crop is harvested,
so that two crops are produced in the two years. It allows
also of more frequent rotation.

The Currant.

No fruit is more highly prized during hot weather, is more
healthful or more easily grown than the currant. It is a
perennial fruiting shrub, and with proper care will continue
producing fruit for a quarter of a century or more.

The Soil.

While the currant can be grown upon almost any soil, it
succeeds best in a deep, rich, moist loam. It also succeeds
under the shade of fruit and ornamental trees, provided an
abundance of manure or fertilizer is used. The value of the
fruit for market depends largely upon its size, and to pro-
duce large fruit a vigorous growth of the bushes must be
produced.

No. 4.] SMALL FRUITS. 231

Planting.

Early in the fall is the best time for planting currant
bushes, though they succeed well if planted in the spring.
No. 1 one-year-old plants are the best for planting, though
No. 1 two-year-old plants are often used.

The distance at which they are planted varies somewhat
with difterent growers and their mode of pruning. If the
bushes are kept close pruned and are on a rather light soil,
four by five feet is about the right distance ; but if allowed
to grow rather large and on rich land, four by six feet will
be none too much space.

Cultivation.

A rich soil and clean cultivation must go together, for
without the one the fruit will be of small size and without
the other the weeds would soon choke out all growth of either
the bushes or fruit.

Mulching.

No fruit is more benefited by an abundance of moisture
than the currant, and a mulch of hay or coarse manure helps
to keep in the moisture and the fruit from becoming soiled
during heavy rain storms.

Pruning.
The currant produces its best fruit on strong, vigorous
shoots, two or three years old, while that on the older wood
is small and of inferior quality. It is therefore the practice
in pruning to cut out all very old canes and encourage the
growth of strong new shoots. This may be done at any
time after the leaves have fallen, and before much growth in
the spring, but the fall is the best time for this work.

Varieties.
There are many good varieties in cultivation, but they do
not show so much variation as to form, size and color as the
other kinds of fruit. Any of the leading sorts may be made
to produce large fruit if grown in a rich soil and properly
pruned. In fact, it is asserted by many that the only differ-
ence between many of the varieties is produced by cultivation

232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

and fertilization. However this may be, it is conceded by
the best growers that carefully selected plants of the several
varieties do have distinct characteristics. Among the varie-
ties most gro^vn the best are the Cherry, Fay's Prolific, Red
Dutch, Victoria and White Grape. The white currants are
much less acid and of better quality than the red kinds, but
are not so readily sold in the markets. The Victoria is
said to be especially valuable, because of its hanging so long
on the bushes after ripening. Three new varieties of very
superior quality have recently been introduced, which will
be of especial value for home use, if not for market; i.e.,
Wilder and Pomona Red, and White Imperial, all of which
are much less acid than the old sorts, and have a remarkably
aromatic and delicious flavor.

Insects.
As with almost any crop on the farm or garden, the cur-
rant is injured by insects. The "currant worm" comes
upon the bushes soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and
in a few days destroys all of the foliage unless checked in its
work. The best remedy is powdered hellebore, dusted over
the bushes while the leaves are wet with dew or rain, or
sprayed with water mixed at the rate of one tablespoonful of
hellebore to a common two-gallon pail of water.

Fungous Diseases.
The failure of many a currant plantation to yield a profit
has often been due to the leaves being destroyed by a leaf
blight that first appears as small dots on the lower leaves.
These increase in size and number, and soon cause the leaves
to fall, preventing a full maturity of the canes and fruit
buds. This injury is prevented by spraying with the Bor-
deaux mixture * just as the blossoms are set, and again as
soon as the fruit is picked.

Red Raspberry.

The red raspberry is considered the most delicious of the
small fruits. It brings the highest price in the market, and

* See Bulletin No. 44, Hatch Experiment Station.

No. 4.] SMALL FRUITS. 233

is also the most perishable. In the home garden it can be
grown to perfection and l)e put upon the grower's table in a
perfectly ripe condition, in wdiich condition it would be im-
possible to transport it even to a near market, and in this
condition it has an aroma and freshness seldom found in the
fruit purchased in the market.

' The Soil.

The best soil for the red raspberry is a deep, sandy loam,
that is not seriously aftected by drouth. In thin soils
mulching or irrigation must be practised to insure a crop in
seasons of drouth. On a light soil the canes mature better
than on a heavy one, and are less likely to be injured during
the winter. This injury is prevented by laying down the
canes in the autumn before the ground freezes.

Planting,

The fall is the best time to plant the raspberry. The
canes should be cut back to six inches before planting, and
then one or two shovelfuls of soil or manure banked over
them.

The raspberry is grown in rows where the cultivator can
be run but one way, or in hills where it can be run both
w^ays. Both methods give good results, the distances being
four by six or three by five feet, according to the vigor of
the varieties.

Fertilizers.

As with the strawberry, a liberal supply of plant food is a
necessity, and bone and potash are equally valuable for the
raspberry, and about the same quantity must be used. If
the soil is very light, one hundred to two hundred pounds
of nitrate of soda per acre will be found valuable.

Cultivation.

No fruit is more benefited by frequent cultivation. This
keeps the soil cool and moist, the condition under which it
grows the best. In this work the only care needed is not to
cultivate too deeply, or to destroy too many of the new

234 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

shoots as they come up in the spring ; for it is better to have
a surplus of canes to cut out at the fall or winter pruning
than to have the land only partly stocked with canes.

Pimning.
The pruning the red raspberry requires for the best results
is the pinching off the ends of the canes during the summer
as soon as they are two and one-half feet high, which causes
a branching, tree-like growth. The fruiting canes are also
to be cut out as soon as the fruit has been gathered, and the
laterals of the new growth to be headed in at any time after
the leaves drop in the tall or before the beginning of growth
in the spring. All very small canes should be cut out, as
they produce only small fruit, and this being near the ground
is so injured by dirt as to be of no value. The fruit also on
the large canes is benefited by this thinning. When the
pruning is completed, the strong canes should stand from
six to eight inches apart, and the greater the number of these
strong canes the larger will be the crop.

Renewing the Plantation.
Perhaps no fruit sooner exhausts the soil or the soil con-
ditions under which it is profitably grown than the raspberry.
The roots and suckers permeate the soil in all directions and
after a few years the plantation must be renewed, or an in-
creasing amount of plant food be applied. Six to ten years
is about the limit of profitable growth in one place, when a
new plantation should be started on fresh soil.

Varieties.

There are but very few varieties of the red raspberry that

can be successfully grown under the average conditions and

care. Of these, the Miller, Cuthbert, Loudon and Golden

Queen will give the greatest satisfaction for home use or

market.

Insects and Fungous Pests.

There are no insects that are seriously injurious to the
raspberry under ordinary conditions, but a fungous known
as the leaf blig-ht often causes serious damage. This disease
first appears as small, reddish spots, which soon increase in

No. 4.] SMALL FRUITS. 235

size and number until the whole leaf is infested, when it
turns brown and falls off, a few of the upper leaves only
escaping ; where this leaf blight comes on early it often so
weakens the canes that the fruit is small and the plantation
soon dies out. The remcvdy is spraying thoroughly with the
Bordeaux mixture just before the blossoms open, and again
as soon as the fruit has been gathered.

Winter Covering.
The canes of even the most hardy varieties are sometimes
winter-killed and the crop seriously injured or wholly de-
stroyed. This injury can be certainly prevented by covering
the canes with soil in the fall just before the ground freezes.
Only a light covering of soil is needed, just enough to hold
the canes down to the ground. In the spring the canes should
be uncovered as soon as the frost has come out sufficiently,
for, if allowed to remain on the ground, they start into
growth too early, and will not stand up as readily as if raised
earlier.

The Black-cap Raspberry.

In a general way the black-cap requires about the same
treatment as to soil, cultivation, training, pruning and fertili-
zation as the red raspberry. It is considered less desirable for
home use and less profitable for the market than the latter,
but is more easily grown and produces a very much larger
quantity of fruit. It also grows in hills, and does not give
any trouble from suckers.

Planting.
The black-caps are propagated by the rooting of the ends
of the canes in the fall, and should be set out only in the
spring. Great care should be exercised in planting them not
to set the "tips" too deeply, as the buds from which new
canes will grow are liable to injury by deep planting. A
very large per cent of the black-cap tips planted fail to grow
from this cause. A mound or a ridge between two furrows
is made, the roots are spread out with the bud on the highest
part of the mound or ridge, the roots running as deeply into
the soil as possible, and the soil is then pressed very firmly

236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

about the roots and only moderately firm about the buds.
The bud of the tips should not be covered with more than an
inch or two of soil, varying this wnth its character, but the
roots should be well down in the moist soil. Planted in this
way, every "tip," if in good condition, will be sure to grow.

Pruning.
The pruning, training, cultivation and fertilization required
for the ])lack-caps are the same as for the red raspberry, and
spraying for insect and fungous pests should be the same.

Varieties,
As with the other small fruits, some varieties succeed in
one locality or condition of soil and fail in others, and the
same rule should be followed as with the strawberries in the
selection of varieties. The varieties that will most generally
succeed are the Souhegan, Cromwell, Ohio, Kansas, Gregg,
etc.

Hybrid Raspberries.

A class of raspberries known as ' ' purple caps " or ' ' hy-
brids " are now considerably grown, and are especially valu-
able for the home garden, but on account of their color are
of no value for market. In habit of growth they are like the
black-cap, propagating by tips, but produce a fruit interme-
diate between the black-cap and the red raspberry in color,
and of the substance and flavor of the latter, being considered
even superior to either in quality. The plants of the varie-
ties now most grown are not quite hardy, the canes are
generally more or less winter-killed, and are rather difficult
to cover on account of the strong^ arowth of canes : but, even
when the main canes are killed nearly to the ground, lateral
shoots will often come out that produce a fair crop of fruit.
When not injured, the crop is often enormous. Of the
varieties most grown, the Shafier and Columbian are the
leading sorts. They are attacked by the same leaf blight
that injures the red and black-cap raspberries, and should
have the same treatment.

No. 4.] SMALL FRUITS. 237

The Blackberry.

This very healthful and delicious fruit is easily grown,
produces a large crop, and, but for its habit of spreading over
the garden, would be more generally planted. This diffi-
culty, however, is easily overcome if all suckers that come
up outside the prescribed limits of the rows or hills are
treated as weeds, and are pulled up instead of being cut off
at the surface as is the common practice. It should never
be planted in the corner of the garden, where the suckers
can run out into other land, but if possible in the centre of
the garden, where it can be seen upon all sides.

Soil.

The soil it requires for its best growth is about the same
as for the red raspberry, though it will succeed fairly well
upon any soil, if not full of standing water. In a heavy
undrained soil they are more likely to winter-kill than upon
one of a sandy or gravelly nature, while upon the latter they
need an extra amount of plant food.

Planting and Training,

The time of planting, method of training and pruning are
the same as for the red raspberry. The distance at which
they are planted varies from two to four by eight feet where
they are to be grown in rows, to five by eight feet where they
are to be grown in hills. In fertilizing the blackberry field
or plot the same kind and quantity of fertilizer should be used
as for the red raspberry.

Vd7'ieties, Insects and Diseases.

The varieties best adapted to the home garden or the field
are the same, and the Agawam, Snyder, and Taylor's Pro-
lific are certainly the best of those fully tested. No insects
interfere seriously with its growth, but the fall and spring
" orange rust " is often abundant and destructive. Spray-
ing as for the raspberries will in a measure overcome it, but
it is better also to cut out all rusted canes and leaves as soon
as they appear.

238 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Three Shade-tree Insects.

BY A. II. KIRKLAND, M.S., ASSISTANT ENTOMOLOGIST TO THE COMMITTEE
ON GYPSY MOTH, INSECTS AND BIRDS.

The Sugar Maple Borer.*
One of the largest and most gaily colored beetles of our
New England fauna is responsible for injuries of a most seri-
ous character to the sugar maple, a tree which, from beauty
of form and as a source of sugar, justly holds a high place
in popular estimation. The damage resulting from this
beetle, commonly known as the sugar maple borer, shows
itself in gnarled and distorted trunks, dying branches and,
too frequently, in the gradual death of the entire tree. This
pest is not a new one to this region, although its ravages
appear to be most severe in more northern latitudes. The
habits of the insect were first noticed and described by a New
Hampshire pastor, the Rev. L. W. Leonard, who is quoted
by Dr. Harris in his " Insects Injurious to Vegetation."
The latter author gives an excellent description of the mature
beetle. Other writers have given many interesting notes
upon the habits of the insect, but perhaps the best account
of the life history of this borer is that by Prof. A. S. Pack-
ard, in the fifth report of the U. S. Entomological Commis-
sion. From this article, as well as from the writings of
Saunders, Bethune, Weed and others, the writer has drawn
liberally in the preparation of this paper.

Life History.
The eggs are laid by the mature beetle on the trunks of
sugar maples during the months of July and August. Ac-
cording to Packard, the beetle cuts obscure gashes in the
bark and in them deposits the eggs. The eggs hatch in a
short time and give rise to small white grubs, which " mine"
the bark for a short distance before attacking the cambium

* Plagionotus speciosus Say.

No. 4.] THREE SHADE-TREE INSECTS.

239

FiG.l. The Maple Borer.
(From Saunders.)

layer of the tree. Soon, however, they burrow to the living
wood and commence their work of destruction. Many borers
feed only upon dead wood, but this insect apparently feeds
only upon living wood. The burrows or
grooves cut by the larvae generally run
upward, beneath the l)ark and partially
around the tree, although it is not rare to
find them running almost directly down-
ward. These grooves follow very irregu-
lar lines, are about one-half inch in width
by perhaps one-third inch in depth, and,
by passing around a part of the tree, cut
off the sap circulation in that part. Where
the larv« are abundant it is not an uncommon things to find
a tree entirely girdled by these grooves.

It seems proliable that two years are required for the com-
pletion of the transformations of this insect. In examining
a number of infested trees I have found several burrows
entering the wood for an inch or two, half way in their
course, then coming out to the cambium again and continu-
ing to enlarge until the place for pupation is reached. From
this it might appear that the larva is only partly grown when
overtaken by winter and seeks shelter in
the trunk at this time, as well as when
preparing to pupate. In a recent letter
Dr. A. S. Packard expresses the opinion
that two years are required for the devel-
opment of this insec-t.

When the larva approaches maturity it
usually enters the trunk for a short dis-
tance and forms a chamber, within which
it transforms to a pupa, from which, in
midsummer, the mature beetle emerges.
Under burlap bands placed on trees at
Maiden, Mass., to collect gypsy moth
attacked by the Jiapie larvfB, I havc fouud the uiaturc beetles as
( )riginai.) early as June 24. The majority of the

beetles, however, do not appear until July, during which
month they may be occasionally found on the blossoms of
goldenrods.

Fig. 2. Trunk of a Maple

240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Dr. Harris describes the mature beetle as follows: "The
beetle is black, with a yellow head, with the antennse and the
eyes reddish-black ; the thorax is black, with two transverse
yellow spots on each side ; the wing-covers for about two-
thirds of their length are black, the remaining third is yellow,
and they are ornamented with bands and spots arranged in
the following manner : a yellow spot on each shoulder, a
broad yellow curved band or arch, of which the yellow scutel
forms the keystone, on the base of the wing-covers ; behind
this a zigzag yellow band forming the letter W, across the
middle another yellow band arching backwards, and on the
yellow tip a black curved band and spot ; legs yellow, while
the under side of the body is reddish-yellow, variegated with
brown, nearly an inch in length."

Nature of the Damage.
The cambium layer, the layer of living wood just beneath
the bark, is the growing part of the tree and contains vessels
which serve a function similar to that of the arteries and
veins of an animal. The grubs or larvsB of the borer feed
in the cambium and cut off the circulation of sap. This re-
sults in the death of the trunk near the burrows, the bark
falls off and areas of dead wood are exposed to the disin-
tegrating influences of the air. In the mean time, however,
the tree attempts to overcome the injury by throwing out an
additional growth at the wounded places, and thus the
gnarled and unsightly trunks are produced. An early yel-
lowing and falling of the foliage is another indication of the
presence of the borer and betrays the weakened condition of
the tree. The largest or so-called "first growth" maples
are nearly exempt from the attacks of this insect, possibly
because the roughness and thickness of the bark may prevent
the beetle from depositing its eggs. Younger trees, with
smoother bark, are frequently attacked, and upon such trees
throughout the State the ravages of the beetle are apparently
on the increase.

Natural Enemies.

As natural enemies of this insect it is probable that vari-
ous species of woodpeckers render the greatest service. At
Huntington, Mass., I have seen the hairy woodpecker, the

No. 4.] THREE SHADE-TREE INSECTS. 241

downy woodpecker and the flicker feeding upon white larvae
taken from beneath the bark of maples infested by this
borer, — presumptive evidence that these birds feed upon
this insect.

Remedies.

The application of remedial treatment for borers is gener-
ally attended with considerable difficulty, since the insects
cannot be reached by insecticides, and in the case of the
maple borer, as with many allied beetles, hand labor is the
best means for destroying the pest. An examination of the
infested trees in September will reveal small discolored spots
on the trunks, showing where the larvse have commenced
feeding. Masses of fine brown castings are often found on
these spots. By the use of a sharp knife the larvae may be
dug out and killed, while the burrows of the older larvae
should be followed and the inmates destroyed. All exposed
wood, whether living or dead, should be thoroughly coated
with a thick lead and oil paint, to exclude the air and pre-
vent decay. Dead branches should be removed and the
stumps painted. Where the trees are badly infested it may
be advisable to prune severely, for with a limited and weak-
ened sap circulation they cannot properly support the normal
amount of foliage.

The preceding suggestions apply chiefly to the treatment
of infested maples which serve as shade trees. In the case
of an infested sugar orchard it would be impossible and im-
practicable to give the trees the same degree of care, and
here the main dependence must be placed upon preventive
measures. If one will take the trouble to look over a num-
ber of sugar orchards, he will find that the ones most afiected
by the borer are those in which the underbrush and smaller
trees have been cut, and the writer would suggest that here
we have an explanation of the increase of this pest in the
sugar orchards of western Massachusetts. Brush and under-
growth in a sugar bush interfere with the gathering of sap at
the season of sugar making, and the practice of " clearing
up " sugar orchards is one growing in favor with the owners
of the orchards. Where maples have grown with trees of
other species, and with a thick forest cover, the trunks are
usually free from branches to a considerable height. When

242

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the forest cover is suddenly cut off and only the maples are
left standing these trees soon become weakened, as a result
of the altered conditions. It is a well-recognized fact that
sickly trees are the favorite victims of borers of all kinds,
and the maple is no exception to this rule. The clearing up
of sugar orchards also allows the sunlight to penetrate to a
greater extent than before, and the borers, being sun-loving
insects, doubtless find a greater number of attractive places
in which to lay their eggs. During the past five or six years
the writer has had several opportunities to examine the sugar
orchards near his home at Huntington and in other parts of
western Massachusetts, and has seen repeatedly the clearing
up of orchards followed by extensive damage by this borer,
and is led to believe the matter is simply one of cause and
effect.

Remedial measures may be briefly summarized as follows :
for infested shade trees, cut out the borers in September,
prune if necessary, and cover all exposed wood with thick
paint. In sugar orchards, allow as much forest cover as is
consistent with the work of sap gathering. In both cases
cut all badly infested and dying trees and burn them before
midsummer, thus destroying the insects they contain.

The Oak Prune r.*
From an entomological stand-point the summer of 1896
was marked by an unusual abundance of the oak pruner in

Fig. 3. The Oak Primer, a, larva; 6, side view of same; c, pupa. (From Packard.)

eastern and central Massachusetts. The red oak suffered
most severely, but the white and scarlet oaks were not

* Elaphidion villosum Fabr.

No. 4.] THREE SHADE-TREE INSECTS. 243

wholly exempt from the ravages of this beetle, while in
some cases the sugar and red maples and hickories were
attacked either by this insect or by one of identical habits.
The presence of the borer is shown by the falling of living
branches which have been severed from the tree by a clean
cat. By splitting the severed end of a fallen branch the
insect causing the damage may be readily found, — a slender
white or yellowish- white grub with black mouth parts.

Life History.

The eggs are said to be laid by the parent beetle in early
summer upon the young growing lateral twigs, at a distance
varying from a few inches to a foot or more from
the main branch. Probably but a single e^g is
laid on each lateral twig. Upon the hatching of
the Q2,^ the young grub or larva burrows down-
ward in the twig, leaving but a thin shell of bark
and wood. When the branch is reached a burrow ^^^- *• ^ak

Pruner.*

is made beneath the bark for a short distance
toward the trunk, and the branch is nearly cut off by the
larva. The latter then retreats into its burrow, plugs it
with chips and feeds within the branch. Winds soon break
the weakened branch from the tree, and in the fallen branches
the larvse feed until fall, when the majority transform into
pupse from which the mature beetles emerge the following
spring.

Concerning the time occupied by this borer in passing
through its various transformations there are many state-
ments of a contradictory character. It would appear that the
time may vary from one to four years, although the writer
believes that one year is the rule in this region. Dr. Hamil-
ton, f in his criticism of the writings of Peck, Harris and
Fitch on this insect, states that in cases coming under his
observation from three to four years were required for the
development of the mature insect. In the summer of 1896
a number of branches infested by this insect, collected soon
after falling from the trees, were placed in an out-door
breeding cage at the insectary of the gypsy moth committee,

* Drawn by J. H. Emerton. t Canadian Entomologist, August, 1887.

244 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Maiden, Mass. From these branches, at the time of writing
(June 12, 1897), the mature beetles are emerging, thus show-
ing that the round of life may be completed in a single year
and corroborating the statements of Fitch and other early
writers concerning this point.*

Natural Enemies.
As natural enemies of the oak pruner Mr. F. H. Mosher
records the downy wood-pecker, the blue jay and the chick-
adee. I have found a spider, determined by Mr. J. H. Emer-
ton as Theridium iepidariorum C. Koch, feeding upon the
mature insects.

Remedy.

Preventive measures are the only ones of value in com-
bating this insect. The fallen branches should be gathered
and burned at once, thus destroying the borers which other-
wise might transform and appear as beetles the following
year. A common mistake made by many property owners
is that of gathering the infested branches and leaving them
on some convenient rubbish heap. This procedure is worse
than useless, since under such conditions the transformations
of the borer are not hindered.

The Imported Elm Bark Louse. f

In cities and suburban districts the damage to young elms
by this insect is a frequent and increasing cause of com-
plaint, and while its life history has been so well treated by
Lounsbury in Bulletin 28, Massachusetts Hatch Experiment
Station, a brief statement concerning its habits and the reme-
dies we have found eliective in destroying it may be properly
given at this time.

This insect is an imported bark louse, superficially resem-
bling the "mealy bug," and is commonly noticed in the
crevices of the bark on the trunks and branches of elms. The
females are bordered with a mass of whitish wax and give
birth to large numbers of young during the early part of

* statements also vary concerning the time of the appearance of the mature beetles.
In 1896 the majority of the beetles captured at Maiden were taken in June. Mr. A.
F. Burgess has taken specimens of this borer as early as April 11.

t Gossyparia ulmi Geoff.

No. 4.] THREE SHADE-TREE INSECTS.

245

July. The young lice migrate to the leaves and after feed-
ing on the plant juices throughout the summer, return to the
branches with the approach of cold weather and prepare to
hibernate. According to Prof. L. O. Howard, the males
appear late in May and the females give birth to the young
in from three to four weeks from the time of pairing.

Food Plants and Damage.
The bark louse was probably brought to this country upon
European elms. It occurs commonly on the Camperdown
and Scotch elms and also inflicts serious injury to the Amer-
ican elm, the slippery elm and the cork elm. The greatest

Fig. 5. The Elm Bark Louse, a, adult female from below; b, adult female from Bide; c,
adult female from above — all greatly enlarged; d, empty wax cushion; e, females in
natural position — enlarged ; /, shrivelled females, natural size. (From "Insect Life.")

damage to elms from this insect occurs on young trees re-
cently taken from the nursery. As factors in the dissemi-
nation of this insect, nurseries have played a most important
part. In fact, the first complaint of damage from the elm
bark louse was reported from a large nursery in New York.

246 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Where large numbers of elms are grown in compact plots the
insect appears to find most favorable conditions for multipli-
cation, and it is a matter of the writer's personal observation
that many of the large nurseries in this State Avhere elms are
thus grown are abundantly supplied with the insect. The
elm bark louse is now generally distributed throughout
Massachusetts, and may be considered a serious pest, since
from the insidious nature of its attack it often escapes notice
until the infested trees are injured beyond recovery. The
presence of the insect is often indicated by an early yellow-
ing of the foliage on the infested branches and the gradual
death of the latter from the tip downward toward the trunk.

Remedies.

The damage from the . imported elm bark louse is a long
time in appearing and considerable time is required for the
tree to recuperate from the injury. Badly infested trees
should be pruned of all dead and dying 1)ranches in the fall,
the wounds being covered with thick oil paint or gas tar.
At the same time the trunk and branches should be scrubbed
with strong kerosene emulsion, made by dissolving one-half
pound hard soap in two quarts of hot water and stirring into
the mixture while hot one gallon of kerosene oil. Dilute the
emulsion with three parts of water and scrub the trunks and
branches with this mixture, using a stiff brush. The follow-
ing spring, top-dress the ground beneath the trees with good
stable manure or with nitrate of soda, and later, in July,
spray the foliage thoroughly with kerosene emulsion, diluted
one part to nine of water. The recommendations given
above apply to cases where the trees have been seriously
injured. Where the insects occur in moderate numbers,
both the scrubbing and spraying may be done in July with
satisfactory results. Often a thorough spraying at this time
will suffice to destroy the greater part of the insects.

To show how cheaply this work may be done where a large
number of trees are to be treated, the following account of
tlie treatment of 3,000 young elms in Manning's nursery at
Reading, Mass., may be of interest: In May, 1896, Mr.
Manning found that the elm bark louse had multiplied to
such an extent as to seriously infest a large part of his stock

No. 4.] THREE SHADE-TREE INSECTS. 247

of elms. At the writer's suggestion, these elms were scrubl>ed
with strong kerosene emulsion and in July were thoroughly
sprayed with the dilute emulsion. The cost of the work,
taken from data kindly furnished by Mr. Manning, was as
follows : labor, $18 ; kerosene and soap, |3 ; a total expense
of $21, or 7 mills per tree. As a result of this treatment
over ninety per cent of the insects have been destroyed ; in
fact, it would now be difficult to find a more thrifty lot of
elms. This shows the comparative inexpensiveness of the
remedy and the good results attending its thorough applica-
tion.

248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Why Milk Sours, and how the Souring can
BE Prevented or at least Delayed.

BY GEORGE M. WIIITAKER, A.M., ACTING EXECUTIVE OFFICER OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS DAIRY BUREAU.

During the hot summer weather milkmen have much
trouble with sour milk and there is especial complaint of the
large amount of sour milk in Boston. In spite of the
thousands of cans of surplus, when the pinch of a warm
spell comes, the surplus is wiped out by the sour milk, and
the contractors have hardly enough sweet milk to supply
their trade. The same is true, though to a less extent, in
other places. Now, this is unnecessary. So much is known
about the causes of milk souring that any farmer can avail
himself of this information and profit thereby. Sour milk is
inexcusable nowadays, and here is one of the things wherein
modern science has done much for dairying. The souring
of milk is caused by the presence in it of bacteria, the tiniest
forms of organic life known ; no bacteria, no sour milk.

Milk in the udder of a healthy cow is free from bacteria,
the germs of decay coming chiefly from the air. If milk
could be drawn through a sterilized tul)e into an air-tight
sterilized pail it would remain unchanged for all time. Bac-
teria are numerous in the air, and under ordinary conditions
it is absolutely impossible to have milk without any bacteria
at all. We cannot expect to prevent the entrance of all
bacterial life into milk, but the number may be greatly
diminished by certain precautions. They are intimately
associated with dirt and carelessness, and hy the exercise of
scrupulous care and the observance of cleanliness we may
keep the number of bacteria down to the lowest possible
limits. Then it is a fact that bacteria cannot increase rapidly
in a temperature of less than 55° ; when the temperature gets
down to this their increase is practically suspended. Hence,

No. 4.] SOURING OF MILK. 249

if the number of bacteria is reduced to a minimum to begin
with, and then if the milk is promptly cooled with ice or
spring water to 55° or below, the keeping qualities of the
milk will be greatly increased, and there will be no trouble
from sour milk in the ordinary course of getting it to con-
sumers. One authority says that by these precautions milk
may be kept merchantable a week or ten days. This is of
the utmost importance to farmers, particularly those who
ship milk to cities.

The whole "secret" of avoiding sour milk trouble is in
three words, — cleanliness, prompt cooling. With these
milk will withstand even the traditional influences of the
thunder shower.

The lirst source of the infection of milk with the bacteria
of souring seems an exception to the above general state-
ment. These bacteria get into the milk pail in the first few
drops drawn from the udder. At the close of the previous
milking a little milk is always left at the end of the teat,
a drop often remaining in the little orifice near the end of the
teat. Here the bacteria multiply to an enormous extent,
the warmth of the animal body furnishing excellent condi-
tions for their increase. When the next milking Is com-
menced they are washed into the pail to contaminate the
whole of the milking and shorten its life. A material in-
crease of the keeping properties of milk will follow from
milking on the floor the first streams from each teat, enough
to rinse them out.

The next and most common source of infection is through
the air which is always loaded with bacteria. The number
of bacteria in the air varies very largely, but the germs are
more numerous in inclosed spaces like rooms than in the open
air. Hence, when cows are milked in the barn the milk will
have more bacteria than when they are milked in the open
field. We cannot tell all of the ways in which these bacteria
get into the air, but we do know that they come from parti-
cles of manure, skin, food, hair, threads and cobwebs. They
are intimately associated with the dust floating in the air.
From the body of the animal, the hands of the milker or his
clothes may also come the troublesome little "Imgs." Hence
the more filthy the conditions the more bacteria and the sooner

250 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the milk sours. Professor Sedgwick says " short-lived milk
is usually filthy milk." Another authority says : " Sour milk
is due to dirty handling." Groteufelt says: "The impure
air in the stable is one of the main causes of bacterial infec-
tion of milk."

Stables.

The barn should be cleaned at least annually, removing dust
and cobwebs from timbers and corners, and cleaning out all
refuse and rubbish. It should then be thoroughly white-
washed. This not only removes many microbes and intro-
duces a weak antiseptic, but it renders the stable lighter and
more cheerful. Any work in the barn which stirs up a dust
just before milking will greatly add to the numl)er of the
bacteria in the air and therefore in the milk. Chores which
contaminate the air should l)e deferred till after milking.
Frequent sweeping of the barn is a good idea, but it had bet-
ter be omitted if it can be done at no other time than immedi-
ately before milking. Manure ought to be removed from the
stable promptly, as the longer it remains in the warm stable
the more the bacteria in it multiply, but wait until after
milking before you do this work. Many barns are made so
that it is impossible to avoid pitching hay from the mows or
high beams in the room where the cattle are kept. This is
favorable to stirring up a dust and therefore it ought not to
be done just before milking. Feeding coarse fodder directly
before milking, stirring up masses of dust, is not to be com-
mended. Sprinkling stable floors before milking will mate-
rially lessen the germs in the milk. The free admission of
outside air into the barn is also an important consideration.
By care it is possible to decrease considerably the infection
of milk through the ordinary dust of the stable.

The Cows.
When the cow's flanks are covered with filth, either manure
or the mud of some pasture pool, the amount of bacteria
that wnll fall into the milk is enormous. Consequently the
skin of the cows should be kept as clean as possible. The
importance of carefully carding, brushing and cleaning the
cows is evident. To <ret the best results the udder and the

No. 4.] SOURING OF MILK. 2.51

teats, together with the adjoining parts of the body and

thighs, should be wiped with a damp cloth immediately

before milking. These precautions will reduce to the lowest

terms the bacteria which will get into the milk pail from the

cow.

The Milker.

The milker himself must practise personal tidiness, and
the leading authorities, where the liest results are to be ob-
tained, both preach and practise the importance of strict
cleanliness and even the wearing of neat clothes while milk-
ing. The milker's hands should be carefully washed.

Removing from Stable and Straininr/.

As we have said above, no matter how carefully the pre-
cautions against micro-organisms arc observed there will be
bacteria in the air. The milk is therefore threatened so
long as it is in the stable, and it is also liable to absorb
odors as well as bacteria. Milk should therefore be removed
from the stable at the earliest possible moment. Straining
the milk in the stable or leaving it there in the cans until the
whole herd has been milked are procedures harmful to its
quality. A minute's delay in the Imrn may mean an hour's
quicker souring. Milk always ought to be strained in a room
separate from the stable, where the air is pure and fresh, and
where cleanliness is most carefully observed.

Several thicknesses of strainer cloth throuo-h which the
milk is allowed to trickle slowly will filter out many bacteria
as well as much filth. It is therefore important, in a herd of
any considerable size, to change the strainer cloth often, as
it soon becomes impregnated with bacteria which have been
entangled in its meshes, and some of these are liable to wash
through into the milk if the same cloth is continually used.
The more unclean the milk the more frequently the change
of strainer cloths should take place. The more violently the
milk is poured into the strainer the greater the chance of
the force of the stream driving some bacteria, which had be-
come entangled in the strainer, through into the strained
milk.

A third cause of infection is unclean utensils and cans. If
these are not washed with the greatest care and thoroughly

252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

scalded and aired there is an opportunity for impurities to
be left in the seams of the. tin where joints occur. In this
residue there is a fine opportunity for bacteria to increase
and multiply in large quantities, and then spread the con-
tamination through the milk itself. The word cleanliness,
when carried to its extreme import, nowadays, means sterili-
zation, — freedom from bacteria. Wooden pails should
never be used for milking, as it is almost impossible to keep
them clean. Tin utensils should be used. In cleaning them
the milk remaining should be rinsed out with lukewarm
water. Then boiling hot water or steam should be applied,
as these are among the strongest foes to bacteria. Live
steam is best but not always practical)le. After scalding,
exposure to bright sunlight is advisable and ought to l)e
given. It is common to see inverted cans standing by
farmers' doors, sunning the outside of the cans. If the loca-
tion is one where the air is pure the cans should be set so
that the direct rays of the hot sun may get into them.

Finally, having done all that is possible in way of care and
cleanliness, you have not kept all the bacteria out of the
milk. The ravages of the few remaining ones must be re-
duced as much as possible. This is done by chilling the
milk at the earliest possible moment. Bacteria increase most
rapidly in warm milk. One experimenter found that at 93°
the bacteria in milk multipled 3,600 times in six hours. At
55° they multiplied only 435 times. Don't let the milk
stand a moment longer than is necessary without chilling it.
Delay is dangerous and may l)e costly. This cooling of milk
is beneficial in removing the last traces of animal odor, but
it is urged more particularly for checking the growth of
bacteria. If the temperature is lowered sufficiently, the
development of bacteria will be checked — almost stopped.
By lowering the temperature to 45° satisfactory results may
be obtained, but it is safest to cool it to 40° if possible.
Every person supplying a city market with milk should have
ice, or else cool spring water, and take precautions in this
respect. All authorities impress the importance of straining
the milk outside the stable and cooling it as quickly as pos-
sible. Don't let it stand until the cows are turned out; they
can wait better than the milk.

No. 4.] SOURING OF MILK. 253

In conclusion, — milk, leaving the udder almost in a
spray, comes in contact with a large quantity of bacteria-
laden air. This milk is of a temperature most congenial to
bacterial growth, hence the first half hour of its life is the
critical one. The way it is treated during that time deter-
mines its keeping qualities, and to a considerable extent its
flavor. No wonder the best teachers say that sour milk is
due to careless handling. As a matter of theory milk cared
for as we have recommended will keep a long time, amply
sufiicient to have it reach any consumer in good condition,
and the following of these suggestions will add many hours
to its life. As a matter of practice many farmers take these
precautions and are never troubled with sour milk. A
German experimenter had a cow kept in a badly ventilated
barn and milked without having its udder cleaned, and the
milk, kept at 60°, coagulated in fifty hours. The milk from
the same cow drawn in an open field, after the hands of the
milker and the cow's udder had been cleansed, kept, at the
same temperature, eighty-eight hours. Hence we have both
theory and practice to back up these ideas. What one
farmer has done another can do. With proper precautions
there would ])e no renewal of the great trouble which annu-
ally exists in Boston and elsewhere during the "heated
term " on account of sour milk.

254 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

Systematic Feeding and Watering as a
Preventative of Disease in Horses.

BY PROF. J AS. B. PAIGE, VETERINARIAN TO THE BOARD.

I propose ill this short paper to discuss very briefly a few
of the more important points suggested by the above title.
My idea is to show how many diseases of horses are referable
to a faulty system of feeding or watering, or both combined,
and how they may be prevented hy the application of the
principles that should guide us in this matter.

The subject is by no means a new one, numerous articles
relative to it having already appeared in our books and
agricultural papers ; but it would seem, from the great
number of erroneous ideas which people entertain and put
into practice in this connection, that the information im-
parted has not been productive of much good. No one
appreciates this more than the practising veterinarian, who
can trace, in a large majority of the cases of intestinal dis-
ease, founder, etc., which he is called to treat, the cause of
the same to some fault either in quantity, quality or other
condition of the food used, or to some condition of the animal
when the food or water was given. From my own observa-
tions I am led to conclude that it is not so much on acount
of ignorance of the principles that should guide us in the
feeding of horses, so as to prevent the occurrence of disease,
as it is on account of failure to put the principles into prac-
tice. Many people are thoughtless or negligent about these
things. This applies more especially in rural districts. It
frequently happens that a fatal attack of colic is the result
of thoughtlessly giving a horse a seemingly small quantity
of green grass in early spring time, when he is not accus-
tomed to it, or of carelessly throwing a few small potatoes
or specked apples into his manger Avhen they are removed
from the cellar at the close of winter. Excluding fatalities

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 255

from contagious diseases and from accidents and complica-
tions, I think it a conservative estimate that four-fifths of all
deaths among horses in rural districts are traceable to mis-
takes either in feeding or watering ; and, considering that
the majority of such fatalities are preventable by the exercise
of care in feeding or watering, the subject under discussion
is certainly deserving of most careful consideration.

Smith, in his work on "Veterinary Hygiene," says, re-
garding this subject: "The connection between food and
disease as cause and effect is well known. Throughout the
whole category of disease-producing causes there is no sim-
ple factor which exercises so much influence. The reason of
this is not difficult to seek. Men feed their animals as they
feed themselves. They are either overfed with highly nutri-
tious food, or underfed with material of bad quality ; or the
food given is at irregular intervals, badly prepared, or un-
suited to the digestive organs of the animal. Another reason
for the great importance of the subject of food in relation to
disease of the lower animals is that it is one of the three
tangible causes we can handle."

The following is a partial list of the diseases of horses
which may arise wholly or in part in connection with an
irrational system of alimentation : abortion, heaves, swelled
legs, lymphangitis, laminitis, scratches, stomatitis, ptyalism,
glossitis, urticaria, choking, impaction of the stomach, gas-
tric tympanitis, gastritis, stomach rupture, spasmodic and
flatulent colic, intestinal impaction, enteritis, constipation,
diarrhoea, dysentery, alimentary calculi, hepatitis and immo-
hiliU. Of diseases of the urinary system may be mentioned
nephritis, haemaglobinuria, hpematuria and diabetes.

The subject may be viewed from two different stand-
points,— the scientific and the practical.

Scientific investigation in physiology and chemistry have
during recent years brought out many important points
relating to the most economical and satisf ictory methods of
feeding our farm animals for specific purposes. Among
other things, they have taught us that the animal body is
composed of organic and inorganic substances, the former
consisting of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents,
the first particularly abundant in the muscles and similar

256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

tissues, while non-nitrogenous substances exist largely as
fats. Of the inorganic constituents Ave have the various salts
which, taken collectively, form the ash. The salts consist of
lime, potash, soda, magnesia, etc.

A chemical analysis of plants shows that we have in them
compounds whose composition corresponds very closely to
similiar substances found in the animal body. We find that
there are in plants both organic and inorganic compounds ;
protein, fats and carbohydrates belong to the former, the
various salts to the latter.

Through our study of animal physiology and chemistry
we have learned of the action of the various digestive fer-
ments of the body upon the plant constitutents, and now
know that the digestive proteins, fats and carbohydrates of
plant origin are used in the animal l)ody for the production
of muscle, bone, milk, heat, energy, etc.

In consideration of what has been learned by experimental
research in physiology and allied sciences regarding the com-
position of animal and plant tissue and their products, the
processes of digestion, assimilation, etc., one might surmise
that it would l)e possible to compound a concentrated food
ration which should supply all the various elements in the
proper proportion necessary for the complete nourishment
of the difierent tissues of the animal body. Such, however,
is not the case. In order to keep the animal organism in a
normal, healthful condition, we need to supply more than
what is shown to exist by chemical analysis in the various
tissues. A certain mechanical condition of the food is
requisite, as well as a sufficiency of bulk. The digestibility
of the food, the quality, etc., have to be taken into account,
and we must not forget that anatomical variations have their
influence in connection with proper feeding. In other words,
to obtain certain results in the feeding of farm animals, we
must bring into play the sum total of our knowledge of the
chemistry and physiology of feeding, together with those
practical points learned by experience. This applies in the
case of all farm animals, it makes no difierence whether we
feed for growth, milk, beef, pork, mutton, or, as in the
horse, for force and energy. In any case we have to bear in
mind that in order to secure the best results in any particu-

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 257

lar direction we must so treat our animals that perfect health
shall be maintained. This is where knowledge obtained by
practical experience applies, and in this part of the subject
we are particularly interested. The study of the scientific
investigations of questions relating to feeds and feeding is
interesting and profitable. The reader is referred to various
books and agricultural experiment station bulletins for infor-
mation concerning it. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of
literature upon the subject of the hygiene of feeding. What
information we possess has been gained largely through the
channels of practical experience, and frequently we have
paid dearly for it.

One of the most important factors to be taken into account
in the feedino; and waterins: of horses is the anatomical ar-
rangement of the digestive organs. The relative size of the
stomach of the horse, as compared Avith that of the other
domestic animals, is small. When distended, it has a
capacity of twenty-five or thirty pints. In case normal
digestion is taking place, it rarely contains more than seven-
teen or eighteen pints. The arrangement of the mucous
membrane is peculiar, in that it is sharply divided into two
parts, the cuticular portion being continuous with the mu-
cous lining of the oesophagus. The villous membrane lines
the right half of the stomach, extending to the pyloric open-
ing ; the left portion is preparatory in its function. The
membrane of the right half contains the glands which secrete
the digestive juices ; the right half is the digestive portion.
Stomach digestion in the horse goes on very rapidly. The
length of time required to digest a food varies with its chem-
ical composition, mechanical condition, bulk, etc. As a
rule, it may be stated that the more nitrogenous a food the
longer it remains in the stomach. It may happen that the
nitrogenous food may remain in the stomach but a short
time, being forced into the intestines by the ingestion of
large quantities of non-nitrogenous material ; for example,
corn, oats or other nitrogenous grains ordinarily remain in
the stomach longer than hay, but by feeding grains first and
hay in large quantities afterwards the grains may be forced
into the intestines undigested.

Colin's and Smith's experiments with reference to stomach

258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

digestion of hay and oats are interesting and instructive.
They found that when small amounts of food are given after
fasting they pass directly to the right side of the stomach,
becoming in a short time thoroughly mixed with and acted
upon by the gastric secretions. As soon after feeding begins
as the stomach attains a certain size, the ingesta passes out
into the intestines as rapidly as it comes in through tire
oesophagus. This occurs regardless of the composition or
condition of the food mass. As soon as the animal stops
eating, the food passes into the intestines more slowly ; it
continues to pass out, however, until the stomach becomes
considerably reduced in size, then the stomach empties itself
very slowly. It would seem that nature intended that a
portion of the ingesta should remain in the stomach to act as
ballast. It requires from twelve to fifteen hours for the
stomach to completely empty itself. It has ])een found by
experiment upon horses that the ingesta arranges itself in
layers in the stomach in the order in which it is taken in,
that arriving first going into the pyloric portion of the
organ. These layers remain quite distinct during the greater
part of the time that active digestion is going on, complete
mixing of the contents occurring only at the pylorus.

By the ingestion of large quantities of water soon after
eating, the distinct-layer arrangement of the food is broken
up and much undigested material washed into the intestines.
As soon as material passes from the stomach into the intes-
tines it comes in contact with the secretions from the liver,
pancreas and intestinal glands. These secretions have both
a mechanical and chemical or digestive action. The contents
of the small intestines are distinctly fluid. After passing
from the small into the large intestines the material is ren-
dered more firm in consistence by absorption of fluid from
it. It is also probable that considerable cellulose is digested
in the larger bowels during the slow passage of the ingesta
through them.

In order that we may so feed our horses as to prevent dis-
ease, aside from the anatomical arrangement of the digestive
organs, we must take into account the nature of the work
required, as well as individual peculiarities of different

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HOKSES. 259

animals. The feeding of a horse for slow farm work must
necessarily differ from that of the one used wholly upon the
road or track for fast work. In the former a large, Avell-
filled abdomen does not interfere with its performing the
work required of it, consequently there is little objection to
giving a horse used for slow work liberal quantities of bulky
food. The same food given a race horse would produce such
a distension of the stomach and intestines that free and easy
action of the respiratory organs would be prevented, and in
consequence the horse rendered useless for fast work. Race
horses require a more concentrated and easily digested food
than it is necessary or economical to supply our slow-work-
ing animals.

Individual animals possessing certain constitutional pecul-
iarities are frequently very susceptible in respect to the action
of different kinds of feeds or different methods of feeding and
watering. Such animals are usually nervous and excitable,
are long-legged, narrow-chested, straight-ribbed and small-
barrelled. They are oftentimes designated " bad thriveis,"
on account of the difficulty in feeding them so as to keep
them in good condition. Such individuals are liable to
attacks of indigestion, diarrhoea, colic, etc., upon the slightest
change of feed, or irregularity in feeding or watering.

Bearing in mind some of the general principles which
have been briefly referred to, we may consider in detail some
of the methods of feeding and watering, commonly practised,
which are most productive of disease.

First we notice the efl'ect of an excess of food. In this
we must consider the horse as a machine, which has a certain
limited capacity for converting so much raw material into a
finished product. We supply the horse with hay and grain,
and expect in return for our outlay a definite amount of
energy. Within certain limits the quantity of the product
does not depend so much upon what we supply as upon the
capacity of the organism to convert what is given from one
form into another. A horse can take in, digest, assimilate
and appropriate only a limited amount of material. If
more than this definite quantity be taken, the organism
must of necessity become taxed beyond its powers ; e. g.^

260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

if more food is eaten than can be digested and absorbed, it
accumulates in the intestines, acting as foreign material,
produces irritation, causing colic or a similar disorder. If,
on the other hand, more food is taken, digested and absorbed
than can be appropriated by the different tissues, a condition
of plethora results, in which the circulatory system or the
lymphatic system becomes overloaded with nitrogenous or
other constituents. If overloading of the lymphatic system
of the extremities occurs, we have lymphangitis, or "Mon-
day morning disease," produced.

By many people a mistake is made in that they Ijelieve it
possible, by allowing excessive quantities of rich food, to
keep an overworked animal in good condition. If we inves-
tigate this subject we shall see that such is not the case.
Work brings a])out rapid destruction of the tissue. The
material to repair or replace the destroyed tissue is contained
in the food of the animal. It must be brought into a suit-
able condition by digestion before it can be appropriated ])y
the tissue cells. The digestive organs are capable of a
definite amount of work, and an excessive destruction of
tissue over what can be replaced through digested food must
remain, for a time at least, unrepaired. The undigested
residue of the excessive quantity of food may remain in the
intestinal tract, causing disease. In case of over- worked
animals, the richer, more concentrated and easily digested
the food, the greater the amount appropriated by the tissues.
At the same time, it should be remembered that the reten-
tion in the intestines of undigested material rich in nitroo:e-
nous constituents is attended with more danger than in case
of retention of less rich food. An over-feed of grain may
cause serious consequences, whereas an over-feed of hay
rarely does harm. The influence of breed and individual
peculiarities are so marked in relation to digestion that it is
impossible to establish a rule that will apply in all cases.
Our aim should always be to supply food in sufficient quan-
tities, in an easily digestible form, so that enough nutrient
material may be provided for the repair of the tissues with-
out causing an overloading of the digestive organs. We
want to preserve a condition of balance between destructive
and reparative processes.

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 261

Varying the grain ration to correspond to the amount of
labor performed is an essential factor in the preservation of
the health of horses. An example will serve to illustrate.
A horse accustomed to work a greater part of the time be-
comes incapacitated for further use on account of some
trivial injury, or is perhaps, on account of stormy weather,
allowed to stand idle for several days in the stable. Having
become somewhat run down in flesh on account of continuous
hard work, the owner concludes that it is a favorable time to
get him in condition again, consequently he feeds the usual
or larger quantities of grain to him. On visiting the stable
some morning the owner is surprised to find the horse stand-
ing on three legs, the fourth, usually a hind one, being
swollen to about four times its natural size. The foot of
this is raised from the floor, while the leg is carried out stiflly
from the body. The swollen member, high up on the inside
of the thigh especially, is knotted and corded, and very sen-
sitive and painful on pressure. The cause of the condition
is usually attributed by the owner to a sprain that has oc-
curred during the night, wiiereas the real source of the
trouble is traceable to the large allowance of feed that has
been supplied, resulting in an over-distension and inflamed
condition of the lymphatics of the leg.

Hsemaglobinuria is another disease occurring under similar
conditions. This disease occurs in a horse that has been
driven but a short distance from the stable, after having re-
mained idle for several days, on a full ration of grain, and is
characterized hy the sudden development of lameness in one
or both hind legs, with cramp of the croup and thigh muscles,
profuse sweating, finally inability to remain standing.

Colic, indigestion, purgation and other diseases might be
added to those already spoken of, but enough have been
mentioned to show the dangers attending the removal of an
animal from hard work, placing him at rest in the stable on
full grain ration. The rule to apply in such cases is to re-
duce the grain ration l)y lessening the total quantity fed, or
substitute some lighter grain in place of a rich one, thereby
lessening the quantity of proteid material in the feed. Coarse
wheat bran may be used to advantage in these cases. Re-
duce the amount of corn or oats, and substitute an equal

262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

quantity 1)}^ measure of bran. This keeps the bowels open
and active, preventing that engorgement of the system liable
to occur when the heavier feeds are continued.

The effects of a deficiency of food upon the organism is
not less marked than those resulting from over-feeding.
This applies not alone to the total amount supplied, but also
to any of the essential elements. A deficiency of proteid
constituents in a food causes rapid wasting of the muscles
and loss of energy. The absence of any essential salt in a
food supplied growing animals leads to imperfect develop-
ment of the bony system. Sodium chloride is required by
all tissues of the body, particularly the blood. In order to
secure normal development of the body and to maintain it in
a healthful condition, it is necessary to supply in the food
all of those elements required for the complete nourishment
of every tissue in the body. It is therefore essential that a
sufficiency in quantity and a variety of elements be supplied
in the food of workino- and o^rowino- animals.

In many cases farmers feed their horses year after year a
ration consisting of one kind of grain, the one raised upon
the farm or the one bought for the lowest price in market
being the one selected. I believe such a practice to be un-
satisfactory, expensive and wrong in principle. Aside from
the fact that a single grain with hay may not furnish the
elements in sufficient quantities required for the building up
of the various tissues, is it not fair to suppose that horses,
like men, relish a change of diet? Experience so teaches.
A horse will after a time tire of corn, and, although fed in
liberal amounts, the animal does not keep in good condition
of flesh and spirit. A mixture of corn, oats and bran, with
perhaps the addition of a small amount of oil meal, is sure
to furnish all the essential food constituents required, and is
preferred by most animals to a single grain ration. Salt
must be supplied in larger quantities than is found in ha}^
and grains. The practice of keeping it continually within
reach of the horse in the form of "rocks," "bricks" or
"rolls" is preferable to giving it mixed with the grain.

Foods about which there are any doubts regarding quality
are best omitted from the bill of fiire of horses. This does
not apply so much to the products of poor land as to defects

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 263

in quality due to improper curing, preservation, or the
growth of vegetable or animal parasites upon the feed. To be
sure, crops grown upon an impoverished soil are not as nu-
tritious as those grown on a fertile soil. They do not nour-
ish the animal body as well, 1)ut the effects upon the health of
the animal to which they are fed are not to be feared so nmch
as those arising from the use of such things as musty, mow-
burned hay ; heated, mouldy or partially decayed grains or
roots. Such substances are not only deficient in nutritive
constituents, but may contain material produced by decom-
position or the growth of organisms which act as poisons
when ingested by the animal. The rusts, mildews and smuts
are included among these substances. Improperly cured
hay which has become dusty exercises an injurious influence
upon the respiratory organs of the horse. Musty, mouldy
hay causes irritation, indigestion, colic, purgation, etc.,
when fed to horses. Partially fermented corn, corn meal,
bran or other grains })roduce similar eftect. Oats that have
become covered with moulds, either in the field or while in
storage, or other feeds in like condition, bring on in many
instances, when fed, disease of the kidneys, characterized by
passage of large quantities of urine. The production of
abortion by feeding ergotized rye or grasses to pregnant
animals is an example of disease caused by the use of feed
defective in quality. Ergot may also cause gangrene of the
extremities or disorders of the nervous system.

What has been said reo;ardin<j the use of foods of inferior
quality applies in general to all of our farm animals, but
more especially to the horse. This animal is more liable to
suffer on this account, owing to the structure and sensitive-
ness of its digestive organs.

Frequency of feeding is indicated by the anatomical ar-
rancrement of the digestive oro;ans of the horse. On averao;e
pasturing they feed almost continuously, whereas cattle feed
for a few hours during the early part of the day, remaining
quiet and remasticating the food during the middle of the
day, and feeding again in the afternoon. Gastric digestion
goes on rapidly in equines, and as soon as the stomach
becomes partially emptied the blood supply is greatly dimin-
ished. If a large amount of food is taken into the stomach

2(J4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

after a prolonged fast, it is not digested. The organ sud-
denly becomes distended, the walls paralyzed and inactive.
Blood does not enter the vessels surrounding the glands,
consequently no juices are secreted and no digestion takes
place. Under these conditions after a short time fermenta-
tion of the food mass becomes established, gas is given off,
resulting in an attack of gastric flatulence, flatulent colic, or
perhaps rupture of the stomach follows. Experience has
demonstrated that the same quantity of feed, divided into
three parts, given at morning, noon and night, gives better
results with horses than when given at two feeds.

Sudden changes of feed should be avoided. A man can
make no greater mistake in the treatment of his horse than
to take him from a pasture, where he has been without grain,
and, in anticipation of a hard day's work or a long drive,
feed him a liberal quantity of oats, corn or other grains. The
folly of such treatment is apparent to any one accustomed to
the care of stock. One often sees, however, just such mis-
takes made. The general rule, that all sudden changes in
quantity or kind of food should be avoided, should be kept
in mind. It applies to hay as well as grain. The change
from oats to corn is especially liable to bring on colic. The
change from corn to oats is not as dangerous, but may cause
trouble. The addition to a grain ration of a considerable
quantity of oil or gluten meal, rye, barley, wheat or pease
may be followed by disordered digestion. So susceptible is
the horse to sudden changes of feed that even a feed of clear
bran may give rise to flatulent colic or other similar intesti-
nal disease. An abrupt change from hay to grass, or from
well-cured old hay to new, or from coarse, late-cut to fine
early-cut hay, may cause disease. Substituting hayed oats
or ripe oat straw for hay is no less a cause of intestinal
disturbances. Wilted grass is even more dangerous in this
respect than that perfectly fresh. Ensilage, roots, apples,
etc., should only be given in small quantities at first. Grad-
ually increasing quantities may be given until the digestive
system becomes accustomed to the change. Uncooked pota-
toes in quantities not exceeding one or two quarts fed to
horses are very apt to cause colic.

The practice of changing the grain during the day should

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 265

be abandoned. It is better to feed the same kind morning,
noon and night. In case it is not possible to feed the same
single grain or mixtures throughout the day, a feed of hay
alone, or clear oats, or a mixture of oats and bran, is less
objectionable than a feed of corn, provender or other rich
mixture. The practice of always giving some hay with the
orain is a ffood one. There are but few horses that will eat
too much hay if fed a sufficient amount of grain to supply the
greater part of the nutrient material required by the various
tissues of the body. Every horse must be given some coarse
material in the form of hay, straw or stalks. There must be
enough to give bulk to the food mass, or the stomach and in-
testines soon become diseased. The writer recently learned
of the death of a valuable horse by inflammation of the
bowels, brought on by feeding for several days clear oats
without sufficient hay or straw. Without doubt it is best to
give the greater part of the hay at night, but some should
be given mornings and noons, as well. Only hay should be
allowed horses that are warm and sweating freely. The grain
should be withheld until the circulation becomes equalized.

The preparation of food for horses is a subject upon which
there exists a diversity of opinions. There are those who
advocate the use of whole grain ; others who prefer it crushed,
while others again say it should be finely ground before being
fed. Dry feed is preferred by some, wet by others. Some
claim that cut hay is better than whole, while others consider
a mixture of cut hay and grain (cut feed) preferable to hay
and grain fed separately. The settlement of these questions
must necessarily depend upon a variety of circumstances,
such as kind of food, peculiarities of the individual, time
allowed for eating, efiects of cooking, etc. To cut hay or
grind grain for a horse with sound teeth and strong digestive
organs, and who has plenty of time for eating, is to incur
an unnecessary expense that is of little or no benefit to the
animal. The thorough mastication of food is natural for
horses, and essential for perfect insalivation and digestion.
The average daily secretion of saliva in the horse, according
to Colin, is eighty-four pounds. The gland is stimulated to
secrete by the act of mastication, especially so if the food is
dry. If the hay is finely cut or the grain ground so that it

266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

may be swallowed after little mastication, we do not get the
action of the saliva on the food or the digestive organs that
nature intended. That the presence of saliva is essential to
perfect gastric digestion is proved by the fact that flatulence
develops soon after eating, if the salivary glands are de-
stroyed, so that no saliva passes into the stomach with the
food.

We also notice the influence of imperfect mastication on
the production of indigestion and colic in horses that "bolt"
their feed. Where the teeth have become badly worn, in old
horses, or where there is disease of them or other organs
that prevents thorough mastication, it is advantageous to cut
the hay and crush or grind the grain. If not done, much of
the food passes into the stomach and through the intestines
whole. It is not digested, therefore does the animal no good.
It is practically wasted. More than this, in passing through
the intestines in large quantities it gives rise to considerable
irritation, and is liable to undergo fermentation. On this
account, attacks of flatulent and spasmodic colic are common
among horses with irregular or diseased teeth. If a horse
acquires the habit of "bolting" the grain when ground, it
may be prevented by spreading it in a thin layer over the
bottom of the manger, or by mixing it in the manger with
six or eight smooth stones the size of the flst.

Contrary to popular opinion, cooked grains, particularly
oats, are more diflicult to digest than uncooked ones. By
cooking I refer to boiling. Smith says : " EUenberger and
Hofmeister are of the opinion that starch conversion in the
stomach of the horse occurs not only through the saliva
swallowed, but by the development of a ferment from the
food. They found that oats could yield a starch-converting
ferment active at body temperature, but destroyed by boil-
ing. They have further stated that starch-converting fer-
ments may in the horse be derived from the air swallowed
with the food." Practical experience in feeding in large
stables shows unquestionably that more horses sufier from
indigestion, colic, etc., when fed cooked grain rather than
uncooked. Certain foods, such as potatoes, pumpkins, etc.,
are rendered more digestible and less harmful by cooking.

No. 4.] DISEASE IN HORSES. 267

It is quite probable that bacteria of different species taken in
with the food exert an influence over the process of digestion.

The feeding- of oval, spherical, square or angular pieces of
roots should be avoided. Their shape favors their arrest
in the oesophagus. Tliey should be prepared for feeding by
being cut into long, thin slices, or shredded by a machine.
Fine, dry, chafl-like material may also cause choking. If
moistened before being fed, or the animal compelled to eat it
slowly, its arrest in the gullet is prevented.

The rule with reference to watering horses is based on the
results of careful investigation. It is exceedingly simple and
easy to remember. Either water one-half hour before feed-
ing or one hour after. If a large quantity of cold water is
given just before eating, it predisposes to attacks of indi-
gestion. The effect of the cold water in contact with the
mucous membrane is to cause contraction of the blood ves-
sels. This forces the blood away from the stomach and in-
testines. If, now, food is taken in, it cannot be digested,
owing to absence of blood about the secreting glands. When
cold water is taken a half hour before feeding, the circula-
tion of blood in the stomach and intestines becomes estab-
lished, so that upon the arrival of the food the glands are in
condition to perform their function. When a horse is fed,
and watered directly afterward, the passage of the water
through the stomach carries undigested food into the intes-
tines, beyond the reach of the stomach and intestinal juices.
The irritation of the undigested food in the intestines may
cause colic. When heated, small quantities of water may
be allowed, but giving large amounts should be avoided.
Small amounts at frequent intervals may be allowed animals
when on the road, and this is a general rule that may be
applied in nearly all conditions of the animal.

268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Massachusetts Weeds.

BY G. E. STONE, PH.D., PROFESSOR OP BOTANY AT MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

Emerson defines a weed as a plant whose virtues have not
been discovered. The general conception of weeds is that
they are useless plants, and this conception would include
all of our road-side growths, such as goldenrods, etc. To
the farmer, however, a weed is not only useless but a troub-
lesome plant. Apropos of Emerson's conception of a weed,
it may be stated that there are apparently useless plants
whose virtues have been discovered, or, in other words, some
use has been made of them. The barn-yard grass, which is a
weed throughout Europe and America, has been cultivated
in Japan and is now a very important forage plant.

We can divide all of our plants into three groups, — the
indigenous, or native species, the naturalized, or those which
have become established ; and the adventive, or those which
have made their appearance once or twice but which have
not become established. The latter two groups, the natural-
ized and the adventive, include, of course, the introduced
species which grow spontaneously. It must be understood,
however, that they do not include all cultivated species.
The naturalized species make themselves at home in our
soil, and they grow 3^ear after year with more or less regu-
larity in their appearance.

The adventive plants are only recent arrivals, and may be
considered as candidates for admission. Some of them make
their appearance sparingly year after year, without making
much headway, while others simply live one year and per-
haps are not seen again, or only occasionally from time to
time. The conditions which largely control the appearance
of the new plants are dependent upon the commercial rela-

No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS WEEDS. 269

tions with foreign countries and the new climatic conditions
surrounding them.

Many of our naturalized and adventive plants have been
introduced through importation, and some of them date back
to a very early period in our history.

John Josselyn, an English gentleman who visited this
country previous to 1672, gives a list of over thirty species
of introduced plants which included such well-known forms
as the dandelion, shepherd's-purse, pigweed, couch-grass,
burdock, sow-thistle, stinging nettle, plantain, wormwood,
chickweed, may-weed and purslane, which were grown in
Massachusetts at that time, and Dr. Cutler of Salem left
much valuable data concerning our introduced plants in his
botanical notes, prepared previous to this century.

The writings of these early observers are of great value to
botanists of the present day as some idea can be obtained as
to the adaptability of the European plants. From this list
of Josselyn's it will be noticed that all of these plants are
common enough to-day ; especially is this true in regard to
dandelion, shepherd's-purse, chickweed and purslane, the
latter plant being formerly grown in the garden and used for
greens.

These plants found in our gardens their proper habitat,
and as the cultivated areas were extended they multiplied
very rapidly, until to-day they constitute the most extensive
weed-growth we have to contend with. The other plants
named by Josselyn, although constituting something of a
nuisance, are not so abundant because the proper conditions
for their thriving were not obtained.

But in order to take into consideration all of our weeds
we must pay some attention to those which have been more
recently introduced. The total number of naturalized plants
from other countries which have been established in Massa-
chusetts, and do now propagate themselves spontaneously, is
probably about two hundred and fifty ; and the total number
of adventive species, or those which have grown one or more
seasons but have not become established in our climate, is not
far from three hundred.

While these adventive plants occur now and then on
rubbish heaps, especially near manufacturing establishments

270 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

and along railroads, we cannot say when any of them may
take a start and in the course of a few years become as
abundant and as much of a nuisance as the white daisy or
wild carrot. Indeed, we know so little about the habits of
these plants that we cannot tell what they are capable of
doing in our climate. We already know that among some
of the earlier introduced plants some spread only slightly ;
for example, coltsfoot was found in Massachusetts as early
as 1672 and has had many years to become accustomed to
the climate, and yet it is to-day, although widely distributed,
a very rare plant in our State. On the other hand purslane
and shepherd's-purse are probably more abundant than at
any time since their introduction. There are certain other
plants, such, for example, as the Geraniuin moUe, a species
of comparatively recent introduction, which I have observed
thriving quite abundantly for a few years on lawns, when all
of a sudden it would disappear. In fact, we have observed
this same tendency among many recently introduced plants.

So far as our observations go it appears to be the species
which show a slow and sturdy growth that threaten to become
our worst weeds. An instance of this may be seen in the
white daisy. This is said to have been introduced in Rhode
Island about eighty years ago for the purpose of horse feed,
and another report stated that it was in Massachusetts in
1783, or one hundred and fourteen years ago. To-day on
account of its gradual increase it is one of the most con-
spicuous plants in our neglected grass lands.

The yellow daisy (JRudbecMci hirta), which has never
become so abundant and from present appearances would
seem likely not to be, was introduced forty or fifty years ago.
Ribwort {Plantago lanceolata), was not found by Professor
Hitchcock in 1829, yet at the present time it is common
enough. The fall dandelion (Leontodon autumnaUs) , quite
common now, was only seen once by Professor Tuckerman
of Amherst previous to 1875 ; and the same held true for
such plants as lucern (^Medicago sativa), sweet alyssum
{Alyssum calychium) and bladder campion (Silene injiata).
In fact, there are many plants growing in Hampshire County
which are not mentioned in Tuckerman's catalogue, which
was carefully prepared and represented a remarkably full

No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS WEEDS. 271

list of all naturalized and adventive species. Some of these
have also, in other sections of the State, become decidedly
common.

Methods by which Weeds are Disseminated.

There are many methods by which weeds are disseminated.
Besides the natural method, which includes the various
methods of propagation characteristic of the plants, there are
many artificial methods, dependent very largely upon human
agencies. Besides being dependent upon seeds, there are
many plants, including some of the weeds as well, which
propagate themselves by means of root-stalks or underground
stems, runners and running roots. Examples of propagation
by root-stalks or rhizomes are furnished by the flag-root,
blue iris and some ferns ; while in the weeds we find a good
example in the couch-grass. Plants which possess this habit
are wonderfully tenacious and are the most difiicult to eradi-
cate. Golden hawk weed is propagated by runners similar to
the strawberry, and the Canada thistle by running roots.
These methods of propagation are, however, merely acces-
sory methods.

The most universal method of plant propagation is by
seed, and the many ingenious ways in which plants are able
to disseminate themselves is remarkable indeed. One could
hardly have ever seen a dandelion without having observed
the admirable seed apparatus, the seed being constructed
especially for being wafted by the wind. No less interesting
as wind propagators are prickly lettuce, milkweed, Canada
thistle and fire-weed.

Another method of seed propagation common to some
weeds is by animals. Many plants, such as the poke weed,
have berries which are eaten by birds, and as most hard seeds
are not digested by them they are dropped here and there.
If conditions are favorable they will readily develop. Many
seeds eaten by horses and cattle are not impaired, and in this
manner many weeds find new abodes. Then again we find
curious devices connected with seeds for attachino; themselves
to animals. There are many of these devices ; one of the
best-known plants among us which has acquired this habit is
the burdock.

272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Through this acquired habit in seeds many plants are intro-
duced into our State every year through wool importation.
Fortunately, however, these plants are mostly confined to
dump heaps aljout mills, and many of them at the present
time have not gained much foothold in Massachusetts. Other
sources of weeds are found in the importation of commercial
seeds.

In oat and rye fields are the wild mustard (^Brassica
smcq)isiru7n) , chess or cheat (Brovms secalimis) and many
other plants. One of the most impure seeds is that of red
clover. The weed seeds most common in clover are rib-
grass (Plantago lanceolata), sorrel (Humex acetosella) and
pigeon-grass (Setaria glauca) . The seeds of white cockle,
ragweed, prickly lettuce, pepper-grass, Canada thistle, ox-
eye daisy and wild carrot are not infrequent, while those of
the dandelion, etc., are often found.

Occasionally weeds as well as injurious insects and fungi
are introduced with nursery stock.

Hay furnishes an excellent medium for the introduction of
various weed seeds, and some of our numerous weeds owe
their origin to the introduction of baled hay. Much of the
glassware and crockery imported from Europe is packed in
hay, and here we have a constant source of contamination.
This hay is frequently used a number of times for packing
purposes and is distributed to various parts of the country.

A few of our weeds were first introduced as ornamental
plants and have escaped from cultivation. Golden hawk-
weed was cultivated at the Agricultural College some fifteen
years ago, and there are some lingering patches of this plant
here which may be seen every year, and it is annually sent
in from other sections for determination. In Vermont this
plant has, according to Professor Jones, multiplied tenfold
in the last decade and from all appearances it has come to
stay.

Chiccory is said to have been introduced for greens by
Governor Bowdoin in 1785, and although not abundant in
the State it occurs in some localities quite frequently. Purs-
lane was introduced from England for the same purpose as
early as 1672. Wild carrot and live-forever were introduced
as ornamental plants. Woad waxen was brought from Eng-

No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS WEEDS. 273

laud to Salem in 1628 hy Governor Endicott for the purpose
of dyeing, and now it covers hundreds of acres in that
vicinity.

Distribution of Weeds in Massachusetts.

The condition of the soil, climate and the nature and ex-
tent of the industries in Massachusetts are sufficient to exert
quite an influence on the distribution of weeds.

The percentage of sand and chlorine in the soil is greater
in the eastern part of the State than in the western, and the
elevation is much less marked in the eastern. Then again
the population and the variety and extent of industries are
considerably greater in the eastern than in the western part
of Massachusetts. These diflerences in the conditions are
sufiicient cause for variations in the weed flora. There are
many troublesome plants along the coast which are rarely
seen in the central or western part of Massachusetts, although
the Connecticut valley region furnishes conditions — with the
exception of the percentage of chlorine — not dissimilar to
those near the coast. In general, we can say that the varie-
ties of weeds increase as w^e approach the sea-board. There
are many plants, some of which have been introduced for
years, that are seldom seen inland. The conditions of soil
and climate appear to be uncongenial for their growth.

The woad waxen (Genista iincioria), common enough near
Salem, is seldom found inland, and the same holds good for
the barberry and privet, which grow so abundantly near the
coast and which have probably been introduced for two hun-
dred years.

The cocklebur (Xantkium strumarium) and chess (Bromus
tectorum) abound in the waste places near Boston. The
cocklebur is found inland at times, but the latter plant sel-
dom. Many other weeds might be mentioned which are
more abundant in the eastern part of Massachusetts.

274

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

A List containing

Common Name.

Baru-yard grass,

Carpet weed,

Charlock,

Chess, cheat.

Cockle,

Cocklebur,

Couch-grass,

Crab or finger grass,

Daisy fleabane.

Dandelion,

Green pigeon-grass.

Fall dandelion.

Horse-weed, fleabane.

Pigweed,

Orange hawkweed,

Pepper-grass,

Pigweed, redroot.

Plantain,

Purslane, pusley,

Roman wormwood,

Ramsted, butter and eggs.

Rib-grass, English plantain,

Shepherd's-purse,

Sorrel,

Wild carrot.

Yellow daisy,

White daisy.

Three finger.

Dyer's green-weed,

Money- wort.

Some of the Commoner Weeds of
Massachusetts.

Botanical Name.

Fanicum crusgalli.
Mollugo verticillata.
Brassica Sinapistrum.
Bromus secalinus.
Lychnis Githago.
Xanthium Canadense.
Agropyron repens.
Panicum sanguinale.
Erigeron annuus.
Taraxacum officionale.
Setaria viridis.
Leontodon autumnalis.
Erigeron Canadense.
Chenopodium album.
Hieraclum aurantiacum.
Lepidium Virginicum.
Amaranthus retroflexus.
Plantago major.
Portulaca oleracea.
Ambrosia artemisiaefolia.
Linaria linaria.
Plantago lanceolata.
Bursa bursa-pastoris.
Rumex acetosella.
Daucus carota.
Rudbeckia liirta.
Leucanthemum vulgare.
Paiiicum glabrum.
Genista tinctoria.
Lysimachia nummularia.

Of this list of thirty plants six are troublesome on lawns ;
four in gardens, twelve in hay fields, and eight are unsightly
plants in waste places. Of course such a classification is not
wholly accurate, as some of the weeds recorded as growing
in waste places are at times found in poor grass land.

Methods of Eradication.
No general methods can be employed for the extermina-
tion of weeds inasmuch as the individual characteristics of

No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS WEEDS. 275

the plant must be taken into consideration. Various kinds
of cultivation have been devised to meet the requirements
of weeds, and an attempt has been made to kill weeds by
powerful electrical machines. Such appliances are not prac-
tical, as the enormous voltage of twenty thousand was re-
quired to kill the plants. Could a current be made to pass
through the plant from the tip of the root to the tip of the
stem a much smaller voltage could be used. I have killed
small plants in the laboratory with an electrical force equal
to forty or fifty volts when the current was applied in this
manner. Even supposing such appliances could be devised
on a simple and cheap scale, so as to be utilized, they would
be of no value when applied to cultivated crops, inasmuch
as one of the blessings of weeds is that they remind the
gardener that it is time for his crops to be hoed, and any
appliance which fails to stir up the soil would be an injury
rather than a help.

Other methods have been tried for weed eradication with
more success. The application of chemicals to freshly cut
roots, or at the base of the stem, has been used in some in-
stances with success. For this purpose experimenters have
resorted to the use of coal oil, crude sulphuric acid, salt,
strong brine and carbolic acid. A few drops of carbolic acid
applied with an ordinary machine oil can is considered the
best method that has been devised for killing weeds with chem-
icals. Salt has been used with some success on the Canada
thistle and golden hawkweed. Experiments upon the golden
hawkweed in Vermont with salt at the rate of three thousand
pounds per acre have proven effectual, and at the same time
have increased the yield of grass.

In the case of biennials, cutting the root below the crown
usually kills them ; but occasional mowings induce them to
send up numerous stalks from their roots, which, if not cut,
will come to maturity and produce seed. The wild carrot
affords an example of a biennial, and outside of hand pulling
repeated mowing is about the only practical method which
can be employed. This prevents the plant from maturing its
seed, and also by checking assimilation starves the plant out.

Many root-stalks are successfully killed by exposing them
to the direct action of the sun in summer or of frost in winter.

276 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Ploughing in this manner becomes effective. Certain root-
stalks possess a remarkable power for propagating them-
selves, and when cut up even in small pieces they are capa])le
of growing into a new plant. Any cultivation, therefore,
which only breaks the root-stalks and leaves them in the
ground during warm, moist weather is not practical, as this
method would only multiply them.

One of the best methods for destroying the very trouble-
some couch-grass is to plough it up late in the fall and sow
the piece down thickly with some such crop as rye.

In fact, this is one of the best methods to which farmers
can resort for weeds in general proper to cultivated lands.
Instead of allowing the land to remain idle, or surrendering
it to weeds, as is most frequently the case among farmers
after the crop has been taken off, it should be thickly seeded
down to some crop such as rye or mustard ; or much better,
if the climate would allow it, to crimson clover, alfalfa or
melilotus.

This practice of green manuring improves the soil. It
not only adds organic matter to it l)ut it conserves the ele-
ments which the soil contains. In case a leguminous crop
is grown, such as clover, alfalfa or melilotus, considerable
nitrogen would be added to the soil when ploughed under.
Crimson clover and alfalfa have not proven hardy with us,
but melilotus appears to be, and Professor Brooks has hopes
that this plant can be of some service to the farmer in this
climate.

With good thick growths of rye or some such plant in the
soil soon after the main crops have been removed, the large
amounts of shepherd's-purse, purslane and five-finger grass
— which naturally thrive at this season and produce enor-
mous quantities of seeds for the year to come — could be
kept down. The worst weeds found upon our lawns are
plantain, common dandelion, chick weed, money- wort, three-
fingered crab-grass and fall dandelion. The only remedy for
the plantain, common and fall dandelion is spudding. The
plantain is less likely to occur on a well-kept lawn. The
money-wort and chickweed thrive the best in the shade,
although both are more or less troublesome in sunny lawns.
Nitrate of soda or common salt are used by some to kill

No. 4.] MASSACHUSETTS WEEDS. 277

money-wort. It is used even strong enough to kill the grass,
but new grass will eventually come up at the exclusion of the
money-wort. The three-fingered crab-grass is seen abun-
dantly late in summer, and appears to be spreading. We
know of nothing to recommend for this.

The introduction into our fields of such weeds as chess,
charlock, etc., is due to impure seed.

Another method, therefore, of checking manj^ weeds, and
one which would appear to be a very logical one, would be
to start with pure seed. We have not in this country quite
waked up to the necessity of buying pure seed, or of even
buying seed of a guaranteed germination.

Some of our grass weeds can be controlled bv mowinsr
them just before they go to seed. One field at the Agricult-
ural College which was densely covered with the white daisy
a few years ago has, by this method of treatment, become
almost completely rid of this plant. Other field weeds are
more difficult to eradicate by this method, as their time of
maturing seed does not correspond with the time of mowing
grass.

SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT

DAIRY BUREAU

MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

Under Chapter 412, Acts of 1891.

January 15, 1898.

Dairy Bureau — 1897-98.

D. A. HORTON, Northampton, Chairman.
GEO. L. CLEMENCE, Southbridge.
J. L. ELLSWORTH, Worcester.

Executive Officer.
\\ . R. SESSIONS, Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.

Assistant to the Secretary and Acting Executive Officer, appointed by the

Governor.

GEO. M. WHITAKER, Boston.

REPORT OF THE DAIRY BUREAU.

The membership of the Dairy Bureau has continued
through the year the same as at the time of our last report,
Mr. J. L. Ellsworth of Worcester having been reappointed.
The active executive work has continued under the charge
of George M. Whitaker, who has been reappointed for an-
other liiennial term. The statute title of this position is very
misleading. The Bureau has had in its employment during
the year three agents, the same ones previously reported,
Messrs. J. W. Stockwell, George F. Baldwin and Charles
C. Scott. Dr. Charles Harrington, the Boston milk in-
spector, and his staff are also agents of the Bureau, serving
without compensation from the State, in order to promote
harmony and efficiency of action. The chemical work has
been done by Dr. B. F. Davenport.

Oleomargarine .

The work of the Bureau in enforcing the laws relative to
imitation butter has been statistically as follows : —

Number of inspections, . , 1,986

Samples taken, 212

Cases in court, 26

Of these, in only two instances were the defendants ac-
quitted.

Complaints were made for the following causes : —

Selling or having in possession with intent to sell an imitation

of yellow butter, 16

Serving oleomargarine in hotels and restaurants without giving

notice, 5

Obstructing officers, 6

The court cases are fewer than last year, but do not repre-
sent any diminution in the work. The number of arrests is

282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

not a gauge of the eflSeiency of a police force. The open
selling of deceptive imitation butter has been suppressed,
but as the illegal traffic in this imitation product is crowded
into more limited quarters, the amount of detective work
necessary to secure evidence of a violated law is largely
increased. We have this year convicted some persistent
violators of the law, in some cases driving them out of the
Commonwealth. To bring this about necessitated in some
cases weeks of careful work. One case in particular was of
more than ordinary interest, and illustrates the difficulties
attending the work and the chances that the greed of gain
will lead unscrupulous persons to take.

Complaint came to us early in the year from a town in
Middlesex County that a peddler had been through the town
selling what purported to be Vermont creamery butter at a
low price. Samples were secured, analyses made, and the
article was found to be oleomargarine, which had been sold
as butter from tubs labelled creamery butter, the United States
revenue stamps and brands having been removed. We had
no knowledge of the name of the party, his residence or his
routes, and a number of months' work was necessary in order
to supply this information. We found he had several teams
and men, and was doing a large business. Then it was
necessary to locate him somewhere, and get legal evidence
of violation of law from samples whose identity could be
positively traced. Then came warrants for his arrest, and,
having obtained these, it was again necessary to find where
he was to be at some particular time, and to have officers
there to serve the papers upon him. We had learned that he
was an athletic fellow, given to boasting of his strength, and
as a matter of precaution six officers were detailed to sur-
round the house in which he lived, and arrest him. He gave
two of the officers a rough-and-tumble chase, but they se-
cured him. Taken into court, he was found guilty, and paid
two hundred dollars, other cases being held against him for
good behavior. It was not long, however, before he was
heard of at his old tricks, and after a number of weeks' work
was located and re-arrested. This time he gave two officers
a long chase, and was not taken until shots had been fired.
Detained in the lockup at South Framingham, he managed to

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 283

break out, when he was met by a pal, and the pair rode
hastily with one change of horses to Rhode Island, not, how-
ever, until the lockup keeper had implanted a bullet in his
thigh.

This illustrates some of the difficulties in securing a big
statute record. Itinerant peddlers retailing about the State
without any particular route, never more than a half day in
a place, are hard to get evidence against, and, having secured
it, and a warrant, they are hard to re-locate and arrest. An
agent working on such a case cannot take many samples or
inspect many places of business.

. Another reason for the diminution in the number of cases
in court is an increased conservatism on our part in multi-
plying cases, as we find much hesitancy among judges of the
district courts to entertain more than one complaint based on
one transaction. The first case that we had this year was
where (1) a man had sold an imitation of yellow butter; (2)
had sold it as butter; (3) had sold it without the proper
marks on the tub; (4) had sold it labelled "creamery;"
and (5) sold it without the distinctive marks and signs
required on the wagon, — a violation of five laws of the
State, but only one complaint was made. In nearly every
case that we have had this year three or four laws have been
violated.

During the past year we have changed our policy relative
to the statute under which we have brought cases. Hereto-
fore, recognizing that the sale of oleomargarine as butter
and when butter was called for was an unquestioned moral
offence, as well as a statutory one, we preferred to bring
cases under that law (section 2, chapter 280, Acts of 1894)
when possible, feeling that we might appeal more strongly to
the court than in a case for selling (or having in possession
with intent to sell) an imitation of yellow butter. But ex-
perience showed us that as a practical matter we were in
error. In the former class of cases we had more to prove.
It was not only necessary to show that there had been a sale
of an imitation of yellow butter, but it was necessary to prove
beyond a reasonable doubt that it was sold in response to a
call for pure butter. Not infrequently the defendant would
attempt to save himself a fine either by contradicting our

284 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

agents outright in denying that butter was called for, or else
by claiming that he did not understand, and supposed butter-
ine was called for. In such cases the judge frequently was
not convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the offence
charged had been proved. This year we have brought no
cases under that statute, although in nine instances the oleo
was sold as and for butter ; but the complaint made charged
that the defendant did sell, expose for sale, or have in his
possession with intent to sell —

a certain quantity, to wit, one pound of a certain product commonly
called oleomargarine, made partly out of an oleaginous substance
not produced from unadulterated milk or cream from the same, and
that said product was then and there in imitation of yellow butter
produced from pure unadulterated milk or cream of the same.

The evidence in this case is more easily secured, and less
easily contradicted. As a result, we have not lost one of
these cases. Of the two cases lost, one was for obstructing
an officer, in which case our evidence was weak. The other
was where oleomargarine had been served for butter in a caf6
connected with a hotel. On the trial of the case the propri-
etor of the hotel swore that he had leased the cafe, and was not
responsible for its management. Although having no con-
nection with this case, we were much interested in learning,
a few weeks after, that the landlord's license to sell intox-
icating liquors had been taken from him for violating the
provisions of the liquor law.

The great source of our trouble continues to be the State
of Rhode Island, which is behind the other New England
States in pure-food legislation. The whole system of ped-
dlers and of selling on orders has its headquarters in Rhode
Island. In one case the court decided that selling on orders
is an evasion of the law, and the party was convicted. The
defence in this case introduced the following : —

Dear Sir : — You are hereby requested to act as m}' agent in
getting and delivering to me the following merchandise : —

Number

Date

Signature

Number of tub Vermont.

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 285

The defence, having submitted this form of order, argued
that the purchaser on signing this really made the defendant
his agent ; and that the defendant, as agent for the consumer,
purchased these goods in Rhode Island. The judge held that
the circumstances in the case convinced him that the order
was a subterfuge, and an attempt to evade the law ; conse-
quently he held the defendant, who appealed, but withdrew
his appeal and pleaded guilty in the superior court.

Doubtless in some instances oleomargarine is honestly de-
sired. Unquestionably there are persons who from various
motives prefer to use a mixture of lard and tallow in place
of butter; but when it is sold in imitation of yellow butter,
with a misleading name, or by companies with deceptive
titles, there is a suspicion that consumers hardly realize what
they are buying, and are more or less imposed upon by the
deceptive nature of the brand or of the company doing busi-
ness. In one instance we found that a })eddler had been selling
the goods marked " Oakdale Standard " as butter to ignorant
families who did not know that this expression was the trade-
mark of one of the large oleomargarine dealers. It is pos-
sibly true that now and then a person who honestly wants to
purchase oleomargarine for legitimate use has been troubled
to get it ; but where any annoyance has been occasioned in
the honest sale of a pound, we believe that the dishonest sale
of ten pounds has been })re vented. It should be remembered
that it is perfectly legal to sell oleomargarine in this State,
in a separate and distinct form, and in such a manner as will
advise the consumer of its real character. But oleomargarine
in that shape is a drug on the market. Its value as a conir
mercial product comes not from the food value which the
scientific men may find in it, but from the perfection of the
imitation of butter. There is a theoretical oleomargarine of
the chemists' laboratory, which has a food value ; there is the
oleomargarine of commerce, which as an imitation of butter
is a constant temptation to swindling, and the temptation is
seldom resisted. The supreme court of the United States
says of the Massachusetts anti-color law : —

The suggestion that oleomargarine is artificially colored so as to
render it more valuable and attractive can only mean that pur-
chasers are deluded by such coloration into believing that they are

286

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

getting genuine butter. . . . The statute seeks to suppress false
pretences, and to promote fair dealing in the sale of an article of
food. . . . Does the freedom of commerce among the States
demand a recognition of the right to practise a deception upon the
public in the sale of any articles, even those that may have become
the subjects of trade in different parts of the country? . . . If an
article compounded of cheaper ingredients can be made so closely
to resemble butter that ordinary persons cannot distinguish it from
genuine butter, the liability to deception is such that the protection
of the public requires those dealing in the article in some way to
designate its real character. ... It is within the power of a
State to exclude from its markets any compound manufactured in
another State which has been artificially colored or adulterated so
as to cause it to look like an article of food in general use, and the
sale of which may, by reason of such coloration or adulteration,
cheat the general public into purchasing that which they may not
intend to buy. The constitution of the United States does not
secure to any one the privilege of defrauding the public. The
deception against which the statute of Massachusetts is aimed is
an offence against society.

The following is a summary of the receipts, exports,
stocks and consumption of butter at Boston for the past
year, as compared with the year previous : —

1897.

Pounds.

1896.

Pounds.

On hand January 1,

Receipts for the year,

2,898,000
51,107,033

1,659,434
50,972,255

Total supply,

Exports, deduct

54,005,033
3,286,333

52,631,689
3,156,741

Net supply,

Stock, deduct

50,718,700
2,620,680

49,474,948
2,898,080

Consumption,

48,098,020

46,576,868

The above statement shows that the consumption of butter
supplied by the Boston market increased aliout three per
cent last year, as compared with the year previous, and
averaged about 925,000 pounds per week. If, by having

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU.

287

no laws regulating the sale of imitation butter, oleomar-
garine had been sold as butter, deceptively, to an amount
equalling one per cent of the above consumption, the
amount would be 480,980 pounds. We think that this
assumption is a moderate one, from what we know of the
history of the oleomargarine business, both before and after
the passage of the laws, and the tendency to sell the mixture
dishonestly. The average wholesale price of fresh-made
extra creamery butter has been, during each month for the
year, compared with two preceding years : —

1897.

Cents.

1896.

Cents.

1895.

Cents.

January, .

20-22

22-26

24-26

February,

20-22

21-24

22-25

March, .

19-23

22-24

20-23

April,

17d-22

16-22

19-21

May,

15ii-18

15-17

17-19

June,

15-16

15-16i

18-20

July,

Wh-IH

15-16^

18-19

August, .

15d-19

15-17^

20-21

September,

18-22

15i-17i

20-22

October, .

21-22i

16-20

21-23

November,

21-22

18-21

22-23

December,

21-23

20-23

23-28

If an amount of oleomargarine equal to one per cent of
the sales of butter had been sold dishonestly, this amount at
20 cents per pound would equal $96,196 to the credit of the
law and its enforcement, leaving out of the account the but-
ter supplied from other commercial centres in the State, like
Worcester and Springfield. This is considering only the
commercial side of the case, and not recognizing the fraud
on the consumer. This fact in itself ought to be a vindica-
tion of the law and a proof of its economy.

288 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Many States have patterned after Massachusetts in dairy
legislation. Although Massachusetts is not emphatically a
dairy State, it has set the pace for the whole country in dairy
laws. This is in a measure due to the fact that the first color
case to reach the United States supreme court came from
Massachusetts, and was handled with such consummate
ability by Hon. A. E. Pillsljury as to secure a vindication of
the law in a decision from which we have quoted above.
Since then many other States have followed our example,
and adopted laws almost word for word like those of this
State. Probably there is no other matter in which there is
so much uniformity in legislation. Some States, however,
in enacting this law have provided additional safeguards
against the improper sale of a deceitful imitation product,
some of which are as follows : —

California declares that any article made in semblance of
butter, and designed to be used as a substitute for butter, is
an imitation of butter. The use of imitation butter in pub-
lic or private hospitals, asylums, eleemosynary or penal
institutions is prohibited. No common carrier shall receive
imitation dairy products for the purpose of forwarding or
transporting the same, unless they are properly branded and
receipted for under their true name. The use of the word
"butteriue" is })rohibited. Search warrants may be issued
for imitation butter or cheese, which may be seized if kept
in violation of the law.

The laws of Ohio not only give the dairj" commissioner au-
thority to enter any place where dairy products are sold, but go
so far as to authorize him to examine the books in such places.

In Minnesota, express agents, railroad officials and em-
ployees of common carriers are required to render to the
dairy commissioner all the assistance in their power, when
so requested, in discovering the presence of any imitation of
pure butter or cheese. The commissioner is authorized to
seize imitation and adulterated dairy products, and after
order of the court sell the same for any purpose other than
to be used for food.

Connecticut has a law authorizing the dairy commissioner
to inspect the books of transportation companies, in order to
trace illegal sales of oleomaro;arine.

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 289

Wisconsin authorizes the issuing of warrants to search
places where imitation butter or cheese is believed to be
concealed, and provides for the confiscation of such imita-
tion dairy products, and their destruction under the direc-
tion of the court or magistrate.

Michigan provides that "the taking of orders or the mak-
ing of agreements or contracts by any person, firm or cor-
poration, or by any agent or representative thereof, for the
future delivery of any of the articles, products, goods, wares
or merchandise embraced within the provisions of this act,
shall be deemed a sale."

Critics of the oleomargarine laws sometimes raise the
point that there is sometimes a departure from strict hon-
esty in handling some grades of real butter. There is no
logic in this. If A is guilty of deception, his fault is not
lessened because B has also practised deception. It is a fact
that there are some things in the butter trade which cannot
be wholly approved. But it doesn't help one man out of the
mud to find some one else with his coat spattered. The pro-
cesses for working and renovating low-grade butter have
been so perfected as to render the product a satisfactory arti-
cle for quick consumption ; still, as it is ordinarily sold, it is
more or less tainted with deception. The product really
comes from the cow's udder, but when it is sold as "fresh
creamery butter" it is a fraud on the consumer and an injury
to legitimate business. This product till recently has been
known in the trade as " process butter," and by that name it
could be honestly sold, although when it was distributed by
the retail trade it frequently became " fresh creamery." Lat-
terly the trade has adopted the name of " sterilized butter,"
which is not only a misnomer, but deceptive. The word
" process " was open to objections, but the expression " ster-
ilized" is even worse. We have had a number of specimens
of these kinds of butters analyzed, and in each case the
chemist has reported that the product was in some respects
unusual, although he was obliged to class it with the pure
butters.

We understand that the process of melting and aerating
butter and re-working it in fresh milk was begun some seven
or eight years ago. From that starting point the business has

290 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

extended so that there are large factories in some six or eight
different places in the west. We have seen it stated that the
total output of these places is fully four hundred tubs a day.
The exact method of making these goods is not known. In
some cases different firms have varying methods peculiar to
themselves, but in a general way the process is something
like this : the l>utter is bought either from farmers or from
dealers, melted into oil, carefully strained, then aerated by
pumping currents of air through it, and finally chilled by
dropping onto ice or a cold surface. The granules are then
churned with milk, and the product is salted, worked and
packed. Fair flavor and character are the rule, but, having
been once melted, the butter is peculiarly sensitive, and
quickly loses its freshness ; some lots become tallowy. We
have a suspicion that some dishonest manufacturers may mix
in more or less tallow and lard in the process of manufactur-
ing this "sterilized" butter. We found one sample in the
hands of a reputable retail grocer which was unquestionably
oleomargarine. We were able to trace the shipment with
such directness through a leading Boston wholesaler to a
large Chicago manufacturer that we felt no end of justice
would be promoted by a prosecution in this State. The
facts, however, were placed in the hands of the Illinois
authorities for further investigation.

Milk.
More attention has been given to milk than in any previous
year. Two hundred and thirteen samples have been taken,
though only one case was put into court. In this the milk
was actually adulterated, but it was lost by a ruling on a law
point by an associate justice of the court sitting during the
vacation season. A transportation corporation had a cafe at
one of its stations, and served adulterated milk. Samples
taken tested 10.42 and 8.14 per cent of milk solids. The
manager of the caf6 was complained of, and his attorney
raised the point that, under the statute holding responsible
either the principal or his agent or servant, we could hold
the corporation itself or the waiter who served the adulter-
ated milk ; ])ut the attorney argued that the manager of
whom we had complained was neither the servant who sold

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 291

the adulterated milk nor the principal. The justice ruled
that, as the manager of the cafe was not personally present
at the time that the waiter served the milk, he was not re-
sponsible. Another case was brought before the regular
justice of the court at the conclusion of the vacation season,
but by this time the defendant had left the State and could
not be found.

The agricultural papers and scientific men have been dis-
cussino; the idea of a statute standard of milk to an unusual
extent during the past year. The principle is well estab-
lished in Massachusetts, and is endorsed both by consumers
and producers. Farmers' organizations have time and time
again passed resolutions favoring it. Many cows produce
milk of less than 13 per cent solids, but they are a minority.
The Massachusetts law says milk below 13 per cent — with
an exception of some summer months — is not "of standard
quality," and is therefore unmerchantable as standard milk.
One critic says : "What the farmer needs and has a right to
ask is that the law shall not step in and try to punish him
because the Creator did not make all cows alike." This is a
misapprehension of the spirit of the law. Milk of standard
price must be of standard quality. The opposition to the
law has hithei"to been largely from men whose cows produced
milk poorer than the average, and who wanted to sell this
poorer milk as standard milk. These persons, under the
fallacious pretext that cows could not give as good milk in
the summer as in winter, have succeeded in getting the very
generous exception of five months in which 12 per cent is
declared to be standard milk. This assertion about summer
milk is not founded on fact. Mr. Clemence of the Dairy
Bureau has for several years made occasional tests — usually
about once a month — of the mixed milk of his herd, mostly
grade Shorthorns, and he has not only found it fully up to
the standard, but he has found it very uniform in quality,
varying less than .4 of 1 per cent, and usually less than .2
of 1 per cent, from month to month. Many similar experi-
ments are on record. The most recent is from the New
Jersey Experiment Station. The herd there consisted of
28 cows ; 23 were of mixed breeding, with 2 each of Hol-
stein and Guernsey blood and 1 Jersey. From 18 to 26

292

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

cows were milked each month. Each month except one
several fresh cows were introduced, as many as 4 each in
September and March. The following is the average per
cent of fat in the mixed milk (fat is the most variable ele-
ment of milk, and the one that governs its quality) : —

May, 4.2

June, 4.3

July, 4.3

August, 4.4

September, . . . .4.3
October, . . . .4.4

November, . . . .4.2
December, . . . .4.2
January, . . . .4.3
February, . . .4.1

March, 4.0

April, 4.1

This shows the constant quality of herd milk, and that
there is no marked seasonable falling off during any particu-
lar month or months.

The present attack on the statute standard comes from
persons who preach that milk should be sold according to
quality. With this contention we are in sympathy, and be-
lieve that milk will be sold that way in the future. There is
no sense in selling 10 or 13 or 16 pounds of food all at the
same price. But the advance step should not be taken at the
expense of losing any of the advantages of the present law.
We hardly think that the times are yet ripe for such a
change, as, from the stand-point of those having some expe-
rience in enforcing the law, it would let in a large amount of
adulteration.

Laws against adulteration seem as yet to need a standard.
Wealthy or intelligent people could discover fraud in milk,
but the ignorant would suffer imposition, and the poor
might be comparatively helpless.

There is nothing in the law now to prevent milk being
sold on its merits in three grades ; 1st, extra ; 2d, standard ;
3d, skimmed.

A man with Jersey or Guernsey stock is now at liberty to
make a 14 or 15 per cent milk, grade it as extra, guarantee
its extra quality, and sell it at an extra price if he can find
customers. On the other hand, milk low in solids can be
sold at a low price by labelling it skimmed milk, — which in
some instances is not far irom the truth.

We hope to see many enterprising dairymen try this ex-
periment of selling extra milk at an advance from the going

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU.

293

price. Thi8 ought to prove advantageous to them, and also
an education to the pul)lic, being an object lesson of the
differing values of milk. It would thus serve to bring nearer
the time when it may be expedient to change the laws rela-
tive to the statute standard.

The following is the result of some analyses of milk taken
from milkmen by officers of the State Dairy Bureau in the
regular discharge of their routine duties, and throws an
accurate side light on the per cent of solids sold. These
samples were taken in May and June.

Worcester.

Milkman No. 1,

12.84

Milkman No. 15,

13.48

No. 2,

12.88

No. 16,

13.64

No. 3,

12.20

No. 17,

14.08

No. 4,

12.60

No. 18,

14.02

No. 5,

12.76

No. 19,

12.62

No. 6,

13.00

No. 20,

14.22

No. 7,

14.34

No. 21,

12.52

No. 8,

12.40

No. 22,

12.12

No. 9,

14.22

No. 23,

13.78

No. 10,

12.04

No. 24,

12.40

No. 11,

13.26

No. 25,

12.92

No. 12,

12.84

No. 26,

13.02

No. 13,

12.00

No. 27,

12.52

No. 14,

12.90

No. 28,

14.32

Taunton.

Milkman No. 1, .

14.14

Milkman No. 4, .

14.28

No. 2, .

12.54

No. 5, .

13.54

No. 3, .

13.02

New Bedford.

Milkman No. 1,

12.48

Milkman No. 16,

13.36

No. 2,

12.64

No. 17,

14.30

No. 3,

12.18

No. 18,

12.80

No. 4,

13.42

No. 19,

15.02

No. 5,

13.10

No. 20,

13.90

No. G,

11.84

No. 21,

13.54

No. 7,

14.00

No. 22,

13.60

No. 8,

12.98

No. 23,

12.74

No. 9,

12.52

No. 24,

13.36

No. 10,

13.08

No. 25,

13.26

No. 11,

13.66

No. 26,

13.84

No. 12,

13.88

No. 27,

12.64

No. 13,

13.90

No. 28,

12.82

No. 14,

14.60

No. 29,

13.46

No. 15,

13.40

No. 30,

12.82

294

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

These samples were taken at sunimer i

esorts d

uring July

and August : —

No. 1 12.72

No. 18, ... . 11.76

No. 2,

. 18.04

No. 19,

. 12.36

No. 8,

. 16.96

No. 20,

. 12.36

No. 4,

". 12.56

No. 21,

. 11.34

No. 5,

. 8.14

No. 22,

. 10.42

No. 6,

. 13.74

No. 23,

. 14.10

No. 7,

. 14.06

No. 24,

. 12.51

No. 8,

. 12.22

No. 25,

. 11.10

No. 9,

. 12.46

No. 26,

. 10.78

No. 10,

. 12.84

No. 27,

. 10.28

No. 11,

. 14.16

No. 28,

. 12.46

No. 12,

. 12.40

No. 29,

. 11.48

No. 13,

. 12.84

No. 30,

. 16.26

No. 14,

. 12.48

No. 31,

. 12.46

No. 15,

. 19.02

No. 32,

. 12.86

No. 16,

. 15.46

No. 33,

, 12.14

No. 17,

. 12.54

The samples of abnormally high milk, 19, 18, 16, per cent
etc., were prolmbly cases where there was carelessness in
properly mixing the milk, and the samples which our agent
happened to get were taken from the top of the can or tank.
In those cases we notified the parties, recommending more
care in mixing, for the person who w^ould be served with
milk from the bottom of the can or tank would have that
which was correspondingly poor.

In the cases of milk which tested low we took a second
sample to strengthen our position, and in every case but one
the second sample was an improvement on the first, confirm-
ing still further our theory that there exists too much care-
lessness about properly agitating and mixing the milk. In
the one exception, to which allusion is made above, the sam-
ple taken at the first visit of our agent tested 10.28, and that
taken at a second visit tested 8.14.

The principal critics of the law come largel}^ from towns
which have shipped milk for many years to Boston, where
there is none of the tonic that comes from producer meeting
consumer, and where cows have been bred for large quanti-
ties rather than for quality.

During the past year the newspapers have reported an in-
creased attention to the sanitary phases of the milk question.

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 295

Medical and health bodies have been discussing them, and
considering possible legislation. It is a fact that legislation
has hitherto looked more after the commercial fraud of sell-
ing adulterated milk, or milk not of standard quality, than it
has at the health phases of the case. It is also a fact that
the modern advances in bacteriology have given definite and
accurate data on which we can now base intelligent and ad-
vanced action. Hence there is a good opportunity for Mas-
sachusetts to take a forward step, and for the Legislature to
do something looking to enhancing the quality of the State's
milk supply. But such legislation should be discreet, and
should, especially at the outset, guard against steps too far
in advance of the ideas of producers, or which might tend to
the annoyance of petty officialism. Michigan has a system
of inspection which merely leads to publishing reports of
what the inspectors find. The publicity of these reports is
expected to work a correction of the evils noticed. A meas-
ure as mild as this ought not to arouse great opposition,
and yet it would be strong enough to have a beneficial
educational influence which would tend to correct evils now
existing so far as producers are concerned. A favorable
report would be a good advertisement of any producer.
Any filthy or unsanitary conditions at the city end of the
business among wholesalers or peddlers would require differ-
ent action. I submit herewith a few samples of the results
of Michigan inspection, as taken from printed reports of the
dairy commissioner of that State : —

At Lowell.

R. Rider. — Cows clean ; stables clean ; ventilation good ; san-
itary conditions fair ; uses well water.

J. Kramer. — Cows fairly clean ; stables unclean ; ceilings dusty
and floors dirty ; ventilation good ; sanitary conditions very poor ;
uses spring water.

At Howard City.

A. S. Stodard. — Cows poor but fairly clean ; ventilation poor;
sanitary conditions fair ; uses well water.

William 0' Donald. — Cows clean; stables unclean; ventilation
good; sanitary conditions fair; uses creek water.

296 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

At Big Rapids.

C. E. Draper. — Cows clean ; stables clean ; ventilation fair ;
uses well water.

M. Boynton. — Cows clean and in good condition ; stables very
unclean ; ventilation fair ; sanitary conditions poor ; well water
used.

A. Card. — Cows clean ; stables low and extremely dirty ; drain-
age poor ; ventilation poor ; sanitary conditions very bad.

At Cadillac.

C J. Holman. — Stables unclean; drainage imperfect and
manure allowed to accumulate near stables ; ventilation fair ;
sanitary conditions poor.

E. N. Reynolds. — Stables fairly clean ; ventilation fair ; san-
itary conditions poor; uses lake water.

M. Berridge. — Cows clean ; stables clean ; ventilation good ;
sanitary conditions of stables good, of yard poor; well water
used.

At Belding.

C. E. Lewis. — Cows fairly clean ; stables fairly clean ; venti-
lation good ; sanitary conditions poor ; well water used ; was feed-
ing garbage from the house.

H. C. Angel. — Cows clean ; ceilings of stables dirty ; drainage
poor ; ventilation good ; sanitary conditions of yard very bad ;
uses spring water.

G. C. Devine. — Cows part clean and part dirty ; stables clean ;
ventilation good ; sanitary conditions of yard poor ; uses well
water.

At Ionia.

A. M. Welch. — Cows in very good condition; stables excep-
tionally clean ; ventilation good ; sanitary conditions excellent ;
uses spring water; drainage good. Cows are cleaned twice a
day ; wells and ceilings of stables whitewashed twice each year ;
has clean, well-ventilated cooling room, and all modern appliances
for handling milk in a neat and systematic way.

W. D. Place. — Cows clean ; stables low, with clean floors but
dusty ceilings; ventilation poor; sanitary conditions poor; uses
creek water.

H. Jackson. — Cows part clean and part dirty ; stables unclean ;
drainage poor; stables exposed to open scaffolding; ventilation
fair; sanitary conditions poor; uses creek water. Manure is
allowed to accumulate near barn.

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 297

A. E. Jackson. — Cows part clean and part dirty ; stables un-
clean ; drainage poor ; ventilation fairly good ; sanitary conditions
poor ; uses creek water.

G. Percival. — Cows part clean and part dirty ; stables unclean,
ventilation good ; sanitary conditions poor ; uses cistern water.

L. A. Cornell. — Cows clean and in good condition ; stables in
poor condition ; ventilation poor ; sanitary conditions of yard poor.

M. S. Sprague. — Cows fairly clean ; stables unclean ; ventil-
ation fair ; sanitary conditions poor ; uses river water.

During the past year considerable time has been given by
the acting executive officer of the Bureau to work in connec-
tion witli the milk business in the " Greater Boston." This
is a phase of dairying which last year sent over the railroads
11,798,191 cans of milk, — an average of 32,320 cans per
day. If the farmers received on an average 20 cents per can,
we have here an industry amounting to $2,359,628 to the
producers. The retail price in the cities varies considerably
under different circumstances. Milk is being sold more and
more in the grocery stores, and at a cut price. In not a few
stores it is sold at less than cost, as a bid for other trade.
We find retail sales made at all the way from 4 to 7 cents per
quart. If we consider 6 cents an average price, the sales,
which were 8,788,000 cans, amount to $4,456,000. These
figures relate only to the milk that is brought into the city by
railroad by the large milk wholesalers. Other statistics are
not available, because the milk is brought in in different
ways. It is generally believed — and the best information
that we can get confirms it — that over 25, almost 30, per
cent more comes in by wagons from near-by territory. Dr.
Harrington has kindly given me a list, showing that 5,232
cans daily are brought into the numicipality of Boston. The
competition of this wagon milk and of railroad milk has
been very sharp this year. If, of the amount of milk sold by
the wholesalers, the amount of adulteration should equal 1
per cent of the sales, it would amount to 87,385 cans of
milk. From the stand-point of the consumer, at the average
price of 6 cents per quart this means $35,566 paid unjustly
for water, — a $35,000 steal. From the stand-point of the
producer, netting on an average 20 cents })er can, it means a
wrong of $17,477. This amount could be easily doubled
were we to take in the whole State, with such thriftv, grow-

298

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

ing cities as Lawrence, Springfield, New Bedford, Holyoke,
Taunton, Fitchburg, Gloucester and others. No one would
for a moment argue but what, were it not for the existing
laws and the way they are enforced, the percentage of adul-
teration would be much more than 1 per cent.

The figures below give the amounts of receipts and sales
of railroad milk — in 8^-quart cans — as reported by the
wholesalers' association during the year of 1897, also the
figures of previous years, for purposes of comparison : —

Received.

Sold.

Surplus.

January, .

923,852

705,324

218,528

February,

835,115

639,952

195,163

March,

960,084

719,814

240,270

April,

976,996

733,298

243,698

May,

1,105,325

759,875

345,450

June,

1,115,234

752,038

363,196

July,

1,013,552

789,849

223,703

August, ,

966,058

720,374

245,684

September,

956,445

732,795

223,650

October, .

1,037,764

751,944

285,820

November,

962,652

708,459

254,093

December,

945,274

724,850

220,364

Total,

11,798,191

8,738,572

3,059,619

Receipts.

Sales.

Surplus.

1896,

10,772,108

8,087,378

2,684,730

1895,

9,856,500

8,040,732

1,815,768

1894,

9,705,447

7,657,421

2,048,026

1893,

9,263,487

7,619,722

1,643,765

1892,

9,212,667

7,315,135

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Railroad stations from which milk Is shipped to Boston, their relative distances from the city and the price paid at each station.

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 299

The three million caus of surplus milk have been kept ofl'the
milk market by the contractors, thereby tending to steady the
price and keep it more uniform than if the whole product
was placed upon the market to be sold for what it w^ould
bring, as is the case with other articles of merchandise.
This surplus kept off from the market has been made into
butter by the wholesalers, and they return to the farmers the
average jobbing price of butter, less the charge for manufact-
uring. This surplus milk has averaged to net the farmers
13.33 cents per can during the year. The lowest price was
received in May, June and July, 11 cents per can ; the high-
est in December, 15.34 cents. The price received for sale
milk is the same as last year. It has been kept quite uniform
from year to year, by the system in which Boston milk
is handled. The price of surplus milk depends upon the
market value of butter, and has averaged one-third of a cent
more for 1897 than it did for 1896.

For the months of April, May, June, July, August and
September, the price to the farmers at their several railroad
stations was 19 to 26 cents per 8| quart cans. During the
other months of the year, January, February, March, Octo-
ber, November and December, the price ranged from 21 to
28 cents. This range of prices is adjusted by an agreement
between the producers and the wholesalers that the price
shall decrease by a regular system as the distance from the
city and the cost of transportation increases.

We present herewith a plan illustrating this. The verti-
cal parallel lines represent the railroads over which milk is
shipped, drawn as air lines. We have marked on each one
the location of each milk-shipping station, and its relative
distance from Boston as the railroads run. We have drawn
across this map horizontal lines, showing the belts of the
different prices. If the arrangement above alluded to be-
tween the producers and the wholesalers was lived up to
literally, these horizontal lines in all cases would be complete
and exactly parallel with each other. In some cases it is
necessary to depart from the literal application of this rule,
as where milk is taken from a branch road which crosses
the main line on some other route. For instance, milk is
brought to Boston from Barre by the direct line of the Cen-

300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

tral Massachusetts, and also over the Boston & Albany road.
By one way Barre is 108 miles from Boston, and by the
other 64. But it would be difficult to pay different prices
at the same place, and the 64-mile price must govern. These
variations from the schedule are noted by dotted lines about
thctowns affected.

The milk laws of other States contain some interesting
suggestions.

Minnesota prohibits the keeping of cows for the produc-
tion of milk for market or for manufacturing the same into
articles of food "in a crowded or unhealthy condition."
The dairy commissioner is required to furnish all the dairies
shipping milk to the city, and all the peddlers or venders of
milk in the cities within the State, with blanks for the pur-
pose of making a report of the amount of milk and dairy
goods handled, "and all milk dairies, milk venders and
milk peddlers shall send to the State food and dairy commis-
sioner quarterly reports of all the business done by each and
every such person, firm or company in handling dairy prod-
ucts during the last three months past, as designated under
the different headings of printed blanks. No person shall
sell or offer for sale any cream that contains less than 20
per centum of fat."

Minnesota is the only State, so far as we know, that has a
law relating to clean cans. It is as follows : " Any person,
persons, firm or corporation who receives any milk or cream
in cans, bottles or vessels which have been transported over
any railroad or boat line, where such cans, bottles or vessels
are to be returned, shall cause the said cans, bottles or ves-
sels to be emptied before the said milk or cream contained
therein shall become sour, and shall cause the said cans,
bottles or vessels to be immediately washed and thoroughly
cleansed and aired."

Wisconsin authorizes its dairy commissioner to make reg-
ulations when needed concerning the cleanliness of utensils,
rooms, buildings, etc., used in the sale of dairy products.

Chapter 425, Acts of 1894, is as follows: "No producer
of milk shall be liable to prosecution on the ground that the
milk produced by him is not of good standard quality, un-
less the milk alleged not to be of such quality was taken

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU. 301

upon the premises or while in the possession or under the
control of the producer by an inspector of milk or by the
agents of the Dairy Bureau or State Board of Health, or
collector of samples duly authorized by such inspector, and
a sealed sample of the same given to the producer."

This was enacted in the expectation that it would in some
way save innocent farmers from any hardship growing out
of the enforcement of the milk laws. It has not accom-
plished any such purpose, but has hindered the prosecution
of those who have sold adulterated milk.

Chapter 264, Acts of 1896, section 1, says : " No person
shall sell or offer for sale or exchange, in hermetically sealed
cans, any condensed milk or condensed skim-milk, unless in
cans which are distinctly labelled with the name of the per-
son or company manufacturing said condensed milk or skim-
milk, the brand under which it is made, and the contents of
the can."

The Bureau has been asked during the year to pass u[)on
the meaning of the word " contents," in the last line. The
popular opinion prevailed that it required either the weight
or the analysis of the contents. The question was re-
ferred to the Attorney-General, who held that the word
refers back to the words "condensed milk or condensed
skim-milk," in the second, fourth and tifth lines, and that
the law would be complied with if the can should be labelled
" condensed milk," or "condensed skim-milk," as the case
might be. This seems to take out of the law what seems
to be its spirit.

Ohio has a law which requires that the proportion of milk
solids contained in condensed milk shall be in amount the
equivalent of 12 per cent of solids, in crude milk, and of
such solids 25 per cent shall be fat. Condensed milk cannot
be sold in that State unless the same is made from unadulter-
ated and wholesome milk from which the cream has not been
removed.

In view of the great variation in the quality of condensed
milk, and its increasing use, similar legislation may be
needed in this State.

The sale of cream is increasing. Maine is the principal
source of the cream in the markets of Boston and other

302

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Massachusetts cities. Comparative statistics are not avail-
able at the time of making up this report, but the following
compares six months of 1897 with preceding years : —

The Hampden, Me., creamery makes the following report of
its business for the last three years, showing the increase in the
use of cream (the figures are for gallons) : —

TJiick Cream, 40 Per Cetit Butter Fat.

1S94.

1895.

1896.

First

Six Months of

1897.

Boston and vicinity, .
Beverly, Lyiui and Salem,

33,466
8,033

I

40,141 ; 43,642
8,811 ' 9,482

28,034
4,333

Educational.

The statute creating the Dairy Bureau imposes some edu-
cational work upon it. So far as this can be done by the
acting executive officer, it incurs no extra expense, as he is a
salaried officer. He, therefore, holds himself in readiness to
respond to calls of granges, farmers' clubs, milk producers
and others, for talks on various phases of dairying, as de-
sired. He has answered eighteen such calls this year.
Many of these tall?:s have been illustrated by operating the
Babcock milk tester, and in other ways so as to make them
interesting object lessons as far as possible. In addition,
the members of the Bureau, Dr. Lindsey, Dr. Peters and a
few others, have, in exceptional cases, been engaged.

A bulletin on the care of milk has been prepared for
circulation among the producers of sale milk. A circular
of warning to butter-makers, regarding fraudulent cream
"ripeners," has also been issued.

Last August a convention of dairy and food commissioners
was held in Detroit, and a permanent organization eflected.
The States represented in the governing board are Ohio,
Michigan, Iowa, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. The
association can be of great value in furnishing a means for
an interchange of ideas, experiences and practices. Though
much of the time of the convention was occupied with rou-

No. 4.] REPORT OF DAIRY BUREAU.

303

tine business, many valuable points and suggestions were
received.

Finances.

The following is the manner in which the appropriation
of $7,000 has been expended : —

Members of the Bureau, travelling exjjenses and attending

meetings,
Agents' salaries,
Agents' expenses.
Chemist,
George M. "NVhitaker, travelling and office

plies, mileage tickets, etc., .

Educational work,

Printing, .......

Supplies,

expenses.

sup-

$446 00

2,350 50

2,473 08

858 00

729 41

102 71

28 92

11 38

Total, .

$7,000 00

GEORGE M. WHITAKER.

Accepted and adopted as the report of the Dairy Bureau.

D. A. HORTON.
GEO. L. CLEMENCE.
J. L. ELLSWORTH.

REPORT

State Board of Agriculture

ON THE WORK Or

EXTERMINATION OF THE GYPSY MOTH.

Plate I

4 ••

\/

ik

• %-

^r^

2.

X)rawn by Joseph Bridgham .

GED.H.'Walker & Co.,Bostoa.

GYPSY MOTH.

An Explanation of Plate I, with a Short Description of the
Different Forms of the Gypsy Moth and its Feeding
Habits.

The Eggs.

[Fig. 8, cluster of eggs on bark ; Figs. 9 and 10, eggs magnified.]
The eggs are deposited in clusters, averaging about six hundred
eggs each, and covered with yellow hairs from the body of the female
moth. These egg-clusters are usually found in sheltered places on the
bark or in the crevices and cavities of trees, stumps and undergrowth ;
also on fences and buildings and in the crevices of stone walls and
other Objects, near the plants or trees on which the insect feeds. The
eggs are laid in July, August and September, and hatch after the
foliage starts in the late spring or early summer of the ensuing year ;
therefore the insect passes the fall, winter and early spring in the egg.

The Larva ok Caterpillar.

[Figs. 6 and 7.]

When first hatched the caterpillars are less than one-fifth of an inch

in length. As they grow larger they may be seen in clusters upon the

trunks and branches of trees or in the cavities and other hiding-places

where they gather in June, July and the first part of August.

The Pupa.

[Fig. 5.]
The caterpillar when fully grown sheds its outer covering and be-
comes a pupa or chrysalis. This usually occurs in July or August.
The pupa may be found in the same situations as the eggs. In Massa-
chusetts the insect usi;ally remains in the pupal state from ten to
thirteen days, emerging as a moth at the end of that period.

The Moth.
[Figs. 1 and 2, female ; Figs. 3 and 4, male.]
The female moth usually deposits her eggs very near the abandoned
pupa case, and within a few hours after emerging from it. She dies
soon after. The male is a rapid flyer. The female does not fly.

Habits of the Caterpillars.
The gypsy moth feeds only when in the larval or caterpillar state.
In Massachusetts the eggs of the gypsy moth begin hatching about
April 20, and the yoimg continue to emerge until the middle of June.
The length of larval life varies somewhat according to circumstances,
but probably averages at least ten weeks ; therefore the feeding season
in this country lasts about four months. When the caterpillars are first

308 EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

hatched from the eggs they are light in color and covered with whitish
hairs. In a few hours they assume a dark hue. They usually remain
on or near the egg-cluster until they change in color, and should the
weather be cold they sometimes remain for several days in a semi-
torpid condition upon the egg-cluster. If the temperature is favorable
they usually search for food before they are twenty-four hours old.
During the first few weeks of their existence they remain most of the
time on the leaves, feeding mainly on the under side. Their feeding
habits are so uncertain that no rule can be given which will apply to
all individuals, but before they are half-grown they generally begin to
manifest their gregarious instincts. At that time and for the rest of
their existence as caterpillars they spend a large part of the day clus-
tered in sheltered situations, and feed principally at night, going up the
trees and out on the branches after dark and returning before daybreak.
When they are so abundant that the food supply is insufficient they
evince much restlessness, and feed in numbers during all hotirs of the
day and night. They may then be seen hastening to and fro, both up
and down the trees. Those which have fed sufficiently are at once
replaced by hungry new-comers, and the destruction of the foliage goes
on incessantly.

At such times the trunks and lower branches of trees are covered with a
moving mass of caterpillars, hurrying throngs are passing and repassing,
and nearly every leaf or denuded stem bears up one or more of the feed-
ing insects. The rustling caused by their movements and the continual
dropping of excrement is plainly audible. On tall trees the larger
caterpillars appear to crawl to the higher limbs, and they seem to prefer
to feed well out toward the end of the branches. They do not feed gre-
gariously except when in great numbers ; therefore they seldom strip
one branch only, as do the larvae of the Euvanessa antiopa, but scatter
throughout the trees, eating a little from each leaf Early in the
season when they are small and few in numbers, their ravages are
scarcely noticed ; but as they grow larger and more numerous, their in-
roads on the tree decrease the foliage area night by night, until suddenly
all the remaining leaves are eaten, and the tree is stripped in a single
night.

Food Plants.
The gypsy moth is known to destroy the foliage of nearly all native
and introduced trees and plants of economic importance. The list of
its food plants includes nearly all evergreen and deciduous trees, most
bushes, shrubs, vines and vegetables, and it has been seen to eat grass
and grain. Wherever the caterpillars become numerous they move
slowly, devouring nearly every green leaf and bud as they go. They
feed during a much longer season than the canker worm or the tent
caterpillar. In the months of June, July and August, 1891, trees which
had been stripped early in the season and whose leaves had again put
out were ao-ain defoliated by these caterpillars and kept bare all sum-
mer ; therefore, not only was all prospect of a fruit harvest destroyed,
but many trees were killed by this continual defoliation.

€;0mm0ntea;lt]^ 0f ||lassarljusrfts»

To the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.

Your committee, to which was committed the work of ex-
terminating the gypsy moth, under the orders of the Legislat-
ure, herewith presents the report of expenditures and of
work performed during the year 1897.

The balance on hand Jan. 1, 1897, as reported last year,
was $8,849.85. This balance was retained to enable the
committee to close up the work and turn over the material
on hand belonging to the State, without the necessity of a
deficiency appropriation, should the Legislature decide to
make no further appropriation. But, under the advice of
authorized State officers, the committee was led to conclude
that the work could be continued " during the month of Jan-
uary, until the pleasure of the General Court should be made
known, at the rate of expenditure authorized by the appropri-
ation of the preceding year." In this way the committee
was enabled to avoid the discharge of the efficient men then
in its employ.

The Legislature acted promptly, and on February 26 ap-
propriated $150,000 for the work of 1897. This prompt
action, so diflerent from past experience, was in a high
degree advantageous, as it enabled the committee to do an
immense amount of necessary work that could be done only
before the appearance of the young caterpillars in the spring.
The sum appropriated by the Legislature, however, was only
three-fourths of the amount estimated by the committee as
necessary for the effectual carrying on of the work required
by law. With only three-fourths of the required amount
available, the plans for the year were necessarily revised, and
much work that had been planned had to be abandoned
and must now be reported as still undone.

During the years 1895-96 most of the territory com-
prised in the infested towns had been quite carefully in-

310 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

spected, and, as it was believed that no large unknown
colonies existed in the infested region, it was planned in
1897, first, to work thoroughly all known colonies, espe-
cially those in the Saugus woodlands. During January,
February, March and the first part of April the men were
employed in cutting underbrush and dead wood, and in
trimming and otherwise preparing the infested localities for
the work of the l)urlapping season. As soon as the appro-
priation became available the force was increased, so that
on April 1 three hundred and fifty-four men were in the
field. This force was largely employed during the first
part of April in continuing the cleaning up of infested
localities and destroying the eggs of the moth in wood-
land colonies, principally in Saugus and Medford. A sup-
ply of burlap was pur-chased, and during the latter part of
April and the month of May was put on the trees in most
of the known infested localities. While this was being
done, the scattered eggs of the moth upon the ground in
the woodland commenced hatching and the caterpillars be-
gan ascending the trees. In some of the worst colonies,
where the undergrowth had been removed, the trees had
been previously banded with insect lime. In these places
the caterpillars were either destroyed by starvation or killed
by fire before they could ascend the trees. In other cases
spraying was resorted to. Arsenate of lead was the insecti-
cide principally used, and, though its effect was somewhat
neutralized by continuous wet weather, it greatly reduced
the number of caterpillars. During the summer the force
of men, which at one time numbered three hundred and
eighty-seven, was used almost entirely in attending the
burlaps. While the increase of the appropriation over that
of 1896 has enabled the committee in 1897 to clear away
the underbrush from the worst infested woodland colonies
and to destroy a large proportion of the caterpillars in the
Saugus woods, the legislative reduction of twenty-five per
cent, from the committee's estimate of $200,000 for 1897
has made it impossible to extend to all quarters the scheme
of work planned for the year ; hence the work in the Med-
ford woods (Middlesex Fells region) was not so complete
as that done in Saugus.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 311

The force of men was necessarily reduced in August by
the discharge of one hundred and twenty-five men, and all
work was suspended for two weeks in September, therefore
it was impossible to inspect thoroughly all of the colonies
when the burlap was taken off. The known colonies in the
Saugus woods were inspected in the latter part of SejDtem-
ber and in October, and the eggs on the trees destroyed.
This having been done, the men in that section were put
at work inspecting the known colonies in Lynnfield, Salem,
Marblehead, Swampscott and Peabody, and destroying the
few eggs which could be found in these towns. The rest
of the force was concentrated in the Middlesex Fells region,
in Medford, where the moths had been hardly held in check
by the work of the previous winter, spring and summer.
Here a force of ninety men was kept at work destroying
the eggs of the moth until December, when, the appropria-
tion having been nearly exhausted, a large proportion of the
men were discharged.

The result of the year's work is, that where there were
three badly infested colonies of a thousand acres each in the
woods of the infested region there now remains only one
such colony. In that one the increase of the moths has now
been checked, but they are more widely scattered there than
they were in 1896 ; therefore the cost of treating this Middle-
sex Fells region will be greater another year than it would
have been had sufficient means been provided in 1897 to
check the increase and spread of the moth there. The
known colonies in the outer towns have been attended to,
and their favorable condition, as reported last year, has
been maintained and in many instances improved. Only
one new point of infestation outside of last year's lines has
been discovered, and this place, situated in the town of
Lincoln, has been promptly and carefully attended to. It
was discovered in woodland at some distance from the high-
way. From all indications, it has been infested for several
years. It would have been found long before had sufficient
means been provided for a thorough inspection of all the
towns near the infested region.

The reports of past years have stated that there were large
woodland colonies of the moth in the central part of the in-

312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

fested region, which, from lack of money, have necessarily
been neglected, in order to attend to the outer circle of in-
fested towns. In this outer circle the object has been to
reduce the area infested and to prevent the moths spreading
into new^ territory, beyond the known line of infestation.
The committee has also reported that from the woodland
colonies, in the central towns, the moths would be liable to
spread into territory not previously infested and also into
the area that had been cleared of the moth. The woodland
in Medford, Maiden, Melrose, Winchester and Stoneham has
largely been taken for park purposes, and developed by the
construction of boulevards and roads for driving and bicy-
cling and paths for foot passengers ; in short, it has become
a place of resort for the people. Street-car lines have also
been constructed on roads passing through infested woods in
other towns. The result has been, as was predicted in former
reports, that the caterpillars have been brought out of these
woodland colonies on carriages and teams and on the clothing
of persons, and thus land already cleared at much labor and
expense has become reinfested. To prevent the neutralization
of exterminative work in this way, great eftbrts have been
made at large expense during the past year to suppress these
larger colonies. Vast quantities of eggs were destroyed
during the winter and early spring, large areas of woods and
brush were thinned out or cut down, and much land was
burned over. The plan proposed by the committee in the
last report was to do this work and also continue the careful
inspection of the outside territory, i. e., that beyond the
outer circle of infested towns, as well as that formerly in-
fested but now thoroughly cleared. This plan has been fol-
lowed as closely as was possible with the amount of money
appropriated. But only three-quarters of the work planned
could be accomplished with three-fourths of the appropriation
asked for. The trees in the vicinity of all points where the
moths have been found in the outer towns within the past
three years have been burlapped and carefully attended.
This has served to verify the work of former years and to
show where that work was not absolutely completed, and has
also proved that caterpillars have, as was feared, been scat-
tered from the badly infested woodland colonies in the cen-

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 313

tral towns into territory formerly cleared. The outer towns
are in good condition, and the burlap has proved our last
year's statement of the situation to have been correct in
nearly all cases. Had $200,000 been provided for the work
of the season of 1897, all the known colonies in the infested
region could have been cleaned up during the spring and
thoroughly worked during the summer. This would have
prevented the scattering of the moths from these badly in-
fested colonies into territory previously cleared ; the com-
mittee could have avoided the discharge of many experienced
and trustworthy men, and by retaining their services the
known infested localities could have been put in such ex-
cellent condition that in the work of 1898 the badly infested
colonies could have been attended to at less cost.

The work of the past few years has convinced the com-
mittee that extermination of the moth is not only possible,
but certain, if sufficient sums be promptly appropriated for
the purpose. The committee recommends that $200,000 be
appropriated for the work of 1898. While a larger sum
than that could now be used to advantage, the committee
believes that under the present conditions, with our experi-
enced and trained men, a long stride could be made with
that sum toward extermination. Most of the worst colonies
of the moth are now so reduced that with $200,000 they all
can be attended to and a reasonabl}^ thorough inspection
made of all the towns in the infested territory.

Unless the work above outlined can be done during 1898,
extermination will be gravely imperiled by reinfestation from
the central woodland colonies. Inadequate appropriations
necessitate doing the same work over and over, year after
year, with comparatively little progress toward extermi-
nation ; and the committee believes that, unless the neces-
sary means can be provided, the Legislature had better make
no appropriation, and so abandon the work.

The appropriation for 1897 is exhausted, and the com-
mittee hopes that the Legislature will act promptly, to save
the dispersion of the force, so that the work may go on
consecutively, and the loss ])e avoided which always comes
from cessation of work.

Interest in the extermination of the gypsy moth is wide-

314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

spread, particularly among economic entomologists and
agriculturists. Scientific men in most of the countries of
Europe have obtained the committee's reports and express
their approval of the work. Prominent journals in Europe
have published comprehensive reviews and discussions of
the work, in every case speaking of it favorably. The
economic entomologists of this country with one accord
express themselves as anxious that the work should be
continued, not only for the protection of the country from
a new imported pest, but as a demonstration of what gov-
ernment can do for the advantage of the people ; many of
them having stated that they believe it would be a public
calamity to have the work stopped.

At the National Farmers' Congress, held at St. Paul,
Aug. 31 to Sept. 1, 1897, the matter, as in former years,
was considered, and the following resolve adopted : —

Resolved, That the efforts of the Commonwealth of Massachu-
setts in endeavoring to exterminate the imported pest known as
the gypsy moth meet with our hearty approval, and we, members
of the Farmers' National Congress, assembled at St. Paul, ear-
nestly appeal to the Congress of the United States to aid our sister
State in exterminating what is liable to prove a national pest if
neglected.

At the last meeting of the Association of Economic En-
tomologists, held in Detroit, Aug. 12 and 13, 1897, the fol-
lowing preamble and resolve were unanimously adopted : —

Whereas, The Association of Economic Entomologists is famil-
iar with the efforts being made by the State of Massachusetts to
exterminate the gypsy moth ; and

Whereas, On two former occasions it has endorsed this under-
taking by public resolutions ; and

Whereas, The existence of the gypsy moth in Massachusetts is
a standing menace, not only to the agricultural and forestry in-
terests of that State but to those of the country at large ; there-
fore, be it

Resolved, That this association would urge upon the people of
Massachusetts the danger of dilatory measures, and the wisdom
and great importance of providiug liberally for the work of ex-
terminating the gypsy moth.

No. 4.] ■ THE GYPSY MOTH. 315

In January, 1897, a careful inspection and investigation
of the exterminative work was made, under tlie auspices of
the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, by
Prof. John B. Smith, entomologist of the New .Jersey Ex-
periment Station. His report has been largely given to the
public through the press. In it he speaks in the highest
terms of the work of the committee, and expresses the
opinion that extermination is possible if sufficient means are
seasonably provided. He recommended that it would be
well to investigate the natural enemies of the gypsy moth in
Europe, with a view to introducing any insect enemy of the
moth that might be of advantage. While the members of
your committee consider the results of such an investigation
to be problematical, they will be ready at any time to carry
it out should the Legislature provide the means.

The entomologist of the United States Department of
Agriculture, under the instruction of Congress, has been
making an extended inspection of the work and an investiga-
tion of the methods in use. The report of his investigation
will very soon appear as a bulletin of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Experiments have been continued in perfecting spraying
machinery and insecticides at the insectary in Maiden and
the experiment station at Amherst. In addition to the
regular experimental work, a large number of injurious in-
sects, erroneously supposed to be the gypsy moth, which
were sent to the office of the committee by residents of the
infested region, have been identified and advice given con-
cerning remedies.

The committee desires in this connection to emphasize its
grateful appreciation of the value of the scientific work as
conducted by Prof. C. H. Fernald, entomologist of the
Board.

Reference is also made to the reports of Prof. C. H.
Fernald, entomologist, and E. H. Forbush, director, presented
herewith as a part of the report of the committee.

Financial Report for 1897.
The gypsy moth committee of the State Board of Agricult-
ure presents below its financial report for the year 1897 : —

316

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Piib. Doc.

Balance on hand Jan. 1, 1897,
Appropriation Feb. 26, 1897,

$8,849 85
150,000 00

Wm. R. Sessions, expenses,

E. W. Wood, expenses,
Augustus Pratt, expenses,

F. W. Sargent, expenses,
J. G. Avery, expenses, .
S. S. Stetson, expenses,
C. H. Fernald, expenses and remuneration
E. H. Forbush, director, salary,
Travelling expenses of director and men.
Teaming, livery and board of horses, .
Wages of employees, ....

Rent of offices,

Supplies, tools, insecticides, etc., .

Balance on hand Jan. 1, 1898,

$20 25
20 96

$158,849 85

61 00

50 40

140 55

46 75

561 29

2,300 00

1,350 47

3,653 30

134,711 54

427 64

13,206 76

$156,550 91
2,298 94

.

$158,849 85

The balance indicated as on hand Jan. 1, 1898, will all or
nearly all be required to pay bills for labor, material and
running expenses already contracted ; hence the appropria-
tion must he regarded as practically exhausted.

E. W. WOOD,
S. S. STETSON,
JOHN G. AVERY,
AUGUSTUS PRATT,

F. W. SARGENT,
WM. R. SESSIONS,

Committee of the Board of Agriculture in
Charge of the Oyjpsy Moth Work.

A -4-i

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 317

Report of the Entomologist.

To the Committee on the Oypsy Moth.

Gentlemen : — The most important question arising in
connection with the work on the gypsy moth is whether it is
possible to exterminate the pest. If this can be done, there
is no question but that it is the wisest policy to continue the
work till the extermination of this insect is accomplished.
I have made frequent and careful examinations of the work
from the beginning, and have seen colony after colony ab-
solutely exterminated, some of them in localities where the
difficulties in the way appeared to be insurmountable and as
great as could be found anywhere, and yet the insect was
completely exterminated by the force under the oversight of
the field director. Not only have single colonies been ex-
terminated, but entire towns have been cleared and for several
years no gypsy moths have been found in them.

Several years ago all the leading economic entomologists
of the country were invited to inspect the work of extermina-
tion and report on the same. Some of these gentlemen before
visiting the territory expressed the opinion that this insect
could not be exterminated ; but, having made a careful study
of the territory, the apparatus and the methods of work,
they all became thoroughly convinced that extermination is
possible, provided sufficient money be appropriated for the
purpose. The reports of these gentlemen have been pub-
lished in previous gypsy moth reports. Last winter the
members of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture
employed Prof. J. B. Smith of Rutgers College as an expert
to investigate the work and make a written report to them.
Professor Smith, who is undoubtedly one of the very highest
authorities on economic entomology, made a very careful
study of the infested territory, the methods of work, etc.,
spending nearly a week in his investigations, and came to

318 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the conclusion emphatically that extermination is not only
possible but entirely practicable. The report of Professor
Smith was a masterly production, and I deeply regret that
the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture has not seen
fit to publish it.

Since all the experts who have carefully and fully investi-
gated the matter believe extermination to be possible, and,
as previously stated, we have already exterminated numerous
colonies, many of them in the most unfavorable places and
of considerable extent, there can be no question but that
what has been done in one place can be done in another,
and that the complete extermination of this insect is possi-
ble, so that the result is dependent entirely upon the action
of the Legislature.

I have no doubt that the gypsy moth would have been
practically exterminated by this time if the Legislature had
each year made the full appropriation asked for, and made
it available early in the season.

The next important question is, how long it will take to
complete the work of exterminating this pest and how much
it will cost. The estimate of time and money given in my
report of last year is as close an estimate as I can make at
this time, since we were not able during the past year to
make that progress in the work which we should have made
if the last Legislature had appropriated the full amount for
which the committee asked, instead of a much smaller sum.
That estimate was " an appropriation of not less than $200,-
000 a year for a term of not less than five years, and then
an appropriation of not less than $100,000 a year for a term
of not less than five years. After this an appropriation of
perhaps $15,000 a year for a period of five years will be
required." The first five years, with the full appropriation
of $200,000 a year, will reduce the territory to such an ex-
tent that with $100,000 a year for the next five years the
insect will be practically exterminated, and the remaining
five years will be spent in a careful watch of the entire ter-
ritory, lest a few insects might have been overlooked in
isolated localities. Unless a sufiicient amount is appro-
priated to make a very substantial gain each year, it would
be better to abandon the work entirely.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 319

The metropolitan park system in Boston and some of the
adjacent cities and towns is threatened by this insect, and,
in fact, the Middlesex Fells reservation belonging to this
system is already infested by the gypsy moth. The ex-
pense of exterminating this insect in a public park is far
greater than from the same area of ordinary forest land,
for the reason that in the latter case all the shrubs, under-
brush and small trees can be cut down and burned, or, if
need be, the land can be entirely cleared and burned over;
while this course could not be adopted in a public park like
the Boston Common or Public Garden, or even in Franklin
Park or any portion of the metropolitan park system. If,
therefore, the State should abandon the work of extermi-
nating the gypsy moth, this insect would soon spread all over
these parks, and the tax payers of Boston would be per-
petually taxed for one-half of the expense of clearing the
moth from the metropolitan parks, while the other cities
and towns in the metropolitan district would pay the other
half, and Boston would be taxed for the entire expense of
the work in the Boston parks. I feel very sure that any
one who has had any considerable experience in the field
work on the gypsy moth would agree with me in the
opinion that the annual tax on the city of Boston and the
other towns of the district would then be far more than it
will be if the Legislature makes the necessary appropri-
ations for the extermination of this insect within the limits
of Massachusetts. And it must especially be remembered
that this question of gypsy moth extermination is by no
means mainly a local one.

Should the gypsy moth escape from control, — as it
assuredly would do if the work of extermination were to
cease, — it would spread in all directions, doing incalculable
damage over the whole State. Extermination would then be
impracticable, and a perpetual warfare against the moth —
most unsatisfactory in results, yet necessitating oppressive
expense to all time — would then be entailed upon the people
of Massachusetts. The most economic policy for the tax
payers of Boston, as well as for the entire Commonwealth, is
to have the insect exterminated as soon as possible.

It is an unwise and dangerous policy to make smaller

320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

appropriations than are necessary for a vigorous prosecution
of this work. The supposition that, as in many other public
works, a small appropriation will carry it on to a certain
point, and then, if left, it can be taken up again and carried
on from where the work left off, is an incorrect one, for the
reason that this insect is continually multiplying and spread-
ing when left to itself, and there is always the danger in such
times that it may be carried off accidentally along the lines
of travel to remote parts of this State or even into other
States. This insect will therefore be a constant menace to
us until it is absolutely exterminated from the land.

Respectfully submitted,

C. H. FERNALD.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 321

Field D i r e c t o li ' s R e p o ii t .

To the Committee on the Oypsy Moth.

Gentlemen : — In submitting this report the director has
endeavored to comply with your recent request to present
(1) a brief report of the year's worl^ and its results; (2) a
condensed report on the present condition of each infested
town or city ; (8) the causes which have led to the increase
of the gypsy moth in the central woodlands ; (4) a statement
showing how extermination can be accomplished in these
woodlands; (5) a record of the progress of extermination;
(6) the reasons why, if the gypsy moth is to be exterminated
from Massachusetts, larger appropriations must be granted.

The Work of the Winter and Spring.

In January and February, 1897, the force, numbering one
hundred and thirty-four men, was employed mainly in kill-
ing the eggs of the gypsy moth in the woodlands most in-
fested, in cutting worthless trees and in otherwise preparing
these woods for the summer work.

In addition to pushing exterminative work in all the known
colonies, it had been planned to make in 1897 an inspection,
wherever needed, of the entire infested territory ; but when
the desired appropriation for 1897 ($200,000) was cut down
by the Legislature to $150,000, this inspection was of neces-
sity given up.

The appropriation became available Feb. 26, 1897. The
force was then increased as rapidly as the preservation of its
effectiveness permitted, and was mainly concentrated in the
localities most infested. The largest force was massed in
Saugus. Here and also in the Fells and Mystic woodland

322 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

colonies* work similar to that of January and February was
continued, weather permitting, well into the spring. f More
than one thousand acres were thus Avorked. The under-
growth of many colonies in the great pastures of Salem and
Swampscott was cut and burned. In former years this win-
ter and spring work of egg-killing and cleaning up has been
greatly hampered by delay in the legislative grants ; this
year the granting of the appropriation at a comparatively
early date enabled this work to be much more thoroughly
done than it has ever been done before, and with correspond-
ingly satisfactory results.

Experiments in killing Eggs in Stone Walls.

The moths frequently assemble along stone walls. In past
years, when the eggs of the moth abounded in these walls,
the walls were torn down, and often had to be rebuilt at a
heavy cost. Most of this work has now been done away
with. When, in 1897, the young caterpillars hatching in a
wall congregated upon the shrubbery, close to either side of
it, they were destroyed in quantities, together with the shrub-
bery, by the use of the cyclone burner. Trees close to the
wall were cutaway. If then any living caterpillars were left
they were forced to give up the wall as a gathering place (as
they then had to go some distance for food) , and were taken
later under burlaps on adjacent trees. In cases where full-
grown caterpillars resorted to a wall to pupate, they were
destroyed by driving the cyclone flame through it.

Experiments made by Assistant Entomologist Kirkland
prove that paraffin gas oil, a nearly crude petroleum oil, is
destructive, in temperate or warm weather, to gypsy moth
eggs. At the suggestion of Supt. C. S. Williams, experi-
ments were made in spraying certain stone walls with this

* Webster defines a colon.y (under tlie head of natural history) as a number of
animals or plants living together beyond their usual range. In the gypsy moth
work the word "colony " has been applied to the moth when it has been found iso-
lated from others of its kind bj^ a belt of uuinfested territory.

t The localities refen-ed to here are three great groups of colonies, which have
been alluded to in former reports. These groups contain about one thousand acres
each. The Saugus colonies centre in the Saugus woods; the Fells colonies, in the
Middlesex Fells ; the Mystic colonies, to the west of the Mystic lakes in the woods
of Arlington, Winchester, Lexington and Woburn.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 323

cheap crude oil, delivered from a cyclone burner, but not
ignited. The oil penetrated the crevices in the walls and
destroyed the eggs hidden there. These experiments were
so satisfactory that it will be desirable to continue them on
a larger scale.

BURLAPPING.

The early date when the appropriation became available
permitted the purchase of burlap in advance of the rise in
prices, caused by the new tarifl*. About one thousand dol-
lars was thus saved.

In April and May burlap was cut up, sent into the field
and applied to the trees in infested forest lands where the
underbrush had been cleared away. Throughout the whole
infested region the most work was done, in the burlap sea-
son, where the greatest number of caterpillars were known
to be. Every practicable effort was made, however, to
destroy, by burlapping, the few caterpillars still remaining
in colonies almost exterminated. This was especially the
case in the outer towns.

The unusual amount of rain in June seemed to interfere
with the movements of the caterpillars. In many of the
large colonies they remained mostly among the leaves and
branches, instead of coming down the trunks to the burlaps ;
therefore, during this month the burlaps were not so effective
as usual. In the Saugus woods the caterpillars were shaken
to the ground by jarring the trees. They would then crawl
up the tree trunks and crowd under the burlaps, where they
were crushed by the workers. Had not this method been
followed, the trees in many localities would have been com-
pletely stripped. Later, when the caterpillars were about
to pupate, they resumed their normal habits and crowded
under the burlaps. When the moths had all deposited their
eggs the burlaps were generally removed, and many eggs
clustered under or near them on the trees were destroyed.

Spraying.
During May and June rains unfortunately prevailed, inter-
fering seriously with the spraying, which, however, so
decimated the caterpillars that, as a rule, the sprayed trees
were not stripped.

324 BOARD OF AGEICULTURP:, [Pul). Doc.

Arsenate of barium, used in spraying somewhat more ex-
tensively than heretofore, proved less satisfactory than
arsenate of lead. This latter insecticide, when mixed with
sufficient glucose, maintained its superiority over all others.
The best results from spraying were obtained on under-
growth, shrubbery, hedges and low trees.

With the object of devising some mechanical means for
reaching the upper limbs of tall trees, models have been
made, and one machine has been constructed and actually
tested in the field. While it is not difficult to invent such a
machine to do eftective work on level streets and lawns, no
device yet perfected can be used to advantage for spraying
tall trees, growing close together on our rugged hillsides.
Experiments looking to this end are still going on. Improve-
ments have also been made in hose, couplings, extension
poles, pumps and nozzles. A new set of spraying outfits is
now being constructed at the headquarters in Maiden.

Work of the Fall and Winter.
On account of the rapid decrease of the appropriation, the
force was greatly reduced in August, and all work was sus-
pended for two weeks in September. On September 20 the
fall work was begun. Inspection and egg-killing were car-
ried on in all the known colonies in Saugus woods, and all
of those in the towns to the north and east of Saugus. When
this was finished the men employed in the eastern division
were concentrated in Saugus, where an inspection of the
residential portion of the town was begun, and this was
nearly finished when, the appropriation being nearly ex-
hausted, the men were discharged. In October a rapid in-
spection of Maiden, most of which could not be burlapped
during the summer, was begun, and the greater part of the
eggs there were destroyed. Some of the nearly exterminated
woodland colonies in the outskirts of the western part of the
infested region were thoroughly examined, and some inspec-
tion was made of territory outside the limits of known in-
festation. Nearly three-fourths of the men were then con-
centrated and employed in egg-killing in the Middlesex Fells
region. Early in December, the appropriation being nearly
expended, the work was stopped ; therefore, although

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 325

enormous quantities of the eggs of the moth were destroyed
in these woods in Novem1)er, nearly all the good weather of
December was lost. This was a great misfortune, for it has
left this excellent work but little more than half done, and it
will now be a difficult task to complete it before the eggs
hatch in the spring.

Summary of the Year's Work.

The figures given below represent such proportion of a
year's work as can be accurately tabulated. The trees were
mainly cut on the 1,010 acres of land, where the under-
brush was cut and burned. The buildings, fences and other
structures which are reported as infested were merely har-
boring or hiding places of the moth. Usually the eggs
were found upon, about or underneath these structures.

It will be noticed that no figures giving the number of
the trees found infested or the numbers of the different
forms of the moth destroyed appear in these tables. This
may* be explained as follows : —

Every effort has been made in the field work to economize
time and material, wherever it could be done without inter-
fering with the efficiency of the work. In woodlands most
infested, especially in the Middlesex Fells region, only
enough trees were marked to indicate the presence of the
moth. This was a great saving of time and white paint,
but it made a correct record of the number of trees found
infested in these colonies a practical impossibility. Where
only one tree in twenty was marked as infested during 1897,
no accurate account of infested trees could be made. This
invalidated the entire record of infested trees, and the time
ordinarily taken to count and record them has been saved.

The record of the number of caterpillars and other forms
of the moth taken is not given, for in one or two of the
most densely infested localities the caterpillars were found
in such masses that any attempt to count them would have
been a great waste of time. Furthermore, it was necessary
to destroy them immediately, to prevent their spreading.
In many other colonies spraying was almost entirely de-
pended upon to destroy the caterpillars. In other cases
spraying and fire were used to destroy the caterpillars and

326

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the eggs. Many trees were cut down and burned with the
eggs upon them. Therefore the number of different forms
of the moth destroyed during the year cannot be correctly
stated ; but the records of moths killed in the outer towns
are very accurate, and enough has been learned from the
figures taken to show that approximately ninety-five per
cent of the different forms of the moth were killed in Med-
ford and Saugus woods and in adjacent territory.

Work Done.

Trees (fruit, shade and forest) : —
Inspected (number of times) , . . .

Burlapped,

Banded with insect lime, ....

In which cavities have been cemented or covered

Sprayed, .

Scraped, .

Trimmed,

Trimmed for burlap.

Cut

Cutting and burning : —
Acres of brush and shrubbery cut and burned,
Acres of ground burned over with oil, .
Acres of ground burned over without oil,

Buildings : —
Inspected,
Found to be infested,

Wooden fences : —
Inspected (rods),
Found to be infested,

Stone walls : —
Inspected (rods).
Found to be infested.
Burned out (rods), .

,202,692

,117,628

4,715

1,949

21,479

1,401

81,545

39,615

27?,101

1,010

62

122

12,998
1,138

72,652
1,150

18,534

596

1,683

liaise Alarms.

During 1897, as in former years, reports of the presence
of supposed gypsy moths or of injury caused by them have
been received from towns within the infested region and
from other towns in the State ; but in no such case has any
evidence of the moth been found by our investigation outside
of the region previously known to be infested, except in
Lincoln.

No. 4.]

THE GYPSY MOTH.

327

Tmons and Cities that have been falsely reported as infested by the
Gypsy Moth in 1897.

Barnstable,
Dan vers,
Dennis,
Fitchburg,
Haverhill,

Methuen,

Natick,

Newton,

Plympton,

Quincy,

Wellesley,
Wenham.

Hebron, N. H.
Haverhill, N. H.

Number of Employees in 1897.

The figures given below do not fully represent the number
of employees on the pay roll, which at the height of the
season reached nearly four hundred, but give the number of
those actually at work each week : —

Jan. 1-Jan. 2,
Jan 4- Jan 9,
Jan. 11-Jan. 16,
Jan. 18-Jan. 23,
Jan. 25-Jan. 30,
Feb 1-Feb 6,
Feb. S-Feb. 13,
Feb. 15-Feb. 20,
Feb 22-Feb. 27,
March 1 -March 6,
March 8-March 13,
March lo-March 20,
March 22-March 27,
March 29- April 3,
April 5-April 10, .
April 12-April 17,
April 19-April 24,
April 26-May 1,
May 3 -May 8,
May 10 -May 15,
May 17-May 22,
May 23-May 29,
May 31-June 5,
June 7-Jnne 12,
June 14-June 19,
June 21- June 26,

134
133
135
144
144
150
151
151
152
164
164
249
249
354
354
368
383
370
371
371
360
360
361
353
353
352

June 28 -July 3,
July 5-July 10,
July 12- July 17,
July 19-July 24,
July 26 -July 31,
Aug. 2-Aug 7,
Aug. 9 -Aug. 14,
Aug. 16 -Aug. 21,
Aug. 23-Aug. 28,
Aug. 30-Sept. 4,
Sept 20- Sept. 25,
Sept. 27-Oct. 2,
Oct 4 Oct. 9,
Oct. 11-Oct. 16,
Oct. 18-Oct. 23,
Oct. 25 -Oct. 30,
Nov. 1-Nov. 6,
Nov. 8-Nov. 13,
Nov. 15 -Nov. 20,
Nov. 22-Nov 27,
Nov. 29 -Dec. 4,
Dec. 6 -Dec. 11,
Dec 13 -Dec. 18,
Dec. 20-Dec 26,
Dec. 27-Dec. 31,

352
343
339
333
328
324
324
207
204
202
201
188
188
189
184
184
182
183
183
179
175
173
29
29
48

328 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The Present Condition of the Infested Region.
To give an absolutely accurate report of the condition of
the infested territory is impossible, unless the whole region
has been gone over within the year. The report given below
indicates mainly the condition of the known colonies. For
the following reasons the clearing of the moth from any new
towns cannot this year be reported : —

1. Because of insufficient means, the greater part of the
work had to be confined to the central towns (more especially
within the Middlesex Fells and the Saugus woods), where it
was of the first importance to prevent, by a general destruc-
tion of the moths, their conveyance from these central colo-
nies back into territory wholly or nearly cleared.

2. There has been during the year no thorough inspec-
tion of all the territory of the outer infested towns.

Arlington.
The condition of Arlington appears better than at any
time since the work was begun in 1891. Only a few cater-
pillars were found in 1897, in the most easterly part of the
town. The wooded section in the northern portion, in which
some of the worst infested colonies have been found since
1891, was burlapped during the summer and inspected.
Although the number of men which could be spared for the
work was inadequate, the condition of this woodland is now
greatly improved. Comparatively few egg-clusters have been
found there. Only one of the woodland colonies appeared
to be much infested in 1897, and but few caterpillars have
been found elsewhere in the Arlington woods this year.*
Many of the estates formerly infested have produced no moths
this year, and only here and there along the roads have
occasional moths l)een found. A few orchards are still con-
siderably infested. Little except burlapping and other nec-
essary summer work in known infested localities has been
done in Arlington for the past three years. It is some time
since the entire town was thoroughly inspected. In 1897,
however, most of the town was covered either during the
burlapping season or afterward.

* The phrase " this year," as used in this report, refers exclusively to 1897.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 329

Belmont.
In many of the old colonies in Belmont no form of the
gypsy moth has been found for two or three years, In these
colonies the moth has been, no doubt, exterminated. Al-
though in the infested places and their vicinity the trees have
been well burlapped and carefully watched during the sum-
mer, very few caterpillars have been found except in the hill
section to the west of the centre of the town. Here, among
the shrubbery and trees on several highly cultivated and
valuable estates, a good many caterpillars were taken. On
the north side of the town, along both sides of Pleasant
Street, several farms are still somewhat infested, and there
are also a few small colonies near the Cambridge line ; else-
where the town contains few moths, so far as known. A few
egg-clusters were found in the fall in the Beaver Brook reser-
vation of the metropolitan park system, near the Waltham
line.

Beverly.

No gypsy moths have been found in Beverly for the past
two years. All the known colonies appear to have been
exterminated.

Boston.

At Orient Heights, East Boston, 577 caterpillars were
found early in the season. In all the colonies in the remain-
der of Boston, including Charlestown, South Boston, Dor-
chester, Roxbury, West Roxbury and Brighton, only 195
caterpillars were taken. The trees in the East Boston colony
were climbed and carefully looked over in the latter part of
the summer, and no form of the moth was found at this in-
spection.

South Boston as a whole has had no tree-to-tree inspection
for the past few years. The only colony there known to be
infested was burlapped this year, and 42 caterpillars were
found. Nothing has been done there since the burlapping
season. The place should, if possible, have an inspection in
1898. Only 1 caterpillar was found in the Roxbury district
in 1897. No moths were found in Franklin Park this year,
although a thorough inspection was made of a greater part
of the park. This still further confirms the belief that Frank-

330 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

lin Park is now free from the moth. In 1897 no moths were
found in Charlestown ; 1 caterpillar was found in Brighton,
at a place where a large number of teams are stabled. In
Dorchester, where 18 bushels of caterpillars were gathered in
1895, only 151 caterpillars were found in 1897.

Brookline.

The two colonies which were found in Brookline in 1896
were quite thoroughly burlapped that season. A few hidden
eggs had hatched in 1897 in each of these colonies before the
spring inspection was finished. In one, however, the cater-
pillars were all destroyed early in the season. In the other
all were, apparently, destroyed, except in that part of the
colony where the inspection and cleaning up was not finished
in the spring. There the most of the caterpillars were killed
and a few egg-clusters were destroyed in the fall. The clean-
ing up of this colony was not finished when the men were
laid oft' in December.

A careful survey of the boundary between Newton and
Brookline shows that two trees (formerly, but not now, in-
fested) included in one of the Brookline colonies stand just
over the line in Newton. A search made in the fall in the
northern part of Newton, adjoining Brookline, resulted in
the discovery of a male pupa case of the gypsy moth. This
discovery is not regarded as significant, but, since Newton
borders on the infested region, the city should be carefully
watched.

Burlington.

In the colony reported last year as infested a few caterpil-
lars were found in 1897. Altogether 9 caterpillars, 1 pupa
and 3 egg-clusters were found in the town. From a small
colony in Woburn, near the Burlington line, a few stragglers
crossed into Burlington, which accounts for two of these egg-
clusters. The continued infestation of Burlington is readily
traceable to large teaming operations conducted by one man.

Cambridge.
The tree-to-tree inspection of Cambridge, which was begun
in 1896, had to be given up in 1897, in common with other
work, on account of the reduction of the appropriation ;

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 331

therefore only about one-fourth of the city was inspected in
this manner. All the known colonies were burlapped and
carefully looked after during the summer. Most of the old
colonies appear to have been exterminated before 1897.
There are still some in which a few caterpillars were found.
Only 3 caterpillars were killed in North Cambridge, in a lo-
cality where some years since 35,000 egg-clusters were de-
stroyed within a week. There are a few places in Cambridge
where numbers of caterpillars were taken. On some of these
estates the trees and shrubbery are of such historic value that
it is not advisable to destroy them ; thus extermination is
rendered extremely difficult. The discovery of single cater-
pillars here and there under the burlap indicates that they are
scatterino' into Cambridofe from the central towns.

Chelsea.

In the southern half of the city only a single pupa was
found in 1897. Here all the trees in the immediate vicinity
of the colonies infested in 1895 were burlapped and care-
fully looked over. In the northern half of the city cater-
pillars were found in ten localities. Later in the season a
new colony was found on a dumping ground, among some
low bushes. Here 2,016 pup» were found; 94 egg-clusters
were also destroyed at the last of the burlapping season.

As Chelsea has in the past been generally infested, and in
some sections the moth has been very numerous indeed, the
good condition indicated by this report is remarkable.

The entire city had a tree-to-tree examination in 1895,
and was quite thoroughly burlapped in 1894 and 1895 ; but,
as Chelsea is immediately adjacent to Everett and quite near
Maiden, it is to be expected that caterpillars will be carried
there through the ordinary channels of traffic and travel so
long as these cities remain uncleared.

Danvers.
Gypsy moths have not been found in Danvers within the
past three years. The places formerly infested have been
examined ; but, on account of the traffic between it and the
infested towns and also between it and Boston, another in-
spection soon is desirable.

332 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Everett.
Most of the trees in Everett were burlapped in 1897 and
the burlaps attended ; although the moths are still widely
distributed through the city, considerable progress has been
made since 1896. In that year 462,477 caterpillars were
taken under the burlap. In 1897 only 152,202 were taken
in the same manner. A thorough inspection of the city
should now be made, and all the eggs killed before hatching
time.

Lexington.

The colonies formerly known in East Lexington and
Lexington Centre, on both sides of Massachusetts Avenue,
are now apparently exterminated. This appears to be true
also of the scattered colonies on the farms, for in most of
these no caterpillars have been found during the summer.
Only 3 caterpillars have been found on Massachusetts
avenue during the summer, where formerly many thou-
sands were found. The large woodland colonies in the
eastern part of the town, formerly so badly infested, are
now in far better condition. One tract of about twenty
acres has been cut off by the owners and ourned over by
your agents. No caterpillars have been found since on
this tract. Much of the adjacent woodland, which in the
past has been considerably infested, has been burned over
by forest fires. Infested portions of this woodland have
been burlapped and inspected during the summer, and in
nearly all of them but few caterpillars have been found.
The fall inspection has revealed but few egg-clusters. Only
one of the large wood colonies in the north of Lexington
has been found infested this year, and in that only 101
cajterpillars were killed on a few trees.

The town had a tree-to-tree inspection in 1895 ; since
that time all the colonies which had not then been exter-
minated have been very carefully worked.

Lincoln.

July 13, 1897, a colony was reported from Lincoln. It
was situated less than a mile from the boundary of Waltham,
the nearest town in the infested region as heretofore known.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 333

Here the caterpillars had already stripped the trees on about
a half acre of ground in the edge of a strip of woodland,
and many were travelling north and east across a grass-
grown field, eating the grass as they went. The owner,
seeing there were two or three caterpillars on each stalk
of grass, immediately cut it and saved part of the crop.
The owner of the woodland set men at work gathering
the caterpillars and pupae in baskets, and burning them in
fires built for that purpose. Your agents were soon on
the ground, and began destroying the caterpillars with the
cyclone burner. They were swept and shaken from the
trees and burned, until few could be found in the centre
of the colony. In the meantime, those in the field had left
the grass as soon as it began to dry in the sun, and, crossing
the field, swarmed into the trees and undergrowth on a
wooded hillside. Here their progress was arrested by the
cyclone burner.

An inspection of the country in the vicinity was begun
in August. As the colony was near the southern boundary
of Lincoln, the northern part of Weston, which adjoins
Lincoln, was inspected, but no indications of the moth
were found there. In a later inspection of the territory
immediately about the colony a few egg-clusters were found
just over the Lincoln line in Weston. Continued inspec-
tion has enlarged the known area of the colony, and it is
now known that the moths are scattered half a mile to
the north and east from the centre. This inspection was
brought to a close by the cessation of field work in Decem-
ber, and should be finished as soon in 1898 as the weather
conditions will permit. The vast number of caterpillars
found here, their distribution over so large a territory, and
other signs of long occupation, all indicate that the colony
has been established for several years. The owner of the
infested property has lived in Cambridge during the winters,
and has driven back and forth in the summers when the
gypsy moth was most numerous in that city. In all prob-
ability this colony was established at that time, or before the
work of exterminating the gypsy moth was begun. The
situation of the colony at some distance from the main road
explains why it was not found in the roadside inspection of
Lincoln made some years ago. Had it been possible earlier

334 BOARD OP^ AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

to make a tree-to-tree inspection of Lincoln and the other
towns around the boundary of the infested region, this
colony would long since have been discovered.

Lynn.
Previous to 1897 more than 1,200 estates in the city
proper had been found infested ; but this year 7 caterpillars,
found on seven widely scattered trees, a few caterpillars
killed in another locality and a few egg-clusters found in
the fall inspection, constitute all the finds recorded. The
known colonies in the Lynn woods have been very much
improved in condition, and some of them have been nearly
if not quite exterminated this year. The chief difficulty in
exterminating the moth from this great forest park is that it
is not advisable to use there those drastic and sweeping
measures which are so effectual in woodland colonies.
Nevertheless, as the moths are decreasing year by year,
it seems probable that they can be exterminated from the
Lynn woods by the methods now in use. Owing to a lack
of means, a large portion of this woodland has not been
examined for several years. Although no colonies are known
in that portion, its nearness to the badly infested Saugus
woods makes it probable that small colonies will be found
there on inspection.

Lynnfield.
All the colonies discovered in 1891-92 in the orchards
and along the roads of Lynnfield were exterminated three
years ago. A later inspection of the woods resulted in the
discovery of a considerable number of large and dangerous
colonies. The work of the last three years has much
reduced these colonies, and some of them now appear to be
exterminated. This is true also of one discovered in the
woods of northern Lynnfield, near the Reading line, in
1896. Two colonies recently found on the roads have been
carefully worked this year, but will need to be watched for
at least two seasons. There were found under the burlap in
Lynnfield, in 1896, 15,084 caterpillars and 22,022 pupse; in
1897 the burlapping was more extended, but only 194 cater-
pillars and 81 pupae were found.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 335

Maiden.

It was reported in 1896 that for several years very little
injury had been done by the gypsy moths to the foliage in
Maiden. Still less injury was done in 1897, but, as only a
small portion of the city was burlapped, the moths increased
in number considerably during the summer. Most of the
city was rapidly gone over in the fall, and all the eggs seen
in this rapid inspection were destroyed. Although the eggs
are not now very numerous anywhere, the city is, as last
year, generally infested, and it is probable that no advance
toward extermination has been made in Maiden by the work
of this season. Situated in the centre of the infested region.
Maiden has been perforce neglected. Most of the trees
should be burlapped in 1898, and everything possible should
now be done to exterminate the moth there, as otherwise it
cannot be prevented from spreading into the neighboring
towns.

Marblehead.

The gypsy moth has been found in 1897 in only one local-
ity in Marblehead. This colony was mentioned in the last
annual report. All eggs which could be found were de-
stroyed in the spring. The eggs were distributed along a
stone wall overgrown with underbrush, and a few caterpillars
hatched from scattered eggs in the wall and from eggs hidden
in hollow trees. The undergrowth along the wall was then
burned and the trees burlapped. Only two egg-clusters were
found in the fall. The entire town had a tree-to-tree inspec-
tion in 1896-97. It now needs an occasional inspection to
prevent its becoming reinfested.

Medford.

Medford, where the moth was first introduced into this
country, is situated near the centre of the infested district,
and is now, as in 1891, the place most infested of all the
region. The centre of infestation, however, has changed from
the residential and business portion, in which much restric-
tive work has been done, to the woodlands of the Middlesex
Fells. There the moth has hardly been held in check by all

336 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

the work which could, under the circumstances, be done.
More egg-clusters still remain there than are to be found
anywhere else in the infested region. Those sections of the
city where the moths were known to be most numerous, in-
cluding the Middlesex Fells colonies, were burlapped in the
spring. These burlaps were as well attended as could be
expected by the twenty-five men allotted to Medford. Al-
though the work done during the summer failed to hold the
moth in check in the woods, it kept the borders of the wood-
land roads quite clear from the pest, and there were only two
or three localities where the trees were stripped. The con-
centration of nearly three-fourths of the entire force in these
woods during October and Noveml)er has made it possible to
put them in better condition than they otherwise would have
been, but there are several colonies in which the eggs on the
trees have not yet been destroyed. This work and that of
preparing the woodland colonies for the work of next sum-
mer would employ 100 men from Jan. 1, 1898, to the hatch-
ing season, while burlapping, spraying, egg-killing and other
absolutely necessary work would keep them very busy for
the remainder of the year.

Melrose.
The northern half of Melrose was burlapped in 1896 and
1897. Few caterpillars were found in 1897. South of the
centre of the town no work was done in 1896, except an in-
spection of the residential part in the fall. This part of the
town was, however, burlapped in 1897. It was found that
the number of the moths had increased considerably, espe-
cially in the woodlands near the Maiden line ; but their num-
ber was greatly reduced by the work of the burlap season.
Efiective work was done in several colonies in that part of
Melrose which is located in the Middlesex Fells reservation,
and on the later inspections of the burlaps few caterpillars
were found. The general condition of the town is now better
than in any previous year. In many of the places now
marked as infested only single caterpillars were taken. The
position of the town, lying, as it does, with the badly in-
fested woods of Saugus on the east, Maiden on the south and

No. 4.] ' THE GYPSY MOTH. 337

the Middlesex Fells on the west, will render it impossible to
keep the moths out so long as they are numerous in the ad-
jacent woodlands.

Nahant.

No gypsy moths have been found in Nahant for more than
two years.

Peabody,

The gypsy moth is believed to be exterminated from all
the old infested localities in the centre of Peabody, and in
only three of the woodland colonies have moths been found
this year. In one of these, 1 caterpillar was found ; in an-
other, only 2. The third — the large woodland colony in
the vicinity of Spring Pond which has been so badly infested
in years past — appears now to be cleared of the moth ; but,
on account of its extent, and the fact that caterpillars were
found there this year, it must be carefully watched for at
least two years. In 1896, 129,408 caterpillars and 379 pupse
were taken there ; in 1897, only 458 caterpillars and 14
pupffi were taken. In the summer a colony was found in the
central part of the town, which had become infested since
any work had been done there. This colony has since been
cleaned, but will require careful watching another year.

The reduction in the number of the different forms of the
moth found in Peabody indicates that a great improvement
has been made in the town.

Reading.

In 1896 no living form of the moth was found in Reading,
but in the winter of 1896-97 one hatched egg-cluster and one
dead pupa were found on a farm north of the centre of the
town. This place was burlapped in the summer of 1897,
and 10 caterpillars and 13 pupae were found there. No form
of the moth was found elsewhere in Reading.

Revere.

The only considerable tract of woodland in Revere adjoins
Maiden and Saugus, and is situated near Franklin Park.
This tract had never been thoroughly worked over until

338 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

1897, and it was here that most of the moths found were
killed. These woods became infested because of their near-
ness to infested woods just over the line in Saugus and Mai-
den. Early in the season this tract was looked over and a
considerable portion of the underbrush cut out and burned.
The trees were burlapped and attended through the summer.
Although the town has had no inspection during the fall,
winter or spring for several years, most of the residential
portions, including all the known colonies outside of the
woodland before mentioned, were gone over either in 1895
or 1896, and for three years nearly all the trees in town
have been burlapped each summer and well attended, so that
it has been kept in excellent condition ; but its situation is
close to the central infested towns, and thousands of people
travel from them to the Revere beaches during the summer.
On this account the moth will probably be found in Revere
so long as the central towns continue to be infested.

Salem.

All but two of the old colonies in the business and residential
part of Salem appear to have been exterminated. In one of
these colonies all the eggs which were found in the winter
of 1896-97 were destroyed. In the summer of 1897 cater-
pillars were taken here. In the fall inspection two egg-
clusters were found in the other colony.

In the Salem pastures many colonies of gypsy moths have
formerly been found. The vegetation on this tract consists
largely of red cedar interspersed with hard- wood trees, and
the ground is overgrown with barberry bushes and ground
juniper. The density of this growth renders a thorough
search for eggs impossible, but the young caterpillars can
readily be found on the low foliage. A search of a large
portion of the pastures was made during the spring, and
wherever caterpillars were found most of the trees were cut
and the ground and undergrowth burned over with oil.
Apparently this has exterminated the caterpillars from most
of these pasture colonies ; but this region will need a careful
watching for some years.

Most of the different forms of the moth found in Salem in
1897 were taken in the pastures.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 339

Saugus.
In years past a number of moth colonies have been found
in the villages of Saugus and along the roads. These were
worked and closely watched for two or three years. A later
discovery of the woodland colonies made it necessary to devote
to the woodland much of the time formerly given to the vil-
lages. Noth withstanding the best use that could be made of
that part of the appropriation which could be apportioned to
Saugus, the woodland colonies have been extending until
1897, when the exigencies of the work necessitated the mass-
ing of about one hundred men in Saugus for several months.
Nearly all of the infested woods were cleared of underbrush
and the dead trees cut out. In some of the worst colonies
the live trees were thinned out ; in others, the owners cut
the wood and the ground was then cleared and burned over.
Most of the colonies were thoroughly burlapped. This bur-
lapping was followed up during the summer, with the result
that the moths are now nearly exterminated from several of
these colonies, and the improvement in the condition of
nearly all of them is remarkable. For example, in the five
worst colonies 437,150 egg-clusters laid in 1896 and only
40,457 egg-clusters laid in 1897 were taken. There is a
portion of the Saugus woodland which has not been inspected
for years. This should be inspected during the winter of
1897-98, and any colonies found should be cleared up and
thoroughly worked. Another year of such work as has been
done in Saugus in 1897 should bring all the large colonies
which have been worked this year very near to extermination.

Somerville.
The good condition of Somerville, as reported last year,
has been maintained and somewhat improved so far as the
known colonies are concerned. There are a few localities in
which the moth still hangs on. Only 1,047 caterpillars were
taken in the city in the summer of 1897. On account of the
proximity of Medford, Somerville must be carefally watched
and inspected to prevent reinfestation .

340 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, [Pub. Doc.

8toneham.

The village of Stoneham was well burlapped during the
summer. Only a few scattered caterpillars were found here
and there, except in one or two localities, where a few more
were found.

This distribution of single caterpillars, which has been
made known by the use of burlaps during the summer, shows
that the Middlesex Fells region is a source from which towns
near by become reinfested. That portion of the Middlesex
Fells which is included in Stoneham has never been seriously
infested, except in the south-eastern corner of the town.
Several large colonies have been found in past years in the
vicinity of the Langwood Hotel, and near the Melrose,
Maiden and Medford lines.. Several have been exterminated
and others greatly improved in 1897.

Swampscott.
A few moths have been found this year in three localities
not far from the beach. The northern portion of the town,
which is more or less wooded and similar in appearance
and vegetation to parts of Salem pastures, has never been
thoroughly treated until within a year. In the spring of
1897 the trees in this section were thinned out, the under-
growth cut, and where the caterpillars appeared later the
ground was burned over. Since then few caterpillars have
been taken except in one locality, which should be care-
fully watched. All but one of the known colonies were
inspected in the fall and no egg-clusters were found.
Another tree-to-tree inspection would doubtless so com-
plete the extermination of the moth from Swampscott that
only an occasional examination would thereafter be needed.

Waltham.
In the only colony known to exist in Waltham in 1896 a
few caterpillars appeared in the spring of 1897. This was a
large woodland colony, and was carefully looked after dur-
ing the summer. A search of the entire residential part of
the city was conducted early in the fall, but no eggs were
found.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 341

Wakefield.

In 1896 the number of known colonies in Wakefield had
been reduced to five. In 1897 no moths were found in two
of these, but one of the colonies in Saugus woods has ex-
tended over the line into Wakefield, and some thousands
of caterpillars were taken there.

As all the old colonies in the central and northern part
of the town had been exterminated some years since, there
has been very little work done there since 1894, when a
tree-to-tree inspection of the whole town was made. An
examination of the centre of the town was made by one
man in November, 1897, and two egg-clusters were found.

Watertoum.
The last inspection was begun here in 1896 and finished
in 1897, when one small colony was found. This will re-
quire to be watched another year. Outside of this colony
the moths were found in Mt. Auburn cemetery only, which
is partially in Cambridge.

Winchester.
In the residential and business portions of Winchester
few gypsy moths were found in 1897. In many of the
village estates that have been found infested this year,
only one, two or three caterpillars have been found. The
caterpillars have been most numerous on the farms in the
outskirts of the town, especially in the orchards and woods
in the western and southern sections, adjoining Lexington,
Arlington and Medford. The worst infested of these wood-
land districts were cleared of underbrush in the winter of
1896-97 and the following spring, and burlapped. In two
or three of the colonies large numbers of the caterpillars
were killed, and the numbers of the moths greatly reduced,
so that now very few eggs can be found there. In other
colonies where many caterpillars were killed in 1895-96
very few were found in 1897. In one of the worst colonies
33 acres of woodland were cut by the owners and the
underbrush was burned. Wherever, in this tract, cater-
pillars were found in the spring, the ground and sprouts

342 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doo.

were burned over, and no evidence of the moth has been
discovered on this ground since. In another colony, in
which caterpillars have been abundant during the past two
summers, your agents cut off the wood from about ten
acres. The ground here was burned over wherever cater-
pillars appeared in the spring, and only two egg-clusters
have been found in this lot since the burnino;. In the
south-eastern portion of the town, liordering on the Middle-
sex Fells reservation, is a tract of farm land where there
have been strips of badly infested woodland. Most of this
was cut or cleared up in the spring of 1897, and vast num-
bers of the eggs were destroyed by fire. This work and
the burlapping of the summer has greatly reduced the
moths in this section and prevented their distribution to
other parts of the town.

Although Winchester has been more carefully examined
during the burlap season than last year, the number of cater-
pillars killed was much smaller. The numbers killed were
as follows: in 1896, 243,639 ; in 1897, 130,221.

Most of Winchester has been inspected quite thoroughly
within three years, either in the burlapping season or during
the fall, winter and spring.

As a whole, Winchester is now in better condition with
regard to the gypsy moth than it has been at any time dur-
ing the past few years.

Winthrop.
All the colonies in Winthrop in which any form of the
moth was found in 1896 were burlapped in 1897. The trees
were climbed and carefully inspected. Only 23 caterpillars
and 3 pupte were found. An inspection of the infested locali-
ties was made when the burlap was taken off, but no eggs
were found. The entire town was very thoroughly inspected
in 1896, and nearly all the trees in the town were burlapped
for three years in succession. The results reached are largely
due to a liberal use of burlap. The moth appears to be
nearly exterminated from Winthrop, but, as there is much
driving there during the summer from Maiden, Medford and
other infested towns, it is probable a few caterpillars will be
distributed there annually so long as they are to be found in
numbers in these central towns.

Hemlock killed by the gypsy moth in the Saugus woods.

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 343

Woburn.
In the residential and business parts of Woburn only a few
scattering caterpillars were found here and there during the
summer of 1897, with the exception of two localities, where
new colonies were discovered in the spring about the time
the eggs were hatching. These colonies were thoroughly
treated by fire and followed up by burlapping. Another
season they will require only careful watching and burlap-
ping. On account of the discovery of these colonies, the
number of caterpillars taken in Woburn this year was prac-
tically the same as the number taken last year. In the wood-
land, in the south-west corner of the city, where the largest
colonies of the moth had been found in past years, the cut-
ting and burning of infested wood and brush have been ex-
tended to the Winchester line. No moths have been found
on this tract since. Two wood lots near the Lexington line
have also been cut, and no doubt this and other measures
will eventually result in the extermination of the moth in
that section. The single isolated caterpillars found indicate
that they have been redistributed in Woburn during the past
summer by such means as originally infested the town. If
the moths can now be exterminated from the badly infested
centres in the inner towns, which are now reinfesting Woburn
and the other outer towns, there will be no difficulty in
clearing Woburn of the gypsy moth within a short time.

The Increase of the Moth in the Central Woodlands.

It becomes necessary now to revert to the history of the
eflbrts to exterminate the gypsy moth in former years.

In 1892 your committee ascertained, and then duly re-
ported, that at least 400 acres of central woodland were
known to be more or less infested by the gypsy moth, and
asked for means sufficient to stamp out the moth from these
forested tracts. Furthermore, your committee predicted
that, in case sufficient appropriations were not granted,
there would be great danger that the insect might extend
its hold in these woodlands, with the result that it might
be much more difficult to secure its extirpation. Means
adequate for the purpose were not then nor afterwards
granted.

344 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Your committee has from year to year, as in duty bound,
reported that an alarming increase and spread of the moth
was progressing in these woodlands, in spite of all the work
that could be done to check it with manifestly insufficient
appropriations.

In 1895 your committee ascertained and duly reported
that the forest infestation of 1892 (400 acres) had increased
to 3,000 acres. The increased appropriation granted in
1895 made possible the cleaning up of a small part of
these woodlands ; but, as the appropriation was greatly
reduced and delayed again in 1896, much of the advan-
tage gained by the work done in 1895 was lost. At least
2,000 acres of these woods were found in the winter of
1896-97 to be in a worse condition than ever before. Had
this increase and spread been allowed to go on in 1897, no
doubt the cost of the necessary exterminative work in these
woodlands in 1898 would have been greater than that of
handling the colonies in all the rest of the infested region,
and in fact greater than any annual appropriation which has
thus far been granted.

Methods of Extermination in Woodlands.
It was long since proved that the gypsy moth could
readily be exterminated from open and cultivated lands,
orchards and shade trees ; it has now been abundantly
shown that it can be exterminated from the woods. In
forest park lands, where it is not advisable to cut away
or burn trees, shrubbery and vines, progress has been
necessarily slow ; but in ordinary woodland extermination
has progressed more rapidly. In some cases the wood was
cut off by the owner, and, after undergoing a sufficient
quarantine, was marketed by him. The brush was then
burned, the land cleaned up and the ground burned over.
In other cases, where the land was sparsely wooded and
more or less grown up to underbrush, it was cleared and
burned over. Where the land was valuable for prospective
building purposes, it was burned over and nearly cleared,
leaving a few of the finer shade trees only, thus greatly
reducing the number of trees to be afterwards burlapped
and inspected. In other cases the number of trees was

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 345

reduced by cutting out only the worthless trees, and the
ground cleaned up by removing and burning the under-
brush. In certain colonies where the moth had appeared
in many thousands, the eggs on the trees were destroyed
and the ground burned over with oil. Later the trees were
banded with Raupenleim, to prevent the caterpillars ascend-
ing, and the few caterpillars which hatched from the eggs
remaining on the ground were thus starved. Any one of
these methods will bring about extermination, if supple-
mented by such others as can be used to the best advantage.
Extermination here, as elsewhere, must be verified through
several years by a thorough search in the summer for the
caterpillars and in the winter for the eggs of the moth.

The Progress of Extermination.
All practical entomologists who have followed the work of
extermination for the past six or seven years are now con-
vinced that the gypsy moth can be exterminated, and that its
extermination, under the present methods, is only a question
of time and adequate appropriations. People who hold op-
posite opinions seem to be impressed by the belief that the
gypsy moth is generally distributed over the whole so-called
infested territory of more than 200 square miles. This, em-
phatically, is not the case, nor has it ever been the case.
Outside the central towns the moth is found only in isolated
swarms or colonies, separated by wide intervals of uninfested
ground. In fact, the greater part of the region called in-
fested has never been invaded by the moth. For this reason
it is never necessary to make a careful, thorough search over
all the territory of the towns in the infested region, for the
purpose of discovering single caterpillars or moths. Such
scrupulous searching is essential only in and around the
known colonies. In seeking for and destroying the moth in
these colonies, the greater part of the appropriation has al-
ways been expended, and must always be, so long as the
moths are numerous. But there should also be, from time to
time, a rather rapid search of all the region between the col-
onies. This should be conducted in the fall, winter and
early spring, — when deciduous trees bear little or no foli-
age,— to provide against the establishment of new colonies.

346 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

This search over the entire country is what is called a tree-
to-tree examination, and is made, not to find the last cater-
pillar or the last moth, but to find the last colony. When
that is found, careful inspection, burning, spraying, burlap-
ping and other means must be utilized to destroy the last
moth in that locality.

When any given locality has been apparently freed from
the moth, extermination there must be verified by careful
examinations for a term of years before it can be authorita-
tively announced.

The methods now in use have always exterminated the
moth wherever they have been followed without interruption
for a reasonable period. A personal examination of the
colonies known to have been infested in 1897 leads to the
conclusion that much more progress toward extermination
has been made this year than in any previous season. Out-
side the Fells region, except in Maiden and Medford, the
condition of nearly all the known colonies has been greatly
improved by the work of 1897. Against this favorable state-
ment must be set the fact that less inspection than usual has
been made in 1897, except in or near the vicinity of the
known colonies. The residential and business sections of
several of the outer towns were, however, burlapped almost
entirely this year, and the burlap carefully inspected. This
resulted in the picking up of a stray caterpillar here and there
on territory not lately infested. The discovery of such strays
does not indicate the local hatching of even a single egg-
cluster, but rather demonstrates that the caterpillars have
been disseminated by vehicles and pedestrians within the
past two years from the large colonies (especially the wood-
land colonies) in the central towns into territory previously
cleared. But, it may be asked, why was not the moth eradi-
cated from these central woodlands while the colonies there
were still small, and, therefore, comparatively easy to exter-
minate? This was not done for the reason that before it
could be attempted there were discovered in the woodlands
of the outer towns, larger colonies which were then in worse
condition than were those in the inner towns. As money
enough had not been provided to attend to all, it became
necessary to attend to the outer towns first, on account of

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 347

their position near the border of the infested region. The
first duty of the committee, under the law, was to '* prevent
the spreading " of the gypsy moth ; and there was evidently
more danger then of the moths spreading from these outer
colonies into territory outside the infested region than there
was of their spreading into this outside territory from the
forest colonies in the central towns.

In summing up the progress of extermination, it may be
fairly stated that in the outer two-thirds of the district
known as the infested region there remain now only a few
known colonies, most of which are on the verge of extermi-
nation. From this portion of the infested region the moth
now appears to be almost, if not quite, exterminated.

The problem of extermination is now considerably simpli-
fied. The large colonies in the woodlands of the outer
towns have been either exterminated or so reduced that their
extermination is a matter of a short time. Serious danger
from this source of the conveyance of the moth into towns
beyond the border of the infested region has been eliminated.
It is true that the large woodland colonies in the Fells are
not improved. But a large force of men, which has hereto-
fore been of necessity scattered in isolated colonies in the
outer towns, can now be concentrated nearer the centre of
the infested region, in the Fells and Saugus colonies, and in
Maiden, Medford and Everett, where the work can be more
economically supervised and directed.

Why Laeger Appropriations are needed.

As it has been already stated that progress has been made
with past appropriations, the question may well be asked.
Why, then, are larger appropriations now required? It may
be answered in brief that we have now reached a time when
much more rapid progress must be made, or the success of
the whole work will be put in imminent peril. This is clear
for the following, among other reasons : —

1. A vast amount of work is immediately required in the
central woodlands, where, otherwise, the area now occupied
by the moth will greatly increase each year, thereby either
greatly increasing the final cost of extermination, or, by the

348 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

enormous expense involved, compelling the abandonment of
the whole exterminative work.

2. The increased danger of disseminating the moth, due
to the constant opening to travel of new paths, parkways,
boulevards and trolley lines, leading into and through these
woodlands, also makes immediate extermination necessary
there.

3. If extermination in these woodlands is to succeed, it
must be begun at once, and on a large scale. The work must
be of the most thorough nature, and it must be followed up
throughout every month of the year.

4. Much of this woodland has been taken for metropolitan
or municipal parks ; other large portions are highly valued
for prospective building purposes. While cutting and burn-
ing all the trees on these forested lands might be in the end
the most economical course, such measures need hardly be
considered in the case of public parks ; there less drastic
methods are recommended. If the trees are to be generally
preserved there, and it seems that they must be, the extermi-
nation of the moth from these lands will be extremely ex-
pensive. With larger appropriations in the past, advantage
could have been taken of the favorable conditions then exist-
ing. The moth could have been readily and rapidly exter-
minated from the colonies, then comparatively very small, in
the central woodlands, and thus, of course, prevented from
spreading over the large tracts it now occupies. A great
deal of money would thus have been saved in the end.

5. The reduction of past appropriations and the delay in
making them has necessitated a repetition of merely partial
work year after year in many colonies, deferring their exter-
mination and increasing its ultimate cost three to ten times.
The force in not a few instances has been compelled to skip
from one part of the territory to another, much as if a fire
department, in attempting to control a fierce conflagration
with an insuflicient number of men, should run about from
one outbreak to another, completely subduing none. Under
this policy the moth has increased and spread in every place
which has been for the time necessarily neglected.

6. Experience demonstrates that the moth colonies can-
not be exterminated in detail. On the contrary, if extermi-
nation is to succeed, every eftbrt must be made each 3'ear to

No. 4.] THE GYPSY MOTH. 849

exterminate all these colonies simultaneously. In the fall
of 1897, as in previous years, much work had to be left un-
done, in order that the most dangerous colonies might be
looked to. To do the required work in the Middlesex Fells,
it was necessary to neglect for two months all the outer and
intermediate colonies in two-thirds of the infested region.
It will require a large sum of money to thoroughly inspect
these colonies, and destroy, before hatching time, the few
egg-clusters still remaining there. To do the required work
in the generally infested central woodland and residential
territory in Medford, Melrose, Maiden, Everett and Saugus,
with portions of contiguous towns, will cost a larger sum
than has hitherto been used in any year in the entire infested
territory.

7. The moth, within the last three years, has shown
alarming evidence of increased vigor and fertility, and has
suffered little perceptible check from its parasitic or other
natural enemies. Unless the moth is stamped out promptly,
circumstances favorable to its still further increase may arise.

8. The discovery within the last two years of three colo-
nies of the moth outside of what has been known as the in-
fested region, emphasizes the necessity of another and more
thorough examination of all the towns bordering upon it.
If an undiscovered extra limital colony has already become
established near the infested region, a thorough examination
of a belt, two towns wide, outside the boundary of known
infestation, would bring it to light. Such an inspection,
covering the greater part of 1898 and the two following
years, ought to be made. Its cost would be heavy.

Conclusion.
If, through further reduced and delayed appropriations,
the moths in the central woodlands should be allowed to
increase in numbers and spread over more territory, even
though they might be so well held in check there as for a time
to do no appreciable injury, it would be but a few years
before the annual cost of exterminative work in the woods
alone would be greater than all the money heretofore ex-
pended in the entire region. It must be borne in mind, too,
that, if the central woods are now to be cleared, the residen-
tial parts of the towns and cities immediately adjoining these

350 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [P.D.No.4.

woods must also be promptly cleared of the moth, in order
that infestation may not be carried thence again into the
cleared areas both of forest and open country. The money
which has been thus far expended in the extermination of the
gypsy moth has accomplished much by protecting the or-
chards, gardens and forests of the infested region, and pre-
venting the spread of the moth throughout the State. It has
furnished an object lesson to the citizens who would have to
deal with the pest should the Commonwealth fail to support
the work. But, if extermination should be further delayed
by insufficient support, the money already expended will
have been thrown away, so far as accomplishing the end
in view is concerned, and in all probability the moth will
again occupy, not only the region from which it has been
cleared, but in due time the entire State also, from which
it will doubtless spread over the United States.

In short, the situation is this : in the outer towns, where
extermination has been pushed, it has succeeded ; in the
central towns, where, because of insufficient means, sup-
pression only could be tried, it has failed. Not only has
this enforced policy of mere suppression in the centre re-
sulted in failure, but it has also allowed the moth to spread,
thus jeopardizing again the outer towns. It is plain that
the only way to prevent the spread of the moth is to ex-
terminate it from the land. Further appropriations can be
justified only by a supreme effort to exterminate. No further
progress in extermination in toto is now possible with an
appropriation of less than $200,000. With the large num-
ber of experienced men now available, even a larger sum
could be used to advantao-e in 1898. It would be better to
give up the work now than to continue it with insufficient
appropriations, for in either case the moth will eventually
escape and spread over the country. If Massachusetts has
not the energy to crush this potent foe to agriculture and
forestry while she now has it in the hollow of her hand, — if
she cannot now provide ample appropriations for this pur-
pose,— then let not another dollar be expended.

Respectfully submitted,

E. H. FORBUSH.

APPENDIX.

The following papers represent as much of the scientific part of the
work for the extermination of the gypsy moth during the past year
as has been completed and prepared for publication. The gypsy moth
committee have held very broad and comprehensive views concerning
both the scientific investigations and the field work, for they recognize
the fact that all possible discoveries bearing on the destruction of this
insect pest should be made and given to the public, This very wise
policy has received the highest commendation from leading scientific
men both in this country and in Europe.

C. H. FERNALD.

ARSEI^ATE OF LEAD AS AN mSECTI-

CIDE.

C. H. FERNALD, ENTOMOLOGIST.

In the work of destroying the gypsy moth it was soon
discovered that Paris green would not kill many of the cater-
pillars, even when used in as large a proportion in water as
was possible without injury to the foliage of the trees. It
therefore seemed necessary to discover, if possible, some
insecticide that would destroy the caterpillars and at the same
time not injure the most delicate foliage. Mr. F. C. Moul-
ton, who was employed by the gypsy moth committee as
chemist, was directed to investigate the various compounds
of arsenic, and endeavor to find some substitute for the insec-
ticides then in use which possessed the necessary proper-
ties. After a long series of experiments, in 1892 he was so
fortunate as to discover arsenate of lead, which certainly
possesses the desirable characteristics more fully than any
insecticide previously known.

The first public mention of arsenate of lead was made in
the report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Octo-
ber, 1893, p. 23. In Bulletin No. 24 of the Hatch Experi-
ment Station, Amherst, Mass., published in April, 1894, a
more complete account was given of this insecticide and of
experiments with it on the tent caterpillar and Colorado
potato beetle. Mention was also made of this insecticide
under the name of ' ' gypsine " in the report of the gypsy
moth committee for 1894, pp. 20 and 35. The name "gyp-
sine " was given to this insecticide by Mr. Moulton, but, as
there was an entirely different product on the market by the
same name, this insecticide was called arsenate of lead, to
avoid confusion. In the report of the gypsy moth commit-
tee, February, 1894, p. 20, the announcement of the dis-
covery of arsenate of lead by F. C. Moulton was made by
Mr. E. H. Forbush, the field director, and the formula was
given. In the same year Prof. James Fletcher, in " Evi-

354 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

dence before the Standing Committee on Agriculture," in
the Canadian Parliament, pp. 19 and 20, referred to this new
insecticide ; and again in the report of the Entomological
Society of Ontario, p. 71 (1894), he referred to its value.
In the seventh annual report of the Vermont Agricultural
Experiment Station, p. 123 (1894), Dr. G. H. Perkins, the
entomologist, recommended the use of arsenate of lead for
the destruction of several different kinds of insects, and
gave the formula for making it.

Arsenate of lead was described by Mr. E. H. Forbush,
with its effects, value and limitations, in the report of the
gypsy moth committee for 1895, p. 1(). Mr. C. P. Louns-
bury, in Bulletin No. 28 of the Hatch Experiment Station,
p. 9 (1895), recommended this insecticide for the destruc-
tion of canker worms. In the Massachusetts Crop Report
of June, 1895, Mr. A. H. Kirkland gave a general descrip-
tion of arsenate of lead, its cost, etc. In the fifteenth
annual report of the New Jersey State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, p. 400 (1895), Prof. J. B. Smith described
arsenate of lead, and recommended it highly for use against
the elm-leaf beetle. In the "Proceedings of the Association
of Economic Entomologists," p. 24 (1895), Mr. C. L. Mar-
latt gave an account of this insecticide, with a formula for
its preparation furnished by Mr. K. P. McElroy of the
Division of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

A more complete account of arsenate of lead, with the his-
tory of its discovery, uses and numerous experiments per-
formed with it, was given in "The Gypsy Moth," by Forbush
andFernald, pp. 69, 80, 87, 142, 143, 145,449-473 (1896),
and Mr. Forbush gave an account of its use on hedges in the
report of the gypsy moth committee, p. 18 (1896). In Bul-
letin No. 36 of the Hatch Experiment Station, p. 6 (1896),
Mr. R. A. Cooley recommended the use of this insecticide
against the elm-leaf beetle. In the same year Prof. J. B.
Smith, in his "Economic Entomology," p. 436, described and
recommended arsenate of lead as an insecticide for leaf-eating
insects. In the "Proceedings of the Association of Eco-
nomic Entomologists" for 1896, p. 27, Mr. A. H. Kirkland
gave an account of arsenate of lead ; and in the same volume,
p. 44, Prof. J. B. Smith referred to the ease with which this

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 355

insecticide is prepared. In the proceedings of the same
society for 1897, p. 4G, Mr. Kirklaud gave a full account of
the use of arsenate of lead against the gypsy moth.

This insecticide is easily prepared by putting 11 ounces
of acetate of lead in 4 quarts of water in a wooden pail, and
4 ounces of arsenate of soda (50 per cent.) in 2 quarts of
water in another wooden pail, and when entirely dissolved
mixing them in a hogshead containing 150 gallons of water,
when a chemical reaction will take place, forming arsenate
of lead as a fine white powder in suspension in the water.
If cold water be used, the solution of the acetate of lead
will require a little time ; but, however, if the water be hot,
it will dissolve very quickly. It is customary to add from
2 to 4 quarts of glucose to the above amount of water.
If it is desired to use larger proportions of the arsenate of
lead, it is only necessary to use more acetate of lead and
arsenate of soda, but in the proportions given above. A
more detailed and exact explanation is given in a following
paper by Mr. F. J. Smith.

Arsenate of lead has already proved to be the most val-
uable insecticide known for the destruction of the gypsy
moth. It does not injure the foliage of the most delicate
plants, even when used in as large a proportion as 25 pounds,
or even more, to 150 gallons of water ; in fact, there is no
known arsenical insecticide so harmless to vegetation as arse-
nate of lead. This substance remains in suspension in water
much longer than Paris green, because of its very low spe-
cific gravity, which is 1.00668, while that of Paris green is
3.42225. In spraying, the low specific gravity of arsenate
of lead and its consequent suspension in water for a consider-
able length of time make it possible to distribute it more
evenly over vegetation. The white color is also a decided
advantage, for one is able to see at a glance whether a tree
or shrub has been sprayed ; and it is a noteworthy fact that
this insecticide adheres to the foliage far longer than any
similar substance now in use.

What has been said with regard to the value of this insec-
ticide for the destruction of the gypsy moth is also true in
the case of other leaf-eating insects. In every case where
we ourselves have performed experiments on these insects,
and in all cases reported by others who appear to understand

356 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the use of it, the most satisfactory results ' have been ob-
tained. It is undoubtedly true that larger proportions of
this substance must be used than of Paris green, but this can
be done with entire safety to the vegetation. The cost of
the insecticide forms a very small part of the cost of spray-
ing; and since arsenate of lead remains on the foliage so
much longer than other insecticides, a much larger pro-
portion can be used and even then be much cheaper than
substances which wash off readily in showers, making it
necessary to spray the trees a second time.

A large percentage of the spraying done in orchards at the
present time is with a mixture of an insecticide and a fungi-
cide ; because, as has already been said, the great expense is
in the labor, and not in the materials used ; and when the
insecticide and fungicide can be applied together, the cost of
one spraying is saved. We have not experimented as yet
with a fungicide mixed with arsenate of lead, but our chem-
ist, Mr. F. J. Smith, informs me that he does not think there
will be any reaction between arsenate of lead and the Bor-
deaux mixture to prevent using them together, but that they
may be mixed and used as readily as Paris green and the
Bordeaux mixture. Professor Craig, in his report as hor-
ticulturist of the Experimental Farms, 1895, p. 119, records
excellent results with arsenate of lead against the codling
moth, and also good success in using the insecticide and
Bordeaux mixture together.

Spraying may almost be regarded as a fine art. Not every
one of those even who have had a long experience at the
work can spray a tree properly. I have repeatedly examined
trees which had been sprayed by those who considered them-
selves experienced hands at the work, and found the leaves
so wet that the water was dripping from them or standing on
the surface in such quantity that the poison was settling on
the lower part, where it either ran off, or, when the water
evaporated, the poison was confined to a fractional portion
of the leaf. Spraying should be done with a nozzle that
gives only a fine, mist-like spray, and should be stopped
before it runs on the leaves. This is more easily said than
done, but we often find men who seem to catch the idea, and
stop at the exact time.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 357

ARSEl^ATB OF LEAD: ITS MANUFACT-
URE ANT> CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

FREDERIC J. SMITH, M.S., CHEMIST TO THE COMMITTEE.

The value of arsenate of lead as an insecticide has been
fully set forth in the preceding paper by the entomologist.
Since this insecticide has come into such general use, the
present seems a proper time to place on record the essential
facts concerning the ingredients used in making arsenate of
lead, the chemical reactions that are involved and the exact
composition of the final product. The results of our work
will, it is hoped, be all the more serviceable to economic
entomologists because it is apparent that the preparation
of this substance has not been generally understood, as is
shown by several erroneous and conflicting statements which
have been published concerning this subject.

To be exact, the arsenate of lead used in spraying oper-
ations is not a salt whose composition may be definitely
expressed by a single formula, but instead is a mixture of
both di-plumbic and tri-plumbic arsenates, the relative quan-
tities of each depending principally upon the source of the
soluble lead salt used. Since the term "arsenate of lead"
has now become so well established, it will be used in its
general sense in the present paper.

Ingredients.

Theoretically, in the preparation of arsenate of lead it is
only necessary to form a chemical union between the com-
mon lead oxide (litharge), PbO, and arsenic pentoxide,
AsoOg ; but, in order to obtain a product suitable for use as
an insecticide, the chemical union must take place between
soluble salts containing these oxides. In general practice,
arsenate of lead suitable for spraying purposes is prepared
by bringing together commercial grades of acetate or nitrate

358 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

of lead and arsenate of soda. Owing to the variable com-
position of these commercial salts, a chemical analysis of
each is indispensable, as indicating the relative amounts to
be used. All such calculations must be based upon the
quantity of lead oxide (PbO) found in the lead salt and that
of arsenic pentoxide (AsgOg) contained in the arsenate of
soda, making due allowance for other acidulous radicals
which may precipitate the lead.

Both the acetate and the nitrate of lead are extensively
used in paint and dyeing industries, and especially as mor-
dants in calico printing. Arsenate of soda is chiefly used
to remove mordants.

A^cetale of Ziead, Lead Acetate^ Sugar of Lead.

So far as is known to the writer, this salt is the one gen-
erally used as a source of soluble lead oxide for the prepara-
tion of arsenate of lead. Acetate of lead may be obtained
in the market in all grades, from clear, transparent crystals
to dark gray or brown lumps, and is usually quite free from
adulteration. It is prepared either by exposing litharge
(PbO) to the action of the vapors of pyroligneous acid,
or by dissolving metallic lead in pyroligneous acid and re-
crystallizing the products from water solutions. Pure lead
acetate crystallizes in four-sided prisms, containing three
molecules of water of crystallization. Crystals formed by
the sudden cooling of a hot saturated water solution sepa-
rate in a more finely divided condition than those formed by
a slow evaporation. The finer crystals are especially desir-
able when the salt is to be used for technical purposes, or
when it is necessary to dissolve a large quantity in a short
space of time.

When the crystallized salt is exposed to the action of the
air there is a rapid loss of water of crystallization (efllores-
cence) and also a slow formation of lead carbonate, due to the
action of carbon di-oxide contained in the air. Thus the
percentage composition of crystallized lead acetate may be
materially changed. Loss of weight by efllorescence yields
a product containing a higher percentage of actual lead
acetate than the original crystallized salt, accompanied by

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

359

an increase of insoluble lead carbonate. The increase in the
percentage of lead acetate that accompanies efflorescence is
well illustrated by sample No. 4 of Table No. 1. Pure crys-
tallized lead acetate contains 58.81 per cent, of lead oxide ;
but this sample, which had been exposed to the air in a
loosely covered vessel for over six months previous to analy-
sis, yielded 66.795 per cent, of lead oxide. The following
table indicates the amounts of available lead oxide contained
in different market grades of acetate of lead : —

Table No. 1.

Percentage of

Lead Oxide

(PbO).

No. 1, crystallized acetate lead, from drug store,
No. 2, crystallized acetate lead, from drug store.
No. 3, crystallized acetate lead, from drug store.
No. 4, crystallized acetate lead (effloresced) , .

No. 5, "chemically pure white acetate lead powder," from

wholesale chemist.
No. 6, '• white acetate lead granulated," from wholesale

chemist
No 7, " white acetate lead lumps," from wholesale chemist,

No. 8, "brown acetate lead," from wholesale chemist,

59.525
61.548
60.650
66.795
62.500
60.800
60.550
62.290

Samples Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were supposed to be chemically
pure. No. 4 has been previously described. No. 5 is some-
what more expensive than the other market grades, is in
a very finely divided condition and dissolves very readily in
water. No. 6 is the grade used last year by the gypsy moth
committee for the preparation of arsenate of lead. This
salt contains many lumps, which consist of finely divided
crystals. These lumps dissolve readily in cold water. No.
7 dissolves slowly in cold water, but easily in hot water.
No. 8 contains a considerable amount of tarry matters and a
small quantity of basic acetate of lead. In handling any of
these salts, proper care should be taken to avoid inhaling
their dust. Lead is a " cumulative" poison, and when once
absorbed is with difficulty eliminated from the system.

360 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Nitrate of Lead^ Lead Nitrate, Lead Saltpetre.

Pb(N03),.

The comparative cheapness of this salt first suggested its
possible value for the preparation of arsenate of lead. Ex-
periments made during the summer of 1897 indicate that
arsenate of lead prepared from the nitrate also possesses
properties quite as important as the lower market price of
the latter salt. The grade of this salt most common in the
market varies somewhat in its chemical composition. It is
prepared by dissolving "lead scale "or litharge (PbO) in
hot dilute nitric acid; upon evaporation, the nitrate of lead
crystallizes out in transparent octohedral crystals. Lead
nitrate has the advantage of containing a high percentage of
lead oxide. In the reaction between lead and nitric acid
there is a tendency toward the formation of basic salts, and
the commercial lead nitrate usually contains a higher per-
centage of lead oxide than the chemically pure crystals.
Lead nitrate is not affected by exposure to the air, and does
not dissolve in water as readily as the acetate. The results
obtained from the analyses of three samples of lead nitrate
are given in the following table : —

Table No. 2.

Percentage of

Lead Oxide

(PbO).

No. 1, nitrate of lead, from drug store,
No. 2, nitrate of lead, from dnig store.
No. 3, nitrate of lead, from wholesale chemist,

68.37
67.76
66.37

Arseiiate of Soda, Arseniate of Soda, Di-sodic Arsenate,
Hydrodi-sodium Arsenate.

Na^HAsO^CH^O)".

Aside from the mono-metallic arsenates, the soluble salts
of arsenic acid are limited to those of the alkaline metals.
Of the latter, the arsenates of potash and ammonium are

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 361

rarely met with, and have but a limited use in medicine ;
while sodium arsenate, from its abundance in the market and
low cost, is the only one that may be profitably considered
as a source of soluble arsenic acid. Several grades of this
salt, containing from 50 to 75 per cent, of arsenate of soda,
are found in the market.

The sodium arsenate of commerce was formerly prepared
by dissolving common white arsenic in a hot solution of
caustic soda, with the addition of a sufiicient quantity of
sodium nitrate, the whole being evaporated to dryness and
fused, when the sodium arsenite became oxidized to sodium
arsenate. At the present time, commercial arsenate of soda
is chiefly produced as a secondary product of the German
aniline industries. I am informed by Mr. John S. Rigby,
F.R.S., of Liverpool, that English manufacturers of sul-
phuric acid are now using white arsenic in the place of
sulphuric acid for decomposing nitrate of soda in the nitre
pots, and are thus producing arsenate of soda as a by-
product.

The pure crystallized salt sold by druggists is prepared by
dissolving the crude arsenate of soda in water and concen-
trating the solution, when di-sodium arsenate having the
formula Na2HAs047H20 crystallizes out.

Pure di-sodium arsenate is isomorphous with di-sodium
phosphate, and possesses almost identical physical and chem-
ical properties. Under ordinary conditions di-sodium phos-
phate crystallizes with 12 molecules of water, but di-sodium
arsenate crystallizes with 12 molecules of water only when
the solution is evaporated and crystallized below the tem-
perature of 18° C. (Fresenius, J. pr. Chemie 56, 30.) In
discussing the preparation of arsenate of lead Mr. K. P.
McElroy unfortunately overlooked the fact that the arsenate
of soda containing 12 molecules of water is quite unsuitable
for the purpose, and hence the directions given by him
("Proceedings of the Association of Economic Entomolo-
gists," 1895, p. 24) are misleading. The amount of water
in the commercial salt is dependent upon its manner of
preparation and care in storage. All the commercial grades
contain less water of crystallization than the crystallized
salt, Na2HAs047H20, commonly sold by druggists, and when

362

BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the composition of the commercial salt is expressed as a
formula, the water present may be written as (H2O)", where
n == the number of molecules of water.

The most economical grades of arsenate of soda for the
preparation of arsenate of lead are those containing the
highest percentage of arsenic pentoxide, As.,05, and the least
amounts of chlorine and other foreign substances. A high
percentage of arsenic acid alone is not necessarily indicative
of the purity or value of the salt. The great variation in
the composition of the different grades of arsenate of soda
is exhibited in Table No. 3, and is probably due to different
processes of manufacture, and possibly, in the case of the
first sample, to adulteration with salt (NaCl).

Table No. 3.

CONSTITUENTS.

Sample No. 1.

Sample No. 2.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Water at 200^ C, .

7.73

26.72

Chlorine,

17.81

2.60

Arsenic pentoxide (As^Og),

39.69

45.39

Sodium oxide, ....

14.03

15.07

Sodium as cMoride,

11.54

1.70

Potassium oxide, ....

6.02

7.63

Insoluble matter, ....

1.87

.19

Sulphates and nitrates (estimated).

1.31

.70

100.00

100.00

Sample No. 1 is known to the trade as "50 per cent,
arsenate soda," and is sold at a lower price than the " 65 per
cent, arsenate soda" represented by sample No. 2. For the
preparation of arsenate of lead it will suffice to determine
the amounts of arsenic pentoxide and chlorine present in
the arsenate of soda. Determinations made from four repre-
sentative samples of arsenate of soda follow : —

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

363

Table No. 4.

Arsenic
Peiitoxide.

No. 3, chemically pure crystals, from drug store,
No. 4, chemically pure crystals, from drug store.
No. 5, commercial, 58 to 60 per cent..
No. 7, commercial, 68 to 70 per cent.,

Per Cent.
36.86

36.77
37.70
47.80

.75
.57

The Presence of Chlorine in Arsenate of Soda.*
There are probably no commercial grades of arsenate
of soda wholly free from chlorine but its presence to the
amount of 2. or 3 per cent, does no serious harm. If chlorine
be present to a greater extent than 4 or 5 per cent., upon
the addition of the soluble lead salt to the impure arsenate
of soda a considerable quantity of chloride of lead will be
precipitated. This but wastes the soluble lead salt, since
chloride of lead has practically no value as an insecticide.
The reaction in this case may be expressed by the following
equation : —

Pb(C2H302)23H20 + 2NaCl = PbCl2-|-2NaC2H302+3H20.

The solubility of lead chloride in water at 20° C. is .9712
part to 100 (Formanck), and in hot water 1 part to 22
(Wittstein).f The arsenate of lead should be precipitated
in a dilute solution, and where possible, brook or hydrant
water should be used in preference to colder spring or well
water.

Arsenate of Lead., Lead Arsenate.

Arsenate of lead may be prepared by mixing a solution of
arsenate of soda with a solution containing either acetate
or nitrate of lead. As previously stated, it consists of a

* Several other impurities, such as arsenious acid, sulphates, nitrates, etc., also
occur in commercial arsenate of soda. The arsenious acid, upon the addition of a
soluble lead salt, is precipitated as arsenite of lead, which possesses considerable
value as an insecticide.

t A. M. Corney, "Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities," 1896, p. 206.

364 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

mixture of the di-plumbic and tri-plumbic arsenates, their
relative proportions varying accordmg to the conditions of
temperature and concentration at the moment of precipi-
tation.

Where the acetate of lead is used approximately, the whole
of the arsenate of load product consists of tri-plumbic arsen-
ate, as indicated by the following reaction : —

3Pb(C„H30o)o3H20-j-2Na2HAs04(H20)° =
Pb3(AsOJ,+ 4NaC2H3024-2C2H,02+o(H,0).

In order to prepare arsenate of lead successfully, great care
must be taken to establish an exact ratio between the quan-
tities of the soluble lead and arsenic salts, otherwise injury
to the foliage may result. The reaction between acetate of
lead and arsenate of soda may be summarized as follows : —

3PbO + As,05=iPb3(As04)2-

One part Pb3(As04)2 requires .74416 part PbO and
.25584 part Aa^Oj. Experience has shown that it is advis-
able to increase the amount of lead oxide to .77812, in order
to insure an excess of lead. A single example will suffice to
show how the relative amounts of soluble lead and arsenic
salts may be fixed.

Let it be required to prepare 1 pound of arsenate of lead
from samples of lead acetate (X) and sodium arsenate (Y),
containing respectively 60 per cent, lead oxide (PbO) and
40 per cent, arsenic pentoxide (AsgOg) : —

77812

X=:^^ :rr 1.2969 pounds lead acetate.

.60 ^

Y=:^ = .6396 pound arsenate of soda.

.40 ^

Should the arsenate of soda contain 7 per cent, chlorine,
in addition to the arsenic pentoxide, there would be required
an additional amount of lead acetate (Z) to complete the
reaction between the two salts. One part chlorine is equiv-
alent to 3.1408 parts PbO, and the amount of lead acetate
required is determined as follows : —

.6396 X-07X 3.1408 „„,« ,, , ..

Z = — — = . 2343 pound lead acetate.

. .60 ^

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 365

Adding the values of X and Z, we find that 1.5312 pounds
lead acetate are required for the reaction with .6396 pound
arsenate of soda of the grade specified. Expressing these
quantities in avoirdupois weights, 1 pound arsenate lead re-
quires 1 pound S^ ounces acetate of lead and 10|^ ounces
arsenate soda.

The following equation represents the reaction between
arsenate of soda and nitrate of lead : —

5Pb(N03) 2+ iNa^HAsO^ (H20)'' =
Pb3(AsOj.,4-2PbHAsO^-f 8NaN03+2HN03+„(H20).

The essential features of this reaction may be summarized
as follows : —

5PbO-}-2As2064-H20 = Pb5H2(As04)4,

One part Pb5H2(As04)4 requires .70 part PbO and .30
part AS2O5. A proper excess of lead oxide may be obtained
by increasing the quantity mentioned to .7914, which will
insure the complete precipitation of the arsenic.

Let it be required to prepare 1 pound of arsenate of lead

from samples of lead nitrate (X) and sodium arsenate (Y),

containing respectively QQ per cent. PbO and 40 per cent.

AsoOg : —

.7914

X=^^ -zzz 1 . 1990 pounds lead nitrate.

.66 ^

= . 7500 pound arsenate of soda.

.40

Should the arsenate of soda contain 7 per cent, chlorine,
as in the preceding case, the additional amount of lead
nitrate (Z) required may be determined as follows : —

„ . 7600 X. 07X3. 1408 „,._^ .. a ; ,

Zi= ■ = .2498 pound lead nitrate.

.66

Adding the values of X and Z, we find that 1.4488 pounds
lead nitrate and .75 pound arsenate of soda are required for
the preparation of 1 pound arsenate of lead. In avoirdupois
terms the relative weights stand as follows : 1 pound 2|
ounces nitrate of lead and 12 ounces arsenate of soda.

366

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Freshly prepared arsenate of lead consists of very finely
divided particles, slightly aggregated into a flocculent, curdy
white precipitate, having a specific gravity of about 1.00668,
and remaining in suspension for a remarkably long time.
The flocculent character of the precipitate facilitates its uni-
form application to the foliage, and when applied as a fine
spray it soon dries to a tenacious and permanent film. In
drying in mass this salt becomes compact and increases in
specific gravity. Analyses of two air-dried samples of ar-
senate of lead, prepared respectively from the acetate and
nitrate of lead, gave tiie following results : —

Table No. 5.

CONSTITUENTS.

Sample No. 1.

Sample No. 2.

Per Cent.

Per Cent.

Water,

2.37

5.11

Lead oxide, PbO,

73.10

69.85

Arsenic pentoxide, AsgOg, ....

21.80

24.92

Chlorine,

2.40

Trace.

Other acidulous radicals, ....

Trace.

Trace.

99.67

99.88

In the preceding table sample No. 1 was prepared from
"white granulated acetate of lead" and "50 per cent,
arsenate of soda ; " No. 2 was prepared from commercial lead
nitrate and " 65 per cent, arsenate of soda."

Where arsenate of lead is to be made on a large scale,
after determining the relative amounts of the salts to be
used it is advisable to test the formula by preparing a trial
quantity, and examining the supernatant liquid for soluble
lead and arsenic. For this purpose it is necessary to filter
a portion of the supernatant liquid. If an excess of lead
is present, by adding a few drops of potassium neutral or
bi-chromate solution a beautiful chrome yellow precipitate is
formed. A simple test for soluble arsenic acid may be made
by adding to a portion of the filtered solution a few drops

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 367

of lead acetate solution. A white precipitate indicates the
presence of soluble arsenic. From the injury to foliage pro-
duced by soluble arsenic in spraying mixtures, it is of prime
importance that the liquid should show the presence of an
excess of lead. When the nitrate of lead is used, the reaction
may sometimes show an excess of lead before the arsenic is
fully precipitated. In such cases, if the test for arsenic be
made, a decided reaction will reveal its presence, and it
becomes necessary to add a sufficient quantity of lead nitrate
to complete the reaction.

The gypsy moth committee use annually several tons of
arsenate of lead, preparing it, previous to 1897, according to
the formula originally given by Mr. Moulton, " sodic arse-
niate, 29.93 per cent. ; plumbic acetate, 70.07 per cent."
(Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture,
1893, p. 282.) Careful investigations have shown that there
is a difference in the chemical composition of these com-
mercial salts that cannot be ignored, and that single arsenic
and lead salts cannot be taken as types to fix the relative
proportions. These salts w^ere mixed together, weighed out
in suitable quantities and placed in bags. Previous to being
added to the contents of the spraying tank, this mixture was
boiled in a kettle until the reaction between the salts was
complete. While results obtained from arsenate of lead
prepared in this manner are far superior to those obtained
by the use of Paris green, several objectionable features
developed, the principal one being an incomplete reaction
between the mixed salts stored in bags. By this process the
particles of arsenate of soda became coated with a thin crust
of arsenate of lead, and when sprayed upon the foliage broke
down, liberating soluble arsenic and injuring the leaves.
Arsenate of lead mixture prepared by grinding together the
commercial salts is also of variable composition, and gives
very uneven results. Some samples contain a great excess
of lead, while in others the arsenate of soda predominates.
Because of the incomplete reaction previously mentioned and
the uneven composition of the mixture, the arsenate of lead
thus obtained often possesses mechanical properties that
hinder its application to the foliage.

The best results in the preparation of arsenate of lead have

368 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

been obtained by the method adopted during the season of
1897. The amounts of lead oxide and arsenic pentoxide in
the commercial salts having been determined the necessary
quantities of acetate of lead and arsenate of soda were fixed.
The work of weighing the salts was carried on rapidly by the
aid of ballasts, on balance scales. The acetate of lead was
placed in a strong paper bag which was sufficiently large to
hold the smaller bag of arsenate of soda, and the whole made
into a single package and tied with stout twine. A printed
label giving directions for the preparation of arsenate of lead
was attached to each package. When needed for spraying
the salts were dissolved separately by suspending each in a
small basket in a wooden* tub or keg of water. When the
solutions thus obtained are poured into the spraying tank
partially filled with water, arsenate of lead is thrown down
as a fine white precipitate. Acetate of lead dissolves in water
at about the rate of 1 pound to 1 gallon ; arsenate of soda dis-
solves readily at the rate of 1 pound to 3 quarts of water.
Both these salts dissolve easily in smaller quantities of hot
water, and where the latter is available it should be used in
preference to cold water. In either case great care must be
taken to avoid spilling the solutions before precipitation.

It should be recognized that the arsenate of lead commonly
sold in the market is a mixture and not a compound, and in
reality contains but about 50 per cent, of actual arsenate of
lead. In making recommendations concerning the use of this
insecticide, care must be taken to indicate whether the arsen-
ate of lead or arsenate of lead mixture is to be used. Table
No. 6 gives the amounts of " white granulated acetate lead"
and " 65 per cent, arsenate soda" necessary to make known
quantities of arsenate of lead. In this case the acetate of lead
contains 60 per cent. PbO, and the arsenate of soda 45 per
cent. AsoOj and 3 per cent, chlorine.

* Metallic pails should uever be used.

No. 4.]

GYPSY MOTH— APPENDIX.

369

Table No. 6.

Arsenate of Lead.

Acetate of Lead
Kequired.

Arsenate of Soda
Kequired.

Arsenate of Lead
Mixture.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

1

If

1

2

3

4

iiV

5^V

5

- 6|

n

9-t

8

- 101

4f

- 15t-V

1

1 5

91

1 14i

3

3 15

1 Hi

5 lOi

5

6 9

1 181

8 &\

10

18 2

5 lOf

8 12|

Table No. 7 gives the amounts of an average nitrate of
lead and the same grade (65 per cent.) of arsenate of soda
necessary to make known amounts of arsenate of lead. In
this case the nitrate of lead contains 66.5 per cent. PbO
and the arsenate of soda 45 per cent. As.^O^ and 3 per cent,
chlorine.

Table No. 7.

Arsenate of Lead.

Nitrate of Lead
Kequired.

Arsenate of Soda
Kequired.

Arsenate of Lead
Mixture.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

1

- n

_ 5

8

2—

8

4

2

6

5

6|

3|

- 10+

8

- lOi

- 5i

- lbh+

1

1 4i

- lOf

1 15-f

3

3 13i

2

5 13i

5

6 6i

8 5i

9 111

10

12 13

6 lOf

19 7|

370 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

EXPEKIMEJS^TS WITH IN^SECTICIDES.

A. H KIRKLAND, A. F BURGESS.

The dependence that necessarily must be placed upon
spraying with insecticides as a means of controlling the
gypsy moth in park lands and other places where more
heroic measures cannot be employed has led the committee
to encourage extensive investigations, under the direction of
the entomologist, of insecticides both new and old, these ex-
periments having for their object the discovery of poisons
that may be used effectively against the gypsy moth, as well
as the cheapening of the ones already in use. The discov-
ery by F. C. Moulton in 1893 of the insecticidal value of
arsenate of lead, and the reduction of the cost of this poison
in 1897 to the extent of over one hundred dollars per ton
through joint investigations by the chemist and entomolo-
gists, are among the practical results of this work.

In the course of these experiments a mass of facts has
accumulated which it now seems desirable to place on record.
While the field of our investigations has been a limited one,
the application of the results to other insects gives the mat-
ter a wider siofnificance. In considerino; the value of the
insecticides here discussed in relation to insects other than
the gypsy moth, the remarkable resistance to arsenical
poison shown by this insect should be taken into consid-
eration.

It will be noticed that the experiments in part cover the
caterpillar seasons of two years. In such cases the work of
1897 has been a continuation, on a larger scale, of that of
1896. In the indoor experiments the larvae were confined in
suitable cages and supplied daily with freshly poisoned food.
In the experiments out of dooi*s the insects were confined in
large cloth bags upon branches previously sprayed with the

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

371

insecticide. The larvae used in the earlier experiments were
obtained by the artificial incubation of the eggs.

For the sake of brevity the results of the experiments are
presented in tabular form. The heading of each table states
the age of the larvae used, the poisons and amounts of each
to 150 gallons of water. The figures indicate the total num-
ber of lai-vse found dead on successive days. In each experi-
ment ten larvae were used. The check experiments afford
data concerning the normal death-rate of larvae feeding on
unpoisoned food.

Paris Green v. White Arsenic.

Indoor Experiments, commenced Feb. 5, 1897. — Larvce in First

Stage.

a

o

b"

o

a

o

a

o"

^

<o

NO. OF DAYS.

OS

00 ""

'5

a

Oo

'S

Oo

o«

Oo

ooo

^
M

o

.£ '"'

di

s

2 ■— 1

to rl

V

u

ejiN

C3"

u

a-"

i.

a*

Oh

<

O,

<

Oi

<

a,

<

Ch

<

O

1

-

-

2

-

-

2

1

1

1

5

_

2

1

3

6

1

1

2

2

1

3

8

-

3, .

2

5

7

2

3

5

4

2

10

10

-

4

3

6

8

7

6

a

5

9

-

-

4

6

7

8

8

7

9

9

5

9

-

-

5

6

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

-

-

7

Duplicate Experiment, commeyiced March 26, 1897.

NO. OF DAYS.

a

o

a

a
'U

"3

o"
a

V

hi

Is

o

"3

■5

1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9.
10,

6
10

6

7

10

2

8

9

10

7

8

10

_

2
6
7
9
10

2

8

10

4
6
6
8
9
10

6

9

9

10

372

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Duplicate Experiment^ etc. — Concluded.

a
(a
(a

caoo

1

0*00

o
<

a
•So

i

a
a

<

Checks.

NO. OF DAYS.

No.l.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

1,
2,
3.
4,

5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,

4
6
7
9
9
9
9
9
9
10

6
9
9
10

4
4
7
7
8
9
9
9
10

2
7
10

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

-

1
1

_•

* One larva lost.

Indoor Experiments, commenced April 5, 1897. — Larvce in

Second Stage.

o

o

a

o

a

o

a

a

NO. OF DAYS.

cbo

iJ"

©o

^S

^g

al 1— t

o

£ .-*

.2 "^

o

.2 "V

a>

S-i

B<N

•^

a"

^

<

(U

<

fe

<

et,

<

1

4

5

5

3

_

-

6

.")

2.

5

5

5

3

1

3

8

9

3

6

7

6

5

1

4

8

10

4

8

8

7

6

4

6

9

-

5,

8

9

8

7

5

8

10

-

6,

9

9

8

9

7

8

-

-

7

10

9

10

10

9

9

-

-

8

-

9

-

-

10

9

-

-

9,

-

10

-

-

-

10

-

-

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

373

Indoor Experiments, etc. — Concluded.

a

P4

1

<

a
a

■zl

i

a
<a

£

<

Ohbcks.

No.l.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

1. .

2, .

3, .

4, ,

5, .

6, .

7, .

8, .

9, .

4
6
9
9
9
9
9
10

5

8
9
10

_

5
5
7
8
9
10

3
5
8
8
10

-

-

-

-

Outdoor Experiments, commenced May 20, 1897. — Larvce in

Second Stage.

NO. OF
DAYS.

a"

1'^

g

a

4)
<

Checks.

NO. OF
DAYS.

a
i

Oh

o

O'-l

ss
<

Checks.

o

d

CO

6

d

d
!25

CO

d

1,

2,

3, . .

4,

5,

3

6
7
8
9

4
6

7
7

5

8

6
6

1

7

6, .

7, .

8, . • .

9, .
10, .

9
9
9
10

7
9
9
9
10

8
8
9
9
9

6
6
9
9
9

7

7

9

10

374

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Indoor Experiments, commenced April 15, 1897. — Larvae in

Third Stage.

^

^

^

^

fl

o

o

a

a

NO. OF DAYS.

Oo

'^9

Oo

Od

"S

.2 *"*

0)

a

.2 '~*

<u

»- _L

2

a«

k>

a"

u

*- JL

£

Ph

<

Pi

<

O,

<

CU

<

1,

-

1

1

-

6

3

3

6

2,

3

3

5

3

7

5

5

7

3.

3

4

7

6

8

8

8

10

*.

6

6

8

8

10

10

9

-

5,

6

8

9

8

-

-

10

-

6.

8

8

10

10

-

-

-

-

7,

10

8

-

-

-

-

.-

-

8.

-

8

-

-

-

-

-

-

9.

-

9

-

-

-

-

-

-

10,

-

10

-

-

-

-

-

Indoor Experiments, etc. — Concluded.

a

(O

S

"S

a

Is

s

1

<

Checks.*

NO. OF DATS.

No.l.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

1.
2.
3.
4.
6,
6.
7.
8,

e>

10.

7
8
10

5

7
10

9
10

5

10

1
1
1
1

-

3
3
3
4

1

1
1

* Discontinued at the end of one week, as all the living larvae had molted.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

375

Outdoor Experiments,* commenced May 28, 1897. — Larvce in

Third Stage.

* Discontinued at the end of twenty-one days.

Indoor Experiments, commenced April 26, 1897. — Larvae, in

Fourth Stage.

^

^

^

,

a

o

a

o

a

o

a

o

NO. OF DAYS.

OS

jT'-'

"^J

S^

Od

OM

"^J

c^iA

"cj!

ai

'cy.

<u

■c7

<V

'E '

V

Ph

<

m

<i

Cu

<

O,

<3

1. .

2

-

4

1

4

6

5

9

2. .

4

2

5

2

4

9

8

9

3, .

7

4

6

2

6

9

9

9

4, .

7

6

7

6

7

9

8

10

6, .

10

8

8

10

10

10

10

-

«, .

-

10

8

-

-

-

-

-

7, .

-

-

8

-

-

-

_

-

8, .

-

-

9

-

-

-

-

-

9. .

-

10

-

-

-

-

-

376

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Indoor Experiments^ etc. — Concluded.

1

a
•CO

g

a

2

<3

Checks.

NO. OF DATS.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

1, .

2, .

3, .

4, .

5, .

6, .

7, .

8, .

9, •

5
7
8
9
9
10

7
8
8
8
9
10

3

3
4
8
9
9
9
10

3

8
8
8
9
10

-

1
1
5
5
5
5

-

1
1
2
2
2
2

Outdoor Experiments, commenced June i, 1897. — LarvcB in

Fourth Stage.

I
Oo

a

Checks.

i

i

'3

u

<

Checks.

NO. OF
DAYS.

i

d

CO

d

NO. \jv
DAYS.

i

c4
d
15

CO

d

1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
•7,
8.

o>

10,

11.

1
1
3
3
3
3
3
4
4

-

-

1
1

12,
13,

15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,

1
1

2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4*

4
4

4
4
7
9
9
10

2
2

4

1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
4

* Discontinued.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

377

Outdoor Experiments, commenced June 11, 1897. — Larvm in

Fifth Stage.

NO. OF
DATS.

a
a

V

*a
<1

Checks.

NO. OF
DAYS.

a
to

2

.2 "^
^^'^

g

2'"'

a

a

Checks.

i

6

CO

o

d

fe5

ci

d

!2i

i

1,

2,
3,

4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9.
10,

3
3
3
3
5

2
5

2
2
2
3

1

9
10

12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,

6

7
7
7
7
9
9
10

5
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
9*

3
3

5
6

7
7
7
_*

1
1
2

4
4
4
6

_*

-

* Discontinued.

Outdoor Expenments, commenced June 26, 1897. — Larvm in

Sixth Stage.

[Note. — Superior figures, in all cases, indicate the number of larvae pupating on the
corresponding days.]

□

o

Oi-I

a

0)

<

Checks.

d
. 1

'S

<

Checks.

NO. Uf
DAYS.

d

!2i

d

CO

d
55

NO uif
DAYS.

1

CM*

d

CO

d

1,
2,
3,

4,
5.
6,
7,
8,
9.
10,
11.

2
2
3

2

3

6

10

_ 1

_ 2

3
3
3
31

1 1

1

11

1

12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,

41

5
5
5
6

7
7
7
7
8

11

32

4

4

4

4

4 =

4

4

4

4 =

32

32

3

3

3

3

4

378 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

By the direction of Professor Fernald, the preceding ex-
periments were performed in order to determine the relative
insecticidal effects of Paris green and arsenic on the gypsy
moth. While arsenic seems slightly superior to Paris green
so far as killiog effects are concerned, its high specific gravity
renders it difficult of suspension in water, and hence it can-
not be applied evenly to the foliage. We have long since
abandoned the use of Paris green in our spraying operations,
and neither this poison nor arsenic can compete with arsenate
of lead as a means for destroying the gypsy moth. The
high death rate of the larvae in the check experiments is a
probable consequence of the remarkably wet season of 1897.

Scheele's Green.
Field Experiment, June 22, 1897.

Twenty square rods of badly infested oak timber and
brush land were thoroughly sprayed with Scheele's green,
at the rate of 5 pounds to 150 gallons of water.

July 1. About 10 per cent, of the larvse are dead. Foliage slightly

burned.
July 5. No more larvj« dead. Foliage badly burned.
July 11. Trees stripped by the larvae, except where the foliage has

been killed by the poison.

In the above experiment the object was to destroy the
caterpillars, regardless of the effect upon the foliage.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

379

Lead Arsenite v. Lead Arsenate.

Indoor Experiments, commenced June 13, 1896. — Larvce in Fifth

Stage.

NO. OF DAYS

Lead

Arsenite,

2-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

2-150.

Lead

Arsenite,

5-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

6-150.

Lead

Arsenite,

10-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

10-150.

1,

-

_

-

-

-

-

2,

-

-

-

-

-

-

3,

-

-

-

-

-

-

4,

-

-

-

-

2

1

5.

-

-

-

-

2

3

6>

-

-

1

-

2

4

7,

-

-

2

1

2

5

8.

-

-

2

1

2

5

9.

-

2

2

3

3

9

10,

-

2

2

4

3

9

11,

-

2

2

5

3

9

12,

-

3

2

6

3

g

13,

-

4

2

8

4

9

14,

2

7

2

8

4

9

15,

2

7

2

8

4

9

16,

2

8

2

9

4

10

17,

2

8

2

10

4

-

18,

2

8

2

-

4

-

19,

2

8

2

-

41

-

20,

2

9

2

-

4

-

21,

2

10

2

-

4

-

22,

2

-

2

-

4 .

-

23,

2*

-

2

-

4

-

24,

-

-

2*

-

5

.

25,

-

-

-

-

5

-

26,

-

-

-

-

7*

-

Discontinued.

380

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Outdoor Experiments^* commenced June 19, 1896. — Larvae, in

Sixth Stage.

NO. OF DAYS

Lead

Arsenite,

2-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

2-150.

Lead
Arsenite,

5-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

5-150.

Lead

Arsenite,

10-150.

Lead

Arsenate,

10-150.

1,
2,
3,

-

-

-

-

-

-

_

_

_

_

1

4,

-

-

-

-

1

5,

-

-

-

2

2

6,

-

-

-

2

2

7,

-

-

-

2

2

8>

-

-

-

2

4

9>

-

-

-

2

4

10,

2

-

-

2

6

lit

2

-

-

2

6

12,

3

-

-

2

6

13,

3

-

_i

2

2

6

14,

3t

-t

2

21

2

7

15,

-

-

2t

2t

2

7

16,

-

-

-

-

2

7

17,

-

~

-

-

2

7

18,

-

-

-

-

2

7

19,

-

-

-

3

7

20,

-

-

-

-

3

8

21,

-

-

-

-

4

8

22,

-

-

-

-

4

8

23,

-

-

-

-

4

8

24,

-

-

-

-

4

8'

25,

-

-

.

-

4

9

26,

-

-

-

-

4

-

27,

-

-

-

-

7

-

28,

-

-

-

-

8»

-

* Ko burning of foliage appeared in these experiments.

t Discontinued.

These experiments with chemically pure arsenite of" lead v.
arsenate of lead mixture (containing in reality only about 50
per cent, chemically pure arsenate of lead) show the relative
superiority of the latter. The specific gravity of the arsenite
of lead is much greater than that of the arsenate, and for
this reason it cannot be so evenly applied to the foliage.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

381

Barium Arsenate.*

Outdoor Experiments, commenced June 1, 1896. — Larvce in

Fo^crth Stage.

NO. OF
DAYS.

2
a
a

.is"

08 "-1

C9

O

s

go

a

a
«

as
n

O

a

p

V
<

(3-*

a

a
a
di
2

a>o

O

2

a

a

V

< .

s§

'C o
a "-•

m

1,
2,
3,

4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9.
10,

11.
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,

1

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3t

It

2

2
2
2
2
5
5t

It

1
1

6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
10

-t

1
1

3
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
10

-t

1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
5
5
6
10

-t

5
5
5
5
5
5
7
7
10

-t

''^ Foliage uniDJured.

t Discontinued.

382

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Outdoor Experiments. — Larvm in Sixth Stage.

10,

11.

12,
13,

14.
15,
16,

NO OF DATS.

June 22, 1896.

Barium

Arsenate,

12-150.*

Barium

Arsenate,

15-150.*

Barium
Arsenate,
20-150 t

June 25,
1896.

Barium
Arsenate,
40-150.t

* Foliage slightly burned.

t Foliage badly burned.

Bakium Arsenate.

Field Experiments.

Ten pounds to 150 gallons ; glucose, 1 gallon to 150 ; 50
square rods red oak and white oak brush ; larvae in second
and third stages. Echo Street, Maiden.

Sprayed May 24, 1897 : —
May i26. No results.
May 28. No results.
May 29. No results.
June 3. Few larvae dead ; foliage burned

Discontinued.

Ten pounds to 150 gallons; glucose, 1 gallon to 150; 30
square rods white oak and red oak brush ; larvae in second
and third stages. Valley Street. Medford.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 383

Sprayed May 24, 1897 : —
May 26. No results.
May 28. No results.
May 29. No results.

June 3. Few larvae dead; foliage burned; tender foliage badly
burned. Discontinued.

The barium arsenate used in the two preceding experi-
ments had stood in the ' ' mother liquor " all winter, and had
developed a considerable amount of soluble arsenic. In the
following experiment the barium arsenate was freshly pre-
pared : —

Ten pounds to 150 gallons ; glucose, 1 gallon to 150 ; 100
square rods oak, pine and white birch brush ; larvte in fourth
and fifth stages. Hawkes' Farm, Saugus.

Sprayed June 18-19, 1897 : —

Jvine 24. Many larvte dead. Special Inspector Little agrees with me in
estimating that 60 per cent, of the larvae have been killed.
Not as many dead as where arsenate of lead, 20-150, is
used. No burning apparent ; poison does not show well
on foliage.

June 29. Sprayed area in about the same condition as on June 24 ;
more larvas have died, but there are many large ones still
feeding ; bushes are being stripped ; poison disappeared ;
no burning of note.

July 3. Poison has stopped killing; slight burning on tender foli-
age ; effect not as good as where arsenate of lead, 20-150,
is used. The greatest fault seems to be in the ease with
which the poison is washed from the foliage Larvae
pupating. Discontinued.

The experiments with barium arsenate in 1896 gave so
good results that we were hopeful that this insecticide would
prove superior to lead arsenate. Its killing etfects on larvse
in confinement are certainly superior to those of arsenate of
lead. In the field spraying operations it was found that the
poison did not adhere to the foliage for a sufficiently long
time to kill the larvae. With the lessening of the cost of
arsenate of lead we have now efiected, barium arsenate can-
not compete with it.

384

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Lead Phenolate.*

Outdoor Experiments, commenced July 1, 1897. — L'arvce in

Fifth Stage.

NO. OF

DAYS.

Lead

Phenolate,

1-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

2-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

3-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

5-150.

Lead
Phenolate,

8-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

10-150.

1,

2.

3,
4,
5,

-

-

-

-

-

-

11

1

-

-

-

_ 1

6>

1

5

-

-

_i

_2

7,

11

5

-

-

-

-

8,

2

51

11

»3

11

-

9.

2

6

1

-

1

-

10,

2

6

21

-

3

-

111

2

6

2

-

3

-

12,

2

7

32

11

4

-

13,

2

9

33

3

5

-

14,

2

-

-

3

51

I'

15,

3

-

-

4

5

1

16,

5

-

-

5

5

1

17,

51

-

-

5

5

2

18,

6

-

-

5

5

2

19,

-

-

-

5

5

2a

20,

-

-

-

5

5

2

21,

-

-

5

5

21

* Foliage uninjured.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

385

Outdoor Experiments, commenced July 1, 1897. — Larvce in

Siooth Stage.

NO. OF
DAYS.

Lead

Phenolate,

1-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

2-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

3-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

5-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

8-150.

Lead

Phenolate,

10-150.

1,

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.

-

-

-

-

-

-

3,

1

_ 1

-

-

-

-

4,

1

-

-

-

_i

-

5,

12

_2

_i

-2

_i

-

6,

1

-

_i

22

-

-

7,

2

-2

-

2

_ 1

_ t

8,

21

-

_2

3 =

-

9|

3

_ 1

1

4

_ 1

10,

3

-2

1'

-

-

11,

3

-

1

-

1

1 2

12,

43

-

12

-

11

1 *

13,

-

-

-

-

11

14,

-

-

-

-

11

15,

-

_1

-

-

12

16,

-

-

-

-

-

1 1

17,

-

-

-

-

-

1

18, .

-

-

-

-

-

19,

-

-

-

-

-

2

20, ,

-

1

-

-

-

-

21,

-

-

-

-

-

-

Phenolate of Lead.
Field Experiment.
Grayish white salt of low specific gravity ; mixes with
difficulty in water ; particles coarse ; 10 pounds to 150 gal-
lons ; glucose, 6 quarts to 150 gallons ; large apple tree
badly infested ; larvae in fifth and sixth stages. Fenwick
Street, Maiden.

Sprayed July 1, 1897 : —
July 3. No larvae dead.
July 10. No larvse dead. No burning.
July 19. No larvae dead. Greater part of larvae pupating.
July 21. No larvae dead. No burning. Discontinued.

It would seem as though so powerful an organic poison as
phenol would have had more effect upon the larvaj.

386

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Di-Plumbic Arsenate v. Tr-i-Plumbic Arsexate.
Outdoor Experiments^ commenced July 9, 1897. — Larvce in

Fifth Stage.

NO. OF DAYS.

lis

0 _

11=

i2 «

lis

5

0 .

lis

II
S no"

5

If

.2 «"

S no

S 2
a a .
Sao

D- E'T"
Eh

1, •

2,

-

-

-

_

-

-

-

-

3,
4,

1

2

-

-

1 1

_i

1

-

31

5,

42

-

2 1

-

1

11

41

6,

4

2'

2

1 1

1

32

5

41

7,

41

2

2

1

31

6

4

8,

4

2

31

2

4

7

5

9.

41

3

4

2

4

7

5

10,

4

41

4

81

41

7

5

n,

4

5

-

5

8

5

12,

4

6

-

5

8

5

13,

4

6

4

-

5

8

5

14,

5

6

4

-

5

8

6

15,

5

5

61

5

-

5

8

6

16.

6

5

6

5

-

6

8

6

n.

-

5

61

6

-

-

9

6

18,

-

5

-

e

-

-

-

6

19,

-

5

-

6

-

-

-

6

20,

-

5

-

6

-

-

-

6

21,

-

5*

-

6*

-

-

-

6*

»

DiBContit

ued.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

387

Outdoor Experiments^^

commenced July 9, 1897. — Larvce in
/Sixth Stage.

NO. OF DAYS.

Dl-

Plumbic

Arsenate,

5-150.

Tri-

Plumbic

Arsenate,

5-150.

Di-

Plumblc

Arsenate,

10-150.

Tri-

Plumbic

Arsenate,

10-150.

• Di-
Plumbic
Arsenate,

15-150.

Tri-

Plumbic

Arsenate,

15-150.

1,

-

-

-

-

-

-

2. .

-

-

-

-

-

-

3, .

-

-

-

-

-

-

4, •

-

1 5

-

_ 2

1

2

5, .

_2

1 1

_ 1

11

1

2

6,

-

-

1

41

31

7, .

3

-

1 =

4

3

8,

51

1

1

4=1

3

9, .

5

1 1

2

2

4

31

10,

5

1 1

2

2

41

31

11.

7

41

2

5

3

12, .

-

5

21

-

4

13,

-

5

2

-

4

14,

-

2

6

2

-

52

15, .

-

-

6

21

-

-

16, .

-

-

7'

2

-

-

17, .

-

-

-

21

-

-

18,

-

-

-

-

-

-

19, .

-

-

-

-

-

-

20,

-

-

-

-

-

-

21,

• •

-

-

-

-

-

-

* Foliage uninjured.

t One larva lost.

388

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Outdoor Experiments,* etc. — Concluded.

9,

10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19.,
20,
21,

NO. OF DATS.

Di-

Plumbic

Arsenate,

20-150.

21

5

5

5

5

5

5

Tri-

Plumbic

AreeDate,

20-150.

Checks.

No. 2.

No. 3.

3 11

3 1

3 1»

3' 1

3= 32

4 32
4 3
4 3
4 3
42 3
4 4
4

4
41

* Foliage uninjured.

Di-Plumbic Arsenate.
Field Experiments.
Twenty pounds to 150 gallons ; glucose, 1 gallon to 150 ;
red oak and white oak brush ; badly infested ; larvjB in fifth
and sixth stages. Pierce Street, Maiden.

Sprayed June 25, 1897
June 29. Killing well.

July 1. Killing well. Stripping of foliage has stopped.
July 3. Killing well. Eighty per cent, of the larvae are dead
Jul}' 10. Killing well. Many larvae pupating.
July 15. Poison nearly through killing, because of pupation of larvJB.

Has given excellent results ; no burning of foliage.
July 21. Few dead larvae ; no burning. Poison has killed as well or a
little better than the tri-plumbic arsenate.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 389

Twenty pounds to 150 gallons; glucose, 1 gallon to 150;
red oak and white oak trees of medium size, badly infested by
larva3 in fifth and sixth stages. Pine Hill Path, Metropolitan
Park Reservation, Medford.

Sprayed June 26, 1897 : —

June 29. Killing well. Dead larvse plenty in path.

July 1. Killing well. Dead larvae plenty in path.

July 5. Killing well.

July 10. Killing well. Sixty per cent, of the larvfe dead.

July 21. Poison still killing, although the greater part of the larvae
have transformed. No burning of foliage. The results
from the experiment are equally as good as those where
the tri-plumbic arsenate is used.

Tri-Plumbic Arsenate.

Field Exfperimeyit.

Check experiment on the preceding ; 20 pounds to 150
gallons ; opposite side of path.

Sprayed June 26, 1897 : —
June 29. Killing well.

July 1. Killing well. Plenty of dead larvae.
July 5. Killiugwell. Plenty of dead larvae.
July 10. Still killing ; no burning ; about sixty per cent, of the larvte

dead.
July 21. Few dead larvae ; greater part pupated.

The di-plumbic arsenate was prepared from nitrate of lead.
So far, this insecticide seems equal if not superior to the
tri-plumbic arsenate. Extensive field experiments will be
made with the di-plumbic arsenate during the season of
1898, should the Legislature provide means for the continua-
tion of this work.

The "di-plumbic arsenate" is composed of about two-thirds
di-plumbic arsenate and one-third tri-plumbic arsenate. The
tri-plumbic arsenate is approximately pure.

390 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

DAGGER FROM THE USE OF ARSE:N^ATE
OF LEAD.

A. H. KIRKLAND, M.S.

A matter of considerable importance in extensive spraying
operations with arsenic compounds is the frequent complaint
of arsenical poisoning on the part of those who apply the
poison to Ihe foliage. In our work against the gypsy moth
such complaints are not uncommon, and, since our em-
ployees apply from two to three tons of this insecticide to
infested trees and shrubbery in a spraying season of from
four to six weeks, it has sometimes appeared that these com-
plaints might rest on a basis of fact. Cases of supposed
arsenical poisoning are of more frequent occurrence toward
the close of the spraying season ; and to get at the actual
physical condition of our men at such a time, a series of in-
vestigations was attempted late in June, 1897.

It is conceded by physicians and toxicologists that when
arsenic is taken into the system, either via the mouth, lungs
or skin, it is chiefly eliminated by means of the kidneys, and
that the presence of arsenic in the urine of a sick man is
fairly conclusive evidence of arsenical poisoning. An effort
was made, but with only partial success, to collect twenty-
five samples of urine from men who for some time had been
engaged in spraying. Two rather interesting discoveries
were made at this time : first, the almost complete indifl'er-
ence on the part of the men in normal health in regard to
the whole matter ; and second, the enumeration by those
who were temporarily out of health of many alarming symp-
toms which were ascribed to the effects of the poison. Only
eight samples were obtained, and these were sent to Mr.
F. J. Smith for analysis, with the following results : —

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 391

No. 1. — Taken 6 a.m., June 27. Man in good health; had been en-
gaged in spraying about two weeks ; trace of arsenic found.

No. 2. — Taken 8.15 a.m., June 24. Man enjoyed good health up to the
spraying season; had been engaged in spraying three weeks
and during the last week had suffered from loss of appe-
tite, with considerable disturbance of the digestive system ;
17.6 mg. arsenic per litre were found.

No. 3. — Taken 12 noon, June 24. Man in fair health, aside from an
occasional "bilious attack;" had S23rayed for three weeks;
no arsenic found.

No. 4. — Taken 12.30 p.m., June 24. Man in good health, but appetite
poor at times ; had worked at spraying for three weeks ; no
arsenic found.

No 5. — Taken 1.30 p.m., June 24. Man in excellent health; had
sprayed for six days ; trace of arsenic found.

No 6. — Taken June 26. Man in poor health ; was well until after he
had worked at sprajdng about two weeks ; had sprayed
nearly four weeks ; trace of arsenic found.

No. 7. — Taken June 26. Man had complained of various derangements
of his digestive system ; had sprayed for " over three weeks ; "
.2 mg of arsenic per litre found.

No. 8. — Taken June I. Man in poor health ; had been engaged in ex-
perimenting with Paris green and other arsenical compounds
for about three months ; 4 mg. arsenic per litre found.

The results of these analyses show conclusively that in
some cases men engaged in spraying acquire dangerous
amounts of arsenic. That actual sickness resulting from this
work is rare, is shown by the fact that but few of our many
employees lose time from this cause. A case of this kind
investigated by the writer in 1896 proved to be one of un-
mistakable arsenical poisoning, which in this instance was
not strange, since less than one week previous to the time
the man was taken sick he was ol)served to he especially
careless in the use of the poison, allowing the drippings of
the spraying pole to run freely up his arms and probably over
the greater part of his body. Nowhere, perhaps, do we find
a better illustration of the contempt bred by familiarity than
in the manner in which men engaged in spraying make use
of insecticides. In the case of our employees an excuse is
found in the high state of physical vigor that characterizes
the whole force, — the natural result of an active, outdoor
life.

Strangely enough, the most frequent cause for complaint

392 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

in the use of arsenate of lead is an entirely harmless one.
The odor of the spray when very pronounced often causes
considerable anxiety among those engaged in spraying, and
in one or two cases has been known to produce nausea.
This odor is not produced by the arsenic or the lead, but is
the rich creosote smell remaining in the crude acetic acid
used in the manufacture of acetate of lead. This acid is one
of the resultants of the destructive distillation of wood, and
retains the smoky odor even after passing through several
chemical reactions.

It may be stated, in general terms, that while an occa-
sional person may become poisoned during extensive spray-
ing operations with arsenate of lead, premonitory symptoms
appear in ample time for a change of work to be arranged ;
and since the conditions existino; in the work ao^ainst the
gypsy moth are exceptional, the farmer or fruit grower may
use this insecticide with less fear of danger from poisoning
than is the case where Paris green or London purple is used.
In all cases proper care must be taken in handling the poison
and in preventing the exposure of the skin to the spray.

The danger to animals from feeding on grass under trees
that have been sprayed is a matter that has at times received
a large measure of popular attention in the region infested
by the gypsy moth, and at the time of spraying we have
always taken the precaution to advise all property owners of
the possible danger to their fowls and live stock. The ex-
periment detailed below is of interest in this connection.

On June 26, 1896, sufficient grass to make two large feed-
ings for a horse was cut and spread beneath a pear tree of
medium size, and the tree heavily sprayed with arsenate of
lead, at the rate of 20 pounds to 150 gallons of water. The
drippings from the tree were not sufficient to discolor the
grass to any marked degree, so the nozzle was turned on
to the grass, and the latter thoroughly drenched. By a
previous arrangement with Mliller Brothers, tannery pro-
prietors, North Cambridge, a horse had been secured for
experimental purposes. This horse weighed about 1,200
or 1,300 pounds, was perfectly sound except for a badly
sprained leg, and because of this latter defect was soon to be
slaughtered. The grass treated as described was taken to

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 393

the tannery and fed to the horse during the afternoon and
evening; of June 26. On June 28 the writer found the
horse well and hearty, and in '■^better condition" so the
teamsters at the tannery stated, than before the grass had
been fed to him. The poison used in spraying was mixed
with cold water, and in a few days it was found that the
foliage of the pear tree was badly burned, thus proving the
presence of soluble arsenic in the mixture, and showing that
it was even more dangerous to animal life than properly
prepared arsenate of lead would have been.

394 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

DIGESTION^ m THE LARY^ OF THE
GYPSY MOTH.

A. H. KIRKLAND, F. J. SMITH.

The remarkable resistance exhibited by the larvfe of the
gypsy moth toward internal poisoning has afforded a basis
for the suggestion, so frequently made, that the digestive
functions in this insect may differ either in character or in
degree from that of insects more readily killed by arsenical
poisons. To gain a better idea of the nature of the diges-
tive process in the gypsy moth larva, a limited series of
investigations was made in the summer of 1896 by the
writers, Mr. Kirkland attending to the anatomical and physi-
ological phases of the question, and Mr. Smith conducting
the chemical analyses. It was hoped at the time these inves-
tigations were discontinued that further study of the subject
could be made during the summer of 1897, l)ut this has been
prevented by the demands of other work. Although but a
few points are established by our studies, it now seems
advisable to pulilish them as a contribution to the knowledge
of digestion in insects. We may properly state here our
belief in the importance of a thorough understanding of
this subject, and that whenever it is reached many obscure
points in the behavior of different insects toward internal
poisons will be cleared up.

That the processes taking place in the alimentary canal
of the gypsy moth larva may be better understood, it may be
well to briefly consider the composition of the food consumed
and the anatomy of the digestive tract.

The Food of the Gypsy Moth.

In common with other Bombycid caterpillars, the larvae
of the gypsy moth are practically confined for food to leaves
of trees, shrubs or plants ; in certain rare cases this insect

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 395

has been known to devour bark, buds, blossoms and fruit,
but, as these are exceptions, they may be properly excluded
from consideration.

Leaves may be said to consist of a large amount of organic
matter associated with water, and a small quantity of mineral
matter. In the ash are found certain elements, such as pot-
ash, lime, phosphorus, etc., which play an important role
in plant economy ; bat the substances serving as food in
leaves are organic, and consist mainly of proteids, carbohy-
drates and fat. These compounds are present in the proto-
plasm with which the cells are filled, and, when consumed and
assimilated by the insect, serve as muscle builders, sources
of fat, energy and heat, repair wasted tissues and bring
about the normal growth of the insect. Undoubtedly the
proteids are the most important food elements, and probably
serve as the source of the chitin of which the body integu-
ment is formed. The lignin, cellulose and similar substances
found in leaves are of but little value as food.

The Digestive System.

The internal .anatomy of the larva, pupa and imago has
been fully detailed in another place,* hence it will suffice to
state that the digestive system of the larva consists of a pair
of stout jaws, a buccal cavity, a pharynx dilating into an
anterior stomach in the forward body segments, a stomach
proper, extending through a greater part of the body cavity,
an intestine and a short dilated rectum. Discharging into
the mouth are a pair of salivary glands, while six malpighian
vessels are attached to the rectum.

The Digestive Processes.

The jaws of the larva serve to incise and comminute the
food which passes directly from the mouth into the anterior
stomach, where it is subjected to the action of an alkaline
fluid. It is of interest to note that in this stomach, some-
times greatly distended with food, there is always a large

* Kirkland, article on "Internal Anatomy;" "The Gypsy Moth," Forbush-
Femald, 1896.

396 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

amount of fluid present. From the anterior stomach the
food passes backward into the posterior stomach (the
stomach proper), an organ well supplied with strong an-
nular muscle fibres. In this organ the disintegration and
digestion of the food become more marked. By the action
of the stomach muscles the food is gradually forced along
until it reaches the narrow intestine, through which it passes
to the rectum, from which the refuse material is voided from
time to time.

Microscopic examinations of the contents of different
parts of the alimentary canal show that the greater part
of the food retains much of its original physical character.
The fibrous elements pass through the system practically
unchanged. The softer tissues undergo a partial disintegra-
tion, but in general the cellular structure can be recognized.
In the contents of the cells, however, there is a great
change ; in food removed from the anterior stomach the cell
contents showed only a partial destruction, while in samples
from near the intestine the protoplasm had nearly disap-
peared, only the chlorophyll granules remaining. From
these examinations it appears that the process of digestion in
this larva is practically one of solution or extraction : the
digestive fluids dissolve the soluble proteids, carbohydrates,
fats, salts, etc., while the insoluble parts are eventually
ejected. The stomach muscles do not perform the function
of grinding, otherwise the physical characters of the food
would be destroyed before it reached the intestine. Doubt-
less the function of these muscles is to force the stomach
contents posteriorly, and by this movement bring the food
more thoroughly in contact with the digestive fluids ; the
same is probably true of the weaker muscles of the anterior
stomach, although these muscles are equally capable of
reverse peristalsis, as shown by the ejection of a part of the
contents of this organ from the mouth of the larva when-
ever the insect is roughly handled.

According to Plateau, the products of digestion in herbiv-
orous insects consist of salts in solution, peptones, sugar
and emulsified fats. These substances pass by osmosis
through the walls of the alimentary canal and mingle with
the blood.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 397

The Alkalinity of the Alimentary Oanal.

At the time the article on the anatomy of the gypsy moth
was prepared it was noticed that the digestive fluids of the
larva were strongly alkaline ; but, while the fact seemed
quite suggestive, investigations of the cause of this alkalin-
ity were deferred until such a time as the assistance of a
chemist could be obtained.

For a preliminary examination several full-grown cater-
pillars were killed by exposure to fumes of chloroform, and
the alimentary canal of each carefully removed and washed.
After maceration in water the material was subjected to a
careful analysis for both organic and inorganic bases and
acids, but nothing of an organic nature that could give an
alkaline reaction to the digestive fluids could be detected.
Repeated examinations of the water extract, however, showed
the presence of appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid and
potassium, with traces of calcium and magnesium. It is
well known that the phosphates of potassium and sodium
give an alkaline reaction with litmus, and, since the presence
in the digestive fluid of comparatively large quantities of
potassium and phosphoric acid was proven^ it was apparent
that the alkalinity of this fluid is due to the presence of a
phosphate of potash.

Having thus determined qualitatively the source of the
alkalinity, it seemed desirable to make a quantitative analysis
of the digestive systems of a number of larvae, in order to
obtain an accurate idea of the amount of phosphates of potash
occurring in each insect. For this purpose the following
method was adopted : the alimentary canals of sixty-six
larvse were carefully removed, washed and macerated in water,
as in the previous analysis, and, it having been found that
the albuminous substances contained in the material seriously
interfered with filtration, resort was made to dialysis, with
good results. The macerated material was placed in a
dialyzing apparatus and suspended in a dish containing a
large quantity of freshly distilled water, the whole being
kept at a cool temperature, and the water in the dish replaced
with a fresh supply at intervals of twelve hours each for
seventy-two hours. At the end of this time the water taken

398

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

from the dish was evaporated to a convenient volume upon a
water bath, when aliquot parts of the liquid were taken for
the determination of phosphoric acid and potash. The phos-
phoric acid was determined by the ammonium molybdate
method and the amount of potash estimated as the double
chloride of platinum, following as closely as possible the
methods of fertilizer analyses adopted in 1895 by the Asso-
ciation of Official Agricultural Chemists. Briefly stated, the
results of these analyses were as follows : —

Phosphoric acid found in 66 larvae, .
Potash (KjO) found in 66 larvae,
The phosphoric acid as above stated,
in the form of tri-potassic phos-
phate, requires of potash.

Grams.

Milligrams.

.036998,

per larva,

.560

.073750,

per larva,

1.117

.073450

Error,

.000300

This shows conclusively that the phosphoric acid and
potash in the alimentary canal of this insect exist in the form
of tri-potassic phosphate, K3PO4.

Studies on Other Lepidoptera.

To learn how commonly phosphate of potash occurs in the
alimentary canal of Lepidoptera, a number of larvae were
dissected and the parts removed for analysis. The following
table presents the results of the analyses. Unless otherwise
stated, the data pertain to the alimentary canal of the larva
of the species mentioned.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX.

399

Amount of
Potash.

Amount of

Phosphoric

Acid.

Sphmgida'.

1.

Thyreus abbotii,

Fair,

Fair.

2.

Thyreus abbotii (exerement).

Small,

Trace.

3.

Deilephila chamcKncrii Harr.,

Fair,

Fair.

4.

Philampclus achemon Dru., ....

Fair,

Large.

5.

Protoparce celeus Hbn., ....

Fair,

Large.

6.

Protoparce celeus (second specimen) , .

Large,

Fair.

7.

Sphinx drupiiferarum S. and A., .

Fair,

Fair.

8.

Sphinx gordius Cram.,

Fair,

Fair.

9.

Sphinx gordius (excrement), . . .

Small,

Trace.

10.

Dolba hylceus Dm.,

Small,

Fair.

11.

Cressonia Juglandif S. and A., .
Arctiidce.

Fair,

Fair.

12.

Pyrrharctia isabella S. and A., .

Fair,

Large.

13.

Spilosoma virginica Fabr., ....

Fair,

Fair.

14.

Eyphantria cunea Dru., ....

Fair,

Large.

15.

Halesidota caryon Harr., . .^ . <
Liparidce.

No test
made.

I Small.

16.

Orgyia leucostigma S and A., .

Fair,

Fair.

17.

Portheiria dispar L, (rectum) , . .

Fair,

Small.

18.

Porthetria dispar (excrement of female), .

Fair,

Large.

19.

Portheiria dispar (fertile nest), .

Fair,

Large.

20.

Portheiria dispar {ieviWe nQsi) , .

Large,

Large.

21.

Porthetria disjyar {\nferti\e nest) ,
Notodontidm.

Large,

Large.

22.

Datana ministra Dru., .....

Small,

Small.

23.

Datana ministra (newly hatched larva?,

whole insect), . . " .

Trace,

Trace.

24.

Datana integerrima G. and R., .
Saturniida;.

Large,

Large.

25.

Attacus cecropiah. (eggs), .

Large,

Large.

26.

Hyperchiria io Fabr.,

Ceratocampid(E.

Fair,

Fair.

27.

Anisota senatoria S. and A., .

Fair,

Fair.

400 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The results of these analyses show that phosphate of pot-
ash, although varying in amount, is a constant ingredient of
the digestive fluids of leaf-eating Lepidoptera, and this fact
gives additional evidence of the importance of the substance.
We would call particular attention to the fact that but little
of this compound was found in the excrement examined
(Nos. 2, 9). This shows that the phosphate of potash is
retained in the system, since the analyses of the alimentary
canals of the corresponding insects (Nos. 1, 8) revealed a
fair amount of the substance.

The Function of Phosphate of Potash in Lepidoptera.

In the larvae examined, phosphate of potash was always
found associated with albuminoids. This coincidence, which
is also common in plants, seems to show that in living or-
ganisms there is an intimate relationship between these sub-
stances. Schumacher states that if alkaline phosphates " are
mixed with a solution of albumen, or if a solution of them
is permitted to diffuse against one of albumen, a much
greater amount of the latter will pass through the membrane
than would otherwise be the case." *

In the fluid obtained as a result of the dialysis of the
digestive systems of dispar larvse a small amount of albumen
was found associated with the phosphate of potash. This
albumen would not coagulate upon the application of heat,
but was precipitated by the addition of alcohol.

From the physiological stand-point the natural inference
is that the phosphate of potash aids in the assimilation of
albuminoids. The facts in the case may be briefly stated as
follows :. —

Albuminous substances form an important part of the in-
sect's food. The process of assimilation in dispar is one
of osmosis. Albuminous substances do not readily pass
through the stomach walls, but phosphate of potash aids
them in their diffusion. Since this compound is present in
such large quantities, it seems evident that its function is, as
stated, to aid in the osmosis of albuminoids through the
walls of the alimentary canal into the blood.

• " Physik der Pflanze, " 1867, p. 129.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 401

We incline to the belief that this compound plays a most
important role in the economy of the insect, in connection
with the digestive process and also in the changes taking
place in the pupal state. It seems probable that the phos-
phate of potash bears a somewhat intimate relation to the
development of the reproductive system, since eggs of both
fertilized and unfertilized female moths contain large quanti-
ties of this compound (Nos. 19, 20, 21). It also occurs in
the thick fluid ejected by newly emerged imagoes (No. 18).

Relation to Insecticides,

In connection with the discovery of the source of the alka-
linity of the digestive fluids of gypsy moth larv^, two lines
of insecticide experiments suggest themselves :

1. To introduce into the digestive system of the larva
some substance that shall be inert in neutral or weak acid
media, and which shall react with phosphate of potash, liber-
ating an effective poison.

2. To obtain a substance that, when taken into the di-
gestive system of the insect, shall precipitate the phosphoric
acid, thus destroying its function and preventing the assimi-
lation of albuminous food materials.

402 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

JSTOTES OK PREDACEOUS BEETLES, 1897.

A. F. BURGESS, M.S.

During the season of 1897, predaceous beetles, especially
those belono-ino; to the o-enus Oalosoma, have been abundant
in many localities infested by the gypsy moth, in marked
contrast to the condition last year, when considerable diffi-
culty was experienced in obtaining sufficient examples of
Calosoma frigidum Kirby for making studies on its life
history. During the past summer the study of this group
of beneficial insects has been continued, several new facts
concerning their habits ascertained, and the statements made
by the writer in the last annual report of the committee have
received additional verification.

The climbing habits of the genus have been noticed this
year more than ever before, and the killing of caterpillars by
these beetles, even in the tallest trees, has been repeatedly
witnessed. In a colony of the gypsy moth in Saugus, June
25, 1897, C. frigidum was observed to climb nearly to the
top of a small oak tree and feed upon the caterpillars. When
in the top of the trees or at the ends of the limbs, if the tree
is suddenly shaken by the wind the beetles often drop to the
gi'ound, and in a piece of woodland where they are abundant
they are often heard striking upon the leaves, having fallen
or dropped from the trees.

Mr. W. W. Stevens, an inspector who worked in the
Saugus colonies, where beetles of this genus were common,
informs me that on two occasions he has seen specimens of
C . frigidwm fly, or rather " scale," to the ground from a tree
after the manner of a flying squirrel. I have occasionally
noticed that the beetles vibrate their wings in confinement,
but have flung them into the air repeatedly without seeing
them make the slightest effort to flv. Mr. Stevens is of

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 403

the opinion, however, that they would not fly upward, but
simply extend their wings to lessen the velocity of the fall.

Calosoma scrutator (Fab.) has been found to be fully as
active, particularly as regards climbing, as frigidum^ and,
on account of its greater size and strength, is a more for-
midable enemy to caterpillar life. The amount of good done
does not depend entirely on the number of larv?e which the
beetles actually eat, as when food is plenty they kill or
mutilate a great many which they make no pretence of eat-
ing, as is shown by the following statement. Mr. Harry
Vinton, while working in a colony of the gypsy moth in
Saugus, during June, 1897, saw a G.frigidum kill or wound
seven of the caterpillars on a tree trunk and then disappear
among the brush. All the larvpe were so badly disabled that
they could not recover.

The representatives of this genus are found principally in
the spring and early summer, and after laying their eggs
probably remain in the ground. This has been found to be
the case with the beetles kept in confinement in cages. After
midsummer the food supply is usually less plentiful, and
these beetles probably do not feed on vegetable matter dur-
ing the latter part of the season, as do some other Carabids.
Hai'palus caliginosus (Fab.), for example, was taken Sep-
tember 23, feeding on the flower-heads of the ragweed {Am-
hrosia artemisioefolia) , one of our most common garden
weeds.* Professor Forbes, in his study of the food of
Carabidee, found, from dissecting three O. scrutator and nine
C. calidum, that only food of animal origin was present in
the stomachs. He also emphasizes the fact that the mouth
parts of this genus are adapted for animal rather than vege-
table feeding, f

The Calosomas, aside from being able to hibernate as ima-
goes, can also live an almost incredible length of time without
taking food. The following notes may be of interest in this
connection. A single female of Calosoma wiUcoxi Jjec, kept
in confinement, ate nothincr from June 30 to August 18 :
several specimens of C frigidum, confined in a breeding

* This observation corroborates those of Wm. Trelease ("American Entomolo-
gist," 1880, p. 251) and Wm. A. Buckhont {ibid., p. 277).
t Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural Histor}-, Nos. 3 and 6, 1883.

404 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

cage, received no food from July 21 to September 1 ; and
specimens of G. scrutator have been kept two weeks without
food. In all these cases the beetles survived, and seemed to
suffer no serious inconvenience. They were, however, a
little more sluggish in movement, and remained in the ground
more than was the case earlier in the season, when food was
plentiful. One of the principal reasons for allowing the
beetles to be without food was the scarcity of caterpillars
after midsummer. Substitutes for larvae, such as snails, beef,
veal, kidney and grasshoppers, were tried, with very poor
results. When snails were used as food for the beetle larvss,
their legs soon became covered with slime, and death followed.

Calosoma frigidum Kirby.

Sept. 24, 1896, two males and three females of this species
W'Cre placed in a wire cage near the insectary. The cage
consisted simply of a cylinder of wire mosquito netting sunk
nearly to the level of the ground, the top being covered with
a cloth which was held in place by an elastic band. The
records of these three females are given here in full. They
were captured June 4, 19 and 26, 1896, and each of the first
two were immediately placed in separate jars with a male
beetle. The first laid seventeen eggs June 5, but deposited
no more during the season, although the male was kept in
the jar and placed in the cage outdoors at the same time with
the female. The second female laid two eggs July 16 and
one more on the 18th, the male dying July 22. The third
female had no male companion until August 7, and laid
no eggs whatever.

On examining the outdoor cage. May 10, 1897, a live
beetle was found about four inches below the surface. The
cage was covered, but before another examination was made
the netting became partly detached and three of the beetles
undoubtedly escaped, as only two females could be found in
the ground May 17. They were quite active, and had par-
tially eaten a full-grown white grub (^Lachnosterna sp. ?)
w'hich was in the cage. No remains of the other beetles
could be found, although the ground was examined to the
depth of nearly a foot. This shows conclusively that the
beetles hibernate as adults.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 405

The two female beetles were placed in separate breeding
jars in the insectary and supplied with food, but very little
was eaten until June 2, when males were placed in the jars.
One female began laying June 6, finished July 14, having
deposited eighty-one eggs, and died on the 24th. The other
female began laying on the same date as the former, but
finished June 25, dying July 3, having deposited one hun-
dred and fifteen eggs. The largest number laid in a single
day was nineteen, which is the maximum noted for this
species. From the above it will be seen that these two
females were kept in confinement for over a year, and
that one, if not both, deposited eggs two years in suc-
cession. This naturally brings up the question of the
number of annual broods of this insect. From the fact that
the egg-laying season ranges from the first of June to the
middle of August, I am inclined to believe from present
knowledge that the greater portion of the species winter as
adults which have seldom laid eggs the previous year.

Observations in the field show that after the last part of
June the occurrence of this species is very rare. Mr. W.
C. Colt, a special inspector of the Board, with the aid of
two men captured thirty-one specimens of this species June
24, while at work in a colony of the gypsy moth in Brook-
line, and informs me that previous to and about this time
the beetles were abundant. On the following day he noticed
a female laying her eggs, for which purpose she had selected
a place about half an inch below the surface of the ground.
Mr. Colt further states that from a week after this date to the
end of the season not a single beetle was observed. This
species has also been found during the past year in Saugus,
Winchester, Medford and elsewhere.

Jars partly filled with earth were used for close breeding
■with about the same amount of success as during the pre-
vious season, the results, however, substantiating the facts
which were observed last year. Much of the material con-
fined in jars was attacked by mites, while the outdoor
experiments were rendered almost useless by the attacks of
ants.

In order to test the practicability of rearing the beetles out
of doors, a suitable spot was selected beside two small oak

406 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

trees, and a cage with a ground area of about a square yard
was built. About the middle of June ten males and a like
number of females oifrigidum were placed in the cage, with
plent}' of caterpillars. Some of the beetles paired the fol-
lowing day, and on examining the ground June 28 a beetle
larva was found. Subsequent examinations, however, failed
to bring to light any larvae, and, as ants were numerous in
the cage, this doubtless accounts for the non-development of
larvse that may have hatched.

The killing of young beetle larvae by the common black
ant (^Camj)onoius pennsylvanicus DeG.) has been previously
noted. Several jars containing newly hatched larvae of
(7. frigidum were accidentally left uncovered over night.
In the morning seven of the eleven larvae present had been
killed, and the ants were feeding on the bodies. One hun-
dred and six larvaj which were placed in another outdoor
cage during the season suffered in the same manner from
ants, and not one completed its transformations.

Some of the larvae reared in jars until nearly full grown
were placed in small cages out of doors, but they were so
badly attacked by mites * that none pupated successfully.
In one of these cages a larva of this species was attacked
by a wire-worm {Asaphes sp. ?), the integument being rup-
tured so badly that the larva died.f

Calosoma scrutator (Fab.).

This beetle, known under the common names of beautiful-
bodied searcher, rummaging or green Calosoma, has for
years been recognized as one of the most useful predaceous
insects. Almost every report on injurious insects credits it
with preying upon noxious species. The following list of
some of the injurious larva which this beetle has been
known to attack has been compiled from various sources : —

Tobacco worms, Protoparce (sp. ?).
Gypsy moth, Porthetria dispar (pupa also).
Tent caterpillar, Clisiocamp)a americana.

* Through the kindness of Dr. L. O. Howard these mites have been determined
by Mr. Nathan Banks as an immature stage of a species of Histiostoma.

t A somewhat similar occurrence has been mentioned by Riley in "Insect Life,"
vol. II., p. 299.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 407;

Forest tent caterpillar, Clisiocampa disstria.

Army worm, Leucania unipuncta.

Cotton worm, Aletia argillacea.

Lime tree winter moth, Hyhernia tiliaria.

Spring canker worm, Paleacrita vernata.

Fall canker worm, Anisopteryx pometaria.

Oak Tortricicl, Cacoeda fervtdana.

Rocky Mountain locust, Caloptenus spretus (nymphs) .

This shows C scrutatoi' to be a very general feeder, and
that it is particularly fond of our common injurious lepidop-
terous larvae. When kept in confinement at the insectary,
single beetles killed on an average about four full-grown
gypsy moth caterpillars daily. Out of doors the number
killed would be increased, as the appetite of the beetles is
greater under natural conditions than when kept in confine-
ment.

Calosoma scrutator is found in Canada and the New Eng-
land States, but is more locally than generally distributed.
It is more common in New York and the Middle States, and
occurs throughout the United States. Specimens were found
this year in infested woodland in Saugus, and through the
efforts of Mr. W. W. Stevens a number was received for
rearing purposes. The first beetles were received and placed
in breeding jars June 24. The}^ fed readily and mated sev-
eral times, but only seven eggs were laid during the season,
six being laid by one female, June 26, and a single egg being
deposited by another female, July 1. It is probable that
this species, like the other Calosomas thus far observed, lay
the bulk of their eggs earlier in the season, and it may be
that the females had nearly finished depositing eggs before
being placed in confinement.

A part of the eggs was preserved for further study, those
remaining in the jar hatching in eight days ; all the larvae
died, however, before molting. This species does not thrive
in confinement as well as Q\ih.Q,v frigidum or calidum. August
9 a coarse wire cage was constructed near the insectary, in
which were placed nine females, which went into the ground
immediately, without taking food. This cage will be exam-
ined in the spring, and notes on the hibernation of the
species completed.

408 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Calosoma willcoxi Lee.

This species was first described by Dr. Leconte in 1848,
It is smaller than any of our Calosomas previously studied,
and from its green color might be easily mistaken for a
diminutive scrutator. The middle tibia of the male, how-
ever, is straight and not hairy, while that of the male
C scrutator is curved, and has a dense brush of hairs on the
inner surface near the tip. It occurs in Canada and the
United States and has been reported very abundant in Mary-
land, but is very rare in this vicinity. Its feeding habits are
the same as those of the other members of the genus. Riley *
reported it feeding on nymphs of the Rocky Mountain locust,
and in Canada it has been found climbing the trees and feed-
ing on canker worms. f

Only one specimen has been under observation this season.
On June 9, Mr. C. E. Bailey, an agent of the Board, cap-
tured this beetle in Newton and brought it to the insectary
in perfect condition, where it was confined in a breeding jar.
The following day nine eggs were found about an inch below
the surface of the earth ; only one hatched, the others prob-
ably being infertile. The larva was deformed and very slug-
gish in movement, taking no food whatever, and died two
days after hatching. No more eggs were laid, however, and
June 30 the beetle went into the ground, where it remained,
and ate nothing, until August 18.

The beetle was supplied with full-grown forest tent cater-
pillars {Clisiocampa disstria) and third and fourth molt
gypsy moth larvae, and consumed on the average about one
larva per day. Female beetles, however, never eat as large
an amount of food when isolated as when confined with
males.

Although willcoxi has never been observed feeding on the
gypsy moth in the field, from the fact that it occurs in the
infested districts and feeds on the larvae in confinement, it
may be safely enumerated as an addition to the list of natural
enemies of P. dispar.

* First Report United States Entomological Comnaission, 1878, p. 314.
t Harrington, Report Entomological Society, Ontario, 1893, p. 24.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 409

Calosoma calidum (Fab.).

On the 23d of May a male and female were placed under
observation in a breeding jar, and were noted to pair on each
of the three succeeding days. The first eggs were laid May
31 ; the female died July 24, after having deposited eighty-
eight eggs. The larveB hatched in about a week from the
date of oviposition, and were isolated in jars and carefully
fed daily. A large proportion reached the third larval stage
in a health}' condition. At this time the same difficulty was
experienced as last year, viz., the dying of the larvae with-
out any apparent cause.

Quite a number of the larvae pupated, however, but on
examining the jars a few days later the pupte were found to
be dead, having been attacked by mites.* A full-grown
larva of C calidum^ which was found July 4, fed a few days
and pupated in one of the breeding jars, but shared the
same fate as the others.

Pterostichus lucublandus (Say).

This is one of our most common ground beetles, and is
often found under stones or running about in the grass dur-
ing the summer. While the members of this genus are con-
sidered to be predaceous on other insects, certain species
have been charged with doing some damage by feeding on
vegetation. This is probably true to some extent, but when
these insects are abundant they doubtless do considerable
good by feeding on noxious species.

A pair of lucublandus were taken in coitu under a large
rock, June 2, 1897. They were placed in a breeding jar
and fed with gypsy moth caterpillars. The smaller ones
were devoured greedily, the larger ones, as a rule, being
rejected. On July 4, however, I observed the male beetle
attack a fourth molt larva of this species. The caterpillar
was grasped just behind the head, and, after a fierce struggle,
the beetle succeeded in cutting a hole through the integu-
ment and began to feed upon the internal portions with great

• Identified by Mr. Banks as " the nymph of some Oribatid, probably of the genus
Oribata."

410 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

avidity. In addition to gypsy moth larvae, other small
caterpillars were provided, which they ate with apparent
relish. A pupa of Orgyia leucostigma was also eaten by
the beetles. The average consumption equalled about one
small gypsy moth caterpillar daily. In killing noxious in-
sects these beetles probably will not be found as helpful
as some of the larger species of Carabidse ; although they
take most of their food on the ground, they are sometimes
taken under burlaps, thus indicating that they may also feed
in trees.

On June 9 several eggs were found in the earth, from one-
fourth to one inch below the surface. Eggs were also laid
as follows: June 10, nine; 11, nine; 18, six; and on the
29th, three, — making a total of over thirty eggs deposited.
After the last date no eggs were laid. August 19 the female
beetle escaped in some unknown way, and the observations
with the adults were discontinued. A few of the eggs
hatched, but all the larv83 died before pupating.

Harpalus caliginosus (Fab.).

This beetle has been often observed feeding on injurious
insects. Among the common ones which have been most
frequently noted in the literature are cut worms, army worms
and the Colorado potato beetle in its different stages. Pro-
fessor Riley * found that large numbers of nymphs of the
Rocky Mountain locust were consumed by this beetle, while
Dr. Howard f has noted that it feeds on the nymphs of
another destructive locust, Schistocet^a americana. It is a
fact, however, that the food of this beetle consists partly
of vegetable matter. I have several times observed it feed-
ing on the flower heads of Ambrosia artemisicefolia, and it
has been accused of eating wheat in the stack. Professor
Forbes X has discovered some interesting facts in regard to
the food of this species by examining the stomach contents.
Two specimens, collected in August and September, respec-
tively, were found to have eaten 35 per cent, of animal mat-

* First Report United States Entomological Commission, 1878, p. 314.

t " Insect Life," Vol. VII., p. 228.

X Bulletin Illinois State Laboratorj- of Natural History, No. 6, 1883, p. 45.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 411

ter, while the remainder was of vegetable origin. Of the
animal matter, 20 per cent, could not be identified, 10 per
cent, consisted of insect food, caterpillars and Diptera being
represented, while the remaining 5 per cent, were mites.
The vegetable food consisted chiefly of the tissue of grasses
and a little pollen from flowers belonging to the family Com-
posite?. In addition to the above, the spores of a fungus
(Helminthosporium) amounted to 3 per cent. This shows
conclusively that vegetable food is taken freely during this
time of year. The fact that the beetles eat such vegetable
matter as pollen, seeds of common weeds and spores of fungi,
should be counted in their favor rather than against them ;
and if they are able to subsist on such food during the season
when caterpillars and noxious insects are scarce, it is in-
deed a wise provision. If, however, subsequent observa-
tions and investigations show that they actually feed to any
great extent on wheat or other vegetable matter of economic
importance, we shall be led to believe that their usefulness
has in the past been over-estimated.

September 20 a pair of II. caliginosus was received from
Mr. F. H. Mosher, an inspector of the Board. They were
placed in a breeding jar with a larvas of Halesidota maculata
and flower head of ragweed. Another female found near the
insectary was placed in the jar three days later. The beetles
fed on the weed, eating chiefly the seeds, but did not molest
the caterpillars. A pair copulated the following day, re-
maining in coitu about three minutes. They were then
isolated, and two days later, September 26, seven eggs were
found about three inches below the surface of the ground.
Two eggs were deposited the following day, and on October
15, no more having been laid, the beetles were placed in a
wire cage near the insectary, to obtain notes on their hiber-
nation. The eggs, which were kept in the insectary, hatched
in nineteen days from the date of oviposition. Some of
these larvffi have also been placed in an outdoor cage for the
winter, and an attempt will be made next year to complete
the life history of this species.

412 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

THE SPECIES OF PODISUS OCCURRING
m THE UI^ITED STATES.

BY A. H. KIRKLAND, M.S,

As one of the natural checks upon the undesirable increase
of many species of insects, the " soldier bugs" of the genus
Podisus are of considerable economic importance. Arboreal
in habits, almost entirely predatory and requiring daily a
considerable amount of fresh food, they exert an influence
which may entitle them to rank with the beneficial pre-
daceous insects of any order. When disturbed, these bugs
emit a decidedly unpleasant odor, and in their passage over
berries sometimes impart to the fruit a most nauseating taste,
a habit common to many bugs, and one that has given them
a most disreputable popular name. Yet when we consider
the fact that throughout the season of their activity these
soldier bugs are daily destroying the caterpillars that strip
our trees, the slugs that devour our potato vines and numer-
ous other species that prey upon our cultivated crops, the
occasional anno3'ance caused by these insects is of but trifling
importance. In our work against the gypsy moth no other
predaceous insects have been so commonly noticed destroy-
ing the caterpillars, and their attacks upon other injurious
larvae have been a matter of frequent observation. During
the past four years, in connection with other work, the writer
has had many opportunities to observe the feeding habits of
our common species, and has published elsewhere, in detail,
the life history of two members of this genus. The litera-
ture upon these most interesting insects is found in several
languages and in the publications of both hemispheres. As
a large part of it is somewhat diflficult of access to the general
student, it has seemed that a compilation of the known facts

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 413

concerning our native species might be of value in facilitat-
ing their identification.

The Genus Podisus.

This genus was established by Herrich-Schaflfer in 1853
(" Wanzenartigen Insecten," Vol. IX., p. 296), to include
a number of species having their fore femora unarmed,
which, aside from this character, would properly fall into
the genus Canlhecona. At this time he described several
species from Brazil, and in the list given in his "Index
Hemipterorum Heteropterorum," published during the same
year, enumerates some ten species of Podisus, among which
is P. luridus Fab., which had formerly been placed in the
genera Pentatoma and Arma. No type of the genus is
designated by Herrich-Schaffer, but as P. luridus * is its
sole European representative, and was included by him in
the genus at the time of its establishment, this species may
be properl}^ taken as the generic type. The presence of
the ventral spine excludes the species of Podisus from the
genus Ai'ma, under which several were originally described.
Stal erected the genus Telepia in 1858 ("Bidr. Rio Jan.
Hemip.," p. 10) but later transferred the species therein
included to Podisus ("Enum. Hemip.," 1870, p. 48). In
the latter work, loc. cit., he divided the many species of the
genus Podisus among the sub-genera Troilus Stal, Ajpaieticus
Dall., Apoecilus Stal, Podisus H. S. and Tylospilus Stal,
his genus Telejpta being given as a synonym of the sub-
genus Podisus.

The genus Podisus may be characterized as follows : —

Head nearly quadrangular ; basal segment of antenna stout,
not reaching to the anterior margin of the head ; rostrum stout.
Scutelkun triangular, extending but little beyond the middle of
the abdomen, the apex reaching to or upon the membrane of the
wing. Fore femora unarmed ; fore tibiae not dilated. Second
abdominal segment with a spine of variable length extending
anteriorly.

* Professor Fernald has kindly given me a pair of P. luridus. This species is
of about the same size as P. spinosus, but differs from any of the representatives of
the genus in the United States in that the humeral angles are very prominent and
rounded, almost lobate.

414 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

A large genus, represented by many species from North,
Central and South America, the Antilles and by a single
species from Europe and Asia.

Habits.

Before presenting generalities concerning the habits of our
native species, it will be proper to say that the statements
are based upon a general knowledge of the life histories of
P. serieve7it7'is, P. placidus, P. modesius and P. cynicus.
A more intimate knowledge of the early stages of all the
species may lead to some changes in the statements here
given. It may be remarked that apparently but little at-
tention has been given by entomologists to the rearing of
these predaceous insects, probably on account of the diffi-
culty in supplying the young bugs with the fresh food they
daily require.

The insects emerge from their hibernating quarters in the
spring, at about the time the foliage appears. After feeding
for a week or more upon the most abundant caterpillars, the
eggs are laid on leaves or branches of trees. The young
bugs hatch in the course of a week or two, molt four times,
reach the imago state by midsummer, and lay eggs for a
second brood, which matures early in the fall. In passing
from the last nymph stage to that of the imago the number
of joints of the tarsi and the antennae is increased by one.
In the case of the larger species, such as P. cynicus, there
seems to be but one brood yearly in this latitude. Farther
south the number of annual broods may be greater. Both
sexes hibernate under leaves on the ground, under the
bark of trees or in other sheltered places. The life of the
female imagoes in captivity ends soon after the eggs have
been deposited.

It has been stated, as a general rule, that the group of in-
sects to which these bugs belong "will bear watching" so
far as feeding habits are concerned. Many feed on plants,
often to an injurious extent ; some are entirely predaceous ;
while others feed on both plants and insects. The species
of Podisus whose habits have been recorded feed upon in-
sects almost entirely, and are very beneficial. It should be
admitted that Dr. Fitch (Third Report Insects of New York,

No. 4] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 415

1856, pp. 335, 336) includes P. cynicus and P. spinosus
among the insects that attack the limbs of the apple, — a
statement that Dr. Lintner (First Report Insects of New
York, 1882, p. 331) very properly questions. It is equally
doubtful if P. modestus attacks the grape vine, as stated by
Fitch (o/j. cit., p. 390) ; and it would seem possible that the
statements of Glover and Saunders in regard to the attacks
on plants by some of the above-mentioned species rest on
Dr. Fitch's authority, and not on personal observations.
Nearly two hundred specimens of our common species of
Podisus have been collected by the writer and his assistants
during the past four years, and in no case have any of these
insects been found feeding on plants. When confined P,
serieventris has been known to puncture the leaves of oak
("The Gypsy Moth," Forbush-Fernald, 1896, p. 402), a
performance that has been observed but once. It should,
however, be stated that a large part of the normal food of
the newly hatched bugs seems to be the sap contained in
leaves. So far as our ol)servations extend, the nymphs after
molting once are entirely predaceous.

Beneficial insects are so worthy of attention and praise
that one may easily dilate upon their good qualities and
overlook the harm they do. To state the case fairly with
the genus Podisus, it will be proper to say that some of the
species may occasionally devour a coccinellid beetle or other
beneficial insect. Walsh has recorded a single case of the
kind ("American Entomologist," 1868, p. 13). If this habit
is a common one, we should probably have more records of
it. The worst point that the writer has observed in the
habits of the species is that when the food supply runs short
they will devour each other ("The Gypsy Moth," p. 402).
A glance over the list of insects each species is known to
destroy will show which way the balance swings. The fol-
lowing table will aid in the separation of the species occur-
ring in the United States : —

cynicus.

. 7.

gillettei.

416 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Synopsis of th?: Species.*

- J INIembrane with a distinct dark spot at tip, 2.

( Membrane without a dark spot, 5.

n J Scutellum with a dark V-shaped spot, .... acutissimus.

\ Scutellum ^yithout such spot, 3.

„ K Humeral angles produced into slender spines, . . spinosus.

\ Humeral angles acute but not spinose, 4.

. J Ventral si^iue very short, not reaching hind coxae, . modestus.

I Ventral spine reaching to or upon hind coxas, . . serieventris.
f. ^ Lateral lobes of head longer than tylus (median lobe) , . .6.

( Lateral lobes of head not longer than tylus,
^ S Humeral angles produced into stout spines,

( Humeral angles not spinose, . . . • .

„ \ Humeral angles rounded, ventral spine very short,

} Humeral angles nearly right-angled, ventral spine long, crocatus.
Q K Humeral angles spinose, curved toward head, . • mucronatus.

\ Humeral angles blunt and rounded, .... placidus.

PoDisus PLACIDUS Uhler. (Plate 1, fig. 1.)

1869, (?) Stiretrus Jimbriatus Saunders, Can. Ent., vol. H.,
p. 15.t
1870, Podisus placidus Uhler, Amer. Ent., vol. IL, p. 203.
1870, Arma 2)lacidu7n Saunders, Can. Ent., vol. IL, pp. 93, 94.
1872, Podisus placidus Lintner, Ent. Contrib.,1., p. 150.
1872, Podisus placidus Saunders, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont.,p. 31.
1877, Podisus placidus Riley, 9th Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 17.

1889, Podisus placidus Saunders, Ins. Inj. to Fruits, p. 342.

1890, Podisus jilacidus Gillette-Baker, Bull. 81, Col. Agrl.

Expt. Station, Hemipt. Col., p. 13.
1897, Podisus placidus Kirkland, Rep. Mass. State Bd. Agr.,

pp. 399-404.
1897, Podisus placidus Uhler, ibid., p. 403.
1897, Podisus 2ilcicidus Kirkland, Can. Ent., vol. XXIX.,

p. 115.
1897, Podisus p)lacidus Uhler, ibid., p. 116.

Length: male, 9 mm. ; female, 10 mm. Body ovate, yellowish
brown ; ground color creamy yellow, punctate with brick red.
Head but little longer than wide, lateral margins dark brown;
lateral lobes not longer than tylus, usually a little shorter ; tylus
punctate laterally, nearly bare in the middle. First segment of
antennae short, yellowish, darker outwardly ; second segment

* Podisus politus Uhler (Ms.) of Uhler's check list (1886) has been suppressed as
a name for a North American species (Uhler in litt.).

t The bibliography given for each species contains only such references as the
writer has been able to verify personally.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 417

slender, about three times as long as first ; third segment but little
more than one-half as long as second ; fourth segment two-thirds
as long as second ; fifth segment a little shorter than fourth,
dilated ; all segments, except first, pale brownish, lighter at their
outer ends. Rostrum pale yellow except at tip, reaching upon
hind coxae ; second segment longest, passing front coxae ; third
and fourth segments of nearly equal length, tlie latter brown.
Pronotum sparsely punctate before, densely behind, the humeral
angles ; its anterior margin ivory yellow, bordered posteriorly with
a double row of punctures ; across the surface there are several
transverse irregular wrinkles ; sides oblique, straight or but
slightly indented, with very minute teeth anteriorly. A pale cal-
lous line extends from the middle of the anterior margin to the
tip of the scutellum. Post-humeral margins slightly sinuate, pos-
terior margin bordered with an ivory-yellow line. Scutellum
reaching to the membrane, sinuate behind the middle, where it
is more densely pujictate than elsewhere ; tip white. Embolium
and corium, except at base, densely punctate ; clavus and base
of corium sparsely punctate ; a brownish callous spot occurs near
the outer end of the corium ; membrane pale bronze, translucent.
Connexivum pale yellowish with faint black markings at incisures.
Under-surf ace sulphur yellow with minute black markings laterally
in some specimens. Ventral spine reaching the hind coxae, ivory
yellow. Legs rufous ; tarsi brown. A black dot occurs at the tip
of the osteolar canal and another in front of each eye.

Habits.
The life history of this species has been detailed in the
last annual report of this committee. Briefly stated, the
imagoes hibernate and appear early in the spring. They
attack the larvse of CUsiocampa americana Harr. , and aiter
feeding for about a fortnight upon these and other insects,
lay their eggs on the under sides of leaves or on twigs.
From fifty to sixty eggs are laid by a single female. The
eggs hatch in about ten days, and the red and black nymphs
feed on the juices of the leaves for about a week, when the
first molting takes place. From this time on the insects are
predaceous. The second and third molts take place in
twelve and ten days respectively ; in the last nymph stage
the head, thorax and wing-pads are intense pitchy black, the
abdomen dark red, margined with a series of black spots,
one on each se2;ment. On the dorsum there are four black

418 BOARD OF AGEICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

spots placed in a longitudinal row. The last molt takes
place in about three weeks.

The imagoes of the summer brood appear during July and
those of the fall brood in September. While feeding upon
the tent caterpillars in the spring this bug is frequently
devoured by two spiders, Epeira strix and Phidippus multi-
formis, which are common occupants of the caterpillar webs.

The list of insects P. placidus is known to destroy in-
cludes Pteronus rihesii Scop. (Saunders, Can. Ent., 1870,
pp. 93, 94), Euvanessa antiopa Linn., Hyphantria cunea
Drury, Orgyia leucostigma S. and A., 0. definita Pack.,
Portheiria dispar Linn., Clisiocampa americana Harr., C.
disstria Hbn. (Kirkland, Report Massachusetts State Board
Agriculture for 1896, p. 404.)

Distribution. — Canada, Massachusetts, New York,* Mich-
igan, f Colorado.

PoDisus GiLLETTEi Uhler. (Plate 1, fig. 6.)

1895, Podisus gillettei Uhler, Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31, Col. Agrl. Expt.
Station, Hemip. Col., pp. 12, 13.

Prof. C. P. Gillette has been so kind as to send me the
type and only known specimen of this beautiful species. Its
prominent characters are : —

Length, 14 mm. Body ovate, like P. placidus, but much larger.
Upper-surface dull olive colored, punctate with black. Head
quadrangular, lateral lobes longer than tylus, but not as long as in
P. cynicus. The sides of the tylus are margined anteriorly with
yellowish. The entire upper surface of the head, aside from the
preceding, is heavily punctate with black. First segment of an-
tennae not extending beyond lateral margin of head, yellowish ;
second segment hardly longer than head, testaceous ; third seg-
ment two-thirds as long as second ; fourth and fifth segments of
nearly equal length, each about three-fourths as long as second,
and, in common with the third segment, black except at base,
which is yellowish. Rostrum of medium size, not as short as in
P. cynicus, reaching upon middle coxae. Second segment of ros-
trum reaching on the fore coxae ; third and fourth segments of
nearly equal length; fourth segment piceous.

* Specimen in Dr. Lintner's collection, labelled " Keene Valley, N. Y., July 4,
1890."
t Specimen in Museum of Comparative Zoology collection, labelled " Mich."

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 419

Pronotal margins very oblique, with finely incised edges anteri-
orly, with a broad ivory-yellow band, which diminishes at the
humeral angles, which are very obtuse and rounded. The black
puncturing on the anterior part of the pronotum is very dense ;
that on the posterior part less dense, arranged in irregular trans-
verse lines. Scutellum but slightly sinuate, most densely punc-
tured at base, and with a small callous spot in each basal angle.
A fine callous line extends longitudinally through the pronotum
and scutellum. Corium densely punctate ; membrane bronzed,
without apical spot. Connexivum ivory yellow, with faint black
markings interiorly at segmental sutures. These markings do not
reach the lateral edge of abdomen. Under-surface pale yellowish
brown, punctate with darker brown. Abdominal spine very short,
nearly obsolete. Legs of same color as under-surface, darkening
on tibiae to brown. Tarsi dark brown, hairy.

The stout rostrum indicates that this species has preda-
ceous habits.

PoDisus MODESTUS (Dallas). (Plate 1, fig. 9.)

1851, Anna modesta Dallas, List, part L, pp. 101, 102.
1856, Arrna modesta Fitch, 3d Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 390.

1869, Arma modesta Walsh, Can. Ent., vol. IT., p. 33.

1870, Podisus modestzts Stal, Enum. Hemipt., part L, p. 51.

1872, AvTna modesta Lintner, Ent. Contrib., I., p. 150.

1873, Arm,a modesta Riley, 5th Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 133.

1875, Podisus modestus Uhler, Bull, 5, vol. I., U. S. Geol. Surv,

Terr., p. 283.

1876, Podisus modestus Glover, Manuscript Notes Hemipt. Het.,

p. 60.
1880, Podisus modesttts Distant, Biol. Cent. Am. Rhync, vol. I.,
pp. 38, 39, pi. IV., fig. 4.

1884, Podisus modestus Fletcher, Can. Ent., vol. XVI., p. 215.

1885, Podisus modesties Fletcher, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 22, 77.
1889, Podisus modestus Lintner, 5th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 170.

1889, Ar^na modesta Saunders, Ins. Inj. to Fruits, p. 290.

1890, Podisus modestus Lintner, 6th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 189.

1890, Arma modesta Packard, 5th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 164.

1891, Podisus modestus Lintner, 7th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 353.

1892, Podisus modestus Riley-Howard, Insect Life, vol. IV.,

p. 123.
1895, Podisus modestus Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31,Col. Agrl. Expt.

Station, Hemip. Col., p. 13.
1897, Podisus modestus Ivirkland, Can. Ent., vol. XXIX., p. 115.

Length: male, 9.5 mm. ; female, 10.5 mm. One of the smallest
of our native species. Upper-surface densely and evenly punctate

420 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

with light brick red. Head much longer than wide, nearly trun-
cate in front. The lateral lobes in a few specimens I have ex-
amined are a trifle longer than the tylus, but this seems to be an
exception ; outer margin of lateral lobes embrowned. Eyes very
dark brown ; ocelli minute, near occiput. First segment of an-
tennae very short, hardly reaching lateral margin of head ; second
segment slender, relatively short, but, little over three times as
long as first ; third segment about three-fourths as long as second ;
fourth segment nearly as long as second ; fifth segment longer
than third, but a little shorter than fourth ; all joints reddish or
pale brown. Rostrum stout, reaching upon, sometimes to, pos-
terior margin of hind coxse ; second segment the longest, third
and fourth of equal length, the latter dark reddish brown. Pro-
notum deeply indented at the sides, margined with a fine yellowish
white line, within which the puncturing is densely massed ; an-
teriorly on the lateral margins there are several minute teeth;
pronotal callosities obscure, thickly punctate outwardly. At the
humeral angles the punctures are massed into a reddish spot, the
angles being acute but not spinose. Scutellum sinuate, bare at
apex, which reaches to the membrane ; in nearly all specimens
examined there is a minute bald spot at each basal angle of
scutellum. Corium and embolium tinged with scarlet at their
junction with membrane, which is bronzed and bears a dark-green
marking at the tip. Under-surface pale yellowish, punctate with
red, and bearing a row of four minute dots on the median line and
two rows of similar dots laterally. Ventral spine very short, not
reaching hind coxtc. Legs rufous.

Distribution. — Canada, Maine, Massachusetts, New York,
Illinois, Georgia, Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Mexico.

The only species resembling P. modestus is tlie light
variety of P. serieventris^ which sometimes approaches the
darker forms of the former species. The deeply sinuate
humeral angles, the red marking at the tip of the corium, the
light-colored tergum, the short ventral spine and short sec-
ond segment of antennte, — arc characteristic of modestus^
and will serve to distinguish it.

Habits.
This species is very common in May, feeding on tent
caterpillars {Glisiocampa a7nericana Harr. ) . At the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, there are several speci-
mens which were found under leaves by Mr. Jacob Boll in

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 421

the winter of 1872-73, thus proving that the insect hiber-
nates as an imago. Different stages of the nymphs have
been reared to imagoes at the insectary of the gypsy moth
committee ; but, owing to the amount of work involved, we
have made no attempt to carefully follow the entire round
of life, which apparently does not vary materially from that
of serieventris. The imagoes are abundant in the spring,
again in midsummer and also in September and October,
and there can be no doubt that the species is here double-
brooded. P. modesius is less common than serieve)it7'is or
placiduSy and, so far as my experience goes, is more fre-
quently found on bushes and low-growing plants than on
trees. In feeding habits it shows the same voracity as
serieventris, and preys upon larvae of all sizes. It has
been recorded as destroying Haltica himarginata Say (Lint-
ner. Fifth Rep. Ins. N. Y., 1889, p. 170), Haltica chalybea
111. (Lintner, Sixth Rep. Ins. N. Y., 1890, p. 189), Hemileuca
maia Drury (Lintner, Ent. Contrib., I., 1872, p. 150),
Clisioca^npa americana Harr. (Kirkland, Can. Ent., 1897,
p. 115), Lygoeonematus erichsonii Hartig (Fletcher, Can.
Ent., 1884, p. 215). In Professor Fernald's collection there
is a specimen of P. modesius taken feeding on a leaf hopper
at Amherst, Mass., May 28, 1890.

In September, 1896, Mr. Robert Cooley took a nymph of
this bug at Brewster, Mass., feeding on the pupse of the
"yellow-headed fire worm," Teras minuta. The imago
developed September 20. The writer has found modestus
feeding on gypsy moth larvae during the past summer at
Saugus, Mass. A minute hymenopterous parasite, Teleno-
mus podisi Ashm., has been reared from the eggs of this
bug ("Insect Life," IV., p. 123, 1892).

PODISUS FALLENS (Stal).

1859, Armapallens Stal, Freg. Eug. Resa, p. 222.
1870, Podisus pallens Stal, Enum. Hemipt., part I., p. 51.
1875, Podisus x>allens Uhler, Bull. 5, vol. I., U. S. Geol.
Surv. Terr., p. 282.

Stal's description of this species may be translated as
follows ; —

422 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Whitish yellow, somewhat punctate with brownish dots, more
finely and less densely (punctate) beneath ; antennse darker
towards the apex ; posterior angles of thorax produced, sub-
acute ; scutellum not punctate at the lowest part of the apex ;
abdomen with each segment margined with a minute spot above
and below at base and at apex, and with spots placed in series on
both sides ; femora tawny, with an apical dot.

I have been unable to obtain an example of this species
and have not included it in the synopsis. The insufficiency
of the original description was long ago pointed out by Pro-
fessor Uhler in the following words : ' ' The small differences
in the lateral angles of the pronotum and in puncturing do
not seem to me suffiicent to separate this from P. modestus.'*

The specimens from which the original description was
prepared were collected in California.

PoDisus CROCATus Uhler. (Plate 1, fig. 3.)

1878, Podisus cynicus, var, obscuripes (Uhl. Ms.) Riley, Kept.

U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 245.
1884, Podisus * crocatus (Uhl. Ms.) Hagen, Can. Ent., vol. XVI.,

p. 40.
1897, Podisus crocatus Uhler, Trans. Md. Acad. Sc, pp. 384-386.

Throuo;h the kindness of Mr. Samuel Henshaw I have had
the privilege of examining several representatives of this
species at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Mass. Professor Uhler has also kindly given me a specimen
from Vancouver Island. I have nothing to add to Professor
Uhler's excellent description of the species. Its prominent
characteristics are : —

Length, 15 mm. Body robust, reddish yellow, heavily marked
with dark-green punctures. Lateral lobes of head longer than
tylus, and bordered outwardly with a fine dark-green line. First
segment of antennae stout, reaching about three-fourths the dis-
tance between eye and anterior margin ; second segment about
three times as long as first ; third segment two-thirds as long as
second ; fourth segment one-third longer than third ; fifth segment
a trifle longer than third. Rostrum stout, reaching to hind coxte ;
first segment thick ; second segment but little longer than first ;

* Misprinted " Podiscus."

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 423

third and fourth segments each nearly as long as first. Sides of
pronotum coarsely serrate anteriorly ; humeral angles nearly right
angled, dark green. Scutellum punctate with dark green, reach-
ing to the membrane, Corium of same color as scutellum ;
membrane bronze brown, extending beyond tip of abdomen.
Connexivum orange, marked with dark green at the incisures.
Under-side yellowish, punctate with brick red laterally. Legs
amber colored, darkening toward the tarsi. Ventral spine stout,
nearly passing the hind coxae.

In size this species resembles P. cynicus, from which it
may be distinguished by its orange-colored, body with dark-
green markings, and humeral angles which are not as acute
as in that species.

Distribution. — Vancouver Island, Washington, Oregon,
California.

Habits.

In July, 1882, Mr. Samuel Henshaw collected a number
of imagoes of this species and three nymphs near Loon
Lake, Washington. These insects were feeding on the
larvae of JSfeophasia menapia Feld. Aside from a darker
coloration, the nymphs bear a striking resemblance to those
of P. cynicus. Being certainly an immature stage of a large
Podisus, taken at the same time and place with the imagoes
of P. crocatus^ there can be but little doubt that they are the
nymphs of this species, and may be described as follows : —

Podisus crocatus (?) nymph.
Length, 11 to 14 mm. . Body compact, very stout, widest at
middle of abdomen. Head and thorax heavily marked with dark
bronze green. Abdomen thickly covered with scarlet dots. Head
distinctly emarginate in front, edges at least bordered with dark
green ; a scarlet line extends along the inner margin of the lateral
lobes, and also on median line from between the eyes backward to
pronotum. First segment of antennee stout, slightly projecting
beyond the lateral margin of the head ; second segment nearly
as long as third and fourth taken together, these latter being of
nearly equal length ; all segments dark bronze green. Rostrum very
stout, extending to middle coxae ; tip dark brown, horny. Edges
of pro thorax, scutellum and wing-pads heavily bordered with dark
green. Irregular scarlet markings occur on either side of the
dorsal groove of the prothorax, on the scutellum and on the wing-

424 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

pads ; the extent of these markings varies inversely with that of
the green ones. One specimen has no red on the scutellum or
wing-pads, and but two small spots on the prothorax ; while on the
other specimens the red predominates. On the dorsum of the
abdomen there is a longitudinal row of four transverse dark-gi*een
spots, while around the margin at the middle of each segment
there is a semi-elliptical spot of dark green ; included in each of
these marginal spots is a much smaller spot of similar shape, pale
buff in color. Under-side pale buff, dotted with scarlet. Femora
and tibiae reddish brown ; tarsi dark green.

In a note on the enemies of JSfeophasia menajna, Hagen
has written : " Podisus crocatus Uhl. (Ms.) is a very eager
enemy of the pupa and the caterpillar before pupating, when
it is very sluggish. The JP. crocatus was everywhere com-
mon in the devastated forests, and observed in the act of
sucking caterpillars" (Can. Ent., XVI., p. 40).

The above, and Riley's record of this species * feeding on
Diapheromera femorata Say, are the only referencea to the
habits of this insect I have been able to find.

* Given as P. cynicus var. obscuripes, which name Professor Uhler writes me he
has rejected in favor of P. crocatus.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 425

PoDisus CYNicus (Say). (Plate 1, fig. 7.)

1831, Pentatoma cynica Say, Descr. New. Sp. Het. Hemip. of

N. A., p. ?, New. Harm., Ind.*
1851, Anna grandis Dallas, List, part I., pp. 96, 97.
1856, Arma grandis Fitch, 3d Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 335, pi. 2,

fig. 7.

1856, Arma bracieata, Fitch, ibid., j). 336.

1857, Pentatoma cynica Fitch, 4th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 757 (re-

print of Say's description),
1859, Pentatoma cynica Say, Compl. Writ., vol. I., p. 312.
1867, Podisus grandis Stal, Ofvers. Vet. Ak. Fcirh., p. 497.
1870, Podisus grandis Stal, Enum. Hemipt., part I., p. 49,
1870, Podisus bracteattis Stal, ibid., p. 54.
1870, Podistis cytiicus Stal, ibid., p. 54.

1874, Arma grandis Glover, Rep. U, S. Dep. Agr., p. 123.

1875, Podisus cynicus Glover, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr , p. 118, fig. 8.

1875, Podisus cynicus Uhler, Bull. 5, vol. I., U. S, Geol. Surv.

Terr., p. 282.

1876, Podisus cynicus Glover, Manuscript Notes Hemip, Het,,

p. 59, pi. II., fig. 29.
1876, Arma bracteata Glover, ibid., p. 60.

1876, Podisus cynicus Uhler, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 370,

1877, Podisus cynicus Glover, Entomological Index, pp. 8, 58.

1878, Podisus cynicus Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 245.
1878, Podisus cynicus Uhler, Bull. 2, vol. IV., U, S. Geol. Surv.

Terr., p. 504.
1882, Podisus cynicus Lintner, 1st Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 331.
1884, Podisus bracteatus Lintner, Can. Ent., vol. XVI., p. 182.
1884, Podisus cynicus Lintner, ibid.

1884, Podisus cynictis Uhler, Standard Nat. Hist., pp. 291, 292.

1885, Podisus cynicus Lintner, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont., p. 13.
1885, Podisus cynicus Riley, 4th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 97.
1890, Podisus bracteattis Cockerell, Can. Ent., vol. XXIL, p. 59.

1890, Podisus cynicus Lintner, Pop. Gardening, p. 198.

1891, Podisus cynicus Lintner, 7th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 356

1894, Podisus cynicus Fernald, Rep. Mass. State Bd. Agr., p. 260.

1895, Podisus cynicus Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31, Col. Agrl. Expt.

Station, Hemip. Col., p. 12.

1895, Podisus bracteatus Gillette-Baker, ibid.

1896, Podisus cynicus Kirkland, The Gypsy Moth, Forbush-

Femald, pp. 392, 394, 402.

1897, Podisus c?/?^^cMS Kirkland, Can. Ent., vol. XXIX., p. 115.

Length: male, 14.6 mm. to 17.8 mm.; female, 15 mm. to
18.8 mm. Tawny yellow, punctured with brick red or reddish-
brown dots. Head longer than wide ; lateral lobes longer than

* This rare pamphlet is iu the library of the Boston Society of Natui'al History.

426 BOAKD OF AGKICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc."

tylus. Eyes dark browu ; ocelli vermilion, in rear of eyes, nearer
median line. First segment of antennae stout, extending about
three-fourths of the distance between the eye and anterior margin
of head ; second segment a little more than three times as long as
first ; third segment two-thirds as long as second ; fourth segment
a trifle longer than third ; fifth segment of about the same length
as fourth. Rostrum very stout, reaching to hind coxae ; first seg-
ment wide and thick ; second segment one-third longer than first,
enlarging at its junction with third segment, which is of about the
same length as first ; fourth segment a little shorter than third,
terminating in a blunt brown point. Pronotum and scutellum of
same color as head. Sides of pronotum sinuate, with fine gran-
ular teeth anteriorly ; humeral angles produced into stout acute
spines. The' callous spots on the anterior part of pronotum bear
one or more small green markings ; in some specimens there are
small spots of this color at the anterior angles of the pronotum
and at the inner ends of the callous spots. Scutellum sinuate
behind its middle, reaching slightly upon the membrane. Corium
of same color as scutellum ; membrane bronze browu, extending
beyond tip of abdomen. Conuexivum orange, marked with black
at the incisures. Under-surface pale yellow, dotted more or less
with red. Legs of same color as under-surface, darkening slightly
in some specimens towards the tarsi. Ventral spine very stout,
reaching to middle coxae.

Disti^ibution. — Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Illinois, Wisconsin, Dakota, Nebraska, Missouri,
Colorado, Arizona.

Podisus bracteatus, as described by Fitch, differs from
cynicus only in certain small green markings on the prono-
tum, scutellum and vring-covers. In our collection there is
a series of thirty-seven specimens which shows nearly all the
variations between the two species as described. Being
unable to distinguish between the species, I tried to obtain
specimens of bracteatus from several sources, but was unable
to do so. In this difficulty I wrote to Professor Uhler, and
found that he also was not familiar with this species. Since
that time he has very kindly gone to the trouble to examine
the specimen of bracteatus in the Fitch collection at the Na-
tional Museum, and has decided that it is but a variety of
Say's cynicus. Glover in 1876 expressed the opinion that
bracteatus was but a variety of cynicus (Manuscript Notes

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 427

Hemip. Het., p. 60), an opinion also held by Dr. Lintner
(Report Entomological Society, Ontario, 1885, p. 13), but
which appears to have been overlooked by later writers.

Aside from the variations in the green markings on the
thorax previously referred to, the color of the punctures on
the upper-surface ranges from brick red to dark brown. The
only aberrations in form that I have seen are two specimens,
one of which has both humeral angles blunted off and actu-
ally emarginate, the other having the right humeral angle
normal, the left being rounded. Both these insects were
bred from nymphs, and their peculiarities of structure may
be due to defective nutrition or to some accident at the time
of the last molt, while the body was still soft.

Habits.

The imagoes of this species hibernate under leaves. At
the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, there are
several specimens collected by Mr. Boll during the winter
of 1872-73. These were sifted out from a quantity of
leaves raked from the ground. The eggs and early nymph
stages are unknown to the writer. Nymphs in the last stage
have been taken frequently during June, July and August,
and are known to feed on the larvae of the gypsy moth.
They may be described as follows : —

Podisus cynicus nymph.
Length, 10 mm. ; greatest width, 8 mm. Body compact, some-
what elliptical iu outliue ; head deeply inserted iu the thorax.
Posterior angles of thorax produced for a short distance along
the sides of the abdomen. General color of head and thorax
pale yellowish brown, sometimes marked with red. A fine dark
seal-brown line extends around the margin of the head, thorax
and wing-pads, and borders the tylus. From near the middle of
the inner margin of each wing-pad a fine dark-brown line extends
obliquely outward and backward to the outer margin, enclosing a
somewhat diamond-shaped area, and marking the anterior margin
of the future wing membrane. The median sulcus of the pro-
thorax and scutellum is bordered with dark brown, and the sur-
face of the thorax is finely punctured with faint brown dots. On
either side of the dorsal sulcus of the prothorax there is a short,
irregular, transverse black line, extending obliquely backward

428 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

toward the lateral margin. Abdomen brick red, bordered with
heavy black line. At the middle of the lateral margin of each
segment there is a well-defined semi-elliptical yellowish-brown
spot, bordered with black. There are four more or less confluent,
transverse dark-brown spots on the dorsum. Under-surface of
head and thorax amber colored ; color of abdomen somewhat
lighter than that of the upper-surface. Antennae four-jointed,
black ; first segment stout, partially retracted beneath the edge of
the head ; second segment slightly flattened, widened toward its
outer end and four times as long as the first ; third and fourth
segments of nearly equal length, the latter being constricted at
each end. Femora amber colored ; tibiae with three equidistant
longitudinal ridges, pale brown and sparsely hairy ; tarsi two-
jointed, dark brown and hairy.

From the late appearance of the nymphs, it is probable
that the species has but one annual brood in this region.
Both nymphs and imagoes are rapacious feeders, their stout
beak being a very formidable weapon. The insect attacked
is impaled by a sudden thrust of the setas, which hold it
firmly, and in a few minutes the body fluids are sucked out.
In killing large insects the setae are sometimes wrested from
the rostrum, but are readil}'^ replaced by the bug. The setae
can be moved by muscles at their base independent of the
rostrum, and are armed with formidable reflexed spines.

The records of insects destroyed by this species include
Diajpheromera femorata Say (Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr.,
1878, p. 245), Podisus serieventris Uhl. (Kirkland, "The
Gypsy Moth," Forbush-Fernald, 1896, p. 402), DorypJiora
decem-Uneata Say (Glover, Ent. Index, 1877, p. 8), Porthe-
tria dispar Linn. (Fernald, Rep. Mass. State Bd. Agr., 1894,
p. 260), Aletia argiUacea Hbn. (Riley, Fourth Rep. U. S.
Ent. Com., 1885, p. 97), Pteronus ribesii Scop. (Lintner,
Can. Ent., 1884, p. 182).

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 429

PoDisus SERiEVENTRis Uhler. (Plate 1, %. 2.)

1870, Podisus serieventris Uhler, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 94.
1876, Podtstis serieventris Uhler, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 3^70.
1892, Podisus spinosus Fernald, Rep. Mass. State Bd. Agr., p. 298.
1892, Podisus spinosus Fernald, Bull. 19, Mass. Hatch Expt.

Station, p. 116.
1892, Podisus spinosus Riley-Howard, Insect Life, vol. IV., p. 354.

1894, Podisus serieventris Fernald, Rep. Mass. State Bd. Agr.,

p. 260.

1895, Podisus serieventris Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31, Col. Agrl.

Expt. Station, Hemipt. Col., p. 13.

1896, Podisus serieventris Kirkland, The Gypsy Moth, Forbush-

Fernald, pp. 393-403.

1897, Podisus serieventris Kirkland, Can. Ent., vol. XXIX.,

p. 115.

Length: male, 10-11 mm.; female, 11-12 mm. Upper-surface
pale yellowish, heavily punctate with dark brown. Head trun-
cate anteriorly, densely punctate on its anterior part. Eyes dark
brown ; ocelli minute, reddish, in rear of eyes. First segment of
antennje short, blackish outwardly, scarcely projecting beyond the
lateral margin of head ; second segment spread over with black,
slender, dilated at apex, about four times as long as first ; third
segment a little over half as long as second ; fourth segment two-
thirds as long as second, and with the third generally spread over
with black ; fifth segment a little longer than fourth, reddish
brown. Rostrum of medium thickness, reaching to hind coxse;
the first, third and fourth segments of nearly equal length, the
second the longest, reaching to posterior margin of fore coxae.
Pronotum finely toothed anteriorly, indented laterally, but not as
much as in modestus. The punctures are massed at the anterior
and humeral angles into four blackish spots. Humeral angles
acute, but not spinose, often slightly curved backward ; on the
pronotum of many specimens there are fine transverse wrinkles.
Scutellum of same color as pronotum, less densely punctate at
tip, which is sometimes whitish ; at the basal angles in some
specimens there is a small bald whitish spot. Corium more
densely punctate than embolium ; membrane bronzed, with a dark
spot at the tip. Under-surface pale yellowish, marked and
clouded with darker shades and sparingly punctate with reddish ;
on the middle of the last segment there is a round or oval black
spot, above which in a longitudinal row there are often three
minute black spots ; laterally there ai'e two rows of small black
spots, occui-ring as follows : one on the middle of each segment,
near connexivum, and one on the anterior margin of the third to

430 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

sixth segments inclusive, this latter row being equidistant between
the ventral row and the connexivum ; there is a large black dot
at the tip of the osteolar canal and a smaller one on the pleurae
above each of the coxae. Legs rufous ; femora with two or three
black dots near apex. Ventral spine ivory white, reaching upon
the hind coxae.

Distribution. — Maine, Massachusetts, New York,* New
Jersey, f Minnesota, Colorado.

Habits.
Perhaps on account of its obscure coloring and active
flight this species may be better protected from bird enemies
than its congeners. Be that as it may, serieventris in this
region is by far the most common representative of the
genus. Hibernating as imagoes, the insects appear early in
the spring, sometimes in April, and by the latter part of
May an inspection of the webs of the tent caterpillar will
show numbers of these bugs breaking their winter's fast
upon the inmates of these webs. After a week or more
spent in feeding, mating occurs, J and in a few days the
female deposits her eggs in two or three clusters on the un-
der-sides of leaves or on small branches. From fifty to
sixty caldron-shaped eggs are laid by each female, and in
about eight or ten days' time the gaily colored nymphs emerge
from the egg-shells and commence feeding on the sap of
leaves. If weather conditions are favorable, the first molt
takes place in four or five days, and the nymphs wander
forth in search of insects. These tiny creatures, not over
4 mm. in length, will destroy caterpillars many times larger
than themselves. The second molting occurs about ten days
after the first, and the third about six days later than the
second. The red and black nymphs feed almost continually
during this stage, and boldly attack the largest larvae. From
twelve to seventeen days elapse before the last molt. By
midsummer the eggs for a second brood are laid, the imagoes
of which appear in August and September. In 1895 the
data concerning the times at which the imagoes and nymphs

* In Dr. Lintner's collection.

t Specimens from Prof. J. B. Smith.

X These insects frequently mate in the fall (" The Gypsy Moth," p. 403).

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 431

appeared seemed to indicate the occurrence of three annual
broods. There are certainly two broods each year in this
region. The time at which different individuals of this spe-
cies appear varies to such a degree that imagoes may be
taken during every month from April to October, and only
by rearing can we get at the actual number of broods. As
recorded elsewhere, the writer has reared two broods be-
tween the latter part of June and the last of September.

This species is known to feed upon the following larv« :
Porthetria cUspar Linn. (Fernald, Rep. Mass. St. Bd. Agr.,
1892, p. 298), Euvariessa antiopa Linn., Hyphantria cunea
Drury, Aitacus promeihea Drury, Clisiocmnpa ainericajia
Harr., O. disstria Hbn., Paleacrita vernata Pack.; in con-
finement we have reared it upon Oimbex americana Leach,
Datana tninistra Drury, Attacus cecropia Linn., Telea poly-
phemus Cram., Anisota senatoria S. and A., Dryocampa
rubicunda Fabr., Tolype velleda Stoll, Rhynchagrotis alter-
nata Grote, Noctua c-nignim Linn. P. serieventris has been
known as imago to kill the nymphs of its own species and
of P. cynicus. In one case it was seen to feed on an imago
of Menecles insei'tus Say (Kirkland, "The Gypsy Moth,"
Forbush-Fernald, 1896, p. 402).

PoDisus SPINOSUS (Dallas). (Plate 1, fig. 4.)

1851, Arma spinosa Dallas, List, part I., p. 98.
1856, Arma spinosa Fitch, 3d Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 336.
1866, Arma spinosa Glover, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 43.

1868, Arma spinosa Walsh-Riley, Amer. Ent., vol. I., pp. 13, 14,

37, 46, 59.

1869, Arma spinosa Riley, 1st Rep. Ins. Mo., pp. 77, 89, 113.

1869, Arma spinosa Walsh, Can. Ent., vol. II., p. 33.

1870, Arma spinosa Riley, 2d Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 32.
1870, Arma spinosa Shinier, Am. Nat., p. 98.

1870, Podisus spinosus Stal, Enum. Hemipt., part I., p. 51.

1871, Arma spiyiosa Kridelbaugh, Rep. la. State Hort. Soc,

pp. 167,168.
1871, Arma spinosa LeBaron, 1st Rep. Ins. 111., pp. 64, 66, 162.

1871, Podisus spi7iosus Uhler, U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden),

p. 395.

1872, Anna spinosa Lintner, Ent. Contrib., I., p. 150.

1872, ^rma spinosa Riley, 4th Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 20.

1873, Arma spifiosa LeBaron, 3d Rep. Ins. 111., p. 184.

1874, Arma spinosa Glover, Rep U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 123.

432 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

1874, Ar7na spinosa Lintner, Count. Gent., p. 471.

1875, Podisus (Arma) spinosus Glover, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr.,

p. 118, fig. 9.
1875, Arma spinosa Riley, The Garden (London), vol. VIII.,
p. 71.

1875, Podisus sjmiosus Uhler, Bull. 5, vol. I., U. S. Geol. Surv.

Terr., p. 282.

1876, Podisus spinostis Glover, Manuscript Notes Hemipt. Het.,

p. 60.

1877, Podisus spinosus Glover, Entomological Index, pp. 8, 58.

1878, Arma sjnnosa Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 245.

1878, Podisus spifiosus Thomas, 2d Rep. Ins. 111., p. 218.

1879, Arma (Podisus) spinosus Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr.,

p. 289.

1880, Podisus spinosus Fuller, Amer. Ent., vol, III., p. 190.
1880, Arma spinosa Packard, Guide to Study of Ins., p. 547.
1882, Podisus spinosus Lintner, 1st Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 331.
1884, Arma spinosa Murtfeldt, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 417.

1884, Arma sptiiiosa Osborn, Can. Ent., vol. XVI., p. 151.

1885, Podisus spinosus Lintner, 2d Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 146.
1885, Arma spinosa Osborn, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont., p. 34.

1885, Podisus spinosus Riley, 4th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., pp. 97, 98.

1886, Podisus spinosus Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 527.

1887, Podisus spinosus Riley, Shade Trees and their Insect De-

foliators, p. 45.

1889, Podisus spinosus Saunders, Ins. Inj. to Fruits, p. 73.

1890, Podisus spifiosus Lintner, 6th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 137.
1890, Podisus spinosus Packard, 5th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 194.
1890, Podisus spinosus Riley, 5th Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 252.
1892, Podisus spinosus Riley-Howard, Ins. Life, vol. IV., p. 124.

1892, Podisus spinosus Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., p. 167.

1893, Podisus spinosus Ashmead, Bull. 45, U. S. Nat. Mus.,

Proctotrypidae, pp. 159, 163.
1893, Podisus sjmiosus Lintner, 8th Rep. Ins. N. Y., pp. 238, 300.
1893, Arma spinosa Lintner, 9th Rep. Ins. N. Y., p. 457.

1895, Podisus spinosus Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31, Col. Agrl. Expt.

Station, Hemipt. Col., p. 13.

1896, Podisus spinosus Chittenden, Year Book U. S. Dep. Agr.,

p. 346.

1897, Podisus spinosus Howard, Bull. 5, Tech. Ser., Div. Ent.,

U. S. Dep. Agr., Ins. Parasitism, p. 8.

Length, 11 to 14 mm. Upper-surface yellowish, so heavily
punctured with reddish or dark brown as to give the insect a
general dull-brown color. Head nearly truncate in front ; in some
specimens the lateral lobes are a trifle shorter than tylus ; punct-
ures very close together on lateral lobes, more scattering on tylus.
Eyes dark brown ; ocelli minute, red, in rear of eyes and near the
anterior margin of pronotum. Antennae slender ; first segment

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 433

short, scarcely projecting beyond the lateral margin of head, pale
brown on its outer lateral surface ; second segment slender, en-
larging at its apex, four times as long as first, rufous at base,
darkening toward apex ; third segment about two-thirds as long
as second, and of same color ; fourth segment a little longer than
third, similarly colored ; fifth segment as long as third, rufous,
sometimes tinged with brown at the apex. Rostrum stout, reach-
ing to hind coxae ; first segment thick, half as long as upper-sur-
face of head ; second segment one-half longer than first, nearly
passing anterior coxfe ; third segment a trifle longer than first ;
fourth segment of same length as first, embrowned at tip. Sides
of pronotum indented, with fine granular teeth anteriorly ; humeral
angles often sinuate posteriorly and produced into long slender
spines, which are frequently tipped with dark brown or black.
The puncturing is closely massed at each anterior angle of the
pronotum and in a small spot at the outer end of the pronotal
callosities. A fairly well-defined dorsal line extends from the
anterior margin of the pronotum to the tip of the scutellum.
Scutellum of same color as pronotum, reaching to the membrane,
less densely punctured toward the tip. Corium of same color,
generally tinged with red near the cuneus ; membrane translucent
with a brownish spot at the tip. Connexivum pale orange, with
large black markings at each incisure ; in the middle of these
markings there is usually a minute white spot. Under-side pale
yellowish, punctate sparingly with red or brown ; on the middle
of the last segment there is a large oval black spot, anterior to
which on some specimens there is a minute black dot ; a small
black dot occurs on the third, fourth, fifth and sixth segments ;
these dots form a row which is equidistant between the median
line and the lateral margin ; osteolar canal tipped with a black
dot. Legs of same color as abdomen, femora generally tipped
with two dark-brown dots. Ventral spine slender, reaching upon
the hind coxae.

Distribution. — Canada, Massachusetts, New York, Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Wisconsin, Illinois, Nebraska,
Kansas, lovi^a, Missouri, Colorado, Indian Territory, Texas,
California. This species is stated to occur generally through-
out the south and west ; it is rare in Massachusetts.

Habits.

Podistis spinosus has been frequently confounded with
P. serieventris in the collections I have examined, and in

434 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

some series the two species closely approach each other.
P. spinosus usually reaches a size not attained by serieventris.
In the latter species the antennte are generally spread over
with brown and the humeral angles are bluntly acute, not
produced into slender spines. In spinosus there is usually a
well-defined sinuation in rear of each spine.

The life history of this species, as briefly given by Riley,
is as follows : —

The eggs of P. spinosus . . . are bronze-colored, caldron-
shaped objects, with a convex lid, around which radiate fifteen or
sixteen white spines. They are attached side by side, in clusters
of a dozen or more, to leaves and other objects. . . . The young
bug is ovoid, shiny black, with some bright crimson about the
abdomen. In the full-grown larva . . . four yellowish spots
appear on the thorax, and the abdomen becomes more yellowish.
In the so-called pupa, distinguished by wing-pads, the ochre yellow
extends still more, and in the perfect insect the black entirely dis-
appears. In the immature stages the shoulders are rounded, not
pointed ; the antennae are four-jointed instead of five-jointed as
in the adult, and the feet or tarsi have but two joints instead of
three.

The diet of the young seems to be principally vegetarian, but
we have mentioned elsewhere (Fourth Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 20)
instances where the larva has been seen to destroy larvae of the
Colorado Potato beetle four or five times its own size. (Fourth
Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 98.)

At the time the Colorado potato beetle was spreading east-
ward, P. spinosus was perhaps its most frequently observed
insect enemy, as is shown by its frequent mention in articles
on the subject appearing at that time, and its services in
destroying this beetle were of sufficient value to call out
the commendation of many entomologists. In destroying
the cotton worm (Aletia argillacea) Riley rates this bug as
" the most abundant and effective " of the Heteroptera known
to attack the insect. The full list of insects which P. spinosus
is known to attack is given below : —

Diapheromera femorata Say (Riley, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr.,
1878, p. 245), Coccinella sp. ? (Walsh, Amer. Ent., 1869,
vol. I., p. 13), Crioceris asparagi Linn. (Chittenden, Year
Book U. S. Dep. Agr., 1896, p. 346), Doryphora decern-

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 435

lineata Say (Glover, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., 1866, p. 43, and
many other writers), Galerucella luteola Miill (Riley, Rep.
U. S. Dep. Agr., 1892, p. 167), Pieris r^apa', Linn. (Murt-
feldt, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr., 1884, p. 417), Hyj^Jtanti-ia cunea
Drury (Walsh, Amer. Ent., vol. I., 1869, p. 59), Orgyia
leucostigma S. and A. (Howard, Bull. 5, Tech. Ser,, 1897,
p. 8), Garneades scandens Riley (Riley, First Rep. Ins. Mo.,
1869, p. 77), Aletia argillacea Hbn. (Comstock, Rep. U. S.
Dep. Agr., 1879, p. 289), Oacoecia fervidana Clem. (Pack-
ard, Fifth Rep. U. S. Ent. Com., 1890, p. 194), Carpocapsa
pomonella luinn. (Le Baron, 3d, Rep Ins. 111., 1873, p. 184),
Gymnonychus oppendiculatus Hartig (Glover, Rep. U. S.
Dep. Agr., 1875, p. 118), 8elandria barda Say (Osborn,
Can. Ent., 1884, p. 151).

Telenomus podisi Ashm. (Ashmead, Proctotrypidse, 1893,
p. 159) and Trissolcus podisi Ashm. (ibid., p. 163) have been
reared from the eggs of P. spinosus.

PoDisus ACUTissiMus Stal. (Plate 1, fig. 5.)

1870, Podisus {Tylospilus) acutissimus Stal, Enum. Hemipt.,

part I., p. 53.
1875, Tylospilus acutissimus Uhler, Bull. 6, vol. I., U. S. Geol.

Surv. Terr., p. 283.
1880, Podisus acutissimus Distant, Biol. Cent. Am. Rhync., vol.

I., pp. 40, 41, pi. II., fig. 22.
1895, Podisus acutissimus Gillette-Baker, Bull. 31, Col. Agrl.

Expt. Station, Hemipt. Col., p. 12.

Length, 9 mm. Very pale olive yellow, heavily punctate with
dark brown on posterior part of pronotum and lower part of
scutellum. Head somewhat narrowed anteriorly. Tylus longer
than lateral lobes, which" are obliquely rounded arid margined
with dark brown at their outer ends. Between the dark-brown
eyes and extending backward to the pronotum are two longi-
tudinal dark-brown markings. First segment of antennae small,
scarcely projecting beyond the lateral margin of head, pale yel-
low, darkened outwardly ; second segment of antennae slender,
dark brown ; third segment three-fourths as long as second, red-
dish yellow, dark brown at base ; fourth segment as long as third,
testaceous ; fifth segment two-thirds as long as fourth, testaceous,
darker toward the apex. Rostrum slender, reaching upon middle
coxae ; the second segment scarcely reaching the fore coxae, pale
amber colored.

436 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Prouotum with an irregular ivory-yellow callous on the dorsum
anteriorly ; lateral margins with fine granular teeth. Humeral
angles very acute, terminating in slender spines which project an-
teriorly. A well-marked band of dark-brown punctures extends
across the prouotum between the humeral angles, darkening to
black at the posterior margin. Post-humeral margins oblique and
curved.

There is a large ivory-yellow bald spot in each basal angle of the
scutellum, flanked outwardly by a minute brown callous and in-
wardly by scattering brown punctures which extend in a band
across the scutellum. Behind these spots and separated from
them by a pale olive-yellow band is a well-defined dark-brown V-
shaped marking, posterior to which at the tip of the scutellum
there is an ivory-yellow crescent-shaped marking.

Corium pale olive yellow, with a black dot outwardly nearly
opposite the apex of the V-shaped marking. Membrane glassy,
with a large dark-brown marking. Connexivum olive yellow,
without dark markings. Uuder-surface without conspicuous mark-
ings, pale amber colored anteriorly, darkening to olive yellow
posteriorly. Ventral spine very long, reaching middle coxae.
Legs amber colored ; tarsi pale brown.

Prof. Carl Baker of Auburn, Ala., has very kindly sent
me a specimen of P. acutissi7nus from Texas. This species
is the most conspicuously colored of any that I have ex-
amined, and may be recognized by the V-shaped marking
and bald spots on the scutellum, the transverse brown band
and sharp, curved spines of the prouotum, the vitta of the
membrane and the long ventral spine.

Distant has figured a specimen having a bald spot at the
middle of the base of the scutellum (Biol. Cent. Amer.
Rhync, pi. II., fig. 22). This specimen, which he states is
a typical one, is in the Stockholm Museum. The specimen
which I have examined lacks this marking, and it is presum-
ably a variable character. The rostrum is more slender than
that of any of our northern species, but is sufficiently stout
to indicate predatory habits on the part of the species.

Distribution. — Colorado, Texas, Mexico, Guatemala.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 437

PoDisus MUCRONATU8 Uhler. (Plate 1, fig. 9.)

1897, Podisus mucronatus Uhler, Trans. Md. Acad. Sc, pp. 386, 387.

Length, 9 mm. Head rounded anteriorly, the lateral lobes not
extending beyond tylus. General color testaceous, with dark-
brown punctui'es arranged in longitudinal series. First segment
of antennae projecting slightly beyond the lateral margin of head ;
second segment pale amber colored, slender, two-thirds as long
as head ; third segment two-thirds as long as second, darkened
toward apex ; fourth and fifth segments of nearly equal length, pale
brown, each three-fourths as long as second. Rostrum of medium
size, reaching to hind coxae. Pronotum ivory yellow, sparingly
punctate with brown, and bordered on its anterior lateral margins
with pale yellow. Humeral angles produced into slender dark-
brown spines, which curve sharply toward the head. Scutellum
ivory yellow, very sparsely punctate with brown, and with a large
bald spot at the tip and a smaller bald spot in each basal angle.
Corium sanguineous, thinly punctate with brown. Membrane
dark bronze colored. Under-surface sulphur yellow, tinged later-
ally with reddish, with scattering pale-brown punctures anteriorly.
Ventral spine slender, acute, reaching upon hind coxaj. Legs
pale amber colored.

Distribution. — Florida, Cuba.

Prof. P. R. Uhler, to whom I am indebted for many
favors in connection with the preparation of this paper, has
very kindly given me an opportunity to examine this inter-
esting species.

438 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Explanation of Plate 1.

Figures of insects drawn by J. H. Emekton ; structural details by

A. H, KiRKLAND.

Fig. 1. Podisus placidus, natural size.

Fig. la. Podisus placidus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 16. Podisus placidus, anterior margin of head enlarged.

Fig. 2. Podisus serieventris, natural 8ize.

Fig. 2a. Podisus serieventris, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 26. Podisus serieventris, ventral spine enlarged.

Fig. 3. Podisus crocatus, natural size.

Fig. 3a. Podisus crocatus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 4. Podisus spinosus, natural size.

Fig. 4a. Podisus spinosus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 5. Podisus acutissimus, natural size (from Distant).

Fig. 5a. Podisus acutissimus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 6. Podisus gillettei, natural size.

Fig. 6a. Podisus gillettei, ventral spine enlarged.

Fig. 66. Podisus gillettei, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 7. Podisus cynicus, natural size.

Fig. 7a. Podisus cynicus, ventral spine enlarged.

Fig. 76. Podisus cynicus, anterior margin of head enlarged.

Fig. 7c. Podisus cynicus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 8. Podisus mucronatus, natural size.

Fig. 8a. Podisus mucronatus, right humeral angle enlarged.

Fig. 9. Podisus modestus, natural size.

Fig. 9«. Podisus modestlis, ventral spine enlarged.

Fig. 96. Podisus modestus, right humeral angle enlarged.

No. 4.] GYPSY MOTH — APPENDIX. 439

Flate 1.

ANNUAL REPORT

Board of Cattle Commissioners,

In ACCOKDANC& WITH SECTION 51 OF CHAPTER 491

OF THE Acts of 1894:.

January 11, 1898

[441]

REI^ORT

Board oIe" Cattle Coioiissioners.

To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives.

As provided for in section 51 of chapter 491 of the Acts
of the year 1894, the Board of Cattle Commissioners hereby
presents the following report of its work for the year 1897.

As was the case last year, the law of 1894 continued to be
the basis of the work for the year 1897 ; and, as in 1896, the
work has been continued under the following heads : —

Fnst. — The supervision and direction of the work of the
local inspectors appointed by the cities and towns under the
provisions of chapter 491 of the Acts of 1894, and the exam-
ination of all animals quarantined by them as suspected of
being afflicted with contagious disease.

Second. — The examination of cattle coming into the mar-
kets at Brighton, Watertown and Somerville from without
the State for sale.

TJiird. — The examination and identification of cattle
coming from without the State upon special permit.

Fourth. — The conduct of laboratory and stable experi-
ments, to determine problems connected with the work of
the Board.

Under section 1 of chapter 491 of the Acts of the year
1894, the mayor and aldermen of cities and the selectmen of
towns must appoint one or more persons to be inspectors
of animals and provisions. These inspectors must make
regular and thorough inspection of all neat cattle, sheep and
swine found within the limits of their several towns, when
ordered to do so by the Board of Cattle Commissioners.
They shall also make inspection of any domestic animal,
whenever they have knowledge, or reason to believe, that
such animal is affected with any contagious disease ; and
they shall also examine at the time of slaughter all neat
cattle, sheep and swine slaughtered at slaughter houses
licensed under the provision of this law.

444

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The names of the inspectors appointed under this act are
as follows : —

Abington,

Acton, .

Acuslinet,

Adams,

Agawam,

Agawam,

Alford,.

Amesbury,

Amherst,

Andover,

Arlington,

Arlington,

Ashbnrnham

Ashby, .

Ashfield,

Ashfield,

Ashland,

Ashland,

Athol, .

Attleborough,

Attleborough,

Auburn,

Avon, .

Ayer, .

Barnstable,

Barnstable,

Barre, .

Becket,

Becket,

Bedford,

Belchertown

Bellingham,

Belmont,

Berkley,

Berlin, .

Bernardston

Beverly,

Billerica,

Blackstone,

Blackstone,

Blandford,

Blandford,

Blandford,

Bolton,

John N. Chamberlain.
Moses A. Reed.
Philip A. Bradford.
Andrew d. Potter.
Edwin Leonard.
Elijah D. Allen.
Samuel K. Williams.
Edward S. Worthen.
Henry E. Paige.
Charles H. Newton.
Alonzo S. Ilarriman.
Henry L. Alderman.
Charles W. Whitney, 2d.
Charles C. Damon.
Walter G. Lesure.
Homer S. Day.
Samuel D. Witt.
Edmund A. Stone.
Oscar F. Stearns.
Thomas L. Swift.*
George Mackie.
Emory Stone.
Charles E. May.
William H. Dudley.
Alfred Crocker.
John J. Harlow.
John L. Smith.
Lyman N. Cone.
Edwin Lee.
Henry Wood.
Guy C. Allen.
Carroll E. White.
Benjamin A. Harris.
Eliphalet Terry.
Robert B, Wheeler.
Charles Bowker.
Horace D. Lambert.
William H. Hutchins.
Daniel H. Cooney.
Elias M. Billings.
George Cadwell.
E. B. Gibbs.
Frank J. Candee.
Henry F. Haynes.

* Removed.

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

445

Boston,

Boston,

Boston,

Boston,

Bourne,

Boxborough

Boxford,

Boxford,

Boylston,

Braintree,

Brewster,

Bridgewater

Brimfield,

Brockton,

Brockton,

Brookfield,

Brookline,

Buckland,

Burlington,

Cambridge,

Canton,

Carlisle,

Carver,

Charlemont,

Charlemont,

Charlton,

Chatham,

Chelmsford,

Chelsea,

Cheshire,

Chester,

Chester,

Chesterfield,

Chesterfield,

Chicopee,

Chicopee,

Chilmark,

Clarksburg,

Clinton,

Cohasset,

Colrain,

Colrain,

Concord,

Conway,

Cottage City,

Cummington,

Cummington,

Cummington,

Dal ton,

Alexander Burr.
J. C. Grouse.
T. F. Kelley.
George W. Roberts.
Noble P. Swift.
Philip W. Cunningham.
Charles A. Andrew.
George B. Killam.
Luther S. Hapgood.
James M. Cutting.
Henry E. Baker.
Calvin Pratt.
Porter A. Parker.
Simeon Mitchell.
Lucas W. Alden.
George Allen.
Frederick H. Osgood.
Henry L. Warfield.
James N. Stuart.
Charles E. Hadcock.
Patrick J. Cronon.
George P. Davis.
Benjamin W. Bobbins.
William B. Avery.
Horace Temple.
Stephen Hammond.
Isaac B. Young.
Edwin C. Perham.
William Stinson.
William P. Bennett.
Daniel B. Holcomb.
Edward L. Higgins.
George W, Rogers.
Clayton N. Rhoades.
Thomas Goodwin.
Irving H. Elmer.
Freeman Hancock.
James Mixer.
Eugene H. Lehnert.
Caleb F. Nichols.
C. Webster Smith.
H. Spencer Meacham.
Horace Tuttle,
Gordon H. Johnson.
Edmund G. Beetle.
Edward F. Warner.
Myron D. Trow.
Finley V. Bates.
William Miller.

446

BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Dalton,

Dana, .

Danvers,

Daitmouth,

Dartmouth,

Dedham,

Deerfield,

Deerfield,

Dennis,

Dennis,

Dighton,

Dighton,

Dighton,

Douglas,

Douglas,

Dovei', .

Dracut,

Dudley,

Dunstable,

Duxbury,

Duxbury,

East Bridgewater,

East Longmeadow,

Eastham,

Easthampton,

Easton,

Edgartown,

Egreniont,

Enfield,

Enfield,

Erving,

Essex, .

Essex, .

Everett,

Fairhaven,

Fall River,

Falmouth,

Falmouth,

Fitchburg,

Florida,

Foxborough,

Foxborough,

Framingham,

Franklin,

Freetown,

Freetown,

Freetown,

Gardner,

Gardner,

William C. Brague.
Alfred W. Doane.
Charles S. Moore.
Charles W. Rowland.
Charles H. Negus.
Edward Knobel, Jr.
Dwight A. Hawks.
Edward D. Jewett.
Edwin Whittemore.
Charles E. Baker.
Nathan O. Walker.
William H. Walker.
George A. Clark.
Edwin P. Heath.
James Dermody.
James McGill.
William S. Eaton.
Monroe W. Ide.
Franklin N. Tolles.
George Bradford,
John K. Parker.
William T. Green.
Edwin Indicott.
Reuben H. Horton.
Fordyce Whitmarsh.
Edward R. Hayward.
Christopher R. Beetle.
William F. Crippen.
Albert R. House.
William H. Bush.
Frank W. Loveland.
C. Amos Burnham.
Edward F. Knowlton.
William Stinson
Ebenezer G. Grinnell.
Hilaire Bisaillon.
Barzillai C. Cahoon.
Herbert H. Lawrence.
Otis F. Lord.
Nathan W. Kemp.
A. W. Drai)er.
F. G. Lilly man.
Joseph G. E. Page.
William F. King.
Palo Alto Pierce.
James Webb.
Charles H. Read.
Augustus S. Cleaves.
Frank B. Pase.

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

447

Gay Head, .

Georgetown,

Georgetown,

Gill, .

Gloucester,

Goshen,

Gosnold,

Grafton,

Granby,

Granby,

Granville,

Granville,

Great Barrington

Great Barrington

Greenfield,

Greenwich,

Groton,

Groveland,

Hadley,

Hadley,

Halifax,

Hamilton,

Hampden,

Hancock,

Hanover,

Hanson,

Hardwiek,

Harvard,

Harwich,

Hatfield,

Haverhill,

Haverhill,

Hawley,

Heath, .

Hinghara,

Hinsdale,

Holbrook,

Hoklen,

Holden,

Holden,

Holden,

Holland,

Holliston,

Holyoke,

Hopedale,

Hopkinton,

Hubbardston,

Hudson,

Samuel J. Hasking.
Samuel T. Poor.
J. VVinfred Yeaton.
John L. S. Moore.
Daniel G. Cressy.
Willis A, Smith.
Josiah W. Tilton.
Perley Goddard.
George Ij. Witt,
C. D. Lyman.
Geoi^ge W. Cone.
Joseph Welch.
Edwin Hurlburt.
George H. Cobb.
Mark L. Miner.
Walter H. Glazier.
Solon R. Dodge.
Thomas E. Snell.
Charles H. Hunt.
Homer L. Cowles.
Jabez F, Thompson.
George E. F. Dane.
Moses H, Warren.
James S. Goold.
Edwin B. Dwelley.
Ezra White.
John N. Hillman.
j\lark A. Farnsworth.
John A. Baker.
E. S. Warner.
Grantley Bickell.
Doane Cogswell.
L. W. Temple.
V. D. Thompson.
Robert F. Robinson.
Frank C Phillips.
Z. P. Jordan.
E. W. Merrick.
W. A. Jordan.
Allen Brown.
Alvin Thurston.
A J. Bagley.
Isaac A Smith.
Bernard F. Bigelow.
Waldo Phipps.
Winslow W. Claflin.
John H. Burtch.
A. L. Cundall.

448

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Hull, .

. Harvey T. Litchfield *

Hull, .

. Darius W. Gilbert.

Huntington, .

. Heman Burr.

Pluntington,

. Fred \V. Lyman.

Hyde Park, .

. Joseph M. Kiggen.

Ipswich,

. Daniel S. Appleton.

Kingston,

. E. Elbridge Atwood.

Lakeville, .

, Isaac Sampson.

Lancaster, .

. Henry F. Hosmer.

Lancaster, .

. A. W. Carr.

Lanesborough,

. William P. Talcott.

Lawrence, .

. John F. Winchester.

Lawrence, .

. Valentine T. Sellers.

Lee,

. John H. McAllister.

Leicester,

. Henry B. Watts.

Lenox, .

. Charles C. Flint.

Leominster, .

. George M. Kendall.

Leverett,

. 0. C. Marvell.

Lexington, .

. Charles M. Parker.

Leyden,

. Ezra Foster.*

Leyden,

. Albert J. Shattuck.

Lincoln,

. Roger Sherman.

Littleton,

. Joseph N. Murray.

Longmeadow,

. Spencer W. Gates.

Lowell,

. Walter A. Sherman.

Ludlow,

. Adelbert L. Bennett.

Lunenburg, .

. Charles E. Woods.

Lunenburg, .

. Micah M. Boutwell.

Lynn, .

. William E. Welts.

Lynnfield, .

. William R. Roundy.

Maiden,

. James H. Kimball.

Manchester,

. John Riordan.

Mansfield, .

. Joseph N. Tebbetts.

Marblehead,

. Benjamin F. Martin, Jr.

Marion,

. George F. Richards.

Marlborough,

. Patrick J. Mahoney.

Marshfield, .

. Franklin W. Hatch.

Mashpee,

. Darius Coombs.

Mattapoisett,

. David H. Cannon.

Maynard,

. Joel F. Parmenter.

Medfield, .

. Francis D. Hamant.

Medford,

. Henry F. Moore.

Medway,

. Edward Whiting.

Melrose,

. F. P. Sturges.

Mendon,

. Albert W. Gaskill.

Merrimac, .

. Charles A. Wallace.

Methuen,

. Edwin J. Castle.

4

* Dec

jased.

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

449

Middleboroiigh,
Middlefield, .
Middleton, o
Milford,
Millbury, .
Millis, .
Milton,
Monroe,
Monson,
Monson,
Montague, .
Montague, .
Monterey, .
Montgomery,
Mount Washington,
Nahant,
Nantucket, .
Natick,
Needham, .
New Ashford,
New Bedford,
New Braintree,
New Marlborough,
New Marlborough,
New Salem,
Newbury, .
Newburyport,
Newton, ■.
Norfolk,
North Adams,
North Andover,
North Attleborough,
North Attleborough,
North Attleborough,
North Brookfield,
North Brookfield,
North Reading,
Northampton,
Northborough,
North bridge,
Northbridge,
Northbi'idge,
Northbridge,
Northfield, .
Norton,
Norton,
Norwell,
Norwell,
Norwell,

James A. Burgess.
John T. Bryan.
Andrew W. Peabody.
Waldo Phipps.
Henry W. Carter.
Moses C. Adams.
James Spencer.

A. H. Goldthwait.
William H. Bugbee.
Hiram D. Osborne.
G. H. Goddard.

F. H. Giles.
Lewis H. Mallory.
Willis B. Cushman.
Alfred I. Spurr.
Robert L. Cochran.
Albert Easton.
Walter P. Mayo.
Samuel O. Fowle.
Van Ness Mallery.
Daniel C. Ashley.
Charles A. Felton.
George A. Stevens.
Lorin P. Keyes.
Willard Putnam.
Asa Pingree.
George W. Knight.
James R. McLaughlin.
Andrew R. Jones.
Angus A. McDonnel.
George S. Fuller.

W. Henry Kling.

G. B. Draper.
Asa A. Newell.

B. F. Barnes.
Alfred O. Boyd.

F. Howard Mosman.
John H. Roberts.
Allyn D. Phelps. '
George F. Nilsson.
R. H. Baton.
W. A. Beane.
John Lincoln.
R. C. Ward.
Oren E. Walker.
Lester D. Blandin.
J. Warren Foster.
Edwin C. Briggs.
Ashburton W. Pinson.

450

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Norwood,

Oakliam,

Orange,

Orleans,

Otis, .

Otis, .

Oxford,

Oxford,

Palmer,

Palmer,

Paxton,

Peabody,

Peabody,

Peabody,

Pelham,

Pembroke,

Pepperell,

Pei'u, .

Petersham,

Phillipston,

Pittsfiekl,

Plainfield,

Plainfield,

Plymouth,

Plympton,

Pi'escott,

Prescott,

Prescott,

Princeton,

Provincetow

Quincy,

Randolph,

Raynham,

Reading,

Rehoboth,

Rehoboth,

Rehoboth,

Revere,

Richmond,

Rochester,

Rockland,

Rockport,

Rowe, .

Rowley,

Rowley,

Royal ston,

Russell,

Rutland,

Salem, .

n,

Albert Fales.
Henry P Austin.
Amos Blodgett.
Edmund Linnell.
Edwin L. Downs.
Alfred D. Jones.
Fred L. Snow.
Willis Rosebrooks.
Charles F. Smith.
E. W. Phinney.
Hiram P. Bemis.
Charles Davis.
Cyrus T Batchelder.
John E. Herrick.
John A. Page.
Clifford I. Rogei's.
Samuel P. Bancroft.
Henry Barlow.
S. C. Goddard.
Robert E. McLane.
Geoi'ge N. Kinnell.
Daniel H. Gould.
Edwin A. Atkins.
Clark Finney, Jr.
Howard O. Bonney.
Elmer M. Aiken.
James D. Barnes.
Mason W. Haskins.
George Mason, Jr.
Daniel F. Lewis.
Charles H. Johnson.
Augustus L. Chase.
Cyrus Leonard, 2d.
Milton D. Parker.
Clarence J. Kingsbury.
Albert R. Lewis.
John W. Chase.
Edwin S. Plaisted.
W. H. Branch.
Allen G. Ashley.
Charles Winslow.
Alvin Sanborn.

E. M. Upton.
Daniel H. Hale.
J. Scott Todd.
George E Peirce.
Sidney S Shurtleff.

F. G. Bartlett.
Fred Saunders.

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

451

Salisbury,

Sandisfield,

Sandisfield,

Sandisfield,

Sandwich,

Saugus,

Savoy, .

Savoy, .

Scituate,

Seekonk,

Seekonk,

Seekonk,

Sharon,

Sharon ,

Sheffield,

Sheffield,

Shelburne,

Shelburne,

Shelburne,

Sherborn,

Shirley,

Shrewsbury,

Shutesbury, ,

Somerset,

Somerville,

South Hadley,

Southampton,

Southampton,

Southborough,

Southbridge,

Southbridge,

Southwick, .

Spencer,

Springfield, .

Sterling,

Stockbridge,

Stockbridge,

Stoneham,

Stoughton,

Stow, .

Sturbridge,

Sudbury,

Sudbury,

Sunderland,

Sutton,.

Sutton, .

Swampscott,

Swampscott,

N. T. Getchell.
Henry S. Manley.
Charles H. Callender.
Hiram Bliss.
Samuel H. Nye.
A. W. Sawyer.
L. E. Perry.
Milton A. Bliss.
Caleb L. Damon.
Lowell M. Cole.
Robert Woodward.
Olney Greene.

A. W. Draper.
George Richards.
Henry Clark.
Edwin L. Boardman.
William M. Bardwell.

B. F. Maxwell.
T. R. Shearer.
Jasper J. Smart.
Samuel B. Scott.
David Barnes.
Oscar H. Shaw.
Thomas A. Francis.
Charles M. Berry.
Horace W. Gaylord.
Henry E. Coleman.
Michael Norris.
William H. Buck.
Henry A. Morse.
Francis H. Olin.
Charles W. Talmadge.
Ahraham Capen.
James Kimball.
William S. Walker.
John M. Buck.
Marshall S. Heath.
George H. Allen.
James Murphy.
Lewis Parks.
William Whittemore.
George A. Haynes.
Hiram Haynes.
George P. Smith.
Edward A. Welch.*
P. D. King.

Samuel A. Spaulding.f
Georofe Newhall.

* Deceased.

t Resigned.

452

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Swanzey,

Swanzey,

Swanzey,

Taunton,

Tempi eton,

Templeton,

Tewksbury,

Tisbury,

Tolland,

Topsfield,

Topsfield,

Townsend,

Truro, .

Tyngsborough,

Tyringham,

Upton, .

Upton, .

Uxbridge,

Wakefield,

Wales, .

Walpole,

Walpole,

Waltham,

Ware, .

Wai'eham,

Warren,

Warwick,

Washington

Watertown,

Wayland,

Webster,

Wellesley,

Wellfleet,

Wendell,

Wenham,

West Boylston,

West Bridgewater,

West Brookfield,

West Newbury,

West Springfield

West Springfield

West Si«"ingfield

West Slockbridge

West Tisbury,

Westborough,

Westfield, .

Westford, .

Westford,

Arthur W. Weaver.
David B. Gardner.
Anson L. Barney'.
Walter H. Haskell.
S. E. Greenwood.
W. F. Robie.
George W. Trull.
Henry C. Norton.
Oliver E. Slocum, Jr.
E. L. Wildes.
Benjamin A. Orne.
John N. Going.
John G. Thompson.
Henry J. Keyes.
Joseph Jones.
Benjamin A. Jourdan.
George D. Whitney.
Charles E. Seagraves.
Henry C. Perry.
Warren W. Eager.
George S. Fuller.*
Isaac Miller.
William E. Peterson.
A. A. Etienne.
Prince H. Swift.
Marcus Burroughs.
Gilbert Maynard.
Charles E. Shultz.
George W. Pope.
Thomas Bryant.
George F. Hart.
Samuel O. Fowle.
George W. Nickerson.
G. A. Lewis,
Henry Alley.
John F. Knights.
David R. Simmons.
Charles E. Smith.
Alfred L. Moore.
Henry A. Sibley.
Ethan Brooks.f
M. H. Bidwell.
Ralph R. Bissell.
William B. Luce.
Hemy A. Gilmore.
Michael F. Hoar.
George T. Day.
Albert P. Richardson.

* Deceased.

t Declined.

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

453

Westhampton,

Westhampton,

Westminster,

Westminster,

Weston,

Weston,

Westport, .

Westport, .

Westwood, .

Weymouth, .

Weymoiitli, .

Whately, .

Whitman, .

Wilbraham, .

Williamsburg,

Williamsbm'g,

Williamstown,

Wilmington,

Winchendon,

Winchester, ,

Windsor,

Windsor,

Winthrop,

Woburn,

Worcester,

Worcester,

Worcester,

Worthington,

Wrentham,

Wrentham,

Yarmouth,

Yarmouth,

Yarmouth,

William J. Lyman.
A. D. Montague, Jr.
M. D. Whitney.
Edward P. Miller.
Gilbert W. Blood.
Everett O. Clark.
Edward S. Smith.
Theodore B. Pierce.
Creighton Col burn.
Hiram E. Raymond.
Charles E. Bicknell.
Irving Allis.
Owen^F. Bumpus.
Lyman A. Fisk.
George W. Lawley.*
Hallock H. Nichols.
Joseph B. Hill.
H. Allen Sheldon.
William A. Deland.
William B. Simonds.
Gardner L. Miner.
H. Ward Ford.
John McN aught.
James N. Stuart.
J. Warren Ellsworth.
Thomas Monahan.
John P. Streeter.
Horace F. Bartlett.
Elisha M. Brastow.
George B, Ware.
Isaiah Homer.
James Lack.
Isaiah Crowell.

It had previously been the custom of the Board to order
the inspectors to make the regular inspection in the fall of
the year. This had been found unsatisfactory, as in a great
many instances it is the custom for the owners to leave their
cattle out until late in the fall, and it frequently happened
that at the time of the inspection all the animals had not
been taken up from pasture. Because of this, the Board
did not think it possible that the work could be done
by the inspectors without passing over many animals ; but,
as the Legislature did not grant the appropriation until late
in the season, it had been found impossible to make a change.

* Resigned.

454 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

During the past year, however, the Board was granted the
appropriation much earlier, and in consequence of this they
were enabled to change the time of inspection from fall to
spring. As a result of this change they were able to make
a more thorough inspection at a time when such animals as
were affected would be apt to show the effects of their win-
ter's confinement, and when it was also possible to find them
all on the owner's premises. Consequently, on March 9 the
following letter was sent to each inspector, instructing him
to make an immediate general inspection of the animals
within the limits of his district : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Board of Cattle Commissioners,
Commonwealth Building, Boston, March 9, 1897.

Dear Sir: — Section 4, chapter 491 of the Acts of 1894, as
amended by section 1, chapter 496 of the Acts of 1895, provides
that " inspectors shall make regular and thoi'ough inspections of
all neat cattle, sheep and swine found within the limits of their
several cities and towns. Such inspection shall be made at such
times and in such manner as the Board of Cattle Commissioners
shall from time to time determine and direct." This section also
provides that " inspectors shall immediately inspect all domestic
animals, and any barn, stable or premises where such animals are
kept, whenever directed to do so by the Board of Cattle Commis-
sioners."

Believing that a complete general inspection made at this time
would be more satisfactory than one made in the fall, when many
animals might be still in pasture, and in accordance with the above
authority conferred on us, the Board of Cattle Commissioners
hereby order an immediate inspection of all neat cattle, sheep and
swine, and all barns, stables and premises where such animals are
kept in their several districts. Such inspection is to begin at this
date and to be carried on with all possible despatch until finished,
or until the first day of May, 1897, when such inspection is hereby
ordered closed. The returns of this inspection will be made on
the blank form provided, and such returns must be sent to this
office each week until completed.

It is further recommended that inspectors ascertain the where-
abouts of a number of cattle which they think should be quaran-
tined, and then serve a number of quarantine orders on one day,
so as to send us several quarantines at one time, rather than one

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 455

or two a day, extended over a period of two or three weeks, as it
is much less expensive to send an agent to test a number of ani-
mals at one time than it is to send the same agent a number of
times to test the same lot of animals.

We also call the notice of inspectors to the regulations for
cleansing and disinfecting, which they must see are strictly carried
out by the owners or occupants of all premises from which cattle
are removed by order of the Board of Cattle Commissioners.

Specimens to be examined, dogs to be tested for the diagnosis
of rabies, and the like, are hereafter to be sent by express to Dr.
Langdon Frothingham, Harvard Medical School, 688 Boylston
Street, Boston, Mass. In every case the name and address of the
owner of the animal, with the history of the case, should be en-
closed with the specimen.

Yours truly, Austin Peters, Chairman.

The work of the inspectors having been ordered completed
by May 1, the following letter, dated May 12, was sent to
those inspectors who had not brought their work to a close : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

BoAHD OF Cattle Commissioners,

Boston, Mass., May 12, 1897.
To the Town Inspector of Cattle.

Sir : — We desire to call your attention to our letter of March 9,
ordering an inspection of cattle to be completed May 1.

In towns where the inspection was completed on this date, we
wish to thank the inspectors for their promptness ; where such
inspection is not completed, we wish it brought to a close without
further delay. No more cattle are to be quarantined until another
inspection is ordered, unless some one reports a badly diseased
creature to the Board of Health.

The inspectors of border towns are also requested to bear in
mind the provisions of General Order No. 9, requiring that cattle
brought in from without the State, which have not already been
tested with tuberculin in a manner satisfactory to the Board of
Cattle Commissioners, are to be held in quarantine at the expense
of the owner until tested with tuberculin at his expense by a
veterinarian acceptable to this Board.

Per order Massachusetts Board of Cattle Commissioners,

Austin Peters, Chairman.

This letter was sent out for the purpose of stopping the
general inspection; but, while it was intended to close this

456

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

inspection, it was of course still possible for the inspector to
quarantine such animals as were reported in writing as dis-
eased to the local board of health, and this class of work has
gone on all summer.

The following table gives the number of cattle assessed in
each town, the total number of cattle tested, and the number
condemned and paid for during the year, as well as the State
tax for each town in the Commonwealth : —

CITY OR TOWN.

Neat Cattle

Number

Number

Amount

State

Assessed.

Tested.

Paid for.

Paid.

Tax.

Abington, •

254

14

5

$153 00

$1,750 00

Acton, .

1,175

144

127

4,751 50

1,050 00

Acushnet,

449

9

3

75 00

437 50

Adams,

689

18

2

75 00

2,695 00

Agawam,

2,315

17

17

395 00

945 CO

Alford, .

275

7

4

125 00

157 50

Amesbury,

381

39

25

727 50

3,657 50

Amherst,

1,696

34

18

431 25

2,222 50

Andover,

913

87

50

1,980 00

3,430 00

Arlington,

257

12

_

_

5,653 00

Ashburnham

,

431

34

25

764 75

752 50

Ashfield,

1,269

7

5

190 00

367 50

Ashby,.

570

60

36

1,128 00

367 60

Ashland,

309

23

16

516 50

857 50

Athol, .

514

16

5

205 00

2,642 50

Altleborougt

1,

776

36

24

654 00

3,220 00

Avon, .

109

1

_

_

542 50

Ayer, .

113

1

1

7 00

962 50

Auburn,

826

1

2

60 00

402 50

Barnstable,

584

4

2

13 00

2,695 00

Barre, .

1,995

53

30

924 50

1,032 50

Becket,

642

_

_

_

332 50

Bedford,

627

21

17

495 00

682 50

Belchertown,

1,959

18

9

227 00

630 00

Bellingham,

524

37

19

584 50

490 00

Belmont,

215

7

2

38 00

2,642 50

Berkley,

403

_

-

315 00

Berlin, .

555

9

5

137 50

350 00

Bernardston,

797

15

10

287 50

297 50

Beverly,

595

4

2

50 00

10,132 50

Bill erica.

809

195

133

5,677 51

1,382 50

Black stone,

351

_

_

-

1,890 00

Blandford,

955

26

9

243 00

312 00

Bolton,

758

54

46

1,353 00

332 50

Boston,

400

288

98

3,567 99

628,740 00

Bourne,

174

_

_

-

172 50

Box borough

532

52

42

1,418 00

157 50

Boylston,

741

6

3

75 00

350 00

Box ford,

555

19

16

457 50

437 50

Braintree,

404

_

_

-

3,115 00

Brewster,

188

_

_

_

437 50

Bridge water.

464

10

4

185 00

1,767 50

Brimfield,

1,033

24

20

581 50

297 50

Brockton,

696

55

29

1,012 25

15,085 00

Brookfield,

803

1

1

5 00

1,050 00

Brookline,

361

5

3

115 00

41,632 50

Buck land,

736

2

2

55 00

420 00

Burbngton,

478

8

6

210 00

350 00

Cambridge, .

262

1

1

30 00

54,600 00

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONEES.

457

CITY OR TOWN.

Neat Cattle

Number

Number

Amount

State

Assessed.

Tested.

Paid for.

Paid.

Tax.

Canton,

374

9

7

$267 00

$3,027 50

Carlisle,

513

326

195

8,700 00

245 00

Carver,

164

_

_

_

577 00

Charlemont,

732

13

4

73 50

280 00

Charlton,

1,595

30

24

682 00

682 50

Chatham, .

177

-

_

-

665 00

Chelmsford,

1,100

209

136

4,769 00

1,452 50

Chelsea,

82

2

-

-

15,802 50

Cheshire,

998

4

2

27 00

525 00

Chester,

650

1

1

20 00

455 00

Chesterfield,

696

18

8

269 00

210 00

Chicopee,

594

16

10

312 00

5,810 00

Chilmark, .

152

-

_

-

157 60

Clarksburg, .

355

-

-

-

175 00

Clinton,

150

-

-

-

4,865 00

Cohasset,

297

_

-

-

3,360 00

Colrain,

1,317

49

7

163 00

420 00

Concord,

1,428

129

98

3,170 00

2,940 00

Conway,

1,293

79

48

1,426 00

507 50

Cottage City,

111

-

-

-

980 00

Cummington,

645

47

26

894 50

227 50

Dalton,

448

11

2

75 00

2,047 50

Dana, .

250

1

_

_

210 00

Danvers,

745

27

23

922 00

3,150 00

Dartmouth,

1,752

3

3

60 00

1,890 00

Dedham,

486

42

25

722 50

4,602 50

Deerfield,

1,231

78

29

882 00

1,155 00

Dennis,.

198

-

-

-

1,172 50

Dighton,

360

5

4

95 00

595 00

Douglas,

334

4

1

20 00

735 00

Dover, .

622

21

12

350 00

682 00

Dracut,

950

163

155

5,899 00

1,172 50

Dudley,

906

15

12

276 00

787 50

Dunstable,

661

13

7

190 50

210 00

Duxbury,

290

8

1

15 00

1,102 50

East Bridgewater

531

19

8

212 00

1,155 00

East Longmeado\

V,

525

6

3

63 00

490 00

Eastham,

181

-

_

-

210 00

Eastharapton,

741

9

5

132 50

1,750 00

Easton,

659

7

4

90 00

3,552 50

Edgartown,

324

-

-

-

525 00

Egremont,

851

14

7

244 GO

332 50

Enfield,

514

1

-

-

560 00

Erving,

170

-

-

-

280 00

Essex, .

487

-

_

-

700 00

Everett,

133

8

-

-

8,610 00

Fairhaven,

440

-

-

-

1,382 50

Fall River,

591

14

4

62 50

43,540 00

Falmouth,

422

3

-

-

4,287 50

Fitchburg,

761

32

24

800 00

13,860 00

Florida,

358

-

-

-

122 50

Foxborough,

361

14

4

85 00

1,190 00

Framingham,

1,056

60

36

1,387 00

6,527 50

Franklin,

701

40

21

549 00

2,100 00

Freetown,

691

4

_

_

630 00

Gardner,

461

212

86

3,221 50

3,552 50

Gay Head,

56

-

-

-

17 50

Georgetown,

276

-

-

-

752 50

Gill,

678

35

12

374 00

332 50

Gloucester,

550

2

-

-

11,375 00

Goshen,

382

3

1

23 00

105 00

Gosnold,

51

_

_

_

140 00

Grafton,

1,118

79

34

1,134 50

1,732 50

Granby,

1,296

63

41

1,031 50

332 50

Granville,

661

15

_

-

262 50

Great Harrington,

1,517

10

5

115 00

2,572 50

Greenfield, .

1,084

108

61

2,102 50

3,727 50

458

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

CITY OR TOWN.

Neat Cattle

Number

Number

Amount

State

Assessed.

Tested.

raid for.

Paid.

Tax.

Greenwich, .

341

12

6

$173 00

$192 50

Groton,

993

45

33

1,068 50

2,047 50

Groveland, .

226

2

1

40 00

700 00

Hadley,

1,484

18

9

178 00

735 00

Halifax,

149

1

1

15 00

192 50

Hamilton, .

372

1

_

_

752 50

Hampden, .

601

11

3

75 00

280 00

Hancock,

604

8

2

60 00

245 00

Hanover,

286

3

-

_

1,015 00

Hanson,

164

2

1

39 00

455 00

Hardwick, .

1,887

86

40

1,1.59 00

1,085 00

Harvard,

1,316

105

66

2,228 50

717 50

Harwich,

189

-

_

_

875 00

Hatfield.

439

3

2

43 00

735 00

Haverhill, .

894

76

42

1,374 00

14,735 00

Hawley,

576

-

1

22 50

122 BO

Heath, .

722

25

9

234 00

140 00

Hingham,

506

1

-

-

3,167 50

Hinsdale,

695

-

-

_

542 50

Holden,

694

_

_

-

845 00

Holbrook, .

147

_

_

_

945 00

Holland,

131

14

9

233 50

70 00

Holliston,

708

7

5

164 00

1,207 50

Holyoke,

602

18

5

185 00

19,040 00

Hopedale, .

106

10

4

152 00

1,820 00

Hopklntou, .

735

51

31

1,107 50

1,470 00

Hubbardston,

933

32

19

609 50

490 00

Hudson,

735

14

8

330 00

2,082 50

Hull, .

79

1

1

40 00

1,820 00

Huntington,

517

21

4

122 50

385 00

Hyde Park, .

116

6

2

65 00

5,932 50

Ipswich,

935

6

9

202 00

2,065 00

Kingston, .

205

5

2

38 00

1,172 50

Lakeville, .

376

7

4

98 00

402 50

Lancaster, .

622

41

24

816 00

2,082 50

Lanesborough,

870

48

41

1,320 00

367 50

Lawrence, .

169

20

13

535 00

23,240 00

Lee,

721

90

3

70 00

1,295 00

Leicester,

536

3

3

80 00

1,645 00

Lenox, .

638

39

20

600 00

2,082 50

Leominster, .

723

96

69

2,431 00

3,990 00

Leverett,

455

1

-

_

210 00

Lexington, .

1,044

119

106

4,067 50

2,052 50

Ley den.

470

36

7

204 64

122 .00

Lincoln,

775

123

95

3,599 00

1,610 00

Littleton,

1,223

70

35

1,217 00

612 50

Longmeadow,

281

21

18

494 00

437 50

Lowell,

280

43

32

1,448 50

49,000 00

Ludlow,

1,039

30

18

493 00

752 50

Lunenburg, .

633

54

31

847 00

560 00

Lynn, .

227

53

4

117 00

34,667 00

Lynnfield, .

287

18

1

8 00

420 00

Maiden,

161

-

-

-

17,307 00

Manchester, .

86

-

-

_

4,970 00

Mansfield, .

226

5

-

-

1,277 50

Marblehead,

294

4

3

73 00

4,042 50

Marion,

116

_

-

_

577 50

Marlborough,

841

17

15

652 00

5,792 50

Marshfield, .

530

38

14

420 50

945 00

Mashpee,

36

-

-

-

122 50

Mattapolsett,

225

2

2

45 00

1,050 00

Maynard, .

229

106

102

3,987 50

1,470 00

Medfield, .

508

2

2

95 00

997 50

Medford,

303

1

2

45 00

10,902 50

Med way,

435

9

6

175 00

927 50

Melrose,

222

1

1

40 00

6,877 50

Mendon,

567

12

8

161 00

385 00

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

459

Neat Cattle

Number

Number

Amount

State

CITY OR TOWN.

Assessed

Tested.

Paid for.

Paid.

Tax.

Merrlmac, .

281

6

2

$25 00

$945 00

Methuen,

1,347

67

40

1,311 00

2,467 50

Middleborough,

664

15

11

375 00

2,975 00

Middlefield, .

469

1

_

-

175 00

Middleton, ,

246

12

6

133 00

367 50

Milford,

405

5

2

75 00

3,867 50

Millbuiy,

730

15

10

289 50

1,680 00

Millis, .

509

3

3

100 00

595 00

Milton,

871

4

2

27 00

13,737 50

Monroe,

155

_

-

-

105 00

Monson,

1,280

13

7

180 00

1,400 00

Montague, .

777

59

7

232 50

2,555 00

Monterey, .

536

2

-

-

175 00

Montgomery,

356

-

-

-

105 00

Mount Washingto

n, .

78

-

-

-

52 50

Nahant,

44

_

-

-

4,042 50

Nantucket, .

512

-

_

-

2,117 50

Natiek,

498

56

45

1.726 50

3,990 00

Needham, .

638

9

6

'172 75

1,977 50

New Ashford,

134

_

_

_

52 50

New Bedford,

581

2

1

50 00

36,067 50

New Braintree,

1,315

17

9

162 00

297 50

New Marlborough

,

134

17

5

104 00

402 50

New Salem, .

369

4

2

45 50

227 50

Newbury, .

1,078

1

1

30 00

752 50

Newburyport,

249

43

43

1,378 00

7,867 50

Newton,

1,176

510

35

1,189 00

32,077 50

Norfolk,

344

32

21

795 00

367 50

North Adams,

1,611

-

-

-

5,477 50

North Andover, .

1,286

119

89

3,289 00

2,363 50

North Attleborough, .

591

30

24

692 50

2,800 00

North Brookfield,

954

20

10

256 50

1,400 00

North Reading, .

293

32

23

815 00

367 50

Northampton,

966

49

8

228 49

7,315 00

Northborough,

803

61

28

745 00

892 50

Northbridge,

495

12

4

98 00

2,537 50

Northfield, .

1,056

2

-

-

682 50

Norton,

352

3

1

40 00

577 50

Norwell,

255

5

4

70 00

670 00

Norwood,

372

15

10

367 00

2,152 50

Oakham,

641

16

10

231 50

245 00

Orange,

795

35

19

546 00

2,817 50

Orleans,

168

1

-

-

490 00

Otis, .

604

-

-

-

157 50

Oxford,

569

9

4

105 00

927 50

Palmer,

789

12

8

235 00

2,030 00

Paxton,

396

6

5

70 50

192 50

Peabody,

658

52

26

1,185 00

5,477 50

Pelham,

215

2

1

25 00

122 50

Pembroke,

166

8

1

18 00

472 50

Pepperell,

813

83

19

559 00

1,435 00

Peru, .

353

10

1

25 00

87 50

Petersham,

612

31

10

267 50

455 00

Phillipston,

351

35

6

127 00

210 00

Pittsfield,

1,155

49

10

322 00

9,415 00

Plainfield,

565

3

2

47 00

122 50

Plymouth,

401

12

6

157 50

4,620 00

Plympton,

109

-

-

-

227 50

Prescott,

399

3

2

17 50

122 50

Princeton,

1,240

155

85

2,953 00

577 50

Provincetowi

1,

61

-

-

-

1,592 50

Quincy,

642

6

3

100 00

11,777 50

Randolph,

192

-

-

-

1,645 00

Ravnham,

407

10

7

185 00

630 00

Reading,

409

4

1

35 00

2,450 00

Rehoboth,

1,269

25

12

327 50

525 00

Revere,

119

"

"

4,585 00

460

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

CITY OR TOWN.

Neat Cattle
Assessed.

Number
Tested.

Number
Paid for.

Amount
Paid.

State
Tax.

Richmond, .

448

$245 00

Rochester, .

295

4

_

-

385 00

Rockland, .

209

1

-

-

2,170 00

Rockport, .

145

-

-

-

1,845 00

Rowe, .

409

_

_

-

175 00

Rowley,

483

3

3

$90 00

490 00

Royalston, .

619

39

24

732 00

437 50

Russell,

148

24

15

539 00

350 00

Rutland,

848

60

38

942 00

367 50

Salisbury, .

421

23

5

145 00

465 00

Salem, .

327

16

13

389 50

20,475 00

Sandisfield, .

766

43

18

577 00

245 00

Sandwich, .

214

11

3

80 00

682 50

Sangus,

656

_

_

-

2,065 00

Savoy, .

592

19

2

41 00

122 50

Scituate,

345

1

_

-

1,435 00

Seekonk,

1,019

23

12

324 00

612 50

Sharon,

338

18

13

405 00

1,137 50

Sheffield, .

592

8

2

61 00

630 00

Shelburne, .

1,210

26

2

60 00

647 50

Shutesbury, .

130

-

-

-

122 50

Sherborn, .

742

16

15

449 50

577 50

Shirley,

409

13

6

119 00

525 00

Shrewsbury,

1,267

2

1

26 00

700 00

Somerset,

387

2

1

20 00

752 50

Somerville,

200

9

2

50 00

30,205 00

South Hadley,

1,070

20

3

80 00

1,645 00

Southampton,

1,027

10

9

260 00

350 00

Southborough,

1,085

33

24

686 00

1,137 50

Southbridge,

786

26

21

856 50

2,852 50

Southwick, .

802

1

1

12 50

385 00

Spencer,

1,089

27

22

560 00

2,922 50

Springfield,

400

28

13

462 50

41,072 50

Sterling,

1,491

94

61

1,661 66

612 50

Stockbridge,

1,671

28

20

697 00

2,170 00

Stoneham,

233

8

8

308 00

2,835 00

Stoughton,

368

2

2

55 00

2,117 50

Stow, .

857

107

86

2,858 00

455 00

Sturbridge,

770

14

4

92 00

682 50

Sudbury,

1,075

361

353

14,328 58

822 50

Sunderland,

775

60

17

558 00

297 50

Sutton, .

962

75

45

1,418 50

945 00

Swampscott,

79

28

10

376 50

3,955 00

Swanzey,

926

1

-

-

612 50

Taunton,

762

8

-

-

13,965 00

Templeton,

506

52

14

469 50

980 00

Tewksbury,

531

87

17

615 00

1,050 00

Tisbury,

33

-

-

-

577 50

Tolland,

426

4

_

—

105 00

Topsfield,

684

17

13

515 00

612 50

Townsend,

418

27

13

384 50

840 00

Truro, .

195

_

-

262 50

Tyngsborouj

jh,

415

28

20 •

701 00

280 00

Tyringham,

801

7

1

28 00

157 50

Upton, .

548

4

3

87 00

735 00

Uxbridge,

712

19

6

180 00

1,592 50

Wakefield,

270

1

1

35 00

4,095 00

Wales, .

250

2

_

_

210 00

Walpole,

523

12

9

317 50

1,452 50

Waltham,

770

77

70

2,614 50

13,055 00

Ware, .

941

14

7

144 00

3,097 50

Wareham,

191

1

-

-

1,170 00

Warren,

1,422

19

7

167 50

1,960 00

Warwick,

275

5

1

14 00

227 50

Washington

518

5

3

125 00

140 00

Watertown,

247

23

7

262 00

5,705 00

Way land,

784

85

63

2,259 50

1,102 50

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

461

CITY OR TOWN.

Neat Cattle
Assessed.

Number
Tested.

Number
Paid for.

Amount
Paid.

State
Tax.

Webster,

262

3

$2,695 00

Wellesley, .

289

6

6

$209 50

4,655 00

Wellfleet, .

98

_

_

_

542 50

"Wendell, .

188

_

_

_

175 00

Wenham,

398

1

_

_

472 50

West Boylston,

682

5

4

131 00

962 50

West Bridgewatei

.

759

47

21

917 50

700 00

West Brookfield,

1,025

41

28

718 50

595 00

West Newbury,

852

24

7

239 00

700 00

West Springfield,

695

27

12

392 50

2,887 50

West Stockbridge,

605

7

1

15 00

402 50

West Tisbury, .

230

-

-

280 00

Westborough,

1,222

133

71

2,227 00

1,960 00

Westfield, .

1,135

6

_

-

5,547 50

Westford, .

809

44

39

1,209 30

962 50

Westhampton,

524

6

_

_

175 00

Westminster,

666

64

32

1,018 50

542 50

Weston,

914

102

95

3,243 50

2,502 50

Westport, .

1,167

85

52

1,557 00

1,102 50

Westwood, .

591

9

6

146 00

-

Weymouth, .

529

2

-

-

4,777 50

Whately,

730

25

16

433 00

332 50

Whitman, .

302

15

4

107 00

2,555 00

Wilbraham, .

709

12

4

155 00

595 00

Williamsburg,

693

88

2

42 00

665 00

Williamstown,

1,380

-

-

-

1,767 50

Wilmington,

240

28

19

479 35

630 00

Winchendon,

476

10

5

121 00

1,545 00

Winchester, .

176

_

_

-

4,532 50

Windsor,

752

14

2

57 00

140 00

Winthrop, .

302

3

-

-

3,045 00

Woburn,

336

23

15

487 00

6,795 00

Worcester, .

1,888

126

75

2,648 49

63,507 50

Worthington,

914

41

6

177 50

227 50

Wrentham, .

483

24

18

654 50

1,067 50

Yarmouth, .

140

-

-

-

1,470 00

Total, .

• •

210,801

9,991

5,435*

$185,448 56*

$1,750,000 00

The foregoing table does not include 254 animals which
have been condemned, and warrants for which are now in
the process of settlement. The estimated amount due for
condemned cattle not paid for, and other outstanding bills,
amount to $10,712.40.

The financial statement is as follows : —

Number cattle paid for as tuberculous, 5,275 ; amount paid, $179,867 52
Number cattle paid for, no lesions found, IGO ; amount paid, 5,581 04

Quarantine expenses ; amount paid, 2,928 11

Arbitration, amount paid, 27 75

Killing and burial expenses, amount jxaid, .... 125 93

Average per head for 5,435 cattle, $34.12 ; total amount paid, $188,530 35

Amount carried forward, $188,530 35

* These figures include 185 animals paid for in 1897 but quarantined and con-
demned in 1896.

462 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Amount brought forward.
Amount paid for commissioners' salaries,
Amount paid for agents' salaries,
Amount paid for clerks' and stenographers' sal

aries,

Expenses of commissioners, .
Expenses of agents, ....
Expenses of office,

5,201 04

3,781 80

11,869 28

3,154 56

Expenses of laboratory and experimental work, 1,515 17

Expenses of implements.
Expenses of quarantine stations, .
Expenses of glanders (killing and bm-ial) ,

$188,530 35

. $7,283 00
. 13,661 54

1,883 75

3,870 35

87 00

52,207 49

Total payments, $240,737 84

During the year the average price per head has been . . $34 12

For the first six months the average price per head has been 35 22

For the last six months the average price per head has been 30 45
For the last thi'ee months the average price per head has

been 28 26

For the last one month the average price per head has been 29 69

The high average for the first six months and for the year
is due in a great measure to the number of private tests that
were made during the early months of the year.

Cash received during the year and turned over to the
State Treasurer : —

For hides and carcasses,

For sale of laboratory supplies,

For sale of pasture tags,

For use of telephone,

Total, $5,217 29

In the work of inspecting the cattle in their respective
towns the inspectors are supposed to make a physical exam-
ination of each animal on the premises. Any that they have
reason to suspect as being diseased are placed in quarantine,
to be examined later by the Cattle Commission, and either
released or condemned, as may be decided. This work has
gradually resulted in the advanced generalized cases of
tuberculosis being picked out by the inspectors and destroyed,

$5,039 74

76 09

100 41

1 05

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 463

until finally, as will be seen by an examination of the reports
of the autopsies on the cattle killed, the cases of generalized
or advanced cases of tuberculosis have become very scarce.
In the following tables the cases of advanced generalized
tuberculosis among the cattle killed in 1897, excluding private
test work, are compared with the reports for the years 1895
and 1896 : —

Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1895.

Number of animals tested, .... 4,484.
Number of animals condemned and found

diseased, 2,398, or 53.4 per cent.

General tuberculosis, 784, or 32.6 percent.

Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1896.

Number of animals tested, .... 7,062.
Number of animals condemned and found

diseased, 4,173, or 59.0 per cent.

General tuberculosis, 1,051, or 25.1 per cent.

Jan. 1 to Dec. 23, 1897.

Total number of animals tested to Dec. 23,

1897, 9,844.

Total number of animals condemned to Dec.

23,1897 5,062, or 51.43 per .cent.

General tuberculosis to Dec. 23, 1897, . . 183, or 3.61 percent.

It will be seen that these cases of advanced generalized
tuberculosis have become very scarce, and these figures
illustrate well the practical benefits resulting from this
work.

In isolated cases or in out-of-the-way places the post-mor-
tem examinations are often made by local inspectors. It is
not unusual that they have had but little special training in
this work, and their opinion as to whether the disease is gen-
eralized or not is not always reliable. As a check, there-
fore, on their averages, the following table was prepared
from those cases where the autopsies were made at Brighton,
or by reliable veterinarians ; and it will be noticed that,

464 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

while the percentage is higher, yet it is close enough to con-
firm the averages for the year : —

Jan. 1 to Dec. 23, 1897.

Number of animals condemned and fomid dis-
eased, the autopsies being made at Brighton
or by reliable veterinarians, .... 3,590.

General tuberculosis, 177, or 4.37 per cent.

The law further provides, in section 29, chapter 491 of
the Acts of 1894, that " Every person, except the members
of the Board of Cattle Commissioners, who has knowledge
of, or has good reason to suspect the existence of, any con-
tagious disease among any species of domestic animal within
the limits of this Commonwealth, or that any domestic ani-
mal is affected with any such contagious disease, whether
such knowledge is obtained by personal examination or other-
wise, shall immediately give written notice thereof to the
board of health of the city or town where such diseased ani-
mal or animals are kept."

During the early part of this year this section of the law
had an important bearing on the work of the Board ; for,
immediately on the granting of the appropriation for the
continuance of the work, the Board began to be deluged
with quarantine papers and letters from veterinarians and
others, reporting cattle that had reacted to the tuberculin
test applied by veterinarians in private practice.

Under the law, the only thing to be done was either to
accept the veterinarian's test or to retest the herd ; this latter
was often found to be unsatisfactory, because of the frequent
failure of animals to react to a second test. The result was
that to a large extent the control of the appropriation was
taken out of the hands of the Board ; the money could not
be placed where, in the opinion of the Board, it would do
the most good, and they further realized that they had no
guarantee from the owners that an honest efi'ort would be
made by these owners to get rid of the disease.

In doing voluntary request work and in testing entire
herds the Board had always insisted that the owner should

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 4G5

agree to observe the sanitary requirements prescribed by
them, introduce none but tested animals into the herd with-
out first having them tested with tuberculin, and thoroughly
disinfect the premises. These precautions were considered
necessary, because it was thought to be of little use to test
an entire herd and kill those that reacted, in the expectation
of freeing the herd of disease, if untested or diseased animals
were to take the place of those condemned, or if tested ani-
mals were to be put into infected stalls or stalls that had not
been properly disinfected. This matter had evidently not
been thoroughly explained to many of the parties that had
their herds tested by private veterinarians ; and so, because
of this, the following letter was sent to all whose herds
had been tested in this manner : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Board of Cattle Commissioners,
Commonwealth Building, Boston, April, 1897.

Deak Sir : — We desire to call the attention of owners of
cattle, whose herds have been tested by private test, to section 4.5,
chapter 491 of 1894, as amended by section 10, chapter 496 of
1895. This section provides for the killing of animals found to
be affected with any contagious disease. It farther provides that,
"whenever any cattle condemned as afflicted with the disease of
tuberculosis are killed under the provision of this section, the full
value thereof at the time of condemnation, not exceeding the sum
of sixty dollars for any one animal, shall be paid to the owner
thereof out of the treasury of the Commonwealth, if such animal
has been owned within the State six months continuously prior to
its being killed ; provided, such person shall not have, prior
thereto, in the judgment of the Cattle Commissioners, by toilful act
or neglect, contributed to the spread, of tubercidosls ; but such
decision on the part of the commissioners shall not deprive the
owner of the right to arbitrate, as hereinafter provided."

If an owner does not thoroughly cleanse and disinfect his barn,
or if, after having had his herd tested and paid for by the State,
he introduces untested animals into his herd, he has through his
neglect contributed to the spread of tuberculosis in his herd, and,
therefore, under this section forfeits his right to compensation for
such tuberculous animals as may hereafter be found in his herd.
The commissioners desire to call your attention to this matter, so
that you may fully understand their position in regard to it.

466 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

You are hereby requested to notify the Board what steps you
take toward disinfecting your barn, and the date that the work
was completed. Please pay particular attention to this last
request.

Yours truly,

Austin Peters, Chairman.

John M. Parker, Secretary.

Leander F. Herrick.

Maurice O'Connell.

C. A. Dennen.

This was not thought to be sufficient, however, and on the
12tli of April an agent was appointed to visit these owners
and report on the condition of the barns. In the mean time,
because of the amount of private testing that was being
done, the Legislature took the matter up, and a committee
was appointed to investigate the condition of the cows con-
demned in certain herds in the neighborhood of Dracut and
Lowell. This committee made a special report to the Leg-
islature on the matter ; in their report the majority of the
committee recommended that "all testinor of cattle with
tuberculin, when compensation is expected, be limited to the
Cattle Commissioners or their authorized agents. The Board
of Cattle Commissioners have already expended more than
$160,000 of the total appropriation of $250,000 made earlier
in the session. If they are compelled to kill all reacting
animals and allow full compensation for the diseased cattle,
the remainder of the appropriation will soon be exhausted.
There will then be no money for the prosecution of the
regular work of the commission, or the slaughter of those
animals reported by the local inspectors as suspicious cases,
and which are really the most dangerous animals to the
health and comfort of the general public. The commission-
ers are not allowed to exceed their appropriation, hence all
their work must stop when their money gives out."

As a result of this recommendation, the following law
was passed and approved June 10, 1897 : —

[Chapter 499 of the Acts of 1897-]
Section 1. No person having animals tested with tuberculin
shall be entitled to compensation from the treasury of the Com-
monwealth for any animals that react to the tuberculin test, unless

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

467

such testing be done by the State Board of Cattle Commissioners,
or their authorized agents acting as such at the time of the test,
and such testing shall be subject to the supervision and control of
the State Board of Cattle Commissioners.

Sect. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

The names of the towns, the nunaber of cattle in each
herd and the value and numbers of those condemned pre-
vious to the passage of this act are as follows : —

Private Tests reported by Dr. W. E. Peterson.

Number Number
Tested. Condemned.

Per Cent.

of
Disease.

C. Warren,

P. Brodrick, .

C. Viles, . . . ,

School for Feeble-minded

Children.
L. H. Bent, .
W. L. Stone & Son,
C. L. Noyes,
J. Quinn,
J. Rafuse,
G. A. Haynes,
F. Haynes,
H. M. Noyes,
F. W. Buttrick

F. E. Bent,

G. Gilman,

F. Rouse,

G. Havnes,
J. Clark, .
A. F. Hunt,
A. M. Thompson,
J. E. Bent,
Town Farm,
J. Austin,
F. P. Barton,
P. Maguire,
M. J. Haynes,
L. F. Flood,
J. Dwyer,

F. M. Bowker,
J. S. Rice,
A. Dakin,
R. W. Powers,
P. Pilkington,
C. E. Haynes,
L. P. Bent,
H. C. Bowers,
Goodnow Bros
E. McManus,

G. L. Goodnow
E. Goodnow,
S. D. Perry,
T. F. O'Neil,
E. Senett,

C. W. Rice,
J. E. Bent,
S. G. Brown,

D. Mynahan,

Waltham,

Sudbury,

Maynard,

38

2

28

14

37

34

17

1

30

18

28

25

21

3

14

8

18

14

56

13

17

5

19

16

2

1

6

3

5

2

13

6

11

4

2

1

9

6

17

7

16

12

19

6

17

12

15

13

20

5

26

22

18

12

14

13

14

10

11

7

10

_

16

7

14

9

14

4

11

6

2

2

11

7

■ 6

5

6

_

13

7

23

22

14

4

4

1

28

12

9

1

8

7

15

2

|65 00

553 00

1,298 00

35 00

799 00
1,161 00
101 00
270 00
547 00
574 00
197 00
637 00

20 00
123 68

92 00
218 00
104 00

30 00
235 00
307 00

565 00
214 00
513 00
437 00
184 00
678 00

566 00
592 00
370 00
305 50

275 00
331 00
149 00

230 00
90 00

252 00

231 00

373 00

1,039 00

191 00

35 00
457 00

40 00
289 00

92 50

5.26
50.00
81.89

5.88

60.00
89.28
14.28
57.14
77.77
23.21
29.41
84.21
50.00
50.00
40.00
46.15
36.36
50.00
66.66
41.17
75.00
31.57
70.58
86.66
25.00
84.61
66.66
91.42
71.42
63.63

43.75
64.28
28.57
54.54
100.00
63.63
83.22

53.84
95.65
28.57
25.00
42.85
11.11
87.05
13.33

468

BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

OWNER.

Town.

Number
Tested.

Number
Condemned.

Amount.

Per Cent

of
Disease.

J. H. Sullivan,

Maynard,

23

14

$595 00

60.86

H. B. Fowler, .

><

20

9

367 00

45.00

G. F. Brown, .

'<

1

1

32 00

100.00

J. F. Parmenter,

"

23

19

784 00

82.06

W. F. Litchfield,

(1

3

1

38 00

33.33

C. Brooks,

(1

5

5

220 00

100.00

J. A. Johnson,

i(

6

6

225 00

100.00

J. H. Vose, .

'<

12

6

218 00

50.00

E. B. Wilcomb,

"

11

7

218 00

33.33

C. A. Whitney,

((

15

7

248 00

46.66

G. E. Whitney,

it

14

6

220 00

42.84

G. A. Whitney,

li

1

1

32 00

100.00

L. C. Colbert, .

'<

6

2

75 00

33.33

C. Randall, .

i(

6

4

170 00

80.00

W. Parmenter,

"

10

1

40 00

10.00

M. W. Hynes,

Wayland,

10

3

140 00

30.00

T. L. Hynes, .

a

4

2

85 00

50.00

H. Walker, .

<i

14

1

40 00

7.14

G. Patterson, .

Stow, . '.

16

5

178 00

31.25

H. S. Hapgood,

K

20

14

429 00

70.00

W. H. Lord, .

t(

12

10

360 00

83.33

B. C. Brown, .

«'

3

-

-

-

G. W. Bradley,

(1

4

3

102 00

75.00

Benj. Clark, .

(<

8

6

238 00

75.00

A. W. Puffer, .

(<

4

4

172 00

100.00

A. Tuttle,

<(

8

8

263 50

100.00

F. W. Hapgood,

(1

2

1

52 00

40.00

W. Toohey, .

«

5

2

65 00

-

P. A. Gately, .

<<

5

-

-

-

J. J, Gately, .

<(

13

3

108 00

23.07

J. Lund, .

<l

1

-

-

-

F. Bond, .

(1

6

-

-

-

J. Johnson,

(1

6

2

77 00

33.33

W. C. Bobbins,

Acton,

50

33

1,375 00

66.00

C. B. Bobbins,

<<

24

21

721 00

87.05

A. Cole, .

'<

18

11

491 00

61.11

J. K. W. Wetherbee

, •

"

10

8

306 00

80.00

H. D. Clark, .

Weston,

13

11

499 00

84.61

F. B. Ripley, .

'<

10

8

324 00

80.00

L. E. Roberts,

<'

18

14

444 00

77.77

G. B. Milton, .

<i

7

2

63 00

28.56

C. H. Bryden,

"

18

17

620 00

94.44

H. ZoUer,

II

42

23

670 00

54.76

A. G. Loker, .

<'

18

11

354 00

61.11

M. L. Currant,

Lexington,

29

17

746 00

58.60

S. M. Lawrence,

"

35

31

1,249 00

88.57

E. T. Payson, .

i<

2

2

70 00

100.00

H. E. Barnes, .

Lincoln, .

15

8

390 00

53.33

R. Sherman, .

'<

12

1

32 50

8.33

L. Mayer,

"

18

18

831 00

100.00

D. H. Sherman,

;;

32

8

347 00

25.00

H. J. Harrington,

11

4

157 00

36.36

J. Thompson, .

II

8

8

268 00

100.00

G. Miles, .

Concord,

23

23

787 00

100.00

C. H. Bryan, .

"

7

6

243 00

85.71

J. A. Hager, .

Marlborough, .

24

12

557 00

50.00

Private Tests reported by Dr. A. J. Sheldon.

R. Fox, ....

Dracut, .

41

30

$1,245 00

73.17

D. S. Fox,

"

10

8

300 00

80.00

C. E. Jones, .

«'

15

10

372 00

66.66

F. A. Fox,

"

51

48

1,567 68

94.11

E.T. Fox,

17

8

384 80

47.05

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

469

OWNER.

Town.

Number
Tested.

Number
Condemned.

Amount.

Per Cent.

of
Disease.

A. J. Thissell, .

Dracut, .

10

7

$296 52

70.00

O. Merrill,

"

14

2

75 00

14.28

Thompson Island Farm
School.

Boston, .

33

26

28

1,280 00

84.84

15

685 00

57.69

D. M. Davis, .

Newburyport,

9

2

55 00

22.22

G. A. Minot, .

2

2

62 00

100.00

G. Dokum,

10

1

38 00

10.00

J. M. Chase, .

11

3

95 00

27.27

W. H. Safford,

0

2

90 50

40.00

A. T. Newhall,

21

10

298 50

47.61

F. D. Moseley,

32

7

181 00

21.87

C. P. Bartlett, .

20

14

529 50

70.00

J. Mahoney, .

5

1

45 00

20.00

E. G. Moseley,

2

1

30 00

50.00

G. F. Penniman,

Chelmsford, .

20

13

627 00

65.00

J. Plumraer, .

"

22

7

269 00

31.81

H. D. Pierce's estate

-)

Canton,

57

3

135 00

5.43

Town Farm, .

Billerica,

18

13

558 00

66.66

J. N. Pardee, .

5

2

70 00

40.00

W. Holden, .

23

4

203 00

17.39

N. R. Jones, .

23

15

667 00

65.22

A. Woodward,

3

3

165 00

100.00

G. E. Simons, .

5

5

270 00

100.00

J. Sullivan,

6

6

191 88

100.00

B. Kerney,

5

4

215 00

80.00

D. Lane, .

12

11

504 67

91.66

J. E. Rowell, .

18

11

559 50

61.11

H. Button.

" -

1

1

45 00

100.00

F. A. Patch, .

Boxborough, .

36

9

332 00

25.00

Geo. Mixter, .

Hardwick,

68

1

15 00

1.48

Private Test reported by Dr. J. F. Winchester.

J. Plummer,

Chelmsford,

11

00 81.81

Private Tests reported by Dr. M. Bunker.

T, L. Lane,
J. T. Cowen,
F. S.Kimball,

Wayland,
Brighton,

25
10

$577 50
222 50

68.00
70.00

Private Test rep)orted by Dr. G. N. Kinnell.

Baker Bros.,

Lanesboroagh, 42

37

f 1,217 00

88.08

Private Tests reported by Dr. C. S. Moore.

F.Kimball, .

Danverg,

17

4

$170 00

23.53

B. W. Perry, .

-

1

-

-

J. E. Porter, .

8

7

262 00

87.49

J. B. McCarthy,

<«

12

5

265 00

41.66

0. F. Putnam, .

1 X

_

1

35 00

-

J. M. Putnam,

8

3

70 00

27.49

J. Swinerton, .

1

2

1

20 00

50.00

470

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Private Test reported by Dr.

J. H. Seale.

OWNER.

Town.

Number
Tested.

Number
Condemned.

Amount.

Per Cent.

of
Disease.

M. Thurlow, .

Amesbury,

8

8

$262 00

100.00

Private Test reported by Dr. A. H. Streeter.

W. A. Harlow,

Cummington, .

18

9

$340 00

50.00

Private Test reported by Dr. A. L. Cundall.

J.D.Tyler, .

Berlin, .

14

2

$52 50

14.28

Private Test reported by Dr. A. S. Cleaves.

E. W. Goddard, .

Barre,

3

1

$30 00

33.33

. Private Tests reported by Dr. C. A. Hamblet.

R. D. Coburn, .

Dracut, .

1

E. T. Fox,

'<

_

10

N. D. Peavey, .

"

4

3

F. R. Hill,

<<

-

2

G. Brown,

11

-

1

$50 00

511 00

125 00

87 50

47 50

75.00

Private Test reported by Dr. W. S. Eaton.

E. Mills,

Dracut, .

$150 00

80.00

Private Tests reported by Dr. E. Knobel.

G. W. Wetherbee, .

G. Reed

Dedham, . 2
2

2
2

$55 00
50 00

100.00
100.00

Private Test reported by Dr. J. H. Dutton.

J. P. Emerson,

Chelmsford, .

40

11

$405 00

27.05

Private Test reported by J. W. Robinson.

C.Whitemore,.

Natick, .

28

18

$766 00

64.28

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

471

Private Test reported by Dr. S. 0. Fotvle.

OWNEK. Town.

Number
Tested.

Number
Condemned.

Amount.

Per Cent.

of
Disease.

A. R. Jones, .

Wellesley,

1

$35 00

-

Private Tests reiwrted by Dr. G. N. Kinnell {2d test) .

J. Kirihner,
J. A. Bourgner,
G. Loelir,
"W. Kirihner, .
H. Finger,
Thomas Brennan,
J. E. Lamb, .
Dow Bros.,

E. A. Wood, .
D. B. Dewy, .

F. E. Curtis, .
F. S. Clark, .
F. Loehr,

J. Newbury, Jr.,
J. Eichelser, .
P. Eichelser, .

Dalton, .

16

'<

18

-

-

"

13

-

-

•'

15

-

-

Lanesborough,

14

-

-

"

19

—

-

"

S

-

-

"

8

_

_

u

24

-

-

Lenox, .

25

-

-

"

23

-

-

Richmond,

18

_

_

Washington, .

23

3

f 125 00

"

30

-

-

<i

22

-

-

<<

21

-

~

13,04

These figures are interesting, because they show relatively
the amount of disease in a large number of herds. It will
be noticed that the herds in the western part of the State
show only a very small proportion of disease. These herds
had previously been tested and cleaned up, this being the
second test.

It would appear also that there are fewer cows in the
western part of the State that react, and consequently the
barns there are not so saturated with infectious material.
These tests, however, have their value as tending to show
on a large scale what proportion of the cattle in the State
would react to the test. The proportional number of react-
ing animals would appear to be exaggerated, were it not
for the fact that these figures are corroborated by other
herds tested at various intervals by different parties, where
the per cent, of disease appears to be about the same. The
only conclusion that we can arrive at, then, is that the num-
ber of animals that react to the test is extremely large.
Fortunately, by far the larger proportion of these cases have
only slight localized tuberculosis, the majority of which
might never develop.

472

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

While this testing was going on, and previous to the
passage of the law relating to private testing of herds, the
Board began to realize the necessity for the passage of some
such law. It was evident that many of these owners had
not realized what they were undertaking ; it was evident
that others had no intention of co-operating with the State
in endeavoring to get rid of the disease, and certainly there
was little use in attempting to help those who would not try
to help themselves. Being written to and talked to seemed
to have little effect ; it was only when told that they were
laying themselves liable to forfeit their right to compensa-
tion in the future that there was any perceptible improve-
ment. (See letter to owners of herds tested by private
test, page 465.)

In this connection, the report on the amount of cleansing
and disinfection that has been done by these owners is
instructive : —

Filthy

irnclean

Clean but not

Satisfactory

Stables.

Stables.

Disinfected.

Stables.

First visit,

11

42

35

52

Second visit,

4

7

82

33

Third visit,

2

4

4

3

It will be noticed that, after being written to, in only 52
out of 140 barns first visited had the owners cleansed or dis-
infected their premises after the removal of diseased ani-
mals. On the second visit the showing was a little better, —
85 out of the 140 visited had been cleaned and were in a
satisfactory condition ; but it was not only in the case of
those having had their herds tested by private test that dis-
infection was ordered. All barns from which cattle were
taken, as tuberculous, were ordered disinfected, and inspect-
ors were instructed to call the attention of owners to section
45, chapter 491, etc. : —

Inspectors will please call the attention of owners to section 45,
chapter 491 of the Acts of 1894, as amended by section 10, chap-
ter 496 of the Acts of 1895. This section makes provision for the

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 473

compensation of owners, provided " such person shall not have,
prior thereto, in the judgment of the Cattle Commissioners, by
wilful act or neglect contributed to the spread of tuberculosis."
If after suitable notice an owner introduces diseased animals into
his herd, or fails to thoroughly disinfect his premises, he con-
tributes to the spread of tuberculosis by neglecting to take reason-
able precaution against the spread of the disease, and lays himself
liable to forfeit his right to compensation.

The regulations issued by the Board bearing on this sub-
ject are as follows : —

Regulations of Massachusetts Board op Cattle Commission-
ers FOR CLEANSING AND DISINFECTING BaRNS.

[These must be complied with by owners of cattle which the State pays for.]

In attempting to get rid of tuberculosis in a herd of cattle, it
should be remembered that not only is it necessary that all the dis-
eased animals be picked out and either isolated or destroyed, but
that no new animals should be introduced unless they have been
tested and are known to be free from disease.

The barns should also undergo a thorough renovation, and be
properly cleansed and disinfected before they are again occupied.

In renovating or remodelling barns, the great importance of sun-
light, thorough ventilation and good drainage should always be
borne in mind.

Disinfection of the barns is always necessary to destroy any
infectious material that may have been left after the removal of
diseased cattle. The best disinfectant we know is sunlight.
Germs of disease will live but a short time when exposed to the
direct rays of the sun ; and for this reason, if for no other, a south-
erly exposure and plenty of windows in the barn are to be desired.

In proceeding to disinfect a barn, the first and perhaps the most
important step to be taken is to collect all rubbish, have the walls,
ceilings and floors thoroughly swept and cleansed of all litter, dust,
cobwebs and the like. The floors^ mangers, feeding troughs and
stanchions should be carefully scraped and cleaned, special care
being taken with the corners, and all of the rubbish collected and
burned.

All odds and ends of boards and old broken mangers and par-
titions should also be removed and burned, and, when occasion
requires it, new plank floors should be laid in place of old ones.

After cleansing thoroughly with hoe and broom, and hose if
running water is convenient, and, if the barn contains a boiler,
with scalding water or live steam, applied with a hose, or, failing

474

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

that, with boiling water and soft soap or washing soda, a solution
of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), 1 to 1,000 parts
of water, should be applied with a whitewash brush and poured
over the floors (corrosive sublimate should be used in wooden ves-
sels, as it corrodes metal ones).

After applying the corrosive sublimate, the ceilings, walls, par-
titions, mangers, etc., should again be washed and gone over with
warm, freshly made whitewash ; a half pound of chloride of lime
to the gallon of whitewash is an addition that may make it more
effective. Fumigating with sulphur or chloride gas is not of any
great value in ordinary stables.

In using corrosive sublimate, it must be borne in mind that it
is a dangerous poison, and mangers and partitions should be care-
fully washed after applying this mixture, and then again scalded
or whitewashed.

If at a season of the year when the animals can be turned out,
the stables should be left vacant for some time, with doors and
windows open.

Six months after the first test the herd should again be tested
and undergo a careful physical examination, so as to be certain
that no diseased animals have been overlooked, and the barns
should again be thoroughly disinfected.

Great care should also be taken that all animals have been tested
before their introduction to the herd.

It would appear, from the report of the inspector, that this
work needed to be looked after. It will be noticed that, out
of over 700 barns visited, only 59 had been cleansed and dis-
infected satisfactorily at the first visit ; on the second visit the
figures were reversed, and instead of 397 filthy barns there
were only 43. The work is summed up as follows : —

Filthy

Unclean

Clean but not

Satisfactory

Stables.

Stables.

Disinfected.

Stables.

First visit,

397

141

120

59

Second visit, .

43

37

211

234

Third visit.

3 •

11

106

26

The general law under which the inspectors are appointed
further provides, under section 20, chapter 491 of the Acts
of 1894, as amended by section 6 of chapter 496 of the
Acts of 1895, that "inspectors must be present at all

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 475

licensed slaughter houses or establishments upon the day or
days designated for slaughter, and there carefully examine
at the time of slaughter the carcasses of any and all neat
cattle, sheep and swine slaughtered thereat. And it shall
be the duty of such inspectors also to examine at the time
of slaughter any and all neat cattle, sheep and swine when
owned by any person not engaged in such business, and
when the same are slaughtered upon his own premises other
than a slaughter house, etc., unless the said animal is less
than six months old, or has been inspected within six
months prior to such slaughter, and a certificate of health
has been delivered to the owner or person in charge."

Under section 5, chapter 491 of the Acts of 1894, every
inspector shall keep a record of all inspections and his
doings thereon, and shall make regular returns of all such
inspections to the Board of Cattle Commissioners. Under
this provision the inspectors have reported the following
work : —

Number of cattle inspected at time of slaughter, under

section 21, 975

Number of sheej) inspected at time of slaughter, imder

section 21, 157

Number of swine inspected at time of slaughter, under

sectioh 21, 3,345

Number of cattle inspected at licensed slaughter houses at

time of slaughter, 187,416

Number of sheep inspected at licensed slaughter houses at

time of slaughter, . , 405,201

Number of swine inspected at licensed slaughter houses at

time of slaughter, 1,468,334

Total number of animals inspected at time of slaughter,
including those inspected at licensed slaughter houses, and
also under section 21, 2,065,428

Cattle destroyed as tuberculous, ...... 302

Sheep destroyed as tuberculous, *2

Swine destroyed as tuberculous, . . ... 105

Percentage of cattle found infected, .16

Percentage of sheep found infected,

Percentage of swine found infected, .0071

Numberof towns with licensed slaughter houses, . . . 102

Number of licensed slaughter houses, ..... 228

* These were probably not tuberculous, but were cases of (Esophagostoma
Columbianum, which was very likely mistaken for tuberculosis by the local
inspector.

476

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The second division of the work — the examination of all
cattle coming into the markets at Brighton, Watertown and
Somerville from without the State for sale, — is an exceed-
ingly important one. Its object of course is to provide a
market where those desiring to secure tested cows can do so.
This is important, and would be valuable if it were possible
to rely on these tests as correct ; unfortunately, there is fre-
quently good reason for doubting the reliability of many of
them.

During the year from Dec. 15, 1896, to Dec. 15, 1897,
the number of cattle received at Brighton has been as fol-
lows : —

Maine cattle,

New Hampshire cattle,

New York cattle, .

Massachusetts cattle,

Western cattle,

Sheep, .

Swine, .

Veals, .

Horses, .

Cattle released by certificate

Cattle tested.

Cattle released after test.

Cattle released for slano^hter

Cattle condemned,

12,040

1,890

689

9,964

14,719

55,260

639,374

28,878

4,060

10,540

171

141

9

21

Watertotvn, Dec. 15, 1896, to Dec. 15, 1897.

Vermont cattle, .

New Hampshire cattle,

New York cattle,

Massachusetts cattle.

Western cattle,

Sheep,

Swine, .

Veals, .

Horses, .

Cattle released by certificate,

Cattle released by pasture tags,

Cattle tested,

Cattle released after test, .

Cattle released for slaughter,

Cattle condemned,

6,609

8,144

274

933

171,562

514,608

766,920

63,927

24,762

8,240

99

42

34

1

7

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

477

Somerville, Dec. 15, 1896, to Dec. 15, 1897.

Western cattle, ......

New England cattle (Vermont and New Hamp
shire), ....

Massachusetts cattle, .

Sheep,

Calves,

Hogs,

Cattle released on certificates.
Cattle tested and released, .
Cattle condemned, actinomycosis.

114,.562

4,421

1,082

367,202

46,262

13,172

688

14

2

Recapitulation .

Total number cattle for beef.

Total number sheep, .

Total number hogs,

Total number calves, .

Total number horses, .

Total number released on certificates

Total number tested at stations, .

Total number released at stations.

Total number condemned at stations.

Total number condemned for actinomycosis

846,889

937,070

1,419,466

139,067

28,822

19,468

227

199

28

9

In all from Dec. 15, 1896, to Dec. 15, 1897, 346,889 cattle
have passed through Brighton, Watertown and Somerville
from outside the State. During the same period of time,
from Dec. 15, 1896, to Dec. 15, 1897, 7,068 cattle have
been admitted to the State on special permit.

This division of the work, the examination and identifica-
tion of cattle coming in from without the State upon special
permit, also deals with the admission of out-of-State cattle ;
and it has been found that the difficulties and disadvantages
to be met with at the Brighton, Watertown and Somerville
markets are to be met with in this department of the work as
well. It is expected, of course, that these cattle are tested
either before or after arrival.

The table following shows the number of cattle brought in
month by month on special permit, making in all 7,068
cattle brought in on 492 permits : —

478

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

From Dec. 15, 1895, to Dec.

31, 1896,

421

January, 1897, ....

333

February, 1897,

261

March, 1897,

462

April, 1897, .

289

May, 1897, .

198

June, 1897, .

315

July, 1897, .

325

August, 1897,

703

September, 1897,

857

October, 1897,

1,374

November, 1897,

1,187

December, 1897,

J 1

1

• t

•i • J

/»

1 •

343

Total, * .
1 ' p

7,068

The question of the advisability of phicing quarantine
restrictions on cattle coming into a country or State is one
that is thoroughly well established. In Europe quarantine
regulations and the requirement of the tuberculin test is very
general. On this continent both the United States and
Canadian governments require it, and it is also required by
several of the different States before cattle are permitted to
pass their borders. Unfortunately, the diflSculties in its
enforcement are great. The alternative consists in the Board
appointing their own agents to do the testing in the various
States from which the cattle are generally shipped. Conse-
quently, at a meeting of the Board, held October 2, it was
decided that the Board should appoint their own agents to do
the testing on cattle coming in from without the State ; and
in pursuance with this decision the following letters were
prepared, and will be issued as soon as the list of out-of-
State agents is completed : —

Letter to Agents.

Boston, Jan. 1, 1898.

Dear Sir : — The Massachusetts Board of Cattle Commissioners
is of the opinion that, in order to protect the cattle owners of
Massachusetts from bovine tuberculosis to the greatest practicable
extent, the work of testing cattle outside the State, to be brought
into Massachusetts, should be done in the most careful and
efficient manner possible.

In order to perfect this branch of our work as far as we are
able, it has been decided to consider those testing cattle with
tuberculin, for farmers and dealers, to be brought into this State,

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 479

as our agents outside of this Commonwealth, and this Board will
only accept the tests of such men as we approve of.

All tests are to be made at the expense of the owners or buyers,
and not at that of the Massachusetts Cattle Commission.

Each tested animal must have an ear-tag, furnished by this
Board at cost ; the number on the ear-tag must correspond with
the number on the certificate ; and the appearance of the animal
must also agree with the description of the certificate, otherwise
the certificate will be considered valueless.

You have been approved of by the Massachusetts Board of
Cattle Commissioners to test neat cattle to be shipped to Massa-
chusetts, and we will continue to accept your tests as long as we
are of the opinion that they are being made in a careful and
conscientious manner; if at any time, however, we have reason to
be dissatisfied with your work, we retain the privilege of sum-
marily dropping your name from our list.

We also request you to keep us informed as to the source of the
tuberculin you use, the strength of the solution and size of dose,
all of which must meet with our approval.

Per order,
Massachusetts Board Cattle Commissioners.

Letter to Dealers.

Boston, Jan. 1, 1898.

Dear Sir: — The Massachusetts Board of Cattle Commission-
ers is of the opinion that, in order to protect the cattle owners of
Massachusetts from bovine tuberculosis to the greatest practicable
extent, the work of testing cattle outside of this State, to be
brought in here, should be done in the most careful and efficient
manner possible.

In order to perfect this branch of our work as far as we are
able, it has been decided to consider those testing cattle with
tuberculin, for dealers and farmers, to be brought into Massa-
chusetts, as our agents outside of this Commonwealth, and this
Board will only accept the tests of such men as we approve of.

A printed list of the men we consider reliable will be furnished
on application. This list may be revised from time to time, as
new applicants may be added or men who prove either dishonest
or incompetent are dropped from it.

All tests are to be made at the expense of the owners or buyers
of the animals, and not at that of the Massachusetts Cattle
Commission.

All neat cattle over six months old brought into the State pur-
porting to have been tested will be quarantined and tested, unless

480

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

such test has been made by aa authorized out-of-the-State agent
of the Massachusetts Board of Cattle Commissioners.

Each tested animal must have an ear-tag, furnished by this
Board at cost ; the number of the ear-tag must correspond with
the number on the certificate ; and the description on the certifi-
cate must also agree with the appearance of the animal, otherwise
the certificate will be considered valueless.

Per order,
Massachusetts Board Cattle Commissioners.

The fourth division of the work, the conduct of laboratory
and stable experiments to determine problems connected
with the work of the Board, has been fruitful of results.
Under this head may be classed the retesting of certain
herds that had previously been tested by the Board. This
work illustrates well the difficulty that sometimes exists in
freeing a herd from tuberculosis. The work has been tabu-
lated, and shows that in some cases the herds have been
tested several times, yet, although possibly to a less extent,
the disease still exists in many of these herds.

1894. 1

1895. 1

1896. 1

1897.

■d

1

•a

-o

■6

-a

a

•a

73

a

T3

a

^S

■-a

a

u p

a
o
O

(2

uH

■^ a

■g

Ut .-'

u a

■g

o

a^

s

.a -a

a=^

™ O

V

O
1

a; 0)

|3

O

Oh

Henry Heywood, Gardner,

1:

_

_

81

30

37.03

50

27

54.00

100
106

31
12

31.00
11.32

P. M. Harwood, Barre,

-

-

-

27

20

74.07

9

1

11.11

-

-

~

T. P. and C. S. Root, Barre,

-

-

-

36

3

8.33

29

5

17.24

-

-

-

G. L. Clemence, South-

_

_

_

26

5

19.23

34

5

14.70

_

_

_

bridge.

F. B. Bridgeman, West-

-

-

-

H

5

45.45

22

6

17.85

-

-

-

hampton.

Baker Brothers, Lanesbor-

-

-

-

-

-

-

42

37

88.09

21

-

-

ough.

Geo. n. Ellis, West New-

\ 69

29

42.02

_

-

_

79

13

16.04

134

23

17. W

ton.

( -

-

-

-

-

-

68

2

2.09

148

6

4.05

Geo. H. Ellis, Concord,

s -
/ -

_

-

_

-

_

64

8

9.37

38
62

1
4

2.62
6.45

Geo. H. Ellis, Kendal

( -

_

_

_

_

_

74

20

27.02

49

5

10.20

Green.

i -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

50

-

-

F. B. Page, Gardner, .

-

-

-

28

3

10.70

-

-

-

30

3

10.00

J. Elchelser, Washington, .

-

-

-

18

2

11.11

-

-

-

22

-

-

Farm School, Thompson

( -

_

_

28

.S

10.71

_

_

_

26

15

57.69

leland.

1 -

~

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

30

-

-

Note. — The difference in these figures between the number of animals tested on the first
and later tests is accounted for by the purchase of new animals that kad been tested or by
the natural increase in the herd.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 481

In the case of Mr. Ellis's herd an endeavor was made to
locate the source of reinfection, and the diseased portions of
six of the last cows were submitted to Prof. Theobold
Smith, to get an opinion as to the age of the lesions. His
opinion on this point, was a singularly strong confirmation of
the opinion that the cattle contracted the disease after their
introduction to the barn. These cows were tested and
appeared all right before being bought. They reacted after
three months had elapsed ; on autopsy the lesions were found
to be slight, and on examination by Professor Smith he
stated that in his opinion they were only from two to three
months old. This would seem to indicate that the disease
was probably contracted in the barn, and corroborates the
opinion held by the Board of the danger to cattle recently
introduced into infected barns. This danger exists to a
greater or less extent in all barns that have been inhabited
by diseased cattle.

Another idea that naturally suggests itself is that it might
be well to advise every farmer or owner in the State to
cleanse and whitewash his barn say twice a year, whether
any cattle have been taken out or not ; in this way, if any
infectious material existed in the barn it would at least be
reduced in quantity, the danger would be lessened, and of
course if this disinfection was kept up it would materially
lessen the amount of infectious material, and therefore lessen
the danger to the other cattle in the barn. On the other
hand, if neither diseased cattle nor infectious material had
been in the barn, it would at least do no harm to wash and
whitewash, and it would tend to inculcate ideas of cleanliness
where perhaps they had been wanting.

During the year, on the request of several owners, and on
their promising to observe certain conditions, a number of
animals that had reacted to the test were kept in quarantine
in separate buildings for observation and experimental pur-
poses.

In the month of December, 1894, a bull belonging to
G. H. Ellis of Newton was tested, with the following reac-
tion : —

Dec. 28, 1894 — 7.30 A.M, 101; 5 a.m., 99.4; 7 a.m., 101.1; 9 a.m., 101;
12 m, 101.1; 3 p.m., 103.1; 5 p.m., 102.3.

482

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

It has since been tested six times, showing the following
reactions : —

March 18, 1896 — 8 p.m., 101; 6 A.M., 101, 101.2, 103.4, 104.4, 104.3,

104.2,104.3, 104.2, 103.
June 13,1896 — 9.30 p.m., 101.1; 7.30 a.m., 102.3, 103.1,103.1, 103,

103,103, 101.3.
June 20, 1896 — 9.30 p.m., 101; 6.30 a.m., 101.2, 101.3, 101.2, 101.2,

101.3.
Aug. 18,1896 — 7 P.M., 101.2; 5 a.m., 101.1, 101, 102.2, 103.4, 104,

103.4, 103.4.
Aug. 18, 1897 — 8 P.M., 101, 101.1; 7 a.m., 101.2, 103.1, 104.3, 105.
December, 1897 — 6 p.m., 101; 4 a.m., 100.3, 100.3, 100.2; 100.1, 100.

It will be noticed that the bull was tested June 13, and again
on June 20. At the second test there was no reaction ; this
is a characteristic of tuberculin, as frequently there is no
reaction at a second test until a considerable time has elapsed.

On the last test, in December, 1897, there was again no
reaction ; but whether this was due to an insusceptibility to
the test or to the cure of the disease, it is impossible to say
at the present time.

In the month of February, 1897, the Board received notice
from Dr. Kinnell of Pittsfield that he had tested a herd of
Siementhal cattle, consisting of four cows and a bull, two of
which had reacted to the test. These tests were accom-
panied by a letter from Dr. Kinnell, which is as follows : —

William Douglas Sloane, Esq., Lenox.
Four Coios and a Bull tested Feb. 11 and 12, 1897. — Breed,
" Siementhal " Cattle.

Numbers
on Horns.

10 P.M.

8 a.m.

10 A.M.

12 m.

2 p.m.

Bbmabes.

635

101

101.2

100.2

100.6

101.4

-

414

100.8

103

105

108

107

-

76

101

102.6

102.2

101.4

101.4

Heavy in calf.

71

101

102.4

102.8

102.4

102

Aborted four

weeks

Bull.

101.6

106

107

106.6

105.4

ago.

No. 414 had a chill, commencing twelve hours after injection and con-
tinuing four hours. She was noticed to cough during the chill. Bull had
a chill, commencing at eighth hour after injection and lasting six hours.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 483

Dr. Parker, Secretary Massachusetts Cattle Commission.

Dear Sir : — These animals were imported from Belgium about
six months ago. They were kept in quarantine for three months,
Garfield, N. J., and brought here on a permit from your office last
September (1896). They were at once put in quarantine by
Inspector Flint of Lenox, and have been so kept ever since.

In regard to Nos. 635, 76 and 71, I would say that I consider
them free from tuberculosis. Nos. 76 and 71 gave slight reactions,
but, from the fact that they showed no constitutional symptoms,
and from the fact that No. 414 and the bull gave such decided
reactions, I should think that the slight reaction was due to the
peculiar conditions under which they have been kept, and perhaps
also due to their breeding. In addition to these, one of them
aborted comparatively recently, and the other is heavy in calf.

The owner of these animals purchased and brought them to this
country at very great expense, and, apart from that, is most
anxious to establish a herd of this breed. Consequently, I am
commissioned to write to you and try if we cannot arrange to deal
with them somewhat differently than with ordinary cases. Know-
ing that with proper care it is quite possible to breed sound stock
by this bull and from the diseased cow, we would like it if you
would allow this cow and bull to remain permanently in quarantine
or until further orders, and not to slaughter them. Mr. Sloane is
willing to give every assurance and guarantee that they will not be
sold, or moved from the farm, or killed for beef, or brought into
contact with other animals, except of course in the case of the bull
being allowed to copulate with the cows.

I would say that Mr. Sloane fully appreciates the dangers of
tuberculosis, and is fully in sympathy with all that is being done
to eradicate it. Two years ago he cleaned up his herd of blooded
Jerseys at great pecuniary loss, and would not now do anything
that would in the least endanger the health of his herd ; and any
special features of quarantine which you might suggest or wish in
regard to these animals would be rigidly carried out. But, if this
is more than you as a State official can grant, would not the fact
that they have been brought such a long journey and have been
kept under such varied and trying conditions justify you in keep-
ing them indefinitely in quarantine for retest?

Hoping that this may meet with the favorable consideration of
your Board, I remain.

Truly yours, Geo. N. Kinnell.

P.S. Of course Mr. Sloane would agree to waive all claims for
quarantine expenses, and would sterilize or destroy the products
from the diseased cow, as you might direct. G. N, K.

484 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

On receipt of this letter from Dr. Kinnell, the owner was
communicated with and the following answer received : —

642 Fifth Avenue, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1897.
John M. Pakkek, Esq., Secretary.

Dear Sir : — Your favor of the 16th has been forwarded to me
from Lenox.

The few " Siementhal" cattle I possess form part of a herd im-
ported last August, and were at the United States government
quarantine station until end of November. The large portion of
the herd are now in New York, and were inspected by the State
veterinarian and given a clean bill. I cannot but think that in my
case the reaction from test shown in two of my herd must be due
to some climatic conditions, for tuberculosis is not known in the
locality from which these cattle come. My main object in import-
ing them was to cross them with my Jerseys. As latter breed
seemed sensitive to the disease, I shall be glad to have Dr. Kinnell
confer with my manager again ; latter will carry out whatever in-
structions he may receive. Yours truly, Wm. D. Sloane.

After a meeting of the Board, the owner and Dr. Kinnell
were both communicated with. The letter to the owner was
as follows : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Board of Cattle Commissioners, Boston, March 1, 1897.
Mr. W. D. Sloane, 642 Fifth Avenue, Neto York.

Dear Sir : — As I promised you, I brought the inatter referred
to in my last letter to you before the meeting of tlie Board, held
on February 22, and I am instructed to write you that the Board
is willing that you should be allowed to keep the cattle and breed
from them, providing that we have your guaranty that they will be
kept separate from the rest of the herd, that the State will not be
called upon to pay for quarantine expense, that no milk will be
sold from the cow, and that the Board are kept informed of the
results of any further tests.

Of course you can easily see why we ask this of you, because,
if this cow is allowed to mix with the rest of the herd, it would
not be fair for the State to pay for any animals that might contract
the disease from her ; at the same time, we do not wish to put any
person to the expense of bringing valuable cattle into the State
and stop his breeding from them, if he so desires ; in fact, we will
be willing to do everything in our power to further the breeding
and improvement of cattle in this direction.

Yours truly, John M. Parker, Secretary.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 485

The two reacting animals were kept entirely separate from
the herd, and had separate yards to run in. On this matter
Dr. Kinnell writes as follows : —

PiTTSFiELD, Mass., Feb. 19, 1897.

Dear Dr. Parker : — We were very glad to have your notice of
a provisional permission to retain the bull and cow at Mr. Sloane's
in quarantine. The bull is kept in a box stall apart from the other
houses, a stall specially built for him ; the cow will be kept in
another stall being constructed for her, and each will have yards
to themselves apart from all the other stock. In a few days I will
be down there again to see arrangements completed.

On January 2 and 3, 1898, the bull was again tested, with
the following result : —

10 P.M., 102 . 1 ; 8 A.M., 106 ; 10 a.m., lOG . 1 ; 11.30 A.M., 106 . 2 ; 1 p.m., 106.
Dr. Kinnell notes that : —

This bull has been going back for the last four months ; does
not keep up in condition, and coughs a great deal. I could
not by auscultation detect anything but violent percussion made
him cough. He has been used on the cows until within a few
weeks, and has proved satisfactory in getting the cows with calf.
From eight o'clock until eleven this morning he was suffering from
a chill, trembling, eyes running and his cough aggravated.

G. N. K.

The test on the cow was as follows : —

Normal temperature, 9 p.m., 101.1 ; 8 a.m., 103 ; 10 a.m., 103.2 ; 11.30,
104.3; 1 P.M., 106,2.

The note on this cow is as follows : —

This cow is in good condition, does not cough ; but, although
she has been served by different bulls, she has not been got with
calf. G. N. K.

This morning from ten o'clock until noon she was suffering from
rigors.

Another and most important part of the experimental
work has been the work done during the past year by Prof.
Theobold Smith at the Bussey Institute. When the oflSce
of the Board was moved from Village Street to the Com-
monwealth building, the laboratory was abandoned and

486 BOARD OF AGIilCULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

special arrangements were made with Dr. Langdon Froth-
ingham, at the Harvard Medical School, to do such micro-
scopical work as was found to be necessary. (For Dr.
Frothingham's report, see page 557.)

The Board was also anxious to have some original re-
search work done. They felt that it would be well to take
up some of the questions in relation to tuberculosis that
were still unsettled, and endeavor to throw some further
light on them. In this matter the Board had the good fort-
une to secure the co-operation of Prof. Theobold Smith,
and they desire to thank him at this time for his generosity
in placing his services at their disposal. The cost of buying
and keeping the cattle has been defrayed by the Board, the
remainder of the work having been done by him free of
charge.

For some time there has been a feeling in certain quarters
that it was a serious question whether human and bovine
tuberculosis were really identical. There was a dearth of
information on this matter, and it was felt that further work
should be done in this direction. Consequently Dr. Smith's
promise of co-operation was received with a great deal of
satisfaction. (For the full report of Dr. Smith's work, see
page 564.)

The final results and conclusions drawn by Dr. Smith
from his work make it by far the most important work of
the year. The report is summed up as follows : —

Leaving these aside, the remaining parts of the te'st appear to
me to be of sufficient uniformity and accuracy to justify us in
drawing certain preliminary inferences. We may now maintain
that bovine tubercle bacilli and human bacilli as found in sputum
are not identical. The difference in their action upon cattle is
reinforced by certain differences in the bacilli themselves and
their effect upon rabbits, as will be detailed in a fuller report.

What the significance of these divergencies is, what influence
they have upon the transmissibility of the disease from cattle to
man, we are unable at present to state with any degree of cer-
tainty. That they do have some effect must be admitted, in view
of results of studies upon other species of pathogenic bacteria.
Their precise bearing needs careful investigation.

These studies will, I think, warrant one inference, however ;
that is, that human sputum cannot be regarded as specially

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 487

dangerous to cattle, nor can it be looked upon as a factor in the
introduction of tuberculosis into a healthy herd of cattle. Even
if the tubercle bacilli of cattle and of man are very closely related
and have the same ancestry, as we all must admit, if we regard
the two as mere varieties, which may eventually under very favor-
able conditions pass one into the other, the condition in which the
bacillus leaves the lungs in sputum is evidently such as to inter-
fere, under ordinary circumstances, with any development in the
bovine body. It would fall a speedy prey to destruction.

It is interesting to notice that this work of Dr. Smith's
confirms the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Frothingham a
year ago. In last year's report, page 57, Dr. Frothingham

says : —

From these facts we are certainly justified in concluding that
calves are apparently not particularly susceptible to the human
tubercle bacillus ; but whether this non-susceptibility is due to a
bacillus of diminished virulence for the bovine, or to the age of the
animals experimented upon, or to some other cause, further exper-
iment must demonstrate.

While it may be conceded that bovines are not suscep-
tible to human tubercle bacilli from sputum, yet it by no
means follows that human beings are therefore not suscep-
tible to that of the bovine. At the same time, the great
danger of the use of the milk and flesh of cattle suffering
from tuberculosis has undoubtedly been greatly exaggerated,
for the reason that human tuberculosis has been steadily
decreasing during the last thirty-five or forty years, while
the bovine tuberculosis has undoubtedly increased during
the same period.

It cannot be denied that cows with tuberculous udders or
that are extensively diseased, even though no lesion can be
detected in the udder, give tubercle bacilli in the milk ; and,
until it is clearly demonstrated that these bacilli are harm-
less to the human race, such animals must be looked upon
as dangerous to the public health.

From the flesh of tuberculous animals there is much less
danger than from the milk, as in this community meat is, as
a rule, sufiiciently well cooked to destroy the vitality of
these germs ; while, on the other hand, it is customary to
use milk in an uncooked condition. In fact, the danger

488 BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

from meat is really more from bacilli that may be smeared
upon its surface from butcher knives that may have come in
contact with tuberculous lesions or infected lymphatic
glands than from the flesh itself, as it is doubtful if the
muscles ever contain the germs of tuberculosis ; but, even
if the bovine tubercle bacilli were harmless to the human
race, it is not a pleasant thought to contemplate using the
milk and meat of animals affected with a disgusting and
loathsome disease as food for the people of an intelligent,
educated and civilized community.

Considered from a public health point of view, the local
inspection work would seem to be sufficient for its protection
at the present time, if done in an intelligent and painstaking
manner. This is an important work, and on general prin-
ciples, if for no other reason, it would not seem to be advis-
able to keep these advanced cases, or cases of tuberculosis
of the udder, in the dairy. In fact cows with nodulated
udders should be considered as unfit animals for milk pro-
duction, as such udders, when not tuberculous, may be
infected with actinomycosis or pus-producing bacteria, either
of which should be looked upon as dangerous.

In this direction the local inspectors seem to have been
doing good work, judging from the smaller proportion of
cases of advanced generalized tuberculosis that have been
found during the year, as compared with previous years.

In removing the animals that are quarantined by the local
inspectors year after year, picked out as diseased on physical
examination, there is no advance to speak of in diminishing
the prevalence of tuberculosis among cattle, as a crop of
slightly diseased ones are left behind, which in time may
develop the disease, so that the succeeding year an equal
number will be condemned ; and this may be carried on year
after year, to infinity, unless something more than this is
done.

This may be accomplished in various ways : first, our
cattle owners must be educated to pay more attention to the
sanitary surroundings of their stock ; they should be taught,
if possible, to keep only healthy animals under the most
healthful surroundings. Those who take pride in their
cattle should strive to keep a herd that will not react to the

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 489

tuberculin test, and to buy only animals that have been
tested with tuberculin.

The funds appropriated by the State for the eradication
and control of contagious animal diseases should first be used
for the regular work of the Board, including the expenses
attendant upon the taking of such cattle as are found to be
diseased which the local inspectors have quarantined. If,
after this is done, the Cattle Commissioners have sufiicient
funds at their disposal, what is known as "voluntary
request work" should be done; that is, the Cattle Com-
missioners may test an entire herd at the owner's request,
provided he agrees to buy only tested cattle after those that
react are removed, and will also agree to thoroughly disinfect
his stable as directed by the Board, and take all such other
measures to keep his herd free of the disease as may be
recommended.

In doing such work, care must be taken to choose only
such farms as have buildings that can be thoroughly disin-
fected, or where the owner has a new barn into which he
wishes to move a herd which suffered from this disease in the
old barn. There are many New England farm barns that it
is almost impossible to disinfect ; here, voluntary request
testing is of no value. The owner must either pay more
attention to hygiene and cull out the bad cases from time to
time, or, if he wishes to entirely eradicate tuberculosis from
his herd, he must decide to build a new stable.

A single test is not always sufficient to remove all the dis-
eased animals ; hence, a second should follow the first within
two or three months. The applicant must understand that
it may be necessary to repeat the test, and to repeatedly dis-
infect in order to have the work successful, and that this
requires intelligence, patience, perseverance and some expen-
diture of money.

There are two sides to the question of dealing with bovine
tuberculosis, — one is its bearing upon the public health, the
other is that it is an insidious, slow-developing, infectious dis-
ease of the bovine, yearly inflicting considerable pecuniary loss
upon the dairyman and stock breeder. It has been allowed
to continue its ravages unnoticed and unchecked for many
years, until we have awakened to the fact that our herds are

490 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

widely infected with it ; and steps should be taken to reduce
it to a minimum in a reasonable and economical manner, in
order that the public at large may receive milk as far as pos-
sible from healthy animals, and the farmers be protected
from pecuniary loss.

The disposal of the carcasses of diseased animals is an
important matter. Sections 10, 11 and 15, chapter 491 of
the Acts of 1894, provide that the carcasses of diseased
animals shall not be used for food. Section 37 gives a list
of diseases to be deemed contagious under this act, tubercu-
losis being among the number.

The Board of Cattle Commissioners has always construed
this law to imply that the carcass of an animal infected with
tuberculosis, no matter how slight or how localized the
lesion may be, is not to be used for beef, but must be either
rendered or buried.

This appears to be an extravagant and wasteful ruling, as
there does not seem to be any well-grounded objection to
the use of the meat from very slightly diseased animals.
For instance, a beef may have a tuberculous mediastinal, or
bronchial lymphatic gland, no larger than the end of a
man's thumb, or even no larger than a pea, and be perfectly
healthy in other respects ; and yet, under a strict construc-
tion of the Massachusetts law, that animal must be rendered
or buried. Dr. Theobold Smith makes a division of tuber-
culous animals into two classes, " infected'" and " diseased.''*
The *' infected*' are those having some slight local glandular
lesion, yet enjoying perfect health in other respects. The
^^ diseased" are those having more or less well-marked
lesions in various organs and glands of the body. The
saving would perhaps be more upon animals killed in
slaughter houses in condition for beef than among cows
killed by order of the Cattle Commissioners, for as a rule
milch cows are not in beef condition ; at the same time, it
must be borne in mind that the local inspectors are apt to
have slight lesions escape their notice when a cow is killed
for beef, but if a cow is tested with tuberculin, she is hunted
from the tip of her nose to the tip of her tail, until the
nodule or nodules that caused the reaction are found.

In Germany, France and Great Britain it is the usual

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 491

practice to pass as sound all meat from animals in which the
lesions are slight or localized ; where the disease is general
or the carcass emaciated, the meat is destroyed. In this
country the United States inspectors of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, stationed at the large abattoirs where
animals are killed for export or interstate commerce, do the
same thing ; where the disease is localized, the meat is con-
sidered sound ; and when the lesions are extensive or gen-
eralized, the meat is condemned.

This is an important economic problem, and the propriety
of so modifying our State laws regarding the disposal of the
products of animals infected with tuberculosis as to have them
conform to the rules and regulations of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry for the inspection of meat, should
be carefully considered.

Another recommendation for carrying on the work at a
less cost has to do with the advisability of reducing the rate
of compensation for animals condemned as tuberculous by
the Board. In the report of the special joint committee
appointed by the last Legislature to investigate the killing
of certain cows from Dracut and Lowell, last spring, con-
demned by the tuberculin test of private veterinarians, the
majority of the committee reported as follows : —

From our observations at the investigation, we hold that the
Board of Cattle Commissioners should at once take into consider-
ation modifications of the law relative to the condemnation of cattle
by tuberculin test alone, — that is, upon the request of owners of
cattle for such testing of their herds. If cattle are to be con-
demned, or regarded as suspicious animals only after they show
signs of disease, it is a question as to the propriety or equity of
the State paying full value for those that are actually diseased.
This proposition we respectfully refer to the consideration of the
next General Court, trusting that the Board of Cattle Commission-
ers will, in the mean time, consider the same question and offer
recommendations in their annual report.

In endeavoring to comply with this request, the advis-
ability of any longer paying full compensation must be
seriously questioned. The present law provides that full
appraised value not exceeding sixty dollars be paid for cattle

492 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

killed as tuberculous; "that, whenever any cattle con-
demned as afflicted with the disease of tuberculosis are killed
under the provisions of this section, the full value thereof,
at the time of condemnation, not exceeding the sum of sixty
dollars for any one animal, shall be paid to the owner thereof
out of the treasury of the Commonwealth, if such animal has
been owned within the State six months continuously prior
to its being killed ; provided such person shall not have,
prior thereto, in the judgment of the Cattle Commissioners,
by wilful act or neglect, contributed to the spread of tuber-
culosis ; but such decision on the part of the commissioners
shall not deprive the owner of the right of arbitration as
hereinafter provided." (Section 45, chapter 491, Acts of
1894, as amended by section 10, chapter 496, Acts of 1895.)

This is a very delicate question, and one requiring to be
handled with the greatest care. In many instances it is
found that from some localities certain names appear upon
our books more frequently than any other persons, seeming
as though special individuals found it profitable to buy
suspicious cows and sell them to the State at an advance on
the purchase price.

Then, again, certain farmers last spring employed veter-
inarians to test cattle, with the idea, in many instances, of
selling unprofitable cows to the State, and using the money
to buy new ones that had not been over grained and milked
out, leading to passage of act to prevent owners receiving
compensation for cows, etc.

No person having animals tested with tuberculin shall be entitled
to compensation from the treasury of the Commonwealth for any
animals that react to the tuberculin test, unless such testing be
done by the State Board of Cattle Commissioners, or their author-
ized agents acting as such at the time of the test ; and such test-
ing shall be subject to the supervision and control of the State
Board of Cattle Commissioners.

Furthermore, local inspectors quarantine cows on suspicion
that show no physical evidence of disease, which react to
tuberculin, are killed and found to have some slight lesion.
The owner puts a new cow in place of the old one, that may
not be free from tuberculosis, or, if she is, may in six months

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 493

be diseased to the same extent (or more) as the old one, if
he has neglected to disinfect the place where the old one
stood, or has been careless about it. This would not be the
case in any of the above instances, if compensation were not
paid in full.

The wisdom of paying full compensation for cattle that
react to tuberculin is doubtful, except perhaps in cases where
an owner is compelled to have his whole herd tested. If
partial compensation only were paid, fewer cattle would be
killed by the commission, and at a less proportionate cost to
the State, giving more opportunity to test herds for owners
who wish to eradicate tuberculosis, which our funds do not
allow us to do now. Moreover, there would be no applica-
tions, under reduced compensation, for voluntary request
tests, except from those who were sincere in their desire to
eradicate tuberculosis from their herds, as part of the loss
would fall on the cattle owner, and he would not be willing
to incur his share of the loss unless he was honest in his
wish to rid himself of this disease, which Professor Walley
enumerates as one of the " four bovine scourges."

Scientists in various countries have been working for a
number of years, and still are, to discover an immunizing or
curative agent for tuberculosis ; and it is possible that in
time, perhaps in a few months and perhaps after the lapse of
several years, a material may be produced with which cattle
may be rendered immune from tuberculosis, or that even
tuberculous cattle may be cured. When these discoveries
are made, it will certainly be the duty of the State to avail
itself of them. Under the present law, the Cattle Commis-
sion has power to create quarantine stations and to experi-
ment with animals in the study of contagious diseases ; hence
it would seem that the Board has discretionary power to
change its methods with the advance of modern scientific
research. Meantime, we have tuberculin as a fairly reliable
diagnostic agent ; it should be used to verify the diagnosis
on cattle condemned as tuberculous on a physical examina-
tion ; and where owners of herds are desirous of eradicating
this scourge from among their cattle, we know it can be done
where the test is applied two or three times, and the owner
complies with the laws of hygiene and has a barn that can

494 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

be properly disinfected. We also know, from Bang's experi-
ments, that when a breeder exercises intelligent care it is pos-
sible to raise a healthy herd from a diseased one, and in the
mean time much can be done in an educational way to im-
prove the existing conditions.

Ordinarily, for the transmission and development of
tuberculosis among dairy cattle long and intimate associa-
tion is required. This close and intimate association of the
diseased with the healthy is a condition that commonly
exists on the average New England farm, the frequency and
seriousness of the infection depending on the amount of
infectious material present and on the susceptibility of the
different individuals in the barn.

When an animal inhales the dust containing the tubercle
bacilli, the bacilli are absorbed through the mucous mem-
brane lining the air passages, and usually find lodgement in
the bronchial or mediastinal glands. The presence of the
bacilli in these glands, or the constant reinfection from the
introduction of new bacilli, stimulates the cells immediately
surrounding the bacilli, and the result is that a nodule, or
tubercle, is formed. The disease may not go any further
until from some cause the resisting power of the animal is
weakened ; the disease may then develop, and the animal
finally falls a victim to tuberculosis. That this is ordinarily
the course of the disease is borne out by the fact that in by
far the larger number of cases the thoracic glands are found
to be the initial seat of the disease, and frequently on post-
mortem examination the animal is found to be only very
slightly infected. Under such conditions it follows that
every precaution should be taken to prevent the develop-
ment of these slight localized cases, and anything that tends
to undermine and weaken the health of the animals should
be avoided.

In attempting to prevent the spread of the disease, one of
the most important matters to be attended to is to endeavor
to reduce the amount of infectious material present in the
barn, for of course the greater the amount there is present the
greater the likelihood that the cows in that barn will become
infected ; and, in endeavoring to reduce the quantity of this
infectious material, it should be recollected that disinfection

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 495

and washing are not the only methods that should be
adopted.

When a ray of light penetrates a dark room, innumerable
particles of dust may be seen floating in the air ; these par-
ticles of so-called dust are organic matters given off by the
occupants of the barn, as well as fungi, bacteria and particles
of hay, grasses, etc., which make good carriers for the
various forms of bacteria ; and it is this dust that is so
dangerous as a source of infection in tuberculosis.

This can be better realized, perhaps, when it is pointed
out that the manure is, and must be considered, one of the
dangerous factors by which the disease is spread in the
stables : it very frequently contains the tubercle bacilli, and
when it dries it becomes pulverized and powdery, and along
with the discharges from the nose it mixes with the dust and
chafi*, and when stirred up it is carried in the air and is
breathed by the cattle, which are frequently kept tied in the
barn all winter long without any form of exercise. Under
such circumstances the circulation naturally becomes slug-
gish, less oxygen is required by the body, the breathing
becomes shallow and the lungs are not expanded ; and when
any extra strain is put upon them they are unable to do their
work, and we have rupture and permanent dilation of the air
cells, along with weak lungs and a predisposition to pul-
monary disease. In other words, we have just the condition
most suited to the development of tuberculosis, and at the
same time the animal is breathing an atmosphere impregnated
with infectious material.

Bearing this in mind, then, one can readily see how im-
portant it is to thoroughly ventilate the barns. When the
hot, foul, infected air is continually being diluted by fresh
outside air, of course the continual dilution lessens the
proportional amount of infectious material in the air, and
therefore lessens the danger from its inhalation ; and not
only is there less danger from infection, but the health of
the animals is better. When only a small quantity of Cog
is contained in the air, the Cog in the lungs is very readily
difi'used through the atmosphere ; but when that atmosphere
has become impure, when it contains a large quantity of Co.,
with organic impurities, then the C02 in the lungs is not so

496 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

readily diffused through the air ; it sooner finds its level and
is retained in the system, where, from want of oxygen, the
vitality is lowered and the dulness and lethargy experienced
such as is felt by any one after sleeping all night in a close
room.

Most farmers that object to the admission of fresh air in
their barns do so because they say that cold barns and cold
draughts blowing on the cattle will check the flow of milk ;
but it is not necessary to have these cold draughts. Judg-
ment must be used to see that the admission of the fresh
outside air does not cause draughts ; the volume of the
incoming air should be broken up and evenly distributed
through the barn, so that currents of cold air and draughts
are avoided. The question of the absolute necessity of good
ventilation and pure air, and its influence on health, is not
merely a theoretical one, but, as will be shown later, its
immense influence on health and disease can easily be
demonstrated.

The want of drainage and the presence of dark and damp
cellars under the barns is another matter that bears a close
relationship to the warmth and comfort of the barn. The
cellar is usually dark and damp ; the sun never shines there,
and either the drip from the floor above or the surface
drainage from the yard keep it in a continual state of
moisture. This continual dampness below the barn is in a
great measure responsible for the cool, chill feeling that one
often feels on entering a barn. The cellar is never drained ;
it dries only by evaporation, and the feeling of chill that
one experiences is a direct result of the warmth being used
up in the work of evaporation. One hardly realizes what
this amounts to ; but we are told by Professor Kedzie
(New Hampshire Board of Health report, 1893, Vol. H.)
that : —

To evaporate one pound of water consumes enough heat to raise
the temperature of five and one-half pounds of water from freezing
to boiling point ; or, to vary the illustration, suppose that a tile
drain discharges constantly for one day a stream of water whose
cross-section is one square inch and velocity two and one-half
miles an hour, — this one day's drainage alone would save the heat
equivalent to nearlj^ six tons of coal.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 497

Further, we must remember that barns are usually warm ;
this warmth causes a current of air upwards, so that this
damp, chilly air is drawn up into the barn above, where it
does the most harm. In referring further to damp sur-
roundings, Professor Kedzie again forcibly remarks : —

The evaporation of so much water renders the air over such a
soil damp and chilly. The result is a physical necessity. This
damp and chilly atmosphere has a more serious result than the
simple feeling of discomfort. It has a most depressing influence
on the human system, lowering its tone, enfeebling the vital pow-
ers, and acting as the predisposing cause of a long list of diseases,
some of them the most destructive and incurable known to the
medical profession. The depressing influence of the dampness
and chilliness of a water-soaked soil is not to be compared to the
effect of an occasional wetting, as when we are caught in a shower.
The chilly dampness of the undrained soil is persistent and unre-
mitting, dragging us down with its cold fingers at all hours, at
" noon of day and noon of night," as if we toiled and rested,
waked and slept in a perpetual drizzle of cold rain. It may seem
a small force at first, but its pei-sistent, untiring and relentless
pull tells upon the strongest at last, like the invisible fingers of
gravity which finally drag down all to a common level. This
depressing influence is not developed suddenly and distinctly, but
silently and secretly the sapping and mining go on, till the explo-
sion comes in sickness, suffering and the sleep that is eternal.

If it is necessary to have cellars, then it is necessary that
the floor of the stable should be water-tight ; that the cellar
should be well lighted and ventilated ; that both cellar and
subsoil should be well drained ; that the manure, instead of
being dumped into the cellar, should be taken some distance
from the barn, and the liquid taken up by absorbents or
carried to a cesspool, where it can be made use of, instead
of going to waste by soaking into the subsoil below the barn.

Light is another essential in the thorough disinfection of
barns that is too often neglected. The majority of barns
have only one or two small windows, rarely larger than say
eighteen or twenty-four inches square, usually thick with
dust, and giving a "dim, religious light," or none at all.
Only very few barns have windows sufficiently large to give
free admittance to the sunlight. Owners of cattle do not

498 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

seem to realize that sunlight is just as essential to the health
of animal life as it is to plant life. There is no reason why
barns should not be as light as dwelling-houses ; and the
responsibility for its exclusion from barns must rest with the
old theorists, who claimed that cattle would fatten and do
better when kept in the dark than when exposed to the
light. It has seemingly taken a long time for this idea to be
abandoned, and even at the present time it seems to be
impossible to teach some people that light is not detrimental
to the health of dairy stock. It is especially necessary
where, through want of fresh air and exercise, the circula-
tion is sluggish and the system depressed.

Light stimulates the circulation, and with increased oxi-
dation more C02 is given off and the functions of the whole
body are quickened and enlivened ; but sunlight also retards
the growth of germ life, and the vitality of certain forms of
bacteria, including tubercle bacilli^ is destroyed in a few
hours' time by the direct action of the sunlight. Sunlight is
not only the best, but the cheapest, disinfectant we know.

In referring to the question of sanitation and tuberculosis,
Dr. James Russell, in the report of the Glasgow Board of
Health, says that : —

The death rate from " phthisis" has fallen from 2,849 per mill-
ion to 2,316, and from other tubercular diseases from 1,090 per
million to 884, in both cases 19 per cent., — a result which quite
casts into the shade the improvement in Prussia and Saxony,
quoted from Cornet, which he puts to the credit of special pro-
phylaxis. Clearly, tben, we are warranted in asserting that among
infectious diseases tuberculosis is the most amenable of all to gen-
eral hygienic measures ; that, in fact, from these alone as good
results are obtained as from hygienic measures plus isolation, dis-
infection, etc., in the case of diseases popularly known as infec-
tious. It is not implied that special measures directed against the
infectivity might not have produced even better results ; but in
view of what has been accomplished, and in view of the difficul-
ties in the way of special prophylaxis, it is contended that more is
to be expected from general hygiene.

The New York Medical Record (Dec. 30, 1893), in re-
ferring to sanitary conditions in Great Britain, says : —

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

4!) 9

The average annual death rate throughout England and Wales
during the twenty years previous to 1870 did not vary greatly from
22.5 per 1,000 of population ; and it was estimated by Mr. Simon
that 125,000 persons died each year of diseases due to defective
sanitary conditions. Although Simon's figures were thought by
some to be exaggerated, they nevertheless had great weight in
persuading Parliament to adopt the reforms recommended by him.
During the next twenty years extensive improvements were carried
out on a large scale, with the result that in 1889 the mortality had
fallen to 17.9 per 1,000, thus more than justifying the calculations
of Simon.

In referring to this same subject, Prof. F. Smith of Alder-
shot, in his " Manual of Veterinary Hygiene," says : —

The mortality amongst the horses of the French cavalry was at
one time frightful ; previous to 1836 they lost 180 to 197 per 1,000
per annum ; the air space being increased reduced the losses in the
next ten years to 68 per 1,000.

The following table * shows the number of cases of lung and
glanders diseases among the horses of the French cavalry from
1847-66, a period of nineteen years : —

1847-53

Ratio per 1,000.

1853-36

Ratio per 1,000.

1857-61

Ratio per 1,000.

186S-66

Ratio per 1,000.

Glanders, .

Inflammation
and pleura,

of

lungs

23.32
104.7

21.44
110.6

10.97
45.8

7.24
3.59

This table shows that in nineteen years a reduction of 16.08 per
1,000 had occurred in cases of glanders, and no less than 101.11
in cases of pneumonia and pleurisy. These wonderful results were
obtained through the labors of a Commission of Veterinary Military
Hygiene, which pointed out the necessity of the ventilation of
stables, increased cubic capacity and attention to sanitation,
feeding and general care. The practical outcome of these results
was that a saving of £90,000 per annum was effected in the
purchase of horses alone.

* Copied from a most interesting and valuable paper on " The Vital Statistics of
Cavalry Horses," by Dr. Balfour, F.R.S., " Journal of the Statistical Society,"
June, 1880.

500 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The only explanation of tbe great difference in the mortality is
the larger amount of pure air supplied, and the better ventilation
of the stables.

And again, in the report of the State Board of Health of
New Hampshire for 1892, in speaking of this matter, it
says : —

There is no doubt of the great mortality from consumption in
persons living in badly ventilated rooms. A few years ago the pro-
portion of deaths among the soldiers of European armies from this
cause was very high ; but now, owing to better ventilation,
the other conditions remaining the same, the percentage has greatly
fallen. In one regiment in England, when the barracks were not
ventilated, the death-rate for lung diseases was 12^ per 1,000;
but after efficient ventilation had been introduced it fell to 1^
per 1,000.

Parkes gives a similar example from two hospitals in Vienna.
In one, very badly ventilated, of 4,280 prisoners, 220, or 51.4
per 1,000, died of consumption ; of these, 42 of galloping con-
sumption. In the well-ventilated hospital, of 3,037 prisoners, 24
only, or 7.9 per 1,000, died of the same disease. The conditions
in the two hospitals, excepting ventilation, being alike, the badly
ventilated one had six and a half times as many deaths from this
cause alone as the better- aired one.

The statistics collected by Dr. Buchanan on this subject
are also instructive : —

In Salisbury, England, after the introduction of improved drain-
age, the annual death rate from phthisis fell from 44^- per 10,000
to 22i per 10,000 between 1857 and 1864. In the same period of
time, in the towns of Ely, Rugby, "Worthing, Macclesfielf , Leices-
ter, Newport and Banbury, the death rate from phthisis fell 47,
43, 36, 51, 52, 52 and 50 per cent., respectively, in consequence
of improved drainage alone.

The importance of this matter is also shown in the report
on the experimental work by Ernst and Peters, atMattapan,
where, in referring to the effect of improved sanitary condi-
tions on diseased cows, it says : —

Before the farm buildings were used at all, they were thoroughly
cleaned from top to bottom. Every portion of old manure was
carted away, as well as all the old earth. The whole of the wood-

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 501

work was scrubbed and then washed with coi'rosive sublimate solu-
tion (1.1000) and finally whitewashed, and every care taken to
secure good drainage and ventilation. The result and effective-
ness of all this have been best demonstrated by the fact that every
animal brought to the place made a most marked improvement in
its general condition, while some of them even went so far as to
appear to get well. (Ernst.)

The same thins; is shown in the case of some cattle at Mr.
French's farm at North Andover, where several animals were
slaughtered after testing with tuberculin ; a number of the
remaining animals that reacted to the tuberculin test were
turned out to pasture, and in the fall they were brought in
and retested by the State authorities, and they failed to
react, the recovery evidently having resulted from the open-
air life in pasture during the summer months.

A similar incident is related by Professor Law. He says : —

In 1877 I recognized the existence of tuberculosis in the Jersey
herd of Burden Bros, of Troy. The worst were slaughtered, but
some incipient cases in young animals were turned out in a pasture
by themselves, where they passed the summer in apparently robust
health, but they began to droop when returned to the barns in the
fall. (Paper by Prof. James Law, read at Peterborough, N. H.,
December, 1892.)

These are only a few of the examples showing the great
influence that the surroundings have on the health of the
animal body ; pages of statistics could be quoted and figures
given showing the same results, but that would only be an
unnecessary repetition, as the immense importance of good
sanitary and hygienic conditions is generally accepted by
every one.

In suggesting improvement on the present method of
constructing dairy barns, cheapness of construction and con-
venience in handling, as well as the health of the stock, have
been borne in mind. Of course these ideas can be elab-
orated or modified according to the wealth of the owner and
the amount of money to be expended on the buildings ; but,
whether the cost is to be great or small, it is absolutely nec-
essary, if the health of the cattle is to be maintained, that
there should be pure air and good ventilation, as well as

502 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

sunlight, drainage and dryness in and around the farm
buildings.

In building new barns, many progressive farmers have
adopted the idea of using the old barn for storage purposes,
and stabling the cattle in a one-story building or shed
adjoining. This arrangement admits of many advantages ;
it is more easily ventilated and lighted, it has no cellar, the
hay and food is not contaminated with the odor from the
cattle, and it is an economical form of construction and can
be erected at comparatively little cost.

Among the more expensive examples of this form of con-
struction may be mentioned the cattle barn at the Lyman
School for Boys, at Westborough. The cow stable at the
Millwood Farm, Framingham, is another good example of
this form of barn. It is unusually well lighted and venti-
lated, and simple in design and construction.

In making calculations as to the amount of cubic space
required for each animal, we should remember that each cow
uses approximately 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour. Now
of course, if the barn admits of each cow having 1,000 cubic
feet of air space, then the air in the barn will need to be
renewed each hour ; and of course, if the air space provided
is less, then correspondingly the supply of fresh air will
need to be more frequent ; but where the cubic space is
greater, the supply may be less frequent. The problem,
then, is to carry away the foul, impure air, and to supply
each animal with 1,000 cubic feet of fresh air each hour in
such a manner as not to cause a drauo-ht on the animals.
To do this, the air must not be admitted in bulk, nor must
it move at a greater speed than 3 feet per second, — in fact,
the slower and more imperceptibly it moves into the barn,
the less draught will there be.

Many farmers attempt to admit fresh air by keeping door
or windows open ; the result is that a body of cold air finds
its way in and falls directly on the back of the cattle ; the
cattle stand and shiver, and curl up, look miserable, and fall
oflf in their milk ; and the farmer is discouraged, and makes
up his mind that fresh, cool air does no good to the cattle,
but rather does harm, and he won't admit any more than he
can help. To prevent such a condition of affairs, and to

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 503

keep draughts from the cattle, fresh air should either be
admitted high up, or should be directed upwards so as to
become tempered before it falls. By directing up toward
the ceiling, by admitting it in small openings, and by break-
ing up draughts and currents of air by louvre boards, air will
be diffused through the building, and large quantities of air
can be admitted without causing any appreciable draughts or
other ill effects.

A good method of introducing fresh air is by wooden pipes
or boxes placed below the floor opening outside, and having
the external opening screened to keep out the dust. These
should communicate with upright boxes opening well up in
the barn, the opening directed upward and broken up with
louvre boards, or screens, or netting at the top to break up
the current of air and distribute it.

Ventilators, or openings for the foul air to escape, should
always be at the highest part of the roof. The openings
should be protected so that the wind will not blow down and
check the upward current of foul air, but the wind should be
utilized so as to cause a partial vacuum on the lee of the
building, or ventilator ; the vacuum thus caused will have a
tendency to suck the foul air up and out of the barn.
Thorough ventilation is of course much easier to accomplish
when the building is heated by artificial means ; but by
taking advantage of the wind and the natural warmth of the
barn, much can be accomplished even without artificial heat.

One of the best points in the Millwood Farm buildings is
the good window space. In building barns, owners should
remember that they cannot have too much light, and win-
dows do not add enough to the cost of the building to coun-
terbalance their great benefit.

A practical point in the arrangement of this barn is placing
the calf pens next the window, and in this way protecting
them from being broken by the horns of the passing cows.

The floors, and especially the manure gutter of barns,
should always be tight ; otherwise the liquid manure will
saturate the floor below the barn, besides wasting a valuable
fertilizer. As a matter of economy, if for no other reason,
arrangements should always be made either for the absorp-
tion of the liquid portion or for carrying it to a tank or

504

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

cesspool, where it can be stored until drawn off and spread
on the land.

In presenting the following sketch of a cow stable, it has
been the purpose of the Board to submit ideas of a stable

which is adapted to most of our Massachusetts farms ; and,
while it has been our intention to leave out nothing that
enters into the comfort and healthfulness of the animals, we

have aimed at a building of small cost, in which it is possible
to handle the herd with economy. On most of our farms
the stable can be built onto the end or side of the present

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 505

ni

fr

m

# —

fi

La

50() BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

barn, thereby utilizing the old barn for storage of fodder,
and also using the cellar under the old barn, if there be one,
as a dump for the manure. The plan provides for a drive
through the centre of the stable, for purpose of feeding ; for
raised cribs adjoining the floor or feed walk, whereby a
herdsman can not only have his eyes on the feeding of every
animal, but he will feed and clean the cribs of forty cows in
such a stable easier than five where fed in box cribs, and do
it more perfectly and easily, and his work can be inspected
at a glance ; for a self-watering device, giving the advantage
of having a constant supply of water before the cattle at all
times ; for a slanting manure gutter, in which the cows will
seldom stand ; for a stable which is very light and well
ventilated.

Texas Fever.

During August a number of cases of Texas fever occurred,
thirty-five head of cattle dying that were reported to the
Board of Cattle Commissioners, with the possibility of a few
other animals having died that were not reported to the
Board. These cases were confined entirely to three carloads
from New York State, as follows : —

On August 2, E. N. Smith of Watertown brought a car-
load of nineteen cows from Herkimer County, New York, of
which number thirteen died within fifteen days of Texas
fever. These animals were sold to difi"erent parties, and
went out into the country into herds owned by the following
persons : -

C. A. Dennen, PepiJerell, . . = . .
Jonathan Davis, Sterling, .....
Mr. Lumnie (sold to McGowan) , Dedham, .
Mr. Horton, Fall River, .....

W. J. Navell, Lexington,

A. S. Gushee, Dorchester, .....

Cash (name of purchaser not known),

George Durth, .......

On August 9, Geo. N. Smith of Watertown
brought a load from Jeflferson County, New
York, consisting of seventeen cows and one
bull. Of these, the following animals died,
bought by persons whose names are here
given : —

2
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
— 13

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 507

C. A. Dennen, Pepperell, 1

E. B. Wilbur, West Bridgewater, 3

Walter Dennis, 1

Wm. Bowen, Providence, R. I., . . . . . 2

— 7

All of these died within fifteen days from the day
they were landed at Brighton.

On August 16, Geo. N. Smith brought another car-
load of twenty-two cows from the same place.
Of these, fifteen died ; two others were very
sick, but have partially recovered. These were
bought by : —

H. E. Eames, Framingham,
J. Berry, Cambridgejwrt,
Warren Davis, Needham,
John Swinerton, Danvers,
J. S. Heniy, Watertown,

— 15
Total, 35

The loss of these animals and the source of their infection
seemed to the members of the Board to be so serious a
matter that it was decided to employ a special agent, having
expert knowledge of this disease, to investigate this out-
break, and make a full report concerning it.

The services of Dr. Cooper Curtice of Moravia, N. Y.,
were secured, he being a former employee of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,
and having had an extensive experience with Texas fever
and a broad knowledge of its cause and mode of extension.
Dr. Curtice commenced his labors for the Board of Cattle
Commissioners September 18, and brought them to a close
on October 9, making his report with the following letter of
transmittal October 11: —

MoHAviA, N. Y., Oct. 11, 1897.

Dr. Austin Peters, Chairman, Massachusetts Cattle Commissioners,

Boston, Mass.

Sir : — I send by this mail my report on the outbreak of Texaa
fever in your State. I have included some remarks upon the pre-

* 6 died.

508 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

vention of future outbreaks. While they seem to reflect strongly
upon the management of the United States Bureau of Animal
Industry, I trust that the presentation of the facts will not only
enlarge the present duties of these United States olficers, but call
the attention of your State and others to the need of more careful
work being done by them. Public officials often fail to do what
they themselves deem right, because of failure of funds and a
public opinion that will sustain them in their action.
I am, very respectfully, yours,

Cooper Curtice,

Veterinarian.

The history of the source, transportation, distribution and sub-
sequent deaths of the cattle concerned in the outbreak in eastern
Massachusetts, obtained mainly through the efforts of Commis-
sioner Dennen, is as follows : —

Fi7'st Carload. — Mr. E. N. Smith of Watertown, Mass., bought
nineteen cows in Herkimer County, New York, from five different
men, as follows :-

Will Cotter, Little Falls, N. Y., 9

A. L. Eaton, Little Falls, N. Y., 6

V. Farrell, Newport, 1

James Moone, Coldbrook, 2

James Doyle, Newport, 1

19

These were shipped from Herkimer, N. Y., consigned to
Brighton, Mass., in a Rome & Watertown car No. 10028. They
arrived at West Albany stock yards on Sunday, August 1, where
they were unloaded to be fed and watered, and driven into pen 16,
alley D, for a few hours. They were then reshipped to Brighton
stock yards, where they arrived Monday night, August 2. They
were driven into pens 11 and 13, Texas alley, and thence into
pens 34 and 35, thence they were released and distributed to the
surrounding country. Thirteen head out of the nineteen thus
handled died soon after. One cow died on August 11, one on
August 12, three about August 14, one on August 17, and one on
August 20.

Second Carload. — Mr. Geo. N. Smith of Watertown, Mass.,
bought seventeen cows and one bull in Jefferson County, New
York, from thirteen farmers, as follows : —

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONEKS.

509

Rush Pennal, Pamelia, N. Y.,
Mr. Zimmerman, Pamelia, N. Y.,

C. Klock, Pamelia, N. Y.,
Wm. Reese, Evans Mills,

D. A, Rich, Watertown, .
Wm. Weale, Watertown,
Charles Hawley, Ellisbm-g,
Georo:e Butts, EUisbur":,
Mr. Scott, Ellisburg,
John Eastman, Ellisburg,
A. O. Davis, Ellisburg, .
Mr. Griflin, Rutland,
Charles Ferguson, Rutland,

1 bull.

1 bull, 17 cows.

These were shipped from Watertown, N. Y., consigned to
Brighton, Mass., in Rome & Watertown car No. 10033. They
arrived in West Albany stock yards on Sunday, August 8, where
they were unloaded and driven to pen 16, alley D. After a few
hours they were reshipped to Brighton stock yards, where they
arrived Monday night, August 9, and were driven into pens 11
and 13, Texas alley ; thence into pens 34 and 35, to be distributed
to the surrounding country. Of these eighteen head, seven died :
two on August 18, one on August 22 and two others about the
same time.

Third Carload. — Mr. Geo. Smith bought another carload of
cattle, consisting of twenty-two cows, from twelve different farm-
ers in Jefferson County, as follows : —

Mr. Colon, Cape Vincent, N. Y.,
" Abe," Cape Vincent, N. Y., .
]\Ir. Vincent, Cape Vincent, N. Y.,
Mr. Walker, Cape Vincent, N. Y.,
Louis Ives, Freed settlement, .
W. R. Smith, Antwerp, .
David Ta3'lor, Antwerp, .
Mr. Mason, Antwerp,
Wm. Umpstead, Freed settlement,
D. A. Rich, Watertown, .
John Leahr, Dexter,
L. Hill, Dexter,

22

510 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

These cattle were shipped from Watertown, N. Y., consigned
to Brighton, Mass., in a New York Central car No. 23897 or
23015. They arrived at AVest Albany stock yards Sunday,
August 15, where they were driven into pen 17 D. After being
rested, fed and watered, they were reshipped, and arrived in
Brighton Monday evening. They too were driven into pens 11
and 13, Texas alley; thence into pens 34 and 35, whence they
were distributed. Of these, fifteen died : three before August 27,
six before August 31, and two recovered.

The above three carloads of cows were all that have been
reported as having been affected with Texas fever, that were dis-
tributed in eastern Massachusetts.

The diagnosis of Texas fever in the dead cattle has been made
on the following data : —

1. Specimens of spleens and kidneys of two cows, owned by
Commissioner Dennen of Pepperell, were examined by Dr. Froth-
ingham, pathologist to the commission, and the micro-parasite
{Pyrosoma higeminum Smith), the cause of the disease, was
found. This diagnosis was confirmed by Dr. Theobold Smith,
pathologist of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, the
original discoverer of the cause of the disease. Mr. Dennen lost
three cows.

2. Specimens from a cow owned by Mr. Eames of Framing-
ham, Mass., and submitted by W. P. Mayo, also yielded the
micro-parasite upon examination by Dr. Frothingham. Mr.
Eames lost six cows ; one other was sick, but recovered.

3. Specimens of spleen from cow owned by James McGowan
of Dedham, Mass., and submitted by Dr. G. B. Foss of Harvard
Veterinary Hospital, also yielded the micro-parasite to Dr. Froth-
ingham. Mr. McGowan lost three cows of the same disease.

4. Commissioner Dennen secured a full-grown cattle tick
{Bodphilus bovis (Riley sp.) Curtice), about the middle of Septem-
ber, from one of Mr. Eames' cows that recovered from the disease.

The positive determination by the finding of the micro-parasite
in four animals involved in this outbreak, and the finding of the
tick on the recovered animal, fully demonstrates the outbreak to
have been due to Texas fever.

A fourth carload of cattle, taken from northern New York to
western Connecticut, suffered with the disease, and the facts of
the outbreak have been gathered in fulfilling your directions on
this point. These facts were given by Mr. W. B. Sprague, com-
missioner on domestic animals, Hartford, Conn., Mr. D. H.
Canfield, Bridgewater, Conn., of the firm of Odell & Canfield, the
cattle dealers who imported the cattle, and others.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 511

Fourth Carload. — Mr. M. W. Odell of Roxbury Centre, Conn.,
bought eighteen cows, nine heifers and four calves in St. Law-
rence County, N. Y. They were shipped from Norwood, N. Y.,
consigned to New Milford, Conn., via Utica, in New York Central
car No. 22931. They arrived at the West Albany stock yards
Sunday, August 1, and were di-iven into pen 15, alley D, to be
fed, watered and rested. They remained here until Monday,
August 2, when they were reshipped to New Milford, where they
arrived Tuesday, August 3. They were then driven to Mr.
Canfield's farm, two miles south-east of New Milford. On the
4th of August they were driven to Roxbury, and kept on Mr.
M. W. Odell's farm, separate from other cattle. The distribution
of these is as follows : —

August 5, H. N. Allen, Pawling, N. Y.,
August 5, Wm. O'Brien, Roxbury, Conn., .
August 5, Alonzo Whitehead, Roxbury, Conn.,
August 5, Chas. Botchford, Roxbury, Conn.,
August 9, G. W. Hurlburt, Roxbury, Conn.,
August 16, Anthony Mazotos, Naugatuck, .
September 9, C. H. Sanford, Bridgewater, .
September 15, Chas Botchford, Roxbury, .
October 1, now in lot, Roxbury, .
October 1, now in lot, Roxbury, .

Buried in lot,

Buried in lot,

2 cows, 2 died.
1 cow, 1 died.

1 cow.

2 cows, 1 died.

2 heifers.*
1 cow.

1 cow.
1 cow.
5 cows.
5 heifers.

3 heifers, 3 died.
3 heifers, 3 died.

It is thus apparent that, of the twenty-seven head, ten died.
One heifer was temporarily sick, but recovered. Mr. Odell found
five ticks upon her, each half as large as the little finger nail. A
careful search yielded none on October 1, the time of my inspec-
tion.

The following notes will indicate the character of the disease,
and the post-mortem appearances as near as can be arrived at : —

Mr. O'Brien's cow was taken sick Friday, August 13, and died
Sunday night, August 15. She was examined Monday morning.
The flesh looked well ; the spleen enlarged, soft, pulpy and dark ;
the gall bladder large, with thickened contents ; the kidneys dark,
even black ; the lungs and heart perfectly healthy ; the intestines
all right; the bladder full. Mr. O'Brien reported that the cow
passed dark-red water while sick.

Mr. Odell's cow calved August 14, and seemed well, but did not
come to her milk. She first appeared sick Monday, August 16,
and died Tuesday night, August 17. She passed red water on

* Two years old.

512 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

August 15. She was examined by Mr. Canfield, Mr. Odell and
Dr. R. S. Todd, of New Milford. The symptoms were almost
identical with those of the O'Brien cow.

On Tuesday afternoon, August 17, one cow was found dead in
the pasture, and two missing. The missing cows were found
Wednesday ; one was dead, the other sick.

On Thursday, August 19, a three-year-old heifer was examined
in the presence of Commissioner Sprague, Mr. Canfield and others.
She had the same appearances as the O'Brien and other cows.
One cow was observed to be sick August 19, while the commis-
sioner was there. She died Saturday, August 21.

Messrs. D. H. Canfield and H. M. Canfield, South Britain, saw
ticks on the Odell cow. They were about the size of wheat grains.
Dr. R. S. Todd, veterinarian, of New Milford, Conn., saw the
post-mortem of Mr. Odell's cow : "The intestines were empty;
the manifolds baked ; the lungs and heart normal ; the liver and
spleen enlarged ; bladder filled with black urine ; gall bladder filled
with cheesy gall."

He also saw two others, which he says were in almost the same
condition, but the spleens not nearly as large. They were, how-
ever, larger than normal, and dark. One had yellowish cast to
liver. The temperature of cows that he took ranged from 105°
to 106.4° F. One, an Ayrshire, was sub-normal, 96° F. This
cow died that night, after Dr. Todd left.

Mr. Walter Booth, a butcher, opened at least three cows. All
had red water in bladder ; one had a very soft liver ; one had very
black gall ; the spleen in one was about twice the usual size,
others larger than usual.

Though the determination of the cause of death in these cattle
is not as scientifically accurate as in the case of the Massachusetts
cattle, there is little room for doubt that these cattle also died of
Texas fever. The history of transportation through pen 15, alley
D, at West Albany, where, as will be maintained hereafter, a car-
load of quarantine cattle, shipped to New York, June 18, were fed
and watered ; the clinical development of the disease ; the gross
post-mortem appearances, as detailed to me by Dr. Todd, Mr.
Canfield and Mr. Booth ; combined with the finding of ticks at-
tached to cattle by at least three men, — practically decide the
diagnosis.

On my return to Albany, Saturday, October 2, another set of
facts bearing upon this outbreak, and in line with the above, was
brought to my attention.

In the investigation at Albany and in New York State I have
had the hearty co-operation of Mr. Charles A. Wieting, coramis-

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 513

sioner of agriculture, and Mr. G. D. Flanders, assistant commis-
sioner, who detailed Dr. Wm. H. Kelly of Albany, N. Y., to
investigate the outbreak for the State. Saturday noon, October 2,
Dr. Kelly took me to see a patient in his private practice. A cow
owned by the Little Sisters of the Poor was lying nearly dead.
She was bought about ten days earlier at the West Albany stock
yards, but had been in the stable seven days. She was originally
owned by the Shaker Settlement near Albany, and had been
around the stock yards for three or four weeks. On the Thursday
preceding she had been taken violently ill with chills, and had
passed red water. This cow died that afternoon, and, by arrange-
ment made by Dr. Kelly, was post-mortemed at a rendering
establishment outside the city.

This cow's muscles were bright, as if partially bled ; the lungs
were normal, excepting a small area in the posterior portion,
which was partially hepatized ; the heart was firmly contracted,
its muscles being quite pale ; the posterior mediastinal and the
left bronchial lymphatic glands contained a few one-fifth-inch
diameter caseous gritty foci of tubercular origin ; the spleen was
from three to four times enlarged, with the characteristic black-
berry-jam appearance on section ; liver much enlarged, with
decided yellowish cast ; gall bladder full, gall thickened ; intes-
tine with reddish or pinkish appearance ; kidneys very dark on
section ; bladder full of dark-red urine ; uterus, with black con-
tents, showing the animal to have calved recently.

Cover-glass preparations made from the heart muscles yielded
the micro-organism of Texas fever to Dr. Frothingham, October 5.
Portions of the heart, liver, spleen, kidney and the entire bladder
were submitted to Dr. V. A. Moore, pathologist of New York
State Veterinary College, by Dr. Kelly, for examination. A close
inspection of the skin discovered a single female tick Boophilus
bovus, but little more than two weeks old.

The known details of the transportation and of the outbreak of
Texas fever having been given, it becomes necessary to outline
the principal features of the scientific history of the disease, that
the two may be compared and a working theory advanced to dis-
cover the source of disease. This presentation is founded upon
the investigations of the scientific force of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry, from 1886 to 1896, and various earlier
writers upon this subject.

It has long been known that cattle from the south Atlantic sea-
board and Gulf coast States, though seemingly and actually
healthy, had the property of infecting the ground whenever driven
or transported into mountainous countries or the northern States,

514 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

so that native cattle when grazing or resting upon the infected
places contracted the disease known to the United States govern-
ment as Texas fever, but to farmers as " red water," "bloody
murrain " or " tick fever."

The actual cause of the disease (the micro-parasite Pyrosoma
higeminum. Smith) was demonstrated in 1889. The proof that
cattle ticks {Boophilus bovis TRiley sp.) Curtice) carried this
disease from one animal to another followed a year or two later.

A complete cycle of an outbreak of this disease is embraced
between the time that it leaves an animal capable of infecting
ground it passes over, until it destroys or runs its course in an
attacked animal.

In their investigations, the Bureau authorities completely dem-
onstrated the fact that southern cattle without ticks were inca-
pable of spreading disease ; that young ticks hatched from eggs
laid by ticks plucked from southern cattle produced the disease
when placed on susceptible northern cattle in from thirteen to
twenty-one or more days, depending upon the age of the cattle
and the temperature of the weather.

They also demonstrated that blood taken from affected cattle
produced disease in young cattle, and death in older cattle in from
thirteen to twenty-one days, but on one occasion eight days and
on another nine days. It has been demonstrated that the appear-
ance of the disease in northern cattle is entirely dependent upon
the life-history of the cattle tick. For example : southern cattle
passing through stock yards, riding in cars, driven over highways
or pasturing, lose the ticks, which usually infect them, upon the
ground. These ticks lay eggs beginning in from one to four days,
and continuing a week. Incubation begins at once, and continues,
depending mainly upon heat and moisture, from three to six weeks.
Since the ovipositing is prolonged, the hatching is also prolonged.
After a day or two the recently hatched ticks scatter somewhat
and crawl upwards on the grass blades, sticks, or whatever is first
met with. They are then ready to attach themselves to cattle,
from which alone they can get the sustenance necessary to carry
them to maturity. They may endure, however, in this condition
for a practically indefinite time, three to four months, unless
benumbed by the chilling frosts and the low average temperature
of the fall months.

The home of these ticks, the country where they are practically
perpetually present, unless eradicated by the efforts of farmers or
agricultural processes, is coincidental with the area described
above as containing cattle which may carry disease to northern
cattle. The tick does not seem to be able to stand climatic con-

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 515

ditions of winter north of the thirty-seventh parallel, with few
exceptions, certainly not north of the thirty-eighth. Whenever it
is found north of its usual habitat^ it is because it or its parents
have been transported there by cattle in the course of traffic.

The facts that must be borne in mind when considering any out-
break in the north, and I might add within the so-called infected
territory, are that cattle bearing ticks drop them ; from these,
young ticks emerge usually in about six weeks in warm weather ;
and that northern cattle usually die in from two to three weeks
after they are attacked. While the time of hatching of ticks is
delayed by cooler weather of spring or fall, the above epitome is
essentially correct. The time, therefore, betiveen infection of ground
and the destruction of cattle is from seven to ten weeks.

The determination that certain cattle have died of Texas fever,
— a disease that can only be communicated by their having been
in places infected by cattle brought from the permanently (so-
called) infected area, — points out the direction in which one must
search for the source of the disease, viz., to cars, stock yards, etc.

By your direction, Mr. Chairman, I have followed up both neg-
ative and positive evidence in this connection ; indeed, this has
been necessary, for only toward the close of the investigation did
the positive evidence present itself. Since the diseased cattle were
scattered to farms from the Brighton stock yards, when there was
no disease in other cattle with which they mingled, it became evi-
dent that they must have contracted it before being separated.

On looking back at the date concerning the second carload lot,
it will be seen that cattle died eight days after they arrived at
Brighton ; also that one cow died in nine days after in the first car-
load, and three in the third carload within ten days after arrival.

A reference to the experiments relating to the time of death
from the disease after ticks have been placed upon cattle show it
to be thirteen days or more. My own investigations have shown
that deaths have occurred in outbreaks as soon as eleven days after
exposure ; but this is exceptional. In blood inoculation, where
blood was transferred from diseased cattle directly to sound, death
in one instance alone was unexpectedly produced in eight days ; in
another, in nine days. As a rule, the time is about the same as
for tick inoculations. It is conceivable, therefore, that the disease
might develop within ten days from tick inoculations, but hardly
probable. Since the disease broke out in five cases in from eight
to ten days after reaching the Brighton yards, infection from those
yards is practically excluded. In the absence of positive infection
by the proof of southern cattle having been placed in those yards,
they must be regarded as uninfected.

516 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The evidence regarding the infection of the Connecticut cattle
has an important bearing. The first cow died on the eleventh day
after leaving West Albany. These were standing in a pen adja-
cent to the first carload of cattle that went to Massachusetts on
the same day. The development of the disease in the Connecticut
cattle, which of course never were in the Brighton yards, serves to
point to West Albany stock yards as the source of infection.
However, as will be seen later, traffic in southern cattle seems to
have been so loosely conducted that no yard through which such
may have slipped is above suspicion when outbreaks occur in
cattle which have passed through it.

In company with Dr. Kelly, I visited Watertown, Jefferson
County, New York, and Little Falls, Herkimer County, whence
these cattle were procured. We found at Watertown, that,
according to Dr. J. R. Bell, United States government inspector
at that port, not only had there been no disease of any description
among the county farms, but that no cattle of any kind had been
shipped into Watertown for any purpose whatever, or into the
county, barring Canadian cows which are shipped via Cape Vincent
en route to eastern points.

On this trip we investigated a rumored case in Oswego County
at Vermillion, N. Y., — a case that had been reported to the New
York Department of Agriculture. The cow was raised on the
place, had never been off from it, nor had other cattle been brought
to the place nor into the vicinity. The cow suffered from another
disease.

At Little Falls we called upon Mr. William Cotter, of whom nine
head of the first carload had been purchased. There had been no
disease on his place or on the farms from which he purchased the
cattle, nor had Buffalo or Chicago cattle been introduced.

Mr. A. L. Eaton, who lives about three miles from Little Falls,
had sold six of the first carload ; he is a buyer. He has a large
pasture, where cattle from all parts mingle. He has not had, nor
heard of, disease in cattle excepting those he sold to Mr. Smith.
He had bought Buffalo cattle three months before ; but according
to Mr. Smith, at least part of these Buffalo cattle which he (Smith)
bought died, showing their susceptibility to the disease. They did
not infect the pasture, otherwise there would have been trouble
before our visit. There were at the time of our visit sixty head
of cattle in the pasture.

The disease could not have arisen either in Herkimer or Jefferson
counties. There remains the possibility of car infection and yard
infection at West Albany stock yards. I believe that infection of
the Connecticut cattle at the unloading place in New Milford,

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 517

Conn., is practically excluded, for no western cattle are unloaded
there, and cattle have since been unloaded there with no danger.

The possibility of car infection must be admitted until the use
of each car through the entire season is proven. Since four dif-
ferent local cars were in use, perhaps five, infection must be pretty
generally widespread, and car disinfection little practised, if due
to this source. While it is my opinion that infection was not due
to infected cars in any case, the possibility remains ; a search of
the uses to which those cars have been put will reveal whether this
infection of either car has been possible. (Note : car numbers
furnished by United States Bureau of Animal Industry shows no
probability of car infection.)

The single cow that died in Albany was said to have been " all
around the stock yards." Since she had not been in cars, her
infection must have been at the stock yards, for there is no other
possible source in Albany to which she had access. Quarantine
cattle consigned to slaughter houses are said to be unloaded
elsewhere.

A consideration of the facts regarding the treatment of the
cattle at the West Albany stock yards, the time at which the
disease appeared and the impossibility of their having contracted
the disease earlier, forces the conclusion that they were infected at
that point.

On August 1 the cattle of cars Nos. 10028, Rome & Water-
town, and 22931, New York Central, were received from
Herkimer and St. Lawrence counties, N. Y., and put into pens 15
and 16, alley D, respectively. They were forwarded, the first
carload to Brighton, Mass., the second to New Milford, Conn.,
their only point of contact being when they were put into the con-
tiguous pens. Cattle from car No. 10028 began dying in ten
days thereafter, and the outbreak continued for ten days ; cattle
from car No. 22931 began dying in fourteen days, and continued
about a week.

On August 8, cattle from car No. 10033, Rome & Watertown,
were received from Jefferson County and put into pen 16 D.
Some of these died between ten and fifteen days thereafter. On
August 15, cattle from car No. 23015 were also received from
Jefferson County and put into pen 17 D. Some of these died
between twelve and fifteen days thereafter.

Of the eighty-five head in the four carloads put in pens 15, 16
and 17 at this time, forty-five died in from ten to twenty days
thereafter, and the bulk of them died about fourteen days after
infection.

The data pointing to the infection being in these pens accords

518 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

with the experimental evidence. The main difference seems to be
that the disease is more virulent and has a quicker course when
spread by natural means than artificial, — a condition which is
borne out by a study of other outbreaks as well.

On July 25, Mr. Geo. Smith fed and watered a carload of cows
en rotite from New York State to Brighton, Mass., at West
Albany, in pen 16 D ; Mr. A. W. Baggs also fed and watered a
carload in pen 15 D, e?i roiite from New York State to Wilbraham,
Mass. I further find, on consulting notes furnished by the man-
agement of the West Albany stock yards, that pen 16 D was used
on July 11 and 18 by Mr. Smith. It is probable that pens 15 and
17 were also in use; indeed, the superintendent and others told
me that it was the custom to open all the pens of alley D between
market days, and permit cows to feed in them.

On August 15, a carload (No. 23033, New York Central) of
cattle, consisting of twenty cows and three bulls, consigned to
New Haven under the name of E. D. Williams, were entered into
pen 16 D. Since no report of this stock has been made to Cattle
Commissioner Sprague of Connecticut, and inasmuch as it was
mixed stock, it is quite likely that the cattle were slaughtered in
New Haven. This is the only reasonable explanation of disease
not having broken out and being reported in this shipment.

If the cows that went into pens 15 and 16 D on August 1 were
infected there, while other cows equally susceptible that went into
these pens on July 25 were not, it is apparent that the infection
became active at some period between these dates. On this sup-
position, we may be quite certain that the cattle ticks which were
found on the cows in Massachusetts, Connecticut and Albany were
hatched out, if in these pens, two or three days prior to August 1.
Since these ticks do not hatch out under the most favorable con-
ditions in less than three weeks, and under usual conditions in
from five to six weeks, it is evident that the ticks from which they
descended must have been dropped in these pens at from three to
six weeks earlier. Three weeks prior to August 1 is July 10, and
the latest date infection of pens 15 and 16 could have been
expected in order to produce the disease which killed the cattle
during the middle of August. Six weeks prior to August 1 is
June 19, and is within a few days of the earliest date that infec-
tion probably occurred ; for otherwise the cows put into these
pens July 25 should have been infected from the earlier-hatched
ticks.

It has been quite impossible to get a concise history of the infec-
tion of these yards, yet sufficient has been learned to incline the
most sceptical to the belief that the difficulty lies in obtaining exact

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 519

proof of method of infection, rather than the fact that they were
infected.

At least one possible source of infection has been discovered.
On June 19, the books of the stock yard company show that a car-
load of seventy-eight calves, one dead (car No. 22989, New
York Central) , en route from Buffalo to New York, were stopped
off and put into pen 15 D. The way-bill of the railroad company
shows that a car No. 23033, with a similar consignment, was
stopped off at the yards June 18. This way-bill was marked
"quarantined cattle," showing them to have been cattle from the
cattle-tick area. These calves were held in Albany until the 24th
of June, awaiting a better market. According to the most reliable
testimony Dr. Kelly and myself could get, some of these were at
least yearlings, and were transferred certainly to pen 17 D. Our
notes taken at the time of investigation show this. While I am of
the opinion that the same testimony showed that these calves went
into pens 15 and 16 D in turn. Dr. Kelly thinks not. However,
the fact that the stock yards company received quarantine cattle
into alley D, pens 14, 15 and 17, and harbored them about five
days, is fully established.

Note. — Copy in part of letter from Dr. Kelly to Dr. Curtice : —

Oct. 25, 1897.
Dr. CooPEK Curtice, Moravia, N. T.

Dear Sir : — I sent you, on Friday evening, a Boophilus Bovis, which
was taken by Mr. Rand, in my presence, from neck of a native horse,
weighing about 1,400 pounds. This horse has been allowed to pasture
in alley D and the yards adjoining, with the pony (from which the two-
weeks-old ticks were taken), together with a number of colts. This
accounts for the manner in which the ticks got on the pony. The pony
referred to v.'as purchased in Buffalo some time in August, and was
shipped direct to West Albany, where it has been kept, and is slill here.
A portion of the time it has been kept in the barn, allowed to pasture in
alley D and yards adjoining, and the balance of the time in the barn
where it is at present. I am now satisfied that this pony picked up these
ticks in alley D. I intend to look on the colts which pastured tliere at
the time the horse and pony did, and will see if I cannot find more
ticks. I do not know as it has ever been jjroved before that ticks would
develop upon a horse, but certainly here is a case where they have.

In reference to yards 15 and 16, since we have found that the other
carload of calves (No. 22989) were quarantined cattle, explains how
these yards were infected. Since receiving the list from Washington,
the railroad company corroborates it, and the cars Nos. 23033 and 22989
are correct. No. 22989 contained ninety-six live and two dead calves, as
stated before. Both of these cars were unloaded, and the calves were

520 BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

fed and kept at West Albany, in alley I) and yards adjoining (15, 16
and 17).

I think we have now clear proof of how the yards in alley D, 14 to
17, inclusive, wore infected. It should certainly be a lesson that in the
future more care should be taken in the way that quai'antined cattle are
handled.

(Signed) Wm. Henry Kelly.

On June 19 there is record of a consignment of eight carloads
of Chicago cattle to W. H. Munroe, Brighton, Mass., via West
Albany. The cars used were Boston Live Stock Express Nos.
53, 89, 81, 51, 67, 2sl, 39 and 45. The first four were shipped
east, according to the Boston & Albany Railroad books, on June
20; the second four, on June 21. The latter four cars at least
were unloaded at the West Albany yards. Cattle from this lot
were put into pens 3 and 4, alley E, and 15 and 16, alley D.

On June 23 a consignment of thirty-six steers was received at
West Albany stock yards, en route for Brighton, Mass., W. H.
Munroe consignee. These came in cars Boston Live Stock Express
Nos. 19 and 64. On the 26th, eighteen head, the rest having been
sold in Albany, were reshipped in car Boston Live Stock Express
No. 58. These were said to have been put into shed No. 26. The
above is from stock yard notes.

The railroad notes give four cars of steers, Boston Live Stock
Express Nos. 73, 70, 19 and 64, showing some confusion between
the two. These shipments to Munroe were not recorded as quar-
antine cattle, but comprise, with the Harrington shipment of
calves (?), the only lots that Dr. Kelly and myself could find
record of up to the present time, October 10, which could possibly
have infected the suspected yards.

On June 17, W. H. Munroe, Brighton, Mass., consigned in Bur-
ton's stock car No. 55 a carload of quarantine cattle from Chicago
to Boston. These were said to have been sold in Buffalo, and not
to have reached Boston. The coincidence of the dates of ship-
ment of the eight carloads and this carload suggest the possibility
of mixing at Buffalo of the two lots, and the subsequent contami-
nation of pens 15 and 16 by the quarantine cattle. Thorough
investigation alone will determine the fact.

The thorough investigation of what has happened to each car-
load of quarantined cattle that has been shipped through Albany
under the supervision of the United States Bureau of Animal In-
dustry has been delayed even to the present time, October 11, on
account of the delayed answer from the Bureau in reply to the
request of Assistant Commissioner Flanders for the data relating

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 521

to such shipments. Dr. Kelly will make the investigation for New
York State when the advices are received, and furnish you with a
report thereon.

There is no unloading chute or quarantine pen now at West
Albany ; whatever quarantine cattle are unloaded there must be
unloaded into the common stock-yard pens, and either driven
directly for slaughter or taken into the pens used by other cattle.
There is a tradition commonly entertained by the older stockmen
that there was once a separate chute and pens for such cattle, but
that these became old and decayed, and were finally pulled down
as being of no more use.

The destruction of cattle by a contagious disease contracted in
the progress of conveyance from one State to another naturally
arouses the question of responsibility in the minds of the losers of
those cattle.

The question which confronts your Board is, How may future
outbreaks be prevented? This question is one which interests
every northern State which is likely to receive southern cattle in
the summer time. While the question of legal responsibility may
never be taken up or pushed to a conclusion, that of responsibility
for taking necessary steps to prevent future outbreaks may readily
be arrived at.

The heavy losses in cattle due to Texas fever prior to 1889, and
the attitude assumed by States in quarantining against the admis-
sion of southern cattle within their boundaries or their passage
eri route to other States, and the accompanying interruption of
cattle traffic, led to the quarantine by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture of all cattle south of a stated line, and their
assuming oversight of all cattle transported from that area for
immediate slaughter until they had been delivered into pens set
apart for them at their destination. The line was established on
the clinical evidence obtained by earlier investigation, and has
been subject to subsequent revisions. The quarantine was found
to be of such commercial utility that it has since been annually
proclaimed.

The proclamation for the current year is : —

Regulations concerning Cattle Transportation,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary,

Washington, D. C, Jan. 27, 1897.

To the Managers and Agents of Railroads and Transportation Companies
of the United States, Stockmen and Others.
In accordance with section 7 of the act of Congress, approved May 29,
1884, entitled " An act for the establishment of a Bureau of Animal

522 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Industry, to prevent the exportation of diseased cattle, and to provide
means for the suppression and extirpation of pleuro-pneumonia and
other contagious diseases among domestic animals," and of the act of
Congress which became a law April 24, 1896, making a^jpropriation for
the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897,
you are hereby notified that a contagious and infectious disease, known
as splenetic or southern fever, exists among cattle in the following-
described area : —

All that counti'y lying south, or below, a line beginning at the north-
west corner of the State of California; thence east, south and south-
easterly along the boundary line of said State of California to the
south-eastern corner of said State ; thence southerly along the westex'n
boundary line of Arizona to the south-west corner of Arizona ; thence
along the southern boundary lines of Arizona and Xew Mexico to the
south-eastern corner of New Mexico ; thence northerly along the east-
ern boundary of New Mexico to the southern line of the State of Col-
orado; thence along the southern boundary lines of Colorado and
Kansas to the south-western corner of Kansas ; thence southerly along
the western boundary line of Missouri to the south-western corner of
Missouri ; thence easterly along the southern boundaiy line of Missouri
to the Mississippi River ; thence northerly along the Mississippi River
to the northern boundary line of Tennessee at the north-west corner of
Lake County ; thence easterly along said northern boundary line to the
north-east corner of Henry County ; thence in a northerly direction
along the boundary of the Tennessee River to the north-west corner of
Stewart County; thence in an easterly direction along the northern
boundary of Tennessee to the south-western corner of Virginia ; thence
north-easterly along the western boundaiy line of Virginia to the
northernmost point of Virginia ; thence southerly along said boundary
line to the north-east corner of Virginia, where it joins the south-eastern
corner of Maryland at the Atlantic Ocean.

Whenever any State or Territory located above or below said quaran-
tine line, as above designated, shall duly establish a diflerent quarantine
line, and obtain the necessary legislation to enforce said last-mentioned
line strictly and completely within the boundaries of said State or Ter-
ritory, and said last above-mentioned line and the measures taken to
enforce it are satisfactory to the Secretary of Agriculture, he may, by a
special order, temporarily adopt said State or Territorial line.

Said adoption will applj^ only to that portion of said line specified,
and may cease at any time the Secretary may deem it best for the inter-
est involved, and in no instance shall said modification exist longer than
the period specified in said special order; and at the expiration of such
time said quarantine line shall revert without further order to the line
first above described.

Whenever any State or Territory shall establish a quarantine line for
above purposes, differently located from the above-described line, and
shall obtain by legislation the necessary laws to enforce same completely
and strictly, and shall desire a modification of the Federal quarantine
line to agree with such State or Territorial line, the proper authorities

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 523

of such State or Territory shall forward to the Secretary of Agriculture
a true map or description of such line and a copy of the laws for enforce-
ment of same, duly authenticated and certified.

Such States or Territories as now have a line established as last above
mentioned can immediately forward certified copies of said line and laws
for the enforcement thereof; and, if satisfactory to the Secretary of
Agriculture, the same may be adopted at once, and the Federal line so
modified.

From the fifteenth day of February to the fifteenth day of November,
inclusive, during each year, no cattle are to be transported from said
area south or below said Federal quarantine line above descvibed to any
portion of the United States above, north, east or west of the above-
described line, except by rail for immediate slaughter, and when so
transported the following regulations must be observed : —

1. When any cattle in course of transportation from said area are
unloaded above, north, east or west of this line, to be fed or watered,
the places where said cattle are to be fed or watered shall be set apart,
and no other cattle shall be admitted thereto.

2. On unloading said cattle at their points of destination, pens, sufii-
ciently isolated, shall be set apart to receive them, and no other cattle
shall be admitted to said pens ; and the regulations relating to the move-
ment of cattle from said area, prescribed by the cattle sanitary ofiicers of
the State where unloaded, shall be carefully observed. The cars that
have carried said stock shall be cleansed and disinfected as soon as pos-
sible after unloading and before they are again used to transport, store
or shelter animals or merchandise.

3. All cars carrying cattle from said area shall bear placards stating
that said cars contain southern cattle, and each of the way-bills of said
shipments shall have a note upon its face with a similar statement.
Whenever any cattle have come from said area and shall be reshipped
from any point at which they have been unloaded to other points of des-
tination, the cars carrying said animals shall bear similar placards with
like statements, and the way-bills be so stamped. At whatever point
these cattle are unloaded, they must be placed in separate pens, to which
no other cattle shall be admitted.

4. The cars and boats used to transpoi't such animals, the chutes,
alleyways and pens used during transportation, and at points of desti-
nation, shall be disinfected in the following manner : —

(a) Remove all litter and manure. This litter and manure may be
disinfected by mixing it with lime or saturating it with a five per cent,
solution of carbolic acid ; or, if not disinfected, it may be stored where
no cattle can come into contact with it until after November 15.

(b) Wash the cars and the feeding and watering troughs with water
until clean.

(c) Saturate the walls and floors of the cars, and fencing, troughs and
chutes of the pens with a solution made by dissolving four ounces of
chloride of lime to each gallon of water ; or disinfect the cars with a
jet of steam under a pressure of not less than fifty pounds to the square
inch.

524 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Cattle from the Reijublic of Mexico may be admitted into the United
States to remain below said Federal quarantine line after inspection,
according to law; but said cattle shall not be permitted to cross said
quarantine line otherwise than by rail for immediate slaughter, except
by special permit from the inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Indus-
try, issued according to the regulations of the said Bureau ; and no per-
mit shall be issued except for cattle free from splenetic, or Texas, fever,
or from contact therewith during the three months preceding the
issuance of said permit, and which have been grazed in a locality free
from infection of such fever.

Notice is hereby given that cattle infested with the Boophilus bovis,
or southern cattle tick, disseminate the contagion of splenetic, or south-
ern, fever (Texas fever) ; therefore cattle originating outside of the dis-
trict described by this order or amendments thereof, and which are
infested with the Boophilus bovis ticks, shall be considered as infectious
cattle, and shall be subject to the rules and regulations governing the
movement of southern cattle.

Stock yards companies receiving such cattle shall place the same in
the pens set aside for the use of southern cattle, and transportation com-
panies are required to clean and disinfect all cars and vessels which
have contained the same, according to the requirements of this depart-
ment.

The losses which formerly occurred to the owners of susceptible
cattle, both in the interstate and export trade, hj the contraction of this
disease from exposure in unclean and infected cars and pens, and by
means of the manure carried in unclean cars from place to place, became
a matter of grave and serious concern to the cattle industry of the
United States, until this danger was removed by the inspection of this
department. It is absolutely essential, therefore, that this cattle industry
should continue to be pi'otected as far as possible by separating the dan-
gerous cattle and by the adoption of efficient methods of disinfection.

Inspectors are instructed to see that disinfection is properly done, and
it is expected that transportation and stockyards companies will promptly
put into operation the above methods.

All prior orders conflicting herewith are hereby revoked.

J. Sterling Morton,
Secretary.

The restriction placed upon traffic in cattle for feeding purposes
and the comparatively complete separation of infected cattle from
the others in the large stock yards of this country, cut down losses
from this source to a minimum, yet outbreaks resulting in a total
of thousands of dollars' loss have since annually occurred, due to
evasions of the law along the quarantine line and in unprotected
places.

In the present instance the loss was brought about by the unload-
ing of quarantine cattle into pens used by other cattle and by admit-
ting other cattle thereto, in direct violation of Regulation No. 2.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 525

This, perhaps, was unintentional by the owner of the cattle, who
merely wished to profit by an expected rise in the New York mar-
ket ; but the breaking of the regulations exists. It certainly was
overlooked by the railroad men and ignored by the stock yard men.
I find that most carloads of cattle are shipped through from Buf-
falo to Boston, or New York. This run requires more than twenty-
eight hours ; it being claimed that cattle are often twenty-two
hours in reaching Albany. It is rumored about the stock yards
there that little attention is paid to the fact whether cattle are
twenty-eight hours en route or forty-eight, further than it is for
the profit of the stockman to care for his cattle.

Sections of the Revised Statutes referring to the Transportation of Animals.

Sect. 4386. No railroad company within the United States whose road
forms any part of a line of road over which cattle, sheep, swine or other
animals are conveyed from one State to another, or the owners or
masters of steam, sailing, or other vessels carrying or transporting
cattle, sheep, swine, or other animals from one State to another, shall
confine the same in cars, boats, or vessels of any description /or a longer
period than twenty-eight consecutive hours, without unloading the same
for rest, water and feeding, for a. period of at least five consecutive hours,
unless prevented from unloading by storm or other accidental causes.
In estimating such confinement the time during which the animals have
been confined without such rest on connecting roads from which they
are received shall be included, it being the intent of this section to pro-
hibit their continuous confinement beyond the period of twenty-eight
hours, except upon contingencies hereinbefore stated.

Sect. 4387. Animals so unloaded shall be properly fed and watered
during such rest by the owner or person having the custody thereof, or
in case of his default in so doing, then by the railroad company or
owners or masters of boats or vessels transporting the same, at the
expense of the owner or person in custody thereof ; and such company,
owners, or masters shall in such case have a lien upon such animals for
food, care, and custody furnished, and shall not be liable for any deten-
tion of such animals.

Sect. 4388. Any company, owner, or custodian of such animals who
knowingly and willingly fails to comply with the provisions of the two
preceding sections, shall, for every such failure, be liable for and forfeit
and pay a penalty of not less than one hundred nor more than five hun-
dred dollars. But when animals are carried in cars, boats, or other
vessels in which they can and do have proper food, water, space, and
opportunity to rest, the provisions in regard to their being unloaded shall
not apply.

Sect. 4389. The penalty created by the preceding section shall be
recovered by civil action in the name of the United States, in the circuit
or district court of the United States, holden within the district where
the violation may have been committed, or the person or corporation

526 BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE. [Pub. Doc.

resides or carries on its business ; and it shall be the duty of all United
States marshals, their deputies and subordinates, to prosecute all viola-
tions which come to their notice or knowledge

If the humane federal law requiring cattle to be unloaded at the
end of each twenty-eight hours' confinement for feeding and water-
ing is to be carried out, then many quarantine cattle must be
unloaded at Albany. In this connection the shipment of quaran-
tine cattle for slaughter to Albany and other points in New York
and Massachusetts, where no federal office is located, must be
considered. These cattle, of which in different years there are
varying numbers, are delivered at any station and then driven to
slaughter houses without supervision. Many cars are taken to
other points, to be used without, so far as can be learned, any
attempt or pretence at disinfection. These conditions continually
expose the native cattle of these States, and, I may add, of other
States, to attacks of Texas fever. The responsibility for the
spread of disease by carloads of quarantine cattle which go to
places where there are no pens set apart to receive them, and no
provisions to adequately disinfect cars according to the regulations,
or for attending to the enforcement of these regulations, lies with
the oflflcers of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who are charged
with the enforcement of the law. The States are not responsible
for the spread of disease until the cattle leave those places set
apart for them to go to slaughter.

The Bureau authorities are aware that, when cattle are released
from Chicago or Buffalo, consigned to Brighton or New York, or
to a place in Massachusetts where there is no quarantine yard,
these cattle may be unloaded at Albany, and that most of them in
accordance with the twenty-eight-hour unloading law must be
unloaded there, or they will be unloaded at some other place where
there are no quarantine regulations or pretence at any. They have
hitherto read their instructions as concerning the larger stock
yards for the protection of the foreign and domestic cattle trade,
and trusted to the exclusion of quarantine cattle for pasturage
purposes to prevent disease in our own country. They have
regarded their duties as ended when cattle were properly entered
and released from the yards where their agents are stationed.
They have overlooked the fact that cattle have been released to
points where conclusive evidence was easily obtainable that their
laws were not, and could not be, complied with as regai'ds the
released shipments. They have apparently made no effort to
ascertain the fact whether quarantine cattle were being handled
properly at such an important point as Albany, where quarantine

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 527

cattle are received en route and for immediate slaughter, and native
cattle received and distributed to adjoining States. They have
made no effort, that can be ascertained, to enforce the disinfection
of cattle cars used in carrying quarantine cattle when these are
unloaded at points where there are no officers.

The oversight of quarantine cattle until they are put into pens
set apart to receive them cannot be relaxed on account of State
laws permitting otherwise ; for interstate relations are such that,
as in the present case, an outbreak may occur in other States, due
to relaxed precautions.

Suppose, in the present case, quarantine cattle had been un-
loaded into either or each of the cattle pens at Watertown, Nor-
wood and Herkimer, N. Y., the native cattle would have been
exposed in these places in New York State, and have died in
Massachusetts and Connecticut. It cannot be said of any cattle
pens in the United States that they will not be used for cattle in
interstate traffic. They are built for cattle traffic, and cattle are
shipped to and fro with no thought of State lines.

The duties of the federal authorities should be terminated only
after they have delivered the cattle into pens set apart en route, or
at their destination, and they have overseen the disinfection of the
cars. If they cannot attend to this, they should refuse to release
quarantine cattle destined to unprotected points. Having fulfilled
their obligations in the delivery of quarantine cattle, they should
then notify the State authorities that such are delivered, and turn
their care over to them. Then they will have freed themselves
from the responsibility of having delivered disease-breeding, pro-
scribed cattle into an unsuspecting community ; and the State may
make suitable regulations for their handling, should they desire to
receive them.

The conditions followed at present would be paralleled if United
States authorities should convey with all possible care a carload of
yellow-fever patients to some more or less important communities
in our States, and quietly infect places whei'e other people would
contract the disease. The practice is indefensible and inexcusable.
The wording of the United States agricultural regulations, quoted
above, shows that they think it is.

There are other unavoidable conditions in railroad traffic that
have heretofore spread Texas fever, and may again. Accidents
delay cattle trains ; sometimes cattle cars become broken en route,,
and the cattle either released violently or eompulsorily. When
such happens, places where this occurs should be quarantined by
the State after notification by federal officers.

Another condition prevailing in other States through which the

528 BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. [Piil>. Doc.

quarantine line is drawn has a remote bearing upon the cattle
traffic in Massachusetts. Prior to 1896 the shipment of cattle
from infected areas in Virginia to any point outside was com-
paratively easy, both by cars and by driving the cattle across the
line on foot, and then shipping them, — each of which was against
the law. Since then, however, a more stringent State law, better
enforced, has quite stopped such shipments. During the present
year, however, quarantine restrictions put in force by the State of
Illinois against Tennessee and Arkansas on account of disease
transported from those localities show the incomplete enforcement
of the quarantine line in those States. This condition of affairs
along the line will more or less menace the cattle industry until
the States enter into hearty co-operation in enforcing State and
federal laws. At any time under such conditions the State of
Massachusetts might be invaded, but on account of the nature of
traffic at rare intervals. The possibility of infection from such
source of some of the eight carloads of cattle bought at Chicago
by W. H. Munroe, and stopped en route to Brighton at West
Albany, is suggested.

In thus laying the responsibility for the spread of Texas fever
at the door of the Bureau of Animal Industry, I do not intend in
any way to exonerate railroad officials, stock yard companies or
cattle men who knowingly or unwittingly override the law, but to
draw attention to the first source, where the law may be more
thoroughly carried out, and thus prevent infractions by others
concerned. Those interested in cattle traffic in quarantined ani-
mals cannot be blamed too harshly for violations, when officials
permit cattle to be released to points under conditions in which the
law must be violated.

The laws of Massachusetts do not seem to have been violated in
the recent outbreak by the introduction into the State of any
disease-bearing cattle. The diseased cows introduced died. But
one recovered animal was found to bear a single tick, and this at
so late a date that the young could not possibly hatch out for
infection of other cattle.

An examination of the method of handling cattle at the Brigh-
ton yards, the unloading of all quarantine cattle at the Brighton
abattoir and the complete absence of data showing infection of
these yards indicate that no infection has been in these yards this
year. The quarantine imposed by the United States authorities
may have been justified so long as suspicion attached to these
yards in the course of investigation, but no longer. Unless it can
be shown that the United States authorities had reason to suspect
that infected cattle had passed through these yards in June, or the

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONEKS. 529

first week in July, the quarantine was unjust, for the history of
the outbreak pointed to an infection of the cattle before they
passed through these yards. The only protection the State of
Massachusetts has against future recurrence of losses from this
disease is the insistence upon federal authorities carrying out the
regulations of the United States Department of Agriculture in
other States and in Massachusetts, or on the entire exclusion of
such cattle from Massachusetts. The traffic for the present year
is so inconsiderable that it may well be stopped, in view of the
loss to the State that it might produce.

The laws of Massachusetts bearing on this point are as fol-
lows : —

Sect. 53. When animals are transported within this state from
localities beyond its boundary lines, which localities the board of cattle
commissioners deem to be infected, such animals may be seized and
quarantined by the commissioners at the expense of the owners or con-
signees thereof, so long as the public safety may require ; and if, in
their judgment, it is necessary to secure that safety, they may cause
such animals to be killed without ajspraisal or payment for the same.

Sect. 54. No Texan, Mexican, Cherokee, Indian or other cattle,
which the cattle commissioners decide may spread contagious disease,
shall be driven on the streets of any city, town or village, or on any
road in this Commonwealth, nor sliall they be driven outside the stock
yards connected with any railway in this Commonwealth contrary to
any order of the boai'd of cattle commissioners.

Sect. 55. In all stock yards within this Commonwealth said Texan,
Mexican, Cherokee, Indian or other cattle, which the cattle commission-
ers decide may spread contagious disease, shall be kept in different pens
from those in which other cattle are kept

Sect. 56. Any person or persons violating any of the provisions of the
two preceding sections shall be punished by a fine of not less than
twenty nor more than one hundred dollars.

Sect. 37. Contagious diseases under the provisions of this act shall
include glanders, farcy, contagious pleuro-pneumonia, tuberculosis,
Texas fever, foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, hog cholera and
rabies.

In the recent outbreak the action of the Cattle Commissioners of
Massachusetts and Connecticut in cautioning buyers from bringing
their cattle through the West Albany stock yards, or from New
York, until the source of disease was located, was all the protec-
tion these States had. Though necessarily tardily taken, it prob-
ably prevented some loss. The fact that but few cattle passed
through the infected yards prevented more loss. The final quar-
antine of the suspected pens by the New York authorities did not
occur until the 5th of October, for the reason that they did not

530 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

wish to take action until the fact was proven that the cows did
become infected in the suspected pens. In yards transacting any
consideisable business such delay would be productive of great loss.
The federal authorities have depended upon the New York State
officials for an investigation and action, and have not investigated
the outbreak outside of the Brighton yards. The tardy action of
States in investigating such outbreaks should not be awaited for
by the federal officers when interstate traffic is involved, and fed-
eral laws, over which they alone have supervision, have been vio-
lated. Had it not been for the investigation ordered by your own
State, the source of infection would not have been definitely
decided ; each State involved would have believed the other at
fault, and no relief against future outbreaks been proposed.

Resume.

1. The outbreak of disease which destroyed at least thirty-five
head out of fifty-eight cows transported from New York State to
eastern Massachusetts was due to Texas fever, contracted in the
stock yards at West Albany, New York.

2. The infection of the "West Albany stock yards was due to
the illegal unloading and detention of quarantine cattle in those
yards, and presumably to a carload (or two) of quarantined young
stock shipped from Chicago to New York, and detained about five
days in said yards.

3. Future outbreaks may be prevented by the complete en-
forcement of United States laws by officers of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry, and the notification of the State Cattle
Commissioners concerning the unloading of quarantine cattle into
pens set apart for them by those officers.

4. The present State law relating to the unloading of cattle
which may spread Texas fever seems adequate for all purposes,
and, if carried out, will prevent Texas fever spreading from cattle
delivered into "places set apart."

5. The investigation undertaken by the Cattle Commissioners
will have been justified when adequate steps are taken to prevent
future outbreaks ; then Texas fever, as a disease of northern cattle,
will become an historical reminiscence.

Cooper Curtice.

The existence of Tefxas fever in Massachusetts this sum-
mer was first called to the attention of the Board of Cattle
Commissioners by Commissioner Dennen, who had three
cows, bought in Brighton, — two from the carload arriving

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 531

August 2, one from the carload arriving August 9, — which
sickened and died.

Specimens from the spleens and kidneys of two of these
cows were examined by Dr. Langdon Frothingham, and the
organism of Texas fever found to be present ; the diagnosis
was confirmed by Dr. Theobold Smith.

As soon as it became clear to the Cattle Commission that
it had an outbreak of Texas fever to deal with, the following
notice was sent to the principal shippers of cattle from New
York State into Massachusetts : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Board of Cattle Commissioners,
Commonwealth Building, Boston, Aug. 27, 1897.

Dear Sir : — It having come to the notice of the Massachusetts
Cattle Commission that cows brought from certain localities in
New York State, and sold at Union Market, Watertown, and the
stock yards, Brighton, have in some instances died of Texas cattle
fever after being taken away by purchasers, we would notify you
of the above facts, and warn you against bringing in any cattle
from New York State until the 1st of October, except beef cattle
to be killed at the slaughter houses.

Yours truly, Austin Peters,

Chairman.

The leading agricultural papers were also requested to
make the matter public, which they did at once, and intend-
ing purchasers were informed that there was a risk in buying
New York State cows. The result was that the importation
of cattle from New York State into Massachusetts was prac-
tically stopped for the time being, and it became pretty
certain that the trouble was traceable to the stock yards at
West Albany ; such cattle as were shipped into Massachusetts
from New York State were sent around a northern route by
way of the Vermont Central Railroad, until the weather be-
came so cold that there was no more dang-er to cattle coming
through the West Albany stock yards.

Owing to these precautions, the loss of animals was con-
fined to the three carloads mentioned in Dr. Curtice's report.

From Dr. Cooper Curtice's report it may be seen that the
point where the New York State cows became infected was

532 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

at West Albany, and before it was even decided to employ
him to investigate the outbreak it is clear that the Massachu-
setts Cattle Commissioners were right in being of the opinion
that the disease was not contracted in this State ; however,
upon learning that there was an outbreak of Texas fever in
Massachusetts, the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry at
Washington telegraphed to Dr. D. D. Lee at Boston, the
veterinarian having charge of the Bureau's work at this port,
under date of September 2, quarantining the Brighton yards
against export cattle.

Later, when it became evident that the animals that after-
ward died had only been in pens 11 and 13 on Texas Street,
and pens 33 and 35, known as J. S. Henry's pens, on Front
Street, the quarantine was changed on September 23 to in-
clude only these four pens, until further notice. This quar-
antine upon the four pens has not been officially removed,
but expired on November 15 by the time limit in the procla-
mation of the Secretary of Agriculture defining the infected
area, extending from February 15 to November 15.

By advice of Dr. Curtice after he commenced his investi-
gation of the outbreak, four cows were bought and kept in
pens 11 and 13, to determine whether or not they were
infected.

There was no necessity for experimenting with pens 33
and 35 on Front Street, as J. S. Henry sells cattle from other
points that pass through these pens every week, and there is
no record of any creatures dying of Texas fever this season
that passed through his pens except from the three carloads
that came from New York State through the West Albany
stock yards last August.

The New York State cattle were first unloaded into pens
11 and 13, Texas Street, and in this respect were handled
differently from any other cattle consigned to Mr. Henry ;
and as steers for slaughter also pass through pens 11 and
13, there was more reason for considering these pens a pos-
sible source of danger.

After buying these cows, two were kept in pen 11 and
two in pen 13 from September 28 until October 15, when
they were removed to a shed on the same street that had not

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

533

been used for cattle. Here they were kept for eighteen
days, their temperature being taken daily, as follows : —

No. I.

No. 8.

No. 3.

No. 4.

DATE.

Red Cow,
White on Udder.

Red Cow,
Balls on Horns.

Black and
White Cow,

Middle of
Tail White.

Black and
White Cow,

Half of
Tail White.

Degrees.

Degrees.

Degrees.

Degrees.

October 15,

102

102f

1021

102f

16,

101

lOlf

lOlf

lOlf

17,

lOlf

ioi|

101|

102

18,

101

loot

101

102

19,

101

101

lOlf

lOlf

20,

101

lOOf

lOH

101

21,

100|

lOOf

lOlf

101

22,

lOOf

lOOf

101

lOOf

23,

100|

99|

lOOf

lOOf

24,

101

1001

lOOf

lOOf

25,

101|

lOli

101

lOOf

26,

99f

lOOf

lOOf

102

27,

lOlf

lOOi

101

101*

28,

lOlf

lOOf

99|

101

29.

101

lOOf

1011

lOOf

30,

lOlf

1001

100

101

31,

lOli

101

lOOf

lOlf

November 1 ,

101

1011

101

loot

At the end of this time the cows were sold, having re-
mained in apparently perfect health ; and during the latter
half of this period, when the temperatures were taken daily,
it can be seen by the above table that these remained normal.

To be still further positive that there has been no infection
from the Texas fever organism, Dr. Laagdon Frothingham,

534 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

a few days before the animals were sold, made cover-glass
preparations of their blood, and under date of November 4
reports that he was unable to find any of these organisms in
their blood.

It is therefore clear that the source of infection was at the
West Albany stock yards. These stock yards became in-
fected because there is no provision for furnishing separate
chutes and pens for quarantine cattle, as required by the
rules and regulations of the Bureau of Animal Industry ;
and there is no agent of the Bureau of Animal Industry
there to see that these rules and regulations are enforced.

Notwithstanding the fact that suspicion pointed much more
strongly to the West Albany stock yards as the infected area,
as will be seen from the information gathered by the Massa-
chusetts Cattle Commission, yet for some reason the Bureau
of Animal Industry chose to place the odium on the stock
yards at Brighton, ignoring the West Albany stock yards, if
a quotation from a letter of Dr. Cooper Curtice is correct.
He writes, under date of December 8, as follows : —

The only step that the Bureau took regarding the outbreak was
to quarantine the Brighton yards. Up to October 14, or since, for
that matter, the Bureau took no measures to ascertain where the
disease was disseminated in this State (New York State), other
than to call it to the attention of the New York Commissioner of
Agriculture, about the middle of September, and, I believe, ask
him to investigate. No quarantine of those West Albany yards
was attempted until after frosts began, — early in October ; then
the assistant New York commissioner sent Dr. Kelly out there, to
tell them that, if they continued to admit cattle to alley D and its
pens, he would quarantine the whole yards.

While not a legal procedure, it perhaps accomplislied its purpose.
The advice of j'our commission to Massachusetts buyers accom-
plished more.

The whole matter at West Albany was handled in a very
unscientific and illegal manner by both the State and the Bureau.
In the first place, the yard should have been quarantined by the
Bureau at the same time as the Brighton yards. In the second
place, the State authorities should have quarantined on suspicion.
The commissioner of New York State was, however, partially
excusable, if not wholly, from the fact that the Bureau had
already thrown the fault upon the Brighton yards by their act of

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 535

quarantine without further action in regard to other places, as
West Albany.

Moreover, the State law is poorly drawn up, and requires such
publication to be made that the department is unwilling to take
steps unless the fact of infection of a given place is established.
This procedure may do in some kinds of work, but not in conta-
gious diseases. The United States Bureau of Animal Industry
may take steps to prevent recurrences after Feb. 15, 1898, when a
new proclamation will go into effect. They may have felt that
further quarantine after the middle of October (by which time the
commissioner of the New York State Department of Agriculture
had taken his steps) was unnecessary. For some reason I have
yet to learn of any case prosecuted by the Bureau of Animal
Industry against carriers for violation of the quarantine law.

While the losses to cattle owners in Massachusetts and
Connecticut were not very heavy, yet in many instances
they were incurred by farmers who could ill afford to bear
them ; beside which, the quarantine on the Brighton stocl?;
yards caused some loss and inconvenience to the Boston &
Albany Railroad Company.

It is to be hoped that such an occurrence may not be per-
mitted to take place another season, by requiring the West
Albany Stock Yard Company to fit its pens to fulfil the
requirements of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and by the
Bureau having an agent stationed at this important point.

In fact, Dr. D. E. Salmon, chief of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry, writes, under date of Novem-
ber 2, to the Massachusetts Cattle Commission, in part as
follows : —

I recognize the fact that Albany is an important point to guard,
and have intended to have some one stationed there next season,
if possible.

Actinomycosis.
During the year a number of cases of actinomycosis, or
lumpy jaw, have occurred among the cattle of the State.
This disease is caused by a fungus belonging to the mould
family. These fungi are called actinomyces because of their
star-shaped appearance under the microscope, and the dis-
ease is known as actinomycosis. So far as is known, it does
not seem to spread to any extent from one animal to another,

536 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

but the fungus is thought to be on the grain or straw, and it
is from this source that the aflfected animal is generally
thought to acquire it.

Most commonly the primary seat of the disease is in the
jaw, starting in the alveolus of a tooth. The actinomyces
frequently find lodgement in the cavities caused by the shed-
ding of the temporary or milk teeth before the permanent
teeth make their appearance. In time a large bunch may
develop on the face or jaw, and it was because of the nature
of the changes set up in the bone that the disease got its
former name of Osteo Sarcoma.

After the breaking down of the enlargement, it is possible
that an animal may swallow some of the discharge contain-
ing the little yellow granules or fungous growths, and in this
way secondary infection may take place. The actinomyces
may also be absorbed or find lodgement in other organs of
the body. For example, it seems to be possible for the fun-
gous growth to gain an entrance at the opening of the milk
duct and find lodgement in the udder. Three cases of what
appear to be infection in this way have come under the
observation of one of the members of the Board.

The first occurred some years ago, in New Hampshire,
under the following circumstances : a heifer was noticed to
be sufiering from the form of actinomycosis known as " lump-
jaw ; " this was discharging freely, and at this time she was
kept in a box stall in the farm hospital ; she was finally
destroyed. Shortly afterwards a sow with her litter of pigs
was placed in this box, and before her pigs were weaned an
enlargement began to develop on the left hind portion of the
udder. It gradually grew larger, and finally broke and dis-
charged ; and because of this, the pigs were weaned and she
was destroyed. The post-mortem examination showed no
trace of disease except in this portion of the udder, and
microscopical examination showed a beautiful specimen of
the ray fungus, or actinomyces. The disease in this case
was only present in the udder, the fungus probably finding
its entrance through the milk duct, the active condition of
this organ aiding its development.

The second case occurred in a Lawrence cow ; it was
quarantined under suspicion of having tuberculosis of the

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 537

udder, which was hard and nodulated to the touch. The
cow was tested and condemned, and on autopsy was shown
to have tuberculosis of the lung and bronchial gland ; cult-
ures from this gland were later used by Prof. Theobold Smith
in some experiments with tuberculosis. The udder proved
to be infiltrated with small nodules with yellow centres,
which proved later to be actinomycosis.

The third case occurred at Amesbury, and was very sim-
ilar to the second, the cow being condemned on physical
examination because of the condition of the udder. The
cow was free from disease except in this organ, and on sec-
tion it was found to be studded with small minute nodules
with yellow centres, not so well marked, however, as in the
second case.

In both these cases, on a superficial cursory examination,
this condition might easily have been mistaken for tuber-
culosis ; but on closer inspection it was noticed that the yel-
lowish centres were imbedded in a well-marked band of
fibroid tissue. In tuberculosis small-celled proliferation
with a tendency to caseation is more marked ; while in acti-
nomycosis there is usually more of a tendency to circum-
scribed fibrous changes, with sometimes a honeycombed
structure containing small yellowish granular masses, which
may often be squeezed out by the thumb nail.

In all three of these cases the udder seemed to be the
initial seat of the disease, the milk duct being the possible
source of infection.

Actinomycosis is by no means a typical contagious dis-
ease, in that it is not usually conveyed from one animal
to another ; but an animal with actinomycosis of the udder
is by no means a fit animal for dairy purposes, and neither
should an animal with generalized actinomycosis be passed
as fit for beef.

Glandees.
During the past 3'ear 485 horses have been reported to the
Board of Cattle Commissioners as suspected of being affected
with glanders, or farcy. At the time of compiling this re-
port, December 20, 402 had been killed, 81 had been exam-
ined and released and 2 were still in quarantine and under
observation.

538

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The following list gives the cases reported from each
city and town : —

Glanders rejwrted in 1897.

Cases in : —

Cases in : —

Amesbiiry, . , . .1

Merrimac, . . . ,

Andover,

1

Melrose,

Arlington,

2

Millbury,

Auburn,

2

Milford, .

Belchertown,

Millis, .

Bellingham,

Milton, .

Boston, .

144

Montague,

Brimfield,

Natick, .

Brockton,

Needham,

Cambridge, .

29

New Bedford,

Canton, .

Newbury,

Chai'lemont,

Newton, .

Chelmsford,

Paxton, .

Chelsea, .

Plymouth,

Chicoi^ee,

Quincy, .

Clinton, .

Randolph,

Concord,

Raynham,

Conway,

Revere, .

Danvers,

Rockland,

Dartmouth,

Royal st on.

Dedliam,

Somerville, .

Dighton,

Southborough,

Easthampton,

Springfield, .

Easton, .

2

Stoneham,

Everett, .

6

Sutton, .

Fall River,

16

Taunton,

Fitchburg,

3

Upton, .

Foxborough,

3

Walpole,

Framingham,

1

Waltham,

Grafton, .

8

Ware, .

Grovel and.

1

AVayland,

Haverhill,

2

Wellesley,

Hingham,

4

Westborough,

Holyoke,

4

Westfield,

Hopedale,

1

AVest Newbur3%

Hudson, .

1

Weymouth, .

Lanesborough

,

1

Winchester, .

Lawrence,

6

Winthrop,

Leicester,

1

Woburn,

Lynn,

19

Worcester,

Maiden, .

3

Medfield,

4

Total, . , . .

Medford,

3

485

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 539

These figures show an increase of cases reported as dis*
eased or suspicious over 1896 of 101, or of actual cases killed
of 61. In last year's report it was said that there was an
increase in 1896 over the cases in 1895, and this was attrib-
uted in part or Avhole to a better understanding of the law
requiriug all persons to report suspected cases to local boards
of health, and requiring these boards in turn to report to the
Board of Cattle Commissioners. But without any better
understanding of the law the number of animals reported
this year is much greater than last, and by no means repre-
sents all the cases that occur, as many horses are killed by
owners who do not wish to have it known that the disease
exists in their stables, and therefore they do not report it to
the local board of health ; and in some instances doubtless
local boards of health are remiss in reporting cases to the
Board of Cattle Commissioners if a horse is killed with the
consent of the owner.

There is no doubt concerning the increase of glanders,
and this being the case, it must be considered by what
means this malady extends itself.

Glanders and farcy are one and the same disease, and it
has long been acknowledged that it spreads by means of a
germ which may be conveyed from horse to horse by one
animal coming in immediate contact with another, by the
virus being conveyed from one horse to another by means
of curry-combs, brushes, harness and the like, by a healthy
horse occupying a stall used by a diseased one, and in sim-
ilar ways. But to account for its marked and in some ways
mysterious increase the past two or three years, there must
be another factor besides horses rubbing noses on the street,
infected stables, and unprincipled traders in old, worn-out
horses ; and this factor must be the public watering troughs
in our cities and towns ; this was the opinion of the Board,
as given in its report of two years ago, again last year and
reiterated this year.

The reported cases of glanders were, in 1894, 230 ; in
1895, 250; in 1896, 384; and in 1897, 485; that is, the
cases reported have more than doubled in the past three
years, and it is probable that some of this increase is due to
the public watering troughs.

540 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

In substantiation of the fact that it is possible that glan-
ders can be conveyed into the horse's system by means of
drinking water containing the glanders bacilli, it is only
necessary to refer to a brief report of some experiments car-
ried on by Mon'r Edward Nocard of Alfort, France, as
given in the " American Veterinary Review " for September,
by Dr. A. Liautard. For these experiments twelve cavalry
horses were furnished by the Secretary of War, and placed
at M. Nocard's disposal at Alfort. They were first tested
with mallein, to be sure that they were free from glanders,
and none reacted. Nov. 30, 1896, all of these horses were
given water from a pail, each one receiving a certain well-
measured quantity of culture of the glanders bacilli. A few
days after, varying from four to eight days, there was notice-
able a great oscillation in the temperature, indicating a
febrile condition. After the eighth day, in some of them
enlarged lymphatic glands were noticed, which later assumed
the character of the glands noticed in glandered horses.
Dec. 15, 1896, they were all tested with mallein, and all
reacted. Jan. 15, 1897, all were again tested, and all
reacted, although not all to the same extent as at the first
test. January 21, three showed so much evidence of disease
that they were destroyed.

The others were kept for further experiment. Professor
Nocard wishing to see if glanders could be cured by mallein.
By May there were six horses that failed to react to mallein,
and in July four of these were killed ; and although lesions
of glanders were found, yet when these lesions were inocu-
lated into donkeys and guinea-pigs they failed to produce
disease ; in other words, these horses were cured by succes-
sive injections of mallein.

These experiments are interesting, because they show that
slight, undeveloped cases of glanders can be cured by re-
peated injections of mallein ; but this does not have much to
do with the question of glanders as considered here, because
the wisdom of attempting to treat cases of glanders as they
are reported to this Board is very questionable, and the
better course seems to be to have such animals destroyed, as
is at present done.

The chief interest lies in the feet that twelve horses, or

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 541

one hundred per cent, of those experimented with, could con-
tract glanders through the alimentary canal, when the bacilli
were in the water ; hence proving the possibility of contam-
inated drinking water being a potent source of danger, — a
fact that has hitherto been disputed by many able authorities.
Therefore, in a locality where glanders is prevalent, the pub-
lic watering troughs should have the water shut off from
them ; or, if these misplaced charities will not be abandoned,
horse owners should on no account allow their horses to
drink from them, and should forbid their teamsters to water
horses at them, as well. If horses have such long hours as
to need water before returning home, the teamster should l)e
made to carry a pail, and draw water from a faucet for his
horses.

If a practical demonstration is wanted of the utility of
abandoning public water troughs, the history of glanders at
Worcester and its vicinity the last two years will serve as an
illustration. During 1896 one hundred cases of glanders
were reported from Worcester ; in 1897 there seemed to be
no prospect of a diminution ; finally, in April, it increased
to such an extent that seventeen cases were reported during
the month. This led to a conference between the chairman
of the Cattle Commission, Mr. Herrick, Mr. Coffey, agent of
the Worcester Board of Health, and the water registrar of
Worcester, with the result that it was decided to close the
public water troughs from May 8 to July 1. In addition,
Mr. Herrick has kept the auction rooms of that city under
constant surveillance, having any glandered horse found at
these places killed. The result has been a falling off in the
number of cases to eighty-four for the year, a marked
decrease being noticed soon after having the watering troughs
closed, as may be seen by the following table. Many of the
cases reported as Worcester animals were horses brought in
from adjoining towns by unscrupulous persons, to be sold at
the Worcester auction rooms : —

542

BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Cases of Glanders in Worcester, Dec. 20, 1896, to Dec. 20, 1897.

Con- Ke-

demned. leased.

December, 1896, after

20th.
January, 1897,

February,
March,
April, .
May, .
June, .
July, .

1
5
8
4
17
10
6
5

August,
September,
October, .
November,
December, to 20th,
Total of each,

Total quarantined,

Con-
demned.

73

Re-
leased.

11

84

* Released in May, killed in October.
Total for August, September and October, 12, or 20 per cent.

It can be seen that after watering troughs were closed
there was a marked falling off, and that during the dry
months there was less than in April and May.

In contrast to the above table, the cases occurring in Bos-
ton, Cambridge, Somerville and Quincy, four neighboring
cities, where glanders has been especially prevalent the last
year, will show how it increases when horses drink the most,
and just afterward, when nothing has been done to stop its
spread by closing the public watering troughs (Cambridge
closed a trough at East Cambridge, September 1, for about
two weeks).

Boston.

Cambbidge.

Somerville.

Quincy.

DATE.

1

1

1

•6

6-=

a-

■d

S3

M

December, 1896, after

2

2

20th.

January, 1897,

10

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

February,

9

-

-

-

1

-

1

-

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

543

Boston.

Cambkidge.

SOMERVILLE.

QuiNcr.

DATE.

■d
cs

1

•6
c

si

1

■d

5-

■d

OS

1

■d
J

•d

cS
1

March, ....

April, ")

May, j> • ' • •

June, j

July, ....

August,

September, .

October,

November, .

December, to 20th,

7

18

19
14
21
18
14
11
143

l<j

1

3

2

10
3
3

2

2

2

1

2

1
1

7
1
2

2

3

1

1
1

2
3
2

1

27

2

16

6

10

1

Totals, .

144

29

22

11

Grand total 206

Total for August, September and October, 93, or 45 per cent.

It will be seen by the two tallies that during August, Sep-
tember and October, at Worcester, only twenty per cent, of
the cases of the year occurred ; while in Boston, Cambridge,
Somerville and Quincy, forty-five per cent, of the cases of
the year occurred during these months.

If the increase in the amount of glanders be considered
from the localities where it exists, it will be found that it is
largely, in fact almost wholly, confined to twenty-eight cities
and towns, w^ith Boston as a centre, and the other towns cov-
ering a territory that is continuous between them and Boston ;
and that in many, if not all, there are express men, team-
sters and others whose teams pass almost daily to Boston
and return, and who water their horses at infected watering
troughs on the way, or infect the troughs with glandered
animals of their own.

544

BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

The following table shows that, outside of Boston and
twenty-seven adjoining cities and towns, only eighteen more
cases of glanders were reported in 1897 than in 1896, while
within this comparatively small area there were eighty-three
more cases reported than in 1896.

1896.

1897.

1896.

1897.

Boston,

12S

144

Newton,

5

2

Cambridge,

13

29

Needham,

5

1

Somerville,

9

22

Dedham,

5

1

Everett, .

2

6

Hyde Park, .

2

-

Chelsea, .

i

1

Milton, .

-

1

Revere, .

-

1

Quincy, .

3

11

Maiden, .

6

3

Weymouth, .

-

1

Sangus, .

2

-

Randolph,

1

2

Lynn,

3

19

Rockland,

-

1

Melrose, .

-

7

Hingham,

-

4

Stoneham,

3

2

Cohasset,

1

-

Wobum, .

-

10

Scituate, .

1

-

Winchester,

1

1

2
3

Total for Boston
and 27 adjoining
towns,

Medford, .

192

275

Arlington,

1
1

2

Increase of 1897
over 1896,

•

192

Watertown,

83

Total for whole State, 1896, 384

Less, 192

Number of cases outside Boston and 27 adjoining towns in 1896, 192

Total for whole State, 1897, 485

Less number in Boston and 27 adjoining towns, .... 275

Number of cases outside Boston and 27 adjoining tow«s in 1897, 210

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 545

In 1897, 210

In 1896, 192

Increase for year outside these cities and towns, .... 18

Per cent, of glanders in Boston and 27 adjoining towns to total in

State, 1896, 50

Same in 1897, 56^-[-

Relative per cent, of increase of glanders in, Boston and 27 ad-
joining cities and towns to total in State of 1897 over 1896, . 6^-|-

During the spring of the present year the Board of Health
of the city of Boston secured the passage of the following
act: —

[Chapter 178, Acts of 1897.]
An Act relative to animals affected with infectious diseases.
Be it e7iacted, etc., as follows :

Section 1 . Any owner, agent or other person in charge of or
called to examine an animal in the city of Boston, affected with
either of the diseases known as glanders, farcy or rabies, shall
forthwith report to the board of health of said city the name of
the owner and place of keeping of such animal.

Sect. 2. Said board, when satisfied upon examination that any
animal within said city is affected by either of said diseases, shall
cause such animal to be killed or otherwise disposed of.

Sect. 3. Any person violating any provision of this act shall
for each offence be punished by a fine of not exceeding one hun-
dred dollars, or by imprisonment in the house of correction not
exceeding one year. [^Approved March 19, 1897.

The Board of Health of the city of Boston employs a com-
petent veterinarian, and has continued the same man in the
position for several years, and it is not likely that political
changes will interfere with the present incumbent ; even if
he were removed from his place, in the present state of edu-
cation and public opinion, it is more than probable that it
would be filled by another equally well-educated and quali-
fied veterinarian ; therefore, the act as passed cannot be
objected to, provided that the cases that occur under his
jurisdiction are promptly and fully reported to this Board as
soon as the animals are killed.

546 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

At the same time, this act established a precedent that
might be mischievous and pernicious in the extreme, if it
were secured for other cities and towns, where the con-
ditions that exist in Boston do not obtain and are not likely
to become the same. It is therefore better that the control
of contagious animal diseases be continued in the hands of a
central body, having knowledge of the existing conditions
of domestic animals in all parts of the State, and in a
position to secure and direct co-operation between dilierent
localities when necessary.

There has never been any objection on the part of the
commission to having glandered horses killed by the local
board of health or by the inspector of animals, if the owner
was satisfied that the horse was glandered ; if he is not satis-
fied, he should be allowed to resort to the Cattle Commiis-
sion, as a court of last appeal. In any event, local boards
of health should comply strictly with the law requiring all
cases to be reported at once and in full to the Board of
Cattle Commissioners ; and a clause in the law, giving a
"board of health power to order horses infected with glanders
and farc}^ to be killed, should not exempt it from this
obligation.

The Board has been as prompt as possible during the year
in dealing with cases of glanders, but in some instances
doubtful cases have to be quarantined for some little time
before a correct conclusion can be reached. In doubtful
cases the most satisfactory method for arriving at a diagnosis
has been the test of inoculating guinea-pigs. For a more
complete account of this work, the reader is referred to Dr.
Frothingham's report. (See page 558.) Mallein has been
little used by this Board, and needs further use before it can
be decided to just what extent it is valuable.

Rabies.

During 1897, cases of rabies, or suspected cases of rabies,
continued to be reported ; nineteen of these were dogs. In
addition, there was an outbreak in a herd of cattle at South
Hadley, in August, resulting in the loss of seven or eight
cows, and possibly others in the neighborhood.

Eleven of the rabid dogs were reported during the first

No. 4] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 547

three months of the year ; since then, fewer cases have been
heard of. It is, therefore, to he hoped that those reported
early in the season were among the last of the outbreak men-
tioned in our annual report of 1897 as beginning in Decem-
ber, 1895; that it has now commenced to rapidly diminish
in frequency ; and that there will soon be no more occur-
rences of this malady in Massachusetts for several years, —
when, if history repeats itself, as it does, as a rule, there
will again be two or three years when this troublesome dis-
order will reappear.

Late in January, two cases were reported from Waltham,
one of which, it was afterward ascertained, had run from
Salem and was later found dead in Auburndale. The other
dog's origin was unknown ; but, as both seemed to have
been dangerous, the following letter was sent to the boards
of health of the towns through which the Salem dog may
have run between that city and Auburndale, where he was
found dead : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Board of Cattle Commissioners,
Commonwealth Building, Boston, Feb. 17, 1897.

To the Board of Health.

Gentlemen : — A dog belonging to Mr. E. S. Little of Salem
bit Mrs, Little January 26, and then ran away, appearing in
Waltham January 27, showing symptoms of rabies and biting
several people, and probably dogs also. A few days later his
body was found in Auburndale, evidently having died a few days
before. Rabbits inoculated from him died of septicaemia, as he
was slightly decomposed, but he was undoubtedly rabid. His
course was undoubtedly a pretty direct line between Salem and
Waltham, and he may have done some damage on his route.

Another dog known to have been rabid, whose origin is un-
known, was killed in Waltham about January 20, after having
bitten a man.

As there seems to be some danger from rabies as the result of
these two cases, we consider it our duty to report the matter to
you, in order that you may notify the police of your town to re-
port to you any dogs that may be suspicious, and, if the circum-
stances seem to warrant it, to order dogs in your town muzzled.
Yours respectfully, Austin Peteks,

Chairman.

548 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

This letter was sent to Salem, Swampscott, Lynn, Saugus,
Maiden, Medford, Lexington, Belmont, Watertown, Pea-
body, Lynnlield, Wakefield, Melrose, Stoneham, Winches-
ter, Arlington, Cambridge, Waltham and Newton.

As a number of cases of rabies were reported to Dr.
O'Connell, at Holyoke, late in January and in February,
the following letter was sent to the boards of health of
Holyoke and adjoining towns : —

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

BoABD OF Cattle Commissioners,
Commonwealth Building, Boston, Feb. 27, 1897.

Chairman Board of Health.

Dear Sir: — Dr. Maurice O'Connell of this Board reports an
outbreak of rabies among the dogs of Holyoke. We suggest, if
the circumstances seem to warrant it, that the boards of health of
Holyoke and adjoining towns order dogs to be muzzled, if run-
ning at large, or kept under restraint by their owners for ninety
days from this date.

The police of these towns should have orders to report dogs
acting strangely to the boards of health, such dogs to be secured
in a safe place and a notification at once sent to Dr. O'Connell,
who will investigate the matter, and, if possible, send the bodies
of dogs dying under suspicious circumstances to the laboratory of
the Cattle Commission, in order to ascertain definitely whether the
dog was rabid, or not.

Yours respectfully, Austin Peters,

Chairman, for the Board of Cattle Commissioners.

The above letter was sent to Holyoke, West Springfield,
Springfield, Chicopee, Westfield, Southampton, Easthamp-
ton and South Hadley.

Two cases of canine rabies were reported from Lynn, one
in May the other in July. After the one in July, the Lynn
board of aldermen, at a meeting July 20, upon the recom-
mendation of the Board of Health and Inspector of Animals,
passed an order that all dogs in Lynn should be muzzled
until October 1.

On Aug. 25, 1897, Dr. O'Connell received a very urgent
call from Mr. Myron Judd, chairman of the local board of
health for the town of South Hadley, requesting him to go
at once to the farm of Brown & Avery. The farm is located

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 549

in that part of the town known as Pearl City, a large portion
of which is situated directly at the foot of Mt. Holyoke. In
this section of the mountain it is rather woody and quite a
place for hunting dogs, as fox hunters go there a great deal.
He immediately Avent there, and found a cow, six years old,
a good-looking animal. Her condition was very bad, eyes
bulging, muscles twitching, striking the ground with her
front feet, moaning and bellowing, frothing at the mouth,
arched back, and presenting symptoms of rabies. The
animal was immediately ordered quarantined.

On August 28 he was again summoned to the same farm,
and found another cow presenting similar symptoms to the
first. The first cow seen was found dead at this visit. The
skull of No. 1 w^as opened, the brain removed and sent to
Dr. Langdon Frothingham at the Harvard Medical College.
Dr. O'Connell, having been appointed by the governor a del-
egate to the meeting of the United States Veterinary Medi-
cal Association, to be held in Nashville, September 7 to 10,
left Holyoke on September 3, Friday evening. Before going
he placed the matter in the hands of Dr. John Eoberts of
Northampton, a graduate of McGill University, Montreal,
with instructions to keep a close watch of all the animals,
and, if any of them showed symptoms of the disease, to
immediately quarantine them. Upon Dr. O'Connell's arrival
home from Nashville, on the 12th of September, he pro-
ceeded at once to the aSected farm, and learned that four
more head had died, and also that the one that was taken
on the 28th was dead. Dr. Roberts reported that five of
them died during Dr. O'Connell's absence, all presenting the
same symptoms as the first cow.

On September 13 one more was taken sick. This cow
died on the 18th, showing precisely the same actions and
symptoms as the other six, making in all seven cows which
there is good reason to believe had rabies. The man in
charge of the farm states that he lost two more cows about
two weeks previous to the first visit on August 25. He also
says that the two animals acted precisely like the ones that
died after the first visit. On September 23, Dr. Frothing-
ham reported that he had made inoculations on rabbits from
the brain of the diseased cow sent him, and that the rabbits

550 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

came down with the disease, showing unmistakable signs of
rabies, therefore confirming the original diagnosis.

On November 23, Dr. O'Connell was called to see another
cow on the same farm, showing some of the symptoms that
the other cattle had shown before death, but was very much
in doubt as to it being identically the same disease. Word
was left with the owner, if the cow died, to notify the local
inspector at once, and specimens would be taken for a sec-
ond inoculation. The owner performed his part very faith-
fully, but the local inspector failed to report the case.
About seven days after. Dr. O'Connell learned, through the
commissioners of Hampshire County, that the cow had died
on November 30 ; he proceeded at once to the farm of
Brown & Avery, exhumed the carcass, and took sections of
the spinal cord and shipped them to Dr. Frothingham.
These specimens were, however, so decomposed that it was
impossible to use them for inoculation purposes.

During the interval of the death of the last cow, Septem-
ber 18 to October 1, there were three or four more cows
that died in an adjoining pasture, one belonging to Mr.
Cameron and two to Mr. McElwain. Those cases were
never reported by the local board of health or by the cattle
inspector. All that is known about them is by hearsay ;
but it is said that their owners are to receive pay from the
county commissioners out of the dog fund. The barns
where these cattle were kept were ordered to be thoroughly
washed with boiling water and bichloride of mercury, one
part to five hundred of water. The carcasses of the animals
were buried very deep, thereby preventing them from being
eaten by dogs.

It is here recommended that all inspectors throughout the
State, whenever such cases are reported to them, shall
immediately notif}' the Cattle Commissioners ; in fact, they
are required to do so by law, as annoying complications are
likely to ensue if local authorities are lax in co-operating
with the Board of Cattle Commissioners in any cases that
may prove to be contagious animal diseases.

In addition to the symptoms described above and the
proof afibrded by inoculating rabbits from the suspected
cow, the cattle also had partly healed scars on the legs, such

No. 4.1 CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 551

as would result from the infliction of dog bites a few weeks
previously.

In many instances so-called cases of rabies may be due to
some other cause, and it is not unusual to call a dog mad
and shoot him if he acts in a peculiar manner, when he may
not have rabies. In doubtful cases it is much wiser to
secure the dog safely until some one having knowledge of
these matters can see him ; and, if there is then any uncer-
tainty, rabbits should be inoculated from the fresh medulla
and cord, in order to establish a correct diagnosis. This is
especially important if the dog has bitten any person or per-
sons ; as, if the animal is really rabid, the persons bitten
should at once be sent to the Pasteur Institute, in New
York, to undergo the protective inoculation for this fatal
and terrible malady.

In questionable cases of rabies, reported to the Board of
Cattle Commissioners, it has been considered wise to attempt
to establish the presence or absence of the disease by having
rabbits inoculated ; and in a case similar to the outbreak at
South Hadley, where the payment for cattle from the dog
fund is involved, it becomes a very important matter to
determine the exact nature of the trouble.

While it is possible a few of the cases reported to the
Board of Cattle Commissioners during the past year were
not rabid, yet in many outbreaks it has been proved by
inoculation experiments that the diagnosis was correct, in
one case that it was incorrect, and two results were neither
positive or negative, owing to the decomposed condition of
the material.

The following table shows the results of the inoculation
proof of absence or presence of rabies : —

552

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

MONTH.

City or Town.

Animal.

Result.

January, .
January, .

Boston, .
Boston, .

Dog,
Dog,

Positive.
Positive.

January, .

Boston, .

Dog,

Positive.

Januarv, .

Waltham,

Dog,

Positive.

January, .

Waltham,

Dog,

Negative ; dog ran from Salem to
Auburndale ; sent in by Dr. Peter-
son, inspector of Waltham ; rab-
bits died of septicaemia.

March,

August,

August,

Holyoke,
Holyoke,
South Hadley,

Dog,
Dog,
Cow,

Positive.

Negative.

Positive

November,

Melrose,

Dog,

Positive.

November,
December,

Sudbury,
South Hadley,

Dog,
Cow,

Positive.

Negative, because material was
not in condition to use ; rabbits

would have died of septicaemia.

The following table shows the number of cases reported
during the year, either rabid, or suspected of being so : —

MONTH.

City or Town.

Animal.

Number of Cases.

January,

Boston, .

Dog,

3

January,

Holyoke,

Dog,

2

January,

Waltham,

i>og,

2-

February,

Holvoke,

Dog,

3

March, .

Holyoke,

Dog,

1

]\Iay,

Lynn, .

Dog,

1

July,

Boston, .

Dog,

2

July,

Lynn,

Dog,

1

August, .

Holyoke,

Dog,

1

August, .

South Hadley,

Cow,

2

September,

South Hadley,

Cow,

5

November,

Sudbury,

Dog,

1

November.

Melrose,

Dog,

1

November,

South Hadley,

Cow,

1

December,

Wakefield, .

Dog,

1

Total numb

er of

cases

repo

rted.

27

Hog Cholera.

Hog cholera seems to be a term indiscriminately applied
to any disease swine may be affected with, particularly if
several in a piggery are sick at one and the same time.

True " hog cholera " is a specific disease of the pig, having

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 553

ulceration of the Peyer's patches of the intestine as a char-
acteristic lesion.

" Swine plague," so called, is a septic pneumonia of the
pig, and is sometimes produced by feeding upon decomposed
swill. Cases have occurred where "swine plague" has
been communicated from swine to horses, sheep, lambs and
calves.

Boiling the swill, where city swill is fed, will kill the
germs of " hog cholera" and of " swine plague," and after it
cools, skimming the grease off the top has also been advised.

Sometimes, after cooking the swill, the pigs will show
evidences of ' ' swine plague ; " this is probably due to the
presence of ptomanes (chemical products of a poisonous
character) that have been produced by the growth and de-
velopment of the septic germs before the swill is cooked.

" Hog cholera" and " swine plague " may both be present
in the same pig at the same time, or either may appear in a
herd of swine without being associated with the other.

Another disease that has just been brought into notice by
the issuing of a recent bulletin upon the subject by the
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, written
by Dr. Veranus A. Moore, is the poisoning of swine by wash-
ing powders and strong alkaline soaps sometimes found in
the swill of hotels and public institutions.

The name " hog cholera" is often used indiscriminately by
the public in designating these maladies, and a number of
cases are reported every year, usually during the winter and
spring months.

About the only action necessary seems to be to quarantine
the premises while the outbreak lasts, forbidding the sale of
swine while any sick ones are left, and advising against the
introduction of new ones into the infected herd ; separating the
sick and well ; disinfecting the premises when the outbreak
is over; and cooking the swill if it comes from city supplies
or public institutions. When the outbreak is over, the quar-
antine is raised.

Tuberculosis is not at all uncommon among swine ; it is
usually discovered at the time of slaughter, and is seen
chiefly among pigs kept under cow barns where there are
tuberculous cows, or, if the cows are diseased, in pens where

554 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

the cleanings from the cow stable are thrown, or among pigs
fed offal from tuberculous cattle.

For reports upon any lesions sent in for microscopic exam-
inations to Dr. Frothingham, either "hog cholera" or por-
cine tuberculosis, see Dr. Frothingham's report to the com-
missioners.

Other Diseases.

In July an outbreak of a disease of an unknown and fatal
character was reported from Edgartown. Dr. H. P. Rogers
was sent to investigate the matter, July 16 ; later, he reported
that three cows that had recently calved had died, and from
what he could ascertain, he thought they had died of partu-
rient apoplexy.

November 20, a ram was quarantined by the inspector at
Chilmark, Martha's Vineyard. Dr. H. P. Rogers was sent
to investigate this case also, the inspector believing the ani-
mal to have " sheep scab." Dr. Rogers reported, December
1, that the ram presented no evidence of " scab."

July 27, Mr. Freeman Hancock of West Tisbury wrote
the Board concerning a bowel trouble that attacked members
of his family, as the result of using milk from his cows, the
first of it being in 1895. Dr. Madison Bunker of Newton
was sent to investigate this matter, and made the following
report : —

Newton, Mass., Aug. 8, 1897.
Di". Austin Peters, Chairman, Cattle Coniinissio7i.

Dear Doctor : — In accordance with your instructions, I went
to "West Tisbury this week and made a visit to the farm of Free-
man Hancock.

I found this to be the state of affairs, viz. : at intervals since
October, 1895, there has been trouble with milk from three differ-
ent cows that have been in his pasture ; this trouble has been in
the spring and in the fall, when the feed has been most succulent
and thickest. The milk has been thick when allowed to stand, and
the cream would when handled hold together and be ropy like cold
molasses, — no smell, no color, no taste.

It has caused diarrha?a in the whole family, with excessive
nausea in a ten-months-old child, whose stools were very fluid and
very dark green. The child nearly died before the cause was
ascertained ; as soon as the use of this milk was stopped, recovery
came in all the cases. The local physician is said to have found
pus in the milk.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 555

A change of cows has been made twice, with cessation of the
trouble for some weeks or months, and then a recurrence of the
trouble.

The young cow of which Mr. Hancock spoke as having had the
trouble lately, has been put in the next pasture, since which time
there has been no trouble with her. He has still the old cow in
the pasture, but he is raising calves on her, so does not know
how her milk now is. I asked him to save some of her milk, try
it and report to you. The pasture is a good pasture of the kind,
not ver}' rich nor very much run out ; has been used for seventy
years by this family, and is a part of the location upon which the
settlers built when the land was bought from the Indians by Wil-
liam or Thomas May hew. There are from seventy to one hundred
acres in it. I drove over and around it, but saw no growth or
weed which would give me any clue to the trouble, with the pos-
sible exception of a strip of land bordering upon a pond, into
which the sea breaks, but that is not open, upon which a blue grass
grows, and which had been pretty well eaten down, but whether
by the cows alone or by the sheep, I could not say.

The water supply is fresh and brackish ; there are water holes
around the fences, one or two close to this pond, the others one-
quarter of a mile away, and then some not so far. Water at barn
good and free from taste ; drainage away from well. Samples of
both cows' milk and of pasture and barn water were taken and
sent to Dr. Frothiugham ; also Mr. Hancock's letter to you, with a
request to report to you.

My idea of the trouble is that it is all within the pasture, as
when changed from the pasture the milk is all right, also when in
the barn. Cows are healthy and bag of old cow OK. Young cow
I did not see, as she was some distance away.

I suggested to the owner that he watch his cow as to feeding
grounds, and also tramp the pasture to find any weeds. No
swamp, no brush in field to cause trouble or for her to browse on.
Yours very trul}^, Madison Bunkek.

A few days later Dr. Frothingham reported upon the
s|)ecimens brought by Dr. Bunker as follows : —

Boston, Aug. 13, 1897.

C. C, 77. — Milk and Water from Freeman Hancock, Mariha^s Vineyard.

From the report received, it seems more than probable that the

trouble with Mr. Freeman's cows is referable to some poisonous

substance existing in the old pasture. That this substance is of

556 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

bacterial origin is not probable, but rather some plant, the poison-
ous alkaloid of which is excreted in the milk. It would be next
to impossible to discover the unknown alkaloid, even if the milk
were chemically examined. It also seems unnecessary to under-
take a detailed bacteriological examination of either milk or water.
A microscopical examination of the ceutrifugalized milk from
the "old cow" shows a very limited number of pus cells, not
enough to warrant a diagnosis of any suppurative process in the
udder ; less, in fact, than one often finds in the best milk.

Frothingham.

Mr. Hancock was written to, informing liim of Dr.
Bunker's and Dr. Frothingham's conclusions ; and, as the
trouble only appears when the cows are in a certain pasture,
he was advised to keep them elsewhere, and use the pasture
where the difficulty exists, for sheep.

At the same time, it would be interesting to know defi-
nitely what there is in this pasture that causes the milk to
be unwholesome for human food, while the general health of
the animals appears to be undisturbed.

Respectfully submitted,

AUSTIN PETERS, Chairman,
JOHN M. PARKER, Secretary,
MAURICE O'CONNELL,
LEANDER F. HERRICK,
CHARLES A. DENNEN,

Board of Cattle Commissioners.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 557

Appendix A.

REPORT BY LANGDON FROTHINGHAM, M.D.V.

To llie Massachusetts Board of Cattle Commissioners.

Gentlemen : — I herewith submit a report of my work from
March 1 to Dec. 11, 1897. It has consisted of the examination of
organs or portion of organs received from the inspectors or other
agents of this commission. Where it was deemed necessary to
establish the exact nature of a pathological change, not sufficiently
evident by a macroscopic examination, a microscopic examination
was resorted to, or inoculation. The specimens examined will be
found classified in an appended table. Besides this, it has been
my duty to establish the presence or absence of glanders and
rabies in suspected cases by approved methods. Classified tables
relating to these diseases are also appended.

Tuberculosis.

The number of tuberculous lesions has not been large, and they
were, as a rule, not unusual. One case of marked tuberculosis of
the larynx and one of tuberculosis of the trachea are rare, because
perhaps, not often sought for. The most interesting specimens
were those of miliary tuberculosis of the udder, of which there
were three. Such cases are doubly interesting, since it is fre-
quently impossible to differentiate them from other udder lesions
before death, and even in some instances upon the autopsy table
the existence of tubercles can only be suspected ; yet the micro-
scopic examination may show minute tubercles thickly scattered
throughout the gland, and it is hardly possible to conceive that in
such cases tubercle bacilli do not find their way into the milk.

Actinomycosis.

Actinomycosis of the udder, when the foci are small, may easily
be confounded with tuberculosis, and a differential diagnosis is
only possible by a microscopic examination. Two such cases have
been examined. Actinomycosis of the lungs, when the lesions are
small, may easily be mistaken for tuberculosis, if a macroscopic

558 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

examination alone is made. One such case is here reported. Only
one other instance of this disease was received, and this the usual
and easily diagnosticated tumor of the jaw (lump jaw).

Glanders.

The work in this direction has consisted in making a positive or
negative diagnosis in suspected cases, according to the method of
Strauss (the interabdominal inoculation of male guinea-pigs with
suspected discharges) . At first the material for inoculation was
collected personally, but it was found more expedient for the
inspector who visited such cases to obtain the suspected discharge,
and bring it, as soon as possible, to the laboratory. It was,
therefore, arranged that such inspector should carry with him the
following : a test tube properly plugged with absorbent cotton,
containing a swab of absorbent cotton wrapped about the end of
a stout wire ; the whole thoroughly sterilized before being placed
in the inspector's hands. As much as possible of the suspicious
discharge (nasal or from a farcy-bud) is collected upon this swab,
at once returned to the test tube and brought to the laboratory.
Here sterilized water is added, the cotton swab freed from the
wire and left in the water. This is then violently shaken, until
all large particles of the discharge are dissolved, the cottoa
squeezed as dry as possible with sterile forceps, and the solution
thus obtained used for inoculation, two guinea-pigs being inva-
riably employed. Unfortunately, the guinea-pig is not as sus-
ceptible an animal as one could desire for such work, but is the
only accessible one, and if virulent glanders bacilli are present in
sufficient number, the typical lesions of the testicle appear in from
two to five days after inoculation. In only one instance of a pos-
itive inoculation were these lesions absent, and in this case cult-
ures of the glanders bacillus were obtained from the spleen
sixteen days after inoculation, when the animal was killed. A
second guinea-pig, however, inoculated at the same time, showed
the testicle lesions on the second day.

A glance at the annexed table may intimate a preponderance of
negative results ; but it must be remembered that these inocula-
tions were undertaken for the purpose of diagnosis, and that
these horses were only doubtful cases of glanders. The more sus-
picious negative cases were tested twice, to be doubly sure of the
absence of glanders bacilli. One horse that gave a negative test
was subsequently killed, and glanders nodules found in the lungs
at autopsy ; no lesions were found upon its nasal septum, how-
ever, and only a clear, watery discharge from the nose had been

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

559

obtained for iuoculation. Several other negative tests were also
made, where the discharge used was unsatisfactory. It is interest-
ing to note that in all the positive inoculations the discharge was
obtained from the left nostril, while in the negative inoculations
the discharge was, in the majority of cases, from the right, or, as
above stated, unsatisfactory. In only one positive case was a
second inoculation necessary, and here because the pigs died
about thirty-six hours after inoculation, of peritonitis, due to
other organisms than the glanders bacillus present in the dis-
charge.

A most interesting positive iuoculation was from a man in
Lynn. There was a clear history of his having a wound upon the
hand, and of his constant attendance upon horses suspected of
having glanders. When seen, the lesions of glanders upon the
hand had healed to such an extent that it was impossible to
obtain material for inoculation. At that time he had had these
lesions and enlarged axillary glands for about three months.
From a sluggish lesion upon the instep, however, a serous dis-
charge was obtained, which, when inoculated into guinea-pigs,
gave rapid and positive results.

Rabies.

But few cases of this disease have been investigated. They are
classified in a special table. The most interesting was that of a
cow, this animal being supposed to have been bitten by a doo-
some time before she showed symptoms of disease ; and rabbits,
inoculated according to the method of Pasteur, gave positive
results. This cow was one where several others died in a herd at
South Hadley, showing similar symptoms, and having scars of
dog-bites on their legs.

Tables.

[It is assumed that, where an organ was tuberculous, the lympathic glands of
that organ were also tuberculous. Hence in the following table only such glands
are mentioned as were sent unaccompanied Ijv other organs.]

Specimens Examined.
Cattle : —

Aberrant supra-renal tissue in the kidney, 1

Abscess ofliver, 9

Abscess of udder, . . . . • 2

Adenoma of pancreas, .1

Actinomycosis of lung, . ........ 1

Actinomycosis of udder, » . , 2

Actinomycosis of superior maxillary bone, . .... 1

Angioma ofliver 1

560 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Atalectasis, 1

Atalectasis and bronchitis, 2

Bronchitis (chronic), 2

Cancer of omentum, ' . . . .1

Cysts of udder, 2

Cysts of kidney, 1

Dermoid cyst, 1

Fat foci in liver, 1

Fat foci in muscle, 1

Foreign body in heart, 1

(Esophagostoma, 2

Nephritis (chronic), 1

Mastitis, 3

Multiple necrosis of liver, 1

Pleuritis, . 1

Pneumonia, 12

Tuberculosis of lungs, 8

Tuberculosis of lungs and pleura, 4

Tuberculosis of liver (peritoneal surface only), . ... 2

Tuberculosis of larynx, 1

Tuberculosis of lymphatic glands (only glands sent), . . 5

Tuberculosis of omentiim, 1

Tuberculosis of trachea, 1

Tuberculosis of udder, 4

Texas fever, 5

— 82

Swine : —

Bronchitis and atalectasis, I

Hepatitis (chronic interstitial), ...:... 1

Hog cholera, •, . . 2

Hydronephrosis, 1

Pericarditis (chronic), 1

Pleuritis (chronic), 1

Pneumonia and pleuritis, 1

Pneumonia 2

Tuberculosis of lungs, 5

Tuberculosis of liver, 3

— 18

Horses : —

Fibro-cysto- adenoma of intestine, 1

Glanders of lymphatic glands, 2

Glanders of lung, 2

Glanders of nasal septum, 2

— 7

Normal organs examined, 24

Doubtful diagnosis, 3

Decomposed, 3

_ 30

Total of specimens examined, 137

No. 4.]

CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

561

Inoculations for Diagnosis of Glanders.

Ncgiitive. Positive.

Inoculation of nasal discharge from suspected horses, 12 6

Inoculation of discharge from sujjposed farcy-bud, . 3 3

Inoculation of discharge from lesion on instep of man, - 1

15

24

Babies, 1897.

ANIMAL.

Town.

Rabbits
Inoculated.

Appearance of
First Symptoms.

Days
Elapsed.

Newfoundland dog, .

Holyoke,

March 24,

April 6,

13

Pug dog, .

Lynn,

June 4,

June 16,

12

Cow, ....

Holyoke,

August 31,

September's!,

21

French poodle, .

Melrose,

November 13,

November 29,

16

Number of negative inoculations,
Still under observation,

Disposition of Tuberculous Animals and the Restriction of
Tuberculosis in Cattle.
Your honorable Board has requested me to express an opinion
as to the existing laws regarding the disposition of tuberculous
animals and methods of restriction of tuberculosis in cattle.

Disposition of Tuberculous Animals.
According to the letter of the present law, if a single tubercle,
not even the size of a pin's head, is discovered in the body of an
animal, such animal cannot be used for food, but is consigned to
the rendering tank ; moreover, the State must pay the owner of
such animal its full value. Such a law, it seems to me, sanctions
wanton waste of excellent food, and is far removed from the
ground principles of economic science. The laws of the most
advanced European States have been the outcome of careful obser-
vation, practical experience and scientific study. For the most
part, they are essentially the same as the United States law cover-
ing this subject, and for the State of Massachusetts I advocate a
law more in harmony with these than the present one is.

Tlie Restriction of Tuberculosis in Cattle.
Though feeling strongly that our existing laws relating to this
much-debated subject are inadequate, I am, without much more
careful thought and study, unwilling to suggest others.

562 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The thorough science of the Germans is universally respected ;
their laws covering every grade of meat inspection are admirable,
and the result of the best thought and scientific study of men well
able, therefore, to dictate ; yet at present there are no laws in
Germany especially relating to the subject in hand. The nation
is not idle, however, and is carefully watching and investigating
the experiments in progress in other countries, and, as an eminent
scientist of our own land has perhaps well said, when they do
adopt measures for the restriction of tuberculosis in cattle they will
probably be wisely economic, more efficacious and in every way
better than have as yet been attempted. I, therefore, advocate
wise delay and a careful study of the shortly forthcoming recom-
mendation to the German government now being prepared by one
Avho has recently returned from Denmark, where he was sent to
make an exhaustive study of Bang's work, methods and results.
In these recommendations we may find many valuable suggestions
applicable to our country with but slight alteration. At least,
they inay offer us new and better lines upon Avhich to proceed.
Nothing is to be gained by extreme haste. Tuberculosis has been
of very gradual growth in our cattle, and it is possible that its
decrease and final control must be also a gradual process. The
peculiar nature of the disease seems to indicate this ; it is not an
acute infectious disease, and, therefore, should not be treated as
such.

Before proceeding too hastily, would it not be judicious to
inquire thoughtfully into the cause of the present crusade against
tuberculous cattle? I therefore suggest the following for careful
consideration : —

Why the slaughter of so many tuberculous cattle and the waste
of so much good food ? If the answer to this question is that it
is to protect human beings against tuberculosis, we must then con-
sider the following questions : Are tuberculous cattle and their
products a cause of tuberculosis in man? If so, to what extent?
Are there not other causes far more dangerous, and hence much
more important to control ?

In partial answer to the above queries it may be said that,
although many cases of tuberculosis in human beings are thought
to be directly traceable to cattle, not one, in the vast literature
upon the subject of tuberculosis, has been authentically estab-
lished, so that this question is still an open one. On the contrary,
it is universally acknowledged that tuberculous people, especially
through their sputum, are an immense source of infection to other
people and to themselves. That tuberculosis in man may, in some
iustaiices, be referable to tuberculous cattle, I firmly believe ; but

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 563

this source of danger is greatly miniraized, when we consider other
possibilities of infection.

Careful and regular inspection of dairy herds by competent
veterinarians is, in my opinion, a duty that the State should not
ignore ; but that the inspectors should limit themselves to the
detection of tuberculosis only, I believe to be unwise. Various
inflammatory and septic conditions of the udder, for instance, are
acknowledged causes of bad, unwholesome milk ; it is, therefore,
evident that milk from such udders should never be used. Pure
milk, however, is dependent upon the general health of the ani-
mals supplying it, and this, in turn, is dependent upon good
hygienic surroundings. Bad hygienic conditions, again, are con-
ducive to the spread of tuberculosis ; hence, broad work in this
direction would materially assist in reducing the amount of tuber-
culosis in cattle. Therefore, until manifestly sound laws for the
direct suppression of tuberculosis in cattle are forthcoming, there
is a wide field for energetic labor which indirectly will gradually
be attaining a similar end.

Respectfully submitted,

LANGDON FROTHINGHAM.

564 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Appendix B.

PRELIMINARY REPORT UPON A COMPARATIVE STUDY
OF TUBERCLE BACILLI FROM MAN (SPUTUM) AND
FROM CATTLE.

BY THEOBALD SMITH, M.D.

For a number of years past the writer has been impressed with
certain differences in the lesions produced in the guinea-pig by
the tubercular products of cattle, on the one hand, and by sputum
from human beings containing many tubei'cle bacilli, on the
other. These differences are not great, nor are they easily de-
scribed ; but they were of sufficient moment to induce the writer
to attempt some experiments, to find out to what extent they
depended on differences in the bacilli of human and of bovine
tuberculosis, and whether such differences were of sufficient in-
tensity to be brought out by the bacteriological and pathological
methods in use.

A beginning was made in 1895 with a fresh culture of bovine
tubercle bacilli and a fresh culture of bacilli from an animal
{Nasua narica) which had lived with a tuberculous master. It
was assumed then, and all evidence is in favor of the assumption,
that this animal had been infected from its master, and that the
tubercle bacilli obtained from it could be classed as human. The
careful study of other sputum bacilli subsequently also supports
this assumption. The experiments made with these cultures have
been fully reported elsewhere,* but I shall include them in the
summary of the work done more recently, as the methods pursued
are the same, and the results therefore comparable. No oppor-
tunity was given to continue this work until this year (1897),
when the Board of Cattle Commissioners offered to furnish me
cattle and to provide the food for their maintenance during the
period of the experiments. At the same time, the State Board of
Health, fully cognizant of the important bearing of this work

* Transactions Association American Pliysicians for 1896, pp. 75-93; twelfth
and thirteenth annual reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, p. 149.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 565

upon the public health, authorized me to use its laboratory facil-
ities, without which aid a further pursuit of the subject would
have been impossible. Some of the work was also done in the
newly established laboratory of comparative pathology of the
Harvard Medical School.

A full report of this work, including a description of the method
employed for cultivating the bacilli of tuberculosis, the prelimi-
nary experiments upon small animals (rabbits and guinea-pigs)
and the microscopic study of the diseased tissues of the animals
experimented upon, will be given at another time. In this report
I shall restrict myself to that portion of the work having reference
to the immediate relationship and differences between human
(sputum) and bovine tubercle bacilli, as determined by experiments
upon cattle.

Inasmuch as up to the time of the first experiment nothing was
known of the effects of bovine tubercle bacilli inoculated into
cattle, and very little, if anything, of the effects of tubercle bacilli
from man inoculated into the same species, the methods of deal-
ing with this subject had to be, as it were, developed during the
course of the work. One thing, however, was deemed essential.
The tests to be made with human and with bovine bacilli upon
cattle must be conducted under as uniform conditions as were pos-
sible, under the circumstances. Only by showing differences in
the action of tubercle bacilli from these two sources under the
same conditions can we prove any actually existing differences in
the bacilli themselves. Absolute uniformity was unattainable, but
I think the records will show with few exceptions a uniformity in
all important details.

In all cases the various cultures of tubercle bacilli were isolated
by me. Cultures of unknown age and source, borrowed fi*om
others, were not employed. Products of the disease, tuberculous
tissue from cattle, in one case from swine, and sputum from human
subjects were inoculated into guinea-pigs, and from them, after
three to six weeks, cultures on dog's serum were obtained. These
were tested subsequently upon rabbits and guinea-pigs, and lastly
on cattle.

The mode of testing the cultures upon cattle deserves a brief
description. In all cases the growth on blood serum was stirred
up in sterile bouillon until a clouded suspension was obtained,
which corresponded in depth to a bouillon culture of typhoid or
hog-cholera bacilli about twenty-four to thirty-six hours old.
This was injected with a hypodermic syringe into the thoracic
cavity through the right chest wall, the intent being to deposit at
least a portion of the suspension in the lung tissue. This method

566 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

of introducing the bacilli was chosen because it was likely to
furnish the most uniform conditions, and also because tuberculosis
of the organs of the chest is the most frequent form of disease
among cattle.

Experiment I. — This, as stated above, was made in 1895, with
two cultures, one from an old bull, with advanced generalized
disease, involving also some of the bones, the other from a tuber-
culous animal probably infected from its tuberculous master.

Two heifers were inoculated with these cultures, as described
above. The one receiving the bovine culture died in thirty-five
days, with miliary tuberculosis of the lungs and general tuber-
culosis disseminated throughout the body. The one receiving the
presumably human culture showed no signs of disease, and when
killed fiftj'-four days after inoculation, not even a local lesion
could be traced.

Experiment II. — This experiment was carried out two years
later, in 1897, and included four head of cattle. The tubercle
bacilli were obtained from the following sources : —

Sputum culture II,, from a rapid case of phthisis in New Bedford,
Mass.

Sputum culture III., from a subsequently fatal case of phthisis in
Norwood, Mass.

Bovine culture II., from an old cow slaughtered in Lawrence, Mass.,
in which there was slight disease of the lungs and mediastinal glands
(specimens brought me hy Dr. Alexander Burr).

Swine culture I., from swine living under a cow barn in Massachusetts
(specimens obtained by Dr. Austin Peters). This culture in every
way appeared identical Avith the bovine cultures, and this, together
■with the fact that the swine were exposed to infection from cattle, led
me to assume that this was a bovine culture in origin.

On May 1, 1897, these four cultures were injected into four
head of cattle. The total age of the cultures, or, in other woi'ds,
the total period of time during which they had been growing on
dog's serum, was as follows : —

Sputum culture II., five months, nine days old, eighth transfer.
Sputum culture HI., two months, fifteen days old, fourth transfer.
Bovine culture II., five months, two days old, fifth transfer.
Swine culture I , eleven months, twenty-three days old, sixteenth
transfer.

Assuming that tubercle bacilli become slowly weakened in
virulence by artificial cultivation, we should endeavor to use
cultures as fresh and of as nearly the same age as possible. This

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 5fi7

theoretical demand cannot be successfully met, because of the
many difficulties surrounding such work. Of the four cultures
used, sputum II. and bovine II. are of nearly the same age, while
sputum III. is but half as old as they, and swine I. more than
twice as old. In making the injection, the space between the
sixth and the seventh rib was chosen. The needle was inserted
about three inches above the level of the elbow (olecranon proc-
ess). It was found subsequently at the autopsy that the point
chosen was too low, and that in all of the animals the needle,
leaving the lungs intact, pierced the diaphragm. Some of the
bacilli were thus discharged into the abdominal cavity.

Bearing this unforeseen accident in mind, we may now go to a
description of the further history of the inoculated cattle. They
were all housed in a spacious, well-ventilated barn, in large, com-
modious horse stalls. A piece of ground adjoining the barn was
enclosed, and in this the animals spent six to seven hours a day
for about four weeks. Thereafter the animals were separated
into two lots, one lot being out several hours in the morning, the
other several hours in the afternoon. The two which received
the bovine and the swine culture were allowed to run together,
similarly the two which received the sputum cultures. It might
be claimed that there was in this arrangement a possible danger
of transmitting the bacilli from one animal to another, and of
infecting the ground. There was no evidence of this at the post-
mortem examination ; and the arrangement was considered safe
at the start, because it takes some time for the tuberculous tissue
to become disintegrated. Only when this has set in can we con-
sider the passage of bacilli from one animal to another possible.
It was, however, deemed prudent not to keep the animals longer
than two months, on account of the imperfect isolation.

In apportioning the cultures to the animals, the sputum cultures
were injected into the youngest animals, in order that these cult-
ures might have any advantage likely to accrue from differences
in age. Two yearlings (without any permanent incisor teeth)
received the two sputum cultures, the bovine culture was injected
into a heifer about two and one-half years old, the swine culture
into a heifer about two years old.

They were killed and examined at the Brighton abattoirs, with
the co-operation of the Board, just two months after the day of
the injection. Before inoculation these animals had been tested
with tuberculin b}' the Board, and found free from tuberculosis.
Still, since this agent occasionally allows an animal to escape
which contains foci of the disease, attention was directed to this
point at the autopsies. No lesion, however, was found, which

568 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

from its situation aud appearance could be referred to any former
spontaneous infection.

Let us examine first the effect of sputum culture II. and bovine
culture II. which were of nearly the same age when injected.

The weight of the yearling (2616) receiving the sputum culture
had risen in the two months from 520 to 580 pounds, that of the
heifer (2635) from 650 to 710 pounds. There was no continuous
fever recognized in either animal, though the temperature was
taken twice a day, morning and afternoon. The fluctuations
noticed were evidently due to the effect of the sun while the
animals were in the enclosure.

The lesions in the yearling (2616) were very slight. At the seat of
inoculation, between the sixth and seventh ribs, a mass of tubercles
attached to pleura about one by one-half inch dimension, the tubercles
composing it partly cheesy, partly firm. Near cephalic border of
ventral lobe of right lung, a sub-pleural nodule, not yet necrotic, about
one-eighth inch in diameter. On abdominal aspect of diaphragm, right
side, about twenty-four isolated tubercles, each one-twelfth to one-eighth
inch in diameter, uniformly yellowish in color. A few similar tubercles
on the omentum. Slight adhesion of omentum. When adhesion
removed, about six or seven nodules found on caecum, one-twelfth inch
in diameter. Evidently the injection needle had passed through dia-
phragm into abdomen, deposited some fluid there and some in thorax
when partly withdrawn.

The lesions in the heifer which had received the bovine culture
were quite extensive, and were diffused through thorax and
abdomen, owing to the penetration of the diaphragm by the needle
of the injection syringe : —

Thorax : The right pleural cavity shows an abimdant eruption of
tubercles along the lateral margin of the ribs. Some of the masses
formed are characteristically flattish, grape-like, and in bulk quite large.
One mass measured eight by three by one inch. Others of similar
dimensions were present. On the lateral margin of the right lung a
series of loosely attached flattish neoplasms, up to two inches in diameter,
besides hypersemic fringes of loose connective tissue. On the convex
surface of this limg only a few tubercles. Large patches of tubercles on
pericardium and diaphragm.

Li the muscular portion of diaphragm, right side, a mass of tuber-
culous tissue (probably place where needle penetrated) , one and one-
half by one and one-half by one-half inch in dimension. The most caudal
of the series of dorsal mediastinal glands about twice normal size, on
account of the presence of many small foci, showing in some cases an
opaque, yellowish centre.

Abdomen: The omentum densely studded with agglomerations of
tubercles, covering the greater part of its surface. These masses vary

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 569

up to one-half inch in thickness. Similar patches on abdominal aspect
of diaphragm and on spleen. Fewer patches on gall bladder and on the
liver. In one of the portal glands a one-qnarter inch focus, pale, grayish,
permeated with small, calcareous spicules.

We have in these cases a wide divergence in the result of the
inoculation. The human bacillus produced a slight eruption of
small, tubercle-like bodies, which did not even present microscop-
ically the characters of true tubercles ; while the bovine bacillus
produced an exquisite case of pearly disease both in thorax and
abdomen, with the formation of large, grape-like masses in the
chest. These, under the microscope, presented all the characters
of genuine tubercles, and contained tubercle bacilli.

The youngest sputum culture (No. III.) was injected into a
yearling weighing 410 pounds. At the end of two months the
weight had risen to 480 pounds. The lesions found are slight : —

On the abdominal aspect of diaphragm, right side, a patch of isolated
tubercles about two inches in diameter, the tubercles themselves about
one-sixth inch diameter, and about one-half inch apart. They are
grayish, opaque. At place of inoculation, on serous aspect of ribs a
flattish neoplasm, one inch in diameter and about one-eighth inch, thick.
Other lesions not detected.

In this case also the needle evidently entered abdomen through
diaphragm. The notes show very little disturbance as the result
of the inoculation.

The swine culture was injected into a somewhat older animal,
weighing 620 pounds. After two mouths the weight was 660
pounds. The autopsy showed the following condition : —

At place of inoculation (right chest wall) a subcutaneous tumor about
two inches in diameter, made up of a very dense connective tissue sac
one-quarter inch thick, and which encloses a pale, yellowish semifluid
mass. . . . There are besides this focus in the same situation three
smaller nodules, from one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter, the
largest with caseous centre. On the pleural aspect a similar one-half
inch centrally softened focus.

In nearly the centre of the right half of diaphragm and projecting
into abdomen for one-half inch is a tumor representing a portion of a
larger focus in the muscular portion of the diaphragm about one inch in
diameter. This focus is likewise caseous diffluent centrally. On all the
ribs of right pleural cavity are eruptions of small tubercles, reaching in
some instances a diameter of one-eighth inch. Besides the palpable
tubercles there is along one border of each rib a line of vascular fringes
of connective tissue. In many of these fringes tubercles not noticed,
although the fringes themselves are evidently a result of the injection.

570 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Along the lateral border of the right lung similar vascular fringes of
tissue containing tubercles. These fringes extend dorsad for about two
inches on ventral and cephalic lobes.

Diffuse eruption of minute tubercles on pleural aspect of diaphragm,
right half

Large caudal mediastinal gland contains large numbers of tubercles,
varying in size from mere points to those one-eightli inch in diameter,
and showing beginning necrosis. Left bronchial gland several times
normal size. Ventral mediastinal gland several times normal size, and
containing several large centrally caseoiis foci. One mesenteric gland
contains several small necrotic tubercles.

In this case many of the bacilli had been deposited in the fleshy
portion of the diaphragm and some under the skin, and they were
thus prevented from exerting their greatest power ; nevertheless,
the lesions are quite severe. It is not improbable that this culture
would have been much more destructive had it been used six or
seven months earlier.

Experiment III. — This comprised six head of cattle. The
details of the experiment do not differ from those of experiment
II. The animals had been tested with tuberculin under the direc-
tion of the Board.

The cultures of tubercle bacilli used in these tests were from
cases of human and bovine disease, and comparatively fresh : —

Sputum culture IV., six months, ten days old, from a case of phthisis
in Melrose, Mass. Patient was subsequentlj- reported recovered.

Sputum culture V., one month, nineteen days old, from a case of
phthisis of about two years' standing (New Hampshire).

Sputum culture VI., one month, twelve days old, from a case of
phthisis in Winthrop, Mass.

Bovine culture III., four months, seven days old, from a cow with
advanced lesions of lungs and liver (probably from Carlisle, Mass.).

Bovine culture IV., four months, three days old, from a cow with
slight disease of mediastinal glands.

Bovine culture V., four months, three days old, from a cow with
moderate disease of the lungs and portal gland.

This set of cultures is thus younger than the preceding set, with
odds in favor of two of tlie sputum cultures. The bovine cultures
were of nearly the same age.

The animals at my disposal were, unfortunately, not of the
same age, and in assigning the cultures the advantage was given
to the human cultures : —

Sputum IV., yearling, 525 pounds, no permanent incisor teeth.
Bovine III., yearling bull, 645 pounds, no permanent incisor teeth.
Sputum v., cow, 676 pounds, about four years old.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 571

Bovine IV., cow, 850 pounds, about twelve years old.

Sputiuii VI., cow, 865 pounds, about three and one-half years old.

Bovine V., cow, 875 pounds, about six years old.

The injection of the cultures was carried out as in experiment
II., excepting that the point of insertion of the needle was chosen
higlier up, about eleven inches above the elbow of the animal
when in the standing position. The lengtli of the needles used
was about two inches.

The care of the animals was the same as that bestowed on the
preceding lot, excepting that the bovine and the sputum animals
were kept separate in the out-door enclosure from the start, the
one lot being out in the morning, the other in the afternoon.
They were kept two months, with the exception of the young bull
(bovine culture III.), which died seventeen days after the inocu-
lation. The four cows of this lot gave at the start altogether
about eight quarts of milk. The amount slowly diminished, until
in the sixth week a very little, amounting perhaps to one quart in
two days, was removed. The milking was continued chiefly to
prevent any udder troubles during the' experiment, and to main-
tain normal conditions. The temperature was taken but once a
day, at noon.

In comparing the temperature records of these six animals, it
was noticed that the three animals which received the bovine cult-
ures had a high temperature immediately after the inoculation,
which lasted until the death of the bull and about three weeks for
the remaining two animals. At the same time, no such elevation
of temperature was recorded for the animals receiving the three
sputum cultures. There was but one well-defined rise of tempera-
ture in case of the yearling, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
day after inoculation. The other irregularities are probably due
to the fact that the temperature was usually taken after these
animals had been in the enclosure in the sunshine for several
hours. Those with the high temperature were kept much of the
time in the cool barn in the morning, which probably depressed
the fever curve somewhat. These temperature records are given
at the end of this article. After the period of fever no other
elevations were noted up to the close of the experiment.

The young bull, inoculated with bovine culture III., showed, be-
sides the prompt onset of a high temperature, general and local
disturbances about a week after the inoculation. The breathing
became rapid, the appetite had partly gone. Emaciation and
weakness supervened. He was unable to get up September 11,
and died the following night.

572 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The autopsy revealed a severe miliary tuberculosis of both
lungs, with marked congestion and oedema of the organ. Normal
collapse no longer possible. The associated lymph glands were
much enlarged and infiltrated with minute tubercles. Patches of
minute tubercles were found on the pleural covering of ribs and
on the omentum. In the liver many minute tubercles were found
in sections. In these, as well as in the tubercles of the lungs and
mediastinal glands, tubercle bacilli were very abundant. The
other organs have not yet been examined microscopically.

On October 27, the remaining five animals were killed at the
Brighton abattoirs, with the co-operation and assistance of the
Board.

The three sputum animals had all gained in weight : —

Yearling (sputum IV.), from 525 to 610 pounds.
Cow (sputum v.), from 675 to 750 pounds.
Cow (sputum VI.), from 865 to 960 pounds.

No. 79 (sputum culture IV.). — Yearling. One permanent incisor
on the right has appeared since date of inoculation. In utero a foetus
about three months old. At point of inoculation in the subcutaneous
tissue a small nodule about one-quarter inch diameter, with contents
soft, cheesy. Attached to this is another smaller nodule, about one-
eighth inch diameter.

On the right side of chest wall, pleural aspect, there are attached
along the six caudal ribs, soft, dark-red, pendulous masses of newly
formed connective, highly vascular tissue. At point of inoculation,
between seventh and eighth ribs, a flatfish pedicled mass of tissue of
brownish-red color. On the tenth rib another mass, about three-
eighths inch diameter. The left side of thorax is normal.

Right lung : On the small (cephalic and ventral) lobes newly formed,
delicate fringes of hyperiemic connective tissue, which appears along
the free lateral margin as a delicate band about one-half inch broad, as
well as on a portion of the surface of the lung, occupying exclusively
the lines representing the boundaries of the lobules.

In the large caudal lobe, which is similarly beset with the vascular
fringes, a tumor, representing the place where needle penetrated lung
tissue, projecting slightly above the convex siu-face, is found two inches
from the caudal tijj. This tumor, about three-quarters inch in diameter,
contained a completely disintegrated mass and about a dozen foci, one-
sixteenth to one-eighth inch in diameter, with yellow softeiaed centre.
On the margin of this same lobe, in addition to the vascular fringes are
four firm masses of grayish tissue, smooth, flattish, attached by pedicles
to margin of the lobe Their largest diameter is from one-quarter to
one-half inch.

On large (caudal) lobe of left lung there is only a very little develop-
ment of vascular fringes. Imbedded in the same lobe near lateral
margin is a uniformly grayish, slightly translucent mass, sharply defined
from the enveloping normal lung tissue.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 573

Attached to the cephalic lobe of the left lung by a pedicle is a small,
flattish, smooth mass of new tissue.

The pleural aspect of diaphragm and portions of the pericardium are
covered with areas of the highly vascular, neoplastic tissue. In some,
small nodules can be felt at the free extremity of this tissue.

On the right ventricular surface of the heart four flattish pedicled
masses, about as large as split peas, are attached.

The various lymph gland systems, ventral and dorsal mediastinal and
bronchial glands, do not show the presence of tubercles or any augmenta-
tion of size.

No. 39 (sputum culture V.). — Cow about four years old. In utero
a foetus three to four months old.

Development of vascular fringes along one border of ribs of the right
side of thorax, as in preceding case, but amount slight, compared with
that case. In the intercostal muscles at the point of inoculation a mass
of perhaps a dozen small, grayish tubercles.

Right lung : In the large caudal lobe, in the same situation as pre-
ceding case, a projecting tumor about one inch in diameter When
incised it is found composed of two one-half inch foci of disintegrated
cheesy-viscid matter, enclosed in thin, smooth capsules. No sur-
rounding infiltration.

Along the margin and on the caudal surface of this lobe slight devel-
opment of pendulous vascular tissue and a sessile tubercle about three-
sixteenths inch diameter. On the left caudal lobe only very slight
production of vascular tissue.

On the surface of one of the middle dorsal mediastinal glands an
aggregation of minute tubercles one-half inch in diameter. Imbedded
in the cortex of the same gland two minute tubercles.

No. 76 (sputum culture VI.).— In utero a fcetus about four
months old.

Within the thorax, on the right side, between the seventh and eighth
ribs, is a small, pedicled, blackish (hemorrhagic) mass of firm tissue
about as large as a pumpkin seed, another on the tenth rib. On most
of the ribs behind the seventh are gelatinous-looking pendulous
vascular fringes of neoplastic tissue. On the pleural surface of the
diaphragm a similar development of vascular tissue and several firm
pedicled masses like those on ribs.

Of the right lung the cephalic lobe shows very slight formation of
marginal fringes. In the ventral lobe, whose tip is adherent to the
pericardial fat, a uniformly grayish, sharply defined focus, one-quarter
inch in diameter.

In the same situation as in the preceding cases the caudal lobe shows
a slightly projecting tumor, about one and three-quarters inches in
diameter externally. When incised it is found to consist of a smooth-
walled sac, one and one quarter inches diameter, containing a yellowish
curdy mass, together with a little turbid fluid. No siuTOunding infil-
tration. On the convex surface of this lobe there is a slight growth of
vascular tissue. Near the caudal tip a flattish mass, partly yellowish,
partly blackish, attached by loose tissue to the margin of the lobe.

574 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

In the abdomen, a flattish, sessile mass of pinkish gray tissue, about
three-quarters of an inch in its longest diameter, attached to omentum *

Of the three animals receiving bovine tubercle cultures, the fate
of one (young bull No. 71) has ah-eady been given. The two
other cases remained stationary in weight : —

No. SS, original weight, 850 povmds ; weight at end of experiment,
850 poimds

No. 63, original weight, 875 pounds ; weight at end of experiment, 970
pounds.

The autopsy notes are in brief as follows : —

No. 63 (bovine culture V.). — White cow, spotted with red. Horns
sawed oflf. Probably six years old. Foetus in utero, about two months
old.

Thorax : Right lung adherent to chest wall in several places. At
point of inoculation, between seventh and eighth ribs, an excrescence,
about three-quarters inch in diameter, of dense, pearly-looking connec-
tive tissue, enclosing a disintregated mass. Numerous masses and
aggregations of small tubercles on all ribs ; these in some cases several
inches in length The left side of thoracic Avail, below the level of the
point of inoculation on the opposite side, is covered with a uniform, pink-
ish-gray deposit of verj- minute tubercles. Eruptions of tubercles on
pleural surface diaphragm and on pleural covering of dorsal mediasti-
nal space.

On caudal lobe of right lung a considerable number of tubercular
masses, flattish, sessile, from one-eighth to three-quarters inch in diam-
eter. Between the cephalo-lateral border of this lobe and the pericar-
dium is a mass of newly-formed tissue, dense, in which are imbedded
many minute yellow tubercles and masses of pericardial fat. The whole
is about as large as a fist. It binds the lung tissue, pericardium and
diaphragm together.

Many tubercles on the caudal surface of this same lobe.

There is no distinct focus in this lobe, as a result of the injection, and
it is probable that much of the fluid was dejjosited in the pleural cavity.
But palpation reveals throughout both lungs small shot-like bodies, in
close proximity. On section numerous yellow tubercles from one-thirty-
second to one-sixteenth inch in diameter are found imbedded in the limg
tissue of all lobes.

The dorsal mediastinal lymph glands are all several times normal
dimensions. They contain many coalescing yellow tvibercles. The
ventral (anterior) mediastinal glands are similarly enlarged, and the
cut surface shows a imiformly cheesy jjarenchyma.

Minute grayish jioints under the capsule of the liver.

* The character of these peculiar formations will be described in a subsequent
report.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 575

In the spleen, all malpighian bodies converted into tubercles with
yellow, opaque centre. In left kidney several minute grayish tubercles.

No. 8S (bovine culture IV.). — Red and white cow. Teeth very much
worn ; probably twelve years old ; dehorned. Not pregnant

Thorax : No deposit at point of inoculation. The eruptions of tuber-
cles on the costal pleura of the right and the left side are in character very
much like those of the preceding case (No. 63), but less extensive.

Right lung : Lobes adherent to pericardium. Adhesions readily
severed. On convex surface of the caudal lobe of this side a consider-
able number of flattish sessile tubercles, from one-sixteenth to one-half
inch broad. The caudal aspect of this lobe is similarly beset with them,
but in less abundance. Along the margin of this lobe are loosely
attached small elongated masses of tubercles

At the same situation in this lobe as in the sputum cases there is a
fluctuating tumor, about two inches in diameter, slightly projecting.
It consists of a capsule with nearly smooth walls, enclosing a soft
caseous mass. It is surrounded by a zone of small necrotic tubercles,
and with lobules containing numerous minute grayish foci.

On the cephalic lobe of the right lung a considerable number of gray-
ish tubercles. Throughout all lobes are many tubercles in the lung
tissue, some very minute, others larger and opaque, yellowish in color.

The pleura iu the dorsal mediastinal space is beset with a large nvim-
ber of small tubercles, similarly the pericardium. The right half of
the diaphragm is beset with flattened aggregations of tubercles. Be-
tween the ventral lobe of the right lung and the pericardium, and fast-
ening them together, is a mass of newly formed connective tissue and
fat, enclosing numerous softened foci.

The large dorsal mediastinal lymph gland is enlarged, and contains a
large number of yellow tubercles. The central portion of the gland is
uniformly caseous. In the left bronchial gland, a small number of
tubercles ; in the ventral mediastinal glands, a considerable number.

Organs of the abdomen appear free from visible tuberculous changes.

A summary of the outcome of this last experiment may now be
made.

The points of difference between the inoculation disease pro-
duced by bovine and by human (sputum) bacilli are several: —

1. The bovine cases either remained stationary in weight or
lost slightly, while the sputum cases gained seventy-five to eighty-
five pounds. Still, the age of one of the bovine cases ^ may be
partly responsible for stationary weight.

2. There was marked fever in the bovine cases for three weeks
after the inoculation, practically none iu the sputum cases.

3. There were well-marked differences in the lesions produced.
In the sputum cases the lesions are practically the same, and
consisted in : —

(a) A tumor in the right caudal lobe of the limgs. about one inch in
diameter, projecting somewhat above the surface of the lung. This

576 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

represents the place where the needle penetrated into the lung tissue
and deposited the tubercle bacilli. In each case the contents of this
tumor were softened and converted into a curdy mass, enclosed in a
thin-walled capsule, smooth internally. The disease was not spreading
from this point, nor were tubercles visible in the lymph glands of the
lungs and thorax, excepting in one gland of No. 39.

(b) The free margin of the right hmg, the pleural covering in part
and the pleural covering of the ribs on the right side were beset with a
new formation of loose vascular fringes or shreds, in which in only one
case some minute nodules could be felt, also some flattish pedicled
masses, not resembling tubercles.

Among the bovine cases we have the following characteristic
points to note : —

(«) Disseminated tuberculosis of the lungs, severest and fatal in No.
71, the youngest, least pronounced in the oldest. No. 88. Associated
with this, a local disintegrated focus in the lungs of No. 88.

(&) Tubercvilar deposits on lungs, pericardium and diaphragm, and
the ribs, resembling closely the product of the natural disease in cattle.
The few pedicled masses attached to the pleura in the sputum cases
bore no direct resemblance to tuberculous outgrowths, although they
are undoubtedly the result of the inoculation.

(c) Extensive tuberculosis of all or nearly all the lymph glands of
the thorax, including both mediastinal chains.

(^cl) Tuberculosis of other organs, spleen, liver, kidney, in two out of
three cases.

A summary of the three separate experiments, in which 12
animals Avere used , shows that : —

6 animals were inoculated with human bacilli.
5 animals were inoculated with bovine bacilli.
1 animal was inoculated with swine bacilli.

Of the 6 sputum cases : —

1 showed no disease.

2 showed very slight lesions.

3 showed only local lesions without dissemination.

Of the 5 bovine cases : —

2 died of generalized disease.

2 showed extensive lesions.

1 s-howed less extensive lesions.

In the swine case (probably originally bovine) the lesions were
less extensive than in the bovine cases.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 577

In these three experiments the conditions were kept as nearly
uniform as was possible, with the means at my disposal It was
unfortunate that an animal as old as No. 88 (bovine IV.) should
have been included ; it is also to be regretted that the swine cult-
ure was about a year old when used upon cattle. Undoubtedly
the total absence of any lesions following the injection of the
Nasua culture is partly due to the age of the culture. Leaving
these aside, the remaining parts of the test appear to me to be of
sufficient uniformity and accuracy to justify us in drawing certain
preliminary inferences. We may now maintain that bovine
tubercle bacilli and human bacilli as found in sputum are not
identical. The difference in their action upon cattle is reinforced
by certain differences in the bacilli themselves and their effect
upon rabbits, as will be detailed in a fuller report.

What the significance of these divergencies is, what influence
they have upon the transmissibility of the disease from cattle to
man, we are unable at present to state with any degree of cer-
tainty. That they do have some effect must be admitted, in view
of results of studies upon other species of pathogenic bacteria.
Their precise bearing needs careful investigation.

These studies will, I think, warrant one inference, however ;
that is, that human sputum cannot be regarded as specially dan-
gerous to cattle, nor can it be looked upon as a factor in the
introduction of tuberculosis into a healthy herd of cattle. Even
if the tubercle bacilli of cattle and of man are very closely related
and have the same ancestry, as we all must admit, if we regard
the two as mere varieties, which may eventually under very favor-
able conditions pass one into the other, the condition in which the
bacillus leaves the lungs in sputum is evidently such as to inter-
fere, under ordinary circumstances, with any development in the
bovine body. It would fall a speedy prey to destruction.

I refrain, for obvious reasons, from drawing the conclusions
that all human tubercle bacilli are like those existing in the sputum
of phthisis. On this point we are still in the dark.

The following pages give a concise tabular account of the cult-
ures employed in these investigations, of the animals upon which
they were tested and the temperature records of the third experi-
ment. Those of the second experiment, as stated above, reveal
no essential differences between the different animals, and are
therefore omitted.

578

BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE. [Pub. Doc.

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CATTLE COMMISSIONERS.

579

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580

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Table III

•

T\ A TT?

Bovine Series
(Number of Animal).

Sputum Series
(Number of Animal).

Remarks.

iJAlrj.

71 88 1 63

39

76

79

Aug. 24, 11.30 A.M.

Temp
101.4

Temp.

101.2

Temp.
101,8

Temp.
101.8

Temp.
100,0

Temp.
102,0

-

25, 11.30 "

101.2

101.8

101.8

101.2

101,8

101.2

-

26, 1 P.M.

102.8

101.4

101.6

101.8

101,4

100,8

Inoculation 9,10 a,m.

27, 1

104.6

102.6

105,4

101.8

103.8

102,6

-

28, 1

104.0

101.6

105.2

102.0

102,4

102,4

-

29, . .

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

30, 1 P.M.

103.4

106.0

104.2

101.4

101,8

102,6

-

31, 1

Sept. 1, 1 "

102.8
103.4

108.0
105.6

105.0
104.0

101.2
102.4

102,0
103,8

102,8
102.0

B.* Prol)al)ly out in
morning to date al-
tliougli record not
kept.

S.t Out in morning.

2, 1

102.0

103.4

103.2

101.2

101.0

101.4

-

3, 1 "

103.2

101.0

103.2

101.8

101.4

101.2

S.t Out in morning.

4, 1.30 "

105.4

103.4

104,4

101.0

100.6

100.8

S.t "

5,

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6, 1 P.M.

107.0

100.8

102,2

100.6

100.8

101.0

-

7, 1

106.6

101.2

105,6

100.4

100.6

100.6

B.* Out in morning.

8, 1

107.8

102.4

102.8

101.2

101.0

102.0

S.t "

9, 1

107.2

105.4

104.6

101.4

101.4

102.6

S.t

10, 1

107.0

104.4

103.0

102.0

102.4

104,4

s.t "

11, 1

104.8

105.0

104.0

101.4

101.2

101,6

s.t

12, . .

+

-

-

-

-

-

13, 1 P.M.

-

103.0

102.0

101,0

101.2

101,6

s.t Out in niornmg.

14, 1

-

102.4

102.6

101,4

101.0

102,6

s.t "

15, 1

-

101.0

101.8

101,0

101,4

102,0

S.t "

16, 1

-

101.4

101,0

101,6

102,0

102.6

s.t

17, 1

-

100.4

100,4

100.8

101.4

101.6

S.t

18, 1

-

99.8

99,8

101,6

101.4

102.4

s.t

19,

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

20, 1 P.M.

-

100.0

100,6

101,2

101,2

101.8

s.t Out in morning.

21, 1

-

99.8

100,6

101.0

101,2

101.6

S.t "

22, 1 '•

-

99.2

99.0

101.2

100,8

101.6

S.t

23, 1

-

99,8

101.0

101.0

101,2

101,6

s.t

24, 1

-

100.4

100,4

101.2

101,6

102.0

s.t "

* Bovine c

Else.

t Sputi

im case

.

:i

)ead.

No. 4.] CATTLE COMMISSIONERS,

Table III. — Concluded.

581

D^TF

Bovine Skriks
(Number of Animal).

Sptjtdm Series
(Number of Animal).

Hctuflrks.

71

88

63

39

76

79

Temp.

Temp.

Temp.

Temp.

Temp.

Temp.

Sept. 25.
26,
27,

1 P.M.

-

100.4

99.8

101.2

101.8

101.8

s.t

Out in morning.

1 P.M.

_

100.4

98.4

101.0

100.8

101.4

s.t

Out in morning.

28,

1

-

100.2

100.6

100.4

100.8

101.8

S.t

(< <<

29,

1

-

98.8

99.0

100.8

101.0

102.0

s.t

<( «

30,

1 "

-

101.4

100.4

101.0

101.6

101,6

s.t

<( (<

Oct. 1,

11.45 A.M.

-

99.8

100.6

100.8

101.0

101.8

s.t

(< «

2,
3,
4,

1 P.M.

-

99.2

100.0

101.0

100.8

101.8

s.t

« «

1 P.M.

_

99.0

99.0

100.0

100.6

101.8

s.t

Out in morning.

5,

1

-

99.4

100.2

101.0

101.0

101.8

s.t

« <(

6,

1 "

-

99.6

101,0

102.4

100.2

101.4

s.t

« <<

7,

1 "

-

99.0

100.2

100.0

101.2

101,6

s.t

« It

8,

1 '*

-

99.0

100.8

100.2

99.8

101.8

s.t

« «

9,
10,
11,

1 "

-

99.2

100.8

100.4

101.0

101.8

s.t

« i(

1 P M.

_

100.0

98.8

99.8

100.0

100.8

s.t

Out in morning.

12,

1

-

100.2

100.8

100.6

101.4

101.4

s.t

"

13,

1

-

100.2

100.4

100.6

100.8

101.4

s.t

i< It

14,

130 "

-

99.8

99.8

100.2

100.8

101.4

s.t

« ((

15,

1

-

100.2

100.4

100.4

101.8

101.4

s.t

<< <(

16,
17,

18,

1 "

-

100.8

101.8

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KEPOKT OF THE DELEGATES

TO THE

Faemees' National Congeess,

At St. Paul, Minn., 1897.

Report of the Delegates to the Farmers'
NATioi^Aii Congress,*

At St. Paul, Minn., 1897.

To His Excellency Roger AVolcott.

Sir : — We beg to acknowledge our indebtedness for the
courtesy of your appointment as delegates from the State of
Massachusetts to the Farmers' National Congress, which held
its seventeenth annual session at St. Paul, Minn., on Aug.
31 and Sept. 1, 2 and G, 1897, and submit the following
report.

The Congress assembled in the Representatives Chamber
of the State Capitol at St. Paul, at 10 o'clock a.m., Aug. 31,
1897, was called to order by the president, Hon. B. F.
Clayton of Iowa, and prayer was ofiered by Right Rev.
Bishop John Ireland of St. Paul.

Addresses of welcome were made by the mayor of St.
Paul, Hon. Frank B. Doran ; by D. R. McGinnis, Esq.,
vice-president of the State Agricultural Society ; and by
Hon. D. M. Clough, governor of Minnesota, wdiich received
hearty responses from the officers and delegates assembled.

President Clayton delivered his annual address, from
which we quote in part as follows : —

"The farmer reads little and is often doubtful that he is
better informed from that little, as he learns from it more
things to brood over without finding a remedy for his ills.
The little glimpse he obtains from what he reads intensifies
his prejudices and does not prepare him to cope with his
difficulties. He brushes so little against the world, of which
he is so important a part, that the world practically ignores
his existence.

* This report has been transmitted to the secretary of the State Board of Agri-
culture by His Excellency the Governor, and, according to custom, is included in
the "Agriculture of Massachusetts."

586 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

"He is enumerated in the tables of population, but ex-
punged from the statistical lists of the nation's representa-
tives. He is enrolled on the tax list, but cancelled in the
catalogue of those who levy taxes. He is registered in the
poll book, but disfranchised of the privileges and immunities
of a citizen.

"Until the organization of the Farmers' National Con-
gress and its kindred institutions, a few years ago, he was
as isolated as Robinson Crusoe upon his island.

"The benefits which these organizations have conferred
on agricultural communities cannot be estimated in dollars
and cents. They have taught the wisdom of systematic or-
ganization for the greatest good of the greatest number.
Their special mission is to prepare the seed, plough, plant
and foster a harvest of intelligent votes ; not to propose im-
posing theories, but to apply more judicious and efl'ective
measures.

" History teaches that a government that will not protect
the masses of its people deserves not to become permanent.
Those engaged in agricultural pursuits are a majority of all
the people ; yet we cannot, if we would, close our eyes to
the fact that this majority is practically without voice in
shaping public affairs.

' ' A review of the present Congress and the occupation of
its members reveals the fact that the farming element is in no
way responsible for disastrous legislation, real or apparent.
A sketch of the members of Congress discloses the fact that,
out of a membership of four hundred and forty-four in the
Senate and House of Representatives, the farming class,
representing over thirty millions of people, have thirty-five
members in the House and but one in the Senate.

" The chairman of the ao;ricultural committee of the Senate
records himself an attorney, and the only farmer on that
committee is at the tail end. Ten of the eighteen members
of that committee are lawyers by profession.

"The great States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan,
Wisconsin and Missouri have each one farmer to represent
them, but Illinois, Indiana and Iowa, the heart and centre of
agriculture, have no representative in either branch. The
only chairmanship) held by a farmer is on the committee of

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 587

'Ventilation and Acoustics,' — a position he is least fitted
for. This should not be ; it is not in accordance with the
eternal fitness of things.

"I do not know that either of the great political parties
is to blame for this condition of things ; the fault lies at
your door. It is the fault of the farmer, and a sad comment
on his lack of energy and patriotism.

" It is the custom of this organization to engross its resolu-
tions in regard to federal legislation, forward them to the
speaker of the House and the president of the Senate. They
are ordered printed, and are then placed on the desk of every
member, and when so placed, Congress has been quite
prompt in their consideration and thereby much needed
legislation has been secured.

* ' When we are credited with what rightfully belongs to
this organization, it includes fully fifty per cent of the wealth
and population of this great nation of ours.

"Eleven years ago Colonel Beverley of Virginia, then
president of this Congress, called attention to the fact that
the agricultural department of the government was but little
in advance of a half-equipped experiment station conducted
in the interest of political favoritism ; this body took the
matter up, and the result has been to make the Commissioner
of Agriculture a cabinet position.

"We said to the Congress of the United States, < We
want our experiment stations enlarged and made more
efiective ; we demand the enactment of pure food laws ; we
want a more complete system of crop reports ; a better
signal service.' They have all been laid before the federal
Congress, and many of them have been favorably considered.

* ' I desire to emphasize what I have said on former occa-
sions regarding the political attitude of this body. A man
that has no political convictions is not fit to represent his
district or State in the Farmers' National Congress.

"While we are a non-partisan organization, it is fair to
presume that we represent nearly every phase of American
politics. A man cannot be a good citizen and stay away
from the polls and permit elections to be controlled by dis-
reputable political demagogues. It is the place of every
well-wisher of his country at the local caucus of the party to

588 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

which he belongs, and to use his influence in behalf of the
best men, regardless of professions or occupations."

A resolution making the members of the Agricultural
Press League honorary members of the Congress was unani-
mously adopted, as was a resolution thanking the people of
St. Paul and the State of Minnesota for their cordial welcome.

Secretary Stine of the Commercial Club gave a cordial invi-
tation to the delegates to make the club rooms their head-
quarters during the session.

A committee of three, of whom Mr. Candage of Massachu-
setts was one, was appointed on the president's address; a
committee of five was appointed on credentials, which
exhausted the morning hour ; and Congress took a recess
for dinner, to reassemble at 2 o'clock p.m.

At the afternoon session the committee on credentials
reported thirty-one States and two Territories, represented
by upwards of three hundred delegates ; New England being
represented by Mr. Moody of Maine, by Messrs. Avery,
Candage and Porter of Massachusetts and by Mr. Stockwell
of Rhode Island, — New Hampshire, Vermont and Connecti-
cut having no delegates.

A committee of one delegate from each State and Territory
was appointed on resolutions, Messrs. Moody, Candage and
Stockwell being the New England members of that com-
mittee ; a committee of five on finance ; a committee of seven
on location of the next Congress, of which Mr. Avery of
Massachusetts was one ; and Mr. Avery was also appointed
sergeant-at-arms .

After the completion of routine business, the reading of
papers was taken up, and the reading and discussion was
opened by Mr. Candage of Massachusetts, by a paper on
" The value of river and harbor improvements and shipping
to agriculture."

After its reading, an animated and interesting discussion
followed ; its arguments were duly considered and agreed to,
and later were unanimously adopted, under suspension of
the rules, in two resolutions embodying the gist of the
paper.

Other papers followed : " The best methods of further in-
creasing the usefulness and practical value of agricultural

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 589

education," by Hon. W. M. Leggett, dean of the Minne-
sota School of Agriculture ; and at the evening session Mrs.
Edwards of Minneapolis spoke on "Intensified farming,"
in which she compared American farming of large areas with
that of the compact methods employed by the Chinese. The
papers were able and instructive, and elicited hearty re-
sponses from the delegates.

The evening session was wholly given to reading and dis-
cussion of papers, at which there was a large attendance of
delegates.

Wednesday, Sept. 1, 1897.

The morning session was taken up with the election of
officers of the Congress for the two years ensuing.

President, Ex-Go v. W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin ; secre-
tary, John M. Stahl of Chicago ; treasurer, N. G. Spalding
of New York ; first assistant secretary, D. O. Lively of Fort
Worth, Tex. ; second assistant secretary, George A. Stock-
well of Providence, R. I. ; and third assistant secretary,
Alexander Dunlap of Manistee, Mich.

Vice-presidents were chosen, one from each State ; from
New England, as follows : Maine, W. H. Moody ; New
Hampshire, J. W. Lantrom ; Vermont, G.J. Spear ; Massa-
chusetts, R. G. F. Candage ; Rhode Island, George A.
Stock well ; and from Connecticut, J. H. Hale.

Senor Romero, Mexican minister at Washington, made a
brief address, setting forth the advantages of Mexico as an
agricultural country. He said that a pound of coffee raised
in Mexico cost ten cents in silver, and it would sell for fif-
teen or twenty cents in gold ; and he predicted great results
from the development of agriculture in his country in the
near future.

Senor Sateldo of Venezuela also made a pleasant address,
in which he congratulated the American farmer upon the
approach of better times, higher prices for farm products
and increased demands for them from foreign countries.

Resolutions were reported and adopted, as follows: "In
favor of a United States commission to investigate and
report the feasibility of larger markets with China, Japan
and neighboring islands for our bread stuffs;" "Recom-
mending the establishment of government postal savings

590 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

banks ; " " That the president of the Farmers' National Con-
gress appoint a standing committee of three, to be known as
the classification and freight rate committee ; " "In favor of
reclaiming and improving the Mississippi, its channels and
tributaries, for the improvement of its navigation;" "For
the establishment of a domestic science department of agri-
culture at Washington, D. C. ; " "Improvement of mail
facilities in rural districts to the fullest extent ; " " For an
act of Congress allowing each State to copyright labels for
the protection of its products ; " " Restrictive measures
against improper immigration ; " " In favor of electing
United States Senators by the people ; " "In favor of teach-
ing the elementary principles of agriculture in the public
schools ; " "In favor of constructing, owning and operating
the Nicaragua Canal by the United States ; " " For the
extermination of the gypsy moth;" and "In favor of the
passage of the free homestead bill now" pending before the
Congress of the United States."

E. W. Randall, secretary of the Minnesota State Fair,
read a paper on ' ' The State fair ; causes of success^ or fail-
ure," which was well received and discussed.

At the opening of the afternoon session, Hon. N. G.
Spalding of New York read a paper on "Taxation, —
munici[)al. State and national," which was listened to with
great interest.

An interesting address was also made, following Mr.
Spalding, by F. E. Orr of Pittsburgh, Pa., the president of
the Agricultural Press League, on "The benefits of the
agricultural press to the farmer, and how they can be
increased."

Mrs. Emma C. Sickles of Chicago, president of the
Domestic Science Association, gave a short but interesting
talk upon the subject " Necessity for protection from adul-
teration of food, and the fuller facilities in the proper prep-
aration of food."

There was a brief evening session, at which a paper was
read on "The beet sugar industry," prepared by A. S.
Goetz, manager of the Pecco Valley Sugar Company of New
Mexico. The paper was highly interesting, and a brief dis-
cussion followed, cut ofi'by the hour of adjournment.

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 591

The delegates went from their deliberations to the rooms
of the Commercial Club, where they were entertained and
given a collation, followed by dancing. Speeches were
made, music and recitations were provided, and at a late
hour all retired to their homes and hotels, having greatly
enjoyed the occasion.

Thursday, Sept. 2, 1897.

The morning session was devoted to reading papers, dis-
cussions, resolutions, fixing the location for the annual ses-
sion of 1898, and other important matters.

J. E. Northrop, delegate from the "National Association
of Seed Growers and Nurserymen," read a caustic criticism
on what he styled the " Government seed shop."

Resolutions were offered and passed: "In favor of dis-
criminating duties on imports in American bottoms, de-
signed to foster American shipping; " "In favor of liberal
appropriations for rivers and harbors ; " "A change in the
constitution of the Congress, enlarging its membership, so
that, in addition to delegates now appointed by the governor
of the States, one to be appointed from each agricultural
college and experiment station and one from each society
oro;anized for fosterino; apiculture."

It Avas voted to hold the next annual session of this
Congress at Fort Worth, Tex,, in December, 1898. F. L.
Maxwell of Louisiana was chosen first vice-president, and
C. A. Wieting of New York second vice-president.

The committee on finance reported the receipt of five
hundred dollars from the citizens of St. Paul, and recom-
mended a levy of one dollar on each delegate for a fund for
the publication and distribution of the report of the Con-
gress, which was accepted and adopted.

Prof. W. M. Hays of the Minnesota School of Agriculture
read an interesting paper on "The rural schools," teaching
the elementary courses in agriculture.

The afternoon was devoted to an inspection of the State
Experiment Farm and School of Agriculture of Minnesota.

A short session w^as held at the school-room of the farm,
where Mrs. Julietta Ashby Jordan of Indian Territory read

592 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

a paper on " Agriculture as a civilizer among the American
Indians."

Mrs. Ada M. Ewing of Iowa read a thoughtful paper on
" Industrial activities."

A stir was made in the Congress by the introduction of
populistic resolutions by a member of the committee on reso-
lutions, which had been rejected by that committee, and
filibustering was resorted to ; but by prompt action the
Congress put down the attempt, and gave notice that "old
political straw could not be rethreshed at its sessions."

A resolution was passed ' ' commending the Secretary of
Agriculture in protecting the dairy interests of the country,"
' ' for the appointment of a committee to draught a plan for
the prevention of the spread of contagious diseases among
domestic animals."

At the evening session Mark H. Coad of Fremont, Neb.,
read an interesting paper on " Horse breeding for profit."

A Mr. Doran, representing the L. A. W., made a strong
plea for State aid in constructing wagon roads, by which
means farmers would be relieved of the sole responsibility
for good roads in the country.

Prof. H. W. Campbell of Sioux City, by the assistance of
charts, exemplified the Campbell system of soil culture, ap-
plied to raising corn, potatoes and other crops in his State.

The Congress adjourned until Monday, at 9 o'clock a.m.,
in order that the delegates might accept the complimentary
trip to the wheat fields of the Red River valley, North
Dakota, tendered by the Great Northern Railway Company.

Trip to the Red River Valley, North Dakota.

Friday, Sept. 3, 1897, the special Great Northern train,
consisting of thirteen passenger cars, laden with over five
hundred delegates and friends, pulled out of the St. Paul
station at 7 o'clock a.m., and started for the Red River
valley. The road management had attended to the comfort
of its passengers en route by providing for them a substantial
lunch, to be eaten on the train.

The train passed through agricultural portions of Min-
nesota to the towns of St. Cloud, Alexandria, Moorhead

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 593

City and to Fargo, N. D., where it halted for supper and
for the night.

Mayor Johnson of Fargo, with a committee of citizens,
had provided carriages, which took the delegates on their
arrival for a drive about town, along the Red River Park
and to the North Dakota Agricultural College, etc. One of
the committee was a former resident of Boston, who had
been in Fargo eight years, and owned a wheat farm of 8,000
acres in that vicinity, the diti'erent stations of which were
connected by telegraph and telephone.

The hotels of the town were overtaxed to accommodate so
large a number of visitors, but the citizens opened their
houses, and all were comfortably lodged.

An enthusiastic meeting was held at Masonic Hall in the
evening, where the mayor and others made addresses of wel-
come, responded to by members of the Farmers' National
Congress.

The weather was exceedingly hot, the thermometer at 97°,
with a strong, hot wind blowing from over the prairie.

The Red River valley, and, in fact, the greater part of
North Dakota, is a prairie as flat as the sea, and on the night
spent at Fargo the sun went down behind the western hori-
zon in a flood of glory, as often seen to do on the ocean.

Fargo is a town of 8,000 inhabitants, well laid out in
broad streets, and has good buildings ; it was settled less
than twenty-five years ago, and lies upon the banks of the
Red River of the North, the dividing line between Dakota
and Minnesota.

Before it was settled by whites, the State was Indian ter-
ritory. It is a fertile, wheat-raising State, its crop this
year in that cereal amounting to 44,000,000 bushels. The
whole population of the State is estimated at 182,000 ; its
area is 70,000 square miles.

The Red River rises in Lake Traverse, one mile from
Lake Big Stone, the source of the Minnesota River, the
latter emptying its waters into the Mississippi and the Gulf
of Mexico, the former running north through Lake Winni-
peg and finding entrance into the ocean at Hudson's Bay.

In April the ice and snow of Dakota melt, while the river
farther north is frozen, causing an inundation along its banks

594 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

thirty miles in width and to the depth of two to five feet.
The flood lies upon the land from two to four weeks, when
it subsides, and the farmers begin immediately to plough
and sow their seed, claiming that the overflow, like that of
the Nile, makes the land more fruitful.

The summer in North Dakota is but little over four
months, but very hot ; the winter, eight months, with ))liz-
zards, heavy falls of snow and extremely cold, with the
thermometer far below zero. The soil, however, is rich
prairie, and raises the best flouring wheat in the world, the
average yield being twelve bushels to the acre.

We left Fargo at 7 o'clock Saturday morning, and pro-
ceeded north, parallel with the Red River, some eighty miles
to Grand Forks, a town of 6,000 inhabitants, and a prettier
place than Fargo.

Here the delegates were shown marked attention, and were
driven about town at the expense of its citizens. The pub-
lic buildings, court house, school-houses, hotel, railway sta-
tion and private residences exhibited' taste and thrift.

From Grand Forks our way turned sharply to the west,
to Larimore, a town named for the first settler, who owns a
farm of 12,000 acres. Mr. Larimore was desirous of having
the excursionists visit his farm, then in the midst of wheat
harvesting ; but other arrangements had been made, and the
distance to be covered by the train in the home stretch to
St. Paul, 350 miles, would not permit.

Larimore has a fine railway station, hotel, school buildings
and residences which would honor many a town two hun-
dred years its senior in age.

From Larimore the route was due south down the Red
River valley some 50 miles west of our route north, but
parallel with it. It was through the richest wheat lands of
that fertile valley, golden with ripening grain, which the
farmers were busy harvesting. On either side, as far as the
eye could take in, there was one vast expanse of wheat, with
reapers and threshers at work all along the route.

At Maj^ville, some 50 miles west of Fargo, the train
halted for the excursionists to take dinner, which had been
prepared by the ladies of that town at half a dollar a head,
the proceeds to be devoted to the establishment of a hospital
in that town.

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 595

There the delegates were photographed, and there Mr.
Whitney, the general passenger agent of the railroad, who
accompanied the delegates, was put into a wagon, to which
ropes were attached, and was hauled in triumph through the
town to the Grandin Farm and back.

After a stop of two hours the train started southward,
passing through extensive wheat fields, at one of which there
was a halt, to visit the threshers, reapers and binders at
work, and there another photograph of the delegates was
taken.

At Wahpeton the delegates stopped for supper at the
hotel. Wahpeton is on the banks of the Red River, some
sixty miles south of Fargo, and our last stop in North
Dakota.

After supper the delegates gathered upon the platform at
the station and sang "My country, 'tis of thee," while the
engine was taking fuel and water.

The writei' turned to a Nebraska man at its finish, and
said, "That is a good New England hymn," and after the
prairie ride of the past two days he longed for the "rocks
and rills, the woods and templed hills " as he never longed
for them l)efore.

On leaving Wahpeton the train crossed the Red River to
Breckenridge in Minnesota, bidding adieu to North Dakota,
the Red River valley, w^hich has aptly been called " the
bread-basket of America."

The return from thence to St. Paul was at night, so the
excursionists had no opportunity of seeing the country
passed through, and the train reached St. Paul depot on
Sunday morning, forty-eight hours after starting out upon
the 700-mile trip.

On the train a memorial w^as subscribed to by the del-
egates, for Mr. Whitney, and resolutions of thanks were
passed to the Great Northern Railway Company for the
courtesy of the trip, which at regular fares would have
amounted to more than $10,000.

Monday morning, September 6, the Farmers' National
Congress held a short session in the State Capitol, passed
several com[>limcntary resolutions, made the retiring presi-
dent a life member, finished its business, and adjourned, to
meet at Fort Worth, Tex., in December, 1898»

596 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The managers of the Minnesota State Fair presented the
delegates with tickets to the fair, the privileges of which a
large number availed themselves of to attend, and then left
for their homes at evening.

The sessions of the Farmers' Congress at St. Paul were
equal to any it has held in ability, papers read, discussions
and quality of work accomplished.

The majority of the delegates expressed a desire to hold
the Farmers' National Congress in Boston in 1899, provided
suitable arrangements could be made for so doing. It is to
be hoped that arrangements will be made to carry their
desire into effect.

St. Paul is a city of 180,000 people, many of them from
New England and the Eastern States, giving to it a home-
like atmosphere to the Massachusetts delegates.

Minneapolis, its twin, has 200,000 people, and the same
general characteristics as St. Paul. They were first settled
in 1849, are located on the banks of the upper Mississippi,
and have fine streets, fine public and private buildings,
water, sewerage, gas, electricity and all modern improve-
ments. Both cities have fine park systems, fine street rail-
way systems and steam railways connecting the two.

Minneapolis is known the world over as the greatest of all
flour-producing cities on the globe. There are many fine
bridges across the Mississip[)i at the two cities, and the signs
of push and prosperity among the inhabitants are every-
where noticeable.

Below the centre of St. Paul, upon a bluff 400 feet above
the waters of the Mississippi, and commanding a beautiful
view in either direction, are seven mounds of the ancient
mound builders. Three of them are 75 feet broad at their
base and 20 feet in height, liaving the appearance of a hay-
cock flattened by a heavy rain. The other four are small,
mere children, so to speak, by the side of the other giant
forms. They are grassed over and guarded with care by
the city. Whoever the people were that built them, they
were not lacking in artistic taste in selecting that sightly
and charming spot for their erection.

The Falls of Minnehaha, near Minneapolis, and the Soldiers'
Home, located upon a commanding bluff of the Mississippi,

No. 4.] FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. 597

with Lakes Harriet, Como and other places of interest, should
not be overlooked by the visitor to St. Paul and Minneapolis.

A few facts in relation to the State of Minnesota may not
be out of place in closing this report.

Minnesota, in the Lidian language, signifies " sky-tinted
water, " or ' ' clear blue water ; " and when we consider that
within the borders of the State there are more than 10,000
lakes, great and small, whose clear waters were appreciated
by the aborigines, we see the appropriateness of the name.

These lakes are said to cover an area of 2,500,000 acres,
or 4,000 square miles, not including the area of its great
rivers. The largest of these lakes, not including Superior,
on its eastern border, are Lake of the Woods, 612 square
miles ; Red Lake, 342 ; Mille Lacs, 198 ; Leech, 194 ; Rainy,
146 ; Winnebigoshish, 78 ; and Vermillion, 63 square miles.

Minnesota has also many rivers, such as the Mississippi,
w^hich takes its rise in Lake Itaska, and its tributaries, direct
and indirect, are numerous ; and there are the Crow Wing,
Hum, Crow^, St. Croix, Minnesota, Mankato, Elk, etc. The
St. Louis and others discharge their waters through the Great
Lakes into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; the Red River through
Lake Winnipeg into Hudson's Bay ; while the Mississippi
and its tributaries discharge theirs into the Gulf of Mexico.
The water-shed divide of this part of the continent is in
Minnesota.

The State has an area of 83,365 square miles, — larger
than all New England l)y a surphis equal to twice the area of
Massachusetts, with that of Rhode Island included once. To
a New Englander the proportions and area of this great State
of the west seem gigantic.

Minnesota east of the Mississippi River was a portion of
the original domain of the United States, and has belonged
successively to the North-west Territory and to the Territories
of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
That part west of the Mississippi was included in the Louis-
iana purchase from France, and has belonged in turn to the
District of Louisiana, to the Territory of Louisiana, and to
the Territories of Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minne-
sota. Part of the south-eastern section was for a time in-
cluded in the State of Iowa.

598 BOAKD OF AGRTCULTUKE. [P. D. No. 4.

In 1849 the Territory of Minnesota was organized, with
twice its present area, and with a population of less than
6,000.

In 1853 the State was admitted into the Union with its
present limits, but the western portion remained Minnesota
Territory until 1861, when it was merired into the new
territory of Dakota, now the States of North and South
Dakota.

The present population of Minnesota is claimed to be about
2,000,000: in 1890 it was 1,301,826.

The people of the State went thither from the northern
States, and those from Europe, from Sweden, Norway, Ger-
many, Denmark, Finland and Lapland, the proportions being
in the order here named.

The climate in winter is severe, but of a dry and steady
cold, which makes it more endurable than the New England
winter, with its east winds and sudden changes.

Minnesota raises large crops of wheat, corn, barley, oats,
hops, flaxseed, hay and potatoes, the latter being excellent in
quality. Fruits are produced, the apple largely, of fine
appearance and flavor ; cranberries are also grown, and
grapes and small fruits do well.

The raising of cattle, horses, swine, sheep and poultry is a
large industry in the State, as are dairy products and maple
sugar. The pork-packing and wool-growing industries are
large, and are capable of extension.

The commercial advantages of Minnesota are superior to
most of the States of the north-west ; for through the lakes
it is as near the east as is Chicago, while the Mississippi
gives direct communication with the Mexican Gulf.

Minnesota, from its commanding position, its vast terri-
tory and resources, and the energy and intelligence of its
people, is destined to take its place in the front rank of the
great and prosperous commonwealths of our country.

The courtesies extended by its people to the delegates to
the Farmers' National Congress will ever be held in remem-
brance .

R. G. F. CANDAGE,

For the Delegates.

Boston, Nov. 18, 1897.

FINANCIAL KETURNS

ANALYSES OF PKEMIUMS AND GEATUITIES

INCOllPORATED SOCIETIES,

WITH MEMBERSHIP AND INSTITUTES,
Foil THE Year 1897.

Keturns of Societies.

AMESBURY AND SALISBURY AGRICULTURAL AND
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1881, Acts of 1881, chapter 204.

Originally raised by contribution, $1,002.32 ; now has
$8,228.75 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crock-
ery, tables, etc. Total assets, $8,268.90 : real estate, $7,-
873.29; crockery, tables, etc., $355.46; cash on hand,
$40.21. Total liabilities consist of notes to the amount of
$1,900. Receipts in 1897, $3,166.54: bounty, $600 ; new
members, $27 ; donations, $36.15 ; other sources, $2,503.39.
Expenditures in 1897, $2,526.33 : premiums and gratuities
paid, $897.32 ; current running expenses, $149.70; interest,
$114 ; other expenses, $1,365.31. The society offered $1,800
in premiums, and awarded and paid $897.32 in premiums
and gratuities, which went to 26 cities and towns. Two
hundred and fourteen dollars and eighty-five cents went to
10 cities and towns outside the State. Four hundred and
fifty- four persons received premiums and 180 gratuities.
Under head of farms $33 was awarded and paid ; under farm
and pet stock $436.75 was awarded and paid; under field
and garden croi)s $5 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
garden products $129.50 was awarded and paid; under dairy
products $3.25 was awarded and paid; under domestic
manufactures $88.25 was awarded and paid; under objects
strictly agricultural, not specified, $55.54 was awarded and
paid; under objects other than agricultural, not specified,
$146.03 was awarded and paid. The society reports 252
members, — 223 males and 29 females. Five farmers' insti-
tutes were held: at Newbury, January 21, on "Taxation
from the farmer's stand-point" and "How to make New
England agriculture more profitable ; " at Amesbury, Febru-
ary 18, on "The new agriculture, or a system of farming for
success" and "Farm machinery;" at Amesbury, March 18,
on "Farming with fertilizers;" at Amesbury, April 9, on

002 BOARD OF AGRTCUT/rURE. fPul>. Doc.

"Animiil .structure v. purpose" and "The farm, the home
and the grange ; " and at Amesluiry, December 10, on " The
feeding of poultry not all there is to poultry culture."

BARNSTABLE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1844, Acts of 1844, chapter 114.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 re-
ported the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be
$1,740; now has $8,300 invested as a capital stock in real
estate and bonds. Total assets, $8,623 : real estate, $7,500 ;
bonds, $800; cash on hand, $323. Total liabilities consist
of mortgages or like liabilities to the amount of $3,575.
Receipts in 1897, $3,952.21: bounty, $000; bonds, $10;
donations, $353.75 ; other sources, $2,988.46. Expendi-
tures in 1897, $3,629.03: premiums and gratuities paid,
$1,311.85; interest, $189.50; other expenses, $2,127.68.
The society offered $1,311.85 in premiums, and awarded
and paid $1,311.85 in premiums and gratuities, which went
to 9 towns. One hundred and six persons received pre-
miums and 170 gratuities. Under head of farm and pet
stock $353.25 w^as awarded and paid; under field and gar-
den crops $24.25 w^as awarded and paid; under farm and
garden products $143.95 was awarded and paid ; under dairy
products $5 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manu-
factures $165.40 was awarded and paid ; under trotting $600
was paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not speci-
fied, $20 was awarded and paid. The society reports 542
members, — 314 males and 228 females. Four farmers' in-
stitutes were held: at Barnstable, Feliruary 10, on "The
management of agricultural societies ; " at Centreville, Feb-
ruary 17, on " The growing of small fruits ; " at East Sand-
wich, February 25, on "Poultry" and "Roads;" and at
Sandwich, March 18, on "The reflections of a modern hay-
seed."

BERKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1811, Acts of 1811, chapter 70.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 stated
the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be $3,000;
now has $12,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate.

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. (503

Total assets, $12,563.87: real estate, $12,000; crockery,
tables, etc., $200; bills due aud unpaid, $327 : cash on
hand, $36.87. Total liabilities, $7,331.36: premiums due
and unpaid, $120 ; outstanding bills, $211.36 ; mortgages or
like liabilities, $7,000. Receipts in 1897, $8,006.98 : bounty,
$600; new members, $92; other sources, $7,314.98. Ex-
penditures in 1897, $7,970.11: premiums paid, $1,476.50;
current running expenses, $4,288.61; interest, $446.52;
other expenses, $1,758.48. The society offered $2,141 in
premiums and awarded and paid $1,476.50, which went to
30 cities and towns. Forty-five dollars and twenty-five
cents went to 2 towns outside the State. Three hundred
and eighty-one persons received premiums. Under head of
farms $39 was awarded and paid ; under farm and pet stock
$825 was awarded and paid ; under field and garden crops
$95 was awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products
$210.50 was awarded and paid; under dairy products $18
was awarded and paid ; under domestic manufactures $214.75
was awarded and paid ; under trotting $1,600 was paid ; un-
der objects other than agricultural, not specified, $74.25 was
awarded and paid. The society reports 1,005 members, —
894 males and 111 females. Three farmers' institutes were
held: at Richmond, March 12, on "The restoration of ex-
hausted farms by practical methods ; " at Lee, March 30, on
" Rural and farm law " and " The new agriculture, or a sys-
tem of farming for success ; " and at New Lenox, December
14, on " How to improve the New England farm."

BLACKSTONE VALLEY AG-BICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1884, Acts of 1884, chapter 48.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,000 ; now has $4,500
invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery, tables,
etc. Total assets, $4,526.80 : real estate, $4,400 ; crockery,
tables, etc., $100; cash on hand, $26.80. Total lialnlities
consist of mortgages or like liabilities to the amount of
$1,600. Receipts in 1897, $1,688.86: bounty, $600; new
members, $24; other sources, $1,064.86. Expenditures in
1897, $1,661.64: premiums and gratuities paid, $636.44;
current running expenses, $945.20 ; interest, $80. The

604 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

society oftered $900 in premiums, unci awarded and paid
$636.44 in premiums and gratuities, which went to 16 cities
and towns. One dollar and sixty cents went to 1 city out-
side the State. One hundred and nineteen persons received
premiums and 24 gratuities. Under head of farms $84 was
awarded and $79 paid; under farm and pet stock $464.50
was awarded and $444.50 paid ; under iield and garden crops
$29.50 was awarded and $24 paid ; under farm and garden
products $44.65 was awarded and $41.25 paid; under
dairy products $3.50 was awarded and paid; under domes-
tic manufactures $24.90 was awarded and $14.24 paid;
under trotting $55 was paid ; under objects other than agri-
cultural, not specilied, $32.65 was awarded and $29.95 paid.
The society reports 536 members, — 275 males and 261
females. Three farmers' institutes were held : at Mendon,
March 24, on " The insect enemies of fruit and shade trees"
and "Insect pests of the household;" at Uxbridge, April
10, on " The ensilage system ; " and at Uxbridge, April 29,
on " The usefulness of the Board of Ao'riculture."

BEISTOL COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1823, Acts of 1823, chapter 32.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 stated
the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be $3,240 ;
now has $32,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate.
Total assets, $33,234.87: real estate, $32,000; crockery,
tables, etc., $400 ; cash on hand, $834.87. Total liabilities,
$11,075.80: premiums due and unpaid, $75.80; mortgages
or like liabilities, $11,000. Receipts in 1897, $15,557.36:
bounty, $600 ; new members, $75 ; other sources, $14,882.36.
Expenditures in 1897, $16,429.22 : premiums and gratuities
paid, $5,502.35; current running expenses, $7,112.70;
interest, $715; other expenses, $3,099.17. The society
offered in premiums $6,924, awarded $5,578.15 in premiums
and gratuities and paid $5,502.35, which went to 45 cities
and towns. Two hundred and twenty-four dollars and ninety-
five cents went to 6 cities and towns outside the State.
Seven hundred and ninety-eight persons received premiums

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 605

and 12 gratuities. Under head of farms $58 was awarded
and paid ; under farm and pet stock 11,428.25 was awarded
and $1,414.25 paid; under field and garden crops $65 was
awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products $399
was awarded and paid; under dairy products $48.75 was
awarded and paid; under domestic manufactures $317.15
was awarded and $255.35 paid; under trotting $2,770 was
paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not specified,
$492 was awarded and paid. The society reports 871
members, — 675 males and 196 females. Three farmers'
institutes were held: at Dighton, February 17, on "Dairy
farming," " Cold storage for farm products" and " Spraying
of fruit; " at New Bedford, March 19, on " The Massachu-
setts Agricultural College" and " Feeding plants with chem-
icals ; " and at North Raynham, March 26, on " Fruit culture
in New England."

DEERFIELD VALLEY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1871, Acts of 1871, chapter 208.

Originally raised by contribution, $4,094.01 ; now has
$9,200 invested as a capital stock in real estate. Total
assets, $9,619.15: real estate, $9,200; crockery, tables,
etc., $250; cash on hand, $169.15. Total liabilities consist
of mortgages or like liabilities to the amount of $600.
Receipts in 1897, $2,864.19: bounty, $600; new members,
$36; donations, $39.55; other sources, $2,188.64. Ex-
penditures in 1897, $1,976.1^: premiums paid, $984.95;
current running expenses, $798.11; interest, $43.12; other
expenses, $150. The society offered $1,275.75 in premiums,
awarded $1,024.50 and paid $984.95, which went to 23 cities
and towns. Thirty-seven dollars and seventy-five cents went
to two towns outside the State. It is estimated that 240
persons received premiums. Under head of farm and pet
stock $530.25 was awarded and $498.50 paid; under farm
and garden products $67.30 was awarded and $63.70 paid;
under dairy products $23 was awarded and paidf under
domestic manufactures $97.20 was awarded and $93 paid;
under trotting $247.50 was paid; under objects other than
agricultural, not specified, $59.25 was awarded and paid.

606 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The society reports 1,105 members, — 860 males and 245
females. Four farmers' institutes were held : at Charlc-
mont, January 4, on " The production of milk, or the man-
agement of milch cows ; " at East Charlemont, January 20,
on " Growing timber as a crop on the waste lands of Massa-
chusetts ; " at Ashfield, Fel)ruary 6, on "The work and
influence of the Massachusetts A«:ricultural Collejfe " and
"Eastern v. western farming;" and at Charlemont, March
13, on "Forage crops for feeding during the fall months
for cream" and " Milk production."

EASTERN HAMPDEN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1856, Acts of 1856, chapter 156.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,000 ; now has $7,000
invested as a capital stock in real estate. Total assets,
$7,051.70: real estate, $7,000; bills due and unpaid, $51;
cash on hand, $0.70. Total liabilities, $4,197.47 : outstand-
ing bills, $1,137.47; mortgages or like liabilities, $3,060.
Receipts in 1897, $3,445.73: bounty, $600; new members,
$13; donations, $127.77; other sources, $2,704.96. Ex-
penditures in 1897, $3,445.73 : premiums and gratuities
paid, $1,621.35; other expenses, $1,824.38. The society
offered $2,194.25 in premiums, and awarded and paid
$1,621.35 in premiums and gratuities, which went to 21
cities and towns. Two hundred and thirty dollars and fifty
cents went to 3 cities and towns outside the State. One
hundred and eighteen persons received premiums and
gratuities. Under head of farms $24 was awarded and paid ;
under farm and pet stock $522.50 was awarded and paid ;
under farm and garden products $137.75 was awarded and
paid; under dairy products $11 was awarded and paid;
under domestic manufactures $51.10 was awarded and paid;
under trotting $825 was paid ; under objects other than
agricultural, not specified, $9 was awarded and paid. The
society reports 478 members, — 283 males and 195 females.
Three farmers' institutes were held : at AVilbraham, flanu-
ary 21, on "How to feed the dairy cow for milk and cream
production;" at Palmer, February 12, on "How to make

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 607

New England agriculture more profitable ; " and at Warren,
March 4, on "The reflections of a modern hayseed" and
" Growing and feeding forage crops for profit."

ESSEX AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1818, Acts of 1818, chapter 25.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 stated
the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be $9,363.66 ;
now has $30,500 invested as a capital stock in real estate,
notes, stocks, crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $30,500:
real estate, $15,300; notes, $1,000; stocks, $14,000 ; crock-
ery, tables, etc., $200. Total liabilities consist of notes
and overdraft to the amount of $9,316.31. Receipts in 1897,
$3,630.63: bounty, $600; notes, $55.08; stocks, $828.41 ;
new members, $36 ; donations, $38 ; other sources, $2,073.14.
Expenditures in 1897, $2,674.06: premiums paid, $1,209 ;
current running expenses, $605.53; interest, $469.42 ; other
expenses, $390.1 1 . The society offered $2,356 in premiums,
awarded $1,479.75* and paid $1,289,* which went to 28
cities and towns. Four hundred and sixty-eight persons
received premiums. Under head of farms $54 was awarded
and $59 paid ; under farm and pet stock $643.50 was awarded
and $466 paid; under field and garden crops $104 was
awarded and $79 paid; under farm and garden products
$411 was awarded and $369.50 paid; under dairy products
$5 was awarded and paid; under domestic manufactures
$127.25 was awarded and $132.50 paid; under agricultural
implements $37 was awarded and $47 paid ; under objects
strictly agricultural, not specified, $98 was awarded and
$67.75 paid. The society reports 1,484 members, — 1,467
males and 17 females. Three farmers' institutes were held:
at Haverhill, January 15, on " Market gardening," " Fruits
and vegetables in the home garden" and " Fruit culture in
New England;" at Newbury, February 9, on "Poultry
keeping for the farm and farmers " and " Little leaks v. great
wastes;" and at Salem, March 12, on "The reflections of
a modern hayseed "and "Book farmings, moon farmino-."

* Amounts paid for 1896 ; awarded for 1897.

608 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

FRANKLIN COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1850, Acts of 1850, chapter 104.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 reported
the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be |3,7G8 ;
now has $9,595 invested as a capital stock in real estate,
stocks, crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $9,747.74: real
estate, $8,500; stocks, $1,020; crockery, tables, etc., $75;
cash on hand, $152.74. Total liabilities $3,423.81 : out-
standing bills, $323.81 ; mortgages or like liabilities, $3,100.
Receipts in 1897, $7,828.96: bounty, $600; stocks, $40;
newmembers, $15 ; donations, $22 ; other sources, $7,151.96.
Expenditures in 1897, $7,676.22: premiums and gratuities
paid, $1,329.90; curreat running expenses, $2,380.79; in-
terest, $165.89; other expenses, $3,799.64. The society
offered $1,818 in premiums, awarded $1,380.80 in premiums
and gratuities and paid $1,329.90, which went to 23 cities
and towns. About 340 persons received premiums and 23
gratuities. Under head of farm and pet stock $1,017.75
was awarded and $986.50 paid; under farm and garden
products $180.45 was awarded and $169.95 paid ; under dairy
products $23 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manu-
factures $134.30 was awarded and $126.75 paid; under
trotting $619.80 was paid; under ol)jects other than agri-
cultural, not specified, $13 was awarded and paid. Di-
plomas were awarded for agricultural implements. The
society reports about 1,800 members, — about 1,500 males
and about 300 females. Three farmers' institutes were held :
at Montague, January 29, on "The dairy interests of the
Island of Guernsey " and " The demands of the future on the
New England farmer;" at Sunderland, February 20, on
"Rural and farm law" and "The reflections of a modern
hayseed; " and at Shelburne Falls, March 18, on " Growing
and feeding forage crops for profit" and "The fiirm : its
products and profits."

No. 4.] EETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 609

HAMPDEN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1850, Acts of 1850, chapter 104.

This society held no fair in 1897. A membership of 551
is reported, — 435 males and 116 females. Three farmers'
institutes were held: at Springfield, March 17, on "Insect
enemies of fruit and shade trees" and "Small fruits;" at
Holyoke, March 31, on " Tuberculosis in cattle " and "Roads
and roadside improvements;" and at Springfield, April 8,
on "Management of ascricultural fairs."

HAMPSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1814, Acts of 1814, chapter 19.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853
stated the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be
$3,255.26 ; now has $4,352.43 invested as a capital stock in
real estate, crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $4,352.43 :
real estate, $4,200 ; crockery, tables, etc., $152.43. Total
liabilities, $1,301.56 : outstanding bills, $251.56 ; mortgages
or like liabilities, $1,050. Receipts in 1897, $1,685.73:
bounty, $554.60 ; new members, $32.50 ; donations, $72.45 ;
other sources, $1,026.18. Expenditures in 1897, $1,755.68 :
premiums and gratuities paid, $625.70 ; current running ex-
penses, $590.98 ; interest, $59 ; other expenses, $480. The
society offered $879 in premiums, and awarded and paid
$625.70 in premiums and gratuities, which went to 15 cities
and towns. One hundred and twenty persons received pre-
miums and 16 gratuities. Under head of farm and pet
stock $341 was awarded and paid ; under field and garden
crops $25 was awarded and paid; under farm and garden
products $118.75 was awarded and i)aid ; under dairy
products $5 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manu-
factures $38.60 was awarded and paid; under agricultural
implements $2.25 was awarded and paid; under objects
strictly agricultural, not specified, $12 was awarded and
paid; under trotting $480 was paid; under objects other
than agricultural, not specified, $28 was awarded and paid.
The society reports 761 members, — 534 males and 227
females. Three farmers' institutes were held : at Montao-ue,

610 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

January 29, on " The dairy interests of the Island of Guern-
sey " and " The demands of the future on the New England
farmer; " at Sunderland, February 20, on " Rural and farm
law" and "The reflections of a modern hayseed;" and at
Hadley, March 6, on "A year's experience with the army
worm" and "Hygiene of farm animals and how to prevent
disease."

HAMPSHIEE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN AGRICULT-
URAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1818, Acts of 1818, chapter 125.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853
stated the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be
$8,141.29 ; now has $2,815.24 invested as a capital stock in
personal property. Total assets, $2,890.16 : real estate lease,
$1,200; bank funds, $643; crockery, tables, etc., $800;
bills due and unpaid, $75; cash on hand, $172.16. Total
liabilities, $75 : premiums due and unpaid, $10 ; outstanding
bills, $65. Receipts in 1897, $3,761.01: bounty, $600;
bank funds, $24.96 ; new members, $90 ; other sources,
$3,046.05. Expenditures in 1897, $3,791.35 : premiums
and gratuities paid, $842 ; current running expenses,
$2,813.65; other expenses, $135.70. The society offered
$1,428.75 in premiums, awarded $971.35 in premiums and
gratuities and paid $842, which went to 23 cities and towns.
One hundred and seventy-three persons received premiums
and 14 gratuities. Under head of farm and pet stock
$691.40 was awarded and $602.15 paid; under field and
garden crops $26 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
garden products $133.50 was awarded and $119.25 paid;
under dairy products $14 was awarded and $8 paid ; under
domestic manufactures $58.45 was awarded and $42.85 paid;
under agricultural implements $15 was awarded and $8 paid ;
under objects strictly agricultural, not specified, $10 was
awarded and $6.25 paid; under objects other than agricult-
ural, not specified, $46 was awarded and $29.50 paid. The
society reports about 1,052 members, — about 836 males
and about 216 females. Three farmers' institutes were held :
at Northampton, January 6, on " The demands of the future

No. 4.] RETUENS OF SOCIETIES. 611

on the New England farmer ; " at Hadley, March 6, on "A
year's experience with the army worm "and "Hygiene of
farm animals and how to prevent disease ; " and at Easthamp-
ton, March 19, on "The farmers' opportunity" and "The
management of a dairy farm."

HIGHLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1859, Acts of 1859, chapter 145.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,262 ; now has |3,150
invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery, tables,
etc. Total assets, $3,249.06 : real estate, $3,000 ; crockery,
tables, etc., $150 ; cash on hand, $99.06. Receipts in 1897,
$1,643.70 : bounty, $600 ; new members, $31 ; other sources,
$1,012.70. Expenditures in 1897, $1,544.64: premiums
and gratuities paid, $656.65; current running expenses,
$877.49; interest, $4.50; other expenses, $6. The society
offered $788.80 in premiums, and awarded and paid $656.65
in premiums and gratuities, which went to 21 cities and
towns. One hundred and forty persons received premiums
and 1 a gratuity. Under head of farm and pet stock $401.75
was awarded and paid ; under field and garden crops $22.50
was awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products
$29.30 was awarded and paid; under dairy products $8.50
was awarded and paid ; under domestic manufactures $75.45
was awarded and paid ; under trotting $80 was paid ; under
objects other than agricultural, not specified, $39.15 was
awarded and paid. The society reports 420 members, —
291 males and 129 females. Three farmers' institutes were
held at Middlefield : January 6, on " Feeding the dairy cow
and the soil economically;" September 8, on "Rural and
farm law ; " and October 25, on " Equal taxation."

HILLSIDE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1883, Acts of 1883, chapter 112.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,113.32 ; now has
$6,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate, bank funds,
crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $6,000 : real estate,
$4,600; bank funds, $940; crockery, tables, etc., $334.36;

612 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

cash on hand, $125.64. Receipts in 1897, $1,923.46:
bounty, $600; bank funds, $40 ; new members, $128 ; dona-
tions, $22.43; other sources, $1,133.03. Expenditures in
1897, $1,397.82: premiums paid, $737.65; current running
expenses, $630.33; other expenses, $29.84. The society
oifered $720 in premiums, and awarded and paid $737.65,
which went to 28 towns. Three hundred and thirty-eight
persons received premiums. Under head of farm and pet
stock $457.50 was awarded and paid; under field and gar-
den crops $42.50 was awarded and paid; under farm and
garden products $63.35 was awarded and paid; under dairy
products $14.25 was awarded and paid; under domestic
manufactures $64.50 was awarded and paid; under agricult-
ural implements $6.50 was awarded and paid; under trot-
ting $21 was paid; under objects otlier than agricultural,
not specified, $50 was awarded and paid. The society
reports 640 members, — 608 males and 32 females. Four
farmers' institutes were held: at Chesterfield, January 17,
on "Common diseases of animals and their treatment;" at
Ashfield, February 6, on "The work and influence of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College" and " Eastern v. West-
ern Farming;" at Cummington, February 25, on "Con-
tagious diseases which now threaten our stock " and " Fruit ; "
and at Cummington, September 28, on " Market gardening"
and " The postal service."

HINGHAM AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL

SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1867, Acts of 1867, chapter 99.

Originally raised by contribution, $17,406.15; now has
$22,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery,
tables, etc. Total assets, $22,002.45 : real estate, $20,000 ;
crockery, tables, etc., $2,000; cash on hand, $2.45. Total
liabilities consist of notes to the amount of $700. Receipts
in 1897, $3,162.15: bounty, $600; new members, $11;
donations, $85 ; other sources, $2,466.15. Expenditures in
1897, $2,651.54: premiums and gratuities paid, $647.50;
current running expenses, $764.47 ; interest, $48.76 ; other
expenses, $1,190.81. The society offered $1,533.35 in pre-

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 618

miums, and awarded and paid $G47.50 in premiums and
gratuities, which went to 12 cities and towns. Two hun-
dred and nine persons received premiums and 353 gratuities.
Under farm and garden products $505.85 was awarded and
paid ; under dairy products |3 was awarded and paid ; under
domestic manufactures $70.10 was awarded and paid ; under
objects other than agricultural, not specified, IG8.55 was
awarded and paid. The society reports 723 members,—
507 males and 216 females. Seven farmers' institutes were
held at Hingham: January 18, on "The value of stable
manures as compared with commercial fertilizers " and " The
cause of the present low prices of farm products and how it
can be remedied ; » February 15, on " Strawberry culture ; "
March 15, on "A year's experience with the army worm ; "
April 12, on " Heredity ; " May 18, on " Home gardening; »
August 9, on "Raspberry culture," "Market gardening,"
"The hay crop," "The strawberry crop " and " Blight on
potatoes;" and on November 8, on "Chrysanthemum
culture."

HOOSAC VALLEY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1860, Acts of 1860, chapter 56.

Originally raised by contribution, $2,006 ; now has $17,-
260.49 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crock-
ery, tables, etc. Total assets, $17,930.41: real estate,
$16,760.49; crockery, tables, etc., $500; cash on hand,
$669.92. Total liabilities, $5,926.40: outstanding bills,
$926.40; mortgages or like liabilities, $5,000. Receipts in
1897, $7,902.57: bounty, $600; new members, $40; other
sources, $7,262.57. Expenditures in 1897, $7,276.85 : pre-
miums paid, $1,507; current running expenses, $3,791.96;
interest, $343.80; other expenses, $1,634.09. The society
oftered $4,319 in premiums, awarded $2,673 and paid
$2,433.40, which went to 16 cities and towns. Ninety-
eight dollars and seventy-five cents went to 7 cities and
towns outside the State. Two hundred and five persons
received premiums. Under head of farms $18 was awarded
and paid ; under farm and pet stock $555 was awarded and
paid ; under field and garden crops $174 was awarded and
paid; under farm and garden products $139.25 was awarded

614 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

and paid; under dairy })roducts $26 was awarded and paid;
under domestic manufactures $241.75 was awarded and paid ;
under agricultural implements $6 was awarded and paid ;
under trotting $1,295 was paid; under objects other than
agricultural, not specified, $125 was awarded and paid. The
society reports 982 members, — 966 males and 16 females.
Three farmers' institutes were held: at Savoy, December 1,
on " How to feed the dairy cow" and "The New England
farm;" at Williamstown, December 29, on "The business
side of farming ; " and at Cheshire, December 31, on " How
to increase our business and improve our farms."

HOUSATONIC AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1848, Acts of 1848, chapter 101.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853
stated the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to
be $6,335.33 ; now has $23,085.47 invested as a capital
stock in real estate, stocks and liank funds. Total assets,
$23,638.44: real estate, $21,000; stocks, $1,000; bank
funds, $1,085.47; crockery, tables, etc., $475; bills due
and unpaid, $15; cash on hand, $62.97. Total liabilities,
$3,369.50 : premiums due and unpaid and outstanding bills,
$100 ; mortgages or like liabilities, $3,269.50. Receipts in
1897, $9,937.77 : bounty, $600 ; stocks, $37.50 ; bank funds,
$40.18; new members, $185; other sources, $9,075.09.
Expenditures in 1897, $9,797.12: premiums and gratuities
paid, $2,076 ; current running expenses, $3,180.26 ; interest,
$110.45; other expenses, $4,430.91. The society oflered
$2,589.50 in premiums, awarded $2,101 in premiums and
gratuities and paid $2,076, which went to 17 cities and
towns. Four hundred and ninety-six persons received
premiums and gratuities. Under head of farm and pet
stock $1,058.10 was awarded and $1,033.10 paid; under
field and garden crops $242 was awarded and paid ; under
farm and garden products $279 was awarded and paid ;
under dairy products $42 was awarded and paid ; under
domestic manufactures $447 was awarded and paid ; un-
der trotting, $1,585 was paid; under objects other than
agricultural, not specified, and including sports, $856 was

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 615

awarded and paid. The society reports 1,744 members, —
1,697 males and 47 females. Three farmers' institutes were
held: at Great Barrington, February 4, on " The past and
present of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ; " at Lee,
March 30, on " The new agriculture, or a system of farming
for success" and "Rural and farm law;" and at Great
Barrington, November 30, on " The apple as a money crop
for New England : its culture and preparation for market."

MANUFACTURERS' AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OP
NORTH ATTLEBOROUGH.

Incorporated 1896, Acts of 1896, chapter 260.

Originally raised by contribution, $10,000 ; now has
),000 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery,
tables, etc. Total assets, $10,027.01: real estate, $9,500;
crockery, tables, etc., $500; cash on hand, $27.01. Re-
ceipts in 1897, $5,154.03 : bounty, $592.70; other sources,
$4,561.33. Expenditures in 1897, $5,154.03: premiums
and gratuities paid, $879.65; current running expenses,
$3,749.38; other expenses, $525. The society offered
$1,190.55 in premiums, and awarded and paid $879.65 in
premiums and gratuities, which went to 24 cities and towns.
One hundred and thirty-one dollars and forty-five cents went
to 6 cities and towns outside the State. Under head of farm
and pet stock $554.05 was awarded and paid ; under farm
and garden products $163.20 was awarded and paid; under
dairy products $2 was awarded and paid ; under domestic
manufactures $83 was awarded and paid ; under trotting
$1,450 was paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not
specified, $77.40 was awarded and paid. The society re-
ports 67 male members. Three farmers' institutes were
held at Attleborough : February 11, on "Little leaks v.
great wastes;" November 23, on "Originating and train-
ins; new varieties of veo:etables and notes on the best
varieties for cultivation;" and November 9, on "How to
improve the New England farm."

616 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

MARSHFIELD AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL

SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1867, Acts of 1867, chapter 116.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,755.43; now has
$27,980.08 invested as a capital stock in real estate,
crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $27,980.08 : real es-
tate, $26,472.78; crockery, tables, etc., $1,507.30. Total
liabilities, $5,336.45 : premiums due and unpaid, $66.45;
mortgages or like liabilities, $5,270. Receipts in 1897,
$2,847.02: bounty, $600; new members, $35; other
sources, $2,212.02. Expenditures in 1897, $3,192.68:
premiums and gratuities paid, $1,014.80 ; current running
expenses, $1,251.88; interest, $926. The society offered
$1,486 in premiums, awarded $1,051.65 in premiums and
gratuities and paid $971.95, which went to 27 cities and
towns. Ninety-two persons received premiums and 275
gratuities. Under head of farm and pet stock $179 was
awarded and $158.50 paid ; under farm and garden products
$137.75 was awarded and $112 paid; under domestic man-
ufactures $114.58 was awarded and paid ; under trotting
$586.87 was paid; under objects other than agricultural, not
specified, $33.45 was awarded and $31.90 paid. The society
reports 860 members, — 553 males and 307 females. Four
farmers' institutes were held at Marshfield : March 2, on
" Dairying" and " The possibility of having a milk car run
from Marshfield ; " March 23, on " Small fruits " and " Mar-
ket gardening ; " August 7, a practical illustration of clearing
up land; and August 25, on " Poultry culture."

MARTHA'S VINEYARD AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1859, Acts of 1859, chapter 33.

Originally raised by contribution, $4,552.17 ; now has
$4,332.63 invested as a capital stock in real estate, notes,
bank funds, crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $4,655.85
real estate, $2,750; notes, $400; bank funds, $982.63
crockery, tables, etc., $200; bills due and unpaid, $21
cash on hand, $302.22. Total liabilities, $68: premiums

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 617

due and unpaid, $43; outstanding bills (estimated), |25.
Receipts in 1897, $1,261.31: bounty, $600; notes, $29;
bank funds, $35.50; new members, $14; other sources,
$582.81. Expenditures in 1897, $1,088.20: premiums and
gratuities paid, $629.08 ; current running expenses, $284.12 ;
other expenses, $175. The society offered $819.50 in pre-
miums, awarded $672.08 and paid $629.08 in premiums
and gratuities, which went to 7 towns. Forty-two persons
received premiums and 127 gratuities. Under head of farms
$5 was awarded and paid ; under farm and pet stock $196.50
was awarded and paid ; under field and garden crops $32 was
awarded and paid; under farm and garden products $134.31
was awarded and paid; under dairy products $14.75 was
awarded and paid; under domestic manufactures $132.17
was awarded and paid; under trotting $85.75 was paid;
under o])jects other than agricultural, not specified, $62.74
was awarded and paid. The society reports 201 members, —
111 males and 90 females. Three farmers' institutes were
held at West Tisbury : September 23, on "Beautiful homes ; "
November 24, on " Shelter for stock ; " and April 16, on " Is
it profitable to raise grain on the Island ? "

MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1829, Acts of 1829, chapter 22.

The first investment was from surplus, Jan. 16, 1835, and
amounted to $525. The society now has $247,000 invested
as a capital stock in real estate, furniture, library, etc.
Total assets, $353,547.66: real estate, $250,000; loan,
$22,500; bonds, $26,852.50; crockery, tables, etc., $44,-
888.48; bills due and unpaid, $2,641.79; cash on hand,
$6,664.89. Total liabilities, $27,100: premiums due and
unpaid, $8,100; notes payable, $18,000; mortgages or like
liabilities, $1,000. Receipts in 1897, $44,171^57: bounty,
$600; bonds, $1,075; bank funds, $44.58; new members
and assessments, $1,132; donations, $32; other sources,
$41,287.99. Expenditures in 1897, $44,107.29: premiums
and gratuities paid, $7,623.72; current running expenses,
$17,737.73; interest, $928.50; other expenses, $17,817.34.

618 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

The society offered $8,050 in premiums, awarded $7,700.72*
in premiums and gratuities, and paid $7,623.72,* which went
to 69 cities and towns. Two hundred and twenty-seven
dollars went to 12 cities and towns outside the State. One
hundred and eighty-two f persons received premiums and
110 f gratuities. Under head of farms $540 was awarded
and $495 paid; under farm and garden products $7,242.25
was awarded and $7,199.47 paid. The society reports 761
members, — 707 males and 54 females. Ten farmers' insti-
tutes were held in Horticultural Hall, Boston : January 9,
on " Tropical horticulture, with practical illustrations of the
principal economic plants of hot climates;" January 16, on
"Structure and classification of mushrooms;" January 23,
on "The chrysanthemum: its past, present and future;"
January 30, on "Plant beauty;" February 13, on "Sweet
peas ; " Fe1)ruary 20, on " Market -gardening ; " February 27,
on " Good food from the garden ; " March 13, on " Horticult-
ure in Canada ; " March 20, on " Soils and potting ; " March
2*7, on "The spread of plant diseases : a consideration of
some of the ways in which parasitic organisms are dis-
seminated."

MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
AGRICULTURE.

Incorporated 1792, Acts of 1792, chapter 33.

This society made no returns to the Board of Agriculture
for the year 1897.

MIDDLESEX NORTH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1855, Acts of 1855, chapter 315.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,000; now has
>,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate. Total

assets, $37,790.20 : real estate, $35,000 ; bank funds, $1,000 ;

crockery, tables, etc., $370; bills due and unpaid, $1,050;

cash on hand, $370.20. Total liabilities, $9,180 : premiums

due and unpaid, $100 ; outstanding bills, $80 ; mortgages or

* Offered and awarded in 1896 ; paid in 1897.
t Not including school gardeners.

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 619

like liabilities, $9,000. Receipts in 1897, $8,762: bounty
$600; l,ank funds, $50; new members, $14; other sources'
13,098. Expenditures in 1897, $4,834.56: premiums and
gratmties paid, $681 ; current running expenses, $2,066 ;
mterest, $487.50; other expenses, $1,600.06. The society
offered $1,192.75 in premiums, awarded $781 in premiums
and gratuities and paid $681 which went to 11 cities and
towns. Under head of farm and pet stock $367.50 was
awarded; under lield and garden crops $6.50 was awarded •
under farm and garden products $266.25 was awarded ; under
dairy products $5 was awarded ; under domestic manufactures
$109.25 was awarded ; under trotting $650 was paid. Two
hundred and sixty-one persons received premiums and 125
gratuities. The society reports 1,465 members, — 1 063
males and 402 females. Three farmers' institutes were held •
at North Tewksbury, January 6, on "The reflections of
a modern hayseed;" at Billerica Centre, February 3, on
"Roads and roadside improvements " and "The history of
organized agriculture in the United States ; " and at Wilmino--
ton Centre, March 3, on - The demands of the future on the
JNew England farmer."

MIDDLESEX SOUTH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1854. Acts of 1854, chapter 84.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,000; now has $13,-
000 invested as a capital stock in real estate. Total assets,

l\nfVu''''^^^ ''*''*'' •*^'^'^^^' ^^rockery, tables, etc.,
$200; bills due and unpaid, $250; cash on hand, $50.72
lotal liabihties consist of mortgages or like liabilities to the
amount of $8,050. Receipts in 1897, $3,346.59 : bounty
$600 ; new members, $48 ; donations, $78.85 ; other sources,
$2,619.74. Expenditures in 1897, $3,295.47: premiums
and gratuities paid, $648.15; current running expenses
11,773.48 ; interest, $422.43 ; other expenses, $451.41. The
society oflered $1,251.45 in premiums, and awarded and paid
$648.15 m premiums and gratuities, which went to 8 cities
and towns. Eighty-seven persons received premiums and
33 gratuities. Under head of flirms $41 was awarded and
paid; under farm and pet stock $333.50 was awarded and

fi20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

paid ; under field and garden crops |46 was awarded and
paid; under farm and garden products $160.60 was awarded
and paid, under dairy products $6 was awarded and paid ;
under domestic manufactures $47.05 was awarded and paid ;
under trotting $765 was paid; under objects not strictly
agricultural, not specified, $15 was awarded and paid. The
society reports 555 members, — 370 males and 185 females.
Three farmers' institutes were held : at Hopkinton, March
10, on " A yeai''s experience with the army worm ; " at Hud-
son, March 17, on " How to make New England agriculture
more profitable ; " and at Framingham, December 28, on
" Farmino; forward."

NANTUCKET AGRICULTURAIj SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1856, Acts of 1856. chapter 25.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,500 ; now has $3,200
invested as a capital stock in real estate. Total assets,
$3,829.32: real estate, $3,200; bills due and unpaid,
$629.32. Total liabilities consist of outstanding bills to
the amount of $629.32. Receipts in 1897, $1,238.79:
bounty, $597.38; new members, $11; other sources,
$630.41. Expenditures in 1897, $1,857.11: premiums and
gratuities paid, $569.75 ; current running expenses, $714.42 ;
other expenses, $572.94. The society offered $1,302 in pre-
miums, and awarded and paid $569.75 in premiums and
gratuities, which went to 1 town. One hundred and ninety-
three persons received premiums and 154 gratuities. Under
head of farms $12 was awarded and paid; under farm and
pet stock $289 was awarded and paid ; under field and
garden crops $20 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
garden products $54 was awarded and paid ; under dairy
products $3 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manu-
factures $71.50 was awarded and paid; under trotting $75
was paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not speci-
fied, $45.25 was awarded and paid. The society reports 521
members, — 215 males and 306 females. Three farmers'
institutes were held at Nantucket: October 25, on general
farm topics ; November 1, on " Poultry farming; " and De-
cember 27, on " Profits in dairy farming."

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 621

OXFORD AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1888, Acts of 1888, chapter 93.

Originally raised by contribution, $4,400 ; now has
$8,211.95 invested as a capital stock in real estate, cash,
crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $8,211.95 : real estate,
$7,500 ; crockery, tables, etc., $200 ; cash on hand, $511.95.
Receipts in 1897, $2,855.80: bounty, $600; new members,
$23; donations, $14; other sources, $2,218.80. Expendi-
tures in 1897, $2,343.85 : premiums paid, $1,221.34 ; current
running expenses, $375 ; other expenses, $747.51. The so-
ciety offered $1,800 in premiums, awarded $1,259.75 and
paid $1,221.34, which went to 17 cities and towns. One
dollar and forty-five cents went to 1 city and 1 town out-
side the State. One hundred and twenty-eight persons re-
ceived premiums. Under head of farms $37 50 was awarded
and paid ; under farm and pet stock $544.50 was awarded
and $519.60 paid; under field and garden crops $45 was
awarded and $43.12 paid; under farm and garden products
$25 was awarded and $24.69 paid; under dairy products $8
was awarded and $7.24 paid; under domestic manufactures
$39.75 was awarded and $34.56 paid; under agricultural
implements $1 was awarded and $0.75 paid; under trotting
$525 was paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not
specified, $34 was awarded and $28.88 paid. The society
reports 641 members, — 346 males and 295 females. Three
farmers' institutes were held : at Oxford, March 20, on "The
past and future of the Board of Agriculture" and "The
school and the State;" at Sutton, April 6, on "The farm,
the grange and the home ; " and at Oxford, September 21, on
"Accumulated wealth and taxation."

PLYMOUTH COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated as the Agricultural Society in the County of Plymouth
1819, Acts of 1819, chapter 2 ; name changed to Plymouth County
Agricultural Society in 1870, Acts of 1870, chapter 251.

The society in its first report to the Board, in 1853, stated
the amount of its permanent fund (par value) to be $9,550 ;
now has $35,200 invested as a capital stock in real estate,

622 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $35,666.27 : real estate,
$35,000 ; crockery, tables, etc., $200 ; bills due and unpaid,
$75; cash on hand, $391.27. Total liabilities, $7,160.40:
premiums due and unpaid, $1,160.40; mortgages or like
liabilities, $6,000. Receipts in 1897, $11,169.53: bounty,
$600; donations, $38.55; other sources, $10,530.98. Ex-
penditures in 1897, $10,778.26: premiums and gratuities
paid, $1,462.50; current running expenses, $2,727.13; in-
terest, $582.94; other expenses, $6,005.69. The society
offered $3,503.50 in premiums, awarded $2,622.90 in pre-
miums and gratuities and paid $1,462.50. Premiums and
gratuities were awarded to parties residing in 37 cities and
towns. Three hundred and tifty-six persons received pre-
miums and 17 gratuities. Under head of farms $32 was
awarded; under farm and pet stock $661.75 was awarded;
under field and garden crops $22 was awarded ; under farm
and garden products $158 was awarded; under dairy prod-
ucts $17 was awarded ; under domestic manufactures $166.65
was awarded ; under objects strictly agricultural, not speci-
fied, $45 was awarded; under trotting $1,462.50 w^as paid;
under objects other than agricultural, not specified, $58 was
awarded. The society reports 1,521 members, — 880 males
and 641 females. Three farmers' institutes were held : at
Middleborough, February 12, on "Barnyard manure and
commercial fertilizers : what they are, and how to use
them;" at West Bridge water, April 2, on "Economic sum-
mer and winter feeds for milch cows," "The usefulness of
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture" and "The
war against the gy[isy moth ; " and at Bridgewater, Decem-
ber 21, on " Obstacles to successful farming and how to
overcome them."

SPENCER FARMERS' AND MECHANICS' ASSOCIATION.

Incorporated 1888, Acts of 1888, chapter 87-

Originally raised by contribution, $4,034.08 ; now has
$8,950 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery,
tables, etc. Total assets, $9,013.62: real estate, $8,000;
crockery, tables, etc., $950; cash on hand, $63.62. Total
liabilities consist of mortgages or like liabilities to the

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 623

amount of $700. Receipts in 1897, $2,852.45 : bounty,
$600; bank funds, $15; new members, $18; donations,
$335.86; other sources, $1,883.59. Expenditures in 1897,
$3,743.31: premiums and gratuities paid, $1,717.23; cur-
rent running expenses, $1,047.89 ; other expenses, $978.19.
The society offered $2,500 in premiums, awarded $1,950 in
premiums and gratuities and paid $1,717.23, which went to
22 cities and towns. Sixty-five dollars went to 2 towns
outside the State. One hundred and sixty-five persons re-
ceived premiums and 22 gratuities. Under head of farms
$43 was awarded and paid ; under farm and pet stock
$795.05 was awarded and paid ; under field and garden
crops and fixrni and garden products $89.75 was awarded and
paid; under dairy products $11 was awarded and paid;
under domestic manufactures $56 was awarded and paid ;
under trotting $770 was paid ; under objects other than agri-
cultural, not specified, $20 was awarded and paid. The
society reports 958 members, — 530 males and 428 females.
Three farmers' institutes were held at Spencer : January
20, on "The introduction of agriculture into our common
schools " and " The reflections of a modern hayseed ; " Janu-
ary 21, on " The farmer's economic need of bees ; " and
January 22, on " Common plant diseases."

UNION AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL
SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1867, Acts of 1867, chapter 110.

Originally raised by contribution, $4,447.23 ; now has
$9,000 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery,
tables, etc. Total assets, $9,099.65: real estate, $8,000;
crockery, tables, etc., $1,000; cash on hand, $99.65.
Total liabilities, $1,673.20: premiums due and unpaid,
$23.20; mortgages or like liabilities, $1,650. Receipts in
1897, $3,161.92: bounty, $600; new members, $73; other
sources, $2,488.92. Expenditures in 1897, $3,062.27 : pre-
miums and gratuities paid, $1,152; current running ex-
penses, $832.05; interest, $92.87; other expenses, $985.35.
The society offered $1,848.55 in premiums, awarded $1,175.20
in premiums and gratuities and paid $1,152, which went

624 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pul). Doc.

to 19 cities and towns. Five dollars and t%venty-five cents
went to one town outside the State. One hundred and
ninety-eight persons received premiums and 92 gratuities.
Under head of farm and pet stock $480.25 was awarded and
$458.13 paid; under field and garden crops $33.50 was
awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products $41.25
was awarded and $40 paid ; under dairy products $5.75 was
awarded and paid ; under domestic manufactures $121.90
was awarded and $110.63 paid; under agricultural imple-
ments $10.25 was awarded and $8 paid; under objects
strictly agricultural, not specified, $90 was awarded and
paid ; under trotting $385 was paid ; under objects other
than agricultural, not specified, $24.95 was awarded and
$21.49 paid. The society reports 1,308 members, — 605
males and 703 females. Three farmers' institutes were held
at Blandford : January 26, on "A grange, what, why and
how ; " February 19, on " The war against the gypsy moth"
and " The work and influence of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College;" and December 15, on "Poultry; its
breeding and management."

WEYMOUTH AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1891, Acts of 1891, chapter 77.

Amount originally raised by contribution had increased in
1891 to $10,270; the society now has $11,270 invested as a
capital stock in real estate, crockery, tables, etc. Total
assets, $11,314.68: real estate, $11,000; crockery, tables,
etc., $270; bills due and unpaid, $39 ; cash on hand, $5.68.
Total liabilities consist of mortgages or like liabilities to the
amount of $2,850. Receipts in 1897, $6,358.56: bounty,
$600 ; new members, $10 ; donations, $24.50 ; other sources,
$5,724.06. Expenditures in 1897, $6,316.18: premiums
and gratuities paid (including trotting), $1,617.65 ; current
running expenses, $150 ; interest, $135 ; other expenses,
$4,413.53. The society oflered $937 in premiums, awarded
$737.15 and paid $712.65, which went to 21 cities and towns.
One dollar and ten cents went to parties outside the State.
Under head of farm and pet stock $366.50 was awarded and
$362.50 paid; under farm and garden products $171.60 was

n::.

No. 4.] KETUKNS OF SOCIETIES. 625

awarded and $158.65 paid; under dairy products $4.50 was
awarded and paid; under domestic .manufactures $149.20
was awarded and $143.90 paid; under trotting $905 was
paid ; under objects otlier than agricultural, not specified,
$45.35 was awarded and $43.10 paid. The society reports
490 members, — 484 males and 6 females. Three farmers'
institutes were held : at North Weymouth, March 12, on
"The composition of milk;" at South Weymouth, March
26, on "How to make good roads, with or without State
aid; "and at East Weymouth, April 16, on "Poultry and
egg farmino;."

CO ~

WORCESTER AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1818, Acts of 1818, chapter 168.

The society in its first report to the Board in 1853 stated
that the amount of its permanent fund (par value) was
$7,730 ; now has $150,000 invested as a capital stock in real
estate. Total assets, $150,805.05: real estate, $150,000;
bank funds, $138.22 ; crockery, tables, etc., $600 ; bills due
and unpaid, $66.83. Total liabilities, $63,310.50: pre-
miums due and unpaid, $84; outstanding bills, $226.50;
mortgages or like liabilities, $63,000. Receipts in 1897,
$32,323.60 : bounty, $600 ; bank funds, $8.85 ; new members,
$185; donations, $323; other sources, $31,206.75. Ex-
penditures in 1897, $32,185.38 : premiums paid, $8,647.25 ;
current running expenses, $8,924.85; interest, $2,443.24;
other expenses, $12,170.04. The society ofiered $11,328.50
in premiums, and awarded and paid $8,647.25, which went
to 84 cities and towns. Eight hundred and thirty-four dol-
lars and twenty-five cents went to 22 cities and towns outside
the State. Three hundred and thirty-two persons received
premiums. Under head of farm and pet stock $3,359 was
awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products $984
was awarded and paid; under dairy products $152 was
awarded and paid; under domestic manufactures $157.75
was awarded and paid; under objects strictly agricultural,
not specified, $155 was awarded and paid ; under trotting,
$3,725 was paid; under objects other than agricultural, not
specified, $114.50 was awarded and paid. The society re-
ports 1,793 members, — 1,631 males and 162 females. Three
farmers' institutes were held; at Westborough, January 12,

626 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

on ' ' How to make farming pay " and ' ' The cost of a quart
of milk;" at Worcester, February 18, on "A year's experi-
ence with the army worm" and "The family vegetable gar-
den;" and at Holden, March 5, on " How to feed the dairy
cow for milk and cream production."

WORCESTER EAST AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1890, Acts of 1890, chapter 41.

Originally raised by contribution, $1,015 ; now has $5,-
246.17 invested as capital stock in real estate, cash, fixtures,
crockery, tables, etc. Total assets, $5,246.17 : real estate,
$4,162.40; crockery, tables, etc., $858.77; cash on hand,
$225. Receipts in 1897, $4,212.56: bounty, $600; bank
funds, $11.26; new members, $57; donations, $127; other
sources, $3,417.30. Expenditures in 1897, $3,920.68 : pre-
miums paid, $1,161.75; current running expenses, $2,575.-
59 ; other expenses, $183.34. The society offered about
$1,600 in premiums, awarded $1,161.75 and paid $1,142.25,
which went to 22 cities and towns. Three dollars and
seventy-five cents went to one city outside the State. Under
head of farms $19 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
pet stock $562.25 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
garden products $200.75 was awarded and paid; under dairy
products $34 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manu-
factures $84 was awarded and paid ; under trotting $400 was
paid; mider objects other than agricultural, not specified,
$49 was awarded and paid. The society reports 688 mem-
bers,— 457 males and 231 females. Three farmers' insti-
tutes were held: at Clinton, January 22, on "The war
against the gypsy moth ; " at Lancaster, February 3 , on
"Eastern v. Western farming;" and at Berlin, February
27, on "The raising of small fruits."

WORCESTER NORTH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated as the Pitchburg Agricultural Society, 1852, Acts of
1852, chapter 79 ; name changed to Worcester North Agricult-
ural Society, 1853, Acts of 1853. chapter 359.

Originally raised by contribution, $2,128. Total assets,
$1,105.90: notes, $115; crockery, tables, etc., $400; bills

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 627

due and unpaid, $75 ; cash on hand, $515.90. Total liabili-
ties consist of premiums due and unpaid to the amount of
$1,156.12. Receipts in 1897, $744.30 : bounty, $600 ; dona-
tions, $124.30 ; other sources, $20. Expenditures in 1897,
$501.55: premiums and gratuities paid, $163.42; current
running expenses, $151.29 ; interest, $186.84. The so-
ciety awarded $215.15 in premiums and gratuities and paid
$163.42, which went to 6 cities and towns. Fifty-seven
persons received premiums and 75 gratuities. Under farm
and garden products $148.50 was awarded and $104.80 paid ;
under dairy products $2 was awarded and paid ; under do-
mestic manufactures $40.15 was awarded and $26.02 paid;
under objects other than agricultural, not specified, $34.50
was awarded and $30.60 paid. The society reports 722
members, — 662 males and 60 females. Six farmers' insti-
tutes were held: at Leominster, January 13, on "Cleanli-
ness in the dairy "and "The work of the Cattle Commis-
sion;" at Ashburnham, February 3, on "Poultry for
profit;" at Townsend, February 12, on "Little leaks v.
great wastes" and "Animal -structure the foundation of pur-
pose;" at Ashby, February 22, on "Public schools;" at
Lunenburg, March 16, on "Fruit;" and at Westminster,
March 17, on " Business principles applied to farming" and
" Guernsey cattle."

WORCESTER NORTH-WEST AGRICULTURAL AND
MECHANICAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1867, Acts of 1867, chapter 117-

Originally raised by contribution, $3,400; now has
$12,703.04 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crock-
ery, tables, etc. Total assets, $12,703.04: real estate,
$12,000; crockery, tables, etc., $600; cash on hand,
$103.04. Total liabilities consist of mortgages or like lia-
bilities to the amount of $2,800. Receipts in 1897, $7,868.39 :
bounty, $600 ; new members, $115 ; other sources, $7,153.39.
Expenditures in 1897, $7,878.61 : premiums paid, $2,845.96 ;
current running expenses, $3,487.34; interest, $145.31;
other expenses, $1,400. The society ofi:ered $3,416 in
premiums, awarded $2,901.35 and paid $2,845.96, which
went to 41 cities and towns. Six hundred and sixty-six

628 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

dollars and seventy-five cents went to 9 cities and towns
outside the State. One hundred and eighty-eight persons
received premiums. Under head of farms $19 was awarded
and paid; under farm and pet stock $849.25 was awarded
and $832.08 paid; under farm and garden products $197.90
was awarded and $189.75 paid; under dairy products $21
was awarded and paid ; under domestic manufactures $51.20
was awarded and $31.80 paid ; under agricultural implements
$12 was awarded and $6 paid ; under trotting $1,430 was
paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not specified,
$321 was awarded and $316.33 paid. The society reports
1,032 members, — 663 males and 369 females. Three
farmers' institutes were held: at North Orange, January 8,
on " Economical feed for the dairy cow " and " How to im-
prove the New England farm;" at Royalston, January 20,
on " Obstacles to successful farming and how to overcome
them" and " How to make New Entjland agriculture more
profitable;" and at Gardner, April 6, on "The farm, the
home and the grange" and "Little leaks v. great wastes."

WOECESTBR SOUTH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1855, Acts of 1855, chapter 278.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,127.40; now has
$8,500 invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery,
tables, etc. Total assets, $10,938.78 : real estate, $10,400
crockery, tables, etc., $500; cash on hand, $38.78. Total
liabilities, $770.75: premiums due and unpaid, $19.75
outstanding bills, $51 ; mortgages or like liabilities, $700
Receipts in 1897, $4,243.91: bounty, $600; new members
$71; other sources, $3,572.91. Expenditures in 1897
$4,527.02: premiums and gratuities paid, $2,074; current
running expenses, $1,791.24 ; interest, $25 ; other expenses,
$636.78. The society oflered $2,423 in premiums, awarded
$2,074 and paid $2,054.25, which went to 32 cities and
towns. One hundred and thirty-six dollars went to 4 cities
and towns outside the State. One hundred and ten persons
received premiums and 72 gratuities. Under head of farms
$47 was awarded and paid ; under farm and pet stock $899
was awarded and paid ; under farm and garden products

No. 4.] RETURNS OF SOCIETIES. 629

$146.45 was awarded and $138 paid; under dairy products
$28 was awarded and paid ; under domestic manufactures
$88.25 was awarded and $79.25 paid; under agricultural
implements $8.50 was awarded and paid; under trotting
$830 was paid ; under objects other than agricultural, not
specified, $26.80 was awarded. The society reports 1,637
members, — 795 males and 842 females. Three farmers'
institutes were held: at Sturbridge, January 13, on "How
to feed the dairy cow for milk and cream production ; " at
West Brookfield, February 20, on " How to feed the dairy
cow for milk and cream production" and "Economic sum-
mer and winter feeds for dairy cows;" and at Podunk,
March 17, on " The silo and its uses."

WORCESTER COUNTY WEST AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY.

Incorporated 1851, Acts of 1851, chapter 278.

Originally raised by contribution, $3,175 ; now has $13,600
invested as a capital stock in real estate, crockery, tables,
etc. Total assets, $13,715.27 : real estate, $12,600 ; crock-
ery, tables, etc., $1,000; cash on hand, $115.27. Total
liabilities consist of a note for $1,000. Receipts in 1897,
$3,452.38 : bounty, $600 ; new members, $25 ; donations,
$25.45; other sources, $2,801.93. Expenditures in 1897,
$3,345.98 : premiums and gratuities paid, $1,515.78 ; cur-
rent running expenses, $1,451.20; interest, $79; other ex-
penses, $300. The society offered $1,875.75 in premiums,
awarded $1,541.23 in premiums and gratuities and paid
$1,515.78, which went to 28 cities and towns. One hun-
dred and nine dollars and twenty-five cents went to three
cities and towns outside the State. One hundred and forty-
six persons received premiums and 23 gratuities. Under
head of farms $32 was awarded and paid ; under farm and
pet stock $601.08 was awarded and $581.83 paid; under
field and garden crops $6 was awarded and paid ; under
farm and garden products $161,20 was awarded and $159.82
paid; under dairy products $11 was awarded and $10.50
paid ; under domestic manufactures $49.60 was awarded and
>.35 paid; under trotting $670 was paid; under objects

630

BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. [P. D. No. L

not strictly agricultural, not specified, $135.35 was awarded
and $132.28 paid. The society reports 512 members, —
456 males and 56 females. Three farmers' institutes were
held: at Barre, January 23, on "Massachusetts weeds and
grasses;" at Hardwick, February 12, on " The reflections
of a modern hayseed;" and at Oakham, February 19, on
*' The new agriculture, or a system of farming for success."

Summary.

1893.

1896.

1897.

Number of societies

Amount held invested or well secured as a cap-
ital stock.
Assets of societies,

Liabilities of societies,

Receipts,

Expenditures

Bounty received from tlie State,

Current running expenses,

Amount of premiums offered, ....
Amount of premiums and gratuities awarded, .
Amount of premiums and gratuities paid,
Amount awarded under head of farms, . .

Amount awarded under head of farm and pet
stock.

Amount awarded under head of field and gar-
den crops.

Amount awarded imder head of farm and gar-
den products.

Amount awarded under head of dairy products.

Amount awarded under head of domestic man-
ufactures.
Amount awarded under head of miscellaneous.

Amount paid under head of trotting, .

Number of persons receiving premiums, .

Number of persons receiving gratuities, .

Total male membership of the societies, .

Total female membership of the societies.

Total membership of the societies, .

Number of farmers' institutes held, .

*35

$763,303 42

861,719 36

139,821 46

188,403 88

179,094 89

20,606 20

77,786 73

85,838 53

66,912 26

65,209 35

1,391 00

22,158 47

1,305 10

13,483 29

687 21

3,692 53

3,138 52

25,247 35

7,247

2,872

23,099

7,017

30,116

118

136

$801,791 30

902,393 40

156,161 90

204,241 16

192,603 32

20,084 12

79,174 07

87,494 75

68,055 33

65,839 68

1,127 33

21,167 61

995 50

13,107 22

668 50

3,986 86

4,722 50

31,263 90

7,666

1,842

22,897

7,503

30,400

128

t36

$803,181 25

923,350 26

186,176 95

221,182 56

218,335 95

20,344 68

85,284 08

79,503 80

59,408 24

57,606 49

1,137 50

20,764 68

1,065 75

13,475 86

578 25

3,778 15

3,710 21

24,893 42

7,242

1,918

22,960

7,718

30,678

125

* One held no fair.

■f Two held no fair.

DIRECTORY

Agricultural and Similar Organizations
in the State.

February, 1898

[631]

State Board of Agriculture, 1898.

Members ex Officio.

His Excellency ROGER WOLCOTT.

His Honor W. M. CRANE.
Hon. WM. M. OLIN, Secretary of the Commonioealth.

H. H. GOODELL, M.A., LL.D., Presiderit Massachusetts Agricultural College.
C. A. GOE8SMANN, Ph.D., LL.D., Chemist of the Board.
WM. R. SESSIONS, Secretary of the Board.

Members appointed by the Governor and Council.

Term Expires

JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greeofleld 1899

SPRAGUE S. STETSON of Lakeville, 1900

DWIGHT A. HORTON of Northampton, 1901

Members cbosen by the Incorporated Societies.

Amesbury and Salisbury {Agr'l and

Sort' I)

Barnstable County

Berkshire

F. W.

Blackstone Valley,

Essex,

SARGENT of Amesbury, .

JOHN BURSLEY of West Barnstable,

WESLEY B. BARTON of Dalton, .

SAMUEL B. TAFT of Uxbridge,

Bristol County, N. W. SHAW of North Raynham, .

Deerjield Valley F. H. SMITH of Ashfield, ...

Eastern Hampden O. P. ALLEN of Palmer,

F. H. APPLETON of Peabody (P. O

Lynnfleld)

Franklin County F. L. WHITMORE of Sunderland, .

Hampshire, GEO. P. SMITH of Sunderland, .

Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, EDWARD E. WOOD of Northampton,

Highland SAMUEL M. RAYMOND of Hinsdale,

Hillside C. K. BREWSTER of Worthington, .

Hingham {Agr'land Hort'l), . . EDMUND HERSBY of Hlngham,

Hoosac Valley | ^bentre)^'^™ °^ ^"T .^''" .°" ^.'^""^

Housatonic CHARLES B. BENEDICT of Egremont,

Man'f'rs' Agr'l{No.Attl€borough), . OSCAR 8. THAYER of Attleborough,

WALTON HALL of Marshtteld, .
EVERETT A. DAVIS of West Tisbury,
E. W. WOOD of West Newton,

N. I. BOWDITCH of Framlngham, .
Middlesex North JOSHUA CLARK of Tewksbury,

\n^^i„. c^.,» S ISAAC DAMON of Wayland (P. O

Middlesex South, | Cochituate), . . . . . .

Marshjield {Agr'land Hort'l), .
Martha's Vineyard, ....
Massachusetts Hot'ticultural,
Massachusetts Society for Promot- i
ing Agriculture, .

Nantucket J. B. APPLETON, Jr., of Nantucket,

Oxford, J. W. STOCKWELL of Sutton, .

AUGUSTUS PRATT of North Middle
borough

J. ELTON GREEN of Spencer, .

ALMON W. LLOYD, of Blandford, .

QUINCY L. REED of South Weymouth,

J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH of Worcester,

Plymouth County

Spencer {Ear's and Mech's Assoc'n),
Union (^Agr' I and Hort' I) , .
Weymouth {Agr'l and Jnd'l) ,
Worcester,

Worcester East W. A. KILBOURN of South Lancaster,

Worcester North-west (Agr'l and \ T. H. GOODSPEED of Athol (P. O. Athol

Mech'l), I Centre)

Worcester South CD. RICHARDSON of West Brookfield

Worcester County West, . . . E. A. HARWOOD of North Brookfield,

1900

1901
1900
1900
1899
1899
1900

1899
1901
1901
1900
1899
1899
1900

1900
1900
1900
1900
1901
1900

1900

1901

1899
1900
1901

1901
1901
1900
1899
1900

1901
1901
1899

[633]

Orga:nization of the Board.

President, .
1st Vice-President,
2d Vice-President,
Secretary, .

OFFICERS.
His Excellency ROGER WOLCOTT, Ex Officio.
JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greenfield.
ELIJAH W. WOOD of West Newton.
WM. R. SESSIONS of Hampden.

Office, Rooms 134-136, State House, Boston.

COMMITTEES.

Executive Committee.
Messrs. E. W. Wood of West Newton.

W. A. KiLBOURN of South Lan-
caster.
Isaac Damon of Wayland,

D. A. HoBTON of Northampton.

E. A. Harwood of North Brook-
field.

Edmund Hebset of Hingham.
Fbancis H. Appleton of Peabody.

Committee on Agricultural So-
cieties.
Messrs. W. A. Kilbourn of South Lan-
caster.
Q. L. Reed of South Weymouth.
N. W. Shaw of North Raynham.
O. P. Allen of Palmer.
N. B. Bakeb of Savoy.

Goramiittee on Domestic Animals

and Sanitation.
Messrs. Isaac Damon of Wayland.

F. H. Smith of Ashfleld.

OscAB S. Thateb of Attleborough.

Joshua Clark of Tewksbury.

F. L. Whitmore of Sunderland.

Almon W. Lloyd of Blandford.

Committee on Gypsy Moth, In-
sects and Birds.
Messrs. E. W. Wood of West Newton.

Augustus Pratt of North Kiddle-
borough.
P. W. Sargent of Amesbury.
S. S. Stetson of Lakeville.
N. I. Bowditch of Framingham.

Committee on Dairy Bureau and
Agricultural Products.

Messrs. D. A. Horton of Northampton.
J. L. Ellsworth of Worcester.
C. D. Richardson of West Brook-
field.
C. B. Benedict of Egremont.
E. E. Wood of Northampton.

Committee on Agricultural Col-
lege and Education.

Messrs. E. A. Habwood of North Brook-
field.
John BuBSLBYof West Barnstable.
C. K. Brewster of Worthington.
Wesley B. Barton of Dalton.
J. W. Stockwell of Sutton.
Geo. p. Smith of Sunderland.

Committee on Experiments and
Station Work.

Messrs. Edmund Hersey of Hingham.
Walton Hall of Marshtield.
J. S. Grinnell of Greenfield.
T. H. Goodspeed of Athol.
J. Elton Green of Spencer.

Committee on Forestry, Roads
and Roadside Improvements.

Messrs. Francis H. Appleton of Peabody,
S. M. Raymond of Hinsdale.
J. S. Appleton, Jr., of Nantucket.
E. A. Davis of West Tisbury.
Samuel B. Tapt of Uxbridge.

The Secretary is a member, ex officio, of each of the above committees.

DAIRY BUREAU.

Messrs. D. A. Hobton of Northampton, 1901, C. D. Richabdson of West Brookfield, 1899.

J. Lewis Ellsworth of Worcester, 1900, appointed by the Governor. Secretary

Wm. R. Sessions, Executive Officer. Geo. M. Whitakeb of Boston,

Assistarit Executive Officer, appointed by the Gover7ior, 1899.

Chemist,

E7itomologist,

Botanist and Pomologist,

Veterinarian, . .

Engineer, .

Ornithologist,

SPECIALISTS.

By Election of the Board.

. Dr. C. A. Goessmann, "f ™u^''®i'

. Prof. C. H. Febnald, , v .'

. Prof. S. T. Maynard »™u .'

. Prof. James B. Paige, Amherst.

. Wm. Wheeler SPm

. E.H.FORBUSH, Maiden.

By Appointment of the Secretary.

Librarian, F. H. Fowler, B.Sc, First Clerk.

[634]

Massachusetts Agricultural CoiiLEGE.

Location, Amherst, Hampshire County.

Board op Trustees. Exp™s

"William H. Bowker of Boston, 1899

J. D. W. French of North Andover 1899

J. Howe Demond of NortLamptoii, 190o

Elmer D. Howe of Marlborough, ^ . Iqoq

Nathaniel I. Bowditch of Framingham, * . 1901

William "Wheeler of Concord, jgoi

Eeijah W. Wood of West Newton, ] 1902

Chas. a. Gleason of New Braintree I902

Samuel C. Damon of Lancaster, I903

James Draper of Worcester, I9O3

Henry S, Hyde of Springfield, '. ] I904

Merritt I. Wheeler of Great Barrington, I904

James S. Grinnell of Greenfield, I905

Charles L. Flint of Brookline, I9O5

Members ex Officio.

His Excellency Governor Roger Wolcott,

President of the Corporation.

Henry H. GooDELL, M.A., LL.D President of the College.

Frank A, Hill, Secretary of the Board' of Education.

William R. Sessions, .... Secretary of the Board of Agriculture.

Officers elected by the Board of Trustees.
James S. Grinnell of Greenfield, . . . Vice-President of tlie Corporation.

William R. Sessions of Hampden, Secretary.

Prof. Geo. F. Mills of Amherst, Treasurer.

Charles A. Gleason of New Braintree, Auditor.

Board of Overseers.
The State Board of Agriculture,

Examining Committee of the Board of Agriculture.
Messrs. Harwood, Bursley, Brewster, Barton, Stockwell and Smith.

Hatch Experiment Station op the Massachusetts Agricultural

College.

Henry H. Goodell, M.A., LL.D.,
William P. Brooks, B.Sc, .
Samuel T. Maynard, B.Sc, .
Charles H. Fernald, Ph.D.,
Chas. A. Goessmann, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D.,
George E. Stone, Ph.D.,

J. E. OSTRANDER, C.E

Director.

• . . Agriculturist.

Horticulturist.

Entomologist.

. Chemist (Fertilizers).

Chemist (Foods and Feeding).

« • . Botanist.

Meteorologist.

Board op Cattle Commissioners. Expires

Austin Peters, M.R.C."7.S., of Boston, Chairman 1900

John M. Parker, V.S., of Haverhill, Secretary, 1899

Maurice O'Connell, D."\^.S., of Holyoke, ....... 1898

L, F. Herrick of Millbury, 1899

Charles A. Dennen of Pepperell, 1900

Office, Commonwealth Building, Bostoa.
[635]

636

BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc.

Massachusetts Patrons of Husbandry.

Officers of the State Grange, 1898.

Master,

Overseer, .

Lecturer, .

Steward, .

Assistant Steward,

Chaplain, .

Treasurer,

Secretary,

Gate Keeper, .

Pomona, .

Flora,

Ceres,

Lady Assistant Steward,

Warren C. Jewett of Worcester.

E. A. Emerson of Haverhill.

George S. Ladd of Sturbridge.

. W. B. Barton of Dalton.

. J. B. Parkin of Holliston.

Rev. C. S. Walker of Amherst.

F. A. Harrington of Worcester.

Wm. X. Howard of South Easton.

. I. H. Lamb of Stoughton.

Mrs. Carrie C. Sabiu of Amherst.

Mrs. Emma S. Eaton of Fitchburg.

. Miss Susie Wing of Littleton,

Mrs. S. Ella Southland of Athol.

Executive Committee.

Geo. L. Clemence, Southbridge.

H. A. Barton, Dalton.

C. A. Dennen, Pepperell.

Deputies.

Marcellus Boynton, Shawmut.

T. E. Flarity, Townsend.

Herbert Sabin, Amherst.

F. H. Stevens, West Acton.

C. D. Richardson, West Brookfield.

Charles G. Hinckley, Lee.

Edward W. Fuller, North vVndover.

I. N. Day, South Hadley.

John E. Gifford, Sutton.

C. A. Stimson, Royalston.

J. E. Goodell, West Boylston.

George W. Roraback, . . AVestfield.

Charles H. Rice, Leominster.

H F. Maxwell, Canton.

Rev. A. W. Wheelock, Millis.

Special Deputies.

Wm. N. Howard, South Easton.

F.H. Plumb Springfield.

No. 4.] AGRICULTURAL DIRECTORY.

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INDEX TO SECRETARY'S REPORT.

PAGE

Actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), concerning, 535,557

Agricultural and similar organizations, directory of, 633

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, experiment station of the, . . . 186

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, farm of the, 184

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, botanical department at the, . . . 188

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, department of zoology at the, . . . 187

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, horticultural department at the, . . 190

Agricultural College, Massachusetts, officers and trustees of the, . . . 635
Agricultural College, Massachusetts, overseers of the, report to Legislature of

Board of Agriculture acting as, 184

Agricultural education, value of, 90

Agricultural exhibitions, dates of, and assignment of inspectors to, . . 182

Agricultural purposes, legislative appropriations for, xxi

Agricultural societies, committee on, report of, 193

Agricultural societies, committee on revised method of management of, report

of 12

Agricultural societies, officers of, 636

Agricultural societies, returns of, 601, 630

Agriculture, Board of, annual meeting of the, 173

Agriculture, Board of, bulletins of the, published in Crop Reports, . . . 225

Agriculture, Board of, changes in the xxxi

Agriculture, Board of, committee on agricultural societies of the, report of the, 193
Agriculture, Board of, committee on experiments and station work of the, re-
port of the, . . . . o 195

Agriculture, Board of, Dairy Bureau of the, seventh annual report of the, . 281

Agriculture, Board of, executive committee of tlie, meetings of the, ... 3

Agriculture, Board of, gypsy moth committee of the, report of the, . . . 309

Agriculture, Board of, library of the, history and classification, . . • 197

Agriculture, Board of, members of the, v, G33

Agriculture, Board of, officers and committees of the, 634

Agriculture, Board of, public winter meeting of the, at Taunton, ... 17

Agriculture, Board of, report of the librarian of the, 197

Agriculture, Board of, report of the, to the Legislature, acting as overseers of

the Massachusetts Agricultural College 184

Agriculture, Board of, resolution by, in regard to the Farmers' National Con-
gress, 1'^

Agriculture, Board of, resolutions by, on the death of Atkinson C. Varnum, . 175
Agriculture, Board of, resolutions by, on the gift of money for prizes by the

Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture 181

Agriculture, Board of, special meeting of the, at Taunton 11

Agriculture, Board of, work of the, xxxu

Amesbury and Salisbury Agricultural and Horticultural Society, returns of

the 601

Animals, diseased, compensation for, concerning, _ 490

Animals, laws referring to the transportation of, 525, 529

Aphis, woolly, concerning the,

Apple, cultivation of the

648 INDEX.

PA.OB

Apple louse, concerning the, 153

Arsenate, di-plumbic v. tri-plumbic, as an insecticide, 386

Arsenate of lead as an insecticide, .... 146, 162, 353, 357, 379, 390

Arsenate of lead as an insecticide, paper on, by Prof. C. H. Fernald, . . 353

Arsenate of lead, danger from the use of, paper on, by A. H. Kirkland, . . 390
Arsenate of lead : its manufacture and chemical composition, paper on, by F.

J. Smith, 357

Arsenic, white, Paris green i\, as an insecticide, 371

Barium arsenate as an insecticide, concerning, 381

Barns, cleansing and disinfecting of, 472

Barns, ventilation of, importance of, .... ' 494

Barnstable County Agricultural Society, returns of the, 602

Barton, Wesley B., essay by, on opportunities of New England farmers, . 209

Beetles, predaceous, notes on, in 1897, paper on, by A. F. Burgess, . . . 402

Berkshire Agricultural Society, mortgage of property of, 4

Berkshire Agricultural Society, returns of the, 602

Blackberry, — soil, planting, varieties, diseases, etc., 237

Blackstone Valley Agricultural Society, returns of the 603

Borer, sugar-maple, — life history, natural enemies, remedies 238

Boston milk and butter supply, statistics of the, 286, 297

Brighton and Somerville, receipts of cattle at 476

Bristol County Agricultural Society, returns of the, 604

Brooks, Prof. Wm. P., report by, for committee on experiments and station

work, 195

Brown-tail moth, concerning the, xxviii, 6

Bureau, Dairy, seventh annual report of the 281

Burgess, A. F., paper by, on notes on predaceous beetles, 1897, . . . 402
Burgess, A. F., and A. H. Kirkland, paper by, on experiments with insecti-
cides 370

Burlapping to destroy the gypsy moth, 323

Butter, — receipts, exports, stocks, consumption, prices, etc, in Boston, . . 286

Butter, " sterilized" or "process," concerning the manufacture of, . . . 289

Calosoma, concerning various species of, 404, 406, 408

Calves, raising of, concerning the, 43

Candage, R. G. F., report by, on Farmers' National Congress at St. Paul, . 585

Canker worm, remedies for the, 150

Capital, limited, market gardening witb, lecture on, by H. W. CoUingwood, . 65
Cattle assessed in each town, tested, condemned as diseased, etc., . . . 456

Cattle inspectors, list and work of 444, 475

Cattle, private testing of, concerning the, 467

Cattle, receipts of, at Brighton and Somerville, 476

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, annual report of the, 443

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, circulars and orders of the, . 454, 465, 472, 478,

531, 547

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, financial statement of, 461

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, list of inspectors, cities and towns, . . 444

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, roster of, 635

Cattle Commissioners, Board of, work of the, 443

Cholera hog, concerning, 552

Clover, crimson, growing of, value, etc., 74, 82, 85, 123, 133

College, Massachusetts Agricultural. See Agricultural College.

CoUingwood, H. W., lecture by, on market gardening with limited capital, . 65

Corn, sweet, — cultivation, varieties, etc., 78

Cows, milch, structure as relating to production, lecture on, by Dr. G. M.
Twitchell, 23

INDEX. 649

PAOE

Cranberry fruit worm, description, life history, remedies, etc., .... 148

Cranberry industry, statistics of the, 144

Crops, green, ploughing under, advantages of, ...... . 123

Crops of 1897, concerning the, vii

Crop Reports, Massachusetts, bulletins of the Board of Agriculture published

in the 225

Cranberry span worm, — description, life history, remedies, etc., . . . 149

Cranberry vine worm, —description, life history, remedies, etc 145

Cranberry and other fruits, insects injurious to the, lecture on, by Prof. C. H.

Fernald, 144

Cushman, Samuel, lect-ure by, on advantages and disadvantages of modern

methods of poultry culture, 95

Dairy Bureau, financial statement of the, . . . . . . . . 303

Dairy Bureau, officers and members of the, ...... 280, 634

Dairy Bureau, seventh annual report of the, 281

Dairy laws of other States, 288, 300

Deerfield Valley Agricultural Society, returns of the, 605

Directory of agricultural and similar organizations, 633

Eastern Hampden Agricultural Society, returns of the, 606

Education, agricultural, value of, 90

Elm bark louse, — food plants, damage done by, remedies, etc 244

Essex Agricultural Society, returns of the, 607

Executive committee of the Board of Agriculture, minutes of meetings of, . 3

Exhibitions, agricultural, dates of, and assignment of inspectors to, . . 182

Experiment Station, Hatch, concerning the work of the, 186

Experiment Station, Hatch, officers of 635

Experiments and station work, report of committee on 195

Fairs, dates of, and assignment of inspectors to 182

Farm, irrigation on our, paper on, by Richard Hittinger, 141

Farmers, New England, opportunities of, essay on, by Wesley B. Barton, . 209

Farmers' clubs, officers of, 638

Farmers' institutes, concerning, xxv, 215, 601

Farmers' institutes, essay on, by F. W. Sargent, 215

Farmers' National Congress, report of the delegates to the, at St. Paul, by

R. G. F. Candage 585

Farmers' National Congress, resolution of the Board of Agriculture regarding

the 179

Farmers' and mechanics' associations and clubs, officers of, ... . 637

Farms, abandoned, concerning, xxiii

Feed stuffs, concerning concentrated commercial, xxii, 3

Fernald, Prof. C. H., lecture by, on insects injurious to the cranberry and

other fruits 144

Fernald, Prof. C. H., paper by, on arsenate of load as an insecticide, . . 353

Fernald, Prof. C. H., report by, as entomologist of the gypsy moth committee, 317

Financial returns of the incorporated societies, 601,630

Fish, Mayor N. J. "W., address by, before the Board of Agriculture, at

Taunton, 19

Forbush, E. H., report by, as field director, gypsy moth work, . . . 321

Fowler, F. H., report by, as librarian and curator, 197

Fowls, breeds of, characteristics of certain, 100, 107, 110

Fowls, diseases of, concerning, 105

Franklin County Agricultural Society, mortgage of property of, . . . 3

Franklin County Agricultural Society, returns of the, 608

650 INDEX.

PAGB

Frothingham, Langdon, report by, of the examination of organs, etc., received

from inspectors or other agents of the Cattle Commission, .... 557

Fruit culture, soil and moistare in, 120

Fruit, raising and marketing of, lecture on, by Walter F. Taber, . . .119

Fruit, use of packages in the marketing of, 134

Fruits, insects injurious to the cranberry and other, lecture on, by Prof. C. H.

Fernald 144

Fruits, small, in the home garden, essay on, by Prof. S. T. Maynard, . . 225

Fruits, small, seasonable culture of, 124

Garden, home, small fruits in the, essay on, by Prof. S. T. Maynard, . . '225

Garget, how conveyed, 57

Gas, hydrocyanic, as an insecticide 161

Glanders, concerning, 537, 558

Gooseberry, culture and importance of the, 131

Grange, Massachusetts State, officers of, 640

Granges, Pomona and subordinate, officers of, 641

Grape, culture and training of the 130

Grape vine, girdling of the 131

Gypsy moth, burlapping to destroy the, 323

Gypsy moth, description of different forms of the, feeding habits, etc., . . 307
Gypsy moth, digestion in the larvae of the, paper on, by A. H. Kirkland and

F. J. Smith, 394

Gypsy moth eggs in stone walls, experiments in killing, 322

Gypsy moth, extermination of the, progress of the work of, ... . 345

Gypsy moth in woodlands, methods of extermination of, 344

Gypsy moth, present condition of region infested by the, 328

Gypsy moth, resolutions concerning the, 314

Gypsy moth, spraying to destroy the, 323

Gypsy moth committee, annual report of the 309

Gypsy moth committee, entomologist of the, report of the, .... 317

Gypsy moth committee, field director of the, report of the, .... 321

Gypsy moth committee, financial report of the, 315

Gypsy moth committee, employees of the, 1897, 327

Gypsy moth work in 1897, r6sum6 of, 321, 324

Gypsy moth work, why larger appropriations for, are needed, .... 347

Hampden Agricultural Society, returns of the, 609

Hampshire Agricultural Society, returns of the, 609

Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden Agricultural Society, returns of the, . 610

Harpalus caliginosus, concerning, 410

Hatch Experiment Station, concerning the work of the, 186

Hatch Experiment Station, officers of, 635

Health, public, milk supply and the, lecture on, by Prof. W. T. Sedgwick, . 46

Hen houses, construction of, 104, 107

Highland Agricultural Society, returns of the, 611

Hillside Agricultural Society, returns of the, 611

Hingham Agricultural and Horticultural Society, returns of the, . . . 612

Hittinger, Richard, paper by, on irrigation on our farm, 141

Hog cholera, concerning, 552

Hoosac Valle.y Agricultural Society, returns of the, ...... 613

Horses, diseases of, list of, 255

Horses, food for, preparation of, 259, 265

Horses, systematic feeding and watering as a preventative of disease in, essay

on, by Prof. Jas. B. Paige, 254

Horses, watering of, rule for the 267

Horticultural societies, officers of, 637

INDEX. 651

PAGE

Housatonic Agricultural Society, returns of the, 614

Husbandry, Patrons of, ofBcers of 640

Hydrocyanic acid gas as an insecticide, 161

Insecticide, arsenate of lead as an 146, 162, 353, 357, 379, 390

Insecticide, arsenate of lead as an, paper on, by Prof. C. H. Fernald, . • 353

Insecticide, arsenic, white, v. Paris green as an, 371

Insecticide, hydrocyanic acid gas as an, 161

Insecticide, kerosene as an, 161, 246

Insecticide, lead arsenite v. lead arsenate as an, 379

Insecticide, lead phenolate as an, 384

Insecticide, Scheele's green as an 378

Insecticide, whale-oil soap as an, 160

Insecticides, experiments with, paper on, by A. H. Kirkland and A. F. Bur-
gess 370

Insects injurious to the cranberry and other fruits, lecture on, by Prof. C. H.

Fernald, 144

Insects, imported, concerning, xxvii

Insects, shade tree, three, essay on, by A. H. Kirkland 238

Inspectors, cattle, list of and summary of work of, 444, 475

Inspectors to fairs, assignment of, 182

Institutes, farmers', concerning the holding of, xxv, 215, 601

Institutes, farmers', essay on, by F. "W. Sargent, 215

Irrigation on our farm, paper on, by Richard Hittinger, 141

Kerosene as an insecticide, 161, 246

Kerosene emulsion, how to prepare, 155, 246

Kirkland, A. H,, essay by, on three shade tree insects, 238

Kirkland, A. H., paper by, on danger from the use of arsenate of lead, . . 390
Kirkland, A. H., paper by, on the species of Podisus occurring in the United

States 412

Kirkland, A. H., and A. F. Burgess, paper by, on experiments with insecti-
cides 370

Kirkland, A. H., and ¥. J. Smith, paper by, on digestion in the larva; of the
gypsy moth, 394

Lead, arsenate of, as an insecticide. See Arsenate of lead.

Lead arsenite v. lead arsenate as an insecticide, 379

Lead phenolate as an insecticide, 384

Lepidoptera, the function of phosphate of potash in, 400

Librarian and curator, report of the, by F. H. Fowler, 197

Library of the Board of Agriculture, history and classification of the, . . 197

Lice, plant, life history and remedies, 152

Lima beans, cultivation and varieties, 77

Louse, imported elm bark, food plants of the, remedies, 244

Lumpy jaw or actinomycosis, concerning, 535, 557

M spikes, concerning the supplying of xxiii

Manufacturers' Agricultural Society, returns of the, 615

Market gardening with limited capital, lecture on, by H. W. CoUingwood, . 65

Marketing of fruit, packages, etc., 134

Marshfield Agricultural and Horticultural Society, returns of the, . . . 616

Martha's Vineyard Agricultural Society, returns of the, 616

Massachusetts Agricultural College. See Agricultural College.

Massachusetts Horticultural Society, returns of the, 617

Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, resolutions of the Board of

Agriculture concerning gifts of the, 181

652 INDEX.

PAOB

Massachusetts crops, 1897, vii

Massachusetts weather, 1897 x

Massachusetts weeds, essay on, by Prof. G. E. Stone 268

Massachusetts, weeds in, distribution of 273

Maynard, Prof. S. T., essay by, on small fruits in the home garden, . . 225

Middlesex North Agricultural Society, returns of the, 618

Middlesex South Agricultural Society, returns of the 619

Milch cows, structure as relating to production, lecture on, by Dr. G. M.

Twitchell, 23

Milk, analyses of , . 293

Milk, city (railroad), sources of the pollution, staleness and infection of, and

their removal, 50

Milk, domestic or country, concerning, . 48

Milk, filth in and staleness of, 51

Milk, infection in, 52, 249

Milk, normal, what constitutes, . » 48

Milk, village or suburban, concerning 49

Milk cans, cleaning of, 60, 62

Milk from a sanitary stand-point, importance to producers of the good reputa-
tion of, 47

Milk of Boston, statistics of, 297

Milk sours, why, and how the souring can be prevented or at least delayed,

essay on, by Geo. M. Whitaker, 248

Milk standard, concerning the, 291

Milk supply and the public health, lecture on, by Prof. W. T. Sedgwick, . 46

Moisture in fruit culture, 121

Nantucket Agricultural Society, returns of the, 620

New England farmer, opportunities of the, essay on, by Wesley B. Barton, . 209

Oak pruner, — life history, natural enemies, remedies, 242

Ocneria dispar. See Gypsy moth.

Oleomargarine laws, concerning the enforcement of, 281

Oxford Agricultural Society, returns of the, 621

Paige, Prof. Jas. B., essay by, on systematic feeding and watering as a pre-
ventative of disease in horses, 254

Paris green ». white arsenic as an insecticide, 371

Patrons of Husbandry, officers of, 640

Peas, cultivation and varieties of, 77

Plant lice, — life history, remedies, etc., 152

Ploughing under of green crops, concerning the, 123

Plymouth County Agricultural Society, mortgage of property of, . . . 5

Plymouth County Agricultural Society, returns of the, 621

Podisus, concerning the genus . 413

Podisus, species, habits, etc., 416-438

Podisus, species of, occurring in the United States, the, paper on, by A. H.

Kirkland, 412

Potash in Lepidoptera, the function of phosphate of, . . . . . . 400

Potatoes, cultivation and varieties of, 79

Poultry culture, advantages and disadvantages of modern methods of, lecture

on, by Samuel Cushman, 95

Poultry industry, statistics of the, 95

Premium returns of the incorporated societies, 601,630

Pruner, oak,— life history, natural enemies, remedies, 242

Pterostichus lucublandus, concerning, 409

INDEX. 653

PAGB

Rabies, concerning, 546, 559

Raspberries, — soil, planting, cultivation, pruning, diseases, etc., . . 232-236

Red River valley, concerning the, 592

Resolutions of the Board of Agriculture concerning gifts of the Massachusetts

Society for Promoting Agriculture, 181

Resolutions of the Board of Agriculture on the death of Atkinson C. Varnum, 175
Resolutions of the Board of Agriculture regarding the Farmers' National

Congress, 179

Resolutions of the American Association of Economic Entomologists and the

Farmers' National Congress concerning the gypsy moth 314

Roup, causes of, cure for 105, 109

San Jos6 scale, — habits, natural enemies, remedies, etc xxvi, 156, 160

Sargent, F. W., essay by, on farmers' institutes, 215

Scheele's green as an insecticide, 378

Season of 1897, progress of the, vii

Sedgwick, Prof. Wm. T., lecture by, on milk supply and the public health, . 46

Shaw, N. W., opening address by, before the Board of Agriculture at Taunton, 17
Smith, F. J., paper by, on arsenate of lead: its manufacture and chemical

composition, 357

Smith, F. J., and A. H. Kirkland, paper by, on digestion in the larvee of the

gypsy moth, 394

Smith, M.D., Theobald, preliminary report by, upon a comparative study of

tubercle bacilli from man (sputum) and from cattle 564

Societies, financial and premium returns of the incorporated, . . . 601,630

Soil in fruit culture, concerning the, 120

Somerville and Brighton, receipts of cattle at, 476

Spencer Farmers' and Mechanics' Association, mortgage of property of, . . 11

Spencer Farmers' and Mechanics' Association, returns of the, .... 622

Spraying to destroy the gypsy moth 323

St. Paul, report of the delegates to the Farmers' National Congress at, by

R. G. F. Candage 685

Stables, concerning cleanliness of, 250

Statistics of the milk and butter supplies of Boston, 286, 297

Statistics of the poultry industry, 95

Stone, Prof. Geo. E., essay by, on Massachusetts weeds 268

Strawberries, — soil, planting, cultivation, varieties, etc., . . 76,128,138,225-230

Sugar-maple borer, — life history, natural enemies, remedies, etc., . . . 238

Taber, "Walter F., lecture by, on raising and marketing of fruit, . . .119

Texas fever, concerning, 506

Tomatoes, cultivation and varieties of, 79

Tree insects, shade, three, essay on, by A. H. Kirkland, 238

Tubercle bacilli from man(sputum) and from cattle, preliminary report upon a

comparative study of, by Theobald Smith, M.D 564

Tuberculosis, concerning, 443, 463, 557, 561, 564

Twitchell, Dr. G. M., lecture by, on milch cows, structure relating to produc-
tion 23

Union Agricultural and Horticultural Society, returns of the, .... 623
United States, the species of Podisus occurring in the, paper on, by A. H.
Kirkland, 412

Varnum, Atkinson C, resolutions of the Board of Agriculture on the death of, 175
Ventilation of barns, importance of, 494

Weather, Massachusetts, 1897, x

Weeds are disseminated, methods by which, ..,.,,. 271

654 INDEX.

Weeds, eradication of, methods of

Weeds in Massachusetts, distribution of,

Weeds, list of some of the more common,

Weeds, Massachusetts, essay on, by Prof. G. Eo Stone, .

Weymouth Agricultural and Industrial Society, returns of the.

Whale-oil soap to destroy the San Jos6 scale, use of,

Whitaker, Geo. M., essay by, on why milk sours, and how the souring can be

prevented or at least delayed,

Williams, Philander, address of, before the Board of Agriculture at Taunton
Wood, E. W., address of, before the Board of Agriculture at Taunton, .
Woodlands, methods of extermination of the gypsy moth in, .
Worcester Agricultural Society, mortgage and sale of property of , .

Worcester Agricultural Society, returns of the,

Worcester East Agricultural Society, returns of the, ....
Worcester North Agricultural Society, returns of the, ....
Worcester North-west Agricultural and Mechanical Society, returns of the,
Worcester South Agricultural Society, returns of the, ....
Worcester County West Agricultural Society, returns of the .

PAOB

274
273
274
268
624
160

248

18

20

344

7,13

625

626

626

627

628

629

PUBLIC DOCUMENT .... .... No. 33.

TENTH ANNUAL REPORT

Hatch Experiment Station

Massachusetts Agricultural College.

January, 1898.

BOSTON :

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 Post Office Square.

1898.

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

AMHERST, MASS.

By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Sta-
tion and the State Experiment Station have been consoli-
dated under the name of the Hatch Experiment Station
of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. Several new
divisions have been created and the scope of others has
been enlarged. To the horticultural has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The
chemical has been divided, and a new division, " Foods and
Feeding," has been established. The botanical, including
plant physiology and disease, has been restored after tem-
porary suspension.

The officers are : —

L

Henry H. Goodell, LL.D.,
William P. Brooks, Ph.D.,
George E. Stone, Ph.D., .
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph.D.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D.,
Charles H. Fernald, Ph.D.,
Samuel T. Maynard, B Sc,
j. e. ostrander, c.e.,
Henry M. Thomson, B.Sc,
Ralph E. Smith, B.Sc,
Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, .
Charles I. Goessmann, B.Sc,
George D. Leavens, B.Sc,
Edward B. Holland, B.Sc,
Fred W. Mossman, B.Sc, .
Benjamin K. Jones, B.Sc,
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc,
G. A. Drew,B. Sc, .
H. D. Hemenway, B.Sc, .
H. H. Roper, B.Sc, .

A. C. MONAHAN, . .

LL.D.,

Director.

Agriculturist.

Botanist,

Chemist (fertilizers).

Chemist (foods and feeding).

Entomologist.

Horticulturist.

Meteorologist,

Assistmit Agriculturist.

Assistant Botanist,

Assistant Chemist (fertilizers).

Assistant Chemist (fertilizers).

Assistant Chemist (fertilizers).

Assistant Chemist (foods and feeding).

Assistant Chemist (foods and feeding).

Assistant in Foods and Feeding.

Assistant Entomologist.

Assistant Ilorticulturist.

Assistant Horticulturist.

Assista7it in Foods and Feeding.

Observer.

4 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit growers,
horticulturists and all interested, directly or indirectly, in
agriculture, are earnestly requested. Communications may
be addressed to the " Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst,
Mass."

The following bulletins are still in stock and can be
furnished on demand : —

No. 27. Tuberculosis in college herd; tuberculin in diagnosis;

bovine rabies ; poisoning by nitrate of soda.
No. 28. Canker, army and corn worms ; red-humped apple-tree

caterpillar ; antiopa butterfly ; currant stem girdler ;

imported elm-bark louse ; greenhouse orthezia.
No. 29. Fungicides and insecticides; new spraying pump ; spray-
ing calendar.
No. 33. Glossary of fodder terms.
No. 35. Agricultural value of bone meal.
No. 36. Imported elm-leaf beetle; maple pseudococcus ; abbot

sphinx ; San Jos6 scale.
No. 37. Report on fruits, insecticides and fungicides.
No. 38. Fertilizer analyses; composition of Paris green ; action

of muriate of potash on the lime resources of the soil.
No. 41. On the use of tuberculin (translated from Dr. Bang).
No. 42. Fertilizer analyses ; fertilizer laws.
No. 43. Effects of electricity on germination of seeds.
No. 44. Variety tests of fruits ; tests of vegetable seeds.
No. 45. Commercial fertilizers; fertilizer analyses; fertilizer

laws.
No. 46. Habits, food and economic value of the American toad.
No. 47. Field experiments with tobacco.
No. 48. Fertilizer analyses.
No. 49. Fertilizer analyses.
Special bulletin, — The brown-tail moth.
Index, 1888-95.

Of the other bulletins, a few copies remain, which can
only be supplied to complete sets for libraries.

The work during the year has been unusually diversified
in its character and importance, a result of the numerous
problems sent in for solution. In the agricultural division,
soil tests with corn and potatoes grown in several localities
have been continued ; a comparison of different fertilizers

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33. 5

has been made ; " Nitragin " has again been tried, with neg-
ative results ; and an interesting test has been carried on of
twenty varieties of corn, eighty-one of potatoes, sixty of
grasses, twenty-one of millets and four of clover.

In the division of chemistry (fertilizers), aside from the
six hundred analyses of licensed fertilizers and manurial
sul)stances, valuable work has been done for the tobacco-
growers of the Connecticut valley in the analyses of tobacco
leaves grown with different fertilizers, testing of the quality
of ash and burning quality, and suggestions as to methods
of planting, fertilizers to be employed and mechanical prep-
aration of the soil.

In the botanical division, investigations have been carried
on of the brown rot of stone fruit, the chrysanthemum rust,
the leaf blights of certain native trees, as the sycamore,
butternut, chestnut and black cherry, with recommendations
of treatment for the brown rot and chrysanthemum rust.

The horticultural division has continued its work of test-
ing varieties of fruit and seeds of vegetables, and has entered
upon an investigation of the use of hydrocyanic acid as an
insecticide.

From the entomological division have issued two impor-
tant bulletins on the habits, food and economic value of the
American toad and the brown-tail moth. A monograph on
the plume-moths (some varieties of which attack plants of
economic value and those raised for ornamental purposes)
has been completed. The superiority of spraying for the
canker worm over ink bands and oil trouo:hs has been dem-
onstrated, and investigations carried on of new insecticides
with which to assail the gypsy moth.

A series of observations for the electrical determination
of moisture in the soil, in connection with the growth
of corn, were undertaken by the meteorological division.
Owino; to breaks in the circuit and other causes that made
the instrument fail to work, and the abnormally wet weather
of the summer, the results were not entirely satisfactory,
and the observation^ will be repeated the coming season.

Three investigations in the division of foods and feeding
are worthy of special note : (a) On the comparative values

6 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

of corn meal and hominy and cerealine feeds for pork pro-
duction, wlien fed in combination with skim-milk. It was
found that the pigs did quite as well on these feeds as on an
equal amount of corn meal, (b) On salt-marsh hay. It
was found to possess less feeding value than English hay,
but, combined with grain and ensilage, produced nearly as
much milk and butter as an equal amount of English hay
thus combined, (c) On cotton-seed feed as a hay substi-
tute for milch cows. More energy was used up in its di-
gestion than in hay, and it was concluded that Massachusetts
farmers would derive no benefit from feedino; this material
in place of hay.

Reports of the different divisions, giving in detail the
work of the year, accompany this brief summary.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

ANNUAL KEPORT

Of George F. Mills, Treasurer of the Hatch Experiment Station
OF Massachusetts Agricultural College,

For the Year ending June 30, 1897.

Cash received from United States treasurer.

,

115,000 00

Cash paid for salaries,

.$5,087 75

for labor,

. 3,312 26

for publications, ....

. 2,354 06

for postage and stationery, .

264 11

for freight and express.

. 245 78

for heat, light and water.

. 193 31

for seeds, plants and sundry supplies,

600 55

for feeding stuflfs,

185 11

for library,

1,139 85

for tools, implements and machinery.

272 21

for furniture and fixtures, .

33 43

for scientific apparatus,

226 83

for live stock, ....

125 45

for travelling expenses.

352 32

for contingent expenses.

42 73

for building and repairs.

564 25

$15,000 00

$1,042 92

Cash on hand July 1, 1896, ....

Received from State treasurer.

10,000 00

from fertilizer fees, . . . .

4,087 75

from farm products, . . . .

1,934 15

from miscellaneous sources, .

1,022 19

$18,087 01

Cash paid for salaries,

110,784 83

for labor,

1,075 81

for publications, ....

175 03

for postage and stationery, .

156 18

for freight and express.

187 48

for heat, light and water,

361 64

Amount carried forward,

$12,740 97

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Amount brotight forward.

Cash paid for chemical supplies, .

for seeds, plants and sundry supplies,

for fertilizers, ....

for feeding stuffs, ....

for library,

for tools, implements and machinery,

for furniture and fixtures, .

for scientific apparatus,

for live stock, ....

for travelling expenses,

for contingent expenses,

for building and repairs,
Cash on hand June 30, 1897,

$12,740 97

. 592 48

. 515 54

. 1,074 41

. 559 24

61 82

28 62

. 176 12

. 357 48

. 359 45

72 72

. 273 03

. 1,255 40

19 73

$18,087 01

Amhekst, Mass., Aug. 30, 1897.

I, Charles A. Gleason, duly appointed auditor of the corporation, do hereby
certify that I have examined the books and accounts of the Hatch Experiment
Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1897 ; that I have found the books well kept and the accounts correctly classified as
above ; and that the receipts for the year are shown to be $33,087.01, and the corre-
sponding disbursements $33,067.28. All the proper vouchers are on file and have
been by me examined and found to be correct, there being a balance of $19.73 on
accounts of the fiscal j'ear ending June 30, 1897.

CHARLES A. GLEASON,

Auditor.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST.

WILLIAM P. BROOKS,

Soil Tests.

Four soil tests upon the plan heretofore followed were
attempted during the past year; viz., with corn in Norwell
and Montague, with potatoes and with onions (and later
cabbages) upon our home grounds. Only the tests in Nor-
well and with potatoes upon our home grounds were suc-
cessfully carried through.

Unfavorable weather conditions destroyed the onions and
cabbages upon our south soil-test acre. The field was sown
to white mustard late in July. But four plots furnished
sufiicient growth to cut and weigh; viz., lime plot, 1
pound; manure plot, 425 pounds; nitrate and dissolved
bone-black, 45 pounds ; potash and dissolved bone-black,
25 pounds ; nitrate, dissolved bone-l)lack and potash plot,
255 pounds, — all green weights.

The field has now been used nine years in soil-test work,
and we have a high degree of one-sided exhaustion on most
of the plots. The close dependence of the mustard upon a
supply of phosphoric acid (furnished by the bone-black) is
brought out, as was the case in 1895 ; but phosphoric acid
alone can no longer produce any growth of mustard upon
this soil. The addition of either nitrogen or potash helps
it, the former most ; but not much growth is produced un-
less all three are supplied.

The soil test with corn in Montague was ruined by wire
and cut worms. As nearly as could be determined from the
portion of the crop left, nitrogen seemed the most neces-
sary element upon this soil.

10 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

1. Soil Test with Corn. JVonvell.
This is the second year of soil-test work in this field, the
crop last year also being corn. Last year potash was the
controlling element; the result this year is the same. Mu-
riate of potash, at the rate of 160 pounds per acre, gives an
average increase at the rate of 36.3 bushels of grain and
2,203 pounds of stover; nitrate of soda, at the same rate
per acre, gives an average increase of 8.3 bushels of grain
and 325 pounds of stover ; dissolved bone-black, at the rate
of 320 pounds per acre, gives an average increase of 15.3
bushels of grain and 455 pounds of stover. Five cords of
manure increase the crop by 26.4 bushels of grain and
3,450 pounds of stover per acre ; complete fertilizer (ni-
trate, dissolved bone-black and potash at above rates) gives
an increase of grain 52.5 bushels and stover 2,455 pounds;
lime and plaster both produce apparent small increases.

2. Soil Test with Potatoes. AmJierst.
The field upon which this test was carried out lies upon
our own grounds. It has a medium, well-drained loam, and
has been seven years in soil-test experiments. The crops
in order of succession have been potatoes, corn, soya beans,
oats, grass and clover (two years), and cabbages and Swed-
ish turnips. This year^the phosphoric acid gives the largest
average increase in crop, viz., at the rate of 26.6 bushels of
merchantable tubers per acre ; nitrogen gives an increase
of 11.3 bushels merchantable tubers and potash an increase
of 7.2 bushels. The soil, however, is very generally ex-
hausted, and no single fertilizer or combination of either
two or all three gave a good crop. The apparent supe-
riority of the phosphoric acid and nitrogen is chiefly due to
the fact that the plot to which those two elements alone
were applied was for some reason (not believed to be the
effect of the fertilizer alone) nearly twice as great as that
upon any other plot. Had the crop where the potash was
added to the nitrogen and phosphoric acid l)een better or
even as good as that where the phosphoric acid and nitrogen
alone were used, we should be justified in the conclusion

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 11

that the nitrogen and phosphoric acid are the elements
chiefly required. The crop where all three elements were
combined was, however, much inferior to that where the
nitrogen and phosphoric acid were used without potash.
We must therefore conclude that some disturljing factor, at
present unknown, influenced the results ; and we are, there-
fore, unable to draw practical conclusions which throw light
upon the proper practice to be followed in manuring the
potato crop.

Manure Alone v. Manure and Potash.

An experiment in continued corn culture for the com-
parison of an average application of manure with a small
application of manure used in connection with muriate of
potash was begun in 1890. A full account of the results
will be found in the annual reports of 1890-95, and in the
latter year a general summary of the results is given.

The land used in this experiment was seeded with a
mixture of timothy, red-top and clover in the standing corn
in July of last year. A good stand of grass and clover
was secured, although the latter was rather unevenly devel-
oped in different parts of the field, suggesting a possible
lack of thoroughness in mixing the seeds.

No manure or potash has been used this year. The field
includes four plots of one-fourth of an acre each. The
results for 1897 are shown below: —

Plot 1 (1^ cords of manure alone, 1890-96) : hay, 1,420 pounds ;
rowen, 783 pounds.

Plot 2 (1 cord manure and 40 pounds of muriate of potash,
1890-96) : hay, 885 pounds; rowen, 483 pounds.

Plot 3 (manure alone, as for Plot 1): hay, 1,380 pounds;
rowen, 785 pounds.

Plot 4 (manure and potash, as for Plot 2) : hay, 1,037^ pounds;
rowen, 590 pounds.

The averages are as follows : —

Plots 1 and 3 (manure alone, 1890-96) : hay, l,403i pounds;
rowen, 784 pounds.

Plots 2 and 4 (manure and potash, 1890-96) : hay, 961 J pounds ;
rowen, 536i pounds.

12 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Combining the figures showing the averages of hay and
rowen, we find that plots 1 and 3 have produced an average
of 2,187 pounds per plot, which is at the rate of 4 tons, 748
pounds, per acre. Plots 2 and 4 have produced an average
of 1,497| pounds per plot, which is at the rate of 9 pounds
less than 3 tons per acre. The larger quantity of manure,
then, produced this year about 11 tons more per acre than
the manure and potash. This is a large difference, but a
difference which was to be anticipated, in view of the much
larger quantity of plant food which has been applied to
these plots. It remains to be seen whether the clover on
plots 2 and 4 will be capable of so enriching the soil in
nitroo:en as to remove or lessen this difference in succeed-
ing years.

"Special" Corn Fertilizer v. Fertilizer richer in

Potash.

This experiment was begun with a view of comparing the
results obtained with a fertilizer proportioned like the aver-
age of the ' ' special " corn fertilizers found upon our mar-
kets in 1891 with those obtained with a fertilizer richer in
potash but furnishing less nitrogen and phosphoric acid.

Corn was grown during each of the years from 1891 to
1896 inclusive. From 1891 to 1895 it was found that the
fertilizer richer in potash gave the more profitable results.
In 1896 there was no practical difference. It was decided
during the season of 1896 that it might be possible to derive
a greater benefit from the larger quantity of potash applied
to two of the four plots if grass and clover should be grown
in rotation with the corn. Accordingly the land was seeded
with a mixture of timothy, red-top and clover in the stand-
ing corn in July, 1896. The field is divided into four plots,
of one-fourth of an acre each. The materials applied to the
several plots are shown in the following table : —

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

13

FERTILIZERS.

Plots 1 and 3
(Pounds each).

Plots 2 and 4
(Pounds each).

Nitrate of soda,

Dried blood,

Dry ground fish,

Plain superphosphate,

Muriate of potash,

20
30
30
226
22.5

18
30
20
120
60

Cost of materials per plot, ....

$3 23

$3 10

Fertilizers were applied evenly broadcast on April 11.
The yields the past year are shown below : —

Plot 1, "special" fertilizer: bay, 795 pounds; rowen, 130
pounds.

Plot 2, fertilizer richer in potash: hay, 810 pounds; rowen,
129 pounds.

Plot 3, "special" fertilizer: hay, 725 pounds; rowen, 97
pounds.

Plot 4, fertilizer richer in potash: hay, 617 pounds; rowen,
165 pounds.

The average yield on plots 1 and 3 is : hay, 760 pounds ;
rowen, 113^ pounds. On plots 2 and 4 : hay, 713^^ ; rowen,
147 pounds. Putting the crops of hay and rowen together,
we have an average from 1 and 3 of 8731 pounds, and from
2 and 4 of 8601 pounds. The difference, 13 pounds, is
too small to be res^arded as of much sio-nificance. The
greater rowen crop produced by plots 2 and 4 is perhaps
to be attributed to the larger amount of potash which has
been applied to these plots, which favors especially the
growth of the clovers. Inequality of moisture conditions,
however, has been the apparent cause of a very uneven
development of clover on different parts of the field, and
the influence of the potash does not show as clearly as
was anticipated.

14 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Natural Phosphates compared with Each Other and
WITH Acid Phosphate. (Field F.)

This series of experiments was begun by Dr. Goessmann
in 1890, with a view of determining whether it is not more
profitable to employ one of the cheaper natural phosphates
than to use the more costly acid phosphate. A full account
of the experiment and the results obtained up to the end of
1896 is given by Dr. Goessmann in our ninth annual report.
It is only necessary to restate the following points : —

The field was at first divided into five plots, containing
about 6,600 square feet each. These plots received equal
money's worth (on the basis of prices in 1890) of the phos-
phates used, as follows: Plot 1, phosphatic slag; Plot 2,
Mona guano ; Plot 3, at first, apatite; later, Florida phos-
phate ; Plot 4, South Carolina phosphate ; Plot 5, dissolved
bone-black. Plot 3, as above stated, received an applica-
tion of ground apatite in 1890. In 1891 it was found im-
possible to obtain this material, and no phosphate of any
kind was applied to this plot. In 1892 and 1893 ground
hard Florida phosphate was applied to this plot. It is not
believed, however, that it is fair to this phosphate to compare
it with the others, since it has been used only two years,
while the others have been applied for four years.

From the beginning, each of these five plots has received
the same application of nitrate of soda and potash-magnesia
sulphate. The quantities of these applied per plot during
the first four years were about 44 pounds of the former and
6Q pounds of the latter.*

Since 1894 no phosphate of any kind has been applied
to these plots, but the quantity of nitrate of soda and of
potash-magnesia sulphate has been used in one-half greater
quantities.

At first Dr. Goessmann included no plot on which phos-
phate was not used for comparison with others. Later such
a plot was added, but it was left entirely unmanured until
189j6. Durino; 1896 and 1897 it has received the nitrate of

* The plots in this experiment differ from each other by a few square feet in size,
and the fertilizers have from the beginning varied in proportion as the size varied.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

15

soda and potash-magnesia sulphate at the same rate as the
other plots.

The yield of the plots receiving phosphate for each of
the years 1890-96 inclusive will be found in our ninth
annual report. This report also contains a statement show-
ing the amounts of phosphoric acid applied and removed
from each plot during each of these years. This statement
shows an excess added over and above that removed from
each of the plots at the end of the season of 1896 as follows :
where phosphatic slag had been used, the amount of phos-
phoric acid remaining was 65.6 pounds ; where Mona guano
had been used, 44.2 pounds ; where apatite and Florida phos-
phate had been used, 141.7 pounds; where South Carolina
rock phosphate had been used, 115.0 pounds ; and where acid
phosphate had been used, 21.8 pounds.

The crop during the past year was Swedish turnips. The
field had been sown with rye for winter protection in the
fall of 1896. The growth of the rye was characterized as
poor. It was ploughed on June 1, the land was harrowed
on the 2d, and on the 3d of June, Laing's S^vedes were sown
in drills two feet apart. The seed germinated promptly and
evenly, but the season was much too wet for the best growth
of the crop. It was, however, kept free from weeds by fre-
quent cultivation. The crop was thinned on June 20 to
eight inches. It was harvested November 2-4. The tur-
nips were poor in quality, small, and a few of them decayed.

The yields of the several plots were as follows : —

Roots
(Pounds).

Tops
(Pounds).

Plot 0, no phosphate,

830

185

Plot 1, phosphatic slag, ....

1,870

480

Plot 2, Mona guano,

3,655

800

Plot 3, Florida hard phosphate, .

820

400

Plot 4, South Carolina rock phosphate,

1,965

560

Plot 5, dissolved bone-black.

1,619

370

16 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

It will be noticed that the crop on the phosphatic slag,
Mona guano and South Carolina rock surpasses that where
dissolved bone-black was used, and that the Mona guano
gives nearly twice the product obtained by either the slag
or the South Carolina rock. It will be further noticed that
the Florida phosphate yields practically the same amount
of roots as the plot receiving no phosphate. None of the
crops secured this year can be regarded as good. The
largest yield, that on the Mona guano plot, is at the rate of
rather less than 12 tons per acre. A good crop should be
about 20 tons per acre. The results of this year, therefore,
although showing marked differences, are not regarded as
decisive. The peculiarities of the season produced an un-
healthy condition, which interfered with the full action of
the fertilizers employed.

Comparison of Different Phosphates.

The results of the experiments inaugurated by Dr. Goess-
mann for the comparison of difterent phosphates with acid
phosphate having proved so interesting and valuable, it was
decided to inaugurate another series of experiments, includ-
ing a greater number of materials supplying phosphoric
acid. It was further thought best to apply these materials
upon the basis of equal quantities of phosphoric acid to each
plot, rather than on the basis of equal money's worth, as in
the experiments planned by Dr. Goessmann.

The land selected for the experiment was fairly level,
with a medium heavy loam. It had been in grass for many
years. In April, 1896, it received an application of 600
pounds of ground bone and 200 pounds of muriate of potash
per acre. The season was very dry, and the grass derived
little benefit from the fertilizers. The grass was cut about
the middle of June, and the field was ploughed on June 24
and 25, 1896, and planted to Longfellow corn. The corn
was cut when in the milk, September 26, and weighed as
put into the silo. The field had been divided into 13 plots,
of one-eighth of an acre each, separated by suitable un-
manured strips. The yields of corn in 1896 were as fol-
lows : —

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 17

Plot 1, 2,640 pounds; Plot 2, 2,990 pounds; Plot 3, 2,915
pounds; Plot 4, 3,555 pounds; Plot 5, 2,885 pounds; Plot 6,
2,905 pounds; Plot 7, 2,850 pounds; Plot 8, 3,020 pounds;
Plot 9, 3,160 pounds; Plot 10, 3,095 pounds; Plot 11, 3,000
pounds; Plot 12, 3,090 pounds; Plot 13, 3,440 pounds.

These weisjhts were taken with a view to determinina:
whether these plots were fairly even in fertility. It will
be noticed that with three exceptions, plots 1, 4 and 13,
this appears to be the case. Plot 1 is apparently poorer
than the average, Avhile plots 4 and 13 are better.

In 1897 the soil was thoroughly prepared by the use of
the wheel harrow. Fertilizers were applied May 11. Each
plot in the field received the following materials : potash-
magnesia sulphate, 50 pounds ; nitrate of soda, 30^ pounds ;
sulphate of potash, high grade, 12^ pounds. These ma-
terials supplied the potash and nearly all the nitrogen
estimated to be required. Some of the phosphates to be
employed (the bone meals), however, contained nitrogen as
well as phosphoric acid, and, to equalize conditions on all
the plots, suificient hoof meal was applied to those not
receiving bone to make the quantity of nitrogen applied to
each plot throughout the field the same.

The plots contained, as stated, one-eighth of an acre each,
and the materials used furnished to each plot phosphoric
acid, 12 pounds ; nitrogen, 6^ pounds ; potash, 19 pounds.

The fertilizers used per plot (in addition to nitrate of
soda and sulphate of potash which were used alike on each
as stated above) are shown below : —

Plot 1: hoof meal, llf pounds. Plot 2: hoof meal, 11|
pounds; apatite, 32 pounds. Plot 3: hoof meal, llj pounds;
South Carolina rock phosphate, 47 pounds. Plot 4 : hoof meal,
1 If pounds; Florida soft phosphate, 45 J pounds. Plot 5 : hoof
meal, llf pounds; slag, 67^ pounds. Plot 6: hoof meal, llf
pounds ; Navassa phosphate, 49 pounds. Plot 7 : hoof meal,
llf pounds. Plot 8: hoof meal, llf pounds; dissolved bone-
black, 70 pounds. Plot 9 : hoof meal, -^^ pound ; raw bone
meal, 45 pounds. Plot 10: hoof meal, 1^^ pounds; dissolved
bone meal, 73^ pounds. Plot 11 : steamed bone meal, 48J
pounds. Plot 12: hoof meal, 11| pounds; acid phosphate, 90^
pounds. Plot 13 ; hoof meal, 11 1 pounds,

18

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

The variety of corn raised was Sibley's Pride of the
North, which was planted on May 17, replanted as far as
necessary on June 1, and thinned to one plant per foot in
the drill early in June. The extraordinary precipitation of
the season kept the soil too wet the greater part of the time
during the month of July, and the crop was prevented from
doing its best. It was cut and stooked September 21, and
husked about the last of October.

The yield per })lot and the calculated rates per acre are
shown below : —

NAMES.

Corn
(Pounds).

stover
(Pounds).

Corn per

Aci-e
(Bushels).

stover per

Acre
(Pounds).

Plot 1, no phosphate,

585

580

58.500

4,640

Plot 2, apatite, ....

565

475

56.500

3,800

Plot 3, South Carolina rock phos-
phate
Plot 4, Florida soft phosphate.

645

635

64.500

4,280

725

620

72.500

4,960

Plot 5, phosphatic slag.

620

620

62.000

4,960

Plot 6, Navassa phosphate, .

678^

610

67.825

4,880

Plot 7, no phosphate, .

643|

542

64.325

4,336

Plot 8, dissolved bone-black.

618i

548

61.825

4,384

Plot 9, raw bone meal, .

673^

570

67.325

4,560

Plot 10, dissolved bone meal,

633i

550

63.825

4,400

Plot 11, steamed bone meal, .

503J

450

60.325

3,600

Plot 12, acid phosphate,

628i

540

62.825

4,320

Plot 13, no phosphate, .

673^

590

67.326

4,720

It will be noticed that one of the best crops in the field
was produced where no phosphate was used, and that the
yield on the plots to which phosphates were applied varies
without apparent relation to the availability of the phos-
phoric acid in the materials used. Under these circum-
stances, extended discussion of the results is not called for.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT -No. 33. 19

The unfavorable influence of the season and possible differ-
ences in natural fertility of the soil serve to obscure the
action of the phosphates employed.

Leguminous Crops (Clover, Pea and Bean, or "Pod"
Family) as Nitrogen Gatherers. (Field A.)

A full history of the field since 1884 is given by Dr.
Goessmann in our ninth annual report. The years 1884-88
were preparatory ; the experiment proper began in 1889.
The objects in view have been : —

1. To determine the extent to which plants of the clover
family are capable of enriching the soil in nitrogen taken
by them from the air through the agency of the nodular
bacteria found upon their roots.

2. To compare nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia,
dried blood and barn-yard manure as sources of nitrogen.*

The field is divided into eleven J^ acre plots, numbered
from 0 to 10. Three plots, 4, 7 and 9, have received no
application of nitrogen-containing manure or fertilizer since
1884. One (0) has received barn-yard manure ; two (1, 2),
nitrate of soda; three (5, 6, 8), sulphate of ammonia; and
two (3, 10), dried blood every year since 1889. These
materials have been used in such amounts as to furnish
nitrogen at the rate of 45 pounds per acre each year. All
the plots have received, yearly, equal amounts of phos-
phoric acid and potash. The quantities applied have fur-
nished, per acre, phosphoric acid 80 pounds, and potash
125 pounds, from 1889 to 1894 and the past season. In
1895 and 1896 double these quantities were used. Dr.
Goessmann reports : f —

The total yield of crops on the plots receiving no nitrogen, as
compared with those receiving nitrogen, was in the several years
as follows : —

With com in 1889, one-fifth less.

With oats in 1890, one-fifth to one-sixth less.

With rye in 1891, one-fifth to one-sixth less.

With soya beans in 1892, one-third to one-fourth less.

* Only such details are given here as are necessary to a general understanding of
the subject ; full information is found, as stated above, in our ninth annual report.
t Ninth annual report, Hatch Experiment Station, page 175.

20 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

In 1893 the crop was oats, and the yield of grain was
from one-seventh to one-eighth less on the plots receiving
no nitrogen than the average of those receiving nitrogen.
Here the interposition of a leguminous crop (soya bean in
1892) appears to have lessened the proportional inferiority
of the plots which received no nitrogen. In 1894 the crop
was again the soya bean. The plots without nitrogen give
a yield about one-third less than the average of the others.
Thus far it will be seen that the soya bean has not shown
that degree of independence of soil nitrogen of which it is
supposed to be capable. To an even greater degree than
the grain crops it is benefited by nitrogen manuring. This
fact may perhaps be accounted for because of conditions un-
favorable to bacterial life in this soil ; but as to the nature
of such unfavorable conditions we are at present ignorant.

In 1895 the crop was oats, and results showed no im-
provement in proportional yield on the plots receiving no
nitrogen which could be attributed to the preceding bean
crop. This may be in part due to the fact that the bean has
a rather limited root system, and leaves behind but little
stubble.

In 1896 the crop was again the soya bean, which once
more showed marked inferiority on the no-nitrogen plots.
An attempt to seed the land to clover in the standing beans
proved a failure, on account of the dry season and the too
dense shade made by the crop of beans.

The crop the past season has been oats. The yield per
})lot of straw and grain, the rate per acre and remarks upon
the quality of the grain are given below. In this table the
no-nitrogen plots arc italicised.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

21

Nitrogen Experiment.

PLOT.

Weight per Plot
One-tenth Acre.

TiELD PER Acre.

Remarks on
Grain.

Straw
(Pounds).

Oats
(Pounds).

Straw
(Pounds).

Oats
(Bushels).

Kernels.

Nitrate of soda, ,

500

159

5,000

49.68

Light.

Nitrate of soda, .

400

147

4,000

45.93

Light.

Dried blood,

215

122

2,150

38.12

Good.

No nitrogen,

120

69

1,200

21.56

Good.

Sulphate of ammonia, .

340

137

3,400

42.81

Poorer than
No. 3.

Sulphate of ammonia, .

275

97

2,750

30.31

Good.

No nitrogen.

120

77\

1,200

24.21

Good.

Sulphate of ammonia, .

350

127

3,600

39.68

Good.

No nitrogen,

130

75

1,300

23.43

Good.

Dried blood,

220

126

2,200

39.37

Fair.

Barn-yard manure.

220

125

2,200

39.06

Fair.

Calculation shows that the average total weight of crop is
a little less than one-half as great on the plots not manured
with nitrogen as the average of the other plots. The crop
of grain is a little more than one-half as great. We find,
then, not the least evidence of any ability on the part of the
so3'^a bean when grown before a grain crop (and harvested)
to make nitrogen manuring of the grain crop unnecessary.
On the contrary, the proportional yield of the no-nitrogen
plots is this year the lowest it has ever been in these experi-
ments.

TJie Relative Value of the Different Manures furnishing

Nitrogen.
The nitrate of soda gives the largest crop. Next in order
of yield come the barn-yard manure, dried blood and sul-
phate of ammonia ; but between these there is not much
difference. On plots 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 the source of
potash is the muriate ; on all others it is double sulphate of

22 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

potash-magnesia. The yield of oats is in every instance
greater where the sulphate is used under otherwise similar
manuring. The superiority is most marked when sulphate
of ammonia is the source of niti'ogen.

Muriate compared with Sulphate of Potash in con-
nection AviTH Sulphate of Ammonia for Corn.

Results obtained with different crops in the special nitro-
gen tests on Field A during previous years having indicated
an injurious effect, due to the combination of muriate of
potash and sulphate of ammonia,* it was decided to under-
take experiments upon a larger scale, with the view of bring-
ing out more clearly the significance or importance of this
effect. Accordingly two plots of land of one-half acre each,
lying on the east side of the highway, were set apart for
this experiment. This land had previously been used in
experiments to determine the relative value of phosphatic
slag and ground bone as sources of phosphoric acid. These
experiments were begun in 1894 and continued until 1896.
The crops had been oats, corn and millet. An account of
these experiments will be found in the annual reports cover-
ing the years named.

The following fertilizers were applied this year, broad-
cast, after ploughing, and harrowed in : —

North plot: sulphate of ammonia, 152 pounds; muriate of
potash, 120 pounds; acid phosphate, 160 pounds.

South plot: sulphate of ammonia, 152 pounds; sulphate of
potash, 120 pounds; acid phosphate, 160 pounds.

The fertilizers were applied May 11. The crop was
planted in drills three and one-half feet apart. May 17.
The variety was Sibley's Pride of the North.

The soil throuo'hout the season was too wet for the best
growth of the corn crop. The crop was harvested on Sep-
tember 6, and put into the silo. The yield was as follows :

* For a full discussion of this subject see Dr. Goessmann's paper in the annual
report of the Hatch Experiment Station for 1897, pages 222 and 223.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

23

north plot, 5,760 pounds; south plot, 5,255 pounds. The
diliercnce is too small to afford a basis for a positive judg-
ment as to the merits of the two forms of potash applied.

Fertilizers for Garden Crops.

In 1891 Dr. Goessmann began a series of experiments
for the comparison of sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda
and dried blood as sources of nitrogen for various ofarden
crops. Sulphate of potash was employed to furnish potash.
In 1892 the scope of the experiment was enlarged by includ-
ing three additional plots, comparing the same materials as
sources of nitrogen with muriate of potash used as a source
of potash. The results of these experiments are fully dis-
cussed in Dr. Goessmann's reports. The following table
shows the different fertilizers applied to the several plots : —

PLOTS.

Annual Supply of Manurial Substances.

Pounds.

Plotl,

^ Sulplale of ammonia, .
< Muriate of potash,
(^ Dissolved bone-black,

38
30
40

Plot 2,

^Nitrate of soda, .
} Muriate of potash,
Q Dissolved bone-black,

47
30
40

Plots,

^ Dried blood,

^ Muriate of potash,

C. Dissolved bone-black.

75

30
40

Plot 4,

^Sulphate of ammonia,
< Sulphate of potash, .
Q Dissolved bone-black,

38
30
40

Plots,

^ Nitrate of soda, .

< Sulphate of potash, .

(Dissolved bone-black.

47
30
40

Plot 6,

^ Dried blood,

< Sulphate of potash,

(, Dissolved bone-black,

75
30
40

The area of the plots is about one-eighth of an acre each.
The fertilizers used supply at the rates per acre : phos-
phoric acid, 50.4 pounds ; nitrogen, 60 pounds ; potash, 120
pounds.

24

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

The crops raised during the past year were garden peas,
beets, squashes and celery.

Garden Peas. — The land was ploughed April 19, fertil-
izers applied and harrowed in April 21, and the seed planted
on April 22. On June 7 it was noticed that the growth of
the vines on Plot 1 was distinctly inferior to that on the'
other plots, and it so continued throughout the season.
The pods produced by the vines upon this plot were short,
but well filled, as were they also upon Plot 4. The growth
of vines upon plots 3 and 6 may be characterized as me-
dium ; upon plots 2 and 5 the growth was rank. The pods
upon these two plots were large, but not well filled. Three
pickings of peas were made. The yield of green peas, as
well as of vines, is shown in the following table : —

Greeyi

Peas

(^Pounds) .

Mdriate of Potash.

Sulphate op Potash.

DATE.

Plot 1.

Plot 2.

Plot 3.

Plot 4.

Plot 5.

Plot 6.

July 12

100

93

99i

165

179

195

July 19, ....

66

150

132

143

134

91

July 23

11

60

49

40

30

21

177

203

280i

348

343

307

Green Vines (Pounds).

July 23,

102i

210

240

240

205

180

The average yield of green peas produced by the different
fertilizers is shown in the following table : —

Pounds.

Average of muriate plots, 220^

Average of sulphate plots, 332|

Average of sulphate of ammonia plots, . . . 262^

Average of nitrate of soda plots, .... 273

Average of dried blood plots, 293f

It will be noticed that the sulphate of potash appeared to
be distinctly superior to the muriate, that the dried blood
gives a larger crop than either of the other sources of uitro-

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 25

gen, but that there is not a great difference between the
three materials used to supply this element. The best crop
is produced where sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of
potash are used. The crop where nitrate of soda and sul-
phate of potash are used is not, however, materially in-
ferior.

Beets. — The variety raised was the Eclipse. Fertilizers
were applied as stated above, seed planted April 22, vacan-
cies filled May 20. The growth of the beets upon Plot 1
was noticed early in the season to be distinctly inferior to
that on the other plots, and before the close of the season
most of the plants upon this plot were dead. On July 27
the crop was harvested. The yield of the several plots was
as follows: Plot 1, 133 pounds; Plot 2, 711 pounds; Plot

3, 358 pounds ; Plot 4, 448 pounds ; Plot 5, 793^ pounds ;
Plot 6, 478 pounds.

The averages of the difi'erent fertilizers are shown be-
low : —

Pounds.

Average of muriate plots, 400|

Average of sulphate plots, 573|^

Average of sulphate of ammonia plots, . . . 2901

Average of nitrate of soda jjlots, .... 752}

Average of dried blood plots, 418

It will be noticed that the sulphate of potash appears to
be greatly superior to the muriate, and nitrate of soda is far
ahead of sulphate of ammonia as a source of nitrogen for
this crop. The best yield is produced where nitrate of soda
and sulphate of potash are used together.

Squashes and Celery/. — Both of these crops were feilures,
on account of the unfavorable weather. The celery plants,
it is true, lived, but many of them made no growth. The
plants were cut close to the ground on October 18, many
of them being, if anything, smaller than when set. The
cuttings were weighed, with the following results: Plot 1,
28J pounds ; Plot 2, 57 pounds ; Plot 3, 35^ pounds ; Plot

4, 28 pounds; Plot 5, 92 pounds; Plot 6, 24 pounds.

It is noticeable that here again Plot 5, where nitrate of
soda and sidphate of potash were used, is the best; but
even this did not produce a crop with any marketable value.

26 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Injurious Effect of Sulphate of Ammonia and Muriate
of Potash used together. — Particular attention is called
to the fact that upon Plot 1, where sulphate of ammonia
and muriate of potash are used together, the growth was, in
the case of the peas and l)eets, decidedly inferior to that
upon the other plots. This inferiority may undoubtedly be
ascribed to the poisonous effect of the chloride of ammonia
formed where these fertilizers are used together, to which
Dr. Goessmann has called especial attention.

Experiments on Grass Land.

The system of manuring grass lands, planned by Dr. Goess-
mann and described by him in previous reports, has been
continued. According to this system, the land receives one
year a dressing of barn-yard manure at the rate of 8 tons
per acre ; the next year, wood ashes at the rate of 1 ton per
acre ; and the third year, ground bone 600 pounds, and
muriate of potash 200 pounds, per acre.

Plot 1, which this year received ashes, gave a yield at the
rate of 5,775 pounds of hay and 3,204 pounds of rowen per
acre, — a total of 4 tons 979 pounds. Plot 2, which re-
ceived manure applied in the fall of 1896, produced at the
rate of 5,784 pounds of hay and 2,627 pounds of rowen per
acre, — a total of 4 tons and 411 pounds. Plot 3, which
this year received bone and potash, produced at the rate of
6,183 pounds of hay and 2,755 pounds of rowen per acre,
— a total of 4 tons 938 pounds.

This system of using these different manures for grass
lands in rotation has much to recommend it. It is simple,
and has certainly given remarkably good crops. I believe,
however, that the system would be improved by the use of
a little nitrate of soda, say 150 pounds per acre, with the
ashes as well as with the bone and potash.

Experiments with Nitragin, a Germ Fertilizer.

Nitragin, prepared according to the directions of Profes-
sor Nobbe, was imported at my suggestion from Germany
in the summer of 1896. The material was fully described

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 27

by Dr. Goessmann in our last annual report, and full direc-
tions for its use are quoted by him.

The nitragin has been tried in accordance with directions,
as stated elsewhere in this report, upon crimson clover and
alfalfa, without apparent benefit. It has also been tried
upon common red clover. On this crop, as with the others,
no difference in o-rowth attributable to the nitrao;in has been
noticed ; and, so far as can be judged at the present time,
the use of this germ fertilizer for our common clovers is not
to be advised. Nitragin undoubtedly contains the germs of
the appropriate nodular bacteria, — the name of Professor
Nobbe is sufficient guarantee of this. The failure of the
material to benefit the crop appears to be due to the fact
that our soils contain the nodular bacteria of the common
leguminous crops in sufficient numbers so that the addition
of a few more by the use of nitragin counts for nothing.
Experience in the open field in most parts of Germany and
England has been similar to our own, and I believe that we
may safely conclude that only when we are about to 1)egin
the culture of a leguminous crop new to a particular local-
ity will it be found advantageous to employ nitragin. In
such cases the soil lacks the appropriate nodular bacteria ;
nitragin furnishes these, and the result is a better growth,
because the crop is enabled to make use of the free nitrogen
of the air from the first, which it could not do in the absence
of the proper bacteria.

Sulphate of Iron as a Fertilizer.

Sulphate of iron has been tried during the past season
upon the same plots as in 1896, but this year with corn as a
crop. The sulphate of iron is used at the rate of 80 pounds
per acre. The crop where it was employed was a little
inferior to that on the plots where it was not used. With-
out sulphate of iron the average yield of the plots was 58|-
pounds of corn and 163| pounds of stover; with sulphate
of iron, 50| pounds of corn and 160 pounds of stover.

28 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Variety Tests.
1. Corn.

Twenty of the more promising varieties of corn tried for
the tirst time last yeav have been given a further trial dur-
ing the past season. Nine of these varieties were flint
corns, as follows, named in the order of productiveness :
Sanford, Longfellow, Waushakum, Giant Long White,
Rhode Island White Cap, Early Canada, King Philip, An-
gel of Midnight, Compton's Early. The varieties of dent
corn, named in order of productiveness, were Early Butler,
Leaming Field, Champion White Pearl, Queen of the
Prairie, Iowa Gold Mine, King of the Earlies, Sibley's Pride
of the North, South Dakota White, Huron Extra Early,
Wisconsin Yellow and White Cap Yellow.

Varieties the ears of which were very moist when husked
are Queen of the Prairie and Huron Extra Early. Varie-
ties which were moist are White Cap Dent, Leaming Field,
Iowa Gold Mine and Champion White Pearl.

All of the varieties in these two classes are too late for
culture as grain crops in this localit}', though they would
do for the silo.

2. Potatoes.

Eighty-one varieties of potatoes were cultivated for pur-
poses of comparison. upon the general plan described in our
last report (ninth). The soil w\as a well-drained medium
loam. The fertilizers used per acre were as follows : —

Pounds.

Nitrate of soda, 240

Acid phosphate, 400

Sulphate of potash (high grade), .... 250

Tankage, 240

Dried blood, 100

These materials were mixed and scattered broadly in the
furrows before dropping the seed. The seed was planted
April 30. May 5 the crop was somewhat injured by wash-
ing of the soil between the rows and by the excessive rain-
fall. The potatoes were dug September 26 to October 6.
The yield was at the rate of from 115.7 to 282.4 bushels
per acre. The eleven largest yields of merchantable tubei-s,

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33 29

in the order of productiveness, were given by the following
varieties: Rose No. 9, Restaurant, Woodbury's White,
Bliss's Triumph, Prolific Rose, Empire State, Early Maine,
Dakota Red, Sir William, Early Rose and Beauty of
Hebron. All of these gave a product at the rate of more
than 220 bushels of merchantaljlc tubers per acre. A^ain,
as last year, we find the two old standard sorts. Early Rose
and Beauty of Hebron, ranking among the very best. It
appears doubtful whether any among all those tried are
truly superior to these varieties.

Twenty-three varieties have given yields of merchantable
tubers at the rate of less than 175 bushels per acre. These,
in the order of inferiority, are the following : Minister,
Bill Nye, Harbinger, Peerless, Jr., Livingston Banner,
Burpee's Extra Early, Carmen No. 3, Dandy, Early Mar-
ket, Crown Jewel, Merriman, White Star, Irish Daisy,
Chance, Six Weeks, Alliance, Sunlit Star, World's Fair,
Freeman, Ohio, Jr., Great Divide, Wise Seedling and
Early Norther.

All of the varieties grown this year are to be examined
for determination of dry matter and starch, but this work
could not be completed in season for this report. Full
details as to the varieties cultivated are therefore reserved
until these analytical results can be published.

3. Grasses.

Sixty species and varieties of grasses have been under
trial. Most of them occupied plots containing one square
rod. About one-half of these grasses were sown in the
spring of 1896. Among those so sown the following varie-
ties winter-killed : English rye grass, Italian rye grass,
crested dog's-tail and meadow fescue. Among compar-
atively little-cultivated varieties Avhich appear promising
may be mentioned the following : tall oat grass, tall fescue,
red fescue, fowl meadow, Canada blue-grass, water-spear
grass and wood-meadow grass.

The yield of the dry matter in the hay and rowen (wliere
any was secured) of those varieties sown in the spring of
1896 during the past seq,son, with date of cutting of both

30

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

the first and the second crops, is shown in the following
table. The area in each variety was one square rod.

Date of
cutting Hay.

Dry

Date of

Matter in

cutting

Hay

(Pounds).

Dry
Matter in

Uowen
(Pounds).

Timothy (Phleum praiensis) ,
Awnless Broom (Bronius inermis) ,
Yellow Oat {Avena flavescens) , .

Sweet Vernal {Anthox anthumodor-

atuni) .
Meadow Foxtail {Alopecurios pra-

tensis) .
Red-top {Agrostis vulgaris) , .

Rhode Island Bent (Agroslis Can-

ina) .
Fall Oat {Arrhenatheum avena-

ceuvi) .
Qlyceria fluitans, ....

Meadow soft {Holcus lanatus), .

Slender Fescue {Festuca iennuifo-

lia) .
Meadow Fescue {Festuca praten-

sis) .
Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina), .

Tall Fescue (Festuca elalior).

Hard Fescue {Festiica durinscula) ,

Orchard {Dactylis glomerata) ,

Red Fescue (Festuca rnbra) ,

Fowl Meadow {Poa serotina),

Rough-stalked Meadow (Poa tri-

vialis) .
Kentucky Blue {Poa pratensis) , .

Canada Blue (Poa compressa).

Water Spear (Poa aquaiica),

Canary Reed {Phalaris arundin-

aria) .
Wood Meadow {Poa nemoralis), .

Creeping Rent {Agrostis stoloni-
fcra).

July 1
June 25
July 1
June 4
May 17
July 6
July 6
June 25
July 1
June 25
June 15
Sept. 11
June 15
June 25
June 15
June 15
June 25
July 6
July 1
Jime 15
July 10
July 1
June 25
July 1
July 6

19.36
14.71

2.98

5.70

31.12

30.81

22.85

10.25
21.43

4.36
27.85
27.20
27.42
16.41
27.47
43.00

9.87
14.73
43.68
31.97
23.18
31.07
15.27

Sept. 11
Sept, 11
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
June 25
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
Sept. 11

Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 1

6.44
6.44
4.41
4.41
7.87
8.44
6.41
11.86

6.42

6.61
17.81

11.96

14.27

18.93

6.17

8.04

21.09

12.88

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

31

4. Millets.

Twenty-one varieties of millet, occupying one square rod
each, were grown for purposes of comparison on medium
loam, manured at the rate of 600 pounds of ground bone
and 200 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. These were
of three species, Panicmn cms galli, P. miliaceum and P.
itaUcu7n. The varieties grown, with particulars concerning
amount of seed sown, date of heading, height of plants, and
the weight per plot and acre of hay produced, are shown in
the table below : —

KINDS.

Ounces
Seed
Sown.

Date of
Heading.

Date
When

Cut.

Height

of
Plants
(Feet).

Weight,

Air Dry,

Square

Rod

(Pounds).

1

Aug. 2,

Aug. 17,

6

65

1

Aug. 2,

Aug. 17,

6

63

3

July 19,

Aug. 2,

4

51

3

Aug. 2,

Aug. 21,

4 -6

83

5

Aug. 10,

Aug. 29,

5^-6

92

4

July 19,

Aug. 2,

4

62

4

July 23,

Aug. 5,

4

69

4

July 23,

Aug. 5,

4

66

4

July 19,

Aug. 2,

3|-4

65

4

July 19,

Aug. 2,

-

65

4

July 19,

Aug. 2,

3 -3^

63

4

Aug. 7,

Aug. 2,

-

40

4

July 23,

Aug. 12,

3^-4

60

4

July 19,

Aug. 2,

3 -3i

57i

3

Aug. 21,

Sept. 4,

5

100

4

Aug. 10,

Sept. 4,

5

95

3

Aug. 12,

Aug. 26,

4i

63

3

-

Sept. 15,

2 -4

100

3

Aug. 12,

Aug. 26,

4J

88

4

July 28,

Aug. 12,

3 -4

55

Weight
per Acre
(Pounds).

Panicum crus galli.

Japanese barn-yard, .

Japanese barn-yard, loose
headed.

Panicum miliaceum.
Common broom corn,

Japanese broom corn, red seed

Japanese broom corn, white

seed.
California, .

Chinese,

French,

White French,

Red French,

Hog, .

Panicum, italicum.
Canary bird seed,

Dakota,

Early Harvest,

Golden,

Golden Wonder,

Japanese Glutenous Hokkaido

Japanese Glutenous Mukoda

masbi.
Japanese common Millet,

New Siberian, .

10,400
10,080

8,160
13,280
14,720

9,920
11,040
10,560
10,400
10,400
10,080

6,400

9,600

9,340

16,000

15,200

10,080

16,000

14,080

8,800

32 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The differences in yield are large, but the scale upon
which the varieties were grown is small, — too small, in
my judgment, to justify sweeping conclusions as to the
relative merits of the several sorts.

The "Dakota" closely resembles the "Early Harvest;"
the "loose-headed" variety of the "barn-yard" millet is
much less leafy and less valuable than the common form.
The so-called "Golden Wonder" cultivated appeared to
be like the "Golden." The "Japanese Glutenous," from
^^ MukodamatiJd^''^ is very late, and does not mature with
us. The variety of glutenous millet from Hokkaido ap-
pears to be a valuable sort. Moisture tests which are
being made will very likely change the relative position
of some varieties.

5. Japanese Millets for Seed.
A small area of each of our three leadino; varieties of
Japanese millets was grown for seed. The soil was fer-
tilized for each variety at the following rate per acre, the
fertilizer being sown broadcast and harrowed in : —

Manure, 4 cords.

Nitrate of soda, 125 pounds.

Dried blood, 100 "

Tankage, 200 "

Superphosphate, 250 "

Muriate of potash 200 "

The season was not very favorable for these crops, and they
were somewhat injured on several occasions by the wash-
ing of the soil, due to excessive rain-fall.

Sam-yard Yariety (Panicmn cms galli) . — The area
sown to this variety was .633 acres. The seed was sown
May 27, in drills, and was cultivated and hand- weeded. It
yielded 1,370 pounds of seed and 4,360 pounds of straw,
which is at the rate of 40 bushels of seed and 3 tons 888
pounds of straw per acre.

Japanese Broom-corn Millet (^Panicum miliacewn) . —
The area of this variety was .248 acres. It was planted
and cultivated like the preceding variety. The yield was
§35 pounds of seed and 1,620 pounds of straw, which is at

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 33

the rate of 40 bushels of seed and 3 tons 532 pounds of
straw per acre.

JajKinese Millet (^Panicum, italicuni). — The area of this
variety was .138 acres. It was planted and managed in all
respects like the preceding varieties. The yield was 305
pounds of seed and 519 pounds of straw, which is at the
rate of 41 bushels of seed and 1 ton 1,761 pounds of straw

per acre.

6. 8oya Beans.

A small area of each of the three leading varieties of
Japanese soya beans was cultivated for seed. The yield
was at the following rates per acre: early white, 18.7
bushels; medium black, 16 bushels; medium green, 34.5
bushels. The last-named variety thus once more demon-
strates its great superiority as a crop-producer over either
of the other sorts under trial.

7. Clovers.

Tests were begun in 1895 for the purpose of comparing
four of our prominent clovers, viz., medium red, mammoth,
alsike and crimson. The result of the tirst year's test will
be found in our ninth annual report (pages 27 to 29). As
stated in that report, our results indicate that the crimson
will not prove valuable as a fodder crop in this locality.

Medium lied Glover. — The crop of this variety com-
pared very favorably with that of the mammoth clover in
the season of 1896, but during the winter of 1896 and 97
the plants of this variety were nearly all killed. The plots
were accordingly ploughed and sown with oats and vetch.

Mammoth Clover. — This variety was somewhat injured
by the winter, but was allowed to stand. Bad weather pre-
vented its being harvested at the proper time, and it was
much damaged before it could be secured. It yielded at
the rate of about 1^^ tons per acre at the first cutting. The
second growth was much mixed with weeds. It was cut
and weighed green, yielding at the rate of about 2,800
pounds per acre.

Alsike Clover. — This variety, like the preceding, was
much injured by rain. It, like the mammoth, was found to
have suflered much during the winter. The crop cut was

34 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

much mixed with weeds, yielding at the rate of 2| tons per
acre for the first cutting. The second growth was mostly
weeds, and was weighed green, amounting to about 5 tons
per acre.

Conclusion. — The mammoth clover under the conditions
of our experiment has shown greater vitality and productive
capacity than either of the other sorts. It is worthy more
extensive cultivation.

/Sulphate V. 3furiafe of Potash for Clovers. — As stated
in our ninth annual report, there were two plots of each of
the varieties of clover under comparison, one fertilized with
muriate of potash, the other with sulphate of potash. The
results in 1896 showed no material difference in yields which
could certainly be ascribed to the nature of the potash salts
used. The same is true this year.

The sulphate plots, both of the mammoth and the alsike
clovers, yielded most at the first cutting ; the muriate plots,
in both cases, yielded most at the second cutting ; luit, as
stated, the crops secured at the second cutting were largely
mixed with weeds. The results, therefore, must be regarded
as without especial significance.

5". /Sweet Clover (3feltlotus alba) .
This crop occupied two plots of two-fifteenths of an acre
each, in Field B. The same crop was grown upon these
plots in 1896, and the results arc fully discussed in our
ninth annual report. The growth during that season was
for the most part small and unsatisfiictory, owing apparently
to the fact that the appropriate nodular bacteria were not
present in sufiicient numl)ers to enable the crop to make use
of free atmospheric nitrogen. A few of the plants in 1896
were found to have abundant nodules upon their roots.
These showed a deep-green color and made a vigorous
growth. It was judged that, if the land should be thor-
oughly worked in various directions, the nodular bacteria
would be scattered throughout the soil, and that the second
crop upon the same land would l)e better than the first. The
soil was accordingly thoroughly prepared, and the seed for
the crop of this year sown at the rate of 10 pounds per acre
on July 30, 1896.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 35

The growth was very much superior to that of the pre-
vious year, and upon examination in the early part of the
season it was found that the roots of about one-half the
plants were abundantly supplied with nodules. These plants
were making a vigorous growth, and had a deep-green color,
indicative of an abundant supply of nitrogen. They were
at this time evidently able to draw upon the atmosphere for
this element. Later the other plants in the field seemed
also to gain this ability.

On July 8 the crop averaged 6 feet in height. A portion
was cut and fed to the cows kept in the department of foods
and feeding. This portion yielded at the rate of about 121-
tons per acre. Dr. Lindsey reports that the cows ate it
readily and appeared to be fond of it. It was, however,
rather coarse for feeding when allowed to stand until the
latter part of July. If to be fed, the crop should be cut
early. In average seasons it would be at its best condition
during the first half of the month of July. It is not, how-
ever, as a fodder crop that I am inclined to recommend a
trial of sweet clover, but rather as a crop for green manur-
ing. I believe it may serve here a similar purpose to that
served by crimson clover in localities where it is hardy.

Miscellaneous Crops.

Alfalfa. — One-quarter of an acre of light soil was sown
on April 17 with alfalfa. The fertilizer applied to the
quarter acre was as follows : fine-ground bone, 100 pounds ;
nitrate of soda, 50 pounds ; phosphatic slag, 50 pounds ;
muriate of potash, 50 pounds. One-half the seed used Avas
treated Avith nitragin. All the seed germinated quickly, no
difference being noticed between the treated and the un-
treated. The small plants were, however, injured by the
heavy rains, and up to date the crop has made but a feeble
growth.

Saccaline. — Our trial of this crop has been carried out
upon two small plots, the one having a heavy, moist soil,
the other a light, drier soil. One-year-old plants were set
in the spring of 1896. The growth during that season was
feeble. In August of that year each plot was given a good

36 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

"dressing of manure. In the spring of 1897 it was found
that a considerable number of the plants had been winter-
killed. On the heavy soil 36 out of 408, and on the lighter
soil 71 out of 129, were dead ; of 451 plants left in a nursery,
258 were dead. Plants which lived through the winter were
well started by April 20, but the new growth was killed by
a frost. On July 16 the growth, which ranged from 1 to 7
feet in height, the average being about 3 feet, was cut.
The plants were large and woody. The yield on the heavy
soil, 408 plants, was 295 pounds ; on the lighter soil, 129
plants, 132 pounds. The leaves only were eaten by cows,
— horses would not eat it at all. A second crop was not
cut, but on October 1, when the plants were killed by frost,
the second growth averaged about 18 inches in height. As
a result of our trial of this crop, I am convinced that it is
without value as a fodder crop for us.

Crimson Clover. — A further trial of this crop has been
made upon a rather light soil. The seed was sown July 3
with equal parts of winter rye. Nitragin, not received in
season to apply with the seed, was mixed with water, ac-
cording to directions, and applied to the clover August 31,
the plants then standing about 2 inches high. The crop
was a complete failure, every plant being winter- killed.

Winter Vetch. — A small plot of this crop has been grown
upon a light soil. It was sown August 20, equal parts of
vetch and rye. This vetch proved perfectly hardy and grew
vigorously, reaching a greater height than the rye. This
vetch will prove valuable as a green fodder when sown with
winter rye.

Besides the above, we have cultivated a few rows each of
a large variety of fodder plants, some 39 in number. In
this variety are included a large number that have been
mentioned in previous reports, and they do not require
further notice at this time.

Among those cultivated for the first time this year are the
Idaho field or coffee pea ( Cicer arietinum) . This appears
to be the same as the gram or chick pea, which we have had
under cultivation for two years. The growth is too small
to make it valuable for a fodder crop.

\

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 37

Another new fodder crop for this year was the Brazilian
stooling flour' corn. The plants made a vigorous growth,
but are judged to be too coarse and woody to prove of
much value for fodder.

Black chaff or African millet is another crop under trial
this year for the first time. It appears to be the same as
Kaffir corn, and, as reported last year, our experience leads us
to regard this fodder crop as inferior to maize for our climate.

A Reputed Method for Destroying Stumps.

A correspondent in one of our agricultural papers during
the summer of 1895 reported that he had found it possible
to destroy stumps in the following manner : —

A hole one or two inches in diameter according to the
size of the tree, and eighteen inches deep, is to be bored in
the stump. Into this put from one and one-half to two
ounces of saltpetre, fill with water and plug tightly. Six
months later, put into the same hole about one gill of kero-
sene oil, and set fire to it. The correspondent stated :
" The stump will smoulder away without blazing, even down
to every part of the roots, leaving nothing but ashes."

On Nov. 4, 1895, fifty stumps of trees cut in 1894, in-
cluding the following varieties, maple, hickory, hemlock,
white pine, yellow birch and elm, were bored according
to directions. On Deceml)er 11 saltpetre and water were
put into the holes, according to directions, and the holes
plugged. During July, 1896, the plugs were removed, the
holes were filled with kerosene, and an attempt made to
burn the stumps. It was found that not even the oil would
burn. A portion of the stumps were left until June, 1897,
when another attempt was made to ])urn them, using a low-
test oil, called paraffine gas oil. The stumps are still in
the field. The method has been given a thorough trial, Imt
must be regarded as a complete failure.

Poultry Experiments.
Experiments with poultry were carried out during the
winter of 1890 and 1897. Our attention was confined to
three points : —

38 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

1. Effect upon egg-production of the use of condition
powders.

2. Comparative value for egg-production of dry-ground
animal meal and cut fresh bone.

3. Comparative value for egg-production of cut clover
and fresh cabbage.

General Conditions.

In all of these experiments pullets purchased in Plymouth
County and sent to us in December were used. A few had
laid before we received them, and production was stopped
by the move, as is generally the case. Some of the pullets
moulted after reception here, which served to reduce the
egg, yield. Plach of the six lots of fowls occupied a house,
with roosting and laying room ten by twelve feet, and
scratching shed eight liy twelve feet in size. Each had the
liberty of a large yard, which furnished a little grass after
April 15, but in all alike. Each of the feeding trials began
January 1 and continued until May 2, — 122 days.

Soft foods were mixed for the morning mash with boiling
water the nisht before usino-. Sufficient of the materials
for a fortnight were mixed dry at one time. Oats were
always scattered in the straw in the shed at noon. At
night the wheat was fed in the same manner. As a rule, a
little cut bone was fed once a week, in place of the noon
ration of oats. About twice a week cabbage was hung up
in each coop except the one where cut clover was under
comparison with this vegetable. Clear water, shells and
o:rit were before the fowls all the time. Occasionally salt
was added to the morning mash. At the conclusion of the
experiment the dressed fowls were sent to G. M. Austin &
Son, Boston, who reported upon the quality of the several
lots.

1. Effect of Condition PovKler upon Egg-production .

This experiment was carried out in most respects in the
same manner as last year. Light Brahmas were selected
for this test, 20 in the coop receiving condition powders
and 19 in the other. The food of the two lots was the same

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. U.

39

in kind, with the exception tliat the fowls in House No. 6
received daily condition powder in the morning mash, in
accordance with directions furnished with the powder.

The kinds and amounts of food used are shown in the
table : —

Amounts (Pounds).

No Condition
Powder.

Condition
Powder.

Wheat,

209

220

Oats,

150

160

Bran,

27

28

Middlings,

27

28

Animal meal,

27

28

Clover,

27

28

Cabbage, .

28

29

Corn meal,

28

29^

Bones,

9

9

About three pounds of condition powders were used in
the experiment.

The weights of the fowls were taken at intervals, and
were as follows : —

Average Weights (Pounds).

No Condition
Powder.

Condition
Powder.

Jamiary 4,

4.868

4.650

February 4,

5.260

4.950

March 9, .......

5.360

5.343

April 26,

5.310

5.470

May 3 (after fasting twelve hours).

5.160

5.180

Dressed weight,

4.605

4.657

40 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The results and leadinar details are shown below : —

Condition Powder for Egg -production.

Experiment Janu-
ary 1 TO May 2.

Number
of Hen
Days.

Gross
Cost of
Food.

Cost per
Hen Day.

Cost of
Food
per
Mgg.

Number
of Eggs.

Weight of
Eggs.

Weight
per Egg
(Ounces).

No condition powder,
Condition powder,

2,318
2,354

$6 61
6 68

$0 00285
00280

$0 0124
0125

532
540

lbs. oz.
65 \\

67 4

1.958
1.993

The nutritive ratio was 1 : 5.16 for the fowls not receiv-
ing condition powder; for the others, 1 : 5.14, — practically
identical. The total dry matter in food consumed for each
egg produced was : without condition powder, 0.8349
pounds ; with powder, 0.8688 pounds. Besides the perfect
eggs as shown in above table, the fowls receiving no con-
dition powders laid three soft-shelled eggs ; the others, one.
There were live sitters in the first lot, eleven in the second.

Samples of the eggs were analyzed, and those from the
condition-powder fowls were found somewhat richer in dry
matter, protein and fat. The eggs were also tested in two
families by careful house-keepers. The reports did not
agree in all particulars ; but one of the two found the eggs
from the fowls which had received condition powders su-
jierior in flavor of yolk, flavor of white, in beating qualities
and in consistency ; the eggs from the other fowls better in
color and size of yolks. The other reported the condition-
powder eggs strong in flavor and the yolks small. This
discrepancy is probably to be accounted for from the fact
that the number tested was small. Individual as well as
class differences would almost certainly be found in the
eggs.

The fowls which had received condition powder Avere re-
ported as dressing rather better than the other lot.

One fowl in the condition-powder house died during the
test; there were no losses in the other house.

In conclusion, I have to say that the differences found in
this experiment are too small to l)e considered decisive. On
the side of the condition powder we have size of eggs and

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

41

weight and quality of the dressed fowls ; against the powder,
we have the food cost per egg, the weight of dry matter in
food per egg, and the loss of one fowl. We are warranted
simply in the statement that the powder does not appear to
have paid for its use.

2. Cut Bone v. Animal Meal for Egg-production.
Each of the two houses contained twenty Plymouth Rock
pullets in this experiment. The l)one and animal meal were
each mixed in the morning mash. The foods used are
shown below : —

Cut-bone House
(l^ounds).

Animal-meal
House (Pounds).

Wheat, .
Oats,
Bran,
Middlings,
Buffalo gluten,
Animal meal,
Clover, .
Cabbages,
Chicago gluten,
Cut bone,

213
149

27
27

28
26-1
27
28

196
149

28
28
28
28
27
29i

The nutritive ratios in the two houses were 1 : 5.05 and
1 : 4.45 respectively.

The averaije weights of the fowls were as follows : —

Cut-bone House
(Pounds).

Animal-meal
House (Pounds).

January 4,

February 6,

March 9,

April 27,

May 3 (after fasting twelve hours).
Dressed weight, ....

4.75
5.10
5.86
5.44

5.28
4.83

4.89
5.00
5.28
5.15
4.88
4.43

42

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

The dressed fowls which had received the cut bone were
reported slightly better than the other lot. The leading
details and results are shown in the followino; table : —

Cat Bone v. Animal Meal.

Experiment Janu-
ary 1 TO May 2.

Number

Hen

Days.

Gross
Cost of
Food.

Cost per
Hen Day.

Cost of
Food
per
Egg.

Number
of Eggs.

Weight of
Eggs.

Weight
per Egg
(Ounces).

Cut-bone house,
Animal-meal house, .

2,279
2,440

$6 61
6 24

$0 0028
0025

$0 0130
0097

508
639

lbs. 0/..
64 9

80 15

2.0034
2.0270

There was, in addition to the eggs as shown l)y the table,
one soft-shelled Qg<^ in each house. Two hens in the cut-
bone house died during the experiment, from diarrhu?a ;
those in the other house were healthy throughout the
experiment.

The dry matter per egg was, where cut bone was fed,
0.877 pounds; on animal meal, 0.69 pounds. The number
of sitters was 6 in the cut-bone house, 12 in the other.

A sample of eggs from each house was subjected to analy-
sis. Those produced on the cut bone contained rather more
protein but less fat than the other. A test for cooking
quality was indecisive ; one of the two house-keepers having
preferred one lot ; the other the opposite lot.

The advantage in this trial is, then, clearly with the ani-
mal meal as a food for egg-production. It has given more
eggs of a greater average weight and at considerably less
cost than the bone ; and it is, moreover, a more convenient
food to use, as well as safer. The results this year are thus
the opposite of those of last year. We have now repeated
this experiment four times, with results twice favorable to
the bone and twice to the animal meal, but have not before
found so decisive a difference as this year. A\^e repeat the
experiment again this winter.

3. Clover Roioen v. Cabbage for Egg -prod action.
Plymouth Rock pullets were used in this experiment;
but they were later-hatched fowls than those in the experi-
ments already described. There were twenty fowls in each

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

43

of the two houses, at the beginning. One fowl died in each
house during the experiment, from unknown causes. The
cut clover was fed in the morning mash. Instead of the
clover, a fresh cabbage was kept before the fowls in the
other house.

The foods used are shown in the table : —

Clover House
(i'ounds).

Cabbage House
(Founds).

223

212

150

149i

28

36

28

36

28

34|

26

-

-

46f

8i

8h

28

36

Wheat, .
Oats,
Bran,
Middlings,
Animal meal,
Clover, .
Cabbage,
Cut bone.
Oat meal,

The nutritive ratio was practically the same in both
houses: viz., in the clover house, 1:4.99; in the other,
1:4.838.

The averao-e weio^hts of the fowls were as follows : —

Clover House
(Pounds).

Cabbage House
(Pounds).

January 4,

February 4, . *.

March 8,

April 27,

May 3 (after twelve hours fasting).
Dressed weights, ....

4.560
5.480
5.420
5.470
5.289
4.780

4.530
4.800
5.350
5.394
5.184
4.890

44 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The leading results and details are shown in the table : —
Clover Rowen v. Cabbage for Egg-prodiiction.

Experiment Janu-
ary 1 TO May 2.

Number
of Hen
Days.

Gross
Cost of
Food.

Cost per
Hen Day.

Cost of

Food

per Egg.

Number
of Eggs.

Weight of

Eggs.

Weight
per Egg
(Ounces).

Clover house, .
Cabbage house, .

2,356
2,423

$7 033
6 988

$0 0029
0028

$0 0150
0118

466
588

lbs. oz.
59 10

75 1

2.0472
1.9880

In addition to these, the fowls in each house laid one soft-
shelled egg.

The advantage lies most decidedly with the fowls fed
cabbages, in so far as numbers, weight and cost of eggs are
concerned. The eggs from the clover house were, however,
much superior in cooking and eating quality to those from
the other. Both house-keepers reporting are most emphatic
in the expression of their preference for the eggs from the
fowls fed the clover. One reports: "The eggs from the
clover lot are in every way superior." The other says :
" They are superior in color, size of yolk and flavor ; " and
adds that ' ' they have the finest flavor of any eggs " she ever
ate.

Analysis showed the eggs from the fowls fed cal)bages to
contain higher percentages of dry matter, protein and fat
than the others. The superior richness of these eggs ap-
parently renders them strong in flavor.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 45

KEPORT OF THE METEOROLOGIST.

JOHN E. OSTKANDER.

The work of the meteorological department during the
past year has been in the main a continuation of that of
previous years, with such minor changes as, after due con-
sideration, liave seemed advisable. The observations for
temperature are now all taken in the ground shelter on the
campus. The publication of the maximum and minimum
temperatures taken in the observatory shelter was discon-
tinued last year, owing to their unreliable character. For
the same reason, the observations themselves were discon-
tinued early in April the present year.

The usual bulletins, giving a summary of the records and
weather for each month, have been published. An annual
summary will be issued as soon as the records for the year
are completed.

No material additions have been made to the equipment
of the department during the year.

Arrangements have been made to furnish the New Eng-
land Weather Bureau with the weekly snow reports, as was
done last year.

In co-operation with Professor Whitney of the Division
of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, this
department installed one of his instruments (kindly loaned
by the Department at Washington) for the electrical deter-
mination of moisture in the soil. Observations were taken
from the latter part of June until early in November. The
records, however, are incomplete for the period, owing to
breaks in the circuit and other causes which made the in-
struments fail to work at times. The readings taken were
sent weekly to the Department at Washington. The Di-
vision of Foods and Feedin<2: of this station made some

46 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

independent determinations of moisture for standardizing
the instrument, and the Division of Botany kept a record
of the growth of the crops where the electrodes were buried.
Owing to the unusually wet weather during the summer and
the incomplete records of the instrument, the results of the
experiment were not entirely satisfactory. The department
expects to repeat the observations next year under more
favorable conditions, and an outfit for that purpose has been
ordered.

It is hoped that arrangements may be made to put the
electrometer in the tower in w^orking order, so that observa-
tions on atmospheric electricity may be undertaken.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUxMENT — No. 33. 47

EEPOET OF THE BOTA^N^ISTS.

GEORGE E. STONE, RALPH E. SMITH.

Our work during the past year has been in general a con-
tinuation of that of the year preceding. In this, as in other
departments of the station, the work falls under two classes :
first, examination of material sent in for determination and
answering of inquiries ; second, investigations of problems
connected with plant physiology and pathology.

For the purpose of investigation the greenhouse has been
remodelled and enlarged during the past summer, so as to
admit of carrying on experiments under more desirable con-
ditions. It is quite essential, in experimenting with plants,
that the number employed should be large enough to make
it possible to draw deductions from the results with a rea-
sonable degree of certainty that errors arising from indi-
vidual variation have been counterbalanced. It is also
essential that the heat, light and moisture conditions should
be equal upon each series of plants under consideration, and
that these conditions should compare as closely as possible
with the best method of cultivation. In the construction of
the experiment house these details have been considered as
carefully as possible. The house as now arranged consists
of several sections, in Avhicli different temperatures can be
maintained, for growing tomatoes, cucumlicrs, lettuce and
other important plants subject to destructive diseases. The
amount of money invested in the production of greenhouse
crops is large and continually increasing, and no small part
of our work consists in the study of the various diseases
which affect them.

For the last three years we have been investigating meth-
ods of controlling the gall-forming nematode worm, whicli
aflects cucumbers, tomatoes, English violets, roses, cyclam-

48 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

ens and many other greenhouse plants. The results of the
investigation are nearly ready for publication, but it seems
desirable to first clear up a few remaining points upon the
habits of the worm, which are not well known.

Experiments are also being made upon the different meth-
ods of pruning tomatoes, and upon the best light conditions
for assimilation in greenhouse cucumbers.

With regard to lettuce we are studying the mechanical
■ conditions of the soil as affecting the crop, and the various
fungous diseases to which it is subject, more especially the
disease known as the " drop."

In addition to these experiments, it may be mentioned
that there are incidentally being carried on investigations
upon the influence of electrical currents on the growth of
plants. Bulletin 43 of this station embodied the most care-
ful and extensive series of experiments ever made upon the
subject. They were carried out by Mr. Asa S. Kinney,
while a student at the college, and did not necessarily fall
under station v/ork. The results obtained by him were of
such a promising nature that it has seemed well worth our
time to carry the investigation further. It should be stated
that any costly method of using electricity as an accelerator
of plant development is not to be recommended. If, how-
ever, any simple and cheap means of using electric currents
can be used, which will give an acceleration in the growth
of a crop equal to 30-40 per cent., it might be worthy of
consideration by practical agriculturists.

We have in progress a series of experiments with various
gaseous substances, with a view to developing a treatment
of this sort for combating fungous diseases of greenhouse
plants. This method of treatment has been suggested by
the extensive application which it has reached in extermi-
nating insects. While we are as yet unable to present any
results of great practical value, it is hoped that these ex-
periments may lead to the development of an effective treat-
ment for greenhouse plant diseases by the use of a gaseous
substance. The great superiority of such method over that
of spraying, which is in many cases inapplicable, needs no
exposition. Our experiments thus far have been carried on

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 49

with two gases, hydrocyanic and formaldehyde. Neither
of these appears to answer the purpose. The former, which
has been found to be of considerable value as an insecticide,
cannot be made eflective as a fungicide without using a
strength which will prove fatal to the plant. This we have
determined by parallel exposures of various fungous spores
and plants to the gas, and also by the fact that spores of the
carnation rust, taken from plants which had been almost
killed by over-exposure, germinated freely. Formaldehyde
has a well-marked fungicidal effect, and is much less harm-
ful to plants ; but we cannot at present recommend it as a
general fungicide, on account of the difficulty of producing
it in sufficient strength.

The past year has been an exceedingly abnormal one for
vegetation, and as a result this division has had many in-
quiries concerning plant diseases, diflerent from those of
ordinary years. The excessive and long-protracted rains
and the lack of sunshine gave rise to a multiplicity of plant
diseases such as we have not had for some years. This was
the case not only in regard to our various crop plants, but
our introduced ornamental species and even our wild plants
were unusually affected by fungi. An unusual number of
the so-called spot diseases made their appearance, and de-
foliated to a greater or less extent more than one species of
tree. These spot diseases were especially disastrous to the
sycamore and butternut, both of which in many instances
lost all their foliage ; while other trees, such as the chest-
nut and wild cherry, were more or less affected. The fungi
causing these diseases are not new to these trees in this
locality, but the abnormal conditions to which all vegetation
was subjected proved amply sufficient to accelerate their
growth and development.

Whenever the normal conditions surrounding the plant
are disturbed, we must expect to find irregularities in its
functions ; and any serious irregularities in the plant's func-
tions are most likely to manifest themselves by the presence
of some insect, fungous or bacterial organism. Abnormal
functions, or, in other words, physiological disorders, are
in a majority of instances the basis of many plant diseases

60 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

with which gardeners have to contend ; and, since we are
liable to observe only the effects of the fungus or bacteria
preying upon the plant, we too often think that they are the
primary causes of the disease, when, as a matter of fact,
they are purely secondary.

This leads us to the subject of spraying as a preventive
of plant diseases. From the hap-hazard manner in which
it is often resorted to, one would gain the idea that it is in-
tended as a curative rather than as a preventive remedy.
This idea is erroneous, inasmuch as spraying is intended as
a prevention rather than a cure. This misconception of the
proper use of spraying solutions gives rise to the practice
of using the Bordeaux mixture as a panacea for every plant
disease. Upon this point we wish to state that it must be
distinctly borne in mind that spraying under any condition
is only a temporary means of preventing certain diseases.
The ultimate aim of all progress connected with gardening
should be not only to improve the marketable product, but
to improve the stock and increase our knowledge pertaining
to proper cultivation, so that spraying will be unnecessary.
Many experienced gardeners recognize this, and we find
experts in almost every line of gardening who have had
eminent success in controlling diseases without resorting to
the use of fungicides. Some of the most experienced
growers of carnations claim that they can control the many
diseases which have of late years affected this plant, hy
simple, judicious methods in the management of the green-
house.

To expect that spraying is going to save plants that are
improperly cared for, or to act as a cure for those already
diseased, is absurd. There are many instances where spray-
ing produces beneficial results, and at the present time it
appears to be essential, in some instances, to the production
of good crops ; but there are also many instances where it
is entirely useless. This applies especially to the diseases
having their origin in improper care or in abnormal condi-
tions surrounding the plant. The condition of the potato
crop in Massachusetts during the past summer affords an
illustration of how any amount of spraying would not save

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 51

it from disease, wlien the soil was soaked with water and
the plants in some instances practically submerged for days
at a time. Every plant is surrounded by a host of para-
sitic organisms, which, given the proper conditions, will
manifest their distinctive properties. The healthy, vigor-
ous plant is always less susceptible to the attacks of fungi
than the weakly, abnormally developed one, — a fact which
every practical gardener readily understands. We have
seen this illustrated so many times in our work in the
greenhouse that it may be well to give an example of it
here. Certain species of non-parasitic nematode worms,
which are always present in greenhouse soil, although appar-
ently doing no harm as long as the plants are vigorous,
will, as soon as the plant becomes weakened or abnormal
from any cause, penetrate the tissues and cause rapid decom-
position of the same. What is true in regard to nematodes
applies also to fungi and bacteria, and, indeed, these various
forms of organisms are most frequently to be found together
in the decayed tissues of the plant.

Before any attempt is made to spray diseased plants, it is
well worth while to find out something about the nature of
the disease with which the plants are affected. It is, for
example, unwise to spray roses for the black spot or mil-
dew when the roots are half decayed by the action of para-
sitic gall-forming nematode worms ; and for the same reason
it would be unwise to treat the spot disease of the English
violet, when the roots are covered with hundreds of minute
galls, and when the supply of nutriment from the root is
greatly interfered with.

On the other hand, spraying the apple, grape, potato and
plum is at the present time justifiable and necessary ; and
there are many diseases common to greenhouse cucumbers
and tomatoes which can be largely controlled by spraying,
although it must be said here that l)y judicious management
of the various conditions surrounding the plants these dis-
eases can be checked.

52 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The Causes of the Failure of the Potato Crop of

1897.

The disastrous effect upon agricultural crops of the exces-
sive rainfall of the past season has been especially marked
upon the potato. The small yield and large amount of rot-
ting of this staple may be easily attributed to this source.
In all sections of the State, as well as beyond our borders,
the report has been general of a small potato crop and ex-
cessive rotting. This rotting has been generally regarded
as resulting from the well-known and ordinary "potato
rot" fungus, Phj^tophthora infestans. In fact, however, we
have to describe a series and variety of agents, which,
under the favorable influence of the excessive rainfall, —
an influence unfavorable to the vitality of the plant, — have
brought about the diminution and destruction of the crop.

At planting time the ground was extremely wet. The
crop, however, started well, and the plants appeared above
ground in a promising manner. Continuous rains kept the
soil saturated Avith moisture, and before the plants had
I'eached a height of more than six inches it was noticed in
many places — usually the lowest and wettest portions of
the field — that many of them were dying. Such plants did
not collapse suddenly, but gradually turned yellow and faded
away, most of them dying eventually, though here and there
one would be seen which maintained a feeble, stunted growth
through the season. This was the case not only in this
vicinity, but it was also reported from various parts of the
State.

Investigation of affected plants showed that the trouble
was due to a rotting of the stem of the young plant below
ground, which rotting evidently proceeded from the seed
potato, which was found in every case to be a putrid mass,
while the decay was gradually extending up the young stem.
Careful search for the cause of the rotting failed to reveal
any particular organism to which it could be ascribed. That
it was of bacterial origin seemed quite certain, as the de-
cayed tissue swarmed with organisms of this class, while no
fungus which could be considered the cause of the rotting

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 55

was found. In the cortex and exterior portions of decayed
stems several forms of Micrococcus and also other bacteria
were found in abundance. In the interior portions a large,
motionless bacillus occurred quite abundantly and exclu-
sively, and may have been the primary cause of the rotting.
The most probable explanation, however, seems to be that
the normal functions of the plant were disturbed and its
growth checked by the unusual amount of moisture in the
soil. The seed potato, with its supply of reserve food ma-
terial for the young plant thus left idle in the soil, naturally
rotted away, and this rotting communicated itself more or
less to the young stem proceeding from the *'seed." The
plant, not being in a condition of vigorous growth to resist
this rotting, gradually succumbed to it, and in most cases
died. The few plants, as mentioned above, which continued
a feeble growth through the season, accomplished this by
throwing out roots above the rotted portion of the stem,
and thus prolonged a feeble existence. Such plants pro-
duced no tubers, and consequently had no value whatever.

This, then, was the first of the troubles affecting the
potato crop in this section. We do not describe or con-
sider it as a specific "disease" of the potato, nor do we
deem it necessary to consider any treatment for it. We at
first recommended removing aftected plants, but doubt now
if such a course would have been of any considerable prac-
tical value. We are inclined to believe that the trouble
was not brought about by any specific or especially destruc-
tive organism, but was simply the result of the unusual
meteorological conditions of the season, and under such
conditions could not be prevented from occurring by any
means at our command.

By July 1, most of the plants which had fallen a prey
to the above disease were withered away and dead, while
those which had escaped had made a fiiirly good growth and
nearly reached maturity in point of size. About July 15
several hot, sunny days came on, following a long very
rainy spell. In many potato fields on low ground the plants
began to wilt and die down. In a large field at the college,
situated on a long slope, the plants at the top were un-

54 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

affected, but those in a limited area at the bottom of the
slope — the wettest part of the field — began to wilt (see
plate). Many had already died here from the effects of the
first disease. It is a well-known fact that plants often wilt
when exposed to strong sunlight after a continued cloudy
and w^et period, this being due to excessive evaporation
or transpiration of water from the leaves. In this case,
however, the wilting was too pronounced to be attributed
to this simple physiological phenomenon. Investigation
showed that the leaves were not " blighted" nor w^ere they
affected in any way except the simple wilting, which was
evidently caused by some trouble at the root. Plants were
then dug in various portions of the affected area, and in all
stages of collapse, and their roots examined for the cause of
the trouble. It was found that there was no one ora^anism
(except possibly bacteria) attacking the plant, but there
was a general rotting, resulting from the wet condition of
the soil and consequent low vitality of the plant. The
features of this rotting varied greatly in different plants,
however, and scarcely any two were affected in an exactly
similar manner, it being almost impossible to specify a
feature of the disease common to all, except the wilting of
the tops. In the very wettest part of the affected area
the tubers were rotting badly. These rotten tubers were
swarming with l)acteria, but they were of various kinds,
and to no one could be ascribed the becfinnins^ of the
trouble. Various species of fungi were found in some, but
these were moulds and similar forms, and included nothing
which by any probability could have caused the rotting.
Since fungi were entirely absent in many of the rotten
tubers, it is certain that they did not cause the trouble. In
many cases the decay seemed to have started where a grub
of some kind had eaten into the potato. On somewhat
dryer ground, where the plants wilted, the tubers were not
rotten. In many cases, however, the stem was found to be
decayed just where it joins the root. The young rootlets
were also rotting, so that the cortex fell aw^ay from the
central portion. These symptoms also occurred, and more
pronouncedly, in cases where the tubers were rotten. In

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 55

these decayed stems and roots no one organism could be
found as the cause of the rotting. Bacteria (mostly micro-
coccus) swarmed in all aftected parts, and several mould
fungi also occurred. Quite noticeable on all affected plants
was the occurrence on tubers and even on the base of the
stem, of small, white, mealy dots, scattered abundantly
over the surface. These were apparently enlarged lenticels,
being composed of parenchymal cells breaking out at the
surface. It seems probable, or is at least possible, that their
production was due to the scarcity of air in the wet soil.

We can only conclude here, as in the other case, that this
cannot be called a definite disease, but rather was the result
of abnormal and unusual conditions. During the long-con-
tinued rain the living functions of the plant were disturbed
and its ijrowth checked. Various oro:anisms then came in,
and, gaining a foothold, so weakened it that when the sun
came out it wilted down and in the worst cases died. Had
it been possible to thoroughly cultivate and stir the soil
at this time, it is reasonable to suppose that much of the
trouble might have been averted ; but the extreme wetness
made such a course impossible.

This trouble came on after the potatoes had reached a
marketable size. We therefore recommended digging them
in all affected places, in order to save them from decay. Be-
yond this there could be no practical treatment suggested.

Early in August, or even sooner, the real potato blight
or rot, Phytophthora infestans, began to appear, and devel-
oped very extensively during the month, killing the tops of
potatoes everywhere, and causing great loss by rotting of
the tubers. This disease is too well known to need ex-
tended description. Its ravages might probably have been
controlled to some extent by thorough spraying throughout
the season, but it would have been practically impossible to
entirely prevent it in such a summer.

The "Drop" of Lettuce.
The loss represented by this disease frequently amounts
to thousands of dollars in a single season in Massachusetts.
Almost every lettuce grower has had more or less experi-

56 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

ence with it, although, as with every other disease, some
have been much more affected than others. We have
known several instances during the season where extensive
growers have lost practically their whole crop, and, as a
consequence, have become much discouraged with lettuce
growing. Inasmuch as the general characteristics of this
disease were given in the ninth annual report, it is not nec-
essary to enter upon any minute description here. Suffice
it to say that the disease makes its appearance in the stem,
close to the surface of the ground, where the tissue becomes
slimy and soft, and eventually the whole stem at this point
disintegrates and collapses. This occurs most frequently
just as the plants reach maturity.

The fungus causing this disease is w^ell known to all green-
house men. The "damping fungus" (Botrytis), which
causes the drop, often gives rise to disastrous eflects on
begonia and other cuttings in the propagating pit. The
fungus, however, as it appears upon the lettuce, presents
some aspects which are different from its appearance upon
cuttings, and reaches a more advanced stage of develop-
ment. Our present knowledge in this direction possesses
more of a technical than practical interest, although an un-
derstanding of the complete life history of the fungus will,
no doubt, lend much aid to its rational treatment.

The natural conditions governing the development of the
organism appear to be similar to those of most organisms,
— that is, it requires the presence of oxygen. It is well
known that almost any ol)ject when driven into the ground
will undergo disintegration much more rapidly at the sur-
face of the soil, for here the conditions of moisture, etc.,
are most favorable for the organisms producing disintegra-
tion. And so it is with the " drop " fungus ; it finds just
the conditions at the surface of the soil, under the moist,
shady leaves of the mature lettuce plants, for its destructive
work.

Our experiments upon the control of this fungus are by
no means complete, but it will not be out of place here to
offer some suffgestions in reajard to its o-eneral habits and
the methods of treatment which may be tried. Probably

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 57

every grower has the germs of the disease in his lettuce soil
to a greater or less extent, but the conditions giving rise to
their excessive development are not always present. Some
claim that manure is the principal source of infection ; yet,
on the other hand, while all use manure, all are not troubled
in the same degree. As a remedy for the drop, some have
resorted to the practice of sanding the surface of the soil or
putting on a layer of yellow loam. This is for the purpose
of giving a clean, uninfested surface to the soil surrounding
the plants. In regard to the effect of this treatment, it may
be stated that opinions difter considerably. Whether the
method of applying a superficial layer of sand or subsoil to
the surface will be of any assistance in keeping the drop in
check appears somewhat doubtful, from an experiment made
of burying some infested plants to a depth of three or four
inches in a pot of yellow loam subsoil. It was found that
the fungus made its way to the top in a ver}^ few days, as
was evident from the mould-like growth of the mycelium
upon the surface of the soil and the death by drop of plants
which had been set in the pot. Neither can we expect much
from the application of chemicals, as any such treatment
would interfere with the growth of the plant, and hence
become objectionable. Some experiments are now being
made with gases, with the idea of killing the organism
by fumigation ; but this method does not promise much
success.

The application of live steam to the soil, and thus steril-
izing it, w^ould undoubtedly destroy the germs of the dis-
ease. To do this would necessitate laying two-inch tile at
a depth of eight inches or a foot below the surface of the
soil, and at a distance of one or two feet apart, and driving
in steam under pressure and allowing the same to permeate
the soil. This method can be employed on a small scale
with good results, but the larger area of a lettuce house
would render its practical application uncertain. Another
method of treatment by steam, which would be far cheaper,
would be to sterilize the surface of the soil to a depth of
three or four inches or more. This can be done by con-
structing a pit in the lettuce house and covering the bottom

58 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

with tile or one and one-half or two inch steam piping.
The tile allows the steam to escape very readily ; and, in
order to get the best eft'ect, they should be laid close to-
gether, say one foot, or less. In case steam pipes are
used, — and they are probably more effective than tile, —
they should be bored with holes every three or four inches,
to allow the steam to escape. With an arrangement of this
kind, one would be able to sterilize the soil in a few hours.
A pit twenty feet long, ten feet wide and eighteen inches
deep would hold sufficient soil to cover twelve hundred
square feet of surface three inches deep. The time required
to heat this earth up to 200° F. would be only a few hours.
Of course the pressure of steam available, the closeness of
the pipes and the number of outlets for the steam would
largely determine the time necessary to heat the earth.

Various methods of treatment for this disease are being
tried, to determine how it may be most eftectually dealt
with. In connection with the method of steam sterilization,
which seems by far the most promising, it is especially de-
sirable to ascertain just how deep the soil must be sterilized
in order to keep down the fungus.

The Asparagus Rust.
(Puccinia asjmragi. D. C.)

In the last annual report of this division attention was
called to a new disease which had appeared upon the aspar-
agus, and the apprehension expressed that it might come to
be a serious matter. That apprehension has been more than
justified. The asparagus rust, unknown to the growlers of
Massachusetts in 1895, slightly prevalent in 1896, has ap-
peared everywhere during the past season, and bids fair to
become a most important factor in the growing of this crop.

The disease first appeared in the fall of 1896, both in this
State and in several others, but was not generally prevalent
at that time, although in some fields it was very abundant.
Cutting and burning infested tops was generally recom-
mended and to some extent practiced ; but the majority of
asparagus growers had not as yet become acquainted with
this new danger menacing their crops.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33. 59

This rust, like the well-known one of the wheat, has three
diflerent stages or forms in its development, though in this
case they are all developed upon the asparagus plant, while
in the other, one form comes upon the barberry bush and
the other two upon the wheat and other grains and grasses.
When first noticed in 1896, the asparagus rust was in the
fall stage, the black rust or teleuto stage, the earlier stages
not having attracted attention. In 1897 many asparagus
fields were found to be affected as early as July 1, and by
August the complaint was general throughout the asparagus-
growing sections of the State. It was now the red rust, or
livedo form, which was present, being followed again in the
foil by the black form. Apparently almost every field of
asparagus in the State was affected before the end of the
season. The rust in most cases appeared first on young
beds, — which was natural to expect, since the stalks were
not being continually cut oft* as they appeared. In the older
beds, from which the stalks were being cut for market, little
or no rust appeared until well into July or August, after
cutting had been suspended and the tops allowed to develop.
In most cases, however, they were soon aff*ected as badly as
any. The effect of the rusting was that the tops lost their
green color, and turned brown and died prematurely. Mr.
George P. Davis of Bedford says in regard to his beds :
" The twenty-sixth of July the tops were all turned brown,
and looked as though a fire had swept over the field. There
was no green to be seen. ... In handling the tops a fine
dust which looked like smoke was quite noticeable." This
dust consisted of countless numbers of the spores of the
fungus.

The first attempts at checking the rust were made in the
fall of 1896, and consisted of cutting and burning aff'ected
tops. When the disease appeared so extensively in 1897,
many growers cut the tops in August, when they had
become badly rusted. It is impossible to say with much
certainty what the result of the first cutting (fall of 1896)
may have been, inasmuch as comparatively few beds were
thus treated or badly aff'ected at that time. A good-sized
bed at the college was considerably rusted, and the tops

60 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

were cut and burned late in the fall. The bed was well
cultivated and fertilized, and no rust appeared upon it in
1897 (that is, not enough to l)e noticeable) until well into
the fall, when the black rust stage was quite as abundant as
it had been in 1896. Mr. S. T. Davis of Orleans also men-
tions having observed a small bed, which was cut in the fall
of 1896, upon which no rust appeared in 1897. Whether
the cutting of the tops or some other factor kept down the
rust in these beds, we are not prepared to say. The cutting
which was quite extensively practiced in the summer of 1897
seems to have been entirely without effect, as the rust ap-
peared again just as badly on the second growth.

The experience of another season is necessary to demon-
strate the actual effect and seriousness of this disease. Its
perennial occurrence to the extent of the past season could
not fail to have a disastrous effect upon the asparagus-grow-
ing industry. It is not the sort of disease which is efiect-
ually suppressed by spraying methods, though something
of that sort may be developed if it becomes necessary. * It
should be remembered, however, that the past season was
an unusually favorable one for all fungous diseases, and
consequently it may have developed much more extensively
than it ordinarily would. If it could be mostly confined to
its teleuto or black rust stage, which appears in the fall
when the plants have practically completed their growth, it
is not probable that any serious injury would result. At
all events, the effect of the great prevalence of the rust in
1897 upon the asparagus crop of 1898 will be awaited with
great interest by all interested in its cultivation.

The Fire Blight.

(^Micrococcus amylovirtis.)

This disease of the pear, quince, apple and other poma-
ceous trees has been the subject of frequent inquiry during
the past season. It ordinarily causes the most damage on the
pear and quince, and is one of the most destructive of plant

* Recent experiments indicate some amenability of the rust to spraying, although
not more than twenty-five per cent, reduction is claimed.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 61

diseases. The trouble appears in the branches, sometimes
a whole limb of considerable size, but more often the smaller
terminal twigs, being affected. These portions of the tree
suddenly wilt and die, the leaves and young fruit turning
black and hanging to the branches, producing the character-
istic scorched appearance which gives the disease its name.
It spreads rapidly about an orchard and increases from year
to year, often involving the entire tree and causing its death
if left unrestricted.

The cause of this trouble was long a matter of specula-
tion, but it is now known to be a species of bacteria which
gains access to the tissues of the tree and by its rapid
multiplication therein causes great destruction. This dis-
ease cannot be reached by spraying, and the only remedy
consists in severely cutting back all affected branches, or
whole trees if badly affected. All such prunings should
then be destroyed by burning. This cutting should be done
whenever the disease is observed, but is especially advisable
in the fall or late summer, when the trees should be care-
fully examined, to make sure that no diseased branches or
twigs are left to perpetuate the disease over winter. As
the disease affects the hawthorne (Crataegus), shad bush
(Amelanchier) and mountain ash (Pirus Americana), as
well as the cultivated fruits, it may spread from some of
these wild trees to the latter, unless care is taken to prevent
such contagion. It is not probable, however, that such in-
fection is ordinarily at all extensive.

The Quince Rust.

(^Oymnosporangiitm clavipes C. and P.)
The numerous inquiries which we have received during
the past season concerning this not uncommon trouble, as
well as our own observations, indicate that it has been un-
usually prevalent and destructive. The disease affects prin-
cipally the fruit, but also the young wood, causing distortion
and malformation in both cases. It is very conspicuous
upon the affected quinces in midsummer, both from their
distorted shape, and from the numerous white, tubular ex-
crescences appearing upon their surface. These excres-

62 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

cences contain masses of the l)rigbt orange-yellow colored
spores of the fungus which causes the disease. The fungus
has a peculiar course of development. It not only exists in
the form seen upon the quince, but has also another form or
stage, living upon a different kind of plant and quite differ-
ent in appearance. This stage of the fungus lives upon the
red and white cedar and the juniper, and is one of the forms
which produce upon those plants the abnormal growths pop-
ularly known as "cedar apples." These cedar apples are
peculiar outgrowths upon the twigs of cedars and junipers,
reaching their complete development in early spring. They
are oftentimes regarded as the proper product of the tree, or
as insect galls, — which ideas are equally incorrect. These
growths begin to form in midsummer, developing as small
excrescences upon the twigs and gradually increasing in
size until winter, w^hen they are nearly full grown. An
"apple" consists at this stage of an abnormal mass of the
cells of the tree, with the filaments of the fungus growing
abundantly between them. Remaining thus over winter,
the first warm, moist weather of spring starts it into further
growth and development. Upon the surface of the aflected
wood numerous projections appear, of a conical shape, and
composed of a yellow, gelatinous substance. These projec-
tions are composed of a mass of the fungous filaments and a
gelatinous substance which they secrete. In them are pro-
duced the spores of this, the teleuto stage. These spores
are composed of two cells and borne on long stalks. The
sudden appearance of these peculiar growths on cedar trees
just after a spring rain is often taken for the blossoming of
the tree, but is in reality the fructification of the fungus
parasitic upon it. The gelatinous appendages of the cedar
"apples" soon dry up and wither away after the rain, but
not until the teleuto spores contained in them have ger-
minated and produced secondary reproductive bodies called
sporidia. These are carried away in the air, and proceed
to infect, not cedar trees, but quinces or one or two other
related plants. Upon the surface of these they germinate
and produce filaments which grow into the substance of the
young fruit or stems, and by their presence there cause the

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 63

distortion in shape seen in affected specimens. Upon this
host the fungus forms little pustules just beneath the sur-
face, finally breaking out into the air as tubular projections.
In these are formed the yellow spores of this stage, called
cecidia. These spores are unable to infest quinces again,
but upon cedar trees begin the development of a new gen-
eration of "apples," which will in turn produce teleuto
spores the following spring.

Treatment. — It is not often that the damage caused by
this disease is of great extent. Sometimes, however, it
becomes sufficiently troublesome to make it worth while to
attempt to repress it. It is evident that the most vulnera-
ble point of the fungus causing the trouble lies in its inabil-
ity to reproduce itself continuously upon the quince. The
most direct method of treatment, therefore, is to extermi-
nate all white and red cedars and junipers from the vicinity
of the orchard, and cut off all affected parts of the fruit
trees, or entirely destroy badly affected ones. This, for
various reasons, however, may not always be possible or
desirable. As to spraying methods, it has been found quite
effective to spray with Bordeaux mixture two or three times
during the spring, especially during or just after rainy
weather, when the spores are being disseminated. It may
also be possible sometimes to remove affected twigs of
cedar and juniper trees before the spores have been pro-
duced.

This same fungus has also been unusually abundant during
the past season upon the fruit of various species of Cratae-
gus (hawthorne), accompanied by an equal abundance of
the closely related species, Gymnosporangium globosum,
upon the leaves. We have also noticed these or related
species upon the fruit of the Japanese quince (Cydonia
Japonica) and mountain ash (Pirus Americana).

The Brown Rot of Stone Fruits.

{Monilia fructigena. Pers.)

This well-known disease found in the past summer just

the conditions suited to its best development, and the peach,

plum and cherry crops suffered in consequence. The dis-

64 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

ease needs no description to those who have ever tried to
raise any of the above-mentioned fruits. It appears in the
summer, some time after the fruit has set, often just as it
comes to maturity, or even earlier in the season, the time
of its appearance depending a great deal upon the weather,
a warm, rainy period being liable to bring it on at any time.
Indeed, it does not always wait for the production of fruit
upon which to make its attacks, but often develops upon the
blossoms, causing them to abort, and spreading thence into
the young twigs upon which they are borne, results in their
death. Upon the fruit the rotting is almost always found
to some extent at the time of ripening, and, as already
mentioned, often occurs earlier in the season when the
weather is favorable, i. e., warm and moist. At such times
the greater part of the crop is sometimes destroyed. In
cherries the chief damage is done upon the ripe fruit. In
peaches and plums, which have a longer season of ripening,
the young fruit is more frequently affected. Early peaches
are considered more susceptible to the disease than the later
varieties.

The cause of this disease is a mould-like fungus (a true
parasite, nevertheless), which spreads its vegetative fila-
ments through the affected fruit and thus causes its decay.
Wet weather brings about the rotting of the fruit by favor-
ing the growth of the fungus, not by its direct effect. Fruit
which is affected begins to discolor and soften, and gradu-
ally dries up and shrivels into a shrunken mass about the
stone. It often remains on the tree for months, especially
in the peach. In the early stages of infection the surface
becomes covered over with little grayish spots of a powdery,
dusty nature. These are clusters of the spores of the fun-
gus, produced in countless numbers on the ends of filaments
from the inside of the fruit which have pushed out through
the surface. These spores, which serve to reproduce the
fungus, are extremely minute in size, so that en masse they
appear as a fine dust. Being easily carried by the wind,
they are spread far and wide, and may thus infect a large
district in a few days, under favorable conditions. After
becoming dry and hard the affected fruits cease producing

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 65

spores, but their period of harmfulness is not yet ended.
After lying over winter in a dormant state, the fungus in
them is again aroused to life by the warm rains of spring,
and begins the production of spores which are ready to in-
fect the crop about to be produced.

It has been thought practicable by some to exterminate or
at least greatly reduce this disease by the destruction of all
affected fruit and thus prevent the fungus from surviving
through the winter. The variety of fruits upon which it
can exist, however, and the practical hopelessness of accom-
plishing the destruction of any considerable proportion of
it, together with the uncertainty of the fungus being alto-
gether dependent upon the dormant stage found in the
dried-up fruit for its existence over winter, make the suc-
cess of this plan very doubtful. We would not, however,
discourage the practice of removing and destroying the
affected fruit, especially any remaining upon the trees over
winter ; for this may result in future decrease of the rotting,
especially in isolated orchards or trees.

The usual methods of orchard spraying have been found
to keep this disease in check to a considerable extent, though
in favorable weather it will often sweep through an orchard,
despite all precautions. The spraying should be begun
early, and kept up through the season with considerable
frequency, especially near the time when the fruit is matur-
ing. For such spraying, Professor Maynard recommends
the use of the ammoniacal copper carbonate or a weak
solution of copper sulphate. Details in regard to the treat-
ment of this disease may be found in Bulletin 44 of this
station.

The Chrysanthemum Rust.

(Pticcinia Tanaceti, S.)

In the last annual report a rust upon chrysanthemum
leaves was described, this being, as far as known, the first
published mention of such a disease. The specimens were
sent by Mr. G. H. Hastings of Fitchburg, who had experi-
enced heavy loss as the result of the rust. This was the
only occurrence of the disease encountered during 1896.

66 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

This year it has appeared in many places, both in this and
other States, occasioning considerable loss, as it is often very
destructive to infected plants. It is not yet generally
known, however, among those who cultivate the chrysanthe-
mum, though we fear that it may be by another year. Judg-
ing from the history of many similar diseases (asparagus
rust, carnation rust, hollyhock rust, etc.), it will not be
surprising if a general epidemic of this disease occurs next
year. It will be well worth while, therefore, for growers to
take precautions for guarding against it as much as possible,
especially those whose stock is already infected. Great care
should be exercised to get cuttings from vigorous plants,
unaffected by the rust ; and it will no doubt be profitable in
the end to spray them a few times during the summer with
the Bordeaux mixture or potassium sulphide, using one ounce
of the latter in two gallons of water, or stronger, if the
leaves will stand it. Should the rust appear on the young
plants, they should certainly be sprayed at once and at fre-
quent intervals thereafter, and the affected plants removed
and destroyed. It will be useless to try to save them as
they are doomed to destruction, or at best will only attain
a weak, sickly, worthless growth. When the plants are
placed in the benches for the fall, great care should be taken
that no rusty specimen goes in, else it may bring about the
min of the entire lot. Further than these suggestions little
more can be said about the disease until time shall have
shown what its seriousness may be and to what extent it can
be controlled.

There are several other diseases affecting the leaves of the
chrysanthemum, so that some may be in doubt whether their
plants are really infested with the rust. It causes discolor-
ation of the leaves, like other less destructive diseases, but
may be distinguished from them by its production of small
pustules, of a dark-red, powdery substance, on the under
side of the leaves, something as in the carnation rust. This
red powder consists of the spores of the fungus, which re-
produce and disseminate it.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 67

A Disease of the Cultivated GsEANroM.

During the past summer there appeared upon the leaves of
some geranium plants upon the college grounds a disease
which appears to be different from anything heretofore de-
scribed. The plants in question grew in a long border bed,
and comprised several ditt'erent varieties. Along the back
edge of the bed, trees and low shrubbery hung over to a
considerable extent, so that the plants in that portion were
quite shaded, while those in front were exposed more directly
to the sun. The disease came on in the latter part of July,
during the rainy weather then prevailing. The leaves began
to turn yellow in small spots, which gradually increased in
size, the leaf tissue dying away at those points ; thus the
leaves soon became covered with dead spots of considerable
size, and finally lost their vitality completely. The plants
in the front of the bed were most affected, those in the
shaded portion showing little or none of the disease. All
varieties, as above mentioned, were equally affected. The
plants were sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, but with no
apparent success. The same disease was brought to our no-
tice in Northampton and also in the eastern part of the State.

The trouble appeared to be the result of the attack of some
fungus, but investigation of the aff*ected leaves failed to re-
veal any such organism. Neither was there any evidence
of the presence of insects. Numerous bacteria, however,
were found in all affected tissue, and appeared to be the
cause of the spotting of the leaves. We do not consider this
a genuine disease of the geranium, nor do we expect to find it
occurring in the future. That the plants were in a condition
of low vitality and hindered growth by reason of the exces-
sive moisture, and hence were an easy prey to organisms
which ordinarily would be unable to affect them, seems the
most probable explanation. The futility of spraying to pre-
vent such a disease becomes apparent when its real nature is
revealed.

Some Leaf Blights of Native Trees.
During the past season several different kinds of trees
have been so generally affected with certain leaf-attacking
fungi as to become almost entirely defoliated before the end

68 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

of the summer. While of no great economic or practical
importance, these attacks have been so marked and their
effects so conspicuous that a brief description of the nature
of the trouble may be of interest. The following diseases
were generally prevalent wherever the host trees occurred,
over the considerable portion of New England which we vis-
ited during the summer.

A Leaf Blight of the Sycamore or Buttonwood.

(Olocosjwrium nervisequum Fckl. Sacc.)

Numerous inquiries reached us during the spring and
early summer concerning the very prevalent and destructive
blighting of the leaves of the sycamore tree (Blatanus occi-
denialis) . It is probable that every good-sized tree of this
species in the State was attacked by the disease. The
younger trees were apparently, for some unexplained reason,
less susceptible. The trouble appeared in May, when the
trees, which had just leaved out, appeared as if they had
been nipped by a frost or scorched by fire. The leaves with-
ered and turned brown, the new twigs were killed and many
of the leaves fell to the ground. In this condition the trees
lost all beauty, and became unsightly objects. This disease
is not entirely new in this State, although it has never been
so generally prevalent before. It was first described in Ger-
many in 1848, and has been common in various parts of
Europe since then. In this country it has occurred mostly
within the last fifteen years. It first appeared in the District
of Columbia, Ohio, Kentucky and other parts of the country
south of here, but is now widespread.

The cause of this disease is a parasitic fungus, growing in
the leaves and young twigs of the tree, and causing their
death. Several other fungi are usually found in connection
with the disease, and may have something to do in causing
it. This disease is a very serious drain upon the vitality of
the tree, and often results in its death. Its occurrence early
in the season, however, favors the tree, since it has a chance
to, and in fact does, produce a new crop of foliage to carry
it through the season. This exhausts the tree, however, and
if repeated for several seasons is likely to cause its death.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 69

As to a remedy for this disease, there is little to say.
Spraying with fuDgicides is not to be practically considered,
on account of the size and small economic importance of the
tree. Gathering and burning diseased branches and leaves
might lessen the trouble somewhat ; but, if the disease con-
tinues to prevail, it will probably be best in the end to dis-
pense with the sycamore as an ornamental tree, and plant
something else instead.

A Leaf Bligld of the Butternut.
(^Olocosporium Juglandis (Lib.) Mont.)

No fungous disease has been more noticeable throughout
the State during the past season than this. It first became
apparent in July, when butternut trees were noticed to be
losing their foliage. Examination showed that the rapidly
falling leaflets were covered with dead and discolored spots,
ond had lost their vitality. All trees were not aflected in
the same degree, as some were almost completely defoliated
in August, while others were attacked later or lost their
leaves more slowl}. By October 1, however, it was almost
or quite impossible to find a butternut tree which had not
lost the greater part of its leaves.

The cause of the trouble is a fungus, which lives in spots
in the leaf, killing the tissue at these points and gradually
causing the death of the whole leaflet, so that it falls to the
ground. The disease spreads rapidl}' from leaf to leaf and
from tree to tree, and many trees are soon defoliated. It is
a well-known fungus, but has been unusually abundant this
year.

A Leaf Spot of the Chestnut.
(Sej)toria ochroleuca (B. and C.)

This is another disease, quite similar to those above de-
scribed, which has been very prevalent this year. It first
became noticeable in July, when the ground under chestnut
trees was covered with fallen leaves. Upon these leaves the
fungus manifested itself very prominently in small, round,
dead spots, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, scat-
tered over the surface more or less abundantly. These
spots are the points where the fungus has become estab-

70 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

lished and killed the tissue. The fungus, like all those
causing these diseases, reproduces itself by spores, which
are produced in minute cavities in the dead area, usually
on the under side of the leaf. Almost all the leaves on
affected trees become dotted over with the little dead spots,
and most of them fall to the ground before their time, thus
weakening the tree. The disease is not, however, an espe-
cially destructive one, except to the beauty of the tree.

A Leaf Spot of the Wild Black Gherry.

{Beptoria cerasina, Pk.)

The well-known "shot-hole" fungus, which often causes
extensive damage to the plum and cherry, has been exceed-
ingly abundant this year upon the leaves of the wild black
cherry (^Primus sej'otina), many trees being almost entirely
leafless in August. This fungus attacks the leaves of plums
and cherries of several species, producing dead spots upon
them, and eventually causing their death. In connection
with the wild cherry the disease has little economic impor-
tance, except as it may spread from that tree to cultivated
species. On this account, the destruction of the wild cherry,
so desirable for the repression of the black knot and tent
caterpillar, is even more advisable.

QUINCE.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 7l

REPOKT OF THE HORTICULTURIST.

SAMUEL T. MAYNARD.

The lines of work in this division the past season have
been largely the same as for 1896.

Raspberry Seedlings.

The collection of raspberry seedlings, now three years
old, produced a large crop of fruit the past season, and many
most promising varieties were found among them. These
seedlings were from the hybrid or purple-cap variety Shaffer.
They produced a great variety of forms, from the black-cap
type (^Rubus occidentalism , the hybrid type of the parent, to
some of the most beautiful forms of the red raspberry
(Bubus strigosus) and to albino forms of both species.
Careful records of the hardiness of cane, vigor of growth,
time of ripening, productiveness and quality were made
during the season, and at this time the plantation is a very
handsome one.

Another collection of seedlings from the same source, but
one year younger, also shows many interesting forms of
growth.

Seedling Currants.

About three hundred seedling currant bushes two years
old have made a good growth and show many interesting
varieties.

Grape Seedlings.

The collection of seedling grapes, numbering some six
hundred varieties, is very interesting. The growth has been
very vigorous and healthy, and most of them are in a con-
dition to yield enough fruit next season to determine some-

72 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

thing of their value. From the appearance of the foliage
and the growth of vine we may look for a great variety of
types of fruit.

Strawberry SEEDLmas.

This collection, numbering al)Out four hundred varieties,
is in a very fine condition, and some varieties have shown
decided merits.

Named Kinds of Strawberries.

Many new varieties of strawberries of decided merit have
been added to the collection. Many of the older varieties
of little merit have been discarded, and the plots at this
time never looked so well.

Strawberry Field.

The field crop is planted on the knoll south of the old
farm buildings, and is in a remarkably good condition.
This land is of a gravelly nature, but with a retentive sub-
soil of hardpan, which in an ordinarily moist season may be
depended upon to produce a large crop of fruit, but in a
very dry time suffers severely. The land slopes in such a
manner that either the trench system or the spraying sys-
tems of irrigation or sub-irrigation can be employed in case
of drought. Two reservoirs on the grounds are available
for this purpose, and the three methods may be compara-
tively tested. A considerable quantity of two and one-half
and two inch pipe on hand is available for this work. This
need not be of any great expense, while its importance is
very great, as no comparative results have ever been ob-
tained that show whether any of the methods can be profit-
ably employed, or which is the most valuable.

Variety Testing.

The value of the comparative tests of varieties of fruits,
vegetables, flowers, etc., is often discussed. That it is a
legitimate and important part of the work of the stations is
shown in the demand made for the publications recording the
results of such tests. When we consider the large number

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 73

of new varieties of fruits, vegetables, etc., offered to the
public every year at high prices, with the claim of merits
for them far above those of the standard sorts, and which
the average grower cannot afford to buy and test, it is cer-
tain that the stations can save the people much loss and ex-
pense.

In the work of variety testing at this station in past years,
the reports show that the new varieties reported as being the
most valuable have been those that later were considered
most valuable and were most largely grown by the commer-
cial grower, while the varieties reported as having little or
no value have been everywhere soon discarded by the grow-
ers who tested them. This work would be of much greater
value, without doubt, if one or more sub-stations in different
parts of the State could be established, where the same var-
ieties could be tested under different conditions of soil and
exposure.

The large number of new varieties of all kinds of fruit,
vegetables, etc., being introduced every year, and generally
with extravagant claims of merit, renders this work of the
Experiment Station imperative, and the people should refuse
to purchase such varieties until they have the endorsement
of the stations of several States. A single season's trial of
a variety is of very little value. It requires several years,
at least, to prove the value of vegetables or even the more
early maturing small fruits, while tree fruits require a much
longer period.

Other Experiments.

Among the other experiments now under way may be
mentioned the destruction of greenhouse insects by the use
of hydrocyanic acid ; the testing of the value and keeping
qualities of some fifty-five varieties of celery ; sub-irrigation
in growing lettuce under glass ; the use of different kinds of
mulch for strawberries ; methods of overcoming the aspar-
agus rust ; testing varieties of dwarf Lima beans, etc.

Reports will soon be made of the results of the variety
tests of fruits, vegetables, etc. ; the use of "Laurel Green"
as an insecticide and fungicide ; of arsenate of lead as an in-
secticide ; and of other work done during the year.

74 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

DIVISION OF FOODS AND FEEDING.

J. B. LiNDSET.

Assistants, E. B, Holland, F. W. Mobsman, B. K. Jones, H. H. Roper.

Part I. — Laboratory Work.

Outline of Year's Work.

Part II. — Feeding Experiments and Dairy

Studies.

Part I.

Extent of Chemical Work.

The work of the chemical laboratory connected with this
department has very materially increased during the past
year. There have been tested 150 samples of water, 197
samples of milk, 2 samples of oleomargarine, 1 sample of
butter, 123 samples of miscellaneous substances. In addi-
tion to the above, which were sent to the station for exami-
nation, there have been analyzed 260 samples of milk and
388 samples of feed stuffs, in connection with experiments
in progress by this and other divisions of the station,
making a total of 1,147 substances which have passed
through the laboratory within twelve months. There have
also been carried on, for the Association of OflScial Agricult-
ural Chemists, chemical investigations, relative to the meth-

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 75

ods best adapted for the estimation of starch in agricultural
products. This has involved a great amount of chemical
work, the extent of which it is impossible to express in mere
figures.

Character of Chemical Work.

Water. — The analyses of water have been made by the
same methods as heretofore, and with the same end in view,
namely, to aid farmers and others in guarding against the
danger arising from the use of waters coming from polluted
springs and wells. Illness frequently occurs in the family,
the cause of which it is often difficult to explain, until an
examination of the water reveals its pollution with sink,
privy, stable or other drainage. The waters tested show
much the same condition as in former years ; in round num-
bers, 15 per cent, could be pronounced excellent, 40 per
cent, fair, 25 per cent, suspicious and 20 per cent, danger-
ous for drinking. Fully 50 per cent., therefore, were con-
sidered of a suspicious character. Three samples were
found to contain lead, and had been known to have produced
lead poisoning. We can only repeat the advice given in
former years, in cautioning all who are obliged to depend
upon wells and springs for their water supply to take every
precaution to prevent any drainage from entering, and to
keep the grounds about the well or spring free from all
objectionable matter. Lead pipes should never be used to
draw water through, especially if the water is free from min-
eral matter (soft).

MilJc. — The most of the milk received at the station has
been sent by farmers who ship their milk to Boston con-
tractors. They had probably been notified by the contract-
ors that their milk was below the Massachusetts standard,*
and they wished to ascertain its exact quality, and what, if
anything, could be done for its improvement. The larger
part of this milk was found to contain 12 to 12.5 per cent,
of solids and from 3.25 to 3.50 per cent, of fat, and was in
all probability the unadulterated product of the cow. The
contractor, however, because of the large amount of milk

* The Massachusetts standard calls for 13 per cent, solids and 3.70 per cent, fat,
excepting during April, May, June, July and August, when but 12 per cent, solids
and 3 per cent, fat are required.

76 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

offered, can afford to be particular, and desires only that up
to, or above the legal standard. In such cases there is
nothing for the farmer to do but to add some grade Jersey
or Guernsey cows to his herd. It certainly would be a long
step forward, if milk were sold not simply as milk, but with
a guarantee of composition. Milk containing 11.5 per cent,
solids and 3 per cent, of fat should surely bring less per
quart than milk containing 12, 13 or 14 per cent, solids, and
3.25, 4 or 5 per cent. fat.

Cattle Feeds. — At its session of 1897, the State Legis-
lature passed a law authorizing the inspection of feed stuffs.
The work is being carried out by this department, and it is
hoped that it will result in keeping out poor and adulterated
material, and in keeping the regular articles of as constant a
composition as possible. Considerable adulterated cotton-
seed meal was found on the market during the early spring
months. This material consisted of a mixture of hulls and
meal, the former ground very fine in order to conceal its
identity. The adulterated product contained from 22 to 30
per cent, of protein, while a prime meal should show from
40 to 45 per cent. Farmers were warned through the agri-
cultural and daily papers of the presence of the adulterated
article, and cautioned against its purchase. The result of
this has been to produce a feeling of uncertainty and to re-
strict the use of the genuine article. To overcome this, the
American Cotton Oil Company have placed a guarantee of
composition upon every bag put out by them. It is hoped
other manufacturers will follow this example. Farmers
should by all means give the preference to the guaranteed
article.

Other new feed stuffs are those put out by the H. O. Com-
pany, under the name of dairy, horse and poultry feeds.
The feeding values of these feeds are being investigated.
Varieties of oat feeds, being mixtures of oat hulls with more
or less corn meal, are found in the market without name or
guarantee. Farmers are cautioned against their purchase,
for the reason that the price asked is, as a rule, considerably
in excess of their feeding value.

Methods for the Determination of Starch. — The work
undertaken for the Association of Official Chemists, already

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 77

alluded to, has been reported to them. While more work
will be done along this line, it has been quite clearly demon-
strated that the so-called Maercker and Reinke methods for
the estimation of starch in agricultural products are faulty,
and will give altogether too high results. The only method
from which reasonably accurate results may be expected is
the diastase or malt method,* and this method has been
adopted by the official chemists in place of all others.

Part II.

Experiments with Pigs.
Two experiments have been completed with pigs, and a
third is now near completion. These experiments were
designed to study the value of corn meal as compared with
hominy and cerealine feeds for pork production, when fed in
combination with skim-milk. Both these feeds are quite
similar in composition. They consist of the hull, germ and
more or less bran and starch removed from white corn, dur-
ing the preparation of cracked hominy and cerealine flakes
for human consumption. Cerealine is much more bulky
than the hominy feed. These experiments will be published
in detail later. It can be said, however, that pigs have made
nearly, and in some cases fully, as good growth on these
feeds as on an equal amount of corn meal.

Salt Marsh Hay.

A thorough investigation has been completed concerning
the general character and feeding value of salt marsh hay.
The results are being published in bulletin form. The prac-
tical conclusions, briefly stated, are as follows : —

The several varieties of salt hay have, ton for ton, from 10
to 17 per cent, less feeding value than average English hay.
When 10 to 12 pounds of salt hay were fed daily, together
with 7 or 8 pounds of grain and a bushel of ensilage, the
ration produced within 2 to 5 per cent, as much milk and

* Sachsse's method can be used for estimating starch in commercial starch and in
potatoes.

78 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

butter as an equal amount of English hay similarly com-
bined.

Because of the less market value of salt as compared with
English hay, rations containing the salt hay, as given above,
produced milk and butter from 10 to 20 per cent, less than
did rations containing English hay. No objectionable flavor
was noticed when the salt hay was fed directly after milking.

It is undoubtedly wise for farmers living near the salt
marshes to feed salt hay and sell English hay. For the re-
sults in detail, and a fuller discussion, see the bulletin.

Digestion Experiments.

During the past year we have studied the amount of actual
nutriment in salt hays, to which reference has already been
made, in a number of new by-products and in green crops
for soiling. Many of our results, together with practical
conclusions therefrom, will soon be ready for publication.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 79

COTTON-SEED FEED AS A HAY SUBSTITUTE
FOE MILCH COWS.

J. B. LINDSEY, E. B. HOLLAND AND B. K. JONES.

The Experiment concisely described.
What Cotton-seed Feed is. — The seeds of the cotton plant
are irregular, egg-shaped in form, and almost hidden by a
tuft of white fibre which covers their surface. The meat of
the seed is covered with a thick, tough hull of a black color.
Machines have been invented to remove this hull, and the
meat is subjected to warm pressure for the purpose of re-
moving as much as possible of the oil. The pressed meat or
cake is ground, and results in the decorticated, bright yellow
cotton-seed meal of commerce. The black hull, covered with
the white fibre, was formerly almost entirely used as fuel,
and the ashes were sold for fertilizing purposes. Of late
many southern farmers, at the recommendation of experi-
ment stations in the south, have been mixing these hulls with
the cotton-seed meal and feeding them to beef and dairy cat-
tle, with very good success. Within the last few years this
material, under the name of cotton-seed feed, has been offered
in our Massachusetts markets. The manufacturers claim
that the feed consists of 1,600 pounds of hull and 400
pounds of meal, thoroughly mixed by machinery. The price
charged has been $13 per ton in car lots, delivered in Mas-
sachusetts, which would be equivalent to at least |15 in sin-
gle tons. The feed, shipped in bags, is quite bulky, and,
because of the white fibre covering the hull, looks somewhat
like wool waste. Its color is light yellow, due to the ad-
mixture of the cotton-seed meal.

The Experiments briefly stated.
The experiment station has conducted four experiments
with this feed, two with milch cows and two with sheep.

80 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The feed for the first experiment was furnished by the man-
ufacturers. In the second experiment we procured the sep-
arate ingredients, and mixed the feed ourselves. Each of
the two milk experiments was made with six cows. In the
first experiment the feed consisted of a constant grain and
ensilage ration, together with a good quality of first-cut hay
and cotton-seed feed ; in the second experiment there was a
constant grain and mangel ration, in addition to the hay
and cotton-se'ed feed. The cotton-seed feed was looked upon
as being similar in character to hay, and, in attempting to
get at its value, from 12 to 15 pounds were substituted
daily for a like quantity of hay. The first experiment lasted
twenty-one days and the second twenty-eight days. In case
of digestion experiments, in which six single tests were made,
some of the sheep received nothing but the cotton-seed feed,
and others received half hay and half of the feed. While
the cotton-seed feed has not an attractive appearance, the
animals in all cases ate their daily rations with no apparent
objections.

The Results.

I. The total average gain of the six cows in live weight
during the cotton-seed period was 05 pounds, and during the
hay period 166 pounds.

II. The production of milk, milk solids and butter fat
was so nearly alike in the average of both experiments as to
be within the limits of experimental error.

III. The cost of producing milk and butter with the hay
and with the cotton-seed ration varied but very little.

IV. A ton of cotton-seed feed contained about 964
pounds of digestible matter, and a ton of the hay about
1,007 pounds of digestible material.

V. A full description of the experiments, together with
all data bearing on the results, will be found further on.

Is Cotton-seed Feed economical for Massachusetts

Farmers ?

There would unquestionably be no advantage for the aver-
age farmer to feed this material in place of hay, unless he
could sell his hay for a sufficient advance over the cost of

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 81

the feed to warrant the change. Milkmen in the vicinity
of large cities, and others who are obliged to purchase their
coarse feed, might find it to their advantage to use some of
this material, especially if it could be bought for less than a
good quality of hay. It is possible that animals would tire
of this feed sooner than of hay. The cows used by the sta-
tion consumed it continuously for over a month with no
seeming objections. The cotton-seed feed must be looked
upon from a feeding stand-point in the light of a hay substi-
tute, and not as a grain feed, and only 8 to 10 pounds should
be fed each animal daily, in place of a like amount of hay or
other coarse fodder. Southern rather than northern farmers
can utilize cotton-seed feed to the best advantage.

The Experiments in Detail.

In 1889 Stone * records the fact that increasing quantities
of cotton-seed hulls and various mixtures of hulls and cotton-
seed meal were being fed by the farmers of the south for
beef and milk production. Since 1889 a great variety of
digestion and beef-producing experiments have been made
by the North Carolina station, f which have been productive
of a large amount of information relative to the physiological
and economic value of cotton-seed feed. The Texas experi-
ment station ^ has made experiments with milch cows to
study the economic value of this feed in a variety of fodder
rations.

In 1894 Armsby§ published the results of two experi-
ments with cotton-seed feed. In the first experiment the
cows, five in number, were fed as follows : Ration I. con-
sisted daily of 7.95 pounds of wheat bran and 11.69 pounds
of cotton-seed feed ; while Ration II. contained 3 pounds of
cotton-seed meal, 7 pounds of corn meal, 6 pounds of corn
fodder and 3.27 pounds of hay. Practically, the corn meal
and cotton-seed meal of the second ration were matched
against the bran, and cotton-seed meal contained in the
cotton-seed feed of the first ration, leaving the corn fodder

* Tennessee Experiment Station, Vol. II., No. 3, 1889.

t Bulletins SOc, 81, 87d, 93, 97, 106, 109, 118.

+ Bulletin 33, 1894.

§ Report Pennsylvania Experiment Station, page 44, 1894.

82 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

and hay to be compared with about the same quantity of
cotton hulls. The results, as would naturally be expected,
were in favor of Ration II. This latter ration contained
also 4 pounds more of digestible matter. In the second
trial, six cows were each given daily 6 pounds of Buffalo
gluten feed and 2 pounds of wheat bran. Ration I. con-
tained in addition 10.6 pounds of cotton-seed feed, and
Ration II. 4 pounds of corn meal and 9.7 pounds of clover
hay. It is not possible to regard this as a fair comparison,
for any one can see at a glance that 4 pounds of corn meal
and 9.7 pounds of clover hay (13.7 pounds) must give
better results than 10.6 pounds of cotton-seed feed. At
least a fairer comparison would have been to have matched
the cotton-seed feed against a like quantity of clover hay.
Simply because cotton-seed feed consists of a mixture of
cotton-seed hulls with cotton-seed meal, it is not at all
necessary when making a comparison to put the like amount
of cotton-seed meal or other grain into the opposite ration.
By so doing, one simply compares cotton-seed hulls with
some other fodder or fodder combination. The hulls them-
selves have an inferior nutritive value; experiments have
demonstrated that their nutritive effect is increased by the
addition of the cotton-seed meal. In order, therefore, to
get at the feeding value of this material, it must be regarded
as a single feed stuff, and ought to be compared with other
coarse fodders of similar composition. It has been the aim
of the experimenter, in the two experiments that follow, to
make such a comparison.

A. Composition of Cotton-seed Feed.

The first lot of feed, supplied through the kindness of
Mr. H. C. Haskell of the Southern Cotton Oil Company of
Savannah, Ga., was said to have been mixed in the propor-
tion of 1,600 pounds of hulls to 400 pounds of meal. The
lot for the second experiment we prepared ourselves, in the
same proportion. The two lots varied very little in moist-
ure, but, for the sake of more exact comparison, the results
are presented in dry matter.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

83

No. 1
(Per Ceut.).

Ko. 2
(Percent.).

Theoretical
Protein Con-
tent of No. 2

(Per Cent.).

Composition op Two Sam-
ples OP Hat fed in the
Two Experiments (Pee
Cent.).

I.

II.

Ash, .
Protein,
Fibre, .

Extract matter, .
Fat, .

3.82

13.02

39.67

39.59

3.90

3.51
11.98
40.69
40.13

3.69

13.85

5.94
11.07
32.00
47.92

3.07

5.78

8.41

33.98

49.15

2.68

Both Nos. 1 and 2 run rather below the theoretical per-
centage of protein. This is not surprising, from the fact
that it is extremely difficult to get a strictly average sample
of this feed. It is impossible to grind the hulls fine, and in
spite of all one can do, more or less of the meal will fall
through the hulls and not be included in the sample. It
will be noted that the cotton-seed feed and the hay resemble
each other in chemical composition, excepting that the cot-
ton-seed feed contains somewhat more fibre and less extract
matter.

B. Digestibility of Cotton-seed Feed.

Recognizing the valuable information secured by digestion
tests, six single trials with sheep were made of the two sam-
ples of feed. The sheep were grade Southdown mature weth-
ers. In four cases the cotton-seed feed was fed alone, and in
the remaining two the daily ration consisted of one-half hay
and one-half cotton-seed feed. In both cases the results
agree quite closely, except in case of the fat, which showed
a digestibility of 98 per cent, when the cotton-seed feed was
fed in connection with hay. This high result it was thought
best to exclude from the average. The cotton-seed feed ap-
peared to agree better with the sheep when fed in connection
with hay than when fed by itself. In the latter case, at the
close of the period the sheep began to show signs of diges-

84

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

tion disturbances, which would certainly have become quite
pronounced had the feeding been continued much longer.
The digestibility of the two difl'erent samples of cotton-seed
feed was practically the same. The North Carolina station
has made a very extended study of the digestibility of hulls
and meal fed in different proportions. The Pennsylvania
station has also made three single determinations. These
results, in addition to our own, are tabulated below : —

Digestion Coefficients.

\Ci-s

Si2

Massachusetts station, .
North Carolina station, ,
North Carolina station, ,
North Carolina station, .
Pennsylvania station,

Hay of mixed grasses with ten per cent,
protein for comparison.

4-1

6-1

3-1

IH

5-1

The experiments made by the North Carolina station
(4-1) and by the Pennsylvania station were carried out
with steers. The only diiference between the results ob-
tained by the Massachusetts station and those recorded by
the North Carolina station (4-1) consists in the higher per-
centage of protein and the lower percentage of tibre digested
by the steers in the North Carolina experiments. The co-
efficients for fat digestibility also show some variation, but,
the fat percentage being comparatively small, the difi'erence
is not of so much account. The coefficients obtained by
Armsby are lower than would be expected. The coefficients
of digestibility for an extra quality of hay are not very
noticeably higher — excepting the protein — than those for
the cotton-seed feed.

According to the average coefficients of digestibility, a
ton of the hay and a ton of the cotton-seed feed fed in the

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33.

85

milk experiments would contain the following amounts of
digestible organic nutrients : —

One ton hay,

One ton cotton-seed feed,

1,007.3
964.4

One would therefore suppose that a ton of cotton-seed feed
would have nearly the same feeding value as a like quantity
of hay. There might be one exception to the above state-
ment, in that it is possible that rather more energy would
be required to digest the cotton-seed feed than the hay.

C. Milk Experiments with Cotton-seed Feed.
Experiment I.
This experiment was conducted during April and May,
1896. The animals, six in number, were evenly divided
into two lots. In order to counteract the natural milk
shrinkage, three of the animals in the first half of the exper-
iment were fed the cotton-seed feed ration, while the other
three were having the hay ration. In the second half this
order was reversed. Each half of the experiment lasted
twenty-one days, and from seven to ten days were allowed
between the halves.

History of the Cows.

NAME.

Breed.

Age
(Yeans).

Last Calf
dropped. .

Number of

Day^ witli

Calf.

Milk Yield at

Beginning of

Experiment

(Pounds).

Ada, .

Grade Ayrshire,

7

Oct. 1

106

19

Red Spot, .

Grade Durham, .

G

Sept. -

90

21

Bessie,

Grade Ayrshire,

7

Sept. 10

69

25

Beauty,

Grade Jersey, .

5

Sept. 15'

96

20

Red, .

Grade Durham, •

7

Oct. 8

141

20

Spot, .

Grade Durham, .

7

Oct. 8

141

20

Five of the above cows had been in two previous experi-
ments since Octol)cr, 1895.

SQ

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Dates of the Experiment.

Cotton-seed Ration.

Hay Ration.

April 8 through April 28,
May 11 through May 31,

Cows 3, 4, 5
Cows 1, 2, 6

Cows 1, 2, 6
Cows 3, 4, 5

Rations consumed DaiJi/ (^Pounds) .

o

Name.

Hay.

Cotton-
seed Feed.

Wheat
Bran.

Peoria
Gluten

Feed.

Linseed
Meal.

Millet and
Soy Bean
Ensilage.

1

' Ada,

Red Spot,

Bessie,

Beauty, .

Red, .
^ Spot, ,

-

10
13
15

15
15
13

2
3
3
3
3
3

3

2
2

2
2
2

1

2
2

2
2
2

15

20
20
20
20
20

' Ada,
Red Spot,

Bessie,

•
Beauty, .

Red, .

_ Spot,

10

13

15

15

14.2

13

-

2
3
3
3
3
3

3

2
2
2
2

2

1

2
2
2
2
2

15
20
20
20
20
20

Average cotton-
seed feed.
Average hay, .

13.47

13.5

2.83
2.83

2.17
2.17

1.83
1.83

19.17
19.17

Although but three of the six cows received the same
ration at the same time, each animal received during the ex-
periment the two ditferent rations for exactl}^ the same length
of time. It will be observed that the only difference be-
tween the rations consists in the substitution of the cotton-

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

87

seed feed for the hay, and vice versa. The entire rations
were eaten clean, excepting a small amount of hay refused
by Eed, which was preserved, analyzed and deducted from
the total fed. The feeds were weighed out daily and given
in two portions. Water was before the animals constantly.
The cows were carded daily, and allowed the run of a yard
in pleasant weather.

Digestible

Nutrients in Daily Rations (^Pounds) .

Q
O

Name,

TotaLDry
Matter.

Digestible.

Nutritive

Protein.

Carbohy-
drates.

Fat.

Total.

Ratio.

a>

cS
02

o
O

' Ada,

Red Spot,

Bessie, .

Beauty, .

Red,
I, Spot,

17.36

21.88
23.42
23.42
23.42
21.88

1.77

2.23
2.31
2.31
2.31
2.23

8.30
10.10
10.82
10.82
10.82
10.10

.67
.82
.86
.86
.86
.82

10.74
13.15
13.99
13.99
13.99
13.15

1:5.63

1:5.45
1:5.61
1:5.61
1:5.61

1:5.45

S3

'Ada,

Red Spot,

Bessie, .

Beauty, .

Red,
^ Spot,

17.. 30
21.81
23.90
23.90
23.19
21.81

1.92
2.42
2.57
2.57
2.53
2.42

8.74
10.70
11.05
11.05
10.72
10.70

.50
.59
.64
.64
.63
.59

11.16
13.71

14.26
14.26
13.88
13.71

1:5.20
1:5.03
1:4.92
1:4.92
1:4.86
1:5.03

Average cotton-
seed feed.
Average hay.

21.89
21.99

2.19
2.41

10.16
10.49

.82
.60

13.17
13.50

1:5.56
1:4.99

The coefficients of digestibility for the cotton-seed feed
and for the hay used in calculating the above digestible
nutrients were those obtained in our experiments with
sheep. Average coefficients were used for the grain feeds.
The above results show but little variation in the digestible
amounts of the several groups contained in the two rations.

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Weight of Animals at Beginning and End of Experiment (^Pounds) .

■o

o

>.

ta a

03

.£

tg

•O

S

a

■o

iirt

<

«

P3

M

tf

DQ

H

(

Beginning, .

771

891

795

937

1010

967

)

Cotton-seed period, . I

10

I

End,

771

888

792

928

1025

977

(

Beginning, .

775

892

861

1000

1070

965

)

Hay period, . . .}

(40

(

End, .

775

902

855

1012

1082

977

)

Two weights were taken of each animal at the beginning
and two at the end of the experiment. No marked varia-
tions were noted due to the influence of either ration.

Yield of Milk and Butter

•a^ _

■^M

^^

M

u

>-

-rt u

6

o

S
w

Cows.

— 3

Daily Yie
of Mil
(Pounds)

Daily Yie
of Mil
(Quarts).

■O 3
^S O

2 ol,

OtE v^

3 .2

« a

_ 3

1^^

CO □

_ 3

^«1

fAda

395.48

18.83

8.76

54.60

19.53

22.78

1.08

(U

1 Red Spot,

439.12

20.91

9.72

62.58

22.89

26.70

1.27

•o Beissie,

« 1

542.11

25.71

11.96

73.50

26.67

31.11

1.48

o

Beauty, .

444.00

21.14

9.83

66.99

24.99

29.15

1.39

o

Red

416.62

19.82

9.22

58.38

21.00

24.50

1.17

O

.Spot,.

337.25

16.06

7.47

50.82

18.27

21.31

1.01

fAda

402.71

19.18

8.92

54.60

18.60

21.70

1.03

Red Spot,

458.75

21.84

10.16

64.05

21.29

24.84

1.11

1 Bessie, .

526.86

25.09

11.67

70.35

is. 81

27.78

1.32

eg

<

n

Beauty, .

399.89

19.04

8.86

58.17

20.35

23.74

1.13

Red

275.50

13.12

6.43

38.22

12.84

14.98

.71

LSpot

419.50

19.98

9.29

61.53

22.11

25.80

1.23

Total cotton -seed feed, .

2,574.58

122.47

56.96

366.87

133.33

155.55

7.40

Total hay.

2,483.21

118.25

55.33

346.92

119.00

138.84

6.60

Percentage increase cot-
ton-seed feed over hay.

3.6-f

-

-

5.44+

10.76+

-

-

The cotton-seed feed ration gave a slightly larger amount
of milk than the hay ration. A 5.4 percentage increase in
the amount of total solids is also noted, while fully ten per

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

89

cent, more butter fat was produced by the cotton-seed ration.
This latter result could hardly have been expected. Should
cotton-seed feed exert a favorable influence in increasing
the relative amount of butter fat in the milk, other experi-
ments would show similar results, which we shall presently
show has not been the case. A part of the decrease in the
amount of milk, solids and fat produced by the hay ration
can be accounted for in the sudden shrinkage of Cow V.
(Red) in the second (hay) period. This cow was a grade
Durham, and at the beginning of her second period was
about 105 days from calving time. She began then to dry
ofi" rapidly, showing a shrinkage of 34 per cent, in yield of
milk from that produced in the previous peHod, while other
animals shrank only from 5, to in one case 20 per cent.
Had Eed shrank only 20 per cent., the total decrease in
milk yield in the hay period would have been but a trifle
over 1 per cent. The results of this experiment make rather
more of a favorable showing for the cotton-seed feed than
one would naturally expect, judging front its composition
and digestibility. Before, therefore, drawing positive con-
clusions, the reader is referred to the results of a second
experiment, described further on.

Dry and Digestible Matter required to produce MUk and Butter

{Per Cent. ) .

Dry Matter required
TO Produce —

Cotton-
seed
Period.

Hay
Period.

Digestible Matter re-
quired to p'roduce —

Cotton-

seed
Period.

Hay
Period.

100 pounds milk, •
1 pound milk solids,
1 pound milk fat, .
1 pound butter,

107.10

7.52

20.69

17.75

111.56

7.98
23.27
19.99

100 pounds milk,
1 pound milk solids, .
1 pound milk fat,
1 pound butter, .

64.40
4.52
12.44
10.68

68.49
4.90
14.28
12.27

Market Cost of Feed Stuffs.

Wheat bran, ....
Peoria gluten feed,
Linseed meal,
Millet and soya bean ensilage,

Hay,

Cotton-seed feed, .

15

00

per ton

15

00

20

00

3 50

15

00

15

00

90

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

With the above figures as a basis, we obtain the following
figures for the cost of feed required to produce milk and
butter : —

cows.

Daily Feed
(Cents).

100 Pounds

Milk

(Cents).

Quart of

Milk
(Cents).

Pound

Butter Fat

(Cents).

Pound (
Butter
(Cents).

o

a>
a

o
U

' Ada,

Red Spot,

Bessie, . ,

Beauty, .

Red,
^ Spot,

14.87
19.00
20.50
20.50
20.50
19.00

79.00

90.90

79.70

97.00

103.40

118.20

1.69
1.95
1.71
2.08
2.22
2.54

15.99

17.43
16.14
17.23
20.50
21.84

13.77
16.00
13.85
14.03
17.62
18.81

i

P.

'Ada,

Red Spot,

Bessie, .

Beauty, .

Red,
.Spot, .

14.87
19.00
20.50
20.60
19.90
19.00

77.50
87.00
81.70
107.60
151.70
95.00

1.67
1.87
1.76
2.31
3.09
2.05

16.71
18.81
18.14
21.13
32.62
18.09

14.43
16.10
15.53
18.14
28.03
16.45

Average cotton-seed

feed period.
Average hay period.

19.06
18.96

94.70
100.10

2.03
2.12

18.19
20.92

15.49
17.94

The two rations costing the same, the cost of producing
milk and butter was rather favorable to the cotton-seed feed
ration.

Experiment II. (1896).

In view of the results obtained in the first experiment, it
was thought advisable to conduct a second under practically
the same conditions. The six cows were all approximately
fresh in milk. The experiment was carried out in exactly
the same way as the preceding one.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

91

History of Cows.

Age
(Years).

Last Calf Dropped.

Mary,
Jennie,
Nora,
Beauty,
Red, .
Spot, .

Grade Jersey,
Grade Guernsey,
Grade Jersey, .
Grade Jersey, .
Grade Durham, .
Grade Durham, .

9
6

10
6
8

July 1.
September.
August 23.
September 15.
August 20.
Aug-ust 17.

The COW8 were farrow at the beginning of the experiment,
and all were served during the progress of the trial.

Dates of the Experiment.

Cotton-seed Period.

Hay Period.

October 6 through November 3, .
November 17 through December 15,

Cows 1, 2, 5.
Cows 3, 4, 6.

Cows 3, 4, 6.
Cows 1, 2, 5.

Rations eaten Per Day (^Pounds) .

NAME.

Hay.

Cotton-
seed Feed.

Jfangolds.

Wheat
Bran.

Chicago
Gluten

Meal.

' Mary,

2

15

15

5

3

TS

•c

Jennie,

3

12

15

5

3

Nora,

_

15

15

5

3

Beauty,

5

15

15

5

3

o

Red,

3

15

15

5

3

O

(^ Spot,

3

14.46

15

5

3

92

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Rations eaten Per Day (^Pounds) — Concluded.

NAME.

Hay.

Cotton-
seed Feed.

Mangolds.

Wheat
Bran.

Chicago
Gluten
Meal.

-i

•c

<v

'Mary,

Jennie, .

Nora,

Beauty, .

Red,
.Spot,

17
15

15
20
18

18

-

15

15

15-

15-

15-

15

5

5
- 5 •
5
5
5

3
3
3
3
3
3

Average cotton-seed

feed period.
Average hay period,

2.68
17.17

14.41

15
15

5
5

3
3

It was not considered advisable to feed more than from 12
to 15 pounds of the cotton-seed feed daily, and the addi-
tional quantity of coarse fodder was secured by adding from
2 to 5 pounds of hay, to suit the appetites of the various
animals. We have, then, 12 to 15 pounds of cotton-seed
feed, compared with a like amount of hay. The cotton-seed
feed was mixed daily in the proportion of 4 pounds of hulls
to 1 pound of meal. The hay w\as a mixture of grasses, with
Timothy predominating. Some clover was scattered through

the mixture.

Digestible Matter in Rations (Per Cent.).

Total Dry
Matter.

Digestible.

Nutritive

NAME.

Protein.

Carboh}'-
drates.

Fat.

Total.

Ratio.

<»
w

a

-

'Mary, .
Jennie, .
Nora, .
Beauty, .
Red, .
Spot, .

23.20
21.44
21.44
25.83

24.07
23.61

2.45
2.37
2.37
2.57
2.49
2.47

10.58
9.78
9.76
11.82
10.99
10.77

.83
.76
.81
.87
.85
.83

13.86
12.91
12.94
15.26
14.33
14.07

1:5.08
1:4.85
1:4.85
1:5.36

1:5.60
1:5.08

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

93

Digestible Matter in Rations (Per Cent.) — Concluded.

NAME.

Total Dry
Matter.

Digestible.

Nutritive

Protein.

Carbnliy-
drates.

Fat.

Total.

Katio.

o
'u

Mary, .
Jennie, .
Nora, .
Beauty, .
Red, .
l^Spot, .

23.17

21.42
21.42

25.78
24.08
24.08

2.41
2.33
2.33
2.53
2.45
2.45

10.67
9.85
9.85
11.91
11.08
11.08

.56
.54

.54
.60
■.58-
.58

13.64
12.72
12.72
15.04
14.11
14.11

1:4.95
1:4.77
1:4.77
1:4.30
1:5.00
1:5.00

Average cotton -seed

feed period.
Average hay period, .

23.26
23.32

2.45
2.42

10.62
10.74

..82,
.57

13.64
13.72

1:6.14
1:5.00

The amounts and proportions of digestible matter in each
of the two rations are identical. In calculating the above
rations, average digestion coefficients were taken for the
grains, the coefficients obtained at this station for the cotton-
seed feed, and in case of the hay, the coefficients obtained
by us for hay of similar appearance and composition. It
must be remembered that the above digestible material in
the two rations is only estimated. It is therefore quite pos-
sible that, had actual digestion experiments been made with
the cows, these figures may have been somewhat modified.

WeigJit of Animals at Beginning and End of Experiment (Pounds).

as

«5
p
a

o

as

•a

o

CO

a

( BegiDDiDg, .

768

818

745

943

1,006

1,007

Cotton-eeed period,

(End, .

767

840

767

954

1,042

1,002

85

( Beginniag, .

829

897

757

946

1,096

954

Hay period, .

(End, .

825

888

780

973

1,116

1,024

126

The cows were weighed at the same time for three con-
secutive days at the beginning and end of the experiment.

94

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

Four of the six cows were rather thin in flesh at the begin-
ning of the test, and made gains on both rations. The hay
period showed a herd increase of 41 pounds over the cotton-
seed period.

Milk and Butter Yields (^Pounds) .

Q
O

Cows.

o

"3
Q

IS
CIS

a
Q

11

1

"3
o

s

o
Eh

a

o

I

73
O

m

a
S.

6

Mary, .
Jennie, .
Nora, .
Beauty,
Red, .
.Spot, .

596.88
609.97
519.12
587.68
549.94
428.77

21.32
21.78
18.54
20.99
19.64
15.31

9.92
10.13
8.62
9.76
9.13
7.12

83.38

88.81
69.81
84.75
67.63
62.23

28.29
30.50
23.62
30.97
21.28
22.42

33.00

35.59
27.56
36.13
24.82
26.16

1.18

1.27

.98

1.29

.88
.93

i

«

p.
>,

a

w

'Mary, .
Jennie,
Nora, .
Beauty,
Red, .

LSpot, .

575.64
527.12
613.34
686.67
557.00
491.17

20.55
18.82
21.89
24.47
19.89
17.56

9.57
8.75
10.17
11.38
9.25
8.17

79.83
80.49

80.77
97.85
69.62
70.83

27.34
30.46

24.78
83.60
22.72
23.23

31.90
35.54
28.91
39.20
26.51
27.10

1.14
1.27
1.03
1.40
.95
.97

Average cotton-seed feed

ration.
Average hay ration, . . .

548.73
574.99

19.59
20.53

9.10
9.55

76.10
79.90

26.18
27.02

30.54
31.53

1.09
1.13

Percentage increase hay over
cotton-seed period.

4.6+

-

-

4.8+

3.1+

-

-

In this experiment, the results are the reverse of those ob-
tained in the first test, the hay period yielding several per
cent, more milk, milk solids and fat. Our observations of
the animals from day to day during the trial indicated that
the cotton-seed feed ration was falling slightly behind the
hay ration. The animals, being in the early part of the
lactation period, would naturally be more sensitive to the
effect of food than in the latter portion of the period of
lactation.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

95

Dry and Digestible Matter required to produce Milk and Butter

(Per Cent.).

Dry Matter required
to produce —

Cotton-
seed
Period.

Hay
Period.

Digestible Matter re-
quired to produce —

Cotton-
seed
Period.

Hay
Period.

100 pounds milk, .
1 pound milk solids, .
1 pound milk fat, .
1 pound butter, .

118.70

8.56

24.88

21.38

113.60

8.18

24.17

20.70

100 pounds milk,
1 pound milk solids, .
1 pound milk fat,
1 pound butter, .

70.90

5.11

14.86

12.77

66.90

4.81

14.22

12.18

Market Cost of Feed Stuffs.

Wheat bran, $14 00 per ton.

Chicago gluten meal, . . . . 18 00 "
Mangolds, ...... 3 00 "

Hay, 15 00 "

Cotton-seed feed, 15 00 "

Cost of Feed to produce Milk and Butter. Average for Six

Cows (Cents).

Daily
Feed.

100

Pounds

Milk.

Quart
Milk.

Pound

Butter

Fat.

Pound
Butter.

Cotton-seed period

Hay period

21.32
21.32

110.6
104.9

2.38
2.26

23.40
22.69

20.10
19.33

Increased percentage cost of cotton-
seed over hay period.

-

5.2+

-

-

3.2-f

The cotton-seed rations slightly increased the cost of the
milk and butter.

D. Average Eesults from Two Experiments.

It is thought desirable to brino; too:ether the results of
both experiments, believing that they will give a fair repre-
sentation of the relative values of like quantities of cotton-
seed feed and a good quality of hay.

1. Total Live Weight gained by the Six Cows in Both Experi-
ments (Pounds).

Cotton-seed feed periods, ...••• 95
Hay periods, ......... 166

96

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

2. Average Dry and Digestible Matter Consumed Daily (Pounds) ,

Total

Dry

Matter,

Digestible.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbohy-
dratee.

Total.

Nutritive
Ratio.

Cotton-seed period,
Hay period, .

22.57
22.65

2.32
2.41

.82
.59

10.39
10.61

13.40
13.61

1: 5.35
1: 5.00

These figures show very slight variations.

3. Total Milk and Butter Yields (^Pounds) ,

Mill!.

Milk Solids.

Milk Fat.

Butter.

Cotton-seed period,

Hay period

Percentage increase hay over cotton-seed,

5867
5933
1.1+

823.5
826.3
.34+

290.4
281.1
3.2—

338.8
328.0
3.2-

These variations can be regarded as within the limits of
experimental error.

4. Average Feed Cost of Milk and Butter (^Cents).

Dally
Cost of
Feed.

100

Pounds

Milk.

Quart
Milk.

Pound

,Butter

Fat.

Pound
Butter.

Cotton seed period.
Hay period, .

Percentage increased cost of hay over
cotton-seed.

20.19
20.14

±

102.6
102.5

±

2.20
2.19

±

20.79
21.80
4.63+

17.79
18.63

4.5+

The 4.6 percentage increased cost of butter in the hay
period is due to the rather unexpected results in the first
experiment.

5. Dry and Digestible Matter required to produce Milk and Butter.
I. Dry Matter (Pounds) .

100

Pounds

Milk.

Pound
Milk
Solids.

Pound
Butter Fat.

Pound
Butter.

Cotton-seed period,
Hay period.

112.
112.

22.79
23.72

19.56
20.37

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

97

//. DiijcsLiblc Matter {Pounds).

100

Pounds

Milk.

Pound

Milk
Solids.

Pound
Butter Fat.

Pound
Butter.

CottoD-seed period,
Hay period,

67.65
67.69

4.81
4.85

13.65
14.25

11.72
12.22

General Conclusions.

Cotton-seed feed, from its appearance, is certainly not an
attractive looking article for consumption. The cotton-seed
hulls, comprising the bulk of the feed, consists of the dark
seed coats, together with an entangling mass of fibre. They
are difficult to masticate, and quite indigestible. The cot-
ton-seed meal with which the hulls are mixed imparts its
flavor to the material, and actually increases the digestibility
of the hulls. " In our experiments we have had no trouble in
inducing animals to eat 12 to 15 pounds daily within three
or four daj^s. The two experiments have shown cotton-seed
feed to give as large milk and butter yields, at as low a cost,
as a good quality of hay. The writer is of the opinion,
however, that this feed requires more energy for its diges-
tion than hay, and, when fed for any length of time, would
have a tendency to induce digestive disturbances. A mix-
ture of hulls and meal could probably be turned to better
account for fattening steers than as a continuous feed for
dairy cows. Massachusetts farmers could derive no benefit
from feeding this material in place of hay. For those who
are obliged to purchase all of their coarse feeds, it might be
desirable to use one-half of this material in place of hay,
provided it could be purchased for somewhat less money.
Cotton-seed feed should be consumed where it is produced.
For the farmers of the south it is undoubtedly a cheap source
of coarse feed, and, when fed in moderate quantities, will
unquestionably return good results.

98

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Analytical Data.

Dry Matter Determinations {^Per Cent.).
Exx>eriment I.

Hay.

Millet and
Soy Bean
Ensilage.

Cotton
seed-
Feed.

Wheat
Bran.

Linseed
Meal.

Peoria
Gluten
Feed.

April 8 through April 28,
May 11 through May 31,

90.33

89.84

18.79
20.58

87.89
87.86

90.58
90.48

93.04
93.23

Experiment II.

Hay.

Mangolds.

Cotton-
seed
Feed.

Wheat
Bran.

Chicago
Gluten
Meal.

Hay * and cotton-seed periods, .

87.60

8.00

87.8

87.2

90.6

* The dry matter determinations varied so little in the two halves of this experi-
ment that the average in each case was taken.

Composition of Feeds {Per Cent.).
Exjjerime^it I.

Hay.

Millet and
Soy Bean
Ensilage.

Cotton-
seed
Feed.

Wheat
Bran.

Linseed
Meal.

Peoria
Gluten
Feed.

Ash,

Fibre

Fat,

Protein

Extract matter, .

5.94
32.00

3.07
11.07
47.92

12.77
34.02
2.59
9.40
41.22

3.82
39.67

3.90
13.02
39.59

6.42
11.37

5.73
18.68
57.80

4.94

7.26

7.05

41.99

38.76

1.07

7.13

7.59

23.83

60.38

Experiment II.

Hay.

Mangolds.

Cotton-
seed
Feed .

Wheat
Bran.

Chicago
Gluten
Meal.

Ash,
Fibre,
Fat, .
Protein, .
Extract matter.

5.78

33.98

2.68

8.41

49.15

15.49
10.67
.73
14.35
58.76

3.51

40.69

3.69

11.98

40.13

7.11
12.08

5.69
18.12
57.00

1.52
3.21

7.38
40.38
47.51

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

99

Coefficients of Digestibility.
Experiment I.

•6

a

_:

, -o

s

6
an

a
u

c4 □

2,2

3
o

s*

~ ®

lg

60

a

a

W

o ""

^

h-1

Hi

S

Fibre

66

69

59

22

57

78

-

_

Fat,

53

72

89

71

89

79

-

-

Protein,

62

57

39

78

89

83

-

-

Extract Matter

64

59

58

68

78

90

-

-

Experiment 11.

Fibre, ,
Fat,

Protein, .
Extract Matter,

58

-

55

22

-

-

-

50

-

93

68

-

-

93

54

-

42

79

-

-

89

56

-

59

69

-

-

93

Composition of Milk (Per Cent.).
Experiment I.

Ada.

Red Spot.

Bessie.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids. I Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Cotton-seed period, .

I 13.84
< 13.82

4.98
5.00

14.01
14.48

4.84
5.59

13.63

4.93

Average,

13.83

4.96

14.24

5.21

13.63

4.93

Hay period,

I 13.57

4.62

13.95

4.64

13.26
13.47

4.53
4.52

Average, . . . 13.57

4.62

13.95

4.64

13.36

4.52

100

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Experiment I. — Concluded.

Beauty.

Red.

Spot.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Cotton-8eed period, .

1 15.08
\ -

5.62

14.03

5.05

14.88
15.28

5.33

5.48

Average,

15.08

5.62

14.03

5.05

15.08

5.40

Hay period,

/ 14.54
i 14.61

5. IS
5.05

13.91 4.72
13.87 4.60

14.77

5.27

Average,

14.57

5.09

13.89

4.66

14.77

5.27

Experiment II.

Mabt.

Jennie.

Nora.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Cotton-seed period, .

f 13.96
1 13.81
1 14.20
I. 13.91

4.64
4.80
4.93
4.74

14.36
14.58
14.58
14.73

4.73
5.33
4.92
5.00

13.39
13.44
13.52
13.45

4.48
4.58
4.63
4.50

Average,

13.97

4.74

14.56

5.00

13.45

4.55

Hay period,

f 13.76

1 13.86

14.01

i 13.85

4.73
4.75
4.85
4.68

14.79
15.39
15.55
15.37

5.45
5.88
6.00
5.78

13.00
12.93
13.46
13.28

3.81
4.10
4.17

4.07

Average,

13.87

4.75

15.27

5.78

13.17

4.04

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

101

Experiment IT. — Concluded.

Beauty.

Red.

Spot.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids. Fat.

Cotton-aeed period, .

■ 14.62
13.95
14.66

L 14.46

5.35
4,85
5.48
5.40

12.48

11.88
12.60
12.23

3.89
3.93
4.02
3.63

14.57
14.77
14.92
13.90

5.08
5.05
5.15
5.63

Average,

14.42 5.27

12.30

3.87

14.54

5.23

Hay period,

r -

1 14.12

<

14.49

L 14.19

4.93
4.97
4.80

12.26
12.41
12.74
12.53

4.00
4.05
4.20
4.08

14.01
14.14
14.59
14.94

4.34
4.75
4.94
4.91

Average,

14.27

4.90

12.49

4.08

14.42

4.73

Average liesuUs of Six Cows.

Experiment I.

EXPEBIMBNT II.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Cotton-seed period,

Hay period

14.31
14.02

5.18
4.80

13.87
13.91

4.78
4.71

Each distinct analysis represents a composite sample from
8 different milkings. In Experiment I., samples were taken
for four days of the last two weeks only. In Experiment
11. , each analysis represents the comparison of the milk for
each of the four weeks.

102 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.

CHARLES H. FEKNALD.

Two bulletins have been issued from this department dur-
ing the year, — one on the habits, food and economic value
of the American toad (Btifo lentiginosus americanus) , and
one on the brown-tail moth {Eujwoctis chrysor'i'hcea) . I
have been able in the intervals of other duties to prepare a
monograph of the plume-moths {Pterojjhoridm) of North
America, which is published with illustrations in the thirty-
fifth annual report of the college. A large amount of time
has also been devoted to the work on the gypsy moth in the
eastern part of the State.

San Jose Scale.

The San Jose scale {Aspidiofiis pernieiosus) has appeared
in many places in Massachusetts, having been received on
nursery stock from nurseries both in this and in other States.
In the early part of the season my assistants visited, as far
as possible, all the nurseries in the State, and carefully ex-
amined them for this scale. Most of them appeared to be
entirely free from this insect, but a few were more or less
infested. The owners of these infested nurseries have taken
the most active measures to destroy this pest, under the
supervision of one of my assistants. Many of the nursery-
men do not raise a sufficient amount of stock to supply all
of their orders, and often purchase from outside sources.
This stock is often received and sent out without examina-
tion, and in this way it is possible for the San Jose scale to
be distributed by those whose nurseries are not infested. A
bulletin on the San Jose scale will be published as soon as
other duties will permit, in which will be given a more com-
plete account of the condition of the nurseries visited, to-
gether with the measures taken to eradicate the pest.

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 103

The scale insects have been and are still being introduced
into this country from other parts of the world, and in this
way we are liable at any time to find new or unknown species
on our fruit or ornamental trees and shrubs and in our green-
houses. It therefore seems wise to learn as much as possible
about these insects, in order that we may know what to do
with those already here, and any that may hereafter be
brought into this country. To this end, more than six hun-
dred circular letters were sent out to all entomologists whose
names and addresses could be obtained, asking for specimens
of two genera of the scale insects, and already a large amount
of material has been received. Prof. R. S. Lull has under-
taken to work up and prepare a monograph of the genus
Pulvinaria, and Mr. H. A. Cooley a monograph of the genus
Chionaspis. Very commendable progress has already been
made by these two gentlemen.

Army Worm.
During the summer of 1896 the army worm (JLeucania
unipuncta) was very abundant in Amherst and in many other
parts of the State, often in destructive numbers, and in the
correspondence with this department information concerning
this insect was asked for more than of all others combined.
During the summer of 1897, however, the army worm seems
to have been present in so few numbers as to have done no
harm, and it was not referred to in a single letter received
by me. It is a well-known fact that this insect has never in
the past appeared in desi^^ructive numbers two years in suc-
cession in the same place, and the past season seems to have
been no exception. The caterpillars were reported in many
cases to have been more or less infested with the eggs of a
parasitic fly. These eggs no doubt hatched and the young
maggots made their way into the caterpillars and destroyed
them, thus reducing the army worm to insignificant numbers,
so that the few remaining have been entirely overlooked.

Plant Lice.
While the army worm has been very scarce during the past
season, the aphids or plant lice have been very abundant on
trees and shrubs, and many letters have been received, asking

104 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

how to destroy them. The best method, so far as known, is
to spray the trees with kerosene emulsion ; but in spraying
it is very difficult to reach every insect, and, as they multiply
very rapidly, they soon become as abundant as ever, and it
becomes necessary to spray the trees or shrubs repeatedly
after short intervals.

Tobacco Cutworm.
Earlj' in the season cutworms were said to be destroying
the young tobacco plants in the tobacco fields of the Con-
necticut valley, and specimens that were brought in and bred
to maturity developed into moths which proved to be Car-
neades messoria. The caterpillars of this species partake of
a rather varied diet, consisting not only of tobacco, but also
of cabbage, corn, potatoes, spinach, onions, lettuce and
fruit trees. The usual method taken by our tobacco growers,
so far as I can learn, is to reset tobacco plants where they
have been cut oft* by the worms, and at the same time dig
out and destroy the worm that has done the mischief.

Canker Worms.

Four years ago canker worms began to increase so rapidly
in this town that public attention was called to them, and a
general account of the species occurring in Massachusetts
was given with illustrations in Bulletin No, 20, published in
January, 1893. In that bulletin the usual remedies were
given. These consisted of tacking bands of heavy paper
around the trunks of the trees and painting these bands with
prepared printers' ink, repainting Avith the ink as often as it
became dry or hardened enough to permit the females to
cross the band. The method of protecting the trees with oil
troughs of zinc or tin around the trunks was also mentioned.
It was finally stated that probably the most effectual method
was to spray the trees with Paris green in water as soon as
the eggs hatched in the spring. A further account of canker
worms was given in Bulletin No. 28, published in April, 1895.

A careful study of the difierent methods used to destroy
these insects, which are so prevalent in manj^ parts of this
Commonwealth, has been made on thirteen apple trees on my
own premises in Amherst. Three 3'ears ago these trees were

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 105

carefully banded with heavy paper and painted with Morrill's
tree ink early in the spring, when the first females began to
ascend the trees, and the painting was repeated as often as
necessary. It was found that the ink would often harden on
the trees even during the night following the application, and
remain hard on the shady side long enough in the morning
for some of the females to ascend the tree on that side, so
that this method did not prove to be a perfect protection.
The cost of the materials and of their application averaged
about fifty cents to each tree.

The oil troughs are also quite expensive, and often leak so
that the rain displaces the oil and then evaporates, allowing
the females to ascend the trees ; or spiders spin their webs
across beneath the overhanging protection, forming a bridge
on which the moths may easily pass, so that this device does
not form a perfect protection.

Two years ago these trees were sprayed with Paris green
in water, in the proportion of one pound to one hundred and
fifty gallons, at a cost of five cents a tree, allowing fifteen
cents an hour for labor. There was a strong wind blowing,
and more time was required to do the work than would
otherwise have been the case. Last year the same trees
were sprayed with Paris green, in the same proportion as
before. At this time it was nearly calm, and the cost of
spraying was three cents a tree. The contrast between these
trees and those on adjacent lots were very marked, for the
sprayed trees retained their foliage and yielded a full crop,
while the unsprayed trees were stripped of leaves, and bore
no fruit. These trees were sprayed but once, and this
method appears to have been more efi^ectual and far cheaper
than the others. In case of rain it might be necessary to
repeat the spraying, but even then it would be the cheaper
method.

106 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

DEPARTMENT OF FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZER
MATERIALS.

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN.

Assistants : henri i>. iiaskins, charles i. goessmann, george d.

LEAVENS.

I. Report on Official Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers.
II. Report on General Work in the Chemical Laboratory.
III. Observations with Special Fertilizers on Tobacco raised in
Massachusetts.

I. REPORT ON OFFICIAL INSPECTION OF COM-
MERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND AGRICULT-
URAL CHEMICALS IN 1897.

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN.

Sixty-six manufacturers and dealers in commercial fertil-
izers and agricultural chemicals have secured, during the
past year, licenses for the sale of their goods in the State.
Thirty-six of these parties have offices for the general dis-
tribution of their goods in Massachusetts ; the remainder
reside in other States, — ten in New York, six in Connecti-
cut, three in Rhode Island, three in Vermont, two in Penn-
sylvania, one in Maryland, one in Illinois, one in Ohio and
three in Canada.

The number of distinct brands licensed, including agricult-
ural chemicals, amounted to two hundred and ninety.

The collecting and sampling of the material for official
analyses were in charge of Mr. R. H. Smith, a graduate of

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 107

the Massachusetts Agricultural College in the class of 1892,
who since his graduation has been an efficient assistant in
the chemical laboratory of the experiment station for the
examination of commercial fertilizers.

Four hundred and fifteen samples of fertilizer have thus
far been collected during the present year ; of these, three
hundred and one samples, representing two hundred and
twenty-three distinct brands, were analyzed by the close of
the month of November, and the results published in July
and November bulletins, Nos. 48 and 49, of the Hatch Ex-
periment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
The remaining samples, in common with others coming
under our observation before the ex})iration of the licenses,
will 1)6 anal3'zed in due time, and the results published in
conformity with our laws for the regulation of the trade in
commercial fertilizers.

The results of the inspection during the past season are,
on the whole, quite satisfactory, and if anything are an im-
provement on the results of the preceding year. The ben-
eficial results of improved machinery and of improved skill
in the management of the manufacture of fertilizers show
themselves in a marked degree when compared with the gen-
eral character of commercial fertilizers in earlier periods of
the business.

To render the actual conditions of the trade in commercial
fertilizers during the past season more prominent, a sum-
mary of our results is here inserted. In reading the subse-
quent statement, it has to be remembered that only the
lowest stated guarantee is legally binding in all sales : —

(a) Where three essential elements of plant food were guar-
anteed : —
Number with three elements equal to or above the highest guaran-
tee, 3

Number with two elements above the highest guarantee, . . 2
Number with one element above the highest guarantee, . . .60
Number with three elements between the lowest and highest guar-
antee, 69

Number with two elements between the lowest and highest guaran-
tees, 63

Number with one element between the lowest and highest guaran-
tees, 16

108 HATCH EXPERIMP:NT STATION. [Jan.

Number with two elements below the lowest guarantee, ... 6
Number with one element below the lowest guarantee, . . .29

(b) Where two essential elements of plant feed were guaran-

teed : —
Number with two elements above the highest guarantee, . . 3
Number with one element above the highest giaarantee, . . .10
Number with two elements between the lowest and highest guaran-
tees, 13

Number with one element between the lowest and highest guaran-
tees, 12

Number with one element below the lowest guarantee, ... 6
Number with two elements below the lowest guarantee, ... 3

(c) Where one essential element of plant food was guaran-

teed : —

Number above the highest guarantee, 10

Nvimber between the lowest and highest guarantees, . . .23
Number below the lowest guarantee, 1

The modes of analyses adopted in this work were in all
essential points those recommended bj' the Association of
Official Chemists.

Attention has been called, in previous reports, to the fact
that the introduction of a more liberal amount of potash into
the make-up of a large class of so-called complete manures
has become from year to year more general. This change
has been slow but decided, and in a large degree may be
ascribed to the daily increasing evidence, resulting from
actual observations in tield and garden, that the farm lands
of Massachusetts are frequently especially deficient in potash
compounds, and consequently need in many instances a more
liberal supply of available potash from outside sources to
give satisfactory returns. Whenever garden vegetables, fruits
and forage crops constitute the principal products of the
land, this recent change in the mode of manuring deserves a
particularly careful trial ; for the crops raised consume ex-
ceptionally large quantities of potash, as compared with grain
crops. In view of these facts, it will be conceded that a
system of manuring farm and garden which tends to meet
the more satisfactory recognized conditions of large areas
of land, as well as the special wants of important growing
branches of agricultural industries, is a movement in the
right direction.

In repeating these statements, it is not assumed that it will

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 109

remain economical to continue the practice after a repeated
application of a liberal amount of potash, without some
special reason.

To restore to the soil those essential manurial constitu-
ents which the crops carry off is a safe rule to follow in the
effort to secure the maintenance of the fertility of the soil ;
yet to obtain this result in the most economical way will
always remain the ultimate aim of farming as a business
enterprise.

A judicious management of the trade in commercial fertil-
izers implies a due recognition of results well established by
experiment, regarding the requirements of a remunerative
production of farm and garden crops ; yet, as the manufact-
urer at best can only prepare the composition of his special
fertilizers on general lines, not knowing the particular con-
dition and character of the soil which ultimately receives
them, it becomes of the utmost importance on the part of the
farmer to make himself acquainted with his special wants of
manurial substances, and to thus qualify himself for a more
judicious selection from the various fertilizers offered for
purchase.

The present condition of the trade in commercial fertil-
izers offers exceptional advantages to provide efficient
manures for the raising of farm and garden crops of every
description congenial to soil and climate. The various es-
sential articles of plant food, as potash, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen compounds, are freely offered for sale in forms
suitable to render, by their addition, the different kinds of
manurial refuse matter of the farm in a higher degree fit
to meet the special wants of the crops to be raised.

As the physical conditions and chemical resources of soils
on available plant food frequently differ widely even on the
same farm, no definite rule can be given for manuring farm
lands, beyond the advice to return to the soil in available form
those plant constituents which the crops raised during the pre-
ceding years have abstracted in exceptionally large proportion,
and which will be especially called for by the crops to be
raised.

An intelligent selection of fertilizers from among the va-
rious brands ofl'ered for sale requires, in the main, two kinds

no HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

of knowledge ; namely, that the brand of fertilizer in ques-
tion actually contains the guaranteed quantities and qualities
of essential articles of plant food at a reasonable cost, and
that it contains them in such form and proportions as will
best meet under existing circumstances the special wants of
soil and crop.

In some cases it may be only phosphoric acid or nitrogen
or potash ; in others, two of them ; and in others again, all
three. A remunerative use of commercial fertilizers can
only be secured by attending carefully to these considera-
tions.

To assist farmers in selecting their fertilizers with refer-
ence to the wants of the crops the}^ wish to cultivate, the
writer has for years published in his annual reports a com-
pilation of the analyses of farm and garden crops, to serve
as a guide to all interested in a rational mode of manuring
plants. Copies of these compilations of analyses may be
secured by asking for them at the office of the Hatch Experi-
ment Station at Amherst, Mass.

An economical use of manurial substances from any source
is only possible after the local condition of the soil under
consideration, as well as the special wants of the crops to be
raised, have been duly considered. It becomes the business
of every progressive farmer to acquire such information as is
called for to select intelligently, from the various manurial
resources at his disposal, those materials which will meet
best his wants for a complete fertilizer.

In making choice from among the so-called cotnjjlele fertil-
izers, two points seem to be in particular worth remembering.
First, select them ivith reference to the amount, the quality and
the kind of essential constituents they are guaranteed to con-
tain, and not merely with reference to cost per ton; mere trade
names are no guarantee of fitness. High-priced articles, when
offered by reputable manufacturers, have proved in many in-
stances cheaper than low-priced goods. Second, buy your
supplies of reputable dealers, and insist in all cases on a state-
ment of guaranteed co^nposition.

The majority of manufacturers and dealers in commercial
fertilizers in Massachusetts have been for years oil record,
regarding the character of their goods, in the published re-

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. Ill

port8 of the State inspector, which are open to the public ;
to these records this office invariably refers all parties asking
for information in that direction.

Valuation of Commercial Fertilizers.

The market value of the hio;her o-rades of atjricultural
chemicals and compound fertilizers depends in the major-
ity of cases on the amount and the particular form of three
essential articles of plant food which they contain, z.e,, nitro-
gen, potash and phosphoric acid. Supply and demand con-
trol the temporary market prices not less in the fertilizer
trade than in other lines of commercial business.

The approximate market value of a fertilizer, simple or
compound, is obtained by multiplying the pounds contained
in a ton of two thousand pounds by the trade value per
pound of each of the three above-stated essential constitu-
ents of plant food present. The same course is adopted
with reference to the different forms of each, wherever dif-
ferent prices are recognized in the trade. Adding the dif-
ferent values per ton obtained, we find the total value per
ton at the principal place of distribution.

As farmers are quite frequently not in the position to
secure the desired information regarding the market cost
of fertilizers they wish to secure, the official inspectors of
commercial fertilizers have aided them for years in ascer-
taining the current market prices of the following leading
or standard raw materials : —

Sulphate of ammonia.
Nitrate of soda.
Muriate of potash.
Sulphate of potash.
Cotton-seed meal.
Dry ground fish.
Azotin.

Ammoniate.

Castor pomace.

Linseed meal.

Dried blood.

Dried groiuid meat.

Bone and tankage.

Plain superphosphates, etc.

Which serve largely in the manufacture of good fertilizers
for our market ; and have published the results of their in-
quiries in form of tables, stating the average trade values
per pound, for the six months preceding, of the different
kinds and forms of fertilizing materials at the leading places
of distribution.

112 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

The market value of fertilizing ingredients, like other
merchandise, is liable to changes during the season. The
values stated below are based on the condition of the fer-
tilizer market in centres of distribution in New England
during the six months preceding March, 1897 : —

Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and
Chemicals^ 1897 (^Cents per Pound).

Nitrogen in ammonia salts, 13.5

Nitrogen in nitrates, 14.0

Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood and in

high-grade mixed fertilizers, 14.0

Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and in castor

pomace, 12.0

13.5
11.0
8.0
5.5
5.0
5.0
4.0
2.5

Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage,

Organic nitrogen in medium-ground bone and tankage.

Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage,

Phosphoric acid soluble in water, ....

Phosphoric acid soluble in ammonium citrate.

Phosphoric acid in fine bone and tankage, .

Phosphoric acid in medium bone and tankage.

Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage.

Phosphoric acid in fine-ground fish, cotton-seed meal, linseed

meal, castor pomace and wood ashes, 5.0

Phosphoric acid insoluble (in am. cit.) in mixed fertilizers, . 2.0

Potash as sulphate, free from chlorides, 5.0

Potash as muriate, 4.5

From these figures it is apparent that the best forms of
nitrogen and phosphoric acid have suffered a material reduc-
tion in cost, as compared with preceding years.

The market value of low-priced materials used for manu-
rial purposes, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime,
barn-yard manure, factory refuse and waste materials of
various description, quite frequently does not stand in a
close relation to the current market value of the amount of
essential articles of plant food they contain. Their cost
varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap trans-
portation, and more or less advantageous mechanical condi-
tions for speedy action, exert, as a rule, a decided influence
on their selling price.

The mechanical condition of any fertilizing material, simple
or compound, deserves the most serious consideration of
farmers when articles of a similar chemical character are

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

113

offered for their choice. The degree of pulverization con-
trols, almost without exception, under similar conditions,
the rate of solubility, and the more or less rapid diffusion
of the different articles of plant food throughout the soil.

The state of moisture exerts a no less important influence
on the pecuniary value in case of one and the same kind of
substance. Two samples of fish fertilizers, although equally
pure, may differ from fifty to one hundred per cent, in com-
mercial value, on account of mere diflerence in moisture.

Crude stock for the manufacture of fertilizers, and refuse
materials of various descriptions, have to be valued with
reference to the market price of their principal constituents,
taking into consideration at the same time their general fit-
ness for speedy action.

Consumers of commercial manurial substances will do well
to buy, whenever practicable, on a guarantee of composition
of their essential constituents, and to see to it that the bill
of sale recognizes the point of the bargain. Any mistake
or misunderstanding in the transaction may be readily ad-
justed, in that case, between the contending parties. The
responsibility of the dealer ends with furnishing an article
corresponding in its composition with the lowest stated
quantity of each specified essential constituent.

It is of the first importance, when buying fertilizers for
home consumption, to consider their cost with reference to
what they promise to furnish.

List of 3fannfactiirers and Dealers tvJio have secured Certificates for
the sale of Commercial Fertilizers in the State dari)ig the Past
Year {May 1, 1897, to May 1, 1898) and the Brands li-
censed by Each.

The Armour Fertilizer Works, Chicago,
111.: —
Bone Meal.
Bone and Blood.
Ammoniated Bone and Potash.
All Soluble.

Bone, Blood and Potash.
Grain Grower.

American Fertilizer Co., Boston,
Mass. : —
Alkali Nitrate Phosphate for Hoed
Crops.

American Fertilizer Co. — Con.

Alkali Nitrate Phosphate for Grass

and Grain.
General American Fertilizer.
Potato Fertilizer.

Wm. H. Abbott, Holyoke, Mass. : —
Eagle Brand for Grass and Grain.
Complete Tobacco Fertilizer.
Animal Fertilizer.

American Cotton Oil Co., New York,
N.Y.: —
Cotton-seed Meal.

114

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Bartlett& Holmes, Springfield, Mass. : —
Pure Ground Bone.
Animal Fertilizer.
Tankage.

H. J. Baker & Bro., New York, N. Y. : —
Pure Ground Bone.
Standard Un X Ld Fertilizer.
Strawberry Manure.
Potato Manure.
Tobacco Manure.
Grass and Grain Manure.

A. A. Ammoniated Superphosphate.
Harvest Home Fertilizer.

C. A. Bartlett, Worcester, Mass. : —
Fine-ground Bone.
Animal Fertilizer.

Berkshire Mills Co. (Bridgeport, Conn. :—
Complete Fertilizers.
Ammoniated Bone Phosphate.

Bowker Fertilizer Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Stockbridge Special Manures.
Hill and Drill Phosphate.
Farm and Garden Phosphate.
Lawn and Garden Dressing.
Fish and Potash.
Potato and Vegetable Manure.
Potato Phosphate.
Market Garden Manure.
Sure Crop Phosphate.
Gloucester Fish and Potash.
High-grade Fertilizer.
Essex Fertilizer.
Bone and Wood Ash Fertilizer.
Nitrate of Soda.
Dried Blood.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.

William E.Brightman, Tiverton, R.I. : —
Potato and Root Manure.
Phosphate.
Fish and Potash.

Bradley Fertilizer Co., Boston, Mass. : —
X. L. Superphosphate.
Potato Manure.

B. D. Sea Fowl Guano.
Complete Manures.
Fish and Potash.
High-grade Tobacco Manure.
English Lawn Fertilizer.
Ammoniated Bone Phosphate.
Breck's Lawn and Garden Dressing.
Sulphate of Potash.

Bradley Fertilizer Co. — Con.
Muriate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.
Sulphate of Ammonia.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Fine-ground Bone.

Daniel T. Church, Providence, R. I. (E.
Wilcox, general agent) : —
Church's B Special.
Church's C Standard.
Church's D Fish and Potash.

The Cleveland Linseed Oil Co., Cleve-
land, O. : —
Screened Linseed Meal.

Clark's Cove Fertilizer Co., Boston,
Mass. : —
Bay State Fertilizer.
Bay State Fertilizer G. G. Brand.
Great Planet Manure.
Potato and Tobacco Fertilizer.
King Philip Guano.
Potato Manure.
Fish and Potash.
White Oak Pure Bone Meal.

Cleveland Dryer Co., Boston, Mass.: —
Superphosphate.
Potato Phosphate.
Cleveland Fertilizer.

E. Frank Coe Co., New York, N. Y. : —

High-grade Potato Fertilizer.

Bay State Ammoniated Bone Super
phosphate.

Bay State Potato Manure.

High-grade Ammoniated Bone Su-
perphosphate.

Gold Brand Excelsior Guano.

Fish Guano and Potash.

Crocker Fertilizer and Chemical Co.,
Buffalo, N.Y.; —

Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.

Potato, Hop and Tobacco Phosphate.

Ammoniated Wheat and Corn Phos-
phate.

New Rival Ammoniated Superphos-
phate.

Practical Ammoniated Superphos-
phate.

Vegetable Bone Superphosphate.

General Crop Phosphate.

Universal Grain Grower.

Special Potato Manure.

New England Tobacco and Potato
Grower.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

115

Crocker Fertilizer and Chemical Co. —
Con.
Coolidge Bros. Special Truck Fer-
tilizer.
A. A. Complete Manure.
Ground Bone Meal.
Pure Ground Bone.
Muriate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.

Cumberland Bone Phosphate Co., Bos-
ton, Mass. : —
Superphosphate.
Potato Fertilizer.
Concentrated Phosphate.
Guano.

City Florist, Brockton, Mass. : —
Boo Boo Plant Food.

L. B. Darling Fertilizer Co., Pawtucket,
U. I. : —
Animal Fertilizer.
Potato and Root Crop Manure.
Lawn Dressing.
Tobacco Grower.
Blood, Bone and Potash.
Special Formula.
Fine-ground Bone.
Muriate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.

John C. Dow & Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Ground Bone Fertilizer.
Nitrogenous Superphosphate.
Pure Ground Bone.

W. E. Fife & Co., Clinton, Mass. : —
Wood Ashes.

Great Eastern Fertilizer Co., Rutland,
Vt.: —
Northern Corn Special.
General Fertilizer.
Vegetable Vine and Tobacco Fertil-
izer.
Garden Special.
Soluble Bone and Potash.

Thomas Hersom & Co., New Bedford,
Mass.: —
Bone Meal.
Meat and Bone.

Alonzo P. Henderson, Hanover,
Mass. : —
Acme Brand Fertilizer.

Edmund Hersey, Hingham, Mass. : —
Ground Bone.

John G. Jefferds, Worcester, Mass. : —
Animal Fertilizer.
Potato Manure.
Fine-ground Bone.

Thomas Joint, St. Helen, Ontario,
Can. : —
Unleached Hard-wood Ashes.

Thomas Kirley, South Hadley Falls,

Mass. : —
Pride of the Valley.

A. Lee & Co., Lawrence, Mass. : —
Lawrence Fertilizer.

Lowell Fertilizer Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Bone Fertilizer for Corn and Grain.
Complete Manure for Vegetables.
Animal Fertilizer.
Potato Phosphate.
Bone and Potash.
Lawn Dressing.
Tobacco Manure.
Empire Fertilizer.

Lowe Bros. & Co., Fitchburg, Mass. : —
Tankage.

F. L. Lalor, Duuville, Ontario, Can. : —
Canada Unleached Hard-wood
Ashes.

The Mapes Formula and Peruvian Gu-
ano Co., New York, N. Y. : —
Bone Manures.
Superphosphates.
Special Crop Manures.
Sulphate of Potash.
Double Manure Salts.
Nitrate of Soda.

E. McGarvey & Co., London, Ontario,
Can. : —
Unleached Hard- wood Ashes.

McQuade Bros., West Auburn Mass. : —
Fine-ground Bone.

Geo. L. Monroe, Oswego, N. Y. : —
Canada Unleached Hard-wood

Ashes.

National Fertilizer Co., Bridgeport,
Conn. : —
Complete Fertilizers.
Ammoniated Bone.

116

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

National Fertilizer Co. — Con.
Market-garden Manure.
Potato Phosphate.
Fish and Potash.
Ground Bone.

Niagara Fertilizer Works, BuflFalo,
N. Y.: —
Wheat and Corn Producer.
Grain and Grass Grower.
Potato, Tobacco and Hop Fertilizer.
Niagara Triumph.

New England Dressed Meat and Wool
Co., Boston, Mass.: —
Sheep Fertilizer.

Packers Union Fertilizer Co., New York,
N. Y. : —
Universal Fertilizer.
Wheat, Oats and Clover Fertilizer.
Animal Corn Fertilizer.
Potato Manure.
Gardener's Complete Manure.

Pacific Guano Co., Boston, Mass : —
Soluble Pacific Guano.
Special Potato Manure.
Special for Potatoes and Tobacco.
Nobsque Guano.
High-grade General Fertilizer.

Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Co., Pea-
body, Mass. : —
Plymouth Rock Brand.
Star Brand Fertilizer.
Butman Brand Fertilizer.
Special Potato.
Strawberry.
Ground Bone.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.

A. W. Perkins & Co., Rutland, Vt. : —
Plantene.

Prentiss, Brooks & Co., Holyoke,
Mass. : —
Complete Manures.
Phosphate.
Nitrate of Soda.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.

Preston Fertilizer Co., Brooklyn,
N. Y.: —
Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.

Quinnipiac Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Phosphate.
Potato Manure.
Market-garden Manure.
Fish and Potash.
Havana Tobacco Grower.
Grass Fertilizer.
Corn Manure.
Potato Phosphate.
Onion Manure.
Pure Ground Bone.
Dry Ground Fish.
Muriate of Potash.
Sulphate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.
Sulphate of Ammonia.
Dissolved Bone-black.

Read Fertilizer Co., New York, N. Y.
(H. D. Foster, general agent) ; —
Standard Fertilizer.
High-grade Farmers' Friend.
Practical Potato Special.
Farmer's Friend,
Vegetable and Vine.

N. Roy & Son, South Attleborough,
Mass.: —
Complete Animal Fertilizer.

The Rogers & Hubbard Co., Middletown,
Conn. : —
Soluble Potato Manure.
Soluble Tobacco Manure.
Fairchild's Formula for Corn and

General Crops.
Fruit Fertilizer.
Grass and Grain Fertilizer.
Oats and Top-dressing Fertilizer.
Pure Raw Knuckle Bone Flour.
Strictly Pure Fine Bone.
Fertilizer for all Soils and all Crops.

Russia Cement Co., Gloucester, Mass. : —
XXX Fish and Potash.
High-grade Superphosphate.
Corn, Grain and Grass Manure.
Potato, Root and Vegetable Manure.
Special Tobacco Fertilizer.
Odorless Lawn Dressing.

Lucien Sanderson, New Haven, Conn. :—
Formula A.
Blood, Bone and Meat.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Nitrate of Soda.
Sulphate of Potash.
Muriate of Potash.

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33,

117

Edward H. Smith, Northborough,
Mass. : —
Ground Bone.

J. Stroup & Son Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Hard-wood Ashes.

Thomas L. Stetson, Randolph, Mass. : —
Ground Bone.

Standard Fertilizer Co., Boston, Mass. : —
Standard Fertilizer.
Potato and Tobacco Fertilizer.
Standard Guano.
Complete Manure.
Fine-ground Bone.

C. F. Sturtevant, Hartford, Conn : —
Tobacco and Sulphur Fertilizer.

Henry F. Tucker, Boston, Mass. : —
Original Bay State Bone Superphos-
phate.
Imperial Bone Superphosphate.
Special Potato Fertilizer.

I. P. Thomas & Son Co., Philadel-
phia, Pa. : —
Martin's Bone Mixture.
So. Carolina Phosphate with Potash.
So. Carolina Phosphate.
Pure Ground Animal Bone.
Steamed Bone.
Improved Superphosphate.
Potato and Tomato Manure.
Normal Bone Phosphate.
Farmer's Choice Bone Phosphate.
Tobacco Fertilizer.

Walker, Stratraan & Co., Pittsburg,
Pa.: —
Potato Special.
Big Bonanza.
Smoky City.
Four Fold.

Andrew H. Ward, Boston, Mass. : —
Ward's Chemical Fertilizer.

I. S. Whittemore, Wayland, Mass. : —
Complete Manure.

D. Whithed, Lowell, Mass. : —
Champion Fertilizer.
Bone Meal.

The Wilcox Fertilizer Works, Mystic
Conn. : —
Potato, Onion and Tobacco Manure.
Ammoniated Bone Phosphate.
High-grade Fish and Potash.
Dry Ground Fish Guano.

Williams & Clark Fertilizer Co., Boston,
Mass. : —
Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
Potato Phosphate.
High-grade Special.
Fine Wrapper Tobacco Grower.
Royal Bone Phosphate.
Corn Phosphate.
Potato and Tobacco Manure.
Grass Manure.
Fish and Potash.

Universal Ammoniated Dissolved

Bone.
Prolific Crop Producer.
Onion Manure.
Bone Meal.
Dry Ground Fish.
Sulphate of Potash.
Muriate of Potash.
Nitrate of Soda.
Dissolved Bone-black.
Sulphate of Ammonia.

M. E. Wheeler & Co., Rutland, Vt. : —
High-grade Corn Fertilizer.
High-grade Potato Manure.
Superior Truck Fertilizer.
Havana Tobacco Grower.
High-grade Fruit Fertilizer.
High-grade Grass and Oats Fertil-
izer.
Electrical Dissolved Bone.

118 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

II. REPORT ON GENERAL WORK IN THE CHEM-
ICAL LABORATORY.

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN.

1. Analyses of Materials sent on for Examination.

2. Notes on Barn-yard Manure.

3. Notes on Wood Ashes.

4. Notes on Cotton-seed Meal.

5. Notes on Guano from West Coast of Africa.

6. Notes on Ashes from Crematory Furnace for City

Garbage.

7. Notes on Wool Washings.

1. Analyses of Materials sent on for Examination.

The work carried on in this connection is growing from
year to year in importance. A large proportion of com-
mercial manurial substances consists of by or waste products
of various industries. The composition and general charac-
ter of these materials depend on the current mode of manu-
facture. The rapid advancement in many branches of indus-
tries is at any time liable to affect more or less seriously the
commercial as well as the manurial value of their waste prod-
ucts. A frequent examination of that class of materials
cannot fail to benefit the vital interests of our farming com-
munity. For this reason arrangements were made, as in
previous years, to attend to the examination of substances
of interest to farmers to the full extent of the resources
placed at the disposal of the officer in charge of this work.
These investigations are carried on free of charge to farmers
of the State. The results are considered public property,
and are published from time to time in the bulletins of the
station.

The number of substances tested in this connection amount
to two hundred and thirty-eight. As the detailed results of

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 119

their analyses have already been published in three bulletins,
Nos. 45, 48 and 49, March, July and November, 1897, a brief
statement of the names of the different articles analyzed will,
on this occasion, suffice to convey some idea of the extent
and the character of the work accomplished. Only a few of
these materials of more special importance are reserved for a
subsequent short discussion.

The substances tested from Dec. 1, 1897, to Dec. 1, 1898,
are as follows : wood ashes, 89 ; cotton-seed meal, 23 ; cot-
ton-seed hull ashes, 3 ; cotton factory waste, 5 ; tankage,
bone and fish, 17 ; muck, peat and soils, 16 ; chemicals, 14;
acid phosphates and dissolved bone-blacks, 5 ; natural phos-
phates, 6 ; tobacco refuse, 2 ; complete fertilizers, 31 ; mis-
cellaneous, 9 ; Damara land guano, garbage cremation ashes
and wool washings, each 1.

Aside from this work are the complete analyses of 36
samples of tobacco leaves, together with numerous tests
for the quality of ash and rate of combustion. See Bul-
letin No. 47, on tobacco experiments, published in April,
1897.

The responsibility of the genuineness of all articles sent
on for examination rests with the parties asking for the
analysis. Our publications of the results refer merely to
the locality they come from, to avoid misunderstandings.
Samples of fertilizers collected from original packages by
authorized agents of the station in the general markets fur-
nish the material for official analyses, and are considered
genuine articles.

2. Notes on Barn-yard Manure.

The importance of barn-yard manure as a home source of
plant food cannot be over-estimated in a mixed farm man-
agement. In a w^ell-regulated rational system of stock feed-
ing it is one of the cheapest if not the cheapest source of
valuable manurial constituents. An exceptional liability to
vary in composition is the strongest objection which can be
raised against its exclusive use as a manure supply for the
farai and garden, yet this objection has lost much of its force
since the causes of variation are better understood, and may
thus be avoided to a considerable extent. We have learned

120

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

how to improve its efficiency as a complete manure under
varying conditions of soil as well as of varying wants of
crops, by adding those manurial constituents which are called
for in different relative proportions, and which the barn-
yard manure on hand does not contain.

Analyses of Eighty Samples of Barn-yard Manure made at Am-
herst, Mass.

PooNDS PEK Hundred.

Pounds per

ANALYSIS.

Ton

Highest.

Lowest.

Average.

(2,000 Pounds).

Moisture, .....

75.00

CO. 00

67.24

1344.80

Nitrogen,

1.36

.21

.52

10.40

Potassium oxide.

1.40

.13

.56

11.20

Phosphoric acid,

.75

.10

.39

7.80

The average barn-yard manure contains, as will be noticed
from the above statement, a larger percentage of nitrogen as
compared with potash and i)hosphoric acid than is generally
considered economical in a complete fertilizer for general
farm purposes.

The praclice of adding to the manurial refuse materials of
the farm, as stable Tnanure, vegetable compost, etc., such single
commercial manurial substances as will enrich them in the
direction desirable for any particular crop, does not yet receive
that degree of general attention which it deserves. An addi-
tion of potash in the form of muriate or sulphate of potash,
or of phosphoric acid in the form of fine-ground South Caro-
lina or Florida soft p)hosphate, etc., ivill in many instances
not only imp)rove their general Jitness as complete manure, but
quite frequently permit a material reduction in the amount of
barn-yard manure ordinarily considered necessary to secure
satisfactory results. An addition of from thirty to forty
pounds of muriate of potash and one hundred pounds of
fine-ground soft Florida phosphate per ton of ])arn-yard
manure, at any time before applying the latter to the soil
deserves recommendation .

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

121

3. Notes on Wood Ashes.

Forty per cent, of all articles sent on for examination
consist of wood ashes. They are sold in the majority of
cases under the trade name ' ' Unleached Canada hard-wood
ashes." Ninety-eight samples tested at the station during
the past year gave the following results : —

No. of Samples.

Moisture from 1 to 3 per cent.,

. 10

4 to 6

. 8

6 to 10

. 13

10 to 15

. 19

15 to 20

. 11

30 to 30

. 10

Moisture above 35 per cent.,

. 1

Potassium oxide above 8 per cent,.

. 3

" " from 7 to 8 per cen

t..

. 8

" 6 to 7

. 21

" 5 to G

. 28

" 4 to 5

. 10

" 3 to 4

. 3

" " below^ 3 per cent., .

. none

Phosphoric acid above 2 "

. 4

" from 1 to 2 per cen

t..

. 45

" " below 1 per cent.,

. 24

Average per cent, of calcium oxide

(lime).

. 34.29

(

6

to

10

. 10

Per cent, minei-al matter insoluble
diluted hydrochloric acid, from —

in!

10
15

20

to
to
to

15
20
30,

. 30
. 15

3

1

above

30

. 1

The variations noticeable in the composition of wood
ashes are not surprising when we consider the crude mode
of collecting and handling them for commercial purposes.
The particular effects of both varying quantities of foreign
insoluble matter, as soil, coal ashes, etc., and of moisture,
on the composition of a given sample of genuine wood
ashes, as far as its percentage of potash and of phosphoric
acid is concerned, depend largely on the particular kind of
wood which has served for the production of the ash. The
color of the wood ashes in case of dark varieties depends
usually on admixture of more or less charcoal, while an ex-
ceptionally light color is not unfrequently due to the kind
of wood which furnishes it. Some kinds of wood, as elra

122 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

wood, produce a white ash of excellent quality, judging
from samples sent on for examination.

As the dealer is only obliged to guarantee the amount of
potash and of phosphoric acid present in a given quantity
of wood ashes, no serious ol)jection can be raised on the part
of the buyer on account of moisture, etc., as long as the
article contains the specified amount of both potash and
phosphoric acid.

Wood ashes ought to be bought and sold l)y weight, and
not by measure, for both moisture and foreign matters are
apt to aftect seriously the weight of a given measure.

Some dealers in wood ashes have adopted of late the prac-
tice of stating merely the sum of both, instead of specifying
the amount of each of them present. As phosphoric acid
and potassium oxide contained in wood ashes are considered
in our section of the country, pound for pound of an equal
commercial value, from 4.5 to 5 cents, no particular objec-
tion can be raised against a joint statement of both as far as
the mere money value of the samples is concerned ; yet, as
this mode of stating the guaranteed composition is apt to
lead to misconception and abuse, it ought to be discouraged
and discontinued.

The large percentage of lime, from 30 to 40 per cent.,
found in genuine wood ashes, imparts a special agricultural
value to them as a fertilizer, aside from the amount of
potash and phosphoric acid they contain. Wherever an
application of lime is desired, wood ashes deserve favorable
consideration, on account of the superior mechanical con-
dition of the lime they furnish.

4. Notes on Cotton-seed Meal as a Fertilizer.

Hecent low prices of some concentrated feed stuffs have
favored experiments to test their fitness for supplying
directly nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash for plant food.
Whenever the market value of the amount of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash they contain compares fairly
well with the market cost of these three ingredients, the
trials deserve, for v^arious reasons, encouragement.

The richness of cotten-seed, meal, linseed meal, etc., as
well as their marked disposition to rot in the presence of

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 33.

123

moisture and of a fair average temperature, caused their
selection. Both are quite frequently looked upon with favor
as suitable materials to furnish plant food for various farm
crops. Cotton-seed meal in particular is to-day used exten-
sively by tobacco growers in the Connecticut River valley
as the main source of nitrogen for that crop.

The increasing importance of cotton-seed meal as a fertil-
izer has been followed by the writer with a frequent ex-
amination of the articles sold in our markets to protect the
interests of our farmers. Importers of cotton-seed meal,
claiming that they sold their articles as a feed stuff and not
as a fertilizer, declined as a rule until quite recently to take
out a fertilizer license which would oblige them to sell with
a stated g-uarantee of at least the nitroo^en.

The results of sixty-live analyses carried on under my
direction are as follows : —

Per Cent.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Average.

Moisture,

Nitrogen,

Phosphoric acid, ....
Potassium oxide, ....

10.80
7.95
3.36
2.38

3.90

2.08

.73

.48

7.00
6.60
1.79
1.76

Allowing 12 cents for every pound of nitrogen, 5 cents
per pound for each of phosphoric acid and potassium oxide,
these three ingredients represent per ton a market value of —

$19.39 in case of our average sample of cotton-seed meal.

24.82 in case of our highest sample of cotton-seed meal.

6.20 in case of our lowest sample of cotton-seed meal.

The above-stated difference in the composition of cotton-
seed meal is mainly due to the presence of more or less
ground skins and husks of the cotton seed. Cotton-seed
meal designed for fodder ought to be free from skins and
husks, to deserve a recommendation for that purpose ; cot-
ton-seed meal to be used for fertilizer may contain more or

124

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

less of this substance, provided the entire material is finely
ground and the price in accordance with the composition.

We advise farmers to buy cotton-seed meal, like all other
fertilizing materials, on the basis of a guarantee of (at least)
nitrogen as the basis of the bargain. For their information
it seems but proper to state in this connection that the
American Cotton Oil Company of New York has quite re-
cently secured a license for the sale of their cotton-seed meal
as a fertilizer in our State, and intend to sell on the basis of
the amount of nitroaen their article contains.

5. Notes on Damara Land Guano.

The material which served for our examination was sent
on to this office by Messrs. H. J. Baker & Bro. of New York
City. It consisted of a bag containing two hundred pounds
of guano, and was accompanied by analyses of two chemists
of London, Eng. As every new source of a genuine guano
claiming to resemble the Peruvian guano of earlier periods
in the trade of commercial fertilizers must be of special im-
portance to all interested in the temporary resources of our
supplies of plant food, our results are briefly stated below : —

Analysis of Damai-a Land Ouano {Per Cent.').

Moisture at 100° C, 17.70

Organic matter, . . . . . . .25.63

Total ash, 56.67

Total nitrogen, . . 5.79

Nitrogen in form of animoiiiates, . . . .1.80

Nitrogen in form of nitrates, . . . . . .05

Nitrogen in form of organic matter, . . . 3.94

Carbonic acid, trace

Total phosphoric acid, 14.78

Soluble phosphoi'ic acid, 4.90

Reverted phosphoric acid, . . . . .5.79

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 4.09

Total jjotassium oxide, 3.53

Potassium oxide soluble in water, . . . .3.46

Sodium oxide, 7.03

Calcium oxide, 14.21

Magnesium oxide, . . . . . . .2.05

Iron and aluminum oxides, trace

Sulphuric acid, . . . . . . . .5.94

Chlorine, 5.77

Insoluble matter, . . . . . . .9.26

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

125

The results of our analyses of the sample (two hundred
pound bag) kindly sent on for trial by Messrs. H. J. Baker
& Bro., New York City, are fairly within the stated com-
position of English chemists. The guano, it is stated, has
been brought from some islands off the west coast of Africa ;
it is a valuable material, as may be seen from our detailed
statement.

6. Notes on Crematory Ashes from City Garbage.

In my annual report for 1895 (pages 160 and 161), special
attention was called to two important recent modes of sav-
ing city garbage, kitchen refuse in particular, for manurial
purposes. Sanitary considerations are the first cause of
the introduction of these new modes of disposing of objec-
tionable refuse matter, which promise to become from day
to day more important as supplies of valuable fertilizer
materials.

Our attention has been in particular called to the products
of the crematory furnace ashes from Lowell, Mass. The
article is evidently improving, in consequence of the adop-
tion of a proper system of sifting and grinding the ashes,
as will be seen from the accompanying analysis, represent-
ing, according to statement, one hundred tons. The selling
price, from $10 to $11 per ton, invites serious trials, as a
fertilizer furnishing potash, phosphoric acid and lime.

Analysis of Ashes from the Cr conation of City Oarbaye

Moisture at 100° C, .

Potassium oxide,

Sodium oxide, .

Total phosphoric acid,

A\failable phosphoric acid,

Insoluble phosphoric acid,

Sulphuric acid (So^) ,

Chlorine, .

Carbonic acid (COj),

Calcium oxide,

Magnesium oxide.

Iron and alumina.

Insoluble matter,

Nitrogen (inactive lyan compounds).

{Per Gent.).

.53

6.01
15.65
10.21

2.34

7.87

4.57

4.75
10.85
20.22

1.16

9.32

24.26

.17

126 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

7. Notes on Wool Washings as a Source of Fertilizer.

It is a well-known fact that the skins of sheep and raw
wool are coated with potash compounds of a soap-like
nature. In many localities in Europe it is a common prac-
tice to turn to account for manuring grass lands the water
used in washing sheep before shearing, as well as the wash
water obtained from raw wool in factories. This is used
in form of an ovei-flow. Wherever meadows adjoin the place
of washing wool, arrangements may be readily provided
for turning the wool washings directly to account. Samples
of raw wool tested here for potash some years ago gave the
followino; results : —

Potassium oxide soluble in water (per cent.), . .3.92
Potassium oxide soluble in diluted hydrochloric acid

(percent.), 4.20

Of interest in this connection are the results of examina-
tion of a material sent on from a factory in this State. The
article was labelled "concentrated potash liquor," and de-
scribed as obtained from the washings of wool with water
after the grease had been extracted by naphtha. It con-
sisted of a highly colored, thick, syrup-like mass, containing
a liberal admixture of fine fibrous vegfetable matter. An
analysis made with reference to its approximate value as a
fertilizer gave the following results : —

Per Cent.

Moisture at 100° C, 41.13

Dry matter, 58.87

The dry matter left behind contained : —

Per Cent.

Potassium oxide, 10.15

Phosphoric acid, 10

Nitrogen, 1.09

The commercial value of these ingredients per ton of the
original substance at the present rates amounts approximately
to $12.40. In charring the original material directly, 100
parts left behind 36.49 parts; the charred mass tested for
potassium oxide showed 34.91 per cent, present, or 698.2
pounds of potassium oxide per ton of charred residue, which

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 127

equals 1,012 pounds of carbonate of potash per ton of charred
residue practically free from chlorine.

The scarcity of a good quality of carbonate of potash for
manurial purposes in case of tobacco and similar industrial
crops ought to encourage attempts to turn the concentrated
potash liquor to account.

The charred mass might serve directly as material for the
manufacture of a high-grade potash fertilizer.

128 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

III. NOTES OF FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH
TOBACCO IN MASSACHUSETTS, 1893-96.

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN.

The experiments briefly described in the following pages
were carried on with the co-operation of the Valley Tobacco
Experiment Association of Massachusetts.

The officers of this organization consisted of President
L. A. Crafts of Whately, Vice-President C. L. Fowler of
Westfield, Secretary and Treasurer G. D. Fisk of Agawam;
Board of Directors, W. A. Porter of Agawam and C. L.
Warner of Hatfield.

Hatfield, Westfield and Agawam were chosen for the loca-
tion of the experiments. The selection of the particular
field in each place was left to a special committee of the
association. In all cases a deep, sandy loam was selected
for the trial.

The same kind and the same amount of fertilizing in-
gredients were used in all cases, and the observations con-
tinued for three successive years. For details see Bulletin
No. 47, April, 1897.

The variety of tobacco selected for the trial was Havana
seed. For the purpose of securing uniformity of fertilizer
during the years of the experiment, it was decided to pur-
chase at once, as far as advisable, enough of each kind to
supply the needed materials for three years.

Statement of Fertilizers used upon Different Plots.
The fertilizer mixture used during the entire time of
observation contained in all cases, per acre : —

Pounds.

Potassium oxide (available) 300

Nitrogen (available), 100

Phosphoric acid (available), 60

One-fourth of the nitrogen was in all cases used in the
form of nitrates of soda or potash, to secure a uniform con-

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

129

dition of availability of nitrogen during the early stages of
growth.

Each experifnent plot measured 3,634 square feet, or
approximately one-twelfth of one aci'e.

Chemical Composition of the Different Fertilizing Ingredients used in
compounding the Special Fertilizers for Different Plots in the
Tobacco Experiment. Ingredients containing Chlorine were
carefully excluded from the Mixtures of Fertilizers in All Cases.

NAME OF MATERIAL.

a
<a
HI
o

.2!S

w
o

i

SO

3

•3
o

02

6

SO

a
a

Nitrate of soda

15.59

-

-

35.00

-

-

Nitrate of potash,

12.79

-

45.05

-

-

-

Cotton-seed meal,

6.50

3.17

2.25

-

_*

_*

Linseed meal

5.91

1.95

1.08

-

_*

_*

Castor pomace

5.60

2.26

3.40

-

-*

_*

Dissolved bone-black, ....

-

13.38

-

-

-*

-

Odorless phosphate, or phosphatlc slag.

-

18.42

-

-

48.27

-

High-grade sulphate of potash,

-

-

50.20

-

-

-

Potash-magnesia sulphate.

-

-

24.32

-

-

12.58

Cotton-seed hull ashes

-

7.93

23.96

-

9.30

10.47

Carbonate of potash-magnesia.

-

-

18.48

-

-

19.52

Barn-yard manure,

.52

.39

.56

-*

-*

_*

* Not determined.

Chemical Composition of the Different Special Formulas used in

the Tobacco Experimerit.

Plot 1.

Pounds of

Fertilizing

Elements

NAME OF FERTILIZING MATERIAL

Pounds
per Acre.

PEK ACRE.

USED.

Phosplioric
Aoid.

Potassium
Oxide.

Nitrogen.

Nitrate of potash, ....

195

-

88

25

Cotton-seed meal, ....

1,154

37

26

75

Dissolved bone-black, .

175

23

-

-

Potash-magnesia sulphate, .

765

-

186

-

Total,

-

60

300

100

130

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Plot 2.

Pounds of

Fertilizing Elements

NAME OF FERTILIZING MATERIAL

Pounds
per Acre.

PER Acre.

USED.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Potassium
O.N.ide.

Nitrogen.

Nitrate of potash, ....

195

-

88.0

25

Castor pomace, ....

1,340

31

45.0

75

Dissolved bone-black, .

221

29

-

-

Potash-magnesia sulphate, .

685

-

166.5

-

Total,

-

60

299.5

100

Plot 3.

Nitrate of soda,
Cotton-seed meal, .
Cotton-seed hull ashes,
Total,

160.3
1,154.0
1,142.0

37.00
90.56

127.56

26
274

300

25
75

100

Plot 4.

Nitrate of soda,
Castor pomace.
Cotton-seed hull ashes,
Total,

160.3
1,340.0
1,060.0

31.0
84.1

115.1

45.50
253.97

299.47

25
75

100

[Plot 5. — No manure at any time during the experiment.]
Plot 6.

Nitrate of soda, ....

160.3

-

-

25

Cotton-seed meal, ....

1,154.0

37

26

75

Dissolved bone-black, .

175.0

23

-

-

High-grade sulphate of potash, .

545.8

-

274

-

Total,

-

60

300

100

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

131

Plot 7.

Pounds of

Fkktilizing

Elemknts

NAME OF FEKTILIZING MATEKIAL

Pounds
per Acre.

I'EK ACKK.

USED.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Potassium
Oxide.

Kitrogen.

Nitrate of soda, ....

160.3

-

-

25

Castor pomace, ....

1,340.0

31

45.50

75

Dissolved boue-black, .

221.0

29

-

-

High-grade sulphate of potash, .

506.0

254.50

-

Total,

-

60

300.0 J

100

Plot S.

Kitrate of soda, ....

160.3

-

-

25

Linseed meal, ....

1,271.0

24.78

14

75

Dissolved bone-black, .

263.0

35.22

-

-

High-grade sulphate of jjotash, .

569.7

-

286

-

Total,

-

60.00

300

100

Plot 9.

Nitrate of potash, ....
Cotton-seed meal, ....
Cotton-seed hull ashes, .

195

1,1.54

776

37
62

88

26

186

25
75

Total,

99

300

100

Plot 10.

Nitrate of potash, ....

195.0

-

88.00

25

Castor j)omace, ....

1,340.0

31

45.50

75

Phosphatic slag meal, .

157.0

29

-

-

Carbonate of potash-magnesia, .

900.9

-

166.50

_

Total,

-

60

800.00

100

Plots 11 and 12. *

Barn-yard manure,

20,000

112

104

* Average analysis of seventy-five samples tested at the station laboratory at Amherst, Muss.

132

HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

[Jan.

Summary or Three Years of Observation at Hatfield,
Agawam and Westfield.

I. Ntimber of Plants harvested and Yield of Tobacco per One
Thonsand Plants.

Hatfield {Old Tobacco Land).

YEAR.

Average Number of
Plants.

DlFFEREN'CE IN YlKLD

PER Plot on the
Basis OF 1,000 Plants
(Pounds).

Per Plot.*

Per Acre.

Highest. 1 Lowest.

1893,

1894,

1895,

561
618

626

6,734
7,419
7,512

266
223
222

217
191
191

* One-twelfth of one acre.

Westfield {New Tobacco Land).

1894,

670

8,040

192

155

1895,

593

7,122

245

217

1896

689

8,269

216

191

Agawam {New

Tobacco Land) .

1893, .

696

8,352

225

158

1894,

704

8,432

220

164

1895,

695

8,340

222

148

Average Y'ield of Tobacco on the Basis
of 1,000 Plants Harvested (Pounds).

YEAR.

Hatfield.

Westfield.

Agawam.

1893,

235.2

-

191.3

1894,

206.4

171.6

186.7

1895, .

210.5

228.0

176.2

1896,

-

199.4

-

1898.]

PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33.

133

//. Average Yield of Tobacco, with Reference to Wrapper, per
One Thousand Plants.

Hatfield.

YEAK.

Average Yield
of Tobacco.

Average Yield
of Wrappers.

Average Per-
centage of
Wrappers.

Variations in

Percentage of

Wrappers in Plots.

1893, ....

1894, ....

1895, ....

Pounds.

235.2

206.6
210.1

Pounds.

97.2
105.0
109.3

41.2

50.7
52.1

21.0-71.0
38.8-64.4
36.8-63.1

Westfield.

1894, ....

171.3

90.3

52.3

41.6-62.10

1895

228.7

49.6

21.2

6.4-34.40

1896, ....

199.3

138.2

69.6

59.0-78.80

Agnivam.

1893, ....

190.8

_*

_*

_*

1894, . . .• .

191.7

52.2

28.7

8.8-44.4

1895, ....

178.8

_*

_*

_*

* Not determined.

Conclusions drawn from the Third Year of Obser-
vation.

1. Good mechanical preparation of the soil and early
application, and thus good difiusion of the fertilizers, not less
than early planting and a suitable number of plants to a
given area, exert a decided influence on the quantity and the
quality of the crop, under otherwise corresponding con-
ditions. Planting as early as the local climate admits
secures the benefit of the winter moisture.

Too close planting interferes with a liberal or rapid devel-
opment of the leaves, and too large open spaces between the

134 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.

individual plants tends to favor a coarser structure. Rows
three feet and four inches apart Avitli plants twenty inches
from each other in the rov>^ (Westfield), and rows two feet
and eight inches apart with plants two feet from each other
in the row (Hatfield) gave better returns than rows three
feet apart with plants eighteen inches from each other in the
row (Agawam).

2. A timely, shallow use of the cultivator or hoe for the
removal of weeds favors a uniform progress of growth. A
careless use of cultivator or hoe invariably checks more or
less the growth of the plants, and modifies more or less their
structure and general character.

3. The diflerent fertilizer mixtures used in our experi-
ments have afl'ected in a less marked degree the weight of the
crop raised by their aid than the quality. New lands reduced
by previous cropping to a, state approaching general exhaus-
tion of available plant food, if otherwise well fitted for raising
tobacco, have given excellent results when supplied with a
suitable mixture of fertilizing ingredients in quantities sim-
ilar to those applied during our experiments (Westfield).
Such lands are at times preferable to old tobacco lands over-
charged with remnants of all kinds of saline ingredients,
usually associated with the common run of commercial fer-
tilizers.

4. Cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and castor pomace have
proved equally good sources of nitrogen for the successful
raising of tobacco when used in connection with nitrate of
soda or potash, sufiicient to furnish one-fourth of the nitrogen
called for bj' the crop.

5. Nitrate of soda as a part of the nitrogen supply in
the fertilizer (25 per cent.), when used in presence of acid
phosphate, dissolved bone-black, etc., has been accompanied
with better results regarding quality of crop than nitrate of
potash under otherwise similar conditions.

6. Cotton-seed hull ashes and high-grade sulphate of
potash have proved in our observation most valuable sources
of potash for tobacco, the fin-mer in the majority of cases
loading. Nitrate of potash has produced excellent results
when used in connection with an alkaline phosphate, as phos-
phatic slag meal or with carbonate of potash-magnesia. Our

1898.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 33. 135

results with potash-magnesia sulphate as the main potash
sources of a tobacco fertilizer are not encouraging.

7. The difference noticed in the color of ash, etc., incase
of the crop being raised upon different plots, is in several
instances so slight that an attempt to classify the various fer-
tilizers used with reference to their superior fitness on the
basis of color and compactness of ash cannot be otherwise
than arbitrary. With this qualification in mind, the following
classification is ojQTered for the consideration of parties en-
o:ao;ed in the cultivation of tobacco in our section of the
country : —

First Class.

Plot 4. — Nitrate of soda, cotton-seed luiU ashes and castor
pomace.

Plot 3. — Nitrate of soda, cotton-seed hull ashes and cotton-
seed meal.

Plot 9. — Nitrate of potash, cotton-seed hull ashes and cotton-
seed meal.

Plot 10. — Nitrate of potash, carbonate of potash-magnesia and
phosphatic slag.

Second Class.

Plot 6. — Nitrate of soda, high-grade sulphate of potash, cotton-
seed meal and dissolved bone-black.

Plot 8. — Nitrate of soda, high-grade sulphate of potash, linseed
meal and dissolved bone-black.

Plot 7. — Nitrate of soda, high-grade sulphate of potash, castor
pomace and dissolved bone-black.

Third Class.

Plot 1. — Nitrate of potash, potash-magnesia sulphate, cotton-
seed meal and dissolved bone-black.

Plot 2. — Nitrate of potash, potash-magnesia sulphate, castor
pomace and dissolved bone-black.

The observations with barn-yard manure have not been
considered in the above classification ; they are very en-
couraging, but not sufficient in number to permit detailed
discussion in this connection ; besides, the amount of barn-
yard manure used in our experiment, ten tons per acre, con-
tained nearly two hundred pounds of potassium oxide and

136 HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. '98.

from thirty to forty pounds of available phosphoric acid less
than our formula of commercial fertilizing ingredients called
for.

An early application of barn-yard manure, properly sup-
plemented with a suitable potash compound and available
phosphoric acid, has produced excellent results in other
localities.

INDEX.

PAGB

Agriculturist, report of, 9

Alfalfa, 35

Ashes, wood, notes on, 121

Crematory, from city garbage, 125

Asparagus rust 58

Barn-yard manure, notes on, 119

Black chaff or African millet, , . . 37

Botanists, report of, 47

Brazilian stooling flour corn, 37

Brown rot of stone fruits, 63

Butternut, leaf blight of, 69

Chemist (fertilizers) , report of, 106

Chemist (foods and feeding) , report of, 74

Cherry, wild black, leaf spot of, 70

Chestnut, leaf spot of, . . = 69

Chrysanthemum rust, 65

Clovers, 33

Alsike, 33

Crimson, .36

Mammoth, 33

Medium red, 33

Sweet 33

Corn, variety tests of, 28

Cotton-seed feed as haj' substitute, 79

Composition of, 82

Digestibility of, 83

Feeding experiments with, 85

Cotton-seed meal as fertilizer, 122

Damara land guano, . . . <, 124

" Drop " of lettuce 55

Entomologist, report of, 102

Fektilizeks :

Ashes, wood, notes on, 121

Ashes, crematory, from city garbage, 125

Comparison of different phosphates, 16

Cotton-seed meal as fertilizer, 122

Damara land guano, 124

For beets, 25

For celery, 25

For garden crops, 23

For peas 24

For squashes, 25

Injurious effect of sulphate of ammonia and muriate of potash used

together, 26

Manure v. manure and potash, 11

138 INDEX.

Fertilizers — Concluded. page
Muriate compared with sulphate of potash in connection with sulphate of

ammonia for corn, 22

Natural phosphates compared with each other and with acid phosphate, . li

Special corn fertilizer v. fertilizer richer in potash, 12

Sulphate of iron as a fertilizer, 27

Trade values of fertilizer ingredients, 112

"Wool washings as fertilizer, 126

Fire blight, 60

Formaldehyde gas as fungicide, 49

Geranium, disease of 67

Grasses, variety tests of, 29

Grass land, manuring of, .... o 26

Horticulturist, report of, 71

Hydrocyanic gas as fungicide 49

Idaho field or coffee pea, -36

Meteorologist, report of, 45

Millets, 31

Panicum crus-galli, 32

Panicum italicum, 33

Panicum miliaceum, 32

Nitrogen :

Leguminous crops as nitrogen gatherers, 19

Nitragin, 26

Relative value of different manures furnishing nitrogen, .... 21

Potato crop (1897), causes of failure 52

Potatoes, variety tests of, 28

Poultry experiments, 37

Condition powder for producing eggs, 38

Cut bone v. animal meal for producing eggs, 41

Clover rowen v. cabbage for producing eggs, 42

Quince rur,, 61

Saccaline, 35

Soil tests 9

"With corn, 10

"With potatoes, 10

Soya beans, 33

Spraying as preventive of diseases, 50

Stumps, reputed method of destroying 37

Sycamore, leaf blight of, 68

Tobacco, field experiments with 128

Treasurer's report, 7

"Winter vetch 36