UMASS/AMHERST

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NINTH ANNUAL REPORT

SECRETARY

assacIjHSftte %m)i at %^xmliim,

TOGETHER WITH

REPORTS or COMMITTEES

APPOINTED TO VISIT THE COUNTY SOCIETIES,

A\^ITH A'N APPENDIX

CONTAINING AN ABSTRACT OF THE

FINANCES OF THE COUNTY SOCIETIES,

18 6 1

BOSTON:

WILLIAM WHITE, PRINTER TO THE STATE.
1862.

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

1862.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIIS.

His Excellency JOHN A. ANDREW.

His Honor JOHN NESMITH.

Hon. OLIVER WARNER, Secretary of the Commomoeallh.

APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR AND COUNCIL.

Term expires.

EPHRAIM W. BULL, of Concord, 1863

MARSHALL P. WH.DER, of Dorchester, 1864

PAOLI LATHROP, of South Hadley, 1865

CHOSEN BY THE COUNTY SOCIETIES.

Term expires.

Massachusetts, EICHARD S. FAY, of Boston, . . . 1865

Essex, GEORGE B. LORING, of Salem, . . 1863

Middlesex, JOHN B. MOORE, of Concord, . . 186^

Middlesex, North, .... ASA CLEMENT, of Dracut, . . . 1865

Middlesex, South, .... HENRY H. PETERS, of Southborough, . 1863

Worcester, JOHN BROOKS, of Princeton, . . . 1863

Worcester, West FREEMAN WALKER, of N. Brookfield, . 1863

Worcester, North, .... JABEZ FISHER, of Fitchburg, . . . 1865

Worcester, South SAMUEL HARTWELL, of Soutbbridge, . 1865

Wui-cester, South-East, . . . HENRY CHAPIN, of Milford, . . . 1864

Hampshire, FranUin and Hampden, . MOSES STEBBINS, of South Deerfield, . 1864

Highland, MATTHEW SMITH, of Middlefield, . 1863

Hampshire, LEVI STOCKBRIDGE, of Hadley, . . 1865

Hampden, PHINEAS STEDMAN, of Chicopee, . 1864

Hampden, East, SHERMAN CONVERSE, of Monson, . 1864

Franklin, JAMES S. GRENNELL, of Greenfield, . 1865

Berkshire, HENRY COLT, of Pittsfield, . . . 1864

Hoosac Valley, JOSEPH WHITE, of Williamstown, . . 1864

Housatonic, SAMUEL H. BUSHNELL, of Sheffield, . 1864

Norfolk, CHARLES C. SEWALL, of Medfield, . 1865

Bristol, NATHAN DURFEE, of Fall River, . . 1803

Plymouth, CHARLES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth, . 1863

Barnstable, S. B. PHINNEY, of Barnstable, . . 1865

Nantucket EDWARD W. GARDNER, of Nantucket,. 1863

Marthas Vineyard, .... DANIEL A. CLEAVELAND, of Tisbury, 1805

CHARLES L. FLINT, Secretary.

NINTH ANNUAL REPORT

SECRETARY

BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts.

It is gratifying to be able to state that the past year has been
one of marked prosperity for the agricultural interests of the
Commonwealth. Our crops liave been for the most part abun-
dant and profitable, farm labor has been cheaper and more easily
obtained than for some years past, and the season was generally
favorable, both for the operations of the farm and the growth of
vegetation.

The exhibitions of the Agricultural Societies, with one or two
exceptions, were more than usually successful in point of
completeness and attraction, and the number of interested
visitors to those exhibitions was never known to be greater.

The operations of the Board of Agriculture have been contin-
ued as heretofore. At the meeting held at the office of the
Secretary, on the 19th of February, 1861, various subjects were
assigned to special committees for investigation during the year,
with the duty of presenting a report upon each at the regular
annual meeting.

Accordingly Dr. Bartlett of the Middlesex North Society,
presented the following

6 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

KEPORT ON THE DISEASES OF VGETATION.

The power of God, which has so often been put forth to build
up and protect our beloved country, has in a special manner
interposed itself during the past year to shield our crops from
pestilence ; and that Providence which " tempers the wind to
the shorn lamb," has filled our barns and -granaries with a
healthy and abundant harvest. We have indeed peculiar cause
for thankfulness, that while disease has ravaged the potato
fields of Ireland and Canada, and the crops of all Europe have
been cut short, we, as a nation, have been l)lcssed with an abun-
dance of food. Yet notwithstanding we have been preserved
from the devastating effects of vegetable disease, the opportuni-
ties for studying the subject entrusted to us have not been
altogether wanting, since the total failure of the fruit crop is
only to be regarded as a manifestation of disease, and the
disease of the apple tree, which formed the main topic of our
report a year ago, has been constantly under our observation.

In previous reports a disease of the bean has been alluded to,
which has been steadily increasing and enlarging its area, and
will probably soon place us in reference to this legumenous plant,
in the same uncertainty which affects us in reference to the
potato, making it essential to secure new varieties often, or to
find ourselves forced to give up the venerated dishes of our
ancestors, baked beans and succotash.

The disease alluded to commences with small brown spots
upon the pod, having a nearly uniform direction, commencing
near the back of the pod and spreading thence toward its front.
The long diameter of these spots being oblique to the two sides
just named, apparently affecting the parenchymatous matter
deposited between the ribs of the pod, which lie in the same
direction.

These spots commence upon the external surface of the pod,
and gradually work their way through to its interior, the brown
color changing to black as it progresses. If the kernel lies
contiguous to such a spot it takes on the same appearance, and
becomes dark colored or even black, according to the time which
is afforded for its progress by the period which elapses after the
disease commences, previous to the ripening of the pod. The
superficial area of the spots does not appear to increase after
their commencement, and their nature would seem to be that

SECRETARY'S REPORT. T

of dry gangrene. In some seasons the fruit is so much affected
that the crop could hardly be disposed of in the market, in
consequence of the large proportion of discolored beans, and in
all seasons if the pea beans offered in the market be carefully
examined, more or less of them will indicate the influence of
the disease by a black discoloration at the point where it
touched the pod.

Most varieties are liable to the attack of this pest, but some
are much more susceptible of its influence than others, the Saba,
Horticultural, and Case Knife, being most commonly affected
among the pole beans, while the bush varieties are equally
subjected to its pernicious effects, and neither varieties of soil
nor differences of season appear to affect its extent or its
progress.

Nothing particularly new upon the disease of the apple tree,
described in the report of 1860, has presented itself, but a more
careful and extended examination of diseased trees tends to
confirm the conclusion that trees trimmed or injured previous
to the 1st of May are more liable to take on the disease at the
point of injury than those upon which the operation is performed
at a later period. One marked case, illustrating this point, it
may not be improper to relate. In the month of November,
1856, an old apple tree, the top of which was much decayed,
was trimmed for grafting in the ensuing spring. Two large
trunks, measuring more than twelve inches in diameter, were
sawn off, the stumps being left without protection from the
influence of the weather, the chief portion of the old wood being
thus removed by the saw. About the middle of the following
April the young limbs which grew below the stumps made in
the preceding autumn, were grafted with the orange sweeting.
At the present time the large stumps sawn off in November, five
years ago, are perfectly sound, and although not healed the wood
is very hard, almost like iron, and the bark entirely free from
blackness, while nearly, if not quite all the stocks grafted in April
are more or less diseased. Another fact bearing upon a theory
sometimes advanced — that this disease originates in the excoriat-
ing character of the sap — deserves notice. It is this : that the
disease commences often upon the upper side of the grafted limb,
where no sap flowing from it could by any possibility be applied.
Instances are not wanting of this disease in other varieties of

8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

trees than the apple- The black oak of our forests is affected
in a manner precisely similar, and induced apparently by the
operation of the same exciting cause, viz., injury in some form.
This subject has not been investigated with sufficient thorough-
ness to make it at all proper to theorize upon the specific nature
of the disease in question, or its predisposing causes ; but if
future observations should confirm the fact "which we have
hinted at in regard to the effect of spring trimming, a point
will be attained from which we may be able to start in future
investigations, with a reasonable expectation of more certain
results.

It will not perhaps be thought out of place in this report if we
give a small space to the consideration of the remarkable failure
of the fruit crop, which has during the past year equally disap-
pointed the hopes of the producers and consumers of what had
grown to be considered a necessary of life.

For some years a feeling of uncertainty in regard to the invest-
ment of much capital in fruit raising, has been gaining strength
in many agricultural districts, based upon partial failures of
some specific crop, and as certain theories have been adopted
by fruit growers to explain the failures which have given so
much cause for complaint, it will be proper to examine the facts
in the premises, not so much to establish new theories, or confirm
old ones, but tliat obstacles which now hinder us from arriving
at the truth may be at least partially removed.

Our stone fruits, coming into the comparatively high latitude
of New England, from the mild and genial climates of Persia,
southern China, and Asia, could not fairly be expected to become
so completely changed in nature that they should not often fail
occasionally to mature crops of delicious fruit ; and in regard to
the peach and the plum, their early maturity and short term of
vigorous life would very much impede, if they did not entirely
prevent any great degree of adaptation to their new climate ;
and perhaps this is all that need be said of those two varieties.

Whether the cherry is about to place itself in the same class
with those just named, or whether it is gradually breaking
down under the debilitating influence of excessive cultivation,
is yet to be determined. It is certain however, that no tree,
however vigorous, can for a long period remain capable of fully
maturing its buds, while subjected to the attacks of the immense

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 9

number of insects which constantly feed upon the foliage of the
cherry tree, and thus check the maturing of its new wood.
These remarks upon the cherry are not offered so much to
explain the peculiar failure of the last season, as because they
havp a bearing upon the almost universally dying condition of
the trees.

The apple crop of New England, behig of far more present
importance than all our other fruit crops together, we shall
devote tlie remainder of our report to its recent failure, and a
statement of some simple facts in relation to it. The orchards
in most sections of Massachusetts gave early indications of a
fruitful season, so far as a very full bloom could point to such
a result ; but while the apples were well and abundantly formed,
they fell very profusely from the trees, until most of them had
no more to cast off. A very commonly received explanation of
this fact attributes it to the injury inflicted by the curculio. To
test this point one hundred Gravenstien apples were taken from
the ground at random, no other selection being made than was
sufficient to pick those as nearly uniform in size as possible.
Thrown promiscuously into a basket, each apple was examined
carefully for the wound indicating the attack of the insect. Of
the whole number gathered, only twenty-three were found with
the "mark of the beast" upon them. At this time the tree
retained only three apples, two of which had the crescent shaped
wound. Of these, one had been attacked in eleven distinct
points, and yet grew to be the only tolerably perfect apple upon
the tree. We think this may be assumed as a strong argument
against the curculio theory.

It has also been common with many persons to attribute such
blighting of the apple crop either to the cold of the preceding
winter, or to east winds prevailing about the period when the
orchards were in bloom.

It may be that both these conditions of the weather produce
the deleterious effects attributed to them, but when we consider
that a careful examination of weather tables, extending over a
period of nearly or quite two hundred years, fixes the fact
beyond dispute that the seasons of New England are unchanged
in any important particular during that period, and also that
the apple orchards have produced liberally notwithstanding
severe winters and persistent east winds, we must perforce

2*

10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

admit that before these causes could be made to endanger
seriously the fruitfulness of our trees, some change in the vital
powers of the tree itself must have taken place to enable climatic
influences which had always existed to work serious injury. It
is an evil incident to the cultivation of exhausted soils, tha* the
farmer is obliged to feed his crops of all descriptions with
manures, concentrated and stimulating, in exact proportion to
the degree in which the soil has been drained of its nutritive
elements. This course, expensive as it may be, is essential to
successful competition, with new soils, rich in the food which
provident nature has carefully stored up for her own farming,
but must, in accordance with the uniform action of the vital
laws, tend to debility and disease. As a consequence of this
system, those changes of climate and atmospheric influences,
which were intended to promote health, may become, when
acting upon the diseased plant, pernicious, and tluis cause the
destruction of our fruit. It has been maintained by some
persons that the serious failures in fruit have been preceded by
unusual quantities of snow, while the ground has remained
unfrozen, and the experience of the past year may tend to
confirm the observation. Somewhat extensive inquiries seem
to point to two facts, which, although they may not be found to
be universal, yet are too well established to be entirely over-
looked. First, that ungrafted trees bore more profusely than
those which had been grafted. Some instances of this occurred
where native fruit was matured in comparative abundance,
while the fruit of trees grafted with the same native fruit, and
growing in close proximity failed entirely, while the proportion
of native fruit growing in the pastures, and commonly used for
the manufacture of cider, was very much greater than that of
grafted fruit raised in cultivated grounds for the market.

The effects of the common method of cleft grafting, upon the
health of the tree, has not received the attention which it
deserves. A careful examination of many grafted limbs
indicates the fact that the cleft made for the insertion of the
scion never heals, but remains as a covered wound probably
during the life of the limb, and the tongue by which it is fixed
in its place remains within the cleft and very often decays there,
and must always be a source of irritation as a foreign body.
It is by no means unusual to find incipient decay connected with

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 11

the cleft in limbs which externally present a healthy and
vigorous appearance.

There is another point in connection with this subject which
deserves attention and thought, and with its consideration we
shall close our report. It must be that large growing trees,
like the apple and the cherry, which send strong roots deep into
the earth, draw a portion of their nourishment from the subsoil
far beyond the reach of the farmer. There can certainly be no
good reason assigned why in the lapse of years this subsoil
should not become much sooner exhausted in consequence of
the stimulus applied to the tree by the application of concen-
trated manures, such as an artificial necessity, growing out of
the demands of the market, now forces the cultivator to apply to
the surface roots. These superficial organs cannot be roused
into an unnatural degree of activity, without in time exciting a
corresponding activity in the whole vital powers of the tree,
and the lower roots must soon be called upon, by the necessity
of preserving a healthy balance of action among the vital organs,
to take up from the subsoil nutritive matter much faster tlian
nature has provided for its supply. Hence the tree will first
fail to be fruitful, and finally die. The fact has always been
known that a young tree never flourishes vigorously, if placed
in the same spot from which an old tree of the same kind has
been recently removed, and upon the supposition just alluded
to, this fact is readily understood. When to the exhaustion of
the subsoil is added the injury done in many orchards by
injudicious ploughing, the surface roots being often cut off and
forcibly drawn out of the ground, it is not a matter of surprise
that under such a system of operative surgery the patient should
die of exhaustion before reaching maturity. Whatever may be
the true explanation of the present and prospective failure of
the fruit crop, it appears that we are to place but little reliance
for our crop except upon comparatively young trees ; and we
can only secure these by combined resetting and removal of
decaying trees ; and it may yet be found profitable, although
contrary to the commonly received doctrine, to depend to some
extent upon thrifty suckers which spring from the roots of trees
which the axe has removed.

Many fine trees could be pointed to, whicli have in this way
taken the place of others, and having the benefit of large roots

12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

f

at the outset, have grown vigorously, and come into bearing
condition at a much earlier period than seedlings.

The Qommittee make the latter suggestion as the result of
their individual experience and observation.

John C. Bartlett.

Henry H. Peters.

Ephraim W. Bull.

Dr. Loring of the Essex Society, presented the following

EEPORT ON CATTLE BREEDING AND FEEDING.

The question of " the raising of cattle, with the cost in
quantity and kind of food, and the breeds best suited to different
purposes," seems to include the whole system of cattle hus-
bandry ; and is a matter of the deepest importance to every
farmer. There is no branch of husbandry so universal, none
more capable of yielding fair profits, none more important, none
more dependent upon good farming, and none more likely to be
attended by good farming when properly pursued. The value
and utility of horses, no one questions. Of the profits and benefits
of sheep husbandry in certain localities, no one can doubt. The
hog, among some nations, has entered largely into the supply of
animal food for man. But wherever man resides, whether
civilized or savage, whether roving or stationary, whether on
mountain pastures or in cultivated and luxuriant valleys, in
good farming and in poor, in every spot where grass grows for
cattle, and "herb for the service of man," there the herd attends
him, and supplies him with food, and labor, and clothing, and
the means of tilling the earth.

The breeding of cattle has occupied the attention of some of
the most careful observers, and closest experimenters, in the
list of active and progressive farmers. The labors of Bakewell,
and the traditionary rules which guided him, still have their
value. The name of Colling will endure, so long as the
enonomy of farming requires a rapid production of beef, for
the supply of populous markets. And wherever the dtyry con-
stitutes the chief agricultural business, the practical sagacity of
Aiton will ever be remembered. Under the guidance of such
men as these, the aboriginal cattle of England, those wild droves

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 13

in wliich a weight exceeding four hundred pounds was rarely
reached, have been developed to those important breeds wliich
are now of so much value to that kingdom, and have been
scattered so widely over the globe.

And, in addition to this, the soil and climate of almost every
region have aided the judicious agriculturist in developing a
breed particularly adapted to local necessities. Not that soil
and climate alone will do this. For it was not the valley of the
Tees which brought the hard-hided, coarse-boned, thriftless,
misshapen, lyery cattle of Holland,* and the profitless frames
of Yorkshire, up to the perfection of modern improved Short-
horns— it was a farmer of that valley, using the soil and climate,
and breeding aright. So it was the intelligent farmers of
Ayrshire, who adapted themselves to the agricultural capacity
of that region, and raised the miserable cows of their hills to
the superiority of their modern dairy animals. In neither case
did they attempt to force a breed of cattle upon an uncongenial
soil and climate. Mr. Alton knew the value of the hills and
vales of Scotland for dairy purposes. The Messrs. Colling
understood how beef would grow, if properly planted, on the
fat pastures of England. Let us imitate their example.

It is a disregard of the rules which they fpllowed, in fact of
all proper rules, which has brought confusion to the cattle-
breeding of New England, and has rendered it thus far too
much a profitless game of chance. Amidst the many wise and
praiseworthy efforts which have been made to improve our
herds, there has been a great deal of bad breeding, which, with

* " The Short-horned cattle, under -which denomination are indiscriminately
included the Dutch, Holderness and Teeswater breeds, are supposed to have
acquired the appellation of Dutch, from a cross with some large bulls that
were imported near a century ago from Holland into Yorkshire, in the east
and north sidings of -which county the t-wo latter had been long established.
It has, ho-wever, been doubted whether any advantage -was derived from this
intermixture ; for the increase thus obtained in size was thought to have been
counterbalanced by a more than appropriate increase of offal. But, fortu-
nately, the error was not universal ; for some intelligent breeders, aware even
at that day of the superiority of symmetry to bulk, preserved the breed of
which they were already in possession, in its native purity ; and it is from
some of that stock, so maintained, or, at least, from a cross between that stock
and some of the progeny of the Dutch and Teeswater cross, that the present
improved Short-horned cattle, are descended." — Complete Grazier.

14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

bad feeding, has reduced the average of our stock to a very
low standard. We have been led to believe that there may be
somewhere an universal breed of cattle, suited to all purposes,
of general excellence for the combined business of the dairy, the
stall, and the yoke. And with tlie hope of arriving at this we
have been groping in the dark, until we seem to have fairly lost
our way. By undertaking too much, and without proper rule, we
have, as usual, accomplished but little. Most of us can call to
mind the unsuccessful efforts made in a region of short pastures
and scanty food, to improve the stock by the introduction of a
Short-horu bull — feeble cows and coarse oxen being the natural
consequence. "We have all seen a Jersey bull sent into a
rich grazing region, and serving merely to glorify by contrast,
the large and thrifty cattle already planted there. How many
vain attempts have been made to introduce Ayrshires, with all
their dairy qualities, into a luxuriant section, whose " paths
drop fatness all around ! " How much food have we seen
wasted on misplaced Devons ! " A place for every thing and
every thing in its place," is the motto for cattle-breeders, who
occupy such a diversity of soil and climate as ours. Amidst
the general inferiority of our cattle, we find exceptions, where
either wisdom oi; accident has produced a gratifying result.
So true is this, that every sagacious purchaser of stock
knows where to go in pursuit of choice animals. There are
certain towns, certain counties, certain valleys of rivers, in
New England, which have become noted for their fine cattle,
and whose reputation has been established, by the fortunate
introduction of blood well adapted to the place.

There is no doubt that our cattle need improvement, both by
breeding and by feeding. Whatever may have been the origin
of our so-called natives, they have become a mass of confusion,
without any distinctive features which would give them value,
and without any certainty of transmitting even the good
qualities which they do possess. Large numbers of cattle are
raised among us, which in no way remunerate the raiser or
feeder, even when the cost of keeping until ready for market,
is estimated at the lowest possible figure.

We are too apt to breed badly. Sufficient care is not always
used in selecting the female, in the first place. A cow that
happens to be a good milker, in spite of many bad points, and

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

15

witliout any known good ancestry, is expected to produce good
heifer calves. Without much care for the male, we set her at
the work — she transmits her poor qualities, perhaps increased
by the sire, and her good ones disappear. A large cow is
selected for the purpose of raising oxen, her size being her only
recommendation. She may be a bad feeder, a bad handler, a
bad mover, in fact deficient in those very points which render
an ox good for the yoke and the stall. "We breed from her,
and she disappoints our expectations. We choose a good cow
for choice breeding, unmindful of the quality of the bull which
has been previously coupled with her ; and we are astonished,
and mortified, and discouraged, to find that she produces
any thing but what we desired and expected.

r3S7%5^,*-»„--:.-^ -.^

Ayrshire Cow, "Jessie."

BREEDING, — THE FEMALE FOR THE DAIRY.

If we would improve our native stock, therefore, we should
begin by a careful selection of females, from the best herds
already established, care being taken to consider always the
objects we have in view. No matter what the yield of milk from
a cow may be, she should not be selected for a breeder, unless
she possesses as an inheritance, that shape which indicates
strong vitality, and that quality which indicates active
secretory functions. She should have — Head of medium
size, with a strong, well-marked, bony structure, broad be-
tween and high above the ey^s, and wide between the roots of
the horns, with a capacious but not clumsy muzzle, full nostril,

16 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

an eye full, mild, not too large and prominent, jowls thin and
wide, horns small, well-curved, clear, slightly turned upwards,
— and with a calm, and at the same time strong and resolute
expression ; neck long, well-rauscled, slender, tapering towards
the head, with little loose skin hanging helow, and not dropping
too much forward of the shoulders ; shoulders thin and sharp
at the top, and lying close to the chine, somewhat prominent,
strong-muscled, and loose-jointed at the point, (the head of the
humerus,) long from the point to the elbow ; fore-quarters light
and thin, with straight and slender fore-leg, broad knee, and
broad, flat, capacious foot ; carcase deep, round and full about
the heart, and increasing largely towards the hind-quarters ;
back straight and loosely jointed ; pelvis wide over the hips, long,
and supplied with strong muscles ; hind-quarters broad, strong
on the outside, and well cut out inside, with strong hock, and
a long tapering foot ; tail long and slender, strong at the roots,
and set on in a line with the back ; udder evenly divided into
four quarters, extending well forward, filling the cavity between
the thighs behind, not hung low, and with a large, long, and
crooked milkvein ; teats set far apart, and of medium size and
length ; skin loose and elastic, but not too thin ; hair soft and
silky, and of lively appearance ; ribs broad and flat, and,
especially the two last, widely separated. A yellowish color to
the skin, especially that lining the ears and about the eyes, is
desirable.

A good cow should possess the appearance of strength and
firmness, without being too compact ; and she should present
no palpably weak point, if she is expected to endure well, in the
work of the dairy. With regard to the size best suited for
dairy purposes, opinions differ materially — but on our ordinary
New England pastures, a cow that will dress, in fair condition,
six hundred pounds, seems to be the most appropriate.

THE FEMALE FOR BEEF.

In selecting females for the breeding of beef cattle, wo must
not be governed by the rules laid down for the dairy. There
should be greater roundness of bone ; the shoulders should be
closer, firmer, thicker at the top, and the fore-quarter generally
more substantial, bearing about the same relation to that of the
dairy cow, that the shoulder of a draught-horse bears to that of a

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

17

trotting horse. The brisket should be deeper, the body more
uniform, and the head smaller in proportion to the body.
Perhaps Youatt's description of such an animal is the best that
can be given, although, as will be seen, he applies it to both

Shorthorn Cow, "Duchess '

males and females. He says : " The animal should have
wide and deep girth about the heart and lungs ; and not only
about these, but above the whole of the ribs must we have
both depth and roundness ; the hooped as well as the deep
barrel is essential. The breast should also be ribbed home ;
there should be little space between the ribs and the hips.
This is indispensable in the fattening ox, but a largeness and
drooping of the belly is excusable in the cow. It leaves room
for the udder, and if it is also accompanied by swelling milk-
veins, it generally indicates her value in the dairy. This
roundness and depth of barrel, however, is most advantageous
in proportion as it is found behind the point of the elbow, more
than between the shoulders and legs; or low down between
the legs, than upwards towards the withers ; for it diminishes
the heaviness before, and the comparative bulk of the coarser
parts of the animal, which is always a very great consideration.
" The loins should be wide, for these are the prime parts ;
they should seem to extend far along the back ; and although
the belly should not hang down, the flanks should be round
and deep, the hips large, without being ragged, round rather
than wide, and present when handled, plenty of muscle and
3*

18 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

fat ; the thighs full and long, and when viewed from behind,
close together ; the legs short, for there is an almost insepa-
rable connection between length of leg and lightness of
carcase, and shortness of leg and propensity to fatten. The
bones of the legs and of the frame generally, should be small,
but not too small — small enougli for the well known accompani-
ment, a propensity to fatten ; small enough to please the con-
sumer, but not so small as to indicate delicacy of constitution,
and liability to disease. Finally, the hide, the most important
thing of all, should be thin, but not so thin as to jndiciite that
the animal can endure no hardships ; movable, mellow, but not
to*loose, and particularly well covered with fine and soft hair."

Guided by these rules, the breeder can select females adapted
to either of the two objects specified, or, if he desires it, to
both combined, so far as that is practicable.

If he expects to breed with any degree of certainty, he
should choose females that have never been coupled with the
bull. Of course, in making the selection, regard should be
had to the blood as well as to the quality of the animal ; and
even with the utmost caution, it cannot be expected that every
heifer will fulfil her promise as a breeder. She may transmit
just those qualities of her ancestry, which she herself has
escaped.

But whatever may be her qualities, she cannot be used for
breeding in one direction, after she has been used for breeding
in another. A cow, therefore, which has borne calves by one
bull, cannot be safely used for breeding purposes with another,
unless it be desirable to preserve in some degree in her
progeny, the qualities of the former bull. So many facts
going to substantiate this theory arc recorded, tliat it seems
hardly necessary to dwell upon it further. The well-known
instances of the Arabian mare belonging to the Earl of
Morton, which after having been covered by a quagga, pro-
duced colts by thoroughbred horses with the marks of the
quagga upon them — of the mare of Mr. Morrison, which, after
having borne a mule, gave to her colts, sired by stallions, the
marks of the mule — of the Aberdeenshire heifer, which
produced her first calf from a Teeswater bull, and gave subse-
quent calves by Aberdeenshire bulls, the long horns of the
Teeswater — of ewes tainted in their first coupling by the ram, —

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

19

are sufficient to satisfy any one that females thus impressed
cannot be properly used for breeders. And it is very doubtful
whether a female may not be thus impressed, any time during
her breeding life, by a bull of stronger blood than her own.
We have seen an Ayrshire cow, which, after having brought
three calves by an Ayrshire bull, was coupled with a Jersey,
and all of whose subsequent calves bore distinct marks of the
Jersey — the older and stronger blood of the male having
gained an ascendency. And we have heard many a careful
and enterprising farmer wonder that the progeny of his superior
cows, bore the marks of the common and inferior bull, with
which they were thoughtlessly coupled, in early life, notwith-
standing the care he had afterwards taken. It is, indeed,
possible that this obstacle may be overcome by two or three
generations of breeding ; but time may be saved and the
difficulty avoided, by a little trouble in the beginning. The
expense will be amply repaid.

^--^^-j^^ -"

Short-horn Bull, "Double Duke.'

THE BULL.

There is no doubt that the stock of New England has
suffered more from the use of inferior and badly bred males,
than from inferior and badly bred females. Tlie bull is usu-
ally looked upon as the least profitable animal on the farm.
He is treated as an outcast, and his presence is too often con-
sidered a necessary calamity. His immediate benefit is not
perceptible. He neither earns his living by labor, nor by the

20 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

<:frowth of such a quality of beef as is remunerative in the
market. He is viewed with a certain degree of dislike in his
youth, and is not allowed to reach mature years, through fear,
that in his strength, he may repay the insults and injuries
received in his weakness. He is purchased for nothing, at a
time of life when he is good for nothing ; and sold for nothing,
because he is considered to have done all that was expected
of him. Nobody thinks of paying much for his services ; and
the longer he lives the larger is the account against him, which
his owner is eager to settle summarily and finally.

Now it is this despised animal, which is hurried out of exist-
ence before he has had time to develop his own qualities, or to
give any mature evidence of what he can transmit, which has
the most important part to perform m the business of cattle
breeding. It is undoubtedly true that the mferiority or supe-
riority of the male, rather than of the female, affects the
quality of the offspring. A superior herd can be injured by an
inferior bull ; an inferior herd can be improved by a su])erior
bull. There is no doubt that the female imparts important
qualities to the offspring — perhaps vitality, constitution, the
nutritive functions. But all experience goes to prove that we
stand a better chance of securing good offspring from a good
male and an inferior female, than we do from an inferior male
and a superior female. This, in addition to the fact that the
male has a larger sphere of operations than the female, shows
the vast importance of a careful selection of the former. It
seems, moreover, that through the male, the strongest ancestral
qualities are transmitted. " Show me the bull's mother," said
the Scotchman, when called upon to pass judgment upon his
neighbor's newly-purchased animal.

It was the dam of Hubback, which possessed that remark-
able aptitude to fatten, which distinguish the breed of Improved
Short-horns. But it was Hubback himself, which transmitted
this quality to a long line of descendants, and laid the founda-
tion of this remarkable family. It is to Comet, and Red
Comet, and Roan Duke, and Swinley, and Cardigan, among
cattle ; to Messenger, and Justin Morgan, and Black Hawk,
among horses, that we are indebted for the improvements
which have been made among these different classes of animals.
For it is by them that good ancestral qualities have been trans-

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

21

mitted and diffused. And, dependent as we are upon tlic
quality of the female, upon those qualities which will best
unite with and develop the qualities of the male, it is to the
latter that we are to look for the advancement we are to make
in breeding. Hence the fabulous prices paid for males of all
animals which are bred for the farm ; hence the large incomes
of the pioneers in breeding, for the use of the males, — Mr.
Bakewell having received 130,000 in one year for the use of
his rams, and the Messrs. Colling having received equally
exorbitant prices for the use of their bulls — facts which our
farmers should remember, when they are willing to keep bulls
for the service of which they do not expect to receive a remu-
nerative price. There is no more profit in using a poor bull,
than there is in keeping a poor cow.

Aj^rshire Bull, "Albert.'

In selecting a bull, regard should be had, of course, to the
object of breeding, this being decided by climate, soil, and
location. The description already given of the dairy cow, will
apply somewhat to the bull. Mr. Alton remarks, that " the
Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the
feminine aspect of their heads, necks, and fore-quarters, and
wish them not round behind, but broad at the hoop-bones and
hips ; and they like them best that are full in the flank." It
is particularly important that shelliness of skin and roundness
of buttock should be avoided. There is no end to the mischief

22 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

which such animals may produce, whether used for tlie dairy
or tlie stall. This is well illustrated by CuUey, who, in speak-
ing of the successful efforts of Mr. Dobinson, in breeding Short-
horns and importing blood from Holland, says : —

" But afterwards some other persons of less knowledge, going over,
brought home some bulls that introduced the disagreeable kind of cattle
called lyery, or double lyered, — that is, black-fleshed. These will feed
to gi'eat weight, but though fed ever so long will not have a pound of
fat about them, neither within nor without, and the flesh (for it does not
deserve to be called beef) is as black and coarse-grained as horse flesh.
No man will buy one of this kind, if he knows any thing of the matter ;
and if he should be once taken in, he will remember it well for the
future. People conversant with cattle very readily find them out by
their round form, particularly their buttocks, which are turned like a
black coach-horse, and the smallness of the tail ; but they are best
known to the graziers and dealers in cattle by the feel or touch of the
fingers ; indeed it is this nice touch or feel of the hand that in a great
measure constitutes the judge of cattle."

In fact, the nearer the bull comes, in dairy breeding, to the
points of a good cow, the better. And, in this branch of hus-
bandry, the male should not much exceed the female in size.

For other purposes, as well as in some degree for this, the
following description, taken from the " Complete Grazier," will
be found useful and instructive : —

" A bull, then, ought to be the most handsome of his kind ; he should
be tall and well made ; his head should be rather long, but not coarse, as
fineness of head indicates a disposition to fatten ; and as it is designed by
nature to be the chief instrument both of oflTence and of defence, it ought
to present every mark of strength ; his horns, clean and bright ; his large
black eyes, lively and protuberant ; his forehead, broad and close set,
with short, curled hair; his ears, long and thin, hairy within and without;
muzzle, fine ; nostrils, wide and open ; neck, strong and muscular, not
incumbered with a coarse wreathy skin, but firm, rising with a gentle
curve from the shoulders, tapering to the part where it is connected
with the head ; dewlap thin, and but little loose skin on any part. His
shoulders should be deep and high, and moderately broad at the top ;
the bosom open ; breast large, and projecting well before his legs ; back
straight and broad, even to the setting on of the tail, which should not
extend far up tlie roof, but be strong and deep, with much lank hair on
the under part of it ; ribs broad and circulai', rising one above another,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 23

so that the last rib shall be rather the highest ; the fore thighs strong
and muscular, tapering gradually to the knees; the belly deep, straight,
and also tapering a little to the hind thighs, which should be large and
square ; the roof wide, particularly over the chine and hips, or hooks ;
the legs straight, short-jointed, full of sinews, clean, and fine boned ;
knees round, big and straight ; feet distant one from another, not broad,
nor turning in, but easily spreading ; hoofs long and hollow; the hide
not hard nor stubborn to the touch; the hair uniformly thick, shorty
curled, and of a soft texture ; and the body long, deep, and round, filling
well up to the shoulder and into the groin, so as to form what has not
improperly been termed a round, or barrel-like carcase."

PURE BLOOD.

Let the object of the breeder be what it may, he cannot
expect to arrive at any degree of perfection without the use
of a full-blooded male, of the breed which he has chosen. This
rule has been strongly urged by some of the best farmers in
England, and has so far attracted attention in this country,
that premiums are offered for no other bulls by some of the
agricultural societies of Massachusetts. And, after having
chosen a bull of any breed, whose progeny proves satisfactory,
it is undoubtedly judicious to obtain, in changing, for purposes
of future breeding, a bull of similar strain of blood. If a
farmer has a herd of grade cows, the product of a pure bull
of any breed, he can improve the quality of his stock with
more rapidity and certainty, by the use of a bull somewhat
nearly allied tol'the sire of this herd, than in any other manner.
Perhaps this is not desirable, if he has in view the immediate
sale of his animals, rather than the improvement of his stock.
But constant crossing keeps the breeder always just where he
began, especially if the cross is in any way violent — as between
a cart horse and a thorough-bred, or between a Jersey and a
grade Devon. It is close breeding which has produced our
best breeds^ of cattle, horses, and sheep ; and if it stops at such
a point that the health and strength of the offspring are not
endangered, it is the only means by which we can establish a
reliable and valuable breed among us. We have numerous
instances in which small families of cattle in New England
have been brought to a high degree of perfection by close
breeding, combined with good feeding. And what is done on
a small scale may be done on a large one. There is no doubt

24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

that the first fruits of a judicious cross may be very profitable
and valuable ; but if these fruits are at once indiscriminately
commingled, the poorer qualities of either parent may at once
gain the ascendency, and the benefits of the first crossing may
be entirely destroyed. This may also be done by an injudicious
cross, brought into the herd from blood of another strain. Let
me illustrate. If I had a dozen cows sired by Kirkleavington,
and I found that the cross had many valuable qualities, which
I wished to perpetuate and develop more fully, I should have
more confidence in the ability of a good bull, distantly related to
Kirkleavington, to improve my stock still further, than I should
in a bull having no connection whatever with this family. These
views differ somewhat, I know, from some modern theories ;
but I know of no better rule for the production of uniform
excellence, and the ultimate production of powers worthy of
transmission. We have so little pure breeding in this country,
and so much time has been wasted by incessant crossing, that
perhaps the rule laid down would be more advantageous to us,
than to breeders who can avail themselves of selections of pure
blood at any time and from large supplies. In adopting this
principle, moreover, it should be satisfactorily ascertained that
the qualities obtained are valuable, and worthy of transmission.
The following remarks, from a writer on cattle in the " Library
of Useful Knowledge," although differing somewhat from the
foregoing, and although often quoted, are so useful, that they
are well worthy of insertion in every treatise o* breeding. He
says : —

" At the outset of his career the farmer should have a clear and
determined conception of the object which he wishes to accomplish.
He should consider the nature of his farm ; the quality, abundance or
deficiency of his pasturage, the character of the soil, the seasons of the
year when he will have plenty, or deficiency of food, the locality of his
farm, the market to which he has access, and the produce which can be
disposed of with the greatest profit ; and these things will at once point
to him the breed he should be solicitous to obtain. The man of wealtli
and patriotism may have more extensive views, and nobly look to the
general improvement of cattle ; but the farmer, with his limited means,
and with the claims that press upon him, regards his cattle as a valuable
portion of his own little property, and on which every thing should
appear to be in natural keeping, and be turned to the best advantage.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 25

The best beast for him is that which suits his farm the best, and with a
view to this, he studies, or ought to study, the points and qualities of
his own cattle and those of others. The dairyman will regard the
quantity of milk — the quality — its value for the production of butter and
cheese — the time that the cow continues in milk — the character of the
breed for quietness, or as being good nurses — the predisposition to garget
or other disease, ov dropping after calving — the natural tendency to turn
every thing to nutriment — the ease with which she is fattened when
given up as a milker, and the proportion of food requisite to keep her
in full milk or to fatten her when dry. The grazier will consider the
kind of beast which his land will bear — the kind of meat most in demand
in his neighborhood — the early maturity — the quickness of fattening at
any age — the quality of the meat — the parts on which the flesh and fat
are particularly laid — and, more than all, the hardihood and the adaptation
to soil and climate.

" In order to obtain these valuable properties, the good farmer will
make himself perfectly master of the characters and qualities of his own
stock. He will trace the connection of certain good qualities and certain
bad ones, with an almost invariable peculiarity of shape and sti-ucture ;
and at length he will arrive at a clear conception, not so much of beauty
of form, (although that is a pleasing object to contemplate.) as of that
outline and proportion of parts, with which utility is oftenest combined.
Then carefully viewing his stock, he will consider where they approach
to, and how far they wander from this utility of form ; and he will be
anxious to preserve or to increase the one, and to supply the deficiency
of the other. He will endeavor to select from his own stock those
animals that excel in the most valuable points, and particularly those
which possess the greatest number of these points, and he will unhesi-
tatingly condemn every beast that manifests deficiency in any one
important point. He will not, however, too long confine himself to his
own stock, unless it be a very numerous one. The breeding from close
affinities has many advantages, to a certain extent. It was the source
whence sprung the cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the superior cattle
of Colling ; and to it must also be traced the speedy degeneracy, the
absolute disappearance of the New Leicester cattle, and, in the hands of
many agriculturists, the impairment of constitution and decreased value
of the New Leicester sheep and of the Short-horns. He will therefore
s^k some change in his stock every second or third year, and that
change is most conveniently effected by introducing a new bull. This
bull should be of the same breed, and pure, coming from a similar pas-
turage and climate, but possessing no relationship — or at most a very
4*

26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

distant one* — to the stock to which he is introduced. lie should bring
with him every good point which the breeder has labored to produce in
his stock, and, if possible, some improvement, and especially in the points
where the old stock may have been somewhat deficient, and most
certainly he should have no manifest defect of form ; and that most
essential of all qualifications, a hardy constitution, should not be wanting.
" There is one circumstance, however, which the breeder occasionally
forgets, but which is of as much importance to the permanent value of
his stock, as any careful selection of animals can be — and that is, good
keeping. It has been well said that 'all good stock must be both bred
with attention and well fed.' It is necessary that these too essentials in
this species of improvement should always accompany each other ; for
witliout good resoui'ces of keeping, it would be vain to attempt supporting
a valuable stock. It is yet more evident when animals are absurdly
brought from a better to a poorer soil. The original stock will deterio-
rate if neglected and half-starved, and the improved breed will lose
ground even more rapidly, and to a far greater extent."

NEW ENCxLAND CATTLE FOR MIXED PURPOSES.

While a distinction has been drawn between the breeding of
animals for beef, and for the dairy, in the suggestions that have
already been made, there is no doubt tliat the two objects can
be combined to some extent. " It is probable," observes Sir
John Sinclair, " that, by great attention, a breed might be
reared, the males of which might be well calculated, in every
respect, for the shambles ; and the females of which might,
when young, produce abundant quantities of good milk ; yet
when they reached eight or nine years of age might be easily
fattened. This would be the most valuable breed that could
be propagated in any country ; and, indeed, some of the best
English and Scotch breeds have almost reached that point of
perfection."

In New England also, there has, in some sections, been some
approach to this. With all the existing diversity in our cattle,
there arc, scattered in every direction, and without any known
relationship, small families, not constituting in any respect a
breed, which combine size and thrift, with very good qualities
for the dairy. There can hardly be said to be any great

* On this point wc differ somewhat; distant relationship, if sound, and
possessed of valuable points, it seems to us, will bring about the desired result,
with more rapidity and certainty.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 27

uniformity among the individuals of any one of these families —
only a certain pervading excellence, good dairy cows, not perhaps
those which can be most economically and profitably fed for
the dairy, nor those which will bring to the stall the highest
fattening qualities — but pretty good animals in both capacities.
These families of cattle bear no marks of having descended
from the same origin. In some instances, they appear to be
grade Devons, the cross, whatever it may be, having imparted
larger growth, more bone, and heavier quarters, than are seen
in pure animals of this breed in this country. In other
instances, the prevailing type is that of the old-fashioned
Durhams, like the Gore and Derby stock, or Coelebs, rather
coarse and ill-favored animals, sometimes denominated Holder-
ness. In other places, there are evident marks of Ayrshire
blood, either-derived from some long-forgotten Ayrshire bull,
or resembling that breed from an accidental cross, somewhat
analogous to that adopted by the Scotch farmers in establishing
their well-known dairy stock. It is hardly proper to denomi-
nate these various families, as the native breed of New England,
because, although some of them were founded at a time and in
a manner long since forgotten, yet others are of modern and
well-remembered origin, and ail differ from each other very
essentially.

It is, indeed, very difficult to account for the want of simi-
larity in our New England cattle. It may be owing to the
variety of the importations which have been made from time
to time — Short-horns, Durhams, Ayrshires, Devons, Jerseys,
just as the taste of the importer might dictate. But while
most other sections have types of their own, sprung perhaps
from one early introduction, and not interfered with for many
generations, while in the old country, the Devon, and Hereford,
and West Highlander, and Galloway, and Suffolk, and Jersey,
and Short-horn, are preserved with purity, although in nearer
proximity, than the cattle of the Aroostook are to those of the
Connecticut Valley, we have neither established an uniform
New England breed, nor have given to each locality such a
distinct breed that the experienced eye can detect the origin of
the droves that congregate in our markets. We seem not yet
to have learned what breed of cattle is best adapted to our
wants. We have not yet discovered what animal machine will

28 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

convert our farm products into the most money. If we had
done this, we should not see one farmer devoting himself
to producing the mammoth proportions of the 8hort-horn,
while his immediate neighbor is satisfied with the Devon, or the
Ayrshire, or the Jersey. It is very evident that the same tract
of land cannot be fed indiscriminately with all these breeds,
with an equal prospect of success, and with equal results. As
our agriculture advances, this defect will undoubtedly find
a remedy.

METHODS OF REARING.

With regard to the best methods of rearing cattle, much
depends upon the prices of food consumed by them in various
localities ; upon the manner of feeding ; and upon the time
occupied by them in arriving at maturity. A large proportion
of the expense may be incurred during the first few months, in
the period of calf-hood, when the animal requires good nourish-
ment, and tender care, in order to start it well in life, and
to lay a foundation for future usefulness. No statement of
the various modes of feeding the calf, can be more com-
prehensive than the following, taken from the " Complete
Grazier " : —

" There are two modes of feeding calves : one is to permit them to
run about with the parent cow the whole of the first year ; tlie other
mode is to wean them when about a fortnight old, and bring them up by
hand.

" The former expedient is generally allowed to be productive of the
best cattle, and is adopted in those countries where fodder is abundant
and cheap ; in others, where it is found prudent to reserve a portion of
the milk, the following plan is pursued. From the time the calves are
dropped, till they are able to support themselves, they are allowed to
run in the manner above mentioned, but they are prevented from sucking
by means of a small piece of leather, having little sharp iron spikes
fixed upon the outside, which is tied on the upper part of the calPs nose,
in such a manner as to allow it to feed upon the grass without restraint.
Hence, as often as the animal attempts to suck, this instrument pricks
the cow, and prevents her from letting the milk flow, till the muzzle is
removed, and the portion of milk not taken from the cow is resigned to
the calf, and the muzzle is replaced.

" Whether calves are designed to be raised for breed, labor, or feeding,
care should be taken that they have a sufficient supply of good pasture J

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 29

because, if the latter be scanty at first, they scarcely, if ever, attain to a
larfi'e o-rowth. The best time for weaning them is, therefore, about that
period of the year when the young grass acquires enough succulence,
both to entice the appetite, and toaifordcompletenourishment without the
aid of other food. Calves, which are dropped in October and November
Avill thrive greatly by the nourishing pastures into which they may be
turned, in the ensuing spring, if allowed to suck and to be properly
sheltered throughout the winter ; but the milk is too scarce at that
season to be commonly bestowed on them, and winter-weaned calves
seldom arrive at much perfection."

I would here remark, that some of the best and cheapest
calves that I have ever raised, have been dropped in the autumn.
They require good care ; but tliey are very likely to get it in
winter, when there is no temptation to turn them to grass, too
early. And they are well matured for the nourishing grass of
spring.

"Various plans have been suggested, and tried with considerable
success, for rearing calves without any, or at least with a small quantity
of milk. The time of weaning them varies from one fortnight till they
are seven weeks old ; but the latter period is preferable, on account of
the weak and tender state of the calves, if separated from the dam, at
an earlier age. In several counties of England, calves, on being taken
from the cows, are with great pains taught to drink skimmed milk, in a
luke-warm state ; for either extreme of heat or cold is hurtful to the
beast, and not unfrequently produces fatal consequences; about twelve
weeks after which, for three or four weeks they are fed with lukewarm
milk and water. Small wisps of fine hay are then placed within their
reach, in order to induce them to eat. Towards the end of May they
are turned out to grass, being taken in a few nights, when they have
tepid milk and water given them ; which is usually continued, though
gradually in smaller proportions, during the last month, till they are
able to feed themselves, when they totally disregard it ; care, however,
should be taken that the grass is short and sweet, and by no means rank
and sour. Indeed, a spirited American agriculturist (Mr. E. L. Ilomme-
dieu, Transactions New York Agricultural Society) is of opinion that
calves taken from the cows are much better in a pasture without water than
in a pasture of equal goodness with water. The reason he assigns (with
which, however, we can by no means agree) is, that when indulged
with water they drink too much to supply the want of milk ; whereas,
when deprived of water they are forced to eat grass, containing some

30 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

moisture, and soon learn to allay tlieir thirst by eating before the dew is
dissipated, and on that account eat more than if they could go to water.

"In the county of Suffolk, calves are usually weaned soon after
Christmas ; when they are fed with lukewarm skimmed milk and water,
having bran or oats in it, and some very sweet hay by them, till the
grass is ready ; though if the farmer have carrots, these form an excel-
lent article of food, and render the use of Oats unnecessary. About two
gallons of milk daily are sufficient for the support of a calf until he
begins to eat. It should be given regularly at the same hours ; and he
should be kept as quiet as possible, as rest is found to promote his
growth materially.

" In Ayrshire, calves intended to be reared for dairy cows are fed on
milk for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then allowed four or
five quarts of new milk at each meal, twice in twenty-four hours. Some
never give them any other food when young except milk, and lessen the
quantity when they begin to eat grass, or other food, which they gen-
erally do when about five weeks old, when grass can be had ; and the
milk is wholly withdrawn about the seventh or eighth week. But if
reared in winter, or before the grass rises in spring, they must be longer
supplied with milk, as a calf will not so soon learn to eat hay or stra^v,
nor thrive so well on them alone as it will on pasture. Others feed
partly with meal mixed in the milk, after the third or fourth week ; or
gradually introduce some new whey along with the meal, and afterwards
withdraw the milk altogether. Hay-tea, linseed jelly, treacle, &c., are
also sometimes used with advantage ; but milk,^hen it can be spax-ed, is
by far the best as well as the most natural food.

" Another mode of rearing calves has been suggested by his Grace,
the late Duke of Northumberland, the design of which is to render the
use of new milk unnecessary, while the expense is reduced in the pro-
portion of two-thirds. It is effected in the following manner : let half
an ounce of common treacle be well mixed with a pint of skimmed milk,
then gradually add one ounce of finely powdered linseed oil cake,
stirring it until the mixture be properly incorporated, after which it is
to be added to the remainder of a gallon of milk ; and the whole, being
made nearly of the temperature of new milk, may then be given to the
animal ; after a short time, the quantity of pulverized oil cake may be
increased. This method is said to have been advantageously adopted ;
but Lord Egremont has used linseed jelly, in the proportion of a pint to
a gallon of skimmed milk, without treacle, and it did not answer.

" An infusion of hay, called indiscriminately hay-tea or hay-water
has been also applied to the purpose of rearing calves with the smallest
quantity of milk. In order to make this infusion, such a portion of fine,
sweet hay cut once or twice, is put into a small earthen vessel, as will

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 31

fill it, on being lightly settled with the hand. The vessel is then filled
with boiling Avater, and carefully closed ; at the end of two hours, a
brown, rich, and sweet infusion will be produced, not unlite alewort, or
strong tea, which will remain good for two days, even during summer,
and which is to be used in the following manner.

"At the end of three or four days after a calf has been dropped, and
the first passages have been cleansed, let the quantity usually allotted for
a meal be mixed, consisting for a few days of three parts of milk, and
one jprt of hay-tea ; afterwards the proportion of each may be equal ;
then composed of two-thirds of hay-water and one of milk ; and, at
length one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient. This preparation (the
inventor of which was, many years since, honored with a gold medal by
the Dublin Society of Arts,) is usually given to the calf, in a lukewarm
state, in the morning and evening ; each meal consisting of about three
quarts at first, but gradually increasing to four quarts by the end of the
month. During the second month, beside the usual quantity given at
each meal, (composed of tliree parts of the infusion, and one part of
milk,) a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be laid before the calf, which
will gradually come to eat it ; but if the weather be favorable, as in the
month of May, the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine, sweet
pasture, well sheltered from the winds and sun. This diet may be con-
tinued till towards the latter end of the third month, when, if the animal
graze heartily, each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of milk,
with the hay-water ; or skimmed milk, or fresh butter-milk, may be sub-
stituted for new milk. At the expiration of the third month, the animal
will scarcely require to be fed by hand ; though if this should still be
necessary, one quart of the infusion (which during the summer need not
be warmed,) will be sufficient for a day.

" The economical mode above detailed has been adopted in some
counties of England, Avith the addition of linseed-cake finely pulverized
and boiled in the hay-tea only, to the consistence of a jelly, without
employing any milk in the mixture ; and as so many excellent artificial
grasses are now cultivated for the feeding and fattening of cattle, we con-
ceive that an infusio%of any one or more of them would be found more
nutritious than if it were prepared from the promiscuous mixtures of
grass usually occurring in common hay.*

* Mr. Crook, (in the Letters and Papers of a Bath and West of England
Society,) is said to have great success with this method. Three sacks of linseed
lasted him three years — value eleven dollars. One quart of seed boiled in
six of water, for ten minutes, to a jelly, was given three times a day mixed
with a little hay-tea. His cattle were remarkably fine.

32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

" In Devonsliire, the rules commonly followed in rearing calves, are
nearly as follows : The greatest number are usually dropped between
Candlemas and May, and some much later; but the most experienced
breeders prefer the earliest. They are permitted to suck as much as
they like, three times a day, for the first week, after which they are
suckled by hand, and fed with warm new milk for three weeks longer.
They are then fed, during the two following months, twice a day, with
as much warm skim milk as they can drink — in which some breeders
mix a small portion of finely pounded linseed cake,* or meal ;#after
which the meals of milk are gradually abated, and at the end of four
months they are wholly weaned from milk, and left to themselves at
pasture.

" In the northern counties of England, it is a common practice to give
the calves equal parts of milk and sweet whey, made lukewarm ; but as
this mode often produces scouring or looseness, we think the following
method, which was a few years since communicated to the public by a
spirited and experienced breeder, is greatly preferable. For the first
four or five weeks, he fed them regularly, but oftener than is usually
done, with new and skimmed milk, at the end of which time his calves
were gradually taught to drink strong watei'-gruel, consisting of equal
parts of bean or oat-meal, mixed with the gruel after the latter is
removed from the fire. This method of treatment he is stated to have
pursued with great success for many years ; his calves being strong and
healthy, while every thing that could tend to retard their growth was
effectually prevented.

"In the county of Norfolk, calves are fed with .-kiinmed milk, in which
is mixed a little wheaten flour ; they have also chopped turnips in a
trough ; and some hay in a low rack. As soon as these animals learn
to eat turnips freely, they are no longer supplied with milk, these roots,
with the addition of a little hay, furnishing them both with food and
drink. The period of x'aising calves in the above mentioned county, is
from the first of October to the first of February; but the time of feed-

* Lest we should be understood as indiscriminatolji rocommendinji the use
of linseed as food for calves, either in form of infusion or of ground oil cake,
we would say that its use in the rearing of dairy stock, cattle for labor, or for
store, should be avoided. We are of opinion that its use once begun cannot
be discontinued ; and that while it forces the animal to early maturity, and
keeps it in high condition, profitable to the breeder of beef, still it is injurious
to certain faculties and functions necessary to be preserved in animals whose
service begins at a later period of life — such as the dairy cow, and the work-
ing ox. This matter is more fully discussed in the following pages. Tiie remarks
applied to linseed, we would also apply to all articles of food, of a highly
stimulatinji and I'attcniuu nature.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 33

ing them wholly with turnips varies, according to circumstances or acci-
dent. Where there are older calves that have been accustomed to these
roots, the younger ones soon acquire the method of breaking and eating
them, by picking up the fragments left by the former.

" Towards the month of March, those which are first reared are
turned out among the fattening bullocks during the day, and are sheltered
in the night ; though, if the weather proves favorable, they are in a few
days turned out altogether. In the succeeding summer they are kept iu
clover, or other luxuriant grasses, and the following autumn, are suili-
ciently strong to stand in the straw or fold-yard. This circumstance is
considered tlie chief advantage to be derived from rearing calves eai'ly
in the season ; as those which are raised during the spring require two
years' nursing.

" The subsequent method of raising calves, by Mr. William Budd, of
Boston, Massachusetts, which obtained the prize from the ' Massachu-
setts Society for promoting Agriculture,' we give in his own language,
extracted from his communication to that Society : —

" 'Take calves, when three days old, from the cows, and put them into
a stable by themselves ; feed them with gruel, composed of one-third
barley, two-thirds oats, ground together very fine, sifting the mixture.
Each calf is to receive a quart of gruel morning and evening, and to be
made in the following manner ; to one quart of thq flour, add twelve of
water, boil the mixture half an hour, let it stand until milk-warm. In
ten days, tie up a bundle of soft hay, in the middle of the stable, which
they will eat by degrees. A little of the flour put into a small trough,
for them to lick occasionally, is of service. Feed them thus, till they
are two months old, increasing the quantity. Three bushels of the
above mixture will raise six calves.'

" Mr. Clift, of the New York Agricultural Society, takes the calf from
the cow at two or three days' old ; he then milks the cow, and while the
milk is warm, teaches the animal to drink, by holding his head down into
the pail ; if the calf will not drink, he puts his hand into the milk, and a
finger into the mouth, till the beast learns to drink without the finger.
After he has been fed with new milk for a fortnight, the cream is taken
off the milk, with which an equal or larger portion of thin flax-seed
jelly is mixed, and the whole is given milk-warm. Thus, as the spring
is the most favorable season for making butter, he is enabled, during the
six or seven weeks the animals are kept previously to weaning, to make
as much butter as they are worth ; a practice which merits the attention
of our farmers, to whom it will afford a very essential saving, particularly
in those counties where butter forms a chief article of manufacture.

"In the rearing of calves, much depends on the regularity of feeding
them ; the common practice is to supply them with food twice in the
5*

34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

(lay, in tlie morning and at evening, when they generally receive as
large a quantity as their craving appetites can take. Hence the diges-
tive organs are necessarily impaired, and numerous animals either become
tainted with disease, or perish from the inattention of their keepers ;
wliereas by feeding them tlirice a day, at equidistant intervals, and
allowing sufficient room for exercise, (when they are not intended to be
fivttened,) they will not only be preserved in health, but they will also
greatly improve in condition.

" Whatever food be allowed to young calves, care should also be taken
not to change it too suddenly. A calf must have attained a certain
degree of strength before it can dispense with the food most natural to
its age, and thrive without the aid of milk ; it should always, therefore,
be allowed as long as possible ; but even when that has been withdrawn,
and the animal has begun to eat grass, still the substitutes that had been
emi)loyed in lieu of milk should be partly continued until his appetite
prefer the pasture. It is a common notion, that provided young stock
acquire size, their condition is immaterial ; and, after the first winter,
they are generally turned into the toughest pasture, and kept during the
following winter on straw, with, perhaps, a little inditferent hay. This,
when they are intended to be sold to the fatting grazier, may be the
most profitable mode, and, in some situations, it is the only one that can
be adopted ; but when they are meant to be reared for the breed, it is
absolutely requisite, as the oidy means of bringing them to perfect
maturity, and improving their qualities, that they should be kept on
good pasture during the summer, and allowed roots with some sound
hay in the winter, and green food in the spring. A contrary mode,
though the most economical, is decidedly disadvantageous ; for the worst
breed will ultimately be improved by good feeding, while the best will
degenerate under a system of starvation."

Ill most of these modes of feeding, it will be observed that
the great object in view is the raising of cattle, without inter-
fering with the products of the dairy. That this is desirable
will be seen at once, when we estimate the amount of milk
necessarily consumed by a calf, wdiich is fed from the cow, until
old enough to subsist on solid food. In this section of the
country, where butter and cheese are manufactured, each
cow is estimated to make an annual return of from thirty to
sixty dollars ; where milk is sold directly from the farm, to
consumers in our large cities, the return is much larger. It is
only, therefore, in the remotest regions, that the plan of allow-
ing calves to run with the cow for months can be practiced

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 35

with any profit, unless it be with breeders of pure blooded
stock, commanding high prices iu the market. In those
sections where beef-raising and feeding are profitable, it is
uudoubtedly best to force the young animal to early maturity —
as is done with the English Short-horns. And for the breeder
of animals for this purpose, tliose which never falter in their
growtli, and arrive early at perfection, are the most desirable.
Such animals as these may possibly remunerate the breeder for
a somewhat liberal use of milk in feeding.

But in the rearing of dairy stock, or those classes of cattle
which are not developed properly for feeding until two or three
years old, some substitute for milk must be found. We shall
endeavor to illustrate this by giving the cost, in figures,
hereafter.

In the rearing of dairy stock, there are other things to be
considered besides the cost and quantity of food, viz., the
quality of the food and the mode of feeding, with reference
to the

ANIMAL STRUCTURE.

It is comparatively an easy matter to breed animals, which,
by their aptitude to fatten, will remunerate the feeder. The
qualities belonging to an animal structure, designed for this
purpose, are very perceptible, are easily transmitted, and are
easily preserved and improved by feeding. Mr. Bakewell
learned almost the precise mechanism adapted to his wants,
as a producer of size and fat — the form and quality of bone,
the shape of the parts containing the vital organs, and the
organs of nutrition, that " feel," which an expert under-
stands, so that he may almost be Said to carry eyes in his
fingers' ends, capable of exploring the internal organization
of every animal. And this bone, and shape of body, and
texture of the skin, are easily preserved and transmitted.
Breeding does much, and feeding does more, towards this
preservation and transmission. When Mr. Colling saw Hub-
back, he knew that his stomach, and glandular system, and
nervous organization all tended towards the development of
fat, and he believed it would be easy to transplant such
lethargic faculties as these. He did this on good soil, and with
proper care succeeded in making a creation of fat.

36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. Aiton and his predecessors had a very different and a
much more difficult task to perform. That delicate organiza-
tion, which is called into operation when the food taken into
the body is to be converted into milk, is much more difficult
to com])rehend or control. True, there is a certain physical
conformation indicative of a large capacity for secreting milk ;
but when we remember that this capacity violates all law, and
is as erratic as genius, we can comprehend how many diffi-
culties they labored under, who, in Scotland, endeavored to
establish a breed of milkers. They might secure the bony
structure, the quality of skin, the shape of the muscle, the
general outline, the form of udder most approved, and, after
all this, there might be some deep defect in the powers of
assimilating the food, in the glandular system, in the nervous
organization, which entirely destroyed the utility of the animal.
This accounts for the wide differences which exist in individuals
belonging to every well-known and long-established breed of
milkers, as the Ayrshires and Jerseys. Thousands of animals
are driven from Short-horn and Devon regions, so nearly alike
in weight and size and shape, that the law of their reproduc-
tion seems to be as fixed as that which gives to the casting the
shape of the mould, be it repeated times innumerable. But
no one can find a race of milkers, all brought up to a high
standard, and all capable of transmitthig that standard. We
approach it, but are often vexed at the unexpected failures.

Now it would seem that the great rule to be observed in the
rearing of dairy stock, is not to interfere with this delicate
organization by the food furnished in early life. Why cannot
the system of a heifer be injured by food, so as to disorganize
her glandular functions,*as well as the system of a cow, which
can be forced into diseased action with the greatest ease;
which, in fact, requires constant care, lest in her business of
manufacturing milk she may take on disease ? Why may we
not, for instance, lay the foundation for garget, long before the
udder contains a drop of milk ? We do not feed a milch cow
as we do a fatting cow, unless we are willing to run the risk
of ruining her. For the wholesale statement so often made
that what produces milk will also produce fat, and vice versa,
is shown to be wholly unfounded by a comparison of the effect

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 37

of roweii hay, brewers' grains, shorts, and green food, with
corn meal and oil cake.

A cow, moreover, never reaches perfection in her line until
she has arrived at maturity ; and she must reacli this period
of life with all her faculties unimpaired, if we expect her to
be as good a cow as nature intended her to be. Slie differs in
this respect from the best beef-growing animals, which are
mature, as it were, from the start ; and whose organizations,
instead of being impaired for their business by generations
of high early feeding, are, rather, more and more adapted to it.

We all know that the oldest and best families of Short-horns
are not remarkable for constitutional elasticity and vigor.
They have not great muscular strength, are not nervous and
powerful in their action, and are deficient in the procreative
faculties. Like the thorough-bred horse, which has also been
forced to early maturity and early decay for Inany generations,
they have become enervated and constitutionally delicate.
High feeding has done this, in both instances ; and as " a short
life and a merry one," in the animal, is most profitable to the
breeders of beef, and horses fit only for the turf, high feeding
has accomplished what was desired — the gain being greater
than the sacrifice.

Not so, however, with the cow. Her powers mature slowly,
and depend very much upon the strength of her constitution.
When this is impaired, either by breeding or by feeding, her
value is diminished. For in the work of bearing young, and
giving milk, in which her whole life is passed, the tax upon her
vital forces is such that none but the most robust can endure
it. In establishing a dairy breed, therefore, early maturity,
with its accompanying evils, is not desirable. On the contrary,
it should be avoided, and that mode of feeding should be
adopted which will be conducive to health in the individual
and in the breed, and which will in no way exhaust the powers
or shorten the life of the race.

In addition to this, great regard should be had in raising
dairy stock, to the effect whicli different kinds of food produce
upon the animal economy. Whatever enlarges the bony struc-
ture of the female calf, beyond what is necessary for her
strength, is worse than useless. A coarse-boned cow rarely
reaches that standard of excellence, both in the quantity

38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and quality of lier milk, which is attractive to the breeder, or
satisfactory to the consumer.

So too of fat. Tlie fat-cells, that tissue of the body in which
adipose matter is deposited, are found in fat and lean animals
alike — the difference consisting in the amount of their contents
and their number only. For the supply of fat, certain organs
are provided, which are ca})able of receiving all that excess of
non-azotized compounds, such as starch, oil, &c., which is con-
tained in the alimentary matter taken into the body. Where
there is a ready absorption of these compounds into the vessels,
fat is produced, especially if with this absorption there is com-
bined a vigorous power to generate adipose tissue. "Where they
are not absorbed, accumulations of fat do not take place ; and
where they are absorbed, without being provided with adipose
tissue, they would accumulate injuriously in the blood, if not
drawn off by the* liver. Hence it is that in warm climates,
where there is diminished excretion through the lungs, and non-
azotized food is not got rid of by the respiratory process, the liver
is overworked, its function becomes disordered from its inability
to separate from the blood all that it should draw off, and these
injurious substances accumulating in the blood, " produce
various symptoms that are known under the general term
bilious." Hence, also, some persons never become fat, however
large the quantity of oily matter taken into the stomach ; and
it is in such persons that the tendency to disorder of the liver
from overwork is most readily manifested ; they are, therefore,
obliged to abstain from the use of fat-producing articles of
food. It is the power, therefore, to absorb these fat-producing
articles of food, and to generate adipose tissue for their recep-
tion, that saves the liver from being overtasked, and results in
accumulations of fat. The constituents of fat are termed
stearine, marzerine, and oleine.

We have dwelt upon the production of animal fat, and the
organs engaged in its manufacture, in order to show how
distinct a part of the animal economy it is, and how naturally
the fat-producing functions can be transmitted, independently
of all others, and may be cultivated at the expense of all
others.

The secretion of milk is a very different matter, and is
performed by certain glands, whose business it is rather " to

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 39

elaborate from the blood certain products, which are destined
for special uses in the economy, than to eliminate matters
wliose retention in the circulating current would be injurious."
These glands, called mammary glands, perform as is supposed
tiie chief part of the work of elaborating the elements of
milk ; although it is not yet ascertained how much of this
elaboration takes place in the blood during its circulation. Be
this as it may, the production of milk is a very different busi-
ness from the production of fat, and does not result in the
combination of the same elements, as are contained in the
^dipose tissue and fat-cells.

It is well known, moreover, that the proportion of two, at
least, of the principal ingredients of milk, is lial)le to great
variation with the circumstances of the animal. Dr. Playfair
has ascertained " that the proportion of butter depends in part
upon the quantity of oily matter in the food ; and in part upon
the amount of exercise which the animal takes, and the warmth
of atmosphere in which it is kept. Exercise and cold, by
increasing the respiration, eliminate part of the oily matter in
the form of carbonic acid and water ; while rest and warmth,
by diminishing this drain, favor its passage into the milk.
The proportion of casein, on the other hand, is increased by
exercise ; which would seem to show that this ingredient is
derived from the disintegration of muscular tissue." The
experience of every farmer teaches him that an animal which
has a large, heavy, muscular development, and is thus furnished
with the means of rapid locomotion, is seldom a good milker.
Her digestive apparatus is more devoted to her fleshy fibre
than to the preparation of milk. The same may be said of fot
and bone. So true is this, that among cattle bred expressly for
the stall, the females often furnish hardly milk enough to
sustain their own offspring ; and in countries where the bone
and muscle of the cow are developed by labor, her service in
the dairy amounts to but little.

It would seem, therefore, that in rearing animals for the
dairy, care should be taken that the young are not so fed as
to develop a tendency to great size, either in frame or in
adipose tissue ; nor so as to establish in the end a race which
has every faculty except that of producing milk. We bave all
seen how high-feeding of the young has in a few generations,

40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and sometimes in one or two, removed from a family of vigor-
ous, nervous, muscular and active horses, all traces of those
characteristics which have given them value. What they had
acquired on the homely fare of their native hills, they lost when
brought and bred into greater prosperity. The hard and wiry
tendon vanished ; the elastic and well-defined muscle was
rounded off into graceful effeminacy ; the carcase and adipose
tissue had gained the ascendency, through the aid of good
living, and a luxurious life from youth upward. Some of us
have seen a promising heifer calf, the offspring of a good
milker, pampered in its youth, and fed until it became anv
thing but the dairy animal which its ancestry promised.

"We would not advocate a deficiency of food for young dairy
stock ; but we would argue against an excess of articles of
a highly stimulating quality. The plan of tlie Ayrshire farmers
is undoubtedly a good one — to take their calves early from the
dams, feed them from the dish, and bring them to solid food or
pasture as soon as the condition of the young stomach will
allow. Instead of linseed meal, they use a great quantity of
oatmeal — an article of food much less predisposing to fat, and
keeping up a vigorous growth. We have in New England the
best quality of English hay as a basis of feeding ; and after the
calf is weaned, or after he has had milk enough to give him a
fair introduction into life, hay, in the form of hay-tea, and
afterwards of rowen, is undoubtedly the best food the animal
can have, especially when aided by a few roots, such as turnips
or carrots. In some cases milk is abandoned at a very early
age, and skimmed milk is advantageously used as a siibstitute.
We would not recommend the use of grain, especially that
containing a superabundance of oily matter, as Indian corn or
linseed, for young dairy stock. Perhaps corn-meal sparingly,
or barley or outmeal, may be used in winter, should the animal
seem not to thrive well. But a calf that is properly weaned and
fed after weaning, and furnished with a good pasture, will be
carried through the first winter most satisfactorily on good
sweet hay, especially rowen, with roots. In this way can a
uniform and well-balanced animal l)e produced, wliich, when
put to daii-y service, will not become coarse and raw-boned in
her apj3carance, nor take on flesh at the expense of the milk-pail.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 41

COST AND QUANTITY OF FOOD.

Of the cost and quantity of food required to carry a calf
through the first year of its existence, it is very difficult to
make an estimate. There are certain modes of feeding however,
the cost of which is easily computed. Take, for instance,
the plan adopted by some, as referred to above, of allowing the
calf to run with the dam, until it is six months old. Suppose
the cow to give the calf eight quarts of milk per day, at the
following prices : —

8 quarts at 2 cents per quart for 6 months, . • |26 88
8 " 3 " " " 6 " . . 40 32

8 " 4 " " " 6 " . . 53 76

One or another of these prices milk will command, almost
any where, whether sold, or converted into butter and cheese.

Take, now, the first estimate, and add to it the cost of
keeping during the winter, the articles being estimated in
proportion to the price of the milk, and we have —

Amount of milk consumed, .....

Hay, during first winter, . . . . . . 5 00

Roots, during first winter, | peck per day for 4 months,

at 17 cents per bushel, 3 16

Cost, at one year old, $35 04

From one farmer celebrated for his stock, we have the
following mode, with our own estimates,

50 quarts of milk at 2 cents per quart, . . . $1 00

700 quarts of skimmed milk at 1 cent per quart, . 7 00

Pasture, for 5 months, 2 00

Hay, during first winter, 5 00

Roots, during first winter, | peck per day for 4 months,

at 17 cents per bushel, 3 16

Cost, at one year old, $18 16

It is well known to cattle breeders that the feeding of the
first year is the most expensive and requires the most care. A
calf, dropped early in the spring, has consumed nearly as

6*

$18 16

3

00

8

00

5

00

10

00

42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

much in value, when it has arrived at the commencement of its
second year's pasturing, as it will during the two following
years, or until it is three years old.
Taking the last mentioned animal whose cost at one

year old, was ....
Add second year's pasturage,

second year's wintering, .

third year's pasturage,

third year's wintering,

Cost of rearing to three years of age, . . $4-4 16

It is not claimed that these figures represent in all cases the
precise cost of rearing an animal. The variations in the price
of food in different localities, the different modes of feeding
necessary for the various classes of animals raised, and the kinds
of food used, all modify to a considerable extent the expense
involved in the business of feeding. We have given what seems
to be an average of the cost ; and it is for those who furnish
good animals for the dairy, for the butcher, for the stall, or for
work, to judge of the profits to be made, after considering the
value of the manure, and the fact that on every farm there is
almost always a certain quantity of unmarketable produce,
which serves very well as food for young cattle and stores.
Neither should we forget that the conversion of farm produce
into beef or dairy products, is, in remote sections, where trans-
portation is difficult, the most convenient and profitable mode
of disposing of it.

QUANTITY OF FOOD.

Of the quantity of food required for feeding animals, it is
equally difficult to judge, with any satisfactory precision. No
two farmers feed precisely alike ; and no two writers agree
exactly in their estimate of the amount of food required by
cattle. We are told by one that ten pounds of English hay,
half a bushel of roots, and two quarts of corn-meal, or oil-cake
or cotton-seed, is sufficient food for a milch cow per day, during
the winter. Another claims to have fed satisfactorily on eight
pounds of hay, with a bushel of roots, and two quarts of meal,
or four of shorts. Another estimates fifteen pounds of hay,
with half a bushel of roots, or two quarts of meal, as the most

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 43

economical mode of feeding. Calculations have been made of
the ratio between the weight of the animal and the amount of
food required, which, although having the appearance of accu-
racy, must be modified by circumstances connected with the
condition of the animal, and the care which it receives. It is
acknowledged, that warmth, quiet, and comfort are essential
to economical feeding ; and we should not lose sight, therefore,
in making our calculations, of the skill of the feeder, the tem-
perature of the climate, and the protection afforded the animal.
There is one rule, which, every judicious, observing and intelli-
gent farmer can observe with safety ; and that is, to feed
enough of whatever is given, to keep cattle in thriving condition,
taking care to keep them warm, clean, free from vermin, and
giving them their food regularly and in fixed quantities.

Of the more artificial modes of feeding, it may be proper to
make some comparative estimates ; we refer especially to
soiling' and steaming-.

SOILING.

We submit the following estimate of the comparative expense
of soiling and pasturing twenty cows, from June 1st to November
15th — five and one-half months.

In making this estimate, we have taken seventeen acres of
land — the amount specified for this purpose by the advocates
of soiling. We have considered, that land, in condition to
support these cattle, would yield two tons of hay to the acre.
We have estimated the price of pasture land at the average
rates for good land of this description, and have allowed four
acres of this land for the support of each cow. We have
endeavored to take the usual expense of a man per month,
inckiding his board ; and have allowed for the manure, all
that is claimed for it. We consider that a good pasture will
support cattle properly ; and have omitted all comparisons of
the health of animals confined and at large in the summer
season, and of the quality of the milk yielded under the
different circumstances. We have estimated the cost of pas-
turing rather above the average, and have charged no expense
of litter, ttc, against soiling.

Land required for soiling 20 cows from June 1st to November
loth, 5} months, 17 acres.

. ,

00
00

$450 00
200 00

$2,400.
. $144
10

$250 00

•

•

$154 00

44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Value of hay grown on land, 34 tons, at $10 per

ton, standing, $340 00

Labor of feeding, &c., one man, at $20 per month, . 110 00

Aggregate expenses of soiling,
Or. By manure, as estimated,

Net expenses of soiling, .

Pasture, 80 acres at $30 per acre,
Interest on cost of pasture,
Repairs, annual, on fences, <fec.,

Expense of pasturing,

Balance due on account of soiling over pasturing, $96 00

We do not take into account the loss of 17 acres of land for the
supply of winter forage, or crops, nor the expense of converting
the droppings of the cows into two hundred dollars' wortli of
manure ; neither do we calculate the expense of cultivating 17
acres of land.

STEAMING.

Of preparing food by steam, much has been said and written ;
and many experiments have been made. It seems to be gener-
ally conceded, that for the feeding of cattle, roots, such as
mangolds, swedes, and carrots, are reduced in weight and in
nutritive power by steaming. The question, therefore, with
regard to this process of preparing food, seems to be wliether
coarse and cheap fodder, usually unsalable in large quantities,
and fed to waste, can be raised to the value of good English
hay as an article of food ; and perhaps wliether English hay
can be more economically fed, by steaming than without it.
In making a calculation on this, we propose to take hay at
twelve dollars per ton, and to allow each animal in a herd of
twenty, twenty-five pounds per day, a quantity sufficient for a
medium sized cow, without the addition of grain or roots. We
say nothing of the expense of cutting the fodder that is steamed,
because it can be done, by a little additional use of the labor
of men and horses on the farm. We do not estimate the interest
on the cost of steaming apparatus, nor the wear and tear.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 45

Twenty-five pounds of hay to each of 20 cows, per
day, = 500 pounds. ^

Ton of hay consumed in 4 days at $12 per ton, = $3 per day.

Cost of keeping each cow on hay, (20 at $Z per day,) = 15
cents per day.

Ten pounds of corn-fodder to each of 20 cows per day, = 200
pounds.

Ton of corn-fodder consumed in 10 days, at 14 per ton, = 40
cents per day.

Meal, 2 quarts each, 40 quarts at 2 cents per quart, = 80
cents per day.

Cost of fuel, (steaming every other day,) 8 cents each time,
4 cents per day, = 40 cents.

Amount of expense per day, on the ton of corn-fodder = $1.60.

Cost of keeping each cow, (20 at $1.60 per day,) = 8 cents.*

In addition to this estimate, in favor of steaming the coarser
kinds of food for cattle, we should take into consideration the
undoubted fact that cattle are kept in better condition on the
proposed kind and amount of steamed food, than they are on
the proposed amount of English hay. For milch cows, the
former is undoubtedly preferable. And no one can doubt the
economy of converting the hard and coarse stalks of corn,
which are too apt to be entirely wasted, or to encumber the
manure heap, into a nutritious and palatable food. The same
may be said of straw and coarser hay. We do not propose to
describe the mode of steaming, and the apparatus by which it
is done — this knowledge is easily obtained by all who would try
the experiment. But we are satisfied, from experience, and from
the testimony of some of our best practical farmers, that steaming
is worthy of careful consideration. In estimating the cost of
steaming corn-fodder and coarse straw and hay, we have added
the expense of meal, because it is essential to the process.

* In making these estimates we have been governed by what seemed to be
a fair average price of the various articles of food consumed throughout the
State. We have estimated a ton of corn-fodder as worth, before cutting and
cooking, one-third of our estimated price of hay. Some farmers think it is
worth one-half as much as hay. So of meal — we have estimated it at Gl
cents per bushel. Wherever the prices are different from these, it will be easy
to make calculations accordingly, and thus establish the ratio.

46 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

"We are not sure that there is any economy in steaming
English hay — beyond that which is always gained by cutting
the hay fine and mixing meal with it, where it is desirable to
feed meal. We arc not prepared to say, that the additional
expense of steaming is compensated by the increased nutritive
quality of the hay, or by the diminution of the amount
consumed. We cannot ascertain that experiments have been
made, sufficient to determine this point.

There seems to be no doubt that steaming not only renders
the food more easily masticated, and thus provides against that
increased effort, which the best feeders have found to be an
obstacle in the way of fattening cattle on long and dry feed, but
it also develops certain nutritive qualities. Mr. Horsfall, for
instance, found that " bean-straw, uncooked, is dry and unpala-
table ; by the process of steaming it becomes soft and pulpy,
emits an agreeable odor, and imparts flavor and relish to the
mess." And he found also that when brought to a state which
was attractive to cattle, they obtained from it certain valuable
elements, such as albuminous matter, to a much larger degree
than they did from hay. " Bran also undergoes a great
improvement in its flavor by steaming, and it is probably
improved in its convertibility as food ; it contains about 14 per
cent, of albumen, and is peculiarly rich in phosphoric acid,
nearly 3 per cent, of its whole substance being of this material."
The flavor and value of rape-cake was also much improved by
steaming, and we have no doubt that the effect produced upon
bean-straw, bran and rape-cake, is also produced upon corn-
fodder, corn-meal, and oat and barley-straw.

Mr. Mechi, in his extremely interesting volume, in discussing
the question of converting straw into manure, by treading it in
the yards as is practiced in England, or by steaming and feeding,
says : —

"The cost of jireparing the straw for food, where steam is used, forms
no impediment to its profitable use as food. A ton of straw may, by
steam-power, be cut up into \ inch lengths for less than 3s. per ton ; by
liand-labor it would cost Gs. per ton. The steaming would cost very
little ; but even supposing the cost of boihng or steaming was 3s. per
ton, still there would be a manifest advantage in feeding out, and there
would be a saving in dung-lieaps or carting, in comparison with the
ordinary process. Mr. Ilursfall says : ' In wheat-straw, for which I pay

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 47

35s. per ton, I obtain h lb. of oil, besides 32 lbs. of starch, or (the
starch reduced as oil) 18i lbs. for Is. 2ld., available for the production
of fat, or for respiration. I know no other material from which I can
derive, by purchase, an equal amount of this element of food at so low a
price.' Mr. Horsfall can aflfbrd to give 35s. for a ton of wheat-straw, or
40s. for a ton of bean-straw, to use as food, with a good profit ; but if he
purchased it merely for the purpose of manure, it would not be worth to
him more than 9s. 7d. per ton.

" For several years I steamed nearly all the straw for my animals,
horses included, and was enabled to keep a very large number. Owing
to a change of bailiff and alterations in my buildings, rendered necessary
by my increased family, I partially reverted for a couple of years to the
old system of straw for bedding ; I soon found that I could not keep half
as much stock, and the whole affair was far less satisfactory. The same
remark applies to green food as straw; any cost of preparing and cutting
up is far more than compensated by the advantageous conversion of the
food by the animals which consume it. A very successful farmer of my
acquaintance, who keeps more than 1,500 sheep, puts down his horse-
power in the field, and cuts up all his green cx'ops into about ^ inch
length, mixing a little meal with it. I understood him to say that a man
and boy, with the horse, will cut up enough for 300 sheep daily. In
wet weather, or when the food is too succulent, he mixed a little straw
with it."

But that the same benefit does not accrue to articles of food
of a higher quality, or such as come nearer to the natural food
of cattle, the following interesting experiment, reported in the
Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society, will prove.

Six heifers and four steers, the former two and the latter
four years old, were selected on the 20th of February, 1833,
and fed upon steamed and raw food, weighed, and an accurate
account kept of their cost, expenses, and condition. For the
purposes of the experiment they were divided into two lots —
the heifers three in, each lot, and the steers two.

" The heifers were allowed as many purple-topped Swedish turnips,
topped, rooted, properly cleaned and cut into pieces, so that they could
get them into their mouths, as they could consume, with 3 lbs. of bruised
beans, and 20 lbs. of potatoes each beast per day, in addition to the
turnips, with 7 lbs. of straw each.

" The steers were allowed as many of the same sort of turnips as they
could eat, with 4^ lbs. of bruised beans, and 30 lbs. of potatoes each
beast per day, with 7 lbs. of straw each. That is to say, the food of the

48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

steers and heifers was the same, only with this difference : that the steers
were allowed 1^ lbs. of beans and 10 lbs. of potatoes more per beast
than the heifers, each day.

" One lot of the heifers and one of the steers was put upon steamed
food, and the other lot of heifers and steers was put upon raw food.

" Both lots, the cattle on steamed as well as raw food, were fed three
times a day — at daybreak, at noon, and lastly an hour before sunset.

" The bruised beans were given to the lots on raw food at noon, the
potatoes one half in the morning, and the other half at noon.

" In both cases, the greatest attention was paid to give both those on
raw and those on steamed food, as much as they could eat, but no more,
so that their food might be as nearly as possible eaten up at the times of
refeeding ; this being, in the opinion of the reporter, always a prime
consideration in every case of feeding, so that the stalls may always be
kept clean, and regularly cleared of the refuse. * * *

" We very soon discovered that the cattle on the steamed food con-
sumed considerably more turnips than those on the raw food, having
laid down for the three heifers on raw food two cart-loads, containing
together 25 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs. of turnips, and at the same time the like
quantity for the three heifers on steamed food ; but at the end of four
days, very few turnips were left to put into the steam-tub, while appa-
rently little more than the half of those laid down for the raw food were
consumed. "We then added another load of 12 cwt. 2 qrs. of turnips to
the steam, and at the end of seven days the three heifers on the raw
food had consumed the quantity laid down for them, while the three on
steamed food bad consumed the same quantity, and very nearly the
whole of the additional quantity of 12^ cwt., at least all but about a half
tub of 250 lbs. of raw turnips ; and in order to be very correct, we pro-
ceeded to weigh the steamed turnips which were left unconsumed, when
we found they only weighed 195 lbs. This circumstance of the weight
being much less than we expected, put us on making a series of experi-
ments, of the difference of the weight when put in raw and after being
steamed, the result of which will afterwards be detailed ; and also in
ascertaining, by a more lengthened expei'iment, the relative quantities of
food consumed by each lot of cattle.

" On this first and short experiment during one week of seven days,
the three heifers on raw food had consumed, as before stated, 25 cwt.
1 qr. 14 lbs. of Swedish turnips, 3 cwt. 3 qrs. of potatoes, and G3 lbs. of
bruised beans, being at the rate of 135 lbs. of turnips, 20 lbs. of potatoes,
and 3 lbs. of bruised beans for each beast per day. While the three
heifers on steamed food had consumed in the same sj^ace of seven days
about 37 cwt. IG lbs. of turnips, being at the rate of 190 lbs. of turnips,
20 lbs. of potatoes, and 3 lbs. of bruised beans per day for each beast, a

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 49

difference of 55 lbs. of turnips consumed by each beast on steamed food
per day, more than what was consumed by those on raw food.

" On a pretty lengthened experiment, made on the difference of the
weight of turnips before and after being steamed, we found the result to
be as follows : — Upon turnips which had been taken from the ground in
the early part of Febi'uary, when they were full of juice, weighed when
raw 5 tons 8 cwt. ; after being steamed, 4 tons 4 cwt. 3 qrs. 1 G lbs.,
being a loss of weight in the process of steaming of 1 ton 3 cwt. 12
lbs., or, in round numbers, the turnips may be said to have lost nearly
J of their weight in the process of steaming; and further, we may
mention, that they also lost about ^ or ^ of their bulk. But at an
after period, when the turnips were lifted from the ground after the
middle of April, the loss of weight in the steaming process was not
near so great, not being i of their raw weight, in place of I, as
formerly stated. The loss of weight on steaming potatoes was a
mere nothing, not being more than ^ part. Still, although the cattle
at the latter period, viz., the end of April and beginning of May, did not
consume quite so much weight of turnips, they consumed fully more
bulk. The turnips having lost considerably in weight in proportion to
their former bulk, it now requiring a larger cart-load to weigh 16 cwt
than it did in the month of February ; this circumstance being easily
accounted for, because the tops of the turnips were now vegetating
rapidly, and the bulb losing its former sap. But in every case through-
out the whole course of the experiment, the difference consumed by the
cattle on steamed food above those on raw, was about 55 lbs. of turnips
per day for each beast.

"As formerly stated, the steers were allowed, in addition to the
turnips, 30 lbs. of potatoes each, and ih lbs. of bruised beans, being
10 lbs. of potatoes, and 1^ lbs. of beans each beast more than the
heifers per day. la this case, the result was exactly similar to that of
the heifers, the steers on the steamed food consuming about 55 lbs. per
day of turnips more than those on raw food each beast.

"The steamed food being 94 cwt. 14 lbs. of turnips for twenty-eight
days of two cattle, about 195 lbs. per day, and the raw food being
70 cwt. for the same time, about 140 lbs. per day. The twenty-eight
days alluded to were the last twenty-eight days of the experiment, fi-om
the 22d of April till the 20th of May. * * *

" In our calculations of the value of the keep, we have not stated
any thing for straw consumed by the cattle, as they -were frequently
supplied with litter of the same sort of straw, not deeming the straw of
any other use than being made into dung."

The following extracts from an annexed table are significant.
The weight of these cattle is given as follows : —

7*

50

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Live weight of 3 heifers fed on steamed food, Feb. 20, 3,108 11

" " " " Mar. 20, 3,374

Increase of weight during first month, . . . 266
Live weight of 3 heifers fed on steamed food, April 20, 3,591
Increase of weight during second month, . . 217

Increase of weight during third month, .
Total increase for three months on steamed food,

Live weight of 3 heifers fed on raw food, Feb. 20,

" " " " March 20,

Increase of weight during first month,
Live weight of 3 heifers fed on raw food, April 20,
Increase of weight during second month,
Increase of weight during third month, .
Total increase for three months.

196
679

3,115
3,374
259
3,598
224
154
637

The account kept of the steers shows the same relative figures.
We quote further the estimates with regard to the heifers, as
sufficient to illustrate the views set forth : —

Cost of Keep of Heifers for One Week.
Three heifers on steamed food —
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 37 cwt., 16 lbs., at 7 cts.

per cwt., 82 76

Consumed of potatoes, 3 cwt., 3 qrs., at 28 cts. per cwt., 1 04
" " beans, 1 bushel, 2 qrs., 7 lbs., ... 67

" " salt, 02

Estimate for coal and extra labor, .... 44

Cost of one week of three heifers, . . . . $4 93

Three heifers on raw food —
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 25 cwt., 1 qr., 14

lbs., at 7 cts. per cwt., . . . . $1 89
Consumed of potatoes, 3 qrs., 3 lbs., at 28 cts.

per cwt., 1 04

Consumed of beans, 1 bushel, 2 qrs. 7 lbs., . 67

" " salt, 02

Cost of one week of 3 heifers on raw food, . —

$3 62

Additional cost per week on 3 heifers on steamed
food,

II 31

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

61

Cost of Keep of Three Heifers for One Week.

Cost of 3 heifers on steamed food from the 20th of Feb-
ruary till the 20th of May, 12 weeks, 5 days, at
14.93 per week, $62 66

Cost of 3 heifers on raw food from the 20th of February
till the 20th of May, 12 weeks, 5 days, at $3.62 per
week, 47 99

Total additional cost of 3 heifers fed on steamed food,

above those on raw food, $14 67

Estimate of Profit and Loss.
Value of three heifers on steamed food, at 20th February —
Value of dead weight, sinking offal.
Add cost of keep, as above.

Total cost,
Value when killed, .

Profit on heifers on steam food,

Value of three heifers on raw food
Value of dead weight, sinking offal, ,
Add cost of keep, as above.

Total cost.
Value when killed, .

Profit on cattle on raw food,

The estimates on the feeding of the steers arrive at similar
results ; the loss on one steer fed on steamed food being
82 cts. ; while the profit on one steer fed on raw food was
$2.41. These two steers were turned to grass the following
summer, and both increased equally in weight, no difference in
their thrift at grass, having been produced by the two modes of
winter feeding.

Every American farmer will be struck in reading the above
experiment with the fact that no hay at all was used in the
feeding, and so little straw, and of so poor a quality, as not to
be taken into the account. This is very much the case in a
large proportion of cattle feeding in Great Britain. Mr. Hors-

.

. 62 50

.

. $217 55
. 219 55

at 20th Febr

. $2 00

uary —

. $155 39
. 45 77

.

. $201 16
. 216 96

. $15 80

52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

fall says : " My food for milch cows, after having undergone
various modifications, has for two seasons consisted of rape-cake
5 pounds, and bran 2 pounds, for each cow, mixed with a
sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats,
in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as
much as they will eat." The hay crop, in English cattle
husbandry, does not, as here, lie at the foundation of feeding.
There is no doubt that this valuable fodder is more important
to us during our longer and colder winter, than it is in their
milder climate. Grass, moreover, is a crop better adapted to
our mode of farming, extended as it is over a large surface, and
not carried on with the skill of what is called high agriculture.
With us, therefore, excepting in the neighborhood of good
markets, hay forms the basis of our feeding ; and it is but rea-
sonable that our estimates of feeding should be made in compar-
ison with the use of hay. And it is important for the New
England farmer to know whether, at a distance from market,
he can find a better use for his hay than to convert it into
cattle of various descriptions.

AMOUNT OP FOOD FURNISHED BY VARIOUS CROPS.

Without entering into any accurate calculation of the cost of
keeping cattle on different kinds of food, we propose to make a
short comparison of the amount of food furnished by the various
crops used for feeding, from a given piece of ground.

Taking two tons of hay per acre as the basis of calculation,
and as representing the kind of cultivation which is employed,
we may concede that an acre of ground will yield the following
crops : hay, two tons ; Swedish turnips, eighteen tons ; mangold
wurzel, twenty tons ; carrots, twenty-five tons ; Indian corn,
seventy bushels.

According to the best experiments, the nutritive equivalent
of hay being represented by 100 : — 100 pounds of hay are equiv-
alent to 676 pounds of Swedish turnips, 382 pounds of carrots,
and 70 pounds of Indian corn.

The practical values, as obtained by experiments in feeding,
are : — hay, 100 pounds is equivalent to 300 pounds of Swedish
turnips, 400 pounds of mangold wurzel, 250 pounds of carrots,
and 52 pounds of Indian corn.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 63

Dividing the number of pounds of each of these crops on an
acre, according to estimates above, by the number of pounds
representing the practical value of each for food, and we have
as results, figures which will express the comparative yield of
each acre, according to the crop occupying it. For instance : —

Hay, per acre, • . . . 4,000 lbs.

Swedisli turnips, per acre, . . 36,000 lbs.

Mangold wurzel, " • . 40,000 lbs.

Carrots, " . . 60,000 lbs.

Corn, « . . 4,550 lbs.

100= 40
300= 120
400 = 100
250 = 200
52= 871

According to this table, an acre will yield three times as much
food in turnips as in hay ; two and one-half times as much food
in mangolds, as in. hay ; five times as much in carrots as in hay ;
and about two and one-fifth times as much in corn as in hay.

Now in order to arrive at the cost of feeding the above
articles to cattle, and at the comparative value of each as an
article of food, we must be able to ascertain the prices which
they bear in different localities, the advantages of the market,
the cost of labor, and the kind and value of the cattle which
are fed. "We have furnished the figures, for the benefit of those
who desire to ascertain, if possible, the most economical and
useful crops for cattle husbandry. There is no doubt that,
valuable as hay is, as an article of food, and universal as is its
use here, there are crops which form an useful ally to it, in the
business of carrying cattle through the winter. The question
is, which of these crops is the best for such a purpose — the most
economical and profitable ? There are sections of the State
where the corn crop will not ripen, and where the cultivation
of roots would do much toward enabling the farmer to support
all tlie cattle in winter, which his pastures will bear in summer,
a state of things which does not now exist. In some regions
the hay crop is large, hay is cheap, and labor scarce. The
farmer there must judge for himself, how far it will pay to devote
himself to any other than the hay crop. Circumstances vary as
localities vary, and it is they alone Avhich can guide the intelli-
gent farmer in the management of his land for his cattle, and
can enable him to judge of the cost of feeding them, as well as
to decide upon the breed best adapted to his purposes.

64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

SELECTION OP BREEDS.

Mail is governed by this law in his agricultural operations,
all the world over. Instinct teaches him, long before experience
has led him through her many paths, that he must be obedient
to Nature in that business which depends for its prosperity
upon her smiles ; to Nature upon whom he leans for support, at
the same time that he endeavors to direct her course for his
own benefit. The boasted agricultural wealth of England, with
all its enterprise, ignores the favorite crop of America, because
the skies of that island so command. The vegetable growth of
tropical latitudes allows no intruder to take its place — and
sugar, and coffee, and rice, and cotton, have their place on the
earth, while they resign to their appropriate spheres the grass,
and grain, and root crops of the north. The farmer of the
north of Scotland is compelled to satisfy hims|lf with the small
and hardy cattle which his lands can feed, and has learned neither
to envy nor imitate his neighbor of the southern counties, whose
Short-horns revel in the luxury of a fertile region, the agriculture
of which they represent. In Massachusetts, every locality has its
own capacity, its own natural laws, its own adaptation to certain
crops, and certain breeds of cattle. And here, as elsewhere,
any attempt to violate these natural laws is sure to be compelled
to pay the penalty. While the West has found in the improved
Short-horn, a source of revenue which has, together with its
grain crops, furnished the foundation of its agriculture, while the
mild climate and verdant pastures of Kentucky have developed a
race of cattle at last almost indigenous, and have raised them to
such a degree of excellence, that the most careless observer
knows that other breeds have no proper place there, the various
sections of New England also designate the kind of cattle they
can produce ; so that the lesson may be easily learned.

In selecting that breed of cattle adapted to each locality, we
must understand the agricultural capacity of that locality. We
know very well that while the Durhams of Mr. Gore did not
succeed in eastern Massachusetts, they laid the foundation of a
most valuable stock in the centre of the State, and, together
with the importation of Mr. Williams, have made the farmer's
cattle of the Connecticut River, equal to the choicest specimens
of the amateur breeder. We have been unable thus far to
establish an uniform breed throughout the State, and it is

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 55

probable that we shall fail to do so, until there is more inii-
formity in the condition of our farms, and in the quality of
our soil.

There is an animal which serves very well the general
purposes of our farms. "We mean that cow of medium size
and good quality, and that ox whose vigorous step carries his
weight, not too great, over our hills, and whicli thrives upon the
short grass of our pastures, and in our somewhat too economical
stalls. Not as the result of one line of breeding, but as the
fruit of a mixture of many, does this animal claim to be native.
Whatever breed we select, this animal is the stock vipon which
we are to engraft an improvement.

Wherever the breeder possesses the materials for preparing
his cattle for market, he undoubtedly requires a breed of rapid
growth and easy fattening capacity. Where he is breeder and
feeder both, early maturity is a great desideratum, even if in
order to obtain that, he is obliged to rear an animal which cannot
recuperate from the effects of neglect in its youth. Where,
however, the feed is scanty, and the farmer cannot afford to
support an animal on high feed, during the most unprofitable
portion of its life, slower development, and a more hardy breed
is required. Where the dairy is the object, as it is in a large
portion of Massachusetts, a strong and vigorous animal, not so
large as to starve upon a dry pasture in August, nor so small as
to be useless when her dairy career is ended, is desirable ; for
the dairy farmer cannot make money on either. The former
consumes all its profit during life, and the latter sinks too much
capital at its death.

For the first of these purposes, there is but little doubt that
Short-horns can be profitably engrafted on our native stock.
Experience proves this. For the second, the Hereford or the
Devon has been possibly used to some advantage. For the third,
the Ayrshire possesses the most admirable qualities, and
undoubtedly stands at the head. This we say without intending
to disparage other breeds, which evidently have merit in their
proper places. We recognize the fact that it is the improve-
ment of the cattle which we already possess, and not the
expensive business of importing pure bred animals, that interests
our farmer. We have never yet seen a Sliort-horn cross that

56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

was not an improvement on the dam, so far as early maturity,
size, or thrift are concerned ; we are well aware that Devons and
Herefords have laid the foundation of some of our best families
of working oxen ; and an Ayrshire bull has thus far always
benefited the dairy of the region into which he has been intro-
duced. Many breeds have had no chance here ; but of those,
other than the already mentioned, which have been tried,
the Jerseys, although admirable animals in themselves for
the production of butter, and although the crosses are now
and then excellent, still lack that substance which a New
England farmer needs, and have not yet become any thing more
than the choice and valuable animal of the gentleman's stable ;
the Kerries are not yet largely introduced ; and the early
importations of Dutch cattle have produced no results, that
we are aware of, satisfactory to the intelligent farmer and
breeder.

COMPARISON OP BREEDS.

As a description or history of the breeds which we have
selected is wholly unnecessary, so well are they now known,
and so often have they been delineated, we shall simply, in a
brief manner, present a comparative view of their merits.

It seems to be generally conceded, that either accidentally or
designedly, certain qualities have been combined in the improved
Short-horn breed, which enable them not only to take a high stand
of themselves, but to improve the stock of almost every region
into which they are introduced. In earlier times, when the
foundation of the the Short-horn, the Durham or Yorkshire
blood was brought into this country, very considerable benefit
arose from it to the dairy stock of the United States. This can
be satisfactorily proved, by selections of cows from those sections
into which this blood was introduced. The dairies of Worcester,
Hampden, and the Kennebec Valley, all bear witness to the
original value of this blood, as an admixture for the so called
native stock of those sections. That there was a valuable strain
in this old race is not only manifested by the fact now mentioned,
and by the fact, moreover, that they are the origin of the
modern breed of Short-horns, but also by many evidences that
the introduction of this blood into the inferior cattle of Scotland,

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 67

did mucli to establish the remarkable dairy stock of the
Ayrshire country.*

At the present time, this breed of cattle is valued chiefly for
their beef-producing faculties, especially in England, where they
are bred in the highest perfection, and among the most enter-
prising breeders in this country. There are among us some
families still, for which in their purity, the dairy properties of
the original breed are claimed — and in some instances justly.
But neither our climate nor the usage to which the dairy stock
of New England are subjected, such as short pastures in
summer and coarse feed in winter, is favorable to the develop-
ment of so large an animal. In some instances, where the blood
has long been engrafted upon a native and hardier breed, it
seems to have become acclimated, and " Durham cows," so
called, are really valuable, when of suitable size. Grade Short-
horn oxen too, when properly cared for, are valuable animals,
unless descended from a race whose mammoth proportions find
no " aid and comfort " on the short pastures too prevalent
among us. They are then as coarse and ill-favored as possible.
They require good feed and good farming, especially on their
first introduction, and before they have become planted for
generations on the soil. "When well-fed, and well-crossed, and
habituated, they are a valuable breed. It is an undoubted fact
that the grades easily adapt themselves to the spot on which
they are born, and that while the delicacy of the pure blood is
removed, the size and thrift of the hardier race upon which it
is graded, are much enhanced.

The only breeds with which the Short-horns can properly be
compared are the Herefords and Devons. Herefords, on the

* Mr. Sanford Howard, in a valuable and interesting Prize Essay, written
for the New York Agricultural Society, 1851, says : —

" The most reasonable conclusion from all that has been written in regard
to the origin of the modern Ayrshires, taken in connection with the points
and characters of the animals themselves, is that they were produced by a
union of the blood of the Holstein or Teeswater Short-horns, and the Alderneys,
with the ancient stock of the district from which they take their name." Mr.
Howard is of opinion that the cross of the Ayrshire as thus produced, with the
West Highland, the origin of the celebrated Swinley family, has still further
improved the breed, in regard to useful properties, and has given it that hardi-
ness and strength of constitution for which they are now remarkable.
8*

58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

question of size, and of profit to the feeder, have long been
competitors of the Short-horns. They have been well bred in
England, and are a much older breed than their rivals. On the
score of strength, energy, hardiness of constitution, and quality

Hereford Bull.

of flesh, they contrast favorably with them ; and while they are
not so profitable to the breeder, they are often preferred by the
feeder. Their deep bodies, broad hips, large frames, thick and
mellow hides, and vigorous motions indicate great thrift and
power. And in some instances they have shown a remarkable
return to the feeder, after having performed a vast deal of
valuable service to the farmer. Their claims, as dairy animals,
in any period of their history, are small.

It cannot be denied that the introduction of Hereford blood
into this country, has not been attended with very successful
results. It may be that the animal, from the antiquity of his
breed, has become, as it were, indigenous to certain portions of
England ; and like all ancient races does not bear transplanting,
and is too decided for crossing. Be this as it may, Herefords
have thus far failed to compete with Short-horns, both in Massa-
chusetts and in other parts of this country, as far west as Iowa.
Their natural preponderence of bone seems to be increased in
the grades, and an ungainly frame is too often the result of
breeding in this direction. There is no doubt that for tlie
purposes of work, the pure-bred Hereford is more hardy and
active than the Short-horn. But this does not appear to hold
good with regard to the grades.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 59

"With regard to the Devons, they have reached a higli standard
in England, where for two centuries they have been bred and
improved with great care. For aptitude to fatten, after reach-
ing the age of three or four years, they are quite remarkable

Devon Cow.*

and the accounts given of their^weight and shape, indicate great
skill on the part of those engaged in their production. Their
blood has evidently been largely infused into our New England
stock, and must have been prominent among the earliest impor-
tations into this part of the country. With their size, shape,
and quality, as represented among us, every farmer and butcher
is acquainted ; and he may be somewhat surprised to learn that
in England they are fed to over two thousand pounds, and have
competed successfully with some of the largest breeds, when
brought to the stall. With us they have furnished that admirable
animal known on the New England farm, as the " seven foot ox,"
red, straight, even, thrifty, hardy, quick, and vigorous, living
well on short pastures, and, after having performed a vast
amount of useful service, yielding on an average, a thousand
pounds of beef, of the best quality. This is the animal which
stands high among New England cattle, and which is evidently
some form of Devon, bred and crossed here for many years,

* The illustrations for this article are taken from the Treatise on " Milch Cows
and Dairy Farming," by Charles L. Flint, Secretary of the State Board of
Agriculture.

60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

until he has become indigenous — a native, so called. But this
animal is becoming scarce ; and wherever the introduction of
modern Devon blood has been made, it does not seem to be
attended with that success which its quality would promise. It is
not often that a Devon bull of admirable proportions is found
among us ; and we do not hear of any sections into which they
have been recently introduced with any very marked advantage.
In our climate, and with our feed, they too often lose those propor-
tions which render them so valuable when found in perfection.
A certain deficiency in quarter, and in depth through the heart,
and in good proportion along the chine and over the hips, has
become too marked among them. And while we can point to
herds of Devons of good proportions and size, well adapted to our
farms, we still hear too much of the "little Devon bull," whose
fine color and brilliant eye constitute attractions it is true, but
not such attractions as appeal to the stall-feeder or the grazier.

Any comparison of dairy breeds is hardly called for here.
The Ayrshire and the Jersey, the two breeds of dairy cattle
which now claim the most attention, as standing in the front
rank, are so differently constituted, and are intended for such
different purposes, that they cannot be called, in any sense, rivals.
For an animal expected to give a large yield of milk on a small
amount of feed, of medium size, great strength of constitution,
transmitting well its qualities whether pure or graded, furnish-
ing a very fair proportion of butter, and a very large proportion
of cheese, taking on fat well, and in the most valuable parts,
the Ayrshires cannot be surpassed. But for the manufacture
of butter of superior color and flavor, and for the conversion
of the most nutritious food into the most condensed form of this
table luxury, the Jersey is without a rival. It remains for the
farmer, who has a knowledge of his own wants, to decide which
of these breeds he will choose. And recognizing as we do, the
great importance of the dairy to all New England farming, we
urgently recommend the selection of such animals as will
materially advance this interest.

S. L. Goodale, Esq., in his valuable treatise on the " Principles
of Breeding," remarks truly, that —

" There is no bninch of cattle husbandry which promises better returns
than the breeding and rearing of milch cows. Here and there are to be
found some good enough. In the vicinity of large towns and cities are

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 61

many which, having been culled from many miles around, on account of
dairy properties, are considerably above the average ; but taking the cows
of the country together, they do not compare favorably with the oxen.
Farmers generally take more pride in their oxen, and strive to have as
good or better than any of their neighbors, while if a cow will give milk
enough to rear a large steer calf, and a little besides, it is often deemed
satisfactory."

In concluding this report, we would urge upon the farmers
of Massachusetts, increased attention to the rearing and feeding
of their cattle, as well as greater care in their selection. It is
hardly necessary to repeat that this branch of husbandry is so
important that it has employed the best agricultural skill for its
development, and has enriched those who have pursued it with
wisdom and judgment. The farmer has no aids and incentives
to labor equal to his cattle — aids, as fellow-laborers and manufac-
turers of the best fertilizers for his lands — incentives, as indicating
by their good condition that the farm which they are at all times
ready to serve, is well managed. It is therefore of the highest
importance that they should not only be properly fed and
protected, but that they should be selected with care and judg-
ment. It is none but good animals that pay for keeping — and
they pay for good keeping — while poor animals do not pay for
even poor keeping.

For the benefit of those who would stock their farms well,
we quote the following rules, laid down in the " Complete
Grazier," and containing many valuable suggestions, some of
which, it is true, have been already referred to : —

" 1. Beauty, or Symmetry of Shape ; in which the form is so compact
that every part of the animal bears an exact consistency, while the carcase
should be deep and broad, and the less valuable parts, (such as the head,
bones, &c.,) ought to be as small as possible. The carcase should be
large, the bosom broad, and the chest deep ; the ribs standing out from
the spine, both to give strength of frame and constitution, and likewise to
admit of ample room for the intestines ; but yet not so much as to be
what is called high-ribbed, as the butchers consider it an indication of
deficiency in weight of meat. Further, the shoulders ought not only to
be light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, but also broad, and
well covered with flesh. The back also ought to be wide and level
throughout ; the quarters long, the thighs tapering and narrow at the
round bone, but well covered with flesh in the twist ; and the flank full and

62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. •

large. The legs ought to be straight below the knee and hock, and of
moderate length, light-boned, clean from fleshiness, yet having joints and
sinews of a moderate size, for the united purposes of strength and activity.
In these points all intelligent breeders concur ; but as beauty of shape too
often depends on the caprice of fashion, it is more requisite to regard.

" 2. Utility of Form, or that nice proportion of the parts which has
already been noticed.

"3. The Flesh, or texture of the muscular parts; a quality, which
was formerly noticed only by butchers, but the knowledge of which is
justly deemed essential by the enlightened breeders of the present day ;
and although this quality necessarily varies according to the age and size
of the cattle, yet it may be greatly regulated by attention to the food
employed for fattening them. As a knowledge of this requisition can
only be acquired by practice, it is sufficient to state that the best sign of
good flesh is that of being marbled, or having the fat and lean finely
veined or intermixed, when the animals are killed ; and, while alive, by
a firm and mellow feel.

" 4. In Rearing Live Stock of any description, it should be an invariable
rule to breed from small-boned, straight-backed, healthy, clean, kindly-
skinned, round-bodied, and barrel-shaped animals, with clean necks and
throats, and little or no dewlap ; carefully rejecting all those w^hich may
have heavy legs, roach backs, together with much appearance of offal.
And, as some breeds have a tendency to generate great quantities or fat
on certain parts of the body, while in others it is more mixed with the
flesh of every part of the animal, this circumstance will claim the attention
of the breeder, as he advances in business.

" 5. In the Purchasing of Cattle, whether in a lean or fat state, the
farmer should on no account buy beasts out of richer, or better grounds
than those into which he intends to turn them ; for, in this case, he must
inevitably sustain a very material loss by the cattle not thriving, particu-
larly if they be old. It will therefore be advisable to select them, either
from stock feeding in the neighborhood, or from such breeds as are best
adapted to the nature and situation of the soil.

" 6. Docility of Disposition, Avithout being deficient in spirit, is of equal
amount ; for, independently of the damage committed by cattle of wild
temper on fences and fields, which inconvenience will thus be obviated,
it is an indisputable fact that tame beasts require less food to rear, support,
and fatten them ; consequently every attention ought to be paid, early to
accustom them to be docile and familiar.

" 6. Hardiness of Constitution, particularly in bleak and exposed
districts, is indeed a most imjiortant requisite ; and in every case it is
highly essential to the farmer's interest to have a breed that is liable
neither to disease nor to any hereditary distemper. A dark color, and in

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 63

cattle which are kept out all winter, a rough and curled pile or coat of
hair, are, in the popular estimation, certain indications of hardiness ; but
it must be obvious to every thinking person that this quality, though in
some respects inherent in particular breeds, depends, in a great measure,
upon the method in which cattle are treated. * * *

" 8. Connected with hardiness of constitution, is Early Maturity,
which, however, can only be attained by feeding beef cattle in such a
manner as to keep them constantly in a growing state. By an observance
of this principle, it has been found that beasts and sheep, when thus
managed, thrive more in three years than they usually do in five when
they have not sufficient food during the winter, by which, in the common
mode of rearing, their growth is checked.

" 9. A Kindly Disposition to take fat on the most valuable parts of the
carcase, at an early age, and with but little food, when compared with
the quantity and quality consumed by similar animals."

Guided by these rules, and governed by the wants of the farm
to be stocked, the farmer may succeed in furnishing himself
with an attractive and profitable breed of cattle — making such
allowances in the selection of dairy stock as remarks previously
made would indicate — and always remembering, that as to the
good cultivator alone does the earth yield forth her increase in
profitable measure, so to the careful and patient husbandman
alone, will cattle, whether for the stall, the dairy, or for labor,
yield a return in the full measure of their natural capacity, and
with proper remuneration.

George B. Loring.

John Brooks.

Matthew Smith.

Mr. R. S. Fay, from the committee appointed to consider the
subject, presented the following

REPORT ON THE PROTECTION OF SHEEP, LAMBS, &c.

The committee to whom was referred " the subject, and to
report what action is necessary to secure a fuller compliance
with the law for the protection of sheep, lambs," &c., report:

That at the meeting of the Board of Agriculture, on the *Jth
day of January, A. D. 1861, it was voted " that the Secretary of
the Board be directed to call the attention of the mayor and
aldermen of cities, and the selectmen of the towns of this

64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Commonwealth, on or before the 20th of April, annually, to the
law for the protection of sheep against dogs, (commonly known
as the dog-law,) and to urge its enforcement ; and that he be
also directed to ascertain on the first day of October annually,
from the cities and towns of the Commonwealth, the number of
dogs licensed, and the amount received therefrom."

The adoption of this vote, and its communication to the town
authorities, it was hoped, would be sufficient to secure the
enforcement of the law, the justice and wisdom of which has
not been questioned, so far as the committee have been able to
discover, in any part of the Commonwealth.

The returns which have been received, do not, however,
fulfil the natural and reasonable expectations of your committee.
It appears that many of the towns have entirely neglected to
enforce the law, while others have been so remiss in their duty
as to render it almost inoperative. Few, very few, can return,
as in Worthington and Upton, " that every dog- within the
knowledge of the clerk of the town is licensed,'' and from the
small number generally given as licensed, it does not require
this not unusual comment, " not one-third of the dogs
licensed;" or "we do not observe any marked decrease in
dogs, though few are licensed this year." That tlie law is
culpably ignored in some cases, and in others, if not ignored,
shamefully neglected, is very apparent, from the returns which
have been received.

From twenty cities and towns, viz. : Chatham, Lanesborough,
Windsor, Raynham, Groveland, Hamilton, Rockport, Buckland,
Charlemont, Shutesbury, Sunderland, Blandford;" Springfield,
Enfield, Lincoln, Somerville, North Bridgewater, Wareham,
Winthrop, and Mendon, no returns of dogs licensed have been
received, and from thirty-four others acknowledgment is made
that no tax or license for dogs has been collected. Many
towns have returned but a single dog licensed, and forty
have returned less than six in their respective towns. That
the enforcement of the law has been neglected, if additional
evidence were required, is shown by the fact that the
number licensed in 1861 is little more than half tlie
number licensed in 1859.* Although there is reason to

* By returns for 1859 there were licensed 32,707 dogs, paying $35,89 i. In
1861 there were licensed 16,905 dogs, paying §17,972.05.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 65

believe that not more than half the dogs at that time paid the
tax, and that the number in the Commonwealth has not much
diminished.

Your committee do not believe that this open neglect of a law
would exist if those who are called upon to execute it fully
understood its provisions, and were aware of the penalties
incurred by a neglect of its enforcement ; otherwise such
returns as the following would not have been made : " There
was nothing received on account of license this year, because
the town voted that those who had licensed previously should
be allowed a free license this year, on account of surplus ;" or
returns like the following : " no notice taken of the law in this
town the present year," and many others of a similar purport.
Nor, were the law better understood, is it believed that the
payment of the tax would have been left, as has evidently been
the case in many towns, to the voluntary act of a few individuals.
The sixty-sixth section, chapter 88, General Statutes, must
have escaped the notice of the town authorities, otherwise this
salutary law would not, like many others upon our statute
books, have been made only to be broken. That section
provides " that the mayor and aldermen of each city, and the
selectmen of each town, shall require all dogs not licensed and
collared according to the foregoing provisions, to be destroyed ;
and shall enforce all penalties herein provided. Any officer
refusing or neglecting to perform the duties herein imposed upon
him, shall be punished by fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars,
to be paid into the city or town treasury." By the provisions
of this Act, no city or town has any right to alter or repeal any
portion of the law which requires that " every owner or keeper
of a dog shall annually, on or before the thirtieth of April,
cause it to be registered, numbered, described and licensed."
The whole method of proceeding under this law is so plain and
unmistakable in its intention and purpose, that it is almost
inconceivable how any town officer should hesitate in carry-
ing it out to the very letter. Believing it for the interest of
the farmer, as it certainly is to the general tax-payer, that
the provisions of the law be strictly observed, your commit-
tee would recommend that measures be taken to insure its
observance, and, in case of future neglect, that the penalties
for such cases provided be exacted. How this shall be done,

9*

66

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

whether upon complaint only from parties who actually suffer
loss by reason of such neglect, or by appointing some one under
the authority of this Board to see that the law is enforced, and
to take legal measures in all cases of neglect, it is premature
perhaps to decide ; the committee believing that a proper repre-
sentation of the value and importance of its observation will
fulfil the just expectations of the Board upon the subject.

The committee append hereto the returns to which reference
has been made.

Marshall P. Wilder.

Richard S. Fay.

James S. Grennell.

CITIES AND TOWNS.

to
o

p

o

2
"3

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o
O

o

•d
•3

o

a
H

o

Barnstable County.

Berkshire — Coti.

Barnstable, .

126

$130 00

Clarksburg, .

1

$1 00

Brewster,

17

17 00

Dalton, .

43

43 00

Chatham,* .

-

-

Egremont, .

48

58 00

Dennis, ....

1

1 00

Florida,

20

20 00

Eastham,

-

-

Great Barrington,

128

128 00

Falmouth,

1

1 00

Hancock,

3

3 00

Harwich,

1

100

Hinsdale,

-

-

Orleans,

-

-

Lanesborough,* .

-

-

Provincetown,

2

2 00

Lee, ....

143

147 00

Sandwich, .

75

75 00

Lenox, ....

80

84 00

Truro, . . . .

-

-

Monterey,

18

18 00

Wellfleet, .

2

2 00

Mount Washington, .

-

-

Yarmouth, .

2

2 00

New Ashford,* .
New Marlborough,

_

-

Totals, .

227

$231 00

-

Bekksiiike County.

Otis, . . . .

-

-

Adams,

87

$87 00

Peru, . . . .

16

20 00

Alford, , . . .

31

31 00

Pittsfield,. .

14

14 00

Becket,

6G

66 00

Richmond, .

18

18 00

Cheshire,

63

67 00

Sandisfield, .

75

75 00

*No return.

eW]

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

67

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o

"2
'3

A

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o
R

'3

o.

o

6

i

Berkshire — Con.

Dukes County.

Savoy, . . . .

1

$1 00

Chilmark, .

5

$5 00

Sheffield,

10

10 00

Edgarto-wTi, .

21

19 00

Stockbridge,

42

18

42 00
18 00

Tisbury,
Totals, .

11

11 00

Tyringham, .

37

$35 00

Washington,

-

-

Essex County.

West Stockbridge,

59

59 00

Amesbury, .

16

$16 00

Williamstown,

23

23 00

Andover,

91

95 00

Windsor,

-

-

Beverly,
Boxford,

19
46

23 00

Totals, .

1,007

$1,033 00

50 00

Bristol County.

Bradford,

21

21 00

Attleborough,

282

$286 00

Danvers,

100

116 00

Berkley,

24

24 00

Essex, . . . .

15

15 00

Dartmouth, .

142

150 00

Georgetown,

11

11 00

Dighton,

56

60 00

Gloucester, .

68

68 00

Easton,

98

110 00

Groveland,*

-

-

Fairhaven, .

62

62 00

Hamilton,* .

-

-

FallEiver, .

30

30 00

Haverhill, .

29

29 00

Freetown,

25

-

Ipswich,

69

73 00

Mansfield,

46

46 00

Lawrence, .

112

120 00

New Bedford,

265

273 00

Lynn, . . . .

227

243 00

Norton,

97

97 00

Lynnfield, .

24

28 00

Pawtucket, .

108

115 00

Manchester, .

17

17 00

Raynham,* .

-

-

Marblehead, .

34

34 00

Rehoboth, .

117

129 00

Methuen,

89

97 00

Seekonk,

33

33 00

Middleton, .

48

48 00

Somerset,

13

13 00

Nahant,

-

-

Swanzey,

70

70 00

Newbury, .

4

4 00

Taunton,

341

341 00

Newburyport,

12

12 00

Westport,

66

66 00

North Andover, .
Rockport,* .

55

59 00

Totals, .

1,875

$1,905 00

-

*No retnm.

68

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

Sc

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o

2

o.

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o

Q

paid.

o

s

H

o
•A

1

Essex — Con.

Franklin — Con.

Rowley,

19

$19 00

Rowe, . . . .

10

SIO 00

Salem, . . . .

121

133 00

Shelburne, .

49

53 00

Salisbury,

13

13 00

Shutesbur)',*

-

Saugus,

85

85 00

Sunderland,*

-

South Danvers,

8:1

84 00

Warwick,

33

33 00

Swampscott, .

-

-

Wendell, .

-

-

Topsfield,

15

42

15 00
42 00

Whately, .

Totals, .

2

2 00

Wenham,

570

$593 00

West Newbury, .

63

63 00

Hampden County.
Agawam,

Blandford,* .

3

Totals, .

1,549

$1,653 00

$3 00

Franklin County.

Brimfield,

55

55 00

Ashfield,

21

$21 00

Chester,

52

52 00

Bernardston,

29

29 00

Chicopee,

117

125 00

Buckland,* .

-

-

Granville,

37

37 00

Charlemont,*

-

-

Holland,

8

8 00

Colrain,

69

73 00

Holyokc,

95

103 00

Conway,

9

9 00

Longmeadow,

29

29 00

Deerfield,

79

79 00

Ludlow,

1

1 00

Erving,

-

-

Monson,

90

90 00

Gill, . . . .

23

23 00

Montgomery,

-

-

Greenfield,

105

108 00

Palmer,

10

10 00

Hawley,

-

-

Russell,

25

25 00

Heath, . . . .

23

23 00

Soutliwick, .

25

29 00

Leverett,

-

-

Springfield,*

-

-

Leyden,

-

-

Tolland,

28

26 20

Monroe,

6

6 00

Wales, ....

9

9 00

Montague,

66

70 00

Westfield, .

8

8 00

New Salem, .

4

4 00

West Springfield,

46

46 00

Northfield, .

42

50 00

Wilbraham, .
Totals, .

96

100 00

Orange,

734

$756 20

* No return.

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

69

CITIES AND TOWNS.

Si
o

n

!2

a.

CITIES AND TOWNS.

bo
o
0

2
«
p.

6

"A

I

d
"A

I

Hampshire Coumty.

Middlesex— Con.

Amherst,

78

$78 00

Boxborough,

5

$5 00

Belchertown,

5

5 00

Brighton,

219

279 00

Chesterfield, .

-

-

Burlington, .

31

30 00

Cummington,

-

-

Cambridge, .

378

410 00

Easthampton,

-

-

Carlisle,

-

-

Enfield,*

-

-

Charlestown,

63

G3 00

Goshen,

3

30

Chelmsford, .

4

4 00

Granby,

26

26 00

Concord,

14

14 00

Greenwich, .

-

-

Dracut,*

-

-

Hadley,

49

53 00

Dunstable, .

-

-

Hatfield,

3

3 00

Framingham,

149

169 00

Huntington, .

-

-

Groton,

68

68 00

Middlefield, .

18

18 00

Holliston,

93

e3 00

Northampton,

20

20 00

Hopkiuton,*

-

-

Pelham,* .

-

-

Lexington, .

3

3 00

Plainfield, .

2

2 00

Lincoln,*

-

-

Prescott,

-

-

Littleton,

39

43 00

South Hadley,

81

97 00

Lowell, .

214

218 00

Southampton,*

-

• ;

Maiden,

116

120 00

Ware,* . . . .

-

Marlborough,

167

179 00

Westhampton,

1

1 00

Medford,

128

144 00

Williamsburg,

1

1 00

Melrose,

22

22 00

Worthington,

47

51 00

Natick, .
Newton,

30
24

30 00

Totals, .

334

S355 30

24 00

Middlesex County.

North Eeading,

55

59 00

Acton, . . . .

3

$3 00

Pepperell, .

-

-

Ashby, . . . .

1

1 00

Reading,

87

103 00

Ashland,

55

59 00

Sherborn, .

64

64 00

Bedford,

2

2 00

Shirley,

35

35 00

Billerica,

4

4 00

Somerville, .

-

-

70

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

CITTES AND TOWNS.

oi

o

1=1

o

i

CITIES AXD TOWSS.

m

it

1 c

1

o
'A

9

Middlesex— Con.

•

Norfolk — Con,

South Reading,

65

$69 00

Medfield, .

2

82 00

Stoneham, .

157

161 00

Medway,

87

91 00

Stow, ....

25

29 00

Milton,.

110

118 00

Sudbury,

63

63 00

Needham, .

07

75 00

Tewksburj', .

5

5 00

Quincy,

150

150 00

Townsend, .

7

7 00

Randolph, .

207

211 00

Tyngsborough,

1

1 00

Roxbury,

231

247 00

Waltham, .

249

281 00

Sharon,

83

99 00

Watertown, .

20

24 00

Stoughton, .

147

155 00

Wayland,

53

61 00

Walpole,

5

5 00

West Cambridge,

U6

158 00

West Roxbury, .

222

262 00

Westford,

-

-

Weymouth, .

259

282 00

Weston,

4
3

8 00
3 00

Wrentham, .
Totals, .

142

170 00

Wilmington,

2,356

$2,555 00

Winchester, .

9

9 00

Plymouth County.

Woburn,

188

208 00

Abington,
Bridgewater,

182
96

$190 00

Totals, .

3,068

$3,335 00

108 00

Nantucket County.

Carver,.

40

44 00

Nantucket, .

9

$9 00

Duxbuoji .

17

17 00

Norfolk County.

East Bridgewater,

72

80 00

Bellingham,*

-

-

Halifax,

15

15 00

Braintree,

117

$117 00

Hanover,

50

56 00

Brookline,

57

65 00

Hanson,

18

18 00

Canton,

104

116 00

Hingham, .

121

125 00

Cohasset,

53

53 00

Hull, . . . .

3

3 15

Dedham,

15

15 00

Kingston,

2

2 00

Dorchester, .

238

258 00

Lakeville,

69

93 00

Dover, ....

-

-

Marion,

29

29 00

Foxborough,

52

56 00

Marshfield, .

25

25 00

Franklin,

8

8 00

Mattapoisett,

14

14 00

* No return.

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

71

CITIES AND

TOWNS. 2

i

CITIES AND f OWNS.

to
o

o

i

o.

d

in

H

d

'A

Plymoutj

I — Con.

Worcester — Con.

Middleboroug

1, . . 148

$148 00

Douglas,

-

-

North Bridge>

vater,* . -

-

Dudley,

57

$57 00

Pembroke,

45

45 00

Fitchburg, .

61

61 00

Plymouth,

. 151

155 00

Gardner,

4

4 00

Plympton, .

•

-

Grafton,

78

78 00

Rochester,

53

57 00

Hardwick, .

-

-

Scituate,

30

30 00

Harvard,

-

-

South Scituat

J, . . 59

63 00

Holden,

53

63 00

Wareham,* .

.

-

Hubbardston,

46

50 OO

West Bridge'w

'ater, . 8

8 00

Lancaster, .
Leicester,

55
90

55 00

Totals, .

. 1,247

$1,325 15

90 00

Suffolk (

;)OUNTY.

Leominster, .

84

88 00

Boston, .

. 802

$894 00

Lunenburg, .

-

-

Chelsea,

81

85 00

Mendon,* .

-

-

North Chelsea

, . . 4

4 00

Milford,

7

7 00

Winthrop,*

. .

-

Millbury,

New Braintree, .

83
33

83 00

Totals,

. 887

$983 00

33 00

"Worcester

County.

Northborough,

30

30 00

Ashbumham,

46

$46 00

Northbridge,

20

20 00

Athol, .

5

5 00

North Brookfield,

80

84 00

Auburn,

45

45 00

Oakham,

42

42 00

Barre, .

31

31 00

Oxford,

97

109 00

Berlin, .

1

1 00

Paxton,

24

28 00

Blackstone,

IG

16 00

Petersham, .

43

43 00

Bolton, .

66

74 00

Phillipston, .

20

20 00

Boylston,

37

37 00

Princeton, .

42

42 00

Brook£eld,

41

41 00

Royalston, .

26

30 00

Charlton,

2

2 00

Rutland,

3

3 00

Clinton,

97

113 00

Shrewsbury,

24

24 00

Dana, .

5

5 00

Southborough,

66

66 00

* No return.

72

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

CITIES AND TOWNS.

to
o

1

CITIES AND TOWNS.

o
0

t

•

d

d
55

Worcester — Con.

Worcester — Con.

Southbridge,

74

$74 GO

Webster,

51

S55 00

Spencer,

94

94 00

Westborough,

79

87 00

Sterling,

• 4

4 00

West Boy ston,

80

80 00

Sturbridge, .

74

74 00

West Brookfield,

45

45 00

Sutton,

94

110 00

Westminster,

46

51 00

Templeton, .

25

25 00 i

Winchendon,

-

Upton, ....

64

10

68 00
10 00

Worcester, .

Totals, .

625

717 00

Uxbridge,

3,005

S3,294 00

Warren,

80

84 00

Mr. Grennell presented the following

REPORT ON THE WASTES OF THE FARM.

While agricultural essays, commonly treat of some special
subject to the advancement of which the efforts of the writer
are wholly directed, or are of a general discursive nature, never
failing to set forth brightly the beauties of an agricultural life,
it may seem an unusual, and an ungracious task in us to draw
out somewhat the otlier side of the picture ; to sliow some of
the obstructions, impediments, annoyances and mistakes to
which the farmer is subjected, either by the operations of
nature, his predecessors, his neighbors, or himself; and in a
form different from any which has come to our notice, to men-
tion the various " wastes of the farm," the cause, the means,
and the loss, so far as we can, with perhaps some suggestions as
to their prevention. In discussing so limillcss and varied a
subject, we have taken our materials from every reliable source
within our reach, without any particular credit or reference to
the authors.

Starting with the postulate, that the profession of agriculture
is of prime importance, as being the support of all other trades,
occupations and professions, how earnestly should we labor to
bring it, and ourselves as its exponents, to the higliest standard

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 73

of skill and excellence. Have we done this, or any thing
like it ? Do we, although engaged in what is confessedly
the most important, as it is the most wide-spread occupa-
tion, prepare ourselves for its pursuit with a care at all
to be compared to its magnitude, or to that bestowed by those
following any other branch of legitimate useful business ?
Do we, like the professional man, fit ourselves by a long
course of study and examination of principles and prece-
dents ? Like the manufacturer, do we calculate carefully the
first cost of the raw material, the exact expenditure of time and
labor, thereby so ascertaining the value by the cost, and thereby
regulating the market ? Or do we proceed with that method,
that directness of purpose, that certainty of accomplishing
certain results by certain operations, which makes the mechanic
successful and prosperous ? With the negative which rises in
response to these questions, we are perhaps told that all these
things are not practicable, if possible. It is true that there
are certain conditions and elements which are beyond our
control ; the soil, the climate, sunshine or shade, heat and cold,
dryness or moisture, cannot be much affected by our efforts ;
but under that gracious guaranty that " seed time and harvest
shall not fail," do we strive as much as in us lies to attain any
high degree of. exactness or perfection, in our profession of
farming ? Granted that our climate is cold ; that our land
does not spontaneously produce the food that nurtures, or the
garments that cover us ; that our soil, naturally unfertile, is
worn and exhausted ; that our houses and buildings, many of
them, are old, cold and uncomfortable ; and that our means
for extensive repairs and improvements are limited ; — with all
these odds against us, do we yet accomplish all we might, to
improve ourselves and our condition ?

Do we not find at the very outset a leading cause of loss or
waste in the want of education, method and system in manag-
ing the farm so as to know the cost and profits of each branch
of farming? Is there not an entire lack of accuracy in the
details of the business, which of course renders any statement
of results or experiments uncertain ? For instance, a farmer
calling a piece of land two acres, (it may be one and three-
fourths or two and one-fourth acres,) hauls upon it so many
cartloads of manure, not knowing whether his cart holds thirty

10*

74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

or forty-five bushels. This he ploughs in, as lie thinks, eight
inches deep, (probably it is six ;) he plants a proper amount of
corn about tliree and one-half feet apart each way. He culti-
vates and hoes as usual, but not keeping any memoranda, he is
luiable to say exactly how much labor was bestowed on the
piece, having forgotten whether the hands worked whole days,
or only parts, at that time. "When the crop is nearly ready to
harvest, with a neighbor he paces off a square rod, as nearly as
they can, for an average ; the corn is picked, shelled, spread on
a garret floor for a week, till he calls it dry, (though from that
time till it is merchantable it will shrink fifteen per cent.,)
measured up, and the product of the whole field calculated
from it. Then with the assistance of " the boys," he estimates
as near as he can, the amount of labor expended, and so makes
to the " Committee on Grain Crops," a statement of a very
large crop at a very small cost. And this is called an experi-
ment, and claims a premium. This occurs every year in almost
every society in the Commonwealth. Of how little value is
such an experiment ; and yet, is it not common ? is it not a fair
specimen of the experiments and opinions of farmers gener-
ally ? How few there are who can state with any precision the
cost of any crop, or animal ; the value of their milk ; the
quantity required to make a pound of butter or of cheese ; the
value of the skimmed milk for calves or pigs ; the comparative,
much less the positive value of different grains, roots and
fodder for milk, flesh or wool, separately or together ? Does it
seem an undeniable proposition that one knowing these facts
accurately, or approximating to them in his examinations,
must, other things being equal, farm to a better advantage tlian
one who without special attention pursues the course his father
took, or varies from that only on some uncertain guess ?

What a great advantage to have in one's barn a platform
scale, on which hay, grain and stock might be weighed ! What
a decided advantage a farmer, who was feeding stock, would have
in being able from time to time to weigh his cattle, and by weigh-
ing and measuring what they ate, to know how they gained the
fastest, and when it was time to sell ! It would be very satisfactory
to weigh one's grain when selling or sending to mill. Then a
convenient arrangement for weighing milk, is most desirable ;
a change of food frequently making a very decided change

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 75

t

in the quantity of milk, which the farmer ought to know,
especially in a State where the sale of milk is so extensive as
with us, amounting to over eight hundred thousand dollars
annually.

Every farmer would find it not only pleasant, but also useful
for reference from one year to another, if he would daily note
down his farm operations, and perhaps the weather. We know
how averse farmers are to writing, but this would not require
much penmanship in one of the cheap but useful " diaries " of
the day. Besides, in many farmers' families of the present
time, there is some one more ready to write than to work ; the
young women now will sooner pen than spin ; work crochet
better than butter ; and work at the piano, we will not say
better, but a good deal more than at the wash-tub or ironing-
board. Let such keep the diary. We quote some pertinent
remarks by a distinguished friend of agriculture, Rev. H.
Colman : " Few farmers keep any accounts whatever ; those
who do keep them, and are very competent to instruct the
community, suffer their modesty or diffidence to overbalance
the claims of the public good, which might be essentially served
by the exhibition of faithful and exact accounts. More atten-
tion should be paid to this in the schools ; it would prove of
rather more practical importance than to be able to work
embroidery and paint artificial flowers, to understand the
geography of the moon, and learn from a wood-cut all its
continents and volcanoes. It is to be added that agricultural
operations seldom admit of that exactness of account which
belongs to mercantile transactions, and that it is in most cases
only an approximation to accuracy which can be expected.

The importance of this subject to the farmer cannot be over-
stated, and should not be overlooked. Farmers cannot be too
strongly urged to keep exact and faithful accounts with their
farms, their animals, and every crop which they raise. It
would immensely assist the improvement of their farms and
their own personal comfort and self-respect.

It would enable them to decide intelligibly, and with confi-
dence what they had best cultivate, and what avoid ; it would
reveal to them their true condition, the knowledge of which is
essential to their safety, and sometimes save them from embar-
rassment, bankruptcy and ruin. Accurate accounts of expenses,

76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

<

capital employed, labor applied, seeds, utensils, improvements,
products, and final results, are as important in agricultural as
in mercantile transactions.

Of all the wastes upon a farm, perhaps there is none more
apparent than that of manures ; none more deserving of
reprobation, because none other is so generally and directly
prejudicial to success in farming, and none other of any thing
like the same extent can be so easily prevented. The farmer,
somewhat in imitation of the old orator, speaking under differ-
ent circumstances, if asked what were the three essentials
necessary to success in farming, might reply: first, manure;
second, manure; third, manure. It is, indeed, the great
motive-power in all agricultural operations, especially in the
worn and naturally unfertile soils of New England ; good and
clean cultivation is very important, but without a soil containing
the elements of growth, it will avail nothing, and these can
only be created or kept up by the constant application of
manures. These constitute directly, or assist indirectly, the
supply of nearly all the nourishment of vegetable life, while it
is these, which, produced chiefly from the decay of animal and
vegetable matter, combine most powerfully to give new life and
vigor to every form of vegetable existence that springs from the
bosom of the earth, by the operations of nature, or artificial
application. The acorn from which sprang " the oak, the
brave old oak," may be traced back in its germination to the
fertilizing properties, and the warmth caused by the fermenta-
tion and decay of the leaves and the grass among which it
chanced to fall. Nourished and strengthened by this natural
manure, it has grown and stretched its great arms abroad, till
it is styled the monarch of the forest, and now by the annual
decadence of its leaves, adds its annual deposition of fertilizing
material to the soil beneath, which in part is again absorbed by-
its own roots. The golden-eared corn owes its beauty and its
vitality to the manure prudently placed beneath the hill. The
smallest seeds of all the grasses, and of every herb for the use
of man, stretch out their tiny rootlets for the food scattered by
nature, or spread by the hand of man. Since, then, manures
are of such all-controlling consequence in agriculture, how
carefully should we study into their nature and composition ;
how faithfully should wo labor to increase by every means the

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 77

production of them ; how jealously sliould we guard against
their waste ; and how closely should we watch the effects
produced by their various application !

Manures possess different degrees of power, partly from their
inherent richness, and partly from the rapidity with which they
throw off their fertilizing ingredients to assist the growth of
plants. These are given oflf by solution in water, and in the form
of gas, the one as a liquid manure, which, running down into the
soil, is absorbed by the fine roots, and the other escaping mostly
into the atmosphere to be caught by the ever-breathing leaves,
or ascending far up, is again brought back to earth by the
descending rain or snow. Tlie great art of saving and manu-
facturing manure, consists in retaining and applying to the best
advantage these soluble and gaseous portions. The farmer who
should so grossly neglect his crops, either during the cultiva-
tion or at the harvest, as to lose or waste one-half, would be
scouted at, and almost condemned as criminal ; yet how many
farmers are there passing for good farmers, who annually lose
one-half their manure by neglect ; how common is it to neglect
the means on which the success of the crop depends ! A waste
of manure is a waste of the elements, and renders it impossible
to realize from the land what one ought in tlie present, and
destroys all prospect of success in the future. One of the most
important things, then, to which we can give our attention, is
to prevent the waste of manure, and to add all we possibly can
to our stock.

By the census of 1860, it appears that there are in the Com-
monwealth 84,327 barns. The Secretary of the Board of Agri-
culture estimates the quantity of manure at five cords to each,
worth three dollars per cord, making a total of $1,204,905.

If we assume what appears to be liberal, that one-fourth of
the barns have cellars, it follows that three-fourths of this
manure is exposed to atmospheric and other deteriorating
influences. Many competent persons estimate the loss from
this cause at one-half, but if it is only one-third, we show a
waste from the exposure of the solid manure of $321,635 per
annum. But this is not all. When the manure is thrown out
exposed, it is nearly impossible to save the liquid portion,
which, according to Dr. Dana and the authorities he quotes, is
nearly or quite equal to the solid excrements of neat cattle.

78 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

According to these data then, the loss of the liquid manure
would be three-fourths of one-half of the value of the solid,
which would be 84:59,335. There is then an aggregate waste
in this State in the matter of manure from barns alone of
$780,074, which might and ought to be saved, and when in
addition to this is added the loss of other manurial substances,
the bones, shells, soap-suds, and other slops from the house,
night soil, etc., it is probable that the farmers of this State allow
to waste more manure than they use.

The loss of manure exposed to the weather is both by evapo-
ration and by drainings from the dung-heaps, which, containing
the most valuable part of the manure, arc allowed to run
perhaps into the highway or a brook. The dung is often
thrown out of the stable on to sloping land, or left exposed to
all weathers in the yard for a long time. Heavy showers of
rain, falling upon manures thus exposed, must necessarily, by
washing out the soluble portions, greatly depreciate its value.
It is well known that the dark-colored liquids, which flow from
badly kept dung-heaps, in rainy weather, possess high fertilizing
properties. According to the quantity of rain that falls at the
time of collecting these drainings, according to the character of
the manure and similar modifying circumstances, the composi-
tion of the draining of dung-heaps is necessarily subject to
great variations. An examination of several specimens of the
drainings of dung-heaps, when analyzed by Professor Yoclcker,
at the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, shows a large
amount of fertilizing elements most desirable to retain.
Humic and ulmic acids are both products of the decay of
carbonaceous organic matter ; and their abundance in the
drainings of dung-heaps is easily explained by the decomposition
of the straw and other excrementitious matter ; in combination
with potash, soda, and ammonia, humic and nlmic acids form
dark-colored, readily-soluble salts ; the dark brown color of the
drainings, then, is an indirect proof of the existence in them of
potash, ammonia or soda.

It is also worthy of note that while the affinity of humic
acids for ammonia is sufficiently strong to completely prevent
its escape at the ordinary temperature, it suffers a change
at a slightly elevated temperature, in consequence of Avhich
ammonia escapes. Both the solid and liquid excrements

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 79

contain salts and phosphates, which the rain and melting
snows render soluble, while they wash thcni away ; they con-
tain a good deal of ammonia, and are rich in alkaline salts,
especially the more valuable salts of potash, and in desirable
organic matter. Manure depreciates very fast by being sufifered
to lie in the yard. Professor Voelcker found by accurate
experiments, that manure lying in the yard exposed to all
weathers, lost in value two-thirds ; only one-third remaining in
one year. Manure may be carted and spread directly on the
land, if there is any clay or loam in its composition, but the
worst possible method is to haul out manure and leave it in
small heaps on the field ; the opinion seems to be gaining
ground that the best application of manure is to spread it on
the land in the fall.

The saving of both solid and liquid manure is a great
argument in favor of soiling cows, which ought to be practiced
on hundreds of farms in this Commonwealth, where now the
cows find but an insufficient pasture. If the pastures were
fed to sheep, or young stock, and the cows kept in the stable
all the time, and fed with green food daily cut, the pastures
would be better, the sheep and young stock would be good,
the cows would be in better condition, give more and better
milk, and an immense saving would be made of manure now
wasted. All the manure which is dropped in the pasture
would of course be saved ; and also the liquid manure with a
little care and labor, by keeping constantly behind the cows
muck, loam, or some other absorbant. Farmers generally are
not aware of the value of this last. Johnston and Sprengel,
learned agricultural chemists, say that a cow annually voids
about 16,800 pounds of urine, which contains 961 pounds of
solid matter quite equal in value to Peruvian guano at $60 per
ton, making the annual commercial value of the liquid manure
of the cow to be $28.83 ; no inconsiderable proportion of her
whole value ; a cord of loam saturated with urine, is equal to a
cord of the best rotted dung. The manure from the poultry,
if they are confined, is as good as guano, and should not be
wasted ; that from the house is the most valuable, and if mixed
with fresh loam is completely deodorized.

There are many substances wasted whiSh would make rich
fertilizers. There is much from every factory and mill, and from

80 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

families. Bones, if thrown into a barrel and covered with ashes
and moistened, will after a while, become decomposed, so as to
form, with the ashes, a valuable fertilizer, and well worthy of
practice in the making. Hard coal ashes, if screened thor-
oughly, are worth saving, and hauling a short distance to spread
on grass land, containing some lime, and some wood ashes
remaining from the kindlings, and charcoal. Wood ashes form
one of the most valuable of all fertilizers, and ouglit to be
saved with jealous care, and are, at the common prices, a safer
fertilizer than any other to be purchased.

The deterioration of pastures comes in as a prominent waste,
and is one which for years has engaged the attention of thinking
men in the Commonwealth, with less action, and less knowledge
how to act, than in any other branch of farming operations.
We have elaborate treatises on mowing, tillage and grain lands,
and crops ; boastful reports of some one solitary acre, that has
yielded over a hundred bushels of corn, while perhaps the rest
of the farm suffered for the benefits of that favorite acre. We
have minute directions as to the best method of ploughing,
making hay, raising crops, feeding stock, improving swamp
lands, but seldom any practical and proved method of improving
pastures. We have all heard of the nameless man who " makes
two blades of grass grow where one grew before," but he would
seem to have confnied his attention to grass for hay. A marked
exception to this charge, however, is an able article in the
Transactions of the old Massachusetts Society by its then Sec-
retary, from which we shall quote : " Although much has been
said, of late, upon the necessity and importance of restoring
fertility to our pastures, but little practical information has
been offered as to the best and most economical methods of
attaining that object. We seem to be afraid to look the evil in
the face and to measure the extent of it ; a feeling of discour-
agement seems to come over us whenever we meet to talk about
it, and many of our most intelligent farmers seek temporary
palliation merely, or else abandon their pastures to their fate,
leaving them to go back to their original condition of bush and
forest."

The land usually appropriated to grazing purposes has been
that which, from its position or its soil, or from tlic combined
causes, is considered the least available for cultivation. Hilly

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 81

ground difficult to work, swamps not easily drained, and soils
encumbered with rocks, comprise a large portion of the perma-
nent pastures of New England. Besides this, many farmers
have been in the habit of cultivating their smoother land as
long as it would bear a remunerating crop, applying as little
manure as could be got along with, and then laying it down to
rye, oats, or barley, so as to get the last ounce of nutriment
from the soil. This having been pretty thoroughly accom-
plished, a crop or two of hay is taken from it, and the land is
then abandoned in a famishing state, for a number of years, to
pasture. From land thus treated cattle are expected to derive
their support for four or jfive months ; they go to it in lean con-
dition in May, and come from it at the end of October, as lean
as they went out.

Some of the more obvious reasons for the decline and waste
of pastures, that were originally in good condition as such,
may be mentioned, as

1. Over-stocking.

2. Turning into the same field every variety of stock, sheep,
horses, neat cattle, young and old together, by which the
pastures are fed.

3. Allowing bushes, brambles, and all foul stuff to grow to
the destruction of feed, especially of the finer grasses.

The mere statement of these causes of evil naturally suggests
the remedies. Pasture-lands are considered as profitable,
paying a large interest on the amount invested, and hence the
temptation to crowd into the grazing ground all the farmer's
own creatures, and as many on hire as may be offered by
others ; this, of course, is done in the spring, without consid-
eration of what may be the supply of feed through a dry
summer following. If the pasture is newly laid down, this
excessive feeding will be lastingly injurious, and under all
circumstances is very hurtful.

The creatures thus depastured may live through the season,
but will fail in growth if young, and in flesh if intended for a
market. Every beast should be kept in a rapidly growing and
fattening condition, whether old or young. If this is not so
there is an error somewhere, and it will generally be found in

the too great number in the field. Pastures should be so
11*

82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

sparinjily stocked that the cattle kept upon them, before winter
sets in, can be driven home in good condition for winter fare.

But to tlie effect of over-stocking upon the pasture itself, and
by consequence upon the whole concerns of the farm. If fed
down close, the roots of the grass and herbage arc first exposed,
perhaps to the burning heat of a dry summer, greatly to their
injury, and perhaps in a following winter to frosts of extreme
severity : thus the destruction of a great proportion of the
grass-roots is completed, the finer grasses are killed out, and
the coarser and less fattening rendered more worthless. It
must be some years before such pastures can )jc recovered, by
great care and judicious treatment. Resulting from this over-
stocking is the damaging but too common practice of many
farmers of removing their cattle from the pastures in the fall,
and turning them into the mow-fields after the crops have been
gathered, where they remain till they are housed for the winter.
Let the first motto be, feed your pastures sparingly. But not
only are pastures injured by over-stocking with cattle, but there
is a constant tendency to deterioration from the increasing
growth of bushes, weeds, and foul stuff, that deform the land
and destroy the feed ; the best lands are subject to this evil,
and there they will make the greatest encroachments. The
first step should be to attack the bushes, briars, sweet-ferns,
brakes, hard-hacks, and all sorts of worthless stuff", with the
brush-scythe and bog-hoe. These pests, we hardly need to say,
destroy the nutritious quality of the grasses, they shade and
sour the feed, and exhaust the land. Destroy them, or they
will destroy the land. Coarse herbage will gradually displace
the fine and more nutritious kinds ; briars and bushes come
next in nature's rotation, to be succeeded at last by the forest,
to which almost all lands tend. The farmer has therefore a con-
, tinual struggle against this natural law of vegetation, unless he
wishes, like the land he cultivates, to return also to his primal
condition. This work of extermination is to be repeated once
a year, or at least every other year, till the work is finished.
There is no better time for tins good and profitable labor than
some of the last days of August. After a few years these pests
will disappear. But this is not enough ; some further means
of improving pastures may be applied, about which diversity of
opinion and practice exists. Something fertilizing must be

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 83

employed in some way. In looking back through the ten years
of the published Transactions of tlie Board, we find but few
experiments in this branch of farming, and those mostly are of
breaking up and reclaiming pasture-land. Now we believe that
through the Commonwealth, as a general thing, ploughing up
and seeding pasture-lands would be impracticable and inju-
dicious : impracticable, because the best pasture-lands would
to a very great extent be unassailable by the plough ; and
injudicious, because old pastures, if well kept, are decidedly
more nutritious, more fattening, more permanent, and, in com-
mon phrase, " sweeter feed." After a pasture is made clean of
brush and foul stuff, it will for some time, if lightly stocked,
remain in good condition ; but if reduced by ill usage, it must,
we think, be restored by fertilizers applied on the surface.
Top-dressing with manure is genei-ally out of the question ;
there is none to spare from the mowing and tillage, and tlie
expense of hauling it on to pastures, even if there were a
sufficiency, would make it impracticable. We believe from our
own experience and observations and from that of others, that
plaster, ashes, and in some cases guano, may be used with suc-
cess ; three to five hundred pounds of plaster alone, or a less
quantity mixed with ashes in the proportion of two bushels of
ashes to one of plaster, or of perhaps twenty bushels of ashes
alone to the acre, will in most cases revive and renew the pas-
ture, bringing in the white and red clover, and the finer and
more fattening grasses. It may be necessary to continue this
for two or three years, but we believe that it will be a good
investment, doubling the capacity of the pasture for cattle.

Tlie Hon. Henry W. Cushman, of Bernardston, a most care-
ful and methodical man, and earnest in promoting the agricul-
ture of his county, reported to the Franklin County Agricultural
Society in 1858 the results of certain experiments on pasture-
lands, for which he received the Society's premium. The land
was an old worn out pasture, on argillaceous slate, sloping to
the east at about twenty degrees, covered with a very light
shading of poor grass and pennyroyal. Upon equal plots were
sown guano at the rate of 160 pounds, $4.80 per acre ; plaster
at the rate of 320 pounds or four bushels, 81.60 per acre ;
unlcached ashes at the rate of ten bushels, costing ^2 to the
acre, May 16, 1858. Tlie effect of the guano was the quickest,

84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

showing very fresh and green, and more than doubling the feed
in the early part of the season, but it did not seem to hold out.
The plaster gave a great increase during the middle and latter
part of the season, and late in the autumn looked green and
fresh. Clover also sprang up, and the quality of the grass was
much improved. The ashes did not apparently produce much
effect in the early part of the season, but after June the grass
and clover came in thick and fresh, and continued so all the
season ; late in the year the grass improved most, and the cattle
seemed to prefer the grass on that piece. The conclusion is,
that plaster and ashes are valuable renovators of pasture-lands,
guano at the cost less so.

But perhaps there is no readier and more profitable way to
remedy this waste of pastures than by turning sheep upon them.
In reply to the inquiry in .the circulars issued by the Board
two years ago — Whether pasture-lands were improved by sheep
— there was a unanimous affirmative. We cannot on this sub-
ject do so well as to quote from the article of Mr. Fay before
mentioned. " Our own observation and experience has fully
confirmed the correctness of the returns in this respect. We
have constantly under our eye an hundred acre lot, upon which
cattle a few years ago could not live, that now maintains in
good condition a large flock of sheep ; and the improvement of
the pastures has been so great, that a dozen head of cattle
besides the sheep do well on it. The reasons for this are
obvious to any one who has observed the habits of sheep : they
are more indiscriminate feeders than cattle ; they nip the shoots
of almost every shrub as well as weed, extirpating many kinds
in the course of two or three years ; they make room in this
way for the grasses to come in where they have been shadowed
out or otherwise displaced ; the white weed, the broom, or wood
waxen, as it is commonly termed, the golden rod, the black-
berry vine, the blueberry, with many other similar plants, dis-
appear before them, and the finer grasses and white clover take
their place. This, however, is only one of the advantages
which sheep possess upon pastures which arc impoverished ;
they scatter their manure in the way to produce the largest
benefits ; beside which, it possesses in the highest degree the
requisites essential for restoring to the land the phosphates
which it loses by long depasturing with cattle. The manure of

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 85

the sheep, too, sufifers no waste, being in a highly concentrated
form ; and at the same time, it is minutely divided and evenly
distributed over the surface of the ground.

" So good and economical distributors of manure are sheep,
that experienced farmers in England are feeding tliem, when
in the pasture, with oil-cake, for the additional benefit from the
manure."

For the purpose of seeing if our pastures would show by
figures, as profitable as we suppose them to be, we have made
some calculations as nearly as any reported facts will give.

The whole number of acres of pasture-land in the Common-
wealth is 1,326,239, the average value of which according to
the last valuation would be |1G per acre, making the pasture
lands worth $21,219,824, the interest of which would be
$1,273,189. The returns which our pastures yield us, we have
tried to ascertain in two different ways, one, to call the pastur-
ing at the usual paying price for all the stock in the Common-
wealth, which we can get with any correctness ; the sheep,
steers and heifers, and milch cows ; oxen must be left out of
the calculation, as there are no data by which to separate the
working oxen, which are not much grazed, from those being
turned out for beef; this also does not include any of the horse
kind, of which many are pastured a part or the whole of the
season.

Pasturing 92,288 steers & heifers 25 weeks, at 25c, 1345,980 00
" 113,110 sheep 30 weeks, at 2^0., . . 84,832 50
" 160,982 cows 20 weeks, at 33"'c., . . 1,062,481 20

Total rents of pastures, (not including oxen and

horses,) $1,493,293 70

We have attempted in another imperfect manner to calculate
the profits from pasturing.

Gain on 92,288 steers and heifers in pastures

annually, $6 each, $533,728 00

One-half value wool grown, .... 62,210 00

One-half of the value (not quantity) of milk sold, 404,722 00

86 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Value of all the cheese made, .... 8502,590 00
One-half of the butter, (having deducted the

value of cheese,) 057,753 00

Total products of pastures, (not including oxen

and horses,) $2,181,003 00

If these figures are correct they will justify all we have
claimed as to the importance of pasture-lands.

The mode of treatment of wood-lands is subject to criticism
as a waste, and is of very great importance to the farmers of
the State.

It was the prevailing opinion forty years ago, that wood was
fast disappearing, and that within fifty years the country would
be almost denuded of its woody covering, and that the article
would become of great scarcity and value.

At that time the practice was universal to thin out the wood
lots, by cutting here and there a tree as they appeared super-
abundant, or began to decay. Wood so thinned out rarely
sprouts out again, or if it does, is likely to be broken down by
the subsequent fall of trees, and thus our timber lands would
be gradually disappearing, and no young wood lots growing up
to fill the vacancy.

But a change of policy, has produced a change of prospect
with regard to wood.

The practice of cutting clean as one goes, or clearing the
land of timber at once, and making way for a new growth to
spring up, has demonstrated the fact that we have nothing to
fear as to a further supply of wood.

Tlie subject of planting wood has been a question of discus-
sion among agriculturists, and in some localities it may be
worthy of attention, but at present it cannot be said to be a
matter of general interest.

But the proper management of young wood lots is worthy of
attention.

"When a lot of timber land is to be cleared, if the wood is not
too old, and tlie land is adapted or natural to wood, a growth
will spring up, exceeding perhaps ten or twenty times the num-
ber of trees that can naturally grow to much size on the ground.
Some individuals in view of this fact have taken an early

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 87

opportunity to tliiii out all tlie superabundant trees, leaving no
more to grow than sufficient to make a thrifty full-grown wood
lot. An observation of years has already shown that this is a
wrong policy, and established the fact that nature provides her
own remedy for this excess, and applies it in the most successful
and advantageous manner. When trees stand thick together,
they can grow only m one direction, right straight upwards ;
which is the direction we all like to have a timber tree grow.

The limbs as they become shaded, die off, and as the more
■vigorous shoots overtop the weaker ones, they gradually die out
and this process goes on, till no more trees are left than can
successfully grow on the ground.

The soil in the mean time is kept shaded and moist, and tlie
dead branches and leaves fall down and decay, making the
proper manure for the trees, thus securing the most rapid and
healthy growth, height and erectncss of the timber.

The opposite policy produces an opposite result ; by thinning
out the trees, the lateral growth of the limbs and tlie trees
have a tendency to grow in the shape of a pasture oak. The
ground becomes hard and dry, the decayed leaves will be blown
away from the roots of the trees ; the sun and wind harden
the bodies of the trees, and they become stunted, dwarfed, and
prematurely decay.

Striking instances of this have come under our observation,
when the same lot of young wood was divided by a sale to
different men, and the let-alone policy adopted on one part and
the thinning and trimming out on tlie other. Twenty years
made a difference of nearly one-half in favor of the former.
Let the young wood lots alone. Keep out the cattle, and do
not feel that you are suffering loss because you see a few
decayed trees that might furnish fuel if taken out ; the damage
done by the teams and by the effects suggested above, will more
than equal the value of the little supplies you will add to your
wood-pile.

These suggestions are the result of observation, now some-
what protracted.

There is a great want of economy in the cutting, preparing
and burning wood for fuel. In some parts of the Common-
wealth peat is burned, and in the cities and towns coal has

88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

become cheaper, and is commonly used, but having no coal
veins in this State, wood must always be the farmer's fuel.

Careful experiments have shown that the amounts of dry
wood necessary to throw out a given heat were as follows :
Hickory, 4 cords ; White Oak, 4f ; Hard Maple, Gf ; Soft
Maple, 74 ; Pine, 9^ — each equal to 4 tons Anthracite coal.
If the heat were all saved, one pound of good dry seasoned
wood would raise 27 pounds of water from' freezing to the
boiling point. The loss is in not saving the heat and in burning
green wood.

It has been found that the most thoroughly seasoned wood at
common temperature contains about -^^^ of water. But green
wood contains about 35 per cent, of water, and the farmer who
hauls in 20 cords of green wood draws 20 tons or 125 barrels
of water, and in burning it green loses heat enough in evapo-
rating the sap to boil about 12,000 gallons of water.

Wood will season best under cover and well ventilated ; if
wood is hauled up green in the winter, it should be prepared so
that the winds of March and April and May may season it
before it is piled away ; and every farmer ought to have a wood-
shed large enough to hold a year's supply of dry wood, and
never allow green wood to be burned. Not only the economy
of the farm requires this, but especially is it demanded for
the comfort and convenience of the women of the farmer's
household.

We asked a few weeks since an intelligent young farmer to
name a principal waste in farming ; he replied that to one
riding through the country he thought the waste in fences
would be one of the most prominent. This is undoubtedly
true, not only in appearance to the casual observer but also to
the critical, close examiner. The amount of loss by expense of
making and maintaining unnecessary fence is enormous, besides
the amount of waste land under and directly adjoining them.

We have no exact data by which to estimate the amount of
fencing in this State, or the expense. We have, however, made
calculations in two ways. Careful estimates have been made
of the fencing in Pennsylvania and in Maine. Pennsylvania
had, in 1850, one hundred and twenty-eight thousand farms,
and the cost of the fencing in the State was S105,600,000 ; the
interest of which is ^$6, 336,000. Maine had forty-seven thou-

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 89

sand farms. Her fences had cost !i)25,000,000 ; the repairs
requh'e $2,500,000 annually; six percent, interest is $1,500,000,
and a renewal once in twenty years would be -11,250,000,
making the total yearly expense <|5,250,000. Now Massachu-
setts has thirty-four thousand farms, and we get at the amount
of fencing in two ways, by which we arrive at very nearly the
same results. By taking about the average cost of fencing on
each farm in Pennsylvania and also in Maine, about $700, and
multiplying it into the number of farms in Massachusetts, we
get about $23,000,000 as the cost of all the farm fences in the
Commonwealth. Another way of estimating them is as fallows :
We call the average size of improved fields throughout the
State not to exceed ten acres, in some counties it is less, in
some it may' be more. There being two millions one hundred
and thirty-three thousand four hundred and thirty-six acres of
improved land in the State, each of the thirty-four thousand
farms will have about sixty-two acres, each of which is subdi-
vided into enclosures of ten acres each, making two hundred
aiid ten thousand eight hundred fields ; the number of rods
around a ten-acre lot is one hundred and seventy, which multi-
plied by the whole number of fields gives thirty-five million
eight hundred and thirty-six thousand rods of fencing, provided
each lot was disconnected from any other, but probably two-
thirds of the various lots are connected with others, which
enclose unimproved land and highways, which are not included
in this estimate ; this will reduce the amount about one-third,
or to about twenty-three million rods of fencing ; and no one
could estimate the fences through the State under a dollar a
rod ; a large part, including most of the stone walls, would cost
much more than that. The interest at six per cent, on this
sum would be $1,380,000 ; if we add to that, repairs annually
ten per cent., or $2,300,000, and the cost of renewal at the end
of twenty years of one-half the whole fencing, we have the
enormous sum of $4,250,000 annually for fences, or $125
annually on each and every farm in this Commonwealth.

Let us now consider the cost of fencing different-sized fields.
On an oblong field of two acres, the fencing will be seventy-six
rods, which, at one dollar per rod will cost thirty-eight dollars
per acre ; a field of five acres costs twenty-five dollars, ten
acres seventeen dollars, one hundred acres five dollars and

12*

90 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

thirty-eight cents per acre. It costs as much to fence a ten-
acre lot, as it would to thoroughly undcrdrain it.

And these estimates, too, have all been made on the improved
land alone of tlie State. But the waste is not merely in the
cost of the fences and repairing. A large item is the land
occupied by the fence, and worthless, because uncultivated on
each side. A large part of our fences is Virginia fence, wliich
will measure through the bottom three feet. Bush-riding and
staked fences take as much. So that we think that four feet is
a moderate estimate for the land under and on both sides of
our fejices, wliich is uncultivated, and worse than useless.
This would leave on both sides of a fence inclosing ten acres,
one and one-fourth acres ; on the twenty-three million rods of
fencing in the Commonwealth, thirty-one thousand two hundred
and fifty acres of land untilled and unoccupied, a refuge for
almost every kind of vermin, that walks, flies, or crawls.
Might we not dispense with a large portion of this expensive
incumbrance ? Probably about one-eighth, or nearly three
million dollars are in fences on the highway, where we are not
obliged to fence animals out, but only to keep in those that are
properly there. We believe that it is poor economy and poor
farming to allow cattle to graze on tillage or mowing lands ;
that they ought never to be allowed to run on them ; but that
when pastures get short, and fail to furnish a necessary supply,
the cattle should receive other feed ; and there is one great
advantage of soiling, or keeping cows up the whole season.
Besides, pastures would not get short so soon as they do, if they
were not overstocked or if they were properly cared for. This
course would then only make it necessary to fence the grazing
lands ; the division fences between different fields of mowing
and tillage being removed, so much time and money might be
bestowed on the pastures, which need it badly enough.

Now, without going to the full extent of what is here stated,
cannot each one see on his own farm how some improvement
in this direction may be made, for if our propositions arc true
in the whole they are equally so in part.

Numerous fences, crooked, irregular and ragged, crossing
the farm in every direction, dividing it into lots of all sizes and
almost every form, are unsightly as well as expensive. "Where
a division fence is necessary, and the material is to be had, there

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 91

is nothing equal to a good heavy stone wall ; there are some
places where a hedge answers a good purpose, and is both
ornamental and useful. Wire fences are also made at a cost !is
low as forty cents per rod, though not of sufficient strength
to turn cattle, and running from that to $1.50 p^r rod ; iron
hurdles are made in sections of six or eight feet long, joined
together by a bolt and nut, which are perfectly secure against
cattle, for about $2 per rod. Where it is necessary or conven-
ient to divide off land for grazing temporarily, hurdles of iron,
or movable fences of boards, can be used. There are two or
three kinds of these last, for which patents have been secured,
which are easily set up or moved, and can be made from seventy-
five to eighty cents per rod. Where it is thought best to graze
sheep or cows on orcharding, mowing, or on a portion of land
that is undivided, this portable fence is very useful and conven-
ient, and ought to be brought into more general use. When
not wanted it can be easily taken down and stored.

It is a waste for any farmer to raise or keep poor stock of any
kind. It costs no more to rear a good animal than a poor one ;
and it does not cost so much to keep a good one as a poor one ;
if an animal is allowed to grow poor it costs much more to put
an equal number of pounds on him than if he had been kept
thriving : indeed, with a sheep it's almost impossible, the old
saying being that " a sheep is never twice fat." Mr. Mechi
says, " it is more profitable to buy a half fat or thriving animal
than a very lean or half starved one. The latter eats more, is
longer getting ripe, and you have less weight to sell with a profit ;
but if you purchase a half fat beast at five cents per pound and
get him out of hand quickly at six cents per pound, you get
twenty per cent, witliout cost on what you bought, and in addi-
tion are paid six cents per pound for all the fat you have put
on. I feel assured that the best bred animals, although
at a greater cost, pay better than those which are coarse, badly
bred, ill-shaped, large-headed, and big-boned ; for, make them
as fat as you will, they only command a second-rate price."
So, too, in breeding is a waste ; farmers are often grossly to
blame in not using the best males within their reach for breeding
purposes, because, perhaps, it is a mile further off or half a
dollar more than an inferior animal owned by some careless
neighbor ; and so, for that paltry consideration, they waste their

92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

stock by never improving it. in this way a man with a pretty
good stock will after a while run it out, when he ought to be
iuuproving it. He forgets tliat well-bred parents transmit to
their offspring more of their own bodily and constitutional
qualities than ill-bred ones can. As respects cattle, sheep and
horses in this country, in most cases the qualities of the male
parent predominate in the offspring, for the reason that the
males are better-bred usually, having strong and well estab-
lished characteristics, while the ancestors of a badly-bred animal
vary in every possible way, and consequently have no distinctive
family characteristic. A thorough-bred ram when coupled
with an ill-bred ewe marks his peculiar characteristics very
plainly upon the offspring.

An almost equal waste too is not selecting for breeding
purposes the best females of our own stock. How often is it
that an old broken down mare, or a cow with great defects is
put to breeding because she is fit for nothing else. "When such
a course is pursued by breeders of any kind of stock, they must
suffer for their own folly and penuriousness. We quote from
" Goodale's Principles of Breeding Domestic Animals," a most
vf^luable and interesting book, which should be in the hands
of every farmer. " The neglect which is too common, and
especially in breeding horses to the qualities of the dam,
miserably old and inferior females being often employed,
cannot be too strongly censured.

" In rearing valuable horses the dams are not of less conse-
quence than the sires, although their influence upon the progeny
be not the same."

It is a waste too to sell from the farm the crops raised upon
it, and which by the- rules of good husbandry should be
consumed upon the place, to make the manure which contains
the essential principles for the production of the next crop,
without which or its equivalent the naturally unprofitable soils
of New England would too faintly respond to the most earnest
calls of laborious operations.

A story is told of a French priest, who, as was common in
his country many years ago, while blessing the fields at the
beginning of the season, came to one so wretchedly bad as to
stagger even his faith. Closing his book he said to the owner,
" my son, blessing will not help this field, it wants manure."

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 93

Manure then being an essential element, how are we going to
obtain it, except from our domestic animals, that from cattle
being better than any fertilizer which can be bought. Guano,
super-phosphate of lime, ashes, and plaster, all are good in their
places, to cause a quick start, a rapid, luxuriant growth, and an
early maturity of the crop ; as an adjunct to barnyard manure
they are most valuable, but they are stimulants, and for perma-
nent effect they lack the organic and other fertilizing properties
of dung.

The only object in fattening cattle in Massachusetts at the
present time is for the manure. The more meat we make, the
more manure we get, the more corn, grain, and other crops we can
grow. Without manure we couldn't grow a crop, without the
crops we couldn't feed the cattle, without the cattle we couldn't
have the manure. The mere statement of this is enough with-
out any argument to prove it, and to show us, as Mr. Mcchi
says, that a farmer should always send his crops to market on
four legs. Hon. John Brooks, of Princeton, one of the most
shrewd and observing farmers in this Commonwealth, in a
sound article written for the Transactions of the Worcester
North Agricultural Society, shows clearly enough that those
farmers who draw hay into towns and villages, and haul manure
out, make a daily loss by the operation.

This brings us, naturally enough, to consider the wastes from
want of economy in feeding, watering, sheltering, and the
general care of all stock ; a subject sufficient in itself for an
extensive essay. Perhaps to the eye of one passing through a
farming district in the winter, the most cruel and noticeable
waste would seem to be in the insufficient shelter afforded the
poor brutes during the inclement season. It is true, and grati-
fying to know, that a great improvement in this respect is
annually advancing in this State. New, tight barns, with
warmer sheds, and great cellars beneath for storing and making
manures, filled with deep bays of sweet, early-cut hay, with-
stables full of warm, well-fed, contented cattle, quiet and thrifty,
are pleasant places to visit. Now the effect of temperature,
the necessity of keeping stock warm and comfortable, has been
so often proved in this country and England, and is so seldom
questioned, that one is astonished to see cattle and milch cows,
as well as young stock, standing nearly the whole of a winter's

94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

day curled up, shivering and wasting their food, by the impos-
sibility of keeping warm.

It has been demonstrated that cattle laid on a much larger
amount of fat in proportion to their consumption of food, during
April, May and June, than in the colder months. This is
consistent with the well-known fact, that the rapid absorption
of caloric by a cold and moist atmosphere, renders necessary a
larger quantity of food, to keep up the supply of carbon ; the
food is therefore wasted, which, if tlie animal were warmer,
would be producing fat. We find the fact so in ourselves ;
exposed to cold, in open, unsheltered situations during winter,
our appetite increases strangely, while our weight remains
unaltered. Mr. Horsefall, wliose admirable essay on dairy
stock was published by the Massachusetts Society, and whose
dairy is one of the most admirably managed in the kingdom,
keeps his stables at about sixty degrees, and neither he nor
other good dairymen allow their cows to go out in the cold to
drink, as it invariably causes the milk to shrink. It is the
opinion of an intelligent dairyman that there is a difference of
two quarts of milk a day between a cow comfortably housed,
and the same one exposed to the cold for half the day, as we
see them.

The young stock, too — calves and colts — when allowed good
food and sheltered, will be one-third larger in the spring than
if turned out to all weathers, with the coarsest and most
innutritions food.

The experiment of Lord Ducie and Mr. Childers in England
a few years since, shows that sheep sheltered in a warm slied
ate one-fifth less food, and increased in weight one-third more
than another lot of equal number and weight, with precisely
the same food, fed in the open air. A pen of sheep on Lord
Ebrington's farm was sheared early as an experiment ; they
immediately ate from two to three pounds of turnips each per
' day more than before, showing their want of a warmer tempera-
ture. These facts ought to make such an impression on our
farmers as to lead them to keep all their stock warm through
the winter, not turning them out except to water, and then but
for a short time.

In supplying our animals with suitable food, and in the
preparation of it, there is undoubtedly a great waste, though
t

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 95

perhaps there would be a great diversity of opinion as to the
extent of it and the means of prevention. No one can doubt
that animals will thrive better, make more flesh, milk or wool,
on rich food than on poor ; or with an occasional feed of roots
or meal, and then dry fodder given them in such a way as to
have it all consumed, than to be kept on one article the whole
time.

Therefore the farmer who feeds nothing but long, dry corn-
stalks and coarse hay piled into his mangers in such quantities
that every morning he has to throw out orts enough to litter
his whole stock thoroughly, is suffering or committing a waste,
either in his mode of feeding, or in the quality and the
harvesting his cornstalks and hay.

We believe there is no question as to the expediency of
cutting stalks, both on account of having them better eaten
and for convenience in getting out the manure.

However favorably we may think of the further preparation
of food for cattle by cutting, wetting, steaming, <fec., it is not
proper for us to enter into the subject, as it is in the hands of
a very thorough, competent, and experienced committee of this
Board for next year's Report. We may, however, allude to the
fact that the manure made from animals fed on rich food is
proportionately more valuable than that from poor food ; that
while, with hay, Indian corn is here the great staple food for
fattening cattle and sheep, some other articles more stimulating
and fattening will make stronger manure. Wheat shorts pro-
duce milk, linseed meal produces fat, and cotton-seed meal pro-
duces both in a higher degree, and makes manure much more
valuable than either ; by analysis equal to four tons of the best
hay. There are two kinds of it, one of which only is fit to feed ;
that from which the hull is stripped before grinding, is to be
had from the Union Oil Company, Providence, and, in the
opinion of some of the best farmers and of some of the com-
mittee who have tried it, will produce more milk with an equal
condition of flesh in cows or ewes than any other feed. Of
roots, mangolds will give the greatest yield at the least expense
by far, and make a great flow of good milk and improve the
condition of the animals.

It is thought that feeding " cobbage," or corn ground in the
ear, is a waste ; most farmers doubting if the value of the cob

96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

is equal to the amount of toll for grinding, when the miller
knows enough to get his two quarts of " clear Indian." There
is no harm in repeating a remark found in another part of this
paper, that well-fed, well-kept animals are usually not infected
with vermin.

But with the food good clear water is essential, and it should
be soft. Creatures will not do so well on hard water ; it makes
the hair rough and staring, and often affects the digestion
seriously. "Will it be believed that there are yet in Massachu-
setts many farmers so thriftless, inconsiderate, shiftless, and
cruel, as to drive their stock often many rods from the barn to
drink at a brook or pond. So long as rain is sent from heaven,
no man need be without sweet, soft water for his stock. From
30 to 36 inches of rain fall annually in the Northern States, of
which a barn only 30 feet by 40 feet would catch from 630 to
864 barrels during the year, or two barrels a day, which would
water a pretty good stock ; but it would not be necessary to
have a cistern of so large capacity as that, as the water would
be always coming in ; a cistern ten feet diameter and ten feet
deep, holding about two hundred barrels would be ample, and
this may be built very cheaply and securely too.

Besides thousands of acres of nominally waste lands, which
as such might be reclaimed by draining, there are thousands of
acres mowed and cultivated which would be doubled in value
by underdraining ; whenever water stands in a hole two and a
half feet deep, in the spring after vegetation starts, drains will
be of use.

In mentioning some of the advantages of underdraining, it
will appear that the farmer who neglects this is guilty of great
waste. Underdraining prevents drouth ; it renders the soil
earlier in the spring ; it keeps off the effect of frosts and cold
weather in the fall, thus lengthening the season at both ends ;
it allows us to work sooner after rains ; it prevents the winter-
killing of grain by heaving out ; it enables us to deepen the
surface soil ; it improves the texture of the soil for the use of
the roots ; it warms the lower part of the soil ; it prevents
the formation of a hard crust in summer ; it creates a circula-
tion of air and gasses through the drained soil most valuable
for the food of plants.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 97

There are very few farms in Massachusetts parts of which
would not be improved by undcrdraining.

Where stones are plenty and easily hauled they had best be
used, but tiles make the most perfect drain.

The great superiority of fruit trees, grass and other crops on
drained land, should commend the subject to every farmer.
It is a waste to suffer fruit trees, especially apple trees, to stand
yielding nothing of value, and only cumbering the ground.

It is our own experience, and the opinion of all with whom
we have conversed on this subject, in which some of them have
experimented, that old apple trees, if reasonably thrifty and
not too much decayed, may be judiciously renewed and made
to bear many years. Such trees should be carefully trimmed
and grafted, care being taken not to cut out too much of the
top at first. They should be scraped to get rid of the bugs,
worms and larvae which infest the bark, while the land beneath
them should be manured and cultivated rather shallow, so as not
to disturb the roots. From ten to twenty years' bearing of good
fruit may be thus secured, while in the meantime the thrifty
farmer will have brought a fine young orchard into bearing.

There is often, too, a shameful waste in the careless, unskilful
manner in which fruit trees are transplanted. A small hole, not
so wide as the extended roots, is dug in hard soil ; the roots,
ragged and untrimmed, are crowded in, and the earth tramped
hard upon them, no attention being paid to the depth of setting
out or the requirements of the roots. Half the trees cannot
possibly live, and the farmer complains that his land isn't
suitable for fruit.

There is a very considerable waste in harvesting the different
crops, aside from that caused by unfavorable weather, and
which is unavoidable. The first, and perhaps the most
noticeable of these, is to be found in bad management of the
hay crop, the most important for us in Massachusetts of all crops,
amounting to aboiit 19,000,000, it being not only the largest
agricultural production, but even the largest of any single
product of the State, of any kind, except woollen and cotton
goods, boots and shoes, and clothing. The great and most
objectionable feature is that of allowing grass to stand too long
before it is cut ; becoming too ripe. On large farms, where
there is a great amount of hay to be cut, there was formerly

13*

98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

some excuse for this ; it was not easy to get through haying,
even with an early start, and careful selection of the fittest
pieces to be cut, without some of the grass being over-ripe ;
but by the introduction of mowing-machines and horse-rakes,
this excuse no longer exists, certainly not to the same extent as
formerly.

After grass blossoms the formation of woody material
commences, becoming hard and unnutritious the longer it
stands.

Some of the most successful stock-raisers in the State practice
cutting their hay very early, commencing even as soon as the
grass begins to blossom, and finishing a large crop by the middle
of July. The hay thus cut is fine, sweet, fragrant and
nutritious. By this early cutting, too, they also get a full
growth of rowen, which is very highly prized for calves, milch
cows and ewes. We believe that great improvement may be
made in some portions of the Commonwealth by attention
to this subject.

Grain is often wasted by standing too long in the field before
harvesting, the consequence of which is that the straw becomes
hard and brittle, and the berry, ripe and hard, shells out in a
wasteful manner. Oats, especially, should be cut before the
heads are turned yellow, and while the straw is quite green,
by which, while the berry will fill to its full weight, the straw
will make almost as good feed as hay, especially to milch cows.
We think there is often a waste in harvesting corn, in not
taking good care of the stalks, which, when properly cured,
are worth, to say the least, half as much as good hay.

The practice of harvesting cornstalks is not uniform. Some-
times they are cut up by the root, and at others topped, the
top stalks being cut and bound. In either case they want a
good deal of drying and care to have them keep well.

An eminent agricultural writer has said that a large part of
the errors and deficiencies of our practical agriculture are
referrible, in a great degree, to a want of system in manage-
ment. System relates to time, to courses and to modes of
husbandry. A full elucidation of each topic would embrace
the whole circle of farming dispositions and duties. Our limits
will not permit any thing more than a recurrence to one or
two leading ideas. Want of system in agriculture leads to 4oss

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 99

of time and increase of expense. System has chief reference
to succession of crops, to sufficiency of hands, and their appli-
cation to labor, and to selection of instruments.

As to succession of crops called rotation, the more common
practice is after two or three years' cultivation to get the land
into grass. Rotation as practiced in England has not generally
been adopted here. Systematic agriculture also requires suffi-
ciency of hands ; whatever call of farming any man undertakes
to fill, hands enough to do it well are essential. Although this
is a plain dictate of common sense, yet the want of being
guided by it in practice, is one great cause of ill success in
agriculture. Labor as such never yet diminished any man's
profit ; on the contrary, it is the root and spring of all profit.
Labor unwisely directed and unskilfully managed is indeed a
great consumer of the farmer's prosperity. But labor wisely
and skilfully directed, can, from the nature of things, result in
nothing else than profit. What is skilful management and
what is wise direction of labor, opens a field almost boundless,
and not to be attempted in this connection ; a single remark
must suffice. The great secret of European success in agri-
culture is stated to be much labor on comparatively little land.
Now the whole tenor of Massachusetts husbandry, from the first
settlement of the country, has been little labor on much land.
Is it wonderful, then, that success should be little or nothing
when conduct is in direct violation of the principle on which
success depends ?

The wastes proceeding from the want of system in arranging
work, or in improper appropriation of the forces of the farm,
although when viewed in individual effect seem small, are very
large in the aggregate. The nature of this subject, however,
precludes us from making any thing but general remarks,
leaving every farmer to act as the occasion demands. Every
farmer to be successful should have well-matured plans for
performing every operation connected witli his business. He
can never hope to be successful who goes to work at random.
A successful farmer will be a thinking man, always knowing in
advance what his operations are to be ; when the time comes to
act, he will be prepared. He will not, for instance, send
thoughtlessly two men to do what one could as well accom-
plish alone. There is much skill to be exercised in arranging

100 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

men and teams to work to the best advantage. In sending off
a cart for wood, rails, manure, &c., two men may work to
advantage, but if one can do it in twice the time, then the
half-hour's travel of the other man each way, out and back, is
saved. A shrewd farmer who has outlying fields, would con-
trive to have the labor performed on them continuously, avoid-
ing all unnecessary travel to and from the house ; he would
endeavor to avoid all heavy carting, and if possible to use his
yard manure near home, using light manure and special
fertilizers abroad.

About the house and barn, and especially in doing that
unceasing round of most important work concisely expressed in
the derivative from that good old Saxon as " chores," system
and method are essential, in the division of labor, and in the
regular and faithful execution of it in feeding, watering and
milking stock, cleaning stables, &c. Numberless illustrations
of this subject will occur to every thinking farmer which need
not be mentioned here.

When we say that there is a great waste by vermin, we
intend to be general in our charge, taking a wide range, placing
dogs at the head, and running down to the least insect that
torments the steer, or saps the green leaf. The fidelity of the
dog is a beautiful thing in prose, or verse, and as almost every
family has a dog, eminent for attachment and fidelity to that
family, perfectly free from all vice, guiltless of the blood of
sheep or the feathers of poultry, we wish it understood that the
objections here mentioned against dogs do not obtain against
their dog, but strictly to every other one in the State.

Passing the everlasting nuisance of a dog in the house, wast-
ing patience and good temper by soiling the clean floors, making
his resting-place on the sofa, in the best chairs or wherever
most in the way ; feloniously appropriating every accessible piece
of meat, or pan of milk ; worrying the cat and the cows, and des-
troying the poultry ; scratching up the garden and flower-
beds for his bone deposits ; digging up the meadow for hypothet-
ical moles or suppositional mice ; allowing that these are mere
trifles, not worthy of notice, we say that the waste caused by
dogs among sheep amounts to more than the value of all the
dogs in the Commonwealth, even at the exaggerated valuation
of their owners, to say nothing of the risk of life and limb.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 101

We quote from a valuable essay by a former able Secretary of
the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture : " Few-
persons are aware how destructive dogs are in this respect, and
they are generally of a worthless kind, which are driven from
necessity to destroy sheep in order to obtain the means of
existence. The difficulties which beset the cultivator, especially
in populous neighborhoods, are quite enough from depredations
and trespasses of various kinds, without being obliged to watch
his flocks by day and night. One serious impediment to sheep
husbandry in this State has been the havoc committed upon
flocks by dogs. The returns which this Society have received
unanimously ascribe as the reason why more sheep are not kept,
the injuries inflicted by dogs. From returns received from all
the towns in the State but seven, it appears that in 1859 about
33,000 dogs were licensed, paying a tax of about $36,000 ; it is
estimated that nearly an equal number was destroyed by their
owners as not being worth the tax, and that as many more
escaped taxation altogether, making at that time over 112,000
dogs, while at that time there were about 113,000 sheep. We
have no data to calculate the amount of damage done here.
The official returns of the State of Ohio for 1858, show the
whole number of sheep killed by dogs was 60,536. Total
number of sheep injured by dogs, 36,441. Total damage done
to sheep by dogs, $148,748. The " dog law," if properly
enforced throughout every town, would prove a great success
and signal blessing."

In many parts of the State, foxes are qiiite plenty, and do a
good deal of damage by catching the lambs and poultry that
stray away. We know of one farmer, who has told us that his
loss in lambs and turkeys, is annually not less than fifty dollars ;
and his is not a singular case. The only method of prevention
is by killing them, and that presupposes a gun and dog, which
all farmers do not have, and don't want ; then as between the
two evils, of having your poultry and lambs killed by foxes, or
having on your farm a fox-hunting man with a noisy hound, it
is difficult to decide.

There are all the other wild beasts — woodchucks, racoons,
skunks, squirrels, with their hoarded stores ; against these
there is nothing but the gun. Of the birds, the crow, black-
bird, blue-jay, and some other small birds are great annoyances,

102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

but it is very doubtful whether it is wiser to kill thera or to let
them live for the good they do in destroying insects and worms.
Probably tlie best way to deal with crows and blackbirds is to
feed tlicm by sowing upon the field, corn soaked soft ; they will
fill themselves from it, and will not pull tlie corn much in the
hill. Against rats and mice, a good barn cat, if you can per-
suade her to stay at the barn, unworried by the dog, is an
invaluable piece of property. If grain be stowed very closely
in the barn, with the buts out, rats will not trouble it much.
An excellent arrangement is to have the corn-house completely
removed from any other building, and set upon piers or posts,
on which is placed a slate stone, or an old tin pan, to prevent
the ascent of the rats. The steps by which to enter should be
movable, kept within the door, and set up only when used.

The ravages by field-mice upon trees, are sometimes very
severe ; the usual fall digging and manuring are commonly a
sufficient protection. If the young trees stand in a stubble-
field, a pretty sure way to protect them is to cast a bank round
the tree a foot in height. Care should be observed, however, that
the dirt be taken far enough from the tree not to expose the
roots, or let the water settle into them. If the first snow that
falls in winter is tramped hard about young trees, the solid
mass will usually keep mice from tlie bodies of the trees.

There is no more slovenly sight, and no waste more easily
prevented, than that of lice upon cattle, and ticks on sheep. It
is impossible that cattle should be thrifty with these myriads of
blood-suckers on them ; there is no excuse for allowing it.
Various expellants may be used, as snufF, whale oil, strong
soap suds, sometimes mercurial ointment or unguentum,
whicli, however, is so effectual as often to kill lice, cattle and
all. We think the best and cheapest article known is Jaques'
Extract of Tobacco, prepared and sold by Fisher & Co., Central
Wharf, Boston, in nice packages at very reasonable rates,
about an ounce of which, dissolved in a gallon of water, makes
a wash easy to use and fatal to the vermin on cattle, colts and
sheep. A small piece of sulphur once or twice a week, renders
the animal a disagreeable abiding place for vermin. Nor will
they thrive on well-fed, well-carded, good-conditioned stock.

All the depredations caused by insects are wastes, and many
of them may bo prevented by care. It would far transcend

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 103

our limits to give even a brief description of the various sorts
of insects which injure trees, gardens, and other cultivated
crops, and destroy the best productions of the soil. We shall
therefore confine ourselves to stating briefly some of the most
approved modes of counteracting the ravages and effecting the
destruction of a fevr of those which are the most injurious to
the cultivator. The preventive operations are those of the best
culture in the most extensive sense of the term, including what
relates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation and climate.
Fall ploughing, by exposing worms, bugs, grubs, and the larvae
of bugs, beetles, <fec., to the intense frosts of our winters, is
usually beneficial. Insects may be driven off, and often their
complete destruction effected, by sprinkling over them by
means of a syringe, watering-pot or garden-engine, soap suds,
tobacco water, decoctions of elder, walnut leaves, lye from pot
or pearlash, whale oil soap, or they may be dusted with
sulphur, ashes, quicklime and other acrid substances. Loudon
says : " Salt dissolved in water is most injurious to insects with
tender skins, as the worm and the slug ; and hot water, where it
can be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally if not
more powerfully injurious. Water heated to one hundred and
twenty degrees or one hundred and thirty degrees will not
injure plants whose leaves are expanded and in some degree
hardened, and water at two hundred degrees or upwards may
be poured over leafless plants." A preventive against the
canker-worm, and some other insects, is to put a ring of tar
around the tree to prevent their ascent. Digging around the
tree for some feet in extent, and spreading air-slacked lime,
destroys the insect and is otherwise beneficial to the trees.
The caterpillar, one of the worst enemies to an orchard when
neglected, may be easily destroyed by a little attention. When
the nests in which they stay are small, they may be easily
crushed by the hand or twisted off by a bush or pole, and
crushed under foot. The method adopted by one of the com-
mittee has proved satisfactory, especially when the nests are
out of reach. A lock of tow or cotton wired to the end of a
light bamboo pole, is saturated with burning-fluid, and a match
being applied it is held under the nest ; it burns with a very
hot, quick flame, and with a little care will effectually destroy
both nests and worms without injury to the tree.

104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The curculio is a great post, destroying not only the stone
fruits, but also the apple and pear to some extent. There is no
protection against them ; poultry will eat many, and if all the
fruit that falls prematurely is picked up and fed to the hogs,
many will be destroyed. The safest way is to jar them at early
morning from the trees on to a sheet spread underneath.

The borer is a most destructive worm, not only in the apple
tree, but in other fruit trees, and also in the oak, locust, &c.
It is a very great waste to allow these in an orchard. Preven-
tion is impossible, but their presence will be shown by the
premature turning and falling off of the leaves, and a general
unhealthy appearance. They will be discovered in the tree
near the ground, and should be immediately dug out with a
sharp knife or chisel, or followed up with a pointed wire. Often
several will be found in the same tree. This is a nuisance which
requires the greatest vigilance in a young orchard.

The scale louse, the aphis, the slug, and the plant louse, are
noxious vermin, wasting the trees of the farmer. "Washing
with whale oil soap, weak lye, soap suds, a solution of sub-
carbonate of soda, &c., will do much to destroy these. While
that is effectual to a certain extent, there is nothing so sure
against these wastes as a strong, vigorous, healthy growth,
induced by good manuring, and thorough cultivation. Destruc-
tion caused by the cut-worm, wire-worm, army-worm, weevil,
wheat-midge, corn-midge, turnip-fly, striped-bug, and numerous
other pests, can only be helped by the destruction of the vermin,
by early sowing, constant care, and other means suggested as
the emergency arises.*

The waste from weeds, although not such as can be computed
or even guessed at, is undoubtedly very great and should not be
passed unnoticed. When one gives a careful survey of his
farm, and sees how many weeds are growing in different fields
and by the road-side, and that every one of these exhausts the
fertility of his soil and the strength of his manure as much as
any of his cultivated plants, without rendering him any return,
scattering its pestilent seeds in every direction, he realizes apart
of the curse imposed upon the original cultivator at his fall.

* For the fullest and most valuable treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegetar
tion, the reader is referred to the splendid edition of Harris on Insects, just
published. No farmer's library is complete without it.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 105

The late Sir John Sinclair made some experiments on this
subject, which are wortliy tlie attention of farmers. He says :
" First, seven acres of light gravelly land were fallowed and sown
broad-cast ; one acre was measured off and not a weed was
pulled out of it ; the other six were carefully weeded. The
unweeded acre produced 18 bushels ; the six weeded acres 135
bushels, or 22|- per acre, which is 4| bushels, or one-fourth
more produce in favor of weeding. Second, a six acre field was
sown with barley, in fine tilth and well manured. The weeding,
owing to a great abundance of charlock, cost 12 shillings per
acre. The produce of an unweeded acre was only 13 bushels,
of the weeded 28 ; difference in favor of weeding, 15 bushels per
acre, besides the land being so much cleaner for succeeding
crops. Third, six acres sown with oats ; one acre ploughed but
once and unmanured, produced only 17 bushels ; the other five
acres ploughed three times, manured and weeded, produced 37
bushels. This experiment proves that oats require good
management, and will pay for it as well as other crops. Ten
bushels of the increased produce may be fairly attributed to
the weeding and the other ten to the manure." It seems by this
experiment too that the charlock, or as our farmers call it,
" cadlock," is as great a nuisance in England as with us.

In speaking of weeds, they would naturally enough be divided
into two classes, one of which increases and multiplies by the
seed alone, and the other is propagated only by the root.
Those weeds which are reproduced by their seeds may be
divided into two classes ; the annuals, which spring up, produce
and shed their seeds in the same season, and then perish ; and
the biennials, which spring up the first year, live through the
winter and produce their seed in the second year of their vegeta-
tion. Neither of these two classes possess long-lived roots ; the
whole plant perishes as soon as the seed has reached maturity.
Those weeds which are produced from seeds can only be
destroyed by the seeds contained in the soil being successively
brought to the surface and thus enabled to germinate, for other-
wise they might remain whole centuries in the earth without
losing their vitality.

The number of seeds found in each of the different kinds of
weeds, and the length of time that they will lie in the ground
without losing their vitality, is marvellous. We can only

14*

106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

mention a few of the most pestilent of them. The dock has
to each stalk 13,000 seeds ; May-weed, 40,000 ; charlock,
4,000 ; burdock, 24,500. There does not seem to be any limit
to the period during which these seeds can preserve their
vitality. We have known of a piece of gound that had not
been ploughed for thirty years at least, which, after the first
ploughing in spring, was yellow with the charlock, or " cadlock,"
as it is called. The dock seed has been known to be in the
earth twenty years and then germinate. A blackish earth was
found beneath an old building known to have existed over two
hundred years ; when this earth was spread abroad, a quantity
of corn marigold came up all over it, although it had never
been seen in that place. The seeds of some plants, too, will
preserve their vitality even after having passed through the
bodies of animals, and are frequently propagated by the manure.
The corn marigold has been thus spread, and the ox-eyed daisy
was thus carried across the State of Vermont.

Most of the annuals can be destroyed by cutting them in the
proper time, say in August, or by pulling them before any seed
has formed ; these should either be fed to the hogs then, or be
buried in the earth, or a compost pile where they could ferment
and make valuable manure. There cannot be a doubt that all
those weeds which are allowed to produce their flowers, and
then be buried by the action of the plough, tend to augment
the fertility of the soil.

The dock should be taken out early in the spring, and great
care should be exercised that the seed does not get into the
manure.

The other class, propagated from the root, like the couch-
grass, creeping bent-grass, corn thistle, <fcc., must be taken out
by the root. It would be idle to mention any more, particularly
the various noxious weeds that annoy the farmer. Nor is there
any preventive except care about the manure and clean
cultivation. Every weed will yield to heavy manuring and
careful cultivation, the chief points of which are to kill every
one within reach and suffer none to go to seed. "When weeds
and foul stuff grow in a pasture they will be eradicated by
feeding the land with sheep early in the spring to a very large
extent; indeed, there is no way so effective to kill off brush and
briars, and to renovate the old pastures, as by pasturing with

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 107

sheep, difficult as it is to eradicate these noxious plants. We
should be very cautious as to the seed we sow. As many as
700,000 weed seeds have been found in a bushel of grass seed.
The honesty of growers and dealers in seed is not proverbial ;
if you find those possessing it, " grapple them to thy soul with
hooks of steel."

There is a very great loss or waste in the cultivation of too
much land. This remark has been so often made that no one
will doubt it, but perhaps tlie assistance of a few figures will
render this fact more visible. It is true to an extent much
beyond the common opinion, that the cost of a crop per ton or
per bushel is diminished as the aggregate per acre is increased,
that is to say, a bushel of corn at twenty bushels to the acre,
costs more than a bushel at eighty to the acre, and the same
holds true of every product of the land. It follows then that
the better we cultivate our land, and the larger yield we get of
our crops, the cheaper they will be to us, which is the thing to
be sought. And it also follows then, that if we have more land
under cultivation than we can properly manure and faithfully
work, we shall accomplish this purpose by concentrating our
labor and our manure upon a portion only of the cultivated
land.

The following facts, prepared from the census statistics by a
gentleman formerly occupying a high position in this Common-
wealth, are very striking. He says : " In the year 1850, we
cultivated two million one hundred and thirty-three thousand
four hundred and thirty-six acres, and allowing one acre for
twenty bushels of wheat, for fifteen bushels of rye, for sixty
bushels of corn, for forty bushels of oats, for one hundred
and fifty bushels of potatoes, for thirty bushels of barley, for
one and a half tons of hay, for one hundred dollars' worth of
garden products, and seven acres for the pasturage of every
horse, five for every ox, four for every cow, two acres each
for young cattle, one acre for each sheep, and allowing liberally
for other crops and uses, the products of that year ought to
liave been obtained from one million seven hundred and seventy-
two thousand five hundred and eighty-one acres ; showing a
loss of the use of three hundred and sixty thousand eight
hundred and fifty-five acres, equal to about seventeen per cent,
of the land under cultivation." Now the first waste to be

108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

pointed out here, is the use of this large quantity of land,
which if allowed to run to wood merely, would yield an annual
average of one cord per acre, or three hundred and sixty
thousand cords a year. If this wood be estimated at -SI. 50 per
cord, you have annual waste or loss of $540,000. In the next
place this great quantity of land would be much benefited by
allowing it to be idle, for it is a general rule that nature yields
a growth and improves land at the same time, while that
called husbandry, often leaves the land poorer than it found it.
Now let this area of wasted land be untouched by the hand of
man for forty years and it will yield an aggregate of -^20, 000,000,
while its productive power for the future will be greatly
increased.

Tiien as a consequence, the farmers of Massachusetts fence,
plough, sow and mow, six acres where they ought to plough,
sow and mow but five acres, and in fine, they extend their agri-
cultural operations over seventeen per cent, more land than is
necessary to the result they obtain. Here then is a manifest loss
of labor, a waste where there ought to be the strictest economy.
It may not be easy to estimate this loss accurately, but it is
plain that it naturally diminishes the profits on this branch
of industry. Tlie entire cost of our agricultural labor is
estimated at 116,000,000 ; it is moderate to say that one-eighth
of this is wasted in the cultivation of seventeen per cent, more
land than is necessary to the crop, but to avoid any unreason-
able calculations it may be well to put it at one-sixteenth, or
$1,000,000. Be it remembered that the gross proceeds of agri-
cultural products did not exceed $20,000,000, and of this at
least $1,000,000 is wasted in the misapplication of lal)or.
What would be said of a manufacturer who should be guilty
of wasting one-twentieth of his product in the application of
his labor ! If such attempts finally resulted in bankruptcy
would he be entitled to public sympathy or to his discharge ?
Again, this waste of labor is followed by a waste of land.
When we cultivate more land than we ought for the crop
we get, the process of cultivation is necessarily defective and
bad.

There are thousands of acres pastured that should be allowed
to grow up to woods, to supply at some time the never ceasing
draft made by our farmers on the forests ; and thousands

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 109

now mown that should be turned into pastures. The best
evidence of this is the fact that the average yield of hay in
this State is considerably under a ton to the acre. The best
farmers say it is not profitable to mow land that yields less
than a ton of hay to the acre ; when it falls below that, the
land should either be tilled or turned into pasture. The ques-
tion turns a good deal on the economy of labor. Is it ever
considered the amount of travel it requires to get from an
acre two thousand pounds of hay, or how much land it is neces-
sary to go over for each and every single pound ? If the grass
yields two thousand pounds to the acre of hay, twenty-two
square feet are to be mowed over and raked over to obtain one
single pound.

In every business department of life in which we are engaged,
a successful prosecution of business requires judicious and
careful outlay of capital, and by thus doing to secure tiie
largest returns on the investment. Now the farmer should
recollect that his capital is composed not only of his farm and
his cattle, but also to a very considerable extent of the labor
which he bestows upon the land and the stock, and therefore it
behooves him to see to it tliat his capital is not wasted by labor
injudiciously expended. It is a duty to economize labor ; labor
is the scarcest and dearest commodity ^in the market, and is
likely to continue so.

Another waste, which, though very extensive cannot be
computed, but ought not to pass unnoticed, is the neglect of
early repairs on buildings, fences and tools. How few farmers
are fully up to the mark in this respect. Every one should
have a set of tools for repairs and carpentry work ; a plane,
shave, augers, chisels, brace and bits, and gimlets, which he
ought to know how to use ; these and a few other tools such as
wrenches, cold chisels, a sledge, stone hammer, drills and
powder-can are very handy and save a deal of running, lie
ought also to have in separate boxes, nails of different sizes, a
few screws, and some different sized carriage bolts, costing but
a few cents each, and with which one can make a strong, neat
job, instead of toggling up with an uncouth clamp, or wooden
pins. But it is no use to have these tools without a proper
place in which to keep and use them ; but with that, a farmer
of any gumption will on rainy days do up many a piece of

110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

repairing tliat would have cost him half a day's journey to the
blacksmith, "wheelwright, or carpenter, and sometliing to pay
besides. Many such items of expense too would be saved if
more care was exercised in housing and protecting from the
■weather all machines, implements and tools, — to have them
every night cleaned and put in proper places.

One of the shrewdest, closest and best of our hill farmers in
the State, said to us, " We farmers don't think how much we
lose in not having a few handy tools by us for repairs. The time,
travel and patience wasted in borrowing and returning necessary
orconvenient tools, would, at a fair calculation, pay for them." A
great trouble is, however, that many farmers and farmers' boys,
abuse and neglect tools of all kinds ; but with such as we have
mentioned properly kept, a farmer may keep his buildings and
most of his implements and tools in repair. It makes a vast
difference, too, about having such jobs done, if the tools are
convenient. If the hammer and good nails are handy, the man
or boy will be much more likely to nail a loose board on the
barn, or tack a shingle, or drive on a fence board, than if he
has to use an old harrow tooth to pound with, and old wrought
iron nails, rusty, crooked and broken, saved from some old
torn-down shed of a former generation. Prompt attention in
this respect is especially necessary in repairing fences. As soon
as a gate begins to sag, destruction commences, and it should
be righted before it is racked to pieces ; if a rail is thrown off
or broken, or a fence board off, a cow will have her head over
or through, and the fence down in a short time after. There
is no way so efTectual to make brcachy cattle, as by neglecting
early rapairs on fences, and there is no greater nuisance on a
farm than a herd of cows and cattle, which have thus been
successfully educated to disregard party lines.

In addition, however, to these small items, there is one great
■waste, which covers and permeates every department of the
profession, and which obtains to a greater or less extent on
every farm. It is the misdirection of physical force ; or physical
power applied without a sufficient degree of skill or scientific
knowledge to make it available to the largest extent, under
existing conditions. The simplest illustration of this neglected
principle is perhaps the common lever. How often have we

SECRETARY'S REPORT. Ill

seen the whole might of a huge Milesian thrown ineffectnally
upon a lever, which the skill of an American lad would at
once render serviceable. The highest display perhaps is exhib-
ited in the steam-engine, powerful almost beyond limit, yet
controlled by a touch.

On our own land we see its wide extremes. The dusky
squaw, the aboriginal tiller of the soil, with a rudely-shaped
stone, planted her few grains of maize in the virgin soil, and
with an ignorant but truthful confidence, waited till the Great
Spirit — He who " sends his rain upon the just and the unjust,"
who had long ages before promised that " seed time and
harvest should not fail " upon the earth, — should with his
genial sun, his gentle dew and rain from heaven, bring forth
" the blade, and then the ear, and after that the full corn in
the ear," —

" Till at length a smaill green feather
From the earth shot slowly upward,
And before the summer ended
Stood the maize In all its beauty,
With its shining robes about it,
And its long, soft, yellow tresses.
And still later when the autumn
Changed the long, green leaves to yellow,
And the soft and juicy kernels
Grew like wampum, hard and yellow,
Then the ripened ears she gathered."

She parched the scanty product of her cultivation and cracked
it in some water-worn pot-hole of the rocks, while her red-
skinned partner, if successful, struck the straggling deer, or
speared the silvery salmon.

From this normal style of cultivation and of life — this lowest
exhibition of physical force as applied to produce the necessaries
of life, how have we advanced step by step, as science, like the
eastern sun, has gradually risen on us, dissipating the darkness,
quickening every energy and shedding light in the dark places.
"What an immense advance has educated labor made, and how
wonderfully it is developed in our knowledge of the nature of
the soils, their capabilities and their deficiencies ; the nature of
the multitude of plants, their requirements and how to su))i)ly
them ; our ingenious and almost perfect tools, implements and

112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

machinery for tilling the soil, and preparing its products for the
use of both man and beast ; our beautifully perfected breeds
of cattle, and other domestic animals ; — all these show what
may be accomplished by continued efforts skilfully conducted.
And yet between these two extremes, what farmer is there who
will not admit, from year to year, an uncertain amount of loss
of labor, strength and time, which are his capital, by uot know-
ing exactly the best way to accomplish certain results, or if
knowing, by inability of one kind or another, failing to carry
out what his knowledge suggests should be done.

How many farmers are there, who thoroughly understand
the nature of the different soils of their farms, of which
there are several, if the farm is of an average size ? In high
farming this is regarded as an essential, prime condition — a
necessity to be understood, both for the crops to be grown, and
the beasts to be kept ; on the character and effect of the food
for animals. How many farmer* know the character of the
underlying subsoil, and the untold values in it, whether most
profitably brouglit to the surface and spread, or stirred beneath,
or left in its normal condition ? How many farmers are there
who know the true depth at which to apply manures ? How
many who know and pursue the most judicious rotation of
crops ? how many who can tell the absolute value of different
manures ?

What we want is a more general diffusion of knowledge,
more careful and systematic observations and experiments,
with accurate and methodical reports, from which as data we
might be able to deduce some laws to guide us.

There are especially some sciences, with which we as farmers,
ought to hold a large acquaintance, Geology, Botany, Physiol-
ogy, and Chemistry. It is not meant that we should be pro-
fessors in all these sciences, but that the more we know of them,
and can combine with our practical knowledge, the more skilful
farmers we shall make. Geology teaches us that our soils are
rocks ground into powder, and mixed with animal or vegetable
matter ; it teaches the character of our rocks, the lay of our
land beneath the surface, as well as above, the nature and
capacity of our soils and sul)soils.

From Botany we derive all our knowledge of trees and plants,
what are most suitable for food for man or beast ; it has taught

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 113

us to form from a wild European crab, the splendid Baldwin,
Greening, Nonesuch and Pippin ; from a vile choke pear, the
Seckel, the Bartlctt, the Duchesse, and all that delicious class ;
from a miserable Persian plum, the luscious Peach, Apricot,
and Nectarine. Animal physiology has taught us how from
the roving bison we may breed perfection in our Short-horns,
Herefords, Durhams, and Ayrshires ; from the wild argali
bounding from rock to rock, we have wrought out the Leices-
ter, the Cotswold, and the matchless Downs ; while the wild
boar of the woods is modified into the Mackay, the Suffolk, and
the Chester County.

Agricultural chemistry intimately connected with all the
others, shows us the requirements and the deficiencies of our
soils, how our seed should best be sown, harvested and pre-
pared for the most economical use of ourselves and our ani-
mals ; it teaches us the composition and nature of our grains
and roots, and shows us how they minister to the different
organisms of animal life, and which is best adapted to build up
and to strengthen each different portion of the system.

The question is even now often mooted whether farming is
profitable. It may or may not be according as it is managed
with skill or otherwise. And the affirmative answer to that
question will very much depend on the attention paid by each
farmer to the subjects here presented ; and his skill in avoiding
and preventing them will largely measure his success. To
farm well, one must farm intelligently, and how few they are
who are thoroughly good farmers. The difficulties in the way
of farming well are not few nor small ; difference in climate,
even in New England, locality, soil and subsoil, skill enough
to select one from the various breeds of cattle for the dairy, or
the shambles ; how to raise them, and how best to fatten them ;
whether to keep sheep or cattle, horses or hogs ; how to pre-
pare compost, and use manure ; a judicious selection of the
crops most profitable in each locality, and a proper rotation of
crops ; skill in fitting the ground, getting in the seeds, and
cultivating and harvesting the crops ; these are all more or less
obstacles to be overcome by study and experience. Success or
failure may result from the exclusion or permission of the
" wastes " of the farm.

15*

114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The judicious cultivation and mauagement of a farm, requires
a combined and practical exercise by the farmer of all the
knowledge and skill necessary for the cultivation of the articles
separately that are produced on the farm.

It is obviously a different science from any other, more com-
plex, more difficult to learn, requiring judgment, experience,
and observation, to carry it into successful practice. Next in
value to an individual's own experience, is a true and particular
account by others, of a judicious and skilful cultivation and
management of farms like his own, where the expense of labor,
markets for crops, and habits of living are nearly the same, if
he can have their method and practice fully and accurately
communicated to him.

Another great obstacle to farming well, is the want of capital,
which induces a waste. Many a young man having accumu-
lated a few hundred dollars by working on a farm, is prompted
by a laudable ambition to buy and act for himself, makes a
purchase of one for which he becomes largely indebted, orna-
ments it with a mortgage and skins the farm to pay interest,
Another common case is that where a farmer dying, one son
takes the farm to manage and pays off the other heirs ; to do
this he is to have money, a part of which he gets by selling every
thing he can; perhaps slashing into a valuable wood and timber
lot, or disposing of a choice lot of meadow and mortgaging his
farm for the remainder ; having thus a continued debt to pay
hanging always on him. In each of these instances, which are
by no means rare, a young farmer commences life with a burden
heavy to be borne under any circumstances, and which is likely
to be increased by sickness, or the failure of a crop, or the loss
of his animals ; and of all farm wastes, perhaps there is none
more consuming than paying interest money. John Randolph
once declared he had found the philosopher's stone, the secret
of living, it was "pay as you go." A false and ambitious style
of living is creeping in among the farmers, as foreign to their
real wants as it is to the way of life of those who preceded
them and the manner of their own " bringing up."

Events crowded into the past year, strange in their design,
inception, execution, and results, beyond our wildest imagina-
tions, have tended to inspire us with a greater respect and

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 115

veneration tlian ever for the science of agriculture. When the
rebel spirits of the South, whose only precedent for their foul
deed was found in that primeval revolt, which " peopled vastly
hell," and led to " man's first disobedience and his fall," raised
their infernal flag against this sacred Union, — when ])y the
suddenness, the extent, and the virulence of their demonstra-
tions, trade, commerce, manufactures, and every free institution
was threatened, the farming interest stood forth with a prom-
inence heretofore unequalled. It was felt that the farmers of
the North and West could send out their thousands to the
battle-field, and from their harvest fields could not only sustain
themselves and their armies, but could feed, if necessary, the
starving millions of that nation from which we sprung, but
which has not shown to us in our liour of trouble, the sympathy
we had a right to expect.

There was never a time in our history when it was more
imperative on the people to study closely their agriculture ; to
raise to the fullest extent all paying crops ; to practice in all
respects the strictest economy ; and, restricting superfluities
and luxuries, to return to some extent to the frugality, the
simplicity, the virtue of earlier years, from which we have
wonderfully departed.

History teaches us how gradually a prosperous and thriving
people, rising from the bare necessities of life to required
comforts, pass to coveted conveniences, lapse into enervating
luxuries, and decline into national dissipation and vice,
" touched by the mortal finger of decay," they crumble by
their own corruption, or are swept by some more fresh and
vigorous successor out of their existence.

Who shall say that the all-wise Ruler of nations has not
suffered this monstrous and unnatural rebellion to raise its
matricidal hand against this benign government for the purpose
of developing courage, self-denial and patriotism, those stern
virtues that made our fathers successful and us great, and to
save us from the fate of Imperial Rome once the mistress of the
world, to be forever lost among nations, or to sink into our
original position as an English dependency.

James S. Grennell.
Freeman Walker.
John C. Bartlett.

116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. Stockbridoe presented tlie following

REPORT OF COMAUTTEE ON WHEAT CULTURE.

Your committee, deeming it important to obtain information
from intelligent practical farmers in different parts of the State,
in relation to the cultivation of wheat, distributed a circular to
them, propounding the following questions, viz. : —

1. Is wheat cultivated in your town and vicinity ? If so, to what extent?

2. What kind of soil is preferred for tlie crop ?

3. "Which succeeds best, spring or winter wheat ? Name tlie kinds
that for yield and quality, are generally preferred ?

4. Do you prepare your seed in any manner for sowing ? If so, what
are its advantages ?

5. Are your lands generally manured for wheat ? If so, what manure
is used, and how applied ?

6. What obstacles do you encounter in its cultivation ?

7. What specific means do you employ to prevent or avoid the various
diseases and mishaps of the crop ?

8. What instrument do you use in covering the seed ?

9. Have you had any experience in drill-sowing? If so, please state
the result ?

10. What, in your opinion, is the average yield per acre in your
vicinity ?

11. Has the crop been injured the past season by the louse that has
infested our fields ?

We arc under obligation to the following gentlemen, who
returned our circulars with very full and suggestive answers,
viz. : John T. Z. Thompson, Halifax ; Samuel H. Bushnell,
Sheffield ; Horace Collamore, Pembroke ; J. S. Purple, Gill ;
Austin J. Roberts, Lakeville ; E. W. Gardner, Nantucket ;
James M. Knowles, Eastham ; S. F. Dudley, Shutesbury ; Elihu
Belding, Whately ; C. Parsons, Conway ; Henry Colt, Pittsfield ;
E. W. Stebbins, Deerfield ; Otis Gunn, Montague ; H. A. Fuller,
Springfield ; Henry W. Cushman, Bernardston ; James Howard,
West Bridgewater; Ira B. Maynard, Leverett, and Joseph
Kingman, West Bridgewater. The information thus obtained,
we have endeavored to embody in the report, and thus to
dispense it to the farmers of the State.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 117

Your committee, although endeavoring according to their
ability, and the time and means at their disposal, to discharge
the duty which the Board assigned them, have not considered
it important or desirable to undertake critically, or to any great
length, an investigation of the various diseases and enemies of
the wheat plant, or of their causes and remedies. The most
thorough and elaborate examinations have been made by natu-
ralists and scientific men on the diseases and enemies of wheat,
and the full result of those examinations given to the world.
A committee of the Board, also, have the diseases of vegetation
under their especial examination, who will undoubtedly make a
thorough investigation of the diseases of this important grain.
We have therefore endeavored to make some inquiries into the
causes of the comparatively rare cultivation of wheat in this State,
its present condition, its future prospects and encouragements.

Massachusetts is within the limits of the wheat-growing regions
of the world ; yet wheat is not one of our staple crops. And
though Canada, on the north, raises on the average between
sixty and seventy millions of bushels annually, and New York,
on the west, and Pennsylvania, on the so\ith, raise large quan-
tities for exportation, we, in Massachusetts, do not produce
enough for our own bread. With a climate and soil essentially
the same as that of countries where this cereal is successfully
cultivated, producing not only enough for home consumption,
but also for large exportation, we yet fail to raise it in any
considerable quantity, and purchase in other States nearly all
we consume.

In Great Britain, six bushels of wheat are allowed for the
usual consumption of each inhabitant. In this State, we
imdoubtedly consume more. But taking this as the data, our
population yearly require six million eight hundred thousand
bushels for their sustenance. Of this quantity, there is raised
on our own soil, according to the returns of 1855, but forty
thousand three hundred busliels. We are therefore obliged
yearly to purchase abroad six million seven hundred and fifty-
eight thousand four hundred and ninety bushels, at a cost of
more than ten millions of dollars. According to the returns
of the last industrial statistics, we cultivate, on the average,
two thousand six hundred acres of wheat. But to produce
enough for our bread, would require four hundred and twenty-

118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

two thousand four hundred acres. At first thought, these
items are apalling; yet it is believed tliat by proper modes of
cultivation and effort, the farmers of the State can produce
every thing necessary for the sustenance of its people. And
agricultural and State pride should spur them persistently to
the work.

It may be said by some doubter that our soil and climate are
such that we had better engage in manufacturing and mechan-
ical pursuits, and exchange the products of our labor in these
branches of industry, for our bread stuffs. This question it is
not proposed to argue to any length here. But it is extremely
humiliating to our feeling of pride and independence to know
that Ave are indebted to any body for the staff of life. It is true
of States and Nations, as of individuals, that those are most
truly prosperous and powerful which rely solely on their own
exertions and skill to produce a supply for all their varied wants.
Colman justly remarks, that " An agricultural community
should, as far as possible, produce every article of first necessity,
which they require for consumption. There may be products
utterly unsuited to their soil and climate, but in all cases, and
always, when there is no obstacle absolutely insurmountable to
persevering labor, success is a moral gain. In a pecuniary
view, however, there can be no doubt that Massachusetts would
find her account in producing her bread from her own soil.
Vast sums of money are now sent out of the State for bread.
This capital, applied to the improvement and cultivation of her
own soil, would immensely increase its productiveness. Labor,
judiciously and liberally applied to agriculture, produces not
merely the immediate and particular crop sought for, but has
a cumulative influence in preparing the same land for other
and larger crops. The value of the land thus cultivated is
often doubled, quadrupled, and increased ten-fold, by being
thus rendered more productive."

Another important consideration is the fact that the native
qualities of the great wheat regions of the West, for growing
wheat, are becoming exhausted by constant cropping, and unless
some new modes of cultivation are adopted, will soon fail in
their ability to furnish our supply. A few years ago, Delaware,
Maryland and Virginia were great wheat-growing States. Now
it is cultivated there to a limited extent, and with indifferent

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 119

success. Sections of New York, which formerly produced
thirty bushels per acre, have been so reduced by this process,
that they do not now produce more than eight. Ohio does not
average over thirteen bushels per acre, and Illinois but seven.
If this process continues, the time is not far distant when all
the wheat they can raise will be consumed at home, and we
shall, from necessity, be compelled to produce our own, or use
other grain as a substitute. Would it not be wise, then, while
we foster industry in mechanics and manufactures, to engage
with spirit and enterprise in the raising of our bread stuffs, and
by the light of science and experience learn to do it with
success.

The facts abundantly warrant us in the opinion, that wheat
can be successfully and profitably cultivated in this State. A
little more than a century ago it was one of the common,
ordinary crops. Sufficient was raised for home consumption,
and it was an article of export. A history of the commence-
ment, progress and decline of its cultivation, might be inter-
esting and profitable, but necessity compels iis to pass over it
in a cursory manner.

The first wheat planted in the soil of Massachusetts, and
probably of the continent, was by Gosnold, in 1602, when he
first explored the New England coast. He landed on the
Elisabeth Islands, and to prove the soil, planted pease and beans,
and sowed wheat, barley and other grain. This was eighteen
years before the arrival of the Mayflower. The first settlers of
the Plymouth Colony brought no seed of wheat with them for
sowing ; and their crops for several years were Indian corn,
barley, and pease.

The settlers of the Massachusetts Colony, who arrived in 1628,
among other grains, seeds and plants, brought over a hogshead
of wheat in the ear for sowing, and as soon as the first rude pre-
parations of the settlement were completed, its cultivation was
commenced. The new grain seems to have taken kindly to the
soil and climate. No mention is made for many years of any
want of success in its cultivation. On the contrary, its growth
was so successful that it soon became an important article of
export from the colony, and laws were passed to regulate the
trade in wheat. At a " Generall Court held at Boston the
T^ day of the 9"^ M*' 1641, it was voted that a deputy of every

120 "BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

townc should send in writing to Capt. Gibons the 21''* p'sent,
what wheatc wilbcc adventured to bee ready by the first of the
first month, and who will undertake for the towne." At the
same session of the Court, the following Act was passed : —
" Forasmuch as it appearcth to this court, that wheate is like
to bee a staple comodity, and that a ship is w*'' all convenient
speed to bee set fourth and fraited with wheate, for the fetching
in of such forraine comodities as wee stand in need of, it
is Therefore Ordered ; that after the last day of this p'sent
8"' month, no baker or ordinary keeper, or other p'son, shall
bake to sell, or set for sale, any bread or cakes made of wheate
meal, or wherein any wheate meal shall bee put, upon paine to
forfeit double the valewe thereof. And the Cunstables of every
towne are hereby required to see that this order be observed
and that they make seizure of all such bread so set to sale and
distribute the same to the poor."

In October, 1648, a law was passed making wheat a legal
tender, and ordering it to be received in payment for taxes at
five shillings per bushel. This law remained in force, with
occasional changes in price to correspond with the supply, for
about a century. It is a significant fact that the price of wheat
thus fixed by law, was often the same as that of Indian corn,
the native grain of the country, and rarely more than two
shillings per bushel higher. And that price was generally
from tlu'ce shillings to five shillings sixpence. The " Great and
General Court," from year to year, determined the price at
which it should be bouglit and sold, and as it was a staple
article of food, watched with Argus eyes, the yearly crops and
supplies, that if possible, enough should be on hand for the
sustenance of the colonists, and new emigrants who were
continually arriving. At times, it was permitted to be exported,
and again its exportation was interdicted. Occasionally, it
might be brought in, in foreign ships ; then, " taking into their
serious consideration the great necessitye of upholding the
staple comodityes of tliis countryc for the support of the inhabi-
tants thereof," it was forbidden to import it.

In May, 1662, the Court passed an order in the following
words : " The Court being informed by the dcputyes of the
seucral townes tliat bread corn is scarce amongst the people,
and that seueral ships and passengers out of England are

SECRETARY'S REPORT. ' 121

arived and more dayly expected, w*^ the consideration of
supplying the fishing trade and others, doe therefore order and
declare, that no person or persons shall export out of this juris-
diction any wheate or wheate-flower, after the 25*'' of this
instant m" upon penalty of confiscation thereof unto the
country, one fowerth part whereof shalbee to the informer.
This order to continue in force untill the Gen'll Court or
Council shall take further order."

In November, 1675, it was enacted as follows : " The Court,
considering the present state of affairs amongst us in respecting
the Indian warr, and what hindrance the same may bee to the
raysing supplyes of prouissions amongst ourselwes, Judge
meete that the law prohibiting importation of wheate, biskeet
and flower, be suspended as to the particulars above mentioned
until this Court take further order." Notwithstanding the
interruption to husbandry this year (1675,) by King Philip's
war, the records speak of large crops of wheat in the State,
especially on the " Quenecticott ; " and it was when on their
return from threshing the crop in the town of Deerfield, that
" eighty young men, the flower of the county of Essex," were
slaughtered by the savages at Bloody Brook.

No mention is made in the Court Acts or Records of those
early times, of any failure of the wheat crop, from disease, or
unsuitableness of soil and climate for its cultivation. It grew
luxuriantly on the newly cleared lands ; and was often sown
for several successive years on the same field, after taking off
the forest ; and continued to be the chief crop, until by constant
cropping without manuring, the lands failed to bear this grain.

Jared Elliott, in his " Essays on Field Husbandry in New
England," published about 1760, speaks of the complaints
made by farmers of the failure of their wheat crops, and
imputes it to thriftless husbandry. He very frankly tells them
that if they would spend less time in complaining, running
about, and moving to find new and unexhausted lands, and
more in manuring, and thoroughly cultivating the farms they
now have, they would have no cause to complain of their crops.
He says : " "We find land will yield wheat best, when it is
ploughed three times. An old and experienced farmer recom-
mended deep ploughing, even on thin, shallow lands. There-
upon I ordered a piece of land to be ploughed so deep that our

16*

122 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

farmers thought I had spoiled our land. I have had wheat
twice on that land, and tliink tlie deep ploughing did no hurt,
but good."

Passing over a period of nearly three-fourths of a century,
during which its cultivation was pursued with indifferent
success, notwithstanding the efforts of the older agricultural
societies, especially of the Massachusetts Society for the Pro-
motion of Agriculture, to promote its cultivation by the almost
yearly offer of large premiums, its cultivation grew less and
less, until we find, that about 1830, it had ceased to be a
common crop. A field of wheat was rarely seen in any part of
the State ; in fact it had become quite a curiosity, and we
were, as a State, entirely dependent on other countries for our
breadstuffs, except the coarse kinds. This disgraceful fact was
urged upon the attention of the legislature from year to year,
until, in order to ascertain the cause of the failure, and if
possible to find out new modes by which it might be success-
fully and profitably cultivated, an Act was passed in March,
1838, as follows : " That there be allowed, and paid as a
bounty, to the person who shall raise fifteen bushels of well-
cleaned wheat, the sum of two dollars ; and for every additional
bushel above fifteen bushels, five cents, from the treasury of
the city or town where such person shall reside. Also, the sum
of one hundred dollars to the person who shall raise the greatest
quantity in one year of not less than five hundred bushels, on
one farm."

The passage of this law called the attention of farmers to
its cultivation in good earnest, in all parts of the State. There
were applicants for the bounty in nearly or quite every town ;
and the number of persons to whom the bounty was paid, the
first year of the law, was 8,642 ; the amount of money drawn
from the treasury of the Commonwealth was 'S^9,280. There
were cultivated that year 6,840 acres, yielding 108,570 bushels
of wheat. The highest average yield in any county was in
Worcester, of sixteen bushels per acre. The smallest average
yield, in Nantucket, of ten bushels. As a fact showing the
universality of its cultivation that year, it may be stated that
in the town of Pittsfield, Berkshire County, there were two
hundred and twenty-one farms, on one hundred and nineteen
of which wheat was raised. During the second year of the

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 123

law, $8,999 were paid in bounties, and $4,277 the third year.
The law expired on the 3d of March, 1841. The experiment,
as this result proves, was a failure. And although each claimant
for the bounty was obliged to make a minute statement of his
process of culture, no new llglit was obtained of practical
importance. There was much complaint of injury to the crop
by drought, grain insect, smut, &c., and but little enterprise
and perseverance shown in continuing its cultivation. As a
consequence, from 1838 to 1845, the crop fell off forty thousand
bushels, and its general cultivation soon after ceased.

From this glance at the history of wheat culture in our State,
notwithstanding the many discouraging aspects of the case, it
is evident, first, that a large share of our soil, when uninjured
by cropping and exhausting cultivation, is capable of bearing
highly remunerative crops of this grain. Second, that the
enemies of the plant are no more numerous or destructive here
than elsewhere. Third, that our climate is not unsuitable. It
has not changed perceptibly in the last two hundred years, and
is nearly identical with that of wheat-growing sections. In
further proof of this position, it may be adduced that it is the
universal testimony of the present and past generations of
farmers, that wheat will grow finely on all new lands not
subject to inundations and great structural changes by frost.
Also, that there have always been farmers in nearly every part
of the State who have judiciously pursued its cultivation with
unvarying success.

In 1838, a farmer in Essex County says : " I have raised
wheat on my farm every year since 1812, and with uniform
good success. Have always sown spring wheat, and on land in
good condition." The same statements are made by farmers of
that time, in Middlesex, Hampden, Hampshire and Franklin
Counties. It is true, that wheat is not one of the hardier
kind of plants. It is badly injured by drougiit, by the early
and later frost. Insects prey on it, and disease destroys it.
Like the rest of the vegetable kingdom, it lias enemies to be
guarded against, and laws of life and groAvth to be obeyed, or
it ceases to flourish. These facts sometimes caused the loss of a
crop and had their influence, but in our opinion the great
controlling reason why wheat was so little cultivated here
during the latter part of the last century, and the first half of

124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the present, was, that the native fertility of our older fields,
necessary for wlieat-growing, had l^ccome exhausted ; and the
few attempts made to renovate them for its culture, were, by
methods and manures, injurious to the full and healthy devel-
opment of the plant. The mere fact of its liability to disease,
to destruction occasionally or frequently by enemies, will not
account for its non-cultivation. The rot has occasionally
turned our potato fields into a nuisance, that were giving
promise of a bountiful harvest, and thus blasted the farmer's
hope. The frost frequently, at one fell swoop, cuts off nearly
all our fruits, when the trees are growing luxuriantly. Our
corn fields are injured by frost, blast and smut, when their
growth gives indication of abundant crops. And drought often
causes all our productions to give us but a scanty supply. And
yet no one thinks it best to cease the cultivation of these pro-
ducts, so long as the power of the earth to produce them has
not failed. These causes and results are transient as the
various changes of the seasons, and may occur only at long
intervals. But if the soil, as is found in the survey of our wheat
culture, refuses for a long series of years to bring forth its
product, an effectual stop is put to all success, until it is reno-
vated.

Since 1855, unceasing efforts have been made in all parts of
the State, to increase its cultivation by new methods of culture
and fertilization. The agricultural societies have, most of
them, offered yearly premiums to encourage farmers to engage
in this branch of husbandry, and with success. The following
is the sum paid by each society in 1861 : — Hampden East, four
dollars ; Hoosac Valley, seven dollars ; Hampshire, six dollars ;
Worcester South-East, six dollars ; Plymouth, thirteen dollars ;
Franklin, five dollars; Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
one dollar ; Middlesex, five dollars ; Martha's Vineyard, seven
dollars ; Worcester West, four dollars ; Norfolk, six dollars ;
Worcester North, ten dollars ; Middlesex North, six dollars ;
Nantucket, eight dollars ; Housatonic, nineteen dollars ; Wor-
cester, four dollars ; Essex, eight dollars ; Bristol, six dollars.
The societies that offered no premiums were the Higliland,
Hampden, Barnstable, Berkshire, Massachusetts, and Worcester
South. Most of the gentlemen who answered our circulars
say, "A large portion of the farms raise wheat." That " the

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 125

farmers raise enough for their own consumption and some to
spare." From the most reliable information obtained, it is
believed, that the crop of last year, though not so good as that
of 1860, cannot be less than two hundred and fifty thousand
bushels. No complaint is made of any obstacles to its cultiva-
tion in the least formidable, where the soil is sufficiently fertile.
Most say, " wheat is as sure as any other grain." " Can raise
more bushels of it to the acre on the same land than we can of
rye." Smut, rust, blast and insects do not injure it if the
general management is correct, and land well cared for.

These facts appear to be unimpeachable, and should stimu-
late and encourage us to engage more largely in its culture.
There is but little variation of opinion respecting the soil best
adapted to the growth of wheat. A writer in an agricultural
journal in New York, as long ago as 1820, says : " Wheat will
grow best on land which contains just as much clay as can be
combined with it, without subjecting the wheat to being frozen
out ; and the point can be ascertained by washing a little of
the soil in a tumbler of water, and seeing how long it will take
it to become clear. If it takes it more than three hours, it is
liable to be injured by frost." Any warm, friable soil, of
moderate tenacity, whether it be sandy or gravelly loam, will
bear wheat. But a light per cent, of clay with it is preferable.
If intended for winter wheat the per cent, of clay should be
small, as it increases its liability to winter-killing. Bo the soil
what it may, the surface should be so undulating, that no
water will stand on it during the thaws of winter and spring,
or the heavy showers of summer. This is essential to complete
success ; and also that the soil should be brought to a perfect
tilth ; be made mellow and permeable to a depth as great as
the roots of the plants penetrate, and if the subsoil is hard,
and water-bearing, it should be broken up or brought to the
surface, that the superabundant water may drain off quickly
and without injuring the plants.

The best manure for this crop, and what crop it should
succeed, are questions about which there is more doubt. It is
the common practice to sow wheat after Indian corn, clover, or
tobacco, and as it succeeds well thus, no change is sought or
desired. Fine crops have been grown after potatoes. If sown
after corn it should be in the spring, as winter wheat on old

126 BOARD OP AGRICULTURE.

land should be sown before corn is ready to harvest, to avoid
winter-killing. Nearly all substances, mineral, vegetable, and
animal, have been used at various times, with judgment and
without, with gain and with loss, as manures and fertilizers for
this crop. No one of them all, however, can be recommended
as the special manure which under all circumstances and on all
soils is particularly adapted to it. • It is certain that all strong
unfermentcd animal manures should be always avoided, as they
almost invariably produce injury by stimulating the straw to an
unnatural, sickly growth, which causes it to fall, producing
shrunken berries, and flour of inferior quality.

But all wheat lands should be rich in well-decomposed
organic substances, and they may be applied from the yard, the
woods, muck-heap or roadside, (and just here, in our opinion,
lies the secret of success or failure in wheat growing,) and
heavy clay soils will be much improved by dressings of sand.
Lime as a special manure for this crop has many advocates.
But the farmer who expects to realize large crops on old fields
by simply applying a dressing of lime, will most likely meet
with disappointment. On clay soils and those rich in vegetable
mould, lime is undoubtedly highly beneficial ; but it will not
supply the place of these substances in the soil, or produce
good crops where they are wanting. It is the concurrent
testimony of all wheat-growers, that on lands long cultivated,
wood ashes are the very best fertilizer for wheat, producing a
strong, clean, healthy straw, and well-filled grain. On much
worn, sandy soils, heavy dressings of ashes have been known to
produce great crops without any other manure. Guano has
been long used as a special manure for the wheat fields of
Maryland and Virginia. But being too much relied on, as the
cheapest, best, and in fact as the only manure, those fields have
deteriorated, until the harvest is of little worth. In this State,
good success has attended its use, especially on the lighter
soils ; but it would be unwise to depend on it, to bring our
lands into proper condition for wheat bearing, or to preserve
their fertility through a course of cropping. The experiment
has been tried and found faulty, and we can but bo the loser
by any attempt of the kind. But if used in connection with
those substances that form mould, and give permanent fertility,
it may increase our crops and profits.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 127

The varieties of wlieat, though undoubtedly springing from a
common stock, are almost numberless, and their varying
qualities are probably owing to soil, climate, and modes of cul-
tivation. Of the kinds cultivated in this State the principal
are, the White Flint, Blue Stem, White Kentucky, Black Sea,
Mediterranean, Java, Wisconsin Club, and Bearded Spring ;
all of which are good, but neither of which can be recommended
in all respects as superior to any other. Wheat, like other
grains and vegetables, if long cultivated in any locality, is
prone to deteriorate in quality and yield, and therefore requires
changing. By this a change of variety alone is not intended,
but also a change of locality. The Mediterranean of Plymouth
County, would be improved by transferring to Berkshire
County, and vice versa. Each in its new home would produce
finely for several years, and then gradually decline, requiring
another removal. The various winter varieties are generally
preferred by millers for flouring. They produce more flour
from a given quantity, and it is whiter, but its bread is no
sweeter or more nutritious than from spring wheat, and their
greater uncertainty on account of winter-killing, leads our
farmers generally to prefer the spring varieties.

The destruction of wheat, by what is termed winter-killing,
may be accomplished in either of three ways : First, by " heat-
ing or smothering." The wheat field is sometimes covered
deeply with a solid, impervious body of snow, when the earth
is not frozen. The active vitality of the roots continues, but
all air and light being excluded from tlie leaves, and conse-
quently all action necessary to preserve the equilibrium of the
plant, together with the heat at the surface of the ground, dis-
posing vegetation to decomposition, it is destroyed. The same
thing is accomplished, and on the same principle, when vege-
tation is covered with boards, or stocks of grain or corn. Second,
by absolute freezing, in open winters. The ground being bare
of snow, and the weather very severe, it becomes frozen to great
depth, and very hard. The plant also is exposed to the fierce
winter blasts and extreme cold, and not being sufiiciently hardy
for such treatment, it dies. Third, by the changes of spring,
or the freezing and thawing process the soil goes through in
the change from winter, to the settled warm weather. The
roots of the plant are often drawn from the soil, or broken, and

128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

thus ruined. For the first of these evils, we know of no way of
escape or remedy ; but experience proves that injury by the two
last, if not prevented, is very much ameliorated by sowing early,
(on or Ijcfore the first of September,) and covering the seed
deep. The young plants thus become strong and hardy, and
the roots well and firmly set in the ground, and it is thus
enabled the better to withstand the rigors and changes of the
season.

The time of sowing, quantity of seed, and its preparation,
have each more or less influence on the crop. The time of
sowing the winter variety has been alluded to above, but this is
a matter of so much importance, that it is well to call attention
to it again, as the reasons for sowing at certain times are good
for both the spring and winter varieties. The desideratum in
sowing is, if possible, to place the seed in the earth at such a
time of the season, that it may be sufficiently late to escape the
frosts of May and June, early enough to be out of its bloom
and milk, at the time its numerous insect enemies are deposit-
ing their eggs, (for it is only when in this state that most of
them can do it any injury,) and to be well advanced towards
ripening, before the hot, dry weather of late July and early
August. In the greater part of the State there is but little
danger of the frosts of May and June, therefore sow early as
possible. In April, if it can be done, but under no circum-
stances until the soil is sufficiently dry and warm to work up fine
and mellow. In elevated mountainous localities, where the
springs are late, and the earth not in condition to receive the
seed until after the middle of May, defer sowing until the
first or second week in June. Its flowering season will then
come after the insects have disappeared, and early September
will bring in the grain in perfection.

The quantity of seed per acre should be of the winter variety,
one bushel and a half, as the rule ; but if sown early, it may be
diminished a peck ; if late, increased by that amount. The
question of the influence of soil of different degrees of fertility
on the i)lants, as affecting their tillering, and consequently the
quantity of seed, is of but little practical importance, as the
life-long experience of intelligent wheat-growers has led them to
adopt nearly this rule. Of spring wheat, two bushels, increased
or diminished according to the same circumstances. Should

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 129

wheat receive any preparation before sowing ? Yes, answers
Mr. A, I raise fine crops of wheat, and I invariably soak my
seed ill strong brine, and roll it in lime, plaster or ashes. But,
replies Mr. B, my average crop is twenty-five bushels to the
acre, and I neither soak nor roll my seed, lest its germinating
power should be destroyed. Here are two undisputable facts.
Good crops are grown from both prepared and unprepared seed,
and occasionally with each there is a failure.

The diseases of the plant show themselves alike whether the
seed be prepared or not. In the growth of the plant, and at
the harvest, there is apparently neither gain nor loss by the
operation. He that sows, without preparation, does well ; and
he that prepares his seed does no better. How strongly soever
we may cling to supposed natural laws, and theorize on the
idea, that by soaking the seed in certain preparations, we are
filling it with a fertilizing matter that increases its vital power,
and makes it stronger and more prolific, yet the fact is patent,
and cannot be impeached, that wheat succeeds equally well if
the seed receives no preparation. It is highly important to sow
well-developed, healthy seed ; therefore, if it is of doubtful
character, or is supposed to contain foul seed, there is great
benefit in putting it into brine, and taking ofi" every thing that
rises to the surface.

Some farmers, influenced apparently by the idea that wheat
needs constant nursing and feeding, are accustomed to top-dress
their fields, when the plants are young, with some such prepa-
ration as lime, plaster, ashes, or guano. Now, while each of
these substances may be a ^ood fertilizer for wheat, yet close
observation and experience teaches that this mode of applica-
tion is not economical, and is often injurious. Such substances,
by their pungent, acrid properties, are likely to injure to some
extent, tender vegetation, if applied directly to its leaves and
tissues, and there is great loss of the substances themselves,
when left on the surface, exposed to the full action of sun,
wind and rain. To receive the full benefit of these fertilizers,
they should be applied at the time of sowing, and thoroughly
incorporated with the soil.

So far as known, drill-sowing is not practiced in this State.
A few farmers cover their seed with a cultivator, or a light
horse-plough, but the almost universal practice is, to cover with

17*

130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the common harrow. Seed sown in this manner, we must
admit, " is at the mercy of the harrow, the winds, the birds,
the insects, and the clouds." The practice of the best Enghsh
and Western wlieat-growers is, to plant with the drilling
machine. The advantages claimed for this method, over broad-
cast sowing, are, that time and labor are economized, seed is
saved, and a larger yield secured. It is estimated that other
things being equal, drill-sown grain will yield one-fifth more
than that sown broad-cast. We trust tlie time is not distant,
when the extent of our wheat fields will justify our farmers in
the expense of using this instrument of cultivation.

The proper time and manner of harvesting wheat are items
of great importance. The general practice is believed to be
far from correct. Klippart, an able writer on the wheat plant,
makes the following judicious remarks on this topic : " The
most judicious millers and grain dealers are decidedly in favor
of early harvesting, and certainly their opinion is worth some-
thing. In New York, and indeed in all the great grain-growing
States, the practice of cutting grain before it is dead ripe,
universally prevails. With them, the exact time when it
should be cut is no longer a matter of doubt, all being perfectly
convinced that the right period is indicated by that change
which the grain experiences when passing from a milky state,
to that of complete hardness ; or, in other words when it is in
the dough, and when the kernels without being sticky are
not sufficiently hard to resist the pressure of the thumb and
finger. The proper maturity for cutting may be judged of
more accurately, perhaps, if described as that when the stalk
immediately below the head, for two or three inches, becomes
yellow and dry, consequently cutting off the circulation — and
the grain, though soft and doughy, ceases to yield any milk
on pressure. This occurs about a fortnight before the seed
becomes dead ripe."

In early harvesting, greater care and attention must of
course be given to the curing of the crop. It should be
allowed to lay in the swarth but a few hours, especially if
the sun be shining clear and warm at the time, but be bound
in small bundles, lest the grain should dry too quickly, and
immediately place the bundles in stacks, of a circular form,
six or eight bundles in a stack, and cover them with a

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 131

cap sheaf, or hay caps, where it may be allowed to remain
without further labor, until sufficiently cured to take to the
barn.

A light, straw-colored worm, resembling in its structure the
common wire worm, but much smaller, has infested the wheat
fields in some localities, and of which we can find no description
by writers on the enemies of the wheat plant. Its ravages
are usually committed when the plants arc young, and not
more than five or six inches in height. The worm burrows
in the ground, sometimes cutting off the plants just beneath
the surface, and again eats its way into the stalk and up
through the centre or beneath the outer leaf, killing every plant
it touches, and making the grain too thin and scattering for
great crops. Of its nature and habits, length of life or manner
of propagation, we know little or nothing, though its works are
very manifest. To guard against injury by it, we would suggest
the ploughing of those fields in the fall, that are intended
for spring wheat. If done immediately before the ground
freezes, they might be destroyed by the frost, if in their incipi-
ent state, and before they could burrow below its reach, if they
are then in maturity.

The past season has witnessed the advent upon our wheat
fields, of an insect, identical in every respect, with what is
known as the Indian corn plant louse, though that insect is not
supposed to prey upon wheat. Its presence has not been noticed
in all localities. It causes injury by extracting the juices of the
straw and head, while yet quite green, and causing the berries
to be less plump and heavy. Whether this insect is to continue
its work, and become a pest to our fields, time alone will deter-
mine. The past season, early fields almost universally escaped
injury from it. And in the future, the early sown may be safe
from its depredations. "We have thus finished all we deem it
desirable to say respecting the modes of wheat culture suitable
for our State. We entertain the idea, and have made it suffi-
ciently evident throughout the report, that wheat can, with
proper cultivation, be successfully grown here. But the vital
point is, will it pay ? Of itself, is there any direct profit in it ?
Can we not make more money by raising other crops, and pur-
chasing our wheat ? Leaving out the indirect profit of wheat
culture by the increased value of our lands caused by the culti-

132 BOARD OF AGRICLTURE.

yation necessary to produce it, and the social and political
independence resulting from producing this article of prime
necessity, we will answer these questions by presenting the
following table, showing the probable average cost per acre of
its cultivation in this State : —

Cost of ploughing, per acre, ....

Harrowing, .......

Seed and sowing, . . . . . * .

Interest on land at $50, and taxes at $1 per hundred,
Manure,

Total cost, $19 50

The average yield is supposed to be twenty bushels per
acre, and the average price $1.50 per bushel, making
the value of an acre of wheat, $30 00

$1 50

75

3 75

3 50

10 00

Profit on an acre, $10 50

In this no estimate is made of the value of the straw, or the
cost of harvesting the crop. This estimate pays for all the
labor, manure, taxes, and twenty-six per cent, on the capital
iuvested in the land.

It cannot be objected to this estimate that the profit of raising
wheat should be very much less, in consequence of its liability
to failure, because it is a more certain crop than potatoes,
equally sure as oats or rye, and nearly so as corn. And
besides, an item of much importance which has not been brought
into the account is the fact that wheat is the best crop with
whicli to stock down to grass, (unless it be barley.) With the
farmer who is pursuing a system of rotation, or whose crop of
hay enters largely into his account of profit or loss, this fact
is one which under no circumstances should be overlooked.
Some writer has said that the cultivation of the wheat plant is
the distinctive mark showing that a people have passed from the
nomadic into the civilized state. And tliat in countries where
its cultivation has fallen into disuse, there has civilization also
retrograded ; and were it not for commerce with enliglitened
and refined nations, they would speedily relapse into all the
horrors of absolute barbarism. " Truly," he says, " the wheat

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 133

plant is the corner stone of civilization, and its destruction would

overwhelm society with darkness blacker than the storm cloud

at midnight." AVe trust the future history of our beloved

Commonwealth will in this respect, as in all others, give us

a right to the name, and to every blessing of enlightened

civilization.

Levi Stockbridge,

Moses Stebbins,

Nathan Durfee,

Comviittee.

Information having come to the knowledge of the Board that
a disease, supposed to be the so-called pleuro-pneumonia, had
again broken out in some of the towns in the neighborhood of
Boston, a committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Peters,
Stedman, and Walker, to investigate the facts and draw up a
statement of them for the information of the people. At the
meeting of the Board held on the 27th of February, the Com
mittee submitted the following

REPORT:

Having good reason to fear that the disease known as pleuro-
pneumonia (so fatal in its ravages among the neat stock of
North Brookfield and vicinity in the years 1859 and 1860) has
again made its appearance in several towns in the county of
Norfolk, they feel it to be the duty of this Board to warn the
farmers and others, owners of neat stock in the Commonwealth,
that the time has arrived for them to take every precaution to
prevent the spread of this scourge ; and in view of its contagious
nature, they would urge the necessity of the greatest care being
taken by all interested in purchasing or permitting strange
cattle to come in contact with their herds.

The disease now claiming our attention made its appearance
in the town of Quincy last April, breaking out in two herds
nearly simultaneously. Eight animals from one of the herds
were sold to a person in Randolph, in the month of September,
for eighty-five dollars for the lot. One of these animals died
before reaching the home of the owner, and three more shortly
after. The other four have been lost sight of. One herd in

134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Milton, and also one in Dorchester, have been affected for some
months. Four animals from one of these herds, which had
been sick during the summer of last year, but had apparently-
recovered, were taken to Brighton in the fall and sold. Four
of the other herd have since died or been killed, all presenting
a seriously diseased appearance. On examination by the veteri-
narians conversant with the Brookficld complaint, tlicy pro-
nounced it identical, so far as they could judge. There are
four or five animals still left of this herd, some of which are
either sick or showing symptoms of contagion. There are also
other cases which have not been examined — the selectmen of
the towns waiting the action of the legislature in passing a law
authorizing a new commission. The law has now been passed,
and the commissioners appointed, and we would respectfully
urge upon the gentlemen composing that commission the great
importance of immediate measures to investigate the disease,
and, if necessary, applying the remedies placed by the law in
their hands, that the ravages of this fearful pest, (which there
is little doubt is identical with the Brookficld disease, and
which can be traced to that neighborhood,) may be stayed.

There still being doubters in the community as to the exist-
ence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, earnest attention is called
to the thorough and convincing report of the first Board of
Commissioners, with accompanying documents, in the Report
of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture for 1860.

We believe that no person, however prejudiced he may have
been, who has been present at the examination of affected
animals, has failed to become convinced of the contagiousness
of the disease ; and it would seem impossible that any one can
doubt this fact who will examine the various reports that have
been made upon it in Europe and in tliis country.

H. H. Peters.
Phineas Stedman.
Freeman Walker.

At the same meeting it was

Resolved, That while the State Board of Agriculture recognizes the
imperative necessity of a reduction of the expenses of the Commonwealth,
at the present time, they also recognize the importance of an efficient
agricultural organization throughout the State, consisting of the State

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 135

Board and the established agricultural societies. That they look upon
such an organization as a most efficient means of stimulating agricultural
enterprise, and diffusing agricultural information. And that, at a time,
when the National Government is moving in the matter, and other States
are renewing their interest in agricultural investigation, Massachusetts
should not retrace the steps she has already taken, in the encouragement
of this vital branch of human industry.

The delegates appointed to attend and report upon the
exhibitions of the various agricultural societies in 1862, were
as follows : —

The Middlesex North, Mr. Hautwell ; the Highland, Mr.
LoTHROP ; the Middlesex South, Mr. Stockbridge ; the Hamp-
den East, Mr. Bushnell ; the Middlesex, Mr. Fisher ; the
Hampden, Mr. Phinney ; the Essex, Mr. Stedman ; the Wor-
cester North, Mr. Bull ; the Berkshire, Mr. Wilder ; the
Housatonic, Mr. Sewall ; the Franklin, Mr. Loring ; the
Worcester West, Mr. Cleaveland ; the Norfolk, Mr. Chapin ;
the Worcester, Mr. White ; the Bristol, Mr. Walker ; the
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden, Mr. Peters ; the Worcester
South, Mr. Stebbins ; the Plymouth, Mr. Moore ; the Barn-
stable, Mr. Grennell ; the Nantucket, Mr. Colt ; the Hamp-
shire, Mr. Brooks ; the Martha's Vineyard, Mr. Smith ; the
Worcester South-East, Mr. Clement ; the Hoosac Valley, Mr.
Davis.

Voted, That the Secretary of the Board be directed to bring to the
notice of the agricultural community, the offer of premiums for the third
series of experiments upon manures, and to request its cooperation in
increasing the number now making, and that the members of the Board be
requested to urge upon the farmers within their districts to compete
for the premiums offered.

Select a level piece of land of any convenient size, from twenty rods
up to as many acres or more, which should be as nearly equal in its
character and conditions as possible. Divide it into five equal parts,
numbering them 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, for a rotation of three years.

Divide the manure which it is proposed to apply, and which should
be of a uniform character, into four equal parts. At the time of first
ploughing in the spring, spread evenly one-fourth of the manure upon
plot No. 1, and then plougli the whole field of an equal depth. Apply
another fourth part of the manure to plot No. 2, and then cross-plough

136

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the whole field to about half the depth of the ploughing. Spread
another fourth of the manure upon plot No. 3, and harrow or cultivate
the whole field ; after which sow or plant the whole evenly, with any
crop preferred. Finally, spread the remaining quarter part of the
manure upon plot No. 4.

Observe that by pursuing this course, each of the five lots will
receive equally, a deep ploughing, a shallow ploughing, and a harrowing^
or cultivating, the only difference in them being that in No. 1 the manure
is buried deep, in No. 2 shallow, in No. 3 buried only slightly, but
coated with loam, and in No. 4 left exposed upon the surface ; while
No. 5 gets no manure. The manure is to be spread broadcast and as
evenly as possible. The after cultivation should be the same on each
of the lots, and the harvest of each should take place at the same time.

Let a statement of the character of the soil, whether light or heavy,
dry, or moist, leachy or retentive of manures, the crop of 1861, kind and
amount and mode of application of manure in 1861, size of field covered
by the experiment, depth of first ploughing, kind and amount of manure
used in 1862, kind of crop, when and how sown, number of times and
manner cultivated, and weight of product on an average rod of each plot,
be made in 1862, and returned in the annual report of each society.

If there is a double product, as grain and straw, corn and stover,
let the weight of the secondary product be given on each plot.

If the competitor weigh the whole crop instead of estimating it by
an average rod, there will be no objection to such a course.

A brief synopsis of the weather for each of the following months, by
dividing each month into three parts, and using the terms dry, moist and
wet, to indicate the general character of the weather, will also be
expected.

May.

June.

July.

August.

September.

First Third,
Middle Third, .
Laat Third,

-

-

;

-

-

A similar report of all the above items, except the nature of the soil,
will be made in 1863, and in 1864, when the premiums will be awarded.
No manure is to be applied to the second and third crop.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 137

STATE CABINET.

Constant effort has been made during the past year to enlarge
the collection designed to illustrate the natural history and
material resources of the Commonwealth. The interest mani-
fested in it by tlie increasing number of visitors, from day to
day, shows plainly that the cabinet may be made the means of
great usefulness and value, especially as a State collection, to
which it is confmed.

In this connection, Mr. E. A. Samuels, who has made the
subject a special study, having had charge of this branch of
the cabinet, has presented the following paper on the Animals
of Massachusetts.

MAMMALIA.

Mammals, or animals which suckle their young, from " mamma," a
teat, are divided by naturalists into three great classes, which are called
unguiculata, animals with claws, tmgulata, animals with hoofs, and
pinnata, animals with fins. These classes are divided into orders, which
are divided and sub-divided into genera and species, as careful investi-
gation and examination discovers in a number of animals traits or char-
acters essentially different from others closely related, or with some
traits or characters common to both.

The great orders or divisions of these primary classes, represented in
the terrestrial mammals of this State, are —

I. Cheiroptera. — Animals whose anterior fingers are prolonged
and connected together, and with the posterior extremities, by a naked
membrane, which enables them to fly as the bats, of which this order is
composed. These animals are nocturnal in their habits, lying concealed
during the day ; their food consists almost entirely of insects, (chiefly
nocturnal lepidoptera,) which they catch while on the wing. They have
three kinds of teeth, incisors, canines and molars ; two teats situated
on the breast, and bring forth from one to three at a birth, in the summer
months. At the approach of winter, they retreat to caves and hollow
trees, where they suspend themselves by the hooked nails of their thumbs
and feet, and remain torpid until spring.

II. Rapacia. — Animals which live on animal food, which they
usually seize in a violent manner ; they are generally provided with
strong, sharp claws for this purpose ; they have three kinds of teeth,
incisors, canines, and molars, have teats placed on the belly, and have a
simple stomach.

18*

138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

This order is divided into the sub-orders, carnivora and insectivora.
The carnivora (flesh-devouring animals) subsist almost entirely on animal
food, and almost always kill their own prey, as the cats, weasels, &c.
The insectivora (insect-devouring animals) live on insects, which they
usually capture by digging in the ground, as the moles, shrews, &c.

III. RoDENTiA. — Animals with generally two large, strong incisors
in each jaw, for the purpose of gnawing ; hence their name, from rodo,
to gnaw. They have no canine teeth, there being a space left vacant
between the incisors and molars, which are strong, with flat or tuberculated
crowns fitted for grinding their food, which is almost entirely vegetable
in nature ; their teats vary in number, and are placed on the belly ; in
this order are placed the beavers, squirrels, rats, &c.

IV. RuMiNANTiA. — Animals which chew the cud ; they have cloven
feet, and the male, and often the female, has horns. They have no incisory
teeth in the upper jaw, the gum being calloused; their stomach is com-
pound, as in the ox, deer, &c. ; it is composed of four different compart-
ments ; the food, which is always vegetable in nature, is but little chewed
when passed into the first, or largest compartment, (which is called the
" paunch,") from this it passes into the second compartment, from which
it returns to the mouth, where it is completely masticated, and then
passed to the third stomach, from that to the fourth, and thence to the
intestines ; their teats are usually two in number, and are placed between
the thighs.

Order: CHEIROPTERA.
Family: Vespertilionid^. — (Bat Family.)

Characteristics. — Fingers of the anterior extremities elongated and
connected together, and with the posterior extremities, which are con-
nected together, and with the tail by a semi-transparent and generally
naked membi-ane. This arrangement enables the animals in this family
to fly, giving them increased facilities for securing the insects, of which
their food consists. They are nocturnal, and in our climate they
hibernate. Teats, two in number, placed on the breast.

Genus : Vespertilio. — (Linn.)
V. pi-uinosus, (Say.) — Hoary Bat.
This is one of the least common, and much the largest species found
in this State. But little is known of its habits, except that it is less
nocturnal than most other species, it being seen occasionally quite early
in the afternoon, catching insects, of which it destroys great numbers.
Thompson, in his " Quadrupeds of Vermont," speaks of feeding one
(which he kept alive) with fresh meat, "of which it eat fearlessly and
voraciously."

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 139

Description. — Head short and broad ; ears broad, naked on the superior
margins ; incisors, two in the upper jaw and six in the lower ; canines
large and prominent, two in each jaw ; molars, ten in the upper and
twelve in the lower jaw ; lips and chin black ; fur on the body and on
the upper side of the (interfemoral) membrane, between the hind legs
and tail, black at its base, then yellowish brown, then darker, and termi-
nated with white. This mixture produces a grizzled or hoary appear-
ance, which suggests the name. The fur is of a soft fawn color beneath
the neck, and about one-third of the interfemoral membrane, and a
strip beneath the wings, about four-fifths of an inch in width, running
along the fore-arm to about three-fifths of an inch beyond the wrist, and
a spot on the upper side of each elbow and wrist. Length of specimens
before rae from 3| to 3f inches ; width from tip to tip of extended wings,
13 to 14^ inches.

V. noveboracemis, (Harlan.) — New York Bat.
This is one of our most common species. At twilight they commence
their search for prey, which often continues until daybreak ; their appetite
being very voracious, they destroy great numbers of insects, of which
their food consists. Frequently, several of them may be seen at the
same time, busily engaged, and so earnest are they, that they will pursue,
for some distance, a stone that may be thrown at them. They often enter
through open windows into dwellings, probably in pursuit of house flies.
They are readily captured, and will accept insects, or pieces of raw meat.
Description. — Head rather flat, tapering suddenly to the nose ; ears
broad, naked anteriorly ; incisors short, hardly appearing above the gum,
two in the upper and six in the lower jaw ; canines, two in each jaw,
short, extending but little beyond the molars ; molars, tuberculated, eight
in each jaw ; fur on the cheeks and chin, light tawny ; on the body and
head black at its base, then cream-color, then yellowish red, and termi-
nated generally with white. On the upper side of the interfemoral
membrane, the fur is dai'k-red, and generally without any mixture, and
beneath this membrane, for a third its length, and beneath the wings for
a strip about half an inch in width, running along the arm and fore-arm
to the hand, it is much lighter. The upper side of the wings is entirely
naked, with the exception of a spot on each wrist. At the junction of
the arm with the body, is a patch of white, which gives this species a
distinctive featui'e, easily recognized. Length of specimens before me
varying from 3 to 3| inches; width across the extended wings, 9 to 11
inches.

V. noctivagans, (Le Conte.) — Silver-haired Bat.
This species is very rarely found in this State, but is more common
south, this being probably its extreme northern limit. But very little
is known regarding its habits.

140 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Description. — Head broad ; ears broad and naked ; incisors minute,
four in the upper and six in the lower jaw ; canines short, scarcely longer
than the molars, two in each jaw ; molars, ten in each jaw ; fur on the
body, and on the upper side of the interfemoral membrane black, each
hair tijjped with white, giving it a beautifully silvered appearance ; this
furnishes its name. The interfemoral membrane is naked beneath, and
the wings naked, except near the body beneath. Length, 2| inches,
■width, 8 inches.

V. CaroUnensis, (Geoffrey.)— Carolina Bat. — [Fig. 1.]
This is perhaps the most common species found in this State, and,
indeed, seems to be distributed very generally over the continent. At
sundown these bats commence war on the insects, and often are bu.«y
throufrhout the night. I have often caught them in dwelling-houses, and
kept them as pets, feeding them on insects and pieces of meat, which they
readily accepted. An individual which I kept several weeks, grew
reconciled to confinement, and seemed perfectly at ease. At night he
would fly about the room catching house flies, which he eat with a keen
relish, the noise he made in craunching them could be heard several yards.
At daybreak he would retire to a dark corner, sometimes suspending
himself by the tliumb-claws and feet, but generally by the feet alone,
hanging with his head down. On touching him, he would throw his
head back, showing his teeth, and uttering, at the same time, a peculiar
chattering shriek. This bat had, and I believe all bats have a disagreeable,
musky smell.

The young, from one to three, are born in the summer months ; the
period of gestation is, I believe, unknown. As these animals build no
nest, the young are carried about, firmly clinging to the mother till old
enough to shift for themselves. I once shot an old female that had a
young one clinging at each teat ; they were certainly half grown. A
number of fine specimens furnish the following description. Head large ;
ears broad and long, naked, except a third of their posterior base ;
incisors, four in the upper and six in the lower jaw ; canines sharp and
powerful, two in each jaw ; molars, eight in the ujiper and ten in the
lower jaw ; fur brownish, black at its base, terminated on the upper side
of the body with brown, and on the under side with gray. The inter-
femoral membrane is naked, as are also the Avings, which are remarkably
soft and thin ; the last joint of the tail is not included in the interfemoral
membrane, but extends little more than an eighth of an inch beyond.
Length varying from o.i to 4i inches, width from 12 to 10 inches.

V. subulatus, (Say.)— Little Brown Bat.
This species can hardly be confounded with any other, unless perhaps
the Carolina bat, which it very greatly resembles. This and indeed

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

141

142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

all the bats, are entitled to the protection of the farmer. Multitudes of
his worst enemies furnish them food, and perfectly harmless as they
are, intruding on no one, it is worse than folly to allow one of them to
be killed.

Description. — Corresponding with the Carolina bat, with these excep-
tions, the suhulatus has twelve molars in the upper jaw, while the
CaroUnensis has but eight ; the last joint of the tail is included in the
interfemoral membrane, and the suhulatus is considerably less than the
CaroUnensis.

Order: KAPACIA. SuTj-Order : INSECTIVORA.
Family : SoRiciDiE. — (Shrew Family.)
Characteristics. — Insectivorous, feeding principally on insects and
worms, but eating, occasionally, flesh. They have two incisors in each
jaw, no canines; six to ten teeth, called false molars, in the upper and
four in the lower jaw, and eight molars in the upper and six in the lower
jaw. The snout is elongated, flexible, and very sensitive ; it is used both
in digging and searching for food. The eyes are very minute, and the
ears are concealed in the fur. The bodies are cylindrical, and covered
with a soft, glossy fur ; tail moderate in length, and covered with hair ;
feet naked beneath, and furnished with five nails ; teats varying in num-
ber, placed on the belly. These animals are nocturnal, somewhat
aquatic, and none of our species hibernate.

Genus: Sorex. — (Linn.)
Characteristics. — Head elongated and slender ; incisors, two in each
jaw ; those in the upper curved and notched at the base ; those in the
lower slanting and elongated; cheek teeth (molars and false molars)
eighteen or twenty in the upper, and ten in the lower jaw ; eyes minute,
but visible; feet with five toes, furnished with nails. These animals
have a series of glands along the flanks, which exhale a musky odor.

Sorex Forsteri, (Richardson.)— Foesteu's Siikew.

These little animals are often met with in this State, both in summer and
winter. In the latter season they are often found beneath a pile of
wood or logs, and their tracks on the snow show their wanderings in
search for food, which are not unsuccessful, as the hairs of some caterpillar

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 143

or the wing of a cricket which they sometimes leave, testify. Domestic
cats often catch them and bring them home, but seldom eat them, on
account of the musky odor which this, as all the other species of this
family have. Four specimens before me furnish the following description.

Head long and slender ; nose long, and divided at the tip ; incisors,
two in each jaw ; the upper ones curved and notched at the base, the
lower ones are slanting, and elongated enough to fit in the notch at the
base of the upper incisors, when the mouth is closed.

These teeth are stained red at their tips, as are also the cheek teeth,
which are eighteen in the upper, and ten in the lower jaw. The fifth
tooth from the incisors in the uppei-, and the thii-d tooth from the incisors
in the lower jaw, are the largest ; eyes minute, but visible ; ears large,
but not quite so long as the fur which conceals them ; body slender,
largest at the waist, covered with soft, smooth fur, which is dark cinereous
at its base, and for two-thirds its length, and tipped on the back with
brown, which gradually grows paler to the belly, where it is tipped with
grayish ash ; whiskers white ; feet small, and nearly naked ; the fore-
arm nearly hid in the fur ; three middle toes of each foot much the
longest ; claws, yellowish white ; tail, four-sided, less than the body in
length, covered with short, brown hair. Length from nose to root of
tail, varying from 2^ to 2f inches; length of tail from 1^ to If inches.

S. platyrhinus, (Baird.) — Long-nosed Shrew.

This little animal is occasionally seen, and in some localities in the
State, is common. It prefers the neighborhood of a swamp to any other,
and swims well. With one exception it is the smallest shrew in this
State, and I believe on the continent.

Description. — Head long, and very narrow, hai'dly half as wide as
long ; the nose is- very long, and divided at the tip ; whiskers long and
black ; incisors, two in each jaw, the upper ones curved and notched at
the base, to receive the ends of the lower ones ; cheek teeth, eighteen
in the upper and ten in the lower jaw; all the teeth are tipped with
reddish brown ; eyes larger than in shrews generally ; ears large and
longer than the fur that surrounds them ; body very slender, covered
with rather short hair, cinereous at its base, but tipped on the back with
chestnut brown, and on the belly with dark ash ; feet rather slender than
strong, naked beneath, and whitish ; toes provided with slender, white
nails ; tail cylindrical, covered with short, sparse brown hairs, which are
longest at the end of the tail. Length from nose to root of tail, 2\
inches; length of tail, 1^ inches.

S. Coqperi, (Bachman.) — Cooper's Sheew.
This species is found in this State. I have never met with it, and not
having a specimen by me, I borrow the description given by Professor

144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Spencer F. Baird.* This species is " Very slender and small ; ears rather
large, nearly as long as the adjacent fur; longest hairs on back, about
one and a half lines ; feet slender, but moderately long ; tubercles on
sole large and distinct ; fore-feet contained nearly twice in the hinder,
which are about five-eighths the length of the skull ; Avidth of skull rather
less than half its length ; palate more than three-eighths this length ; tail
nearly as long as head and body, well pencilled at the tip ; third upper
premolar tooth above, equal to the fourth ; premolars not imbricated ;
anterior upper incisor, with an inner lobe in contact with its fellow ; color
above, light chestnut brown, beneath, pale brownish, or chestnut white ;
length, mostly under two inches ; tail, 1 } ?, inches ; bind foot, -^^^^y of an
inch."

Genus: Blarina. — (Gray.)
Characteristics. — Head broad; ear small, completely bidden in the
adjacent fur; canines, two in each jaw; false molars, ten in the upper
and four in the lower jaw, or eight in the upper and lower jaws ; true
molars, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw ; body thick and
strong ; feet large, the anterior ones as broad as the posterior ones ; toes,
five on each foot, furnished with sharp, curved nails ; tail short, nearly
as long as the bead. This genus includes the short-tailed shrews, of
which there are two species in this State.

B. brevicauda, (Gray.) — Short-tailed Shkew.

This species is quite common in some localities in this State. It is not
so nocturnal as the other species. I have found them in the day-time
busily searching in the fallen leaves and decaying wood for food. Their
sense of bearing and that of scent is very acute. I once saw one run-
ning along with his nose in the air, like a pointer dog ; he went in nearly
a straight line for several yards, and soon the craunching of a large beetle,
which was plainly audible at the distance of several yards, showed me
the game he was after.

Description. — Head large, and about two-thirds as broad as long ;
incisors, two in each jaw; cheek teeth, eighteen in the upper and ten in
the lower jaw ; all the teeth tipped with brown ; nose naked, bifid, and
of a vivid brown color ; whiskers long, white ; body robust, covered with
soft, smooth fur, which is slate-colored at its base, tipped on the back with
dark brown, and on the belly with lighter slate ; feet nearly naked, the
fore-feet quite as wide as the hind feet ; inner toe of each foot shortest,
outer one next, the three middle ones about of a length ; tail short, cylin-
drical, compressed at the root, clothed with short hairs, which are longest
at the tip. Length from nose to root of tail, 3^ inches ; length of tail, J
of an inch.

* Pacific R. E. Sun'ey, Vol. VIII., p. 27.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 145

Blarina ialpotdes, (Gray.) — Mole Shrew.

This animal is quite common in this State ; it is often seen in summer,
at twih'ght, running through the leaves and grass searching for food, and
its tracks in the snow, in the winter, and the little holes it digs through
the snow to the ground, with sometimes a fragment of an insect which
the little animal has left, attest to its activity in this season when its
supply of food must necessarily be small. It prefers the neighborhood
of a swamp, and is a good swimmer.

Description. — Head bi-oad ; ears concealed in the fur ; whiskers nume-
rous, white ; body very stout ; limbs short and strong ; anterior feet
wider that the posterior ; all the feet naked beneath, with large scales,
and scanty, thin hairs above ; tail very short, four-sided, covered with
short, yellowish-brown hairs, with longer hairs at its tip. Color ; the fur
on the upper parts is cinereous at its base, tipped with light chestnut ;
beneath the body, lighter ; feet, yellowish white.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 1 inch.

Length of head and body, 3^ inches.

Length of tail, not including hairs at the tip, | of an inch.

Length of tail, including hairs at the tip, IJ inches.

Length of hind-foot, f of an inch.

Length of fore-foot, \ an inch.

Family: Talpid^e. — (Mole Family.)
Characteristics. — External ear wanting ; no neck ; body thick and
strong, covered with soft, compact fur ; the limbs short ; the anterior feet
very wide and powerful, and furnished with long, flat claws, fitted for
digging. This family is represented in this State by the genera Scalops
and Condylura.

Genus : Scalops. — (Cuvier.)
Characteristics. — Head long, and tapering to the nose, which is elon-
gated, flexible, and simple ; incisors, six in the upper and four in the
lower jaw ; canines, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw ; molars,
six in each jaw ; eyes minute, scarcely visible ; external ears entirely
wanting ; neck wanting ; body robust, the limbs short, the anterior feet
very broad, furnished with long, thin claws ; the posterior feet long and
slender, furnished with delicate, crooked claws ; tail short, slender, and
nearly naked.

Scalops aquaticus, (Linnaeus.) — Common Mole.
This species is very common in this State, hardly a field or pasture
can be met with but has numbers of little loose hills of soil thrown up,
which are made by this and the star-nosed mole, in digging for worms

19*

146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and insects, of which their food entirely consists. This little animal is
almost entirely subterranean in its habits, passing most of the time
beneath the surface of the ground, where it forms extensive burrows at
the depth of three or four inches. The little mounds of loose earth
which it throws up, are probably used for breathing places. The neigh-
borhood of a river or pond seems to be a favorite with this species, and it
is a good swimmer.

Description. — Head strong, elongated to the nose, which is long, nearly
naked, and truncated at the end. The nostrils are placed at the upper
side of the end of the snout ; incisors, six in the upper and four in the
lower jaw ; eye very minute, scarcely visible, even on close examination ;
external ear wanting ; body robust, covered with short, thick, smooth
fur, which is generally brownish-gray, lighter beneath ; fore-feet broad and
strong, naked, except near the wrist, scarcely as long as broad, the toes
united together by a membrane, to the base of the nails, which are five
in number, very long, sharply pointed, thin, and hollowed beneath.

The posterior extremities are weak, the feet long and slender, palmated
to the claws, which are thin, curved, and sharp. The tail is short, and
nearly naked. Length from nose to root of tail, five inches ; length of
tail, one inch.

Genus : Condylura. — (Illiger.)
Characteristics. — Similar to scalops, but with a fringe of radiating
cartilages surrounding the nose ; tail nearly as long as the body, covered
with hair.

Condylura cristaia, (Harlan.) — Stak-nosed Mole. — [Fig. 3.]
This mole is not uncommon in this State. They are often caught
by domestic cats, but seldom eaten by them, on account of the musky
odor which this, as well as the common mole has. Like the latter, this
species is subterranean in its habits, digging in and beneath the ground
for worms and insects, of which its food consists. It prefers the neigh-
borhood of a stream, and is a tolerable swimmer. Four fine specimens
before me furnish the following

Description. — Head strong, tapering to the nose, which is surrounded
by a number of radiating cartilages, disposed so as to form a star-like fringe^
[Fig. 3%] — hence the name. Incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, long and
sharp, six in each jaw; molars, six in each jaw; eyes very minute, hardly
visible ; body robust, covered with a thick, smooth fur, which is cinereous
at its base, and on the back terminated with dark brown, and on the belly with
light brown ; anterior feet broad, powerful, and palmated to the claws,
which are five in number, long, sharply-pointed and thin, and hollowed
beneath ; the posterior feet are slender, and palmated to the claws, which
are five in number, thin and sharp ; the tail is about as long as the body

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

147

without the head, covered beneath the liairs, which are brown in color,
with large scales ; it is constricted at the base, and is largest at about a
third its length from the body. Length from nose to root of tail, four
inches ; length of the tail, three inches.

Sub-Order: CARNIVORA.
Family: Felid^. — (Cat Family.)

Characteristics. — Head broad and rounded ; incisors short, those in
the lower jaw forming a regular series, six in each jaw ; canines powerful,
somewhat curved, two in each jaw ; molars, generally eight in the upper
and six in the lower jaw, with sharp cutting edges ; tongue covered, with
sharp prickles pointing backward ; anterior feet, five-toed ; posterior feet,
four-toed; claws long, sharp, curved and retractile; teats varying in
number, placed on the belly. Animals in this family are generally
nocturnal, and entirely carnivorous.

148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Genus : Lynx. — (Rafinesque.)
Characteristics. — Head short, broad and rounded ; ears more or less
tufted ; incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in each jaw ; molars, six
in each jaw ; body clothed with loose, fine fur ; tail short and blunted,
scarcely longer than the head.

Lynx rufus, (Rafinesque.) — Bay Ltnx, Wild Cat.
This animal is now quite rare in this State — one in several years
being about all that are taken. Although very active, and possessed of
great muscular power, it is not by any means courageous, but is timid,
and even cowardly, almost always flying from man, and in fact from any
animal larger than a hare. The following interesting account of the
habits of this animal is given by Audubon, in his work on the Quadrupeds
of America.

" The wild cat not only makes great havoc among the chickens, turkeys
and ducks of the planter, but destroys many of the smaller quadrupeds,
as well as partridges, and such other birds as he can surprise roosting on
the ground. The hunters often run down the wild cat with packs of fox-
hounds. When hard pressed by fast dogs, and in an open country, he
ascends a tree with the agility of a squirrel, but the baying of the dogs
calling the hunter to the spot, the unerring rifle brings him to the ground,
when, if not mortally wounded, he fights fiercely with the pack until
killed. lie will, however, when pursued by hunters with hounds, fre-
quently elude both dogs and huntsmen, by an exercise of instinct so
closely bordering on reason, that we are bewildered in the attempt to
separate it from the latter. No sooner does he become aware that the
enemy is on his track, than, instead of taking a straight course for the
deepest forest, he speeds to one of the largest old fields, overgrown with
briary thickets, in the neighborhood ; and having reached this tangled
maze, he runs in a variety of circles, crossing and re-crossing his path
many times, and when he thinks the scent has been diffused sufficiently
in different directions by this manoeuvre, to puzzle both men and dogs,
he creeps slyly forth, and makes for the woods, or for some well-known
swamp ; and if he should be lucky enough to find a half-dried-up pond,
or a part of the swamp on which the clayey bottom is moist and sticky,
he seems to know that the adhesive soil covering his feet and legs, so far
destroys the scent, that although the hounds may be in full cry on reach-
ing the place, and while crossing it, they will lose the track on the opposite
side, and perliaps not regain it without some difficulty and delay.

" At other times the ' cat,' when chased by the dogs, gains some tract
of burnt wood, where fallen and upright trees are alike blackened and
scorched by the fire that has run among them, burning before it every
blade of grass, every leaf and shrub, and destroying many of the largest

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 149

trees in its furious course. And here the charcoal and ashes on the ground,
after he has traversed the burnt district a short distance, and made a few
leaps along the trunk of a fallen tree that has been charred in the con-
flagration, will generally put any hounds at fault. Should no chance of
safety be within his reach, he does not despair, but exerting his powers
of flight to the utmost, increases his distance from the pursuing pack,
and following as intricate and devious a path as possible, after many a
weary mile has been run over, he reaches a long-fallen trunk of a tree,
on which he may, perchance, at some previous time, have baffled the
hunters, as he is now about to do. He leaps on it, and hastily running
to the farther end, doubles and returns to the point from which he gained
the tree, and after running backward and forward repeatedly on the
fallen trunk, he makes a sudden and vigorous spring, leaping as high up
into a tree some feet distant, as he can. He then climbs to its highest
branches, and, closely squatted, watches the movements of his pursuers.
The dogs are soon at fault, for he has already led them through many a
crooked path ; the hunters are dispirited and weary, and perhaps the
density of the woods, or the approach of night, favors him. The hunts-
men call off their dogs from the fruitless search, and give up the chase ;
and shortly afterwards the escaped marauder descends leisurely to the
earth, and wanders off in search of food, and to begin a new series of
adventures."

The wild cat, in capturing its prey, usually crawls stealthily to within
four or five yards, and with a sudden spring seizes it, and retires to the
bushes to eat it. His lair is sometimes in a hollow tree that has fallen,
sometimes beneath a shelving rock. The female brings forth from two
to four young at a birth. A very fine specimen before me that was shot
this fall (1861) in the town of Leyden, in this State, furnishes the following

Description. — Head broad and rounded; ears pointed, nearly triangular,
superior margins yellowish brown; behind each ear is an irregular-shaped
patch of grizzled white, bordered with black ; eyes surrounded by a white
border, which is broken at the inner angle by a small patch of black ;
canines, long, powerful, and somewhat curved ; whiskers, long and stiff;
fur above, and each side of the head yellowish brown at the base, then
black, and tipped with yellowish white. There ai-e many irregular waving
lines on the top and sides of the head, caused by the fur being terminated
with, or entirely black. Beneath the chin and throat the fur is yellowish
white, with a patch of brownish black on each side. At the base of the
jaw the fur is lengthened into a short ruff; fur above, and on each side
of the body, grayish at the base, and about half its length, then yellowish
ash, tipped on the sides generally with white, but along the dorsal line
with black ; beneath the body yellowish white, with scattered brownish
black blotches ; limbs long, paws large and muscular ; fur on the limbs

150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

same color as on the sides of the body, except the upper half of the
inside of the limbs, which is yellowish white, with large irregular bars
and blotches. There are also some spots of dusky on the outer sides
of the limbs ; soles of the feet and toes naked ; rest of the foot beneath
with short, thich, brownish-black fur; tail short and blunted, white beneath
and at the tip, with a black patch near the end, and several indistinct
transverse bars of brownish-black. Length from nose to root of tail, two
feet five inches ; length of tail, five inches.

Lynx Canadensis, (Rafinesque.) — Canada Lynx.

This species — the largest of our American lynxes — is now quite rare
in this State. It is strictly a northern animal, being seldom found south
of New York. It prefers the solitude of the wilderness to the more
settled districts, seldom, like the wild cat, robbing the farmer of his
poultry, although occasionally a sheep or lamb is charged to his account
by the farmer. It is very powerful and active, making, when pursued,
prodigious leaps, but generally, if hard pressed, taking to a tree. It breeds
but once a year, having but two at a birth. It is occasionally caught in
steel traps, and will readily go in almost any trap, so unsuspicious is it.
The fine specimen in the State Cabinet furnishes the following

Description. — Head broad, but not so rounded as the L. rufus ; ears
long, pointed, and terminated with tufts of black hairs an inch and a third
long ; margins of ears buff; behind each ear is a patch of gray, bordered
with black ; this patch is much darker than that of the L. rufus, and
the black border less distinct. Fur above, and each side of the head
brindled or mixed, grayish hoary, having irregular waving lines of brown-
ish-black on the top of the head ; beneath the chin the fur is white, and
at the base of the jaws the fur is lengthened into a long ruff at each side ;
this ruff is composed of three colors, black, white, and grayish drab. Fur
on the body and outer sides of the legs, pale rufous at its base, terminated
with black and white, which gives it a hoary appearance ; beneath the
body this is lighter, with a number of distinct black blotches on the back,
the black hairs predominate in several distinct lines, esijecially towards
the rump ; limbs long, the fore-paws veiy wide, the posterior ones
exceedingly long, the specimen before me measuring ten inches ; on the
outer sides of the legs there are many obscure blotches ; between the
legs the fur is buff, with a few obscure blotches on the posterior, and
several distinct black spots on the anterior legs ; feet, beneath clothed
with dense, buff, hairy fur ; tail, beneath white, above and on each side
grayish rufous ; end of the tail for an inch and a half in length, black.
Length from nose to root of tail, two feet eleven inches ; length of tail,
six inches.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 151

Family: Canid^. — (Dog Family.)

Characteristics. — Head lengthened, sharpened to the muzzle; ears
pointed, and generally erect ; incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in
each jaw, powerful, somewhat curved ; molars, generally twelve in the
upper and fourteen in the lower jaw, with edges adapted to cutting flesh,
of which the food of the animals in this family almost wholly consists ;
tongue without the prickles, which the felida; have ; body contracted at
the belly, generally clothed with long, hairy fur ; anterior and posterior
feet four-toed, the former with a rudimentary thumb, which has generally
a claw above the foot; claws of each foot not retractile, as with the
felida^ ; tail long and bushy ; teats varying in number, placed on the
belly ; young, from two to six at a birth.

Genus : Vulpes. — (Cuvier.)

Characteristics. — Head slender, and pointed to the nose ; eyes oblique ;
body clothed with soft fur, with long hairs mixed with and extending
beyond the fur ; tail (called the bush,) long, covered with long, soft fur,
and hair intermixed ; animals in this genus have a fetid odor, are partly
or generally nocturnal in their habits, and have from three to six at a
birth, (in April, in this State.)

Vulpes fulvus, (Richardson.) — Common American Fox.

This species is still common in this State, particularly in the forests
of the western and northern part. I have shot a number within seven
miles of Boston, within three years, and have known of some being killed
this fall, (1861,) in Norfolk County.

The general character and habits of this animal are so well known
that a description of- them is hardly needed here; his cunning is so
great that it has passed into a proverb, trapping him being almost im-
possible. At the breeding season, and while the young are provided for
by the old ones, the cunning in a great measure gives place to the desire
to furnish an abundant supply of food for the young. In the summer
(June) of 1858, near the house in which I was residing, in Dorchester,
a pair of foxes had burrowed and had a litter of four young ; the bur-
row was on the south side of a low hill, in a thicket of whortleberry
bushes. There would have been some sagacity in the choice of a
neighborhood (this locality being surrounded by a number of farms,
each with a nice flock of poultry) were it not for the fact, that the little
patch of bushes and shrubs where they had chosen their home, was
scarcely an acre in extent, and of course more or less familiar to every
boy in the neighborhood. Presently, several hens were missing from
one flock, and others missing from neighboring flocks, led to inquiries
which resulted in the discovery of the fact that a fox had been seen

152 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

running across the fields to this thicket. Search was made, and the
home of Reynard found. The burrow extending beneath a ledge of
rocks, no attempt was made to dig them out, it being determined to
lie in wait and shoot them at the first opportunity. Accordingly, one
day I took my gun, and hiding myself behind an old stone wall, less
than a gun-shot from the mouth of the burrow, awaited events. Shortly,
I heard a rustling in the bushes, and looking, saw the old one coming up
the hill with a nice large domestic duck in her mouth. I waited till she
got near the burrow, when I fired, one barrel loaded with swan shot ;
she did not drop dead, but ran limping across the fields to some woods,
where she was subsequently found dead. I loaded up and waited
patiently for her to return, but she did not. I was about giving it up
for that day, when suddenly there ran out a young fox presently fol-
lowed by three others ; they were about of a size, and were about half
grown ; they were very playful, rolling on the ground and over each
other like kittens or puppies. I watched them for a while, and shot
them, killing two with each barrel. They were much grayer than the
old one, and the fur lacked the hairs which in the old animal extended
beyond the fur.

The food of the fox consists of hares, rats, squirrels, and birds ; he is
a great nuisance to farmers, on account of his love for poultry. Several
fine specimens furnish the following

Description. — Head long, sharpened to the nose ; ears large and
pointed, with fur on the exterior and interior, the latter the longest and
coarsest ; color of fur behind the ear, brownish black ; fur on the body
above and on each side, yellowish red, darkest on the anterior half of the
body ; in this fur are thickly scattered hairs which extend beyond the
fur ; these hairs are darker than the fur ; chin and belly white ; fur
beneath the body deepening into yellowish white as it extends to the
yellowish red of the sides ; breast yellowish gray ; limbs pretty long and
strong, their anterior sides brownish black ; feet brownish black, with
naked spots beneath the soles and toes ; tail very bushy, largest near the
end, lighter colored than the body ; tip of the tail white. Length from
nose to root of tail, from two feet two inches to two feet five inches ;
length of tail, sixteen to seventeen inches.

Family: MuSTELiDiE. — (Weasel Family.)
Characteristics. — Head (generally) long and pointed to the nose ;
ears short and rounded ; incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in each
jaw; prc-molars, six or eight in each jaw; true molars, tuberculated,
two in tlie upi)er and two or four in the lower jaw; body (generally)
long and slender ; legs short ; feet, five-toed, provided with long, sharp

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

153

20*

154 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

claws ; tail long, sometimes bushy, (as in mephitis.) Animals in
this family have generally glands at the roots of their tails, which have
a secretion, in some cases of the most intensely disagreeable odor, as
the skunks, who use this secretion as a defensive weapon.

Genus : Putorius. — (Cuvier.)
Characteristics. — Head oval, and tapering to the muzzle, which is
blunted; incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in each jaw ; pre-molars,
six in each jaw ; true molars, tuberculated, two in the upper and four
in the lower jaw. Limbs short, feet small, toes connected at their bases
by a membrane ; tail long and cylindrical, covered with hair.

Putorius jntsillus, (Aud. and Bach.)— Least AYeasel. [PI. I., figs. 2 and 4.]
This animal is the smallest of our weasels, and indeed of the North
American carnivora. Although not uncommon in this State, it is seldom
taken, its small size and great activity rendering its capture extremely
difficult. Its exceedingly slender, flexible body is particularly adapted
to following through crevices, sometimes very small, the mice and rats,
which constitute the greater part of its food. Having a very voracious
appetite, the great number of these animals that it destroys would justly
entitle it to the protection of the farmer, if its operations were confined
to these pests, but, unfortunately, this is not the case, it having a weak-
ness for birds, eggs, and chickens.

Two fine specimens belonging to the State Cabinet, furnish the
following

Description. — Head long, flattened above, tapering to the nose ; ears
short, slightly pointed; neck long; body very slender; limbs short,
feet hairy ; the soles and ends of the toes beneath, naked ; tail rather
short and slender ; fur of the upper two-thirds of the head, neck and
body, outsides of the legs to the toes, and tail, light brown ; the upper
lip, and beneath the chin, throat and body, and between the anterior
legs to the wrist, and the posterior legs to the ankle, white. Length
of head, 1 .V inches ; greatest width of the head, ^ of an inch ; length
from nose to root of tail, seven inches ; length of tail, not including the
hairs at the tip, 1}^ inches; including the hairs, 2^ inches; length of
the hind loot, 1 i inch.

P. cicognanii, (Baird.)— Small Brown Weasel. [PI. I., fig. C]

This species is quite common in this State. The same remarks may

apply to this as to the preceding, regarding the habits, &c. ; but unlike

the P. pusillus, the fur of this species changes in winter to a clear white,

with the exception of the tip of the tail. This change, I am almost

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 155

certain, does not occur with the former, as I have shot numbers in sum-
mer and winter, and could see no difference, except, perhaps, that the
brown was a trijle lighter in wintei". A number of specimens before me
m the summer and winter pelage furnish the following

Description. — Head rather broader than the P. pusilliis ; ears broad
and rounded ; neck short, and body more robust than the P. pusiUus ;
limbs short ; feet rather wide, densely clothed with hairs, which almost
conceal the naked pads beneath the soles and toes ; tail long, its tip and
one-third its length, black ; fur of the upper part of the head, neck, body
and sides, outside the legs to the toes, and two-thirds the length of the
tail from the root, in summer, brown, a shade darker than the P. pusilliis ;
edge of the upper lip, and beneath the chin, throat and body, and lower
part of the sides, and between the anterior limbs to the wrist, and be-
tween the posterior limbs to the ankle, white, with a yellowish tint. In
winter the whole fur, with the exception of the tip of the tail, is pure
white, with sometimes a yellowish tint. Length of head varying from
1§ inches to 1^ inches; greatest width of head, 1 inch to 1^ inches;
length of body from nose to root of tail, 7 J to 8^ inches ; length of tail,
not including the hairs at the tip, 2| to 3 inches ; including the hairs,
3§ to 4^ inches; length of hind foot. If inches.

P. Eichardsonii, (Richardson.) [PI. I., figs. 3, 5 and 7.]
This species occurs in this State, how frequently I am unable to say ;
but should pronounce it rare. I have not been able to collect more than
two specimens, (in summer dress) ; but this may be owing, not so much
to their scarcity as to my not finding their most favorable localities.
There seems to be great confusion in regard to the identity of this
species. Richardson first described it (I believe) with the above name.
Audubon claimed it as his discovery, and named it P. agilis. The con-
fusion which exists regarding this species, is unfortunately not confined
to it, but seems to extend to the others.

I do not intend to add to it by any conjectures or suggestions, but give
a description of two specimens before me, which were killed in this
State, and which are probably of this species.

Description. — Head long and slender ; ears rather long, wide, and
slightly pointed ; neck and body slender ; limbs rather longer than the
preceding, and the feet smaller ; tail very long, the tip and nearly half
its length black; color of the fur (in summer) on the upper part of the
head, neck and body, outside of the legs and the tail to the black tip,
reddish-brown ; beneath the chin, throat, and between the anterior legs,
to a little below the elbow, and between the posterior legs, to just above
the knee, yellowish-white. In winter the whole fur is white, with the
exception of the tip of the tail, which is black. Length of head, 1 1 to

156 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

1^ inches; width, \^ of an inch; length from nose to root of tail, 7f to
8| inches ; length of tail, not including the hairs at the tip, 4 inches;
including the hairs, 5^ to og- inches; length of the hind foot, 1 to 1^
inches.

P. novthoracensis, (De Kay.) — Ermine, Common Weasel. [PI. I., fig. 1.]

This species is probably the most common we have ; it is literally the
" Common Weasel." Its habits are about the same as those of the other
species ; having the activity of the others, together with greater strength,
its powers of destruction are much greater, as many a poultry-man can
bear witness to ; its courage is also great. I have often seen it face a
dog, and even give him battle. It has an enemy in every sportsman,
because of its bad habit of stealing on a roosting covey of quails, or a
brood of partridges or woodcocks, and slaughtering every one possible ;
it often enters the burrow of the rabbit, and generally makes a clean
sweep of old and young. In seizing its prey, it throws its little body
over and around it, usually biting it at the junction of the head and spine
or through the skull into the brain. An instance that fell under my
notice will go to show the destructive propensities of this animal. A
farmer living in Dorchester had a fine flock of nineteen fowls ; the hen-
house was built on a side of a hill, the back being dug into the hill, and
walled up ; this was a mistake — no hen-house should have any stone wall
of any kind about it, it but affords comfortable homes for rats and other
vermin, and has no recommendation, not even that of economy. It was
his habit at sundown, or a little later, to close a small door in the side of
the hennery, to keep out vermin. One evening, about an hour and a
half after he closed the hen-house, a hen was heard squalling, and on
going to the hennery to find out the cause, every hen in the lot was found
dead, each with a bloody spot at the nape of the neck, or a little wound
just over the eye. Search was made for the assassin, but the artful little
villain was safe behind the stone wall. The hens were removed, a steel
trap, baited with one of their heads set, and the scamp was found the
next morning caught by one of his feet ; he was kept several weeks in a
box, but could not be tamed ; he eat greedily of birds, mice and raw
meat, but i)ined and died of confinement.

The nature of this animal is eminently blood-thirsty ; it will continue
killing as long as it has any thing to kill ; although its appetite might
have been satisfied abundantly with the first hen in the above instance,
its instinct prompted it to kill the whole. The great number of rats and
mice which it destroys, entitle it to some consideration, but the fact that
it visits the poultry-yard " with unlawful intent," is enough for the
farmer, who pursues him to the bitter end. The tracks of this animal
in the snow are easily recognized, his run (a succession of leaps) causing

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 157

him to bring his hind feet into the tracks made by the fore-feet, thus
giving a series of pairs of foot prints, about nine or ten inches apart.

The nest of this animal is usually in a stone heap, or beneath a rock,
or in a ground-squirrel's burrow ; the young are from three to seven in
number, and are born in May, in this State. Like the other species, it
is generally nocturnal in its habits, and has an extremely disagreeable
odor. A number of fine specimens in the summer and winter dress and
change, furnish the following

Description. — Head thick; muzzle blunted ; ears short and rounded;
body slender; limbs longer than with the preceding; feet large, the
anterior as wide, but not so long as the posterior, clothed with hair ; soles
and bottoms of the toes naked ; tail long, cylindrical, black for one-third
its length at the end. Summer dress — head and body above and on the
sides and outside the legs to the toes and the basal two-thirds of the tail,
chestnut-brown ; upper lip, and beneath the head, neck and body, and
between the fore legs to the toes, and between the hind legs to the ankles,
white. Winter dress — entirely white, with a yellowish tint ; the tip of
the tail black, as in the summer dress. Length of head, 2^ inches ;
length of head and body, 9 to 10^ inches ; length of tail, not including
hairs, 5 to 5^^ inches; including hairs, G^ to 7 inches; length of hind
foot If to If inches.

P. vison, (Gapper.) — Common Mink. [PI. I., fig. 8.]

This species is common in this State ; the value of its fur is sufficient
to cause it to be hunted and trapped to such an extent, that its numbers
are fast diminishing. It prefers the neighborhood of a stream or pond,
and swims well. Its great activity and strength permits it to conquer
animals much its superior in size, often killing the rabit and hai-e. I
have known it to drive off a cur dog when attacked by him. Like the
other weasels, it destroys great numbers of rats and mice, and often
visits the poultry-yard, where its destructive inclinations are allowed full
play, the death of the last fowl only satisfying it.

The following interesting account of its habits is given by Audubon,
in his own happy style : " Next to the ermine, the mink is the most active
and destructive depredator that prowls around the farm-yard, or the
farmer's duck-pond, where the presence of one or two of these animals
will soon be made known by the sudden disappearance of sundry young
ducks and chickens. The vigilant farmer may perhaps see a fine fowl
moving in a singular and most involuntary manner, in the clutches of a
mink, towards a fissure in a rock, or a hole in some pile of stones, in the
gray of the morning, and should he rush to the spot to ascertain the fate
of the unfortunate bird, he will see it suddenly twitched into a hole too
deep for him to fathom, and wish he had carried with him his double-

158 BOARD or AGRICULTURE.

barrelled gun, to have ended at once the life of the voracious destroyer
of his carefully tended poultry. Our friend, the farmer, is not, however,
disposed to allow the mink to carry on the sport long, and therefore
straightway repairs to the house for his gun, and if it be loaded and
ready for use, (as it always should be in every well-regulated farm-house,)
he speedily returns with it to watch for the re-appearance of the mink,
and shoot him ere he has the opportunity to depopulate his poultry-yard.
The farmer now takes a stand, fticing the retreat into which the mink
has carried his property, and waits patiently until it may please him to
show his head again. This, however, the cunning rogue will not always
accommodate him by doing, and he may lose much time to no purpose.
Let us introduce you to a scene on our own little place, near New York-
" There is a small brook, fed by several springs of pure water, which
we have caused to be stopped by a stone dam, to make a pond for ducks
in the summer, and ice in the winter; above the pond is a rough bank
of stones through which the water filters into the pond. There is a
little space near this where the sand and gravel have formed a diminu-
tive beach. The ducks descending to the water are compelled to pass
near this stony bank. Here a mink had fixed his quarters, with
certainly a degree of judgment and audacity worthy of high praise, for
no settlement could be more to his mind. At early dawn the crowing
of several fine cocks, the cackling of many hens and chickens, and
the paddling, splashing, and quacking of a hundred old and young
ducks, would please his ears ; and by stealing to the edge of the bank
of stones, with his body nearly concealed between two large pieces of
broken granite, he could look around and see the unsuspecting ducks
within a yard or two of his lurking place. When thus on the look out,
dodging his head backward and forward, he waits until one of them has
approached close to him, and then with a rush, seizes the bird by the
neck, and in a moment disappears with it between the rocks. He has
not, however, escaped unobserved, and like other rogues, deserves to be
punished for having taken what did not belong to him. We draw near the
spot, gun in hand, and after Avaiting some time in vain for the appear-
ance of the mink, we cause some young ducks to be gently driven down
to the pond — diving for worms or food of various kinds, while danger so
imminent is near them — intent only on the objects they are pursuing,
they turn not a glance toward the dai'k crevice where we can now see
the bright eyes of the mink as he lies concealed. The unsuspecting
birds remind us of some of the young folks in that large pond we call
the world, where, alas! they may be in greater danger than our poor
ducks or chickens. Now we see a fine hen descend to the water ;
cautiously she steps on to the sandy margin, and dipping her bill in the
clear stream, sips a few drops and raises her head as if in gratitude to

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 159

the Giver of all good ; she continues sipping and advancing gradually ;
she has now approached the fated rocks, when with a sudden rush the
mink has seized her ; ere he can regain his hole, however, our gun's
sharp crack is heard and the marauder lies dead before us." . .

" This species prefers taking up its residence on the borders of ponds
and along the banks of small streams, rather than along large and broad
rivers. It delights in frequenting the foot of rapids and waterfalls.
When pursued it flies for shelter to the water, an element suited to its
amphibious habits, or to some retreat beneath the banks of the stream.
It runs tolerably well on high ground, and we have found it on several
occasions no easy matter to overtake it, and when overtaken, we have
learned to our cost that it was rather a troublesome customer about our
legs and feet, where its sharp canine teeth made some uncomfortable
indentations ; neither was its odor as pleasant as we could have desired.
It is generally supposed that the mink never resorts to a tree to avoid
pursuit ; we have, however, witnessed one instance to the contrary. In
hunting for ruffed grouse (T". umhellus,) we observed a little dog that
accompanied us, barking at the stem of a young tree, and on looking
up, perceived a mink seated in the first foi'k, about twelve feet from the
ground."

The nests are made in piles of stones, beneath rocks, and in burrows,
usually rabbit burrows. The young are from three to seven in number,
and are born in this State in the month of May.

Description. — Head small and slender ; ears broad, short and round ;
neck long; body long and slender; legs short and stout; feet large,
covered with hair above and beneath, except the naked pads on the
soles and toes ; the toes semi-palmated ; fur soft and dense, with long
and stiff hairs in it, and extending beyond it ; color on the whole body,
■with the exception of the chin beneath, and a spot on the throat beneath,
which is white, dark brown ; the same above and below ; tail long.
Length of head, 31 inches ; length of head and body, 1(S\ inches ; length
of tail, not including the hairs at the tip, 6^ inches, including the hairs,
8 inches ; length of hind foot, 2^ inches.

Genus: Lutra. — (Linn.)
Characteristics. — Head large and flattened ; ears short and rounded ;
incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, much curved and sharpened, two in
each jaw ; false molars, eight in the upper, and six in the lower jaw ;
molars, two in the upper, and four in the lower jaw ; the upper posterior
ones large and quadrate. Body long, slender, and covered with stiff,
glossy fur, with a softer fur intermixed ; legs short and strong ; toes, five
on each foot, palmated and provided with short, strong claws ; tail tapering

IGO BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and flattened horizontally, with two glands at its base, secreting a fetid
liquid.

Lutra Canadensis, (Sabine.) — Canada Ottee, American Otter.

This species, once quite common in this State, is now nearly extermi-
nated, one in two or three years being about the greatest number captured.
It takes up its residence in the bank of a river or pond, and is careful to
have a passage leading to and beneath the water. It is an expert swim-
mer and diver, catching with ease the fishes, of which its food principally
consists, and of which it destroys great numbers. It is a very active,
strong animal, although rather clumsy on the land, its habits being almost
entirely aquatic. When attacked by a dog, it often proves more than a
match for him, its sharp, strong teeth inflicting an ugly bite, and its tough
skin and thick fur affording it protection from the attacks of its assailant.
It is a very cunning animal, trapping it being generally unsuccessful,
unless the trap is set beneath the water, at the mouth of its burrow, or
at the foot of its slides. A strange peculiarity this animal has, is its
habit of climbing to the top of a steep bank or snow drift, and sliding on
its belly head foremost to the bottom ; this operation is repeated some-
times forty or fifty times, and seems to afford it great amusement. If
caught young, it is easily tamed, feeding greedily on fishes, fresh water
clams and frogs. It breeds once a year, (in March, in this latitude,) and
has from one to three at a birth. I am informed that there has been
several seen this season in Marlborough, in this State, in what is called
" Ram's Horn Brook ;" its banks are miry, and difficult of access. A fine
specimen killed in Palmer, in this State, furnishes the following

Description. — Head long, somewhat oval ; ears very short and rounded,
with hairs within and without ; nose blunt; body very long, slender, and
nearly cylindrical ; limbs very short and strong ; feet broad ; soles and
bottoms of toes naked ; toes webbed ; claws short and strong ; tail long
flattened horizontally, and tapering, slightly constricted at its base.
Length of head, 6 inches; width of head, 3^ inches; length of head
and body, 30 inches; length of tail, not including bail's at the tip, 15
inches, including the hairs, 16 inches; length of fore-foot, 2^ inches, hind
foot, o^ inches.

Genus : 3fepMtis. — (Cuvier.)
Characteristics. — Head small, and pointed to the nose, which is naked,
and somewhat projecting ; ears short and rounded ; incisors, six in each
jaw ; canines, two in each jaw ; false molars, six in each jaw ; molars,
two in the upper and four in the lower jaw; body, rather slender than
robust, clothed with long, soft fur, and hair growing beyond; limbs short;
feet short, strong and fossorial; soles usually naked ; feet five-toed, each
toe provided with a long, sharp, crooked claw, those on the anterior feet

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 161

much the longest ; tail long and bushy, two glands near the anus secrete
a dis"-ustingly fetid liquid, which is used as a means of defence. Animals
in this genus are almost entirely nocturnal in habits, and their food is
animal in nature.

.Mejihitis mephitica, (Shaw.) — Skunk.

This animal is, unfortunately, quite common in this State. Its thor-
ou"-hly wicked character and peculiar weapon of defence have rendered
it universally detested, its destruction being regarded as meriting the
hio'hest approbation. Its only recommendation is, that it destroys
quantities of insects, both in the larva and perfect state. Its habits are
almost entirely nocturnal, although it is often seen in the daytime
especially in spring. Unless provided with a gun, it is always best to
give it a wide berth, an encounter in any other case resulting in a total
and inglorious defeat. On coming suddenly on it, it immediately faces
you, with its tail erect, or lying flat along the back, its little black eyes
sparkling maliciously. Woe to you unless you stand perfectly still,
until it walks leisurely away ; the least movement of yours being surely
purchased by an ejection, often in your face and eyes, — its aim being
very accurate, — of a liquid with a most intensely and disgustingly nause-
ating odor, which, if it reaches the eye, produces an inflammation and
partial blindness, and causes the skin to become inflamed and vesiculated.
The glands in which this liquid is secreted are situated near the anus ;
they are very muscular, capable by contraction, of throwing the liquid
twelve or fourteen feet. This liquid is of a yellowish color, is very
acrid, and at night is luminous. The skunk, when ejecting it, lays its
tail flat on its back, throwing little jets of a few drops at a time, with
great precision.

Dogs share in the universal hatred for this animal, and will always
attack it, even if their experience warns them what to expect. A young
pointer with which I was once shooting, came to a point at a little bunch
of bushes, which I could not make him enter. Supposing that there
might be a covey of quails or partridges lying close, I entered cautiously,
hoping to get a double shot. In the interior of the bushes was a little
patch of grass, perhaps three or four rods in area, where a skunk, its
tail erect stood ready to give me a warm welcome ; of course I stopped
and naturally stepped back, just as one would if he saw a rattlesnake
across his path. My dog being at my heels brushed rather quickly by
me, and before I could stop him, entered the space where stood the
skunk, his wicked little black eyes twinkling in anger. They stood
facing each other for a moment, when the dog, not knowing the nature
of the job he was undertaking, made a rush at the skunk who met him
with a volley in the face and eyes that sent him rolling on the ground,
yelling and digging his head in the earth and acting as if mad with

21*

162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

pain. I shot the skunk and took the dog to a pond near by, in which he
rushed, trying to wash the venom out of his eyes. I let him stay as
long as he wanted to, but for a week after his eyes were inflamed, and
nearly blind. The odor remained on him over a month. The skunk is
a great plague to the farmer, often doing considerable damage in the
poultry yard. In seizing its prey it throws itself over and around it,
like the weasels, usually biting it at the nape of the neck, or through
the skull into the brain.

In a lot of eleven fowels that I examined, which were killed by a
skunk in one night, I found none of them bitten any where except on
the head, in some cases the head was eaten off entirely.

It often trails animals like a dog, and though clumsy and slow in its
movements, will perseveringly follow the object of its pursuit until it
has driven it to its burrow, where following it in, the whole family is
sacrificed to its rapacity ; such is often the case with the common rabbit.
(Lepus sylvaticus.)

The skunk breeds but once in a year, and has from three to seven at
a birth. In early winter it retires to its burrow, which is usually in or
beneath a ledge of rocks, where it remains sleeping until early in the
spring. It is quite poor when it comes forth from its winter sleep.

Description. — Head small and pointed ; ears small ; eyes small, black
and piercing ; body rather slim, although the long fur gives it a robust
appearance ; limbs short ; feet strong, the anterior ones provided with
long slightly curved claws decidedly fossorial, or adapted to digging ;
soles of the feet and toes, which are webbed, naked ; tail long and
bushy ; color of the head, body, limbs and tail, black, with the exception
of a nari'ow stripe of Avhite running along the top of the head, about an
inch and a quarter long, a patch of white commencing at the nape of
the neck, running back to between the shoulders, where it separates in
the form of the letter V, the diverging points extending about half the
length of the body ; and the end of the tail, which is white, and slightly
tufted. These white markings vary considerably, no two specimens
being exactly alike. Length of head, 2}^ inches, width, 1 f inches ;
length of head and body, 17 inches; length of tail, not including the
hairs at the tip, 9 inches, including the hairs, 13^ inches; length of
hind foot, 2^ inches.

Family: Ursid^e. — (Bear Family.)

Characteristics. — Incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in each jaw ;
pre-molars, eight in each jaw ; molars, tuberculated, four in the upper and
generally six in the lower jaw ; nose somewhat elongated and movable ;
body strong ; limbs strong ; feet five toed ; walk plantigrade ; toes dis-

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 163

tinctly separated ; soles of the feet naked ; food omnivorous. Some
species hibernate.

Genus : Procyon. — (Storr.)

Characteristics. — Head broad and rounded, tapering rapidly to the
nose, which is tx'uncate, somewhat elongated and movable ; ears short,
erect ; incisors, six in each jaw ; canines, two in each jaw ; false molars,
eight in each jaw ; molars, four in the upper and four in the lower jaw ;
body rather stout ; limbs strong ; feet five toed, walk less plantigrade
than the other genera of the family Ursidce ; tail moderately long; food
omnivorous.

Procyon lotor, (Storr.) — Raccoon.

This animal is not uncommon in this State, particularly in the
western and northern counties. It is a restless, mischievous animal,
nocturnal in habits. Its food is miscellaneous in character, consisting
of animals, birds, fishes, reptiles, shell-fish, insects, fruit, vegetables and
grain, particularly Indian corn when in the milk stage : in fact, its
incursions into the corn-fields have rendered it an object of dislike to
the farmer, who loses no opportunity of destroying it. It has a pro-
pensity of destroying much more thaa it can eat ; to which its visits to
the corn-fields, where it breaks down the corn-stalks in every direction, —
to the poultry yard, where it destroys every fowl it can reach, eating the
head and leaving the mutilated body, — and to the apple and peach
orchard, where it selects the finest and most luscious fruit, but only taking
a bite or two of each before turning to another, give tangible evidence.
It is very fond of eggs, and is not particular to have them fresh laid ;
being an excellent climber, no bird's nest is secure from it, and the
number which it destroys is not inconsiderable.

It is a very cunning animal, but is easily trapped, entering readily a
trap baited with a fish or ear of sweet corn ; the most common trap
with which it is taken is a heavy log set with a figure of 4 trigger,
which when sprung drops the log on the raccoon, who is crushed to
death ; if caught when young it is easily tamed, but makes a michievous
pet.

It makes its nest in a hollow tree, and has from three to seven at a
birth, in May, in this State. It prefers the neighborhood of a thick
swamp with large trees scattered through it, and with a stream of water
running through it.

The raccoon hibernates through the winter.

Description. — Head short and rounded, tapering suddenly to the nose,
which is naked, sharpened, and somewhat movable; ears short, I'ounded
at the tip, covered with hair on both sides ; whiskers white, few in

164 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

number, very stiff, like bristles ; neck short ; body robust ; limbs rather
short ; feet naked beneath ; toes provided with strong curved, sharp
claws ; tail moderately long and bushy ; fur, two kinds, a very soft fine
fur with a coarser fur growing in and beyond it ; color of head, neck,
body and legs, yellowish gray ; the hairs on the back and upper parts of
the sides, tipped with black. There is a patch of brownish black
running from the nose to between the eyes, where it separates into two
patches, one running on each side of the face to the neck ; the tail is
yellowish gray and has usually five black rings which encircle it, except
a short distance beneath ; the tip of the tail is black ; the under fur on
the body is dingy brown.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 5^ inches.

Length of head and body, 23 inches.

Length of tail, not including the hairs at the tip, 9^^ inches.

Length of tail, including the hairs at the tip, 11 inches.

Length of hind foot from heel to tip of claw, 4 inches.

Length of fore foot fi'om heel to tip of claw, 2^ inches.

Genus : Ursus. — (Linn.)
Characteristics. — Head large ; ears large, tapering and pointed ; teeth
as in the genus Procyon, with the exception of the molars, which are
four in the upper, and six in the lower jaw ; body stout, covered with
long thick hair ; limbs strong ; toes entirely separated, furnished with
strong curved claws fitted for digging; tail short. Animals in this
genus are almost entirely nocturnal in their habits ; they are omnivorous,
and generally hibernate.

Ursus Americanus, (Pallas.) — Black Bear.
This animal, once common in this State, is now very rare. I am
informed that several have been seen in the towns of North Adams,
Florida, and Clarksburg, during the past year, but probably this species
will very soon be entirely extinct with us. It is not a ferocious animal,
always retiring before man, unless in defence of its cubs ; it is not so
carnivorous as some of the other species, its favorite food consisting of
fruits, vegetables, berries, nuts (mast) and grain. Like the raccoon, this
animal is very fond of corn while it is in the milk, and does great
damage when visiting the corn-fields, by breaking down and destroying
much more than it eats. It often destroys young cattle, sheep and hogs,
but seldom, unless impelled by hunger. It is often taken in steel traps,
which, instead of being firmly fixed at one spot, ai*e fastened to a log
which is not so heavy but the bear can drag it ; this is called a hobble ;
it effectually does what it is intended to, that is, prevents the bear from

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 165

running away, but allows it some liberty of movement. If the trap
were firmly fastened, the bear would quickly tear its foot from it ; but
being loose, it is dragged along by the bear, leaving a distinct trail by
which the hunter can follow the animal and kill it.

The bear is very tenacious of life ; its brain is very effectually pro-
tected by the skull, which is very thick, and it will carry off a number
of bullets, unless shot through the heart.

When attacked, it rises up on its haunches, defending itself with its
fore-paws, which are used as skilfully, and with as much ease, as a boxer's
fists ; at close quarters, it clasps its assailant in its powerful arms, hugging
it to death.

The bear is a great traveller, constantly shifting from place to place
in search of food. In its travels it confines itself to certain circuits,
generally travelling the same paths, which are called run-tvays. In
these paths the hunter sets his traps, knowing that the bear will return
the same way again. Its habits are nocturnal, although it sometimes
travels in the daytime.

It is very fat in the fall, before going into its winter quarters, but on
coming forth in the spring it is lean. The black bear is an excellent
climber, often having its nest in a hollow tree, many feet from the ground.
It is very fond of honey, robbing the hives of the wild bee, which it is
very successful in finding.

The female usually has two cubs at a birth, although sometimes three
or four. The period of gestation is uncertain, some authors stating it to
be from six to seven weeks, others fourteen to fifteen weeks — one hundred
days or seven months.

The black bear goes into winter quarters at the first heavy fall of snow.
Its den is generally some fissure in the I'ocks, in which it makes a large
bed of leaves and grass. I am informed that the male does not winter
with the female, but has a nest by himself. I think this is doubtful.

Description. — Head short and broad ; nose slightly arched, and pointed ;
snout somewhat pointed, and movable; eyes small, and near together;
ears high, and somewhat rounded at the tips ; body and limbs, strong
and thick ; feet strong ; soles naked ; claws long and curved ; fur long
and soft, color black, with sometimes a brownish tint.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, from 11 to 12 inches.
Greatest width of head, from 7 to 8^ inches.
Length of head and body, 5 feet 9 inches.

166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Order: RODENTIA.

Family: Sciurid^.. — (Squirrel Family.)

Characteristics. — Molars, ten in the upper and eight in the lower jaw,

or eight in tlie upper and lower jaws, rooted or rootless. No ante-orbital

foramen in the anterior root of the zygoma, or else small and rounded.

Tibia and fibula distinct. (Baird.)

Genus : Sciurus. — (Linn.)

This genus includes the true arboreal squirrels. Some of its features
are common to other genera in the family sciuridce, but the following
constitute peculiar characteristics : Head moderately small ; ears small,
erect ; eyes large ; snout and upper lip divided ; incisors, two in each
jaw, the upper, wedge or chisel-shaped at the extremity, the lower ones
compressed laterally ; molars tubercular, ten in the upper and eight in
the lower jaw ; body elongated ; limbs strong ; fore-feet with five toes
and a tubercle, instead of a thumb ; hind feet with five long toes, all
furnished with long, hooked claws ; tail nearly as long or quite as long
in some cases longer than the body, with long bushy hair arranged
on its sides, directed laterally ; teats, eight in number, two pectoral and
six ventral.

Sciurus Carolmensis, (Gmelin.) — Gray Squirrel.

This beautiful animal is still common in this State. It is one of the
most beautiful and graceful of the inhabitants of our forests, in which it
generally makes its home, hardly ever venturing from them, unless occa-
sionally, Avhen the Indian corn is ripe, it enters the fields to add a little
to its winter store of nuts ; the amount which it pilfers could hardly be
missed, however, unless the field should happen to be in or near the
woods.

It prefers forests of chestnuts or oaks, in which its winter store can be
readily collected. The first heavy frost is the signal for this work to
commence, and the dropping of the chestnuts and acorns which the frost has
loosened, accompanied by the rustling of the squirrel through the newly-
fallen leaves as it gathers the nuts together, and carefully deposits them
in hollow trees and crevices of rocks, or buries them in some secure place
beneath the leaves, are the sounds most intimately connected with our
woods in the autumn season.

The gray squirrel is often hunted, both for food and for its fur ; its
activity, the rapidity with which it scampers up and down the trees, and
leaps from one tree-top to another, and the cunning with which it hides
from the gunner, dodging to the opposite side of the tree from him,
rendering the sport highly exciting.

The summer nest is built in some tall tree, at the junction of several
limbs with the trunk. It is composed of sticks and leaves, and is lined

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 167

with soft grass and ferns ; in this the young are reared, and hve with
the female till they are old enough to shift for themselves. At the
approach of winter, some hollow in a tree is selected, sometimes the
abandoned nest of a woodpecker, in which a warm nest is built, composed
of grass and soft leaves ; this is the winter home of usually the whole
family. In early spring the young are driven off by the old ones, who
soon build the summer nest, in which to rear another ftimily. The young,
after being driven off, soon pair, and in their turn become heads of
families.

The habits of this animal are very interesting. You may be walking
through the woods, shortly you hear what you at first think to be
the barking of a small dog ; on listening you discover your mistake ;
the abrupt notes qua-qua, with chattering gutteral additions, proceed
from the tall tree a few rods from you ; you cautiously steal on tip-toe
to the foot of the tree, but do not see the animal even after looking
carefully on every side. You know the little fellow is there, for he
could not possibly have got out of the tree unless you had seen him.
Now if you go close to the tree and step quickly to the other side you
will see him whisk himself suddenly to the opposite side from you,
where he is now closely hugging the tree and perfectly motionless ; your
interest has now become awakened, you are curious to see more of him ;
very well, you must retire a few rods and remain perfectly still. You
had better take a comfortable seat, for he will not move while you are
near the ti-ee. Presently, you see his head with its bright, lively eyes
slowly moving around to the side where you are ; this is the first recon-
noitering movement. If you remain perfectly still he will soon take
his position on a limb, where jerking his tail and flaunting it in conscious
security, he gives vent to his satisfaction at your removal, in a series of
chattering barks, which are answered, perhaps, by other squirrels that you
had no thought were in the neighborhood ; soon one of them with a
challenging bark or chatter, chases another and shortly three or four of
them are scampering about, running through the fallen leaves, and up
and down the trees in high sport ; presently one of them in escaping
from the others comes suddenly near you ; with a shrill whistle of
astonishment he scampers up the nearest tree and is soon as effectually
concealed as all the others were the instant he gave the alarm. You
may as well retire now, for you will see nothing more of these ; as
long as you remain near they will not budge a foot.

The gray squirrel is some years very common, and others very
scarce ; the reason for the increase and diminution of its numbers is
uncertain. It may be owing to the plenty or scarcity of its food, or to
migrations, or perhaps partially to both. Thompson in his " Quadru-
peds of Vermont," says : " This sudden increase or diminution of their

168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

numbers, seems to depend upon two causes, the supply of food and the
severity of the winters. Their great multiplication generally follows a
mild winter, which was preceded by a productive summer. I believe it
to be generally true that when one species becomes very plentiful, the
others become so too." There seems to be a considerable confusion
regarding the identity of this species, some hunters declaring that they
have shot two distinct species, and others three, in this State ; but after
examining carefully a great number that were shot in this State, and
shot them myself, in different localities, I am confident that there exists
with us only one species, although there are some which may be justly
called varieties ; indeed, Prof. Spencer F. Baird,* in his valuable
" Report on the Mammals," pronounces the black squirrel Sciurus niger
(Godman) that is sometimes found in this State, to be a variety of this
species, and I have no doubt that such is the case, more especially as he
had before him a sex'ies of specimens, showing very clearly the
transition from black to the unquestionable gray. I have seen some
specimens very dark, almost brown, that I knew were of this species
and having such high authority, I shall not make two distinct species,
but include them in S. caroUnensis.

Description. — Head moderately large ; ears rounded, covered pos-
teriorly with short thin hairs ; eyes large ; whiskers long, the longest
more than two and a-half inches, black ; body strong, but well propor-
tioned ; limbs strong ; feet naked beneath ; toes provided with sharp, strong,
curved claws ; tail longer than the body ; color above and on each side
of the head, neck, body, and outside of the legs to the claws, a grizzled
gray, caused by the fur which is cinereous next the skin, being tipped
with black, white and ash ; on the sides there is a wash of light ash, and
on the legs and feet ; on the back the fur is tipped with black, and a
larger proportion of brownish ash than elsewhere on the body ; beneath
the whole body and between the limbs, white ; the hairs on the tail are
placed more on its sides than on the top or bottom, making it much
wider than thick, they are ash-colored at their base, and for two-thirds
their length black, and tipped broadly with white; the upper side
of the tail is the darkest. The variations from this description ai'e
great and common, no two animals being alike. I have before me a
specimen, brownish beneath, and on the head and between the legs ; and
have seen specimens varying from brown above, to the above description.
There is also in the State Cabinet, a specimen entirely pure white,
(this is probably an albino.)

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 2| to 2| inches.
Greatest width of head, 1 ^ to If inches.

* Pacific Railroad Survey, Vol. VIII.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 169

Length of head and body, 9 to 1 0 inches.
Length of tail, not including hairs at tip, 7 to 8i inches.
Length of tail, including hairs at tip, 10 to 12 inches.
Length of hind-foot from heel to end of claw, 2i to 3 inches.
Length of fore-foot from heel to end of claw, li^ to If inches.

Sciurus hudsonius, (Pallas.)— Red Squirrel, Pine Squirrel, Chickaree.

This species is very common in this State, probably the most so of all
the squirrels. Its lively disposition and sprightly habits would render
it a great favorite, did it have a little more respect for the grain and
fruit of the farmer ; but unfortunately, the little thief pays frequent
visits to the corn-field, and fruit trees, always selecting in the latter, the
finest and ripest fruit ; it also visits the strawberry bed, and is a great
lover of nice ripe raspberries and cherries. These failings are certainly
poor recommendations to the farmer, who after carefully training up some
choice pear tree, beholds the first three or four blushing golden fruit, which
promise him a sweet and delicious foretaste of the luxuries to come,
hanging perfect pictures of beauty ; he watches them patiently " grow
in beauty side by side;" he visits them daily, and carefully removing
all the leaves which obstruct the sun's rays, helps them in all
that he can to ripen and become perfect; perhaps his imagination
takes him to the next county fair, where prominent in all the choice
fruit there collected, he beholds his beloved peai-s the observed of all
observers ; he gives a huge sigh of satisfaction, and waits ; he waits ! so
does the squirrel, who has had his eye on those same pears nearly as
long as their owner. They have now become nearly ripened; the
beautiful blushes have now assumed their intensest brilliancy ; the soft
mellow tints of the ripened fruit have now, with all their charms, added
to their value already great. To-morrow he will pick them, and after
wrapping them carefully in tissue paper, he will place them in some
secure place till they shall draw the premium they already have done in
his imagination ; but to-morrow is rainy, as is ^e day after ; he does not
visit those pears, and the squirrel noticing the neglect, willingly befriends
them. The farmer on the first fair day, with basket in hand, repairs to
the spot where his pets under his watchful care have grown to beautiful
maturity ; on nearing the tree he does not see them in their familiar
places; the storm must have blown them to the ground; with hurried
steps he reaches the tree and finds the core of one, the half of another,
and mutilated remains of others scattered around ; the marks of the
teeth of the thief are plainly visible, and from that day forth it has in
that farmer, at least, an implacable enemy.

The red squirrel, in collecting its winter's provisions, makes several
depots, and the quantity in each is always liberal. It usually chooses

22*

170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

hollow trees and crevices in the rocks to deposit its stores in, often hav-
ing a peck, and even a half bushel in some of them ; walnuts, chestnuts,
seeds of the pine, and different grains, go to make up its hoard. This
species, like the gray squirrel, builds its nest of leaves and grass in the
branches of some tree, but, unlike that animal, usually resides in it
through the winter, although occasionally taking up its abode in a hollow
tree, and sometimes in a crevice of a rock. The red squirrel is often
found castrated ; the other squirrels are also found in the same condition,
but not so often, I believe, as this species. It has always been conjectured
that this was done by the old one, and some pretend to say that they
have seen the old male in the act, but there is no doubt that the emascu-
lation is done by the larvaj of a fly, (cuterebra emascidator. ) The egg is
probably laid in the same manner as that of the bot fly of the horse, and
the grub taking up its abode in the scrotum, consumes the testicles ; this
fact was discovered by Asa Fitch, entomologist to the New York State
Agricultural Society. The following are some of his memoranda relating
to this subject : —

"August 13, 1856. Peter Reid, of Lakeville, informs me that his
cat, yesterday, brought into the house a striped squirrel, (sciiirus striatus.)
On taking it into his hands, he noticed its scrotum was enormously
swollen and hard, with an orifice in it about the size of a wheat straw ;
and on pressing it with his fingers, he could distinctly feel the writhings
of something alive in this tumor. On enlarging this orifice with the
point of a penknife, he discovered it was a large grub, lying with its tail
to the opening. It discharged, at intervals, three large drops of a fluid
resembling grumous blood, mixed with purulent matter. On pressing
upon it so as to protrude the tail end of its body slightly out of the
opening, it exerted itself to crawl out, forcing its fluids into the part
which was out of the orifice, so that it became swollen and hard, and
then regurgitating them into the body again, whereby the extended
portion became soft and cellapsed, thus pressing upon and dilating the
orifice, so that with three or four repetitions of this motion, it worked
itself out, and dropped upon the floor. It proved to be a very large,
soft, blackish grub, with numerous paler spots. It was about an inch
long, and half as broad, oval, slightly depressed, divided into segments,
with its surface covered with small, shining elevations, resembling the
granular surface of Morocco leather." . . .

" Mr. Reid says the fact is well known to hunters, that of the gray
and other squirrels killed in this vicinity, at least one-half of the males
are castrated. It is the current opinion with them that this deformity is
caused by the squirrels' seizing and biting out the testicles of their com-
rades, some of them strenuously maintaining that they have seen these

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 171

animals engaged in this act. There are some hunters, however, that say
they have found two grubs in the scrotum of some squirrels, and they
conjecture that it is by these that the testicles are destroyed." . . .

" September 1, 1856. Mr. Reid brings me a striped squirrel, with
two grubs in its scrotum, considerably torn and injured by the coarse
shot with which it Avas killed. These grubs are plainly the larva? of a
bot-fly, and not of a flesh-fly. They are lengthwise in the scrotum, one
forward of the other, producing a tumor nearly an inch and a half in
length. Each worm has a cavity for itself, separated from the other, with
an orifice towards its hind part larger than the head of a large pin.
Though the worms are probably immature, the testicles appear to be
entirely consumed, but the parts are so torn that I do not attempt to
trace out the exact lesion which they have produced." . . .

" I am therefore led to beheve that these animals do attack each other
in the manner that has been stated ; not, however, for the purpose of
emasculating their comrades, as has been supposed, but for the purpose
of coming at and destroying these bot-grubs, the enemies of their race.
"We know the terror which some of these bot-flies give to the animals on
which they are parasites, and the efforts which animals make to escape
from them. The squirrel also is undoubtedly conscious that this insect is
his greatest foe ; he probably has sufficient intelligence to be aware that
from the grub which is this year tormenting one of his unfortunate
comrades, will come a descendant which next year may afflict him or
some of his progeny in the same frightful manner. Hence his avidity
to destroy the wretch, and thus avert the impending calamity. Future
observations must determine whether this conjecture is correct. "We
fervently hope that the sportsman or other person who next witnesses a
squirrel overpowered by its fellows in the manner stated, will kill that
squirrel, and let the world know whether he does or does not find in it
one of these grubs. If a grub is discovered, no doubt can remain as to
the object of the other squirrels in making the attack which they do." . .

Description. — Head rather short and broad ; ears rounded, thickly
clothed within and without with hairs, which behind the ears form a tuft,
rising above the ear in a pencil ; whiskers long, black; muzzle hairy;
body robust ; limbs rather short ; feet slender, the posterior ones hairy
beneath, except a small pad on the sole and the tubercles beneath the
toes, the anterior ones more naked ; tail flat and narrow. Color ; above
and each side of the head, neck and body, and outside of the limbs, the
fur is cinereous at its base, terminated with black and reddish-yellow,
producing a grizzled appearance ; a broad stripe, extending along the
back from between the ears to the root of the tail is rufous ; beneath the
body, neck and chin, and between the limbs, white ; the tail above is of

172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

the same color as the dorsal stripe, margined with black and reddish-
yellow ; beneath the tail, the same color as on the sides of the body.
Several specimens before me have the tail broadly banded with black at
its extremity, with a rusty tip. There are several long, whisker-like
hairs extending beyond the fur on the fore-legs, and beneath the body.
I have noticed these on all the squirrels and weasels ; they are probably
designed for feelers.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, H to If inches.

Length of head and body, G| to 7 inches.

Lengtli of tail, not including the hairs at the tip, 4^ to 5 inches.

Length of tail, including the hairs at the tip, 51 to G^ inches.

Length of hind foot to end of claws, 1| to 2^ inches.

Genus : Pteromys. — (Cuvier.)
Characteristics. — Head rounded ; ears short and rounded; eyes large;
molars, ten in the upper jaw, eight in the lower ; fore-feet, four-toed, with
a rudimentary thumb having an obtuse nail ; hind-feet, five-toed ; the
anterior and posterior limbs and feet connected together by a thin mem-
brane, extending from the sides, which is densely clothed with fur above
and beneath ; on the fore-feet there is a slender bone springing from the
thumb, which partially extends and strengthens this membrane when
the animal is flying; tail nearly or quite as long as the body, thin and
widened.

Pteromys volucella, (Pallas.) — Flying Squirrel.
This beautiful and interesting little animal is common in some parts
of the State, but is generally rare. Its habits are nocturnal, it being
very seldom seen in the daytime ; it is an active, playful animal, and
makes an interesting pet, being easily tamed. Numbers of them live
together as famiUes, usually in the hollows of trees. When travelHng
for amusement, or in search of food, this species uses its wings a great
deal, sailing gracefully from tree to tree, alighting lower than it started,
but running up the trunk or branches until high enough for another flight,
(or sail, more properly,) its passage through the air being more like the
sailing of a parachute than the flight of a bat or bird. Its food consists
of nuts, principally, although grain is eaten readily by it. This is hardly
its natural food, however, as it very seldom leaves the woods. It gathers
together stores of food for winter use, but not such quantities as the other
squirrels. It does not always build nests in the trees, like the arboreal
squirrels, neither does it live in burrows beneath the ground, like the
ground squirrels, but throughout the year resides in hollow trees. I
think this species hibernates, partially, at least, but am not certain.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 173

Description. — Head rounded ; ears broad, slightly pointed, naked ante-
riorly and posteriorly ; whiskers, long, black ; anterior and posterior limbs
enveloped in the membrane, except the feet, which are small and slender,
and naked beneath ; the toes of the anterior feet are separated distinctly,
to nearly the ball of the foot ; those of the posterior feet but little longer
than them ; all the toes hairy above, to the ends concealing the claws,
which are sharp and curved. Color : above the head, body and mem-
brane the fur is gray at its base, tipped with a light fawn-color ; cheeks
yellowish gray ; beneath the body and membrane, yellowish white ; the
tail is long and flat, most of the hairs, which are soft and pliable, being
placed on its sides. It is dark ash-colored above, lighter beneath.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 1| to If inches.

Length of head and body, 4| to 6\ inches.

Length of tail, without the hairs at the tip, 3| to 3§ inches.

Length of tail, including hairs at tip, 4 to 4^ inches.

Length of hind foot, 1 to 1 1 inches.

Length of fore-foot, | to § inches.

Genus : Tamias. — (Linn.)

This genus is readily distinguished from the other genera in the
family Sciuridce, by the following

Characteristics. — Permanent upper molars, eight, quite small ; cheek
pouches, ample, opening near the molars, and extending back to near
the shoulder ; " these pouches are capable of great distension, so as to
hold a great supply of food ; " tail shorter than the body, not bushy,
the hairs on the sides short, making it hardly wider than thick ; body
rather slender than robust.

Animals of this genus have burrows in the ground, and in winter
are in a state of semi-hibernation.

Tamias Striatus, (Linnaeus.) — Ground Squirrel, Chipmunk, Striped Squirrel,
Striped Dormouse.

This beautiful and familiar species is very common with us, there
being hardly a field but has several pairs living in the stone walls that
enclose it. It is the most familiar of all the squirrels, often having its
home within a yard or two of our dwelling-houses ; its beauty, indus-
trious habits, and cheerful activity would render it a very great favorite
with all, and in fact does, with the exception of the farmer, who often
may be obliged to plant the corn-field two or three times in consequence
of a habit this little animal has of following the rows of newly sprouted
corn and digging up the seed ; the mischief done in this manner is

174 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

sometimes great, some farmers affirming that the ground squirrels
destroy more corn than the crows. Another failing tliis animal has, is
its love for strawberries, and its visits to the bed are not " few and far
between." The ground squirrel is not a tree climber, seldom going in a
tree unless forced to, to escape pursuit ; its nest is in the ground, in the
neighborhood of a stone wall, sometimes beneath it; it digs a long
burrow, with several extensive chambers connected together by inter-
secting passages ; in these chambers the winter's store of food is
deposited ; this consists of nuts, acorns, seeds and grains. In collecting
this store, this little animal is very industrious, often gathering con-
siderable quantities ; I have known over a bushel to be taken from one
burrow ; the first approach of autumn is the signal for this work to
commence, and from morning till night, until winter sets in, these
animals may be seen hastening to their holes, their cheek-pouches
distended to their utmost capacity. When the cold weather is really
come, the squirrels retire to their burrow, sometimes several pair
together, usually but the old pair and perhaps the young of the first
year ; here they remain, never venturing out during the winter, unless
after a continued spell of warm weather. In early spring they are
occasionally seen sitting on the rocks and fences sunning themselves,
but they do not leave their burrows till late in the spring, when the
young from four to six in number are born ; their time is spent during
the summer in rearing this brood, and preparing for the coming winter.
Description. — Ears large and rounded, covered with very short, fine
hair ; whiskers short ; eyes rather large and full ; neck rather thick ;
body rather slender than robust ; limbs strong and longer in proportion
than some of the other species ; tail cylindrical at its root, gradually
flattening to the end ; posterior feet hairy beneath, except a naked pad
on the sole and beneath the toes ; anterior feet naked beneath. Color :
above the head and buck the fur is cinereous at its base, terminated with
gray, black, and yellowish chestnut ; on the back are seven distinct
stripes running lengthwise with the body ; they are placed in the fol-
lowing manner : in the middle of the back is a black stripe ; running
nearly parrellel with this on each side, nearly, or quite a half an inch
from it are two dirty white stripes with a narrow black stripe on each
side of them ; on the sides of the body and outside the legs the fur is
yellowish brown, lightest near the belly ; beneath the head, neck and
body, and between the legs, white ; the hairs on the tail are terminated
on the upper side with black, white, and tawny ; beneath the tail, rufous
to near the tip, which is black ; the hairs being tipped with black and
white, give the tail beneath, the appearance of being margined with
those colors.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 175

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, H to 2 inches.

Length of head and body, 5 to 6 inches.

Length of tail without the hairs at the tip, 3^ to 4^ inches.

Length of tail with the hairs at the tip, 4|^ to 4^ inches.

Length of hind foot, If to If inches.

Genus: Arctomys. — (Gmelin.)
Characteristics. — Head large, broad and flattened ; ears short ; eyes
rather small than large; molars tuberculated, ten in the upper, and
eight in the lower jaw ; incisors, two in each jaw, less compressed than
in Sciurus, and rounded anteriorly ; body very thick, clothed with
short, thin fur ; limbs short and strong ; feet strong, naked beneath, the
anterior with four toes and a rudimentary thumb, and the posterior feet
with five toes ; all the toes furnished with long, thick and strong claws,
which are slightly curved, adapted to digging but not to climbing ; tail
short, with long hairs, but not bushy. Animals in this genus live in
burrows, in the ground, generally, if not always remaining torpid in
them during the winter.

Arctomys monax, (Gmelin.) — 'Woodchuck, Ground Hog, Marmot.

This species is very common in this State ; in a measure, it is regarded
as a nuisance, in consequence of its depredations in the clover field and
garden ; but as a general thing, living as it does in the woods and fields,
usually at a distance from our dwelling-houses, the mischief it does is
not great, certainly not meriting the wholesale slaughter that it meets
with at the hands of every farmer. It usually selects its home in the
neighborhood of, or beneath a rock or stone wall ; its burrow is long,
sometimes consisting of several passages leading to a large chamber
which is the summer and winter home.

The woodchuck, when feeding, is very careful not to have its retreat
to its burrow cut off, usually eating a mouthful or two and then standing
on its haunches, reconnoitres, always retreating suddenly to its burrow at
the first suspicious movement, uttering a shi'ill whistle with a chattering
termination ; if its retreat is cut off, it will face a man or dog, giving
battle with great courage, and the wounds it inflicts with its long, sharp
incisors are often enough to drive off its assailant. I have often been
successful in getting between them and their burrow, and the fight
which was the invariable consequence, was highly exciting. I remem-
ber an instance which will clearly describe some of the habits of
this animal. While haying one day, I noticed in an adjoining field an
animal moving, which I soon recognized as a woodchuck ; the field had
been mown about a fortnight, and the tender leaves of the new clover

176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

were scattered in little clumps over the stubble. The woodchuck was
moving from the wall, in which its home was, into the field, eating the
clover ; he would gallop from one clump to another, his little short legs
not permitting him to walk sufficiently fast, or with desirable ease ; on
reaching a cluster of clover, he would bite off a mouthful and eat it
while standing on his hind legs and haunches, watching for a suspicious
movement from the hay-makers in the adjoining field. I waited until
he had got a sure distance into the field, and then cautiously crept
behind the wall until I got opposite him, when I jumped over and
walked towai'ds him ; he stood perfectly still until I got near him, when
he made a rush to get by me, but I headed him off several times, until
completely bafiled ; he stood still on his haunches, eyeing me wickedly,
and chattering his long, sharp incisors. I touched his head with a pitch-
fork handle, he growled and seized it, clinging tenaciously enough for
me to lift him clear from the ground ; when he let go I found a dent in
the hard ash handle, nearly a quarter of an inch deep. I amused
myself with him for a while, and then stepped aside, allowing him to
pass me ; he soon availed himself of the privilege, scampering as fast
as his short legs would permit ; I chased him when he got near the
wall, and he turned to face me, but at length retreated, whistling and
chattering, into his burrow.

The woodchuck often visits the kitchen garden, eating the vines of
the pease and beans ; but I am persuaded that the mischief which is
charged to it is often done by other animals. There have been, in my
knowledge, several cases where the gardens had been invaded, the pease
beans and other vegetables destroyed, and the farmer, on watching,
found the thief to be the common rabbit, (Z. sylvaticus,) which animal
often visits the gardens and orchards, doing considerable mischief. The
woodchuck has from three to six at a birth, in the spring ; the young
usually pass the ensuing winter in the same burrow as the old ones,
sleeping with them, huddled in a bunch. On the approach of cold
weather, they retire to their burrow, closing its mouth Avitli earth, to
keep out the cold ; here they remain torpid until the spring.

Description. — Head broad, tapering suddenly to the nose ; ears very
short and rounded, with hairs within and without, those behind the ear
being long, extending beyond the ear; eyes small, placed far apart,
about midway between the ear and nose ; whiskers black, placed in
several series on each side of the nose and face ; neck short ; body
very short and thick ; limbs short ; feet naked beneath, the anterior four-
toed, the posterior, five-toed ; tail short, with long hairs, equally dis-
tributed on all sides. Color : above and on each side of the head and
body the fur is dark gray at its base, then yellowish, then chestnut and
tipped with white, producing a hoary appearance ; beneath the body

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 177

and between the legs, rufous, tipped occasionally with white ; feet black.
Specimens vary from this description, but it is the common dress.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 3 J inches.

Greatest width of head, 3 inches.

Length of head and body, 15h inches.

Length of tail, not including the hairs at the tip, 5 inches.

Length of tail, including the hairs at the tip, Gl inches.

Length of fore-foot, 2^ inches.

Length of hind-foot, 3i inches.

Family: Murid^. — (Rat Family.)

CJiaracteristics. — Incisors, two in each jaw, the lower ones compressed
and pointed ; some genera with cheek pouches ; molars, usually six in
each jaw, sometimes eight in the upper and six in the lower, and some-
times four in each jaw ; these are rooted or rootless ; body usually robust ;
limbs moderately short, clavicle, strong, and fully developed ; tibia and
fibula united below; the anterior feet almost always four-toed, with a
tubercle supplying the place of the thumb ; posterior feet five-toed ; tail
cylindrical, covered sparsely with short hairs. This family is much the
most extensive of the order Rodentia ; it includes the mice and rats,
which, although never attaining any considerable size, are, in consequence
of their great multiplication, and the injury which they do, worthy of
serious notice and careful attention.

This family is divided into several sub-families, of which the follow-
ing are represented in this State : Dipodince, MurincB, (introduced ?)
Arvicolince.

Sub-Family — Dipodin.e.

Characteristics. — Body slender ; posterior limbs greatly elongated,
adapted to leaping ; anterior limbs shortened ; tail longer than the body,
clothed thinly with short hairs.

Genus : Jacidus. — (Wagner.)
Characteristics. — Body slender ; head rather large ; nose sharpened ;
" incisors grooved longitudinally on their anterior faces ;" molars, eight
in the upper jaw, the posterior one much the largest, and six in the lower
jaw, the anterior one the largest ; all the molars tuberculated ; anterior
limbs short, furnished with four toes, and a tubercle supplying the place
of a thumb ; posterior limbs long, adapted to leaping ; feet perfectly naked
beneath ; all the toes have thin, sharp, slightly curved claws ; tail very
long, with thin, short hairs springing between the scales, with which it is
covered.

23*

178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Jaculus hwJsoniiis, (Baird.) — Jumping Mouse.

This beautiful and interesting little animal is not uncommon in this
State, but it is seldom seen, on account of its nocturnal habits. It is not
sufficiently numerous to do great mischief to the farmer, even if the seeds,
which constitute the greater part of its food, were valuable, which is not
the case. It should hardly, therefore, be included with the field mice in
the slaughter they meet with at the hands of the farmer, and which they
generally deserve. In escaping from pursuit, the jumping mouse usually
progresses rapidly by a series of long jumps, often clearing four or five
feet at a leap ; these leaps are made so rapidly, and in such uncertain
directions, (usually zig-zag, like the flight of a snipe,) that it is very
difficult to catch it. It walks on all fours, like a common mouse, when
not alarmed, and often will, in escaping, double on its tracks, and steal
away through the grass, crouching close to the ground. This species,
when in the woods, digs its burrow usually beneath a stump or log ; this
burrow is not very deep or complicated, usually having but one passage.
In the fields it builds its nest, sometimes in a tussock of grass, or beneath
a stone, or perhaps in a pile of rubbish. It sometimes lays up a winter
store of seeds and grains, but it usually hibernates, although not in an
entirely torpid state, it being almost always active on being discovered.

I once, in the winter season, while cutting up a partially decayed
stump, found a nest with a pair of these animals ; the nest was made of
grass and leaves, there was no store of seeds or grain ; whether or not
the shock of the axe splitting the wood awoke them, they were lively,
and soon escaped by their long leaps. The jumping mouse is not very pro-
lific, bringing forth but three or four at a birth but once or twice a year.

Description. — Head large, long and pointed ; ears moderate in size,
clothed within and without with thin hairs ; eyes small ; whiskers scanty,
brown and white ; body slender, largest at the fore shoulders, tapering to
the tail ; antei-ior limbs short ; posterior limbs very long ; tail about twice
the length of the head and body, cylindrical, tapering gently to the tip,
and covered with scales, with short, thin hairs springing between them.
Color : above the head, neck and body, yellowish bixjwn, with numerous
black tipped hairs ; sides of the head, neck and body yellowish, with
black hairs extending beyond the fur ; the upper lip, and beneath the
head, neck, body, and between the legs, white ; feet, and beneath the
tail, dirty white ; above the tail, grayish-brown.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, from § of an inch to 1|^ inches.
Length of head and body, 2^ to 3 inches.
Length of tail, without the hairs at the tip, 6\ to 5^ inches.
Length of tail, with the hairs at the tip, 5^ to 6 inches.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 179

Length of fore-foot, | to ^ an inch.
Length of hind-foot, 1 J to If inches.

Sub-Family — MuRiNyE.
Characteristics. — Incisors compressed laterally ; molars, six or eight
in each jaw, rooted, the anterior largest, the posterior smallest ; ante-
orbital foramen a deep narrow slit, widening above ; palate mostly on
one plane ; descending ranus of lower jaw with the angles not situated
above the plane of the crowns of the molars. (Baird.)

Genus: Mus. — (Linnseus.)
Characteristics. — Head large ; ears moderately large, nearly naked ;
molars tuberculated, six in each jaw; eyes small; cheek pouches wanting;
body robust, covered with thick fur, with long hairs extending beyond ;
limbs short ; fore-feet four-toed, sometimes with a tubercle supplying the
place of the thumb, sometimes with a claw ; hind-feet five-toed ; all the
toes furnished with sharp, strong claws ; tail nearly as long, or quite as
long as the head and body, covered with short scales, between which
spring short, stiff hairs.

Mus decumanus, (Pallas.) — Norway Rat, Brown Rat.

The habits of this common species are too well known to need any
description here ; it was undoubtedly introduced into this country from
Europe, it being precisely similar to the Norway rat of that continent.
It is a strong, ferocious animal, and, when cornered, will fight savagely.
It is completely acclimated here, living in the woods, fields and dwellings.
It is a nuisance to the farmer, doing great mischief in the grain-fields
and corn-houses, and often kills young chickens, ducks and turkies, and
is a great lover of eggs. This animal is very prolific, having seven or
eight at a htter twice or three times a year.

Description. — Head long, and pointed to the nose; ears large, rounded,
and nearly naked ; whiskers long, brown, and whitish ; body robust ;
limbs strong ; feet broad, naked beneath. Color : above and on the sides
the fur is cinereous at its base, then reddish-brown, and tipped with
brown or black ; there are numerous black hairs growing in and extend-
ing beyond the fur ; beneath the body the fur is gray at its base, lighter,
sometimes white at the tip ; tail about as long as the body, with short,
sparse hairs growing from between the scales, with which it is covered.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 1^ to 2 inches.
Length of head and body, 6 to 9 inches.
Length of tail, 5i to 7 inches.
Length of hind-foot, 1 ^ to 1 1 inches.
Length of fore-foot, § to 1 inch.

180 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Mus musculus, (Linn.)— Common Mouse.

This species is the common house mouse ; its habits are well known.
Like the brown rat, this animal was introduced from Europe ; it is now
very thickly and generally distributed over this continent, wherever there
is a settlement, its great fecundity allowing it to thickly populate, in a
year or two, a large district. It has many enemies, fortunately, keeping
its numbers within a certain limit. The common mouse in this country
assumes the habits of the field mice, often living in burrows in the fields.
It often makes its home in the hay-mow, where it spoils the hay, biting
it up into fragments, and giving to it the offensive odor which this animal
has. Cattle refuse to eat the hay in which numbers of these vermin
live, in consequence of this odor.

Description. — Head rather rounded, but not much so ; nose sharp ;
ears large, nearly naked ; body short and thick ; legs slender ; tail as
long as the body, with short hairs growing between the scales. Color :
above and on the sides the fur is gray at its base, tipped with brownish ;
beneath the body grayish-ash.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, | of an inch.
Length of head and body, 3.V inches.
Length of tail, 3| inches.

Genus : Ilesperomys. — (Waterhouse.)
Characteristics. — Head, of moderate size, pointed to the muzzle ; eyes
large ; ears large and rounded, nearly naked ; body slender ; limbs slen-
der; feet provided with sharp, curved claws; tail cylindrical, slender,
with much longer hairs than in mus, the scales on the tail being nearly
concealed by them.

Ilesperomys leucojjus, (Wagner.) — WnixE-FOOTED Mouse, Deer Mouse. — [Fig. 4.]
This species is very common in this State, and is nearly or quite as
generally diffused throughout the continent as the common mouse. Its
habits are well known, requiring but little mention here. It is very
active, and an excellent chmber, often making its home in a hollow tree,
thirty or forty feet from the ground. It is very troublesome to the
farmer, spoiling the hay in the mow, and the grain in the bin. I have
often seen it in dwellings, living like a common house mouse ; it does
some mischief in the nurseries and orchards, by gnawing the bark of the
trees ; this is most often the case in severe winters, when its food is
exhausted, or covered up in the snow. The White-footed Mouse builds
a large nest, often in the branches of a tree or bush ; it also often occupies

SECRETARY'S REPORT.

181

a deserted bird's nest. It has from two to eight young at a litter in this
State, twice a year. The young are often found hanging to the teats of
the old one ; this is the case with other species, howevei'.

Description. — Head of moderate size, rather broad ; ears large, rounded
above, and nearly naked ; body not robust, rather delicate ; limbs slender ;
feet, naked beneath the toes and ball of the foot ; the rest of the surface

beneath the feet hairy ; the toes on the anterior feet a little the longest ;
tail round, slender and tapering, with short hairs growing between the
scales, nearly concealing them. Color : above and on each side, yellow-
ish-brown, the fur on the top of the head and back darkest ; beneath the
body and between the legs and the feet, white.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, \\ to 1^^ inches.

Length of head and body, 3^ to 3^ inches.

Length of tail, not including hairs at the tip, 3^ inches.

Length of tail, including hairs at the tip, 3f inches.

182 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Sub-Family — Arvicolin.«.
Characteristics. — Head moderately large, broader and deeper than in
the other sub-families ; ears short, generally hidden in the adjacent fur ;
incisors, nearly or quite as broad as long ; molars, six in each jaw ; snout
blunt ; body moderately robust ; tail short, sometimes not so long as the
head, usually thickly clothed with hair.

Genus : Arvicola. — (Lancepede.)

Characteristics. — Body small ; tail short, usually less than half the
length of the body, cylindrical, covered with hairs. Animals in this
genus burrow in the earth, and feed on grasses, bulbous roots, seeds and
grains ; sometimes omnivorous. They do not hibernate, but are active
through the winter, seeking their food through the deepest snows.

The following remarks will apply to all the species found in this State.
The short-tailed field mice, included in the above genus, are of small
size, with shorter and heavier bodies than the true mice. Their food is
composed of grasses and other plants, with their seeds and roots, and
the bark of trees ; they are very injurious to the fai-mers, both by
destroying the plants in the grain-fields, the roots and stems of the
grasses used for hay, and by injuring the fruit trees, in gnawing off the
bark.

Robert Kennicott* says: " The greatest mischief done by meadow
mice, is the gnawing of bark from fruit trees. The complaints are
constant and grievous, throughout the Northern States, of the destruction
of orchard and nursery trees by the various species of arvicolce. The
entire damage done by them in this way may be estimated, perhaps, at
millions of dollars. If any think this too large an estimate, let them
inquire, even in a small neighborhood, where much attention is paid to
fruit-growing, and it will be found that, wherever they abound, the
injuries committed by these pests are frequently among the most serious
difficulties encountered by the pomologist." ..." The mice are
most mischievous in winters of deep snow. It is usually thought that
they only knaw bark when no other food is to be obtained ; but it is more
probable that this is palatable to them at all times. Confined specimens,
while abundantly supplied with food of all kinds, ate the bark from twigs
placed in their cage. One reason why fruit trees are most girdled in
times of deep snow is, that the meadow mice can then better move
about at a distance from their burrows, being protected by the snow,
under which they construct numerous pathways, and are thus enabled to
travel comfortably in search of food, always to be obtained in abundance,
where there is any kind of perrennial grass, or the seeds of annual

* Patent Office Import, 1856, page 85.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 183

plants. Aided by the snow, too, they climb up at the sides of the trees,
to "•naw the bark, at a considerable height from the ground. Rabbits
are often accused of gnawing bark from trees, when the mischief has
really been done by meadow mice. Not a little injury do they do
vegetables of all kinds, destroying young plants of pease, beans, cabbages,
&c., as well as digging up seeds of all sorts, and gnawing potatoes, beets,
and other roots ; in short, the catalogue of their depredations is endless."
AVith their exceeding fecundity the meadow mice would become
unbearably numerous were it not for their gredt number of enemies,
among which the butcher bird (Lanius horeaUs.) The owls, snakes
and weasels are particularly active. Domestic cats are very fond of
them, and destroy great numbers. The snakes, if protected by the
farmer, and they should be, would do much to keep these pests reduced,
in numbers. They can readily enter the burrows of the mice, and
possessing voracious appetites, destroy great numbers ; but the farmer,
the moment he sees a snake, no matter if it is perfectly harmless, (and
all our snakes are, with the exception of the rattlesnake,) kills it ; thus
destroying one of his greatest benefactors, living as it does on insects
principally, but often catching these mice.

The meadow mice are often carried to the barns and granaries in hay
and grain, where they soon make their homes, destroying the hay by
biting it up into fragments, and the grain, by eating the germ.

Arvicola gapperi, (Vigors.) — Red-backed Mouse.

This small species is common in this State. It prefers the neighbor-
hood of a swamp or meadow, and is an excellent swimmer. Not
having specimens of this and the three following species, by me, I
borrow the descriptions given by Prof. Baird.

Description. — " Size small and slender, about like that of the domestic
mouse, 3| inches long ; skull about .9 of an inch ; ear large, two-thirds
the hind-foot ; prominent above the fur ; well and closely furred with
short hair ; antitragus large ; tail vertebra^, about twice as long as the
hind-foot ; back, with a broad sti'ipe of uniform bright rufous brown ;
sides sharply defined, yellowish gray, mixed with brown; muzzle
similar ; beneath, dull yellowish white ; tail sharply bicolor, grayish
and black mixed above, whitish beneath, dusky at the tip."

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 1 inch.

Length of head and body, Z\ inches.

Length of tail to end of vertebrae, If inches.

Length of tail to end of hairs at tip, 1§ inches.

Length of hind-foot, | of an inch.

Length of fore-foot, f of an inch.

184

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Arvicola i-iparia, (Orel.) — Meadow Mouse, Bank Mousk.

This common species is very often met with. It prefers the neighbor-
hood of a swamp, and swims and dives well.

Description. — "Size large; head and body measuring 4 J^ inches ;
tail more than one-third this length ; feet very large, scaly ; hair rather
short ; above, dark brown, varied with reddish or yellowish brown ;
beneath, pure ashy plumbeus ; tail and feet dusky, the former scarcely
lighter beneath."

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, If inches.
Length of head and body, 4i inches.
Length of tail to end of vertebrte, !£ inches.
Length of tail to end of hairs, 2 inches.
Length of hind-foot, i of an inch.
Length of fore-foot, ^^ of an inch.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 185

A. Bretoeri, (Baird.)— Gray Mouse.
This species is said to be abundant on the Island of Muskeeget, on
the eastern coast of Massachusetts, where, Prof. Baird says, the only
specimens he has seen were collected by Dr. Brewer.

Description. — Size large ; feet very broad and stout; soles with six
tubercles ; fur coarse ; ears small ; above, pale grayish-yellow ; brown
beneath, with the under surface of the tail, and the upper surfaces of the
feet strongly hoary or ashy-white, with a tinge of yellow.
»

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head 1.31 inch.
Length of head and body, 4.30 inches.
Length of tail to end of vertebrce, 1.65 inch.
Length of tail to end of hairs, 1.94 inch.
Length of hind-foot, .85 of an inch.
Length of fore-foot, .41 of an inch.

A. rufidorsum, (Baird.)

This species is very rarely found, if it is a species existing with us.
Prof. Baird says, the only specimen he has ever seen was obtained at
Holmes' Hole, Massachusetts, and belongs to the Boston Society of
Natural History.

Description. — Size large ; above, bright rufous, or reddish-chestnut ;
this tint paling insensibly to the belly, where it changes rather abruptly
to reddish- white ; no dorsal band ; feet reddish ; imder surface of tail
whitish.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head and body, 4.20 inches.
Length of tail to end of vertebrae, 1.55 inches.
Length of tail to end of hairs, 1.85 inches.
Length of hind-foot, .82 of an inch-

Genus: Fiber. — (Cuvier.)

Characteristics. — Incisors, two in each jaw ; molars, six in each Jaw,
with zig-zag lamina; ; body large ; limbs short ; hind-feet partly webbed ;
toes with strong, somewhat curved claws ; tail long, compressed laterally ;
with anal glands, secreting a liquid with a strong musky odor.

This genus is composed of a single species, the Musk Rat. It is con-
fined to this continent, where it is extensively and generally distributed.

Fiber Zibeihictis, (Cuvier.) — Musk Rat.
The habits of this common species are too well known to need
particular mention here. It is almost entirely aquatic, seldom venturing
24*

186 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

much distance from the water. Its buiTOw, in summer, is in the banks
of a stream or pond, and it has an opening beneath to the water, through
which it always retreats at the first sign of danger; in winter it builds
a large nest of grass, sedge, and the leaves and stalks of the water lilly.
This nest is not open on any side, the entrance being from beneath, into
the water. Its food consists principally of the roots of water plants,
and fresh water clams, but it is sometimes omnivorous ; the numbers of
the clams which it destroys are very great, quantities of the shells often
being found lying on the banks of the streams and ponds frequented by
this animal. In the spring, when the rivers are swollen, the nests of the
musk rats being flooded, the animals are often shot in great numbers
by gunners in boats. I have known instances where a boat full, the
results of one day's sport, richly repaid the hunter.

The Musk Rat, in this State, can hardly be called injurious to the
farmer, but it does, sometimes, considerable mischief in burrowing in
milldams, the water forcing its way in, sometimes carries away the
entire dam. The young, from three to six or seven, are born in the
spring. I have found young ones in a nest, in February. I am not
aware that it has more than one litter in a year ; they live with the
old ones through the first winter. Sometimes the ice beneath and around
their home becomes so thick that it is impossible for them to effect an
egress, when the weakest furnish food for the others, successively, the
strongest being the survivor.

Description. — Body thick ; eyes small ; ears nearly concealed in the
adjacent fur ; limbs short ; hind-feet large, with five toes webbed for
half their length ; fore-feet, with four toes and a rudimentary thumb,
with a claw half as large as those on the fingers, which are webbed at
their bases ; all the feet naked beneath ; tail compresseU laterally,
cylindrical at its base, and covered with small scales with very short, scant
hairs between them ; fur, two kinds, a very soft, thick fur next to the
skin, with a long, hairy fur extending beyond it ; color of the basal fur,
gray, tipped with bright brown ; this is the color beneath the body ; the
outer, hairy fur of the back and sides is dark brown ; beneath the chin
and throat, ashy ; feet dark brown.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 3 inches.
Length of head and body, 13 inches.
Length of tail, 10 inches.
Length of hind-foot, 3 inches.
Length of fore-foot, 1| inch.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 187

Family: LEPORiDiE. — (Hare Family.)
Characteristics. — Head long and compressed; ears long and erect;
eyes large and prominent ; incisors, four in the upper, and two in the
lower jaw, the two middle ones of the upper jaw much the largest ;
molars twelve or ten in the upper, and ten in the lower jaw ; hind limbs,
long, adapted to leaping ; anterior feet, five-toed ; posterior feet, four-
toed ; tail short or wanting. Animals in this family are timid, always
seeking safety in rapid flight.

Genus: Lepus. — (Linn.)
Characteristics. — " Molars, twelve in the upper, and ten in the lower
jaw ; ears large, nearly as long, or longer than the head ; tail short and
bushy ; hind-legs powerful, and much longer than the fore-legs." This
formula is given by Baird, in his admirable report on the mammals.
But two species represent this genus in this State, the L. Americanus,
and the L. sylvaticus ; their habits are similar, though the former seems
to show a preference to the higher lands, and the latter, the swamps ;
but they are both found in the same places.

Lepus Americanus, (Erxleben.) — Northern Hare, White Rabbit.

This common species is often met with in this State. Its habits are
well known, and require but little mention here. It seems to prefer the
extensive woods to the pastures and swamps, and very seldom ventures
into the fields. On being hunted by dogs, it doubles on its tracks often,
and winding through thick clusters of entangled undergrowth, very often
throws its pursuers off its track ; it does not take refuge in holes in the
earth, as does the common rabbit, on being hard pressed, but depends
entirely on its strength and the thickness of the woods ; it is often
caught in snares, baited with an apple, and in box-traps. Its flesh is
excellent and a great favorite ; its fur is pretty good, but is not used by
furriers to any extent. In the daytime the hare does not move around
much, but remains concealed beneath a clump of bushes or in a bunch
of brush; this is called {inform. It has numerous enemies, and were it
not prolific it would soon be exterminated. The young are usually five,
or six in number, and two litters are born in a year. The nest is com-
posed of dried grass and leaves, lined with the fur pulled from the body
of the old one ; it is built usually beneath a clump of bushes, and when
the old one leaves it she covers the young carefully with leaves and
grass. The young leave the parent when quite small, being much
more able to take care of themselves than the common rabbit of the
same age.

Description. — Head, rather short ; ears, long — about the length of the
head — they are placed far back ; body, long ; legs, long, the posterior

188 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

nearly twice as long as the anterior ; feet, clothed beneath with dense,
furry hair ; tail, very short, covered with thick fur. Color : in summer,
on the upper parts the fur is gray at its base, then reddish-yellow, tipped
with brown ; ears, brown, with black margin at the ends ; beneath the
chin and under the throat, white; neck, ash; beneath the body and
inside the legs, white ; tail, brown above, white beneath ; in winter this
is changed to a nearly pure white, except the black edge of the ears ;
hair on the soles of the feet, yellowish throughout the year.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 3^ to 32 inches.

Length of ear, 3^ to 3^ inches.

Length of head and body, 17 to 19 inches.

Length of tail, including hairs at the tip, 2 to 2 A inches.

Length of hiud-foot, 4| to 5^ inches.

Length of fore-foot, 2^ inches.

Le^Ms sijlvaticus, (Bachman.) — Common Rabhit, Gray Rabbit.

This is one of our most common animals ; there is hardly a patch of
woods of an acre in extent but has one or two in it — -sometimes a larger
number. Its habits are greatly similar to the preceding species, and
may be described in a few words. It is nocturnal, lying concealed
during the day in its form beneath a clump of bushes ; when pursued, it
soon takes refuge beneath a rock, or in a hole in the ground or wall, or
in a hollow tree ; it builds a nest of grass, and pulls fur from its body to
line it with ; in this the young are born, sometimes seven or eight at
a litter ; two litters are boi-n during the spring and summer ; I have
known cases where three were born, but these were exceptions to the
general rule ; the young leave the parent when quite small — sometimes
when but two or three weeks old. The gray rabbit often visits the
fields and orchards, and does considerable mischief in the vegetable
garden, eating the tender plants of the pease, beans, cabbages and turnips ;
when frightened, this animal always stops and listens for a moment,
sometimes regarding its visitor curiously till a movement from him
startles it, when, with a quick, leaping run, it disappears. This species
is trapped in snares and box-traps, baited with apples. The flesh is
superior to that of the hare. In winter it lives in a burrow in the
ground — sometimes in a ledge of rocks.

Description. — Head, rather short and rounded ; ears, shorter than the
head ; eyes, large ; limbs, moderately long ; feet, with thick, stiff hair
beneath, which conceals the claws, which are long, sharp and nearly
straight ; tail, short, completely covered with thick, long fur. Color: on the
head above and each side, ears, back and sides of the body, outside the

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 189

limbs and the upper side of the tail, the fur is gray at its base, tipped with
yellowish-brown ; in this fur, and extending beyond it, is another more
hairy fur, which is gray at its base, tipped with light brown and black ;
this gives the color to the animal on its back and sides ; beneath the chin
and throat, the upper lip, and beneath the body and tail, and between the
legs, the fur is gray at its base, tipped with white and light ash ; breast,
the color of the sides ; beneath the feet, yellowish-brown.

DIMENSIONS.

Length of head, 31 to S^ inches.

Length of head and body, 14 to IG inches.

Length of ears, 3 to 3| inches.

Length of tail, not including hairs at tip, 1 inch.

Length of tail, including hairs at tip, 2^ inches.

Length of hind-foot, 3|^ to 4 inches.

Length of fore-foot, H to 2 inches.

Order: RTJMINANTIA.
Family: Cervid^. — (Deer Family.)

Characteristics. — Head generally furnished with horns which are solid
and shed, in most species, annually ; ears, large ; incisors, wanting in the
upper jaw, eight in the lower jaw ; molars, twelve in each jaw ; body,
well proportioned ; limbs, long and slender ; feet, bifid.

Genus : Cervus. — (Linn.)
Characteristics. — Heads of the males always furnished with horns,
which are branched, sub-palmated or simple ; nose, naked and moist ;
ears, large ; mammae, four, placed between the thighs ; tail, short, bushy.

Cervus Virginianus, (Boddsert.) — American Deek. [PI. II.]
This beautiful animal is now rare in this State and will soon, probably,
be extinct ; it is found in the woods in Plymouth and Barnstable counties,
in the neighborhood of the Hoosac mountains, and on several of the
islands on the south-east coast. It possesses great muscular power, and
runs with surprising speed ; having a keen sense of hearing and smelling,
and, being very timid and shy, it is very difficult to be approached.
During the rutting season the males are restless and bold, and will often
attack man, — the wounds it inflicts with its antlers and sharp hoofs ren-
dering it an ugly customer ; when alarmed it stamps the ground and
eni!t3 a shrill whistle through its nose. Its horns are shed in winter in
the followJhg manner : the young horns, growing on processes of the
frontal bone, are increased in size beneath the skin, by an action anala-
gous to that by which injuries to the bones are repaired ; as they become

190

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

[Platk II.]

..-^^

"•%^~?i^?

Cerms virginianus. — American Deer.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 191

matured they become ossified, until, completely developed, the skin be-
neath which they were formed, and by which they are still covered, dries
up and peels off leaving them bare bone ; the blood vessels at their base
soon become connected together and refuse nourishment to the horns,
which now are solid, dead bone, requiring no effort of nature to detach
them from the skull, but are removed by accident.

The female has one or two' young in early summer. The fawns are
at first reddish, spotted with white. They lose their spots in autumn and
become gray in winter. In the fall the deer are in good condition, and
their flesh, which is called venison, is delicious ; in the winter they herd
together, and when the snow is deep they tread it down in large patches
which are called yards, in these they remain, browsing on twigs and
mosses ; hunters follow them to these yards where they often destroy the
whole herd. This practice should be condemned, as by it the deer are
greatly reduced in numbers, and if it is followed up to any extent it will
be the sure means of their extermination. The following laws, (General
Statutes, chapter 82,) which took effect on and after the 31st of May,
1860, if faithfully enforced, will protect to some extent these animals in
this State: —

Section 12. Whoever between the first day of January and the first day
of August kills or hunts any deer, except his own tame deer, or deer kept in
his park or on his own land, shall for every such offence forfeit twenty dollars.

Section 13. Whoever at any time of the year hunts, chases, or kills, with
hounds or dogs, any deer within the counties of Plymouth or Barnstable shall
for every such offence forfeit twenty dollars.

Description. — Head, rather long; tnuzzle, sharp; ears, long and broad ;
eyes, large and lustrous ; body, slender ; limbs, long and slender ; hoofs,
long and narrow, false hoofs, long; tail, long and bushy, widest laterally.
Color : head and ears, back and sides, and the upper side of the tail, light
chestnut red ; beneath the chin, throat, belly, inside the legs, and under
side of the tail, white ; this is the spring and summer dress, in winter
there is a considerable sprinkling of grayish hairs.

DIMENSIONS OF A PINE BUCK.

Length of head, 12 inches.

Length of ear, 6 inches.

Length of head and body, 5 feet 5 inches.

Length of tail to the end of the hairs, 11 inches.

Length of tail, not including the hairs, 8 J inches.

192 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

CATALOGUE OF ANIMALS EXTINCT IN THIS STATE.

Those marked *, are rare visitors.

* Vespertilio siibulaius, (Say.) — Little Brown Bat.
^elis concolor, (Linn.) — Panther.

*Lynx rufus, (Raf.) — Wild Cat.

*Lynx canadensis, (Raf.) — Canada Lynx.

Canis occidentalis var. gnseo-albus. — White and Gray Wolf.

Vulpes fulviis, var. decussatns. — Cross Fox.

Vidpes virginianus, (De Kay.) — Gray Fox.

Mustela americana, (Turton.) — Pine Marten ; American Sable.

Mustela Pennantii, (Erxl.) — Fisher ; Black Cat.

*Putorms nigrescens, (Aud. and Bach.) — Little Black Mink.

* Ursus amertcanus, (Pallas.) — Black Bear.
Castor canadensis, (Kuhl.) — American Beaver.

*Erelhizon dorsatus, (Guv.) — White-haired Porcupine ; Berkshire Co.
Alee americanus, (Jardine.) — American Moose.
Rangifer caribou, (Aud. and Bach.) — Woodland Caribou.
Cervus canadensis, (Erxl.) — American Elk.

MAMMALOGY.

The following additions have been made to the State Cabinet,
in this department : —

Brown Bat, ( Vespertilio Carolinensis,) male, female and four young.*
Presented by J. W. P. Jenks.

Short-tailed Shrew, Mole Shrew, (Blarina talpoides,) four speci-
mens.* Presented by J. W. P. Jenks.

Star-nosed Mole, ( Condylura cristata, III.,) a fine specimen.* Pre-
sented by E. A. Samuels.

Star-nosed Mole, ( Condylura ciistata, III.,) two specimens.* Pre-
sented by J. W. P. Jenks.

Bay Lynx, Wild Cat, (Lynx rufus,) Raf. — A fine specimen. Pre-
sented by J. S. Grennell.

Least Weasel, (Putorius pusillus,) Aud. and Bach. — One specimen.*
Presented l)y J. W. P. Jenks.

Small Brown Weasel, (Putorius cicognanii,) Bp. — One specimen,*
winter dress. Presented by J. W. P. Jenks.

Ermine, (Putorius noveboracensis,) De Kay. — One specimen,* sum-
mer dress. Presented by J. W. P. Jenks.

Jumping Mouse, (Jaculus hudsonius,) one specimen.* Presented by
C. C. Sewall.

Solomon Talbot presents a monstrosity of a calf with two heads,
seven legs, and a double body, for one-half its length, anteriorly.

* Alcoholic specimens.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 193

ORNITHOLOGY.

This department has been largely increased, by the following
additions : —

Broad-winged Hawk, (Buteo Pennsylvanicus, ) female. Presented by
A. Scott.

Bay-breasted Warbler, (Dendroica castanea,) Wils. — Young. Pre-
sented by Alden Bachelder.

Black-poll Warbler, (Dendroica striata,) young female. Presented
by Henry A. Purdie.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak, ( Guiraca ludoviciana.) Presented by
Alden Bachelder.

Blue Heron, (Florida ccBrulea,) male. Presented by Capt. E. W.
Gardner.

Night Heron, (Nyctiardea gardeni,) young. Shot in Bedford, in
December. Presented by C. M. Fitch.

Wilson's Plover, (Aegealitis Wilsonius,) young male.t Presented by
Henry A. Purdie.

Black-bellied Plovei", (Squatarola helvetica,) young. Presented by
J. P. Haskell.

Wilson's Plover, (Aegealitis Wilsonius,) male and female.f Presented
by E. A. Samuels.

Least Sandpiper, (Tringa wilsonii,) male and female.f Presented
by E. A. Samuels.

Semi-palmated Sandpiper, (Ereunetes petrifactus,) male.f Presented
by E. A. Samuels.

Sanderling, ( Calidris arenaria.) Presented by J. P. Haskell.

Sanderliug, (Calidris arenaria,) female.f Presented by E. A.
Samuels.

Spotted Sandpiper, ( Tringoides macularius,) female.f Presented by
H. A. Purdie.

American Widgeon, (3Iareca americana,) male. Presented by S.
Cabot, Jr.

Loon, Great Northern Diver, ( Golymlus glacialis,) male.f Presented
by A. Scott.

Little Auk, Dove-kie, {Mergulus alle.) One specimen presented by
W. G. Weld, and one specimen presented by J. P. Haskell.

OOLOGY.

The following additions have been made to this department,
the past year : —

Nest and eggs of Humming Bird, (Trochilus coluhris.) Presented
by W. H. Floyd.

t Skins.
25*

194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Two eggs of Purple Grakle, ( Quiscalus versicolor.) Presented by
T. S. Brigham.

Nest of Black Duck, {Anas obscura.) Presented by W. H. Floyd.

Egg of "Wilson's Tern, {Sterna Wilsoni.) Presented by T. S.
Brigham.

CONCIIOLOGY.
T. C. Haskell presents the following species : —
Pecten Islandicus ; Astarte sulcata ; Venus gemma ; 3Iactra ponderosa ;
Mesodesma deaurata, young; Solen ensis ; Pandora trilineata ; Ceri-
theum Sap; Buccimim U7idcdum ; Buccinum plicosum; Tritonium
pygmceum ; Tritonium decemcostatum ; Columbella lunata ; Bulimus
lubricus, Helix alholabris ; Helix cellaria ; Helix nemoralis ; Tritonium
Islandicuniy (Grand Banks) ; Tritonium ventricosum ; Buccimim
ciliatum ; Cyprina Islandica ; Thracia Conradi ; Mytilus decussatus ;
Teredo navalis, and wood completely boney combed by this species ;
Balanus geniculatus, with Saxicava imbedded ; Petricola pholadiformis.

MISCELLANEOUS.

0. S. Kent presents partially fossilized bones, and lower jaw
of horse, found in Methuen.

B. Fulsifer presents specimens of marble and porphyry, the
latter from the great rock at Nahant.

T. C. Haskell presents specimen of chalcedony, from Mar-
blehead.

ENTOMOLOGY.
Extensive contributions have been made to this department,
in addition to the collections made by the curator, Mr. Francis
G. Sanborn.

A series of boxes has been prepared for the reception of the speci-
mens, which are securely protected from the chief enemies of the cabinet,
— dust, light, and destructive animals. Tlie former collection, arranged
and labelled on scientific principles, having been entirely destroyed, with
the exception of the alcoholic portion, for want of suitable accommodations ;
and a different arrangement being deemed necessary for the purposes of
an Agricultural Cabinet, the following plan has been adopted : The front
of the case bears the inscription " Ixskcts of Massachusetts,"
beneath which, the drawers, in three columns of fifteen each, are respec-
tively headed " Injurious," " Beneficial," and " Miscellaneous." The
first column is again divided as injurious ^Ho Fruit-trees" "to Timber-
trees" " to Cereals" &c., and contains the insects bearing those characters.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 195

The corresponding drawers of the second, or "Beneficial" column,
exhibit the species which are insectivorous in their habits, while the
third comprises tliose which are neutral as regards agriculture, or of
doubtful reputation. It is evident then, that this collection will be one
of reference, and serve as a lexicon, or index to the economical ento-
mology of the State : any person meeting with an insect with which
he is unacquainted, can bring it hither, and readily find its name and
habits ; with these data, he can study the remedies prescribed by tlie
various authorities, should it be injurious, or if otherwise, can extend to
it at least a sort of negative protection. Among the contributors to this
department during the year ending December 31, 1861, Mr. Emanuel
Samuels has devoted a large amount of time to the subject, and presented
many beautiful species, some of which are quite new and I'are. Mr.
Denis Murray has added a number of valuable specimens ; and miscel-
laneous collections, at various times, have been received from Messrs.
A. Jackson, 0. J. Rand, L. L. Thaxter, J. 6. Shute, T. C. Haskell, E.
S. Rand, Jr., Hiram Barrus, Jas. Farnham, C. W. Jenks, H. Cowles,
F. J. Kinney, Wm. Gregory, J. Hogan, and F. Whitcomb.

HARRIS ON INSECTS.

The preparation of " a new, enlarged and improved edition"
of Dr. Harris's valuable treatise on " Insects Injurious to Vege-
tation," ordered by the legislature of 1859, has been completed,
and the work has been issued in a manner generally admitted
to be creditable, in the highest degree, to the Commonwealth.

The legislature made provision for placing a copy of the
work in every town in the State, and also for the liberal offer of
fifteen copies as premiums by each of the agricultural and hor-
ticultural societies. It will therefore be brought within the
reach of most farmers who desire to possess it.

This valuable treatise cannot be too highly appreciated. Dr.
Harris was regarded by the most distinguished scientific men
in Europe as the highest authority in entomology, in the world,
and the former editions of the work were admitted by the first
entomologists, both in Europe and America, to be among the
ablest and most valuable contributions to the science that had
ever been made in any country or any language.

For accuracy, simplicity, and beauty of description, they were
unsurpassed ; nor has any work since appeared in any part of
the Avorld which can compare with this in practical value,

196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

especially now that it is so fully, so perfectly, and so beautifully
illustrated by the first living artists, under the direction of Prof.
Agassiz, the first living naturalist.

The illustrations consist of nearly three hundred objects on
wood, engraved in the highest style of the art, and in a manner
pronounced " truly wonderful" by the most distinguished ento-
mologists of this country, and nearly a hundred objects on steel,
colored from life, by hand. These illustrations add vastly to
the practical value of a work on this subject, by enabling the
student or the practical man to identify specimens with accu-
racy and ease, which from a description, however perfect, would
often be very difficult, and to a person not acquainted with the
subject, attended with doubt and uncertainty.

It is a matter of congratulation, therefore, to the farmers and
horticulturists of the State, that the work appears so thoroughly
and beautifully illustrated.

I need hardly suggest to the agricultural and horticultural
societies the importance of using great judgment and discrimi-
nation in making their awards of this liberal gift of the State.
If judiciously placed, it will be the means of great good in
leading to a higher knowledge of this interesting branch of
natural history, on which our success in raising fruits and the
other products of the farm so largely depends. Let it go, so
far as possible, where it will be read and studied, where it will
awaken interest and inquiry in the minds of the young, where
its influence will be seen and felt, and where the objects of the
legislature will be most surely attained.

MANUAL OP AGRICULTURE.

During the past year, also, the " Manual of Agriculture,"
prepared under the direction, and published under the sanction
of the State Board of Agriculture, has been completed. It is a
work of over three hundred pages, designed for the use of the
more advanced classes in the public schools, and for the use of
farmers generally.

It was not expected that this Manual would take the place of
the elementary studies in the schools. Children under twelve
years of age have enough to do in our ordinary system of
instruction, in learning the essential elements of an education
expressed in reading, spelling, writing, ciphering, etc.

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 197

This text-book was not designed to crowd out any of these
studies, and for this reason it was not made so simple and ele-
mentary as it would have been if prepared for children of eight
or ten years. But after the age of twelve or fourteen, if ordi-
nary progress has been made in previous years, the youth is as
well prepared to take up this text-book as he is to go into the
study of grammar, ancient history, hygiene, or any of the other
studies into which the advanced classes in our schools are put.

It should be borne in mind also, that it would be an impor-
tant step gained in the education of the young, to give them a
command of the terms which are of necessity used in reference
to the sciences connected with agriculture, and which they
must constantly meet with in after life. Any one who has
grown up to the age of thirty or forty years without knowing
the use and meaning of the terms oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
gluten, and a thousand similar ones, with their derivatives,
finds it extremely difficult to get a clear and definite idea of
them, or even to fix them in his mind ready for use as he
meets them in reading. Now the young, mind learns these
terms with vastly greater readiness and precision, and in this
respect has the advantage of a mature mind which had never
been taught them in its early education. A well-educated lad
of sixteen would probably find the Manual easier as a study
than a man of forty who had never given attention to this or
kindred studies.

So that if no other immediate advantage were to be gained,
the mere acquisition of a familiarity with the terms in constant
use would be of decided advantage, and of greater practical
value through life than many of the studies of the young,
which often have no practical bearing whatever.

It may well be doubted whether any text-book on agricul-
ture or any of the sciences, however simple and elementary,
could be judiciously placed in the hands of children under the
age of twelve or thirteen years. If it is desirable to impart
information and awaken an interest in natural objects, it can be
done by oral instruction on the part of the parent or a compe-
tent teacher, but so far as any severe application goes, it is
usually required for the rudiments of an education which must
necessarily be general and form the basis and groundwork of
after studies.

198 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

It is gratifying to be able to state, that the objects of the
Board in the preparation of the Manual have been appreciated,
and that many of the towns very promptly introduced it into
their schools, and, so far as heard from, with uniformly satis-
factory results.

Agriculture is the grand interest of this country : the great-
est material interest of the civilized Avorld. A knowledge of
the principles which underlie all intelligent practice of this art
is useful, not only to farmers but to men in all the walks of
life. Is it not vastly more important to understand the nature
and properties of the air we breathe, the water we drink,
the soil on which we all depend for subsistence, and the best
practical means of obtaining this subsistence, than to be able to
solve a problem in equations, to name the rivers in Ethiopia
and Siberia, or to become familiar with the isolated facts of
ancient, or even modern history ?

Hitherto the want of a suitable text-book, comprehensive in
plan, simple in arrangement, and complete in execution, has
presented an insuperable barrier to the successful introduction
of the study of the practical sciences connected wnth agricul-
ture into the common school. It was the purpose of the State
Board of Agriculture to supply this want, and the Manual is
offered as the means of laying the foundation of a valuable
practical education.

After the most careful consideration of the Manual by the
State Board, it was —

^^ Resolved, That this Board approve of the Manual of Agriculture
submitted by its authors, Messrs. George B. Emerson and Charles L.
Flint, and recommend its publication by these gentlemen, as a work well
adapted for use in the schools of Massachusetts."

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.

Special attention is called to the Statistics of the Agriculture
of the Commonwealth, at the end of the Abstract of the
Returns of the Agricultural Societies. They have been com-
piled with great labor by Mr. George Wingate Chase, from
the official returns of the eighth United States census, 1860,
and from the returns of the assessors of towns, taken for the
use of the valuation committee, at the same lime, — the collectors

SECRETARY'S REPORT. 199

oflen meeting each other on their way, g-oing- over very nearly
the same ground.

The returns of the United States census are grossly inaccurate,
and untrustworthy from beginning to end, and afford a most
unsatisfactory basis for forming a correct judgment of the pre-
sent condition of the agriculture of the State ; but the returns
of the assessors, though themselves far from perfect, are more
accurate and worthy of confidence, and afford a valuable means
of correction in many cases.

The worthlessness of the United States census is probably
owing to two prominent causes, which will vitiate this and
every subsequent census till these causes are removed. The first,
is the carelessness and apparent want of interest in making
out the blanks at head-quarters, as if the inquiries were of no
consequence. This arises, perhaps, in a great measure, from a
well-founded conviction of the utter worthlessness of the re-
turns when they are made, owing to the second cause, which is
the manner in which the statistics are collected by the assistant
United States marshals all over the country, who, one would
suppose, are appointed wholly without reference to fitness for
the work.

The immense patronage and the boundless political favor-
itism connected with this as well as other branches of the
public service will probably ensure its continuance, or at least
make it extremely difficult to break it up, and substitute some
more efficient system in its place. But it would seem as if
the statistics might be returned by the assessors of towns, the
county commissioners, or, in cases where these officers do not
exist, by the boards of supervisors of counties, or other officers
chosen or appointed for their fitness to make these inquiries,
in which case they would be worthy of greater confidence.
Perfection is, of course, out of the question, but an approxima-
tion to accuracy is certainly attainable. A reference to the
table on page 299 of the statistics, and the instances cited in
the course of the remarks connected with them, together with
innumerable other examj^les which might be stated, would
lead to the belief that the returns of the eighth census cannot
be regarded as even a remote approximation to the truth.

But imperfect as these statistics are, they are still the best
we shall have for the next ten years, and, as such, are extremely

200 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

coiivenieut for reference. As the same, or very similar faults
extend over the whole, they are also valuable as a means of
comparison between town and town, and as such they are
worth being preserved for future use.

THE CATTLE DISEASE.

By a statement of the committee, on a preceding page, it will
be perceived that the alarming disease among cattle, commonly
called pleuro-pneumonia, has again appeared, during the past
year, in some of the towns in the eastern part of the State.
No one who candidly examines the history of its progress and
development can longer doubt its contagious and fatal character,
and it becomes those who are about to purchase stock to be
exceedingly cautious to ascertain its past history, while those
who own cattle would do well to keep them as strictly as pos-
sible from mingling with strange animals. The only perfect
safety is in isolation.

The State has generously come forward again to attempt to
arrest the progress of this fearful scourge, but the efforts of
commissioners can be of little avail, without the cooperation of
individual owners of stock. It is believed that with prompt
and proper effort, the disease can be eradicated, but it will
require much time and care, and every owner of stock should
feel that he has a personal interest in such a result.

CHARLES L. FLINT,

Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.

Boston, January 22, 1862.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES

APPOINTED TO VISIT THE

AGRICULTURAL EXHIBITIONS

ESSEX.

The forty-fourth annual festival of the Essex County Agri-
cultural Society, was held at the beautiful village of South
Danvers on the 24tli and 25th days of September — an exhibition
every way worthy of the county — one of the oldest, most enter-
prising and populous in the State, and in manufactures and
agricultural wealth, sustaining a high position. The weather
was all that could be desired — beautiful autumnal days. As
the delegate of the State Board I esteemed it a great privilege
to be present ; was welcomed very cordially, receiving every
attention and courtesy, and having every facility furnished
me for seeing and examining the exhibition in all its depart-
mients.

This county, which is the third in wealth and population in
the State, containing five large cities, and many large towns
and thriving villages, has but one agricultural society, while
there are in six other counties, five of which are much less in
wealth and population, from two to five societies each, thus
dividing, and in a great measure destroying the agricultural
interest.

This society has no permanent location, but holds its fairs in
different sections of the county, thereby securing a greater
attendance, accommodating every part of the county, and con-
gregating the herds, flocks and products of a much larger
territory than most societies. If it is owing to this itinerant
system that the farmers of this county are united in one society,

26*

202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

is it not far better tliat it be continued, although there are
many disadvantages attending it, than to be divided up into
several smaller societies, of which we have already quite too
many ? I have ever supposed it necessary, in order to succeed
well, that every agricultural society should have territory of its
own, enclosed with suitable buildings and grounds sufficient
for all its purposes, but since my visit to this large and pros-
perous society, I am free to confess at least to a modification
of my feelings in this respect.

The exhibition of cattle was very creditable indeed, better
than is usually seen at the fairs in the eastern part of the State.
There were about eighty entries. Prominent among the
thoroughbreds were the fine Jersey cattle of Richard S. Fay ;
the beautiful Ayrshires of Eben S. Poor and T. W. Peirce, and
a wiiite Short-horn bull from Indian Hill farm.

There were some fine Ayrshire and Jersey grade cattle, and
a few yoke of good working oxen. Nearly fifty horses were
exhibited ; prominent among them was " Young St. Lawrence,"
which was much admired ; a number of good draught and farm
horses, and a fine display of mares and beautiful colts.

There were but two entries of sheep ; Oxfordshire Downs
from the stock of Richard S. Fay, and Cotswolds exhibited by
Charles Corliss. Essex County, like the rest of the State has
very little interest in sheep ; it would seem that our farmers
have yet to learn that a large proportion of the State is better
adapted to sheep-husbandry than to any other purpose, and
that the raising of sheep, whether for mutton or wool, is the
best business that can engage their attention.

The exhibition of swine it would be hard to surpass at any
fair in the State, either in numbers or in those essential qualities
that make a perfect hog.

There was a very large and fine display of poultry. The dairy
was well represented, and the bread and honey were not wanting.

Among the farm implements exhibited. Wood's mower was
the object of general attention.

The fruits, llowers, domestic manufactures, fancy articles,
works of art, &c., under the superintendence of Mr. Ives, were
well arranged in the vestry of the South church. From the
great scarcity of fruit this season, I was not prepared to sec so
fine a display of apples, pears and grapes. Of the latter there

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 203

were fifty-seven plates of the very best liardy varieties. Flowers
in great profusion, perfection and variety.

In the department of domestic manufactures and fancy work,
there was a great amount of well- wrought useful and ornamental
articles, giving satisfactory evidence of the skill, good taste
and industry of the ladies.

The show of vegetables was very large and, of the best
quality.

The ploughing match which is always a very interesting part
of our agricultural exhibitions was on the morning of the
second day. It was the best exhibition of the kind I ever
attended, and was witnessed by a great multitude that no man
could number. There were seventeen contestants for the
premiums — eight double teams, four single teams of oxen, and
five of horses. The whole affair was most admirably conducted,
very quiet and orderly, every man going about his work as
deliberately as if at home on his own farm, which is the natural
consequence of not being limited in time ; which is certainly
to be approved.

Immediately after the ploughing, was the address by Hon.
Alfred A. Abbott, in the midst of which I was obliged to leave,
which I deeply regretted, for by so doing I not only lost a
part of the address, in which I was much interested, but the
dinner also, and more, the intellectual entertainment connected
with it, and many other things that would have been very
interesting to me.

Samuel H. Bushnell.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

Pursuant to my appointment as a delegate from the State
Board, I attended the sliow of the Middlesex North Agricul-
tural Society, at Lowell, Thursday, September 12, 1861.

The day previous to the show was one of the stormiest of
the season ; it rained violently all day and until midnight, so
that although the day of the exhibition opened clear and bright,
the labors of the officers were much increased, and doubtless

204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

many animals and articles which would otherwise have been
entered did not appear.

I regretted the disagreeable weather also on another account,
as preventing, what I had proposed, a ride over and a cursory
view of some portions of the territory embraced by the charter
of the society.

The exhibition was holden on the grounds of the society,
within the city limits, which are of such an admirable character
for the purpose, that notwithstanding the great rain of the day
previous, they were perfectly dry and comfortable.

The grounds cover about fifteen acres, lying on an elevated
sandy plain, costing originally $750 ; they are enclosed by a
liigh, close, substantial board fence, costing $1,800 ; a hard,
well graded track of half a mile in length, costing '11,200, is
laid out, leaving a sufficient width for a free passage around ;
within this are the cattle pens, and the building, a large, com-
modious structure, laid out in the form of a cross, one hundred
feet in length each way, and thirty-one feet in width, well
lighted with gas ; the southern wing is made into a comfortable
tenement for the use of the superintendent of the grounds.

The ground floor is well arranged for the display of fruits,
vegetables, and all manufactured articles ; while the large, clear
space of the hall above affords room for the dinner, the address,
and a social gathering in the evening of " cattle-show day."
The cost of the building was $3,300, besides $800 for gas and
fixtures.

Payment of three dollars constitutes one a life-member,
entitling him to a free ticket on the grounds with his wife and
minor children, if he has them ; all others pay twenty-five cents
each. The fair is holden but one day, but with its receipts
from the "levee" in the evening, and an exhibition of horses
(not the society's) on the next day, the society takes about one
thousand dollars.

If 1 were to make any suggestions to this well-managed
society, one would be that they have material enough to occupy
two days with their show. It is quite impossible for a person
commencing at ten o'clock and leaving at one — the dinner hour
— to see the ploughing match, the show of horses, the trial of
working oxen and draught horses, the spading match, and to
examine the stock with any thoroughness. I also venture the

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 205

suggestion that almost the only thing wanting in these well-
planned premises, is a range of sheds sufficient to siieltcr the
stock from the hot summer as well as from cold winds and
rain ; these might perhaps be made against the fence with a
saving of expense ; with these, and hay and straw furnished
free by the society, I think the farmers from the more remote
parts of the territory would be induced to drive down and enter
their stock on the day previous ; this would very much relieve
the officers in their labors on the day of the show ; the cattle
would show a great deal better, and get home in better condition.

The ploughing match was actively contested by some lialf
dozen teams in an old orchard which was hard enough to test
the skill and patience of teams and men.

The exhibition of cattle was good ; there were some fat cattle
that would have done credit to any society's show, the milch
cows were also superior. A very excellent Jersey bull of Dr.
Bartlett, taken by him from the State Farm when a calf?
received the first premium.

The working oxen, of which there were fifteen entries, were
generally quick, strong, and well-trained, and performed the
work well.

Of horses, one or two really fine stallions, several good road-
sters, and a large number of fine colts were successively shown.

The sheep were rather ordinary, and there were few of them.
It would have been gratifying to liave seen, from the ricli pas-
tures of North Middlesex, a fuller representation of these most
profitable and useful of all the domestic animals, wliich one
would think might be kept to advantage, without interfering
with the dairy business, — even if it did not improve it. I
have very good authority for saying that the pastures of this
district are deteriorating, — growing up to bushes and foul stuff*
which cattle will not destroy, and sheep will, — and there is no
doubt, at the present day, but that sheep improve pasture lands.
The clear, cold and dry climate, and the rough, dry soil of
New England are better adapted to the growing of sheep than
almost any other section of country, here or abroad ; that
is, taking into consideration all the conditions which render
sheep-husbandry profitable — their thriftiness, their freedom
from all the worst diseases which infest the flocks of other
countries, and of the richer, moister, warmer portions of this,

206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

their fecundity, their capacity to bear, suckle and bring up
many and large lambs, the superior quality of both the fleece
and the flesh, and finally, what is of prime consequence, the
proximity any where in New England to a market — which for
mutton or lamb is always open, ready and more remunerative
than for any other stock on the farm.

While sheep will live on a scanty supply of food — less, pro-
portionately than any other animals — yet every farmer will
find that a full quantity of good food, with an occasional
change, and shelter from the wet, will amply repay in the
increased quantity and quality of the wool.

While sheep can be well kept on good hay and good bright
straw, a little grain, corn, oats or oil meal — cotton-seed meal
perhaps the best — will most materially add to the thriftiness
and good appearance of the animal, and ought to add very
largely to the satisfaction of their feeder.

While roots are not indispensable yet an occasional feed of
them will serve, as with any animal, to keep a healthy and open
condition of the system.

It should be remembered, moreover, that the manure of
sheep is to that of other farm-yard manure as 100 to 3(3 ; that
with proper preparation of the yards and sheds both liquid and
solid manure are saved ; and, also, that every bushel of grain
fed improves the quality of the manure.

For the eastern part of this State the Down sheep will be
found the most profitable in the production of lambs and mut-
ton, while their wool — which for years has gradually been grow,
ing in demand — now commands a higher price than even the
splendid Merinos of Berkshire.

The swine were remarkably good, of very large size, fine
bone, and good sides, a feature often unregarded. The Mackay
blood seemed to predominate — and a most excellent strain of
hog-blood it is.

A long line of poultry coops, well stocked, attracted much
attention.

I also noticed a caged fox, and some other animals not strictly
agricultural, which I mention that although apparently out of
place, yet may be favorably regarded. Such things as rabbits,
Guinea pigs, and an ass, commonly entered by farmer's boys, —
who, in the fulness of pride over their pets, beg to be allowed,

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 207

as the only contribution tlicy can make, to take them to " cattle
show ;" they are pleased at the attention they receive from
strangers, and gratified at being noticed ; and return home
proud and happy in the success of the day, and with an interest
excited which will develop at future exhibitions in the legiti-
mate articles of the cattle show.

In the hall the show of manufactured articles of all kinds
was splendid ; the products of Lowell looms, and the handi-
work of Middlesex women, were finely displayed.

The fruit and the vegetables were uncommonly fine, — unsur-
passed by any display of those articles in any county of the
State that I have seen.

There were seventeen entries of butter, which sustained the
dairy reputation of this part of the State.

A large amount of bread puzzled the tastes of the committee.

An eloquent oration by Dr. Loring followed the dinner, at
one o'clock, in the upper hall, after which the time was beguiled
with short speeches and sentiments, with music from the band.

The delegate responded to a complimentary sentiment pro-
posed to the State Board of Agriculture.

The show was a good one, and passed off in a most satisfac-
tory manner, reflecting great credit upon the officers of the
society. I did not notice a single instance of drunkenness or
disturbance of any kind.

This society probably owes its existence to the activity of the
Chelmsford Farmers' Club, formed some years ago, and is an
example of the usefulness of Farmers' Clubs.

The territory included in the North Middlesex Society covers
twelve towns, with naturally an unfertile soil, and a portion of
that which would be the richest made almost worthless by
stagnant water set back from milldams, that thjis destroy more
than the value of the mills upon them ; this is a grievance that
calls loudly for redress.

The vicinity of this society to Boston and the great manu-
facturing towns and villages that have sprung up in and near
it, have effected a complete change in the course of farming.

By the lines of railroad covering the county, and passing
through every town but one in the society, ready transporta-
tion is afforded for all the perishable farm products, and every
farm is near a market.

208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

"Within tlie past twenty years there has been an immense
increase in the dairy products, from 851,000 to over 8110,000;
this has been mostly in milk, the annual reported sale of which
amounts to 871,219, much of which goes by rail to Boston and
Lowell.

A very large amount of " garden stuff" is in the same way
marketed, which does not appear in the returns.

Fruit has just about doubled in amount, being now 866,302
against 833,512 in 1845.

These changes appear as strongly in the numbers of the
domestic animals. More milch cows are kept and fewer work-
ing oxen ; fewer cattle are fed for beef, more horses are worked
and driven. The horses are now 2,649 against 1,782. Li 1840
there were over 2,000 sheep, which with the wool were worth
16,000 ; now there are 460.

Probably there is a much higher state of cultivation now than
formerly, great quantities of manure and fertilizing substances
are taken from the towns and villages on to the farms, which
more than supply the loss of what is carried away. As the
soils lying on micaceous and other slates usually prove the best
grazing and grass lands, we find that those towns making the
largest dairy products are largely on that geological formation.
Burlington, a small town almost wholly slate, sends 818,500
worth of milk and butter ; Westford, with almost 820,000
worth of dairy products is half on slate, so with Chelmsford,
Tyngsborough and Dracut. A noticeable fact is, that while the
value of all the cows and heifers in this territory is 8145,894,
those of their products which are sold off the farm amount to
8110,674 ; now, adding to this last sum the amount consumed
at home, and deducting from the first sum the value of the
heifers which give no milk, it would show an equalization of
the figures, proving the profitableness of dairy farming there.

The crop of Indian corn has been very largely increased
there, being 72,000 bushels grown, and of hay 17,366 tons of
all kinds ; but as there are to be fed during a term of not less
than 150 days 7,469 head of neat stock, and 2,649 horses, being
in all 10,118, to say nothing of their 460 sheep, it would seem
as if the farmers there would have to import feed to see them
through the winter.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 209

These facts and figures are perhaps of no great usefulness ;
but it may be interesting for farmers in other parts of the State
to know how their brothers manage in the east.

The North Middlesex Society is, I believe, well managed by
its officers, well sustained by other as well as the farming part
of the population, and is well worthy the patronage of the
State — which is not wasted or misapplied.

James S. Grennell.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH SOCIETY.

The exhibition of the Middlesex South Society was held at
Framingham on the ITtli and 18th of September.

It is evident that the members of the association have lost
none of that enterprise and interest in its welfare whicli have
made it one of the most flourishing societies in the State. It is
well known that within the limits of its organization are some of
the most energetic and successful importers and breeders of
cattle among us, and many evidences of their care and skill
were seen on the grounds. The Devons of Mr. Buckminster,
the Ayrshires of Mr. Peters, and the Short-horns of Mr. White,
are too well known to need comment. There can be no doubt
that with opportunities such as these gentlemen afford, the
farmers of Middlesex will soon learn what class of animals are
best adapted to the dairy purposes for which their farms are
fitted.

The exhibition of sheep was very creditable, and evinced a
determination to give these animals the chances which they
deserve, as part of our farm stock. Some portions of the land
within the limits of the society are capable of carrying heavy
sheep, and the efforts made by Mr. White and Mr. Wheeler of
Framingham to introduce them are deserving of encouragement.

The swine were very superior. An infusion of Suffolk blood
had given them a compactness and evenness which is very
desirable. It was observed, moreover, that by the use of
Mackay boars in some instances, and in others of Chester
County boars, the size and capacity of the animal had been

27*

210 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

largely increased. Tliere seems to be but little doubt that the
Chester Counties crossed upon well shaped sows of smaller
breed, such as the Suffblks, produce the best hog for the farmer.
This cross is highly recommended.

The specimens of Blackhawk, Balrownie, and other breeds of
horses were very fine, and the large number of stallions, breed-
ing mares, colts, farm horses, pairs of horses, and workers,
entered for premium, indicated a laudable interest in this
branch of farming.

To speak in a complimentary manner of the poultry exhibited
by Mr. Felch, of Natick, is to do no more than justice to an
enterprising laborer in this part of agriculture.

The show of articles in the hall was large and well arranged.
It was gratifying to see the specimens of corn and otiier grain
for which the soil of this region is so appropriate. The cultiva-
tion of wheat has received much attention from members of this
society, and we trust it will not be abanSoned.

Of the fruit, the culture of the grape seemed to have been
carried to a high degree, and attended with great success. An
entry of two peach orchards for premium showed an enterprise
in the midst of obstacles, worthy of praise, and perhaps in the
warm lands of South Middlesex, destined to succeed.

A premium for handwriting brought out two competitors;
and as an encouragement to the sons of farmers to cultivate
this important branch of education, it might well be repeated
elsewhere.

The society seems to be in very successful operation, if we
may judge from the interest manifested in the various objects
exhibited. The ploughing match was well attended, and was
conducted with spirit and good order. The grounds were
thronged with people. The hall was crowded, and an attentive
audience took part in the proceedings of the day. The whole
amount of receipts for the last year are eleven hundred and
twenty-four dollars and fifty cents. The premium list is liberal,
the amount awarded being six hundred and forty-two dollars
and seventy cents. It is to be hoped that nothing will check
the zeal iiitherto displayed in the exhibitions of tiiis society, as
it is evident that among its members and within its jurisdiction
are many skilful and prosperous farmers, occupied in almost

EEPORTS OF DELEGATES. 211

every branch of agriculture, — the dairy, the orchard, the garden,
the fold, the stable, the field, and the pasture.

George B. Loring.

WORCESTER.

On the nineteenth day of September I attended the exhibition
of the Worcester County Agricultural Society as the delegate
from this Board.

This being my first visit to the annual show at Worcester,
my expectations were highly raised in regard to what could be
exhibited by one of the oldest and largest societies in the
Commonwealth. Judging of this show by comparison with
what I have been accustomed to note upon most such occasions,
I should not hesitate to admit that I was disappointed in my
expectations. But I am aware that it is to be looked upon,
not as a general agricultural exhibition where extensive com-
petition is manifested in all the branches of agriculture, where
large collections of vegetables occupy long ranges of tables, and
luscious fruits tempt the eye and appetite by their rich and
varied colors. I soon became convinced that I must consider
it as a cattle show, per se, and in this department, I think it
would be difficult to furnish a superior in the State.

Large numbers of blood cattle were exhibited, many of them
indicating pUiity and carcuJ brouding, vvhilo some ciilcicd as
pure and undoubtedly thought to be so by their exhibitors,
showed in various ways the traces of other breeds, while at the
same time I should, for profitable animals to retain upon a
farm, have been quite as ready to select from the various grades
as from the pure stock. I should infer that it was customary
among the farmers of Worcester County to use bulls at a more
advanced age than is usually regarded as profitable by most
breeders, as I noticed several specimens entered for premium
at the age of five years and some months.

In the eastern part of the State, it would be difficult to dis-
pose of a bull, except to the butcher, which had passed the age
of three years. Whether the feeling against older bulls is based

212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

upon sufTicient experience, or is only prejudice, I have much
doubt. In one point of view it would undoubtedly be better to
change the bull at an earlier age than three years. The
doctrine which teaclies us to breed " in and in " in families
has not met with much favor in this country. Hence to avoid
the incestuous process which allows a bull to sire calves by his
own progeny, the bull must be changed as often as every third
year.

The ploughing match was well contested, and excited its usual
interest. The work was creditably performed and without
undue noise or severe urging of teams.

Upon looking through the exhibition hall, I was much sur-
prised to find but a single exhibitor of fruit ; the specimens
comprising nine varieties of apples, some of which were without
any distinctive name.

Being unable to explain this deficiency by the general failure
of the fruit crop, I found that no premiums upon fruit had been
offered, as it was supposed that the exhibition of fruit by the
Worcester Horticultural Society had lessened the interest of
the public in this portion of the county show. The most
prominent and attractive feature of the indoors exhibition was
a large and beautiful exhibition of hot-house plants, occupying
nearly one end of the hall, and without which very little worth
attention would have been found in the building.

Tlie exhibition of butter was large, but the specimens did not
present as good a color, nor as careful preparation as I have
seen elsewhere. Whether the color was owing to the breed of
cattle, or the character of the pastures Avhich produced it, I
was unable to learn. But little apparent interest appeared to
be felt by the people of the city proper in the show, and I do
not know but this is customary ; all the persons, however, with
whom I conversed both upon the grounds and in the city seemed
unanimous in the opinion tliat the show of the 19th was of
little importance in comparison with the horse show of the 20th,
at which all (including the officers of the society) predicted
a much larger attendance. My engagements, however, har-
monizing with my inclinations, I did not remain to witness this
great feature of the Worcester County exhibition, and I left the
ground with the hope tiiat the Worcester society had not
reached that condition which was described in a report made to

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 213

this Board in tlie year 1856, " as the simple spirit of a jockey,
although an unconscious one," Avhich this Board and the
societies patronized by the State should do all that in them lies
to correct.

John C. Bartlett.

WORCESTER WEST.

The fair of tlie Worcester West Agricultural Society having
been postponed one week on account of the National Fast, was
held at Barre, on Wednesday, October 2, 1861. By appointment
from the State Board, I attended this fair as delegate to the
association. The weather being deliglitful, tlie attendance was
large, and the exhibition entirely successful. Tiie noble
old farms of Barre and vicinity sent forth representatives of the
finest herds of cattle to be found in the State. The collection
especially of fat cattle, was very large, and attracted much
attention. The big oxen of Messrs. Tucker and Reynolds,
weighing 4,930 pounds, and exceedingly fat, were much
admired. The show of horses was good, and embraced many
fine animals ; among them was the celebrated young stallion,
" George M, Patchen, Jr.," owned by B. D. Godfrey, Esq., of
Milford.

The exhibition at the Town Hall was, taken as a whole, very
superior, especially in dairy products, which was quite large,
and the butter and cheese there exhibited would do honor to
any show in the State.

The exhibition of manufactured articles was quite fair, and
some of the agricultural implements of recent invention, the
hay-spreader, exhibited by Mr. E. W. Bullard, in particular,
deserves a place in the tool-house of every farmer.

The dinner and the social entertainment which followed was
evidently enjoyed by all present. It is to be regretted that this
society holds its fair but one day, as the time afforded for the
examination of so many different specimens is too limited for a
thorough examination of each article.

By the politeness of Willard Broad, Esq., I was enabled to
visit several of the splendid farms in this part of Worcester
County, and it afforded me much pleasure to notice the many

214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

improvements that are now being carried on in this important
section of our old Commonwealth, and I returned to my own
home more thoroughly convinced than ever before that the aid
Massachusetts is bestowing on her agricultural interest is yield-
ing a golden harvest for the present generation, and will be
more fully realized by those that may come after us.

Henry Chapin.

WORCESTER NORTH.

The Worcester North Agricultural Society held its Ninth
Cattle Show and Fair at Fitchburg, on Tuesday and Wednesday,
the 24th and 25th of September.

The exhibition at the Town Hall was opened at 6, P. M., of
Tuesday, where there was a good show of manufactured and
fancy articles, and paintings, of bread, butter, cheese, honey,
and pickles ; and the largest and best assortment of potatoes
and squashes which I have ever seen. In other vegetables
there was nothing extra which came to my notice. The display
of grapes was very good, but of other fruits very meagre. Every
thing in the hall was well arranged, and the tables were deco-
rated with an abundance of choice flowers.

Dr. A. Hitchcock exhibited a well-prepared skeleton of a fine
horse, which had been killed in consequence of having broken
the right II bone, showing the progiCbS which naluro had made
in repairing the injury.

A glee club entertained the large audience with most excel-
lent music, and all present seemed to enjoy themselves.

The weather of the 25th was exceedingly pleasant. The
show of neat stock was very large and excellent, including
Devons, Durhams, Alderneys and grades. The show of breed-
ing horses and colts, of swine, poultry and sheep, was large and
good.

The ploughing and spading matches, and rock lifting, upon
the farm of Lyman Nichols, Esq., were witnessed by a multitude
of people, and seemed to be the most attractive features of the
show. It was exceedingly gratifying to me to witness the

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 215

results of the indomitable energy and perseverance of Mr.
Nichols, in making the rough places of his farm smooth, and
causing not only two blades of grass to grow where but one
grew before, but in causing tons of vegetation to grow where
nothing but stones were visible before. His example to the
farmers around him must be of great value, and I trust that he
will receive a rich reward for the amount of his investments.

At one o'clock, the society and invited guests sat down to an
excellent dinner, which had been prepared by Colonel Day, at
the Fitchburg Hotel, and which was eaten with apparent relish,
without grace, speech, sentiment, song or wine. After the
dinner, they met in the lower town hall, to hear the awards,
and eloquent words from the President, Colonel Thomas Bil-
lings, the Hon. A. H. Bullock, of Worcester, and others.

Resolutions offered by J. T. Everett, Esq., of Princeton,
awarding due meed of praise to the State Commissioners, Hon.
Amasa Walker, of North Brookfield, Dr. G. B. Loring, of Salem,
and Hon. Paoli Lathrop, of South Hadley, for their wise,
prompt, and successful labors in extirpating the cattle disease
or pleuro-pneumonia from the State, were adopted.

The show was highly successful in all its parts.

I was requested while there, not to " hide the faults " which
I might see, but to report them ; and in accordance with that
request, must say that I consider it a great fault for a society so
full of life and energy, and so abundantly able as is that of
Worcester North, to have no place of its own on which to have
its exhibition ; having to show its stock in the public square,
and hold its ploughing match on borrowed ground a mile dis-
tant ; and what is still worse, to be subject to competition with
the " Fitchburg Riding Park," which advertised on the same
day of the fair to have two trotting matches, one for a purse of
'f 100, and another for $50, which, according to the newspaper
reports, were witnessed by a large number of people. So long
as men are willing to give even a " kingdom for a horse," it is
of but little use to attempt to beat them in a race with oxen ;
and whoever tries it may be sure of being distanced.

I am indebted to the President, Colonel Thomas Billings,
Hon. Jabez Fisher and family, and other officers of the society,
for kind attentions, making my visit exceedingly pleasant.

E. W. Gardner.

216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

The annual Exhibition and Market Fair of the "Worcester
South Agricultural Society were held on the 3d and 4tli days
of October, at Sturbridge. The weather was delightful ; and,
with the exception of a more limited display of fruit and a less
number of town teams than usual, tlie exhibition was the most
successful ever held by the society.

The attendance on the first day was large, probably twice as
large as at any former show of the society.

The pens — 40 in number — were filled with cattle, horses,
sheep and swine, of a character by no means inferior to any in
the county, if we except, perhaps, the Durham cattle of some
parts in regard to size.

There were entered for premiums 8 working oxen, 7 steers,
5 herds of cattle, 14 cows and heifers, 14 bulls and 3 fat cattle.
These were mostly Durham, Devon and Ayrshire grades, but
there were several very fine thoroughbred bulls, cows and
heifers, especially of the Ayrsliire breed.

Of sheep there were 13 entries for prizes, of swine 14, of
poultry 10, all rare specimens of their kind. It hazards noth-
ing to say that the swine cannot be surpassed in the State.

Tlie ploughing match was nobly contested by 15 competitors,
with 11 ox and 4 horse teams, upon a soil well suited to test
the power of the teams and the skill of the ploughmen. It was
a stiff and rather close soil, ploughed 7 inches deep and in a
masterly manner.

There were 15 competitors for the prizes offered for drawing
and backing with oxen and steers on the cart. The load for
oxen was 3,000 lbs., for steers 1,000 lbs. The trial took place
on an elevation lying at an angle of about 15 degrees. The
work was well done, and in a quiet and orderly manner.

It is sometimes painful to witness, at the trials of the powers
of working oxen, the constant and cruel application of the whip ;
but it is due to the teamsters on this occasion to say, that their
teams appeared to do all they were capable of doing without an
imduc application of that instrument of torture.

The society's hall never before presented a scene so grand
and beautiful. The walls were decorated with a profusion of
flowers ; with the numerous articles, both useful and orna-

REPORTS OP DELEGATES. 217

mental, contributed by the ladies ; with samples of grain ; the
smaller vegetables ; paintings, drawings, specimens of penman-
ship, and curiosities of various descriptions. Tlie tables were
laden with manufactured articles, too numerous to mention ;
with fruits of fine appearance, though limited in quantity ; witli
vegetables of mammoth size and excellent quality ; with butter,
cheese, bread, pickles, preserves, wine and honey. The spaces
between the tables were packed with visitors through the day.

Of the vast number of articles exhibited in the hall, only
the following were entered with the secretary for premiums :
butter, 13 specimens ; cheese, 10 ; manufactured articles, 7 ;
horticulture and floriculture, 24 ; fruit, 15 ; needle and orna-
mental work, by ladies, 88.

Several squashes were shown weighing from 40 lbs. to 100
lbs. each, and pumpkins, melons, roots, &c., of great size and
beauty. One gentleman contributed 18 pumpkins, the produce
of one seed, all perfectly ripe, of medium and about equal size,
still adhering to the vine on which they grew.

The amount received for tickets of admission to the hall was
8174.03. Members of the society were admitted free.

At one o'clock as many ladies and gentlemen as could be
seated at table in the Town Hall partook of an excellent dinner
prepared by F. 0. Wallis, Esq., keeper of the hotel, in his best
style.

The show of horses was excellent; 39 were entered for
premiums, including studs, breeding mares, colts, <fcc. Nine
carriage horses, all noble animals, appeared for prizes, and
performed, in fine style, several times around the Green.

At the announcement of the cavalcade the people gathered in
large numbers to witness the performance, and every nook and
corner that would afford a view of the show ground was imme-
diately occupied. The cavalcade consisted of 21 couples,
mounted on elegant horses, and held the attention of the
deliglited crowd for a full hour. It was truly a fine display,
decidedly the most attractive feature of the show.

The ladies rode gracefully, and managed their horses quite
skilfully.

On the second day came the Market Fair, which opened at nine
in the morning, to continue through the day. At ten o'clock a

28*

218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

discussion at the church, at twelve o'clock the reading of the
reports of the committees, at one a dinner at the hotel.

Very little was done at the fair. Only one ox and forty
sheep changed owners during the day.

The subjects for discussion were — first, Is it expedient to
offer premiums on distinctive field crops ? second, Which is the
most profitable crop to raise ?

The affirmative of the first question was taken by Henry
Hitchcock, Esq., of Sturbridgc; the negative by Franklin
Lincoln, Esq., of Brimfield, and both sides were ably discussed.
The second question was argued at length by Dr. Samuel Plart-
well of Southbridge, A. P* Avery, Esq., of Fiskdale, Rev. Dr.
Waterman of Spencer, and others. Tiie discussion was spirited,
and elicited useful hints and valuable suggestions. The speak-
ers on tlie last question strongly inclined to the opinion that
Indian corn is the most profitable crop to raise.

The reading of the reports was next in order ; after which
the company proceeded in procession, with music, to the hotel,
where they partook of an excellent dinner ; and this was the
closing performance of the seventh annual exhibition of the
Worcester South Agricultural Society.

This society is in a flourishing condition. Its fund is gradu-
ally increasing with the increase of members, and a deeper in-
terest in tlie cause of agriculture generally, and in tlie affairs
of the society in particular, was never more manifest than at
the present time.

0. C. Felton.

WORCESTER SOUTH-EAST.

The annual Agricultural Fair and Cattle Show of the Worces-
ter South-East Society, held at Milford, came off, according to
previous announcement, October 8th and 9th. The weatlier on
Tuesday was unpleasant, being somewhat rainy, but Wednesday
was fair and all that could be desired. The attendance the first
day was not large, being chiefly limited to persons bringing
articles and stock for exhibition. 1 attended only the first day,
as I had other business, and could see every thing on Tuesday

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 219

(except the ploughing-match) which was really the Fair day
— Wednesday being taken up mostly with processions, speeches
and dinners, and, as I am credibly informed, and do not
doubt from indications on Tuesday, was all that the members
and friends could desire.

The show of neat stock was creditable as to numbers, there
being eighty entries for premiums, and a few very good ones ;
but, as a general thing, the cattle were inferior ; and I think
the farmers in this vicinity need to take more pains with their
stock, in order to secure the largest profit in that branch of
agricultural business.

The show of horses was small, comprising some twenty-five
to thirty entries of all classes. There were a few excellent speci-
mens,— two superior young stallions, one sired by Patchem, the
other by Ethan Allen, were of great promise.

The horse show came off in the street and was, in conse-
quence, a somewhat irregular affair. I would recommend to
this society to procure grounds and a track if they wish to
succeed in their show of horses and cattle.

Of swine there were twenty-six entries, the show of which
was superior to that of most societies of which I have any
acquaintance. The Chester County breed were largely repre-
sented. I think they find it pays to improve their hogs, and
hope they will try the experiment with their cattle.

I saw no sheep on exhibition, a thing which much surprised
me, as I should think, from the surface of the country and the
nature of the soil, together with the excellent home market, it
was just the place for raising lambs for mutton ; in fact for
some mysterious reason there seems to be a scarcity of this
profitable animal throughout the eastern portion of the State,
which very much surprises me, as they are the easiest stock to
raise, and multiply the fastest, and come to maturity the quick-
est of any of our domestic animals. I think the people ought
to have Grenuell's Report on Sheep more thoroughly circulated
among them.

Of live fowls there were thirteen entries, comprising hens,
turkeys and geese.

The show in the hall was the great success of the Fair, and
to which, apparently, the greatest attention was paid, and it
was really a superb afiair. The ladies connected with the Fair

220 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

deserve especial praise for their efforts to make it attractive ;
together with our worthy friend, the delegate from that society,
who had more than he could well attend to in directing the
arrangement of the hall, — and if he did not do more than one
thing at a time, was at least trying hard to.

The ladies not only brought abundant specimens of their
handiwork for competition, but spared no pains to decorate the
hall for the occasion.

Of garden vegetables there were three hundred and forty-
seven entries, comprising numerous varieties ; and for quantity
and quality I have never seen them equalled at any thing short
of a State Fair.

Dairy products entered consisted of twelve specimens, of good
quality.

Grain crops, thirteen entries ; root crops, thirteen ; and bread,
twenty-two entries.

I was quite surprised at the display of fruit, considering the
season. The entries of apples were one hundred and nineteen ;
pears, sixty-four ; grapes, twenty-seven ; peaches, only one.

Of honeys, jellies and wines, forty-eight entries ; agricultural
implements, and other manufactured articles, thirty-eight;
straw braids and bonnets, seven ; pictures, paintings and draw-
ings, nineteen ; dentistry, one.

Of flowers there were fourteen different entries, comprising,
in the case of one contributor, over two hundred and fifty
different varieties. Flowers were wrought into splendid
bouquets to adorn the hall, — to gladden tlie eyes and cheer
the hearts of the visitors. The thanks of the society are due
to the contributors for this beautiful display.

Decorations of tlic hall, sixty-seven entries ; domestic manu-
factures and fancy articles, one hundred and seventy-three
entries. The whole were tastefully arranged, and made one of
the best exhibitions I have ever witnessed.

In conclusion, I would acknowledge the cordial welcome
extended to me by the officers and members of the society, and
the generous hospitality of the president, Hon. A. C. Mayhew.

Matthew Smith.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 221

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Forty-three consecutive years the Hampshire, Franklin and
Hampden Agricultural Society has held its annual fair.

It met this year, on an occasion of more than usual interest.
For the first time since its organization was the entire exhibition
concentrated upon their own grounds. About five years ago
the society purchased (at an expense of four thousand dollars)
sixteen acres of land, beautifully located in the fertile Valley of
the Connecticut ; and here, during the past year, they have
erected a commodious building, one hundred and eight feet long
by forty feet wide, which contains two large halls with suitable
ante-rooms, at the cost of about three thousand dollars.

On Thursday and Friday, the third and fourth of October, I
had the pleasure of meeting a large concourse of the ardent
friends of agriculture from this portion of our State. Each
day, by its sweet and balmy air, seemed to add joy and gladness
to the occasion.

Altliough it appears that this society should embrace three
counties, yet, by inquiry, I found that the contributors were
almost entirely confined to the county of Hampshire.

I wish I was able to compare the exhibition of this year with
those of past years. From what I could learn, however, I
should judge that the expectations of its most ardent friends
were fully realized. Those who have heretofore opposed the
onward progress of the society, in the erection of a building,
had to confess their disappointment. It is to be regretted that
the society's grounds are so limited in their extent ; instead of
sixteen acres, the wants of this society need at least thirty acres.
It is to be hoped that those who own adjoining lands will fully
realize this need^ and with their accustomed liberality make
provision to meet this want.

There is nothing so important in the exhibition of stock as
space, and you can well imagine how closely we were brought
together, when provision was made for the numerous mowing
machines in full play, peddlers' carts, refreshment tents, and
numerous other places of entertainment.

Tlie ploughing, a very important and interesting part of our
agricultural fairs, was entirely omitted.

222 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

With the enlargement of grounds, this society would be
surpassed in its accommodations by no other in our State.

Surely, none has a locality in a more fertile spot. Tiiose
rich bottom lands bordering on the waters of the Connecticut
should be made the model garden of our State. I fear that the
remark is too true — the sons are not disposed to profit on the
experience of their fathers — that acres of their most valuable
land are left like a barren waste, and if cultivated, the crop
must depend more upon the richness of the soil than careful
and thorough tillage ; lands valued at three hundred dollars per
acre, producing not more than forty-five bushels of corn to the
same.

These remarks are not applicable to all the farmers within
the bounds of this society. There are farms worthy of note,
where thorns and briars find no home ; and as evidence of this,
we are glad to note some of the prominent points in this exhi-
bition.

The display in the hall fully demonstrated what could be
done. Vegetables, in great variety and abundance ; fruits and
flowers, very fine and beautifully arranged — showing the skill
and workmanship of the ladies of Hampshire ; the whole dis-
play calculated to please the eye and gratify the taste, for the
wine and the honey were there.

I was disappointed in finding no more specimens of wheat.
The soil and climate must be favorable, in this section of our
State, to the production of this article ; and I find, in the census
of 1850, that the county of Hampshire alone produced about
five thousand bushels. I think, on examination, it will be
found that no crop would yield a better profit, unless it be to-
bacco, an article neither useful for man nor beast. And here
permit me to inquire, why it was that no specimen of this
article found a place at this fair ? Are its producers ashamed
to place it beside the other products of the earth ?

The exhibition of cattle occupied a large part of the first day.
Some of the finest in our State are found in this society.

The name of Lathrop brings with it an array of those beau-
tiful Durhams, unsurpassed, and yet not without much care
and attention. It is quite evident that many of the farmers of
this county take great pride in the raising of stock, as the
excellent display on this occasion fully corroborated.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 223

Another feature in the exhibition was the address, on the
afternoon of the first day. The design of the speaker was to
dwell upon the different modes of farming, and especially to
urge upon his hearers the importance of the use of machines in
the cultivation of the soil. He cautioned them to beware of
those " irapSj" the agricultural warehouses, preferring that
every man should be his own mechanic and build his own
machine.

The address was well designed, but altogether out of time
and place. The audience was large at the opening, but before
the close the hall was almost deserted. Most people who
assemble on such occasions are very impatient under long
speeches, and I have often thought that an address would be
more profitable could it be delivered at some other time and in
a more quiet place.

The second day was almost entirely devoted to the exhibition
of horses.

The number on exhibition were quite numerous, and among
which were many fine specimens. It is interesting to witness
the great enthusiasm manifest when we come to this depart-
ment in our agricultural fairs.

I am pleased to state that on this occasion every thing was
admirably conducted ; the qualities of this noble animal were
fully shown without resorting to excessive driving. The occa-
sion was closed with a sumptuous dinner, well seasoned by a
congratulatory speech from the worthy president.

Nathan Durfee.

HAMPSHIRE.

The twelfth annual cattle show and fair of the Hampshire
Agricultural Society was held on its grounds, at Amherst, on
the 10th and 11th days of October last. The weather during
both days was most unpropitious. The forenoon of the first
was cold, cloudy, and threatening of storm. As a consequence
the attendance of farmers was comparatively small, and the
entries of the different kinds of stock considerably diminished.
Nevertheless the show was respectable.

224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Tlierc were on the f^round, of neat stock, seven hulls — one
of them the Durham hull " Holyoke," owned hy the Iladley
Farmers' Cluh ; seven cows, comprising two heautiful Ayr-
shires imported hy Mr. Sweetser, of Amherst ; fourteen heifers ;
five pairs of fat cattle — one pair of Durhams weighing 4,080
lbs., and one of native stock weighing 3,850 lbs. ; twenty yoke
of working oxen ; seven yoke of three, and four yoke of two
years old steers ; and twenty-three calves.

There were several entries of swine, chiefly of the Chester
County breed. Noticeable among these was one lot of Chester
County stock, twenty-three in number, presented by Mr. Kel-
logg, of Chicopee. One of these was a two year old, weighing,
l)y estimation, 600 lbs.

There were five or six entries of sheep — nearly all of the
coarse-wool breeds ; among them was a fine buck presented as
a full-blood South Down by Mr. Hubbard, of Sunderland.

The second day brought a continued, and much of the time,
a drenching rain. It was devoted to the exhibition of horses.
The number of animals was much smaller than a more favor-
able day would have called forth. Seven stallions, six brood
mares, twenty-five colts, three trotting nags, six pair of car-
riage and eleven of farm horses, comprised the number entered.
Many of these animals were worthy of special commendation.
A pair of ]\rorgan mares, weighing 2,200 lbs., which drew with
apparent ease, on a loose and sandy soil, a load of 4,800 lbs.
weight, and nine men added, attracted no little attention.

Another noticeable feature of the exhibition on both days
was trials both of strength and speed hy young men belonging
to the gymnastic class in Amherst College, and by others under
the direction of Dr. E. Hitchcock, Jr.

The commodious building on the grounds of the society, with
its large exhibition and audience halls, naturally, under the
circumstances, presented the chief attractions of the fair.

Here were shown numerous and excellent specimens of but-
ter, cheese, and honey ; of fruit, several collections comprising
many varieties ; and many single entries of apples, pears, grapes,
quinces, and cranberries ; also a good show of wheat, corn, rye,
buckwheat, onions, &c., together with twenty specimens of
wheat bread, fifteen of rye and six of brown bread.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 225

There was also a good variety of the products of mechanical
industry and skill ; and specimens of the tasteful handiwork of
the ladies, too numerous to mention.

On the afternoon of the first day the members of the society
listened, in their audience hall, with evident interest and profit
to an able address by ex-Governor Washburn, of which it is
enough to say, that it was worthy of the occasion, and of the
man, whose voice and pen have never failed to do willing and
effective service in the cause of agriculture. On the afternoon
of the second day, they sat down to an excellent dinner, in the
same hall, which was followed by an amusing and worthy
poem by Mr. Dyer, a recent graduate of the college and by
short and decidedly patriotic speeches from President Stearns
and several others.

The popular president of the society. Professor Clark, now
Major in the twenty-first regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers
— not forgetting in the din and excitement of the camp and
the field the interests of agriculture, which he cherishes so
heartily and serves so well — having returned on a furlough for
that purpose — presided over the various exercises of the society
with his wonted spirit and vigor to the great gratification of his
friends and associates.

J. White.

HIGHLAND SOCIETY.

The annual exhibition of the Highland Society was held at
the grounds of the society, in Middlefield, September 12th and
13th. In a financial point of view, this association has been
conducted with economy and skill ; and after having enclosed
the grounds, presented by Matthew Smith, Esq., and paid for
the hall, erected in 1859, it is free from debt, and is enabled to
make liberal offers of premiums. The elevated location of the
land devoted to the exhibition presents a commanding view of
this section of the State, occupied by some of our finest grazing
farms. And the towns of Middlefield, Becket, Chester, Hins-
dale, Washington, Peru and Worthingtou furnish liberal
contributions to the annual shows.

Tiie quality of the cattle was one of the most marked
features of the exhibition, and illustrated, very strikingly, the

29*

226 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

comparative merits of some of the well-known breeds. Among
the three hundred head on the grounds, by far the largest
number was composed of grade Short-horns, bred in this region
since 1840, commencing with a bull of the Rensselaer stock,
and followed by Americas, Roan Duke, and other animals from
the herd of Mr. Lathrop, and that of Mr. Thorne. It was
evident from the size and shape of the stock exhibited, that
great care had been taken in the selection of the males. Better
specimens of this blood are seldom seen, than could be found
in the steers from two to four years old — a pair of the latter
belonging to Mr. Charles Bill, weighing 4,500 pounds, and a
steer two years old belonging to Matthew Smith, weighing 1,800
pounds. This breed of cattle in and around Middlefield, has
attracted the attention of the feeders of the Connecticut Valley
and elsewhere ; and very considerable profit has accrued to
those who are engaged in breeding them.

The exhibition of Devons was small. They were of fine
quality however, well muscled, heavy quartered, thrifty animals,
mostly descended from the bull " Winchester," owned by Mr.
Harlow Loveland.

A few specimens of Ayrshires were exhibited, among which
were the grades of B. F. Peirce, of Peru, who has a pure bred
bull descended from the stock of Mr. Barrett, of Concord. The
heifers exhibited by Mr. Peirce were fine specimens of the
grades of this breed, and seemed to be admirably adapted for
the dairy herd on these higliland pastures. The Ayrshire bull
of Ebenezer Peirce, of Peru, sired by " Essex," attracted much
attention and is a valuable animal.

There were twelve entries of sheep, mostly fine-woolled — some
Oxford Downs and a few South Downs. As is usual in the largest
sheep-grazing sections of New England, the fine-woolled sheep is
here most popular with the farmers, and is said by them to be
the most profitable. The importance of introducing sheep into
Massachusetts is so great that the comparative profits of fine
and coarse-woolled, seems to be a secondary consideration, and
a question wliich may be decided when our pastures are once
more occupied l)y this useful animal.

Of swine there were but few, and they mostly Suffolks
crossed upon a coarser breed, with here and there a Chester
County.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 227

The second day was devoted to an exhibition of horses, of
whicli the entries were numerous. Most of the animals were
remarkable for good size, and strength, and bone ; and were of
the various families of Morgan. J. W. Wheeler, of Becket,
exhibited four two years old Blackhawk colts of very superior
excellence, all sired by the horse " Berkshire." He also exhib-
ited an Ethan Allen and a Stockbridge Chief, both three years
old. Five Morgan stallions were also exhibited by Mr. Baird, of
Becket, and Mr. Johnson, of Chester. All these horses evinced
careful attention to the breeding of that kind of animal so much
in demand among us for the road and for draught.

The hall contained a fine display of crops and articles of
domestic manufacture, evidently from farmers' families.

An address in the village church, and a very interesting
distribution of silver ware among those who were entitled to
premiums, closed the exhibition.

In visiting the farms in this section, it appeared that there
was a preponderance of pasturage over the products of tillage
land; and that the farmers had not fully stocked their pastures,
on account of an insufficiency of winter feed. As the land
and seasons here are not well adapted to corn, it seemed to be
worthy of inquiry whether those root crops which are easily
cultivated might not be a valuable addition to the stores of
winter forage. These hill and mountain towns are far removed
from a market, and it is only in the form of dairy products,
beef, mutton and wool, that the crops of the pasture and the
field can be easily conveyed to a point of sale. It is to be
regretted that the farms should not be compelled to feed in
the winter all the stock they can support in summer.

George B. Loring.

HAMPDEN.

The undersigned, a delegate appointed by the State Board of
Agriculture to attend the forty-third exhibition of the Hamp.
den Agricultural Society, respectfully reports : That, owing to
circumstances beyond his control, he did not arrive at Spring-
field until near the close of the first day of the exhibition, and

228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

not until after the neat stock, swine and sheep, had been removed
from the grounds, in accordance with the custom of the society,
— a custom which, your delegate respectfully suggests, would
he " more honored in the breach than in the observance." He
would therefore recommend to the society the expediency of
retaining the cattle and live stock during the forenoon, at least,
of the second day, — thus obviating, in a measure, the common
objection that horses are to be the chief attraction of the grand
day of the exhibition.

The exhibition was held on the 3d and 4th days of October.
The show of stock took place on the spacious and beautiful
grounds of Hampden Park, owned by the society. Tlie farm
products, fruits, manufactures, and all other articles, were
arranged in Hampden Hall.

The weather was fair during both days, and the attendance
and interest satisfactory. The exhibition of stock, although
not the largest, was considered one of the best ever made by the
society, and in the opinion of a member of this Board, to whom
your delegate is indebted for information, presented many
points of excellence.

Among the entries of neat stock there were ten pairs of fat
cattle, twenty-four yoke of working oxen, twenty-five milch
cows, eleven bulls, and thirteen yoke of steers. Conspicuous
among these were a yoke of fat oxen four years old, from Mr.
George S. Taylor, of Westfield, weighing 4,500 pounds, — the
Short-horns of Mr. Stedman, the Ayrshircs of Mr. Birnie, and
the Devons of Mr. Sessions. There were also some good
Jerseys, and many fine grade animals on the grounds. All
the fat cattle, except two yoke of oxen from Springfield,
were from "Westfield, a town long celebrated for its fine beef
animals. The Short-horns and grades were considered as the
best representatives of good beef growing, and the Ayrshires as
embracing more good points for the dairy than any other. The
Jerseys are, however, coming in as competitors in this line,
and both of these breeds are on the increase in this county.

Of sheep there were twelve lots, embracing good South Downs,
Cotswold and New Oxfordshire breeds.

Of swine there were fourteen pens, consisting largely of the
Chester County breed, which, for rapid growth, are here, as else-
where, gaining popularity with those who grow for market.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 229

The ploughing-match took place on the afternoon of the first
day. Eleven teams entered the field, two with the Michigan
plough, and one with a plough made in the last century, and
drawn with a pair of horses whose united ages were sixty-three.

Some trials of the speed of horses closed the operations of the
first day.

Immediately after the arrival of your delegate at Springfield,
he repaired to the exhibition of the society in Hampden Hall.
Tiie show here was interesting and creditable, although said
not to be as extensive as usual.

The display of fruit, considering the very unpropitious char-
acter of the season, was better than anticipated, and here and
there might be seen a dish of pears and apples of extra quality.
Among the former was a dish of Winter Nelis pears, seldom if
ever excelled in this State. The strong point of this department,
however, was the collection of grapes. Splendid dishes of the
Isabella, Concord, Hartford Prolific, Diana, Rebecca, Union
Village, and Delaware grapes w^ere shown, and of the latter it
seemed to your delegate that no better could be produced than
those contributed by the Rev. Dr. Ide and Mr. John B. Steb-
bins. And here it may be remarked, that although all of the
above named grapes are considered hardy in this State, yet the
revulsions which occasionally occur, like the extremes of the
last winter, have taught us the lesson that in future the best
policy will be to lay our vines upon the ground during the
■winter season. The only covering they need is a few inches of
soil thrown over them, and in most instances when laid on the
ground even without any covering, they will come out bright
in the spring. There were also excellent collections of foreign
grapes, from the graperies of Mr. Birnie, and also from Mr.
Chapin, of the Massasoit House.

There were a few baskets of capital good apples, and among
them a handsome one by Roger S. Moore, of Springfield,
from a tree that produced this year twelve bushels, a striking
evidence of the superior hardiness and capability of some
varieties to withstand the greatest exigencies of our climate.

Cranberries here, as in other counties, are becoming an article
of attention, and good specimens were exhibited.

Of vegetables the show was fair. Large collections were
presented by Messrs. Atwater and other gentlemen. Among

230 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

them the potato appeared to have received especial attention
in the production of several new varieties.

In plants and cut flowers the exhibition was very good, and
in several of the collections were noticed the new varieties of
the Gladioli, Dahlia, Zumia, Verbena, Arc.

There were numerous contributions of agricultural imple-
ments, new inventions, domestic manufactures, fancy articles,
bread, butter and cheese. As a whole the exhibition in the
hall was one of interest and instruction to your delegate.

The exhibition of the second day at the Park opened with a
grand display of horses. About one hundred and twenty-five
were on the grounds, including twelve stallions, ten pairs of
work horses, eleven breeding mares, twenty-five colts, of all
ages, and twenty-two teams of carriage horses. There were
further trials of the driving horses, and of heavy draught horses.

In all the classes there were animals of superior excellence,
and better than can be produced elsewhere in the State; but the
most attractive team was the Muzzy-Morrell family of horses,
consisting of the Muzzy mare, twenty-eight years old, and her
son, Young Morrell, stallion, harnessed into a wagon abreast
with eight of his children. Mr. Briggs, the proprietor of Young
Morrell, was the conductor of this wonderful team, and man-
aged it with as much ease as he would have driven a common
tandem team. «

THE DINNER.

At two o'clock the president of tlic society, with his guests
and about 150 members, sat down to a sumptuous dinner at the
Massasoit House. The occasion was honored by the presence
of His Excellency Governor Andrew, Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, of
Amherst College, Dr. George B. Loring, of Salem, Mr. Luther
H. Tucker, editor of the " Country Gentleman," Judge Vose,
and other gentlemen of weir*known reputation.

Chester W. Chapin, Esq., president of the society, presided.
After the eatables had been examined and disposed of, the
intellectual feast commenced. Mr, Chapin introduced the
exercises with an appropriate welcome speech, and was followed
by Judge Vose, wlio in becoming terms alluded to the presence
of His Excellency, the Governor of the Commonwealth.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 231

Governor Andrew responded, lie spoke eloquently of the
importance and influence of the farmer's calling, and of the
virtues and advantages which clustered around it. He consid-
ered agriculture as the great promoter of civilization, the
bulwark of our government as well in time of war as in peace,
and urged the necessity of following up the war to a successful
issue in vindication of the integrity of the Union and the Con-
stitution. He loved the Union because it was peace, and hated
disunion because it would certainly lead to war. His speech
was forcible and gave general satisfaction.

Your delegate was next speaker. He cordially concurred in
the views of His Excellency the Governor, both in relation to
the farmer and the Union. He urged a vigorous support of the
government, and believed that He who rules in mercy as well
as in justice, would eventually bring us out of all our present
trials and make us a wiser and better people. He alluded to
the first exhibition of the United States Agricultural Society,
held in Springfield, and to its influence in giving character to
that society. He spoke in praise of the exhibition, and of the
liberality and enterprise of the citizens of Springfield, and
expressed the hope that the efforts now making for the estal)lish-
ment of the Massachusetts School of Agriculture here would be
successful. The subject of agricultural education had ever
been one of the dearest objects of his heart, and he was rejoiced
to meet here by his side a venerable and beloved citizen with
whom he had in past times labored for the advancement of this
cause, and whose Report to the State on the industrial schools
of Europe was one of the most interesting and valuable State
papers on record.

Dr. Hitchcock, ex-president of Amherst College, responded to
the call of your delegate, and spoke at length of the project of
the Agricultural School at Springfield, which he came there to
endorse. He gave a very interesting account of his examination
of the schools he visited in Europe. There were more tlian three
hundred of all grades, and every one is in some way connected
with a farm whose cultivation is required to be superior to
that of the region in which it was located. Dr. Hitchcock
felt confident that with an earnest and yet economical effort by
those now moving in the matter, success would be sure.

232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Dr. George B. Loring, of Salem, was the next speaker. The
Doctor commenced by cordially supporting the governor in his
remarks as to the maintenance of the war and the vindication
of the Union in its entirety, and the Constitution in its originality
and equality of application. He urged the farmers of Massa-
chusetts to the improvement of their opportunities. The markets
at their doors they had neglected, and left the supply to come
from the West. This State did not raise hay enough for its
own wants. The farmers, he said, had not sacrificed their sheep
to dogs, but. to a shiftless husbandry. They should have three
millions of sheep, not yielding a pound of wool and twenty-five
pounds of mutton, but weighing from seventy-five to one hun-
dred pounds per head. Such sheep we could have, and such
would be found profitable. Such our farmers did have till they
took the side of the dogs and raised fat curs and poor sheep.
Dr. Loring also gave some very interesting accounts of his
success in draining and renovation of exhausted and neglected
lands, all of which was listened to with great interest. Mr. L.
H. Tucker, of the Albany Cultivator, made the closing speech,
in which he expressed his gratification with the exhibition,
and what he had seen in former times of the farming in the
western part of the State, and gave some account of his personal
observations in his late tour in Europe. Thus ended the forty-
third exhibition of one of the oldest and most respectable
agricultural societies of the Commonwealth.

Marshall P. Wilder.

EAST HAMPDEN.

The ninth annvial exhibition of the Hampden East Agricul-
tural Society took place at Palmer on the 17th and 18th days
of September and was attended by your delegate.

The first day was rainy, and probably many persons and
some animals were detained from the exhibition on that ac-
count ; for the number of persons and animals present was
small.

The cattle were mostly Durham and Devon grades of fair
size and in fine condition. A few were large. Two pairs, of
three years old steers, were said to weigh three thousand

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 233

pounds per pair. About forty pairs of well-matched working
oxen — four pairs of which, large, fat and liandsorae — from the
State farm in Monson, also several fine looking bulls and a
small herd of young cattle strongly marked with Durham blood,
and half a dozen milch cows of no particular excellence, com-
prised the show of neat stock.

The ploughing-match which was announced in the pro-
gramme, to take place at ten o'clock on the morning of the
first day, did not take place at all, as no competitors appeared
for the prizes.

As the drawing-match was not announced in the hearing of
your delegate he failed to witness the performance, but was
reliably informed that it was quite creditable to the competitors.

Only two lots of swine were shown, one by Colonel Cyrus
Knox and son ; the other by Joseph Weeks, Esq., of Palmer,
all well formed, of large size and in good condition. No sheep
were noticed by your delegate.

The vegetables were very fine, though by no means numerous,
although one gentleman, A. R. Murdock, Jr., presented about
a hundred specimens, consisting of several varieties of pota-
toes, turnips, tomatoes, squashes, beans, corn, &c. Colonel
Knox had samples of corn, rye, wheat, beans, &c., of very
excellent quality.

The articles of domestic manufacture were few, but of fine
appearance. The specimens of butter, cheese, bread, cake,
wine, honey, <fec., as well as the fancy articles presented by the
ladies, gave evidence of skill, industry and correct taste on the
part of their owners.

No fruits of marked excellence were shown except a few
bunches of Isabella grapes, which were very large and beautiful.

The mechanic arts were very feebly represented. Three or
four agricultural implements, as root-cutters, corn-stalk cutters,
&c., were shown.

The second day, which was more auspicious than the first,
was devoted to the exhibition of horses, a dinner, a discussion
at the table, &c.

The horses, though less numerous than the cattle, were much
more powerful in drawing the people together, for the assemblage
was much larger on the second than on the first day.

30*

234 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

Among the horses were several noble animals. A few pairs
of horses trained to the carriage performed well. The draught
horses were large and powerful.

A few breeding mares with colts by their sides together with
the colts of one, two and three years, although not of the
highest rank, comprised by far the best part of the horse show.

The trial of the strength of draught horses was conducted
as follows : —

Upon a wagon weighing six hundred pounds, were placed
fifteen barrels of flour, and drawn by each of five horses some
fourteen rods up an elevation of twelve to fifteen degrees (by
estimation.) The load was drawn with different degrees of
ease according to the weight, training, <fec., of the different
animals. Their average weight was about eleven hundred
pounds.

At two o'clock, about forty gentlemen and a few ladies partook
of an excellent dinner at the Antique House, after which the
reports of the committees were read by the secretary of the
society. Very few ladies honored the occasion with their
presence.

As announced in the programme, the three following questions
were proposed to be discussed at the table, instead of an address
at the church : —

1. Are agricultural exhibitions beneficial to the community ?

2. Is farming profitable ?

3. Which is the most profitable, the raising of horses or
cattle ?

The first question was very briefly discussed by a few gen-
tlemen, but a large majority of the company soon left the hall
to witness the trials of the speed of horses upon the show
ground. Thus ended the ninth annual exhibition of the
Hampden East Agricultural Society.

Your delegate deems it his duty to say here, that the exhibi-
tion of the Hampden East Society did not quite come up to his
expectations, nor to what in his judgment ought to be required
of a society which receives the bounty of the State ; he thinks
there is a manifest want of interest among the members of the
society, in the cause of agriculture generally, and that compar-
atively few devote sufficient time and attention to the interest
of the society to render their exhibitions attractive or, in a

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 235

laudable degree useful. A few of the members manifest a deep
interest in the cause, and to that few the society owes the
degree of success that was attained at their late exhibition.

0. C. Felton.

FRANKLIN.

Thursday and Friday, September 2Gth and 27th, were tlie days
appointed by law for the Franklin County show, but the National
Fast occurring on the first day, the trustees very properly de-
ferred the exhibition, which took place on Friday and Saturday,
the 27th and 28th.

The show was gratifying and successful in every respect.

Notwithstanding the threatening appearance of the clouds on
the first day, but little rain fell, and the attendance was good.
The second was one of tlie finest days of the season, and the
grounds were crowded with a highly respectable collection of
persons, including many ladies.

The whole number of entries recorded was 705 ; in some in-
stances single entries including 20 to 25 animals, 20 or more
varieties of fruit, &c.

The number of animals exhibited was 861, exclusive of
poultry.

The entries of neat stock numbered 350 head ; the cattle were
principally grade Short-horns, though there were several very
fine thoroughbred cows and bulls.

On entering the enclosure, the first object of attraction was
a collection of full-blood Short-horn cows and heifers, eight in
number, whose average weight was nearly 1,500 pounds ; they
were excellent specimens of the breed, and gave evidence of
generous keeping.

Moses A. Barnard, of Shelburne, exhibited three grade Short-
horn cows, remarkable for size and symmetry, very high in
flesh, at the same time bearing the points of superior milkers ;
one of the three had produced eighteen pounds of butter in
seven days. Mr. Barnard received, as he unquestionably de-
served, the first premium for dairy cows.

There were many other cows of fine appearance on the
grounds, but it would require too much space to notice them

236 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

all ; the character of nearly all the animals exhibited was supe-
rior, scarcely an inferior one being seen.

The most noticeable of the several attractive herds of cattle
were those of 0. 0. Bardwell, John S. Anderson and Lewis
Long, all of Shelburne ; each of them exhibited from 20 to 30
head of cows, heifers and steers ; many of them were extra
animals, and all showed great size for their age.

John S. Anderson had on the grounds a three-years old grade
Short-horn heifer, weighing 1,660 pounds ; had never tasted
grain. Also, a pair of twin heifers, two years of age in March
last, and weighing about 2,600 pounds.

"William Long exhibited steers remarkable for size and
general thrift.

Of bulls, the number on exhibition was not large, but the
quality was excellent.

It was gratifying to find that the famous Short-horn bull
*' Roan Duke," mentioned in the report of the Highland
Society's show last year, had been again domesticated, and pur-
chased by those excellent judges of stock, the Messrs. Anderson,
of Shelburne. He was on the grounds, and attracted more
attention than any other animal present, and will unquestion-
ably prove a most valuable acquisition to the already fine stock
of Shelburne ; his progeny may some day be prized as highly as
that of the bull "Northumberland," which was one of the first
Short-horns brought into this section ; many of the best animals
exhibited claimed a descent from him. As showing how little
the Short-horn blood was valued in this vicinity twenty years
ago, it may be of interest to look into his history, which is here
annexed :

The bull "Northumberland," (4,596) English Short-horn
Herd Book, was bred by E. P. Prentice, Esq., of Albany, N. Y. ;
was calved Dec. 23,1839; got by "Prince," of Northumber-
land, (4,826), dam " Appolonia," by Albion (2,965), etc.

Mr. Prentice presented or otherwise disposed of "Northum-
berland" to H. K. Brown, Esq., the noted sculptor. In Feb-
ruary, 1844, Mr. Prentice and Mr. Brown called on Sanford
Howard, Esq., then residing in Albany, requesting liim to make
selection of a bull from Mrr Prentice's herd for Mr. Brown to
send his uncle, Mr. Samuel Child, of Deerfield, Mass. Of

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 237

several from which he was allowed to select, he preferred
" Northumberland," having in view the locality and purposes
for wliich he was destined. The bull was of medium size, gen-
erally good symmetry, mostly of a red color, with a few streaks
of brindle about the head, neck and shoulders ; knowing the
Yankee prejudice against light colors in cattle, especially for
oxen, (much stronger at that day than now,) and supposing
that working oxen would be one of the objects in propagation,
it was thought that " Northumberland's '" color might serve to
recommend him to favor. His dam was a great milker, but
not of so good constitution as some cows. On the side of his
sire he inherited a good fattening tendency, a property which
he communicated in a striking degree to his progeny from grade
and common cows. As a proof of the slight estimation in which
the bull was held in Franklin County, it may be proper to men-
tion that, in the fall of 1847, Mr. Howard called at Mr. Ciiild's
farm, and found the bull in course of preparation for slaughter.
Mr. Child told him that the farmers paid very little attention to
the bull, and would not avail themselves of his services at two
dollars per head sufficiently to pay the expense of keeping him.
The bull, however, was not killed at this time, but was sold and
taken to Longmeadow, where he was kept two years. He was
then purchased by a company of farmers in Whately, and kept
for service two or three years ; from Whately he was taken to
Montague, kept two years, and fatted as a stag ; he is said to
have fattened like a steer. He was sold at Cambridge market, at
the age of fourteen or fifteen years. His stock proved as good
at the last as in his youth. After his progeny had demon-
strated their superiority over any other stock in the vicinity,
very much was said about the value of the " Northumberland "
breed, which continues to maintain its high reputation to this
day. Although he was not the first bull of the Short-horn breed
in Franklin County, (there having been before his day bulls
called "Durhams" brought from Hoosack, N. Y., that could
be traced to importations from England,) he was probably of
purer blood than his predecessors, and his great excellence was
the foundation for the high repute in which the Short-horns are
held through all this section of the State.

To return to the report of the exhibition : The pure bred
Short-horn bull " Fourth of July," two years of age, was a

238 BOARD OF ACxRICULTURE.

large and promising animal, of excellent disposition, and pos-
sessing many valuable points.

Tlie town teams from Deerfiekl and Shelburne, together
numbering fifty-three yoke of oxen, almost entirely grade
Short-horns, could scarcely have been equalled in the Com-
monwealth for size, beauty and docility, nearly all of them
were iu very high order, speaking well for the pastures of this
section.

The display of steers was unusually good, and the collection
of oxen and steers alone, was attractive enough, to repay a
lover of good stock, for a journey of one hundred miles.

The exhibition of sheep, taking into consideration their
number and excellence, was probably in advance of any thing
of the kind ever seen in the State.

The number of entries in this line was fifty-one, including
over three hundred animals. It is gratifying to see the increased
attention paid to this branch of farming ; the hill portions of
Franklin County are admirably adapted to sheep-husbandry,
which was here once a leading business, the chief attention
having been paid to the small, fine-wool varieties. For many
years sheep have been gradually decreasing in numbers, their
place being supplied by neat stock, chiefly Short-horn grades,
with a view to raising oxen, which when grown, were \isually
sold to the feeders in the river towns, where they were stall fed for
the butcher. The great West has injuriously affected the profit
of this business, by delivering cattle at all our chief markets,
fed on the rich pastures and cheap corn of that section, at a
lower figure than can be afforded here, and probably in future
the Yal ley farmers will find their best interest, in a great measure,
to consist in feeding sheep rather than oxen.

There were exhibited fine specimens of the South Down,
Cotswold, and Oxford Down breeds, the latter appeared to be
the general favorites, and some of their lambs were remarkably
promising.

Perley Ballon, with J. S. Grennell and S. A. Sraead, were
the principal exhibitors of Oxford Downs ; G. W. Carpenter
and Sons, and others, of Shelburne, made fine shows of South
Downs. Of fine-wool sheep, the best exhibition was made
by A. 0. Buddington, of Leyden, and D. R. Bardwell, of
Shelburne.

REPORTS OP DELEGATES. 239

Swine. The favorite breed was evidently the Chester
County ; the number of entries was sixty. There were three
or four fine boars, as many sows, and several litters of pigs
exhibited of this variety. None of the Suffolk, Berkshire or
other breeds were shown, but almost every animal was supposed
to have a dash of Chester County blood ; judging from the
specimens exhibited this is justly a popular breed, the ani-
mals are long in the body, have no waste bone, are described
as remarkably hardy, and as attaining a large size at an early
age.

Of poultry, the entries were one hundred and twenty-five,
principally of the most useful varieties. The turkeys were
particularly fine and of large size ; also, a few pairs of Rouen
ducks, which were almost as large as geese.

Saturday was devoted to the display of horses ; the number
of entries was one hundred and fifty-one. The show was fair
in number and quality ; most of the animals seemed well
adapted for service, (none of the grey hound varieties were on
exhibition,) they were almost exclusively of the Morgan and
Black Hawk families, of fair size, compactly built, and gen-
erally of good figure and action ; judging from the horses on
the grounds, those raised in this vicinity are fair travellers, and
possess vigorous constitutions ; from the break-neck pace at
which they are driven down the mountains in the hill portions
of the county, they must be unusually sure-footed or serious
accidents would frequently occur. The colts were many of
them very promising.

The in-door portion of the exhibition was held in the town
hall ; which was well filled with the varied products of the
farm, household, and workshop.

The entries of butter and cheese were but twenty-two in
number ; the cheese was well spoken of, this part of the exhibi-
tion was altogether too meagre, and in so fine a dairy district as
this, was without sufficient excuse, although it was said that the
National Fast occurring on the day previous to the show, many
samples from a distance could not be presented in season for
the premiums.

A very fair collection of vegetables was noticed, generally
excellent in quality ; but comparatively few apples and pears
were shown, the crop being exceedingly light here, as throughout

240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

New England. Grapes were exhibited in great variety and pro-
fusion ; there were tempting chisters of Delaware, Concord,
Diana, and Hartford Prolific, with an unusually fine display of
the Isabella. Doctor Beals, of Greenfield, made a splendid
show of house grapes from his cold-grapery. The vines had
been under cultivation but three years ; the fruit was of extra
size and quality.

A large and elegant collection of flowers graced the platform
at the upper end of the hall, among which were many beautiful
and tastefully arranged bouquets.

Of domestic manufactures, there was a large collection of
useful articles ; including home-made carpeting, flannels,
stocking-yarn, and counterpanes ; of the ornamental, there
were exquisite embroideries in silk and worsted, and other
needle-work in endless variety, also many specimens of paint-
ing and drawing with which the Avails were adorned.

In the mechanical department, a collection of ploughs of
excellent design and finish were exhibited by the manufacturers,
Messrs. Smith & Field, of Greenfield; hay-cutters, root-slicers,
and other labor saving machines, were also noticed.

The whole exhibition proved one of the best ever held by the
society. It was a success too, pecuniarily, the receipts having
been large, and the general expressions of satisfaction heard on
all sides as the crowd dispersed at the close of the exhibition,
was a guarantee that the society was accomplishing to a great
extent, the objects for which it was instituted, in bringing the
farmers of the district together in generous competition, en-
couraging improvement in stock, and progress in every thing
relating to the farm.

It was a cause of regret that only the farmers of the immedi-
ate vicinity, (with very few exceptions,) were contributors to
this show. Many of the -more distant towns within the limits
of the society were entirely unrepresented. If all societies
■would offer mileage on stock driven from a distance, it would
serve to equalize the advantages of the exhibition, and it is to
be hoped that those living at a distance would not wilfully
throw away the benefits and rewards olfered, on account of the
trouble and inconvenience of attending. The lack of interest
on tlie part of those remote from the place of exhibition, has
become a serious evil in many parts of the State, and affords

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 241

one of the strongest arguments in favor of itinerant exhibitions,
changing to the various quarters of tlie district, when none
could complain that they were deprived of tiie benefits of the
bounty so freely given by the State.

The grounds occupied this year for the first time by the
Franklin County society, are centrally and conveniently located ;
a substantial fence has been erected about them, also a well-
arranged building for covered pens, and a track one-quarter
of a mile in length has been graded and fenced. More room
is imperatively required ; this was acknowledged by all, and a
lot of land four acres in extent adjoining should, before another
exhibition, be annexed. The only want, then, will be a building
where the horticultural and mechanical display may be found
without going off the grounds ; this will come in due season,
and, it is to be hoped, may include a hall for the address, with
suitable rooms for the use of the officers of the society.

A short address of a practical character, with an opportunity
for a pleasing interchange of sentiments, adds very much to
general interest of these occasions. This feature was wanting
here, its early restoration would be of great service to the
association.

The whole supervision and management of this show, seemed
by general consent to have been left in the hands of the capable
and energetic secretary, (who is also the society's treasurer.)
Had it been an enterprise for his own benefit, it could not have
been more completely under his control. Only by the complete
system adopted in the entry of animals and articles for exhibi-
tion, was he enabled to attend to more than his legitimate
duties ; his plan of printed headings for the use of the various
committees, cannot be too highly commended ; it should be
generally introduced, as it saves much time at a season when
every moment is valuable. The secretary seemed to be wher-
ever he was needed at the proper moment ; no one could have
more patiently attended to the incessant calls that were made
upon his time and attention ; his constant good humor and
ready invention overcame many difficulties. Every one was
kept cheerful and all passed off pleasantly.

The fault here noticed is too prevalent in nearly all of our
societies, that of leaving the whole burden of management on the

31#

242 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

shoulders of one or two individuals ; in all these associations
each member should feel called upon to take his share of the
duties ; if the labor were divided between thirty, fifty or one
hundred persons, very little would be required of each ; every
thing might be systematized, and the different parts of the
exhibition rendered of much greater interest and profit ; much
ill feeling avoided, as well as the want of promptness and
punctuality, which is frequently so great a drawback to many
of our shows.

Noticing the superior quality of nearly every thing exhibited
from Shelburne and Deerfield, and that a large projwrtion of
the premiums were awarded to the enterprising farmers of
those towns, your delegate was easily persuaded by the secretary
of the society to pass a little time among them.

Shelburne is emphatically a hill town. Rising immediately
beyond the plains of Greenfield it includes a collection of hills,
composed of micacious slate, which upon decomposition makes
a strong soil, well watered by springs starting from the bed
rock, even to the hill tops, and rendering' the town one of
the best for grass to be found in the State ; droughts do not
injuriously effect the pastures, the springy nature of the soil
keeping them fresh and green during the dryest seasons.

Comparatively little corn is raised, frosts coming early, and
the soil being generally rather cold and heavy for that crop.

The first farm examined was that of the Messrs. Anderson,
wlio rank at the head for superior stock, and for the intelligence
and liberality characterizing all their management.

The farm is off the main road, and in most localities would
be considered almost inaccessible ; the buildings were all new,
and the barn was of the best, combining a large amount of
stable room, with great storage capacity, under a comparatively
small roof ; it was located on a steep side hill, and stood on
the solid rock ; the cellar was used for manure, the cattle
standing on the floor above ; the main floor for taking in the
crops was immediately over the stables, and the drive-way was
on a level with the ground on the upper side of the barn ; the
haymows commenced on a level with the cattle floor, and a
large portion of the hay was thrown down rather than up ;
nearly one-half of the hay stored was rowen or second crop.
It is almost the universal practice in this section to commence

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 243

haying by the middle of June, thus ensuring a second crop on
nearly all of the mowing land. Tiie Messrs. Anderson had their
first crop housed this year June 25th, and cut nearly thirty-five
tons of rowen ; they esteem the early cutting of hay of great
importance, and remarked that as they raised but little corn,
they fat their cattle principally upon rowen, being enabled by
feeding until about May 1st, to get as good prices for their beef
as those who make a business of feeding with corn are able to
obtain in March ; they attribute much of their success in
raising stock, to the fine quality of hay on which they are kept.
They pay particular attention to their calves the first winter,
giving them the best of their provender, and in every way
encouraging a constant growth.

There can be no question but that the practice of cutting
grass early, especially when it is designed for growing stock or
cows in milk, might be generally followed to great advantage,
but this cannot always be done ; where Timothy is raised,
a second crop cannot be expected, without the first is taken
off before it is grown sufficiently to make it profitable to do
so ; but on almost every farm there is more or less land
that may be kept in grass continually to a profit; by top-
dressing, this land may all produce two crops of the finest
quality of grass, if the first is cut very early, say in June. But
little Timothy is raised in Shelburne the land being usually
seeded with the finer varieties. Top-dressing mowing lands is
almost the universal practice in this locality.

The pastures of the Messrs. Anderson are quite remarkable.
Scarcely a bush or brier to be seen, and the grass, although late
in the season, being in some of their pastures almost equal to
a mowing field ; they are cautious about over-feeding pastures,
and deem it very desirable that a good covering of fog or old
grass should be left on the fields through the winter. Their
oxen, cows and steers are all Short-horn grades (descendants
of " Northumberland " and are models of symmetry and
thrift ; their size was truly astonishing.

Farms occupied by Messrs. Lewis Long, George C. Dole, and
G. P. Carpenter, were visited, all having barns on the principle
described ; their owners are working farmers, and wxre found
taking advantage of this rather leisure season, in making

244 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

improvements ; macliiiies were in use for lifting and moving
immense boulders, leaving the fields smooth and clear for
cultivation, or for the mowing machine ; tile drains were of
frequent occurrence, and it was quite surprising to see a district
so retired, the scene of so much intelligent improvement.

Captain G. W. Carpenter's farm was inspected ; the buildings
were located on the summit of an immense hill, commanding
an unobstructed view of the surrounding country, in one
direction to the extent of thirty or forty miles ; it was a delight-
ful location, and the farm was of the first quality. A noble
herd of cattle was here found, also a fine flock of South Down
sheep, which are receiving increased attention from their
enterprising owner, as the demand for heavy oxen decreases.

No better township could be found for sheep husbandry than
Shelburne, and considering the great and increasing demand
for good mutton, the high prices of coarse-wools, the early
maturity, and consequent quick returns to be derived from
sheep, the increased value of their manure over that of cattle,
being as one hundred to thirty-six, it cannot be doubted but
that the farmers of this section will in a short time stock their
excellent pastures with flocks of coarse and middle-wool sheep,
to the gradual exclusion of the great Short-horns, wiiich
however noble and handsome they may be, arc certainly an
expensive luxury ; they are rank feeders, requiring the best of
pasture and provender to keep them in a thrifty state ; and the
day has probably gone when they can be raised to a profit
hereabouts ; a breed of cattle smaller and more easily kept
would be found more valuable for dairy purposes.

A survey of the productive Valley of the Deerfield River, was
obtained in perfection from the summit of Pocumtuck Mountain
which rises abruptly from the meadows immediately back of
the pretty village of Deerfield, which is a fine sample of a river
town and contains many good farmers and much excellent
land.

A marked improvement has taken place in the mode of
farming in this locality within a few years ; it has been proved to
be more economical to manure higher, plough deeper, cultivate
better, and work less land than formerly. Lands which
twenty years ago produced twenty-five or thirty bushels of
corn to the acre, now grow fifty to seventy-five bushels ; where

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 245

one ton of hay was cut to the acre now three are frequently
mown ; one farmer has this year cut more than one hundred
tons of hay from thirty acres of land.

Wheat is taking the place of rye as a more remunerative
crop. "Wheat and oats are sowed together in place of oats
alone. Corn is thought to be the most profitable in the grain
line, if a system of improved husbandry is used. Broomcorn
was formerly a leading crop, but the West is able to raise and
deliver it cheaper than it can be afforded here.

Tobacco is grown to some extent in most of tlic valley towns,
but is not cultivated by one-tenth of the farmers ; it is a very
exhausting crop, requiring very high manuring and constant
attention from the sowing of the seed until it is sent to market.

Not one-fourth as many oxen are fed in the river districts as
was the custom fifteen years ago. The feeding of sheep is
becoming the great business and has increased four-fold. The
secretary of the agricultural society by a pretty careful exami-
nation estimated that in the winter of 1860-61 about 15,000
sheep were fattened in Franklin County. It has been the
prevailing opinion that sheep could not be kept in good health
in large numbers ; it may be proper to state that one farmer in
the town of Deerfield is feeding two hundred in an enclosure
one hundred and fifty feet by twenty-four ; mangers running
through the centre of the pen, dividing them into two lots of
one hu^j^dred each. Many farmers here think sheep the most
profitable stock that can be kept, though some doubt the
propriety of abandoning cattle entirely, thinking that both may
be kept to advantage.

Your delegate desires to express his thanks to James S.
Grennell, Esq., the worthy secretary and treasurer of the
Franklin County Agricultural Society, who was indefatigable in
doing every thing possible to render his stay pleasant and
profitable.

Henry H. Peters.

246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

BERKSHIRE.

Pursuant to appoiiitineut by the Board I attended the fifty-
first exhibition of the Berkshire Agricultural Society at Pitts-
field, commencing Wednesday, October 2d, (it being one day
later in the week than required by law,) and continuing three
days, closing on Friday afternoon.

This being the oldest agricultural society in Massachusetts,
and I believe the oldest in the United States, with perhaps one
or two exceptions, it might reasonably be expected that it
would be more mature in all its parts than those societies which
have been in operation but a few years. This much at least
may be said of it, it has arrived to a high degree of excellence.

The show grounds, the half-mile track, the hall for the
exhibition of the products of the farm, the garden and the
dairy, domestic manufactures and fancy articles. The dining-
hall and victualing stalls have all been described in previous
reports, and nothing more need be said of them.

The first day was devoted, out of doors, to neat stock, sheep
and swine. The neat stock was mostly grade Short-horn and
Devon, and mostly fine, large, well-formed animals. If the
number and quality of bull calves (of which there were
seventeen entries) on exhibition is any criterion by which to
judge, the farmers of Berkshire mean that their stock shall not
only not deteriorate, but rapidly improve. And if cal^-es fulfil
what their looks indicate when so young, they will far excel
their elders on exhibition ; in fact the young stock all showed
good progress in the right direction.

The exhibition of milch and breeding cows (of which there
were twenty-one of the former and twenty-nine of the latter)
was very fine, probably as good a collection of grade cows as
could be brought together, of an equal number, in the State.

The oxen were large, of good shape and well-matched ; but as
there was no trial of working I could not judge of their abilities
or training, but from appearances they could with proper
training do any thing reasonable.

Of sheep there were sixty-seven entries, twenty-two of fine-
wool, and forty-five of coarse-wool, indicating that this branch of
husbandry received its due share of attention, and showing
plainly that Berkshire people do not mean to be entirely under
the control of king cotton.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 247

Twelve entries of swine displayed some as fine porkers as
one could wish to see.

The second day horses took the track, of which there were
one hundred and thirty-seven entries, and among them many
very fine ones. In this department, like those of neat stock,
sheep and swine, the rising generation played a conspicuous
part and gave promise that they would do no discredit to their
progenitors, no discredit if they had proper attention. A maro
with nine of her progeny by her side and following behind, all
owned and exhibited by Colonel Pomeroy, was a sight not
often seen nor easily beaten in Massachusetts.

The third day was occupied with ploughing-match, address,
reporting and delivering premiums, and horse-trotting. The
ploughing-match came off the first thing in the morning, and was
one of the most attractive features of the occasion, except horse-
trotting, which always draws the crowd. Thirteen horse teams
and seven ox teams competed and performed their work to the
satisfaction of a large and interested crowd of men and women.

The hall, which is large and commodious, was occupied the
first and second days for the exhibition by all kinds of farm
and garden products, domestic manufactures and fancy articles,
and was extraordinarily well filled, especially that part depend-
ing upon the ladies, there being some thing like three thousand
pounds of cheese, five hundred pounds of butter, with bread
and honey to match.

On the third day after the ploughing-match, the hall having
been cleared, was soon filled with a large and attentive
audience to listen to the annual address and the awarding
of premiums, they being all given in plate and arranged on a
table in front of the speaker's stand in full view of the audience ;
thus serving to keep up the interest to the last.

In closing allow me to say that in the opinion of your delegate
Berkshire County society is one where the mass of the people,
both old and young, rich and poor, evidently manifest a decided
interest in the advancement of agriculture and the success of
the society, and where tiie State's bounty answers tlie end for
which it was appropriated as well as in any society in the State.

Sherman Converse.

248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

HOUSATONIC.

The exhibition of the Housatonic Society was held on tlie
25th, 26th and 27tli, of September, at the beautiful fair
grounds in Great Barrington — so beautiful and picturesque,
that the first attention of the visitor is confined to the display
which nature herself has provided, in this romantic section of
our State. The selection of grounds in such scenery is iiuleed
worthy of notice, and whoever would witness and admire the
luxuriance of a landscape in Massachusetts, should visit this
spot. To the Housatonic and Berkshire and Hampden
societies, we are indebted for exhibitions of natural scenery
in the location of their fair grounds such as is rarely seen in
any quarter of the globe.

After due attention to the attractions of nature, your
delegate was called upon to examine the exhibition of animals,
crops, and manufactures. The hall of the society was crowded
with a remarkable display of articles of taste and usefulness,
mostly the handiwork of the families of the farmers of the
region. The exhibition of grain and root crops, and of fruit
was excellent.

The entries of cattle were numerous. The quality of the
dairy stock was especially worthy of notice. The oxen were
remarkable for symmetry of form, and for uniformity of size
best adapted to labor on New England farms.

The sheep exhibited, indicated care and attention to this
animal, worthy of imitation throughout the State. Fine-wool
predominated.

The swine were well selected and evidently well cared for ;
the best specimens being of the breed commonly known as
" By field."

The ploughing-match was well conducted, but both with the
ox and horse teams, there was a deficiency in the deptli of
ploughing. Of ox teams there were seven entries, and of
horse teams twelve, it being evident that on the easy lands of
this valley the latter receive the preference.

The horses on the ground were numerous and attractive ; and
it is doubtful whether any society in our State could show a
better collection of stallions, mares and colts, horses of all
work, and matched pairs. The trials of speed were good.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 249

The exhibition of this society occupies three days, and is
evidently a jubilee for the neighborhood. Its affairs are well
managed, and its annual receipts from various sources are
sufficient to defray all its expenses, including very liberal
premiums, and to liquidate a portion of the debt incurred for
grounds, buildings, &c. The income for the present year,
including the State bounty, was about three thousand dollars.

The portion of the State occupied by the society, is rich in
agricultural resources. As a grain-growing district, and in the
production of wool and dairy commodities it is hardly excelled.
The shows are therefore extremely interesting and profitable to
the observer of farming. And it is evident that the members
of the society are determined that it shall be second to none
in the State, in the work of stimulating and encouraging
progress in the art of agriculture.

George B. Loring.

HOOSAC VALLEY SOCIETY.

The programme for the second annual cattle show and
fair of this society was evidently made out with a design to
accomplish the purpose for which such exhibitions receive
endowment from the Commonwealth. The general causes of
success or failure in the management of agricultural fairs
were kept in mind from the beginning of the exhibition, Sep-
tember 17th, to the close, on the evening of the 18th. No
unnecessary outlay appears to have been made by the society
in the way of preparation for its exhibitions, and no necessary
outlay appears to have been omitted which would materially
advance the immediate interests of the society. There is
abundant wealth belonging to members of the society, and
I doubt not that as soon as more permanent improvements
appear to be a necessity, the means necessary will be provided.

The first day was mainly devoted to cattle and minor stock
of the farm. During the forenoon, the citizens of Adams
formed in procession, and led by a band of music, escorted to

32*

250

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

tlic fair grounds, a decorated car, drawn hj forty yoke of oxen,
belonging to the farmers of the town of Florida ; the car was
filled by the farmers' daughters, countless in number, as they
were packed as closely as the leaves of a budding rose.

The morning of the second day was mainly devoted to the
hearing of an address by J. N. Dunham, Esq., prepared for
the occasion and delivered from an open stand near the centre
of the fair grounds, and the enjoyment of a sociable dinner
and lively speeches, both of which were of the digestible kind.
Immediately following was the exhibition of horses. Over five
thousand persons were assembled to enjoy the closing scenes of
the exhibition, and they were heartily enjoyed by all.

List of Premiums.

Number offered.

Amount.

Entries.

Summer crops,

Fall crops,

Experiment in Manures, .

Fruits,

Vegetables and Grass Seeds,
Cheese and Butter, ....
Maple Sugar, Bread and Honey,
Floral department, ....
Household manufactures, .

Neat Stock,

Horses,

Sheep, Swine and Poultry,
Mechanical productions, .
Other entries,

25

39

3

G

9

6

9

6

18

47

44

34

6

353 00
74 00
50 00
12 00
15 00
18 00
11 00
10 00
20 00
110 00
135 00
60 00
25 00

22

22

1

2

35

19
28

5
74
61
88
47
26

9

Total,

252

$593 00

439

The total number of premiums awarded was $466.

The entries were eighty-eight in number over the entries of
last year, thirty-five of this number being in entries of horses.

The number of persons who received premiums was one
hundred and eighty-six.

The number of entries of horses, four years of age, and of
colts three years and under, was larger than we are accustomed
to sec in county exhibitions. The number of dairy cows was
unusually small. In this society's precincts the number of

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 251

horses is much greater than the number of oxen and steers ;
and the number of cows and heifers is more than double the
number of horses, oxen and steers. The hmited number of
dairy stock shown at the exhibition will unquestionably fix the
attention of the officers and members upon the subject and
thus guaranty a full performance of duty in this particular in
coming exhibitions. The breeding of horses, begun in earnest,
should be continued under the most favorable auspices which
unity of action can support.

The premiums of this society are chiefly distributed in the
towns of Adams, Cheshire, Clarksburg, Florida, Hinsdale,
Lanesboro', Savoy, Williamstown and Windsor.

The amount of capital employed in manufacturing in these
towns is two million three hundred and eighty-seven thousand
dollars ; number of hands employed, 2,578. The population
of these towns was in 1840, 11,260 ; in 1850 it was 15,275, an
increase of over thirty-five per cent, in ten years. One person
in every six of the total population is engaged in in-door labor,
as consumer and not producer of agricultural products.

The number of sheep kept in 1855, in the towns named, was
24,069 ; horses, 1,996 ; oxen and steers, 1,693 ; cows and
heifers, 7,480 ; pounds of butter made, 337,510 ; pounds of
cheese, 1,111,490.

27,441 acres of Mowing Land, yield 22,674 tons.

108 acres of Wheat, average yield to the acre 22 bushels.

337 acres of Rye, "

u

((

15 bushels.

346 acres of Barley, "

((

a

26 bushels.

2,551 acres of Oats, "

((

u

31 bushels.

2,094 acres of Indian Corn,

u

<(

32 bushels.

115 acres of Buckwheat, "

u

u

20 bushels.

11^ acres of Carrots.

402 acres of Beets, Onions,

Tobacco,

and other crops.

Timber annually sold from the farms.

, value,

,

. $50,500 00

Wood " " "

((

.

. §82,225 00

Apple Trees reported under cultivation, number,

40,069

Pear " « " '<

((

917

The bottom lands of the Hoosac Valley, will compare favorably
with the best lands in the State. The prices at which they are
held, $50 to $70 per acre, makes it comparatively easy for the

252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

farmer to profit bj them. The upland mowing lands are valued
at from 840 to 850 per acre, and are owned to advantage. The
mountain and hill-side pasture lands are valued from 85 to 820
per acre ; three to six acres being usually allowed to furnish
summer feed for each head of stock. The woodlands (which
make up a full portion of each farm) are valued at 815 to 820
per acre, and are also found profitable in the making up of the
farmer's account. The soils of this district, beginning with a
clayey loam, rising to the tillable uplands, become a gravelly
loam, generally free from stones. The hilly and mountainous
lands have a better soil than we are accustomed to find on the
eastern portions of the State in land similarly situated.

The average price of hay for ten years is about 811 per ton.
The average price of potatoes for a like period from 28 to 30
cents per bushel.

No person can visit the Hoosac Valley without a feeling of
surprise that the measures undertaken to bring the people of
this portion of the State into closer relations with the centres
of trade, should have been so long delayed. As already shown,
the increase of population within the district named, has been
In ten years, thirty-five per cent. With similar facilities to
those enjoyed in other sections of the State, the population
would doubtless double in numbers within a period of ten
years following the completion of such aids to thrift.

The farmers of Hoosac Valley seemed to be settled for life.
The homestead and farm buildings ; the orderly manner in
which the farms are conducted ; the dairy management, and
the quality of the product of their dairies ; the orchards ; the
ample gardens ; the abundance of vegetables ; the attention
given to the cultivation of flowers, and other interests which
bring contentment ; these together witness to the fact that tlie
Hoosac Valley is their permanent home. Here also are the
model mountains, the hill-sides, the rich meadows and the
numberless rivers which arc the pride of the Commonwealth,
and which give dignity and attraction to a pastoral life.

George M. Atwater.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 253

NORFOLK.

The twelfth annual exhibition of tlic Norfolk County Society
was held on the 24th and 25th days of September, and was
every way successful. The weather was remarkably fine, and
all classes of the community were out in large numbers to see,
be seen, to have a genuine holiday, and to help and encourage
each other in the laudable pursuit of husbandry. The out-door
exercises, which were continued through both days of the exhi-
bition, were the usual show of the various kinds of stock, the
spading-match, ploughing-match, trial of working horses and
oxen, and trials of speed of horses at the walk and trot. Li
the hall of the society were exhibited, in rich profusion, speci-
mens of the handiwork, skill and taste of the women of the
county, in bread, butter and cheese-making, and the various
branches of domestic and fancy manufactures ; also, specimens
of the products of the fields, gardens, orchards, and workshops.
The occasion was made interesting by a public dinner in the
capacious upper hall, which was crowded to repletion, by a
most instructive address from Professor Agassiz on the helps of
science to agriculture, and by speeches from President Felton
and others. All parts of the exhibition attracted much atten-
tion ; as a whole it was admirable, and the various exercises
were entered into with a zest and enthusiasm creditable to all
concerned.

Former delegates to this society have spoken particularly of
the different branches of its exhibition, have described its
exciting spading-match in the natural amphitheatre on the
grounds, have made mention of its peculiar Jamestown and
Kerry stock, and of its fine Jerseys and Ayrshires. I was per-
sonally much interested in all these departments, but for me to
describe them in detail would be simply a repetition. I will
therefore, without consulting any authorities or statistics, state
my impressions of the Norfolk Society, and of Norfolk County,
as derived from this exhibition. Its energetic and sagacious
president is a veteran in the cause of improved agriculture,
and has had large experience in all departments of agricultural
exhibitions. He has brought this show to a perfect system, and
made spectators feel that they are to have their full money's

254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

worth, and exhibitors and officers to deport themselves accord-
ingly. The principle that " he that soweth bountifully shall
reap also bountifully " is fully illustrated. As a consequence
no interest is forgotten from the raising of poultry to the
minute management of the most extensive farm. Liberal
premiums are offered for successful effort in all the multitudi-
nous branches of agriculture. Rare and valuable specimens
of stock, of products and handicraft are sought out, and their
presence at the show secured. Tlie varying tastes, loves and
admirations of individuals are remembered, and the object of
their love and admiration placed on exhibition that the question-
ing curiosity of spectators and learners shall be fully satisfied.
The thousands who came thronging into Dedham on the
morning of the second day, were apparently imbued with the
idea, that there was to be something there worth seeing and
learning, and they were bound to make the most of the oppor-
tunity. And although the soap peddler and Sambo with his
fiddle were both on the ground, yet order, decorum and
attention to the legitimate duties of the occasion pervaded the
multitude, and I doubt not many a farmer and artisan went
from the show to his home a wiser if not a better man. From
as careful an examination of the entries as time would permit,
I fear that notwithstanding the excellent management of its
officers, the usefulness of this society is somewhat curtailed by
the common fault of localization ; and tliat Dedham and the
adjoining towns within a few miles of the place of exhibition,
furnish much too large a proportionate share of the exhibitors ;
yet it is in a high state of prosperity, and in a legal and legiti-
mate way is accomplishing the great objects of its incorporation.
From what I saw (or from what I did not see) I infer that
sheep husbandry is sadly neglected in Norfolk County, and that
the production of milk attracts more attention than the making
of butter and cheese. Also that the raising of stock (cattle and
horses) is not one of the chief pursuits of its farmers, and
though they admire and possess the excellent of both kinds,
they prefer to a great extent to purchase them from abroad.
Oxen, I conclude are worked but little, and the sturdy draught
horse performs most of the labor on the farm and road. All
the numerous branches of yankee manufacture are extensively
pursued, and great effort expended in floriculture, horticulture

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 255

and market gardening, as more profitable in their circumstances
tlian tlic raising of hay, grain, and beef for market.

In closing this report, I feel in duty bound to make mention
of the cordial reception and numberless attentions I received
from the officers and members of the society as the delegate
from your Board, evincing as it did the high appreciation of
the members of the Norfolk Society of the Board of Agricul-
ture. I shall ever remember with the greatest pleasure, the
courteous attentions and cordial hospitalities of its president,
the Honorable Marshall P. Wilder, and the frank, hearty " glad
to see you " of its farmer members.

Levi Stockbridge.

BRISTOL.

The Bristol County Agricultural Society held its annual
fair and cattle show at Taunton on the appointed day, first of
October ; and, in pursuance of my appointment as delegate, I
attended on that day, as well as the succeeding one, and have
much pleasure in stating that the occasion was interesting and
satisfactory. The weather was propitious, and a large number
of persons was attracted to the enclosed grounds of the society,
consisting of fifty-five acres, in the suburbs of the town.

The exhibition of the products of the farm and manufactures
was held in an extensive temporary building, which at no dis-
tant day will be replaced by a substantial edifice intended to
be an ornament to the town. There were six hundred and
seventy-five entries of farms and their products, and six hun-
dred and forty-five of heavy and domestic manufactures. The
most interesting feature of the first day was a team of fifty-
nine yoke of oxen from the town of Norton drawing a large
vehicle containing the young ladies of the Wheaton seminary
of that place. From the little town of Raynham a team of
thirty yoke of working cattle made a fine appearance.

The display of fat cattle, cows, and calves, and bulls of
native grade and full-blooded animals, was numerous, and
good, and creditable to the breeders of Bristol County :
although not a strictly grazing district, those pursuits are much

256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

stimulated by a profitable market afforded by the large manu-
facturing towns. There were fifty entries of horses and colts,
and their appearance evidently manifested that some attention
had been shown in the breed of the equine race.

Of sheep and swine there were forty-nine entries ; of the
former only a few specimens, and not worthy of remark ; of the
latter, there was a large number of the cross of the Suffolk and
Mackay, which, although not large, appeared as if they could
be easily and cheaply fattened.

The feathered tribe was numerously represented, in size and
variety. Of butter and cheese there were eighteen entries ;
the former was neatly exhibited in stone jars. Specimens of
needle and fancy work were numerous and neat. The plough-
ing-match took place on the first day ; thirteen yoke of single
teams and six of three-cattle teams — steers and horses — com-
peting for the premiums. The work was creditably performed,
mostly without drivers and with the double Michigan plough,
which I thought rather too heavy for the teams, but when they
warmed up they drew their burden with more ease. The
exhibition of fruit was not remarkable, the apples being very
inferior in appearance ; a variety of specimens of the pear
appeared better; the grapes, however, both native and foreign,
looked well, and a single dish of peaches, from the garden of
Dr. Durfee, seemed to have attained their full growth.

On the second day more than four hundred persons seated
themselves at a substantial repast, at which Mr. Daggett, the
president of the society, made a congratulatory address, and
some of the ministers of the town and vicinity made short and
pithy remarks, after which a synopsis of the reports of the com-
mittees was read, when the company adjourned to witness a
horse race which claimed their undivided attention.

Taking into consideration the number of people present
within the enclosure, estimated at from three to four thousand,
it is worthy of remark, and I make it with pleasure, that I did
not witness a single instance of disorder or intemperance. My
thanks are due to the Hon. John Daggett, the president, the
board of managers, and other gentlemen, for their kind greet-
ings and attentions.

Charles B. Allen.

REPORTS OP DELEGATES. 257

PLYMOUTH.

As a delegate from this Board, I attended the annual exhibi-
tion of the Plymouth Agricultural Society on Thursday and
Friday, October 3d and 4th. Tliis society, upwards of forty
years old, has reached an elevated position among the societies
of the Commonwealth. The last exhibition, in its results and
details, goes to prove that there has been no degeneration, but
that the whole matter of agricultural festivals has been reduced
to a perfect system. The weather during both days was the
very perfection of our " Indian summer," and the large number
of visitors throughout seemed to enjoy the occasion as if wars
and rumors of wars had become obsolete.

The eligible and extensive grounds upon which the whole of
the exhibition is spread out contribute very much to its success.
The ploughing during the morning of the first day was a fine
exhibition of skill in that regard, the various entries being ten
in number. The quality and texture of the soil, however, was
such as would hardly bring out all the skill of a master plough-
man. The exhibition of stock gave abundant evidence that a
leaven had been for a considerable season in operation. The
four more prominent breeds of neat stock were represented by
pure bred animals, most of them of superior merit. The entries
of neat stock numbered 579 ; of swine, 60 ; sheep, 75, and
horses, 60, making up, as I was assured, the best show of
stock that had ever come together under the auspices of the
society.

Within the exhibition hall there was a very fine display of
specimens of all the varied products of the field, the garden, the
orchard and workshop. The dairy and the studio were also
well represented, and the fancy department had hy no means
been neglected. The show of fruits, as elsewhere throughout
New England, was necessarily very limited in amount, but was
the finest I had seen. Grapes, which are occupying so much
attention at the present time, were displayed upon the tables in
abundance, some of them being very fine and others entirely
unworthy of cultivation. Vegetables, as everywhere else this
year, were unusually good and abundant. Li the mechanical
department, the claims of different straw and stalk-cutters,

33*

258 BOARD OF x\.GRICULTURE.

harrows, clothes-wringers, <fcc., were urged upon the attention,
each assuming to be more valuable than its competitor, but all
premising to be labor savers.

The second day was specially devoted to the examination of
horses, though all the stock in pens were still retained upon the
grounds, so that a person could not visit them during any part
of the two days and find the " cattle show " absent, as is too
often the case. The latter is generally hurried out of the way to
make room for the horses. Here the horse was assigned exactly
his proper position, and engrossed just the attention to which he
is entitled and nothing more. As the premiums upon stock were
announced from the judges' stand, the animals to which they
were awarded were led up and designated, so that every visitor
could have an opportunity to assist his own judgment by com-
parison with the decisions of committees. At one o'clock a
large company sat down to the society's dinner, after which His
Excellency Gov. Andrew, with other gentlemen, addressed the
assembly. At my departure, I could but feel that the Plymouth
Society was accomplishing its mission in elevating the dignity
of agriculture, and increasing the number and intelligence of
its devotees.

Jabez Fisher.

BARNSTABLE.

Having been appointed by the State Board of Agriculture a
delegate to attend the annual exhibition of the Barnstable
Agricultural Society, holden at Barnstable, on the eighth day
of October last, I attended to that duty, and make the follow-
ing report : —

The weather on the first day, (October 8th,) was very rainy,
accompanied by a high wind, (disarranging the general pro-
gramme of the exhibition, as I was informed.) I visited the
grounds and hall of the society on the morning of the 9th, —
the storm having subsided, and, excepthig the high wind, a
pleasant day.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 259

I commenced an examination of the stock in the pens, where
I found a very fair show of fat cattle, comprising quite a num-
ber of pairs of oxen of medium size, some of which were
quite fat.

Also, quite a number of pairs of ordinary working oxen, not
showing the careful matching and training that we see in
Worcester and some other counties ; and a few pairs of good
steers, which bid fair to make good oxen if properly trained.
There was quite a large number of milch cows, which, with a
few exceptions, were apparently of ordinary or poor quality ;
which was not at all surprising to me when I saw the bulls the
farmers of Barnstable breed from, — if those on exhibition were
the best animals, — of which there was quite a large number,
all of which were of natives or grades, and of poor or ordinary
quality at that.

Of sheep the show was quite good in quality and numbers,
among them some very good South Downs, and two good
bucks ; to which some of the land in Barnstable County seems
to be better adapted than to cattle.

Of swine there was a very good exhibition ; among them
some superior boars, sows and pigs, principally of the Suffolk
breed or Suffolk grades, and indicating that the farmers of
Barnstable know how to breed good pigs.

The exhibition of horses was composed of a few stallions, a
large number of mares, and colts of all ages, and a number of
draught and driving horses ; there were a few colts among the
number which were promising animals.

The ploughing-match began about nine o'clock, A. M., on land
adjoining the exhibition lot. Some of the land was not very
favorable for handsome ploughing, owing to knolls and depres-
sions of the surface — by which the furrows on a part of some of
the lots had to be turned up hill, which is a more difficult opera-
tion to perform than to plough on level ground. There were
eight or nine teams — part horses and part oxen — contending for
the premiums. The teams did not show good training ; and the
straight, even and well-turned furrows which mark the Essex,
Middlesex and other ploughing-matches, were wanting. Good
ploughing is the foundation of good cultivation, and here there
is certainly a chance for improvement, both in the ploughing

260 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

and the ploughs used, — some of which were evidently unfit to
do good work. There are two tilings that it is necessary for
every ploughman to know how to do to make good work, — one
is to keep a straight furrow, and the other to take the same
width of furrow slice every time, thus making each furrow
exactly fill the space left by the turning of the previous one.

In the hall there was quite an imposing display of various arti-
cles ; of which there was some half dozen lots of butter, and as
many more of cheese, of fair quality ; and a large display of
vegetables. The field beets, turnips, pumpkins, squashes and
cabbages were very good, some of the other varieties of vege-
tables were raised from impure seed, which every good cultivator
should avoid sowing.

Fruits were not shown in large quantities, owing, no doubt,
to the unfavorable season ; but still there were some dishes of
very good pears and quinces ; the apples were poor, as they
generally have been at nearly all of the exhibitions in this
State this autumn. There were some baskets containing very
handsome, high-colored samples of cultivated cranberries, which
Barnstable County seems to be particularly well adapted to,
and of which the culture appears to be extending fast.

Also, a good show of wild flowers, and a large quantity of
cultivated ones; and bread of different kinds, and in large
quantities ; also, pickles, jellies, preserves, &c.

And a very fine and large exhibition of household manufac-
tures and needle-work, much of which was quite handsome
and creditable to the society, and the ladies who exhibited the
same.

And, in conclusion, I would venture to suggest to the officers
of the society that they post up in conspicuous places printed
programmes of the time and places of holding the ploughing-
match, trial of horses, oxen, and hearing the address, wliich
would render it much more convenient for visitors to the
exhibition.

John B. Moore.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 2G1

NANTUCKET.

The annual exhibition of this society was held on the tenth
and eleventh days of October, and attended by me as delegate
of this Board.

The area over which the limits of this society extend is so
small and of such peculiar character, that the annual exhibitions
must be marked by fewer variations than are usually observed
elsewhere. Therefore, after the full and able reports of the
gentlemen who have preceded me here as delegates of the
Board, there remains but little to be offered, either in the
way of description or of suggestion.. In justice, however,
to the society, — struggling with difficulties which cannot be
measured by any who have not had the like to encounter
and overcome, — and in justice to my own feelings, I can-
not omit to say that the exhibition, as a whole, was attrac-
tive and creditable. Preparations for it, demanding an expense
of much time and labor, had been completed. The arrange-
ments on the show-grounds and in the hall were well designed,
and in all respects suitable. Good order and general quiet
prevailed, and a lively interest in the purpose and object of the
occasion was manifest throughout the mass of the people. The
weather, during most of the time, was extremely uncomforta-
ble ; — materially affecting, of course, the attendance which had
been anticipated, and, indeed, the whole character of the out-
door exhibition. The ravages of the army-worm, and the
general blight of fruit trees, — felt more keenly here, perhaps,
because of the limited cultivation on the island, — tended to
detract from the extent and beauty of the show.

We observed upon the grounds a goodly collection of neat
cattle, — particularly of young stock; — horses, swine, sheep,
and poultry ; and the examination of these several depart-
ments was conducted in a way that might well be imitated by
other societies ; only the committees and your delegate being
allowed to remain within a prescribed distance around the
premises, during the examination. There were, also, trials
of speed, iu trotting ; of skill, in ploughing ; and of strength,
in drawing ; all of which were well performed, but exhibited
no decided marks of superiority.

262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

The fact has been stated before, and it should be repeated,
that animals of great superiority, owned, in some instances,
by members of the society, are not offered here, either for
exhibition and to give character to the show, or for competition.
Your delegate observed in different parts of the island, —
which, through the kindness of Hon. E. W. Gardiner, he had
opportunity to see, — a large number of animals, particularly of
milch cows and sheep grazing in the fields, and of swine lying
in their pens, which, had they been present, would have added
much to the character of the show. We are not aware of any
good reason for withholding this sort of aid from the society ;
and allude to the fact as one that ought, unless such reason
exists, to be done away. Certainly every good farmer, if a mem-
ber of an agricultural society, is under an implied obligation
to uphold the character of that society by every means in his
power ; and to further the interests of agriculture by any
display he can make of superior animals, or of extraordinary
productions of his farm, by way of example to others, if not
of benefit to himself. Especially is this incumbent upon him,
where, as in this case, the locality and circumstances of the
society must necessarily circumscribe its operations within
narrow limits, and admit of no large display of agricultural
thrift or improvement. It is hard, under any circumstances,
for a few individuals to uphold and carry forward an enterprise
in which the whole community is equally interested. Not least
so is it in regard to the support of an agricultural society, and
the encouragement of agricultural improvement. In Nan-
tucket, if anywhere, there should be an unanimity of feeling
and action in the society which would give vigor to its opera-
tions, and a higher character to its out-door exhibition.

We take pleasure in saying that, in the hall, where fruits,
flowers, vegetables, grains, and specimens of almost every sort
of domestic manufacture and mechanic art, were exhibited, the
show was one of uncommon excellence. Persons were present,
■whose op})ortunities of observation and comparison are of wide
extent, and whose judgment can be relied upon, who freely
declared that the exhibition of fruits, flowers and vegetables,
could not have been surpassed, in quality, in any part of the
Commonwealth. Certainly the soil and climate of Nantucket,

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 263

"under the industry and intelligence of her cultivators, are
suited to the growth of vegetables and of fruits, at least equal
to those of any territory of like extent which we have ever seen,
except in immediate proximity to the capital of the Common-
wealth.

In the department of the dairy, also, the products excelled
in quality, much that we have elsewhere observed at similar
exhibitions.

Among the few agricultural implements on exhibition we
observed a seed-sower, embracing some new principle in the
mode of distributing seed, which was the invention and con-
struction of a young man who has been, for many years, an
invalid and cripple, and was able to stand only on crutches, while
making this neat and useful machine. We understood that
this seed-sower had been successfully used ; and deem the fact of
its construction, under such circumstances, worthy of special
notice. We think it due to the young man himself, and that
it may encourage other unfortunate sufferers who, like him,
strive to keep alive the hope and purpose of usefulness, when
no longer able to engage in the ordinary occupations, or even
to share the common satisfactions of life.

Specimens of art, ingenuity, skill and industry, in things
useful and ornamental, were tastefully arranged around the
room, and commanded much attention and admiration. Dec-
orations adorned the hall, which were appropriate and sig-
nificant in these times of civil commotion, and expressive at
once of the patriotism and the tender sensibilities of the
people.

The principal feature of the occasion, — that most relied upon,
at least, — was the exhibition in the hall. The hall was lighted
during both evenings ; and the attractions of social intercourse
and of excellent music drew together the largest assemblies of the
people that could conveniently meet there. No formal address
was had, but occasional, brief speeches were interspersed with
music and conversation. In this way, the Nantucket Society
enjoys a pleasant annual meeting ; its funds are enlarged, and
the great interest which it aims to foster is sustained.

We have spoken of the soil and climate of Nantucket as
particularly favorable to the growth of vegetables and fruits.

264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

There are parts of the island which present fine intervals for
cultivation. Lands reclaimed from salt marsh or from fresh
bogs, have been made productive of good crops of grass and
grain ; or, are devoted to the growth of cranberries or other
small fruits. An enterprise of great importance and value was
commenced here a few years ago, by which a large tract of
almost barren land has been covered with a comparatively dense
and vigorous growth of pitch-pine trees. Our conviction is
strengthened by all observation and reflection, that, with similar
application of capital and good judgment, a great part of the
island, — once the common range of large flocks of sheep, and
still open and undivided, and nearly useless, — might be covered
with different sorts of trees, affording an abundant supply of
fuel and timber, and protecting the dwellings and gardens of
the citizens from the bleak winds that sweep over them from
the ocean.

The fact that, in dredging the harbor of Nantucket, a few
years ago, a submarine forest was discovered, portions of which
were buried four feet below the sand, authorizes the belief that
the island was formerly covered with wood ; and suggests the
inquiry whether its soil may not still be capable of sustaining a
similar growth of oak, maple and cedar trees. The bottoms
of ponds and valleys, also, afford evidence of a former burden
of heavy wood. Now if sheep-husbandry is absolutely aban-
doned here, we know of no better way to restore the value
of this barren soil than by the planting and growth of trees.

Nantucket has probably suffered more extensively from
commercial derangements and devastating fires, and from depop-
ulation and general depression of enterprise, than any other part
of the Commonwealth. Once the seat of heavy capital and of
extensive operations in commerce and navigation, her streets
thronged with a busy population, her wharves occupied by
many large ships, or crowded with cargoes unladen from those
ships, and bearing in every direction marks of industry, enter-
prise and wealth, she is now comparatively stripped of all that
then contributed to her prosperity and fame, except the riches
of her citizens in sterling principles, in social elevation and
refinement, and in a regard for the great interests of education
and virtue.

REPORTS OF DELEGATES. 265

We hope the day is not distant when her absent sons may
return ; her commercial prosperity be revived ; her harbor
be filled with sails ; her soil be covered with thriving farms,
gardens and woodlands ; and her people be rejoiced again in the
possession of all that once gave them wealth and strength,
enterprise and fame, and made the happiness of their island-
home.

In the time of her prosperity, Nantucket gave light and
comfort to many thousand homes upon the main. In the time
of her adversity, may her citizens, like the Israelites of old,
when darkness was over all the land of Egypt, have light in
their dwellings, and peace and hope in their hearts !

Charles C. Sewall.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

The Martha's Vineyard Society held its third annual fair
and cattle show on the day appointed by the law — fifteenth of
October. I was present most of the time on that day as well
as the succeeding one. The display of neat cattle, consisting of
fat animals, working oxen, milch cows, and bulls, was much
larger, amounting to nearly a hundred head, than at any for-
mer exhibition ; the same remark will apply to sheep, the
production of which is commanding increased attention. The
introduction of a grade of the Cotswold and Leicester from Ver-
mont has increased the island stock both in size and quantity
of wool. The farmers depend much on the sale of wool and
store sheep to pay their cash expenses. The latter is in con-
stant demand from the continent where they are much prized,
and from three to five hundred are annually disposed of.
Flocks from abroad highly fed do not prosper on the lean pas-
tures of the Vineyard. There is a wide difference among our
farmers whether sheep conduce to the preservation of pasture
lands, many holding that by their close feeding the sweet and
finer grasses are destroyed, but all agree that for tillage they
afford a valuable preparation. There was a great variety of
samples of Indian corn, and of fine quality. Wheat growing

266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

is increasing since the erection of a flour-mill on the island ; a
few samples were exhibited, but not of so good a quality as
usual. There were a few swine of good size, and the usual
variety of poultry. A few samples of butter and cheese were
on exhibition ; the former, on account of the atmosphere of the
room, did not present a very tempting appearance.

Since the spirit of competition produced by the establishment
of the society, much more attention has been paid to horticul-
ture, and a few but very handsome specimens of apples, pears,
and grapes were exhibited.

The display of vegetables was very good, especially of
squashes, to the raising of which more attention is being paid
in producing kinds of a larger size.

In the female department there was a good display of knit-
ting and needle work.

In conclusion I am happy to state, there was no want of
interest exhibited in farm husbandry. I think nearly one-half
of the population of the county must have been present on
both days, and the contributions to the society were larger
than last year.

Chahles B. Allen.

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s

00

SOCIETIES.

„

Massachusetts,

Essex,

^liddlescx, ....
Middlesex North, .
Middlesex South, .
1\'nriester, ....
AVorcester West,
Worcester North,
Worcester South, ...
Wonx'Ster South-Eist, .
Hampshire, Frauklin and Hampden
Hampshire, ....
Highland, ....
Hampden, ....
Hampden East,
Franklin, ....
Uerkshire, ....
llousatoulc, ....
Hoosac Valley,

Norfolk,

Kristol,

I'lyiiiouth, ....
liarnstable, ....

Nantucket

Martha's Vineyard,

"5

1

VI

APPENDIX.

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Massachusetts,

Essex,
Middlesex,
Middlesex North,
Middlesex South,

Worcester,
Worcester West,
Worcester North,
Worcester South,
Worcester South-Ea
Hampshire, Frankli
Hampshire,
HiKlilaiid,
Hampden,
Hampden East,
Franklin,
Berkshire,
Housatonic,
Hoosac A'allcy,
Norfolk, .
Bristol, .
Plymouth,
Barnstable,
Nantucket,
Martha's Vineyard,

APPENDIX

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Vlll

APPENDIX.

3kl I S C E L L A N E O U S

SOCIETIES.

Amount awarded for
agricultural imple-
ments.

3 <*
O "
S =

12
■a u

id
<

Am't offered for experi-
ments on manures in
accordance with the
requirements of the
board,payab!e in '62.

Am't awarded for nil
other objects strict-
ly agricultural, not
specified before.

For mechanical inven-
tions,domestic man-
ufucturcs, &c.

in

Ma.ssachusetts,

-

S1,000 00

-

S300 00

-

-

1

Essex, . . . .

S14 00

30 00

-

60 00

-

S107 00

295

Middlesex,

16 GO

-

-

60 00

-

35 37

253

Middlesex North, .

-

-

-

CO 00

-

29 03

236

Middlesex South, .

9 50

70 00

-

60 CO

SI 75

57 20

200

Worcester,

29 00

22 00

-

60 00

-

22 00

174

Worcester West,

11 00

30 00

-

60 00

-

59 00

149

Worcester North, .

8 00

50 00

-

75 00

-

106 47

255

Worcester South, .

35 00

-

75 00

7 00

46 00

147

Worcester South-East. .

10 00

30 00

-

60 00

-

73 00

223

nampshire, Franklin (
and Hampden, j '

-

20 00

-

90 00

-

93 00

266

Hampshire,

11 00

10 00

-

48 00

-

105 67

224

Highland,

-

-

-

45 00

-

40 25

134

Hampden,

7 00

25 00

-

45 00

-

79 15

127

Hampden East,

2 25

10 00

-

60 00

-

37 62

75

Franklin,

16 00

10 00

-

-

-

52 00

173

Berkshire,

16 00

-

-

60 00

-

141 00

270

Housatonic, .

7 00

-

-

45 00

5 00

138 00

195

Hoosac Valley,

-

-

-

-

7 00

55 50

186

Norfolk, . . . .

5 00

30 CO

-

60 00

-

58 00

146

Bristol, . . . .

-

45 00

SIO 00

GO 00

-

131 00

340

Plymouth,

7 50

60 00

-

60 00

-

176 50

456

Barnstable,

-

8 CO

-

60 00

-

75 78

274

Nantucket,

50

18 00

-

60 00

15 00

45 00

55

Murtlia's Vineyard,

3 00

40 00

-

60 00

-

37 28

180

Totals, .

$162 75

*1,583 00

SIO 00

§1,623 00

835 75

91,800 82

5,034

APPENDIX.

IX

Names of the Towns and Cities to tvhich the Premiums and Gratuities
were disbursed, and the amount to each.

MASSACHUSETTS.
Concord, §10 00

ESSEX.

Andover, .

$9 00

Manchester,

. $19 50

Beverly,

2i 50

Marblehead,

45 00

Boxford,

12 00

Methuen, .

5 00

Cambridge,

10 00

Middleton, .

14 50

Danvers,

89 50

Newbury, .

05 00

Essex,

2 95

Newburyport,

8 00

Georgetown,

1 00

North Andover,

. 56 00

Gloucester, .

1 00

Salem,

90 00

Groveland, .

10 00

South Danvers,

3 00

Hamilton, .

6 00

Swampscott,

208 50

Haverliill, .

12 00

Topsfield, .

20 50

Ipswich,

4 50

Wenham, .

5 50

Lawrence, .

4 50

West Newbury,

60 75

Lowell,

50
25 00

Unknown, .
Total, .

8 00

Lynn,.

$836 00

Lynnfield, .

9 00

MIDDLESEX.

Acton,

. $47 00

Blllerica, .

. .^2 00

Bedford,

. 11 00

Boston,

3 00

Belmont, .

. 22 00

Boxborough,

2 00

APPENDIX.

MIDDLESEX— Concluded.

Brighton, .

. U 00

Pepperell, .

. SIO 00

Cambridge,

50

Stow, ....

1 00

Cariisle,

. 11

50

Sudbury,

. 14 25

Chelmsford,

. 25

25

Wayland, .

. 33 50

Concord,

. 291

12

Waltham, .

. 14 50

Dracut, ^

. 10

00

West Cambridge,

. 10 00

Framingham,

. 50

25

Westford, .

50

Hopkinton, .

1

00

Weston,

8 50

Lexington, .

8

00

Wilmington,

7 50

Lincoln,

. 27

50

Winchester,

4 00

Littleton, .

8
G

00
00

Woburn,
Total, .

. 15 00

Marlborough,

. §041 87

Newton,

2

00

MIDDLESEX NORTH,

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

Billerica, .

. $10 25

North Reading, .

. S18 00

Chelmsford,

. 10187

Tewksbury,

. 29 00

Dracut,

. 40 75

Tyngsborough, .

. 45 50

Dunstable, .

. 79 00

Westford, .

. 14 50

Littleton, .

5 00

. 150 G6

Wilmington,
Total, .

. 23 00

Lowell,

. $517 52

Ashland,

. 615 00

Marlborough,

. $12 00

Framingham,

. 318 09

Natiek,

. GG 52

Holliston, .

. 32 74

Sherborn, .

. 21 25

Hopkinton, .

. 15 50

Southborough, .

. 41 25

APPENDIX.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH— Concluded.

XI

Sudbury, .

. §12 25
. 55 50

Out of the District, .
Total, .

. $21 50

Wayland, .

. §611 70

WORCESTER.

WORCESTER WEST.

Auburn,

§2 00

Northborough,

. §7 00

Barre,

33 00

Oxford,

2 00

Berlin,

6 00

Paxton,

5 50

Bolton,

4 00

Princeton, .

24 00

Boylston,

8 00

Rutland,

7 00

Charlton,

32 00

Shrewsburj',

. 32 75

Grafton,

U 50

Sutton,

. 66 25

Hardwick,

6 00

Southborough, .

. 40 00

Holden,

33 00

Southbridge,

10 00

Leicester,

26 50

Sterling,

9 00

Millbury,

58 00

Westborough,

74 00

Milford,

11 00

West Boylston, .

41 00

MiUviUe,

75
12 00

Worcester, .
Total,.

334 25

New Braint

ree, .

§942 00

Barre,

. §280 37

Petersham, .

. §20 00

Charlton, .

. 19 00

Phillipston,

0 00

Dana,.

75

Princeton, .

15 00

Gardner, •

50

Rutland,

50

Hardwick, .

. 69 00

Templeton,

15 75

Hubbardston,

. 20 25

West Brookfield,

3 00

New Braintree, .

. 33 50
3 00

Worcester, .
Total, .

3 00

North Brookfield,

§502 87

Oakham, .

6 00

xu

APPENDIX.
WORCESTER NORTH

Ashburnham,

§18 00

Phillipston,

. §17 00

Ashby,

21 50

Princeton, .

. 71 00

Dracut,

3 00

Royalston, .

. 10 00

Fitchburg, .

390 96

Shirley,

8 00

Gardner, .

r25

Spencer,

50

Leominster,

11 00

Westnainster,

. 48 35

Littleton, .

10 00

Winchendon,

4 00

Lunenburg,

33 75
25

Worcester, .
Total, .

75

Natick,

. $643 31

Pepperell, .

2 00

WORCESTER SOUTH.

Brimfiekl, .

. m 12

Spencer,

. §2 50

Brookfiekl, .

. 12 75

Southbridge,

. 56 27

Charlton, .

. 63 87

Sturbridge,

. 207 49

Dudley, .

. 36 25

Warren,

. 41 00

Holland, .

1 00

2 00

West Brookfield,
Total, .

50

Leicester, .

. §443 25

North Brookfield,

50

WORCESTER

SOUTH-EAST.

Blackstone,

. §6 00

Milford, .

. §235 44

Foxborough,

50

Northbridge,

5 00

Franklin, .

1 50

Upton,

. 18 50

Grafton,

5 00

Uxbridge, .

. 20 00

Holliston, .

8 00-
. 42 25

Worcester, .
Total, .

. 12 00

Hopkinton, .

. §435 46

Mendon,

. 75 50

APPENDIX. xiii

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

Amherst, .

. $2 00

Montgomery,

85 00

Charlemont,

4 00

Northampton,

. 208 25

Chesterfield,

2 50

Prescott,

2 00

Chicopee, .

. 18 00

Shelburne, .

3 00

Conway, .

3 00

Southampton,

. 29 00

Cummington,

5 00

South Hadley, .

. CO 00

Easthampton,

. 23 00

South Deerfield, .

. 15 00

Granby,

. 21 50

Springfield,

. 10 25

Greenfield, .

1 00

Sunderland,

. 17 00

Goshen,

5 75

Westfield, .

. 40 00

Hadley, .

. 96 25

Westhampton, .

. 12 75

Hatfield, .

. 91 50

Whately, . ^ .

9 75

Huntington,

50

Worthington,

4 00

Holyoke, .

7 00
50

Williamsburg,
Total, .

. 10 00

Leverett, .

. §715 50

Middlefield,

2 00

HAMPSHIRE,

Amherst, .

. ^172 99

Leverett, .

. SB 51

Barre,

1 00

Northampton,

1 38

Belchertown,

. 64 00

Palmer,

1 50

Chicopee, .

5 00

Pelham,

. 28 75

Deerfield, .

1 50

Pittsfield, .

4 00

Enfield,

. 15 00

South Hadley, .

4 00

Greenfield, .

. 23 00

Sunderland,

. 65 45

Hadley,

. 73 62
6 50

Worcester, .
Total, .

1 50

Hardwick, .

. §177 70

XIV

APPENDIX.
II I G II L A X D .

Becket,

. $101 75

Northampton,

. ?2 00

Blandford, .

5

50

Otis, .

3 00

Chester,

. 31

25

Palmer,

3 00

Chesterfield,

2

00

Peru, .

. 31 50

Cummington,

50

Pittsfield, .

3 50

Hinsdale, .

. 32

00

Springfield,

. 11 50

Lanesborough, .

. 12

00

Washington,

. 10 50

Lee, .

5
. 141

00
00

Worthington,
Total, .

. 10 00

Middlefield,

. 8118 00

HAMPDEN,

Agawam, .

. $3 75

Palmer,

. 87 50

Blandford, .

9 00

Southwick,

9 75

Brimfield, .

G 00

Springfield,

. 137 00

Chester,

2 00

Westfield, .

. 57 00

Chicopee, .

. 76 50

West Springfield,

. 73 50

Holyoke, .

. 25 50
. 24 75

Wilbraham,

Total, .

. 8100 00

Longmeadow,

. $546 75

Ludlow,

. 14 50

HAMPDEN EAST.

Belcher town,

. 84 00

Ware,

. 84 00

Brimfield, .

. 20 00

Warren,

. 14 00

Ludlow,

1 25

. 83 90

Wilbraham,

Total, .

. 28 00

Monson,

. $270 57

Palmer,

. 115 42

APPENDIX.
FRANKLIN.

XV

Bernardston,

. . U2

50

Leverett, .

. $5 00

Colrain,

. 15

25

Montague, .

. 15 50

Conway, .

. IS

50

Northfield, .

. 14 00

Decrfiekl, .

. 66

00

Slielburne, .

. 243 75

Gill, .

. 12

00

Sunderland,

. 15 00

Greenfield, .

. 141

00

Whately, .

5 00

Hadley,

6

8

00
50

Worcester, .
Total, .

2 00

Heath,

. 8592 75

Leyden,

. 12

75

BERKSHIRE.

HOUSATONIC.

Adams,

$80 00

Peru, .

. $10 00

Becket,

17 00

Pittsfield, .

. 285 00

ChesWre, . . . .

56 00

Richmond, .

. 33 00

Dalton,

51 00

Sheffield, .

. 13 00

Egremont, .

7 00

Stockbridge,

. 77 00

Great Barrington,

. 33 00

Washington,

5 00

Hancock, .

9 00

West Stockbridge,

1 00

Hinsdale, .

. 18 00

Williamstovvn,

. 18 00

Lanesborough, .

170 00

Windsor, .

. 10 00

Lee, ....

. 60 00

Total, .

$1,145 00

Lenox,

142 00

Alford,

. $26 00

Great Barrington,

. $267 50

Becket,

. 13 00

Lee, . . . .

. 37 50

Egremont, .

. 109 50

Lenox,

. 56 50

XVI

APPENDIX.
HOUSATONIC— CoxcLUDED.

Monterey, .

. S20 00

Sheffield, .

. §100 50

New Marlborough,

. 10 00

Stockbridge,

. 91 50

Pittsfield, .

. 13 50

Tyringham,

6 00

Richmond, .

. 18 00
5 00

West Stockbridge,
Total, .

. 22 50

Sandisfiekl,

. 8702 00

HOOSAC VALLEY,

NORFOLK,

Blackstone, .

. §28 50

Savoy,

. SIO 00

Cheshire, .

. 25 50

South Adams,

. 55 00

Clarksburg,

. 16 50

Stamford, .

8 00

Florida,

. 33 00

Williamstown,

. 89 00

North Adams,

. 107 00
5 00

Windsor, .
Total, .

2 00

Pittsfield, .

. §4i9 50

Pownall, Vt„

. 10 00

Brookllne, .

. §2 00

Needham, .

. §103 00

Canton,

. 18 50

Randolph, .

2 00

Dedham,

. 182 00

Roxbury, .

. 25 50

Dorchester,

. 75 00

Sharon,

. 17 00

Dover,

. 55 00

Stoughton, .

. 27 00

Foxboroiigh,

. 36 00

Walpole, .

6 00

Franklin, .

. 27 00

West Roxbur)-, .

. io 00

Medfield, .

8 00

9 00

Wrentham, .

Total, .

. 25 GO

Medway, .

. §690 00

Milton,

. 27 00

APPENDIX
BRISTOL.

XVU

Acushnet, .

. $1 00

Pawtucket, .

. $1 50

Attleborough,

. 68 50

Rehoboth, .

. 31 50

Berkley,

. 22 00

Raynham, .

. 210 75

Dighton,

. 12 00

Somerset, .

. 19 00

Easton,

. 23 50

Seekonk, .

3 25

FaU River, .

. 15 00

Taunton, .

. 534 50

Mansfield, .

. 12 25

. 22 00

Westport, .
Total, .

1 00

New Bedford,

$1,120 75

Norton,

. 143 00

PLYMOUTH.

Abington, .

. $30 00

Mattapoisett,

. 126 88

Boston,

2 00

Middleborough, .

. 192 75

Bridgewater,

386 21

New Bedford, .

2 00

Canton,

1 00

North Bridgewater, .

. 112 63

Carver,

14 50

Pembroke, .

36 50

Duxbury, .

9 00

Plymouth, .

. 68 80

East Bridgewater,

138 30

Plympton, .

20 00

Halifax,

42 88

Rochester, .

4 25

Hanover, .

10 00

Somerset, .

1 00

Hanson,

35 75

Stoughton, .

1 00

Hingham, .

6 50

Taunton, . . . .

1 00

Kingston, .

26 00
73 64

West Bridgewater,

Total, . . . {

108 06

Lakeville, .

51,352 65

Marshfield, .

2 00

XVlll

APPENDIX.
BARNSTABLE.

Barnstable, .

. $430 30

Harwich, .

. §5 50

Brewster, .

3 00

Orleans,

. 11 62

Chatham, .

9 00

Provincetown,

25

Dennis,

. 15 12

Sandwich, .

. 48 00

Eastham, .

3 00

4 00

Yarmouth, .
Total, .

. 49 50

Falmouth, .

$579 31

NANTUCKET.

Nantucket,

$254 75

MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

Edgartown,
Tisbury,

$28 38
133 08

Chilmark,
Total,

$98 32
$259 78

INDEX.

xiz

INDEX

TO THE secretary's REPORT

Accounts, importance of keeping, .
Agricultural Societies, exhibitions of tlie,

" Statistics,

Agriculture, Manual of.
Animal Fat, production of,
Animals of Massachusetts,
Apple Tree, disease of the,
Ayrshires, qualities of the.

Bean, disease of the, .
Birds, annoyance from,
Breeding Stock, attention to,

" " for beef,

" " principles of,

Breeds, selections of,
Bull, points of the, .

Cabinet, the State, .
Calves, feeding of.
Cattle Breeding, report on.
Cattle Disease, existence of the.
Cow, points of a good.
Crops, consuming on the farm,
Curculio, depredations of the.
Cutting off Woodland, effect of.

Dairy, breeding for the,
Deer, the American,
Devons, characteristics of the,
Diseases of Vegetation,
Dogs, damage done by,
" number licensed,

Farm, wastes of the,

Farming, profits of, ,

Feeding of Stock,

Fences, waste in.

Food, amount derived from various crops,

" cost of, for stock,

" steaming of.
Fox, the American, .
Fruits, failure of.

Grain, waste by over-ripening,
Grennell, James S., report by,

28

28

75

135, 201, 203

198, 199, 200

. 196,198

38, 39, 93, 95

137, 139, UZ, 147, 192

. 7, 8, 9

14, 19, 21, 27, 30, 55

6,7

. 101, 102

. 13, 14, 19, 24

. 16, 20, 35, 55

15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 24, 60

. 54, 56

19, 20, 22, 23

137, 192, 194

29, 31, 34, 37, 40, 44, 93

12, 14, 18, 28, 61

. 133, 134

15, 16, 18, 21, 37, 62

92, 93

. 9, 104

86, 87, 88

15, 39, 63

189, 190, 191

59, 60

6, 8, 10, 11

101

64, 66, 68, 72

72, 74, 76, 88, 91
113

30, 32, 34, 37, 40, 91, 93
88, 89, 91, 108

52, 53

41, 42, 44, 47, 50, 93, 95
44, 45, 47, 48
101, 151, 152
8, 10, 11, 97

98
72, 91, 115

zx

INDEX.

Harris on Insects,

Hay Crop, harv'esting of the,

Herefords, introduction of the,

Insects injurious to vegetation,

Labor, economy of, .
Loring, George B., report by,
Lynx, the Canadian,
" the bay.

Manual of Agriculture,
Manures, experiments with, .

" waste of, .
Mice, ravages of,
Mink, habits of the, .

Otter, the American, .

Pastures, deterioration of.
Platform Scales, convenience of,

Raccoon, habits of the,
Rotation of Crops, .

Sheep, protection and keeping of,
Sheltering Stock, economy of.
Short-horns, characteristics of.
Skunk, habits of the.
Squirrel, species of the,
Stock, cost of feeding.

Tools, economy of good,

Underdraining, advantages of,

Vermin on Stock,

Water for Stock,

Wastes of the Farm,

Weasel, varieties of the,

Weeds, waste by,

Wheat, bounties on, .
" culture of,
" consumption of,
" cost and profit of raising,
" diseases of the plant,
" first grown in Massachusetts,
" harvesting of,
" manure for,
" time and mode of sowing,
" varieties of, .

Woodchuck, habits of the, .

Woodlands, treatment of.

72

76, 80,

B, 91

93, 98,

104, 195, 19fl

. 97, 98

58

103, 104, 195

99, 100, 110

. 12, 63

150

. 148,149

196, 197, 198
. 135,136

76, 77, 79, 92, 93
102, 180, 183
157, 158, 159

160

80, 81, 83, 84, 108
. 74, 75

. 101,163
. 98, 99

63, 65, 84
. 93, 94
. 56, 57
101, 161, 162
166, 169,172,173
50, 51, 53, 91

. 109,110

. 96, 97

102

96

100, 104, 107, 109
. 154,156
104, 105, 106
122
116
117
. 131,132
. 129,131
119
130
. 125, 126
128
127
. 101,175
. 86, 88

ABSTRACT OF RETURNS

AGEICULTUML SOCIETIES

MA.8S^CHXJ SETTS.

18 6 1.

EDITED BY

CHARLES L. FLINT,

SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

BOSTON:

WILLIAM WHITE, PRINTER TO THE STATE.

1862.

OFFICERS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES,
1863.

MASSACHUSETTS.

President— GEORGE W. LYMAN, of Boston.
SecretarTf—TETEn C. BROOKS, Jr., of Boston.

ESSEX.

President— ALLE}^ W. DODGE, of Hamilton.
Secretary— CHARLES P. PRESTON, of Danvers.

MIDDLESEX.

President— EFERAIM W. BULL, of Concord.
Secretory— JOHN B. MOORE, of Concord.

MIDDLESEX SOUTH.

President— ELJAS GROUT, of AsUand.
Secretory— JAMES W. BROWN, of Framingham.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

President— ELIJAH M. READ, of Tewksbury.
Secretary— yV. F. SALMON, of Lowell.

WORCESTER.

Presideni—WILLIAM S. LINCOLN, of Worcester.
Secretor?/- JOHN D. WASHBURN, of Worcester.

WORCESTER WEST.

Prei7"rfen<— ARTEMAS LEE, of Teinpleton.
Secretory/— CHARLES BRIMBLECOM, of Barre.

WORCESTER NORTH.

PresiV/e?i<— LEWIS H. BRADFORD, of Fitcbburg.
Secretor?/- WILLIAM G. WYMAN, of Fitcbburg.

WORCESTER SOUTH.

Prestrfen^— CALVIN P. FISKE, of Sturbridge.
Secretorz^- DAVID WIGHT, of Sturbridge.

WORCESTER SOUTH-EAST.

PreAJrfc/i/— AARON C. MAYHEW, of Milford.
Secretory— JOHN GEORGE METCALF, of Mendon.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

President— T. G. HUNTINGTON, of Hadley.
Secretary— R. K. STARKWEATHER, of Northampton.

iv OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETIES.

HAMPSHIRE.

President— LEVI STOCKBRIDGE, of Hadley.
Secretary— A. P. HOWE, of Amherst.

HIGHLAND.

President— GEORGE H. HUNTINGTON, of Becket.
Secre<flr?/-JONATHAN McELWAIN, Jk., of Middlefield.

HAMPDEN.

President— CHESTER W. CHAPIN, of Springfield.
Secretary — J. N. BAGG, of West Springfield.

HAMPDEN EAST.

President— JOSEPH RAMSDELL, of Warren.
Secretary— DAmEL GRANGER, of Palmer.

FRANKLIN.

President— HENRY W. CLAPP, of Greenfield.
Secretary— JAMES S. GRENNELL, of Greenfield.

BERKSHIRE.

President— THOMAS COLT, of Pittsfield.
Secretary^J OHN E. MERRILL, of Pittsfield.

HOUSATONIC.

President— HARRlSO'i^ GARFIELD, of Lee.
Secretary— SAMUEL B. SUMNER, of Great Barrington.

HOOSAC VALLEY.

President— JOSEPH WHITE, of Williamstown.
5ecre/ar2^— WILLIAM W. GALLUP, of North Adams.

NORFOLK.

PresiV/en/— MARSHALL P. WILDER, of Dorchester.
Secretary— HE'i^RY O. HILDRETH, of Dedham.

BRISTOL.

President— THEODORE DEAN, of Raynham.
Secretary— L. T. TALBOT, of Taunton.

^ PLYMOUTH.

President— CHARLES G. DAVIS, of Plymouth.
5ecretor2^— WILLIAMS LATHAM, of Bridgewater.

BARNSTABLE.

Presirfen^— GEORGE MARSTON, of Barnstable.
Secretary— S. B. PHINNEY, of Barnstable.

NANTUCKET.

President— JAMES THOMPSON, of Nantucket.
Secretary— JAMES M. BUNKER, of Nantucket.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

President— HENRY L. WHITING, of West Tisbury.
Secretory— DANIEL A. CLEAVELAND, of West Tisbury.

AGRICULTURE OF MASSACHUSETTS.

EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS,

From an Address before the Essex Agricultural Society.

BY ALFRED A. ABBOTT.

How should farmers' sons be educated — how should the
rising generation of farmers be reared ?

In order to insure success in any department of life or labor,
there must be the previous suitable preparation and training.
If a lad is intended for one of the professions, so-called, he
starts with that understanding. There is from the outset
method and system. He is put to those exercises which it is
believed will best discipline his mind for the peculiar labors he
is to perform. All those means and appliances are brought to
bear which can aid in developing the faculties and powers upon
which hereafter he must mainly rely. The whole field of his
future is brought and kept before him, so that all through his
preparatory course he can have in view the goal for which he
has set out. And if, after all, he fails, as many do, (for it is
hardly necessary to say that there are incapable lawyers,
unskilful physicians and inefficient ministers, as well as thrift-
less farmers,) the fault is in himself, and not in the system.
So, if a boy is intended for mercantile life or some mechanical
pursuit, he is trained for that life or pursuit, and his training
begins with the knowledge on his part that he has entered upon
what is to be his future, permanent occupation — that he has
embarked upon the voyage of life, and as he steers his course
and trims his sails, so will come success or failure. Henceforth

2 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

he has one governing thought, one aim, and to that every thing
is suhordinate. From the first, every thing tends to give him
a full and clear idea of liis chosen business, its duties and its
difficulties, and what he must do to secure its amplest rewards
and achieve its highest triumphs.

Now, how is it with the education of farmers ? There are
exceptions, of course, but not enough to disturb the general
rule. Tlie farmer sends his son to the village school, where he
learns to read and write and cipher. He is set to do the light
chores about home, until, gaining in strength, he is ])ut to
harder tasks. As he grows up, he learns to plant, to mow, to
harvest, to perform the ordinary work of the farm, but only in
the way he sees his father perform these labors. He may or
may not observe the rotation of crops, the application of partic-
ular fertilizers, the production of certain results, but if he does,
he knows not, thinks not, of the reason of the thing. To all
intents and purposes, he is performing a mere mechanical task.
Whether or not he is to be a farmer, whether that is to be the
business of his life, remains undetermined. Neither he nor his
father have come to any settled understanding upon this. Like
Mr. IMicawbcr, he is waiting for something to turn up, — some
opportunity to go to the city, to go to sea, to go into trade, —
but all the time with mind unfixed, with no clear purposes, no
distinct aims. If he remains upon the farm and becomes a
farmer, the chances are that he does it from the force of circum-
stances, and because that seems to be the only resource left
him, and not from choice. And then he goes on as he began,
and as his father has gone before him. Now what is needed is,
and it is of j)rimary importance, that the young novitiate for
farming should be trained to his business, with the understand-
ing from the first that it is to be his business — one in which he
is to earn his living and acquire a competency ; one in which,
from the start, he shall be spurred on by the laudable ambition
to excel and make his mark. Why should there not be in this
the same method and system as in other employments ? Why
should he not begin with the idea which is to control his course,
so that every effort and every experience may be made to tell
in his general education and to bear upon final results ? The
boy upon the farm, who is to be a farmer, when he has had the
proper rudimentary education of the schools, should commence

EDUCATION OF FAR]MERS' SONS. 3

his profession in earnest, knowing and feeling that he has com-
menced it. If he is pnt to any particular farm-work, he should
understand why that work is to be done, and why at that time,
and if told to do it in a particular way, he should understand
why it is to be done in that rather than in a different way. He
should be led to inquire the reason of and for every thing, to
think and judge, to read and study, to learn theory and j)ractice
together, and test the former by the latter. In this mode, and
in this only, can he commence his career with the same advan-
tages which attend the young man entering upon any other
kind of business. It is generally the first step in life which
gives direction to its whole future march. It is the resolution
early formed which imparts courage to youth and strength to
manhood. Let the young farmer have but a fair start, and he
need not ask any odds.

In the next place, and of equal, and perhaps greater impor-
tance, the young man who is to become a farmer should at once
feel and realize that the occupation upon which he is entering
is not a mere mechanical routine of labor ; that while it is one
which may require severe physical toil, it also calls for and
demands the exercise of the highest intellectual faculties. How
absurd is the idea that the brightest boy in a family must be
sent to school and college, and trained up as a merchant or
professional man, while his brother, not thought fit for any
thing else, will do to make a farmer of. While the father
thinks so, the sons of course imbibe the same notion, and this
shallow fallacy of thought hardens into real and disastrous fact,
and the result is, that just what is most needed to encourage,
improve, ennoble this great fundamental art and science of life,
to wit, intelligence, mind, are withdrawn from it to be expended
upon other pursuits. And this idea so acted upon, while it
tends to draw many of our best young men from the farm, has
also this bad result, that it depresses and discourages those who
are left, and leads them to believe that farming is mere drudgery,
— that they must work harder, fare poorer, be worse paid, and
pass less pleasant and happy lives than their fellows who pursue
other employments. Now, do you believe that God put man in
the Garden of Eden, " to dress it and to keep it," — that from
thence he was sent forth " to till the ground," and was told,
" in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread till thou return

4 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

unto the ground," — that in His providence it was ordered that
the great majority of mankind should cultivate the soil, while
the whole race should thus be fed, — that to the moral, political
and social elevation of man, as well as to the full and healthy
development of his physical powers, agriculture should be neces-
sary and essential, and yet that it should give no scope for the
exercise of his intellectual faculties, of that " living soul " which
he became when God " breathed into his nostrils the breath of
life ? " No ; here, as everywhere else, " wisdom is strength
and knowledge is power." Why is there such a difference ;
what causes the disparity in the condition of farmers ? "Why
are not all alike prosperous ? Why is that this farm is fertile and
productive, and its owner prosperous and happy, while the one
which adjoins it is sterile and unfruitful, and its owner an
unsuccessful and disappointed man ? There is no natural or
irremediable difference in soil or climate. There is the same
health and strength and muscle in the men. The sun shines
as genially, the rain descends as seasonably, the dew falls as
gratefully for one as for the other. It is because in addition to
more diligence and economy, and perphaps to more industry,
one brings to his work more judgment, more intelligence, more
mind, than the other.

The farmer should be the last man to have inadequate con-
ceptions of his mission, the last to disparage it. As a man
thinketh so he is, and so will he do. " Possunt quia posse
videniur.^^ We are able when we have faith in our ability. If
farmers generally consider their calling ignoble and low ; that it
is mere bodily toil, a sullen contest of animal strength with inert
matter; that they are but hewers of wood and drawers of water,
so will it be and such will they become. But if, on the other
hand, they have just and true ideas of themselves and their
vocation ; that it is elevated and ennobling ; that not only are they
with strong hands to wage successful war against brute forces,
but tiiat ripe with intelligence they are to share in the triumphs
of mind over matter, then will they and all things around them
be transformed. They will walk the earth with a more elastic
step. The very grass beneath their feet will wear a^ livelier
green. The blue sky above their heads will bend more brightly.
The summer breezes will whisper new hopes. The winter
storms will inspire fresh courage. Thinking, reasoning, as well

EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS. 6

as working men, with cultivated minds and aspiring souls, they
will respect themselves and be respected by others ; they will
dignify and adorn labor; they will feel and know, and the world
will see how enviable and exalted is their position, and that
with the farmer's lot there is none wliich can compare for real
happiness and solid good.

Having started, then, to become a farmer, not with a sort of
floating idea that such may possibly be his permanent business,
but, in the first place, with a fixed and well-defined purpose,
and, in the second place, with a correct idea of the nature and
importance of the business, and what it imperatively demands
for full success — the young farmer is ready to go to work, or
rather he is ready to learn how to work, to serve his apprentice-
ship, to fit himself for the duties of life. In truth, this prepa-
ration is to last his whole lifetime. Whoever has to deal with
nature and her processes, is a perpetual learner. He studies in
a school whose lessons are never completed, whose teachings
have no end. The great forces and the very elements are his
instructors. Each rolling year, each passing season, unfold new
problems to be solved, new mysteries to be fathomed, and the
scholar, as he grows wise, grows humble, for he realizes how
infinite is the wisdom of the Creator, how wondrous are his
ways. And when death ends his labors, and he goes down to
rest in the bosom of the earth he has lived upon and loved so
long, it is with the humility and yet with the faith of a child,
that in another state of being, where the vision will be clearer
and the soul unfettered, he will pursue his studies and gain
truer views, as he basks in the light of infinite knowledge.

But how shall the young farmer prosecute his work ? Of
course industry is to be inculcated, — unfailing, never-tiring,
which finds for every hour some work to do, and without which
nothing can be accomplished. Economy, too, which allows no
waste or extravagance, which saves the little here and the little
there, which accumulates, earns, produces, before it spends and
consumes, which is the handmaidof industry and the foundation
of wealth. Habits of order, also, should be impressed, which
for every labor has its time, which never puts oflf till to-morrow
what can as well be done to-day, which has a place for every
thing and keeps every thing in its place, — that order or system,
which although it may seem more natural to some than to

6 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

others, is yet tlie result of discipline, and can be cultivated and
acquired by all, — which is as necessary upon the farm as in the
office or workshop, and the practice or neglect of which maybe,
and often is, the turning point between success and failure.

In this connection, a word upon the keeping of accounts
would not seem to be out of place. I do not speak now of farm
accounts, technically so called, — the account which every farmer
should keep with every department of his farm, without which
it is impossible to calculate the most beneficial mode of its man-
agement, and the improvements of which it is susceptible, and
which is just as important to him as to the merchant or manu-
facturer are their complicated books. And yet, if there were
time, it would be a profitable theme. For illustration, suppose
a farmer should say to his son who is training to succeed him,
" Here, take this lot of land, cultivate it, experiment upon it,
do with it and what you get from it as you please, but keep a
strict account with it, and from year to year, see not only what
you have learned of farming, but liow stands the matter of profit
and loss. To say nothing of what an incentive this would be to
effort, what a spur to youthful ambition, how better could the
young man be taught prudence and thrift, while at the same
time he was gaining golden knowledge of his art ? And thus
from this one lot let the same system be applied to all, to the
whole farm, whenever he comes to have one of his own. But I
w^as referring to the subject in a more limited view, to the
accounts wliich a farmer should keep of his pecuniary transac-
tions— of his bargains, and purchases, and sales, his dealings
with the world. I feel that I have a right to speak of this with
some degree of confidence, because it is a matter witli which
my own professional experience has made me somewhat familiar.
I have known instances, and they have not been infrequent,
where a farmer, forced to go into court, has been unable to
prove an honest demand, simply from his inability to produce
an account-book which would meet the easy requirements of the
law, and who, besides losing his case, and having to payaheavy
bill of costs to his fraudulent debtor, has gone home mortified
at the tliought that his neighbors would believe he was in the
w^rong and his opponent in the right. The looseness which
prevails in this matter strikes every lawyer with astonishment.
The usual apology made is, that a farmer's dealings are mainly

EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS. 7

cash, and that he has little occasion to be particular about his
accounts. This is comparatively true. But while a farmer is
to be encouraged in never buying but for cash, there arc times
when in selling he must accommodate his neighbor with credit.
And so, in this and other ways, it happens that there is not a
week, hardly a day in the year, in which there should not be
some memorandum made, some charge, some credit, something
in the end involving dollars and cents. It is no kook-keeping
by double entry, no complicated system of accounts that is
required. The law in this respect is liberal. An old barn door,
with its chalk scores, unhung and brought into court, would be
allowed to justify a suppletory oath. But barn doors and kitchen
ceilings are unsafe and clumsy journals. Paper and pen and
ink are much more trustworthy and quite as convenient. All
that is wanted is ordinary penmanship, a knowledge of the
simplest rules of arithmetic, and that habit of punctuality which
will record tlie transaction at the time of its occurrence. If the
farmer is advanced in years, and his hands cramped l)y toil, let
him use the nimbler fingers of his wife or daughter, only let
him have the account kept. But let his son, when he begins
farming, start fair in this respect, and accustom himself to keep
his accounts regularly and correctly. It will not only save hira
money, it will save him much annoyance, vexation and strife.
It may be said that this is a small matter. Be it so. " Take
care of the little things, and the large ones will take care of
themselves," — or, as the tradesman has it, and he knows the
value of poor Richard's maxim, " Take care of the pence, and
the pounds will take care of themselves." It has been said by
good autliority, " More profit is made on a farm from trifles than
from the large crops." The sooner the young man learns this
invaluable lesson, the better will be his chances of success. The
Dutch have a proverb, " No one is ever ruined who keeps good
accounts." They will not only enable a man to understand his
whole affairs, and avoid being cheated, but their moral effect is
important; — they prevent habits of irregularity, procrastination
and indolence ; they induce habits of order, promptness and
industry.

Among those things which attract the attention of an outside
observer, tiiere is no one which so excites his surprise as tlie
indifference manifested by farmers in availing themselves of the

8 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

aids furnished to successful culture by improved instruments
of labor and by modern scientific research. Although as to the
former, there has, of late years, been a great and growing
change, and men who but recently looked with distrust and
aversion upon what they called new-fangled inventions, will
now cheerfully use, and, if they cannot afford to ])uy, will hire
one and another of those valuable labor-saving implements,
which are doing so much to facilitate the operations of the
farm, yet there is still room for progress. In this matter the
young farmer should begin with the right ideas. "While he
listens to the advice of his elders, and pays due respect to their
example as well as precept, he should guard against becoming
the slave of old prejudices, and should observe, and judge, and
act for himself. To say that because his father before him
managed to cut and cure and get in his hay with a scythe and
fork and hand-rake, therefore there is no need of his using a
mowing-machine, a tedder, or a horse-rake, is just as absurd as
it would be for him never to ride in a rail-car, wear a cloth
coat, or eat flour bread, because his grandfather jogged along
on horseback, was comfortable in linsey-woolsey, and didn't
starve on rye and Indian. Of course he must exercise prudence
and caution, and neither go beyond his means nor lightly adopt
every new contrivance simply because it is new. But on the
other hand, let him studiously avoid that spirit of distrust
which looks with suspicion upon every departure from old
usage. Let him, with eyes wide open to see, and mind open
to conviction, carefully observe and narrowly watch, and then
adopt whatever full experiment by individuals or associations
has proved to be advantageous and profitable.

I spoke of scientific research. I liavc no disposition at this
last stage to exhaust your kind patience with a disquisition on
scientific farming. But let me say, that we lookers-on cannot
understand this prejudice which exists among farmers against
the a}>plication of science to agriculture. Why, what is agri-
culture but a science, both a science and an art, whose birth
■was coeval with the birth of man, whose growth has been meas-
ured l)y the progress of civilization, and whose perfection will
not be attained till the race shall have reached its millennial
state. Every manufactory has its chemist ; every art and trade
modifies and adapts its operations to come within the sphere of

EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS. 9

new discoveries and fresli developments. If a sliipwriglit builds
a vessel, if a carpenter frames a house, if a miner embowels the
earth, if a tanner turns skins into leather, if a machinist makes
a steam-engine, if a cunning workman fabricates and puts
together a watch, if an optician constructs a telescope, the last
disclosure of science guides his hand and moulds his work ;
and why should not the farmer bring, to alleviate his hard toil,
and make more exuberant the fruits of his labor, whatever aid
science as well as art can furnish ? There is a wide distinction
between fancy and scientific farming. A man comes into the
country from city or college, and sets out to be a model agri-
culturist. He buys a place, pulls down all the old structures
and builds a small palace. He erects a green-house, and hen-
nery, and piggery, and buildings for his cattle, which surpass
in their appointments the habitations of decent people around
him. He imports at fabulous prices foreign stock which he
knows not how to use or raise. He buys whatever in the way
of implements or tools is advertised as new, without knowing
whether they are good or bad. And then he gets his books,
and without previous experience, and spurning the advice of
old cultivators, he sets up for a gentleman farmer. For a year
or two he runs on swimmingly, makes a great figure, throws
into the shade his humble competitors, and then, as might
have been expected, he miserably fails, and a sherifTs auction
closes the scene. And his neighbors cry out, " So much for
your scientific farming ! " It is no such thing. It is fancy
farming.

Now look upon another picture. A gentleman (he may or
may not have had early practical acquaintance with farming,
but he has good sense and sound judgment) with resolute mind
and purpose, and iii.%ratification of long cherished wishes,
devotes his attention alia wealth to agriculture. He proceeds
carefully and systematically. He has taste, and he makes his
place an object of beauty as well as utility. His buildings are
ornamental as well as useful. His fences are both handsome
and durable. His fields are clean as well as fruitful. If there
is an unsightly bog, he reclaims it and makes it fertile. If
there are impoverished acres, he studies and experiments, and
finds what elements are lacking, and supplies them. If, upon
trial, he ascertains that his lands will not profitably raise cer-

2

10 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tain accustomed crops, he rotates, and liiids those which will
yield remuneratively. His tools and implements are the best,
and therefore the most economical. If the stock upon the farm
is poor, he learns by inquiry and research what breeds are most
prolific and hardy, best fitted for labor and for market. He
eagerly avails himself of the practical experience of those
around him, but at the same time he studies books and seeks
the aid of science. From geology he learns the origin, nature
and composition of soils, — from chemistry to analyze and im-
prove them, the condition requisite for the most perfect growth
and maturity of vegetation, and the mode of joreparing the best
fertilizers, — from botany the structure and habits of plants, and
what soils and modes of treatment they demand, — from zoology
those laws by which the re-production of animals is regulated
and their highest, perfection attained, and so, from all the
natural sciences he gathers knowledge and applies it in his daily
tasks, till complete success crowns his efforts, till the former
waste becomes a garden, until what was once a wilderness is
made to bud and blossom like the rose. This is the scienlific
farmer.

We have such in tliis county. AVe have them in this
town. They are efficient officers and members of this society.
They have striven hard to promote its welfare and extend its
usefulness. They are in our midst here to-day — men whose
talents, and wealth, and social position might give them public
eminence and honor, but who, as exemplars of progressive
agriculture, are doing more good than though they were con-
spicuous in public councils, or were ruling the storm of debate
in legislative halls. Let the young farmer emulate such exam-
ples. Let him understand that to keep up with the times, he
must read and study ; that to becomt^ntircly successful, he
must add to industry and economy anfLvtoil, science and skilL
Li no other way can he excel, in no other way can he improve
his art and benefit his fellows. Our soil is not only compara-
tively poor, it is impoverished and worn out. Science and skill,
and they alone, can restore its exhausted powers, and they
can. They can make it as productive as western prairies or
southern valleys. There is no reason why the agriculture of
New England should not rival that of Old England. There
is no reason why Massachusetts should not feed her whole

EDUCATION OF FARMERS' SONS. 11

population. To make her truly independent she should do
so. The responsibility rests upon the risinj^ generation of
fiirmers. Let us hope that they will cheerfully assume and
nobly discharge it.

A few words, and but a few, upon one other topic, and I
have done. You may call it, if you please, a3sthetics, poetry,
sentiment, by what name you will, but it is a subject upon
which, if I had felt at liberty to follow my own inclinations, I
should have filled my whole discourse. The young farmer will
mistake his mission who makes that an end which should be
but an incident or means. He may grow rich, may add barn
to barn, and acre to acre, but if he neglects to wreathe the brow
and soften the hands of labor with refinement and grace, his
whole life will be a failure and his example a wrong. Farming
must be made attractive; and though its profitable exercise
will tend to this, yet if, through the want of other attractions,
it docs not gain the right class of recruits, it will soon cease to
yield profit. Is not our farm-life too rugged and harsh ? Has
it sufficiently recognized the amenities of life ? Has it ade-
quately encouraged social culture and delights ? Has it not
deemed exclusive devotion to labor as indispensable to success,
frowned upon whatever interfered with unremitting toil, and
grudged the expended mite which would have added to its
hoards ? Has it not looked upon the exercise of taste, the
gratification of the eye, the love of ornament and beauty, as
something foreign and out of place, and recognized nothing as
desirable or useful which would not pay in dollars and cents?
Such, at all events, has been the prevailing tendency, and in it
is to be found the great secret of that aversion to farm-life
which " has taken directly from our farming population its
best elements — its quickest intelligence, its most stirring enter-
prise, its noblest and most ambitious natures."

Let the young farmer, then, begin life aright. Remembering
the well established fact of physiology, " tiiat hard labor, fol-
lowed from day to day and year to year, absorbing every
thought and every energy, has the direct tendency to depress
the intellect, blunt the sensibilities, and animalize the man,"
let him be sure to cultivate the mental, moral and social
natMre. Let him feel that " his farm has higher uses for him
than those of feeding his person or his purse." As he looks

12 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

out xipoii his green meadows and waving fields, — as he plants
the brown seed and gathers in the golden harvest, — as he listens
to the song of birds, the lowing of herds, the sweet hum of
animated nature, — as he sees the morning sun rise to gild and
gladden the earth, and the evening shadows falling longer from
the hills,

" And then the moon, like to a silver bow
New-bent in heaven,"

and the

Earth-treading stars, that make dark heaven light,"

coming out to rule and glorify the night, — as in the spring-time
he watches the ever-recurring but ever great mystery of nature,
and when the winds of autumn wail in mournful cadence,
muses upon the decay of nature, less mysterious but more
solemn than its bursting life, let him remember that he is one
of God's creatures, but created for glory and honor, entrusted
with an earthly mission, but rec^uircd hereafter to render an
account of his stewardship. Let him think of his family and
his home — of his wife and children ; she, the choice of his
youth, and the solace of his manhood, who, in travail and pain
has borne them to him, and theij^ who are to cheer and support
his old age, and transmit and bring honor to his name. Let
him make his and their home pleasant and cheerful. Without^
let it be grateful to the sight, and delightful to the memory.
Let there be the smooth, green sward upon which the shadows
come and go, the clean-swept walk, the neat, white paling, the
blooming and fragrant flowers, the climbing vine upon the
rustic porch, the graceful trees which shade from sun and
shelter from the storm. Within^ let it bo the abode of domestic
joys and cultivated life. Let it have some sacred retreat, where
labor shall forget its irksome tasks ; where tired nature shall
find sweet repose ; where every thing shall charm the ear,
delight the eye, or gratify the mind ; where shall be comfort,
propriety and refinement, not needing luxury or wealth, but
only " that unbought grace " which neither gold can buy nor
station give, and which may breathe alike around the. rich
man's stately mansion and the poor man's humble cottage.

EDUCxVTION OF FARMERS' SONS. 13

Living thus, with trust in Heaven, with nurturing care for the
dear ones upon the earth, seeing God in nature, and recogniz-
ing hibor and its rewards as but the means and not the cud,
the farmer will lead anotlier and a higlier life. Existence will
have a new meaning. There will be for him new heavens and
a new earth. Drought and mildew, the blight may come, but
hope and happiness are left. He walks through life, it may be
amid storms, beneath clouds, surrounded by misfortunes, beset
by carking cares, yet seeing forms of light in the gathering
darkness, and drawing joy from out the very gloom.

" The meanest floweret of the vale,
The simplest note that swells the gale,
The common air, the sun, the skies,
To him are opening Paradise."

14 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURE-TENURE OF LANDS.

From an Address before the Middlesex Agricultural Society.

BY EMOIIY WASIIBURX.

I mean to speak of the influence of agriculture as an employ-
ment iipon a community, and how far this is affected by the
nature and extent of the ownership of the soil in individual
proprietorships.

Of tiie classes into which communities are, ordinarily,
divided, the owners of the lands are, uniformly, the most fixed
in their condition, and stable in their opinions. While, from
long continued habits of association, men thus situated are apt
"to acquire peculiarities which distinguish them as a class from
those engaged in other species of employment. They often
derive habits of thought and traits of manner from mere dwelling
together in particular localities, which a practiced eye may
readily detect. This grows out of the influence which men exert
upon others, by force of example, often in spite of themselves,
by the mere intercourse of ordinary life. And the nearer and
more intimate this association may be, the more marked and
direct the influence becomes. While, therefore, a business like
that of agriculture which extends to every part of a country is
felt upon the moral as well as the physical condition of a whole
community, it is itself modified by local causes by whicli the
habits of life on the prevailing opinions of particular sections
and districts assume characteristics and distinctive forms.

We may not be able to give a philosophical reason for the
connection there is between the external circumstances by
which a man is surrounded, and the qualities which go to make
up the traits of his character ; nor may we detect the subtle
agencies by which a farmer in one locality is a different man
from what he would have been in another. But who can doubt

TENURE OF LANDS. 15

the fact ? If, for instance, we could take two children of equal
natural capacities and place them upon different estates even in
the same neighboriiood, the one to grow up upon a hard, cold
and exhausted farm, where every thing is managed stingily
and without regard to comfort ; the other to be reared upon a
generous soil, with pleasant surroundings of scenery and taste
and culture, who can doubt that those two children would
grow up into men almost as different as the estates upon which
they have learned their business of farming.

I make these familiar illustrations and common place
remarks because of their application to men in the broader
relations of states and communities. The character and con-
dition of the fixed and stable portions of a population is felt
upon every part of it. And it is for this reason that whatever
affects agriculture as a pursuit, and tends to fix upon the men
employed in it any peculiarity of character, stamps its impress
upon the institutions of the State itself. The farmer in that
way becomes the type and representative of the community in
which he lives. The importance of this truth will at once
present itself when it is remembered that while in our own
country the men engaged in this pursuit outnumber those of
any other class in every State, in some of the States they con-
siderably exceed the aggregate of all other occupations.

If the men who till the soil are intelligent, frugal and indus-
trious, and especially if the acres which they till they may call
their own, it can hardly fail to give a tone of freedom to
thought and an independence to spirit which we should look for
in vain in a nation of tenants who hold their lands at the beck
of a few old and lordly proprietors. Every school boy knows
that the age of true Roman virtue and valor was when
Cincinnatus was found at his plough, where he was named
dictator, and returned again to the cultivation of his little farm,
by his own hand, the moment he had at the head of his legions
achieved a triumph over the public enemy. He knows too
that, though mistress of the world, the empire had imbibed the
fatal elements of weakness and dissolution in that policy which,
among other evils, secured to the Patrician families large
domains out of conquered provinces to be cultivated and carried
on by the labor of slaves.

16 MISSACUUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The history of modern nations, too, is full of illustrations of
this connection between the condition of a people and the
tenure of their lands, and the character of the labor by which
they are carried on. We could in no way so readily measure
the extent of the changes which were wrought in the social
fabric of France by her Revolution of 1703, as by tracing the
condition of her peasantry before tliat event and the extent to
which it was alfected by the monopoly of her soil into a few
hands. Feudalism had kept its hold upon the lands of th€
kingdom up to the very hour when the yells of tlie mob rung
through the gorgeous salons of the Palace of Versailles. And
it was only by the common crash of the throne and the mo-
nopoly of the nobles, that the people began to share a heritage
which till then had been denied them. The change upon the
face of the earth which was witnessed when the deluge had
subsided, could have been scarcely less marked than was that
which the storm of the revolution left in the social condition of
the cultivators of the soil of that kingdom. Two-thirds of her
population, we are told, are now engaged in agriculture, and
more than luiU' of her entire people are proprietors of the soil.

It is not necessary to assume that because she has thrown
open her lands to her people that she has done all that she
ought for labor or for freedom. But we cannot fail to perceive
that, in doing this, an element of strength and stability for her
government has been provided which we seek for in vain among
the nations of the South of Europe where the Metaijer system
or the working of lands by tenants upon shares, has so long
prevailed.

In preparing our minds to judge of the importance of the
principle I am attempting to enforce, I ought not to forget the
condition of that people from whom we borrow so much of our
history, as well as so many of the opinions which are current
here.

The love of dominion over some portion of soil which he may
call his own, is an instinct in every Englishman's composition.
And whoever is favored enough to attain to this, is an object of
regard to all who cannot aspire to so enviable a distinction.
From the dependence of the manufacturing classes upon the
agricultural, to supply their articles of consumj)tion, this instinct
for the ownership of land has been stimulated and strengthened

TENURE OF LANDS. 17

by the consideration that it is also a means of profitable invest-
ment of capital. And at this day the lands. of the kingdom are
divided into estates which have been growing fewer in number
and consequently larger in size, till some seventy-five thousand
persons, we are told, now own the entire landed Intercast of the
kingdom. This necessarily leads to three great divisions of
society which are arbitrary in many respects, — the nobles, the
gentry and the commonalty. In the first of these are the
princely landlords who do no labor. Tiie second may possibly
embrace a few of the farmers, so called, who hire the lands and
employ others to do the principal part of the work, while the
field laborer never rises above the lowest of these classes, and
the idea, in his mind, of owning one of the acres which he is
employed to hedge or plough, would seem as strange and pre-
posterous as the hope of marrying a scion of the royal family,
or being buried in St. Paul's or Westminster Abbey.

The influence of this inequality in the condition of those who
do and those who do not own lands, and of those who do and those
who do not labor, prevails and affects every class of employment
in the kingdom. While only twenty-eight per cent, of the
people of Great Britain are connected immediately, with its
agriculture, the remaining seventy-two per cent, are guided, in
no small degree, by the opinions and will of those who head this
agricultural minority. It is not necessary that they should be
out-voted by tlicm, or that in physical strength, seven men from
the shop should be over-matched by two farm laborers. But
the possession of landed estates has become associated with
ancient and noble families, and though, here and there, emi-
nent talents, distinguished enterprise and skill may amass large
fortunes, and thus enable their possessors to make themselves
masters of greater or less quantities of land, such men are
rarely found content to enjoy the mere luxuries and influence
which wealth can purchase. There is a charmed circle above
them, and they are hoping, some day, to reach this when their
rent rolls shall have grown large enough, so that, instead of the
ownership of land by a commoner being a means of weakening
the power or influence of the class who are born to a titled
name, it becomes one great means by which this power is per-
petuated. While the farms of England and Wales average, we
arc told, only about sixty-four acres, the Duke of Devonshire

3

18 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

owns ninety-six thousand acres in a single county in England,
and the income of the ^laivjuis of Westminster is a million or
more of dollars a year.

The influence of this tremendous inequality in rank and con-
dition, as connected with the ownership of the lands of the king-
dom, cannot fail to impress itself upon the whole social condition
of England, — class and rank pervade every thing. And there is
nothing which strikes a stranger more sensibly, while studying
the habits of the English people, than the subserviency to supe-
riority in blood or rank, which runs through the whole nation,
from the first Duke of the realm down to the humblest cabman in
the street. The lordly land owner, whether titled or not, looks
down with condescension upon the farmer who hires his land.
And he, in turn, looks down upon the hedger or ditcher or plough-
man who does the work upon it, and rare, indeed, is the instance
of one, brought up under such institutions, attempting to call
their wisdom or their humanity into question. Indeed, the law
has, for hundreds of years, lent its strong aid in perpetuating
these ideas by the rights of primogeniture which it secures, and
the practical system of entailment which it favors.

These notions , we are to remember, took root and grew up
before these modern days of the loom and the spinning jenny.
Whether they could have ever obtained against an antagonism
like that of a community of artisans and manufacturers, I have
no occasion now to discuss. John Bull was born and had
grown up to manhood, with all his domineering ways and habits
of assurance, long before Arkwright was heard of, or Crompton
had conceived of his mule, or Watt of the steam-engine. We
arc to look for the origin of his uncomfortable manners and
habits away back in his history, when the baron lived at home
in the country surrounded by his vassals, and never thought it
necessary to spend three-quarters of the year in the din and
smoke of Loudon, to help give a tone to the omnipotence of
public 0j)iuioii.

The tendency of throwing into the hands of any one j)roprie-
tor large quantities of land, over which he is master, but upon
which lie is not obliged to labor, in exciting and strengthening
a proud and hauglity spirit incompatible with any thing like
practical equality in the classes or employments into which com-
munities are divided, may be traced in the history and condition

TENURE OF LANDS. 19

of every people where it has prevailed. But I need not have
gone beyond our own country to find illustrations of this as a
moral and political axiom. As an offshoot from the mother
country, the people at the North, at least, brought with tliem
English notions as they did their language, and planted them
here to grow up with the colonies. In one respect, however,
there was an important difference between the people of New
and Old England. While the colonists clung, as for their lives,
to the Magna Charta and the great elements of personal freedom
and security which were found in the British constitution,
while they cherished with fondness and pride the memories and
historic associations which clustered around the old home-
stead, they had come, themselves, from the intelligent middle
classes, and had not been accustomed to share in the ownership
of large estates in lands, and were content, under the demo-
cratic training to which their religious notions and educations
had led, with such portions of the new territory of which they
found themselves the masters, as they could personally cultivate
and manage. In other words, without perhaps knowing the
name which could best describe their social condition as colo-
nists, they constituted as pure a democracy as can well consist
with wise laws, public quiet and individual security. This, too,
was substantially the condition of the Southern colonies, with
such differences as grew out of their ideas of church polity, and
the forms of their governments prescribed in their respective
colonial charters, as well as the nature of their associations
before leaving the mother country. This state things contiiuied
until the Revolution ; although as showing the radical differ-
ence which had even then grown up between the two sections
in matters of opinion, it is said that during the Revolution there
were hardly patriots enough among the people of the South to
keep the loyalists in check who still clung to their fealty to the
crown.

The leading spirits, however, both South and North, not only
went hand in hand through that struggle, but in the no less
important crisis which gave the country peace, prosperity and
power, by the adoption of the Federal Constitution. It was the
result of a generous sacrifice of local prejudices on all sides, and
a compromise of conflicting interests and opinions, and it found
no abler or more devoted advocates than men bred under and

20 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

interested in tlic institutions and habits of the South. And we
may add, that so long as that generation bore an active part in
the affairs of our government, its compromises were maintained,
and the different sections of the Union were at peace with each
other. It was not till the Union, by the incentives it offered to
enterprise, and the security it furnished for all who had gathered
within its fold, had begun to develop the almost boundless
resources of wealth and moral and physical power which a
virgin soil, a favorable climate, a region unrivalled for its advan-
tages to commerce and the arts, and a free government could
not fail to bring into active energy, that men were found ready
to discard the principles upon which the constitution was
framed, and to sacrifice the prosperity of this great nation for
some fancied advantage to a section of lier territory.

We hear the question asked every day, what has wrought
this change? Why do we see a whole section arrayed in arms
to overthrow by brute force, the very government that gave
them life, and has given them the capacity of making their
hostility to its integrity formidable ? Why are all the ancient
feelings of sympathy and kindness towards brothers of a common
blood, with a common history and what had seemed to be a
common destiny, now changed to bitterness and hate? Slavery,
of which we have heard so much, is not a new institution, nor
are its merits a new subject of discussion, or a new element of
discord. These discussions and these feelings have, doubtless,
become greatly intensified since the constitution was adopted.
But no one, I imagine, would think of ascribing this disastrous
revolution of sectional feeling to this as the only exciting cause.
The whole number of slave owners in the country is said not to
exceed some three hundred thousand, and it is difficult to sup-
pose that twelve millions of people would be ready to rush into
a civil war simply to avenge the hard names which writers and
orators at the North have, of late, applied somewhat liberally to
the institution of involuntary labor.

Nor, powerful as may be the influence of noisy demagogues
in a community, with few schools and a limited supply of news-
papers, have we a right to suppose that mere words, liowcver
angry, could have exasperated reasonable men to deeds of such
folly and wickedness, or combine them in the work of tearing

TENURE OF LANDS. 21

down, with a ruthless hand, the pillars of the constitution on
which their own safety and prosperity must rest.

No adequate cause for this state of feeling is offered in any of
the proclamations or manifestos which the leaders of the con-
spiracy to overthrow the government have put forth to the
world. They specify no act of national legislation which
violates any of the compacts of the constitution. Indeed the
policy, and, for the most part, the administration of the federal
government has been in the hands of the very conspirators
themselves, or of those whom they affect to represent.

Something deeper than all this has been at work in throwing
the delicate machinery of our national system out of gear. It is
not the work of a day or of a year. It has been operating for
more than a generation, and the men are in their graves who
first detected and sought to avail themselves of the elements of
discord which had grown to be palpable to the careful observer.

If we can get at the true cause of this lamentable revolution
in local policy, my belief is that it will be found that the outside
agencies of lust for ofiice, bitter invective and political rancor,
are but the stimulants that have brought into action seeds of
disorganization which are more deeply planted in the body
politic.

I do uot overlook the mighty power of the press, nor the
influence of party organization for political action. Nor am I
unmindful of the control wliich the population and business and
capital of our cities and our towns, or of those engaged in man-
ufactures and mechanical industry, are always sure to exert in
any community where they are found. But most of these
agencies are comparatively feeble at the South, when measured
by their power at the North, and, as it seems to me, go but a
little way to account for the present radical difference there is
between these two sections, when compared with tlie influence
whicli the agricultural condition and pursuits exert upon the
thoughts, the feelings and the habits of the people.

It is not necessary that the agriculturists of the two sections
should originally have cultivated hostile feelings towards each
other, or even be conscious that they were in a condition of
antagonism to eacli other. If the system of policy pursued by
one section or the other, as to the mode of cultivating their
lands, the kind of operatives they employ or the social position

22 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the land holders enjoy in respect to rank as a class, or even as
to the character of the crops they raise, leads them to call for
different laws, or clothes them with different responsibilities and
powers, and holds out different motives to effort, it is not diflfi-
cult to see that, in spite of any preconceived wishes on their
part, not only might the agriculturists of different sections, thus
divided, become alienated from each other, but it could hardly
fail to involve other interests in a similar antagonism of feeling.
If for instance any thing like a spirit of democracy could grow
up in one section, while that of aristocracy prevailed in another,
who does not see how easy it might be for a set of selfish poli-
ticians to turn these sources of alienation to their own account,
and to fan this feeling into one of passion and hate ?

Now let us look for a moment, at the condition of these two
sections in the broad daylight of their agricultural interest and
economy, the division and ownership of their lands, the labor
by which they are cultivated and the relative rank they hold
in the scale of occupations and employments into which the
community around them is divided.

Looking first at what so many regard the chief cause of the
discord which prevails, — the question of labor, — we shall find
that the irreconcilable conflict between voluntary and involun-
tary service has been gaining strength and consistency with
every step which the South has been taking in enlarging the
extent of individual proprietorship of lands.

Up to 1780, we had slaves all over New England as well as
the other colonies. But the farms here were small, and their
owners were neither able uor disposed to employ many of this
class upon their estates, or to shrink, themselves from labor.
The genius of our institutions was always hostile to slavery as
an institution, and a law, passed as early as 1641, had it been
applied, would have exempted every native born child from the
condition of a slave. The consequence was that, so far as it
existed at all, it was strictly a domestic institution, where the
master and the slave wrought in the same field, eat at the same
table and went together to the same church.

This state of things, moreover, stamped a character upon
New England institutions, for agriculture was its great and
leading interest for near two hundred years. Navigation and
the fisheries gave lucrative employment to great numbers of

TENURE OF LANDS. £3

her sons, but as for mechanics, there were scarce any besides
wliat were necessary to meet- the more pressing domestic wants
of the people, and hundreds are now alive who saw the first
thread of cotton spun by machinery in a neighboring State,
while the grave has just closed over that sagacious and excellent
public spirited citizen whose far seeing policy conceived and
whose energy helped carry out the works at Waltham and
Lowell, and laid the foundation for that system to which
Massachusetts owes so much of her wealth and prosperity.

This condition of agriculture, so suited to the tastes, habits,
and resources of the early settlers here, was perpetuated by laws
distributing the property of the parent equally among his chil-
dren, and providing for the free education of every one by
means of the common school. The consequence was that every
man felt that he was as good as his neighbor, and looked forwaid
to earning his own way to independence by his own industry.
Such a thing as a "poor white man," in the sense in which that
term is applied at the South, was, I apprehend, scarcely to be
found in all New England. Another consequence was that,
the moment these colonies were free of the mother country,
slavery disappeared from New England, and here labor upon
the farm and in the workshop has ever since been free.

Agriculture here has neither asked nor received special favor
or special legislation at the hands of the government. It has
maintained a policy which forbids any one class from monpoliz-
ing power or influence. And in the formation of tlieir own
constitutions as well as the part they took in that of the federal
government, the people were disposed to delegate no more of
the sovereignty of the whole to its functionaries than was neces-
sary to organize the dwellers in the different States into a
mutual association for the common good of the whole — not as
a compact of towns or counties or states, even, but as " We the
People of the United States."

The social policy of New England, fostering free labor,
excluding the idea of large monopolies of land, to be cultivated
by tenants or degraded operatives, giving to tlie farmer a social
rank and position on an equality with other branches of honor-
able industry, has been carried, with her sons, to their new
homes at the West, and has spread till the condition of agricul-
ture which prevailed among the planters of New England has

24 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

become identified with the prosperity of every Free State in the
Union.

If now we turn to the Plantation States, as they are called,
what do we find the condition of things to be in all those
respects to which I have confined myself in speaking of the
North ?

At first, at least, they were content with the Union and the
Constitution. We arc told from high authority that they then
contemplated the time as not far distant when slavery would
give place to voluntary, free labor. The staples of the two
regions were, in some respects, different, depending upon
climate and soil, but it occasioned no jealousy between them,
and the agricultural economy of each, especially so far as any
great and general monopoly of lands by a few producers was
concerned, was substantially the same. The passion for large
proprietorships which has lately manifested itself so strongly,
may be traced, it is believed, to the introduction of the cotton
culture near the close of the last century. It became an object,
at once, with the cotton planter to buy more slaves and to
extend his plantation. The number of his hands and of his
acres necessarily bore certain proportions to each other, and the
wealth and influence of the planter began to be measured and
graduated by the slaves he worked and the numl>er of bales he
gathered from his cotton fields. As the old fields wore out,
new ones must be acquired, till an eagerness for new territory
began to infuse itself into the policy of the government itself,
and to bring with it mischiefs which the constitution never
contemplated.

But what bears more immediately upon our subject, this
concentration of the wealth of districts into a few hands, in the
form of landed estates, requiring to be worked by slave labor,
led almost necessarily to a division of its population^ into three
classes — the planter, the slave, and that other class containing
the nondescript species of humanity called the " poor white
man," which I place last as being the least fortunate of either
in the scale of social comfort or independence. Labor, of
course, is degraded to the standard of those by whom it is per-
formed, and in a community where one great leading staple of
agricultural produce engrosses the attention as well as the fixed
capital of every man of enterprise, few interests like those of

TENURE OF LANDS. 25

manufactures or mechanical employments find countenance or
encouragement. Every business is consequently in a great
degree dependent upon the one great interest of cotton plant-
ing, and he who holds the land, commands the labor and sends
forward the crop, becomes, as a matter of course, one of the
leading spirits of the district, and is in a condition to control
the opinions, interests and wills of others.

Now when we remember that there are probably not more
than about two hundred thousand slave-owning planters, and
that these collectively own nearly two hundred millions of
acres of land, we see at ohce that they are in a situation to
become, almost as a matter of course, practically a landed
oligarchy, and as such, to exercise a control over all other
interests and pursuits. Such a state of society begets that
desire of power, that love of dominion, and that restlessness
under the restraints of the law which has characterized every
oligarchy in a state of which we have any account in history.
In France it made the ancient regime before the revolution.
In England it sustains her aristocracy, and makes the com-
monalty themselves the prop and support of that institution.
And in this, as it seems to me, we find a much more potent
cause for her sympathy with the South than in any eagerness
she may manifest to reach the cotton of the Southern planter.
The main difference, however, and it is a lamentable one,
between the oligarchy of a body of planters and slaveholders,
and the aristocracy of England is, that while the one has
become dignified by education and habits, by old names and
historic associations, the other rests on none of these, but upon
the mere institution of large plantations and labor wrung from
a poor, down-trodden, dependent race of beings. While the
monarchies of the old world have built up their favored class
upon birth and family and the possession of ancestral acres and
renowned names, the men who are now seeking to break down
the democratic institutions of our free, national government,
are striving to build up a system of polity and social organiza-
tion upon wliat Mr. Vice-President Stephens, as they are pleased
to call him, has told the world was the corner-stone which all
builders before them had refused, and that is negro slavery.
4

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

AGRICULTURE AND WAR.

From an Address before the Ilousatouic Agricultural Society, Sept. 26, 1861.

BY GEORGE B. LORIXG.

We are to-day upon the height which marks the rise and fall
of the farmer's season. Behind us is the morning of the year,
the glowing and luxuriant summer, with its promises and its
growth, sweet and beautiful with blossoms, constant in its labors
through the long days and the short and feverish nights, radiant
with the heated and molten air, hung with the heavy drapery of
massive clouds, filled with the ardor and exuberance of youth-
ful life. Before us lie the lengthening shadows of the declining
day, of autumn with its weight of ripening harvests, with its
landscape on which the repose of maturity has settled down,
overhung with bluer and cooler skies, enveloped with a misty
stillness, which tells of bounteousness and plenty. And, as we
survey our fields of toil on. either hand, how should our hearts
swell once more with gratitude, and our hope revive, in the
presence of those blessings which the heavens above and the
earth beneath are constantly bestowing upon the faithful and
devoted husbandman.

This is indeed a year of plenty. The earth has dispensed her
stores with large and liberal hand. Our skies have been serene ;
the soft falling dew, and the " diffusive rain," have cheered the
growing leaf and blade ; all nature has worn a smiling face ;
and her full lap now offers its abundance, like a kind and gentle
mother, to cheer the hearts of all her sons.

If genial seasons, and fertile fields, and groaning harvests,
can make a people happy, our cup would indeed be full. But
it is not. I see everywhere a shadow. The bedimmcd and
brazen sunlight tells that the great orb is partially eclipsed.
Tlie burden of a great calamity has left its mark upon us; the
public joy written on our faces, cannot conceal the traces of

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 2T

that sorrow which will now and then overcome us, in spite of
our confidence, and our resolution, and our trust. The silent
spindle tells a tale of sorrow which the passing husbandman
must hear. The deserted wayside shop will be heard, as it
recounts the warlike deeds of those who but just now crowded,
a busy throng, within its happy walls. The weary traveller has
his tale of want. Upon the lonely wharves as on a dial-plate,
the motionless mast counts off the morning and evening hours
of its long days of idleness. The Flag of our Fathers, flying
from every hill-top and spire and gable, manifests continually,
as an oft-repeated emblem, the great trial before which an
industrious and patriotic people has paused in its pursuits. As
we labor in our fields, the national distress goes with us. For
■who can forget the heroism of those who left their ploughs in
the furrow, to go forth and fight the battles of freedom ? Who
can forget the greatness and devotion of those who established
this civil fabric, which was their pride, and has been so long
our own ? Who can forget the glory of our nationality? Who
cj!n forget the ascending prayers that went to heaven at our
nation's birth, and are now renewed in the agony of an hour
which beclouds the sky lit up by Washington, and in which the
veil of our temple seems to be rent in twain ? Oh ! my friends,
the earth may smile, and the sun may shine, the flowers may
bloom, and golden seas of harvests wave, but we cannot forget
that we have a country in mortal throes, nor can we, if we
would, lose sight of the duties which press solemnly upon us,
as citizens engaged in the great business which alone can sustain
men in the trials of war. While other pursuits pause before
the storm, to us belong the sword as well as the ploughshare,
the spear as well as the pruning-hook, the support of our coun-
try in contest, its right arm in war, its substantial wealth in
times of peace.

1 would not overestimate the position of agriculture, among
all the arts of life, in a crisis like that which is now upon us.
I do not overestimate it. In peace it founds nations, in war
supports them. " Romulus founded his state on agriculture
and war," says a distinguished German historian ; and centuries
of national grandeur bear witness to the power of the combina-
tion, for the purposes of growth and aggression. Egypt, clitf-
bounded on either hand, has cherished that precious soil which

28 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tempted the first Ethiopian to descend the Nile, until ages
proclaim the peaceful triumphs of agriculture there. India
too grev7 rich through all trials, because it constantly received
the tribute of three parts of the world, for its native productions,
— the gold of high Asia and Ethiopia, Spanish silver, Arabian
incense, and Phoenician merchandise. China, unchanging as
she is, has been able to maintain her armies for defence and in
civil conflict, vrithin her own territory, because she could always
feed and clothe them. On the other hand, Carthage, devoted
to commerce and war, without large internal resources, powerful
only as stronger than any of her well-watched colonies from
which she extorted heavy tribute for her own support, fell to
rise no more. In the earlier ages, as now, the people who had
the largest lands, and the most cultivators of the soil, carried
on the most successful wars ; and then as now commerce and
manufactures, from dangers and poverty, usually suffered most
severely from the blow.

The experience of modern Europe also proves this to be true.
At the conclusion of the peace of Aix la Chapelle, almost all
the nations of Europe, by a sort of tacit consent applied them-
selves to the study of agriculture. The French found by
repeated experience that they could not maintain a long war,
nor procure a tolerable peace, unless they raised corn enough
to support themselves in such a manner as that they should not
be obliged to submit to harsh terms on the one hand, or perish
by famine, on the other. Even during the distresses of the
great revolution, the rulers paid some attention to agriculture,
an attention which was increased during the days of the Con-
sulate and the Empire. Various schools were established. The
convulsive shock of the revolution which had overthrown many
useful establishments, and retarded the advancement of many
improvements, did not prevent the progress of this essential art.
On the contrary, agricultural societies increased, and agricul-
tural writers increased in a very large proportion. It is her
lands, not her mills, nor her ships, which has enabled France to
carry on her exhausting foreign and domestic wars.

If we turn to England, we may learn the same lesson of her.
During the last two centuries her power and wealth have
increased to an extent almost fabulous. During that time she has
passed through one revolution, and many foreign contests. Her

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 29

taxation has been increased more than thirty-fold ; and foremost
among all those branches of business which constitute her
public resources, stands agriculture. It is true that during the
time referred to, Manchester and Leeds and Birmingham and
Sheffield have risen from insignificant towns, to their present
opulent condition as the head of the cotton and woollen and
hardware manufactures of the world ; and Liverpool, the com-
mercial emporium, has increased her population from four
thousand to three hundred thousand, and her tonnage from
fourteen hundred tons, (" less than the tonnage of a single
modern Indiaman,") to five hundred thousand tons. " England
is unquestionably the greatest commercial and manufacturing
power on the globe ; her navies ride in every sea, and the
evidences of her mechanical skill are scattered over every land ;
and yet it appears from the returns of her income tax, that the
net revenue of all her manufactures and commerce, and of all
her immense personal capital, does not exceed two-thirds of the
net income from the agricultural productions of that small
island," containing less than 123,000 square miles, and smaller
than several of tlie largest States of our confederation. It is
the agriculture of England which has more than all other
pursuits kept pace with her advancement, and has furnished
her an unfailing support in every crisis. In 1685, the arable
and pasture land amounted to no more than the half of the
kingdom. In the moors and forests and fens which occupied
the remainder, the deer and wolf and fox and badger held
undisputed sway, while the lakes and shores and marshes
furnished homes for immense numbers of eagles, bustards and
cranes. Since that time probably one-fourth part of England
has been turned from a wild into a garden ; the quantity of
wheat, rye, barley, oats and beans annually grown has increased
from ten millions of quarters to over thirty millions ; the wheat
crop alone has increased from sixteen millions of bushels to
ninety millions ; and the vast system of root culture, of which
it has been said that " the power of the British Empire rests on
her coal, her iron, and her turnips," — as well as her ;great
supplies of beef and mutton, can hardly be computed. With a
population of nearly 28,000,000 and an army consisting of
150,000 men, England has never lost sight of that great indus-
try, which has made her strong at home and abroad, and has,

30 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

amidst the reciprocal benefits which all human occupations
bestow and enjoy, given l)y far the largest share. In the tenure
of land, in the application of forces, in the use of manures, iu
the selection of crops, in the breeding of animals, England has
exerted all her ingenuity and skill. It is because she feeds her
people so extensively from her own soil, that she has strength
to stretch forth her Briarean arms, in every contest, and to send
her colonies to the farthest shores.

Turning now our eyes from the policy and experience of
other lands and other times, to our own, we may learn our
duty and interest as members of the agricultural community
of the country. Within the boundaries of the United States,
including every variety of soil, climate and production, nearly
one-half the industrial product of the people arises from agri-
culture— amounting last year to about eighteen hundred mil-
lions of dollars. I look upon this as the foundation of our
national strength ; from it we are fed and clothed ; it served to
pay our debts abroad ; it furnished raw material for our mills,
the life-blood of our great towns — freight for our ships, our
wealth in peace, and now our support in war, associated as it is
with the thousands of manly forms and loyal hearts engaged in
its production.

How fortunate for us that this is so ! The possession of this
wide-spread capital, this substantial wealtli, invigorating so
great a people, and occupying so large a territor}' — how great
its present strength — how large its future possibilities ! Who
may not see in it the progressive capacity of a great nation ?
Is it not our safest capital ? As I see the lofty walls of your
manufactories rise in massive grandeur, at the command of
energy and ingenuity, and am told that capital estimated by
millions is employed in their many channels, is it not one more
effort to add value to the products of agriculture ? Is it not
wool or cotton or flax that has ordered this busy palace into
existence ? Is that mill any thing more than one of tlic imple-
ments which bring the produce of the soil into actual service
and gives it a real value ? What the plough and hoe began,
this marvellous intricacy of machinery has finished. The field
furnished the capital — the mill made it active. So too the sea
is stayed by stony buttresses, and wharves stretch out their
arms, and the great docks ofier their shelter as cradles for our

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 31

ships, and white sails waft the precious argosy into the quiet
haven — all implements which commerce uses to give value to
the crops of the world — tea from China, spices from the east,
fruits from the Mediterranean, hemp from Russia, grain from
the Baltic, sugar and coffee and cotton, the staples of trade,
from every tropical luxuriance.

Some one has said " land alone is the true source of wealth,
because it produces every thing that man desires for the supply
of his wants, for his enjoyments, his pleasures, and his fancies ;
and because it constantly reproduces a quantity superior to
what has been consumed to effect its reproduction. This
excess of reproduction, this gratuitous gift of the soil, this net
produce is the only fund that can be employed to encourage the
progress of labor, to reward its success, promote improvements,
and indefinitely to increase the sum of public and private
wealth." If this be true, from the rich valleys of eastern
rivers to the praries of the west, what an abundance of riches
do we possess !

This capital, I conceive, can be employed in two ways ; one
for the increase of the foreign trade of a country, the other for
the supply of necessaries and the increase of domestic comforts,
and luxuries. The former adds to the perishable wealth of a
people, in proportion to the profits realized on the product
raised ; and it brings with it, in the same proportion, all those
characteristics which usually attend rapid accumulations of
wealth, and the sudden changes which go with them. It is
estimated by those commercial and manufacturing enterprises
which create large home markets, and from which good farm-
ing should radiate in every direction. The latter enriches
and embellishes steadily and slowly. It requires small farms,
good cultivation, industry, personal application. Its attendants
are the New England farm-house, that home of frugality, pru-
dence, simple habits, and quiet Christian virtues — that birth-
place of so many of the best human faculties required by a
busy world, and the New England church and school-house.

To those great agricultural sections of our country where
the value of land is favorable to large possessions, and where
the quality of the land invites to easy and somewhat indolent
agriculture, we must look for a large part of that surplus pro-
duction which enters into our domestic and foreign commerce,

32 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and constitutes one of our national pillars. Not the valor of
our people alone, not the military skill of our army alone, not
our geographical position alone, has made us a formidable
combatant ; — but added to all these the existence of a great
western granary, whence we could draw a constant subsistence.
I have always admired that territorial advantage which we
have possessed in the ownership of broad and fertile contiguous
lands. It has enlarged the minds of our people, and dispelled
those provincialisms, which incrust a community whose limits
arc circumscribed. The efflux of population from the narrow
valleys and sharp hills of New England, into the broader and
more luxuriant regions of the West, has sent back an undertow
of larger liberality, and grander nationality, which has been a
generous donation from the children to the parent. While New
England has done much to people the West, the West has done
much to enlarge the heart of New England. And as the child
matures, I believe it will be. found that no enervating influences
can destroy that thrift and energy of character which it has
received as its most valuable inheritance.

But more than this. What a stimulus have western crops
given to eastern manufactures. Massachusetts has not for years
produced one-half of the provisions she consumes. While her
people have been busy in every branch of trade exploring all
seas, directing the power of every water-fall, lining her highways
with shops of the mechanic and artisan, she has been fed from
regions where agriculture still holds sway supreme. So long
as the production of corn and flour and beef and pork occupies
the people of Ohio and Illinois, so long the busy crowds of
Lowell and Lawrence and Worcester and Boston feel sure of a
subsistence. A more fortunate order of Providence the world
has never seen. Bound together as these two sections are by
the ties of blood and interest, by common ancestry and by
common and mutual industry, they possess at all times great
elements of strength.

Now what is true of these two sections in peace, is true also of
them in times of war. Their mutual relations are not changed.
The prairies that have fed a manufacturing people, can feed a
warring people. The vast harvests, of whicli hitherto so large
a portion has been consumed at home, now offer tlieir vital force
to a nationality striving for its existence. Let no acre lie idle.

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 33

Let no man desert his land. Let there be, ever and aye, stores
abounding, which an industrious and devoted people will never
leave unfilled. From those far off, broad, and teeming plains,
nature stretches forth her hands filled with abundance, tlie
offering which she lays at the feet of a nation toiling for its
existence. No princess ever laid such jewels on such an
altar.

In a time like this, let not the farmer of Massachusetts lie
idle. His sphere may be narrower than that of which I have
just spoken, but it is none the less important. He may not
forget the obligations which fall upon him, when labor is driven
from other channels, and turns with longing eye and pallid
cheek to the land for support. He cannot forget those "vt^hom
husbands and fathers have left behind for kindly care, while
they themselves have gone on a nation's errand, perhaps never
to return. And, in the midst of all these complex duties, he
should not forget that ardent appeal of the Chief Magistrate of
this Commonwealth, to increase his crops, as he would serve
his country and his generation.

Increase your crops. This is the first and great agricultural
commandment. Massachusetts should have done this long ago.
She should have done it when all other industrial pursuits,
offered their aid to agriculture. She should have done it when
her manufacturing cities and her mechanical villages presented
their active markets. Let her do it now, in this hour of trial,
when if she would do her whole duty, she would feed her own
population. Let her do it now, that the day of peace may find
her better prepared for all its blessings.

Massachusetts has never yet appreciated her agricultural
opportunities or capacity. Her manufacturing enterprise, in-
stead of absorbing all her energy, and taking labor away from
the land, should have stimulated as with a fertilizer, every
corner of her territory, into increased agricultural effort. That
influence which has extended from the markets of Lowell into
the fields lying in a narrow circumference around the city,
should have reached into every pasture and cornfield on the
hills of Berkshire, until as it were, the light from our mills had
enlightened every farm in Massachusetts.

No State has enjoyed that diversity of labor which affords
mutual benefit to all, to such an extent as has our own. Many

34 MA.SSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

other States liave sought for it in vain. It is a condition which
our soundest statesmen have urged tlieir people to secure. Said
the Hon. Joel R. Poinsett to the citizens of his native State :
" Both from observation and reflection, I am convinced that a
State entirely destitute of manufactures, whatever may be the
nature and extent of its staple productions, will always be
inferior to one that combines manufactural industry with agri-
cultural wealth. In the first place, materials to a very large
amount, which might be worked up to advantage, but which
will not bear the cost of distant transportation, are wasted for
the want of neighboring manufactures. In the next, it is des-
titute of those towns and villages that grow up around such
establishments, affording home markets for the produce of the
farmer, more advantageous than those at a distance, and sup-
plying him Avith necessary articles at a cheaper rate, the price
being diminished to the amount of the cost of transportation.
* * Where manufactures exist, the individuals interested
in their success and prosperity, from their proximity to each
other, easily unite their efforts for all purposes of common
interest; and good roads, and canals result naturally from such
combinations, and convenient lines of communication are every-
where established, so as to give to each one his fair share of the
advantages of trade. * * In purely agricultural dis-
tricts, the products of industry find their way to market by
miserable roads and circuitous lines of communication, to the
great loss and inconvenience of the former."

More than ten years ago, an intelligent citizen of South
Carolina, by a statistical comparison of his own State with
Rhode Island, showed the great advantages which the popula-
tion of the latter enjoyed, on account of their combination of
agriculture and manufactures. At that time a division of the
annual gross income of Rhode Island among its inhabitants,
gave to each one hundred dollars, while South Carolina divided
only forty-five dollars. He attributed this condition of things
to the fact that the labor in Rhode Island is diversified — in
South Carolina it is not. And supposing both States to have
enough of wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes and hay to support
their population and cattle, and the one hundred thirty-eight
thousand eight hundred and thirty inhabitants of Rhode Island
will earn ten millions eight hundred one thousand nine hundred

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 35

and fourteen dollars, while the five hundred forty-nine thousand
three hundred and ninety-eight inhabitants of South Carolina,
will earn eleven millions seven hundred sixty-two thousand
nine hundred and eighty-six dollars, or a surplus to each one of
the former, after feeding himself, of ninety-nine dollars for
clothing and other expenses, and to each one of the latter, less
than twenty dollars. It should be remembered that at this
time, South Carolina was deficient in a self-supply of grain as
much as a million and a half bushels, while Rhode Island had
a surplus of nearly that amount.

He does not forget, moreover, the great inland trade which
manufactures create — an interest in prosperous countries
always greater than foreign or direct trade — being, at that time,
in England or New York, fifteen times greater.

Now, what this citizen of South Carolina desired for his
State ten years ago, we in Massachusetts have possessed for the
last quarter of a century. There is not a county in this Com
monwealth, but possesses one or more large manufacturing or
commercial towns. Hardly a township which has not one or
more villages devoted to mechanical pursuits within its limits.
Markets are open everywhere. Those means of communica-
tion which presented such attractions to the mind of the states-
man whom I have just quoted, surpass among us even his
anticipations. Railroads intersect our State in every direction.
Almost every acre of land is brought within easy reach of a
market ; every crop is brought close to the door of the con-
sumer, whether the commodity be rapidly perishable or not.
Even our blackberry and " huckleberry " pastures have
increased in value under the influence of these great highways,
and shall not our cornfields and hayfields, our gardens and
orchards, as the special objects of our care, keep pace with
natural wilds and their spontaneous fruits ?

The enterprise, and industry, and accumulating wealth of
Massachusetts have been all absorbed in business connected
with manufactures and commerce, until a mill and a ship are
the emblems of our chiefest industry. We have made our
markets but for others. Sic vos non vobis. Not for ourselves,
not for our own fields, not for our own yeomanry, not for the
enriching of our own lands, not for the consumption of our own
crops, have we done all this. But we have commanded all these

36 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

hills and valleys to lie still and witness what we could do for the
agriculture of others. We have withdrawn our forces from our
own fields, in order to build up markets for others ; and we seem
to have forgotten that while we have enlarged their wealth, and
given value to the productions of their soil, and furnished chan-
nels for their capital, we have neglected our own. And will you
tell me where in this crisis the trial is the harder — in Iowa,
where corn is worth but ten cents a bushel, or in Massachu-
setts, where the loom' is silent, and the laborer is waiting for
the dawn ; in the West, where is the producer, or in the East,
where is the consumer of the necessaries of life ? If you ask
me who can do the most towards paying the bills of a war,
that is one question ; if you ask who can best support its popu-
lation during a long and harassing conflict, that is another and
very different question. What I desire for Massachusetts is
the power to do both, and to fulfil to the highest degree that
duty which she has taken upon herself of being foremost in
the defence of Federal authority, and the government of the
fathers, and in which her sons have crowned her with new and
more refulgent glory.

Increase then your crops. Do you ask what crops ? I say
every thing that grows well here for the sustenance of man
and animal ; for this is what we need most. Our climate and
soil are peculiary adapted to grain, hay and pasturage. North
of thirty-six degrees north latitude, these arc the staples.
And they lie at the foundation of all that constitutes the
necessary food for man ; offering every inducement to steady
and devoted labor ; and inasmuch as they have but little to do
with foreign commerce, and the fluctuations that attend it, they
offer none of the temptations to a restless and extravagant com-
munity, which attend the production and sale of raw materials
for manvifacture and luxuries.

We can raise corn here at a profit — not twenty-five or thirty
bushels to the acre, but seventy-five or one hundred bushels —
a crop attainable by every good farmer, and just as easily
produced as a smaller one. It is a most valuable product,
convertible as it is, into beef, pork, mutton, and bread, and
furnishing almost every thing necessary for the support of
animal life on the farm. As I pass along the road in almost
every section of the State, I see everywhere neglected lands,

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 37

peculiarly adapted to this crop, and capable of rendering a
reward to the cultivator as well as of pleasing the eye of the
traveller.

Of the hay crop too much cannot be said. Nowhere, that I
am aware of does the earth furnish such luxuriant grass,
adapted to hay, and the heavens such a sun with which to dry it,
as are found in the Northern States of this continent. Entering
as it does very largely into our domestic trade, and supplying a
want which in winter is imperative in our climate, it is really
the staple of our home market. Grass will always pay for
cultivation. When near the market it always finds a ready
sale, and when remote, it is an economical and profitable food
for all the domestic animals that enter largely into the economy
of the farm, and constitute one great source of its income.
Hay, although it does not enter into our foreign commerce, and
cannot aid in preserving a balance of trade with any other coun-
try, may be made a mine of wealth to the farmer and his farm.

In all sections of the State where hay finds a ready market,
and commands a high price, roots are a profitable crop.
Indeed, a proper supply of roots will be advantageous to cattle-
feeders everywhere. They extend the haymow and corn-bin
far beyond the cost of cultivation ; and require a careful
system of husbandry, which may be of very essential service to
all our farmers. Perhaps when hay is cheap, and corn can be
consumed on the farm more profitably than carried to the
market, root crops are unnecessary. But when their cultivation
becomes a part of the system of every farm, the agriculture
of Massachusetts will receive an impulse hitherto unknown.
Better grass crops, more beef, more dairy products, more
manure, more money follow in their train.

Be not induced to devote too much of your best lands to
fruit trees. Fruit is an uncertain crop, requires a large outlay
of time and money, and occupies land to the exclusion of
constant cropping ; and you have all seen the old orchard,
which exhausted all its stores for the father who planted it,
standing in the way of the sons, who cannot find it in their
hearts to cut down the trees which were landmarks in their
childhood. Plant a few trees; cultivate them well ; with bones,
and lime, and ashes, if you want fi'uit — with barnyard manure,
if you want leaves, and roots, and branches.

38 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

These, with garden products and small grain, are the crops
best adapted to Massachusetts, and promise the surest returns
to the farmer. They will feed our people, and multiply the
peaceful and happy houses in our Commonwealth.

In addition to these, we have been urged to enter largely
upon the cultivation of flax, as a textile fibre, capable of making
us independent of all the similar productions of our neighbors.
It is possible that it might increase the wealth of the farming
community. But we should remember that until we raise food
enough for home consumption, we can hardly expect to
compete with the great regions of the earth in which textile
crops grow almost spontaneously. I doubt whether we could
compete with cotton growers ; and although we are quite
indignant with cotton just now, still I believe some measures
more strenuous and efficient than raising flax in Massachusetts,
will be required to remove the difficulties which attend it ; and
I believe, moreover, that it is cheaper, and more manly, and
more patriotic- to fight for our cotton until we get it, than it is
to undertake to supersede its use by the cultivation of a plant
which has been rejected by every high system of agriculture,
and is confined chiefly to regions where the soil is poor and the
people arc poorer. It requires nearly all our agricultural labor
in the Northern States to feed our mouths ; as in 1855, we
exported only eight million bushels of corn out of nearly eight
hundred million bushels raised, and the same proportion of
wheat, and all our other agricultural products. "We are asked
to add to these Northern products flax enough to take the
place of one million bales or five hundred million pounds of
cotton, our annual consumption. We cultivate now thirty-one
million acres of corn, and eleven million acres of wheat ; and
if we would raise flax enough to accomplish what its advocates
promise, we must add one million acres to those already under
cultivation, allowing each acre to yield five hundred pounds.
Flax is a troublesome and exhausting crop. Englan d imports
all she uses from Russia, and in spite of repeated premiums,
has failed to introduce it into her own kingdom, because corn
pays a larger profit. It has never been a profitable crop in this
country.

To bring it into competitten with cotton would be a some-
what difficult matter. Let us consider a few facts. Tlie

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 39

cotton crop of 1859 was four million eight hundred and fifty-
thousand bales, worth two hundred forty -two millions five
hundred thousand dollars. The cotton consumed in England
in 18G0 was two millions four hundred thousand bales ; in the
United States one million bales. It has thus far superseded all
textile fibre by its cheapness, and since 1793 has created a new
business in the world. In England it gives employment to
twenty-eight million spindles ; and in Massachusetts alone to
one million five hundred nineteen thousand live hundred and
twenty-seven spindles, thirty-two millions dollars, and thirty-five
thousand eight hundred persons. Thousands of vessels are
employed in its transportation. In its growth it occupies about
five millions acres of land in the Southern States, and can be
raised, according to Hon. Dixon H. Lewis, for about three
cents per pound. It is raised on land unfit for grass or grain,
and the amount produced by each laborer is from eight hundred
pounds to two thousand pounds. Besides "what is raised in
this country, large crops are grown in India and Africa, the
former of these countries consuming three millions in her own
manufactures. From these various countries the manufac-
turing states of Europe may obtain a ready supply ; and it is a
serious question whether we should benefit ourselves very
materially by resigning to them the markets for cheaply manu-
factured cotton goods, while we were engaged in the more
expensive operation of raising, and spinning, and weaving flax.
I submit these facts for the consideration of our farmers, when
they shall again be urged to convert their cornfields into flax
grounds.

For myself, gentlemen, I would have Massachusetts devote
herself to those products which are best adapted to her soil
and climate — diligently, skilfully, and successfully. I would
have her so strengthen herself, both by her internal economy
and industry, and by all her civil relations, that no jealousies
nor rivalries can interfere with her progress. I feel that she is
entitled to her share of the markets of this continent, and that
as she values the welfare of her people, she must secure the
raw material for her manufactures, without being exposed to
dangerous and destructive foreign competition. Her citizens
are entitled to their proportion of the golden opportunities for
future acquisitions to that republic of which she forms a part ;

40 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and she would be recreant, did she not rally to maintain that
title. Beneath the flag of the Union, her commerce has freely
traversed these western seas ; shall she resign that freedom
now ? The history of the country is her history ; the protec-
tion of the Constitution and the blessings of the Union are
hers ? And from her every hallowed battle-field, the blood of
her fathers cries to her from the ground, to send forth her sons
in defence of that republic in whose cause they fell. May the
work of constitutional freedom begun at Lexington, and Con-
cord, and Bunker Hill, be yet perfected on this continent.
And while the sons of Massachusetts go forth to defend that
government which is based upon equal rights to all, may we
who, less favored, and reluctant, remain behind, cherish her
institutions, and guard her interests, and beautify her soil,
for the glory and honor of her future years of peace and
prosperity.

And this day, set apart by the Chief Magistrate of the United
States for national humiliation and prayer, calls upon us to
remember our duties as citizens living under a constitution
framed for the whole republic. For the confirmation of the
rights and privileges conferred by that immortal instrument,
we are involved in civil war. To protect that fabric, which has
made us strong at home and abroad, and has extended the
American power from sea to sea, the sword, sheathed when the
battles of freedom were fought, has leaped again from its
scabbard. As God shed down his strength upon the founders,
so may He sustain the defenders of that fabric, everywhere.
Not for a section, not for a party, not for a state, not for an
abstraction or a dream, have our people rushed to arms ; but
to preserve the very foundations of our religion, and law, and
education, and material greatness — to preserve our Govern-
ment, to preserve our Union. In this work, shall any theory
divide us, or any platform rule ? It is a government for the
East and for the West, for the North and for the South, for
" every kindred, and nation, and tongue " on this continent,
which demands all our care. Are there wrongs ? — let them be
redressed under the Constitution. Are there rights to be
maintained ? — let them be maintained under the Constitution.
And not until all its guarantees are extended over every State
and Territory, over every people and party, may this war cease.

AGRICULTURE AND WAR. 41

If we fail to maintain this government, where shall we find
another? If we do not fail, we may behold the temple erected
by our fathers made more beautiful by the storm which has
burst upon it. I think we shall then know what a free republic
is. I think we shall then have learned to respect each other's
rights. I think we shall have confirmed the work of self-govern-
ment here. If this storm has burst upon us to clear the American
sky of the clouds of disregard for the Union, forgetfulness of
its blessings, and a desire for unconstitutional remedies for
evils real or imaginary, which have been too long gathering
from every corner of the heavens, those of us who survive it
will have reason to thank God for the severity of the discipline.
May we, then, as a people, rise to the magnitude of the contest,
and bear ourselves with courage, and wisdom, and patience,
and endurance, and liberality, until the cause of the republic
shall prevail, and the glory of our nation shall be restored.
And when God in his mercy shall have established peace within
our gates and joy within our palaces, may the sentiment
of loyalty which to-day exists everywhere, in spite of all trial
and all oppression, break forth in triumph, for the commence-
ment of a new and more glorious career of freedom on this
continent.

42 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

THE FARMER'S CALLING.

From an Address before the Hoosac Valley Agricultural Society.

BY J. N. DUNHAM.

The great and pressing desire of man is to get rich — to get
rich the quickest and easiest way is the study of nearly all ;
and men pursue the various branches of business within their
reach, selecting for themselves the road to wealth. Skill,
industry, and good luck combined, succeed. Skill and industry
sometimes fail, and good luck occasionally succeeds, without
the aid of either industry or skill. Some people are rich
because they could not well prevent it, and some are poor
because they cannot well be otherwise. Indolence and poverty
do not always go hand in hand, neither does wealth and
industry.

Farmers, like other men, desire to get rich, to own broad
fields and large herds, to have fine horses, and to live in fine
houses. All this is right, and they should be encouraged. I
am glad to know that the farmers represented in this society
are prosperous, and many of them wealthy. But farmers are
not always content. The brilliant success of some of our
manufacturers has at times created an uneasiness among certain
of our farmers, and in some instances they have sold their
farms to embark in other business, and have only awoke from
their fanciful dreams of wealth, in the Court of Insolvency.
When they witnessed the brilliant success of their neighbor,
they failed to remember that two fortunes had been scattered
at the same water-power. The success of the merchant at times
looks large in the eyes of a farmer, but he fails to remember
that tlie merchant's successor is reduced to poverty, and his
neighbor across the way can pay but twenty cents on a dollar.
He also sees the men of the professions, as he supposes, living
easily ; but he forgets that these men are the drudge servants

THE FARMER'S CALLING. 43

of society, dependent upon disease, disagreement and sin for
their bread. He sees the men of the various branches of busi-
ness, and sometimes regrets that he has chosen the business of
tilling the ground. These visions of fancy occasionally dance
before some farmer's eyes, and a majority of those who yield to
them are ruined men.

The business of farming should not be made the stepping stone
to any other business ; farmers should strive to be better farmers.
This business is open to great improvements, and to succeed as
a farmer, intelligence and industry are required. A custom
which has prevailed in our country to a considerable extent,
has had a damaging effect among our farmers, — I mean the
custom of farmers educating their sons who are to adopt the
professions, and other branches of business, and neglecting such
sons as are intended for the farm. _ Farmers have encouraged
and aided their more hopeful sons to embark in lines of busi-
ness, and given them a liberal education, while those they
regarded less gifted have been less cared for, simply because
they proposed to make farmers of them. This may not be true
of any of the farmers in this society, but if it is I hope the evil
may be remedied.

The business of farming requires the most extensive knowl-
edge, to be carried on with success. Let the boy who is to
become a farmer be thoroughly educated ; let him study those
branches which will fit him for his business, so that when he
becomes a farmer he can bring his knowledge of geology,
botany, and chemistry, to practical use. Let him know the soil,
and bring the same skill and learning to bear in farming, as
are brought to bear in some other brandies of business, and
these hills and valleys would fill our markets with abundance.
Not that I would undcr-estimate the farmers in this society, far
from that. Not but that you compare well with farmers
through the county, for you do ; but, I wish to be understood,
that there is room for improvement, and you are capable of
making that improvement.

Every plant, and every tree, and every kernel of grain is a
volume of its own history ; but we are too ignorant to read it.
If we sliould be told that a learned and scientific farmer could
examine an ear of corn, and could read its history, could tell
how many days of sun it required to bring it to maturity, and

44 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the composition of the soil in which it grew, we might hesitate
hefore we believed it ; but more strange statements are true.
The history is written there, I have no doubt, but shall we learn
the language in which it is written ? Not by quietly farming,
precisely as our fathers did ; not by shutting our eyes and
turning a deaf ear to science. The studious, observing farmer
can now read imperfectly the language written upon the surface
of the soil. lie can spell a few words in the tree's own history.
He can tell you their age — can understand the fruit trees, par-
tially ; but to be eminently successful, we must understand
better. Science is not all learned at school or college. To a
certain extent it may be learned in the field, and all farmei's
may study their farms, and profit by it. The skilful, educated,
scientific farmer, ought to so study and understand his farm, as
to be able to know the wan^s of his meadow, his pasture, and his
tillage land ; to know where to plough, when to plough, what
to plant, what to sow, what fertilizer to use ; to put ashes here,
manure there, and lime and bone dust to be scattered just
where they are needed. I do not suppose that all can avail
themselves of the advantages of an agricultural school ; but
many may, and all may profit by it. And I desire to urge upon
you the importance of the subject, and also to urge upon you the
great propriety of giving those sons a good education who are
designed for farmers ; for the farmers do not hold such a posi-
tion in the political and literary world as they deserve to. They
do not hold such a position as their useful, honorable, and
necessary employment and business fairly and justly entitle them
to. We can ascertain from books and newspapers the knowl-
edge and experience of others, and if farmers would but make
the effort, they might not only manage their farms with eminent
success, but might govern the state and the nation, for they in
reality are the " lords of the land."

While I would urge the necessity of educating your sons to
be farmers, I would not have the farmer's daughters neglected.
They should be so educated and trained that they may be able
to do the duties of a farmer's daughter, or a farmer's wife, if
that should be their good fortune. While I would admire their
skill in ornamental work and drawing, I would also be pleased
with specimens of good butter and cheese worked by their own
fair hands. And at a farmer's house his guests might be well

THE FARMER'S CALLING. 45

entertained by a few waltzes or polkas upon tlie piano, but'
might consider the entertainment ended if they had poor l)read
for tea. Let farmers' daughters learn the duties assigned them
first — learn to cook, to make butter and cheese, and do general
work — then the accomplishments. And they should not be
deprived of participathig in the study of the sciences. Their
gardens, their flowers, the making of cheese and butter, and the
general superintendence of a farmer's mansion requires a good,
liberal education.

Many women have been eminently successful as farmers'
wives, who have not had such advantages. We know of hun-
dreds such, and we are proud of them. But perhaps they might
have been more successful under other circumstances. The
general appearance of a farm tells the story — it gives you the
character of the farmer, and the appearance of the kitchen gives
you the picture of the wife. The observing merchant wlio buys
your butter, learns very soon who are neat, and who are not.
He knows who do their work in season, and who out of season,
and tlie wives and daughters ought to so understand it. It
costs no more to make good butter than poor : it costs no more
to be neat than to be dirty. I am glad to believe that the
farmers' wives and daughters of this society are of the better
class. The splendid specimens of butter and cheese which have
been exhibited in this vicinity, have furnished abundant proof
that wives and daughters perform their part well. Berkshire
cheese has gained an enviable reputation in market, and our
reputation will not suffer by reason of southern Vermont join-
ing us ; for the old Green Mountain State is not only noted for
its fair women and brave men, but also for their unrivalled
butter and cheese.

The business of tilling the ground is the most ancient of all
kinds of business. The first man, Adam, was a farmer, com-
manded to till the ground by his Creator. And its usefulness
and necessity have never been questioned. Honorable, profita-
ble, and dignified — worthy the attention of the greatest and best
men the world has ever produced — it is the foundation of society,
the basis upon which all other kinds of business rests, and must
rest.

The business of farming will be found by statistics, carefully
prepared, to be the most profitable in the aggregate of all kinds

46 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of business. But few fail. Farmers are not parties in the
Insolvent Courts ; they do not gain so rapidly as some do in
other business, but surely and steadily. A famine never stares
you in the face ; you can live upon the productions of your own
soil, independent of every-body. Your farm is a fortune, it is a
home, however small, and many of our farmers would farm it
more profitably if their farms were smaller. We find in history
that when a country becomes densely populated, when necessity
requires that the land should all be cultivated, and well culti-
vated, then we find that small farms are made to produce more
than large farms do in our country, wliere our vast territories
extend from ocean to ocean. If the land in the town of Adams
was all tillage land, and should all be cultivated and made to
produce as land in England has done, it might be made to main-
tain one hundred thousand people ; for Goldsmith has told us, in
one of his beautiful poems, that

"The time was once, ere England's griefs began,
When every rood of ground maintained its man."

I do not suppose that they lived extravagantly, or fared
sumptuously every day, but they were s\ipplied with the neces-
saries of life. They lived well, contented and happy.

Scarcity of land drives people to a good cultivation of it.
And to you, who own small farms, remember that your little
farm, well cultivated, will be more profitable than a large farm
poorly managed. Never enlarge your farm till you liave fully
mastered what you have — know its capacity — test the strength
of it. I am aware that it requires territory for pasture, but one
acre of good pasture may be worth four acres of poor ; one acre
of meadow land, with two crops, may produce more than four
acres of poor meadow, and perhaps more than ten acres. The
profits of a farm are not always estimated by the number of
acres ; for, I think I can point out small farms that actually pro-
duce more profit to the owner than other farms, of three times
the quantity of land. I do not claim but that some of our
largest farms are well cultivated, for they are : our largest
farmers are often our best farmers. But if scarcity of land
compelled them to occupy smaller farms, they might pcrliaps
farm it as profitably as they now do.

THE FARMER'S CALLING. 47

Allow niG, my friends, to congratulate you in your useful,
honorable, and profitable employment — you, wlio have assembled
to exhibit your products, your cattle, and your fine horses. You
may well be proud of your exhibition. You have not only
gratified yourselves, but have pleased, and I hope profited us
who come to see, but who had nothing to exhibit. You, too, I
trust, have profited by this exhibition. This fair and exhibition
has been a splendid success. Our Society is yet in its infancy,
but the display here since the organization has shown that the
farmers were in earnest. The ladies of this Society, too, have
fully perfornfied their part. The exhibition of their work is
highly creditable to them, and pleasing to all. By the exhibition
of the beautiful work of their own hands, they have shown their
skill and ingenuity too plainly to be misunderstood. Ladies,
you have shown that taste, skill, and industry which justly
entitles you to the high position which you occupy, and you
have abundant reason to be proud and rejoice that you are
farmers' wives and farmers' daughters ; that you have a home
you can call your own — a home, quiet and undisturbed, free
from contention and strife, free from the noise, dust, and tlie
plagues of a city life — where you can look out upon, and roam
in, the open green fields, and invigorate in that bracing pure
air, which sweeps across the broad meadows, the grove, the
orchard, and the pasture at the brook side.

At a time like this, when manufactures and commerce are
crippled, when all kinds of business is depressed, when financial
ruin stares the whole business community full in the face, when
the factory spindles are still, when merchants have closed their
stores, the farmer, the most independent and happy of all men,
can rejoice that he is a farmer — that the house he lives in is his
own, and should every man in the village fail he will still
survive. He is affected by the panic, it is true ; he cannot sell
for cash, and get high prices, yet he can live. The farmer
remains but little affected by the financial crash. He hears the
noise, but is affected but slightly. Such is your position to-day,
as farmers.

A rebellion, which has ripened into a war, is upon us — a war,
terrible in its effects, uncertain in duration — a war which must
prove disastrous to us, and worse than a disaster to those who
have forced it upon us ; and as dark clouds lower about our

48 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

head, as failure succeeds failure in the cities and towns, and
high taxes are succeeded by a higher tax — as our brethren and
friends are slain upon the battle-fields, or die of disease in our
hospitals, our sons and brothers are called upon to enlist for the
"war, And sacrifice is succeeded by sacrifice. At times we are
almost in despair, and say to ourselves : our once happy and
glorious country has become a battle-field, and we are a ruined
people — our end is bloodshed and disgrace. Such is one side of
the picture presented, and we look upon the future with dark
forebodings. So it appears ; but -while it is dark to the farmer,
it is doubly dark to men of other business, and mafty a princely
manufacturer would to-day shovit for joy if he could exchange
his decaying buildings, his rusting machinery, and his protested
notes, for a farm in this valley, or upon the hill-tops. Gladly
would he give up the uncertainty for a little substantial soil,
with an humble but neat cottage located thereon, that he might
call his home.

The farmer has a vital interest in the war which is upon us ;
the title of your land is at stake. Your farm has value that
you know cannot fail. Land is valuable, be the government
what it may. If our government proves to be a failure, too
weak to protect itself, too inefficient to crush rebellion, too feeble
to maintain the laws, then the very law which gives you the
title to the farm you live upon, may also fail — your title is
founded on law, and your hope in the future is in the enforce-
ment of tliat law. Our strength is in our ability to maintain
our laws, to protect the legal rights of all ; and a blow to par-
alyze the law, is a blow at you. And it becomes tiie farmers to
raise their strong arms in aid and support of the law of our
country. Your all may be at stake; yet, in this contest it may
not be in immediate danger, but the encroachment should now
be checked.

But, friends, we trust that we shall meet here again, and that
the dark pictures of war and rebellion will be removed from
our view ; that we may then meet under pleasant suns and a
clear sky, with high hopes and happy realizations, knowing that
our glorious old Union is unbroken, and that the old flag of
''Red, White and I^lue," with its thirty-four stars, floats in
triumph over every State Capitol, from the Canadas to the Gulfs
— from ocean to ocean. And we shall all rejoice that we raised

THE FARMER'S CALLING. 49

our liands in support of our country — once beloved, united,
happy, glorious Union — that we may preserve and transmit it
unbroken to our children, as it was transmitted to us by our
fatliers, — and, I think, I know, I speak your sentiments in say-
ing that you will give your aid, and your strength, in aid of a
government ; that you will never yield your rights ; that you
will defend your birthplace, honor your fathers, and protect
their tombstones ; that if necessary, will lay down your life for
your country, that you may transmit to your children the bles-
sings of liberty, which have been transmitted to you by your
fathers ; that tlie soil, enriched by their blood and watered by
their tears, shall forever be consecrated to freedom and equality ;
that you will regard it as good husbandry, not only to cultivate
your farms but to defend them to the last, and guard well the
spot where your fathers lie buried ; and should it be necessary
that the musket and sword should be added to the list of agri-
cultural implements, I trust you will show yourselves accom-
plished, courageous, and brave, if compelled by necessity to
bring them into actual service.

50 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ESSEX.

UTILITY OF BIRDS.

BY WILSON FLAGG.

It may seem strange to some of our readers that there is a
necessity, in the present enlightened age, to enter into a course
of argument to prove the utility of birds to agriculture ; they
may be still more surprised to learn that the greatest enemies
of the birds are among those classes whose occupation would
be ruined, if they were for a single year wholly deprived of
their services. We are accustomed to plead for the birds as
beautiful and interesting objects, that deserve protection for
their own sake, while we overlook their importance in the
economy of nature. Valuable as they are for their songs, their
lively motions, their gay plumage and their amusing habits, all
these circumstances are of minor importance, compared with
the benefits they confer upon man, as checks upon the over-
multiplication of noxious insects. The fields are greener and
the flowers more beautiful in the spring, the fruits of summer
and autumn are fairer and more abundant, and all nature is
preserved in freshness and beauty by these hosts of winged
musicians who celebrate their garrulous revelries in the woods
and pastures.

From a conviction that this general ignorance or imperfect
appreciation of the services of birds may lead to momentous
consequences, I propose to make a formal vindication of the
feathered race, but shall not in any respect exaggerate their
importance. I believe it admits of demonstration, that if the
birds were exterminated, mankind could not subsist upon the
face of the earth. Almost eveay species is indispensable to our
agricultural prosperity. The gunner who destroys ten birds in
the spring, secures the preservation of so many millions of
injurious insects to ravage our crops, and to destroy the trees
of our forests and our orchards. Naturalists, in general, will
admit the great importance of their services ; but cultivators,

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 61

who of all persons in the world ought to be the most familiar
with the facts that prove their usefulness, are indeed the most
ignorant of them ; and they are so full of prejudices against
the birds, that they attribute to them a full moiety of the
mit-chief perpetrated by insects. There is perhaps not an insect
tribe in existence which is not the natural food of some species
of the feathered race, and which, if not kept in check by their
agency, would multiply to infinity. Calculations have been
frequently made, to ascertain the probable amount of insects
consumed by single birds. Many of these accounts seem
almost incredible ; yet they will, for the most part, admit of
demonstration.

Two different methods have been adopted for the purpose of
ascertaining this class of facts ; first, by watching the birds and
taking note of their actions ; second, by destroying individuals
at different times and seasons, and examining the contents of
their alimentary organs, to ascertain the quality of their food.
Mr. Bradley, an English writer, mentions a person who was
led by curiosity to watch a pair of birds that had a nest of
young, for one hour. They went and returned continually,
bringing every time a caterpillar to their nest. He counted
the journeys they made, and calculated that one brood could
not consume less than five hundred caterpillars in the course of
a day. The quantity consumed in thirty, at this rate, by one
nest, would amount to 15,000. Suppose that every square
league of territory contained one hundred nests of this species —
there would be destroyed by the birds of one species alone, a
million and a half (1,500,000) of caterpillars, in the course of
one month for every square league of agricultural territory.

I was sitting at the window one day in May, when my sister
called my attention to a golden robin in a black cherry tree,
devouring the common hairy caterpillars ; and we counted the
number he consumed while he remained on the branch. The
time that elapsed was one minute by the watch, and during
this space he destroyed seventeen caterpillars. But it is worthy
of notice, that he did not swallow the whole insect. After
seizing it in his bill, he carefully set his foot upon it, tore it
asunder, and swallowed a small portion taken from the inside.
He then seized others in succession, and in like manner selected
and devoured his favorite morsel. Had he consumed the

52 MASSACnUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

■whole caterpillar, five or six only would probably have satisfied
his appetite. But this is not the general practice of birds tliat
devour hairy caterpillars : they eat only an interior morsel,
and require a proportionally greater number to satisfy their
wants.

This observation led me to consider how vast an amount of
hencdl this single species of birds must contribute to agriculture.
We will suppose that each bird spends, at different times during
the day, sixty minutes, or one hour, in the aggregate, feasting
upon tliis kind of food. This is not an extravagant calculation,
since he undoubtedly employs nearly twelve hours of the
twenty-four in searching for food, and we may suppose a twelfth
part of this time devoted to this description of foraging. At
the rate of seventeen per minute, each bird would destroy a
little more tlian one thousand caterpillars in the course of each
day. We may rationally conclude from this calculation, even if
we reduce it to one-half tlie amount, this species of birds must
destroy an immense quantity of these vermin during the three
or four weeks of the caterpillar season, and that they must serve
as a most important check upon their multiplication.

It it recorded in " Anderson's Recreations," that a curious
observer, having discovered a nest of five young jays, remarked
that each of these birds, while yet very young, consumed daily
at least fifteen full-sized grubs of the May-beetle, and would
require many more of a smaller size. The writer makes a
calculation founded on the supposition that they would require,
of large and small, about twenty each for their daily supply.
At this rate, the five birds together would consume 100.
Allowing that each of the parents required 50, the family would
consume 200 every day; and the whole amount in three
months, or one season, to 20,000. The writer, I would remark,
commits an error in supposing that the old birds consume more
than their young ; whereas they feed upon comparatively few
soft insects, or grubs, giving these to their young, while they
make their own meals upon the hard and coriaceous insects.
The old bird consumes, for example, the beetle, while he feeds
his young upon its larva.

In obedience to a similar instinct, many of the granivorous
birds, as the sparrows and finches, while they live chiefly
upon seeds, feed their young entirely upon the larva of insects.

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 53

Almost every finch and sparrow is, therefore, insectivorous
for the first few weeks of its existence, not consuming seeds or
grain, until it has learned to provide for its own subsistence.
The old birds supply their young with larva, when this kind
of food is abundant, and when the tender state of their digestive
organs requires the use of soft food. Thus nature has provided
that even the granivorous birds should act as checks upon the
multiplication of insects, during the early stages of their
existence. The exceptions to this practice are the pigeon
tribe, that soften the grain in their own crops, before they give
it to their young ; and the hemp-birds, who wait until the
seeds of grasses and other plants are in the milk, before they
bring their young into the world, and then feed them upon the
soft milky seeds.

The quantity of grubs and insects consumed by the feathered
race is infinite, and beyond all calculation ; and the facts related
of them show that birds require a much larger proportion
of food, compared with their size, than quadrupeds. My own
experience corroborates the accounts which I have selected
from the testimony of other observers. I took from their nest
two young bluebirds, which are only half the size of a jay,
and fed them constantly with my own hand for the space of
two weeks. These little birds would swallow twelve or more
large muckworms apiece daily, when they were supplied with
them, or other grubs or worms, in the same proportion, and
still seemed eager for more, and not over-fed. Another experi-
ment which I made with two young cat-birds, was attended
with results equally surprising. Their voracity convinced me
that the usual calculations bearing upon this subject are not
exaggerated.

The usefulness of birds has been repeatedly demonstrated
by dissecting them, and examining their alimentary contents.
This method of studying their feeding propensities is not
attended with any liability to mistakes. "When we watch a bird
at a distance, we cannot be sure, in all particular instances, of
the character of his prey ; but if we find his crop or his gizzard
full of insects of a certain species, we cannot feel a rational
doubt that such insects are his natural food. And when we
consider that insect food is digested with much greater rapidity
than grain or seeds, we have reason to infer that each bird

64 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

must fill itself with insects at least five or six times a day in
order to supply his alimentary wants. If a hundred insects,
therefore, of any kind are found at one time in the crop of a
bird, upon dissection, we may believe that this number is no
more than a fifth part of the quantity he consumes in the course
of one day. It is worthy of remark that a very small part of
any insect or grub is nutritious, the most of it consisting of its
shelly coverings and hairy appendages ; we ought not to be
surprii-ed, therefore, that a bird must swallow a large quantity
of insects to obtain a small quantity of nourishment.

There is one circumstance connected with the examinations of
a bird's alimentary contents, that has often led to false infer-
ences. It is a fact that a few kernels of corn, taken by the
bird in the morning, will frequently be found in the gizzard at
night, while a whole multitude of insects and grubs, swallowed
at a later period of the day, are entirely digested, and have
disappeared from the contents of the stomach. If a blackbird,
having swallowed a few kernels of corn in the morning, and
afterwards more than a quarter of a pound of insect food, be
killed by a jealous farmer at night, he would believe, upon dis-
secting it and finding only a few kernels of corn in its gizzard,
that he had ocular proof that the bird fed almost exclusively
upon corn. The insect food has digested and disappeared,
while the corn remains almost unaltered ; for it is remarkable,
that if several kinds of food are swallowed by an animal, and
especially by a bird that does not masticate its food, the digestive
organs will select that portion which is most needful to supply
the wants of the system, or that which is most agreeable to its
nature, and not until all this is digested will it act upon the
remainder. By experimenting upon poultry, this fact may be
clearly demonstrated.

But I will now proceed to relate a few facts, which I have
selected from a variety of sources. A farmer's boy in Ohio,
observing a small flock of quails in his father's cornfield,
resolved to watch their motions. They pursued a very regular
course in their foraging, commencing on one side of the field,
taking about five rows, and following them uniformly to the
opposite end. Returning in the same manner over the next
five rows, they continued in this course, until they had explored
the greater portion of the field. The lad, being suspicious that

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 55

they were pulling up the corn, fired into the flock, killing one
of them, and then proceeded to examine the ground. In the
whole space over which they had travelled, he found but one
stalk of corn disturbed ; this was nearly scratched out of the
ground, but the kernel still adhered to it. In the craw of the
quail he found one cutworm, twenty-one striped vine-bugs, and
one hundred chinch-bugs ; but not a single kernel of corn.
This is an important fact ; for as the quail is a granivorous bird
during a great part of the year, it proves that the usefulness of
birds, as destroyers of insects, is not confined to the insectivorous
tribes.

Mr. Roberts, a farmer who resided in Colesville, Ohio,
communicated an important fact to one of the papers of that
State. A neighbor asked his assistance in killing some yellow-
birds wliich the farmers accused of destroying their wheat.
Mr. Roberts declined, because he did not believe their accusa-
tions, and was inclined to cherisii and protect the birds, as the
farmer's friends. Out of curiosity, however, he killed one of
the yellow-birds, and opened its crop, when he found that
instead of the ivheat, the bird had devoured the weevil, which is
the great destroyer of wheat ! He found as many as two
hundred weevils in the bird's crop, and but four grains of
wheat ; and as each of these contained a weevil, they were
undoubtedly eaten for the sake of the insect within them.
The jealousy of the Ohio farmers was prompting them, in this
case, to destroy a race of birds that were constantly performing
for them an incalculable service.

By Southern farmers, the kildeer, a sort of plover, is supposed
to destroy young turnips. A writer in the " Southern Planter,"
alluding to this'notion, pronounces the kildeer the true guardian
of the turnip-field, remarking: "I have several times dissected
the gizzards of kildeers — for they have no crops — to show their
destroyers that they contain no vegetable substance ; and
nothing, indeed, but the little bug so famous for destroying
young turnips and tobacco plants. These little hopping beetles
are a great nuisance in the land, and seem to be rapidly
increasing. The kildeers are their natural enemies, and
formerly collected in large numbers to fulfil the purposes of
their mission. I seldom, now-a-days, hear the kildccr's voice.
Let no man, henceforth, kill one, except to convince himself

56 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and others that they eat no young turnips. The sacrifice of one
producing such conviction may save hundreds of liis brethren."

The testimony of practical gardeners in favor of birds deserves
special consideration, because their prejudices incline them to
seek their destruction. Mr. Musgrave, a practical gardener,
who has written a treatise on the means of destroying injurious
insects, remarks : " It is a too common practice among garden-
ers, to destroy, indiscriminately, the birds that frequent their
grounds. This, in my opinion, is bad policy. Although some
birds are great enemies to certain crops, it must be a trifling
crop indeed that will not bear the expense of a person to watch
it, or a net to protect it until it is out of danger ; for the birds
perform a double office — eating up the vermin from the trees,
and the seeds of weeds and the eggs of insects from the ground.
I have often stood and observed the male bird, while the female
was sitting on the nest, fly to the spot with his bill full of
caterpillers to feed his mate or young ; and when the young
ones became so strong as to accompany their parents in quest
of food, tlie number of caterpillers they destroy is astonishing.
I can say from my own observation, that were it not for the
labors of birds in this direction, our trees would exhibit nothing
but bare stumps." Mr. Musgrave one day followed a nest of
young birds that had just flown, for the purpose of observing
the actions of the old birds. He saw them fly from branch to
branch, and peck the caterpillers from the curled leaves,
carrying them immediately to their young. It is his opinion,
therefore, that the gardener should protect the birds as useful
allies, and avail himself of their services, by means of which,
united with his own eflbrts, he might rid his grounds of those
insects which have hitherto been a constantly increasing pest.

In 182G, insects of various kinds had become so universally
destructive, as to cause serious apprehensions for the safety of
all kinds of products. One of our horticulturists communicated
his opinions on this subject to the " Massachusetts Yeoman,"
expressing his belief that the unusual number of these destroyers
was occasioned by the destruction and diminution of those
feathered tribes, which are designed by the Creator as a check
upon the increase of insects and worms. His neighbors
expressed their astonishment that every thing in his garden
sliould look so thrifty and flourishing, while every plant in

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 57

theirs was cut down and destroyed, almost as soon as it sprang
up, by these vermin. " I have no concern about it," he
replied ; " my robins see to that. I preserve them from their
enemies — the boys and the cats — and they preserve my garden
from insects and worms. In one corner of my garden, near
my dwelling, is a tree in which a couple of these friends of man
have reared their families for three successive years. There
has ever been a harmony between my birds and me." This
was the whole explanation of the healthfulness of the fruits
and vegetables in his garden : he preserved all the birds in his
garden, and they devoured the insects that infested it. Grass-
hoppers, he said, in the early stage of their existence, and for
some weeks after their appearance, are not larger than flies ;
and ten or twelve birds would clear a whole field of them,
before they could be large enough to do any injury ; and he
besought all parents, as they valued their property and the
blessing of Heaven, to prevent their boys from shooting robins
and other birds.

It is well known that the small owls are useful as destroyers
of the larger moths and nocturnal insects ; they are also excel-
lent mousers. The Hon. Richard Peters, in " The Memoirs of
the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture," remarks
of a small species of owl : " The numbers of mice, moles and
other vermin destroyed by the short-eared owl are truly
surprising. All the owl tribe are mousers. A pine tree,
spreading and thick-set, near my house, affords a shelter and
roost to about a dozen of these owls through the winter." He
therefore enjoyed the opportunity of witnessing their opera-
tions ; and a few of them, for they are generally gregarious,
will soon, in liis opinion, clear the barn and out-houses of a
farm, as well as the fields, from vermin, in the vicinity of their
resort. Farmers, he said, should encourage the small owls to
reside near their buildings, and invite their visits in every way,
for it is only the larger species that will attack poultry, or
commit damages of any sort.

The different habits of foraging that distinguish the several
tribes and species of the feathered race, deserve attention, as
indications of a corresponding difference in the character of
their food. Those, for example, that seek their food chiefly
from the surface of the ground, would forage in a different

8

58 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

manner from those species that collect it from under the sur-
face. The swallows, that catch all their food while on the
wing, give proof by this habit that they pursue only winged
insects ; but their habits of foraging differ very essentially from
those of the pewees, who also catch all their food while on the
wing. The robin and the red-winged blackbird take their food
entirely from the ground ; but their ways, while seeking it, are
very different. Their respective habits of foraging are adapted
to the successful pursuit of the worms and insects that consti-
tute their principal food ; for although each of these birds will
devour the same kind of insects that come in their way, they
make certain kinds, respectively, the chief objects of their
pursuit. It is necessary to study all the different habits of
foraging, that mark the several species, in order fully to com-
prehend the principle which I wish to inculcate — that each
species of bird performs certain services in the economy of
nature, which cannot be so well accomplished by any other
species — and that it is necessary, therefore, for this end, to
preserve them all in their due proportions ; that is, in such
proportions as would spontaneously exist, if the whole race
were unmolested and left to their own natural chances of living
and multiplying.

The Sylvians are among the most interesting foragers of the
smaller birds, and are remarkable for their apparent diligence
in hunting for insects. They have a peculiar way of examining
the foliage and blossoms, rather than the surface of the
branches, and their motions are, therefore, very conspicuous
upon the outer surface of the trees, near the extremities of
their branches. The golden robin hunts his food like the
Sylvians, though he is not one of them, and his motions are
more rapid and energetic than theirs. He arrives with the
first blossoming of the cherry trees, a coincidence which I have
noticed and recorded for several years past. This beautiful
bird is fond of certain insects that abound upon the leaves and
blossoms of trees ; and his northerly progress is probably regu-
lated by this supply, that comes along with the opening of
spring. No sooner does he arrive than he may be seen rigor-
ously examining the leaves and blossoms, and catching small
beetles and moths which are concealed upon the under surface
of the foliage, and in the cup of the flower. This bird is con-

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 59

sidered omnivorous, but I am convinced that during the
months of spring and summer, his diet consists almost entirely
of insects.

The wren, the creepers and the tomtits seek their food by
creeping round the branches, and take less of their food from
the foliage than either the Sylvians or the Fly-catchers. They
seldom pause in their circuitous course, proceeding usually
from the junction of the branches to their extremity, then
hopping to another branch, and proceeding upwards till they
are satisfied and pass to another tree. The Sylvians always
appear to examine the leaves and blossoms, while the creepers
and tomtits examine more carefully the bark of the tree.
Hence the Sylvians do not prolong their stay with us after the
fall of the leaf, while the others are seen after the trees are
entirely denuded, leading us to infer that the one feeds chiefly
upon beetles and other insects which are most abundant in the
summer months, while the others subsist upon insects in their
embryo forms, which, during autumn and winter, are concealed
in the crevices of the bark of trees.

The habits of the Fly-catchers are quite different from those
of any of the species I have just named. Let us take the
pewee for an example. He sits on the bough of a tree almost
motionless, except a frequent sidling of the head, indicating
his watchful condition. He does not seem to be so diligent as
the Sylvians ; but that he is not idle is shown by his frequent
flitting out, in an irregular circuit, and immediately returning
to his perch with a captured insect. These salient flights are
performed as often as once in four or five seconds, and he often
turns a summerset in the act of capturing his prey when it
tries to elude him. He seldom misses his aim, and probably
collects ten or fifteen insects every minute, of an appreciable
size. As he lives entirely upon them, and is also, in the early
part of summer, engaged in supplying the wants of his young,
this is no extravagant estimate.

The pewee does not catch all his food while it is on the
wing, but he is always on the wing when he takes it. If he
sees a moth or a beetle upon a leaf or a branch, he flies to it
and seizes it while he is poised in the air. A Sylvian would
stand upon the branch and extend his neck forward to take it.
The Yireos, which form an intermediate genus between the

60 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

true Fly-catchers and the Sylvians, partake of some of the
habits of each ; and some of the species are remarkable for a
habit of singing while they are foraging. The warbling Vireo
seems, indeed, to make singing his principal employment ; he
is never apparently very diligent or earnest, and often stops in
the middle of a strain to seize a passing insect, and then
resumes it. All the true Fly-catchers, including the king-bird,
resemble the pewee in their general habits of foraging.

Here, then, we observe several circles; the outer one occu-
pied by the true Fly-catchers, who sit in wait for all such insects
as discover themselves flitting among the foliage of the tree, or
outside of it ; the circle next the outside is occupied by the
Sylvians, who search for their food by creeping about among
the leaves and flowers ; and the inner circle by the creepers
and tomtits, or chickadees, that hunt the bark and incrustations
of the branches for their prey. Inside of this interior circle is
the space occupied by the woodpeckers, who live upon the larva
which is concealed in the solid substance of the wood and bark,
and lies beyond the reach of the creepers and chickadees, who
cannot bore into the wood. Lastly, outside of the outer circle
just described, is the space occupied by the swallows, who take
all their food while it is afloat in the atmosphere.

The woodpeckers have a long tongue of great flexibility, and
a powerful beak. They have also a sagacious instinct that
directs them how to discover their prey, without the exercise of
their sight. They listen carefully for the scratching sounds of
the grub while it is gnawing the wood, and having determined
its exact location, they hammer upon the spot with their beak,
seize their victim, and draw him out with their long tongue.
The old birds are said to teach their young the art of hunting
this larva, and nature has made them very easy learners. By
the opposite arrangement of the fore and hind claws, these
birds arc enabled to climb a tree in all directions in search for
their prey.

Woodpeckers live mostly in the forest, of which they are
the natural guardians ; and as the food of their choice is nearly
as abundant in winter as in summer, they are not generally
migratory. Hence the operations of these birds are incessant
throughout the year. As their food is not anywhere very
abundant, like that of some of the granivorous birds, wood-

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 61

peckers are never seen foraging in flocks. The more tliey
scatter themselves, the better is their fare. All birds that
assemble in dense flocks, except the aquatic tribes, are either
entirely granivorous, like pigeons, or partially so, like black-
birds. Woodpeckers are indefatigable devourers of emmets,
taking them not only from the surface, but also drawing them
and their larva out of the crevices of timber. It is hardly
possible to overestimate the services performed by this tribe of
birds, in their ceaseless operations among the trees.

Thus far I have treated only of birds that take tlieir food
chiefly from the foliage, flowers, and branches of trees and
shrubs — the natural guardians of the forest and orchard. But
there are many tribes that seldom take any thing from trees,
and confine tlieir foraging almost entirely to the surface
of the ground. Such are the pigeons, all the gallinaceous
birds, larks, blackbirds, snipes and thrushes. These are the
guardians of the soil ; and may also be made to assume an
arrangement analogous to the circles above described. For
example, the snipe, the woodcock, the plover, and their
allied species, feed chiefly upon worms and insects that live
underneath the surface, digging under it for their prey with
their long bills. They occupy a position analogous to that
of the woodpeckers. Larks, quails, thrushes and blackbirds
gather the principal part of their food from the surface,
seizing only upon those underneath it, which are partly
exposed to sight.

The thrushes forage mostly upon the surface of the ground.
Though they do not refuse an insect or a grub discovered upon
a leaf or a branch of a tree, they hunt their food upon the bare
soil or the green sward. One circumstance that attracts fre-
quent attention in the feeding habits of the thrushes, is their
apparent want of diligence ; but this appearance is delusive,
for the immense quantity of insects consumed by them could
not be obtained without proportional industry. The common
robin will exemplify the general habit of the thrushes,
though he carries their peculiarities to an extreme. When he
hunts his food, he is usually seen hopping listlessly about the
field. Sometimes a dozen robins, or more, may be seen in one
field, but they are always widely separated. Observe one of
them, and you will see him standing still with his bill inclined

62 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICQLTURE.

upwards, and looking about liim with seeming unconcern.
Soon he makes two or three hops, and then stands a few more
seconds apparently idle. Presently he may be seen pecking
vigorously upon the ground, when, if you was near enough to
see it distinctly, you would find that he is pulling out a cut-
worm from his retreat, or devouring a nest of insects which
are gathered in a cluster. Tlie robin consumes earthworms
also when he cannot obtain grubs, which he always prefers.

Blackbirds, though they also gather their food from the
ground, seem to be more industrious. These birds walk ; they
do not hop like the robin, and they seldom hold up their
heads, but march along with their bills turned downward, as if
entirely devoted to the object of their search. They never
seem to be idle, except when a flock of them are making a
garrulous noise upon the trees. If a blackbird looks upward,
it is only by a sudden movement, and he never stops. After
watching him and the robin five minutes in the same field any
one would lay a wager that the blackbird would collect twice
as much food as the robin in that time. But this would be a
mistake ; and the difference in their apparent industry proceeds
from the different character of their food. The robin is
entirely insectivorous, and rejects all seeds and farinaceous food,
while the omniverous blackbird hunts the soil for every thing
that is nutritious, and pecks up millions of small seeds which
require a close examination of the ground.

The robin is probably endowed with a greater reach of sight
than the blackbird ; and, while hopping about with his head
erect, his eyes comprehend within their visual grasp, a very
wide circumference. He not only watches for a sight of his
prey but also for those marks upon vegetation that denote the
place of its concealment. When we look among our young
cabbages, that, if we see a plant cut down, we may draw out
from its hole the cutworm that has done the mischief; if we
do not find it, we may be sure that the robin, who understands
the indications as well as any gardener, has been there before
us. Tiie robin must possess an extraordinary portion of this
sagacious instinct, for the thousands of cutworms destroyed by
him could not possibly be discovered, except by these indica-
tions. The far-sightedness of the robin is equally remarkable
in the blackbird, who, though he takes a large portion of his

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 63

food from the ground, always discovers it while perched upon
a tree or a fence, and darts down upon it from his perch. It
is evident that birds of certain species must be endowed with a
much greater power of sight than quadrupeds, to enable them
to discern their prey from distant stand points.

Tiie foraging habits of the ditfercnt species of domestic poul-
try are worthy of remark, and may seem to illustrate some of
the differences observed in the habits of the wild birds. Place
a brood of ducks in a field, in grasshopper time, and they will
all pursue one course, marching in a body over the field, with
great uniformity. A brood of chickens, on the contrary, will
scatter in all directions, occasionally re-assembling, but never
keeping close together, nor following any definite line of march,
except when they are led by the mother hen. Turkeys scatter
themselves less than chickens, but do not equal ducks in the
regularity of their movements. Pigeons settle down upon a
field in a compact flock and immediately radiate in all direc-
tions. Geese do not separate widely from each other, but they
preserve no line of march like ducks, because they are not in
pursuit of insects, but feed upon grass and keep together after
the manner of a flock of sheep.

Of all birds the most interesting foragers are those that
seek their food in compact assemblages. This habit it is that
renders the snow bunting so attractive. Their food is not
distributed in separate morsels, like the food of robins or of
"woodpeckers ; but consists chiefly of the seeds of grasses and
composite plants, which are scattered somewhat evenly and
profusely over a wide surface. When, therefore, they settle
down upon a field in a flock of a hundred or more, each indi-
vidual fares as well as if he were entirely alone. But we may
be justified in drawing this inference from the foraging habits
of birds, that as a general rule, the gregarious birds are not so
useful to agriculture as the solitary feeders or those that feed
in straggling flocks. Insect feeders, for the most part, find it
profitable to scatter and keep separate, because their food is
sparsely distributed. This is not true, however, of the birds
that frequent the salt marshes, where their food is widely
and evenly spread like seeds in a grassfield. Hence plovers,
sandpipers and their allied species, forage in flocks, like the

64 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

granivoroiis birds, though they feed exclusively upon an
animal diet.

I have said nothing of the foraging habits of the swallow
tribe, for these are very well known and understood. The
swallows are the guardians of the atmosphere, which would
otherwise swarm with fatal quantities of minute insects; the
woodpeckers are the guardians of the timber of the forest,
and the Sylvians and Fly-catchers of the foliage. Blackbirds,
plovers, larks and thrushes are the natural guardians of the
soil and of the creeping herbage. Each tribe has its respective
duty to perform in the economy of nature ; and man must
beware how he disturbs her equilibrium, by reducing the
numbers of any species below the amount of supplies which the
insect world affords them.

It is curious to notice the assiduity with which insects are
hunted in all the various stages of their existence. In their
larva state, those that lurk under the soil are hunted by black-
birds, by thrushes and by the common robins, who easily
detect their hiding places by the appearance of vegetation.
Those infesting the wood and bark of trees are hunted by wood-
peckers who are no less sagacious in discovering the retreat of
their prey and dislodging it. Wlien the larva has assumed the
form of moths, beetles and other perfect insects, these are
attacked by bluebirds, wrens. Fly-catchers and hosts of other
birds, who watch for them in all situations, in the daytime : and
in the night by whippoorwills, nighthawks and the little owls.
It matters not in what stage of its existence the insect is destroy-
ed ; but it is demonstrable that the insect tribes cannot be kept
in check, unless they are attacked in all the stages of their
being ; and birds are their only effectual destroyers. Man
cannot by direct means cause their destruction, except in par-
ticular locations. He cannot be a general destroyer ; and their
general over multiplication can be checked only by nature's
own agents which she has appointed for tliis end.

Before I conclude this branch of my subject, I wisli to say a
word in behalf of one of our most useful birds. I allude to the
little spotted tattler or peetweet, a species of plover that
breeds annually in our fields, and would multiply and become
very numerous if the species were protected. Tliese little birds
are so mercilessly hunted by gunners of all ages, that they have

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 65

become extremely shy and have lost all confidence in man.
Yet if they were harbored and protected from annoyance and
danger, they would be tame and confiding, and our fields and
gardens would be full of them. They are the most indefatiga-
ble hunters of insects, in pastures and tilled lands, and they
lead their young after them as hens do. A few pairs, with
their young broods would perform incalculable service on every
farm ; and if encouraged and protected they would soon reward
us with their confidence and their services. These little birds
are incapable of doing any mischief ; they steal no fruit ; do
not bite off the tops of tender herbs ; they are interesting in
their ways, and the only cause of their scarcity is the shameful
destruction of them by wanton gunners.

The consequences v^hich have followed the destruction of birds ^
as related in many well authenticated instances, afford one of the
most convincing proofs of their utility. Professor Jenks men-
tions a case communicated by one of his female correspondents,
which is worthy of record. In former times, as she had been
told by her father, an annual shooting match took place on
Election day in May. On one of these occasions, about the
year 1820, in North Bridgewater, the birds were killed in such
quantities, that cartloads of them were sold to the farmers for
fertilizing the soil. There was consequently a great scarcity
of birds in all that vicinity. Soon the herbage begun to show
signs of injury. Tufts of withered grass appeared, and spread
out widely into circles, of a seared and burnt complexion.
Though the cause and effect were so near each other, they were
not logically put together by the inhabitants at that time.
Modern entomology, however, would have explained to them
the cause of this phenomenon, in the increase of the larvae of
injurious insects, nsually kept in check by the birds which had
been destroyed at the shooting match.

After the abolition of the game laws in France, at the close
of the last century, the people being used to regard birds as
the property of great land owners, instead of the free denizens
of nature, destroyed them without any limits. Every species of
game, including even the common singing-birds, was threatened
with extermination. It was found necessary, therefore, to
protect them by laws that forbade hunting at certain seasons.
It is only by such unfortunate experience that men can learn

9

66 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

that if they eat the birds, the Ijirds cannot protect them from
famine. The most serious evils were produced ; the farmers'
crops were destroyed by insects, and the gardens and orchards
produced no fruit. Investigations of the cause of these evils by
ingenious naturalists, proved them to be the direct consequence
of the extermination of birds.

Some years ago in Virginia and Carolina several tracts of
forest were attacked by a malady which caused the trees to
perish over hundreds of acres. A traveller passing through
that region, inquired of a countryman, if he knew the cause of
this devastation. He replied that the whole mischief was done
by woodpeckers ; and though the inhabitants had killed great
numbers of them, there still remained enough to bore into the
trees and destroy them. The traveller, not satisfied with this
account, made some investigations, and being an entomologist,
he soon convinced them that the cause of the mischief was
the larva of a species of the Buprestis, which had multiplied
beyond all bounds. This larva was the favorite food of the
woodpeckers, which had congregated lately in that region, ou
account of the abundant supply. He proved to them that they
were ignorantly engaged in protecting the real destroyers of the
forest, by warring against the woodpeckers, which, if left
unmolested, would nearly eradicate this pest. Birds become
accustomed to certain locations ; and if, by any accident, a cer-
tain region happens to be deserted by them for a season, insects
of all kinds gain a start and destroy vegetation.

" In the year 1798, the forests in Saxony and Brundenburg
were attacked with a general mortality. The greater part of
the trees, especially the firs and the different kinds of pine,
whose bitter and aromatic branches are rarely the prey of
insects, died, as if struck at the roots by some secret malady.
It was not here, as often happens, that the foliage above was
devoured by caterpillars, the trees perished without showing any
signs of external disease. This calamity became so general,
that the regency of Saxony sent naturalists and skilful foresters
to find out the cause. They soon found it in the multiplication
of one of the lepidopterous insects, which in its larva state,
insinuated itself within the tree, and fed upon the wood.
Whenever any bough of the fir or the pine w^as broken, this
detestable insect was found within it, which had often hollowed

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 67

it out even to the bark. From the report of the naturalists it
was made apparent that the extraordinary increase of this insect
was Giving" to the entire disappearance of several species of
ivoodpecker and titmouse, which had not for some years been
seen in the forest."

Doctor Lettsom, an English physician, remarks that he was
assured by an intelligent farmer, that, notwithstanding the
power of severe frost to kill insects, they are always most
numerous after a cold winter, because the birds are prevented
from jfinding them by the hardness of the soil. When a hard
frost binds the surface of the ground it protects the dormant
insects from the birds no less than it exposes the insects to
injury from the cold. It would seem, therefore, that nature,
while providing checks to the over-multiplication of insects, has
carefully guarded them from extermination, by taking care that
when they are more than usually exposed to one agent of their
destruction, they shall at the same time be less exposed to
another.

Buffon relates the following anecdote of a certain species of
grackle, resembling our crow blackbird, which is so injudiciously
destroyed by the farmers in the vicinity of Boston : " The
Isle of Bourbon, where the grackle was unknown, was overrun
with locusts, which had been accidentally introduced from
Madagascar ; the eggs having been imported in the soil with
some plants which were brought from that island. The
governor-general and the intendant deliberated seriously on
the means of extirpating these noxious insects, and for this
purpose caused several pairs of the Indian grackle to be intro-
duced into the island. This plan promised to succeed ; but
unfortunately, some of the colonists seeing the birds eagerly
thrust their bills into the earth of the newly sowed fields,
imagined they were in quest of grain, and reported that the
birds, instead of proving beneficial, would be highly detrimental
to the country. On the part of the birds it was argued, that they
raked in new-ploughed grounds, not for the sake of the grain, but
for the insects, and were, therefore, beneficial. They were, how-
ever, proscribed by the council ; and in the space of two hours
after the sentence was pronounced against them, not a grackle
was found in the island. This prompt execution was followed by
a speedy repentance. The locusts gained the ascendancy, and

68 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the people who only viewed the present, regretted the loss of the
grackles. In a few years afterwards, a few pairs were again
introduced ; their preservation and breeding were made a State
affair ; the laws held out protection to them, and the physi-
cians, on their part, declared their flesh to be unwholesome.
The grackles accordingly multiplied, and the locusts were
destroyed."

Kalm remarks, in his " Travels in America," that after a
great destruction made among tlie purple grackles and crow
blackbirds, for the legal reward of three pence per dozen, the
Nortliern States, in 1749, experienced a complete loss of the
grass and grain crops, from the devastation of insects and
their larva. The crows of North America were likewise,
some years since, in consequence of premiums offered for their
destruction, so nearly exterminated, that the increase of insects
became alarmingly great ; and the States were obliged to offer
counter-rewards for the protection of crows. The same incident
has frequently happened in other countries.

The protection afforded in Europe to rooks, a species allied
to our common crow, and resembling it exactly in its habits of
feeding, may be quoted as a lesson to Americans, who consider
the crow as only a mischievous marauder. The rook feeds
upon corn and all kinds of grain, but he is protected, on
account of his services as a consumer of insects in all their
forms. Rooks are often seen in such numbers upon newly
ploughed land in England, as to blacken it with their plumage.
Yet the laborers in the field do not molest them, though they
must be watched to prevent their doing mischief by destroying
green corn. In spite of all this, they are reckoned among the
farmer's friends, and are exempted from molestation. Crows
do the same kind of mischief, and they are also equally
serviceable to agriculture ; but they are destroyed without
mercy. John Randolph was so well satisfied of their utility
that he would not allow a crow to be shot upon his farm ; and
to prevent their depredations, he fed them liberally at such
times as his young corn was likely to be injured by them.

" On account of the propensity of rooks to consume grain
and other seeds," Mr. Sclby remarks, " they have erroneously
been viewed in the light of an enemy by most husbandmen,
and in several districts in England, attempts have formerly

UTILITY OP BIRDS. 69

been made, cither to banish tlicm, or to extirpate the breed.
But whenever this measure has been carried into effect, the
most serious injury to corn and other crops has invariably
followed, from the unchecked devastations of the grub and the
caterpillar."

An intelligent observer in Virginia, calling himself an aged
man, communicated some important information to the
" Southern Planter " in 1860, respecting the services of birds.
He remarks that since his boyhood, there has been a rapid
decrease in the number of birds, and a proportional increase of
insects. Among the consequences of this multiplication, he
mentions destructive depredations upon the farmer's crops, by
clover-worms, wire-worms, cut-worms, and on the wheat crops
particularly by chinch-bugs, Hessian flies, joint-worms and
other pests. He thinks it demonstrable that the excessive
multiplication of these injurious insects is due to the scarcity
of birds. He speaks particularly of the diminution of wood-
peckers as a public calamity. He has known a community of
red-headed woodpeckers to actually arrest the progress of
destruction from borers in a pine forest. He mentions the
large-spotted woodpecker, called in New England the flicker,
as the only bird he ever saw pulling out worms from the roots
of peach trees. Such a habit must cause the destruction of
millions of orchard borers, which are mostly found near the
roots of trees.

The Abbe St. Pierre remarks : " There are insects, noxious
in their nature, that prey upon our fruits and our corn. But
if snails, May-bugs, caterpillars and locusts ravage our plains,
it is because we destroy the birds of our groves that live upon
them ; and because when importing the trees of foreign coun-
tries into our own, we import at the same time the eggs of the
insects which they harbor, while the birds of the same climate
— the destroyers of those insects — are left behind. Every
country has birds peculiar to itself for the preservation of its
plants. I have seen at the Cape of Good Hope, a species
called the gardener's bird, incessantly employed in destroying
the worms and caterpillars, which, as he caught them, he
stuck on the thorny prickles of the bushes. I have likewise
seen in the Isle of France, a species of starling, called the
martin, that comes from India, and lives on locusts and other

70 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

insects that infest cattle. Naturalize these birds in Europe,
and no scientific discovery ever made would prove so beneficial
to man. But the birds of our own groves would perhaps be suffi-
cient of themselves to clear our plains of these inconveniences,
were the bird-catchers forbidden to entrap them.

" A fancy, some years ago, prevailed in Prussia, of proscribing
the race of sparrows, as inimical to agriculture. Every peasant
was subjected to an annual capitation of twelve heads of this
species of bird, which were employed in the manufacture of
saltpetre ; for in that country nothing is wasted. At the end,
however, of the second year, it was discovered that the crops
were devoured by insects, and it was speedily found advisable
to invite the sparrows from the neighboring counties to re-people
the kingdom with them, and remedy the evil. These birds, it
is true, when insects fail them, eat some grains of wheat.
But insects, be it remembered, consume it by bushels, and even
by granaries. Meanwhile, if the whole race of insects could
be destroyed, it would not be expedient to attempt it, since
there would be destroyed along with them most of the feathered
tribes of our plains, which, during the season of breeding,
have no other food for their young."

The inhabitants of a new country, like our own, are not so
well informed of the evils that follow the destruction of birds,
as those of old countries who have learned by tradition the
indispensable character of their services. Vincent KoUar says,
a judicious method of setting a limit to the excessive increase
of the cockchafer, is to spare the birds that feed upon the larva
of this insect. Among these, he thinks the crow undoubtedly
claims the first place. " These birds," he says, " follow the
plough, for the express purpose of consuming worms, the larva
of insects, and particularly that of the cockchafer, when thrown
out on the surface by the plough. The instinct of the crow to
go in quest of this grub, may also be observed in gardens and
other places where vegetables are planted. He walks about
between the plants, and when he sees one that has begun to
wither, digs with his sharp bill deep into the ground, near the
plant, and knows so well how to seize his prey, that he draws
it forth and swallows it almost at the same moment. The
crows do the same in tlie meadows, which we see sometimes
completely covered with them."

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 71

The American crow, though addicted to the same habits, is
made shy and timid by the persecution he suffers ; for our
farmers can never believe the crow is seeking after any tiling
but corn, of which, it has been well ascertained, he will eat
but a very small quantity, though it were placed constantly
before him. The same results might be obtained, however, by
encouraging other birds that seek this grub as their favorite
food. Such are the common crow blackbird or purple grackle,
one of the most useful of the farmer's friends, the red-winged
blackbird and the meadow lark. The robin takes vast quanti-
ties of cut-worms that do not lie so deep in the soil, but he
does not dig into the earth like the birds just named. The
most useful birds are those which are likewise the most mis-
chievous on certain occasions, the blackbirds by stealing corn,
and the robin by stealing cherries. One of our most useful
birds, among the smaller species, is the wax-wing, which, on
account of his ceaseless depredations in the cherry trees, is
known by the familiar name of the cherry bird. Prof. W. D.
Peck, in his " Prize Essay on the Natural History of the
Canker Worm," remarks : " The principal check provided by
nature upon the too great increase of this insect, is the Ampelis
Garrulus of Linnaeus, called by Mr. Catesby the Cliatterer of
Carolina, and in Rev. Dr. Belknap's History of New Hamp-
shire, the cherry bird. This bird destroys great numbers of
them, while in the larva state."

Birds that eat fruit are observed to prefer insects, and to
resort to fruit only when insects are scarce or placed beyond
their reach. The author of " The Journal of a Naturalist,"
says of the fieldfare, a bird resembling the American robin :
" In this county, (Gloucestershire,) the extensive low lands of
the river Severn, in open weather, are visited by prodigious
flocks of these birds ; but as soon as snow falls, or bad weather
comes on, they leave these marshy lands, because their insect
food is covered or Ijecome scarce, visit the uplands to feed on
the produce of the hedges ; and we see them all day long
passing over our heads, in large flights, on some distant
progress, in the same manner as our larks, at the commence-
ment of the snowy season, repair to the turnip-fields of Somerset
and Wiltshire. They remain about during the continuance of
these causes which incited their migration ; but as the frost

72 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

breaks up, and even before tbe tbaw has actually commenced,
we see a large portion of these passengers returning to their
worm and insect food in the meadows, attended probably by
many that did not take flight with them."

The services of the common robin, as the guardian of our
fields and agricultural crops, are of such an indispensable
character, and so far exceeding those of any other bird, that I
feel constrained to devote a considerable portion of this essay
to his defence. A few years ago, the horticulturists in the
•vicinity of Boston, annoyed by the depredations of the robin
upon their early fruits, petitioned the legislature to strike out
the name of this bird from the list of those which are protected
by statute. The subject was referred to a committee, who were
ordered to make inquiries and report upon it. Professor J. W.
P. Jenks, chairman of this committee, has published in his
report some new and important facts, that clearly establish the
character of the robin as one of the farmer's friends.

The course he pursued was to kill one robin daily, and
carefully examine the undigested food which it had eaten.
From these daily examinations, not a particle of vegetable food
was found among the alimentary contents of this bird, from the
early part of March to the first of May. Insects of many
species, in all stages of growth and development, were its sole
food. Nine-tenths of the aliment collected during this period
consisted of one kind of larva — tliat of the Bibio Albipennis of
Say. Of this larva, from one to two hundred, in a fresh
condition, were frequently taken from a single bird.

This fly, according to Dr. Fitch, comes abroad about the 20th
of May, and continues a little more than two weeks. It is
very common in fields of growing wheat, and probably lives
at the expense of this crop. It is found, however, abundantly
upon other vegetation, resting upon the leaves and flowers of
the garden, and in mowing lands and pastures. It may be
recognized by its frequency, its white transparent wings, and
its black body, clothed with soft white hairs. The larva of
this insect is very pernicious, by feeding upon the roots of
plants and causing them to perish, and doing great mischief to
strawberry plats, vine-borders and other places where the
ground is not disturbed in spring and autumn. An English
writer states that the ranunculus beds in his garden were

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 73

destroyed by the larva of one of this genus, for several years in
succession.

These facts lead to the conclusion that the robin fairly cams
his feast of fruits, by ridding the garden and orchard of one of
their most destructive pests. The large quantities of this bibio
larva which he consumes during the early spring months,
explains in part a certain habit observed in the ways of robins,
of scattering themselves singly over the fields and other
grounds. The larva of the bibio are gregarious, living together
in swarms, perforating the ground, and making it resemble a
honey-comb. The parent fly deposits her whole stock of eggs
in one spot, and the robin, finding this treasure, resorts to it
day after day, until the whole mass is consumed.

The bibio larva was not found in the food of the robin
after the middle of June, but was replaced by a variety of
insects and worms ; also, caterpillars, spiders and beetles of the
family elateridae — the parents of the well-known wire-worms,
so destructive to various kinds of seeds, when committed to tlie
ground. The earth-worm was employed by the old birds for
feeding their young, but sparingly used for its own food. In
the season of cherries and strawberries, these and other pulpy
fruits were found intermingled with insects in such proportions
as to show that the robin never uses an exclusively frugivorous
diet. He employs fruit as a dessert, not as a substantial meal.
The mixed diet of the robin continues from the ripening of
strawberries until October ; the vegetable part consisting in
August and September of the berries of the poke and elder.
After this date, he feeds upon grasshoppers and other orthop-
terous insects. A few robins linger in our woods after the
general migration of the species, when they are often obliged to
feed upon winter-berries, especially if the snow has covered up
their supply of dormant insects. These and other important
facts may be found in Professor Jenk's interesting report.

I will now proceed to speak of my own experience in regard
to the habits of the robin. This bird is not omnivorous ; his
food consists more entirely of insects than any other bird that
can be named ; for the other large thrushes will occasionally
swallow a grain of corn, which the robin has never been
known to do. He has been accused of living upon fruits
alone, and by others of adding no other article to his feast of

10

74 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

fruits except earth-worms, which are believed to be profitable
to the soil. He is often seen, after a shower, drawing a worm
from its hole ; but this is more frequently a cut-worm than
any thing else, as I have ascertained by repeated observation.
He also devours, indiscriminately, nearly all sorts of insects
that crawl upon the surface of the soil, except those of a very
minute species. He prefers the corneous insects for his own
food, and uses worms and larva chiefly for his young that
require soft food. Earth-worms are not relished by old birds,
save the marsh-birds, when they can obtain orthopterous and
other hard-shelled insects ; poultry, though greedy consumers
of earth-worms early in the season, will always reject them for
grasshoppers, when they can take their choice.

A very small proportion of the insectivorous birds take their
food from the ground, but confine their labors to the leaves
and branches of trees, as explained in my preceding remarks
on foraging. To the robin and other thrushes, the black-
birds, the grackles and the Gallinaceous birds has nature
chiefly entrusted the work of ridding the surface of the ground
of noxious insects, liut of all species, the robin is in this
respect the most useful, in our own land. He is peculiarly the
guardian of the grass-field and of all our annual crops. Hence
we find the number of robins in the suburbs of our cities
greater than in the rural districts, because they find the most
food where the soil is in the highest state of cultivation, giving
birth to proportional quantities of insects. There are no other
birds that could supply their place with equal advantage to
these crops. The other thrushes are too shy to frequent our
gardens, and blackbirds and plovers cannot be sufiiciently
domesticated.

It is not probable that we could raise more than half the
usual produce of our fields and gardens, if the robin were
exterminated. He destroys nearly all kinds of worms, grubs
and caterpillars that live upon the green-sward and cultivated
land, and large quantities of crickets and grasshoppers, before
they are fully grown. The grubs of locusts, of harvest-flies
and of beetles, and the pupae of the same, when turned up by
the plough ; apple-worms, when they leave the fruit and crawl
about in quest of a new shelter; those subterranean caterpillars
or cut-worms, that come out of the earth to seek their food ;

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 75

all these and many others arc eagerly devoured by the robin.
Cut-worms emerge from the soil during twilight to seek their
food ; and the robin, one of the earliest foragers in the morning,
and one of the latest in the evening, takes great quantities of
cut-worms at such hours.

The number of this race of caterpillars is so great that
" whole corn-fields," according to Dr. Harris, " are sometimes
laid waste by them. Cabbage-plants, till they are grown to a
considerable size, are very apt to be cut off and destroyed by
them. Potato vines, beans, beets, and various other culinary
plants, suffer in the same way. The products of our flower-
gardens are not spared ; asters, balsams, pinks, and many other
kinds of flowers, are often shorn of their leaves and central
buds, by these concealed vermin."

The robin is an indefatigable destroyer of these caterpillars,
feeding his young with them almost incessantly. And when
we consider that this bird always raises two broods, and often
three broods of young in a season, we may judge that his
demands for insect food, especially in its larva state, must
exceed that of any other species. Last summer, (1861,) having
been confined nearly all the season to the house by illness, I had
ample opportunity to watch the habits of the few birds that
could be seen from my windows. These were chiefly robins,
bobolinks, grackles and other blackbirds, as well as multitudes
of sparrows. Though a continual warfare was waged against
the grackles, by the owners of the fields, I saw enough to
convince me that they were warring against their own friends
and servants. The robins were very numerous and familiar
in my neighborhood (the west end of Somerville and North
Cambridge.) One pair had a nest very near my house, and
were rearing a second brood in the month of July, when the
soil was so greatly parched by drought, that if robins lived
only upon berries and earth-worms, they must have starved to
death. I had often seen these birds at a distance pecking
vigorously upon the sward, and then drawing out a worm. I
knew that there were, at this time, no earth-worms near enough
tlie surface to be within the reach even of the long-billed
snipes. But when the bird was near enough, I could
distinctly see, by the form and appendages of the creature, that
it was invariably a cut-worm of a large species and of an olive

7G MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

green color. The female bird was the most industrious. She
would carry off one of these grubs as often as once in live
minutes, whenever I watched her movements, and very often she
would have two in her bill at a time. One day, close under my
window, I saw her bear off three cut-worms at once, all of
which were taken before my sight in a space of about a rod
square. Never did I see, at any time, an earth-worm in the
mouth of this bird, during this month, nor any thing else except
cut-worms, of which this single pair must have destroyed an
incalculable number. The old birds probably swallow all the
hard insects, and save the larva exclusively for their young.

The fondness of the robin for juicy fruits, which is the cause
of the complaints brought against him, is not peculiar to his
species ; but it is most remarkable in birds which are exclu-
sively insectivorous. And it is well to consider that nature
does not grant us a benefit without taking some compensation.
We must be content to pay for the services of our useful birds,
by allowing them, as a perquisite, a certain portion of the
fruits of our soil. We must pay the crow and the blackbird
in corn, and the robin and the cedar bird in cherries ; and if
it be objected that the robin-tax falls disproportionately upon
the fruit-growers, so, on the other hand, the blackbird tax
falls disproportionately upon the farmer and the corn-grower.
These evils, except as they can be prevented by watchfulness
and ingenious contrivances that do not harm the birds, must
be patiently endured for the common good.

Early in May, in 1858, I caught and caged three young
robins, after they were fledged, for the purpose of studying
their habits of feeding. I commenced by giving them earth-
worms and soaked bread. They soon died, evidently from the
effects of their farinaceous diet. I then took two others from
the nest, and fed them on earth-worms alone ; but upon dis-
covering, after a few days, that they were drooping, I fed them
afterwards on insects combined with a small quantity of earth-
worms, and they immediately revived. All kinds of insects
they devoured with eagerness, and remained healthy and
vigorous. I never knew them to refuse one of any description,
though I offered them no inscots with stings, nor any hairy
caterpillars. All kinds of beetles, moths, grubs, crickets,
wire-worms, crysalids and smooth caterpillars they freely

UTILITY OF BIRDS. 77

accepted. The manner in wliicli the robin managed these
insects was proof that they agreed with his instincts. They
were placed upon the floor of his cage, and on picking them
up, he killed them in a way that showed that he knew how
they ought to be managed, as a cat knows how to seize a rat or
a mouse, though she has not been instructed. He was particu-
lar in beating the wire-worm, before he swallowed it, but he
never refused to eat one. On one occasion, having swallowed
a hard beetle, and finding it incommodious, he threw it up by
a ruminating effort, seized it again, thrapped it awhile against
the floor, and then swallowed it a second time. This manreuvre
proved his instinctive knowledge of the mode of proceeding
in such emergencies ; and it is hardly necessary to repeat the
truism, that no animal or bird can know how to manage a
living thing which he is going to devour, unless it be his
natural food.

It is now generally understood that the pul)lic will not
consent, for the gratification of fruit-growers, to exterminate
the robins ; when the people fully understand the value of
grackles and blackbirds, these will also be protected ; and
farmers and horticulturists must devise certain expedients to
defend their crops from their depredations. The granivorous
species should at certain seasons be fed with grain at the public
expense ; and for the frugivorous species, cherry trees should
at the public expense, be planted abundantly by the roadsides.
The number of robins would not be increased by this greater
abundance of fruit, because fruit is not their staple article of
food ; their subsistence is dependent entirely on the supply of
insects. But in proportion to the general cultivation of fruits,
will the depredations of the robin and the wax-wing upon the
trees of our gardens be diminished.

It is equally important, for the same end, to encourage the
growth of the early wild fruits. It is in the vicinity of Boston
and other large towns that the fruit-growers suffer the most
damage from the birds, because the blueberry bushes which
afford them a supply in the country, have been extirpated from
the wild lands near the former places. Blueberry bushes
should be planted extensively along the sides of fences in all
fields which are used for mowing or pasture. Thousands of
miles of stone-wall, in the vicinity of every large town, might

78 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

be bordered with these wild fruits, to supply the birds with a
dessert and divert them from our gardens. Without occupying
any valuable space, these blueberry bushes would feed the birds
and produce tons of berries to employ the diligent hands of
women and children of poor families, who would gather them
for the market. "When such provision is made by our different
legislatures, or by private munificence, the birds will be satisfied
and our gardens will be secure.

There need be no fear that birds will multiply beyond their
means of support, as spontaneously furnished them by nature.
When man makes no efforts to destroy them, birds of every
species will multiply in proportion to their supply of food, on
the one hand, and to their shelter and conveniences for building
their nests and rearing their young, on the other. Blackbirds
diminish in numbers, while robins multiply, as the country
is cleared and cultivated, and the improved tillage causes an
increased supply of their insect food. This is because the
protection which the robin receives is denied to the blackbird.
But if men are disposed to complain of the larger proportion
of robins in their own vicinity, let it be remembered that the
greater amount of land in high cultivation requires a propor-
tionally greater number of these birds to devour the insects
which are engendered by the more extensive cultivation of the
soil ; and if they are kept below this limit, the insects upon
which they feed will have an insufficient check upon their
over-multiplication.

It is necessary, for the interest of agriculture, that birds
should be fully up to their supply of insect food ; but this
cannot be, on account of the numerous ways in which they are
exposed to destruction ; by cats, by birds of prey, by gunners,
and by juvenile nest-hunters. It is the duty of legislators,
therefore, to make laws for their protection ; and to render
these laws effective, public opinion must be enlightened with
respect to the utility of birds ; and the people should be made
to understand that, as soon as the abundance of insects is in-
creased disproportionally to the number of birds that feed upon
them, their crops will suffer in the same proportion. Not an
acre of cultivated land in the whole country should be without
a pair of robins ; and protection should be extended to all
other birds, except the rapacious tribes.

CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES. 79

ON THE CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES.

BY NATHAN PAGE, JR.

The first thing necessary for a novice in the art of cranberry-
growing, if he intends to engage in that business, is to learn
what has ah-eady been done by others. It is quite too expen-
sive for a man of ordinary means to attempt a new business
without first informing himself in regard to it. A wealthy man
can, if he chooses, proceed ignorantly, and bear, without injury,
the ill-success that he is quite likely to meet with. A poor man
most certainly cannot afford such risks. He needs to be reason-
ably sure of success — not a partial, but a paying success. Most
men desire good and profitable results from their labors, what-
ever their necessities may be.

One most excellent way to get information, is to visit the
grounds of other cultivators. To inexperienced persons I
would say : You can learn in six days' time, spent with
successful cranberry-growers of different places, many important
facts that it miglit cost you six years of experimenting to obtain.
You should see the different situations in which cranberries
flourish, and the various soils on which they succeed, that you
may be able to judge intelligently of the value of your own
grounds for cranberry-growing. You should see which, of all
cultivated vines, are the most hardy and prolific. You should
compare the qualities of different varieties, and learn which is
best, and which would be most profitable for growing in the
soil and situation at your command. But you should partic-
ularly observe the various modes of cultivation, and note the
•cost and the comparative success. If you would get the most
valuable information on any branch of agriculture, ask it of him
who has made the study and practice of that his special business.

It is possible to grow cranberries on almost any kind of soil.
Probably there is not a farm under cultivation in all New
England, on which cranberry vines cannot be made to flourish
and to produce more or less fruit. But there are two kinds of
soil on which it will pay to cultivate this valuable fruit. Clean,
moist sand, and wet meadow or bog soils are most suitable. In
Essex County there are many hundreds of acres of wet meadow

80 MxiSSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

lands, that now produce only small crops of poor grass, and
worthless crops of moss and weeds. Such soil is excellent for
cranberries. Indeed, cranberries of many varieties, and of good
quality, grow spontaneously along the borders and elsewhere on
these meadows in all parts of the county. Thus, we have
suitable lands ; we have good vines ; the crop can be profitably
grown ; there is no reason why we should not succeed m this
comparatively new branch of agriculture.

I will note some points that may be of value to beginners.
First :

Select Ground that can he Overflowed. — Tliis is essential to
the best success. On all meadow, bog or peaty soils, the vines
should be covered with water, from twelve to twenty inches
deep in winter. This is especially important where the vines
are kept free from moss, as they should be. A more shallow
depth of water is not so good, for it is liable to become frozen
quite through in extreme cold weather. In that case the ice
might seriously injure the vines. On some peculiar sandy
soils cranberry vines will do very well without winter flooding.
But in our severe climate, they arc in all cases much the better
for such winter protection. There are other benefits — and very
important ones — to be derived from the use of facilities for
overflowing. The prevention of injury by spring frost, is one ;
the destruction of the cranberry worm is another. I may
allude to these in another place. Another point is, to

Make the Ground Clean. — Clear off all bushes and rubbish,
and take off the turf to such depth that sedge grass and weeds
will not spring up from their roots and grow again. The value
of this turf, when piled and rotted, or composted, as a dressing
for uplands, is usually greater than the cost of clearing it off
and hauling. But if it were of no value, its removal is a work
that should be done before planting the vines. Tlie surface of
the o-round must be made smooth, and should be nearly level.
A very slight inclination towards the drains is often useful, but
is not absolutely essential if tlie soil is sufficiently porous. If
the ground is all nearly at one level, the water may be kept at
just the right height to give the needed moisture to the whole
field of vines. Tliis is important, especially in dry seasons.

Draining' is often required to bring meadows into a workable
condition. One leading drain or open ditch, with a free outlet,
is always needed in such lands.

CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES. 81

A few side ditches, leading to the central one, are usually
necessary. Sometimes an outside drain is wanted along the
borders of the meadow, to cut off the flow of water from the
higher lands around. Very cold water should be kept from
the vines in summer and autumn. It is injurious to the vines,
and retards the growth and the ripening of the fruit. If a
dam is built to overflow the ground in winter, the outlet
through it, at the end of the principal drain, should be made
low enough to take off the water to the bottom of that drain,
or to the depth of thirty inches or more from the surface.

Apertures made through the gate at various heights may be
opened or closed so as to completely control the depth, or rather
height, of water in the drains. This ability to regulate the
flow of water, will often make the difference between a large
crop of nice fruit, and a small and every way inferior crop.

Wherever it is possible cover the Ground ivith Sand. — Clean,
coarse sand is best. If the soil is covered only two inches in
depth with sand, if will be of great service ; but three or four
inches deep would be still better. A thick layer of sand will
keep down most kinds of weeds, and prevent grass from
growing among the vines. Some men have made cranberry
culture profitable, where it required the constant labor of one
man three or four months of the warm season to keep half an
acre of vines clear of weeds ; but it is far better to spend a
month or two to prevent weeds from growing. Cranberries
have been sold at such high prices for a few years past that
almost every method of culture has been profitable. Even the
worst modes have paid fair dividends on the cost ; but the best
alone are to be recommended. Skilful culture may yet make
cranberry-growing profitable, even if the fruit should sell for
something less than one dollar per bushel. Where no sand
can be obtained, gravel may be spread on the meadow after the
turf has been removed. The less loam the gravel contains the
better. It should not be spread on in very great quantities, for
it is not so suitable as sand for the vines to grow in. A thin
layer of about an inch is, in some cases, better than more.

The best time to set the Vines is Spring. — Cultivators who

have vines always at hand on their own grounds frequently

plant them out w hen it is most convenient, either in May and

June, or September, October and November. If set in autumn,

11

82 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

which in many cases is most convenient, the earlier it is done
tlie better. Vines that are set in September become well estab-
lished before winter, and will throw out most vigorous runners
the next season. The vines should be selected in autumn,
while the fruit is on them. You may be certain, then, of
getting only fruitful vines. It is said that vines taken up in
autumn, and kept in a cellar till spring, have been planted with
good success. Cool and moist is the rule for keeping them.
But it is much less trouble, usually, and a much better way, to
take up the vines near the time of setting.

Planting the Vines. — When plenty of vines are to be had near
by, and growing in a clean soil, masses of roots and earth, six
inches in width and one foot in length, may be taken up and set
in rows two feet apart and at eighteen inches distance, from sod
to sod, in the rows. Some prefer setting narrow strips, or cut-
tings of cranberry sod, quite close together, and in rows about
fifteen inches apart. Sods containing grass, weeds or moss
should never be planted on grounds that are to be cultivated.
The vine roots in such sods must be separated, and, after the
grass is removed, they may be set from six to ten inches apart,
along drills eighteen inches apart. This is the most common
mode, and the most suitable under various circumstances. Slips
of vines or cuttings, three or four inches long, are sometimes
used instead of rooted plants. These may be set closely in
drills, and sloping in one direction along the row, the lower
ends being covered about an inch deep, or more if the soil is not
quite moist. It is said that cuttings, five or six inches long, if
bent downwards in the middle and covered an inch deep with
soil, will root quickly and send shoots from each end. The
method is worth trying. Cranberry vines take root so readily
in favorable soils, that, if sown broadcast, and tramped or har-
rowed in, they will grow pretty well. But such methods cannot
be recommended where the best culture is to be given.

Hoeing' and Weeding must be attended to, if the ground
requires it. These are difficult operations after the runners
spread over the surface and take root. They should be dis-
turbed as little as may be consistent with clean culture. A
man who has weeded cranberry vines two or three seasons, will
understand the importance of taking off a few inclies of the top

CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES. 88

soil of meadows, and covering the surface with sand before
setting cuttings or plants.

Gathering the Fruit. — Cranberries should be well ripened
before being gathered. If picked before they are fully grown,
they are bitter. The same fruit that is inferior, bitter, and
nearly worthless when taken off too green, would be excellent
if fully ripened on the vines. Unripe berries, if spread in thin
layers on shelves, or on the floor of a room, become well colored
by exposure to light ; but the ripe appearance does not make
the quality good.

Severe frost injures unripe cranberries. This causes some to
gather them too early. Perhaps the fruit might be protected,
if necessary, a few frosty nights in September, in the same way
that the blossoms are, sometimes, in spring. Three or four
small piles of turf, or brushwood and peat, placed around the
border of the meadow, are set on fire in the evening when there
is danger of frost. These fires are left to smoulder all night.
The smoke settling over the surface of the meadow, is sufficient
protection in quite cold nights. Three or four fires, if properly
arranged, will often protect two acres of vines or more.

The cranberry-rake is much used in gathering the fruit on
wild meadows. On cultivated grounds, hand-picking is much
the best. The fruit so picked is all clean and nice, and unmixed
with bruised or worthless berries. The rake injures thickly
grown vines exceedingly. It is necessary, after using the rake,
to go over the ground again and pick by hand considerable
fruit that it leaves among the vines. To pick wholly by hand,
costs about fifty cents per bushel, usually, but sometimes a little
less. The nicer the fruit is grown, the more important it is to
pick by hand.

Keeping. — Cranberries, if well ripened and properly gathered
and assorted, can be kept as easily as winter apples, and for a
much longer time. Some persons put them in barrels, soon
after being gathered, and place them in a cool and airy situation
at the north side of a building. They are left piled up there
till quite late in the season ; but when in danger of freezing,
they are taken within doors. During winter they are kept in
the cellar.

Small quantities may be spread on shelves, or floors of airy
unused rooms. They may thus be kept nice till time to put

84 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

them in barrels and remove to the cellar. Cranberries are often
put into clean kegs or casks, which are afterwards filled -with
pure cold water, and made tight, and are then sent safely
through all climates, to the most distant markets. When the
fruit is raked from the vines, it may be kept for a time in the
chaff, and be winnowed and sorted late in the season, or at the
time of disposal.

Selling- the Fruit. — This is an important part of the business.
Very often, the whole difference between very great and very
small profits, is the result of greater or less skill in selling. It
is useless, perhaps, to undertake to give directions in this, for
success consists principally in mere tact and ability to judge of
the proper time, place and mode of disposal. I will venture a
few hints, however.

A man who grows nice cranberries and ripens them well, and
who invariably puts them up well assorted and clean, can easily
obtain from fifty cents to one dollar and twenty-five cents per
bushel more than one who is careless on these points. So, too,
a man who informs himself which are the best markets, will find
the best customers there, and so obtain better prices.

Many cranberry growers are at present rather too much at
the mercy of shrewd cranberry dealers in Boston and elsewhere.
These buy up the crop in the fall, at their own prices, and ship
them off to various ports later in the season, making enormous
profits by the transfer. This may be borne, for in time more of
the fruit will be grown, and prices will become more equal as
the markets will be more numerous, and much more generally
known. But there is one imposition that should never be sub-
mitted to. It is that of selling to dealers, as some of them
demand, five pecks for a bushel. Four pecks of cranberries,
level measure, are one bushel. It is by this measure that the
dealers themselves sell them, except when charging an extra
price for heaped measure — which is not the legal one.

Cranberry growers would do well to find a market for a large
portion of their fruit in Europe. If they would take the trouble
to find customers there, and would put up the fruit properly,
and ship it directly to them soon after being gathered, it would
be far more ])rofitable than to let it pass through a dozen hands,
as some of it does now. A more extensive introduction of our

CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES. 85

unrivalled American cranberry into France, England, and other
countries, would soon give a great and unfailing demand.

The English already pay high prices for a scant supply of this
luxury. Only a few can use them freely yet ; but with a better
supply of the finest berries, at reasonable prices, they would be
more extensively called for each coming year. One cranberry
grower in the north part of our county told me lately that he
would pay half the expense of sending an agent to England, to
obtain information in regard to their markets, and make arrange-
ments for the disposal of cranberry crops to be sent directly from
the producers.

Time for Overjioiving; the Grounds. — This is usually done
soon after cleaning the vines, or about the last of October in this
climate. The water should remain on all winter, of sufficient
depth to prevent its becoming frozen through to the ground. It
should be drawn off, just down to the tops of the vines, early in
May, or as soon as the weather has become mild. The vines
will then receive some benefit of sunlight and warmth, and the
water will still prevent injury by frost. The crop is often
greatly damaged, and occasionally almost wholly cut off by late
spring frosts, where water is not kept among the vines to protect
them, and prevent them from blossoming too early. In June,
after all danger of frost is past, the water must be drawn off
entirely. If the water is not too cold, it will be of great benefit
to raise it, in the dry season, so as to give moisture to the roots
of the vines.

Overflowing in winter prevents, in a great degree, the attacks
of the cranberry worm — that pest which sometimes destroys a
large portion of the fruit. Mr. A. H. Leland, of Sherburne,
stated, in 1853, that he completely exterminated the vine
worm, the year previous, on vines that had been " yearly eaten
up by them since 1840," by keeping the vines under water
from " spring till the first of July."

It may be well for me to add some notes on the varieties of
cranberries which are most extensively grown. They are all of
one species — the American, or Oxjjcoccus Macrocarpus. Only
one other species is known, I think, in this country ; and that
is a small upland cranberry, the Oxycocciis Palustris. It is
said to be of good quality, and it grows only on dry, poor soil.
It has not yet been tested by cultivation, but it is not probable

86 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

that its culture can be made profitable here. Some persons
may, however, be disposed to try it, as the upland culture of
our American species is nearly played out.

There is a shrub (species of Viburnuni) that bears pretty
clusters of small, bright red berries, having a pleasant acid
flavor, or taste, and which are called " bush " or " tree cran-
berries,"— but they are no more cranberries than choke-cherries
are gooseberries.

Of the varieties cultivated here, the large dark crimson
berry is considered one of the best — perhaps it is the very
best. Its quality is excellent. It ripens early. In color it is
much richer than others, and its very handsome form and
appearance adds something to its market value. Its size is
large when well grown. It can easily be made to attain the
size of three-fourths of an inch in diameter each way. Both on
clean meadow and on moss, I have seen it this season, averag-
ing about that size, with many berries considerably larger.

The largest cranberries that have been grown in quantity, in
Essex County, are of an egg-shaped variety. I do not know
whether or not it belongs to the Bugle class. It certainly does
not resemble either the Cherry or the Bell class, in form. Mr.
Hildreth, of Manchester, cultivates this sort with most enviable
success. A large portion of his berries, of this kind, grown
this season, measured three-fourths of an iiich in diameter one
way, by one inch the other. Some were larger. The fruit is
much lighter in color than the Cherry variety, and, I think, a
little later in ripening. It takes a lively hue late in the season,
but does not become dark crimson, like the Cherry. It is of
excellent quality, and commands a high price in market. Tlie
vines of both these varieties are very prolific.

The Bell cranberry is a good variety, or rather, class, and
with the best culture the berries grow quite large. I have seen
single specimens of this kind measuring seven-eighths of an
inch broad near the blossom end, the diameter tlie otlier way
being a trifle less. It is a valuable and profitable kind, and is
extensively cultivated in Barnstable County, on the Cape. I
speak of the Bell cranberry as a class, because there are many
varieties that, merely from their form, pass under that name.
They have properties well nigh as distinct from each other as
so many seedling apples. The same is true of the Cherry and

CULTIVATION OF CRANBERRIES. 87

the Bugle classes. With our little knowledge of cranberries,
we speak of them, usually, as we sometimes do of strawberries,
as Scarlets, Woods, or Tines. But these are only general
terms, and we have learned that every Scarlet is not an Early
Virginia, nor every Pine a Moyamensing. We shall yet learn
as much of cranberries.

Improved Varieties. — Some effort is usually made, in plant-
ing vines, to select the best; but I have never seen, in our
country, a large bed entirely of one, or two, or even three
varieties. If every person engaged in cranberry growing would
select, each year, a single plant of the most prolific kind, or one
bearing the finest berries, and set it apart from others, propa-
gating from runners only, the best sorts might be tested
thoroughly. Then let the various growers compare notes
yearly, give the very best sorts each a name and a character to
start in the world with, and very great improvement must be
the result.

But tliere is still another field of operations ; — it is to raise
new varieties from seed. It is not necessary to say much on
this point. It is something that can be done, and will be done,
until substantial advance is made in this as in other fruit and
other agricultural productions. But pray, Messrs. Cultivators,
ptjry don't impose upon each other, and the more ignorant
public, by sending out inferior varieties as worthy of attention.
Don't propagate shams. Don't give fictitious characters to any
sort, whether good, bad, or indifferent. One who don't fear
the outward disgrace of deceiving others and selling humbugs,
should still dread to feel the littleness of a mean soul within.
Few farmers may need such w^ords — I hope none. Look to
the seedlings, then, for time and attention and skill shall make
improvements in these, as they have in currants and goose-
berries, blackberries, raspberries and strawberries. Room,
room, then, for extra nice varieties of cranberries — the Brighton
Pines, Hovey's Seedlings, and Scarlet Magnates of the swamps
and meadows.

The marshes and bogs of Essex may yet glow with scarlet
and crimson fruit far superior to any that can be gathered from
them to-day.

But one thing more I desire to allude to. It is, the impor-
tance of adding one more to the staple productions of our

88 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

county. Some branches of agricultural industry have become
less profitable than they were years ago. In grain growing,
we cannot compete with the West, even in our own home
markets. Neither can we in stock raising. Even dairying is
mostly out of our hands. In regard to wool growing, I regret
to say that we keep many more dogs than sheep. Even
growing vegetables for our city markets is now only profitable
to those who live near them. Several other branches of the
business are too much crowded. Some labor, then, can well
be spared for the production of another crop. To farmers in
some situations, cranberry growing would be a far more profit-
able business than any other they could follow. But if it were
only equally profitable, it must still be advantageous to pursue
it.

The more varied our branches of successful industry may be,
the more self-reliant we are, and the more independent of fluc-
tuations in business, and even of national changes, we become.
The theme is exhaustless, and I will not pursue it farther.
Yankee shrewdness and enterprise now buys cargoes of foreign
productions with the mere frozen water of our frigid winter
clime — Yankee intelligence and industry may yet sell fine
summer productions of marsh water and sunlight for many
pounds of foreign silver and gold. May the pioneers reap
their proper reward.

PLYMOUTH.

PRESERVATION OF APPLES AND OTHER WINTER

FRUITS.

BY AUSTIN J. ROBERTS.

This subject demands much attention, and, properly speaking,
it is one of the chief branches of fruit culture. It is impor-
tant that every one who cultivates or buys fruit should know all
the minutiae of the gathering, ripening, and preservatory pro-
cesses, each one of which is an art in itself. Nature gives us
the choicest fruits, which man too often destroys, for the want
of knowing how to take care of them. I have heard it remarked

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 89

by many persons, that their fruit, particularly apples, did not
keep well, and the fact was attributed wholly to the increase of
insects, and to other causes, rather than to tlie generally slovenly,
careless manner in which fruit is often taken care of. Even the
time when apples, pears, and fruit in general is gathered will
be found, not only to have something to do with their keeping
properties, but also with the flavor and quality.

All winter varieties should be allowed to remain on the trees
as late as safety will permit ; by thus doing they lose much of
the water contained in tlieir juices, which become more sugary,
high flavored, and better elaborated.

This treatment refers only to winter fruit. The method of
management with summer apples, as well as summer and fall
varieties of pears, is wholly different. They should be picked
early, as soon as the skin begins to change color ; otherwise
they become mealy and almost worthless. Some pears are of
third quality when allowed to remain and soften on the tree,
but become rich, melting, and delicious if house-ripened.

The manner of gathering should always be by the hand. It
is of great consequence in gathering all kinds of fruit to avoid
bruising. The branch to be gathered from should be taken by
one hand, and the fruit carefully picked off by the other, with
the stems attached. Fruit never keeps as well without the stem.
It is always well to have a doubled piece of paper, or a little
moss at the bottom of the baskets used for picking, to prevent
chafing, and a bent piece of iron or strong wire, in form of an
S, is convenient to hang the basket to the rounds of the ladder,
or the branches of the tree.

Peaches and other soft fruits should be pressed as lightly as
possible in gathering, for any tiling like a squeeze is certainly
followed by decay, in the form of a brown spot ; and thus it is
that peaches brought into our markets decay so soon. Many
careful cultivators, when more than one layer of fruit is laid
in the same basket, put a little cut hay to separate them ; for it
is very difficult to place one layer immediately upon another,
and especially if the fruit is approaching maturity, without
more or less bruising. One point more, that I would lay much
stress upon, that is, all fruit, for long keeping, should only be
gathered in dry weather and on a bright sunny day.

12

90 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The mode of gathering and packing apples for exportation,
as practiced by R. L. Pell, of Ulster County, N. Y., who obtains
nine or ten dollars per barrel for his Newtown Pippins in the
English markets, will serve as a model for the care taken to
prevent bruising : " In autumn, when the apple harvest com-
mences, men are employed, each with a hand basket, and hook
to attach the basket to the limb of a tree, and a step ladder.
The apples are picked one at a time, and laid into the basket.
When the basket is full, the man comes down from the tree and
takes two apples at a time, and places them in two-bushel
baskets. When there are enough large baskets filled for a load,
they are lifted by two men on a sled and drawn by oxen to a
large building, where they are taken from the sled and put on
the floor, two apples at a time. They are piled up eighteen or
twenty inches high, where they remain three weeks. At the
end of this time, the apples having become dry, they are taken
two at a time and packed in new barrels, the size and kind of
those used for flour. The barrels being headed up, are lifted
on a sled and drawn to the North River ; they are then carried
by men on board a steam-boat, and taken to New York. When
shipped on board a vessel for London, the barrels are hoisted
one at a time from the steam-boat, and when lowered on board
the vessel are caught on a man's shoulder, and then taken by
two men and placed in the coolest part of the vessel. Upon
the arrival of the vessel in London, the barrels are hoisted from
the vessel and lowered on a hand-barrow, and then carried to the
warehouse, in the same manner that we carry a looking-glass."
It is seen by the foregoing precautions that the apples are
never shaken^ jolted^ or jarred, and they arrive in London in
far better order than apples usually taken to our city markets.
Mr. Pell further states, " that apples for shipping have some-
times been packed in dry sand, charcoal dust — and at other
times, they have been separately wrapped up in paper, in the
same manner as oranges are shipped ; but they can be shipped
with as much success without any thing with them, if only
managed with care in other respects."

Mr. Pell's success in the culture of his immense orchards —
some twenty-five thousand apple trees — is well known, and the
method and skill with which lie packs his apples are so well

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 91

appreciated in the London market, that his crop is anticipated
before hand, at the highest rates.

The apple worm, or coddling-moth, (Carpocapas pomanella)
which is so prevalent in Massachusetts, and especially destruc-
tive to fruit in the light soils of Plymouth County, is what the
orchardist must contend against in order to have his winter
fruit sound and in good condition for keeping. The damage
done to apples every year by the apple worm is immense.
Many of the apples after they are punctured, fall from the
trees before they are half grown, and those that remain on till
fall, on account of the punctures of the worms, will not keep
more than three weeks after they are picked.

In about the latter part of June, or during the first or second
weeks of July, the millers or moths fly about the apple trees at
night, and deposit their eggs in the calyx or eye of the apple,
and sometimes in summer pears, preferring early to late fruits ;
the eggs hatch in a few days, and the young worms burrow in
the apple, making their way gradually to the core. In three
or four weeks they come to their full size, and feast on the
heart of the apple until it falls, when they soon after make
their escape at the opening that has been used for the ejection
of their excrements. On leaving the apples, the worms crawl
into the chinks in the bark of trees or other sheltered places,
which they hollow out with their teeth. Each here spins a
cocoon, or silk-like case, like white tissue paper. When the
weather is favorable, these worms change to chrysalids, and,
turning into moths, come forth the same season a new and
second generation of destructive agents. I would suggest a
remedy which I think will perhaps be as efficacious as any that
can be adopted, and which I shall use more extensively in my
apple orchards in future. In the first place, I prepare a
poisonous mixture of the following. One pint of vinegar, one
gill of honey, and one ounce of cobalt. Cheap, deep tin plates
— rather deeper than common soup plates, but of the same size
— are used to put the composition in. These holes, equidistant
from each other, are punctured on the outer edges of the plates
through which are passed strings of stout rope yarn, each about
eighteen inches long ; these are brought together at the end
and fastened to one of the lower branches of the apple tree,
thus leaving the plate containing the sweet, poisonous prepara-

92 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tion pendent to the branch ; taking care that the limb be a
stout one, so that there should be as little sway by the wind as
possible. There should be a dish to at least every sixth apple
tree in the orchard, and one to every other tree would be better.
The depth of the mixture should not exceed half an inch,
and to be replenished as often as is needed during the moth
season.

By this method, I am confident that thousands upon
thousands of the apple moth and the apple and peach borer
flies may be destroyed. Honey and vinegar is very attractive
to the miller family, and any moth tasting it will be at once
killed by the cobalt before it can deposit its eggs.

The French take more pains in the preservation of their
winter fruit than either the English or Americans ; they are
nicer in the various details of management than we are ; they
export more pears of the winter sorts than any other people.
For some years past, some of the chief fruit dealers in New
York have imported their best winter pears from France ; they
arrive usually in the finest condition, being packed in small
boxes, which are easily handled ; the bottoms and sides are
covered with very dry moss or soft paper, well calculated to
absorb moisture. Each fruit is then wrapped in dry, soft
paper, and laid in layers, the largest and least mature at the
bottom, and all the interstices filled with dry moss. These
boxes are so tightly packed that not the slightest movement can
take place. The dry moss separates each fruit, absorbing any
moisture ; and if one decays it does not affect others.

One of the first requisites in keeping fruit in good condition
is an even temperature above frost ; this seems to be indispen-
sable. To this end a fruit room should be set apart exclusively
for the preservation of fruit ; and, besides an immunity from
moisture or dampness, there should be exclusion from light.

A good dry, cool cellar is as good a place for keeping fruit in
as can be provided; but it should be remembered that no
winter fruit should be stored away in the cellar, as long as it
can be kept elsewhere without danger of frost. A dry out-
house is a very suitable place. Immediately after gathering
apples, they ought to be placed in such a building, in heaps
two or three feet deep, to undergo the sweating process.

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 93

When the time comes to put them in the cellar, they should
be well dried on a sunny day, and nice clean barrels having
been prepared, by boring a number of half inch holes through
the bottom, sides, and the head of the barrel, for ventilation,
the apples then, two by two, should be carefully laid in, and
the barrels filled up till the top will just go on.

One of the most successful raisers of fine fruit informs me of
his process of preserving his apples. In tlie first place, his
cellar is prepared as follows : A stone wall partition is made
near one side. The smaller division of the cellar thus made is
used for storing potatoes and other vegetables requiring a
warmer situation. The other part is called the " apple cellar."
This is covered on the bottom with a hard, dry cement; and
several swinging windows are provided, to admit air and give
free ventilation. All around the walls, shelves or shallow bins
are erected, one above another, and several tiers stand in the
middle of the room. The wall shelves are three feet wide, so
that one can stand in front of them and reach to the wall.
The middle shelves are double this width, as they can be
approached on both sides. Upon these shelves the apples are
spread out as thinly as the extent of shelf-room and the amount
of apples will allow. Usually the apples lie only two or
three deep. The bottoms of the shelves are made of narrow
boards, with half an inch space between them to allow a free
circulation of air. Great care is taken to regulate the opening
of the windows — which are of double glass — so as to keep the
air very nearly down to the freezing point. Usually one or
more of the Avindows are left open, or partly open, night and
day. In the coldest weather they are closed at night and
opened every fair day.

In this way carefully gathered apples are kept all winter with
very little loss. The shelf arrangement renders it a very easy
matter to look over the fruit, which is done every few weeks,
when, any of the fruit commencing to decay, it is at once
removed from the room.

Such a cellar costs but little, and, as in the instance alluded
to, it pays well. Where a family has but few apples, and
wishes to preserve a barrel or two in complete order, the best
way is to procure a sufficiency of sand, and dry it well by
setting it in kettles on a hot stove, or in a cauldron, till all the

91 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

moisture is driven out, then let it get entirely cold, and use it
to pack down the apples in the barrel. The sand absorbs all
excess of moisture, and preserves an uniform temperature. By
this method all kinds of apples will keep several months beyond
the usual time. Charcoal, ground fine, may be used ; but sand
is by far the best and neatest. If used without thorough
drying, it will be injurious, as, instead of absorbing moisture
from the fruit, it will impart dampness, and decay will at once
commence. Winter pears may be preserved in the same way,
though I prefer a bureau or chest of drawers, set apart for the
purpose and kept in a cool room. I cover the bottoms of the
drawers with thick layers of cotton batting, on which I place
the pears. Between each layer of pears a layer of cotton is
used, though seldom more than two layers of pears are put in
each drawer. Over them all, a double covering of batting is
placed. Pears are preserved by this means better than by
any other that I know of. The cotton preserves a medium
temperature ; and, though kept in a cool room, they never
freeze.

A week or ten days before the pears are to be used I remove
them to a warmer temperature ; at about sixty or seventy
degrees. Some varieties, as the Vicar of Winkfield, require
much attention; others require but slight attention. The
transfer from a cool to a warm temperature is of great import-
ance to pears, and will convert tough, hard specimens into
those which are delicious and melting.

I have known the Beurr^ Diel exhibited January 7th, at the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society's rooms, in an excellent
state of preservation, managed in much the same way as
above described.

The science of ripening and preserving fruits is in its infancy,
and horticultural and agricultural societies would do a great
public service by offering liberal premiums that will incite to
experiment on the subject.

FARMS. 95

FA EMS.

PLYMOUTH.

Report of the Committee.

The committee are not fortunate enough to be able to con-
gratulate the society on an increased interest in the competition
for the very liberal premium offered for the best improved farm
in the county. No others have been added to the two already
entered for that purpose.

There seems to be a general impression among the farmers of
the county, that to keep an exact account of the receipts and
expenditures on their farms, for a whole year, is a labor entirely
too onerous to be performed. Now, if this account were pro-
ductive of no other good than the gratification of those who have
curiosity enough to read agricultural reports, this unwillingness
would not be surprising; but when* it is considered that no
complicated business can be successful without a minute record
of transactions, it is no wonder that accurate business men are
astonished at the negligence of farmers. Through the length
and breadth of our county, with the exception of a few men
who are competing for the society's premiums for special crops,
no cultivators of the soil are to found who know what it costs
them to produce a bushel of corn, to raise a calf, or to make a
ton of hay. It seems to be sufficient for them, that, after thirty
or forty years of hard labor, they know they have lived ; but
whether this has been accomplished by farming, teaming, or
chopping wood, is a matter of indifference. Such a practice in
commerce would be its ruin ; if manufacturers imitated farmers
in this respect, all mechanical employment would cease ; farming
alone can survive under such treatment.

If every farmer opened an account with every crop he planted,
in a very short time he could determine with certainty which
crops he could produce at a profit. It is not enough, to grow a
hundred bushels of corn to the acre, if this corn costs two dollars
a bushel to produce it. So large a crop is not wholly dependent
on the extent of the farmer's wit, but rather of his purse ; if he

96 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

can afford to apply manure enough, and can hoe his corn every
morning, his hundred bushels are sure. This, however, does
not teach his poor neighbor how he may make a living by raising
corn ; on the contrary, it]is only a gratification to private vanity,
and of no public use. It is still a matter of doubt with many,
whether it is profitable, as a general rule, to raise more than
forty bushels of corn to the acre ; but this doubt would not have
existed, if a large number of farmers, in various parts of the
county, had been in the habit of keeping accurate accounts of
their business. So important does this matter of accounts
appear, that the committee are of opinion that due attention to
this subject would necessarily bring all other practicable
improvements in its train.

The most important result of the competition for the premium
on farms, is the duty which it imposes of making exact returns
of the products of the year, with their cost and market value ;
with the expenses, however, of the whole farm only, and not
those of each crop. Yet, even this general attention to the
accounts of the farm will induce habits of thought that will
render the farmer dissatisfied until he knows the exact cost of
every thing he produces ; and knowing this, he will reject that
which is unprofitable, and devote himself exclusively to that
department of agriculture which exactly suits him and his
circumstances.

The two farms offered for premium have been visited twice
by the committee during the present season, and they are happy
to be able to say that all the progress is being made that could
reasonably be expected under the circumstances. They are
well aware that no very remarkable results are to be looked for.
The farms are just such as are to be seen all over our county ;
the improvements are just such as are within the means of
almost all. On this account, perhaps, are these two cases of
competition the more interesting, as other farmers will not be
discouraged from making similar efforts.

Charles Burton, Chairman.

Statement of Ephraim B. T/iompson.
The present year I have cultivated as follows : —
One and one-half acres rye, eighteen bushels, one and one-half
tons straw.

FARMS. 97

Two acres oats, twenty bushels, injured by the drought.

Three acres of corn, on a light and gravelly soil, were planted
to corn six years ago. Since then it has been used for a sheep
pasture. For thirty years past, when planted with corn, the
manure has been applied in the hill. From the whole lot, on
an average, when planted, it has produced fifty-five or sixty
bushels.

The first of May last ploughed in twenty loads per acre of
coarse manure, from the barn cellar, seven inches deep. Planted
16th and 17th of May, rows three feet each way, with a table-
fspoonful of Coe's super-phosphate of lime in the hill, covering
the lime about half an inch with earth, before dropping the corn.
Many of the hills showed that the corn was too directly in con-
tact with the lime, from the sickly, yellow appearance, for some
time after it came up. In order to test the value of the lime,
as a fertilizer, on a given number of rows, I planted without
any thing in the hill, and on the same number of rows I used
poudrette (the same amount, in value, of the lime) half a gill
per hill, dropping the corn directly upon it. Through the
season the corn had a very healthy appearance, was more for-
ward than any in the field. When harvested the result was,
that where the poudrette was used, I had at the rate of sixty
bushels per acre ; the super-phosphate, fifty-two bushels ; where
no manure was put in the hill, fifty-two bushels.

I am of the opinion that pasturing sheep on the lot added
greatly to the crop of corn.

About the 20th of September cut the entire lot of corn, and
stooked it. The third week in October harvested, in good order,
one hundred and twenty-five bushels on the whole three acres.

Potatoes, half an acre, had sixty bushels. Of five varieties
planted, we had the greatest yield from the Davis seedlings.
■ Ruta-bagas, sixty rods, planted June 20tli. It was so very
dry, immediately after planting, the seed did not all come up.
Nearly one-fourth of the lot was vacant. Harvested two hun-
dred bushels ; some were very large, weighing nearly twenty
pounds.

I also planted twenty-four rods to carrots ; for some cause
but a very few came up. At the last hoeing sowed the purple-
top English turnip. From the lot gathered fifteen bushels
carrots, and seventy-five bushels turnips.

13

98

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

English hay, ten acres mowed, had eighteen tons.

Fresh hay, fourteen acres mowed, had ten tons.

By referring to last year's report you will perceive that I have
doubled my crop of English hay the present year, which shows
the superiority of low ground, when it is properly subdued and
drained, over high land, for raising grass.

For three years past I have used Ketchum's one-horse mower,
and it has worked satisfactorily.

In the month of September I carted two hundred and ten
loads of gravel and sand on an acre of low swampy ground.
The stumps had previously been removed, the surface was ^
levelled, the sand evenly spread, and seeded to Timothy and
red top.

The manure, collected in the barn cellar since planting, has
been carted out and mixed with equal parts of soil and loam,
to remain in a heap, to be applied as a top-dressing for grass
another season.

The present autumn I have set three-eighths of an acre
with cranberry vines, in rows, twenty-four by sixteen inches,
six or eight vines to a hill. The land was first levelled and
covered with sand. The lot is on a small spring brook, with a
dam, so that the vines will be flowed in the winter, and at any
time when there is danger of a frost.

PKODUCTS OF THE FARM.

125 bushels corn.

18

rye, .

20

oats, .

60

potatoes,

4

beans.

275

turnips.

15

carrots,

150

apples.

18 tons English hay,
10 " fresh hay.

Beef and pork, fatted,

170 lbs. butter,

230 " cheese, .

Calves sold, .

Lambs and wool, .

$100 00
18 00

6 00
20 00

8 00
70 00

6 00
Co 00
288 00
90 00
50 00
34 00
24 00
18 00
70 00

$862 00

FARMS.

99

EXPENSES.

Interest improved land, including bu

and stock, ....
Taxes on the above,

Labor,

Two tons salt hay, .

Manure applied,

Grass seed, ....

Keeping cows and sheep one year,

Halifax, November 14, 1861.

Idinj

1178 00

20 00

208 00

20 00

100 00

5 00

160 00

1691 00
$171 00

Statement of Orlando H. Shaw.

In the management of my farm, during the year that is
to-day brought to a close, my object has been, not to get the
greatest yield that could possibly be obtained, but so to increase
its fertility, and otherwise improve it, as to render it capable of
yielding paying crops in the future.

The labor on the farm, this year, has been performed by
myself, and a boy fourteen years of age, our whole time being
devoted to it. The team work needed, such as ploughing and
drawing stone, that could not be done with a horse, and a few
days' assistance blasting rocks, was obtained by " changing
works."

The products of the farm, for the year, are as follows : —

One acre, planted to corn ; three-fourths of it was on the
" lot " from which I have been removing rocks for the last
two years, and was, last year, planted to corn, in drills, for
" soiling." On this lot, (it having previously been ploughed,)
I spread sixty horse-wagon loads of manure from the barn
cellar, (a compost of horse, hogs, and cow manure, with muck,)
and ploughed it in, five inches deep. Furrowed it for planting,
three and one-half by three feet apart, and put ten loads of the
same kind of manure in the hills.

On the 13th day of May it was planted with a " small, short-
eared, eight-rowed, yellow variety," (a kind much liked by
farmers in this vicinity, who are satisfied with from twenty to
thirty bushels to the acre,) and came up remarkably well. I

100 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

didiiot find, at "weeding," one liill with less than two blades
in it, while many of ray neighbors were obliged to replant large
portions of theirs.

The day before " weeding " I scattered a handful of un-
leached ashes around each hill, and at the second hoeing gave
it another dressing of ashes. It was hoed three times, the
stalks cut in September, as is our custom, and the corn har-
vested on the 10th of October. The yield was sixty-one bushel-
baskets full of good sound corn, and four of " pig-corn." I
estimate two bushels of ears as equal to one of shelled corn,
which, counting the " pig corn," makes thirty-two and one-half
bushels of corn on three-quarters of an acre.

The other quarter of an acre was planted on the lightest
laud I have. It was in potatoes last year, and yielded hardly
enough for seed.

On this lot I spread fifteen loads of manure, and ploughed
in as shallow as possible. Furrowed it three and one-half by
four feet ; put five loads of manure in the hill, and planted, on
the 20th of May, with the " twelve-rowed New Hampshire
yellow," from seed raised by Hon. Simon Brown, of Concord.

This piece also received two dressings of ashes, was hoed
three times, and harvested on the 2d day of October. The yield
was twenty-one baskets of sound corn, and one and one-half of
" pig corn." This was, you perceive, planted seven days later,
on poorer laud, if such a thing were possible ; harvested eight
days earlier, and was more fully ripe ivhen harvested than the
otlicr.

!My preference, noio, is for the " New Hampshire twelve-
rowed yellow," believing that, with it, we may, almost to a
certainty, escape the " frosts" at either end of the season.

On one-fourth of an acre of high light pasture land, with
ten loads of manure spread and " harrowed in," with plaster
and ashes in the hill, I raised twenty-eight bushels of potatoes.

On a piece of land, containing one hundred and fifty-two
rods, that had been in corn two years, I sowed, on the 25th of
May, two bushels of barley. One corner of the field (about
fifteen rods) was so wet that the seed did not come up. It
was cut the first week in August, yielding twenty-one bushels
of grain, and, by estimate, one-half ton of straw.

FARMS. 101

On three and one-half acres of land, the same in grass last
year, I have cut, by estimate, five and one-half tons of English
hay. The yield of the same land last year, was estimated to be
two tons. I can attribute the increase to no other cause than
manure, most of the land having received a " top-dressing "
last April.

I shall, this fall, haul out and spread all the manure now in
my cellar, believing it to be the most profitable manner in
which it can be applied.

The first week in August I ploughed in the barley stubble,
and turned under the sward in the same field, and laid it
down to grass, sowing Timothy and fine top. The seed took
remarkably well, and, as the season has been favorable, it now
presents a fine appearance, and bids fair to yield a good crop
next year. Being hurried with my work at the time of sowing
the seed, it was laid down without manure ; but as soon as
the ground freezes, so that the team will not " cut up " the
land, I shall give it " a top-dressing."

Our time, not occupied with the care and attention of crops
and stock, has been devoted to improving and repairing build-
ings, walls, fences, &c., or, rather, in advancing improvements
already began.

The alterations in and about the barn and outbuildings, in
order to increase facilities for compounding and composting, —
the removal of division walls that seemed not only entirely
useless, but occupied much space with their wide foundations
and unsightly " hedgerows," — clearing land from rocks and
stones, by sinking and blasting, that had obstructed the free
use of plough and scythe, so long as ploughs and scythes have
been in use, — planting apple and pear trees, strawberry and
grape vines, hoping, in due season, to reap the fruits thereof, —
moving bushes, and otherwise clearing up pastures, that cattle
might be enabled, with less travel and fatigue, to obtain their
scanty subsistence, — gravelling and preparing for the reception
of seed half an acre of worthless " bog," — these, and works of
like character, have kept us steadily employed throughout
the season, early and late. Whether our time has been
"judiciously" employed, and our efforts well directed, remains
for you to decide. My receipts and expenses for the year
ending November 15, 1861, are as follows : —

102

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

RECEIPTS.

Account of stock on hand, November 15, 1861
One horse, ......

Two cows, ......

One hog, ......

Five tons English hay, ....

Sixty bushels corn, .....

Eighteen bushels barley, ....

Straw and corn-fodder, ....

Received for beef, calves, pork, pigs, and butter

EXPENDITURES.

Account of stock on hand, November, 1860 :

Horse, cows, and hogs, .... ^169 00

Hay, fodder, and grain, . . . . 70 00

Paid for hay and grain, . . . . 86 00

for blacksmith's and mason's work, . 11 00

$50 00

50 00

20 50

80 00

. 48 00

. 14 40

15 00

>

141 33

^19 23

NoKTH MiDDLEBORo', November 15, 18G1.

336 00

$83 ^3

Suppfement to Report on Farms.
Of all the professions by which men earn a livelihood, that of
tilling the soil, under favorable circumstances, seems to offer
most opportunities for various knowledge of nature, and for a
sound development of intellect and heart. The farmer con-
stantly lives in the presence of that beneficent power which,
silently and unseen, works all the wonders of creation and
change, ever retiring before the steps of the advancing observer,
and luring him on to greater depths and profounder mysteries.
He goes to his work at dawn, and witnesses the wakening of all
life, feels its intensity during the day, and at night sees it sink
calmly to repose. He is called upon oftener than other men to
observe the growth of tree and flower. For the results of his
labor, he is dependent upon the influence of sunshine, dew,
rain, and storm ; hence he nmst be an intent observer of every
change. Apart from the excitement of crowds, his life may
seem monotonous ; truly so it cannot be, for he is always sur-
rounded by the activities of nature, the best stimulant of thought

FARMS. 103

and genial companionship. From the simplicity of his inter-
course, his manners are simple. As his own head and hands
supply nearly all his wants, he is unostentatiously self-reliant.
A consciousness of his independence and of the important
functions which he performs in society makes him a man of
plain dignity. Tliese are the characteristics of a true New
England farmer, who, having commenced life with that intel-
ligence which our public schools can give, has remained true to
his profession.

There is a very frequent complaint among farmers, that their
sons get dissatisfied with their business, and leave it as soon as
possible, deserting the certain independence of farming for the
lotteries of trade. In my journeys through our county, and
visits to various farms, I have often thought that this tendency
might be accounted for, in part, without supposing it was due
mainly to the unattractiveness of agricultural labor ; it may be
due to the unattractiveness of home. Attachment to ones*
birthplace is always strong, and the force of the attachment is
in proportion to the value of that birthplace as a home. The
most important requisites of a perfect home are an intelligent
man and a refined woman to preside over it ; these being
wanting the thing is impossible ; being present, all else follows
as a matter of course. Now the instinct of a New England
boy protests against being a mere clodhopper, and when he sees
this destiny before him he escapes from the farm to the city,
where, his wits having been sharpened by contact with his
fellows, he lives, or thinks he lives a higher life. If our farmers*
homes were what they might be, few of their sons would be
anxious to leave them ; but, not finding there the intelligence
which can change the drudgery of labor into a delightful em-
ployment, they go where the cravings of their nature can be
better satisfied. "When fathers cease to be guided by mere
beaver instinct in the complex business of their farms, their
sons will remain at home ; and, uniting the vigor of youth with
the wisdom of age, they will lighten the labor of life.

In my visits during the past season, I have met with many
intelligent farmers who are deeply interested in all the agricul-
tural improvements of the day, who read the periodicals and
books on farming, and gladly learn from practical or theoretical
men. They are inquiring for better methods, better implements,

104 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTCRE.

and better stock, that they may, by increase of thought, lessen
the wear and tear of muscle, and render farming a remunera-
tive and intelligent calling. These men see that we have all
been laboring in the dark, and to little purpose, and that the best
way to escape from this humiliating condition is to accept infor-
mation from any source, well knowing that it does not damage
a thought to be expressed in a book, but that it is just as good
as if it came from the next neighbor.

Among tlie various departments of agriculture, I find that
dairy farming, when near a market, is generally thought in
our county to be more sure to yield a profit than any other.
Owing to insufficiency of good pasture, however, it is con-
fessed that the business is not carried on without some consid-
erable disadvantage. We shall soon learn how to improve our
old, worn-out pasture land ; then the dairy farmer will have no
serious difficulty to contend with.

Of the dairies that I have visited, that of Mr. James Cope-
land, of West Bridgewater, is the largest and most interesting ;
and, by the kindness of the owner, I am able to give a rough
outline of the business of the farm. In my conversation with
him, he gave me many facts, with, however, but few figures ;
for, although he knows well what he gets for his milk, he does
not profess to know what it costs him. He sells a great deal of
milk, receives for it considerable money, supports his family,
has bought a large farm and stocked it well, and all is paid for ;
of course the business is profitable.

The amount of work done on this farm is very considerable.
There are two hundred and twenty-five acres under fence ;
forty-one acres in English mowing ; thirty in fresh meadow ;
fourteen in tillage ; and one hundred and forty in pasture.
Ninety tons of hay are commonly made. The present year,
two hundred bushels of corn and sixty bushels of wheat were
harvested. The rest of the tillage is devoted to various kinds
of vegetables ; although Mr. Copeland does not grow any root
crop for feed for his cattle. To consume the products of this
farm, Mr. Copeland keeps, generally, about twenty-four cows,
four horses, several yoke of oxen, and some young stock, making
in all some fifty head. In addition to the hay and grain raised
on the farm, it is found necessary to purchase feed to the
amount of four hundred dollars. As feed for milch cows, Mr.

FARMS. 105

Copeland prefers shorts to corn-meal, as the former produces
more milk. He does not think that beets can be raised cheap
enough to take the place of shorts or meal. The milk is carried
a distance of four miles to market, in North Bridgewater.
When the demand for milk is not equal to the supply, butter is
made ; although Mr. Copeland prefers to sell the milk. In the
selection of his cows he uses good judgment, making, I should
think, but few mistakes. Without this skill in determining the
quality of a cow, success would be impossible. The manage-
ment of this large establishment, on the whole, is very credita-
ble to its owner, although failing somewhat in neatness and in
close attention to economy in details.

Throughout the county, I have observed that farmers are
turning their attention more and more to their unreclaimed
marshes. The white and yellow pine are again invading thou-
sands of acres of poor land, which has become worthless for
purposes of cultivation. On this account there is a constantly
increasing necessity for more land of a better quality, and the
most feasible way of accomplishing this purpose is to encroach
upon the domain of the swamps. Now, before this can be
done economically enough to justify the expenditure, two
things must be well undei*stood — the best method of removing
the underbrush, stumps and stones, and the art of draining the
land after it is so cleared.

The proportion of swamp land in the county is very great ;
and everywhere I observe farmers at work adding something
to their meadow by substracting from their swamp. I have
made every effort to obtain reliable information as to the
expense of reclaiming such land, but as the work is generally
done at odd times, when other work is not pressing, it is difficult
to ascertain the cost. Of course the cost would differ very
much, as the conditions of the land would differ ; but the
results obtained in reclaiming land in various districts, so that
the swamps might offer every variety of characteristic, would
satisfactorily determine whether it would be justifiable to hire
men for this purpose, and set them to work reclaiming these
watery wastes.

Tbe most satisfactory experiment of this kind that has come
under my observation, has been made by Mr. Robert Perkins of
Bridgewater, who has kindly furnished me with statistics from

14

lOG MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

his memorandum-book, which give information very valuable
to others who may contemplate making similar improvements.
In May, 1859, he purchased a lot of land of about eleven
acres, situated quite near the village, a large proportion of
which was swamp without any drainage. It was covered with
oak, maple, birches, and dense underbrush, some of the trees
being quite large. The surface was very uneven, and alto-
gether it was a very discouraging-looking place. The following
winter, for the purpose of making employment in the open air
to improve his health, rather than with the expectation of making
it pay, he commenced clearing off the trees and underbrush,
and cutting a ditch through the whole length of the swamp.
A hook was placed under the roots of bushes, by which means
a yoke of oxen was able to draw out many. For taking out
the stumps, a stump-puller, manufactured by Mr. Caleb Bates,
of Kingston, was found to be very efficient, although the force
employed was only three men. Without this machine, he
thinks he should have despaired and given up the larger
stumi)s ; with it, every one came out, some of the largest
measuring one and a half feet in diameter. The stones were
also removed. When the underbrush and roots were dried, they
were gathered into heaps and burned. When about one and a
half acres were thus cleared, the ashes were scattered as
evenly as possible, and a slight dressing of compost added, the
whole surface having previously been dug over with a grub-hoe.
After harrowing, the land remained undisturbed till spring.
In April, it was seeded down to grass, and two tons of good
hay were cut in July, and a large second crop in September.
At different times, other portions of the swamp were cleared off
in the same manner, to the amount of about three acres, at a
cost of one hundred and twenty dollars per acre. In addition
to this, about two acres were cleared by the job, at a cost of
fifty cents per square rod, making the whole cost per acre about
one hundred dollars. The whole is now covered with grass,
and has no appearance of having recently been a swamp.

As Mr. Perkins had had no experience whatever in this kind
of work, he labored under many disadvantages, and he is now
aware that he could do the same work again at a much less cost.
Expensive, however, as it has been, good judges who have seen
the land think it will pay, as it is probable that, with a reason-

FARMS. 107

able amount of manure, it will produce three tons of hay to
the acre. Ilowever this may be, Mr. Perkins does not regret
the expense, as the labor of supervision has been very condu-
cive to health, and an offensive swamp has been changed into a
fruitful field.

The subject of draining, it seems to me, is not attracting
that degree of attention which might be expected from intelli-
gent farmers who have much land that is filled with cold, stag-
nant water, so destructive to all cultivated crops. Thousands
of acres of the very best land in the county, now producing
little but fresh hay, might, by draining alone, be reclaimed and
made fertile.

The only improvement by draining with which I am particu-
larly acquainted, has been made by Mr. Thomas 0. Jackson, of
Plymouth.

The soil of Mr. Jackson's farm is, for the most part, a heavy
clay ; and about two acres on a hill-side were found to be so wet
late in the spring, that the season was not long enough for the
successful cultivation of any crop. In summer the surface was
hard, dry, and full of cracks. The subsoil is a clay pan, so
hard that it had to be broken with a pick before it could be
shovelled. A main drain, five hundred feet in length, of five-
inch tile, was laid at the depth of four feet, witli a fall of
several feet down a hill-side. This drain was joined to a con-
ductor, which leads into a pond. Lateral drains, one hundred
feet in length, of three-inch tiles, intersected the main drain,
which runs through the middle of the lot. These laterals were
thirty-three feet apart, and on both sides of the main drain.
The tiles were laid on the hard pan at the /bottom of the
trenches. The tiles were laid so as to touch each other, and
then firmly wedged with stones, upon which a covering of small
stones six inches deep, was placed, succeeded by a layer of
large stones. Another covering of seaweed prepared the
trenches for the earth which completed the drain. To exclude
vermin, a copper strainer was placed at each end of the main,
and a stone at the beginning of each lateral. The amount of
land so drained was two acres.

The cost, which was greatly enhanced by the hardness of the
clay pan, was nearly seventy dollars per acre. This expense is

108 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

evidently too great to encourage farmers to undertake the
draining of wet lands l>y means of tiles.

The elfects of draining this land are seen in the dryness of
the soil, which enables the ploughing and planting to be done so
early in the season, that the crops have time to mature. Tlie
removal of the water from the soil lessens the amount of manure
necessary to produce good crops. About three-fourths of an
acre, in a slight depression, near the top of the hill, which was
a mud-hole in spring, is now a most fertile spot, covered with
young fruit trees, and yielding abundant crops of roots. The
first year the crop was light, owing to late planting. The
second year carrots were planted, and yielded at the rate of five
liundred bushels to the acre. The third year the crop was
again carrots, increasing to the amount of six liundred and
fifty bushels to the acre. The land was fairly manured each
year. The remainder of the two acres is occupied by an apple
orchard, which has been greatly improved as to the growth of
the trees, and in the quality and quantity of the fruit.

There is another branch of farming in which I think I
observe considerable progress throughout the county : I refer
to sheep-husbandry. I do not recollect a single instance of a
farmer who did not admit that it was profitable to keep sheep ;
but the difficulty of protecting them against dogs discourages
most from undertaking the business. It is to be hoj^ed, how-
ever, that as sheep increase, dogs will decrease in number's. 1
cannot but think that our farming could not be improved by
any one thing so much as by the placing of a flock of sheep on
every farm. Almost every farmer has an abundance of almost
exhausted pasture land, on which so large an animal as a cow
cannot get a living ; but a sheep will thrive where a cow would
starve. In case pasture is wanting, sheep may be turned into
the woods in summer ; and if they are healthy, and in good
stock order when they are turned out late in the spring, they
may be expected to be fit for the butcher in the fall. Any
farmer may keep sheep through the winter without having it
cost him more than one dollar per head. Inferior hay and flat
turnips may constitute a large proportion of their food. They
would be a great advantage to the fiirm by destroying the
bushes and briars in the rough pastures, and by enriching the
soil with their manure. Fields, also, might be very cheaply

FARMS. 109

manured by feeding sheep in them during winter, preparatory
to planting in the spring.

The sheep kept in our county are, for tlie most part, native,
occasionally mixed with South Downs and other English breeds.
However it may be as to the cattle of England suiting American
climate and soil, there can be little doubt that English sheep
are just what wq want. "We are situated near a market, and,
therefore, need mutton sheep rather than those that produce
superior wool. In improving their sheep the English seem to
have had mutton almost exclusively in view, and they have
reached so high a degree of excellence in this respect, that it
would seem impossible to improve upon what they have accom-
plished. The great obstacle in the way of introducing these
sheep generally into our county is the expense, which is greater
than many of our farmers can bear ; and those who can afford
to buy, have not faith enough in the superiority of the sheep,
before seeing them, to render them anxious to purchase.
Among those who have taken much pains to possess themselves
of good sheep, the most successful are Hon. AlbertFearing, Mr.
Charles G. Davis, and Mr. Austin J. Roberts. Mr. Fearing has
a few very fine sheep, which he imported directly from England.
Mr. Davis's sheep are the Oxford Downs, purchased of Mr.
Fay, of Lynn. The latter gentleman sold his lambs this
summer for ten dollars, and buck lambs for twelve dollars to
breeders, and the butchers paid him eight dollars for his ewes
in the pasture, in June, after the fleece was off. Their fleece
averages six to seven pounds. To get good sheep it is, perhaps,
necessary that the buck only' should be of pure blood. When
we begin to take the interest in sheep-husbandry that the
English do, the finest bucks will possess a great value, and
their services will be sought after and liberally paid for. It is
to be hoped the County Society will do all that is possible to
advance the interests of sheep-husbandry by offering liberal
premiums for the best sheep ; and I have sometimes thought
the society might even go so far as to purchase a few bucks of
the purest blood, and of various breeds, and let out their
services to the highest bidder. If the experiment should
succeed in the case of sheep, the society might extend its
operations to other stock ; and, in this way, it would be in the

110 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

power of every farmer in the county to have the use of the best
breeding stock of all kinds at a moderate expense.

I am by no means confident of the feasibility of this ])lan,
and therefore only throw out the suggestion in tlie hope it may
have sufficient interest to attract the attention and consideration
of the trustees of the society.

Charles Burton.

PASTURE AND WASTE LANDS.

ESSEX.

Report of the Committee.
The Committee to wliom was referred the subject of the
improvement of pasture and waste lands propose to confine
themselves to but one topic in considering the question before
them. They fully appreciate the efforts which are constantly
made to bring the large tracts of unproductive land, both wet
and dry, which occupy so much of the county, into the service
of agriculture ; and they take pleasure in congratulating the
farmers of this section, in their renewed attempts during the
past season to subdue their rough and swampy lands, for the
purposes of cropping. But they feel that the most important
consideration for the agriculturist here is, how he can best
convert useless tracts into profitable pasture lands, or restore
those which have suffered from over-stocking, or from neglect.
"Wliile some sections of our State are capable of pasturing
more cattle than can be kept during the winter, and thus lose
a large portion of their summer feed, in Essex Couuty the
reverse is true. Here we can winter more cattle than we can
summer. Our pastures are less productive than our hay-fields.
And we are not only obliged to over-stock the former, but we
are induced to resort to that most destructive of all farming
operations, the sale of our hay. Except in those instances
where, either from proximity to the sea, or from the supply of
cities, manure can be chea})ly and easily obtained, the neglect
of pasture-lands and the removal of hay, must end in great

PASTURE AND WASTE LANDS. Ill

injury to the farm. He whose pastures fail, must sell his cattle.
He who sells his cattle will sell his hay. And he who sells
both cattle and hay, will ere long find that he must sell his
farm.

The improvement of the pasture-lands of Essex County is,
therefore, a matter of great importance to our farming commu-
nity. We ouglit at least to keep them up to the capacity of
our hay-mows ; and, if possible, we should carry them beyond
this.

It is doubtful whether any general rule can be adopted for
the increase or improvement of lands devoted to grazing. The
variety of tracts used for sucli a purpose, creates the necessity
for a great variety of treatment ; and the question is not so
much how can pastures be cultivated, as how can they be culti-
vated to a profit. It is estimated that four acres of land are
required for the pasturage of a cow ; and it is probable that in
their present condition nearly twice that number are necessary.
The price of such land is about twenty dollars per acre. An
acre which will serve the purpose of four, should bo considered
to be worth as much as four. How, then, can the farmer make
twenty dollars' worth of land yield as much as eighty dollars'
worth ? How can he improve, moreover, the quality of his
pasture grasses? And how can he economically provide himself
with good luxuriant grazing, upon which lie can rely during
the entire season ?

There is no doubt that, as a general thing, the cattle of Essex
County obtain a somewhat scanty supply of food from the
pastures. Brambles, and bushes, and weeds, and mosses,
occupy a very considerable portion of the land called pasture,
and are constantly encroaching upon that which is free from
this burden. In the smooth pastures, the grass is short on
account of over-stocking, and, in many instances, not nutritious
on account of deficient cultivation or entire neglect. We have
but little land like that in newly-settled countries, where the
clearing of a forest is followed by a luxuriant growth of sweet
grasses ; and hence our business is chiefly with lands which
must be restored from decay.

The application of various substances, such as ashes, lime,
plaster, bones, etc., as a top-dressing for exhausted pasture-
lands, has been tried and discussed, until its merits seem to be

112 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

pretty thoroughly understood. Wherever land is in a suitable
condition to receive either of tliese fertilizers, great benefit
arises from a judicious use.

On old worn-out pastures, however, something more is
evidently necessary, especially where the soil is so far exhausted
as to be incapable of restoration by rest, and where bushes
have obtained the mastery. In such a case as this, resort must
be had to the axe and bush-hook, to fire, the plough, manure
and seeding.

How far the clearing, ploughing and seeding of pastures can
be carried with profit, each farmer must judge for himself. In
one or two instances, tlie experiment has been carried to a con-
siderable extent in this county. A large tract of comparatively
level land lying on the Merrimac River has been cleared of
bushes, ploughed, and allowed to lie fallow one year. It has
then been cross-ploughed, harrowed and seeded with rye and
grass. In this case, the value of the land for grazing purposes
has been largely increased. In the eastern part of the county,
a hill-side pasture has been treated in the same manner ; with
what success we are unable to learn. It is possible that many
acres of land now wholly unproductive, could be brought, by
this process, into valuable pastures, without great expense,
provided that the work is done in the intervals of more
pressing duties during the season. The precise cost cannot
be estimated, inasmuch as it would dei)cnd very much on the
location of the land, and the time occupied in ploughing and
fallowing. It is very desirable that some practical farmer
should make an accurate return of the expense incurred per
acre by this process. If it can be done advantageously, what a
vast benefit would be the reclaiming of a few acres each year,
on most of our farms. At any rate, we trust the time will soon
come when every farmer who prides himself on his corn and
hay crops, will learn that a growth of birches, bushes and briars
on his pastures cannot belong to any good system of farming.

But one experiment in improving land was brought before
the committee, and this is of a somewliat novel cliaracter. It
consists of the clearing of old pasture-land for the purpose of
orcliarding ; and although it does not come under the (picstion
which we liave referred to, still it is entitled to careful attcn-

PASTURE AND WASTE LANDS. 113

tion. The experiment was made by Oliver P. Killam of Boxford,
and we give his statement in his own words :

Statement of Mr. Killam.

The piece of land I offer for premium is one side of a lot
containing ten or twelve acres. The part I cleared was covered
originally with whortleberries, sweet fern, and briars, inter-
spersed with small oaks, wild cherry, thorn bushes and birches.
In the spring of 1819, 1 commenced setting apple trees on one
side, one and one-half rods apart ; set over about one-half an
acre. The next spring I set out others ; and in 1851, 1 finished
setting over the piece I have cleared.

My manner of setting the trees is as follows : First, I mowed
the bushes wherever I intended to set a tree. Then cutting
away the roots with an axe, I dug the holes eight feet in
diameter, and from one to one and a half feet deep. I usually
dug the holes the year before planting the trees. When I
set the trees, I pounded the sods, and picked out the roots,
replacing the soil in the hole, and taking care to set the tree
the same depth that it stood in the nursery. I then placed fine
soil round the roots, and replaced the contents of the hole.
The trees were manured and mulched ; and they grew well for
three or four years.

At this time the trees began to show signs of blight, which
were not removed by digging about them ; and I consequently
determined to clear all the land between the trees. I com-
menced this in 1857, in the following manner : —

First I mowed the bushes, dug up the roots, and burned
them. Then I dug out and cleared off the stones. I then
ploughed it, removing all the stones and roots exposed to view,
and harrowed it thoroughly.

The expense of clearing the first half-acre was : —
For one man one and one-half days mowing bushes, . $1 50
Two men and four oxen one-half day pulling bushes
and roots, ........

Two men and one yoke of oxen one day clearing stones,
Two days ploughing, .......

Clearing stones after ploughing, harrowing, and burning
roots,

$18 50

15

2

00

3

00

10

00

2

00

114 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

After it was cleared, I planted it with potatoes and corn. The
expense of the crop was : —

For five cart-loads of compost in hill, . . . . $5 00
For planting and hoeing, 4 00

$9 00
Amount and value of crop : —
Twenty bushels of good potatoes, .... $10 00
Eighteen bushels of ears of corn, 9 00

$19 00

The fodder and small potatoes paid for harvesting. In the
winter of 1857-8 I cleared another half acre at less expense.
And in the June following, I sowed the whole with 13 quarts of
buckwheat, and obtained fifteen and one-half bushels of clear
seed.

Value of crop : —

Fifteen and one-half bushels of buckwheat, .
One ton of straw, ......

Expense of crop after clearing : —
Seed, sowing, and harrowing, ....
Cutting, threshing, and cleaning,

$2 50

I have cleared the remainder in the same manner, and with
nearly the same result ; averaging fifteen bushels of buckwheat
and one ton of straw per acre yearly. I cleared three-quarters
of an acre last autumn, at an expense of about $26.

I have manured what I first cleared, for two years, for the
benefit of the trees ; and I am satisfied that they have been
improved by it to the full value of the crop raised on the land.
By sowing buckwheat I have cleared the land almost entirely
of briars and other noxious plants ; and I am convinced that it
is a good crop to raise in a young and growing orchard.

The experiment of Mr. Killam is an interesting one, and has
been conducted with considerable economy and skill, and with

$15 50
6 00

$21 50

$1 00
1 50

CULTURE OF TREES. 115

much industry. He has brought a waste piece of land into good
orcharding ; and his trees show that he has done it successfully.
The committee award him the second premium of ten dollars.

Tiiey trust that they will see an increased attention to the
reclaiming of pasture lands for grazing purposes, as one of the
most important branches of the agriculture of the county.

George B. Loring, Chairman.

CULTURE OF TREES.

ESSEX.

Report of the Committee.

A few years ago, it was thought that our forest trees were
fast falling before the woodman's axe, and that it was one of
the most important objects to promote their growth. I had the
honor, in 1838, to act on a committee of this society, with the
Hon. James H. Duncan and the Rev. Gardner B. Perry, on
forest trees ; and the report of the doings of that committee
may be found in the Transactions for 1839, awarding a premium
of thirty dollars to Mr. Nathan Webster, of Haverhill, for his
ten acre lot of cultivated forest trees.

Having the honor to hold a place on the same committee, the
present year, which committee not having been called on by
the chairman to attend to any claims for our premiums, it
occurred to me to present to the Society some further account
of the success of that experiment, and also some observations
upon the subject of forest trees in general.

I did not at the time think that the amount of wood and
timber in the county was likely to be greatly increased by the
experiment ; and by the report of the chairman, as published
in the Transactions of 1839, 1 am led to think the committee
were of nearly the same opinion ; but as the chairman had tried
an experiment, and was the only applicant, our first premium
of thirty dollars was awarded to him.

The land was not well adapted to the growth of the kinds of
trees for which our premium was offered. It had never been

116 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

ploughed, or pulverized, or cleared of roots and rubbish, except
one acre. Furrows had been drawn across it, ten feet apart,
and in the spring of 183G and 1837, three pounds of locust
seed had been sown ; and in the fall of 1837, between one and
two bushels of white oak acorns were planted, all of both
kinds, along these furrows, in which they were covered with
earth. From the locust seed, he supposed more than ten
thousand plants came up ; but from the acorns, not a single
plant !

To secure the germination of the locust, he thinks it abso-
lutely necessary to soak the seed in hot water — of course not
too hot ; and he imputes the total absence of young oaks to an
early frost injuring the acorns ; but as they could be easily
found scattered along in rows, and slightly covered, I should
rather charge it to the squirrels.

I would suggest to any person disposed hereafter to plant a
forest, to completely pulverize the whole soil, and sow the
seed broadcast on the furrows, and of various kinds, and at all
depths.

As Mr. Webster sowed but two kinds of seed, and but one
came up at all, we were called upon to look at only quite a
number of locust trees, scattered over ten acres of ground ; and
as these looked rather unpromising, the generous premium
must be considered to have been awarded rather to the labor of
making an experiment, than to any promised success.

Mr. Webster says in his statement, that in 1835 the land was
covered with birches, and some white oak and maple ; and
on examining the lot a few years afterwards, I was fully of the
opinion that the growth of wood would have been quite as
valuable had nothing been done but to exclude cattle from
browsing upon the trees and under-wood of native growth.

I again examined the lot on the 13th of the present Novem-
ber, twenty-two years after the first visit and the premium,
and I now consider the experiment rather more successful than
I had previously expected, so far as the locust is concerned.
About one acre, in one corner of the lot, is well covered with
locust trees, thirty to forty feet high, and six or eight inches
through, and in rather a thrifty state. There was a thin scat-
tering of locust in other parts of the lot; and if locust timber
is as lasting for fence posts, and other uses requiring durable

CULTURE OF TREES. 117

wood, as has been supposed, I should think the experiment
might encourage the planting of the locust. The quantity and*
value of wood for fuel would probably have been larger had
nothing been done. And if the acre so well stocked with locust
is the acre which had been previously " ploughed, and planted
with potatoes," it gives a valuable insight into the best mode of
preparing the ground and planting. The white birch has now
re-assumed its native rights over a large part of the ground,
and the white oak and maple are, in a few instances, resuming
their places.

I am not aware that any premium has been claimed or paid
for the raising of forest trees since the one alluded to ; and
were it not that the law of the State requires the offering of
them, I should suggest the discontinuance of the offer, as without
eflfect, and, so far as fuel is concerned, quite unnecessary.

I am not aware that a single acre of open field, or pasture-
land, has been changed from being an open field or pasture, in
this county, within the period of my remembrance, which now
extends to sixty years, by any deliberate design, planting or
cultivation ; and I am hardly aware that an acre has been cut
down, cleared, and made a cultivated field or pasture, within
that time. But within the last forty years, hundreds of acres
have been overrun by the spontaneous growth of forest trees !

In the town of Groveland, it is easy now to show large tracts,
over which men now living have held the plough, and swung
the scythe and sickle, from which may now be cut from thirty
to forty cords of wood to the acre ; and by this growth, and the
multiplication of fruit and ornamental trees, our landscape
now presents a much more wooded prospect than it did forty
years ago.

One cause of this great change is the neglect of agriculture,
and confining it to fewer acres, since the prevalence of manufac-
tures ; another is, the now almost universal use of mineral
coal. Most of this increase is the various species of pine.

White pine is a tree of very rapid growth ; and I can now
cut a frame for a good-sized house, from land from which the
previous owner cut nearly all the wood which he considered
worth cutting in 1838. What were then small trees, of a few
feet in height, are now timber. The pine is a very sure and
thrifty seedling, and I might now claim your premium for a

118 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

thousand trees of not less than three years old, all seedlings,
and in a most thrifty state — and all growing spontaneously on
what was, twelve years ago, chiefly an oak forest. The pine, I
believe, never starts from the roots of an old tree, but are in all
cases seedlings.

The oak seedling is of slow growth ; but still they are con-
stantly renewing from the acorn, in woods of thin growth, and
around the margin of oak forests — the leaves affording them a
sufTicient covering, and the surrounding trees a sufhcient shelter
from the driving winds and snow ; but the most thrifty growth
of oak, maple and birch, are from the roots of previous trees,
cut down before the life of both root and branches is exhausted
by age. Crops of wood are now raised with as much regularity
and certainty as crops of hay or grain, and are profitably taken
off every twenty to thirty years. On thirteen acres of cut off land,
which I purchased in 1851, at nine dollars an acre, there is now
a crop of wood, pi-incipally oak, averaging fifteen feet in height,
mostly sprung from the roots of the previous growth, and
growing with great rapidity, from their large and abundant
roots ; while in almost every vacancy the seedling pines, before
named, are shooting up their spires, and dispute with the oak
for the final possession of the soil.

The white birch and the white maple push out numerous
sprouts from almost every tree which is cut down, and spread
spontaneously as seedlings, on the road-sides and on the margin
of forests. A large hill in full view of my house, which was
clear pasture land twenty-five or thirty years ago, is now an
unbroken forest.

It belonged to the late Rev. Gardner B. Perry, who, with a
view to improving his pasture, caused furrows eight or ten feet
apart to be ploughed round the hill, keeping as near horizontal
as possible, with the triple purpose of retaining the rain, plough-
ing up some of the moss, and manuring the intermediate space
by the washing down of some of the soil ploughed up. The
plan seemed well adapted to improve a smooth hill-side pasture,
which it probably would have done, but that a copse of birches,
forty rods off, furnished seed, and the winds did the sowing ;
and now we see a full grown and heavy crop of birch trees.
Another neighbor's intervening lot remained unploughed, and
is now smooth pasture-land.

CULTURE OF TREES. 119

Another reason why our wood increases so fast is, as before
named the great increase of the use of coal as fuel. Twenty-one
years ago, I was, with one exception, the only householder
making use of coal in the town ; now it is in use in almost
every family ; and for the last two years, nearly eight hundred
tons have been imported and consumed — taking the place,
according to my observation, of about sixteen hundred cords of
wood !

Fifty years ago, it was a common thing for the farmers of
Essex County to sell their farms and remove to newer States, in
alarm at the approaching scarcity of wood and timber. My
father-in-law, who sold his farm in what is now Georgetown, in
1780, and removed to New Hampshire, spent many anxious
thoughts upon his old neighbors, how they were to get along
when the fast decreasing woods were all consumed ; forty years
afterwards he returned to this vicinity, without finding any
trouble in obtaining fuel ! The committee who made the last
valuation of this town, report that the wood is little, if any,
diminished within the last forty years.

The walnut is a beautiful tree, easily raised from the seed,
and of much more rapid growth than the oak. The wood is
excellent, both for fuel and timber, and the fruit is highly
valued, especially among children ; and it is generally a good
bearer.

The elm starts readily from the seed, which ripens in great
abundance, before the leaves form, every spring, and may be
sown and produce a thrifty plant the same year ! It is a tree of
great beauty, thrives in almost every soil, is of rapid growth,
and produces valuable wood, both for fuel and timber. In 1845
I brought two trees under my carriage, both of which I could
carry easily upon my shoulder at once, and set them out in the
street in front of my house. The largest tree girths, by meas-
urement to-day, one foot from the ground, three feet and two
inches. A row of elms from the seed sixteen years ago, set
from the garden on the river bank, are now, several of them,
twenty feet high and six inches through.

I propose to add a few words upon Worms injurious to
Forest Trees.

Mr. Cofhn, in his History of Newbury, gives an extract from
the margin of an almanac of 1736, written by the Hon. Bailey

120 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Bartlett, which tallies so exactly with a similar calamity which
visited this part of the county about 1797, that I will first
copy it : —

" In the year 1734, a few caterpillars, of a peculiar kind,
appeared on the oak trees as soon as the leaves began to grow.
In 1735 a much larger number, one hundred to one, were seen,
but in this year (1736) the number was astonishing. Almost
all the woods in Haverhill and Bradford, (some part of the east
end excepted,) the east part of Chester and Andover, many
thousand acres of thick woods had their leaves and twigs of this
year's growth entirely eaten up — so that the trees were as naked
as in the depth of winter. They were larger than common
caterpillars, and made no nests. No river or pond could stop
them ; they would swim like dogs, and travel in unaccountable
armies, and completely cover whole houses and trees. Cart and
carriage wheels would be dyed green, from the number they
crushed in their progress ! "

Mr. Richard Kelley, of Amesbury, in his diary, says : " They
are larger than the orchard caterpillar, but smooth on the back,
with a black streak with white spots."

I have never seen, in print or manuscript, any account of a
very similar calamity which occurred within the memory of the
writer.

About 1797, similar worms began to appear upon the oaks,
which so increased in three or four years, that the oak woodlands
were cleared of leaves, and the trees made no deeper shade in
August than in winter ! The white oaks enjoyed a partial
exemption, but the red, black, and yellow oaks were entirely
stripped of leaves. When they left the trees, they infested all
the buildings which were near oak woods, and I have a pretty
distinct recollection that their swimming qualities were then
noticed.

Mr. Kelley's description does not apply exactly to these ;
they were mostly black, with a stripe of yellow on each side of
the back, and crawled rapidly with many legs. The cart ruts,
in a sandy road leading through my father's woodland, gathered
them in myriads ; and the crushing them as we carted hay
through the woods, is distinctly recollected.

They disappeared about the third or fourth year, more sud-
denly than they came. Tlic trees mostly survived, with many

CULTURE OF TREES. 121

dead limbs. The slirub oak was entirely stripped of leaves. I
write from distinct and rather bitter recollection of what was
then considered a great calamity, which excited much attention
and many fears. Being but a boy, my observations extend only
over the immediate neighborhood, in the west part of George-
town ; and this is written in the hope that from some old
almanac, newspaper, or diary, a better account may be brought
out.

About 1820, I discovered at the road-side, in Groveland, a
small tree bent down with the weight of some hundreds of the
genuine article. I destroyed every one ; and whetlier in so
doing I prevented a repetition of the former visitation, will
never be known.

The canker-worms of the orchard sometimes infest the elm.
It has been much damaged by them in this vicinity.

The blast which a few years ago invaded the plane tree or
button-wood, has not, I believe, been satisfactorily explained.
The tree remained perfectly healthy, and the damage occurred
to the new growth as it put forth its tender leaves each year,
leaving an unsightly knot where it attempted to produce its
broad leaves. I examined many of these knots, but could never
detect the living worm, though I was satisfied that the whole
mischief was then and there, and perpetuated by a minute worm
or insect, whose presence and operations it was difficult to "
detect or prevent. Its work seems to have ceased in this
vicinity.

Jeremiah Spofford.

BRISTOL.

From the Report of the Committee.

While it is nature's purpose to reproduce and multiply, it has
been our work to circumscribe and destroy. This work of
destruction is constantly going on. On every hand is heard the
woodman's axe, decimating our forests, demolishing the scanty
remnant of the older growth among us, and with grub-axe and
plough extirpating, root and branch, every chance seedling
whigh a wise economy has planted for germination and growth.

16

122 MASSACnUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

We would by no means be understood as disapproving of the
practice of cutting wood. It is only the indiscriminate sacrifice
and waste of it so observable on every hand, we desire to stay.
We wish to impress upon every man the desirableness of this
kind of property ; and induce him to adopt a course of policy
which shall so increase the prospective supply as to admit of
much larger drafts upon it without diminishing its quantity.

We would convince every landholder of the fact that he has
no more remunerative property than his woodlands ; none that
gives a better return upon the investment ; none more exempt
from depreciation or loss ; and none more easily convertible into
ready means. And it is believed the growing of wood may be
made even more profitable, by giving to it more care and atten-
tion. We think this crop should be managed somewhat as any
other. That portion of the farm best adapted to its growth — and
a part of every farm should consist of growing wood — should be
set off for this purpose. In this selection, regard should be had
to the nature of the soil, and the kinds of wood best adapted to
it. If not already grown thereon, it Should be planted ; and the
young growth properly cared for and protected.

The policy of cutting off our wood at shorter intervals than
was formerly practiced is now generally regarded as wise and
economical. While wood thus early cut is more valuable, the
subsequent growth is more certain and rapid. In cutting wood,
regard should be had to that season of the year which experi-
ence has shown most favorable to the development of the suckers
and offsets. Whenever nature intimates a desire to change the
variety, as is often witnessed in the up-shooting of the pine
where a grove of oak has been removed, such preference should
be generally acquiesced in ; as in the growing of wood, as much
perhaps as in any other crop, rotation includes greater vigor
and fuller development.

While thus laboring to render our present woodlands more
productive and profitable, our attention should be directed to the
subjcct"of enlarging their area. It is an opinion often expressed,
that our farmers cultivate too much land. That much labor
and means of fertility are lost by being too widely distributed,
too thinly spread ; and that a true economy points to more
concentration of both labor and exi)enditure. How many acres
of land do many of our farmers feel constrained to cultivate, to

CULTURE OF TREES. 123

avoid the appearance of thriftlessness, which barely returns the
vahie of labor and seed bestowed upon it. And how much of
every farm might be rendered doubly productive by a little
more of that labor and nutriment now so widely scattered as to
be in a great measure lost.

What our interest manifestly enjoins, is the contraction of the
area of our grass and tillage land to the right limit of profitable
farming; and after appropriating a sufficient breadth of the
balance to pasturage, to devote every improvable rod of the
remainder to the growing of wood ; not a half naked, unsightly
waste of scrub oaks and brushwood ; but a plantation well set
with varieties suitable for fuel, ship timber or mechanical pur-
poses, such as the oak, ash, birch, maple, hickory and pine. It
is only by heightening the productiveness and enlarging the
bounds of our woodland, that we can hope to arrest this ten-
dency to extermination ; to bring up the supply to the measure
of our probable wants, and to restore ourselves in some degree
to our former condition of home reliance and domestic supply ;
a condition ever to be desired, but especially in times of war
and blockades. For many years we have been becoming more
dependent for the products of the forest, upon others. The
lumber for our houses, the timber for our ships, the bark for
our tanners, the materials for all our mechanics who work in
wood, has been sought for abroad. And this want will continue
to be felt until we commit ourselves more fully to that course of
policy in this regard, which our highest interest so plainly points
out.

But there are other considerations we would present as an
inducement to the cultivation of trees. If, as we are told, nature
abhors a vacuum, so also does she loathe nakedness. While
she cannot consent to the one, she puts forth all her efforts to
prevent the other. To clothe her offspring, to hide her deformi-
ties, to array in robes of ever varying hue and form her manifold
creations, is her earnest purpose. To carpet the ocean's bed ;
to drape the mountain's crags, with her mosses and lichens ; to
plant on hill-side and plain, in meadow and dell, her grasses
and ferns ; to rear in tlie valley depths, and on the mountain
heights, her pines and her oaks, her cypresses and her cedars, is
her pastime. Ere man was created, before the sun, moon, or
stars were set in the heavens, even on the third day of the work of

124 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

creation, were the trees " bearing fruit after their kind, pleasant
to the sight and good for food," brought forth. Thus occupying
so important a place in the preparation of man's abode, they
have exerted a mighty influence through all his history upon
his character and life. To trees in their countless forms and
variations, their natural and artificial groupings and combina-
tions, more than to all other of nature's external forms, is man
indebted for the development of that higher type of character
and culture, those noble qualities of mind and heart which con-
stitute his crowning glory. The first objects to meet his eyes,
as in some sylvan retreat, he awoke to an immortal life, they
have been his instructor and model, his protection and guide,
his unfailing support through all his wanderings. Ever above
and about him, they have been his constant suggester of those
rudimental principles of architectural science, by which he has
erected in every age, those magnificent structures of taste and
art. As he has moved among these noblest forms of vegetable
life, awed by their grandeur, enchanted by their beauty ; his
thoughts have been raised above their aspiring tops, and while
contemplating their visible forms, his heart has yearned for a
more intimate knowledge of their Author. Intimately associated
with the earliest recollections of childhood, gratefully remem-
bered among the sports and pastimes of our juvenile years,
closely identified with every experience of subsequent life — with
its joys, its sorrows, its blessings — they have become woven into
the web of our being. They enter into all our ideas of beauty,
taste and comfort. No feature of nature is so unattractive as
its sandy beaches, its barren plains. No solitary wilderness has
half the terror and gloom of those frightful deserts of burning
sands and suffocating winds which devour, as the breath of a fur-
nace, every living thing. No isolated dwelling, however grand
and imposing its architectural proportions, but standing like
our New England ch.nrches of the olden time, upon some naked
mound, far away from tree, or copse, or grove — cold, cheerless
and repulsive, is to be mentioned for its beauty, taste or attrac-
tiveness in comparison with the neat, cosy, though unostentatious
home, embosomed within lines and curves and groups of ever-
green trees, of flowering shrubs, of fruitful orchards, of twining
woodbine and trellised honeysuckle ; vicing with each other in
the work of adornment ; where the welcome songsters of the

CULTURE OF TREES. 125

grove chant their morning song, and trill their evening lay ;
and where the sweet voices and joyous sports of happy children
are heard and witnessed. For be it remembered, this is child-
hood's Eden — this its congenial home. This is heaven's
nursery, wherein to rear its choicest plants for an immortal
bloom. "While a kind Providence seems ever reluctant to com-
mit its offspring to the stiff formalities, the stinted sympathies,
the cold affections of the palatial prison, it bestows them in
larger measure, and with apparent delight, upon the open arms,
the gushing affections, the overflowing bosoms of sympathy and
love, which are to be sought in these sylvan homes.

But we Avould present other considerations of more general
interest perhaps to our farmers, more pertinent to the occasion
and more in harmony with the purposes of our organization.
It is a well settled fact in physiology, that trees, forests, exert
a controlling influence upon the climate ; taming its wildness,
mitigating its rigors, neutralizing its repellant forces and mod-
erating its excesses. One of the most serious hindrances to the
farmer's success are the high winds which at times prevail
among us. They sweep over his cultivated fields, prostrating
his grass and his grain. They drive through his orchards,
twisting and breaking his trees, and forcing the fruit prema-
turely from the branches. They rage and howl in wintry blasts
over his fallow, dissipating its grasses and bearing away its soil.
Trees exert a no less powerful influence upon the climate in
relation to its dryness or humidity. Other obstacles to success-
ful farming, are the sharp droughts and deluging rains which
are becoming of so freq^uent occurrence, and which will increase
in frequency and severity as the country becomes more denuded
of its forests. Trees render more gradual and uniform the
evaporations from the earth's surface, by conducting through
their entire organism, — through roots, trunk, branches and
leaves, the moisture that lies below the reach of ordinary vege-
tation, to the atmosphere above ; which thus becoming over-
charged with moisture, returns it in dews and showers upon
the thirsty earth. Trees afford us protection from the tempest ;
disarming it of its force, and diverting the descending fluid from
our persons and dwellings. They are the natural pathway for
the lightning in its passage from the clouds to the earth ; from
its storehouse in the skies, to its depositories in the deep recesses

126 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of the earth. With arms extended skyward, trees receive upon
their innumerable points the electric fluid of the overcharged
cloud, and convey it harmlessly through every fibre of their
organization, to the earth beneath. Thus, while invigorating
themselves by imbibing this vital principle, this propelling force,
they deprive the atmosphere of its retentive power, and cause it
to dispense its moisture in refreshing showers and fertilizing
dews on forest, field and flower.

These are some of the ofiices which in the vast economy of
nature, have been committed to our shade and ornamental
trees, our orchards, our groves and forests to perform. Other
services of perhaps equal value, but to which we have not time
to allude, they certainly discharge.

This labor then of planting and growing trees commends
itself to every consideration of worldly policy, and to the noblest
sentiments of our nature, to the close calculation of temporal
interest, and to that inborn faculty of the human mind, to
appreciate the picturesque and beautiful, which can never be
eradicated.

Every individual who plants a tree becomes thereby a
benefactor. He thus adds one to the number of these grandest
productions of the vegetable kingdom, to that loyal army of
defenders, which, with its ensigns waving in every breeze, its
banners ever unfurled, constitutes in an important sense, our
protection and defence. In every tree we fell, we strike down
a faithful sentinel, which without fee or reward, by night and
by day, through sunshine and storm, is ever at its post,
protecting us from the scorching heat of summer, the chilling
blasts of winter ; challenging every approach of wind or storm,
saying, thus far and no farther shalt thou come, and here shall
a portion of thy fury be staid.

We desire to impress upon all the expediency of giving more
attention to this subject. Upon every young man about entering
upon the more responsible duties of life ; to assume those high
trusts, those sacred obligations pertaining to the family and the
home, we would urge the policy of planting trees. After
securing a good title to your land, appropriate the first few
dollars at your command to stocking a portion of it with a
carefully selected assortment of fruit and ornamental trees.
You thereby increase its value, you contribute to its attractive-

CULTURE OF TREES. 127

ness, you make it more truly what is implied by the endearing
name of home. You thus promote the health and happiness of
your children, by supplying them with those wholesome fruits
which their growing constitutions so earnestly crave. You
associate their years of childhood with objects of pleasure and
gratification, with exhibitions of nature's beauty and loveliness.
You give them impressions of domestic life, of social enjoyments,
of filial and moral obligations, which no future condition of life
can efface. The man doomed to single life, who lives in the
present, not in the future ; whose earthly being is bounded by
the narrow horizon of a single term, we would counsel to grow
trees. Having by some dispensation of Providence, or more
probably by your own perverseness, failed to subserve an impor-
tant purpose of your being ; what service can you render, what
labor can you perform so efficacious as this for saving your
memory from oblivion ; your name and your form from descend-
ing to the same silent abode ? So that if your children shall not
hereafter rise up and bless you, some wayfaring stranger, some
future sojourner, while refreshed by its shade, or regaled with
its fruits, may inquire the name of their benefactor. Upon all
possessed of the requisite ability we would press the value and
importance of this work. In this, as in many of the higher
duties of life, we perform a double service. While we contrib-
ute most directly to the wealth, comfort, and prosperity of the
next generation, we derive the present reward which such service
ever imparts — a reward not unlike that bestowed upon the train-
ing of children, the rearing of domestic animals. But it is only
by the performance of this triple service, the enumeration of these
three paramount obligations in the catalogue of secular duties,
that we can claim to have discharged the full measure of life's
labor, and therefore the enjoyment of its rewards.

William Brewster, Chairman.

128 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

VINEYARDS.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of Jabez Fisher.

The " Plantation of Native Grapes " to which I have invited
your attention, consists of fifty-two vines in a single row. The
vines were grown by layering in 1856, and set in their present
location in the spring of 1857. The exposure is a gentle slope
to the south and east, with shelter on the north and west. The
soil is a strong loam resting on a clayey substratum. "Water
having been found to stand within two and one-half feet of the
surface occasionally during the year, especially in spring and
autumn, a drain was laid previously to planting the vines,
directly underneath where they now are, three feet deep. Tile
was used for the bottom, and small stones were filled in above
to within eighteen inches of the surface. Upon these a layer of
horn waste was spread, and loam filled in to the top. The
ground was not trenched nor otherwise specially prepared, only
as it had been left after the cultivation of ordinary crops. The
variety was the "Concord," and the vines were set six feet
apart. In 1857 they were allowed to grow at random, and in
the fall were pruned, as they had been at time of planting, to
two or three eyes. In 1858 a single cane from each vine was
trained to a stake, and at the autumn pruning cut back to
about two feet.

In the spring of 1859, a trellis was erected of posts and wire.
The posts were chestnut, two by two, set two and one-half feet in
the ground, and rather more than five feet out, at the distance
of ten feet apart. At each end, a post, three by five, was set in
a foot and braced. Upon these posts four strands of No. 12
iron wire were stretched, the lowest eighteen to twenty inches
from the ground, and the others at distances of fifteen inches.
The strength of one man with a little skill is sufficient to stretch
the wires in warm weather. At each end the wires pass through
holes in the posts, and are secured by driving the bent end into
the wood, assisted by a staple made of the same wire. The wires
are fastened to the other posts by staples driven into one side of
them. The posts were entirely covered with coal or gas tar, and

VINEYARDS. 129

a coat of the same was applied to the wire, but I now prefer an
asplialtum, or paraffine varnish for the latter.

Tlie mode of training adopted was, to carry up a single cane
to the top of the trellis and allow four arms to grow from each
side, to be secured to the four wires. These laterals were
twisted around the wires as they grew, and required no tying.
In the autumn the wood was cut back according to the strength
of the vines, leaving the trellis two-thirds full of bearing wood.
A few clusters of fruit grew this season on most of the vines.

In 1860 a fine crop of grapes was produced, which in conse-
quence of the backward and moist season, had not arrived at
maturity at the first of October. At that time, during two or
three successive nights, the thermometer marked a temperature
of thirty degrees, and the berries and leaves were frozen through.
A few days subsequent to this date, a warm rain caused all the
leaves to drop, leaving upon the trellis a most beautiful show of
purple clusters, many of which weighed three-fourths of a pound
each. The fruit was worthless for the table, but made a very
fine jelly. The wood was only partially mature, and gave poor
promise of wintering well. The vines could not be laid down,
in consequence of the manner of training, and were left at the
mercy of the elements. On the 8th of February last, the
mercury descended to twenty-two degrees below zero, having
gone down fifty-eight degrees in twelve hours. A considerable
portion of the wood itself was killed at this time, and as vegeta-
tion commenced in spring, it was found that with only two or
three exceptions, every bud, both primary and secondary, were
dead. The snow, at the time of this extreme cold, was two feet
deep, covering the lower wire of the trellis, and as a consequence
the lower laterals or arms of each vine. Tliis portion of all the
vines was found to be uninjured, and is this season giving a
crop of fruit, the clusters being considerably smaller than usual,
consequent, as I suppose, on the immature condition of the
wood when vegetation ceased in 1860. As soon as the foliage
had become developed the past spring, each vine was cut away
just above the lower arras, and six canes were trained perpendic-
ularly, a foot asunder, to the top of the trellis. The wood is
now, (Sept. 25th,) in quite an advanced state of maturity,
and the fruit is well colored, promising to be ripe in another
week of favorable weather.
17

130 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

My mode of pruning is as follows : As soon as the shoots in
spring have advanced so as to show the clusters of buds, I
pinch each one at one joint l)cyond the first cluster, unless the
second is of good size, in which case both are left, but never
more than two. All superfluous shoots and buds are rubbed
off. As growth progresses, I pinch a second, third, and some-
times a fourth time, according to the luxuriance of the vines,
after which every thing is left to grow at random. After the
fall of the leaf every thing is cut away, except those buds which
are wanted for the next season's fruiting.

The ground has been fairly fed for crops of vegetables, &c.,
but has received nothing especially for the vines, except the
horn waste before mentioned. The growth has been uniformly
too luxuriant, and the canes too long-jointed. This tendency I
hope to overcome by withholding stimulating manures, and
shall apply only those of the opposite character.

Statement of W. G. Wyman.
The "Plantation of Native Grapes" which I offer for a
premium, consists of forty-seven vines, viz. : twenty-nine Con-
cord, six Diana, four Isabella, three Seedling, two Catawba,
one Rebecca, one Hartford Prolific, one Delaware. They were
set as follows, viz. : In the spring of 1857, one Concord, from
which all the Concord plants were obtained by layers, two
Diana, two Catawba, three Isabella, and three Seedling; in
1858, two Concord ; in 1859, two Diana, three Concord and
one Isabella; in 1860, eleven Concord, two Diana, one Rebecca,
one Hartford Prolific, and in 1801, twelve Concord and one
Delaware. Twenty-seven are in two rows twelve feet apart,
on the south side of a high, tight board fence, in my vegetable
garden. The plants are twelve feet apart in the rows. Between
the rows an under-drain was laid, varying from two and one-
half to three and one-half feet deep; trenches were dug for
the vines about twenty inches to two feet deep and three feet
wide, and filled with brush at the bottom, (mostly old wild
grape vines,) covered with bones, waste leather, old woollen
clothes, turf and good soil ; the vines set in the soil, without
other manure, and subsequently manured with ground bone,
super-phosphate of lime or aslies, each year until the present,
most of them not being manured at all this year, except as

VINEYARDS. 131

tliey get the benefit of the manure in the garden across a
border of six feet. Twenty are in one row, ten to twelve feet
apart, on the west and north sides of my fruit garden, east and
south of a lieavy wall ; the land by them was underdrained
from three to four and one-half feet deep, and the plants set in
nearly the same way, except that for a part of them, the soil
having been made deep and rich previously, they were set
without any additional preparation. I prune in the fall, cutting
back nearly to the ground the first two years, and then training
them to the trellis, which is of wire, until they fill it. I
always lay the vines upon the ground for winter, covering the
more tender ones slightly with earth, and have never had one,
that was so protected, injured, after it had become established
in the soil. I do not like to have other plants grow near the
grapes, within at least six feet, and endeavor to keep the soil
free from weeds, and mellow on the surface, stirring it fre-
quently through the entire season. After the grapes have set,
I thin them, and pinch in the ends of the vines frequently for
several weeks.

In 1860, fifteen of the vines bore freely, the fruit being of
good size and form, both bunch and berry, but on account of
an early frost, did not ripen perfectly, with the exception of the
Seedlings, which being very early, were gathered before the
frost, which occurred about the first of October. The present
season the crop has been abundant on all of these vines, and
nearly all the others set previous to this year commenced
bearing fruit, and the fruit has ripened perfectly, without
protection, even on the Catawba vines.

I obtain new plants mostly by layering. When pruning in
the fall, I save such vines near the ground as are suitable for
the purpose, and after they have started in the spring, I bury
them slightly in the soil, after having first cut them a little
more than half off between the eyes ; each eye then usually
produces a good plant for the next year's setting. I have,
however, this year raised several hundred plants from cuttings
saved at the fall pruning, buried in the ground over winter and
planted in the spring, but they are not so strong or good as
layers.

132 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

MANURES.

ESSEX.

From the Report of the Committee.

The committee on manures report that there was transferred
to tlicm, by the committee of last year, the statement of
Benjamin P. Ware, of Marblehead, of his first year's experi-
ment upon the proper depth of applying manure. As the
whole experiment is to extend over a period of three years
before any premium can be awarded, it is, of course, too
early to speak of Mr. Ware's experiment, except to express
the hope that it may be carried through, as the results, in the
hands of so careful a cultivator, cannot fail to be of practical
advantage.

Mr. Ware enters, for the general premium of the society,
an additional lot of land adjoining the five lots in course of
experiment for three years. He shows by this experiment the
benefits of a liberal supply of manure, and the comparison he
has instituted in this respect, commends itself to the committee
as worthy of the first premium, of fifteen dollars. His state-
ment will be found replete with interest. To understand the
treatment of the five other lots, with which No. 6 is compared,
reference may be had to the report on the Treadwell Farm in
the Transactions of 1860.

The committee are happy to say that having learned that
Richard S. Rogers had instituted a series of experiments in
top-dressing, upon his farm in South Danvers, they have been
favored by him with a statement hereto annexed, showing the
results of the same. From these experiments of two consecu-
tive seasons, it appears that green cow-manure has, with him,
proved the most efficient fertilizer as a top-dressing — a fact
which cannot but excite surprise and attention, as being so
widely at variance with the general practice and theory. But
facts are what is wanted, and they should receive our candid
and careful consideration. In confirmation of the experiment
of Mr. Rogers, we will quote from the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society for 1860, Part II., page 342, a note to a

MANURES. 133

prize essay, by Professor Turner, on the application of manure
to the farm : —

" I find the action of manure taken fresh from the yards in July so
satisfactory, that I feel no inducement whatever to keep back the more
costly, well-rotted manure for this purpose. With the uncertainty how
the season may alternate between showers and a powerful sunshine, I
cannot wish the ammonia in the dung to be in a forward state of devel-
opment. If the supply of food is small at first, but increasing as the
herbage grows round, through and over the dung, waste will be most
effectually prevented."

We commend the above views in connection with the
experiment of Mr. Rogers, to our thinking farmers. The
experiment has been carefully made, and the statement of it
is admirably drawn up. We take great pleasure in placing
it upon our records, in the Transactions, confident that it will
help sustain the high character they have had in the past, and
which it is our duty to endeavor to give to them in the future.

Allen W. Dodge.

Statement of Benjamin P. Ware.

Upon the 20th of April, the land, (a description of which
may be found in my last year's statement,) being sufficiently
dry, I ploughed it eight inches deep, and then harrowed it.
May 30th, I cross-ploughed it, harrowed and dragged it, which
left the land in good condition for the seed. June 1st, I sowed
with orange globe mangolds in drills, twenty inches apart, ten
drills in each lot, using no manure upon any of the five lots.
I propose to continue the experiment upon lot No. 6, by the
spreading upon the furrows, after the cross-ploughing, fine com-
post manure, composed of meadow mud, sea-kelp, and stable
manure, of equal parts, the whole drenched with night soil
forked over several times until well mixed and pulverized, at
the rate of nine cords per acre, which was harrowed in. In all
other respects, this lot was cultivated precisely as the other five.
Hoping by this experiment to prove the profit or loss of the
annual use of a liberal quantity of manure, in comparison witli
none at all or once in three years, the experiment on this lot
I respectfully offer for the Society's premium, independent of

134

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

the premium offered for tlic tliree years' experiment on the
other five lots.

The crop was hoed three times, and weeded by hand twice
during the season. At the second weeding, the plants were
thinned to six inches, and all vacancies were filled by trans-
planting.

October 29tli, the crop was pulled, topped and thrown in
heaps, where it remained one day to dry before weighing.

Lot No. 1 produced 3,170 pounds, at the rate of 25 tons, 720 pounds per acre.

2 " 3,160 " " 24 " 1,560 " "

3 " 3,200 " " 25 " 1,200 " "

4 " 2,810 " " 22 " 960 " "

5 " 2,110 " " 16 " 1,860 " "

6 " 4,500 " " 30 "

Thus showing a balance in favor of lot No. 6, as com-
pared with lot No. 5, (where no manure was applied
last year,) of nineteen tons one hundred and forty
pounds per acre, which, at eight dollars per ton, the
market value this year, (much less than last, or
many previous years,) would amount to . . $)152 56

Deduct value of nine cords manure, at five dollars, . 45 00

Net profit in favor of the manure for this year, . $107 56

The effects of manure upon the second year's crop,
may be seen by deducting the weight of the crop of
No. 5 from the crop of No. 1, which is eight tons
eight hundred and sixty pounds, at eight dollars, 67 44

Which, added to this year's profit, makes a total of $175 00
in favor of the liberal use of manure upon one acre against
using none.

A Synopsis of ihe Weather during the last season.

First Third.

Second Third.

Last Third

May,

. moist.

dry.

moist.

June,

. moist.

dry.

dry.

July,

. very dry.

moist.

moist.

August, .

. moist.

moist.

moist.

September,

. dry.

dry.

dry.

Marblehe.\d, November 12, 18G1.

MANURES. 135

Statement of Richard S. Rogers.
In consequence of a generally expressed wish to learn my
second year's results in top-dressing of grass lands, I am
induced to give the results of a series of experiments made by
me for two consecutive years — the first in 1860, which was
published in the " New England Farmer " of February of the
present year, — cind of those made this season ; and for the
better information of those who may not have had an opportu-
nity of seeing them at the time they were published, I have
thought best to embody them in the present statement. They
were as follows : —

There is no subject in agriculture deserving of more inquiry,
and of greater importance to the farming interests, than the
knowledge of the best kind of fertilizers to be used for top-
dressing grass lands. As yet, but little is actually known by
which to arrive at any practical results for obtaining the largest
crop of grass.

I have read very carefully the remarks and discussions had
at the several meetings in the State House on the subject, and
as yet am far from the information desired. Tbeories and
crude speculations will not enlighten me in the case, and it is
only actual experiments and comparison of the several kinds
of fertilizers in general use, that can afford the valuable
information so much wanted by every farmer. When these
experiments are made, and clearly explained, they will open to
us a knowledge of vast importance. For what crop is there of
greater value than the hay crop ? With the present implements
now used in husbandry, none can be more easily produced, for
the means are within the reach of every one, either by owning
or hiring the best mowers, tedders and others machines iieces-
sary for the purpose.

The desire of knowing something more definite and practical
on this interesting subject, induced me, the last season, to
institute, in a small way, a series of experiments, in the hope
that I might derive some benefit myself and be useful to others.
Accordingly, in April last, I selected a field best adapted to the
purpose — very uniform in the sward, free from shade and other
objections — and staked out five several lots, each measuring

136

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

two hundred and fifty feet long by forty-five feet wide, and top-
dressed them with the various fertilizers, as follows : —

No. 1. Two cords of manure, well rotted and mixed with
one and one-half horse-carts of soil.

No. 2. One hundred and twenty bushels leached wood ashes.

No. 3. Two cords green cow-manure, the droppings of only a
few days before.

No. 4. Eighty bushels unleached or dry wood ashes.

No. 5. Two hundred and fifty-five pounds pure Peruvian
guano, mixed with one and one-half horse-carts of brook mud.

The cost or value of the top-dressing, for each lot, was as
near ten dollars as possible. The grass was very carefully cut
and made — the first crop in July, the second in September —
and accurately weighed, yielding as follows : —

1st Crop.

2d Crop.

Aggregate.

No. 1, . . .

790 lbs.

380 lbs.

1,170 lbs. Compost.

2, . . .

680 lbs.

440 lbs.

1,120 lbs. Leached ashes.

3, . . .

960 lbs.

040 lbs.

1,600 lbs. Green cow manure.

4, . . .

900 lbs.

550 lbs.

1,450 lbs. Dry ashes.

5, . . .

1,300 lbs.

370 lbs.

1,670 lbs. Peruvian guano.

4,630 lbs.

2,380 lbs.

7,010 lbs.

You are aware the early spring was very dry, and quite a
drought prevailed during the months of April and May. This
no doubt retarded vegetation, and checked, particularly, the
fertilizing qualities of the ashes, as they laid in the sward for
a length of time as dry as when first spread. The copious
rains afterwards produced a wonderful change in thickening up
of the grass. Tiie guano dressing, you will observe, produced
much the largest quantity on tlie first crop, although very little
more than the green cow-manure with the aggregate of both
crops.

The second mowing of tlie guano lot disappointed me, and
its short-comings on the second crop almost conclusively proved

MANURES.

137

that it had lost much of its fertilizing properties in the produc-
tion of the first crop of grass. It would not surprise me, on
the return of the next season, to find the green cow-manure lot
superior, and more reliable, than either of the other fertilizers
as a general dressing. Should the return of the next year's
mowing result as I anticipate, I may possibly trespass upon
your valuable paper at a future day."

Having given the statement of 1860, I now proceed to show
the results of the present season, wishing it to be distinctly
understood that no additional top-dressing of any kind has
been applied since the spring of 1860 : —

1st Crop.

2d Crop.

Aggregate.

No. 1, . . .

850 lbs.

240 lbs.

1,090 lbs. Compost.

2, . . .

980 lbs.

420 lbs.

1,400 lbs. Leacbed ashes.

3, . . .

1,300 lbs.

450 lbs.

1,750 lbs. Green cow manure.

4, . . .

1,350 lbs.

540 lbs.

1,890 lbs. Dry ashes.

5, .- . .

730 lbs.

140 lbs.

870 lbs. Peruvian guano.

5,210 lbs.

1,790 lbs.

7,000 lbs.

In order to show this year's results, the stakes were very
carefully preserved, and great care observed in mowing the
several lots, and especially as to the true weight of each. It
will be observed that the difference in yield of the aggregates
of 1860 and 1861, is very small — the former being 7,010
pounds, the latter 7,000 pounds, and yet it will be perceived
that there is a great difference in the results of the several
fertilizers used in these experiments ; but when looked at sepa-
rately, this difference is satisfactorily accounted for.

Having already given a statement of last year's results, as
well as those of this year, I shall now confine ray remarks
principally to show where this difference happens. On looking
over the results, it will be found mainly in the falling off of the
guano-dressed lot, and in the great increase in the ashes lots ;
for the guano lot gave this season, on its first cutting, only

18

138

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

730 pounds (against 1,300 pounds last year) ; on the second,
only 140 pounds (against 370 pounds). The dry ashes very
much increased — the first giving 1,350 pounds (against 900
pounds last year) ; on the second, 540 pounds (against 550
pounds). The green cow-manure did well both seasons. The
leached ashes likewise did well.

I am satisfied, from a close observation and from practical
results, that g-i'een coiv-manure is one of the best fertilizers, and
the safest to be used for top-dressing of grass sward.

The compost lot resulted about the same both years. The
results of the two years — 1860 and 1861 — will be found as
follows : —

18GO.

18G1.

Aggregate.

Number 1,

1,170

1,090

2,200

2,.

1,120

1,400

2,520

3,

1,600

1,750

3,350

4,

1,450

1,890

3,340

5,

1,670

870

2,540

7,010

7,0C0

14,010

From the foregoing statements, the dry and leached ashes
and cow-manure show the best results as fertilizers ; and, as
stated last year, had the months of April and May given their
usual quantity of rain, instead of being very dry, the ashes,
particularly, would have added very much to the crops ; but
vegetation was generally checked, and the ashes did not act so
powerfully as they otherwise would.

The Peruvian guano is a great stimulant^ and can be used
for some purposes to great advantage ; but as a durable or
permanent top-dressing for grass — excepting for one crop— I
should doubt its efficacy. As a proof, witness the first cutting
last season, which was 1,600 pounds, and the first cutting of
this season, only 730 pounds ; and the second only 140 pounds.
In fact, the appearance of the sward at this moment, dressed

MANURES. 139

by the guano — and the other lots by ashes and green cow-
manure — is most striking : that by the guano is ahnost entirely
dry and seared, while the others are clothed with almost luxu-
riant verdure.

Having turned my attention very particularly to top-dressing
of my grass lands, for several years past, I may be permitted
to speak very confidently of the great advantages to be derived
from practicing it ; and perhaps have realized as much benefit
as any one from pursuing it.

Oak Hill, South Danvers, October 29, 1861.

Report of the Experiment on the Application of Manures on the
^^ Treadwell Farm" the year o/* 1861, competing for the Premiums
as offered hy the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agri-
culture, and also by the Essex Agricultural Society.

Land selected ; level.

Amount of land ; two and one-half acres.

Quality of land ; light, dry, not retentive of manures.

Crop of 1860 ; grass.

No manure in 1860.

Kind of manure used 1861 ; stable manure which had been
thrown into the hog-yard from day to day.

Amount ; twenty cords.

Depth of ploughing ; eight inches.

Five cords applied to Lot No. 1, and ploughed eight inches
deep the whole field.

Five cords applied to Lot No. 2, and the whole field cross-
ploughed four inches deep.

Five cords applied to Lot No. 3, and the whole field harrowed
twice.

Five cords applied to Lot No. 4, and left exposed on the
surface.

Lot No. 5, no manure.

May 13th, 1861, ihe whole piece was planted with corn
known as the " Flint Corn," the hills three and one-half feet
apart each way.

June 10th, cultivated the whole field, both ways, and com-
menced hoeing, and hoed the whole field, keeping the land
level.

140

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

June 17, cultivated the wliolc field, both ways.
June 25, cultivated the whole field, both ways.
June 25, 26 and 29, cleared out every weed to be found.
July 2, cultivated the whole field both ways.
July 8, cultivated the whole field both ways.
August lo, 14 and 15, sowed winter rye and grain seed, as
per order, and hoed over the entire field.
Corn harvested October IGth to 20tli, 18G1.

Amount of corn and weight of corn stover —

Amount of Corn.

Weight of Stover.

No. 1,

• 561-

bush

. ears.

2,950 lbs

2,

50

((

2,270

3,

43

a

1,330

4,

. 37|

a

1,270

5,

15

u

500

Weather Hejwrt of 18 Gl. — Amount of Sain.

May, first third, 0.952 in. ; - - last third, 1.106 in.

June, " 2.255 in. _ _ _ -

July, " 0.394 in. ; second third, 1.217 in. ; last third, 0.544 in.

Aug., " 1.564 in. ; " 2.210 in. ; " 0.554 in.
Sept., - - " 1.564 in.

Experiment of 1860 continued.

Land ploughed six inches deep.

April 29, 1861, barley sown, five bushels ; grass seed, red-
top, three bushels ; clover seed, fifteen pounds. Well har-
rowed and rolled.

July 29th, harvested.

Weight of barley and straw, and quantity of barley —

Barley and Straw.

Quantity of Barley.

No. 1,

730 lbs.

2f bush.

9

970

H

3,

970

6^

4,

1,060

5

5,

660

3|

MANURES.

141

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

Statement of J. B. V. Cuburn.
I have continued the experiment on the application of
manures, <fec., through the season of 1861, and send you the
following result. The lots you will perceive from my last year's
report contained just one-fourth of an acre of land each, and
were ploughed and sowed the third week in April ; ploughed
about seven inches deep ; harrowed once before and twice after
sowing; sowed about two bushels to the acre. Each lot was
harvested and threshed separate, and the result is as follows : —

No. 1, . . . wheat, 4| bush

. ; straw, 480 lbs.

2 " ,^-'-

" 600

3, . . . "5

" 620

4, . . . "6

" 650

5 " 2^-

u, . . . ^2

" 240

A Synopsis of the Weather from May

\st to October 1st.

First Third.

Middle Third. Last Third.

May, .... dry.

dry. dry.

June, .... moist.

moist. moist

July, .... moist.

moist. moist

August, .... dry.

moist. dry.

September, . . . moist.

wet. wet.

WORCESTER NORTH.

Statement of W. G. Wyman.

Being requested by last year's committee on experiments to
notice and publish the condition of my field this year, I offer the
following statement of the continuation in 1861 with grass, of
my experiment commenced in 1860 with wheat, on the effects
of different kinds of fertilizers, as compared with none. The
division of the field into lots, and the numbers of them, are the
same as in 1860.

The weight of clover hay and rowen, when thoroughly dried
on an average rod, is as follows : —

No. 1, hay, 41 lbs. ; rowen, 21 lbs. ; total, 02. Rate per acre, 4 tons, 1,920 lbs.

2, «' 37 " 12 " 49. " " 3 " 1,840

3, " 33 " 21 " 54. " " 4 " G40

4, " 28 « ~8 " 36. " " 2 " 1,760

142 MASSACnUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

At $10 per ton for tlie hay and rowen, the value of the
fertilizers for the present crop, per acre, is as follows : —

Stable manure on No. 1, 8-0.80 for 2 tons and 160 lbs. increase.
Ground bone on 2, 10.40 " 1 ton " 80 "

Super-phosphate on 3, 11.40 " 1 " " 880 "

As compared with no manure on No. 4.

By comparing this with last year's statement, published on
the seventy-eighth page of the Report for 1860, it will be seen
that the value of the fertilizers for the two crops, — wheat in
1860, at $1.25 per bushel, and hay in 1861, at $10 per ton,—
is as follows : —

Stable manure, f525.80 per acre; cost, $18.00; net gain, |7.80 per acre.
Ground bone, 12.07 " " 7.50 " 4.57 «

Super-phosphate, 17.73 " " 6.25 " 11.48 "

The wheat stubble and young clover was mowed and taken
off in September, 1860. The clover was mowed July 13th, and
the rowen September 9th, 1861.

Statement of Albert Stratton.
Statement of the progress of the forty-five rods of land on
■which I made the different applications of manure last year, to
a corn crop. This year ploughed once, the 18th of May, seven
inches deep, harrowed well ; sowed one bushel of oats on the
five lots, or six and two-fifths quarts on each lot, harrowed and
brushed in the seed, oats and grass ; harvested August 17th
with hand cradle ; put in stocks one week ; threshed and
weighed as follows : —

No. 1, . . . oats, 54 lbs; straw, 115 lbs.

2, . . .

3, . . .

4, . . .

5, . . .

Statement of Isaac B. Woodivard.
Last year I furnished you with a statement of my experiment
on the use of manures, and the result, as far as an almost
total failure of the crop seemed to require. I will now state

il.

52

((

106

a

50

a

104

u

52.^

a

105

a

44

a

91

MANURES.

143

the result of the experiment as affecting the crop of wheat this
year. The lot, it will be remembered, was divided into five
equal parts, each containing four square rods. The piece was
ploughed twice the first week iu May, 18G1 ; the first time
seven inches, and the second time six inches deep, and sowu
with wheat. The crop was harvested on the 16th of August,
and the several lots yielded as follows : —

No. 1,

2,
3,
4,
5,

wheat, 32 lbs. 14 oz. ; straw, 46 lbs. 7 oz.

27

10

u

39

6

30

14

((

44

11

29

14

a

39

9

23

6

a

31

12

It will be seen that the crop of No. 2, where the manure was
ploughed in six inches deep, is less than that of the other
manured lots. This is partly owing, I think, to the fact that
about one rod of it was badly injured by worms. The weather
was as follows : —

First Third.

Second Third.

Last Third.

May,

wet.

dry.

wet.

June,

wet.

dry.

dry.

July,

dry.

dry.

moist

August, .

moist.

dry.

dry.

September,

moist.

dry.

dry.

Statement of W. G. Wijman.

A statement of the continuation in 1861 of my experiment
commenced in 1860, on the proper depth of applying manures,
in accordance with the requirements of the Board of Agriculture.

The size of the field, one acre and thirty-two square rods ;
the division into lots of thirty-two rods each, and the numbers
of the lots, the same as in 1860.

The field was ploughed once, about six to seven inches deep.
May 1st and 2d ; harrowed once ; sowed May 3d, with two
and one-fourth bushels of Scotch fife wheat, one-half bushel
each of Timothy and redtop seed, and fifteen pounds
clover ; harrowed again and brushed. The grain was cradled
and got into the barn without stooking, August 12th to lOih ;

144

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

threshed by hand and weighed October 4th and 5th. The
grain louse, aphides^ almost covered the heads of wheat on
the whole field before ripening, and caused tlie kernel to be
very much shrivelled. Tiie weevil, or wheat midge, also was
found in all parts of the field, which ate out the centre of the
kernel to a considerable extent, destroying it so that the shell
of it would blow away with the chaff in winnowing. The
injurious effects of these insects appeared to be pretty evenly
distributed through the several lots, so that when examined, as
it frequently was by myself and others, we could not see that
any one lot was more seriously affected than another.

The wheat and straw weighed as follows : —

No. 1, . . wheat 203 lbs. ; straw, 466 lbs.

9 '

170

403

192

449

183

503

62

255

163

446

■ 4, . . '

5, . . '

6, . . '

The weather during the season of growth was as follows

First Third.

Middle Third.

Last Third.

Total.

in. rain.

in. rain.

in. rain.

in. rain.

]\Iay,

Wet, . 2.417

Dry, . 0.430

Moist, 0.861

3.708

June,

Wet, . 1.778

Dry, . 0.788

No rain.

2.566

July,

Wet, . 2.256

Moist, 1.848

Dry, . 1.S54

5.958

August, .

Dry, . 1.330

Moist, 2.680

Dry, . 0.168

4.178

Total amount of rain that fell during the four mc

nths,

16.410

NORFOLK.

Stalement of Charles Breck.

My experiment on manure was conducted in every respect
according to the requirements of the State Board of Agricul-
ture.

The piece of land selected as the one best adapted to the
experiment was an old pasture, which had probably been used

MANURES. 145

as such fifty years or more, and, consequently, no part of it had
been affected by any application of manure before the present
season. It contained thirty-four rods, and was divided into nine
lots ; five containing four rods each for the County and State
experiment, three of four rods each for trial of super-phosphate
by the side of manure, and one of two rods with house ashes.

The land was of a light, loamy soil, with a gravelly sub-soil.
It was ploughed between seven and eight inches deep. The
result was as follows : No. 1 had 116 pounds of corn on the
cob, and 118 pounds of fodder, which was at the rate of 59.48
bushels of shelled corn, and 4,720 pounds of fodder per acre.
No. 2 had 128 pounds of corn on the cob, and 103 pounds of
fodder, which was at the rate 65.64 bushels of shelled corn,
and 4,120 pounds of fodder per acre. No.*3 had 118 pounds
of corn on the cob, and 79 pounds of fodder, which was at the
rate of 60.51 bushels of shelled corn, and 3,160 pounds of
fodder per acre. No. 4 had 56 pounds of corn on the cob,
and 42 pounds of fodder, which was at the rate of 28.71
bushels of shelled corn, and 1,680 pounds of fodder per
acre. No. 5 had 23 pounds of corn on the cob, and 25
pounds of fodder, which was at the rate of 11.64 bushels of
shelled corn and 1,000 pounds of fodder per acre. The quan-
tity of manure used was an even horse-cart body full for each
lot, or twenty feet, equal to six and one-fourth cords per acre.
It was horse and pig manure, in which leaves had been freely
used for litter. It was made the previous winter, and had been
carted to the field a few weeks before using.

The average of the four lots on which manure was used was
53.73 bushels of shelled corn, and 3,420 pounds of fodder per
acre, or 42.09 bushels of corn, and 2,420 pounds of fodder per
acre more than on that where no manure was used.
Taking then No. 5, on which no manure was used, as
the standard of what the ground would produce
without manure, we have a clear gain of 42.09
bushels of corn, which at $1 per bushel is . . $42 09
And 2,420 pounds of fodder, which at 88 per ton is . 9 68

$51 77
From which, if we deduct the value of six and one-
fourth cords of manure, at 87 per cord, . . . $43 75

Leaves as profit which the manure brought over its cost, $8 02

19

146 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Or if we take that which appeared to be the most judicious
application of the manure, we find a clear profit of $22.73 per
acre.

The value of the crops on the several lots, by the above
estimate, is as follows : —

On No. 1, where the manure was turned under at the first
ploughing, f78.36. On No. 2, on which the manure was
ploughed in at the second ploughing, $82.12. On No. 3,
where the manure was cultivated in, $73.15. On No. 4, where
the manure was spread upon the surface after planting, $35.43,
and where there was no manure, $15.64.

The calculation of the corn was made by taking seventy-
eight pounds of corn on the cob as equal to one bushel of
shelled corn. *

In continuation of the experiment, No. 6 had a small handful
of Coe's super-phosphate in the hill before planting, which was
well mixed with the soil, and also a small quantity spread upon
the surface at the first hoeing, and mixed with the soil. No. 7
had the same spread upon the surface after planting, and again
after the first hoeing. No. 8 had the same spread on the surface
after the first, and again after the second hoeing. No. 9 had
ashes spread on the surface after the first and second hoeing.
The super-phosphate used was 800 pounds per acre, and the
ashes, 80 bushels per acre.

No. 6 had 55 pounds of corn on the cob, and 47 pounds of
fodder, which is at the rate of 28.20 bushels of shelled corn and
1,880 of fodder per acre. Nos. 7 and 8 were so nearly alike that
they were harvested and weighed together. They had each 57-^
pounds of corn, and 46| pounds of fodder, at the rate of 29.84
bushels of shelled corn and 1,860 pounds of fodder per acre.

Average of Lots Nos. 6, 7 and 8, —
Corn, 29.29 bushels, value, ......

Fodder, 1,866 lbs., at $8 per ton,

Deduct as before the produce of No. 5, .

From which deduct the super-phosphate, . •

And we have as the value of the super-phosphate, . . .$111

. $29

. 7

29

46

$36 75
. 15 64

$21
. 20

11

00

MANURES. 147

No 9 had 19 pounds of corn on the cob, and 21 pounds of
fodder, which is at the rate of 19.48 bushels of shelled corn and
1,680 pounds of fodder per acre.

Value, calculated as above, $26 20

Deduct No. 5, as before, 15 64

$10 5G
Eighty bushels ashes, at one shilling per bushel, . . • 13 33

Which leaves No. 9 in debt at present, . . . . $2 77

Thus the account stands at the present time. The past season
has been a very dry one, and undoubtedly has affected the crops
very much ; but whether it has one kind of manure more than
another, it is impossible at present to determine. I am inclined
to the opinion that the super-phosphate has been affected by it
more than the other manure, from the fact that in many hills of
potatoes which were planted with it, it remained without much
alteration at digging time ; and possibly it may show itself to
better advantage in the succeeding crops than it has at the
present time ; if so, due notice will be taken of it. One thing,
however, is certain this year with me, it has not paid for using ;
while the other manure used, except the ashes, has paid a
handsome profit in the present crop, with a fair prospect of
more to follow.

The lots were all planted with yellow corn the 21st of May,
and cultivated and hoed twice. It all came up very nearly the
same time, and looked very much alike ; but soon Nos. 2 and
3 went ahead of the rest, which continued for several weeks ;
then No. 1 began to go ahead, and the latter part of the season
appeared to be the best, which is accounted for by the fact that
there was more fodder than on either of the other lots. The
last of September the corn was cut up and stacked on the
adjoining land, and October 2 the piece was ploughed and
sowed with rye and grass seed, which at the present time look
well, and very much alike on the whole piece.

Si/nopsis of the Weather.
]\Iay, dry month, — good showers in each third.
June, 1st third, moist ; 2d third, dry ; last third, moist.
July, " " dry; " " dry; " " dry.
Aug., " " dry; " " dry; " " dry.
Sept., " " dry; " " dry; " " dry.

148

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The average of the thermometer for May was 54.13 degrees,
wliicli was nearly two degrees less than the average of the last
twelve years, and about two degrees colder than the last two
years.

The average of June was 65.43 degrees, which was a little
lower than the average of the last twelve years, yet a little
warmer than for the last two years.

The average of July was 71.17 degrees, like June, a little
lower tlian the average of the last twelve years, and about two
and a half degrees higher than the last two years.

The average for August was 66.92 degrees, about one degree
colder than the last twelve years, and three degrees colder than
last year.

The average of September was 60.63 degrees, which was
about two degrees colder than the last twelve years, and about
one degree warmer than either of the last two years.

Milton, November 20, 1861.

Recapitulation.

2 A

■o

t*-, —

-3 <u

Sex

■3 £ =

S o

Q

O

s „ s

<H o 2

« s

o «

O

f 1 i

O I.

° S fe

oSl

> 5

01

•s;

to g

■a o u

§ fe ^

3 I. »

•3 S

'3 o

S "d

3 "S e.

"v ,§

"a o. »

o <=■

^

^

«

^

>

> ■= "

B

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

No. 1, . . .

116

118

59.48

4,720

^59 48

$18 88

$78 36

Ko. 2, . . .

128

103

65.64

4,120

65 64

16 48

82 12

No. 3, . . .

118

79

60.51

3,160

60 51

12 61

73 15

No. 4, . . .

56

42

28.71

1,680

28 71

6 72

35 43

No. 5, . . .

23

25

11.64

1,000

11 64

4 00

15 64

Statement of Aaro7i D. Weld.

I shall confine myself to the simple statement. I selected a
level piece of land from a field of six acres, containing one
hundred square rods, and divided it into five equal parts of
twenty square rods each.

The character of the soil is rather heavy than otherwise,
loamy, dry and retentive of manure.

MANURES.

149

The last crop from the field was grass, one-half ton to the
acre, having been down to grass seven years without top-
dressing.

Six feet of well-rotted stable manure were applied to lots
Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 each. No. 5 had no manure. No. 1 was
spread, and the whole piece ploughed eight inches deep. No.
2 was then spread, and the whole piece cross-ploughed four
inches deep. No. 3 was then spread, and the whole piece har-
rowed. May 16, the five lots were planted with corn in hills "Si-
feet by 2| feet, and the manure then spread on to lot No. 4.

The piece was cultivated and hoed June 14th and 26th.

One-third of each lot I have taken as the basis of my calcu-
lations.

September 14tli the corn was cut at the butt, shocked and
weighed, with the following result : —

Lot No. 1 weighed . . . 865 lbs.

1,095
895
760
580

October 1st it was husked and weighed, and a portion shelled
to estimate upon, with the following result : —

6 2-3 EoDS.

20 Squaee Rods.

ACKE.

Actual

Estimated

Estimated

Estimated

Estimated

Ear.

Shelled.

in Ear.

Shelled.

Shelled.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

bushels. lbs.

bushels.

Lot No. 1, ,

230

170

690

8 30

68

2, . .

274

202

822

10 6

80.48

3, . .

253

187

759

9 21

74.48

4, . .

200

148

600

7 24

59.12

5, . .

167

123

501

6 9

49.12

Weight of Stover.

Actual -weight.

Estimated.

Efitimated.

Lot No. 1, .

635 lbs.

1,905 lbs.

7.1240 tons.

2, .

731

2,193

8.1544

3, . .

642

1,926

7.1408

4, . .

590

1,770

7.160

5, . .

413

1,239

4.1912

The whole piece was sown to winter rye and Timothy grass
seed, September 20th — about five pecks of rye, and a fraction
over one bushel of Timothy seed to the acre.

150

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Synopsis of the Weather.

First third. Middle third.

Last third

May,

. moist.

dry.

moist

June,

. dry.

dry.

dry.

July,

. dry.

dry.

dry.

August, .

. dry.

dry.

dry.

September,

. moist.

dry.

dry.

I marked off one additional Lot, which is numbered " 6,"
and cultivated that — as is the usual practice on the farm —
precisely like No. 3, except that we apply to the hills about two
cords of night-soil and meadow mud well mixed, to the acre.

The result Of this Lot was as follows : —

September 14th, weight of corn and stalks. Lot No. 6
weighed 840 pounds.

Weight, Hushed and Shelled.

Actual

weight in

Ear.

Estimated
Shelled.

20 Sqcare Bods.

Estimated
in Ear.

Estimated
Shelled.

Estimated.
Shelled.

Lot No. 6, .

Weight of Stover.
Lot No. 6,

lbs.

254

lbs.

187

Actual weight.

586 lbs.

lbs.

762

lbs.

21

Estimated.

1,758 lbs.

bushels.

74.48

Estimated.

7.64 tons.

PLYMOUTH.

Statement of Spencer Leonard, Jr.

Having entered as a competitor for the premium offered for
the best experiment in the application of manures, payable in
1860, I will give you an account of my operations.

The lot of land selected was a warm, sandy loam, of very
even quality, had been in grass four years, producing about
fifteen hundred pounds of hay to the acre.

May 4th, 5th and 6th, 1858, applied twelve cartloads of good
manure, of thirty-eight cubic feet each, upon one-half of the
acre, and ploughed the whole acre about seven inches deep ;
four or five days after, the same amount of manure, and of a
like quality, was spread upon the other half, and the whole

MANURES. 151

well harrowed. May 15th, .the corn was all planted, without
any thing in the hill ; the corn came up well and commenced
growing, the half acre on which the manure was harrowed in
soon taking the lead, and looking much the best up to about
the 1st of August, when the other half acre began to gain upon
it rapidly, and at the 1st of September it was evident that the
half acre upon which the manure was ploughed in was equal
if not superior to the other. The season has been wet, and I
should judge, very favorable to the half acre upon which the
manure was harrowed in.

A cultivator was passed through three times, and it was hoed
twice. The corn was harvested upon the half acre upon
which the manure was harrowed in, one week before it was
upon the other, as the corn kept green longer upon the part
where the manure was ploughed in than where it was harrowed
in, and at the time of harvesting each part, as near as I could
judge, was very nearly of an equal dryness. It was harvested
from the 12th to the 20th of October, and weighed as follows : —

Lbs. Lbs.

Sound corn on half-acre, manure ploughed in, . 2,849
Soft corn on half-acre, manure ploughed in, . 137

2,986

2,898

Sound corn on half-acre, manure harrowed in, . 2,787
Soft corn on half-acre, manure harrowed in, . Ill

Balance in favor of manure ploughed in, . . 88

1859. April 5th. Three bushels of oats were sowed upon
the acre, evenly, well harrowed and rolled ; the grass seed was
sowed before rolling. The oats were cut July 28th and 29th,
well dried, put in the barn, and threshed by a machine, Sep-
tember 5 and 6, and produced as follows : —

Half-acre., manure ploughed in. Half-acre, manure harrowed in.

Grain, . . . 1 7| bush. Grain, . . . . 17 bush.
Straw, estimated, . 1,500 lbs. Straw,estimated, . . 1,800 lbs.

I860.— Weight of hay, . . 989 lbs. I860.— Weight of hay, . . 1,059 lbs.

1861.— Weight of hay, . . 948 lbs. 1861.— Weight of hay, . . 775 lbs.

152

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

> Value of Produce for Four Years on ihe^ half-acre, Manure Ploughed in.
1858. 2,849 lbs. of sound corn, at 1 ct. per lb., . S28 49

1859.

18C0.
18G1.

137
2,1G6

173
1,500

989
948

soft corn,
stover,

oats, .
straw, .

hay,
hay.

Total,

50 cts. per cwt.,
40 cts. per cwt.,

50 cts. per bush.,
35 cts. per cwt.,

S18 per ton, .
$15 per ton, .

68
66

8 87
5 25

S37 83

14 12
8 90
7 11

S67 96

Value of Produce for Four Years on the half-acre, Manure Harrowed in.

1858. 2,787 lbs. of sound corn, at 1 ct. per lb.,

S2

1859.

1860.
1861.

Ill
2,210

17
1,800

1,059
775

soft corn,
stover,

oats, .
straw, .

hay, .
hay, .

50 cts. per cwt.,
40 cts. per cwt,

50 cts. per bush.,
35 cts. per cwt.,

$18 per ton,.
$15 per ton.

87
55
8 84

8 50
6 30

837 26

14 80
9 53
5 81

Total,

Balance in favor of ploughing in manure,

$67 40

56

Statement of Spencer Leonard, Jr.

Ilaving entered as a competitor for the premium offered in
1860, payable in 1862, for an experiment in the application of
manures, I will give you an account of the grain crop of this
year.

The crop was barley, and the ground was ploughed, April
29th, about seven inches deep, but owing to wet weather the
grain was not sowed until May 6th, applying two and one-half
bushels to the acre. The ground was then well harrowed, and
before rolling, grass seed, at the rate of ten pounds clover, eight
quarts herds, and six quarts blue grass seed, was sowed. The
barley came up well, but the continued wet and cold weather,
for some six weeks, gave it a sickly appearance, when the sud-
den turn of some weeks of dry weather injured it the other way,
and the result is a light crop. It was cut July 2-ith, and
threshed out by hand August 1st, and I obtained from

Plot No.

1, . .

. Grain, 1 busli. 4

9

"1

. Grain, 1 9

3, . .

. Grain, 1 5

4, . .

. Grain, 1 4

5, . .

. Grain, 24

53

Straw,

75

49

Straw,

64

47

Straw,

64

29^

Straw,

39

MANURES. 153

The weather, while the crop was in the field, was nearly as
follows : —

May, 1st ten days, wet ; 2d ten days, wet ; last ten days, moist.
June, " " wet; " " moist; " " dry.
July, '• " dry; " " dry; " " moist.
Each plot contained twelve rods of ground.

Statement of Spencer Leonard, Jr.

Having entered as a competitor for the premium offered for
an application of manure, payable in 1863, I will state that the
lot contains sixty rods, is a light sandy loam, has been in grass
three years, producing about three-fourths of a ton of hay to
the acre. It was divided into five equal parts, each two rods
wide and six rods long.

May 7th, two loads, of thirty-eight cubic feet each, of good
manure, was spread upon plot No. 1, and the whole lot was
ploughed about seven inches deep. The same amount, and of
like quality of manure, was then spread upon plot No. 2, and
the whole lot was cross-ploughed about four inches deep ; then
the same amount was spread upon plot No. 3, and the whole
well harrowed, and marked out for planting, three feet five
inches apart, each way. The same amount was then spread
upon plot No. 4, and May 9 the whole was planted with a
medium-sized yellow corn, called in this vicinity Alden corn.
A cultivator was passed through it four times, and it was hoed
three times.

September 10th the corn was cut and shocked, care being
taken to keep each part entirely separate ; and September 13tli
the ground was sowed to rye. October 15 the corn was taken
iu and husked, and weighed as follows : —

Plot No. 1, . . . . good corn, 301 lbs. soft corn, 57 lbs. Fodder, 274 lbs.

2, . . . . good corn, 287 soft corn, 56 Fodder, 253

3, . . . . good corn, 295 soft corn, 56 Fodder, 249

4, . . . . good corn, 277 soft corn, 42 Fodder, 230

5, . . . . good corn, 219 soft corn, 36 Fodder, 203

20

154 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The weather has been nearly as follows : —

]May, first ten days, wet ; middle ten days, wet ; last ten days, moist.

June, " " " wet; " " " moist; " " " dry.

July, " « " dry; " " " dry; " " " moist.

August, " » " moist; " " " moist; " " " moist.

September, " " " moist; " " " dry; " " " moist

The corn came up well, and where the manure was put,
looked well throughout the season, and produced, as you will
see, at the rate of a fraction over fifty-one bushels to the acre,
reckoning eighty-five pounds, on the ear, for a bushel.

Statement of Caleb Bates.

Peat Composts. — I staked out a five acre lot, on which to
apply peat. On one acre I applied about two hundred loads
four years ago ; on another acre I put about the same last year ;
and hading beneficial results, on the remaining three acres I
have put, this last summer, six hundred and seventy loads,
putting one load in a pile, and spreading over each heap about
one-third of a bushel of unleached ashes, putting on, in all, two
hundred and forty bushels.

This I consider the most judicious method of composting
with ashes. As it is softened by exposure it is desirable to have
it in small parcels. By covering the heaps with unleached
ashes the rains leach it into the peat, and then the frost, before
spring, will complete the work of disintegration, and make an
excellent and durable fertilizer.

When I compost peat with foetid substances, I keep it in
large piles to prevent the escape of ammonia, making the
expense double in carting, over composting with ashes, as above
described.

NANTUCKET.

Edward W. Gardner'' s Statement of the products of his
Experimental Application of Manures, entered for Premium,
in 1860.

The whole piece of ground experimented upon in 1860, was
ploughed eight inches deep on the 5th of April, 1861, and on the
9th of the same month was sowed with six quarts of spring Java

MANURES.

155

wheat, three quarts redtop, one quart Timothy, and one-half
pound red clover seed, to each of the five parts. July 31st the
wheat was reaped, and the products of each part were as
follows, viz. :

No. 1, .

2

3, .

4, .

5, .

Wheat, 321 lbs. Stover, 51| lbs.

Wheat, 28
Wheat, 34
Wheat, 23
Wheat, 14

Stover, 71
Stover, 103
Stover, 90|
Stover, 19

The wheat came up thinly, and at first seemed to have good
heads, but the ends were filled with lice, which did the grain
much harm. Allowing sixty pounds to the bushel —

No. 1

produced

. . . lliAb

ushels per

acre.

2

((

. . . 10,2^

li

((

3

a

. . . 12if

a

a

4

ii

. . . 81A

a

((

5

((

. . . 5^V
Weather Table, 1861.

ii

u

First third. Middle third.

Last third

May,

.

. moist.

dry.

moist.

June,

.

. moist.

dry.

dry.

July,

.

• dry.

dry.

dry.

August,

.

. dry.

wet.

dry.

September,

. dry.

moist.

dry.

Edward W. Gardner'' s Statement of the results of his Experi-
viental Application of Manures, entered for Premium, in
1861.

The land selected this year, joins that experimented upon
last year, and is of about the same quality, sandy loam on a
subsoil of clay and gravel, rather moist, and retentive of
manures. It received, last year, about thirty loads of manure
to the acre, which was ploughed in eight inches deep, and was
planted with corn, and produced a good crop. It measures
forty-five feet by two hundred and fifty-five, and was divided
into five equal parts of forty-five by fifty-one feet. April 1st,

156 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

three loads of manure from the hog-pen was put on No. 1,
and the whole was ploughed eight inches deep ; the same on
No. 2, and the whole was ploughed four inches deep ; the same
on No. o, and the whole was cultivated, harrowed, and planted
with onions. No. 4 received the same amount of the same
manure. The onions did not come up ; and on tlie 23d of May
it was planted with white flint corn, in hills three feet apart.
The corn was cut up at the ground, September 10th, and was
husked on the 20th. The products were as follows : —

No.

1, .

Corn,

in

the

ear,

171

lbs.

Stover, 248 lbs.

2, .

Corn,

((

1401

Stover, 100

3, .

Corn,

u

158i-

Stover, 261

4, .

Corn,

a

39

Stover, 71

5, .

Corn,

n

4^

Stover, 47

MUCK, AND ITS USES.

BY SANFORD HOWARD.

Perhaps some definition should be given, in the first place,
of the term muck. In England it is applied to the ordinary
manures of the farm ; hence tlie adage — " Muck is the mother
of money." In our country, or at least in this section, the
term is commonly applied to the substance of bogs and swamps,
including, in many instances, wliat would be called peat in
other countries. It is seldom that much discrimination is used
in its application, and it is therefore made to comprehend
substances which differ greatly in composition and value. As
a matter of course, the estimation in which farmers hold what
is called muck, varies widely. One man says it is worthless,
or nearly so, while another considers it of nearly equal value
with farm-yard manure. This discrepancy may be accounted
for in part by the difference in quality of so-called muck, in
part by the manner in which it is used, and in part by the
character of the soil to which it is applied.

To further illustrate the subject, we may consider the origin
of the different kinds of muck. That which is most common

MANURES. 157

in this vicinity is found in bogs or swamps, which in their
natural condition produce chiefly vegetation of a low order.
All localities where it is found have too much water for the
growth of valuable plants. Where the water is stagnant, moss
is often found as the principal vegetable growth. Different
species of this plant, in fact, form so large a portion of the
vegetation of bogs, that in England such places are frequently
called " mosses." The moss obtains a hold, shoots up a little
above the water, and as it grows from year to year, the lower
portion settles down and decays — forms " muck." Thus the
growth continues, and the decayed substance accumulates,
becoming more solid with age and pressure, till at length it
acquires the character of peat — may be cut in pieces which will
retain their shape when dried, and may be used for fuel. In
some instances we find that after bogs have acquired a certain
degree of firmness, some trees will grow on them. The cedar
swamps of this section may be cited as illustrations. The
larch, hemlock and pine sometimes grow in such places, but
where stagnant water abounds, are stunted and small.

It is evident that muck which is formed under such circum-
stances cannot abound in fertilizing matter. We know that
the manure which is made by animals while eating poor herbage
is of inferior quality compared with that made while ihe
animals are fed with the best grasses, green or dry ; but here
is a case where the vegetation is so poor that it would be
rejected by animals, and the manure it would make, on decom-
position, must be correspondingly low in the scale of fertilizing
power. The fragments of the trees alluded to can hardly
improve it, as the resinous matter they contain resists decom-
position, and they form, also, tannic acid, which is injurious to
vegetation.

In other cases, the substance of bogs has accumulated, and
the quantity of water, from various causes, lessened, till other
kinds of trees — as maple, birch and ash — take root and grow.
The leaves and branches, which fall from these trees and decay,
form a richer substance than that of the moss and the cedar in
the former case. If, from the absence of trees, herbage plants
spring up, they are of a character which indicates the improve-
ment of the soil over that on which moss is the principal
growth. Muck from such localities, especially where there is

158 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

something of a current to tlie water, is better than that from
stagnant, moss-covered bogs. The motion of the water seems
to wash out or prevent the formation of certain acids, which
often lessen the value of muck.

In other localities we find something called muck, which
originated in a way different from any yet noticed. I allude
to the contents of basins which occur in upland woods. These
receive the wash of the surrounding land, with which is
mingled the leaves and branches of hard wood trees in various
stages of decay. In many instances water is retained by these
basins for only a portion of the year, and their contents undergo
a decomposition similar to that which would take place in a
farmer's barnyard or hog-pen. A kind of muck is formed in
such cases, which is far superior to that from swamps and bogs.
I have known cases where an application of it to land planted
with corn, produced equal effects on that and the succeeding
crops, with the same quantity of good barnyard manure applied
under similar circumstances.

So much for the different articles called muck. Their chemi-
cal composition undoubtedly varies considerably. Johnson's
Farmer's Encyclopedia gives the result of the analysis of a
sample of soil from " an entirely barren peat moss," and also
the result of an analysis of a sample from a " fertile moss,"
which are herewith appended. Two things are particularly
observable in regard to these analyses, viz. : the much greater
quantity of fine silicious sand in the fertile sample, and the
difference in the condition of the vegetable matter, it being
"inert" in the barren, and in a " decomposing" state in the
fertile sample. Both lots are understood to be drained.

Sample from the barren lot.

Parts.

Fine silicious sand,' 29

Inert vegetable matter, 289

Alumina, ......... 14

Oxide of iron, 30

Soluble vegetable matter, with some sulphate of potash, . 11

Sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) 12

Loss, 15

400

MANURES.

159

Sample from the fertile lot.

Fine silicious sand,
Unalterable vegetable fibre, .
Decomposing vegetable fibre, .
Silicia, (flint,) ....
Alumina, (clay,) ....
Oxide of iron, ....
Soluble vegetable and saline matter,
Muriate of lime, ....
Loss, ......

Parts.

156

2

110

102

16

4

4

4

2

400

Dana, in his Muck Manual, gives a summary of the constitu-
ents of twelve samples of muck or peat from different locali-
ties in this State, from which it appears that in regard to
" soluble geine," they varied from 10.00 to 48.80, and in " salts
and silicates," from 6.00 to 40.55. But he does not particu-
larly inform us in reference to the character of the localities
from which the samples were taken.

It may be remarked that deposits of muck are sometimes
underlaid by marl, abounding, in many instances, with the
remains of crustaceous animals. In the Hudson River Valley,
and other portions of New York, and in the westerly portions
of this State, as well as other sections of this country, such
deposits are not rare. They are also common in England.
The muck from such localities is generally rich ; but where
they can be drained to a sufficient depth, the marl or marly
earth at the bottom affords a better soil for cultivation than the
muck does. Hence, where extensive deposits of this description
occur in England, the object is to get rid of the greater portion
of the vegetable matter in the cheapest and most expeditious
manner. In some instances this has been done by causing a
stream of water to carry it away. These shell marl-beds often
form the most productive and permanently fertile soils. The
marl, too, frequently produces excellent effects when spread on
land.

From what has already been said, it follows that the use of
muck as a fertilizer should depend upon its quality, which, as
has been shown, varies according to localities or the circum-

160 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

stance under which it is formed. That which consists princi-
pally of the leaves of hard wood trees (as previously described)
is good manure in its crude state, though exposure to a winter's
frost may improve it by pulverization, and making it more
soluble by dissipating any noxious acid it may contain. But
that which is taken from swamps, and especially from moss,
generally requires more preparation to make it good manure.
It is commonly used as an absorbent of urine and the liquids
of the manure-heap. Simply as an absorbent it is valuable.
Its afiniity for ammonia is said to be greater than that of
charcoal, which some chemists say will absorb ninety times its
weight of ammoniacal gas. So far as muck is wanted merely
for this purpose, it may be that the difference in its composition
will not much affect its value ; but as it is to be finally added
to the soil, the ultimate result must of course depend on its
composition.

There can be no doubt of the benefit of using muck in
stables, manure-cellars and yards to such an extent as may be
necessary to absorb the liquids and bring the mass of manure
into a condition that will admit of its being readily carried to
the field. In connection with this, another object is effected,
namely : the preservation of fertilizing gases, which are to a
certain degree fixed or retained by the muck.

We know that the use of muck, even for the purpose just
mentioned, is objected to by some farmers. They say the poorest
sand is better than any muck to mix with manure. Not having
witnessed any experiments in reference to the subject, I will not
venture to decide the question involved, though I cannot see
how pure silicious sand can be worth much for manure. Still,
I have so often heard the statement alluded to from respectable
farmers, that I regard the matter as deserving investigation.

In comparing sand and muck, in regard to their value for
mixing with manure, much, doubtless, depends on the char-
acter of the soil to which they are applied. Muck tends
to make soil more light, and where lightness is already a
defect, sand saturated with urine might be preferable to muck
used in the same way, because the former would produce more
compactness. It can hardly be supposed, however, that the
absorbent power of sand can be e(|ual to that of muck in pro-
portion to weight — sand being much heavier in proportion to

MANURES. 161

its bulk, and of course more expensive to move. On a tenacious
soil tlie muck would probably be better, on account of its
producing more lightness and friability.

I am aware it is a common idea that muck is specially appli-
cable to loose, sandy or gravelly soils. But the most beneficial
effects that I have ever seen from the application of muck have
been on clayey soils — the vegetable matter, on being mixed
with the soil, breaking its tenacity, and keeping it sufficiently
open and mellow at all times. In England the use of clay is
regarded as of so much importance in bringing peat-bogs into
profitable cultivation, that great expense is frequently incurred
in depositing clay on the surface — the coating being sometimes
three or four inches in thickness.

It is not improbable that even the poorest kind of muck,
when divested of noxious principles, which, as before-men-
tioned, they generally contain in their crude state, may
contribute to the growth of plants by affording carbonic acid.
Yet we have known cases where the benefit of applying that
from mossy bogs unmixed with any other substance, though
well prepared by the action of the atmosphere, was not equal to
the cost of digging and hauling it a few rods. The explanation
is, that there was carbon enough, or nearly enough, in the soil,
and that the muck was destitute of other fertilizing elements.
Had there been a deficiency of carbon, the benefit from the
muck would probably have been greater. But carbon is not
generally a scarce element in soils.

There seems to be reason in Dr. Dana's idea that the action
of alkalies is necessary in many cases to develop the fertilizing
elements of muck. This is more particularly applicable to the
poorer kinds of muck — such as are obtained from swamps
where resinous trees grow, and from mossy bogs. This alka-
line action is necessary to destroy noxious acids (acetic, tannic,
&c.,) and to bring the muck into a condition in which it will
decay faster, and by uniting with oxygen more readily form
carbonic acid. Dr. Dana goes so far as to say that, " the
power of producing alkaline action, on the insoluble geine, is
alone wanted to make peat as good as cow dung," and, " by
the addition of alkali to peat, it is put into the state which
ammonia gives to the dung." He argues that for all agricul-
tural purposes, carbonate of ammonia and white or soda ash, are

21

162 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

equal, pound for pound, and that pot and pearlashes may be
taken at one-half more ; that if to one hundred pounds fresh-
dug peat there are added two pounds soda ash, or tliree pounds
of pot or pearlashes, all the good effects of cow-dung will
be produced. Following out the calculation, he prescribes
for every cord of fresh dug peat, ninety-two pounds of pot or
pearlashes, sixty-one pounds of soda, or sixteen to twenty
bushels of common house or wood ashes. Dr. Dana mentions
a case wliich throws some light on the principles laid down. It
is as follows: —

" Mr. George Robbins of Watertown, an extensive manufac-
turer of soap and candles and of starch, employs the refuse of
these trades in enriching his land. It is believed his crops will
compare with those of any of the best cultivators around him.
He has not used for four years (from 1851 to 1855) a spoonful
of manure made by any animal walking either on two legs or
four. He keeps a large number of horses and hogs, and several
cows, and uses not a shovelful of their manure, but, selling
that, uses peat and swamp muck mixed with his spent barilla
ashes. The proportions are one part of spent ashes to three of
peat, dug in the fall, mixed in the spring. After shovelling it
over two or three times, it is spread and ploughed in. The
effect is immediate, and so far lasting."

The preference which Dr. Dana gives to wood ashes or
potash, in preparing muck for manure, seems to be justified
by practical trials. The experience of Artcmas Newell, Esq., of
Needhara, may be referred to as an example. He has used
muck very extensively as an absorbent of the liquids of his
horse and cattle stables, pig pens, ttc, from which great benefit
has undoubtedly been derived, and he has also tried it in com-
bination with potash. In regard to the latter mode of preparing
and using it, he has kindly furnished the following account : —

" The muck should be dug from its bed late in autumn, and
be fully exposed to the frosts of winter before it is used. The
reason why I prefer to have it dug at this season is, that if dug
earlier and left on dry land, it sometimes becomes hard, like
dry peat, and is, in fact, better for fuel than for manure. I
deem it a waste of labor and money to use it in combination
with potash or alkalies in any other form until it has been thus
exposed and prepared.

INDIAN CORN. 163

" My method of combining the potash with the muck is, first
to prepare a pile of muck, measure it, and make it into an
oblong basin, the sides and bottom of which are as nearly as
possible of the same thickness. I place a half-hogshead tub by
the side of the basin, and fill it nearly full of water ; then
weigh and put into it thirty-five pounds of potash for each cord
(or 128 cubic feet) of muck in the pile. When dissolved, the
solution is dipped into the basin, and the muck from the outside
of the basin is gradually thrown in as fast as it becomes
saturated. After the liquid has all disappeared, the pile should
be carefully worked over, and should remain a day or two, or
more if convenient, and then be worked over again, when it
may be used without delay. The potash I used was of an
inferior quality, and cost about three and a half cents per pound.

" I used muck as above prepared on an old pasture, which
was planted the last of May, 1860. A shovelful of muck was
applied to each hill — the hills being at the rate of 4,500 to the
acre. The lot was planted to corn the first and second days of
June. It was the large and late variety known as the ' smutty
white.' The result was a success, as I considered it, though
the corn was not planted till the time of hoeing my other fields,
and yet was the only corn I had that year that ripened suffi-
ciently for seed. A portion of it was gathered before the 24th
of September. The stalks were well grown, and the yield of
grain above an average.

"To me, since I have known how to prepare it, peat muck
is invaluable. In the compost heap, in hog pens, cow stalls,
and in its combinations with potash, soda-ash, guano, <fcc., it is
in daily demand."

INDIAN CORN.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

The committee appointed to award premiums on corn have
attended to that duty, and respectfully submit the following
report : —

164

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

There were five pieces of corn entered for premium — two in
Dracut, two in Chelmsford, and one in Westford. Two of the
pieces only, though large, had the required number of busliels
per acre, and to these the two first premiums were awarded.
These crops grew on the intervale land of the Merrimack River,
which has ever been considered as peculiarly adapted to the
growth of corn, from its friability, fineness after working, and
its little liability to suffer either from drought or too much
water.

Statement of R. W. Sawyer.
The corn I offer for premium grew on a loamy soil, or com-
mon intervale land. Last year I cut the grass the last week in
June, and sowed it with buckwheat the first week in July,
without manure. The piece contains about one acre ; ploughed
it the first day of May ; spread on twenty-six cart-loads of
stable manure per acre ; ploughed it the second time ; harrowed
it down and furrowed the same, and planted it with one load of
night-soil, composted with sand in the hill. Planted the 11th
and 12th of May, three and a half by two feet apart.

EXPENSE OF HALF AN ACRE.

Ploughing, ....

Carting and spreading manure, .

Furrowing and harrowing, .

Planting, .....

Hoeing, three times, .

Half of stable manure and half of compost,

Dracut, September 8, 1861.

. $1 00

2

00

. 1

00

50

r-\

00

. 15

00

$20 50

Mr. Sawyer planted the eight-rowed yellow corn, mixed with
a twelve-rowed kind, for the purpose of improving the smaller
by an admixture of the larger, and for the purpose of hastening
the maturity of the large kind, but the two kinds are too far
separated yet to show what the result will be. The cultivator
was used between the rows, and the corn hilled after the fashion
of the fathers.

INDIAN CORN. 165

Statement of Henry Smith.

The ground was in grass, and had been in grass for six or
seven years, and was very much run out, producing not more
than fifteen hundred of hay to the acre. Ploughed about the
2d of May ; planted the 2oth ; land valued at -f 100 per acre ;
planted the eight-rowed common corn, two and a half acres in
the piece ; spread on ten and a half cords of manure, and
harrowed it in ; cultivated one way the first time hoeing ; the
second time, cultivated both ways and hoed as usual.

EXPENSE OF AN ACRE.

Ploughing,

Harrowing, .....

Putting the manure on, and spreading,
Planting, ......

Cultivating and hoeing, first time,

" " " second time, .

Cost of ten and a half cords of manure,

$3

20

75

1

00

1

00

1

75

1

50

21

00

Chelmsford, September 7, 18G1.

$30 20

This piece exhibited a perfect swamp of stover, well set with
large and long ears of fine, yellow, eight-rowed corn, with broad
and deep kernels, name not known to Mr. Smith. It was
planted in hills three and a half by three and a half feet and
hilled.

At this time there are many kinds of corn, from which the
careful farmer may select seed adapted to his soil, location, and
means of feeding the crop. If his soil is warm, dry, strong
and deep, the large and later maturing kinds may be used ;
but if thin and cold, the early and smaller kinds should be
planted. When this crop has been planted in one place for a
series of years, and highly manured, it has a tendency to
increase its stover at the expense of the grain ; the stocks
growing coarse, and the ears setting high, the whole requiring
large supplies of fertilizers to carry and mature the crop in our
short seasons ; hence the necessity of changing the seed as often
as is necessary. This result may in some measure be avoided
by selecting the earliest maturing ears from year to year ; but
many of us neglect this method of keeping our corn from

166 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

growing late in ripening. Early maturity is quite an object in
this climate. Notwithstanding the cold and backward spring,
and the discouraging appearance of our corn even into July,
the crop was seldom better, through the wonderfully favorable
weather of this fall ; had the frost come upon us at the usual
time, it must have been a failure. This king of our native
cereals is worthy of our best attention, and cultivation. No
single plant has so great a breadth of climate in which it will
grow in some of its varieties — it being grown from forty-five
degrees north well down to the Equator, and east and west
from ocean to ocean ; none enters so largely into the consump-
tion of man and animal, making glad the stomachs of millions
of living beings. The product of this plant is enormous,
amounting in 1859 to nine hundred millions of bushels, an
amount that the human mind can hardly grasp or comprehend.
An over-production of tliis grain is not to be feared, since its
value is becoming appreciated in Europe. Let experiments
decide upon the best mode of producing this grain. IIow shall
it be managed to secure the best results ? Shall it be planted
in hills and hilled up, as did the Indians, or should it be worked
level, as a few have ventured to ? Shall the manure be turned
beneath the furrow, or shall it be worked in with the harrow ?
Shall it be used fresh and warm, or fermented and fine ? There
are advocates for all these ways ; let them communicate results.
Farmers, visit your neighbors' . farms ; there are many facts
lying about tliat will never reach you through the agricultural
journals, for their editors seldom visit the small farmers, who
can work out a theory of their own to a successful result, but
yet would shrink from committing their views to paper, and
thus bring them before the public. There are not many who
will not talk with their neighbors about the management of
their crops in a quiet way ; and then, again, you have the
evidence of your own eyes, and need not be afraid of book-
farming, as some yet are. Finally, gain all the information
you can by reading, observation, and conversation ; then by
persevering, energetic labor, accompanied by the use of all the
fertilizers within your means, you will be rewarded with an
abundant crop.

Luther Butterpield, Chairman.

INDIAN CORN.

167

NANTUCKET.

Statement of E. W. Gardner.

The acre of land which I selected for an experimental crop of
corn, and entered for premium, is at Cambridge, west of the
barn. It is composed of sand and gravel, and is worth $10 per
acre. It has been in grass seven or eight years, without any
manure, and last year did not produce five hundred pounds of
hay. It was ploughed eight inches deep, and harrowed on the
2d and planted on the 6th of May, with Nantucket corn, five
kernels in a hill, and occasionally a pumpkin seed. The hills
were three feet apart each way, and received twenty-four horse-
cart loads of manure from the barn cellar. On the 8th of June ,
it was cultivated and hoed, and again on the 26tli. On July
23d it was hoed, and French turnip seed planted in the hills
where the corn was missing. The top stalks were cut September
23d, and weighed and put into the barn October 26th. The
corn was cut up October 30th, and husked. November 6th,
fifty pounds of ears were shelled, and produced thirty-eight
pounds of corn, and twelve pounds of cob.

The cost of cultivation, and the products and their valuation,
were as follows, viz. : —

VALUE OF CROP.

1,160 pounds top stalks,
2,365 " husks, &c., .
2,948 " or 40 bushels of corn,
101 " hog corn,
2 cartloads pumpkins, .
1 cartload turnips,
Manure in the ground,

EXPENSE OP CROP.

Ploughing and harrowing, ....
40 hours' labor for one man, and 16 hours' labor
for one horse, manuring and planting,

24 loads of manure,

17 quarts seed,

Cultivating and hoeing,

$5

80

11

82

32

00

50

5

00

2

50

4

00

$61 62

$3 00

o
12

92
00
60
00

$1 10

1 50

2 00

60

830

72

1G8 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Cutting the stalks and binding,
Cutting and carting the corn, .
Husking and weighing, . . 41
Interest on land, .

Net profit, 830 90

Statement of Allen Smith.
The acre of corn entered by me for premium, is a part of
three and one-half acres. The soil is a black, sandy loam gen-
erally, and a part of it mixture of gravel. The condition of the
land was poor. It was sowed down to grass in the spring of
1856, and has had no manure since until last winter (1860).
I applied thirty-five loads of barn manure, each load containing
about twenty bushels. It was ploughed the last of April, seven
inches deep, and planted the 1st of May, three feet apart one
way by two feet the other. I applied about three hundred
gallons of liquid manure in the hills. For some reason unac-
counted for, not more than one-fourth part came up. The seed
was native corn. It looked well, but I have since thought that
it was injured by the early frost of 1860. It was planted over
the last of May, and came up well, but did not do so well as
that which came up the first planting. It was cultivated and
hoed three times, and I should have hoed it the fourth time had
it not been for the army worm, which made its appearance about
the last of July ; and as there was considerable dog's grass
among the corn, I thought they would feed on that instead of
the corn. Fortunately they did but little damage to it, although
some pieces were wholly destroyed by them. The stalks were
cut and stooked on the same day in the second week of Septem-
ber ; in about twelve days they were taken to the barn. On
the 22d of October commenced harvesting. The result is as
follows : —

VALUE OF CROP.

4,640 pounds ears good corn, equal to 58 bushels shelled

corn, worth 80 cents per bushel, .... $46 40

3,118 pounds stalks, at 810 per ton, . . . . 17 59

2 tons butts and husks, worth 85 per ton, . . 10 00

400 pounds pig corn, 2 00

875 99

SMALL GRAINS.

.169

EXPENSE OP CROP.

Interest and taxes on land,

. $4 00

38 loads manure, at 50 cents, .

. 19 00

Ploughing and harrowing.

. 4 60

Cultivating and hoeing, .

. 6 00

Cutting stalks, ....

. 2 00

Harvesting and weighing crop.

. 5 00

•ffilO '\0

■ tpT:V 0\J

Net profit,

S35 49

SMALL GRAINS.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee.

The value to our country of the smaller grains, especially
wheat, can scarcely be overestimated ; and in New England,
where its cultivation is just now claiming attention, any infor-
mation upon the modes of cultivation is eagerly received. Its
importance to those farmers who carry on a system of mixed
farming, and who to a great extent wish to raise their own
bread-stuffs, is very great. With this end in view, our agricul-
tural societies offer quite large premiums to the most success-
ful in its culture.

We are sorry that competitors have not given a more detailed
account of their manner and expense of cultivation, as we think
such information justly due the community who are interested.

Mr. Coburn's land was evidently in very fine condition ; made
so by previous cultivation and high manuring. This mode of
cultivation the English farmers learned long ago, and we hope
the American farmer is beginning to wake up to its importance.

It is a fact, we believe, that the constituents of our soils are
not unlike the great grain-bearing soils of the West. The only
difference being the fineness of the particles of matter composing
the latter. Hence the importance of thorough pulverization.
After applying the manure, let the plough, harrow, or cultivator
be used until the land is in the best possible condition. We

22

170 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

believe neglect of thorough preparation of the soil one of the
greatest causes of failure.

The seed by the best of cultivators is carefully cleansed by
washing previous to sowing. The amount sown per acre varies
from one to two bushels. The time of sowing winter wheat,
should be as early as the last of August, or the first of Septem-
ber. If spring wheat, it should be sown as early as possible, in
order to its maturing before the appearance of insects, which
prove detrimental to a full yield, and sometimes, as when
weevil attacks it, entirely destroying the crop.

During the past year, a new enemy has appeared in the grain
aphis or louse, proving itself a pest of a very dangerous character,
especially to late sown grain. It docs not eat the kernel, but
seems to live upon the juices which go to its full development,
leaving it small and shrivelled. Whether this insect will con-
tinue its ravages in future, it is impossible to predict. It is
hoped, however, the evil will be temporary.

We have not designed to write an extended essay, wishing
only to call attention to the most important facts, although in
themselves " nothing new," which may result in more careful
experiment in the cultivation of this important grain.

Andrew Spalding, Chairman.

Statement of J. B. V. Colburn.
The half acre of wheat which I enter for premium was grown
on land near the river, rather light soil and sandy subsoil.
Last year I raised a very large crop of rye from the same ground,
cultivated very much the same as the wheat, viz. : About the
middle of September, 1860, 1 ploughed in the stubble, spread
on five cords of night-soil to the acre, harrowed, and sowed
about one and a half bushels of wheat to the acre, harrowed
twice and rolled.

Expense of cultivation, $3 00

" manure 12 00

$15 00

There were eighteen bushels and twenty quarts on the half
acre.

Dracut, September 9, 18 6 L

SMALL GRAINS. 171

Statement of Lorenzo Phelps.

The wheat which I enter for premium grew on a light, sandy
soil, with a gravelly subsoil. The land is situated in Lowell,
near the old Middlesex canal, and east of the road leading to
Chelmsford. The piece from which the half acre is taken
contains about three-fourths of an acre, with one bushel's sowing.
The wheat is the white bald winter wheat:, and was sowed the
middle of September last without manuring. The land was
broken up in the spring of 1859, and planted with potatoes that
and the following year, with one shovelful of horse manure and
a little lime to the hill. After the potatoes were off, the land
was ploughed deep and fine, and wheat sowed on the furrow.

Expense per half acre : —

Ploughing, II 00

Two-thirds bushel of seed, at 12.50, . . . . 1 66f

Sowing, 25

Harrowing and rolling, 75

$3 66|

The whole weight of wheat on the half acre was 765|: pounds.
"Weight per bushel, 61 pounds, 3 ounces.

Lowell, July 26, 1861.

NANTUCKET.

Statement of Allen Smith.

Having entered as a competitor for the premium for the best
acre of wheat, I will state that the soil is a sandy loam, and has
been planted to corn two years. Last year (1860) it produced
about thirty bushels per acre. Last winter I applied fifteen
loads of liquid night-soil to this acre, each load containing one
hundred and twenty gallons. I ploughed the 1st of March, and
on the 30th sowed one and a half bushels of wheat soaked in
brine. Harvested the 3d and threshed the 12th of August, and
the yield was 1,260 pounds, or twenty-one bushels of good
wheat.

172

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

VALUE OF CROP.

21 bushels of wheat, at §1.75 per bushel,
1,600 pounds straw, at 88 per ton.

Net profit,

75
6 40

$43 15

EXPENSE OF CROP.

Ploughing,

. m 50

1| bushels wheat.

. 3 00

Sowing and harrowing, .

. 1 00

Cradling,

. 1 00

Binding and carting.

. 1 25

Threshing, at 25 cents per bushel,

. 5 25

Interest on land, $50 per acre, .

. 3 00

Taxes,

50
17 50

$25 65

STOCK.

MIDDLESEX NORTH.

From the Report of the Committee on Milch Cows.

When we know of a desirable result being obtained in any
course of treatment, all desire to know hoiv it was done. The
public gain little benefit from any great individual success in
one branch of farming unless they can know the particulars of
the experiment. It is of little consequence to simply knoiv the
fact that a great crop has been raised upon a particular piece
of ground ; but when wo are told the kind of soil, the depth of
plougliing, kind of seed used, amount and kind of manure,
number of times hoed, &c., &c., then we may try to do as well.

We find that cows by changing owners often improve their
product of milk and their condition, so that a very ordinary
animal becomes noted. If we can know what peculiar manage-
ment she received at the hands of the second owner, then we
may keep our ordinary cows, and, in the course of time, greatly
increase their value, and have the profit in our own pockets,
instead of turning it over to another.

STOCK. 173

Keeping op Cows. — We consider that the cow that goes
through the summer on the same pasture, with no extra feed,
is more valuable than one that is fed extra, yet gives no greater
amount of milk or butter than the first, or not enough greater
to equal the value of the feed.

We would not be understood to recommend farmers not to
feed extra ; by no means ; on the contrary, we wish all owners
of cows would so feed and care for them that their milk pro-
duct should be kept at the highest point consistent with the
health and thrift of the animal.

There are times in the season when all cows fall off rapidly,
unless a good deal of precaution is used, and after this shrink-
age it is almost impossible to bring them up to their former
quantity.

Exposure through a whole day to a cold rain storm is one of
those periods. People seem to think that cattle must remain
out all day because it is customary to keep them in the pasture
in summer ; that " putting up " would make them tender —
not, however, fearing any bad results to themselves as they put
on a thick coat and draw around the fire, while the cows stand
curled and shivering, refusing to feed or be comforted, except
by the warm shelter of the barn.

Many farmers do not realize how rapidly the grass in pastures
is consumed. When the growth is checked by a drouth, the
cows soon find very " poor picking ; " yet how steadily they
will work all the " livelong day," seeking out and cropping the
little green patches here and there to be seen among the rocks,
bushes, and parched June grass, which are the chief products of
our pastures during a dry time. The cows seem to have a kind
of ambition to bring up at night their usual bountiful supply of
delicious milk, but how often is the amount of material insuffi-
cient to produce a generous yield. Day by day they grow
thinner in flesh, showing that a severe draft upon the system is
going on, and every night they look most beseechingly to their
owner for a morsel of green fodder or hay to supply the demands
of nature.

Will you blame them if, in this emergency, they break down
a strip of rotten fence while reaching to obtain a fresh bite of
luscious grass, or even jump over a poor old wall which has
sunk into the ground fully one-third of its original height of

174 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

three feet and a half? Or will you give them the credit of
having your best interests at heart, and of only striving to
atone for your neglect by trying to keep themselves in tolerable
condition ?

Time of Calving. — The committee also think it is very
important to know the time of calving, and when the cow will
come in again. It is a well known fact, that most cows fall off
in quantity of milk after being covered by the bull, and many
are rendered almost valueless by nearly drying up after genera-
tion takes place.

A cow calving in February, for instance, and due to come in
the February following, is deserving more credit, for an equal
quantity of milk, with the same feed, than one that calved in
May and is not due to come in until the following May.

Size op Cows. — The size of cows must also be considered.
The general opinion is, that the larger the animal the greater
the cost of keeping ; but there are many exceptions to this rule.
We have known small cows that consumed more food, did not
keep in so good condition, and gave less milk, than quite large
ones kept in the same stable upon the same kind of food. So
far as profit is concerned, the larger the cow, with a correspond-
ing increase in the milk product and cost of keeping, the better
property she is ; more valuable, in proportion, to sell for the
dairy or for beef.

If two large cows will give as much milk as three small ones,
the care of them takes less time, they occupy less space in the
stable, and may at any time be more readily sold. We do not
wish to encourage the raising of a race of huge, overgrown
cows ; but we think animals of good size more desirable, as a
general rule, and we know that a good deal of attention is paid
to this quality by those who keep large dairies and who have
been successful in the business.

Treatment op Milch Cows. — The man that abuses his cows,
or permits others to do it, most surely " scattereth abroad."
He does that which a long course of kind treatment will not
make good.

The cow should have the most gentle and reasonable man-
agement at all times. Her course of life should be like the
quiet How of a smooth and placid river, the even tenor of its

STOCK. 175

way only disturbed by the changes and manipulations necessary
for the happiness and comfort of the animal.

If we were to look through the stables in our vicinity, how
many instances of cruel abuse would there be found. See a
stalwart man sit down beside a cow to draw the lacteal treasure ;
he takes hold of the teats with as little care as though they were
two sticks ; his calloused hands press hard upon a tender spot,
the cow kicks — nobody is hurt, and the creature has only
obeyed the impulse of nature and tried to rid herself of that
which is causing pain. Soothe her with kind words and gentle
strokes, and take hold with more care, and all will be well.
But no, she has roused a tiger : up springs the man, — the
heavy stool is used as a cudgel, and the cow is terribly mauled
and beaten ; stout cowhide boots are driven with great force
against her legs and thighs, and imprecations are hurled upon
the head of the devoted beast. All this time the cow is securely
tied, and cannot get away from her tormentor. He again sits
down to commence milking ; she is frightened, excited, and
trembling ; her eyes protrude, her nostrils are dilated, and she
groans with pain. Will you wonder that no milk is to be had ;
that she " holds it up " ? Will you blame her if she occasion-
ally directs a well-aimed blow at this gallant brave as he passes
her stall, or if, after such a heartless onset, she permits the
fountains of her milk to dry up, and her master to strip often
and long for a scanty recompense ?

We can barely touch upon some points upon which there is
much to be said, and, although a great deal has been found out
that is valuable about cows, more may yet be learned by close
observation on our own part, and by reading the history of the
experiments of others.

Let us have cows that will combine good size, good quantity
and quality of milk, and good condition. Let us not keep, year
after year, those that never give much milk, nor give " that
little long ; " but as soon as their poor qualities are known, turn
them for beef, and fill their places with thrifty, thorough cows
that will pay a round profit.

A herd of well-selected and well-cared-for cows is a mine of
wealth to the farmer, as well as a source of laudable pride and
pleasure. On the contrary, a number of half-starved, ill-treated,
thriftless animals are a nuisance and a disgrace.

17G MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

In conclusion, wc will say that we think the society does well
to offer so many premiums for milch cows. It will tend to
promote this most important branch of farming; and, in doing
this, will accomplish another good, viz. : tend to alleviate much
want and suffering among the most valuable of our domestic
animals.

James T. Bdrnap, Chairman.

Statement of Abiel Rolfe.
I offer for premium my cow, half Alderney, the other part
supposed to be native breed ; age, 4 years last May ; calved the
last of last May ; kept in a common pasture that has suffered
much by the drought for the last three or four weeks ; never
had a pound of extra feed ; stabled nights, but not fed at all.
Second week in June she gave 154| quarts of milk, weighing
327 1 pounds, from which we made 16^ pounds butter. First
week in September she gave 87|- quarts, weighing 219 pounds,
yielding 10] pounds butter. The falling off in milk is attri-
buted to the grass drying up, and scantiness of water in the
pasture.

Lowell, September 12, 18G1.

Statement of S. P. Perham.
The brindle cow I offer for premium is of native breed, and
five years old. She was kept last winter on meadow hay and
corn fodder. In March gave her better hay. Calved April,
1861, and is to calve March, 1862. No meal through the sum-
mer until within one month, when I have given her one quart
per day. Milk given first week in June, 110 quarts, making
15 j^g- quarts per day ; pounds in the same time, 244 ; pounds
per day, 34|. Milk given first week in September, 76|, or
■'■^iVo quarts per day ; pounds in same time, 161 ; average
25| per day.

Chelmsford, September 11, 1861.

Statement of P. D. and T. S. Edmunds.

The native cow which we offer for premium and exhibition is

ten years old ; was raised by us from a cow which we purchased

of the late Deacon Coding, of Lowell, in 1847. We received

the third premium on this cow of our society in 1858. She

STOCK.

17T

dropped her calf on the tenth of last month. We have measnred
and weighed her milk the last week in August and the first
week of September. "We used the old measure. The result is
as follows : —

Morning.

Evening.

DATES.

Morning.

Evening.

DATES.

a

3

c

•a
a

3

o

3

a

3
S
o

Pi

i

■a

3
3
O

He

a

3

•a

a

3

o

Aug. 25,

7

19

7

19

Sept. 1,

6|

18i

n

21

26,

n

20i

H

m

2,

7f

21

^

IH

27,

^

IH

6i

17i

3,

^

18

H

17^

28,

n

20^

7|

20

4,

7

19i

H

18

29,

7f

21

7

19i

5,

6i

17i

^

19

30,

n

20^

6^

18

6,

6|

19

^

22

31,

7|

21

7

191

7,
Amount

7f
48|

20^

6f

18^

52i
or the

142

week.

47|
52i

131
142

134

48f
48|

1344
134

Amount f

1001

273

for the

week,

97|

268^

During the last four weeks the cow has had fall feed and cow
corn, without any grain or meal. Last winter she was kept on
corn stover, meadow hay and turnips. Was pastured out a
few weeks, the former part of the season, in this town.

For the committee,

James T. Buenap, Ckainnan.

Chelmsford, September 11, 1861.

WORCESTER.

From the Report of the Committee on Stock.

What constitutes the best cow ? Among the Durhams the
exhibition of to-day has presented us with two classes ; one,
with evident strong tendency to lay on fat; the other just as
strongly indicative of milking capacity.
23

178 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

In some uncertainty as to the precise intention of the society,
the committee, where they have been able to agree in concUision,
have awarded the premiums to the animal which, in their
judgment, was the " best Durham ;" not wishing thereby to be
understood as adjudging the successful animal to be the Dur-
ham cow, or bull, best for the farmers of this county. Indeed,
if the necessity had been imposed of determining superiority by
reference to the wants of the farmers of the county singly, it is
not too much to say, that in some instances, the unsuccessful
animals would have become the successful ones. A cow is of
little value here^ regarded merely in the light of her capacity
for beef.

The Durhams, or more technically, the improved Short-horn,
are remarkable indeed for their propensity to lay on fat, as well
as for their early maturity ; yet, notwithstanding their rapid
growth, and large size, it is doubtful whether our farmers will
j&nd proper remuneration from their breeding. Of what value
to us is that breed of cattle, which, for nearly a century has
been bred with a view solely to its fattening properties. What
farmer have we, who would buy, or would not weed out of his
herd, if he possessed it, an animal whose greatest yield of milk,
in her period of greatest flow, was but six or eight quarts daily.
Not that such a cow might not have qualities, which, in other
climates, under different circumstances, would render her of
great value, but that to us farmers of "Worcester County, she
would be comparatively valueless. For with the cheap and
rapid means of transport at his command, the Western grazier
possesses advantages in supplying the demand for beef, wlicrever
existing, against which our farmers cannot successfully contend.
Nor is the question to be decided by reference to this point
merely. Our farms are encumbered with boulders and rocks ;
are hilly and stubborn under the plough, not adapted as are the
fields of other regions to cultivation by horse labor. To a large
extent we are and must ever be, dependent upon the slow and
patient ox. But we want activity here, and we can only obtain
it from the animal of comparatively small size, with close knit
joints, compact frame, clean limb and high spirit.

But do the committee discourage the breeding of Durham
cattle ? So far from it, they earnestly recommend a close
discrimination between the different families of this breed ; and

STOCK. 179-

advise our farmers never to purchase or breed from a Short-
horn, the ancestors of which have not been noted for tlieir
milking properties.

Mr. Bates, one of the most distinguished breeders of Short-
horns in the kingdom, and a successful prize winner for his
stock, gave me, say Mr. Colman, as his opinion, that there
were two lines of the Short-horns, — the one large milkers, the
other different.

Loudon says, page 964 : —

" The Short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, is known by a
variety of names, taken from the districts where they form the principal
cattle stock, or where most attention has been paid to their improvement;
thus different families of this race are distinguished by the names of the
Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland and
other breeds. The Teeswater breed, a variety of Short-horns, established
on the banks of the Tees, at the head of the vale of York, is at present
in the highest estimation, and is alleged to be the true Yorkshire Short-
horned breed.

" The bone, head and neck of these cattle are fine, the hide is very
thin, the chine full, the loin broad, the carcass throughout large and well
fashioned, and the flesh and fatting quality equal, or perhaps superior to
those of any other large breed. The Short-horns give a greater quantity
of milk than any other cattle ; a cow usually yielding twenty -four quarts
of milk per day, making three firkins of butter during the grass season."

The same writer says : —

" The objects to be kept in view in breeding cattle, are a form well
adapted to fatten ; well adapted for producing milk, or for labor. These
three objects have each of them engaged the attention of British agricul-
turists ; but experience has not hitherto justified the expectation that
has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties in an
eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the prop-
erty of yielding the most milk, differs materially from that which we
know from experience to be combined with early maturity and the most
valuable carcass ; and the breeds which we understand to give the
greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the
least proportion of offal, are not those which possess in the highest degree,
the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to
fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk cannot be
COMBINED. The form of the animal most remarkable for the first is
very different from that of the other ; in place of being flat in the sides

180 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-
bellied ; in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-
formed, while that of the milker is widest downwards. It is not probable
therefore that the properties of two breeds of cattle of opposite form and
general appearance can ever be united in the same animal."

Yoiiatt states that

" From the earliest periods of wliich we have any accounts of our
breeds of cattle, the counties of Durham and York have been celebrated
for their Short-horns, but principally, in the first instance, on account of
their reputation as extraordinary milkers. The cattle so distinguished
were always as now very different from the improved race. As milkers,
they were most excellent, but when put to fatten, as the foregoing
description will indicate, were found close feeders, producing an inferior
quality of meat, not marbled or mixed as to fat or lean, and in some cases
the latter was found of a partici^arly dark hue."

Does not the Worcester County farmer realize the truth of
this description in the descendants of Holderness ?

" The improvement in the carcass of the Short-horns has been so
surprising and so greatly valued, that many persons have allowed that
completely to occupy their attention, and the dairy has been disregarded.
In such a state of things every advance towards one point has been
tantamount towards receding from another ; because the same proceeding
which tends to enhance a particular quality, will also enhance a defect,
provided such defect was of previous existence."

" Thus far Mr. Berry, whose admirable account, says Youatt, of the
improved Short-horn cattle, our readers will duly estimate. There is no
point which he has more triumphantly illustrated, than the value of this
breed as containing a combination of perfections. It was a point which
was in a measure lost sight of by the early improvers. They developed
the aptitude to fatten, and the early maturity of the Short-horns — but
they neglected and were beginning to lose their milking properties. This
is also the grand error of the modern breeders, and hence arose the
general impression, and founded on careful observation, that in propor-
tion as the grazing properties of the beast were increased, its value for
the dairy was pi'oportionably diminished."

Mr. Colman, than whom no better authority can be found, in
his agricultural tour, says : —

" Tiie best of these animals, however, have a strong natural tendency
to keep fat ; but they are not suited to a short pasture or scanty manger.

STOCK. 181

It will, I think, not be denied that they are great consumers. Tlie high-
bred animals are not remarkable for their milking properties. There are
exceptions, but most of these animals are inferior in the quantity and
quality of the milk. The finest herd of Short-horn xvhich met my ohser-
vation, I found in Lincolnshire. They were not in the Herd Book,

BUT HAD been IN POSSESSION OF THE FAMILY MORE THAN FIFTY

TEARS. A superior lot of cows in appearance and condition, I never
saw, nor expect to see, but they were not distinguished for their milking
properties. The property to take on fat is considered inconsistent with
that of large secretions of milk. This is not without exceptions within
my own knowledge, but is generally true. The beef of the Short-horns,
though good, is not considered of the highest quality, partly ascribed to
the early age at which they are killed."

Has not the remark, made so many years ago, been verified
by the experience of our own time, that in developing the apti-
tude to fatten which distinguishes the Short-horn, the milking
properties of the breed which were then diminishing have now
measurably been lost. No stronger confirmation of its accuracy
could be furnished, than the improved Short-horn of to-day's
exhibition affords. Animals were presented to us, farmers of
Worcester County, for our approval, nearly perfect in form,
challenging our admiration for their beauty, eliciting our
warmest praise as specimens of an early maturing, easily fatten-
ing race. But where is the milking development ? Neglected
till it has been almost lost.

" If I wanted milk, I should prefer such a cow !" " If I lived
among the blue grass pastures of Kentucky, I should breed to
such a bull," were remarks made in the hearing of the commit-
tee. Most agreeing that in their opinion, A.'s animal was the
best, taking into account her milking properties, and yet not
quite ready to determine it to be the best Durham.

What course is to be adopted by this society for the future ?
Shall we recognize no animal as thorough-bred, whose pedigree
is not found in the herd-book ? Are there any descendants
among us from that herd of Lincolnshire Short-horns, the finest
Mr. Colman saw in England — bred in the same family for fifty
years, yet never registered in the herd-book ? If we require a
pedigree in the English herd-book, shall we also require it to be
traced in the American ? If so, where are our Devons ? It is
stated on the authority of the late Mr. Phiimey, that the beau-

182 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

tiful animals of this breed, imported by the Massachusetts
Society for Promoting Agriculture, possessed no pedigree ; that
they were purchased of the most eminent breeder of this stock
in England, by competent judges, without regard to cost, and
that no pedigree was asked for or given. This society would
hardly exclude Roebuck from competition for its prizes, not-
withstanding he was not to be traced through a long line of
ancestors in the genealogical tree of the North Devons.

One of the most beautiful Durham cows examined by the
committee, with a pedigree as long as the tail of a comet of the
first magnitude, and of purity equal to the unspotted snow,
showed to the practiced eye the unmistakable signs of an
Ayrshire cross upon some perhaps far removed ancestor. No
member of the committee doubted, or could doubt the existence
of a taint in her blood, judging from appearances. Yet the
herald's office of the Durhams disclosed no bar sinister, and
she is written down thorough-bred. Then there is the question
of the identity of the animal exhibited, with the animal regis-
tered in the book, — what evidence is there of that ? Clearly,
the statement of the competitor, and that alone. If then such
statement as to identity is satisfactory, shall it be satisfactory as
to purity of blood ? For there is no authorized American herd-
book, and if there was, it would prove only, that the animal
whose pedigree was therein recorded was thorough-bred ; not
that the animal not named therein was not thorough-bred.

Above all, and more than all this. For more than fifty years
our enterprising farmers have had the benefit of the services of
as fine animals as good judgment could select and money could
purchase, till it can with truth be said, that there is hardly a
cow in the county but has in her veins a strain of the best blood
of some one of the best breeds in Europe.

What herald's college can furnish a better pedigree for a
working ox, than the breeder of the red oxen of Sutton and
Charlton, or of a dairy cow, than the butter and cheese makers
of New Braintree and Barre, of Princeton and Shrewsbury. If
the society shall require a pedigree traceable through the pages
of the herd-books, shall its prizes be awarded to the best Durham
or Devon, or shall the award be determined by reference to the
adaptability of the breed or specimen of the herd to the soil.

STOCK. 183

the climate, the pastures and the wants of the farmers of our
county.

Shall the improved Short-horn, which, in the language of one
of the most eminent breeders of this stock, applied to his own
animal, does not furnish milk enough to bring up her own calf,
— round barrelled, fine boned, well conditioned, smoothly and
beautifully built and duly authenticated by the book, bear
away our prizes from the more unpretending old-fashioned
Yorkshire or Teeswater, of the same early maturity, of equally
large size and of far greater milking capacity, though of coarser
build and less beautiful in form ? In other words, will the society
determine what rule shall govern its committees ? determine
this vexed question of pedigree ? Shall the cow presenting
unmistakable signs of her descent, vouched by her owner as of
pure blood, be admitted to competition ? Of more consequence
still, shall it not be a condition precedent to a successful compe-
tition, that the cow shall exhibit unmistakable evidence of her
ability to satisfy the first great want for which our dairies are
kept — that of producing milk ?

Without intending in the slightest degree to disparage the
improved Short-horn, may we not, and ouglft we not, refrain
from bestowing premiums upon any, which are not emphati-
cally milch cows ? These questions have been stumbling blocks
in the path of the committee. Without consultation with his
associates, they are presented at such length, without apology,
by the chairman, that the society, by disposing of them, may
open the way for a more general competition and more satisfac-
tory award of its prizes.

Propriety requires the statement of the fact, that those of the
committee who were competitors for premium, took no part in
the deliberations of the committee while the merits of the
animals among which their own were entered, were under
consideration, and of course had no agency in determining the
result.

W. S. Lincoln, Chairman.

184 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Committee on Stock.

Soon after the formation of this Society, in 1818, Samuel
Williams, of London, sent to his brother, Stephen "Williams,
of Northborough, the Short-horn bull, "Young Denton," (963
herd book,) and the cow, " Arabella," by " North Star," (460,)
both bred by John Wetherell, who derived some of his original
stock from Charles Colling. Among the number Avas the bull,
" Comet," for which he paid one thousand guineas at public sale
in the year 1810. I. Yeamans, in 1820, introduced into the
town of "Wcstfield, Short-horn stock of the Holderness breed,
and is supposed to liave taken the first step in this direction
within the limits of this society. The farmers of Westfield'
have enriched their farms and their pockets by following the
example of Mr. Yeamans. A cattle show is considered not
complete unless tlie "Westfield stock is on the ground.

About tlie year 1824, Samuel Lathrop, of West Springfield,
purchased in Boston, Short-horn stock, and laid the foundation
for improvement in this neighborhood. In the year 1834, T. P.
& T. G. Huntington, of Hadley, purchased the cow, " Duchess,"
which was of the Denton family, above mentioned. Also the
cows, " Princess " and " Rosemary," of the Holderness family.
Also the then famous bull, " Lord Nelson." The introduction of
this stock caused surprise. There was not room, in the opinion
of a majority of tlie public, for the introduction of stock of
" foreign blood " — having such high claims " in the line of
descent," and bearing a name known only within the privileged
circles of the crown. If this herd could liave been as easily
handled as " the tea," in Boston Harbor, the intruders would
probably have been thrown over the county lines, and so on
and on, till they were landed outside the State limits. The
subjects were weighty, and growing steadily into ponderous
proportions, made room for themselves. " Lord Nelson " never
surrendered to, but set at defiance and finally conquered " a
battalion " or more of ifs and ands, and doubts and fears,
speculations and prejudices.

Paoli Lathrop brought into the field in 1837, five cows and
heifers, the product of the Williams importation, before men-
tioned, and commenced breeding on an ample capital ! His

STOCK. 185

success is widely known. He has continued his herd to the
present time. About the same period, Hon. George Grennell,
of Greenfield, had from Governor Lincoln, of Worcester, the
Short-horn bull, " Governor," which he kept in use for five
years. Tliis strain of blood is still recognized in superior
milking stock.

Alonzo Lamb, of South Hadley Falls, at the same period, was
also the owner of valuable stock, and his success was equally
noticeable. John T. and George E. Taylor, of Shelburne, have
for some years bred Short-horns from the stock before mentioned.
Li 1844, Samuel Child introduced into Hampshire County
the bull, " Northumberland," (4596,) bred by Mr. Prentiss,
of Troy. The bull was kept by Mr. Child three years, and
then, or awhile after, he passed into the hands of the Messrs.
Anderson, of Shelburne. The Messrs. Anderson, now own the
celebrated bull, " Roan Duke," from Thome's stock. James
S. Grennell, of Greenfield, owned the superior bull, "Colonel,"
and kept him for general use for three years. The Messrs.
Smith and others, of Smithfield, have owned and bred from very
valuable bulls. T. J. Field, of Northfield, now owns a pure bred
Hereford bull, " Cronkhill, 3d." T. J. M. Smith, of Montague,
and J. A. Clark, of Greenfield, have pure bred Hereford stock.

J.Fogg, of Deerfield, has a herd of pure bred Short-horn stock.
"Wells Latlirop, of South Hadley, has been very successful in
breeding Short-horn stock. The " thorough bred " farmers of
the " Wapping Club," Deerfield, have for several years had
very superior Short-horn stock. " Sultan," from Juliand's
herd, and another bull, also highly prized, was owned by this
club.

Luke Sweetser, of Amherst, has been deeply interested in
Ayrshire stock, and the record of his herd may be found in the
annals of this society. Having kept his importation pure, he
has been able to furnish pure breeding stock to various persons
in this Valley.

Dr. Prince has a valuable herd of improved breeds at the
State Asylum, Northampton.

Captain Dennison, of Colrain, owned pure Merino sheep at
the date of the formation of this society. His flock was brought
by him from Connecticut, and supposed to be from Colonel
Humphrey's stock, which was a direct importation from Spain.

24

186

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The farmers of Colrain and Leyden trace their best flocks
back to the flock of Captain Dcnnison. The Cushmans, of
Bernardston, also early introduced the Merino and the Saxony
sheep. Pure bred South Down sheep were brought into
Franklin County in about the year 1840, by Henry W. Clapp.
These were from Tliornc's importations. South Downs were
afterwards introduced from Jonas Webb's flock by T. J. Field.
Oxford Downs were introduced from Mr. Fay's flock in 1859,
by James S. Grennell.

Capital invested in Stock in general at various periods.

Tears.

Hampshire.

Franklin.

Hampden.

Total.

1837. I
1850. 1
1855. 1
1860. 1

Number,
Value, .

Number,
Value, .

Number,
Value, .

Number,
Value, .

64,274
$354,134

29,760
$163,680

22,127

15,541

$83,475

55,713
$313,976

24,937
$137,351

19,107

24,030
$132,165

29,950

$148,641

13,700
$75,350

9,389

8,461
$46,535

149,937
$816,751

66,433
$376,381

50,623

48,032
$262,175

OXEN, COWS, STEERS AND HEIFERS.

1840. j
1850. j

1855

•1

Number,
Value, .

Number,
Value, .

Number,
Value, .

22,533
22,395

22,457
$616,934

28,794
20,940

29,670
^761,745

20,481
22,473

24,824
$606,225

71,728
71,808

76,951
$1,984,904

HORSES.

1850.
1860.

Number,
Value, at $50,

Number,
Value, at $70,

3,982
$199,100

4,065
$284,550

3,372

$168,600

3,984

$281,880

3,709

$185,450

3,563
$249,410

11,063
$553,150

11,612

$815,840

STOCK.
Capital invested in Stock — Continued.

187

Years.

Hampshire.

Franklin.

Hampden.

Total.

1840.

Number,

8,955

11,352

8,848

19,155

1850.

Number,

5,060

4,216

5,058

14,342

1860.

Number,

5,453

5,667

4,219

15,339

r

Milch Cows, .

9,558

9,349

10,000

28,907

Working Oxen, .

2,918

4,000

3,610

10,528

1860.-

Other Oxen,

11,110

12,898

9,059

33,167

Value of Live Stock,

$1,086,172

11,173,401

1995,160

$3,254,773

.

Slaughtered, .

167,496

221,856

197,747

587,072

1850.

Slaughtered, .

205,845

164,676

180,242

550,763

Products.

BUTTER AND CHEESE.

Years.

Hampshire.

Franlilin.

Hampden.

Total.

1840. 1
1850. 1
1860. 1

Butter, lbs., .
Cheese, "

Butter, lbs., .
Cheese, "

Butter, lbs., .
Cheese, "

739,663
388,956

931,295
336,015

1,164,760
318,113

600,044
517,629

884,307
233,337

931,539
236,654

623,354
704,546

729,630
381,721

787,843
421,992

2,059,661
1,611,131

2,545,232
951,073

2,884,142
976,759

Average price of butter from 1817 to 1810, 17 cents per
pound.

Average price of barrel beef, No. 1, from 1817 to 1810, $10.25.
Northern corn, 84 cents.

Geo. M. Atwater, Chairman.

188 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

HAMPDE^f.

Slock Improvement in Hampden County.

Wliile as a whole the farmers of this comity have given but
little attention to the improvement of stock, tliere have been
honorable exceptions, and Hampden County has long been
noted for occasional choice specimens.

More than fifty years since, or as early as 1810, Col. Abel
Chapin, of Chicopee, bred a pair of steers which he sold in 1817
for one thousand dollars. Tiiesc were exhibited in Boston, and
afterwards slaughtered at Brighton. Others, but little inferior,
were sent to New York market in 1822. These like others of
his breeding, were (in part) of what was known as the Gore
breed. It derived this name from being imported by Gov.
Gore, of Massachusetts, and is believed to have been the unim-
proved Short-horn.

Col. Chapin was a man of uncommon sagacity in judging of
neat stock, which, with his enterprise and ample means, secured
for him the renown of possessing the best herd in this Valley, if
not the best in New England.

In 1822, Col. Harvey Chapin, then residing at Chicopee,
procured from Cornelius Coolidge, Esq., of Boston a bull called
"Comet." He was grandson of "Comet" (155) which was
bred in England by Charles Colling, Esq., and sold by that
gentleman in 1810 for one thousand guineas. This is believed
to be the first introduction of improved Short-horn blood.
Some of this strain of blood is still found in the herd of Mr.
Sumner Chapin, of Chicopee.

A few years later the Hon. Samuel Lathrop, of West Spring-
field, purchased a bull and one or more cows from Hon. John
"Wells, of Boston. By crossing these with his previous stock,
Islw Lathrop became possessed of a herd of fine animals, some
of which possessed nearly all the characteristics of the thorough
bred. The stock of that neighborhood was much improved
by the use of his bulls, Dr. R. Champion still retaining some of
their more direct descendants.

In 1832, ^[r. Horatio Sargent, of Springfield, purchased a bull
called " Red Comet," bred by Henry Watson, Esq., of East
Windsor, Ct. This bull was son of " Wye Comet," who was
begotten in England, but calved in Maryland in November,

STOCK. 189

1822. This was entirely a different strain of blood from the
" Comet " brought from Boston by Col. Chapin. " Red Comet "
had been sold and resold, and was obtained by Mr. Sargent
from Mr. John Frink, of Stockbridge, Berkshire County, at a
cost of two hundred dollars. He was kept by Mr. Sargent
some years, after which he was sold for one hundred and fifty
dollars, and taken to Woodstock, Windham County, Ct.,
where he was highly appreciated, and kept for service till he
died a natural death, being found dead in the pasture, at the
age of thirteen years. In Woodstock may be seen at this time
a grandson of his, an ox seven years old, weighing nearly four
thousand pounds. We believe it is no injustice to say that at
that time no better bull than " Red Comet" had been introduced
here, and some of the best grade animals are among his
descendants.

About this time another infusion of improved foreign blood
was made by the Rev. Alexander Phoenix, then residing at
Chicopee. Mr. Phoenix purchased a bull calf from Judge
Iiigraham, of New York City. Many queries have been made
with regard to the origin and blood of this animal, and some
effort has been made to trace his descent, but without satis-
factory results. His color was yellow and white, and while in
general characteristics (except color) he resembled the Short-
horns, his stock almost invariably showed strong marks of both
Short-horn and Alderney. So striking are these marks, partic-
ularly the dun or mouse color, that they arc distinctly visible
in his descendants at the present time, although it is nearly
twenty-five years since he left the vicinity. The cows of the
stock were in general good milkers. Probably no more remark-
able animal was ever introduced to the county.

In 1855, Phineas Stedman, of Chicopee introduced to his
native town a pure Short-horn bull and cow from East Windsor,
Ct., and laid the foundation of the choice herds now owned
by him and his brother Benjamin. The original bull of
the Stedman purchase was subsequently sent to the Sandwich
Islands. About half of the towns in Hampden have now one or
more representatives of this valuable Short-horn breed, whose
influence is silently but surely spreading. They may be chiefly
found with Messrs. Birnie, Demond and Moscley, of Springfield ;
Cols. Moseley and Root, of Westfield ; Holcomb and Stevens, of

190 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Chester ; Sessions and Lyman, of "Wilbraham ; C. L. Biiell, of
Ludlow ; Wilbur Wilson, of Agawam ; Justin Ely, of West
Springfield ; and G. Munson, of Huntington. The well-known
herds of Messrs. Wells and Paoli Lathrop, of South Hadley,
although out of the county, are so near its northern limit as
to exert a salutary influence upon Hampden County stock.

The Ayrshires, it is believed, were first introduced into the
county on the 15th of April, 1849. The Massachusetts Society
for the Promotion of Agriculture, that year, gave to the Hamp-
den Agricultural Society the two-year old Ayrshire bull,
" Swinley," whose great-grand-dam was known as the " short-
tail cow that took more first prizes than any animal in Scot-
land," and whose grand-dam could make seventeen pounds of
butter per week, and was considered at that time the best cow
ever imported. His sire was the imported bull, " Roscoe,"
owned by Captain Randall, of Boston, and descended from the
best milking stock of Scotland. The conditions of the gift
were that he should be kept in the county, that he should not
be put to service under the age of two years and six months,
and that the Hampden Society should annually report the
number and character of his progeny. This bull was kept
several years by Deacon Daniel Merrick, of West Springfield,
and latterly by Major William Burt, of Longmeadow ; and his
stock, although grades, are favorably known in those towns as
good milkers. Justin Ely, of West Springfield, has now some
of the finest specimens of this progeny known.

In May, 1850, the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion
of Agriculture, presented the Hampden Agricultural Society
the full-blooded Ayrshire cow, " Flora McDonald." She was
old and destitute of teeth when received. Colonel Edward
Parsons, of West Springfield, kept her several years, obtaining
as issue only an inferior bull calf, which subsequently died on
the hands of Elisha T. Parsons, of Ludlow. The cow was
finally sold at auction for about twelve dollars, and died,
leaving none of her progeny in the county. In 1858, William
Birnie, of Springfield, purchased fourteen head of pure Ayr-
shires, the entire herd of E. P. Prentiss, of Albany. He has
now twenty-nine of these creatures, most of which are very
superior milkers.

STOCK. 191

Little is known of the origin of the Devons among us,
though some of their characteristics pervade most of the old
native stock. About twenty-five years ago, James Whipple
brought to Chester a pure-bred Devon bull from Winsted, Ct.,
and traces of this animal are still found in western Hampden.
Horace M. Sessions and D. B. Merrick, of Wilbraham are now
the only breeders of thoroughbred Devons known in the county.
This breed makes superior oxen, being active, hardy and tract-
able, and some of them rich and generous milkers.

The Herefords, or white-faced cattle, were first introduced
into the county by Campbell and Hamilton, of Huntington.
They were brought from New York. There are no thorough-
breds known in the county, but grades are abundant in both
Montgomery and Chester.

The Alderneys are of more recent introduction. The first
is believed to have been a bull kept by A. K. Abbott, of
Chester, in 1857. They are found sparsely in Agawam,
Chester, Chicopee, Longmeadow and Springfield. Randolph
Stebbins, of Longmeadow, H. J. Chapin, of Springfield, and
T. A. Dennison, of Chicopee, have the finest specimens yet
exhibited at the county fairs.

Of sheep, pure Cotswolds may be found with D. B. Merrick,
of Wilbraham, South Downs with William Birnie, of Spring-
field, and Oxfordshires with Colonel Aaron Bagg, of West
Springfield.

In swine, the Berkshires and Suffolks have successively
ruled the day, and the " Chester Counties " now claim the
same privilege. M. S. Kellogg, of Chicopee, was one of the
original importers and stockholders in the county, and breeds
these animals more extensively than any other known. Pure
animals of this breed are now scattered in Wilbraham, Agawam,
Longmeadow, West Springfield and Springfield.

On the whole a great improvement is going on throughout
the county in the different kinds of stock. The old native
stock is not to be despised or rejected simply because not
freshly imported, but only because there are better animals to
be introduced. Tlie long-legged, narrow-chested, loose-jointed,
slab-sided, coarse-haired, and thick-headed stock, must event-
ually give way to those of opposite qualities, when such can be
obtained. If a well-bred animal leaves his distinctive marks,

192 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

as has been shown, for a quarter of a century, how wretched
the economy of using a poorly bred animal, even as a gift.
Those gentlemen are deserving of great credit, who, stepping
out of the old routine of their ancestors, deem it not money
wasted, to purchase thoroughbred stock. Probably no one
particular breed will suit every locality or individual taste.
But we see no reason why the farmers of Hampden, with their
diversified country may not have the choicest of all breeds, and
notwithstanding the supples of the West, make extra stock
raising, successful and remunerative.

NORFOLK.

Statement of Arthur W. Austin.

Mr. Austin has furnished, under date of January 14, 1862,
the following facts in regard to his Kerry cattle : —

I often had the milk measured during the past summer, and
found it did not go below sixty quarts a day for five heifers of
the first importation. On the 31st of May, the five alluded to,
having in that month produced their first calves, gave sixty and
one-third quarts, or an average of twelve quarts each. On the
1-ith of June the same five gave sixty-two and three-fourth
quarts. Three of them gave a fraction over fourteen quarts each.
I weighed the morning's milk, and the thirty-one and two-thirds
quarts, wine measure, weighed sixty-seven and one-fourth
pounds. Of the two last imported heifers, one is fully equal to
either of those of the first importation, in proportion to age,
she being a year younger, and having given with her first calf
over ten quarts per day during the summer. I do not think
the other one comes up to the standard, but she holds out well,
and gives rich milk. The milk of all of them is of the first
quality as to richness. Butter is obtained from the cream in a
very short time. Late in October it required less than five
minutes churning, by the clock, to bring the butter. A lady
who sends for six quarts once a week, and who has had much
experience, pronounces the production of cream marvellous.
She says she skims it several times over. I have had excellent
milkers of different breeds, and have always been particular as
to quality more than quantity ; but I obtain from these Kerry

FEEDING OF STOCK. 193

heifers as large a quantity of milk as could reasonably be
expected, considering their size and age ; and the quality
certainly surpasses, on the average, any milk it has been my
fortune to see. I have now, l»esides the imported stock, three
pure-blood bulls, which will be a year old in the spring and
summer of 1862, three pure-blood heifers and one steer of the
same age, one half-blood Kerry and Shetland steer, and three
half-blood Kerry heifers. All have improved wonderfully under
my winter regimen. We think all the imported heifers are in
calf to Mountaineer, who is in fine condition.

FEEDING OF STOCK.

NORFOLK.

Statement of A. W. Cheever.

Wishing to make some experiments in feeding cows on grain
crops, <fec., I sent a notice to the secretary of the society, which
he was desired to accept as the first step toward an entry for
premium for the best experiment in soiling cattle. I also
requested the committee, through him, to make any suggestions
they might think proper in relation to the matter. As I waited
to hear from the committee, I neglected to commence at the
proper time to weigh and measure and keep an accurate record
of dates, ttc. Therefore I have Jiow no such statement to
make as I intended and hoped to have. But I will tell you, in
a general way, what we have been doing, not only during the
present, but in past years also.

My father's farm, on which I am a laborer, is not naturally
good pasture land — being too cold and wet to produce sweet
feed, unless drained and cultivated. It is too strong, al^^o, to
be worth reclaiming for pasture alone.

On tliis account we have for several years been trying to
work into a course that would leave us less dependent on
pasture for support of our stock. As a preliminary step, we
set aj)art a number of acres as unimprovable ; where the gi-owth
of wuod should be encouraged, instead of our former practice
25

194 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of mowing the bushes, and pulling up the young pines every
year or two. We then devoted a liberal share of our mowing
lots to pasture, and commenced making thorough work* with
the remaining mowing and tillage land — such as draining,
clearing off surface rock, and removing inside stone walls. In
this way we arc now fast getting our tillage land into one entire
lot, which very much reduces the cost of cultivation. After
having cleared and drained our tillage land, at very consider-
able expense, it seemed that we ought to make it produce
larger crops than it had done before. This could not be
effected, of course, without manure ; and of this we found it
impossible to make a sufficient supply during the winter season.
We have, therefore, fed our cows this summer on green food
more than usual, always in the stall. Let me here say, by the
way, that I am convinced that much of the prejudice against
corn fodder for cows is owing to the fact that most of those
farmers who think green cornstalks will dry up cows and lessen
the quantity of milk, or, at any rate, can do them no good, are
in the habit of feeding their cows in the pasture — throwing the
corn over to them directly from the field where it grows — thus
tempting them to hang around the field the remainder of the
day, instead of going off and feeding contentedly.

We have fed, this summer, green oats, clover, southern corn,
and the tops of turnips and mangolds. We have made no
accurate experiments by which to determine the comparative
value of each sort of feed. We prefer a variety and change of
feed, and are inclined to the opinion that good English hay may
well form a large part of the food of milch cows in summer —
perhaps with as much economy as any of the green food. It
ought always to be on hand, to be fed when the days are rainy,
and when the cows have become too much relaxed by the use
of green food. Our cows have run in the pasture a part of
every day through the season. They are put into the barn and
milked at five o'clock in the afternoon, and turned out again at
from eight to twelve o'clock in the morning — according to the
weather and the amount of feed in the pasture. We have also
given to them a mess of shorts or meal every morning until
fall, when pumpkins took the place of grain.

Our cows lie on a floor, four feet eight inches in length, back
of which is a gutter, twenty inches wide and six inches deep,

SHEEP. 195

where the droppings fall. These are removed several times
daily, and the floor is sprinkled with a few shovelfuls of sand to
keep it sweet and clean as possible. The manure falls into a
cellar, where it is worked over by hogs, and mixed with dry
loam to absorb the urine. In order to have this dry material
to compost with, we have built a tight shed adjoining the stable,
where, in dry weather, is laid up enough loam to last several
months. It requires a much smaller quantity of dry than wet
loam to absorb the urine, and of course the compost will be less
" extended."

As one chief object in soiling has been to increase the quan-
tity of manure for use on the farm, I have kept an account of
.what we have made during the past six months — beginning in
May — from five cows, two horses, and four hogs. The manure
is all made in one pen. "We have carted out and have on hand
twenty-six cords of what we consider good manure, valued at
five dollars per cord. This is at the rate of just one cord per
week from May to November. Two-fifths of a cord were used
in July for a second crop of corn fodder. Seven cords were
used for rye in September, and the remainder we are now
ploughing in for a crop of corn next year — thus getting a good
part of spring work done in the fall, which could not be done
if, as formerly, we depended only on our winter's stock of
manure for the next summer's crop.

Wrentham, November 21, 1861.

SHEEP.

HAMPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.

From the Report of the Committee.

In the attempt to make our report, we see no reason why
we should approach it with that discouraging feature wliich
has heretofore too often accompanied the exhibition of sheep.
Although the sheep on exhibition were few in number to what
they should be, (and we think to what they will be in the
future,) they were far superior, both in number and quality,

196 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

to last year, thus indicating a renewed interest in that most
pleasant, and certainly profitable branch of husbandry.

The whole number of entries tliis year was twelve, against
five last year. Whole numljcr of sheep on exhibition, thirty-
four, against fifteen last year ; thus you see, allowing the
increased number of sheep on exhibition to represent the
interest in sheep husbandry, it has more than doubled during
the past year. This, we think, looks encouraging tliat the day
is not far distant when the pastures and meadows of Hampshire
County shall be made to assume their former productiveness,
wliich can be done in no other way, attended with so little
expense, as a thorough cultivation of sheep. The majority of
sheep on exliibition were of the graded South Down breed.
The buck belonging to Joseph Hatfield was a fine specimen of
the breed, which we did not hesitate to pronounce, taking all
points into consideration, superior, although there were others
which deserve no less notice, had we space and time to speak
of them separately, as we would like. The principal points by
which we were guided, were those which related most partic-
ularly to the yield of wool and mutton combined, as it is gen-
erally conceded by those most experienced in sheep raising,
that the middle-wool sheep will return the greatest pay to the
farmer. In speaking of the different breeds of sheep, we shall
not attempt to say that this or that breed will return the
greatest profit. We can merely state that which we have
gained by conversing with the experienced sheep-raiser, obser-
vation, and a limited experience. You will find by referring to
the English reports on sheep, that the South Downs rank among
the highest in Great Britain, for reasons laid down in the secre-
tary's report — disposition to fatten, earlier maturity, heavier
carcass, hardihood and capability of doing well on poor pasture.
Allowing these properties to be true, the South Down is
certainly a profitable breed, and should be strongly adhered to.
The Leicester, Cotswolds and Cheviot, also rank among the
highest in Britain. Blake says : " Each one has its peculiar
qualities, claiming superiority to tlie other breeds." It will be
recollected that opinions upon such subjects are often ruled by
self-interest. One thing is probably certain, that among the
English breeds, no one has been bred with as good success in
retaining the most desirable qualities of the original breed, as

SHEEP. 197

the South Down. This has been done by Mr. John Ehnan,
who seemed to take hold of the business with a strong deter-*
mination to succeed. In the fall of 1858, I conceived the idea
that the sheep which would yield a medium grade of wool,
with a good mutton frame of about one hundred pounds, would
be the safest, if not the most profitable, to invest in. I there-
fore heard, after making numerous inquiries, of a very success-
ful breeder of sheep, Mr. L. Wilcox, of Orwell, Vermont, who,
I found on visiting him and looking over his flock, had, by
crossing the Spanish Merino with the Cotswold, procured a fine
looking sheep, both for mutton and wool, although I think
there might have been more improvement in the wool if he had
crossed with some other of the English breeds ; but we will take
the breed as it was. I purchased one hundred and fifty, two and
three years old ewes, intending to keep a part, at least, for my
own culture ; but, as luck would have it, I sold them, but
always regretted it. I sold them in two lots ; the largest lot
fell into the hands of a feeder, and soon found their way to the
market. The other lot of fifty went into the hands of an expe-
rienced raiser and breeder of sheep, Horace Russell, of Hadley,
who was one of our committee. Mr. Russell says, as far as his
experience has gone, he can testify in favor of this breed. He
has raised some of the best lambs for early market that have
been raised in this vicinity. His wool, although sold at the
extreme low price at which wool started the past season, brought
upwards of one dollar per head. The farmer who is about to
purchase a stock of sheep, must not be governed by what this
or that man says, but must study his own convenience and
exercise his own judgment in part, as circumstances alter cases.
You are aware, ere this, that I am in favor of the middle-wool
sheep. True, I am. I am well aware that I shall not agree
with some in making the following statements in favor of the
middle-wool sheep. 1st. The middle-wool sheep will not con-
sume three-fourths of the feed that is necessary to keep a
coarse-wool mutton sheep in fair condition. 2d. I have always
met with better success in raising early lambs for the market,
than with the coarse breed, as they fatten much more readily,
mature quicker, and it is always the pet lamb that finds a ready
market and good prices. 3d. They are a hardier sheep, can be
kept in larger flocks, (which is quite convenient for many,)

198 Mx\.SSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

less inclined to ramble — the latter being a particular item to
.look after witli our hill farmers. 4th. They are a much safer
breed to invest money in, for, as the old adage is, we have two
strings to the bow. In case the mutton meets with a hard
market, the wool may help make up the loss ; on the other
hand, should we be obliged to dispose of the wool at the
uncommon low price to which it has been subject for the past
few weeks, the mutton, perhaps, will bring us around with a
fair profit.

The next subject that suggests itself is, the culture of sheep
in general. We find by referring to the statistics, that the
number of sheep in 1840 was 378,226 ; in 1850, 188,651 ; in
1860, 113,111 ; showing a decrease in twenty years of 265,115.
In 1815, tlie number of pounds of wool grown was 1,016,230 ;
in ten years from that time the decrease in the production of
wool was over 600,000 pounds. In 1845, the value of all the
sheep and wool was $923,480 ; in ten years later, 8464,889 ;
showing a depreciation of that stock in ten years of half a
million of dollars. In 1850, the wool produced in this State
was 585,000 pounds, while the amount consumed outside of
domestic manufactures was over 22,000,000 pounds. The
question is asked, what has caused this wonderful decrease in
the sheep culture ? Probably there are several reasons. The
fluctuations in the price of fine wool, as it was this grade of
wool that was principally grown in 1840 ; the idea that we
could not compete with importations ; the destruction of sheep
by dogs — the latter, to which we have an abundance of testi-
mony, that dogs have been one of the greatest impediments in
the keeping of sheep. This, many would hardly believe ; but
when they find that the number of sheep killed in the State of
Ohio, in 1858, was 60,000, and half as many more injured,
making in all upwards of 90,000, valued at (say 82 per head)
$180,000, they will not wonder that our legislators were
induced to pass a stringent law, imposing a tax upon dogs.
Although this dog law has in a great measure removed this
obstruction, still, if it cannot be more thoroughly executed,
there must be a more stringent law to expel this nuisance.

The question is often asked, are sheep as beneficial to the
soil and farm as cattle ? This question, I think, will meet with
those who have had experience with the culture of both cattle

SHEEP. 199

and sheep, with a ready answer, that the fertility of the soil can
be better kept up with sheep than any other stock. It is hereby
necessary that they be properly fed and housed, and that the
droppings be preserved. In doing this the sheep are not
allowed to run at large, but are kept in this inclosure that the
manure, by frequent bedding, and two or three times during
the winter applying a coat of muck drawn from the woods, as
this we consider the most valuable on account of the vegetable
matter and elements contained in the decayed leaves, which
have accumulated, spread over the pens, may be saturated with
the excretions of the sheep and preserved in full strength,
instead of being thrown out doors and exposed to the rain and
sunshine, and thereby lose a large part of the most essential
elements of the manure. This is one reason, with others which
I might give, that sheep feeding is fast taking the place of cattle,
in this vicinity, where particular attention is being paid to
enrich the land for the culture of tabacco and Indian corn.

As we have spoken of sheep feeding, perhaps a word will not
be amiss. As I have said before, we must study our own con-
venience in part, and by doing this we find that the farmers on
the immediate borders of the Connecticut Valley, have not the
conveniences necessary for the breeding and raising of sheep,
but for the want of pasturing, find it more convenient to buy
their sheep in the fall, or first of winter, feed through the winter
and dispose of them in the spring. Although it is conceded by
all, that the fatting of sheep pays much better than cattle,
(particularly for the past three years) still it does not remu-
nerate us in all cases full value for the hay and grain which
they consume. Hence, the question arises, how shall we
manage to get the best pay ? We often hear the remark made,
" my sheep cost too much." This, in some cases, may be true,
still, in five cases out of six, it serves as a mere excuse, the
fault being in the feeder. Sheep need good care, and particular
attention should be given to feeding — that they be fed regular
and at given times. The idea that sheep will fatten if they get
their feed in course of the day, let it be ever so early, is an
absurd one, and experience will prove the fact. But we will
return to the question, How can we get the best pay for our
hay and grain ? In answering this question, I can merely state
that which I have gained by experience and observation.

200 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

Here again we shall bring up the middle-wool sheep to start
with, as being the safest to invest in, applying the same reason
which I have given before, — in case the mutton meets with a
hard market the pelt will help make up the loss. While the
middle-wool sheep can be purchased at a fair price, the large,
coarse-svool, mutton sheep demand fancy prices, and we have
the mutton alone on which to depend, which has for the past
two or three years, sold no higher nor met with no quicker
market than the medium grade sheep, whose weiglit is about
one hundred pounds. Sheep intended for stall-feeding should
not be allowed to run out late in the fall ; just as soon as they
stop gaining they begin to lose, and if allowed to run two or
three weeks it will take till mid-winter to bring them up again,
thus losing the most essential part of the winter for fattening.
Another thing very essential is that they be penned off in small
lots of say twenty each, that they be graded, separating the
larger from the smaller ones, that each one may get his due
allowance of feed, and not be overpowered and robbed by the
stronger ones, some getting too much, while others get but
little ; thus the flock comes out very uneven, many being unfit
for market, and finally are sold for less than their value. The
rule for feeding, which I have adopted after trying different
ways, is : The first thing in the morning sweep the racks per-
fectly clean and feed with grain. After this feed twice with
good hay. After this is consumed, fill the racks with second
quality of hay or good oat straw and then keep entirely away
until feeding time at night, when the refuse is thrown under
their feet, which serves as bedding, and then go over with the
same procedure as before. The more quiet they are kept the
faster they will fat.

Another very important item : What kind of grain can be
fed to ensure the greatest profit ? This is a question which
experiment must prove. All other things being equal, I believe
it is generally conceded by experienced feeders, that corn alone
cannot be fed with safety unless great care is taken in the com-
mencement. It is too heating — liable to impair the physical
organs and thus unfit the sheep for fatting. The English feed
for fatting sheep consists of cotton seed and turnips. They
claim that it will put on the most fat, is the safest feed, makes
the lie^t mutton at a less cost, and produces the best and strongest

FRUITS. 201

manure, — the latter of which would be quite an important item.
If this be true, (and I see no reason why we should dispute it,)
let us try it. It certainly is an easy thing to test, as the turnips
can be raised at a small expense, and the cotton seed can be
bought in the market at a less price than at our mills ; and be
sure of getting the pure thing. And if, on giving it a fair trial,
it should prove what the English claim it to be, we should feel
as if we had found the great secret to success in sheep feeding.
But I am aware that I have already wearied your patience
and I leave these most interesting and important subjects to
abler pens.

Respectfully submitted,

J. E. Wight, Chairman.

FRUITS

MIDDLESEX.

Apples. — Class No. 1. — To most farmers in the county, with
the exception of the grass crop, there is no one interest that
equals in importance the culture of the apple — in the benefit
arising in increased health and comfort from its free use, and
the avoiding of large expenditures in their families. For feed-
ing stock, careful experiments have proved it admirably adapted.
As a source of income, it calls for the closest attention, from
the setting of the tree to selling the fruit ; it is valuable for the
certainty of the product, and attended with less labor and
expense than any other crop in proportion to its value.

The famous orchard of Pell, in New York, rendering an
almost fabulous income, is not chance alone in the adapta-
tion of the soil to the tree, but the result of careful study and
constant attention. The most thrifty trees were set, the ground
always kept scrupulously clean, and the trees full fed with a
variety of manures, ending with sales in London or New York
at prices nearly double that of his more careless neighbors.

What is the frequent management in our own county ? A
hole is dug, rather small for a decent post, the roots of the tree
cut off to fit the hole, mice and the plough take off a large part

26

202 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of the bark, borers try the quality of the wood, and finally, the
top is taken off by some half-starved cow ; the farmer concludes
that raising fruit is very poor business, and gives up the
experiment in disgust.

As a source of comfort and material prosperity, its culture
cannot be overestimated. With as oil well suited to its success
ful growth, one of the best markets in the world easily accessi-
ble, and the great markets of Philadelphia and Baltimore as a
reserve for the sale of his late varieties, the merchant of the
city has no greater facility for an advantageous disposal of any
number of barrels in those cities, than the producer ; always
bearing in mind the nearer the grower of the fruit comes to the
consumer, the greater his profit.

A fertile soil, devoted entirely to the growth of the tree, is
an essential requisite of success. The expense of preparing
the ground, purchasing and setting trees, will not exceed $20
an acre. Allowing, for ten years after, the purchase of $25 an
acre for manure, the trees and crops during the time will pay
interest and expenses ; and at twelve years, many an orchard
has produced its four barrels to the tree, paying all expenses
in a single year. In the culture of the tree, removing the outer
bark at any stage of its growth is of doubtful expediency ; the
tree may, perhaps, require some pruning to check a too vigorous
growth, but as a protection from the sun's rays all the bark
should remain. The two great enemies of the tree and fruit,
the borer and curculio, are not sheltered by it, and other insects
are of minor importance. Clean culture, with plenty of
manure, is of more benefit than an iron scraper.

Where the intention is a market orchard, two or three vari-
ties arc sufficient. Accidental circumstances may make the
Williams or a Sweet apple valuable for a few years, but high
prices are not to be depended upon, while the Baldwin and
Russet are long keepers, and with the Hubbardston, are always
reliable. Perhaps, for pasture trees, no apple equals for profit
the Hubbardston. The farmer who has a stock on hand, should
be as well accpiainted with the markets of New York and
Baltimore as he is of Boston. And always bear in mind the
fact, that it requires much more skill to raise the fruit in the
greatest perfection, than to sell it to the best advantage.

Samuel H. Pierce, for Committee.

Lincoln, September 19, 1861.

FRUITS. 203

Apples. — Class No. 2. — In commencing the cultivation of
apples the attention should be first turned to the old trees on
the farm. There are but few trees that have any young thrifty
shoots that are not worth grafting ; all that are useless, cut
down ; if allowed to remain they injure the appearance of the
farm. The remainder should be very thoroughly pruned and
grafted ; the expense is trifling, and they will sooner come into
bearing and yield better than young trees. On my farm there
was an old tree so far decayed that it was swayed back and
forth by every wind. I grafted it, although thinking it might
prove time thrown away ; but it bore two or three bushels of
the first quality of fruit for a number of years, and with other
old grafted trees, furnished a plentiful supply of apples while
the young trees were growing. In grafting either old or young
trees after the first year, but one scion should be allowed to
grow in each stock ; the other must be cut out as they will
seldom unite firmly, and when large, the weight of the fruit or
the high winds will be likely to split them apart.

iii commencing a young orchard, a piece of land should be
selected where the soil is deep and rich — not too wet, or if wet,
should be thoroughly drained ; if rocky, it is no objection,
except the extra labor required to clear it for cultivation ; it will
not be injurious to the growth of the trees, but will be l)enefi-
cial. In selecting the trees for the orchard, purchase the best
that can be obtained, remembering that the few cents difference
in the cost of a good or poor tree will prove a loss instead of a
gain. Trees are almost always set too near to each other.
Most planters say two rods each way, but I prefer thirty feet
by forty ; the greater distance giving the sunlight a better
opportunity to act upon the trees, causing the fruit to ripen
sooner, and also rendering it much easier operating between
the trees with a team when cultivating the ground. The trees
should be planted in perfectly straight rows both ways, not
only as a matter of convenience but it gives a neat and tidy
appearance to the orchards. The holes should be dug deep
and large, and care taken not to set the tree too deep ; a great
many failures in transplanting trees of all kinds are attributed
to this cause. Care should also be taken that every root is
placed in its natural position. In filling the holes, any old
refuse about the farm, such as scrapings from the wood pile.

204 ^[ASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

old bits of leather, old boots, liats, rags and bones may be used,
but they must not come in contact with the roots ; when they
need them they will reach after them and receive benefit from
them. The ground in the orchard should be well cultivated
and highly manured ; a young orchard requires as higli cultiva-
tion and as much care every year as a crop of corn. The trees
^ould be pruned high from the ground, so that horses or oxen
can pass under without injuring them ; if care is taken in
forming the trees while young, they will need very little pruning
afterwards, and if pruned while young, it matters very little at
what time of the year it is done. Thin the branches out well,
that the light and air may have free access to the very centre
of the tree.

As to the varieties most desirable, if near a market, or where
the access to one is easy, it is well to raise the summer and fall
varieties ; but for the main crop, and at a distance from the
market, the winter kinds are the most profitable ; the Baldwin
is the most so, and also the most sure of a crop in all the soils
of N.ew England. v

One would suppose from the large number of apple trees
transplanted every year, that the supply would be much larger
than the demand, but it has not been so as yet, and I think
there is no danger of it in the future. But a small proportion
of the trees planted produce fruit. Many people think if they
buy and set them out, that is all that is necessary to ensure
a fine orchard ; they sow the land down to grass, turn the cattle
in, and in a few years not a tree is to be seen where a thrifty
orchard should have been. Where a person has only a small
piece of land, apples, dwarfed or the paradise, can be cultivated
with great success ; the trees do not grow large, therefore do
not shade the land necessary for a garden, yet will yield abun-
dantly ; the fruit will be very fine, equal to that grown on
standard trees, and I would recommend that they be more
extensively cultivated in gardens.

In many of the county societies a premium is offered for a
large number of varieties, and to obtain the requisite number
many worthless kinds are raised. A great many poor varieties
are sold by the nursery-men wlien there are comparatively but
a few varieties that arc worth cultivating. Although the
improvement in the cultivation has been so great, yet the farmer

FRUITS. 205

need not think that the task is accomplished. But I hope that
each year our tables will show an improvement in quality rather
than in the number of the varieties.

Andrew Wellington.
Lexington, September 19, 18G1.

Grapes and Assorted Fruit. — The cultivators of fruit have
suflfered very much the last winter from the severity of the
season or the extreme changes in the temperature of the atmos-
phere, by which almost all the bearing wood of the grape vines
(wild ones as well as those cultivated) were killed, and the
more tender varieties lost all their wood down to the ground
unless protected in some manner. And among horticulturists
there is quite a difference of opinion as to the time when the
vines and fruit trees were injured — some contending that the
damage was done on the night of the thirtieth day of Scptem-
ter, 1860, and the two succeeding nights, at which time the
thermometer fell to twenty degrees above zero, and at the same
time apples were frozen in some cold locations on the trees.
But it seems to iis that no such injury to the trees and vines
could have resulted from the cold of those nights. In connec-
tion with this inquiry, we have observed that almost all of the
peach trees, particularly the large old trees, have been killed
outright, and the smaller ones have suffered very much, having
had their tops badly killed. Quince trees have suffered as much
or more than the peach, many of them being entirely destroyed.
Pears lost most of their fruit buds, and the more tender varie-
ties some of their wood, and the crop of fruit was nearly or
quite a failure. Apples, although we could not expect a large
yield the present year, following the very great crop of the last,
still we had reason to suppose that the trees whose habits have
been to produce a crop the odd years, would this year have
been fruitful ; but the fruit buds were to a large extent destroyed
some time between September, 1860, and April, 1861. The
result has been a very meagre crop of poor apples.

And thus the failure of the fruit crop and the damage to the
trees and vines has been general, not confined to grape vines,
but all trees and vines suffered more or less according to their

206 MASSx^CHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

hardiness and the amount of protection given them. The
theory of the chairman of your committee, of the time tliat
grape vines were injured, is that it was after tlie middle of Feh-
ruary, 1861. The month (February) was quite mild for the
season of the year ; the snow, except in the woods or near walls
where it had drifted, had all gone, and the frost was entirely
out of the ground in many places. At that time I trimmed
sixteen Concord grape vines, having forgotten to trim them in
November, (which is a better time for that purpose,) leaving
the canes from four to six feet long, which was nearly all new
wood. I took the strongest of the new wood, trimmed off for
cuttings, covered them with earth, and planted them in the
spring. The most of them grew and are doing well. I found
in the spring that the canes I left for bearing on the vines trim-
med, were killed down to the top of the snow bank which had
lodged about the wall near which the vines were planted, show-
ing by the growth of the cuttings that the wood was killed after
the vines were trimmed.

Immediately after the time of trimming in February, or about
the first of March, we had one of the most remarkable changes
in the weather that I now remember. The thermometer at two
o'clock, P. M., (Sunday,) being up to eighty degrees above,
and the next day following, to ten or fifteen degrees below zero
— a change in a little more than twenty-four hours of nearly
one hundred degrees in the temperature of the atmosphere.
Was it not this sudden and remarkable change, from very warm
and open weather for winter, by which the sap in the vines
might be excited to some extent, followed by sudden and severe
cold, the cause of the damage ? They must have been injured
by this sudden change of the weather or by some change after-
wards, for up to this time they were alive, or the cuttings taken
from the vines w^ould not have grown.

But with a little trouble and care we can be perfectly inde-
pendent of the weather in the winter, simply by laying the vines
down on the ground, (where, if in vineyard culture, they should
be pruned down to keep them from being threshed around by
the wind,) which would be enough protection for any hardy
grape like the Concord, which I have known and watched since
it was first fruited, and it is the first time I have seen any of the
wood of this variety killed by the winter. But alight covering

FRUITS. 207

of soil or of pine boughs, would, for the more tender varieties
and for many of the varieties called hardy, be better still. It is
not much trouble to lay down vines where they have been
managed properly when young, which should be done by train-
ing them two or three feet to one side, with but a little inclina-
tion from the ground, before leading them up the pole or trellis ;
by so doing they can be laid on the ground without any crip-
pling of the main stem. But with all the drawbacks which the
cultivators of the grape have to contend with, I think with a
proper location and selection of varieties, it is more certain to
produce a crop, and one that will pay, than any other variety of
fruit which we cultivate. It is not subject to attack by so
many insects as other fruits. About the only insects that attack
the vines in thisvicinity being the thrips or vine hopper, on the
under side of the leaves ; they can be killed by syringing the
leaves with strong soapsuds ; and the rose bug, which eats the
blossom ; the latter must be picked off by hand, with the conso-
lation that after having been picked and destroyed for one or two
years, they will diminish materially.

The effect of even a slight protection was strikingly illustrated
on the ground of Mr. T. F. Hunt, of Concord, one of the
exhibitors of grapes the present year. On a long trellis on his
grounds, covered with a vigorous growth of vines, the fruit
buds were entirely killed, and many of the vines have received
a severe shock, which it will take some time to recover from.
Near by were one hundred Concord grape vines, planted two
years previous, which had been allowed to remain on the ground ;
they blossomed full, and were tied up to poles the last summer,
and produced a fine crop of excellent fruit, which readily
brought at wholesale nearly seven dollars a bushel for the
entire crop. In this instance, simply their laying on the ground
saved the fruit buds from winter-killing. But for rather tender
varieties, to make it certain that they will not be injured in the
winter, it would be better to cover the vines ; the best way to
do this is, to lay the vines down on the surface of the ground
and cover with soil, being careful not to take the soil from near
the vine, so as to leave a hole for the water to stand about the
roots in the winter. Vines and tender shrubs are often injured
in the winter by covering with hay or manure, which ferments
and rots the buds. Covering with soil, so far as my experience

208 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

goes, is the best, cheapest aud most expeditious way to protect
vines that are rather tender.

This inquiry is often made : which is tlic best way of trim-
ming grape vines for out-door culture ? and it is a hard
question to answer, each different way having something
peculiar to itself which is convenient or favorable to a good
development of the vine or fruit ; but as far as my experience
goes I prefer what is called spur pruning ; but in experiments
that I am now making, I very likely may see cause to adopt
some other mode. The almost universal fault in trimming is
extending the vine too fast, by that means losing the lower
spurs and fruit bearing branches, and finally ending in a long,
straggling, homely shaped vine, which will not produce so
much or as good fruit, neither is it so convenient to train upon
the trellis, or to trim afterwards, as it would have been if
properly trimmed in the first instance.

How and when shall we plant the vines ? Plant in a deeply-
ploughed, well-drained, mellow soil, which has been enriched
with compost manure, made of peat and cow manure, tow hich
has been added ground bones, or spread the bones on the
soil before ploughing ; and it would be well to apply a dressing
of ashes and gypsum, and let the whole be well and thoroughly
mixed with the soil by ploughing ; and in planting, open your
holes or trench about eight or ten inches deep, and plant with
good two years old vines, that have been growing in the open
ground — they being much better than vines grown in pots that
have their roots all coiled and matted together — spread out the
roots evenly, and cover them with mellow, loose soil, which is
much better than manure on the roots ; when all has been,
levelled off, have the roots about six or eight inches under the
surface of the ground, which in our climate is undoubtedly
better than deeper planting ; the roots being near the surface
of the ground and more exposed to the heat from the sun, will
cause tlieni to ripen earlier tlian if planted deeper in the
ground. I suppose the most favorable time to plant is in the fall,
after the leaves have been killed by the frosts, and before very
freezing weather ; but eitlicr fall or spring will answer well
enougli, only let the work of i)lanting be well done. And if
you purchase your vines I wish to repeat what I liave partly
stated before — that is, buy good, strong, vigorous vines, two

FRUIT. 209

years old, grown in the open ground ; they are better than
vines older or younger, and you may rely upon it that the
above statement is correct, whatever interested parties and
dealers may tell you to the contrary ; and most of them will
tell you that any variety and of any age that they may have a
stock of, is just what you want ; but rely upon your own judg-
ment, or upon some friend who understands the matter, and
select a variety or varieties that are hardy, early, prolific,
handsome fruit and bunch, good quality, berries adhering well
to the stem, a vigorous grower, and not subject to mildew.
With such a variety, well planted in a good high location, with
an aspect towards the west, south or east, you will be pretty
sure to succeed. If you decide to purchase some of the new
varieties, do not be disappointed if they do not come up to the
statements of the venders ; for if you do not expect it, you
will have to buy many of different kinds, to find one that is
better than some of the old varieties. I do not mean to say I
would not buy any of the new varieties, but simply that such
purchases be on a small scale, until satisfied of their worth.

Good grapes will always sell here for a fair price, both for the
table and for wine. Concord grapes are now retailing from
twenty to twenty-five cents per pound in Boston ; and in these
hard times, with the market full of Catawba and Isabella grapes
from the "West, which are retailing from twelve to fourteen
cents per pound, good Concords are better than Western
Catawbas or Isabellas after being transported from the West
here.

The president of your society, Mr. Bull, who you well know
has devoted a large portion of his time and means for the
improvement of the grape, by raising new varieties from the
seed, without resorting to the process of hybridization with
the foreign varieties, which are not near as hardy as the Amer-
ican grapes, invited your committee, as has been his custom
heretofore, to examine his new seedlings, many of which bear
fruit the present year. His method is to let them take their
chance in the winter without any protection whatever, believing
that any variety not hardy enough to stand the winter is not
worth growing. At the time of our visit, there were quite a
number of the new seedlings bearing fruit, which were of
various colors. Among them we tested some thirteen varieties

27

210 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

which were ver^ good. He had also one black variety which
was veiy sweet, thin skinned and early, at least a fortnight
earlier than the Concord ; and a number of other black varieties
which were very fine, some of them earlier than the Concord ;
also a number of light colored varieties, of fine quality ; also
the two very fine flavored seedlings, exhibited at our exhibition
the last year ; the one resembling the White Nice in color, fully
sustains its reputation of last year, as being superior to any
hardy grape known to your committee, for the table, and also
earlier than the Concord. We were much gratified to find
these varieties still holding up to their last year's reputation
for carlincss, fine quality, size of bunch and of berry, and
hardiness, giving promise of something better for general cul-
tivation for the table than even the Concord, now so generally
accepted as the best hardy grape.

AVild grapes are gathered and sold in large quantities in this
vicinity for the purpose of making wine, which is manufactured
from them by various parties for sale, all of which is of an
inferior quality, partly from the manner of making, but more
from the inferior quality and unfitness of the wild grape for
that purpose. The Concord makes an excellent wine — pro-
nounced by good judges superior to the best Catawba wines —
and the president of your society, at our request, has kindly
consented to write an article on wine making, which will be
published in our Transactions.

We were much gratified to find so good a display of grapes
at our exhibition the present unfavorable season ; and although
it was not so good as last year, still it was better than we
expected to find. There were on exhibition quite a large
number of dishes of the Concord, also dishes of Isabella,
Catawba, Diana, Delaware, Dracut, Amber, Hartford Prolific,
Muscadine, various kinds of wild grapes, a few dishes of Black
Hamburg, and Chasselas grapes, making quite a pretty show.
For the purposes of general cultivation, your committee were
unanimously and decidedly of the opinion that the Concord
was by far the best grape shown. The Delaware, shown by
Messrs. Brackett & Wellington, was very small in bunch and
in berry — tbe berries and bunch not much larger than bunches
of large Gondowin currants ; the quality was good, but the
small size of the bunch and berry, if those exhibited were a

FRUIT. 211

fair sample to judge from, would render it unfit for cultivation
except by the amateur. The Isabellas and Catawbas were not
nearly ripe ; Amber, sweet and ripe ; Diana, not quite ripe.
The other varieties were unripe, except the wild ones, which
were like all wild grapes, foxy, and would not be eaten by any
one who could procure a Concord, Isabella, Diana, or any of
the good varieties.

Your committee would recommend to those about planting the
grape, if they intend to plant one vine only, to plant a Concord ;
if a dozen, let most of them be of that variety also, because
they are handsomer than any other variety said to be suitable
for our climate ; as hardy as any kind grown, not excepting the
wild, foxy varieties ; as early as any good variety and earlier
than mpst of them ; as good in quality ; as productive ; not
liable to mildew ; a vigorous grower ; more salable in the
market, and combining more good qualities than any variety
that has been well tested, in the knowledge of your committee.

John B. Moore, for Committee.
Concord, Sept. 19, 1861.

HAMPSHIRE.

From the Report on Fruits.

Apple Trees and Apples. — A farm without an apple orchard
is a sad spectacle ; the farm is quite as imperfect as our national
flag without the stars. The farmer who has, and wishes no
orchard, lacks both taste and economy. Taste, because an
apple orchard is a " thingof beauty ;" economy, because raising
apples is a source of decided profit. What more beautiful
scene than an apple orchard in full bloom, in the freshness
and glory of spring-time ? The trees themselves elegant in
conformation, and clad in their simple, leafy verdure, are orna-
ments. But when crowned in the blooming-time with millions
of blossoms, pink and white, and laden with sweet perfume,
they remind us of the " Elysian fields."

Apples are a palatable and healthful article of food ; eaten
without preparation they are a luxury, and the choice dishes

212 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

such as sauces, preserves, tarts and various kinds of pastry,
that can be made from them, arc manifold. As an article for
the market that always meets with a ready sale, apples have no
rivals. An orchard standing on a single acre of ground will
afford more profit than can be obtained from the acre in any
other way. I will show this hereafter.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE APPLE TREE.

The apple tree has a very remote origin. According to an
ancient tradition Adam was choked with an apple tendered him
by the fair hand of Eve ; said accident caused a remarkable
protuberance on the anterior part of his throat. This pecu-
liarity has been transmitted and inherited by all the sons and
daughters of the original proprietors of Eden. The old anato-
mists made use of this curious tradition, and named the promi-
nence in question, " Pomum Adami,'" or Adam's apple, and it
bears that name to the present day. Skeptics will probably
doubt the above narration, but they will credit those ancient
Greek and Roman naturalists who described the apple tree and
its fruit with great accuracy. Theophrastus, Heroditus and
Columella, all make mention of the apple tree. Pliny says,
that the Greeks called them " Medica," from the country where
they first originated. Pliny described them as a fruit with a
delicate, tender skin, easily pared off. He says of the crab
apples, or " wildlings" that they are small and sharply sour,
for which peculiarity they receive many curses. Columella,
a practical husbandman who lived and wrote long before
Pliny's time, not only describes the apple tree but also the
process of grafting, and gives several different methods which
he says were handed down from the " olden time."

Apple trees were brought to this country very early. In
1629 by the order of the " Governor and company of Massachu-
setts Bay, in New England," apple seeds were brought from
England into the colonies ; and Governor's Island was granted
to Governor Winthrop in 1632, on condition that he should
plant a vineyard, and an orchard. Tlie pilgrims also cultivated
orchards near Plymouth rock soon after their arrival.

Many of our best varieties of apples originated here among
us. The Baldwin originated in Wilmington, near Boston, more
than one hundred years ago, and for a long time was called

FRUIT. 213

the " Butter's apple," or the " Woodpecker apple." Rev.
William Blackstoiic planted the first orchard in Rhode Island,
in 1636. In this orchard originated the " Yellow Sweeting."
The Newtown Pippin came from a seedling originating on Long
Island more than one hundred and fifty years ago. But a long
history of apple trees is not needed here.

THE PROFITS OF RAISING APPLES.

Apples are profitable for food, prepared in a great variety of
ways ; they are profitable as an article for the market. The
farmer can raise no other crop (every thing considered) with
so large a margin of profit. Let us see if this be true or not.
An orchard containing fifty trees properly set out, will cover an
acre of ground ; in ordinary seasons each tree ought to yield
three barrels of fruit ; the whole orchard will produce then, one
hundred and fifty barrels of apples annually ; these are worth
on the spot in common seasons, one hundred and fifty dollars.
An acre of grass land will produce about three tons of hay,
commonly worth not more than thirty dollars at the time of
cutting. The apples can be gathered with as little expense as
making the hay ; this will leave a large balance in favor of tlie
orchard ; aside from this, the orchard will produce in addition
to the apples, a fair crop of either grass, potatoes, or oats without
detriment to the trees. I might take the corn, or wheat crop,
or any other, not excepting tobacco, and make the same com-
parison, and yet the balance (other things being equal) would
still be in favor of the apples. An orchard of forty Baldwin
apple trees has yielded three hundred barrels of fruit in a
single season ; a farmer in Leverett, two years ago, gatliered
one hundred and one bushels of seedling apples from a single
tree, another sold two hundred and fifty dollars wortli in a
single season, gathered from an old orchard, covering one and
one-half acres of ground. But these facts are sufficient
to establish the great profits of raising the fruit under consid-
eration.

SITUATION AND SOIL MOST SUITABLE FOR AN ORCHARD.

A side hill or gentle slope, facing the south or south-west,
and sheltered in the background by a higher eminence, is a
good situation for an orchard. Avoid low, flat, or over-moist

214 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

grounds with clayey subsoil, also sandy plain lands. Orchards
"will not flourish in such situations nor on such soils. Dark,
rich, loam, intermingled with gravel, with subsoil of yellow
loam intermingled with gravel, is the most proper soil for an
orchard. A soil that naturally produces the oak and sugar
maple, will produce a thrifty orchard. Avoid lands and loca-
tions that bear the pine or hemlock, — they will not grow an
orchard.

HOW AND WHEN TO PLANT AN ORCHARD.

The best time to set out an orchard of young trees is in the
spring. Let it be done early — as soon as the frosts are well
out of the ground. Go to the nursery and select your trees.
Be careful to get thrifty, well-formed ones of such varieties as
you desire. Those of a larger size are the best. Never select
any less than six or eight feet high. They are more apt to live
and you will get an orchard sooner by so doing. Secure as
many roots on the young trees as possible, and be careful not
to wound or bruise them in taking them from the ground.
The holes should be dug in well-marked rows at intervals of
thirty or thirty-two feet apart. This is quite near enough for
the good of both trees and land. Spade out a hole twelve
inches deep and five feet or more in diameter. Cover the
botfbm of the hole with some well-made, rich compost, to the
depth of three or four inches. Now set the tree carefully in,
straightening out all the small roots and fibres, and draw in
the fine dirt upon them. After all the dirt is drawn in, place
over the whole the grassy turf, if on sward land, with the grass
side down, and if deemed necessary, secure the tree to a stake
by a piece of soft cord, or strip of cloth, and the thing is done.

THE AFTER-TREATMENT OF THE YOUNG TREES.

Do not meddle with them much the first year. If the season
is a dry one they may need watering, but they will require no
pruning. Young trees will bear but little pruning for a few
years. They need all their foliage to gather from the atmos-
phere important principles of growth. After the first year, a
compost, composed of well-rotted manure and wood-ashes,
should bo applied annually around and near thcni. It is an
excellent plan to wash the bodies and larger limbs at least once

FRUIT. 215

every season with a solution of sal-soda or of soft soap and
water. This will keep off parasitic growths and destroy insects
and worms. Examine them often near the ground, for the
detection of that enemy of apple trees — the borer. If you find
the bark penetrated by this worm, seek for it with a piece of
bent annealed wire, and destroy it. Clear the leaves and twigs
from worms and caterpillcrs as soon as you discover any. If
any pruning is done, do it with a sharp knife, or fine-toothed
saw, and cover the stub with a coating of grafting wax or
cement.

If the land can well be cultivated, it is better for the young
trees. Potatoes, corn or oats will flourish well in an orchard
and give a fair crop without injuring or impairing the growth
of the trees. Be careful in ploughing or cultivating, not to
wound the roots, or barkj or in any way to disturb them. If
the land is kept down to grass, a surface of several feet should
be kept clear of turf near the body of every tree. This can
easily be done with a bog-hoe or pointed shovel. Or, what is
quite as effective, the same space can be covered with muck.

HOW TO RECRUIT AN OLD ORCHARD.

Many farmers have on their premises old orchards, producing
very little fruit. It is desirable to make them bear, until a
young orchard can be brought forward into a bearing condition.
Can any thing be done to reinvigorate the old and barren trees,
and to enhance their productive powers ? I answer yes, and
from personal experience with an old, worn-out orchard. My
method, and one which proved successful, was the following.
First the trees were cleared of all dead and decaying limbs
with the saw. Then all the moss and old dead bark was well
scraped from trunk and limbs with a sharp hoe. A quantity
of turf for a space of six feet in circumference was removed
with the spade from around the trunk, and one bushel of com-
post applied. The compost was composed of equal parts of
ashes, charcoal dust, and well-made manure. Then the turf
was replaced, the grass side downward. On the following year,
the leaves were larger and darker green, and for a number of
years the quantity and quality of the fruit was doubled.

216 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

WHAT VARIETIES OF FRUIT TO RAISE.

Any person about to plant an orchard will do well before
doing so to answer the following questions : What trees will
flourish best in this latitude, and on the peculiar soil of my
farm ? What varieties of apples will suit best the tastes of my
family for home consumption ? What kinds of apples will find
the most ready sale in market ? What varieties are the best
bearers ? Supposing you wish to set out an orchard of one
hundred trees. Seventy-five of these at least, should be calcu-
lated to produce market fruit. The remaining twenty-five may
consist of selected varieties of summer, fall, and winter fruit,
adapted to the tastes and predilections of the family. Those
designed for market should not reach over four varieties, and
those all winter fruit. If I were to name the kinds, all things
considered, as being most economical and desirable, they should
be the following : Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet,
Baldwin, and the Newtown Pippin. These varieties are ex-
cellent bearers, and the fruit always meets with a ready sale.

HINTS ABOUT GATHERING AND STORING WINTER FRUIT.

Apples should never be shaken ofT from the trees. They will
become bruised, and decay much the sooner. They ought to
be carefully plucked off with the hand, one by one, and placed
in a basket. From the basket they should be transferred to a
shallow box, not over ten inches deep, in the same careful man-
ner. Now let them stand in an outhouse or open shed until
very late in the autumn. So long as they will not freeze keep
them in this condition. Then in time remove the boxes, after
taking out all decayed and decaying fruit, into a dry, cool cellar.
Elevate the boxes on pieces of timber, a little way from the
cellar bottom. Apples after being gathered should be stirred as
little as possible. They never should be poured into a box or
barrel, for this will bruise them. A shallow box is preferable
to a barrel, as there is less pressure from above downward.
And besides, the apples will keep cooler, and the decayed and
decaying ones can be more easily removed.

THE APPLE AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD, IN ITS RAW AND COOKED STATE.

Apples, eaten in their natural condition, are a palatable and
healthful article of diet. They contain no inconsiderable

FRUIT. 217

amount of the nutritious principle, and tliey are easily and
quickly digested, and promote the growth and health of the
body. Baked or roasted, they are excellent as a dessert, or
eaten with milk and bread. Fried with butter or lard, or stewed
with white sugar, they make a fine relish, eaten with fresh or
salted meats. With cider molasses, they when stewed, make
the old-fashioned "apple sauce," the favorite dish of our ances-
tors a hundred years ago. And the article when properly made
is just as good now as ever. Apple pies, tarts, jellies, &c., form
no mean part of the delicacies of every well-ordered pantry.
The dried fruit finds a variety of uses in the hands of the
skilful housewife, in the preparation of numerous delicious
dishes, when the raw fruit cannot be obtained.

APPLE CIDER OR WINE.

Every latitude produces those fruits and acids conducive to
the health of the inhabitants. In tropical regions, where great
heat prevails, very acidulous fruits are required, and they have
the lime and the lemon. In the frigid zone, where intense cold
prevails, few acids are required, for the inhabitants need none.
They drink the oils and eat the fatty flesh of the whale, walrus,
and seal, and grow rotund and obese, and so are protected from
freezing. In these " temperate reg-ions,'' we seem to need not
too much fatty food, nor too acidulated fruits or drinks. So
we have the grape, cranberry, currant and apple, moderately
acidulous in their character. Apple cider, the fermented juice
of the apple, when properly prepared, is not only a grateful and
healthful acidulous beverage, taken at proper times, and in
proper quantities, but it takes the place of imported wines and
brandies in the cure of many ailments incident to the human
system, and peculiar in these latitudes.

In cases of indigestion, from a lack of a proper secretion of
the gastric juice, it gives tone and vigor to the stomach, and
helps to restore its normal functions. In the latter stages of
typhoid and bilious fevers it is quite as useful as most foreign
wines or brandies, and very much more so than the vile prepa-
rations palmed off upon the public, purporting to be the gen-
uine imported articles. The sweet cider, boiled down to a
syrup, enters into the composition of many delicious articles of
food. Brandy distilled from the fermented wine is a pure

28

218 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

spirit, and useful for bathing purposes ; and when old is not
much inferior, in a medicinal character, to brandy distilled
from grape wine. Good cider cannot be made from inferior,
or decayed, or worm-eaten fruit. The apples should be ripe
and mellow, before they are ground out in the mill. They
should be mixed, the sour and the sweet, in about equal pro-
portions when carried to the apple heap. After the fruit is
ground in the mill the pomace should stand in the vat a day or
two, being frequently stirred with a wooden shovel. Being
thus brought into contact with the air the cider will have a fine
rich color, and a better flavor, acquired by the digestion of
the apple skins, which contain a fragrant oil, and by chemical
changes wrought in the cider proper by atmospheric influences.
The cider should be stored in well-cleansed barrels or casks,
and put into a dry, cool cellar. After fermentation has quite
ceased, the barrels or casks should be hermetically closed. No
foreign substance should ever be added to cider with the idea
that it can be improved or made better thereby. Those who
wish to poison their cider by chemicals will bear in mind that
when they do so their cider becomes a medicinal tincture^ unfit
for a beverage, or to use in any way unless prescribed by a
physician. Cider will keep fit for use much longer if bottled
soon after the vinous fermentation has ceased.

David Rice, Chairman.
Leverett, September, 1861.

NORFOLK.

From the Report of the Committee on Farms.

Several of the committee had the pleasure of witnessing some
experiments in irrigation in connection with the cultivation of
pear trees, strawberries, various root crops, <fec., on the farm of
Artemas Newell, of Needham. The character of these experi-
ments and their results, will be understood from the following
communication, which Mr. Newell has furnished at the request
of the committee.

What I have attempted to do in either of the improvements
inquired about, has not been done in a very thorough manner,

FRUIT. 219

although the results have been sufficiently encouraging to
convince me that if tlie work is properly pursued, it will ulti-
mately be of material advantage by increasing, to a large extent,
the products of some of my land.

That part of my land which I judged might be improved as
to its general productiveness, by both drainage and irrigation,
lies between the public road on the south and a pond on its
northern boundary. A portion of the land, perhaps eight or
ten acres, is a dry, gravelly loam, surrounded on every side by
low meadow or peat bog, the water formerly standing or run-
ning some four or five feet below the level of the highest part of
the land to be irrigated ; consequently it seemed impracticable
to use the water for that purpose. The centre or highest part
of the land was cultivated and three or four acres planted with
pear trees, between the rows of which were planted strawberries
and currants, and in some instances potatoes, carrots and other
roots. The other portion of the high land was devoted to grass
or grain. The pear trees were planted in rows nine feet apart
each way, giving eighty-one square feet to each tree, or five
hundred and thirty-seven trees to an acre. Between the rows
of trees, beds were prepared for strawberries by back-furrowing
very deep to the centre, leaving beds just three feet wide, with
a hollow between each bed and row of trees for the water to
run in when needed. In the centre, between the trees in the
rows, a currant bush is planted, thus giving as many of these as
there are of the trees.

In commencing the work, I first ascertained by levels whether
I could drain the upper end of the lot, which is a deep peat bog
— the surface of the mud and water there, being apparently
much below the surface of any of the dry land. It was found
practicable to drain it considerably by digging through the high
part of the land for a distance of six hundred or eight hundred
feet towards the pond on the north, but impossible to carry tlie
water to those higher portions where irrigation was most
required. To obviate that difficulty, I caused the bog or basin
at the head to be made deeper and larger, by removing large
quantities of muck, which was used for compost, and this exca-
vation opened numerous additional springs. Then the water
was secured by damming up all old drains leading from the
pond so formed, by which means the water rose to a sufficient

220 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

height to cany it quite above the highest and driest part of the
field.

I describe these preliminary proceedings with some particu-
larity as to the details, because they embrace the most important
part of the })rocess. Witliout those examinations, I should
hardly have known from which end of my field the water would
run, although the fall was abundant when it was made available.
Judging from my own somewhat limited experience and
observation in these matters, I think that even a superficial
examination by the aid only of a common level, will show that
there are many farms in our county where irrigation can be
successfully practiced with trifling expense compared with the
benefits, though the owners now look on the object as impracti-
cable for such localities. There are but few farms that have
not some facilities for irrigation,if they are sought for and made
available. In some cases the sources whence water may be
obtained are not on the land most requiring it, but by a small
amount of labor a head may be raised where a supply is found
in swamps or ponds, and by channels it may be conveyed to the
places where it is wanted. It is not unusual to see water car-
ried for miles along the sides of mountains and hills for the
purpose of irrigation, in countries where the benefits of the
process are duly appreciated. Here, we often see a brisk stream
of pure water running through a dry pasture in a crooked
channel. In many cases, if proper attention were given, it
could without much expense be dammed and carried along the
bead of the descent and spread over the whole or a great portion
of the pasture during several of the spring and fall months, and,
perhaps, by opening the springs, a supply might be obtained
that would continue through the summer.

The eye, without any instrument, is not in all cases sufficient
to show whether the ground is level or otherwise. It is often
more apt to mislead than to afford a correct guide in regard to
the surface of the land. Sometimes the raising of the source
from which water is to be taken for irrigation, changes the course
of streams. On a part of my own land where I first made the
attempt to irrigate, the water in some of the channels ran east ;
but a change in the source causes them to run directly west, in
the same channels.

FRUIT. 221

My plan for distributing the water, is to convey it from the
reservoir to the upper end of the pear tree lot, where it falls into
an artificial channel or ditch, which extends across the lot at
the ends of all the rows of trees, strawberries, &c. To tliat side
of the ditch next the ends of the rows, is fitted a two-inch plank
ten or twelve inches wide, set edgewise, and througli the plank,
at intervals of four feet and a half, corresponding with the dis-
tance of the rows from each other, a round drain-pipe of an
inch bore is inserted, with a cork to each, by which the whole
or any portion of them may be closed when desired. Each row
of trees, strawberries, &c., is thus supplied with an equal quan-
tity of water. When the water has run down the whole length
of the rows, it falls into a similar ditch as that at the upper end,
and is from thence distributed over the grass field below, or let
into a reservoir in which is put strong manure, for the purpose
of making liquid manure, which is distributed in rivulets over
the mowing land — a method of spreading manure which is
found to be of great advantage, and requiring little labor.

That part of the water which is not taken into the head pipes
as it passes, (and this is much the largest part,) falls into a
channel which conducts it to another pear tree lot arranged
with strawberry beds, where a part of it is turned through chan-
nels between the rows, as before described, and a part runs into
an artificial fish-pond, tlie out-flow of which is conducted to a
small workshop in the garden, and by means of an over-shot
water wheel, six feet in diameter, turns grindstones, works a
turning-lathe, circular saw, hay-cutting machine, corn-sheller,
pump, &c., &c.

In regard to some of the effects of irrigation, I consider the
hay crop more than doubled by water alone, without the appli-
cation of liquid or other manure.

The pear trees, which are mostly on quince stocks, were
imported from France ; part of them planted in the spring of
1857, and the other part, from the same nursery, in the spring
of 1859. They were two years from the bud. The principal
fertilizer they have received is the water applied by irrigation,
as before described. On some parts of the grounds the irriga-
tion has been more thorough than on others. Under such
circumstances the trees have made more than twice the growth
of wood. Tlie difference between those which have been ivell

222 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

irrigated and those which have not, can be seen almost as far as
the trees can be seen — the size and luxuriance being so much
in favor of the former. The best trees are where there is irri-
gation on the surface and drain pipes laid directly under them,
four feet below.

Strawberries I plant between the rows of pear trees, in deep,
light beds three feet wide only. By this arrangement the soil
is never trodden down either in planting, weeding, trimming,
or picking the fruit, and they are much more easily kept free
from weeds. The beds are liberally supplied with strong
manure, placed in one deep furrow in the centre of the bed, at
least one foot below the surface. One row of plants is set
directly over the manure, the plants fifteen to eighteen inches
apart. They are set in the month of May. The hole for the
plant is made with a tool like a marlinspike, reaching down
well into the manure. The roots are let down and the hole is
carefully filled with fine earth without pressing, then soaked
with water, and dry earth placed over top to prevent baking.
The effect of placing the manure so deep, is to carry the roots
of the plants through the manure to the soil in a dry time, to
entirely cover the beds by autumn with most vigorous plants,
and to keep the seeds of weeds and grass so low that they will
do no harm. The fruit is mostly grown on the new plants,
which have derived their vigor from the manure chiefly tiiroiigh
the roots of the original plant, the runners from which are cut
off in the spring for the convenience of weeding, &c.

Most of my strawberry-beds are watered liberally, by a con-
stant flow of water along the channels, which have been
described. The results are, that the berries are large and fair;
they do not ripen quite as early, but continue in bearing much
longer; the crop is certain, even in the dryest seasons, when
those on dry land under ordinary management are cut off —
sometimes before half the crop is matured. In fact, I deem
irrigation almost indispensable for the successful cultivation of
strawberries in dry seasons. We seldom find wild strawberries
on very dry land ; they are found most luxuriant on moist
land, which is an indication of the natural wants of the plant.

Those members of the committee who had the opportunity of
going over Mr. Newell's grounds — and some of them repeated

WINE-MAKING. 223

their visit — can bear witness to the flourishing condition of the
pear trees, to the great productiveness of the strawberries, and
the long time the fruit continued to be produced. It was tlie
opinion of those who saw them that they had never seen vines
so loaded with fruit. The chairman visited the field after most
of the strawberry vines in the neighborhood had ceased bearing,
a pretty sharp drought having set in, and found Mr. Newell's
vines still loaded with fruit in all stages, from the blossom to
perfect ripeness. The young berries appeared to be swelling,
and from the fresh and vigorous character of the vines, seemed
in a fair way to mature perfectly, which, as Mr. Newell has
stated, was the result.

The committee regard the experiments of Mr. Newell as of no
ordinary interest, and they desire to express their thanks for his
kindness in explaining the processes which he has adopted in
irrigation, the results of which, in his case, increase, in an
important degree, the evidence in favor of that practice. In
the report of 1860^ we took occasion to speak of irrigation as a
subject to which the attention, of our farmers ought to be more
particularly directed than it has hitherto been, inasmuch as it
furnishes, in many instances, the cheapest means of increasing
the yield of crops. We trust that the examples which we have
brought forward, will have the effect to stir up the minds of our
farmers to the benefits they may derive by the adoption of this
mode of fertilization.

Sanford Howard, Chairman.

WINE- MA KING.

MIDDLESEX.

Statement of E. W. Bull.

Process op Wine-Making. — Domestic wines made from the
small fruit, have been made in New England for a long time,
and when well made, are very wholesome and palatable. I
have tasted of currant wine — old and fine — equal or very nearly
so, to fine Sicily Madeira. With these we do not propose to
deal at this time, but to show that even in the rugged climate

224 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

of Massachusetts, wine from the grape is much superior to that
from the currant, in quality, and invaluable in cases of sickness
or debility. It can be made without difficulty if certain plain
rules are observed, and the kind of grape used is adapted to
the making of a good wine.

It is not always that a fine table grape will make a good
wine ; indeed there are many excellent wine grapes which are
unfit for the table, and many of the finest table grapes are unfit
for wine. A good wine grape should give an abundant juice
of a good color, with astringency enough to give character and
tone to the wine, but not so much as to give it a disagreeable
flavor. It should contain sugar enough to make the wine keep
well, but this is not indispensable, for sugar may be added if
the grape possess the other qualities proper to a good wine.

I will state the method I pursue in making wine from grapes
containing the proper qualities for that purpose, and will show
in another place by what methods excessive harshness may be
ameliorated, and unpleasant flavors removed, or so qualified as
to yield a palatable and wholesome wine.

The first necessity in wine-making is to prepare your casks.
These should not be new, for the new wood would give an
unpleasant flavor to the wine. It is better to use casks which
have already held wine or spirit ; they should be perfectly clean
and sweet, well made and strong. The press — which should
be a strong screw press — must be perfectly clean, and care
must be taken to keep it so during the whole process. Few
grapes are so tender as to yield their juice without bruising ;
you will therefore need a mash-tub and a long wooden pestle
to break them. I do not strip the grapes from the stems, for I
believe they give to the wine a tonic property and make it keep
well. The grapes should be gathered in a dry day; gather and
press them as rapidly as possible, remembering that fermenta-
tion never goes back, and it is important to have the whole
body of your wine start at one time if possible, lest a portion of
them must grow sour before the rest is fermented into proper
wine. The grapes should be ripe, but not over ripe ; green
berries should be removed ; they give to the wine a sour taste
which is a long time in passing away. A bushel of grapes
should give four gallons of juice ; but few grapes, however,
yield so much as this, the product varying from two and one-

WINE-MAKING. 225

half to four gallons. If, however, they are rich in wine-making
properties, the measure may be made up to four gallons by the
addition of water and sugar. Sugar must be added to the
must from grapes grown in this latitude, for, although a sound
light wine may be made from some of our best wine grapes, the
proportion is never sufficient to make a full-bodied wine which
will keep well ; twenty-four per cent, is the least the new
beginner should allow, but twenty per cent, and even fifteen
per cent, will enable a skilful operator to make a sound wine ;
the sugar should be the best refined white, as brown sugars
give a coarse taste to the wine. If you have not got a proper
instrument to ascertain the per cent, of sugar contained in the
must, (Oechsle's must scale is the best,) add the sugar until
the must will float a new laid egg with about one-quarter of its
diameter above the surface. It is much better to have a little
excess of sugar than to take the venture of the wine running
into acetous fermentation for want of enough sugar to save it.

Fermentation, as I have said, never goes back, but it is liable
to fluctuations through changes of temperature ; you should
therefore, if possible, have the temperature under control ; this
can only be accomplished by having a stove in the pressing
room ; with the aid of this you may keep the heat at the point
necessary to secure active fermentation — and it should always
be active — and to gradually increase the temperature to eighty
degrees or eighty-five degrees at the close, bearing in mind that
the more active the fermentation, ("stormy," a German friend
calls it,) the sooner it will be completed and the better will be
the wine ; keep the air from the must as much as possible, and
when the fermentation subsides put in the bung, and if there is
any strain on the cask, relieve it by taking out the spigot occa-
sionally ; after the wine is still, keep it as cool as you can until
it is convenient to put it into your cellar ; take this occasion to
draw it off from the lees ; throw these away, rinse out the cask
and replace the wine ; if the fermentation has been thorough,
the wine will probably be clear ; if otherwise, it will be likely
to ferment again in the spring, when it must be again racked
off, and if necessary, fined.

To refine wine you may use isinglass or the white of an egg ;
one-quarter of a pound of isinglass is sufficient for a barrel of
wine ; dissolve it in a little hot water and mix it with five or

29

226 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

six gallons of the wine which you have drawn from the cask for
that purpose ; then return it to the cask, stirring it well into
the wine and stop the cask tightly ; in a week or two it will be
perfectly fine, then draw it off, throw away the lees and return
the wine to the cask. If you use the white of eggs, take seven
eggs for a barrel of wine, whip the whites thoroughly, mix with
the wine as above, whipping it with a clean whisk and return
to the cask. The wine is now made and should be kept in the
cask until ripe. It will be fit to use in two years, but will
improve with age. It should not be bottled, that is, it should
not be taken out of wood, where it ripens much more rapidly
than in glass, unless it is so light as to make it necessary in
order to save it from going sour.

I now propose to show by what methods the harsh flavor —
commonly called foxy — of our wild grapes may be ameliorated
and a good wine obtained from them.

The wild grape contains much more acid and a tougher and
more mucilaginous pulp than the wine grape. The excess of
mucilage causes a violent fermentation which it is difficult to
check, and it is necessary to dilute the acid to make a palatable
wine. The proportions of acid, sugar and water which are
found to give the best wines are as follows : in one thousand
parts, two hundred and forty sugar, six acids, seven hundred
and fifty-four water. All these proportions fail in the wild
grape. It contains more acid, less water and less sugar. With
the aid of proper instruments and experience in the manipula-
tions, one can restore these proportions exactly ; but as this
article is written for those who have neither time nor inclina-
tion for critical experiments, but who would be glad to be able
to make a good and wholesome wine out of the wild grapes of
their fields, I offer to them the following formula : To every
gallon of the grape juice add a gallon of pure water ; take the
cheese or pressing from the press and restore it to the mash-tub
and bruise it thoroughly again ; then add to it as much water
as you got pure juice from it at the first pressing ; let it stand
an hour or two and press again, then put the liquid into your
cask with the first pressing and the water which you had added
to it ; to every gallon of this mixture add three pounds of the
best white sugar — let this be dissolved in the water before you
add it to the grape juice — and give it a thorough fermentation ;

BREAD. 227

keep your cask full, if possible, and let the yeasty substance
work over at the bung, for this is the best way to get rid of the
excess of mucilage, taking care to fill up the cask frequently
with the must saved for that purpose. If, however, you have
not a sufficient quantity of must to fill your cask and supply
the waste from the bung, the following method may be adopted :
Take strips of cotton cloth, half an inch wide and twelve or
fifteen inches long, wet them and dip them in flour of sulphur,
light them at one end and put them into the cask, one end
being secured at the bung ; when the cask is filled with the
vapors of the sulphur, pour in the must until the cask is about
one-third full ; put in the bung and roll the cask until the
vapor is thoroughly mixed with the wine ; repeat the process
until all the must is in the cask ; this will throw down the
mucilage and coloring matter in which is contained the offen-
sive taste and odor ; as soon as this takes place, which will be
in two or three days, draw off the must carefully, clean out the
cask, replace the wine, and proceed with the fermentation as
stated above.

Concord, December 1, 1861.

BREAD.

MIDDLESEX.

From the Report of the Committee.
The quality of most of the bread was good, a large proportion
being very fine. There were some wheaten loaves, the flour
wet with new milk, which were in their new state all that
could reasonably be desired, but the committee feared they
would not retain their nice flavor so long as bread mixed with
water. We recommend a trial of it* to those who can spare
time to bake often, and will insure a very nice article to all who

have good materials and Mrs. 's skill, if they will work

after her mode. She " used four pounds of flour, one cup of
yeast, teaspoonful of salt ; wet the flour with new milk ; put in
a warm place to rise three hours, then kneaded and allowed to

228 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

rise one hour ; again kneaded, and placed in pans for baking.
After standing half an hour, it was baked in a brick oven one
hour."

Good flour, good yeast, a good oven, and some experience
and native skill, are essential to the production of good bread.
Great skill may succeed in making a tolerable bread from poor
materials ; and one without skill may sometimes, with good
materials, find that she has made a good loaf; but if she cannot
make the next one like it she has much to learn. What we
strongly desire is, to see the work done in an intelligent manner,
according to sure principles of science, so that no failure is to
be counted as among the probabilities. This can be brought
about only by the education of the bread maker in a knowledge
of the process of mixing, kneading, fermentation and baking
of bread, so that the how and why of every part shall be well
understood. The practical part of this education can be best
secured in that divinely established seminary, the family kitchen,
under the instruction of an intelligent mother.

Flour of the best quality is of a light cream color, and holds
together in a lump when squeezed by the hand, and shows
impressions of the fingers, and even marks of the skin, much
longer than that which is inferior. It contains from twelve to
fifteen per cent, of gluten, fifty-five to sixty of starch, eight of
sugar, five of gum, and twelve of water; these proportions vary-
ing considerably in different varieties of wheat and qualities oi
flour. The whitest flours contain most starch, and the darkest
most gluten ; so that, gluten being the flesh-forming substance,
whiteness is not an indication of superior nutritiveness, but
rather the reverse. Bakers prefer to mix flour abounding in
starch with that which contains a larger proportion of gluten,
believing they can by the mixture make a better bread than by
either alone ; though possibly their preference may sometimes
arise from the fact that they are thus enabled to work in flour
of a lower price. Many growers of wheat in the "West sow two
varieties together, say the Fife and the Rio Grande, and get a
better flour by the mixture.

In the making of bread, the proportion of water to be added
in mixing the dough varies according to the quality of the
flour. The best flours, those that contain the largest proportion
of gluten, will absorb more than those of inferior quality. The

BREAD. 229

water thus added to flour enters into intimate combination
with its constituents, and but little of it is expelled by the heat
to which it is exposed in baking. Bread that has been removed
from the oven several hours, has been found to contain about
forty-five per cent, of water, and the proportion is but slightly
lessened by age. As what we call dry flour contains about
twelve per cent, of water, there will therefore remain of the
water that was added in the preparation of the dough, about
thirty-five per cent., or a little more than one-third of the whole
weight of bread. The water thus intermingled with the flour
combines with the starch, dissolves the sugar and gluten, and
moistens the minute particles so as to cause them to cement
together, binding the whole into a coherent mass. It also serves
to bring the ingredients into that closer contact which is favor-
able to chemical activity. The proper quantity of water to be
used is so much as will give to the gluten the greatest degree
of tenacity ; experience shows this to be about a half pint to a
pound of flour.

A mixture of plain flour and water makes a substance which,
when baked, is hard and tough, and difficult to masticate and
digest. To remedy this defect, and give the bread a loose and
spongy texture, which enables it better to mingle with the
digestive juices of the stomach, the dough is subjected to
certain operations which we call raising. When softened by
water, the glutinous parts of the flour become elastic, and thus
the whole mass is rendered capable of greatly expanding. To
produce this desirable expansion, fermentation is usually em-
ployed. While the vinous fermentation is going on, the sugar
of the flour is changed to alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The
particles of sugar being evenly distributed through the mass,
wherever the fermentation is sufficiently active, the liberated gas
forms little cells for itself in the elastic dough ; and the gas bub-
bles, being confined by the toughness of the gluten in the spot
where they are generated, expand or raise the whole lump,
giving it the requisite lightness. All rising of bread depends
upon this principle — there must be minute bubbles of gas liber-
ated evenly in all parts of the dough. In all modes of ferment-
ation, in all combinations of alkali and acid, the result is
effected in the same way.

230 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

As an agent to excite fermentation, yeast in some one of its
many forms, is in this country more generally used than any
other. The active principle of yeast, and how it acts to chemi-
cally decompose the sugar of the flour so as to liberate the gas,
has ever been a mystery. The microscope has yet been able to
show little beyond the fact that it belongs to the vegetable
kingdom — that it is a plant of the fungus tribe. Under a
powerful magnifier, it is seen to consist of innumerable rounded
or oval bodies, which are the true vegetable cells. Each little
globule consists of an enveloping skin or membrane, containing
a liquid within. When placed in favorable circumstances,
these globules, each containing within itself the seminal princi-
ple, are rapidly multiplied by budding off from each other, and
so the plant is built up, and somehow its growth disturbs the
combination of elements that make up the sugar, and the
carbonic acid gas is set free.

The most common form in which yeast has been made and
kept, is that of a liquid. In making yeast, the brewer is accus-
tomed to use malted grain, barley being preferred. The grain
is moistened and kept warm till it begins to sprout. In this
operation a chemical change takes place by which a portion of
the starch is changed to sugar. It is then dried, and the
process is stopped. In this state the grain is called malt. It
is next crushed and soaked in warm water, at a temperature of
about 160 degrees, to extract the soluble matter it contains.
Hops arc then added, and the liquid is boiled to coagulate the
excess of gluten ; and when again cooled yeast is added, and
the mixture is left to ferment. The malt gives strength and
activity to the yeast ; the hops serve to check the fermentation
before all the sugar is changed to alcohol, and to delay the
production of acid.

But it has been found that yeast may be more conveniently
preserved by drying ; and manufactories of dry yeast are now
established in various places, and it is thus easy to procure a
good article with but little trouble. But many persons prefer
to make it for themselves, and it is easily prepared in tliis way :
boil three ounces of dry hops half an hour in a gallon of water,
and strain the liquid through a fine sieve into an earthen
vessel. While hot, stir in two quarts of wheaten or rye meal.
When lukewarm, add a half-pint of good yeast and let it stand

BREAD. 231

in a moderately -warm place till it becomes light. Then add
Indian meal enough to make a stiif dough, knead thoroughly,
roll it out about a third of an inch thick, and cut into cakes
two inches square, dry in the sun, taking care to turn every
day and protect from wet. Yeast prepared in this way will
remain good a long time if kept in a dry place.

Active yeast for immediate use may be made in this
way: boil and mash six good sized potatoes and strain them
through a coarse sieve or colander ; add a quart of boiling
water, and stir in a half-pint of flour and a tablespoonful of
sugar. When lukewarm add a cake of the above dry yeast
after soaking in warm water till soft. Set in a warm place till
it becomes light. It is then ready for use, and will remain
good for two weeks if kept in a cool place.

The yeast being now ready, the operator begins to make her
bread. She first decides how large a batch her family needs.
Only so much should be baked at one time as is sure to be used
before it becomes sour or mouldy. This quantity will vary
according to the season of the year. In cool weather bread
will remain sweet much longer than in summer. Ten pounds
of flour, mixed with three quarts of water, will make about
fifteen pounds of bread, and in about that proportion for a
larger or smaller quantity. The good housewife takes the
needful quantity of warm water, and stirs in flour enough to
make a thin batter ; adds for the above amount a tablespoonful
of salt and a pint of yeast like that described above, and sets
where it will keep warm till it becomes light. The remaining
flour is then added, and the dough is set in a warm place to
rise. It should be kept about lukewarm. When nearly double
its original bulk it should be well kneaded, and put in the
baking pans, and stand in a warm place from fifteen to thirty
minutes, or till it begins to rise again, and then put into a
hot oven, and baked about one hour. It is well to manage so
that the heat of the oven may gradually diminish during the
baking. Much depends on the temperature of the oven. If
the heat be insufficient, the bread is sure to be soft and pasty in
the interior ; and if it be too great, tlie loaf gets a hard burnt
crust, and may seem to be well done while the middle is still
doughy. When the temperature is right, however, the loaf is
thoroughly cooked without the formation of a thick crust.

232 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.

The baking temperature of the oven should not vary much
from 400 degrees Fahrenheit. In the absence of a suitable
thermometer, the simplest way to try the heat is to sprinkle a
little dry flour on the bottom of the oven. If the flour turns
brown the heat is right, but if it be blackened and charred the
heat is too great. We much prefer a good old-fashioned brick
oven, especially for brown bread. The bread is more likely to
get a good bake without being scorched, than in a narrow stove
oven. But customs are changing, and we must learn to manage
the stove so as to do good work.

Instead of setting a sponge, many good housewives prefer to
make the dough of the requisite stiffness at once ; and indeed
some of the best bread exhibited was made in this way. In
fact it seems to make but little difference which method is
pursued. The most difficult part of the work is to decide just
when the fermentation has proceeded far enough ; and this, we
think, is less difficult, or does not require the exercise of so
nice a judgment, when the sponge method is followed as in the
other mode. This, however, may be a matter of mere habit ;
and if one has, by experience, acquired that sure nicety of
judgment in either mode, to her that mode is the best.

For the committee,

MiNOT Pratt.
Concord, September 19, 1861.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

OF MASSACHUSETTS,
ARRANGED BY TOWNS AND COUNTIES.

COMPILED FROM THE

UI^ITED STATES CE:^SUS OF 18G0,

AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES,

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

30

234

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34

266

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OF MASSACHUSETTS. 267

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OF MASSACHUSETTS. 297

REMARKS.

The preceding table exhibits the number of farms, farmers, farm
laborers, acres of improved and unimproved land, cash value of farms
and of farm implements and machinery, number of horses, asses and
mules, cows, oxen, other cattle, sheep and swine, value of live stock,
bushels of wheat, rye, corn, oats, pease and beans, Irish potatoes, sweet
potatoes, barley, buckwheat and grass seeds, pounds of tobacco, wool,
butter, cheese, clover seed, hops, flax, flaxseed, maple sugar, beeswax
and honey, gallons of wine and maple molasses, tons of hay, value of
orchard products and produce of market gardens, and value of slaugh-
tered animals, for each town in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as
exhibited by the official returns of the Eighth (1860) United States
Census.

The table does not include returns from Lawrence, Essex County, or
Provincetown, Barnstable County, as none of either of these towns were
returned by the marshals.

The following items, relating to the milk business, are not included in
the preceding table. They comprise all the references to this important
product to be found in the official returns.

In Taunton, 35 farmers sell milk ; in Springfield, 9 ; in Bridgewater,
16; in North Bridgewater, 16; in Fitchburg, 28; in Leominster, 57.
In Agawam, $900 worth of milk is sold annually ; in "Ware, $2,000 ; in
Warren, $40,000. In West Bridgewater, four farmers sold $2,090 worth
of milk. The towns of Canton, Sharon, Stoughton and Dedham, send
to market 468,000 gallons of milk annually.

The number of "farmers," as given in the table, does not include
females returned as farmers. Of these there are, perhaps, twenty in the
State. The number returned as " farm laborers," is hardly more than
an approximation to the number of those whose principal employment is
upon the farm, as laborers for hire, — if even that. Some of the marshals
return all laborers, as simply " laborers ;" others return such as " day
laborers ;" and others, as " farm laborers." In some cases farmers' sons
are returned as " farm laborers ;" in others, as " laborers ;" in others, as
" help ;" and in others, no occupation is given. This will account for
the great discrepancy in the returns of the various towns. For instance,
in Fitchburg, with 202 farms, and 233 farmers, no farm laborers are
returned ; and the same is the case with the adjoining town of Leominster.
38

298 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

New Braintree, with 95 farms, returns 67 farm laborers ; while in the
adjoining town of Oakham, with lOG farms, none are returned.

These returns, while they are of great value relatively, are yet so far
from the actual truth, as to be nearly valueless, except for purposes of
comparison, and it is to be regretted that some more perfect plan has not
been adopted in tliese investigations. But so long as the work is en-
trusted to political favorites, irrespective of other qualifications, rather
than to persons specially fitted for such labor, we may well despair of
reaching even an approximation to the truth. Among the many par-
ticular instances which might be cited to show the careless and untrust-
worthy manner in which these returns are collected by the assistant
marshals, the following are deemed sufficient for illustration :

The assistant marshal for Haverhill and adjacent towns, returns as his
own, twenty-five acres improved land, at a valuation of one thousand
dollars ; while the assessors of his town value his real estate at $4,450.
The same marshal returns a neighbor as the owner of 205 acres of land,
(180 acres of it improved) at a valuation of only S700, while the assessors
appraise it at $8,150 ! If it be claimed that the marshal had no power
to correct any statement given him in the one case, it still remains true
that he should have returned a true " cash value" for his own property.
In the returns for the same town not a single ton of hay is returned
among the products of forty farms !

In the returns of products for the town of Westfield, 4,000 pounds of
rice are given ; forMendon, 273 ; for Stow, 90 ; for Rowley, 10 pounds.
Believing these entries to be incorrect, the several persons so reported as
rice producers, have been interrogated by this department, and the result
confirms previous belief One who was returned as having raised 2,500
pounds of rice, declares the statement to be " a mistake," as he " never
raised any rice." Another, reported to have raised 90 pounds, affirms it
to be " a great mistake," as he " never raised any." A third, reported
to have raised the modest amount of ten pounds, replies that it is " an
entire mistake." And so of the others !

In the returns for the town of Stoughton, no valuation is carried out
for six farms. In those for Amherst, no acres are returned for seventeen
farms.

To show that the above are not isolated cases of gross errors and im-
perfections in the census returns, the following table has been prepared.
It exhibits the total number of tons of hay annually produced, and the
number of horses, cows, sheep and swine, returned for each county, by
the assessors of the several cities and towns, and also by the marshal of
the United States census, — the two returns being taken at the same time
or at very nearly the same time, and referring to the same year.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

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300

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

From the above table it is seen that the assessors, who may safely be
considered as the most trustworthy authority, return 33,657 more tons of
hay, 23,033 more horses, 26,507 more cows, 2,392 more sheep, and
17,602 less swine, than the marshals. It should, however, be stated,
rather as a serious defect in the census blanks, than as a fault of the
marshals, that there appears to be no appropriate scliedules for the
return of horses, cows, &c., owned by persons other than farmers, and
consequently but few, or none, such are returned. Thus we find no
horses returned by the marshals for Boston, while the assessors for the
same year return 5,111. This alone makes a difference in the valuation
of that city, of $766,650 ; or a difference in the valuation of the State, of
$1,865,673 in one item ! Add the difference in the returns of cows,
swine and hay, and it increases the valuation of the State, $3,036,844.
It is to be hoped that before another decennial census shall be undertaken,
some means may be adopted by which these, and many other glaring
defects, may be remedied.

The following table exhibits, in round numbers, the average number
of acres per farm, (both of improved and unimproved land.) and also the
average value of farms, farm implements and machinery, and live stock,
in each county in the State : —

COUNTIES.

Average number
of acres of land
per Farm.

a a e
■2 > S

fl e fc.

a « 'O
*- t- c

<

ill

0) 3 -a
"^ o
V o5
•<

Average value of
Farms.

Avg. value Farm
Implements &
Machinery per
Farm.

Average value of
Live stock per ,
Farm.

Barnstable,

87

37

50

$2,231

$89 04

$230 76

Berkshire,

146

98

48

3,272

105 38

526 87

Bristol, .

92

38

54

2,061

100 34

269 03

Dukes, .

119

83

36

2,288

56 83

197 48

Essex,

67

51

16

3,743

127 55

318 23

Franklin,

115

77

38

2,621

78 50

383 95

Hampden,

115

77

38

2,993

108 58

400 46

Hampshire,

134

109

25

2,688

105 04

376 42

Middlesex,

71

45

26

4,392

158 25

334 79

Nantucket,

102

52

50

1,280

92 37

242 00

Norfolk, .

61

27

34

5,883

105 50

292 08

Plymouth,

70

34

42

2,771

62 75

225 48

SufTolk, .

45

41

4

9,233

211 52

382 59

Worcester,

102

69

33

3,158

95 49

387 79

Total averaf

?e,

95

60

35

$3,453

$107 10

$355 45

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

301

From this it appears that the average value of the farms in the State,
including farm implements and machinery, and live stock, is $3,884.58.
The average yearly produce of hay per farm, is a fraction less than
nineteen tons. The average number of milch cows per farm, is a frac-
tion less than four ; of sheep, a little more than three ; of swine, two.
The average annual produce of butter per cow, is a little less than seven
pounds ; of cheese, about five pounds. These last estimates cannot fail
to impress upon the mind the fact already alluded to, — the imperfect
character of the census returns. And yet these items, and such as these,
are to be laid before our own people, before the people of other States,
and before the world, as the results of official inquiries into the present
condition of the Agriculture of Massachusetts !

The following table exhibits the number of acres of land devoted to
orcharding in each county in the State ; the number of acres of orchard-
ing mowed ; number of tons of hay, the yearly produce of orcharding
mowed ; the yearly value of orchard products ; and the yearly value,
per acre, of orchard (fruit) products: —

COUNTIES.

Acres of Orcharding
of all kinds of
Fruits. Assessors,
1860.

Acres of Orcharding
mowed. Assessors,
1860.

Tons of Hay, the
yearly produce of
Orchard's mowed.
Assessors, 1860.

Tearly Value of
Orchard Products.
U. S. Census, 1860.

Yearly Value per
acre of Orchard
Products, (Fruit.)
Combined returns,
1860.

Barnstable,

510

62

65

$2,644

$5 18

Berkshire,

3,256

2,143

2,321

27,417

8 42

Bristol,

3,039

725

476

17,906

5 89

Dukes,

126

30

28

380

3 02

Essex,

3,307

1,841

1,548

122,981

3 72

Franklin, .

2,378

1,675

1,649

47,491

2 03

Hampden,

3,323

1,766

1,917

33,078

9 95

Hampshire,

2,720

1,595

1,671

48,203

1 77

Middlesex,

8,964

6,634

5,927

326,075

3 64

Nantucket,

-

-

-

30

-

Norfolk, .

2,760

1,980

1,811

84,568

3 06

Plymouth, .

2,643

779

628

14,051

5 31

Suffolk, .

178

154

179

9,420

5 29

Worcester,

8,548

5,996

5,791

193,896

2 27

Totals,

41,752

25,380

24,011

928,140

-

From this table it appears that the average yearly value per acre of
the fruit products of orchards is only $4,58 ; and the average yearly
value per farm is $26.13.

302

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

The following table exhibits the schedule of valuation of the various
descriptions of land in the State, as adopted by the " Valuation Com-
mittee " of 18G0:—

COUNTIES.

o

s

»<

s
■<

CO

1

•a
s
S

— «

a

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s

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•a

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a
r. J;

u a.

»4

i

Eo

U

a:

e

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s

•a'

1^

•a
a

5

o

Barnstable,

Yarmouth,

930

$50

mo

$20

$15

$10

$12

$3

$60

Berkshire,

Lanesborough,

30

35

50

20

-

12

20

5

60

Bristol, .

Mansfield,

30

30

90

20

-

15

20

5

60

Dukes,

Tisbury, .

30

35

50

20

20

12

15

3

65

Essex,

W. Newbury, .

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60

200

25'

-

25

40

10

70

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Montague,

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40

50

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-

12

25

5

65

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Palmer, .

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50

20

-

12

40

5

70

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Williamsburg, .

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40

50

15

-

12

40

8

75

Middlesex,

Framingham, .

50

55

200

20

-

25

55

15

75

Nantucket,

40

40

-

40

16

10

10

2

75

Norfolk, .

Braintree,

90

90

100

20

40

25

35

12

75

Plymouth,

Bridgewater, .

40

50

150

25

-

16

30

6 65

SufTolk, .

-

-

-

-

-

200

-

- 150

Worcester,

Shrewsbury, .

50

50

150

18

-

22

40

10

70

Average throu

ghout State,

42

48

100

22

23

18

29

7

81

The committee valued asses and mules at $40 each, cows $25, work-
ing oxen $40, steers and heifers $10, sheep $2, and swine $6, throughout
the Commonwealth. Horses in Boston were valued at $150, and in
other parts of Suffolk County at $100.

The folloAving table, compiled from the official report of the above
named committee, exhibits the number of acres of each description of
land in the several counties, and the total aggregates of the same : —

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

303

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IN DEX

TO THE ABSTRACT

Accounts, importance of, ....

.6,7,95

Aesthetics of Farming, ....

11,12,125,127,211

Agriculture, influence of, .

14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 25, 27, 46

" manufactures and,

32, 34, 35, 47

" and War, . . . .

26,29,49

Apples, mode of picking, . . . .

. 89,216

" preservation of, .

. 88, 90, 92, 94

Ashes, application of as manure,

. 136, 138

Birds, result of destroying, . . . .

65, 67, 70, 72

" utility of, .... .

50, 52, 54, 56, 60, 70, 72

Blackbirds, habits of, . . . .

62, 67, 68, 77

Bread-making, process of, . . . .

227, 229, 231

Cherry -bird, insects destroyed by the.

. ... 71

Cider, manufacture of, . . .

. 217,218

Codling-moth, history of, .

91,92

Compost, formation of a, .

154, 160, 162, 163

Com, raising of, .

. 36, 97, 100, 145, 153, 163, 165

Cows, keeping of, ....

. 173, 174, 176, 192, 194

Cranberries, cultivation of, .

79, 80, 82, 98

" varieties of, . . . .

86, 87

Crows, destruction of, . . . .

68, 70, 71

Cutworms, destroyed by the robin, .

62

Dairy Farming, profits of.

104

Draining, advantages of, .

107, 108, 219

Farm Accounts, importance of.

. 6, 7, 95

Farms, statements on,

95, 99, 102

Farmer's Calling, address on the, .

42, 43, 49

Farmers' Sons, education of.

. 1,3,5,10.43

Feeding of Stock, experiments in, .

. 193, 194

Fertilizers, application of.

. 132, 135, 137, 141, 162

Flax, cultivation of, ....

38,39

Forest Trees, culture of.

115, 118, 122, 127

Fruits, reports upon, ....

201,203, 205, 211, 215, 219

Fruit Trees, culture of, .

37, 201, 203

Grapes, cultivation of, . - .

. 128, 130, 205, 207, 208

" varieties of, . . . .

130,210

Hay Crop, importance of the,

37,201,221

39

IV

INDEX.

Implements, use of improved,
Indian Corn, cultivation of, .
Insects, destruction of, by birds.
Irrigation, results of,

Kerry Cattle, statement on, .

Land, ownership ot, .
Lands, tenure ot.

Manures, experiments with,
Muck and its uses, .

Oak, growth of the, .
Orchards, attention to.

Pasture Lands, report on,
Pewee, habits of the.
Poultry, habits of domestic, .

Quails, destruction of insects by,

Robins, insects destroyed by.

Science, application of to farming,
Sheep Husbandry, attention to.
Sheep, management ot,
Stock, reports upon, .
Strawberries, cultivation of,
Swamps, reclaiming of,
Swallows, habits ot, .
Sylvians, mode ot taking insects.

Thrushes, habits ot the,
Top-dressing, results of,
Trees, cultivation of,

Vineyards, foundation of.

Waste Lands, statements on.
Wheat, cultivation of,
White Pine, habit of growth,
Wine-making, process of.
Woodlands, cutting off .of, .
Woodpecker, habits of the, .

Yeast, preparation of,
Yellow-birds, insects destroyed by.

36, 97, 100, 145, 147, 153, 163, 165
51, 52, 55, 57, 60, 64
. 219, 221

. 192, 193

17, 18, 24, 46
14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 31

132, 134, 136, 139, 141, 145
154, 156, 158, 160, 162

118
201, 203, 213

110, 113, 114

58, 59

63

54, 55

57, 58, 61, 62, 71, 72, 74, 76

8, 9, 10, 44
108, 195, 200
196, 199, 200
173, 176, 177, 184, 194
. 222, 223
. 105, 106
. 58, 64
58, 59

61, 66
132, 135, 137
115, 117, 119, 122, 203

128, 130, 205

110, 113, 114

141, 143, 155, 170, 171

117

217, 223, 225, 227

122

60, 61, 69

. 230,231
55