A ys! Ast ik y i HN i EAR ENE es x R Hue Ras ; Ai tise! ; . a) 1 - | F A ea) ne py la = >» .- =F a —S ry VES oh era eS i eR Ww Gibson NE te i u as Day a aaa EREESEEEEEEeEEeEimemmeeene see ee a BICHTH ANNUAL REPORT OF . THE PENNSYLVANIA | DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PART lI. WM. STANLEY RAY, STATE PRINTER OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1903. Ey. uvbC. v 1904 Dtcke \.byar JUN 2 ee OrFrctAL DocuMENT, No. 6. PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEACAE EISi, JOHN HAMILTON, Secretary, State College, Centre County. A. L. MARTIN, Depy Secy and Director of Farmers Institutes, Enon Valley, Lawrence County. JESSE K. COPE, Datry and Food Commissioner, West Chester, Chester County. BENJ. F. MacCARTNEY, Economie Zoologist, Hamilton, Jefferson County. LEONARD PEARSON, State Veterinarian, Philadelphia. M. D. LICHLITER, Chief Clerk, Pittsburg. FRANK S. CHAPIN, Clerk, Economic Zoologist, Milton, Northumberland County. GEORGE G. HUTCHISON, Clerk, Dairy and Food Commissioner, Warriors’ Mark, Huntingdon County. LEWIS VANDERSLOOT, Stenographer, op York, York County. = os GEORGE F. BARNES, © essenger, ~ Rossville, York C: (Gi) 1—6—1902 JUL Orrici1aL DocuMENT, No. 6. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE: Harrispure, Pa., January 1, 1903. Hon. WILLIAM A. STONE, Governor of Pennsylvania : Sir: In compliance with the requirements of Sections 2, 3 and 6 ef the act of Legislature of March 18th, 1895, establishing this Depart- ment, I have the honor to present herewith my Annual Report for the year 1902, being the Eighth Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture of Pennsylvania. The act creating the Department declares how it shall be organized and defines the scope of its work. The Department has now had eight years of existence, and its work has increased from a mere beginning to its present proportions, extending its influence to all parts of the State, and to dealing with agriculture in all of its relations to the farmer, and to the educational and commercial in- terests that affect his calling. Whilst the amount of work done, and to be done, increases continually, yet as the officers of the De- partment gain in experience and information, they are able, with -the same effort, to accomplish much more each succeeding year. The time ought never to arrive when the operations of the De- partment of Agriculture of Pennsylvania will fall into mere routine. Tts officers are dealing, face to face, with powerful living forces, many of whose operations are as yet imperfectly understood, but which are never ceasing in their activity, and affect for good or ill the interests of agriculture, and often increase or diminish its pro- (3) 4 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. duction to an extent impossible to compute. A single insect sud- denly appears by myriads and completely overruns entire States; a fungus growth multiplies in such enormous numbers as to blight and completely destroy whole crops in a single week. The germs of disease fill the atmosphere, and finding their way to the vital organs of animal life, sweep the country clear of cattle. Food products are doctored with substances injurious to health, whose identity only the most skillful and painstaking microscopist or chemical examiner can detect. Beverages are doctored with poisons to simulate the flavor of wholesome drinks, or to conceal the decomposition that has al- ready begun. Whoever else may settle down to the stupor of routine, the De- partment of Agriculture cannot, if it is to fulfill its mission and do the work which it was created to perform. Its vigilance cannot be relaxed for a single moment. Unceasing, indefatigable work must characterize its officers and employes. The Department must keep informed with regard to the latest and most reliable discoveries in the scientific world, which affect agricultural people, or their indus- try in any of its parts, and must promptly disseminate this knowl- edge throughout the State. It must keep in touch with educational institutions, agricultural organizations, workers and experts in - other States and in foreign countries. It must, in short, be a great information-giving bureau, intelligent and ever active; collecting and sending forth reliable data for public use, correcting false im- pressions and condemning ill-judged practices where they exist. To properly meet these demands the best service that the most capable possess is required. The Department force has become familiar with the performance of the several duties with which each is entrusted, and the work of the several Divisions is, therefore, more satisfactory than ever before. Division officers, attorneys, agents, chemists, inspectors, clerks and messengers have come to know what is expected, and they are able to promptly and effectively perform their respective duties. CROPS. The general condition and yield of the crops during the year, have been about an average. Wheat was affected by early drouth, but afterwards had abundance of moisture. The rains continued through harvest, and a good deal of wheat was injured by sprouting. The yield, however, is above expectation. Corn in middle and western Pennsylvania, was caught by the early September frosts and a large amount of immature and soft corn is the result. Oats was a good crop. Potatoes rotted considerably in many sec- tions. The late crop is of good size and quality. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 5 Hay was short, but the rains during and after harvest, brought forward the second crop to exceed the first in quantity. Tobacco has proved a fairly. good crop and was housed in good condition. The apple crop was large in some sections, and of good quality. Peaches were only a partial crop. Pears were plenty, well developed and of good flavor. Prices of farm produce and wages have been maintained, as will be seen, by reference to the table presented elsewhere in this report. FARM HELP. The securing of efficient farm help is becoming more and more serious each year. The wonderful development of the manufactur- ing, mining, commercial and transportation industries, has drained the country of help until, in some localities, it is impossible to hire labor at any price which the farmer can afford to pay. More women have been working in the fields this year, than perhaps ever before in the history of the State. In suggesting a solution of this problem, I can only reiterate that which was stated in my report last year, viz: “Smaller farms, gang plows, wider harrows, mowers, horse rakes and drills; fast walking horses; conveniences for the watering, feeding and stabling of ani- mals, and, in general, economy of effort in every direction.” It is also becoming a question, as to whether we should not return to the grazing and feeding of animals more extensively than we are now doing. This system of husbandry economizes labor, and if judiciously pursued, will be as remunerative, in the end, as many of the methods, which require greater expenditure of effort, and a larger force of hired help. The supply of first class beef is not likely to be greater than the demand, for years to come, and Pennsylvania is well adapted, in most of its area, to beef production. The rearing of beef, swine, poultry, sheep and horses suggests, therefore, a means of at least temporary relief, from the burden of labor which is now imposed upon the Pennsylvania farmer, and at the same time in- creases the fertility of his land, through the manufacture of bara- yard manure from the feeding, at home, of crops raised upon the farm. DOMESTIC HELP. The same dearth of help which embarrasses the farmer in caring for his crops, is found in securing domestic help to assist in his home. So many avenues of occupation are now open to women, which require only from six to eight, or at most, ten hours, of their time in a day, after which they are at liberty to do as they please, that 6 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. many prefer this life, to domestic service. This freedom, and the comradery and equality of young women, which comes from being engaged in a common occupation, accounts, more than the price which they receive for this labor, for their preferring factory or store service, to that of life ina farm home. Whatever the cause, the fact is, that young girls do leave for other lines of occupation, and the country housewife is obliged to do the work, and care for her chil- dren, unassisted by hired help. For this there seems to be no relief, except to simplify living, introduce improvements in the arrangement of the interiors of homes, and adopt labor-saving appliances that will reduce steps and save strength. The difficulty, therefore, in secur- ing labor, available when needed, both for farm work and domestic service, has become a most serious obstacle in the way of profitable agriculture. CLASSIFICATION OF THE DEPARTMENT WORK. The work of the Department is distributed among its various Divi- sions, and each Division, through its official head, is entrusted with the carrying out of all the details of the duties assigned. The fol- lowing summary, shows the classification: DIVISION OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. The work of this Di vision is educational, carrying information to the districts in which the farmers’ live, and reached during the past year about one hun- dred and forty-four thousand farming people. CROP REPORTS. The system of crop reports is made part of the work of the Institute Division. Careful reporters are en- gaged in collecting data for the Department in every county in the State. These data are then arranged and published in the Annual Report. THE DAIRY AND FOOD DIVISION. This Division is under the immediate supervision and direction of a Dairy and Food Com- missioner, who is charged with the enforcement of the laws rela- ting to the inspection of the character of the various foods on sale in the State, and the prosecution of those who are found violating the law. The Commissioner has charge also of the Dairy industry of the State, including dairy statistics and improved management of creameries and dairy herds. DIVISION OF ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY. This Division is in charge of a Commissioner who is known as the The Economie Zoolo- gist, whose duties are to make examination and investigations into No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 tue insect enemies of crops and report upon their ravages and give suggestions for their control or eradication. There is assigned to this Division the Orchard, Greenhouse, Market Garden and Flower Gardening industries of the State. Information is sent out by him to those engaged in these industries, giving the latest scientific and practical discoveries in these lines of work, and as new questious arise he endeavors to have investigations made and proper solution discovered to meet the new conditions. DIVISION CF VETERINARY SCIENCE. — The chief of this Di- vision is by law, required to be “a graduate of some reputable vet- erinary college.” The law further makes it the duty of the Secre- tary of Agriculture “to obtain and distribute information on all matters relating to the raising and care of stock and poultry; the best methods of producing wool and preparing the same for market.” This work is consigned to the Veterinary Division. The Veteri- narian is also a member of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, whose duty it is to “protect the health of the domestic animals of the State,” and powers to adopt means to effect this are granted by the act creating the Board. FERTILIZER INSPECTION AND ANALYSES. The work of the licensing and inspection of Commercial Fertilizers is in the hands of the Secretary. Agents are employed to collect samples of goods upon the market, and these are transmitted to the chemists for analyses. The results are published for the information of farmers and dealers, twice each year. . INSPECTION OF NURSERIES. The Legisiature of 1901 passed an act making it the duty of the Secretary of Agriculture “to cause an examination to be made each year of each and every nursery or other places in this State where trees, shrubs, vines or plants, com- monly known as nursery stock, are grown for sale, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the trees, shrubs, vines or plants, therein kept or propagated for sale, are infested with San José Scale or other in- sect pest destructive of such trees, shrubs, vines or plants.” Where a nursery is free from these insect pests, a certificate stating the fact is issued to the owner. CONCENTRATED COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS. Under the act of 25th of April, 1901, all concentrated commercial feeding stuffs seld in this State, such as “linseed meals, cottonseed mea!s, gluten meals, maize feeds, starch feeds, sugar feeds, dried brewers’ grains, malt sprouts, hominy foods, cerealine feeds, rice meals, ground beef or fish scraps, and all materials of similar nature,” must have affixed to the package containing them a label “certifying the number of net pounds of feeding stuff contained therein; the name, brand or trade mark under which the article is sold; the name and address of the manufacturer or importer, and a statement of the 8 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. percentages it contains of crude fat and crude protein.” The Secre- tary of Agriculture is charged with the enforcement of this law. LINSEED OIL INSPECTION. The act of 23d of April, A. D. 1901, provides “That no person, firm or corporation shall manufacture or mix for sale, sell or offer for sale, under the name of raw linseed oil, any article which is not wholly the product of commercially pure lin- seed or flaxseed. Nor shall any person, firm or corporation manu- facture or mix for sale, sell or offer for sale, under the name of boiled linseed oil, any article unless the oil from which said article is made, be wholly the product of commercially pure linseed or flaxseed, and unless the same has been heated to at least two hundred and twenty five degrees, Fahrenheit.” The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the enforcement of this law. SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS. The law creating the Depart- ment provides for “the employment of experts to make special examinations and investigations.’ These experts are selected by ihe Secretary, and the results of their examinations are printed either in special Bulietins or in the Annual Report. The investi- gations are upon subjects relating to the agricultural industry. BULLETINS. The Secretary is also directed to “publish from time to time such bulletins of information as he may deem useful and advisable, the number not to exceed five thousand copies of any one bulletin.” One hundred and six such publications have been issued since 1895. ANNUAL REPORT. Each year the Secretary is directed tu “make an Annual Report to the Governor,” and in this report “he may include so much of the reports of other organizations as he shall deem proper.” Thirty-one thousand six hundred copies are authorized to be distributed; 9,000 to the Senate, 20,000 to the House of Representatives, 2,000 copies to the Secretary of Agricul- ture, 500 copies to the State Librarian, and to the State Experiment Station, 100 copies. BOOKS OF ACCOUNT. The General Books of Account of the Department are in charge of the Secretary, and the Special Books are in charge of the several Division officers. REPORTS OF DIVISION OFFICERS. Monthly reports of the operation of each Division for the preceding month are made to the Secretary by the chief of each Division, and special reports from time to time are made as may be necessary in order to keep the Secretary fully informed as to the work of the several Divisions. At the close of the year, full reports of the work of each Division are made out and transmitted to the Secretary, and printed in the Annual Report of the Department. The care of the library, the reading of proof, and the mailing lists, are in charge of the Chief Clerk. No. 6. ‘ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 9 DIVISION OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. Farmers’ Institutes in this country, in the sense of their consisting of assemblages of farmers, met for the discussion of agricultural topics, extend as far back as the organization of the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture in 1785. Later, in other States similar agricultural societies and farm clubs took up, in some degree, the same methods for the improvement of their members. It was not, however, until quite recently that any well organized or carefully planned system of farmers’ institutes has existed. In Pennsylvania, the first modern institute was held in 1877, under the direction of the State Board of Agriculture, and it was not until 1885, when the State made an appropriation for their maintenance, that the work assumed anything like its present form. The following States now have a system of Farmers’ Institute work organized, and are under the control of a ‘State Director, the State Board of Agriculture, or an Agricultural College or Experi- ment Station officer: Alabama, California, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, lowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mis- sissippi, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin. The Farmers’ Institute is the result of the demand of modern agri- culture for accurate information in regard to the underlying prinei- ples which control in the production of agricultural products. This demand for definite and exact knowledge in agriculture, did not be- come pressing so long as the lands were new and original fertility was abundant and available for the production of crops. It was not until the soil of the Eastern and Southern States had begun to be exhausted and crops to fail, that thoughtful citizens began to cast about for some means by which these lands could be restored, and their subsequent deterioration be prevented, and continuous and profitable crops be raised without permanent injury to the land. In the effort to meet this question, which had become serious, the Congress of the United States in 1861, provided for the establish- ment of Colleges, whose leading object should be ‘to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts.” Upon the establishment of these Colleges, it was some 2 10 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE »« Off. Doc. years before those responsible for their contrci, were able to formu. late a course of study which would meet the requirements of the country, or were able to secure the kind of teachers, competent to impart the information needed. After these requirements had been, in a measure, met by these new institutions, it was discovered that comparatively few of the young men of the country were willing to pursue the course of study, in agriculture, which had been pre- scribed. Whilst unquestionably, there was a pressing demand for information on agricultural matters, on the part of a large number cf those who were actively engaged in farming, there was compara- tively little demand for this knowledge, on the part of the young peo- ple in the schools. Instructors in these Colleges, also, soon discov- ered, that there was comparatively little reliable information to be had, in what is now known as “Agricultural Science,” or the sciences in their relation to agriculture. Out of these conditions, and to supply the needs for more exten- sive and accurate information, the Congress passed, what is known as the Hatch Experiment Station Act, which provided for the erec- tion and support of Agricultural Experiment Stations in the several States, for scientific research and experimentation in agriculture. Since their establishment, and through the work of these Stations, the stock of-agricultural knowledge has been greatly enlarged, and, is being daily, rapidly increased. This knowledge, if disseminated, will be to the yreat advantage of the agricultural interests of tie country. The problem that now requires solution, is that of getting this in- formation which is in existence, and such other, as it is discovered, before the agricultural people of the country. Bulletins containing this information are being issued by the Stations, and by the Depart- ment of Agriculture, at Washington, but the large majority of the farming people are not reached by this method. This is notably true as regards the less progressive farmers, and the women and youth in the farmers’ families. THE INSTITUTE A DISSEMINATOR OF INFORMATION. The Farmers’ Institute has been organized to supplement the Agricultural College and the Experiment Station, in the work of disseminating information on agricultural subjects throughout the land. Its function is to take up-to-date, reliable and valuable truth, as it relates to agriculture; to carry it out to assemblages of people of both sexes and of all ages, and present it before them crally, in condensed and attractive form, and in shape to be applied in their every-day life; affording, at the same time, opportunity to all, who are interested, to ask questions on poimts that they do not fully understand. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 11 The Farmers’ Institute occupies the position, in the system of agri- cultural education of to-day, in this country, of that of a disseminator of agricultural knowledge among the masses, and of a stimulator of desire and respect for such knowledge, by the masses. The insti- tute is not simply to reach those who are now actively engaged in the business of farming, but to reach, as well, the great masses of our population, who have littie or no knowledge or appreciation of the advantages of agriculture, as a calling in life. Its work is not limited to efforts to improve the condition of existing farmers, but contemplates as well the creating of new, as well as better farmers. It is wide extended in its influence, and ought to be of tie highest grade. It should accordingly be planned and conducted upon lines correspondingly liberal, and com- mensurate with the dignity of the Department, and the field of usefulness that it is organized to fill. THE INSTITUTE LECTURER. Inasmuch as the work to be performed requires the service of experts, no one should be employed who is not thoroughly competent for the special service that he is expected to render. It should not be an asylum for lazy persons or incompetents, and no political considerations should enter into the qualifications of any one em- ployed, and the compensation should be sufficient te induce the best experts in the country to desire the positions. Sufficient money should be appropriated to enable the Department to retain in its employ some of the most capable men during the entire year. The permanent employment of at least a few capable men and women should be the rule. Men who are competent, are, as a general thing, not unemployed, and their services cannot be had and dispensed with at pleasure. The institute lecturer or teacher is the heart of the institute work. If competent men cannot be had, then the whole system will be a failure, and the money that is expended be thrown away. The development and training of these lecturers, should, therefore, be part of the work of the Department. They should be brought together several times each year for conference and study. They should be sent to examine and study the work of the State College, so far as it relates to agricultural affairs, and of the State Experi- ment Station. They should be put in the way of getting the best literature upon their several specialties. In short, they should themselves be students of agriculture, and be posted in all that takes place in their ‘special work throughout the world. 12 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. THE DIRECTING OF THE WORK. The directing of the Farmers’ Institute work in Pennsylvania, is made the special duty of the Deputy Secretary of Agriculture. During the past season, there were scheduled and held 135 two-day, and 54 one-day institutes, a total of 324 days, divided into 782 ses- sions. The Department sent out, at its expense, 51 lecturers to give instruction, and the local managers supplied 684 more, making a total of 735. These lecturers addressed in all, over 144,000 people (144,431). The average daily attendance was 445; the largest daily attendance for any one county was 925, and the smallest was 50. For institute purposes, the State is divided into five sections, ap- portioning the work of each section as nearly equal as possible. The institutes began December 8d and continued to March 4th. At each institute the Department had present at least three of its lec- turers, one of whom is the special representative of the Department, and has charge of the section. The local manager makes up the pro- gramme of exercises subject to the approval of the Director of In- stitutes. ; The apportionment of time to be given to each county for insti- tute work, is made on the basis of two days of institute to every county having not over 1,000 farms; three days to each county having more than 1,000 and not over 1,500; afterwards one day for each 1,500 farms or fraction thereof additional. This insures Depart- ment aid to each county in proportion to its agricultural interests. The foilowing schedule shows the number of days allotted to each county and arranged upon this basis, for the season of 1901-1902: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 13 No. 6. 19 mo Ht Ht Oo HM OH HOH AM oO O a - ‘QUAB AA teen e ween ‘euuryeanbsng Peewee teeter enenee ‘Od seeeeeees Oprudjaperudd ‘uo,d WeyytoN ‘QO1u0yy ee een enene ‘£1I9ULIOS PUOW, sovessess ‘BUUCMBHO GT] ‘qudezn’y ‘Ystyo'y er ry ‘uoqIeD Reece eee e eens oe ‘syaeg ‘song “ALNOOO "g UGTI0eg wees eee “SUIUIOS A\ ste nneee Peewee ee ten eeee ‘uadde AY eee eee Cent eee ee wee on ‘eSoly, eee tere renee . ‘UBATTING Peewee eee erereee . ‘ayo eee ween en ene ‘uvaxspoW wot wt NN Oo HY x mo MO © OO H o © “sABC ‘SULULOOATT eee e eee see ‘uosaaqjo [* eee eee ees en eee nae OLA Cece reer sere seeee oe OT “ALNNOO . ‘p uotqoes ‘U01dUIBs) q g ¥ 9 y ¥ “ysol0 oT g 8 v 9 ‘UOlMIRID g 9 ‘ploypeig *sABC see eee Bem emcee reer ee reseseeeee ee eee cerns Pee ee eee ete eee etree eras ‘puvletourjsd \\ eiaveieialeieivie: STO SUIUSE AN lecaaaite ates sO MUERTE NN areteaareletterstes 5 ‘Ta04a Tt siainazieretespite see “QQUdIMYBTT ‘aua0ly | speveesee Soca im ‘pIOJMBID DOCRRORLS YG ELS peter eeeeeeereres Corng ‘suo1suly ‘AudYy Sol V “ALNNOD *€ WOT}OIS wt HO tT Ht tH BO ww oF ~ eee ‘uoluy) ‘lapAug WpiAnyos seeees NuvplaquinyyoON ‘INoJUOPL acaleviiejafe/eisiclssa; cleielecé “UNDA ‘uoueqay dapndoanatarne *. “euBIpUuy ‘uopsununy Sielplateleleihalece lel ets ‘urydned ‘BLIquep teteeeeeeees OIUTTD | “* “preyavalo ‘aruap ‘elrquin[op | ‘Ue ‘sABC ‘AINNOO "% U0T}0ag etna see eeeee see eeeee tee eeee 8 . ome = t+ + 16 © SF @ * wn “"sABCT ry eee eee ey ey eee eee teem eter enee ‘yok ‘JyasuauUlog Weert e eee beeeeeeseeeeereeeses (KIO eee tweens ‘la}sRouvy ‘eyelune oy U0 UNL “UIDUeI ‘IBMBlACM eee ewww nne sete e renee ‘puvpleqmng ‘191s9qD ee oe ee ‘paloj pod ‘SUvp YW “ALNNOO ‘TT wol}oeS ‘GO6T-TO6T YOM CNAWNOLLYOddV 14 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. ast experience im most of the counties has shown that the two days institute is much more economical and efficient than the one* day meeting. Inthe one-day meeting the time is usually given to the visiting lecturers to the exclusion of local aid, on the ground that the people wish to hear the strangers, and as there is not time to hear a!l, the visitors are given the preference. This is a serious mistake. The main object of the institute is the development of the local peo- ple, and whatever interferes with this, ought to be corrected. A two day institute gives ample time for all to be heard, and provides, also for the deliberate and full discussion of matters of interest that may arise. The morning session of the first day is almost always a failure and ought to be dropped, and the institute begin at one P. M., and continue for five sessions. This gives time for the visiting lec- turers to reach the ground, and begin the work with the advantage of a full house. The demand for institutes is such, that it has ngw become very difficult to determine the localities which shall be favored. I wish to reiterate what I have said in reporting upon this work in previous years, that there should be appropriated for institutes at least $25,000 per year. The progress of the work has reached such a stage that this larger sum can be expended to the great advantage of our farming industry, and there will be returned to the State many-fold, that which it invests,in the furtherance of this great school of agri- ultural education. DAIRY AND FOOD DIVISION. The work of this Division is most important and extensive. The protecting of the people against food adulteration, and food sub- stances injurious to health is worthy of the best efforts of the State. This work has been committed to the Department of Agriculture and the Legislature has enacted laws and appropriated money to secure this result. What has been done has been set forth in detail and published in bulletins and distributed for the information of the pub- lic. Before the publication of these bulletins, there was considera- ble criticism of the Department for supposed inactivity in the en- forcement of the pure food laws, but the facts, as disclosed by the bulletins, effectually silenced all of these critics, by showing them the amount of work that has been done in this direction. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 15 There was occasion, recently, to compile the work of the Dairy and Food Division for the two and a half years ending July Ist, 1902, which may be of interest to present in this report as showing the activity of the Department, and the effective character of its work. The following table gives a summary of what has been accomplished in the period named: Samples of butter analyzed Jan. Ist, 1900, to July 1st, 1902,. 3,023 HOUMOMEOR DEMME. ei ots eeaie. cc 1,840 Hound toube renovated: butter, 22)... ..5 stesso lie 164 All of these samples were sold as butter except 103, which were sold as oleomargarine, and 61 which were sold as butterine. Samples of cheese analyzed, .........-+..... en acehens sveeeter othe 31 Houngscoupe Standards vs. 6. fee. cere oe SORA eo telat 15 Found to be below standard, .............. gs ar atenints 16 SEES eO Mam ARTA ZO ye cise ole ae s s\elete as 3 ere Some ns ic 436 EOE le OnO CM UG rete crys ectiouelis us) shies sScpe se Cites sv lle'ejolevere 320 Found to be adulterated, ............... oy uss ice O paeG Samples of condensed milk analyzed, .........:0..02c0005 29 [EO eeaCG (taal Of) 0 =e a ee ce re eeneucne coeds 21 PROM MLOn era UlCCRA TCU ya acy «osc wr evepenetels oe sick = 8 SLES OL VAN eCRAT ANAIYZCOs 2%, ecs's ole e sss ss eseps sles cic ee lal : 135 SOU BLOM DUC re aie a: eekeial cyclo 5) « eiehaee) SiNeiees; 3.8 sas oustions 76 HOMMGnLO De ACWILETALCOS a. .e care =. aie oistie seks le lelace as) = : 59 The samples just mentioned, were taken under the provisions of special laws, passed for the regulation of the sale of these particular articles of food. The following samples were taken under a general law, enacted in 1895, known as the Pure Food Law, the main features of which ap- pear in its first three sections, which are as follows: “Section 1. Be it enacted, &c., That no person shall, within this State, manufacture for sale, offer for sale or sell any article of food which is adulterated within the meaning of this act. “Section 2. The term “food,” as used herein, shall include all arti- cles used for food or drink by man, whether simple, mixed or com- pound. 16 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. “Section 3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this act, (a) In the case of food: (1) If any substance or substances have been mixed with it so as to lower or depreciate or injuriously affect its quality, strength or purity. (2) If any inferior or cheaper sub- stance or substances have been substituted wholly or in part for it. (3) If any valuable or necessary constituent or ingredient has been wholly or in part abstracted from it. (4) If it is an imitation of or is sold under the name of another article. .(5) If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased, decomposed, putrid, infected, tainted or rotten animal or vegetable substance or article, whether manufactured or not—or in case of milk, if it is the product ofa diseased animal. (6) If it is colored, coated, polished or powdered, whereby damage or inferiority is concealed, or if by any means it is made to appear bet- ter or of greater value than it really is. (7) If it contains any added substance or ingredient which is poisonous or injurious to health: Provided, That the provisions of this act shall not apply to mixtures or compounds recognized as ordinary articles or ingredients of arti- cles of food, if each and every package sold or offered for sale be dis- tinctly labeled as mixtures or compounds, and are not injurious to health.” Under this act, one thousand three hundred and sixty-nine (1,369) samples of food were taken by the Department and analyzed: | @ 4 3 w : : g S o 3 re P = B < eo Pet | Ta OMA TINKS MATAUIY: LEGS, \cciercicisis.a.c:v1=\stoic)elstoceie’s 119,013 ste.e:6\e;sie a]siaitia pave ssa'e etoeweielsis 141 60 81 Soar sfOUneainNeGrinikkS = Sacccsias slecie vince cicleje.s Aral ges esarara total jtrete tieveesiote evetare 62 31 31 NIGAES MES AUIS APCS etO UC es mcters aveiitsteteratetsetsieleversieyelsieiniais\e(eicisteleleinjs siete elojelaieteferete ate 259 158 101 IPReDATCOP MOOT Sas cece cisisisicioiaicieicleteimicis's mee ae 33 22 1 Canned fruits and vegetables, os 44 13 31 SyuUpsSs Susars, CetGsy 6 iss cce 92 36 56 Table oils, apie are See ae 8 4 4 SEL TVOMEDONVCLEDS Hi Glefeleicinie’s eloiieiaverolsiciersisieialeieisinctsicieseicistelelelpicistaerels | w\sleicieoeiailote 70 44 26 CONTA CLE Sy iiitetetstelerciateraterelstereraela larcfolcis(e ein isiete el otelctelole oreseioroie le ciciers (otelersieicsaleissorereic ee cleieieie 10 8 2 STOO SAT CRECODICIIMOIESE velac cratsiere:siclerelucteisisieie fiave-eleiale. were etviaieleve.cleicleteieaeisieler se 271 98 173 HES ACLE Menor sels nicceaccielslereretinais cis ssaicte rinsietelc steinistare: vralnieacahstiicicls ote ticdeeiine 296 53 243 AANA CLILCS ANG eINATIMIAIAGES!, \cjcjc:cis:sicine « sle:cseisiereiejeie.e vio sitieeimeleiele’s lice ce 39 15 24 LYTLE INU Co euiatetelereteretstetetatcrrtajetelsleletels!eleieie(ciele(elsic/e,oisivisis\cisfelelsiels:-laierere) civielersisleieteteiete 1 it fesbadonaasoc ETE CoL cal amatetat ste latatete lotetete(cteteisierelatsieisieivclovenioie cicicic s/s (alerascielelelste/ajee sere ferstorsveteteists 1,326 543 > 783 Samples analyzed for special PurpOSeS, .......ccccccccccecsecccsencs 43 ATO Cet aieretatoteleratetc(eleicie/e'e v/eialalsloleicvelelc afeye' ale eiaicie eieiele lajure sien ie c/eiererslsreimis(creis (erator 1 369 This exhibit reveals not only the condition of the food products found upon the markets of the State during the two and a half years preceding July, 1902, but also shows the vast amount of work that has been performed in the interest of the public health. This work consisted not only in the collecting of the five thousand and twenty- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 17 three samples of food products, often taken under quite difficult conditions, but also in the expert knowledge of a high character and in the painstaking labor, which were necessary, in order to analyze all of these samples, and to do this, in each case, with such accuracy and certainty as to warrant the analyst in testifying under oath, as to the correctness of his results. Along with this was the work of the attorneys and agents in the prosecution in court of over two thousand cases which were brought, the collection of the fines and penalties ,the keeping of full and cor- rect records in the office, and in the publication of the results, all of which ,it is believed, represents more work than has been per- formed in the same time, by the Food Departments of any three other States in the Union. The Conmissioner reports that during the past year, there had been collected by the agents, analyzed by the chemists, and reported to him, two thousand and fifty-two (2,052) samples of the several food products, and that of this number, 1,122 samples were found to be pure or true to name and 903 adulterated. There were 310 licenses issued for the sale of oleomargarine, which brought into the Treasury of the State $23,927.05. Two li- censes were issued for the sale of renovated butter, for which there -was received and paid into the State Treasury $766.07. There were collected in fines and penalties and paid into the State Treasury the following amounts under the respective Acts: FINES AND COSTS. PLS LN OV07 0 Bt oe et Be Nm ee $8,022 20 POR INAS ITTV ANCE Uys a, ts Sea ove oles ec) coy Bhs Peo te ae 8,463 93 PE REOWEEC( PESO CLET SACU cn 05 is, 2 5 leben Se. alee Seles ale gold ce 578 58 STIVERS Jee GU Sod es ae Ae 1,177 24 CUS SEs UCU ao Oe a aR TO 169 50 UTES B/N Ba ae ee ae 447 42 eter ACP NGG Unter treraeh tee. ic or ae Suenns Grasene tel oniate ues-eso sight dhe Se 23 00 PLGA ctl ee etropenee seo 5 asi rah Pied o/c untal saya) 4) Syn fei icrSuki aaa ale, a0o . $18,881 87 2—6—1902 18 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The total, therefore, collected during the year 1902 and paid into the State Treasury up to December 1st, was: Gleomarca wwe: WCCNSES,. /elelejele'eieieie (ale ciwieieleleie 675 | 164 839 Pennsylvania Reform School, MOrganZa,” wic...s -c100j«1«0isicieicie% slelele sis)sivieieia(cie || 524 96 625 Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory, Huntingdon, Pa., ............ 464 |ecceseeece 464 TiS. -chesaus sooncetbgeneoadacDotounas cos dado suuoabanteeubasccoppaccnnicc 7,330 859 8,189 The cost of maintaining these convicts is given by the Board of Fs) e : Charities as follows: | be o | =) | 3 | = | aS | Oo | ra | for ras | as a | as ae o ° | & | v0 Hkaceeeenitentiarye sehiladely hia (G00) s ycisvctcvslere ciesteseisieleleceteieielereentctetereleieraves $222, 700 28 $2 68 Dpevteehoeniitentiary., Aller hery (CLG00)); tc scsieclaswareicw ore's lets eleteweie ele rave telcinians eieiete 285,973 44 495 _ Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory (1900), County prisons, inéluding NUE UGE) OUS E'S sametararoteveterosctetelsiese/eivereialeieiais c7e/eiaiatelerelevelsretovesslateisveletetevel ave eletaiclena) eimeteteteie sierele 133,677 36 479 ACTOS SM Olen COrne Ctrl Orr GOL) Is) weceyetaeysticyevate!ntoisvs eraretsle/aveleteyatersfoictersic areroistcteterererctalerevereieteteste 939,644 12 4 27 HouSevon Refuge, Ehilacdelp hia. (C190) ). cterec.* THE IDEAL CLASSIFIED SCHOOL. “In the ideal classified school, the teacher has two classes of pupils, each class containing within it, pupils substantially at the same stage of advancement. The pupils of a given class No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 53 recite together in all their branches, and the teacher has a hasf hour for a lesson, and can go into the dynamics or casual rela- tions of the facts and events treated.” * * * ‘The ideal clas- sified school can teach, and does teach, proper methods of study; the rural school cannot do this effectively in its five or ten minute recitations. It is because of this, that wise directors of education have desired the consolidation of small schools into large schools, wherever practicable. Two schools of ten each, furnish on an aver- age one-half as many recitations, if united, as they do when separaie, owing to the possibility of pairing, or classifying pupils of the same degree of advancement. Ten such schools united into one will give 100 pupils, with a possibility of classes of ten each, which can be more effectively taught than before, because the pupil can learn more in a ciass than by himself.” “Again it is evident that five teachers can teach the 100 pupils united in one school, far better than the ten teachers were able to teach them in ten separate schools. If still further consolidation were possible, and 400 pupils were united in one school, the classification might be improved to such a degree that a teacher could easily take charge of two classes of twenty pupils, and ten teachers could do far better work for each pupil, than was done by the forty teachers in the forty small rural schools, before consolidation. Herein economy becomes a great item in what are called ‘Union Schools.’ ” THE TRANSPORTATION OF CHILDREN. The committee in discussittg the question of the transportation of chiJdren to central schools says: “The collection of pupils into larger units than the district school furnishes, may be accomplished under favorable circumstances by transporting at State or local expense, all of the pupils of the small rural districts to a central graded school, and abolishing the small ungraded school. This is the radical and effective measure which is to do great good in many sections of each State. As shown already, Massachusetts, in which the plan began, paid in 1894-5 the sum of $76,608 for the transpor- tation of children from small rural schools to central graded schools —213 towns (townships) out of a total of 353 towns (townships) and cities, using this plan to a greater or less extent, and secured the two-fold result of economy in money, and the substitution of graded for ungraded schools. The spread of this plan to Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Ohio and some other States demonstrates its practicability. Experiments with this plan have already suggested improvements, as in the Kingsville experiment in Ohio, where the transportation reached in all caseg the homes of the pupils and yet reduced the cost of tuition { 54 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. from $22.75 to $12.25 for each of the fifty pupils, brought to the cen- tral school from the outlying districts.” The committee in its sum- mary says: “One of the great hindrances to the improvement of the rural school, lies in its isolation, and its inability to furnish to the pupil that stimulative influence which comes from contact with others ef his own age and advancement. The committee therefore recommends collecting pupils from small schools into larger, and paying from the public funds for their transportation, believing that in this way better teachers can be provided, more rational methods of instruction adopted, and at the same time the expense of the schools can be materially lessened.” These are some of the conclusions of this eminent committee, whose report was read before, and accepted by, the National Edu- cational Association of the United States. Two years ago this Department sent a qualified expert, to make ‘investigation into the working of the system of the consolidation of schools and the transportation of scholars, where it had been thor- oughly tried, and his report, giving the conditions under which these centralized schools were operated, and the service they are rendering, shows that they are not only much more efficient from the educational standpoint, which is of course the great purpose in the establishment of any school, but are at the same time more economical in expenditure than the isolated school. Mr. A. B. Graham, township superintendent, Springfield, O., writes that in his State “nearly forty townships are to-day solving the country school problem by centralization, and the formation of eraded schools.” He states that in “such a school the township becomes a stronger unit for local government, than it can become under a system of isolated schools. | . x | a cq 5 o Live Stock. Age in Years, 3 @ | > me = - iB Ke ° B | 2 Pkt lanes z E | oj; 9 b = > S = eg pr: Calves Mere Raa an ret che rode ee eaecees Under ple cere nee 421,323 | $7 20 | $100 | $421,323 00 BSECOMS MEE cleislstaisicie’siersisvaisleisicieinisivieieiaissiasieislc ete 1 and under 2, .... 108,681 | 1601; 200 217,362 00 PICECCESS YT Bictinie cinioe s ae atiowte sisrsciaicarisicclalainivie:sias 2-and under 3570... 64,252 | 29 62 5 00 321, 260 00 SUGErE cogabdcondoccbpsdesbad consoopageune 3 and over, ....... 16,382 | 43 51 8 00 130,656 00 Tee LLTEy acoe ck Re ae ee a 1 and over, .......+ 69,006 | 23 29 | 1000) 690,060 00 TOILETS suber cctycec ceria cesicieciniecteenic ciejela sisiiee Land! under)... 224, 623 1650 | 3 00} 673, 869 CO Bows ReDE TODS taaceccijnccle 2 75 ERO SCO yace ates rook ape es he Chale Mover Fallon 111 8&8 MOONS Ae ea lath hake, gO sltacor there Oatare Med te aye ciaha oars 33 22 Cluiekensi per Ibe CHVe)s sha oe sats ios. phan eas 10 Chickens-per-lb..(dressed),:.d402. 06.5. 60cteu nee 13 PAVOEMMCT GAY WLU DOALG, 5. esc 5 Seon todasrets steko 1 25 Barn land per acre, 1m provedsc. ce. a... 005010 55 00 Farm land per acre, average quality, ......... 34 00 These prices are, in nearly every case, in advance of those of last year, LEGISLATION NEEDED. The following items of legislation are, in my opinion, needed by the agricultural interests of the State, most of which have been dis- ctissed in the body of this report, and are collected here for refer- ence: For the purpose of assisting in the construction and maintenance of. country roads, $1,000,000. 68 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. tor the pucpose of providing premiums for the assistance of county fairs, per year, $25,000. For the purpose of securing an Agricultural Museum, and for an agri- cultural exhibit at the coming St. Louis Fair, $25,000. Increased appropriation to the Farmers’ Institute work, additional per annum, $10,000. For the purpose of securing an Agricultural Library for the Depart- ment of Agriculture, $3,000. For the purpose of paying the expenses of the Annual Meetings of the State Board of Agriculture, the Horticultural Society, the State Poultry Association, and the State Live Stock Breeders’ As- sociation, per year, $2,500.00. To provide for the erection of a Division of Animal Husbandry in the Department of Agriculture. To provide for the erection of a Division of Horticulture and Pomol- ogy in the Department of Agriculture. For the erection of a Division of Public Highway Improvement in the Department of Agriculture. To extend the authority of the Secretary of Agriculture to publish farmers’ bulletins to a number not exceeding 25,000 copies of any one bulletin. To provide that in the distribution of the Annual Reports of the De- partment of Agriculture, five thousand copies shall be given to the Department for its use. CONCLUSION. In concluding this report, I desire again, to express my sense of obligation for the cordial and effective support which you have given me during your administration. It would have been im possible for me to have performed the duties of Secretary of Agri- culture of this State, if it had not been for your confidence and en- couragement. How varied and important the duties of this office are, can to some degree be imagined from the report itself. The Department has to deal with the most difficult questions which science has to meet, and is also brought in practical and per- sonal contact with the great commercial interests of the country. The administration of the food laws alone, requires exceeding care- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 69 fulness lest wrong be done, and firmness lest wrong be allowed. In the control of food substances the Department must understand the intricacies of the trade, and the chemical composition of substances, in order to properly decide what course ought to be pursued. The public health is to be protected at all hazards, and at the same time the manufacturers and dealers must be given fair opportunity to show the beneficial qualities of their goods without undue annoy- ance or molestation. The preparing of proper food laws and the securing of their enactment are important features of the Depart- ment work. This, however, is but a single Division of the work to be accomplished by the Department. In the Division of Veterinary Science, the public are protected against the inroads of contagious or infectious diseases among our domestic animals. The recent outbreaks of “foot and mouth dis- ease” in some of the New England States is a single instance of the danger to which our live stock industry is exposed. This Division of the Department is the only safeguard the State has against these diseases that appear from time to time, and which, if unrestrained, will certainly destroy our herds. The work of the Department in inspecting Nurseries, has also been of great benefit, in protecting our orchardists against the in- troduction of destructive insect pests, and dangerous diseases which abound on every side. There are also the analyses of Commercial Fertilizers, for the protection of the public against imposition and fraud, and the inspection and analysis of Cattle Foods for the same purpose; all directly in the interests of agriculture, and constitute a service, which could not be performed, unless the State lent her aid and provided such an agency as the Department of Agriculture for the purpose. There are also the preparation of the annual reports, the editing and publishing of numerous bulletins of information, the giving of expert advice upon the scientific and practical questions that arise, the securing of capable teachers in the great school of the farmers’ institute work, and the keeping posted in regard to the latest and best that is known in all lines of agriculture, which keep the Depart- ment officers constantly engaged. I wish also to express my appreciation of the uniform courtesy and co-operation of the several Division officers, and of the clerks and employes of the Department, and for their valuable assistance, with- out which the work could not have been performed. Very respectfully yours, JOHN HAMILTON, Secretary of Agriculture. 70 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. REPORT OF THE DEPUTY SECRETARY AND DIRECTOR OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. Harrisburg, Pa., December 31, 1902. Hon. John Hamilton, Secretary of Agriculture : Sir: I have the honor to present herewith the report of the progress of Farmers’ Institutes, for the year ending June 1, 1902. Tables accompanying this report will show the number of institutes held in the ditferent counties, the sessions into which these meetings were divided, the number of lecturers, local speakers and assayists who were present, the average daily attendance, together with the total attendance at the institutes in each county. There were held in all, 324 days of regularly scheduled institutes, divided into 782 sessions. At most of the meetings, three State speakers were present; these were joined by an army of 684 local lecturers. The attendance was all that could have been expected, the daily average being 445, and the total attendance being 144,431. An interesting feature of this brief report is noted in the varia- tion of attendance in the different counties. Among those having the largest daily average we find, Allegheny, 491; Armstrong, 475; Bedford, 543; Berks, 520; Bradford, 440; Bucks, 555; Butler, 426; Crunbria, 490; Centre, 506; Chester, 444; Clarion, 477; Columbia, 925; Crawford, 578; Delaware, 457; Huntingdon, 511; Indiana, 527; Jef- ferson, 435; Juniata, 408; Lancaster, 583; Lawrence, 460; Lehigh, 462; Luzerne, 603; Lycoming, 431; Mercer, 780; Mifflin, 500; Mont- gomery, 724; Montour, 525; Northumberland, 554; Perry, 545; Sny- der, 469; Somerset, 521; Tioga, 512; Venango, 516; Warren, 420; Washington, 402; Westmoreland, 537; Wyoming, 444; York, 472. It will be seen that Columbia county had the largest daily attend- ance (925). In order that the public may have knowledge of this branch of the work, the complete schedule is hereto appended: 71 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 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T Lie eee wee T v8s ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ‘BIOL ‘Q0URpUaIIY teen ee eee CVO OD et et et OD ttt ODO Oe OD 1D oH HID OD OD OD IN TN 18 18 INH ONIN INN OH ON OO 16 16 10 16 1b tH OM 1H © 16 ee “SL-FL relece “TI-OT beeteeeee eee en tg “P-8 “12-02 “03-61 ‘6L-ST “I-21 “TI-O1 ‘L-9 “6L SOE ed ‘ZI-IL a Peewee meee eens ener ween weer wees settee i on i) i rs ry ee seeeeeereeeeee Ty ‘et “18-08 seeeee ty ‘9 eee ewer reer ereseeees ‘Te “08-63 ie) ee rt NNANNNAMNRMANNHANATAANNANNANTMANAS “Ud ‘Q94 a9 ‘ue ‘ue ‘09d ‘03d ‘09d "daa qaa "qat “038d ‘oad ‘oad ‘00d “03d ‘ue oact “uel ‘uer ‘uve ‘uer eRe eee eee eee eee ‘BSSIMB}ED ‘OT [JAVsueIC “‘uMmoj}AaSl0r° “UB eULAON “UOP SULLA WT ‘IOOULII9 ST “aITAJNOLL Poor ereeeeercercersceseceererserers ‘uvrdureay PRO eee eee eee e eens ‘ula[eS ‘sinqsueal[ep “OTLASTIIND, Ce * ‘sa9aAg ‘QA013]S9\\ ‘at [Arepap see eeeeee ‘us[31V *ployxO eee eee ee eee es eee eee ee ey oer e eee eee eee eee ee eee ee ey eee eee eee eee er eee eee eee eee ey Cee ee iy eee eee eee eee ee ee ry Peete eee e ee neeee ‘UMOSUIIO}S SOOO HEE ‘Suruoyeyy MON Slateletaleeta(e eteleeievelelnialevele’ siete teeeeeeees CTOUIBA AL ‘poomj jd ‘wnWwodugy ete eee eee eee ey ee? eee eee ee eee eee ‘sanqsaa[qnyy | Or ee ery Peewee eee eewee ‘ Proce eee y eee eee eee eee Cee een essere teseees ai < ‘AyunoOD tteteeeeeeeeeeeees (7ETT oa tteeee gaary dtwog nokanpoortinn severees (gpeg toa [teetttttrtert stats eeeseee sees sereeeeee Soqqgaory [eteteereete sense ‘ sista alaiste slatele'e seseeces cgteg toacy [tetris wcisisis efstelereterers tresses So0akaaddyTg SS . . “1-9 ‘ed ee ceeeeseseeee ee reeeceee eecces *Aanquns S9AA eee on ‘e-p ‘oad Peer ween eer eseeneeeesees ‘1aquaeg uosiayar . | 5 qn Z e] ~ £ © Se ee ae 5 2 2 ee aed ‘WRIT ms & o _ n = 4 E S é *“\uaseid siayRvads FA : ‘penuyyUOO—-SHLOALILSNI SUANWUVA VINVATASNNGd ‘eIquin[oD ‘u0WUILD PIeBABVID ‘UOLIeLO ‘19}s0q9 ‘g1}UID ‘u0qiep ‘uo19UIeD ‘BLIquiep ‘19tNg 73 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 77 The steady growth of the Farmers’ Institutes is noted by the con- stantly increasing attendance. Very lively interest was manifested by the farmers and their families, who, in many instances, drove ten to fifteen miles over bad roads and through storm and snow to join with the State instructors on the programme, and kindly co-operat- ing in the work of developing the best thought and most practical manner of conducting the various lines of farm operations. The Ladies Session has become an established feature. At this session a lady usually occupies the chair. The entire programme is filled with topics relative to home comfort, health, social conditions, ete. The education of country children is also earnestly discussed, and properly so. No class of people in Pennsylvania realize more fuily than the farmers the need of a more thorough education. The great mass of their children are not receiving this education, which, in my judgment, should largely be along the lines of what would seem to be their life’s work. At all the institutes held in 1900, an almest unanimous vote was in favor of a township high school, or a centralized township school. It is most gratifying to note that the legislature has enacted laws appropriating money for township high schools, and has also passed an act providing for centralized township schools. We feel quite safe in the prediction that some- where, not far from the farm home, the farmers’ children will have access to a school having a class in agricultural chemistry, botany, animal life, insects, birds, etc., thus demonstrating and teaching their various relations to farm life. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. In the work of collecting a list of county and local Agricultural Societies, it is deemed worthy of note to mention that more than usual interest and care has been manifested by the farmers in the preparation of various products for exhibition, which procured for the exhibitor greater space and better facilities for the display of farm products. Expert judges to pass upon the merits of all compet- ing articles is rapidly becoming the rule. Possibly in no year within the last decade were the exhibits so full and complete and tie at- tendance so large as that of 1902. This may be accounted for, partially, by the unprecedented prosperity which has attended most lines of farm operations the past year. The following report shows that 1,024,250 people were in attendance. These societies own 50 one-half mile race tracks and 9 one-third mile tracks. They collected in membership fees, $2,297.10; amount paid in premiums, $113,347.93. The following is a detailed report: Off. Doc. 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No. 6. “edd ‘HWeH [einj[nosoH “Isny plaed ‘yaodMeN ‘susydeais WD *H ‘UOUIN ‘Ned UTADA ‘weyetyieg ‘UBWIMOID “YY “H ‘GJeIeZeN ‘leulleyulay “y uyor “UOTIA ‘WoRquisis “Cd “AA ‘Sinqspnoijg ‘sepoyy “qT ‘seyo ‘UAMOJSIMOT “UOITIWEH LV “a2009W “IMO “\~L uyor “ol0geaunIg ‘1e[MOq “H ‘0385 ‘@[[LASeusnyY ‘USUIAMON “WE ‘d SBII@q ‘UOWON TILAL ‘uUMO SITY ‘Teyos ‘gq Arey ‘aTepuBUlllayY “UPWIIIeH “d ‘Ss ‘uouegey ‘young, “yy uyor ‘a]IseD MON ‘AQS3IID “M “H ‘lajsvouey ‘lajlepueviq “YU ‘a “Byjeleyg ‘ypueig “J uouUlis ‘lajsvouey ‘AsupIOW “¢ “WAL ‘uinqua[y ‘SIM oes] ‘uoyed ‘WWWS “+O “eIIWoOuryD ‘13a}B917g “ULAL ‘[eAOY WOW ‘AasuyuoiyH “TJ L£ “ADUMBINSxuNg ‘Uodsy “fusg_ “BuBipul ‘ilelq praed “HIB SOLIS ‘JAIN WV A ‘eSPIU PUIM ‘Suing “GH “O ‘SJeBYOIWABD ‘UlOoUIT ‘5 “H “SINgssudeM ‘1oIVD “§ uyor ‘UMOJUOIUQ ‘“[T[VYSIVd “AA’ WA “BINGS}IVAA ‘asnoy ‘f¢ uyor ‘PAPA ‘[TeYOseq “H ‘sor ‘Zyein ‘ueuloH “MA ‘Lf “UAMOJ[PPIT “WeuledyS “UA ‘@ISINBD “BAID0W “H “MA ‘e2ulidg e2pliquivDd ‘sequg “S Weqry “‘Bginqsuio0[gq ‘3sOX ‘N “W ‘apAAOHOVYY ‘IaI0g "yes PIepsvaIO ‘MVUS “A “YU UONBID ‘UllYsNeT ‘ss ‘SUIpIING [exeiq “ifr ‘Ned “AM ‘SPL ‘Zingsipuey ‘Asiqieus “H “Gd ‘UOUIA ‘UTepIequieyD “FW AieH ‘mayeatqied ‘1}BAOT JoUeM L ‘UMOJHIOH ‘uUeWMepYA Jajeq ‘eMBIIO ‘JauseM “VW “OD ‘BSINGSpNolj]s ‘SUTBITIIM “S ‘L Soo omeewe coals ‘UMOISIMET “JOISIS “Ht ‘see oS eww nicecey Sereie wie uejoa ‘TleuunW ‘dL Tar eaiaie eieeiae ttertreeeereeees (KorQUag ‘sor wiaiewiesisiere.e ‘aT[TASOUSNH ‘[eeuol “MA a ‘alI@q-SexTIMA ‘IIWH “H ‘“seyo ‘UMOJSILY ‘YIOY Yelwesesr ‘SIV@PHOVT “YOIp [wes ‘uouvge] “zjUey “YD ‘S[T@q soouueyseN ‘AivaIDIAL [,uresg ‘UMOJSIIIQVOY ‘IAC ‘H ‘UOS[OYDIN ‘teHIed “DO ‘A “AC ‘uinque[D ‘dnyWON “MM “H ‘elmepBoy ‘IaAveg “MI .L ‘AguMmByNsxung ‘[[Jeqdurvyp Lf PI] Sin air a ‘euvipuy soCerareL vot W ‘eSPI PUIAA ‘“I4SlUy Ueqdais ‘sjevyoIuieg ‘yWuIS “J ‘f£ sereees “BSinqseusBAy ‘siasoy \L ugor srreess CMO JUOIUQ ‘uOoSdMIOUL “WW ‘UA ‘Bingsie@M “WSeM “A'S ‘BoueN ‘Zin UOWUIN Lf ‘suayAT ‘AdTeIS "D “V ‘UMOJIPPI ‘URUINeT "JL “UAL " ‘s3ulidg ATIOH ‘JW “UNINIW “H ‘seyuo ‘tes ‘sSulidg e3pyiquiep ‘epeAM “J ‘0985 | ‘sSuludg iepep ‘iieH ‘VW [e0r trrtesess SOTTTASUAMIND ‘JABYIBaDH J3}38q ‘uojIBIO ‘sIaqHUOX e310a4y ‘uny UIA[e®D ‘ASBIID “DCW ‘AJQPOOS [eANNOIWOW BruealAsuusq Rare tiee Siete sth es treseseees “KQID0g [BINI[NWBIsy AJUNOD AlJeg Sd ‘UOIZBIOOSSY ITB puwe YIeg SuUIANqg uo ‘uOTIBIOOSSYW Jey e1B1g vrlueA[ASUUsg ‘AyepOoSg [BAn}[NoAsy AjunoD uojdureqiion Ceedeeccencicene Ueieiemns ‘AJatoog peunyNosy AUNOD aNoWwOTyY Sin scene vik feieiehesciee ‘+ “Ajapoog [einqypnousy AJUNOD so1Uu0;y Selene cintice amie Swerve ‘es ‘AyaTO0g [TBVanqynNosy AjunoD UBT a . ‘AyaTO0g [TeinyNoisy [e1jUEeD Ied1ey_ ‘AVVIOOS [BANY[NAsSy AUNOD Jsd1ey_ Lee meee ee ee ee ee eee wee eeeee ‘qnio SISULIBT ASTIBA AOUNIN ‘UOTPBIOOSSY [BANINIAISy UolugQ seed Siete re cipierate ters aleretarets trees “Sgapoog peunqpnosy Aqun0D YSTueyT “UOT? | -BJDOSSYW [BIN{[NdWOH pus [einqypnousy AjunoD uouegeT trtreesseess “TOTIBIDOSSW ITB AaT[VA uouRgayT **AYVTOOS [BANJ[NOMAOW pues [wVinypnowsy AJuNODN soustMey ‘AqapPos Teiny[NoIoH pues [BVinijnoisy AluNOD JejsvoueyT risscivie.siereie 28 ‘AJOPOOS [BVAIn{[NIusy AZUNOD JsjsBvouRP'yT “UOIIBIO | BOE, AOUS 91338) pue esloyY pue Ieq AqunoyD JejsvoueyT : ‘qniD ,SleuliR UINnqU3s[y pPUe UOISUIqY WON esis yeiens.* ‘UOIPBIOOSSW JIB PUB YItd SulAliq puvllrew ss ‘AJATIOOS [BANI[NOMIsy AjuUNOD BVUUBABYOVT ‘Ayatoos [einqynowsy Aqunoo evyerune screeeees SUOTIBIOOSSW JIeq AouMBjnsxung trteeeees fKIZIOOG [BINNOUSy AJUNOD BuUBIPUT ‘AyaToos [Banqpnousy AjunopD uopsununy sreeeeseeecs “AJQTOOS [BINNIISY [TUCO ‘AJsTOOS [wouUBYyoay_ puB [eIN}[NoUSy AjuNOD suaety oe siseiets ‘UO!IWBIOOSSY ITB Sinqssuke Ay cr ‘uo TBIOOossy Ife ut a1eABT ‘AJOIOOS FRININIUISY SinqgseA ‘AJVIOOS [Bin Nosy AJUNOD sIeBAPTEd ‘UOTIBIOOSSY [VAN}J[NOMNIOW pues [BAN}[NOAISY Z}BVIH ee vise sie ee eeenee eeceee ‘UOIZVIOOSSY JIB UAO[PPII ‘Ayapoos TVanqynowsy AlunoD puvyiequing srreeseeres (KIQID0G [VANI[NIASY PIOJMBIDN [BI]JUID ‘uo! 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ee eeeecceecce 62-95 “Bny i*cceecss: ‘Sd inqsueqg 006 60s ceeess| seoscnetees “C061 “a7"¥q ‘Bd peiayo | T061PIePd ‘706I ~PIPH “SUIN[ Wag pue ‘AyapooS [eanqpnojusy AjJuUNOD uoseureg | tee ee eens ‘Buel pul ‘uopsuyjuny eres cesecces ‘guo0i45) ‘gueein ‘guaein ‘ay eART ‘oa ‘1VeMeBlad a ee ewww nene eee eee eee seen eeee Hoe wee enee ‘urydneq Coeeeeeene ‘ulydneq errre ‘DUBLZequIND seeee *‘plojMmeBID, seseeeees “BIQUIN[OD BOOON DO DOOL ‘u0JUL[D SUCOGEICME «) (90 1-9 £@) aisles eigis)sidia’s ‘UOLIBID aves eccvce ‘laqseyD cece ‘. ‘a1juUaD weet eee eee ‘u0q.1ey) cece reee ‘uolaureD seecseeees MBTIQUIBO te eeeeee ‘BIIqUeD tee eeenee *BLIQuUiBy ‘Aqunop SOMBJolAg PUB SJUOPIsSedd JO SossoIppy PUL SOUIVN WIT ‘Sata, [VIN}[NIUsy [woo] pue f}UNOD Jo jsvyT DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 83 No. 6. "9Z-8% “}dag % °~O-08 “Jdeg “IjByl ON “Iyel ON "92-83 ‘dog SI-6 ‘deg "Gt-bZ ‘}deS “LI-91 “3dag E-T “3920 “ape ON "63-93 ‘“SNV “GT-1IT “AON ‘6I-91 “deg 8 300-98 “jdeg ‘tI-6 “3dag “6I-91 “3des ‘9-2 “ydeg ‘1JBJ ON "93-82 ‘deg % 200-08 “des "92-F2 “WdeS 8 290-08 ‘3des ‘92-62 “ydesg ‘g-g ‘jag ‘8-1 °#O “I-91 “ydes “IlBJ] ON ‘ZI-01 “3das “08-12 “3ny ‘alepseu0H “‘uMO 4S} OdINgG ‘plepsury *pleyIseM ‘plojivy ‘esol UO, “SIIASHIO NT ee ceeveccce ‘Sanqss{[M1O ‘eTYydepBliyd ‘TIBH [Bin}[NoO}}A0H ‘qodmMoN ‘UOT | ‘weyealyied | tresses “Sinqgspnoi}sg ‘Ia019 WW ‘o10q9U0}g ‘aT [TASoy.snyT ‘seried “UMOJUITTYV ‘uourqay tees ‘asep MON seeee ‘laysBouery * “OTITASTTe A ‘ouMByNSxuNg . 00 0098 00 000°% 00 OST'T 00 0063 00 008 ‘T+ 00 000° 00 000‘ST 00 099‘ 00 000‘03 ‘TeA0U 310d | 00 008 ee t lence eee eres 00 009 ‘T 00 096 'T 00 OSE ‘Tx 00 000°E 00 9L9‘8T |*° 00 009‘T 00 000°32 |"* 00 g#t‘F seeelonscee 00 00F'T ia a oC 0g 00 008 ee 0039 as -aptun % “OU §-T *orpur % “oTfW §-T . sisinielsieiel far: jee ‘atu a s‘alpu % oo apr % apa % |" ‘aTrur % **oppur % f° ‘appu velar % *QTruL % “gran 3% *‘olyuL % 000‘ 000 ‘OT 000 ‘OF 000‘6 ‘ITBJON 000 ‘21 000 ‘08 000 ‘2T | 000 ‘0% | 000 ‘0% ‘AjATOOS [BanypNouspy AJUNOD suAe AM ‘uoT}BlOossy [BIN}[NOIsy uosuUg ‘uO]}BJOOssSY [BANJ[NIISy VIUBA[ASUUD Us9}Sa\ ‘uo]}BLOOSsSY Bul}}OLL, puB ayeq AYO WO ‘aduBino BuoWoOg AjJUNOD BVSOLL ‘uol}elo0ssy Yleqd ayyAwsg terees SKA 900g [BAIN}[NOIsYy AIBA onbsouBeMoD ‘Ajyoyoos [einy[nojasy pslojueyy ‘AJOTOOS [Banj[NojAsy AJUNOHD BuuByenbsng ‘Ajotoog [einynopisy AQVuUNOD UBATIINS ‘Ajapoos [wanj[Nosy AjuNOD yas19ULOg *Aalo -OS [Bin}[NOAOR pue [einipNoAsy Bingss|M1O tenes ‘Ayapoog 4 [Banq[No}IoR BluBA[ASUUad ‘Ayopoos [einypnojisy AjunoD Allog ‘uOl}BlOOSsV Jey pues ye BulALIq uo lw ‘uOI]BIOOSSY JIB 93e]g BlUBA[ASUUed ‘Ayatoog [eanqypnosy AjyuNoOD uozJdureyzAON ‘Ajapoog [Vin}[Nousy AjuUNOD ANOJUOTL ‘AyopOOS [eany[nowsy AjuNOHM so1u0jy ‘Ayopoos [eBanqpnowsy AyunoD UWA ‘Ayopoog [Bin}[NoWsy [B1juUeD Jade ‘AyopOoS [Banqp[nojusy AjuNOD s90.IIW ‘qn[D ,Steuey AaTTeA AouNTA ‘uo}vepoossy [Buny[NoWasy uoluy sBi[ed ‘Ajapoos [Banypnosy Ajunep YWsyayT “UO! BLOOSSV [ein}[No}oH pues |BainypNosy AyuNOD uoUeq~aT ‘uolyepoossy Jey Av[TTV@A UoUBqeT ‘Ayayoog [Rainy -[NdIWOFT «puse [Banynolsy AjuNOD soUaIMeET ‘AYOTOOS [Biny -[NO}WAOFT ~puv [Vinynosy AjuNOD Jaysvoury ‘UOIVBOOSSY AAOYS e17e@D pues asioyy pue saleg AjuNOD JaysvoueBry ‘AYOIOOS [BAN Nosy AyUNOH JeysBouBy * ‘qn[D ,slowieBgy uinquel[y pus uoVsUuIqy YON ‘+ ‘UOIVBIOOSSY J[By pues YIVq BusAlIq puvlWew ‘+ ‘Ayapoos [Bany[noasy AJUNOD BUUBMBYOVT treseeesees (Ka aroog [Ban}[NoAsw AjJuUNOD vzeluNns ‘uol}Bloossy Jey AVUMBINSxuUNng sees or ‘ausAEM teeees “OVSUTYSeM eee ‘uo]3ulyse A tiereeeess ‘ogueua a, “* “eSOLL ‘eSOLL ‘e3OLL ‘guueyanbsng ‘puueyenbsng sree SUBATTINg ‘jasIaU0sg eee “UPHAnyos ‘eyydapelyd ‘A119qg ‘pueliequinyjION sees “T0,dWUIBYION ‘u0j,dureyyION eee eeeeee “ano]UO]L ‘Q01U0 “UTLTIAN ‘La010 TL ‘LIO1IBT ‘SulwooA'T ‘susazny “YstyaT see Peewee eee er teen ee eee ‘uoueqa'y ‘uoungay tee *‘oUdIMETT ‘1aJsRouR'] seisisis ‘lajsvouRyT ‘laysBvouRry “BUUBMBYOVT] “BUUBMBYORTT ‘BUUBMBYORTT “eyeluns teeeeeees tuosaayar seen Off. Doc. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Ss} ‘areys Jogt ‘sasind 9081 Sulpn[ouyy ‘soovl SUIPN[OUT. ‘yuauTyiedsd s{y} AQ pedjaoed a1aM aUIBS 10J s}Sanbed 0} sat[dat Ou ‘paqzyWIO BiB ‘‘oJa ‘sazBp alo A\—'2}ION “GI-9I “dag [vests ‘19aouvy | 00 000'Z 00 009‘T | 00 OOL | OOT |**atrur % | goose [eeecccet ttt ‘ ~ o ‘Z0st| ® ic ‘aed aRId paiaVO “TO6T PIVd| “90g ‘ON o a 8 B *AjaTOOS JO aureN aes10d4s0pH “AyuNOD F 8 | -_—-——— - —_—— -— — —— ‘WS PIPH ‘SUN; Wa ‘di ysiaquiey = } | ‘penUpyUuojH—OF “ZOGL JO SUONIGIYXS [[RAl FUIploH 10j sayeq PUB SAMLJO1Ig PUB S]UEpPIsodd JO Sessolppy PUL SOIVN YIM ‘sataMog [ean}[NIUISy [Roo'T puv LjuNOD Jo sry No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 85 : CROP REPORTS. Our very efficient corps of crop reporters have performed a great service to agriculture by their prompt report of crop conditions and local prices. From such reliable reports we learn that prices re- ceived for everything raised upon the farm found a more ready mar- ket and sold at a higher price than in many years. ) 2. 7-2-6050.) 1 Meat (chopped), preserved, ..... 15\| Sarsaparillay Dune ernepass felis 3 Meat (fresh), not preserved, 5| Sausage (canned), not preserved, 3 Melrose Pate (canned), not pre- Sausage (canned), preserved, .... ic RSC Mr tote eratacforciay cia cicisaielorsteie' oie. 0 2|Sausage, not preserved, .......... 116 PUMPER INUIT Gio or clove, c ducis oid ot cic lotalej=\els iesete 157| Sausage, preserved, .............. 101 Milk. “adulterated, ......cccccccnse 45|Smoked Beef, not preserved, ..... 3 APIS PU VESCL VEU, <<:c icici e's eleie ciwire ajarele 23) Smoked Beef (sliced), not pre- MTU COOL EGS fora' wiarste cc aiarore atee/ote’e «mis at SOT VCC s,. ccscpereos sare aysieisintele is isicl sl etelotetelols 1 Maunce MeAt DULC, \..cccccls- se cmeee 2| Strawberries (canned), adul., af Mince Meat (condensed), pure, 5 Strawberry Hxtract;, pure, “s-..-- 1 RPCHSSES MULES crete ia 0isote olor efoecrstars 4) Strawberry Extract, adulterated, Tf Molasses, adulterated, .......... 10| Strawberry Jam, pure, .......... 4 RAIS EACO GS ULC, cc.cc.c ceisciere Pin ccnciee 5| Strawberry Preserves, pure, ..... 1 Mustard, adulterated, : 1] String Beans, colored and pre- Mutton, not preserved, .......... ‘ 4 SOEV.CG ay) aro wrarcivcrsirte sac svetctelels eieie sereserete 1 WIRTELOTI: |PLCSCT.VEG,. -25:c.0 0:sisis:0felelsjeiors HM WMMeYth.. Folbbdes .oaogddebobaoudodaccaoonET 2 Noodles, adulterated, ............ 1] Tomatoes (canned), pure, ....... ill RP EPELOOGG DULG, : e.a%acis.etscielee‘elsie steverets 2 | ERONTATA SOUP: MULE, eis ste loteetereeleti= 1 Olive.Oil; adulterated, .....:.s... 1] Tongue (pickled), pure, ......... 1 Orange Extract, adulterated, 1; Tongue (potted), not preserved, 2 OWING COLOLCG, kets c,<1< Pure cscewenc. 1] Vinegar (distilled), colored, ...... 6 Pineapple Extract, adulterated,.. 4 Pork, not preserved, : 11 “MGI coaooncdcetanooosednooss0 2,052 POLK DECSCL VCO cc:cc cic shore sian esis 2 Pork and Beans (canned), pure, 1 TABLE NO. Number of samples taken and analyzed under the several laws from January 1, to December 31, 1902. Number of cheese samples which proved to be up to stand- UE eet ype spire 2 sties'e Seseths hss cae ra eaeee sn tenet ee Ree ee Cersene ars 5 Number of cheese samples which prov ail to be fot up to SUR TNG C0 Se aaa ee eae a ova.’a erin e, oceMa fe SRSdaT Meee 6 Total number of cheese samples analyzed Seesiotias aia No. 6. DIEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Number of lard samples which proved to be pure, ......... Number of lard samples which proved to be compound, Total number of lard samples analyzed, ............ Number of milk and cream samples which proved to be pure, Number of milk and cream samples which proved to be adul- Me MECC rata as cocaine) ne ee ashe nyc RE a's BU OO ce ay ee aN eee Number of milk and cream samples which proved to be pre- BCEMEU preted ver eye reset tute oon Peis om sient hora ae CMe, eutig eRe gee Number of milk and cream samples which proved to be RRP ECHIEC CAG Meriter ae ona vo aA Ge Tesiei ote ins ajo: ata oo atscsualod aro o6Gi al bend ueec cere ee Total number of milk samples analyzed, ........... Number of butter samples which proved to be pure, ....... Nomber of butter samples which proved to be oleomar- DRAIE. 2. noc CR me ae Pn eat rom Pat Number of butter samples which proved to be renovated,. Total number of butter samples analyzed, ......... Number of food samples which proved to be pure, ......... Number of food samples which proved to be adulterated,... Number of food samples which proved to be preserved, Number of food samples which proved to be colored, ...... Total number of food samples analyzed, ............ Number of vinegar samples which proved to be up to the Seandard and true £0 Names”. + iced heeG ds ches eet ey Number of vinegar samples which proved to be not up to the REO AUAcOr WOl Ue LOuMAIMG, bpd. afore oe Sins os ee oeee'e es Total number of vinegar samples analyzed, ....... Total number of samples analyzed, .....6..:..22. (—6— 1902 3T bl 98 ANNUAL REFORT OF THE Off. Doc. TABLE NO. 3. Which gives the number of suits and prosecutions commenced, termimated and pending, from January 1, to December 31, 1902, also vases commenced previous to and terminated during the year 1902. Cases Commenced During the Year 1902. =— = — : E = uo) Le} 2 c S te E E : E ° o o 16) A, H = Tndersthe cheese act: OL, 1897, — sc acssrecccsceeeere sis sclteemelctee sieicteoricrersie OU | nereteletacurers 3 Wrderthetlard act’ OL 1891) <5 ccisse Saliccme sei etelteileetecresielete me nicleteieitetstaielete 10 4 6 Milk cases prosecuted under the milk act of 1901 and the pure | TOO ACE FOL TSO nick e Siess. Ss ciate iia avoterelara dyes tataterotapatataters aiavelees sts eralavela caters tetecels 66 18 48 Under the oleomargarine: Act Of TOO i ciye cistecse.cmjercisssteretejsierstele nro 252 195 57 Wmnder) the: pure! food: act Of § 189520 ace creterepeis otal retetaieieisreietstelere 346 235 111 WMnder the repovated, butter facts of A901 sf aacctesier-testeraioteicisaretereisveter aie ssets 34 | 22 12 Under thes vinegar jact, Of USOT (recess vorrei eatsiatertamtoiienie(eeists 25 | 14 pbk 40/0): Ge enG eAceaeE Contr oaceac tinh coodericcubebedouEooNnonHod 736 448 248 Cases Commenced Previous to and Terminated During the Year 1902. Wnder the lard act:of 18910 si. eee acer Aecsmapellshdgs: Sane ace te if Winder the milk act of 1901022542 sis reget ea auancuenes : (5 Under the oleomargarine act of 1901,....:........ ae ere 57 Under the pure {00d act) of L895. eas eee ee 41 Under the renovated butter act of 1901, Total, aes 109 No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 99 REPORT OF THE STATE VETERINARIAN. Harrisburg, December 31, 1902. Honorable John Hamilton, Secretary of Agriculture : Sir: I have the honor to present to you herewith a report of my work as State Veterinarian for the calendar year 1902. ‘Since it is impossible to separate the work that falls to me as State Veter- inarian and as Secretary of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, [ also incorporate a review of the work of the Board. The volume of work for the year is greater than ever before. As the work of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board becomes better understood by the live stock owners of the State there is increased demand for the help that it alone can furnish. The Board is asked not only to take action and to make inspections in more instances than in the past, but it is also communicated with by persons in need of advice and assistance in respect to Sanitation and the care and management of live stock. The miscellaneous correspondence that is thus grow- ing up is becoming so large that it requires a great deal of time to at- tend to it and brings into prominence the question as to whether it may not soon be necessary to in some way curtail it or to enlarge the organization that is caring for it. There has been a noticeable diminution in the prevalence of most of the infectious diseases of animals during the past year; this is par- ticularly true in respect to tuberculosis of cattle and of anthrax and black-quarter. There has, however, been a slight increase in the pre- valence of glanders, hog cholera and rabies due, in respect to gland- ers and hog cholera, to the importation of diseased animals from other States. There is no State inspection of horses or swine com- ing into Pennsylvania and practically all of the outbreaks of glanders and hog cholera that occur here are due to infected animals from other States. It is possible, however, in every instance, to gain con- trol of and to eradicate outbreaks of these diseases, but in the case of hog cholera this may not be accomplished until considerable loss has occurred. In reference to rabies, the difficulty lies in the im- possibility of establishing an effective quarantine of dogs when it is necessary to do so to control an outbreak. A bill will be introduced in the coming Legislature having for its object the correction of this defect. The text of the proposed bill is given below under the head- ing or rabies. 100 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Interest in the repression of tuberculosis of cattle constantly in- creases and the herd owners are more than ever determined to have their live stock free from this disease. The result has been that the Board has been called upon to make nearly four times as many in- spections as it is possible to make with the funds that are available for this purpose. It has thus been possible to make inspections of the worst infected herds and in this way to clean up many of the most dangerous distributing centers of the disease. During the summer, investigations were made of.the disease of cattle that has prevailed for several years among cattle pasturing in the wild, mountainous sections of the State. This disease has semetimes been called “mountain disease,” and it was generally sup- posed by the farmers of the regions in which it occurred to be due {0 poisoning by some unidentified plant. As a result of investiga- tions conducted with the assistance of Dr. S. H. Gilliland, it has been proven to be identical with the so-called “rinderseuche” of Germany and with haemorrhagic septicaemia, that has been recognized among cattle in Minnesota and Wisconsin. This very important discovery removes a cloud of doubt as to the cause of the loss of thousands of cattle. There are sections of the State formerly used extensively for pasturing cattle that for many years have been abandoned for this purpose, entirely on account of the prevalence of this heretofore un- identified disease. The means that it is necessary to take to control this malady are stated below. Dr. M. P. Ravenel has continued in charge of the laboratory of the Board and has supervised the production of all of the tuber- culin, mallein and anthrax vaccine used by the State Live Stock Sanitary Board. The quantities of these materials used are gradual- ly increasing as their value in the diagnosis or prevention of disease is becoming better known. By sending them out to veterinarians free of charge their use is encouraged, to the great sanitary advant- age of the Commonwealth. It is doubtful if an equal amount of good could be done by an expenditure several times as great in other directions. The recognition of the existence of an infectious disease must be the first step preliminary to its eradication. By assisting in the early diagnosis of infectious diseases, the laboratory of the Board renders most important assistance. The laboratory is being freely used by the veterinarians of the State, who send to it specimens for opinion and diagnosis. Heads of animals that have died of a dis- ease supposed to be rabies are sent to the laboratory in large num- bers. By the use of the new method of rapid diagnosis, that has re- ceived its chief development in this country in the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, and the Pepper Clinical Laboratory ai the hands of Dr. M. P. Ravenel and Dr. D. J. McCarthy, it is now possible to determine, with a high degree of accuracy, whether an No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 101 animal was afflicted with rabies or not. By means of this informa- tion it is possible to prevent much disease and loss of life and prop- erty. When a person is bitten by a dog that is possibly afflicted with rabies, it is of the utmost importance to that person that a diagnosis of the disease afflicting the dog shall be made promptly and ac- ‘curately. If the dog was afilicted with rabies it is important that this shall be known so that the person that was bitten may adopt any precaution or treatment that may protect him from rabies. On the other hand, if the dog was not aiftlicted with rabies much discom- fort and terror are avoided by early knowledge of this fact. An important development during the year has been made in con- nection with the study of the immunization of cattle against tuber- culosis. A paper on this subject was presented to the Pathological Society of Philadelphia, on November 13, 1902, by Dr. 8S. H. Gilliland, Assistant Bacteriologist of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, and myself. The text of the paper will be found below. It may be observed here that it has been possible in these experiments to immunize cattle against tuberculosis. The method is based upon a principle similar to that controlling the immunization of cattle against anthrax. It is necessary to make further experiments to develop this system before it can be applied practically on farms. ‘vo do this a large experiment should be conducted under natural farm conditions; a herd of tubercular cows should be established and cared for as cattle are usually cared for on farms. The calves from such cows as they grow up should be vaccinated, with a view to endeavoring to protect them against tuberculosis. A number of healthy cattle should be added to such a tubercular herd, part of these should be vaccinated and the rest allowed to remain without vaccination, with a view to measuring and determining the value of protection afforded by vaccination under such conditions. It is also important that the shortest and simplest method of vaccination shall be determined, to the end that the system may be rendered as economica! as possible. Furthermore, it is important to know how long the immunity that is thus conferred will continue. It is hoped that the coming Legislature may see the importance of developing this system of protection against a most insidious enemy of cattle and will furnish the means for renting and using a farm as an experiment station for the thorough testing and development of this discovery. Nearly 60,000 doses of tuberculin have been made during the year, aod this, together with the mallein and anthrax vaccine that have been furnished, have value equivalent to the entire cost of running ue laboratory for the year, so that the special work of diagnosis, re- search and investigations that have been so fruitful for the past twelve months have been conducted at no cost to the State. That is, the laboratory and equipment by the use of which this work was done 102 ANNUAL REFORT OF THE Off. Dot. earned enough money by the production of the biological products above enumerated to pay their cost of maintenance. Of course, none of these products were sold, but if they had not been produced in the laboratory it would haye been necessary for the State to pay for them as much as the laboratory cost. ’ The comparative study of tubercle bacilli from human and bovine sources has been continued and the latest report upon this subject by Dr. Mazyck P. Ravenel will be found below. It is believed that . the investigations upon which this report is based have been con- ducted for a longer time and are more comprehensive than similar investigations made in any other part of the world. As the work has been done with the utmost care there is reason to have confidence in the conclusions that are stated. Tu erculosis.— This is still the most widespread and dangerous disease among cattle in Pennsylvania. It is estimated that the losses from this disease amount to from $2,000,000.00 to $3,000,000.00 a yeur. ‘his total is large, but it is believed to be a conservative estimate and upon analysis it will appear that it is by no means improbable. ‘There are in the State about 225,000 farms and an aver- age loss of $10 a farm would make a total of $2,250,000.00. If the average value of a dairy cow is $40, it will be seen that the loss of such a cow is equivalent to an average loss of $10 a farm for four farms; but it is not uncommon for ten cows to be lost as a result of tuberculosis; this means a total loss of $400, or an average loss of $10 a farm for forty farms. In one herd this year, the losses from tuber- culosis amounted to $5,000, which is equivalent to a loss of $10 a farm for 500 farms. Undoubtedly, the losses from tuberculosis are now much smaller than they were a few years ago, and the disease is believed to be practically eradicated from many parts of the State; the parts where the herd owners themselves have taken the most active interest in repressing this scourge. But the losses are still very great and the disease is still often spread from herd to herd through the sale of tubercular catile. The distribution of disease that formerly resulted from this cause has been checked in so far as cattle fron outside of Pennsylvania are concerned. It is required that these, if intended for the dairy or for breeding purposes, shall be inspected before they are sold. The effect of this law is most beneficial and I reproduce here an analysis of its results based upon 2 most liberal estimate as to the cost of its operation and a most conservative estimate of its value to live stock owners. The quota- tion is taken from my annual report for the year 1900. . “The increased cost of inspected cows is equivalent to the cost of the inspeciion. This averages about fifty cents per head. In order that all possible collateral expenses may be surely covered, the ex- treme figure of $1.00 per head may be taken as the basis for this No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 103 calculation. On 15,000 cows this means $15,000.00 expense or cost of inspection. Now, what is the gain? Since two and one-half per cent. of the cows examined are tubercular and are prevented from en- tering farmers’ herds, 375 cows are thus directly excluded. At the reasonable average of $40 per head this means that $15,000.00 worth of tubercular cows are denied sale in Pennsylvania. ‘That is, the purchasers of out of State cows pay $15,000.00 for the inspection, but save $15,000.00 that they would otherwise expend for tubercular cows. But this is not the only saving.. From two to three times as many tubercular cows would be brought into Pennsylvania and sold, were they not inspected, so that the direct saving may be safely estimated at $30,000.00. Moreover, many of these tubercular cows would spread infection and some of them would start dis- ease that would undoubtedly infect whole herds. (As one of many examples the Piollet herd was thus infected by a cow from New Jersey and 156 cattle became tubercular involving a loss of more than $6,000.00 on this single herd.) If each cow should infect an average of but one animal the loss would be doubled and would reach $60,000.00 per year. I believe that this estimate is most con- servative and that the money spent in testing cows from other States is the means of saving, to cow owners, at the very lowest, four times as much in direct loss from tuberculosis.” Several brilliant illustrations of the walue of the inspection of cattle from cutside of the State have been afforded during the past year. As an instance, in two car loads of cows from Virginia it was found that one-half were victims of rather well marked and ad- ranced tuberculosis. Notwithstanding this fact, these cows were offered for sale and would have been sold in Chester county if it had not been for the required inspection. As it was, they were returned to Virginia. Perhaps one of the most beneficial features of the in- spection law is its effect in causing cattle dealers to exercise great care in selection of cows to be shipped to Pennsylvania and especi- ally to avoid purchasing them in districts where tuberculosis is pre- valent. I wish to call attention again to a statement made in my report of Jast year, which, upon further consideration, 1 regard as entirely feasible and worthy of adoption. Last year it was put forward tentatively but now I am convinced that a plan such as pro- posed below would be of great value to the live stock interest of the State. “There is still much damage done by the sale of tubercular herds. When it becomes evident, through the death or debility of some of its members, that a herd is tubercular, some owners submit to the strong temptation to sell their eattle. They reason that, by so doing, they are violating no special law and that they will receive more for 104 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. their possibly diseased but still healthy looking cows than the State will pay, and they are escaping further loss. Of course there are man ifest draw-backs to conducting this sort of business in the locality in which one lives. So, such cows are usually sold to a dealer and are removed by him to some distant place, perhaps to another State. I believe that this sort of traffic should be discouraged by special legislation and by providing a safe market for tubercular cows. By a safe market, | mean such an outlet for them as exists in Switzer- land, for example. In that country, cows found upon tuberculin test to be tubercular are not destroyed if they are still in the earlier stages of disease, but they are marked by cutting a piece out of the ear in a eharacteristic way, so that every one may know that the cow is tubercular. Then the sale of cows so marked is not prohibited but, by the obvious mark that is every where understood, every one is warned that this cow must, for the safety of the owner and his herd, be kept in such a way that disease cannot spread from her. This is easily accomplished by keeping the cow ina stable apart from healthy cattle, by having her pastured apart from them and by heat- ing her milk to 165 degrees F. for ten minutes. Some of these tubercular cows when kept under these conditions continue to render useful service for two, three or even for four years. Cows that would be a source of great danger and loss in a herd may be kept in this way with profit. Their calves are almost always born healthy and may be reared in health if they are removed from their dams soon after birth, are kept away from tubercular cows and are fed on the heated milk of such cows or on the milk of healthy cows. If herds of cows in the early stages of tuberculosis were established, but only under inspection and quarantine, their milk could, with proper pre- cautions, be used for many purposes and such herds would furnish a safe outlet for the reacting cows from other herds.” It is regretted that the funds at the disposal of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board are not sufficient to enable it to inspect all of the herds that are offered for inspection, but since it is not possible to do this the plan is adopted to make an inspection where the need appears to be greatest; that is, where there is the strongest evidence of existing infection. Since, on account of the financial limitations, all herds cannot be tested with tuberculin where owners apply for inspection, it is necessary to rely upon a physical examination for the detection and removal of the more advanced and therefore the more dangerous cases. By means of this method of inspection cattle with advanced tuberculosis or tuberculosis of the udder can be detected. At the same time, advice is furnished as to the general jueasures that should be adopted to restrict the spread of tuber- culosis and also in respect to the improvement of the sanitary con- ditions surrounding the cattle. But tuberculosis cannot be fully No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 105 eradicated from a herd by means of this sort of inspection. It is re- sorted to for the purpose of removing the animals that are most dangerous at the time and thus afford a temporary relief until such time as it may be possible to make a complete inspection and tuber- culin test. During the year, about 16,000 cottle have been tested or other- wise inspected and of these 980 were found to be tubercular and were destroyed. The tubercular cattle were in 433 herds compris. ing 5,928 members. The following paper from the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board on the intercommunicability of human and bovine tuberculosis by Dr. Mazyck P. Ravenel is printed here because it fur- nishes a full statement of what has been done and the conclusions upon the important subject of which it treats. The paper was read before the Pathological Society of Philadelphia, April 24th, 1902, and is reprinted from the proceedings of the Pathological Society for May, 1902. THE INTERCOMMUNICABILITY OF HUMAN AND BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. BY MAZYCK P. RAVENEL, M.D., Bacteriologist of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board. I find it difficult to express adequately my deep sense of the honor which has been paid me by the invitation of your committee to give the address of the evening on this occasion. The Pathological So- ciety of Philadelphia has from its foundation had a most honorable position among the scientific bodies of the world, and has always stood for what is best and most advanced in the branch of medical knowledge to which it is particularly devoted. I have always felt it a high privilege to be able to inscribe myself a member, and to have the seal of the society put to such contributions as I have been able to make. More than this l never thought of aspiring to, hence the invitation to give this address was as unexpected as it was grateful to me. The hesitation which I naturally felt over accepting such a re- sponsible office was relieved, to a considerable extent, by the sug- gestion of your committee that I should speak on some phase of the tuberculosis problem, which has been an object of special study at the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of Pennsyl- vania, and in which I have had the constant advice and assistance 8 106 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. of Dr. Leonard Pearson, State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania, and Dr. S. H. Gilliland, first assistant. The work I am about to report from our laboratory is the result of our joint efforts, and I take pleasure in acknowledging my personal indebtedness to these co- workers. The past decade has seen the awakening of a wide-spread interest in the study of tuberculosis, the spirit of Oriental fatalism which has for so long led us to view with equanimity the awful loss of life annually inflicted by this great white plague having given away to an active campaign against its ravages, a campaign so far largely one of education, in which we strive to spread far and wide the fundamental facts that tuberculosis as a communicable disease, and from that fact, preventable. If preventable, why not prevented? With these precepts firmly implanted in the minds of the medical profession, as well as of the general public, we have reason to hope that each year will see a more careful study of the methods by which tuberculosis is spread and the means to be adopted for its preven- tion. On every hand societies for the prevention of tuberculosis are being formed whose object is to teach the truth concerning the dis- ease and to dispel those false notions, chief among which may be mentioned belief in the hereditary character of tuberculosis, which in the past have led us to regard the tribute of human life as inevita- ble. The intelligent prophylaxis against any disease demands a thorough understanding of the methods by which it is spread. The whole world is in accord in assigning the chief role in the propaga- tion of tuberculosis to the inhalation of particles of sputum thrown off by phthisical persons, the majority of the profession agreeing with Cornet in the belief that sputum is most dangerous when dried and pulverized, while others follow Fligge in regarding the moist floating particles thrown out during coughing, sneezing, etc., as most to be feared. The danger to mankind from tuberculosis of cattle has been discussed at a length and with a fervor not surpassed in the history of modern medicine. The immense practical importance of the subject to the medical profession, to those charged with making and enforcing laws for the preservation of the health of the commu- nity, no less than to every man, woman and child, justifies our deep- est interest, and most earnest studies. The relation that exists between human and bovine tuberculosis and the part played by cattle in spreading the disease among man- kind is now the great question, to which attention has been drawn with renewed activity by the attitude of Professor Koch, announced in his paper before the British Congress on Tuberculosis in July, 1901. This paper was the more striking in that it contained state- ments diametrically opposed to the former teaching of Koch that No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 107 “Bovine tubeculosis is identical with human tuberculosis, and is thus a disease transmissible to man.’ This belief was the outcome of the experiments made by Koch at the time of his discovery of the tubercle bacillus, and has been generally accepted by the medi- cal and veterinary professions up to the present time. So much has been written of late on the subject that I will pass over minor differ- ences of opinion, and at once take up the consideration of the two main propositions which were formulated by Koch and which include all points of controversy in the discussion of the relation between human and bovine tuberculosis. 1. “Human tuberculosis differs from bovine and cannot be trans- mitted to cattle.” 2. Through the important question whether man is susceptible to bovine tuberculosis at all is not yet absolutely decided, and will not admit of absolute decision to-day or to-morrow, one is, never- theless, already at liberty to say that if such a susceptibility really exists the infection of human beings is but a very rare occurrence. 1 should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tuberculosis cattle, and the butter made of this milk is hardly greater than that of hereditary transmission, and, therefore, do not deem it advisable to take any measures against it.” I. The first of these propositions is susceptible of direct experi- mental investigation, and can, therefore, be answered positively with- out going into the domain of theory. Prof. Koch based this state- ment on the result of an insufficient number of experiments done by Prof, Shiitz and himself. A number of young cattle proved to be free from tuberculosis by the tuberculin test were infected in various ways with the bacilli of human origin or with tubercular sputum. “In some cases the tubercle bacilli or the sputum were injected un- der the skin, in others into the peritoneal cavity, in others into the jugular vein. Six animals were fed with tubercular sputum almost daily for seven or eight months; four repeatedly inhaled great quan- lities of bacilli, which were distributed in water and scattered with it in the form of spray. None of these cattle (there were nineteen of them) showed any symptoms of disease, and they gained consid+ erably in weight.” After six to eight months they were killed, and no trace of disease was found in the internal organs. Where the injections were made, small foci of suppuration had formed, in which there were found a few bacilli. Inoculations of a similar nature with bacilli from the lungs of an animal with bovine tuberculosis resulted always in rapid illness, ending often in death, while some were killed in a miserably sick condition after three months. In all cases there was extensive tu- berculosis, involving the internal organs, especially the lungs and spleen. -J 108 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. A similar difference in pathogenic power was found in feeding experiments.on pigs, where one lot of six received human tubercular sputum, and a second lot of six were given pure cultures of the bovine tubercle bacillus; and also in experiments on asses, sheep, and goats, where the inoculations were made with pure cultures of human and bovine bacilli into the circulation. Results similar to these in the main have been obtained by Smith, Frothingham, Dinwiddie, and at the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of Pennsylvania, and we may admit that, as a rule, cattle show a high degree of resistance to the human tubercle bacillus, and that for all experimental animals the bovine bacillus has a pathogenic power equal to the human bacillus, while for the great majority it is vastly more pathogenic; but this does not by any means show that man is not susceptible to infection by the bovine organism, and we have abundant proof that it is quite possible to infect cattle with the tubercle bacillus from human sources. The identity of tuberculosis as seen in man and cattle was held by Villemin, who believed he had proved the correctness of this view in his inoculation experiments, by which he showed conclusively that small animals like rabbits become tuberculous following the injec- tion of material from man as well as cattle. Chauveau’ was, how- ever, the first to make the attempt to infect cattle with tubercular material from man, and his success is Shown in the following abstract of his experiments: First SeRies.— /nfection by the Digestive Tract.—Three animals were used, and as controls there were three other similar animals which were infected with bovine material, and also three which were not infected at all, these last remaining free from tuberculosis. Those to which bovine material had been fed as well as those which received human material became tuberculous. At the autopsy it was impossible to distinguish one set from the other. In all of them the lesions provoked showed the same character. The individual histories of the three animals infected with human material are as foliows: 1. A heifer, six months old, which received material from the lung of a young man dead of acute miliary tuberculosis. Two doses of an emulsion of this material were given morning and evening of the same day. It was killed on the fifty-seventh day, having lost flesh toa slight degree. The lesions were found almost exclusively in the abdominal cavity. In the small intestine there were more than two hundred tubercles varying from the size of a pea to that of the head of a pin. The liver contained upward of a dozen small tubercular masses on its surface. The peritoneum showed a marked eruption of tubercles. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 109 2. A heifer, eleven months old, which received two feedings with an interval of two days, the material being taken in part from the lung of a child with acute miliary tuberculosis and in part from the lung of an adult with a marked chronic phthisis with caseation. The animal soon became sick, and during life tuberculosis could be detected. The submaxillary ganglion on the right side became en- larged about the fifteenth day, and increased steadily until the ani- mal was killed on the fifty-ninth day. The intestinal tract was only slightly involved, but the ganglia related to the first portion of the digestive tract showed marked lesions. The right submaxillary and the retropharyngeal glands were considerably enlarged and showed a ‘typical tuberculosis with some calcification. The principal lesions were found in the thoracic cavity. In the lung were a dozen dissem- inated foci mostly superficial, most of which showed caseous points on section. Microscopical examination showed them to be made up of a great quantity of lymphoid cells, with some giant cells. In the neighborhood of these masses and also in areas far from them were found diffuse tubercles developing into the alveolar tissue, as well as in the perivascular and peribronchial connective tissue. These young lesions showed exactly the same histologic structures as the larger ones. The bronchial and mediastinal glands were also markedly involved. 3. A young bull, about ten months old, which received two feedings on two consecutive days, composed of an emulsion made from the lung of two persons who had died of chronic phthisis (caseous pneu- monia). After a diarrhea, which lasted several days, the animal showed marked illness, and lost flesh. It soon began to cough, and so marked were the symptoms that it was slaughtered on the thirty- fourth day. In the small intestine there was a marked eruption of tubercles extending from about the second portion of the jejunum to the end of the ileum. In certain portions the mucous membrane was converted into confluent tubercles. The most interesting lesions were found on the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. In the jarynx and the upper part of the trachea were found masses of gray granulations. a few of which were red and ulcerated. Second Series.—/n fection by Intravenous Injection.— A calf, three mouths old, was inoculated into the jugular vein with 2 c.c. of an emulsion made from the lung of a child with acute miliary tuber- culosis. It was killed on the twenty-ninth day. The lesions were contined to the chest, the bronchial and mediastinal ganglia show- ing the most marked changes. In the lung, on section, there were found well-marked gray granulations accumulated in the interior or around the small bronchi, which they sometimes occluded entirely. This was well seen with the naked eye, but was better demonstrated in microscopical sections. 110 ANNUAL FEPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Third Series. —/nfection by Subcutaneous Inoculation.—Seven ani- mals were inoculated. For three animals the material used was ob- tained from fungus masses from the joints in cases of white swelling; for three others from acute miliary tuberculosis, and in one from the lung of a horse which had developed a marked pulmonary tuberculo- sis due to the intravenous injection of material from the lung of a man. In all cases a tumor developed at the point of inoculation, which Chauveau describes as being a tuberculous tumor altogether typical. The neighboring glands showed always more or less in- volvement, but in no cases was there any general infection. I have quoted these experiments at some length for the reason that they seem often to be overlooked, and for the further reason (hat they have recently been directly misquoted. Indeed, Koch him- self said in his address before the British Congress on Tuberculosis, “Tf one studies the older literature of the subject, and collects the reports of the numerous experiments that were made in former times by Chauveau, Gunther and Harms, Bollinger, and others, who fed calves, swine, and goats with tubercular material, one finds that the animals that were fed with the milk and pieces of the lungs of tuber- cular cattle always fell ill of tuberculosis, whereas those that re- ceived human material with their food did not.” Bollinger, in 1879, inoculated a young calf in the peritoneal cavity with material from a human lung. When killed after seven months the mesentery and peritoneal covering of the spleen presented a num- ber of tumors from the size of a pea to that of a walnut, and which microscopically were identical with those found in pearl disease under natural conditions. The retroperitoneal and mesenteric glands were tuberculous also. Klebs caused a tuberculosis of the peritoneum identical with that which is seen under natural conditions by the intraperitoneal injec- tion of human tubercular material. Kitt, also, is quoted by Pro- fessor Johne as having had a similar result accompanied with gen- eralized lesions following the intraperitoneal injection of the juice from a scrofulous gland taken from the neck of a man. Crookshank injected tuberculous sputum into the peritoneal cay- ity of a calf, causing death on the forty-second day. The autopsy re- vealed extensive disease. “Extending over the mesentery from the point (inoculation) there were hundreds of wart-like, fleshy new- growths, some quite irregular in form, others spherical or button- shaped. There were similar deposits on the under surface of the liver, on the spleen, in the gastrosplenic omentum, and on the peri- toneal surface of the diaphragm. On microscopic examination ex- tremely minute tubercles were found disseminated throughout the lungs and liver. Tubercle bacilli were found in these organs and in the peritoneal deposits,” No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 111 Sydney Martin fed human tuberculosis sputum to six calves. Four of these received each 70 ¢c.c. mixed with their food at one meal. They were killed after 33, 63, 85, and 285 days. The first three showed respectively 53, 63 and 13 tubercular nodulesin the intestine, while the fourth was entirely free. The two other calves were given 440) c.c. of sputum at one feeding. One was killed after fifty-six days, and showed tuberculosis of the intestine and mesenteric gland. The other was allewed to live 138 days, and was free from disease when killed. At the recent Congress on Tuberculosis, Prof. Thomassen, of Utrecht, reported the following experiment: A calf four weeks old was inoculated in the anterior chamber of the eye with a pure cul- ture of the tubercle bacillus isolated from a case of tuberculous arthritis in man. An intense keratitis was set up, the cornea becom- ing so opaque that it was impossible to observe the alterations in the iris. It was killed after six weeks, and was found to be the victim of a pretty well generalized tuberculosis. Both lungs con- tained numerous miliary tubercles and some gray fibrous tubercles of larger size. The path of infection from the eye to the lung was mapped out by the condition of the subparotideal, cervical, medias- tinal, and bronchial lymph glands of the same side. Nocard states that by inoculation into the arachnoid cavity of a small amount of human tubercle bacilli a rapidly fatal tubercular meningitis is set up identical with that seen in children. A calf, five months old was thus inoculated by him on August 2, 1901, and died on the 28th of the same month, the pia mater being infiltrated with tubercles which proved virulent for guinea pigs. On the same day Nocard injected into the jugular of a cow which had become much reduced by chronic diarrhea, but which was free frem tuberculosis as shown by the tuberculin test, I c.c. of a suspen- sion of human bacilli. She died September 4th, and showed a num- ber of small foci, softened or caseous and extremely rich in tubercle bacilli. He considers that in this case the animal was so weakened by the pre-existing diarrhea that its normal resistance was largely destroyed. De Jong as the result of a series of comparative inoculations of human and bovine tubercle bacilli, states that seven cattle, namely, two calves six months old, three steers two years old and one eigh- teen months, and one calf seven or eight months old, all became tuberculous by the injection of pure cultures of the human tubercle bacillus. In only one of the seven was the disease graye and wide. spread; in four the lesions were retrogressive, and in the two remain- ing ones progressive. Arloing reports the following recent experiments: Three cultures of human origin were used, one of which had been under cultivation 112 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. since 1896. With this culture a heifer, two years old, and a young calf were inoculated intravenously. The calf was killed after thirty- two days, and showed a typical eruption of minute tubercles all through both lungs, but especially marked in the anterior lobes. The heifer was kept for one hundred and twenty days, and was only slightly diseased, the lungs and pleurae being involved. With the second culture, obtained from a case of pleurisy, a calf two and one- half months old was inoculated intravenously. Death ensued after seventeen days. The lungs alone were involved, showing many young nodules. The third culture was isolated from a case of pleu- ropericarditis, with involvement of the lungs, and with this a young bull convalescent from aphthous fever was inoculated intravenously, death resulting in thirty-two days. The thoracic cavity was prin- cipally involved, the anterior and middle lobes containing nodules throughout, and some lobules of the posterior lobes also. The bronchial and esophageal glands were tremendously enlarged, weigh- ing thirty-five kilograms. It may be objected to many of these experiments that the tubercu- losis resulting from the inoculation did not cause death nor even serious illness, and it is probable that some of the animals would have recovered entirely if allowed to live. Admitting freely the truth of this, it may be pointed out that under natural conditions many cattle infected with bovine tuberculosis will remain for years apparently in perfect health, so much so that detection of the disease is possible only by means of tuberculin. So, also, in man, many cases of tuberculosis rur a benign course, or remain stationary for years, while not a few end in recovery. Yet in man and in animals these benign cases may take on an acute form and end in rapid death, owing to some intercurrent affection which lowers resistance or per- mits the engrafting of a secondary infection. No one would hold that because of the benign course of the disease in the first instance that true tuberculosis did not exist. Transmission of Tuberculosis to Cattle from Phthisical Attendants. —There are on record a few instances of cattle becoming infected with tuberculosis through the sputum of phthisical attendants. In several of these the evidence is so clear as to leave no doubt that cat- tle art at times infected in this manner. Such instances have been reported by Cozette, Clique, Huon, director of the vacine lab- oratory at Marseilles, and Bong. In most of these cases the sputum was introduced into the digestive tract with the forage, as well as inkaled in the dry state, but in Huon’s animal the infection seems tu have been entirely through inhalation. Experiments at the Laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board.—I come now to speak of the work done at the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, the results of which you see No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 113 iilustrated in the specimens presented here for your inspection and study. I cannot but feel that these specimens possess an unusual interest and importance in the solution of a problem which is now engaging the attention of scientific men throughout the world, and which has been made the subject of special investigation by the gov- ernments of many countries. Our first successful attempt to infect cattle with human tuberculosis was made in 1898, when four calves of nearly the same age, four to five weeks old, received intraperi- toneally 10 c.c. of human tuberculous sputum, from different sources, but in all cases containing a large number of bacilli. One showed no ill effects except a slight rise in temperature, and the autopsy was entirely negative. Of the other three, two had persistent high temperature following the injection, but only one showed marked illness otherwise. Post- mortem examination proved that all had become infected with tuber- culosis, the lesions in two being quite extensive. I will give here the details of only the one which showed marked illness during life. The lesions were so extensive and typical that even the most skepti- cal must admit the success of the experiment, and I have here some of the organs for inspection. Calf No. 8050, aged four weeks, was inoculated on May 16, 1898, with sputum from an early case of pulmonary tuberculosis at the University Hospital. The sputum contained a large number of tu- bercle bacilli. Soon after the operation the temperature of the calf rose and continued high, with some remissions, until it was killed. Its appearance was bad, the coat dry and rough, the respiration rapid. It was tested with tuberculin, but the temperature was too high for results. It was killed on August Ist, weighing 190 pounds. On the surafce of both lungs there was a slight deposit of fibrin, and on section a number of hemorrhagic areas were observed in both. The mediastinal and bronchial glands were enlarged and congested. The abdominal cavity contained about 12 ounces of bloody serum. The peritoneum was thickiy studded over its entire surface with nodules from 1 mm. to 12 mm. in diameter, fibrous in character. In many places these nodules had massed together, forming tumors, some 5 cm. in diameter, which were dense and fibrous. The spleen contained many nodules, both on its surface and throughout its sub- stance. The whole omentum was thickly studded with nodules from 2 mm. to 12 mm. in diameter, and besides which there were three large masses, dense and fibrous in character, two of which were 15 cm. long by 7 cm. wide, and 12 mm. thick; and the third 7 cm. long by 6 cm, wide, by 4 cm. thick. The abdominal surface of the dia- phragm was thickly studded with nodules, fibrous in character. The &—6—1902 lif ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. mesentery was thickened and contained many nodules of small size. The appearance was that of a typical case of grape or pear] disease. The mesenteric and mediastinal glands were enlarged and somewhat caseous. For several years past we have endeavored to obtain material from eases of tuberculosis in children in which there was evidence of in- fection through the ailmentary tract, reasoning that if children con- tracted tuberculosis through the ingestion of milk from diseased ¢at- tle we would be most apt to find bacilli of the bovine type in these intestinal or mesenteric lesions. So far only three such cases have come to us, all through the kindly interest of Dr. Alfred Hand, and in only one of these was the evidence of primary intestinal infection clear. We have isolated from the mesenteric gland of this child, the immediate cause of whose death was tubercular meningitis, a culture which has for cattle the most intense pathogenic power. Two calves inoculated into the jugular vein and peritoneal cavity died in nine- teen and twenty-seven days respectively; and a grown cow was in- oculated both in the jugular vein and peritoneal cavity died in eigh- teen days. All of these animals exhibited marked symptoms from the day of inoculation. Examination of the lesions, both macro- scopic and microscopic, leaves no doubt that the animals succumbed to a pure tuberculosis. The details of these cases are as follows: Llistory of Culture——Designated BB. Obtained from a child sev- enteen months old. Death was due to tubercular meningitis. ‘Au- tepsy: Lungs normal, except posterior part of the right upper lobe, which was consolidated, red on section, and had excess of connec- tive tissue. Bronchial and mediastinal glands not enlarged. Spleen, liver and kidneys show pearly tubecles. Two feet from lower end of ileum is an ulcer 1 cm. by 2 cm., the long diameter transverse io axis or gut. Nodules are seen on peritoneal surface. Four small ulcers, two above and two below, are found in ileum, Mesenteric glands enlarged, cheesy, and some purulent. Meninges show yel- low tubercles most marked along longitudinal fissure, in choride plexus and over cerebellum. The mesenteric glands were used in obtaining the culture. This case is considered by Dr. Hand the clearest one of primary intestinal tuberculosis ever seen by him. Guinea-pigs were inoculated intraperitoneally with an emulsion made from the mesenteric glands on March 9, 1901. One was chloro- formed on April 19th, and cultures made. Scanty growth on one tube was found on June &th, and subcultures made. Calf No. 26596, weight 132 pounds. Tested with tuberculin, but gave no reaction. On December 4, 1901, 5 ¢.c. of a suspension of the fifth and sixth generation of culture BB were injected into the right No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 115 jugular vein. On the next day the temperature had risen to 103.2 F. After a slight remission it rose to 103 degrees F. on the seventh day after inoculation, and continued to rise each day, reaching 106.4 de- grees F. by the fourteenth day, after wiich it fell slightly until death which took place on December 21st, seventeen days after inoculation. The animal showed marked illness during life, the respiration reach- ing 68 per minute. Autopsy.— The lungs and the related glands showed macroscopi- cally the most marked disease. Both lungs were thickly studded throughout, with remarkable uniformity, with miliary nodules giv- ing a sandy feel under the finger. The left was pneumonic, owing to the position of the calf for some time before death. Portions of the right were in a similar condition, sinking when placed in water. The bronchial and mediastinal glands were much enlarged and soft, and in the former small areas of caseation were found. The liver was large, soft, and friable. Several nodules were visi- ble on the surface, though not perceptible to the touch. The spleen sLowed very slight changes. The kidneys were normal. Calf No. 26597, weight 202 pounds. Tested with tuberculin, and gave no reaction. On December 4, 1901, 5 ¢.c. of a suspension of Culture BB of the fifth and Sixth generations were injected into the peritoneal cavity. The temperature rose to 105.2 degrees F. by the eighth day after injection, remaining very nearly the same until four days before death, when it began to fall, and reached 103 degrees F. on the day before death, which took place on December 31st, or twenty-seven days from the time of inoculation. Autopsy.— Great emaciation. Loss in weight thirty-seven pounds. The lungs were largely involved, though not uniformly. The cen- tral and posterior portions showed many areas deep red in color and solid to the feel. These were thickly studded throughout with min- ute grayish nodules. The suprasternal lymph glands were as large as goose eggs, and contained cheesy areas. The mediastinal glands were much en- larged, one being six inches in length by two inches in diameter. The peritoneal cavity contained about six quarts of straw-colored fluid. The peritoneum was everywhere enormously thickened, and practically converted into a tuberculous mass. In several places it was one-half an inch thick and fibrous. The omentum was also enormously thickened and bound over the surface of the liver. It contained a great number of nodules, dense andi fibrous, many with caseous centers. The liver was firmly adherent to the diaphragm, and on section showed many nodules. The spleen was firmly at- tached to the surrounding parts by a mass of partly organized fibrin, which contained many cheesy nodules. On section it appeared to be normal. 116 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Cow No. 45030, about three years old, and weighing 660 pounds. On January 22, 1902, 24 ¢.c. of a suspension of Culture BB of the seventh and eighth generations were injected into the right jugular vein and the same amount into the peritoneal cavity. The tempera- ture rose to 103.2 degrees F. on the second day, then fell slightly during the next six days, after which it rose steadily, reaching the maximum, 107 degrees F., three days before death, after which it fell slightly, the animal dying seventeen days after inoculation. The lungs were mostly involved, both being thickly studded throughout with miliary nodules. Most of the left lung showed interlobular emphysema, while the inferior portion was much congested. On the omentum were numerous dark red spots which could be felt be- tween the fingers. The spleen was adherent to the diaphragm, and there were many punctate hemorrhages on the surface. The liver and kidneys showed no gross changes. What interpretation is to be given to these remarkable results? One of two propositions must be admitted: either we have found a human tubercle bacillus having a pathogenic power for cattle quite as great as any bovine germ, or else we have found in the mesenteric gland of a child the bovine tubercle bacillus. If we accept the law of diagnosis laid down by Koch, namely, the inoculation test, the latter is the true explanation. I, myself, am strongly of the opinion that this latter is the case for the following reasons: 1. The history of the case as given by Dr. Hand of primary intes- tinal infection. 2. Morphologically and culturally the organism corresponds more nearly to the bovine type as first defined by Dr. Theobald Smith, and later by curselves, than the human. 3. The great pathogenic power for cattle. A second culture obtained from the mesenteric glands of a child has shown a virulence far in excess of that usually found in human cultures, through it falls short of Culture BB in pathogenic power. This culture, designated U, was isolated in December, 1900, and tested for guinea-pigs and rabbits. The results, together with its manner of growing and microscopic appearance, lead us to consider it a typical human culture. During the summer of 1901 it was se- lected for some feeding experiments on puppies, and showed a de- gree of virulence that was not expected. In December last, wishing to produce a slow tuberculosis in a dog, this culture was again em- ployed. The dog grew ill rapidly, and died in January, thirty-six days from the time of inoculation. Post-mortem examination re- vealed a typical and extensive tuberculosis and it was decided to inoculate a calf in order to test its virulence for the bovine race. -On March 4, 1962, Calf No. A 45046, weighing 74 pounds, was inoculated in the jugular vein with 6 c.c. of a suspension of Culture U, of the No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 117 twelfth generation, from glycerinagar, the suspension being equal in opacity to a twenty-four-hour-old culture of the typhoid bacillus in bouillon. The animal soon showed signs of illness, the breathing became rapid and labored, reaching 54 per minute. Extreme weak- ness and depression came on, and it passed much of the time lying down. On April 19, 1902, it was killed, death seeming imminent. Autopsy.— Weight 82 pounds. Condition fair. The anterior lobes of both lungs were thickly studded with minute nodules, aver- aging 1 mm. in diameter. Blocks from these lobes sank in water immediately. Both lungs were dense and solid to the feel through- out. The posterior lobes were air-bearing for the most part, but contained many solidified areas, which could be seen on the surface as well as on section. The bronchial and mediastinal glands were enlarged and wet. Scrapings from cut surfaces show an enormous number of tubercle bacilli. In the mediastinal glands many yellowish nodules were seen. The pleurae were normal. The liver was enlarged and firm te the touch. No distinct nodules could be seen by the naked eye, but throughout the substance yellowish areas were found in large numbers. The surface appeared marbled. The spleen was enlarged and very firm, but no nodules could be de- tected. The kidneys showed numerous whitish areas on the surface, which were found to extend quite deeply into the cortex. On sec- tion many yellowish nodules were seen. The tissues of the kidneys were much stained with bile, and the pelvis contained a gelatinous o” viscous material showing the same pigment. The peritoneum was normal, Microscopie Examination —The solidified portions of the lungs contained large areas which are not air-bearing, the alveoli being completely filled with leukocytes and epithelium, or epitheloid cells. The small bronchi are filled by an exudate made up largely of leuko- cytes. The central portions of the nodules stain poorly, and frag- mentation of the nuclei of the cells is seen, but no distinct caseation can be found. In sections stained with carbol-fuchsin innumerable tubercle bacilli are seen. In other parts of the lungs which are still largely air-bearing, minute nodules are found in large numbers hay- ing the same general characterists as those just described. Through- out the sections many tubercle bacilli are seen, and in the nodules they are in clusters. In the liver no typical tubercles are found, but there are many minuate nodules made up of round cells, and on the borders of these a considerable number of giant cells with peri- pheral nuclei occur. Sections stained with carbol-fuchsin show large numbers of tubercle bacilli clustered in these areas. The spleen shows round-cell infiltration, giant cells, and) many tubercle bacilli. 118 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The white areas in the kidney described above show a round-cell infiltration and large numbers of tubercle bacilli. The bronchial glands show areas of beginning caseation, a few giant cells, and in- numerable tubercle bacilli. This calf showed a well-marked tuberculosis, proving that the cul- ture with which it was inoculated had a degree of virulence above that usually found in cultures of human origin. Our experience with this culture leads us to believe that the usual method of employ- ing only guinea-pigs and rabbits in testing the virulence of the tu- bercle bacillus does not always give entirely conclusive results. Un- fortunately, the expense attending the use of larger animals hinders their more general employment. History of Culture U.—Obtained from a child, aged three years, whose death was due to tubercular meningitis. Autopsy: Lungs and bronchial lymphatic glands full of miliary tubercles. Anterior mediastinal glands much enlarged. Spleen extensively involved, liver less so. On the abdominal surface of the diaphragm were a number of flat, yellow nodules. Mesenteric glands enlarged, and contained old, yellow, cheesy nodules. One small tubercle found in the right suprarenal. Purulent and cheesy nodules found in meninges and encepralon. The cultures were obtained from the mesenteric glands. The pathologist, Dr. Hand, was unable to decide with certainty as to the origin of this case. Increase of Virulence by Successive Passage through Calves.— In another experiment instituted by Dr. Leonard Pearson we have proved that a typical tuberculosis can be produced in young cattle by large and repeated doses of a human culture of moderate viru- lence; and what is even more interesting and important, by succes- sive passages through calves we have succeeded in bringing about a marked increase in the virulence of this culture. The culture em- ployed was isolated from human sputum in September, 1899, and is designated “M.” The animals were inoculated at intervals of a week, the amount of culture being divided into four equal portions, which were injected into the jugular vein, the lung, the peritoneal cavity, and under the skin. Each week the dose was increased by 1Ore.e: Two calves were infected in this manner, Nos. 26562 and 26563. With the tissues of No. 26562 the serial inoculations were begun, the details of which, with the postmortem examination of the animals, is given below. The result is shown in the following table: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 119 Amount of Length of No. injection life. ENMU) UNL Me oa Cal MEME Pays (cleetnr es checxsraicTeleYois) c/o’ acy «sere “Sai e\e10{evoieie era's iaiatussja orale: syeteiare sielwietotorcle sites 925 c.c. 106 days em TMP NALO ZO cmmrarayeyete ct ahctole tetera ra: (e(0/clete cts,s/e/s'e(avcvele,ojeie(a'e/sie ats cleinve ecare ofeia sisisie@eeeisie aleniere 16 c.c. 48 days DORI LE AAD GO sem ciclersiclercnionereicintels (ole eisisie)s 8's o cyeierelsie elaie siaisievresessiefese,ulelersisreieie tjerae ates 13 c.c. 23 days me CDT Lae D UNL Tee Taleetate otelelaicte ete sr steleietels\e © o,s,cTo\ols:.0,x eie\e ote 6's'elore.e/s%e ave e(e'bidials 6 arewicete Sine 10 c.c. 24 days 5. Calf A45073, ....-eeeee aisle, sieisis.s/0j6;e,0/i/0/0 0 0i4\0\siesale ola on sleigiaieivie sialalern,qiorers\ srejsfeve' sieve 14 ¢c.c. 24 days Calf No. 26562, weight 210 pounds. The first inoculation was made on September 6, 1901, and thereafter at intervals of a week, until December 16th. Each time the total amount was divided into four equal parts and injected subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, into the lung, and into the jugular vein. The commencing dose was 10 ¢.c. of an emulsion equal in opacity to a twenty-four-hour-old bouillon culture of the typhoid bacillus, the total amount given being 925 c.e. The temperature rose after each injection, and remained high for two days, then fell gradually, though normal was never reached. About five weeks after the first injection the calf began to cough. This cough grew steadily worse until death, being most marked on the day following each injection. Respiration grew labored, and the animal lost flesh. By December 15th it was markedly ill. Death took plaee during the night of December 21st. Autopsy.— Considerable emaciation. The lungs were hard and firm to the touch. The various sites of inoculation could not be de- tected, and there were no abscess cavities nor scars. The lungs were dense throughout and heavy, through sections floated in water. The bronchi, especially the smaller ones, were filled with a tenacious mucus, in which many tubercle bacilli were found. An emulsion made from one of them showed many tubercle bacilli. The medias- tinal glands were large and soggy, but no nodules could be fotind. The bronchial glands were enlarged, and a few caseous points were found. An emulsion made from one of them showed many tubercle bacilli. ‘The mediastinal glands were large and soggy, but no nodules could be found. The liver was attached to its capsule at points which were the sites of flat, yellowish nodules, from 2 mm. to 5 mm. in diameter. On section tuberculous areas of considerable extent were found, reaching from the surface to a depth of 3 cm. The spleen was much enlarged and very soft. On the surface were a number of flat fibrous new-growths. The kidneys showed no changes. The omentum was much discolored, having a dirty, brown- ish appearance, and in parts much thickened. It contained upward of 100 nodules of 2 mm. to 6 mm. in diameter, some gray, some white, and some hemorrhagic. Some had the appearance of beginning “grape” formation. ‘The mesentery presented the same appearance. Its glands were enlarged and wet, but no cheesy nodules could be fonnd. On the parietal peritoneum were a large number of pearly 120 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. nodules, 2 mm. in diameter, and a few sessile new-growths, some of which were hemorrhagic, and had fringes of fibrin hanging from them. Microscopic examination of the tissues showed the spleen and kidneys to be free of tubercles. In the lungs the greater part of both is made up of conglomerated tubercles which show very little central caseation. The alveoli are completely filled with desqua- mated epithelium, leukocytes, and epitheliod cells. There is a marked bronchitis. Calf No. 26563, weight 165 pounds. The first inoculation was made on September 6, 1901, and thereafter weekly until December 16, 1901, when an interval of nineteen days was allowed to elapse, the inoculations being resumed on January 4, 1902. The method of inoculation was the same as for Calf No. 26562. Death took place January 22, 1902, the total amount of the suspension of the culture given being 1400 ¢.c. The condition of the animal following the in- jections correspond closely with Calf No. 26562, its survival being somewhat more prolonged. Autopsy.—Weight 186 pounds. Considerable emaciation. The lungs were firm and non-elastic to the touch. The points of inocu- lation could not be detected either in the pleurae or in the lungs, ex- cept at one point, where a small pus cavity, 1 cm., was found near the surface of the right lung, the pus containing many tubercle bacilli. No district nodules could be found in either lung, but both were much increased in solidity throughout through sections would float in water. The bronchi were filled with a tenacious mucus. The pleurae were roughened by bands of fibrin, which extended to the lung, attaching the inferior borders especially to the chest-wall. The bronchial and mediastinal glands were much enlarged, and the latter contained many caseous nodules. In the abdominal cavity all the organs were attached to the peritoneum and to each other by bands of fibrin. The liver was firmly adherent to the diaphragm. Over the surface were fifty to sixty whitish, flat nodules, 5 mm. to 100 mm. in diameter some of them extending deeply into the substance of the organ. On section caseous areas were seen. The spleen and kidneys showed slight changes only. The parietal peritoneum was rough at many points and had fringes of fibrin at- tached to it. Scattered over it were a large number of gray nodules, 2mm. to 5 mm. in diameter. Microscopic examination showed no well-defined tubercles in the spleen and kidneys. The liver showed many areas of necrosis. In the lungs were masses of conglomerated nodules, most of which did not show marked central caseation. Numerous giant cells were found. The alveoli are filled with desquamated epithelium, leuko- cytes, and epithelioid cells. There is a marked bronchitis. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 121 Calf No. 45020, six months old. On December 23, 1901, 8 c.c. of an emulsion made from the bronchial gland of Calf No. 26562 were injected into the left lung, and the same amount into the peritoneal cavity. The emulsion showed many tubercle bacilli. By January 15, 1902, the calf was markedly ill, and breathing was increased in rapidity. These symptoms increased steadily, the temperature rang- ing from i104 degrees I. to 105.5 degrees F. About February Ist the temperature began to fall, and at the time of death, February 9th, was subnormal. Autopsy.— Much emaciated. Both lungs were a dark red, and were thickly sown throughout with miliary nodules. The left lung was adherent to the chest-wall over a large part of its surface. On separating it many tubercular new-growths were seen, between which the pleura was smooth. At the point of inoculation was an abscess cavity 4 cm. in diameter. The pus contained many tubercle bacilli and staphylococci. On the lung over the abscess, and bind- ing it lighily to the chest-wall, was a layer of fibrin, of cream-white color. Along the backbone was a chain of enormously enlarged glands fitting into the spaces between the ribs, and extending from the first rib to the diaphragm. These were filled with caseous areas. The mediastinal glands were enlarged and showed many caseous areas. Most striking was the condition of the omentum, which had been converted into a mass of tubercular new-growth, made up of conglomorate nodules. Ht varies in thickness from 1 cm. to 3 em. The nodules are grayish-yellow, fibrous, and show central caseation. The liver shows numerous yellowish nodlues, both on the surface and on section. The spleen has on its surface a number of flat, fibrous news- growtihs, but no nodules are seen on section. The kidneys are normal in appearance, but a few nodules appear ou section. Microscopic examination shows the lungs to be thickly sows with minute tubercles. Sections stained with carbol-fuchsin show innumerable tubercle bacilli clustered mainly in these nodules. The liver contains many necrotic areas in which many tubercle bacilli are found. The spleen contains a considerable number of necrotic areas. The flat new-growths are tuberculosis. The kid- nevs show only a few tubercles, which contain innumerable tubercle Vacilli. Calf No. 45035, aged nine weeks, weight 130 pounds. February 11, 1902, inoculated into its right lung and peritoneal cavity with an emulsion made from the omentum of Calf No. 45020, 5 ¢. e. being in- jected into the lung, and 8 ce. c. into the peritoneal cavity. The tem- : perature rose on the day after the inoculation, and reached 107 de- 122 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. grees F. on the third day, after which it fell, and ranged from 104 de- grecs F. to 106 degrees F. until a few days before death, when it fell slightly, going as low as 101.4 degrees F. on the day of death. Breath- ing had become labored ten days before death, and the appetite failed a week before death, which took place March 6. Autopsy.— Weight, 97 pounds. Condition, fair. The right lung adherent to chest-wall throughout. When separated a layer of fibrin containing many tubercular masses of new-growth is seen. At the point of inoculation is an abscess cavity 4 cm. in diameter, the pus containing many tubercle bacilli and a gas-forming bacillus of the colon group. Both lungs were filled with a multitude of minute nodules, and some areas showed extensive caseation. The medias- tinal and bronchial glands were very much enlarged and caseous. The liver, spleen, and kidneys were normal in appearance. The omentum contained a very large number of discolored, red- dish areas, which were thickened, hard, and of sandy feeling. Microscopic Examination —The lungs are studded with minute tubercles. The liver contains many small areas of necrosis. The spleen shows a number of areas of commencing necrosis. The kid- neys are normal. Calf No. 45047, aged six weeks, weight 72 pounds. Inoculated March 7, 1902, with an emulsion made from the lung and bronchial gland of Calf No. 45035, 5 ¢. c. being injected into the right lung, and 5 c. c. into the peritoneal cavity. The temperature rose to 104.8 degrees F. to 106 degrees F. for ten days, then fell slightly until death took place, on April 1, 1902. Autopsy.— Weight, 65 pounds. Considerable emaciation. Both lungs are studded throughout with miliary nodules. The right lung is firmly attached to the chest-wall for its entire surface, and at the point of inoculation is an abscess 4 cm. in diameter, which contains a milky fiuid pus in which are curdy masses. The pus contains many tubercle bacilli and other bacteria, but no streptococci. The left lung is attached to the chest-wall for a third of its surface. Over the unattached surface is a layer of fibrin, 1 mm. in thickness. The chest-wall corresponding to this fibrin is thickly studded with minute gray nodules. The pericardium is attached to the lung. The heart shows numerous yellowish tubercles scattered over the ven- tricles, as well as the auricles, and especially numerous on the au- ricular appendage. They are seated in the visceral layer of the pericardium. The bronchial and mediastinal glands are enlarged and soggy, but no nodules can be found. The omentum contains innumerable minute pearly nodules, and many red, fleshy, highly vascular new-growths. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 123 The mesentery of the large as well as small intestine contains in- numerable pearly nodules. The mesenteric glands are normal in size and appearance. Along the abdominal aorta and brim of the pelvis are twelve to fifteen glands from 5 mm. to 15 mm, in diameter, yellow in color, but none caseous. The liver is adherent to the diaphragm. On the surface, as well as on section, many yellowish nodules can be seen. The spleen is thicker than normal and very firm. On the surface a few fibrous new-growths are seen. The kidneys appear normal, but each has a layer of the peritoneum attached to it, which contains innumerable gray nodules, averaging 1 mm. in diameter. Microscopic Examination.—Lung not examined. The liver con- tained many minute areas of necrosis. The kidneys contain a con- siderable number of minute tubercles, with central necrosis, situated for the most part immediately under the capsule. ‘Another animal was inoculated in the same manner with the tissues of this calf, which is still living.* Guinea-pigs have also been inoculated in order to recover a pure culture, so that any changes that have taken place may be studied. We feel, however, that we have demonstrated a great increase in virulence in this cu}- ture, obtained from sputum, by the several passages through calves. Our own experiments, as well as those quoted from others, demon- strate that Koch’s statement that human tuberculosis cannot be transmitted to cattle is erroneous and untenable. Il. In the second proposition Professor Koch calls in question the possibility of the transmission of tuberculosis from cattle to man, and holds that if such transmission ever does take place it is a very rare occurrence, so rare, indeed, as to render superfluous any meas- ures of precaution against it. In the solution of the problems here involved we are of necessity deprived of experimental data, so must gather evidence from every possible source, collate and weigh it carefully, in order to draw fair conclusions. In the first place, we may well ask if tuberculosis in cattle is marked by any specific features which differentiate it from tuber- culosis in man, and which would make it improbable that the two were intercommunicable. I will not attempt here to go into a dis- cussion of all the forms of bovine tuberculosis or to compare it- minutely with the disease in man. The chief differences are: (1) The marked tendency to calcification rather than the caseation seen in man; (2) the formation of extensive new-growths in the serous membranes, such as the pleurae and peritoneum. *This calf, No. A45073, died three days after the reading of the paper, or twenty-four days after inoculation. There was typical and extensive tuberculosis, 124 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. These growths assume wart-like, or cauliflower, or grape-like shapes, from which the names “perlsucht,” “pearly disease,” “pom- meliere,’ and “grape disease,’ as applied to bovine tuberculosis, are derived. In cattle, as in man, the lungs are the chief seat of the disease. In about half of all cases the lungs and serous membranes are simul- tancously affected; the lungs alone in about one-third, and the serous inembrane alone in about one-fifth. Since 1863 Virchow has insisted that the two tuberculosis were distinct, an uttitude reaffirmed by him in his latest publication, his chief point being that we cannot call anything tuberculosis which does not show the true histologic tubercle, whether or not the tis- sues contain tubercle bacilli and show changes due entirely to them. Although imsisting so strongly on this distinction, which is not held by all pathologists, Virchow does not accept Koch’s conclu- sions, and says that in the postmortem examinations at the Charité several cases have been found showing an unusual peritoneal tuber- culosis, with enormous growths, such as are seldom seen in man. These cases he regards as being possibly of bovine origin through food. The histologic identity of human tuberculosis and pearl disease was first demonstrated by Schitippel and his work has been sup- plemented by Baumgarten, who has observed characteristic case- ation such as occurs in the human tubercle, take place in the nodules of pearl disease, “in a typical form and with like regularity.” The process is often obscured by rapid calcareous changes which, he justly remarks, are terminal, and have nothing to do with the actual disease, and which, furthermore, are often seen in human tuber- culosis. On the other hand, it has repeatedly been shown that typical miliary tuberculosis can be produced in cattle by the bovine bacillus, and as seen in the specimens before you the same result may be brought about at times by the human bacillus. In fact, ex- perimental tuberculosis in cattle induced by inoculation with the bovine tubercle bacillus is usually of the miliary type, and only ex- ceptionally assumes the form consideréd typical of the natural bo- vine disease. In this connection Hueppe very aptly calls attention to the fact that Koch in his experiments with the bacilli of bovine tuberculosis produced in cattle “only tuberculosis, but not the tuber- culosis of the pleura peculiar to the ox—the so-called perlsucht; his experiments, therefore, in the sense of his special interpretation, did not even prove that bovine tuberculosis affects the ox.” It has further been shown by Troje, and by Dr. Theobald Smith, that pearl disease may be produced in rabbits by the human tubercle bacillus. Troje has observed one case of pearly disease affecting the pleura im man. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 128 The differences noted between tuberculosis of man and tubercu- losis of cattle are scarcely greater than those noted between the latter and tubrculosis of swine, yet nothing is easier than to infect swine with the milk or other products of tuberculous cattle. The infection here is by natural methods, and in fact is most often noted where nothing was further from the wishes or intentions of the un- conscious experimenter. The origin of the infection is unquestion- ably bovine, yet the disease produced differs markedly, but not es- sentially, from that seen in cattle. The evidence then leads us to conclude that such differences as are commonly scen between human and bovine tuberculosis are in no sense essential. Bacteriologic Evidence. Morphology and Cultural Characteristics of Human and Bovine Tubercle Bacilli.—That there were certain differences to be observed in cultures of the tubercle bacillus isolated from maa and from cattle was shown by Dr. Theobald Smith in 1896, who contirmed his first observations in 1898, his human cultures being almost always obtained from sputum. oo EAVENI wo ole eine cielo io iava‘alaieis ateteie tele eie/ate\eielatats atateisieccre(oisceielase Sie raiete uts/atoreieieictelalclors (ele sieverermisisvemieineretele IPrODA DIYs UMN Ee) cceseisicieiels cicicicls cisteleteie rent svi isietroeratelalaieleleterecieisielsteieiatete\alejeieiasneieistseaiiee lptiifat=( 8 hil= Sy AAAS COOBRADODOODETDAONO0S 5 GOnODr ED ODag dod oCricon snccdcoo auboCbeonadae anon Provably, Intestines 2cs\sels ss crests talomeaaincieisteleelstelalelaislotetcleleterersiel= aisisiorsistaisisieteiecieis elaiese AT ale sees Eis ais e\eteta(o.e nia cleje crs o(avela’e(aiinistatelerctererciate sate chats ittaterarelete aiaisiaie ctatelelctnrstoleieleiereiareielsieiateiere IPTODAD IVC AT 1 oro. icrera.e alelolare chateroicicteistalehetateveteiorefaloistel fetelatelalelalalelevasyeietoletalarstateleinicicyatel steieletetorrele IBONESTANIG@JOINCS, \iciescicicicne vialoielee oleic vicie ceieieiereictoteleieielelsi mietsialalclalatetale(oleletsletalafotatats aiefela'alelelere lOO” sngposocucaEdsodnonbonaooospoooneenobe daceabdoosa su0gugsacuoudocacnogododacc IVC OE IT ew vate lares ee arate since! afoiclatslocretetalaie aietateretstatets otatctaisialnistapsje ela telotalarnttetslelalelelaierai= sia staiate atm wo i) 1388=51.3 per ct. or 63=23.4 per ct. i DAR OS w & Se eee 15= 5.5 per ct. 58=19.8 per ct. In forty-three cases in which death was due to other causes, such as diphtheria, heart disease, etc., the primary focus of infection could be determined with great certainty, as the tuberculosis had not become generalized. Among these the primary lesion was respira- tory in twenty-six cases, or 60.4 per cent.; intestinal in sixteen, or 37.8 per cent.; and in the year three times. Dr. Shennan, of the Royal Hospital for Sick Children, in Edin- burgh, found among 278 cases of tuberculosis 28.1 per cent. in which infection had taken place by the intestinal tract, showing that the high percentage in which this route of infection is observed is not confined to London, where it might be supposed that conditions were such as to favor it specially. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 137 The few reports we have from America indicate that infection through the intestine is much less frequent than in England. Northrup reports that among 125 autopsies, in only three was the primary lesion found in the intestinal tract. In thirty-four cases, however, the disease was so general and far advanced that he was unable to determine the mode of invasion. Holt among 119 tuberculous children examined postmortem found the intestines affected forty times and mesenteric glands thirty-eight times, but in no case did he consider the intestine as the route of in- vasion. Bovaird, in 1899, published the records of seventy-five autop- sies on tuberculous children. In sixty cases infection had taken place through the respiratory tract; in eight the bronchial and mes- enteric glands were equally involved, and in seven the records were incomplete. He has recently added the record of fifty cases, among which two cases of primary intestinal infection occurred. The num: ber of indeterminate cases is not given. German statistics, as far as I have been able to obtain them, do not sustain Koch’s position, although they indicate that primary intestinal tuberculosis is not so common in that country as in Eng- land, which we would hardly expect, considering the precautions pre- scribed in Germany and the lack of regulations in England. However, intestinal involvement in children appears to be quite frequent in most parts of Germany; and as many of the reports do not clearly indicate the primary seat of invasion, we are justi- fied in believing that a fair proportion of these cases are due to in- testinal infection. For example, the statement given by Koch and attributed to Baginsky—that among 933 cases of tuberculosis in children he never found tuberculosis of the intestine without simul- taneous disease of the lungs and bronchial glands—is entirely in- definite as to the primary seat of the disease, and as quoted furnishes no ground whatever for Koch to stand on. Against the figures given by Koch—which are confined to his own experience—the reports of Baginsky, and a series of cases attributed to Biedert, we have the statement of Professor Hueppe that “‘the number of these cases (primary intestinal tuberculosis) occurring in children is by no means so small as Koch alleged. The number of cases may be fairly reckoned as between 25 and 35 per cent. of all deaths of children from tuberculosis.” Among fourteen children whe died from other diseases, and in whom the existence of tuberculosis was not recognized before death Kossel found tuberculosis of the bronchial glands ten times and of the mesenteric glands four times. In twenty-two children who died of tuberculosis he found the disease confined to the intestinal tract in only one case. 10 138 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. It is unnecessary to quote further statistics on this point. The extent of intestinal tuberculosis varies in different countries and in different parts of the same country—a fact which of itself indicates a local factor, such as the greater or less prevalence of tuberculosis in cattle. One cannot study such statistics as those given without being fully convinced that a very important proportion of the children who die of tuberculosis are infected through their food, and that the report made to the council of the British Medical Association was justified, namely, that “the mortality from tuberculosis in early childhood is not decreasing as it is at other ages in the United King- dom; and the opinion that this great prevalence of the disease in childhood is due to infection through the alimentary canal by milk from tuberculous cows appears to be well founded.” Extent of Tuberculosis in Cattle—I\t is well known and so univer- sally acknowledged that tuberculosis is a wide-spread scourge in cattle that it would be superfluous to give an array of figures show- ing the extent of its ravages in various countries. Those interested in this phase of the subject will find the latest statistics given by Dr. Leonard Pearson, in Bulletin No. 75, issued by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture. In studying such sta- tistics it must be borne in mind that it is in the milch cow, and es- pecially the cow on the dairy farms near large cities, that is most apt to fall a victim to tuberculosis. In Pennsylvania, Dr. Pearson has found that of the tubercular herds tested about 138 per cent. of the animals had tuberculosis. Some herds show a very high pro- portion of diseased animals. Thus, for example: © Japoyik=po kt era galas) Taspneeeoone csnppcoopacoseecponnoebaccoosccoo stelateveretarctelercierietelatsrereleletsioele 166 were tubercular. ON CAULELES er actors'cicrerwlelosesriere ss /oR eisyeyaterore eisielovels’ stefelerecclelelcTojeis os eievelerers (aveve)e orerelcveveie eravofeietecetere 59 were tubercular. PAVCACEL Sais cicisieteiacioile miafareietcledeteteicterstolaicrel Te reietaistetslaccterelale ereteraieicie viatelese el olercieTelelnicteretersters 17 were tubercular. erie SononsoonodondboudaoscddnaconGoopunocsGoopUUeOU DODbODtCODHOOOTONGdCS 14 were tubercular. AUF CEU Coe Marelcraystet sla etelte otatoteteferaieyeieteictora'elobavaveleTatelatosie\ereichstslohers/ereielelove! sletcreieisieveraicletcleretaee 20 were tubercular. BOM CAUCUS Merettererersleralateasis olcictefetetersteveleisietstelsloieteielesotstsielelsisieisictete aisicieisisielaieteisieis(etarsisieteisisriete 53 were tubercular. In other parts of the State tuberculosis is very rare or even un- known. These places are found in the interior counties, where the stock is “native” for the most part, or were stocked at a time when bovine tuberculosis was very little known in the United States. There has been and is considerable discussion as to the stage of the disease at which a tuberculous cow becomes dangerous through the passage of tubercle bacilli into her milk. Some authorities hold that there must be actual disease of the udder for this to occur, while others believe that this is not necessary. As early as 1893 Dr. Theo- bald Smith showed that the tubercle bacillus may be found in the milk of tuberculous cows when the udder, so far as the naked eye could tell, was free from disease. In a series of experiments at the laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of Pennsylvania No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 139 the mixed milk of tive cows was examined by intraperitoneal inocu- lation of guinea-pigs. ‘hese cows bad reacted to tuberculin, but were in good condition and of fine appearance. Repeated examina- tions of the udders by several veterinarians failed to reveal any lesion, and examination aiter the death of the animals gave the same negative results. No attempt was made to concentrate the bacilli; on the contrary, the whole quantity of milk was well shaken, in order to imitate as nearly as possible natural conditions, and moderate doses of milk (1U c. ¢c.) were used. Of eighty-eight guinea-pigs em- ployed in this test sixty-three lived long enough for the development of tuberculosis, and of these ten, or 15.8 per cent., became tubercular, More surprising and more unusual are the results of Rabinowitsch and Kempner, who inoculated the milk of fifteen cows into guinea- pigs, the experiment being made to determine whether or not the milk of cows having a tuberculosis which could be detected only by tuberculin, and not by physical examination, might be virulent. Three examinations were made by a veteriparian in the course of the experiment. Of the fifteeu animals ten were found to give virulent milk, a percentage of 66.6. One cow gave milk which contained a yellowish, gelatinous material, and caused a fatal peritonitis in a | animals inoculated. Leaving this out, the positive results amount to 71.4 per cent. All of the cows had reacted to tuberculin, but none showed clinical evidence of udder disease when the experiment be- gan. Of the ten giving virulent milk three showed advanced gen- eral tuberculosis, but no disease of the udder; two showed no evi- dence of disease at al’, and one only on the second and third examina- tions. One cow had rales at ihe time of first examination, but these disappeared, and she showed no evidence of disease after. On post- mortem one cow was found to have tuberculosis of the udder, and one showed clinical evidence of it on the third examination, made six months after the experiment was begun. The authors conclude: “Milk may contain tubercle bacilli, first, in beginning tuberculosis, without discoverable disease of the udder, and, second, in latent tuberculosis that can be detected only by the tuberculin reaction;” also, “milk from cows that react to tuberculin must be suspected of being infectious in every case.” With thes results before us we must admit that while tuberculosis of the udder is the most dangerous condition, we cannot by any meuns regard the milk of cows with general tuberculosis, but the udders of which are free from the disease, as being safe for food. We must insist that danger is not limited to those herds which *erbor one or more cows with udder tuberculosis. I cannot agree with those writers who attempt to belittle the dangers to which milk-fed babies are exposed by pointing out the comparative infre- 140 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. quency of tuberculosis of the udder. Dilution with the milk of other cows free from tuberculosis no doubt lessens the danger, but does not rewove it. ‘ Acid-fast Bacilli—A few years ago Moller announced the dis- covery of a bacillus having the morphology and staining reactions of the tubercle bacillus. He has shown that this bacillus and others closely allied to it may constantly be found in forage and in the feces of animals fed on such forage. Petri, Rabinowitsch, Grassberger, Korn, and others have found the same or like bacilli in milk, butter, and margarine; Rabinowitsch has isolated one of the same group from a case of gangrene of the lung in man; Karlinsky has shown their presence in nasal mucus, and Marpman has found them in urine, so that we know that this group of ‘tacid-fast” bacilli has a wide dis- tribution in nature. The property of resisting decolorization by mineral acids was for a long time considered diagnostic of the tuber- cle Lacillus. The discovery, therefore, of a comparatively large group of organisms having the same property, and being indistinguishable morphologically under the microscope, has served to throw some doubt on researches in which the microscope has been relied on en- tirely to demonstrate the presence of the tubercle bacillus in milk. Animals such as guinea-pigs and rabbits inoculated intraperitoneally with cultures of these bacilli, or with milk, butter, etc., containing them, develop nodules which may sometimes be mistaken for tuber- culosis. However, such mistakes must be rare, and there can be no doubt that the true tubercle bacillus passes into the milk of tuber- cular cows, as shown above. Reinoculation, microscopic examina- tich of the tissues, and the isolation of cultures can be relied upon to clear up the diagnosis of any doubtful cases. Solution of the Problem.—tn the solution of the problem before 1+ the most directly valuable data will, I think, be obtained from the examination of cultures isolated from the abdominal organs of chil- dien in whom there is reasonable evidence of infection by the in- testinal tract. When these cultures are found to have a high de- gree of pathogenic power, and are able to infect cattle in moderate doses, we will be justified in saying that the children from whom they were obtained were infected in the first instance from bovine sources. By the examination of a large number of such cases we will, I believe, obtain very valuable information as to the frequency with which chil- dren are infected by milk. On the other hand I do not consider that we can entirely exclude bovine infection even ig those cases where the abdominal organs yield a culture of feeble virulence, for the reason that we at present know nothing of the effect produced on the bovine bacillus by prolonged residence in the human body. It is certain that the various types of tubercle bacillus known to us have sprung from a stock common to them all, and that have acquired No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 141 their racial peculiarities by residence in different animals through which they are subjected to a difference in food, temperature, and re- sistance. In other words, the struggle for life is carried on im the various species of animals under varying conditions, the result be- ing that in each animal the tubercle bacillus acquires properties which best enable it to carry on life in that particular host. The acquisition of these peculiarities no doubt requires a certain lapse of time, but how much we do not know. We have experimental evi- dence that it does not require a great time to change the tubercle bacillus from a higher into a jower type. By the method of inocula- tion in the peritoneal cavity in collodion sacs Nocard has shown that in from five to eight months both the bovine and human bacillus can be made to acquire the cultural characteristics of the avian bacillus, and to a certain extent its pathogenic action also. A few passages from fowl to fowl during four to six months increased this greatly. By passage through the blind worm Mdller has in the course of a year so changed the human tubercle bacillus that it grows like the organism of fish tuberculosis, and has the same temperature reac- tions. It grows best at 20 degrees C., and ceases to grow entirely at 30 degrees C. The bacillus of fish tuberculosis, discovered by Du- bard had for its origin the human bacillus, the fish having fed on the sputum and dejecta from a patient far advanced in phthisi. The fish had been subjected to this for about a year before the disease was noticed. With these facts before us I do not think we are forcing a point in believing that it is at least possible for the bovine bacillus to become rapidly so changed in the body of man that it will show the cultural and pathogenic peculiarities which we find usually in cul- tures of human origin. For these reasons our observations should be made by preference on cases which are rapid and acute. Conclusion.— The evidence at hand forces us to conclude that human and bovine tuberculosis are but slightly different manifesta- tions of one and the same disease, and that they are intercommu- nicable. Bovine tuberculosis is, therefore, a menace to human health. We are not in a position at present to define positively the extent of this danger, but that it really exists cannot be denied. In the past there has probably been a tendency to exaggeration, but however great this may have been it does now justify any attempt at belittling the risk, and it is folly to blind ourselves to it. The eradication of bovine tuberculosis is amply justifiable from a purely economical stand-point; viewed in its bearing on human health it becomes a public duty. 142 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The paper below is offered here because it gives a review of the work done under the auspices of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board on the vaccination of cattle against tuberculosis. It was read before the Pathological Society of Philadelphia, November 13, 1902. SOME EXPERIMENTS UPON THE IMMUNIZATION OF CATTLE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. BY LEONARD PEARSON, B.S. V.M.D., State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania, AND S. H. GILLILAND, V.M.D., Assistant Bucteriologist of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board. (From the Laboratory of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board of Pennsylvania.) When an extensively tubercular herd is tested with tuberculin one usually finds some animals that do not react to the test and are free from disease. These uninfected animals may be young or they may be recent additions to the herd, and their freedom from disease may be due merely to the fact that they have not had time to contract it; on the other hand, they are often cows that have been members of the herd and exposed to infection for years. That the freedom of these cattle that have long resisted the disease is not due to breed or family immunity has, in numerous instances, been shown by the fact that their parents or offspring have succumbed to tuberculosis. To what is such resistance to tuberculosis due? It is evident that it dces not depend upon species, breed, or lack of exposure. It is an individual factor. An animal may possess some power within itself to resist the tubercle bacilli that it is constantly exposed to and must daily inhale and ingest. Careful observation of these cattle and study of them in series show that the immunity they possess is not due to what is roughly termed good general health or what the stockman knows as good condition. Cattle resistant to tuberculosis may suffer with some other disease or be in a bad state of nutrition. Cattle that contract tuberculosis show, in very many instances, until the infection is well advanced, the usual signs of good health, such as soft coat, pliable Skin, clear eyes, good appetite, and regular growth or increase of No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 143 weight or yield of milk in proportion to the quantity and quality of food consumed. It appears, then, that there is reason to believe that some cattle have a specific resistance to tuberculosis. We know that specific resistance or immunity of the individual, occurring under natural conditions, usually depends on a previous attack of the disease against which the animal is immune, or, as in the case of Texas fever, upon the continued existence of the disease in a form so mild as not to appreciably disturb the various functions. This prin- ciple receives practical application when persons are rendered im- mune to small-pox or animals to anthrax, black-quarter, lung plague, rabies, or Texas fever by inoculating them with the attenuated but living virus of the respective disease, and thus causing them to de- velop it in a comparatively mild form, from which speedy recovery and subsequent immunity are almost certain. From the inoculation there results the automatic development of an antitoxin that counteracts the toxin of the disease, and, at the same time, prevents or retards the growth of the organism of that disease. Until comparatively recently this principle has been thought to hold only in respect te certain acute infectious diseases, but it is now known to be of much wider application. Protection upon this principle is usually known as vaccination. In some cases the germ- free toxin 18 used for a similar purpose. In 1901 we conducted an experiment for the purpose of determin- ing the influence of Koch’s original tuberculin upon the resistance of cattle to tuberculosis. In this experiment were used four cows known by the numbers 26554, 26555, 26556, and 26557. Each was tested with tuberculin before it was admitted into the experiment. Two of these cows, 26554 and 26557, were given daily injections of 5 c. c. of concentrated tuberculin for ten days, from August 24 to Sep- tember 2, 1901, inclusive. Each of the four cows in the experiment was fed daily 100 grammes of hacked tuberculous lung tissue from a cow, for ten days, from the 10th to the 19th of September, inclusive. The first pair of cows, 26554 and 26557, that had received preliminary injections of tuberculin were given subcutaneously 15 c. c. of concen- trated tuberculin each day during the progress of the feeding upon tuberculous material. The other two cows, 26555 and 26556, which had not received the daily preliminary injections of tuberculin, re- ceived no tuberculin during the experiment. One of the cows (26554) that had been treated with tuberculin, and one (26555) that had not been treated with tuberculin were killed November 25, 1901. The cow (26554) that had been treated with tuberculin showed upon post-mortem examination lesions of tuberculosis in the post-pharyngeal and mesenteric lymphatic glands. The control cow (26555) showed lesions of tuberculosis in the right 144 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. lung and in the bronchial and mediastinal lymphatic glands, the post- pharyngeal and intermaxillary lymphatic glands and in the mesen- teric lymphatic glands. The lesions in this control cow were more widely distributed and more advanced than in the cow that had re- ceived large quantities of tuberculin. The other two cows of the experiment were killed December 16, 1901. In the first of these (26557) which had received the injections of tuberculin, no lesions of tuberculosis were found excepting in the mesenteric lymphatic glands. A few of these glands of both the small and large intestine showed small areas of caseation. The second control cow (26556) showed lesions of tuberculosis in both lunges, the bronchial, mediastinal and post-pharyngeal glands; and ihe lympatic glands of the mesentery were more extensively involved than in the preceding cow. From this it would appear that subcutaneous injections of the toxin of the tubercle bacillus had had some influence in increasing the resistance of these two cows to feeding tuberculosis. E. A. deSchweinitz reported in the Medical News for December 8, 1894, some experiments made by him upon guinea-pigs, in which these animals were inoculated with tubercle bacilli of human origin cul- tivated for about twenty generations upon glycerin beef broth, and were afterward inoculated with tuberculous material from a cow. The guinea-pigs so treated remained free from tuberculosis, while check animals inoculated with the same tuberculous material from the cow died of tuberculosis within seven weeks. De Schweinitz also showed that the twentieth generation of broth culture appeared to he incapable of producing tuberculosis in a cow when she was inocu- lated intravenously with a small quantity. De Schweinitz and Schroeder report (U. 8S. Dept. of Agr., B. A. I. Bulletin No. 18, 1896) upon other inoculations similar in nature and confirmatory of the above results. They show, further, that the attenuated culture they were working with was not virulent for cattle when inoculated in- travenously in quantities of 500 c. c. of suspension in liquid. The immunizing effect upon cattle of the administration intra- venously of tuberculous material or of living cultures has been studied by J. McFadyean and by von Behring. McFadyean reported in the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics for June, 1901, and March, 1902, upon some experi- ments regarding the immunization of cattle against tuberculosis. He inoculated four cattle intravenously with emulsions of tuberculous material and cultures from various sources. One of these cattle, which had responded to the tuberculin test, and was, no doubt, tuber- cular upon the beginning of the experiment, was given about 150 ¢. e. of tuberculin in divided does before inoculation. Fifteen weeks after inoculation this animal was killed and was found to contain but one No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 145 tubercle, the size of a pea and completely calcified, in a mesenteric gland. Two control cattle inoculated with an equal dose of the same material died of generalized tuberculosis. Of the other three cattle of the series one was tubercular at the beginning of the experiment. All of these were inoculated intravenously from seven to eleven times during a period of from two to three years with emulsions of tuber- culous materials and with cultures from various sources. It is in- teresting to note that the first inoculation upon each of the cows that was free from tuberculosis at the beginning of the experiment was made with avian material which was probably of very low viru- lence for cattle. The catile so inoculated died of tuberculosis after two to three years from the beginning of the experiment, and in each case the chief lesions were in the kidneys and the brain or its cover- ing membranes. The cerebral lesion appears to have been the imme- diate cause of death in each instance. There can be no doubt that thes animals were remarkably resistant to tuberculosis, because they lived for months or years after repeated inoculations with large quantities of material of proven virulence for cattle. Von Behring announced December 12, 1901, that he was engaged in studying the immunization of cattle against tuberculosis, and he has since published a report (Beitrige zur Experimentellen Ther- apie, Heft 5, 1902) upon his work. He details experiments upon sev: eral cattle treated with injections of tuberculin and with cultures of varying degrees of virulence and from several sources, and also inoculated with tuberculous material or cultures of proven virulence. It may be noted that a pure culture virulent for cattle was not avail- able for use in von Behring’s work until 1901. The experiments upon seven cows specially reported were commenced between July and December, 1901. These cows have all received repeated injec- tions of tuberculin and of tubercle virus of low and high virulence. All of the protected cows are still alive excepting one that was killed and was found to have numerous tubercular nodules in the lungs, although these were believed to be retrogressive. This general ex- periment cannot be looked upon as finished, and any report upon it must be regarded as incomplete until the cows die or are killed and are examined post-mortem. The cows may appear to be in good health now, but notwithstanding, they may be extensively tubercular. However, that they are alive after receiving quantities of virulent tuberculous material that are sufficient to kill untreated cows shows that they have extraordinary resistance to tuberculosis. The method used to treat these cows was not systematic nor the one that he now recommends upon the evidence of experiments not yet pub- lished. The method now recommended by him is to inject intra- 10—6—1902 116 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. venously 0.001 gramme of a scraping from a serum culture of tubercle bacilli dried in vacuum, powdered, and suspended in water. The culture used for this purpose was obtained originally from human sputum and has been grown in his laboratory since 1895. After four weeks a second injection is made containing twenty-five times the original quantity of tubercle bacilli, or 0.025 gramme. Von Beb- ring has now underway extensive experiments planned to test the re- sistance of immunized calves to natural infection from association with infected animals in contaminated premises. Since 1896 tuberculosis of cattle has been the subject of special and extensive study and experimentation in the laboratory and re- search station of the Pennsylvania State Live Stock Sanitary Board. During this time the virulence for cattle and other animals of tuber- cle culture and material from many sources have been tested by Dr. M. P. Ravenel, Dr. John J. Repp, and ourselves. The results of some of this work have been reported upon several occasions to this Society by Dr. Ravenel and to the British Congress on Tuberculosis in 1901. Some experiments looking toward the development of better methods for repressing tuberculosis in herds have been reported by Dr. Lecnard Pearson. hey It has been shown by numerous experiments that the sputum ‘of persons suffering from consumption and cultures of tubercle bacilli made from such sputum are usually comparatively non-virulent for cattle. It is important to know, further, that a given culture of sputum tubercle bacilli is incapable of producing serious disease in such quantities as it may be necessary to use in an attempt to in- crease an animal’s resistance to tuberculosis. The following experiment throws light upon the question as to the quantity of culture of this kind that may be administered and the effect of repeated inoculations made in four different ways. A Jersey heifer (26415) shown by tuberculin test to be free from tuber- culosis was inoculated intraperitoneally September 29, 1900, with 4c. c. of a standard suspension! of human sputum culture that had remained in a collodion capsule in the abdominal cavity of a bull for seven months, and was then regained in pure cuiture by Dr. Ravenel. The third generation on blood serum furnished the material for this inoculation. The heifer was inoculated intravenously March 15, 1901, with 13.5 c. ec. of a standard suspension of tubercle bacilli, probably of human origin, that had passed through a coati (Nasua narica), and were recovered in pure culture by Dr. Theobald Smith in 1895. This culture had afterward remained about one year in a collodion capsule in the peritoneal cavity of a heifer, had been recovered by Dr. Ravenel, 1By a standard suspension is here meant a suspension of tubercle bacilli in water in such quantity as to give an opacity equal to that of a twenty-four-hour culture of typhoid bacilli in bouillon. 1 ¢.c. of such a suspension is estimated to contain the equivalent of 0.0013 gramme of tubercle bacilli after drying ten days in a desiccating chamber over calcium chloride. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 147 and the third generation on blood serum after recovery supplied the material for the present inoculation. Teor ng." 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 175 ADAMS COUNTY—Continued. 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IPIOTAMC AICS verses syrcrersserersre 5 1% PLO CEU aiereretnysineccistore slcteroisiclets ci sialeiaveic aislsiaiaielelsieloelslcirn sel aisistesme c nie eaters nates o Mavsasisleste aaroiciete oreo mone 122% ALLEGHENY COUNTY. ESCA RUM LOCES Mentors crctsters(erceeretoratele cicteseicicisha statieresc cies recta Oars lolciais nieieis/ oars Allegheny (Station 10), . 3 J Wilkinson LOVU TC) dpa BAA OR CAOBOGOD Duce eC CUDDOCLEEOn crirenerieer ne Springdale | ods seiiecccere'ie 15 CEE LILO ELM Ee ane arcsoarnivelelere le oteteeiele ots einieeie nis wioisinjsie sin dee tin eeioeenee Allegheny (Station 10), . 8 J. B. Murdock & Co., No. 610 Smithfield street, .............-. Pittsburg absec veces cece 10 EOL Se reveiaroyeyerctorevslavetsia]cis eveleieverayoorerevolev neve cae Stele tata cactataie o/c otareea ele alone ane Buea Tsien iene ere eae wH BEAVER COUNTY. A. R. Goodwin, IN GUSULY~S secariccieciemecasts 8 Mackall Bros., IS CAVED et aisjersisterncieie elefeisieleaieis 30 TOL EAM atin seselatesavolel afore ayovoverasetaveyeleterejeieteleferelcfetsiete\ciarsialeioiststeraysialaiaiaisrarsieiarareiatere rele oiaie lerarniele sierelelesinicte metic 38 BEDFORD COUNTY. PS ES ANTITOSS Mere (nic telalecorereelsloiefera/oletareycjalexe.essjele Byatatelafatarciciaieieters alelstarelsiesatetinstelclere Bed fOr de sericjeieie syaleroecotatereinrne 2M ACO MES ALIU ATES orc icteicicicsaveleveveselete'olelaicicieiatarsisisiejareieveyalelecsiz(aicletayeleiais eretecsicrsce Bedford: aeasts,.icstemises etecties 3 PUM CA TEV RG TLC vata crmeisme rec eroinia ores cenicloteVereisictoele nus ie(ctera ecoretevotalajelevs oreisve eters Atuml Bank. 7 sctecsemicece 2 ROCA celessrcreieisia:6 eletuiete ojesstelele.o.je\e\eloveiers\ereysiasa) Vs) e(eie wieiereicie\e.e{0 eis ce\esoloyerevbre arene eUoTerever ais eteYareiaieterefovsvsle erm eis eine ve BERKS COUNTY. SO ViA DTT cal ryn pss COU GG ates atesararcrsraraisiclats|stetetaloversierere ersiaveichelelslayefereisiete averereieieiavaraysiaie cls Centreport, acs seeders 34 BLAIR COUNTY. SAAC Eee ICOIN Drow o clels clsleisse(cintceloisicie.s sieleoitiessisoideisivis nisi vive eomaleicineeccayne East Freedom, <2 0... 8 BRADFORD COUNTY. LOT AT UVM SW ceole aiclelelc, a1cieieieisiele’eys!sisiers\e o/c) e/ee/0[s"0,0ieietele/6!ale'slsfeieieletersieie’hiee Neath: sesetoonsecsenisencces 14 ET OLACOT ATM Yssene tra stonie luis cfoveie a elosece ateles teiels's Siclojets (o;2j010 afore ojalelere/avslsieteleielass 7 D. Landreths’ Sons, No. 21 South Sixth street 0 aA 10 FOBE Pie ls MISOVELLS pviaiepeieia'ssatahalalete,s(elsiotortisissecsie’s/sie/s/e'eio leanne .. A 6 Samuel C. Moon, ..........+ SOde Sor 50 The W. H. Moon Co., Ve MOLTASVANLG!S “iesetcsvareciies 200 ET OMT Ys AICI so ea cin cteleselete ioe ere's o\eieielclelejelejoisieiaioiejaislale(cterereiaieiciceteieie\erareie:sjate Mang@horne® “ ccisacse cvcioe ss 4 SOmertOmMNUTSeENiess) cose accis.ciorecte cieiaieiciehelere eleieisic iso eielaiaersteleie'ajesetaveieiele erate Somerton. anwcccheredeneties 20 EVO ea Ea Ge COUT) ATM tote oiclosotalelavereleleiavese/eietereaielaterelaloinielereieiovejate eiaieleleteleis\s Richlandtown, ........... 2 PUR trea Marcy ate teyeteretevascreversvets aiclore oreVereleratetatereveimierecalele etaicie eletelsserelavelsserelesela svar syajote/a’elo\e ls sia(eraiais!s eielesere/aieieretaraiciete 299 BUTLER COUNTY. LEAS) Wels) 181 a8 bee on EOC AOUCUOUC OO DONO AOC DO COROBTOCOSOOC OOM BOTOOOO Er Cn IBtitle ns We socisieilacinasionisierarte 30 CHESTER COUNTY. GOT Re A CHELIS yacorec ossreyalerstayoselelecclolczelelarorele\slets]siviatels/o10%oiele)a/=1s\alsisraja(e\ei\s\e\ aia West Chester’ a cjccecue-« 200 Me Conard Gs JONES CO sisjecae:cjesaiats. 0 sicrese:sierc\eleia's eisVele nine alviviele wieise ofa IWGESERTOVES. Siiacmaicsisescisicrs 4 THe INCE ror CONALE (COg oc reccieie cae sists = Bislaisiclele sieiejeieioioiersisinloeia(sieacciars IWViESEBTOVGS. Wai rarecilessanienie 4 Hoopes) Bros, 6c ‘THOMAS, ooo. oo cece an tciece elses es seccneeacies West Chester, ..........- 600 SRC PORCH aw 6 cic lolcieleletsieisia aseinieiaictelelolas| otele.sisisinis\sislalars}ye'evelsjejsye:eisinie.v.evnieselsiae Oxford er eie cielesisetsietcets % Retires tre we Oe weil eretersieiarereke olelore slova/e1ntajalola\elo(ejerelercleieleicloleiclnisisie|tlalaire.ose.e Willowdale.) fic ctcicscstacteleee 150 ap, 383° AStd sSaooeppaooscos00DDcnoCouD aboodousocuoosononocpoccosdsonoor SpringiCltya cc osc tees ct 2 ACR ANP Tay oni GoaoueconuavocondocenccopunyacoonaduoppoodaonnDoc Malvern Saccrcccestbcictclsiss 16 PPG ae mere ere letelareveleteroteleteteisisveiclsvelerereseverersiaiaia/aie\sreYeleteletereleloie'e ovlois|s, s187si¥/0lsia)~\ 9] trelejareieinieis)s]sielase/afe/e}e salnseloiniave)n = 97614 176 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. CLEARFIELD COUNTY, Acres Grove L. Tyler, % Fat WW TLE TI be lelorelelalaistoteleta(eielete/stetelelerafelelelelelo{s/sielaicfeYslofoiaia\alaralncleletolatafeleretars .. Clearfield, % HPOLAUL Ey sicretatolaraiarainiatstoteiatevele(soisioisieie'eYere/e(elalele(e’s'e sieivivielalelele(s efejels(ol= DOOGODOO alefelelalnfeieistaloteteletelslsletnfeisisfeletaraiete % CRAWFORD COUNTY. Prudential OrChard [CO me ccinecclericleciesewinneiciislelelelelsleleleleleleicieisielsiciele --.Shermansville, .........--- 20 John Pate & Co. lOfa lei. Se oanoddondeaopHopece 50 D.C. “Rup .. Shiremanstown, c Yy Woodville Nuise [ONE Wole Woadognao * BU Opt Gh Deemer craicleialesojcisieinin cleleveicinieleieletsveleiatetelciateloistetsieleteierslelerereicis\eraveletelelelaietelalete/ote lots (ores ima aleisiniviclelarstateicteisteisterate 50%4 DAUPHIN COUNTY. Rife & Ulrich Nursery Co., ......... oleteialeveleteieteleleteteiaielotetotorowsioisie(ecelele ROY ALON Mereicincisicicivieisteiciocale 4 Calvin’ PA TSCHOIM, cecccierewie/siecieisieie serovar oieveieieieieveisleisieieveieisieisiele Soocoddads EMSHErVALLG Mie rercisjsicisisisineiocae 4 GUIDETCM MOU tianiiys siciersc\stcietereia/-Verolelcleleieteieteterteteictelelereiereleleisteleteteleleieterorste ee MIITETSDUTES ciceieicleiecleiloicisie 1 PES OC AU eo iajeretsrescis ots\evsielo'ss (el elele aceisleters iejelelelsia/elelelersielele olaleiele(eleleselelo¥ero\slefeieisiejeis’seleleielelevelefere!cia\aielelole\ele/aretesvstajeie 9 John G. Gardner, VATA MINOM A ieicie ceetsicle\cicisiciele 7 M. F. Hannum, Concoraville, ...cc. ccc. 1 SOMME TIN TN tera ate tele elavoloieteiclalelasotats oletetaterefeletelateloterarcieietsleveielal sialeilaleicleteloiet TGANSAOWMNE. “isieicisieiercieisjercre 2 The Oak Nursery Con (PIC: Supplee, MANAE Cr) hc cccisissisicivics eee CollingGgales Ws cciemicacmests 12 SVN Pee Me MePED CIN) CTIVETS rcrolotese ciesecateisictsreretsfate eletelsieisieicielelerstereleletelete sie irfeleleiele eee AUANSAOWNE! scciccicisc cies siele 2 IAT SUV LOLs Meteletciciotetele clereloieleiaiaisinielsicvetteraieieisiaciecsveleleveterclelsie(elaiaisicielaista(cleterele Concordville, ....-sesssees 3 Stuart Wood (400 Chestnut st., Philadelphia), ................ Brookthorpes Gee. ccc sc see 7 ETOEEL I iierereteretststclsis siete alsjavelelsieve olsierers etoisletessisialstcversteterstelelevele tors teietetoloieravetelelstetelerslotershersneislcistoreletstets elelelelersteterers 34 ERIE COUNTY. (Ch aok, Asa iE NG Soobnodonddeovanoodanunosseeconnodo Blerevaieetelsfere sforsre(eete Girard, ....2. alee cinteveLleseures y% PACED Sem NAO UIT] Sete cicreisiaicileveieielevelcieloicieje(elolelieierelsiciere eleieleleisioielelslersieieleieieisierslaratetere North hast; ssiscre. cine sos 10 Megan Cr Se VOUT ES ec eteteisinvorerelereterniciaiereieteieniecaivieieinisivicieisie(eleleleiewcleietereielelelelevelels me eINOTEN PEAS LH relcicicisicteleiselereiers 14 PIV Call Ouuclsterelotelotelstesolere’stelsieistcleteleroteletelelerelel | 894 | 1,048.5 | LO WIDE |lererecctercielerte 2.71 | | | Lot II | | SheGr NOs ences cet cemeseauins Siewenis iene setae | 926] 1,075 | 149 16.09 | 2.61 EGET IN Ones W cieiie esecieietewsleieie's ecersts Salas tie siolsselaelsioreinye(Oleroiereis 862 | 1,046 184 212850) 3.23 PAST ET LE Co aiclaicieiesetolelsts/cteie’cisleieleie efaletnsn\eler=)steteln(ske/ ste siahsiene\otaisierstal» 894 | 1,060.5 LG G75: | eyesoie neyareie’s 2.92 Lot III. | | SUIGY So a Po LUE Coins GnGRO GROG RE aARER TE Sonpe conan caemaaoa 97 1,131 15D eeeelo-S8ial 3.04 ReGermN ON LON Meter ace asl iceisclstiesisisie chimes saree astntte 7184 905 121 15.43 | 2.37 PANETT Cote ele ereloleleleloteleis/=)areln(a «[elelelalale\elelaicleleleielstelojeicie/nlelslsicleleleislel« | 880 1,018 | T3S iil Rerniemces | 2.70 either of the other lots. Lots Nos. 1 and 5 were practically the same. The following table gives the food consumed for each lot. It should be noted that the coarse fodder fed these three lots consisted entirely of hay. While the gain of these steers in live weight cor- responds quite closely to that of experiment No. 1, yet it is shown below that Lot No. 3 consumed considerably less food per pound of gain of live weight than either of the other two lots: 230 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Food Consumed. ~~ == = = == = = ae = SS — — = = — Lot I. Lot II. Lot III. ! Bi 7 i | - | Date. | For Week Ending: | : rs] saat| S : oI Pp 3 ia} ‘a ma 3 tas} wi o hu oS be a tC) te. 3G ss tc) _ t yd i] oe } i Pepriie abo wtees ca ae tie eek pedal eee: 168 189 11 oo «6:60 |S 466 PAD PAL Les se gemne shee cee ce eee scr eeneene 164 228 144 206 87.5 | 148 IRprilh 8%) Oh stone coe eee cee cme aenoue ee 164 23 138 | 192 82 141 1 FR GaN Sam SR RE RPI eR ane a A AI RN 177.5 235 155.5 223.5 124.5 216 May lds (S50). Side domscwsisclea tb osmetunocns sh dee ans 176 234.5 160.5 | 223 129 234.5 IN Ih 2p rd Ga ben AOR OBE iar eee ORG ROR Aacuenasebe 163 234 175 | 220 155 231 May: (208 lnncates sata ceria clea Nett bie cajasulesmiesesieeee 192 268 173.5 | 264 | #33 *60 Mot alice bare se tt aCe ee ae ear 1,371.5 | 1,825.6] 1,252.0 | 1,746.5 | 840.5 1,365.5 *For two days only, Lot III was sold May 23. Food Consumed per Pound of Gain in Live Weight. Hay. Grain. TOLL re TOTO CSTE COS ROGET ONO CS Ion ese TaL ROTOR Ouro Os same ian 4.44 5.91 1 Dtat ey 10 Gy (Gare a bE aS tS Arn Ber Reno ceo Tne Hate cee RE ENE TaD EsaNGon pene RAnerE memeGanarseec 3,76 5.24 TE Ghia 200 FM eASonSeanmce Sn AneEG Re ae a ene Ls eS) IN AEE UO 3.45 4.95 Labor Required. The labor of attendance is often a deciding factor in the selection of stock for fattening, and it also determines the manner in which the stock should be fed. The cost of the manual labor required to take proper care of the stock in question sometimes determines the profit. Systems of feeding that require the least labor are to be preferred, provided, they are equal as to the amount of food required and the gain secured. The following table shows the amount of labor re- quired for attendance for each lot during the entire feeding experi- ment of 104 days: Time of One Man Required for Attendance. H . ° . n of ow b = E g S - eer ee Wie a. ht) Cea 7 ove Spe Wee eee GS ct) ore i at Reena. ors, 00. Hees af eT ha, ee Fak) Wei Poa eee 1 - : F : iP Cie. a eR AN al _ oir ae faba Wes. a x ‘4 if eo ee | a > : » i on eas ty bail re ; on, ae ra Wes} : y 4 aT, Pe a Byes ees "a 3 _ at Pe = Fy Pin” - - ir na, re = oe Bhs eee ore Poa A . a a ae _ s . 7 Stes Ae : 2 Pe ie Ba ae Ae cM @ ae ee ee a oe eri a: . oe se a> Sen oe Ma Pe oe ee we Sat oe ee, ee a a ae ae eee hun, wee ; a | eee ee a ey Pier.” (ace. Oe ven ee OS ae Nope eg eyes hae Di Gee oe ia | tos i ee al a a 7 : ‘a we oS i are Revue oe a : : rn : > po > ene te oe a 7 U at 7S ae” no pee SO atid 3 iy a ae i ne - » dies ie a > Te ae ms aa! th oe,” Pe ; ro \ Wh See fae ; a ate | erat. Te ee kg PT ee ec ce Pea ee A 4 “a i] aac va re ¥ a ees, SOE Gn id iy aa No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 249 WINTER WORK AND WINTER INSECTICIDES. A tree free from foliage and in a dormant condition will stand more severe applications than can be safely applied in summer. The season is longer, outdoor farm work is largely at a stand-still, the insects are not breeding and, almost naturally, the fruit growers have preferred to fight the scale during the winter months. But, while the tree is thus dormant and in its most resistant state, the scale insect is in the same condition. The stage in which _ the winter is most safely passed is as a half grown larva under the black scale. This black scale consists of a thin waxy material hard- ened by a lac-like substance which gives it great resisting power to ordinary solvents. The first cast skin of the insect itself now forms part of the covering, and brings an addition of chitine that makes it yet more resistant. The edge of the scale is sealed closely to the bark of the tree or other plant, and there is no perceptible opening anywhere around its margin. To reach the insect beneath this covering we must have either a caustic that will corrode the scale or a very penetrating material that will soak through or under it. The caustics that have approved themselves best are the lime; salt and sulphur wash on the Pacific Coast, and the whale oil soap on the Atlantic Coast. The penetrating materials are crude petroleum and refined petroleum or kerosene. Kach of these will be taken up and its action and range of useful- ness defined. LIME, SALT AND SULPHUR WASH. This is chemically, when properly prepared, a double sulphide of lime, with an excess of lime in its composition. It is very caustic and corrosive when fresh and if it remains dry holds its caustic quali- ties for a considerable period of time. It decomposes slowly under such circumstances, giving off suffocating and poisonous vapors in small quantities; but acting continuously upon the insects covered by it. In the presence of moisture the caustic combinations change rapidly and dissolve out, leaving only a good coating of ordinary 250 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. whitewash which may remain intact a long time. In Central and Southern California, indeed throughout most of that State, long periods of dry weather give opportunity for the mixture to produce its maximum effect. In the moist climate of the Atlantic slope, the dry winter periods sufficient to allow the insecticide to act, are ex- ceptional and their occurrence cannot be foretold. A complete analysis of this material and a technical statement of just what chemical changes occur, is to be found in Bulletin No. 30, New Series, of the Division of Entomology of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. What has been said in the previous paragraph pre- sents the result in a generalized form. It is fair to state that in Oregon where rains are frequent, the wash is as successfully used as in California, with a different formula for its make-up. It is also well to say that in the winter of 1900-01 the Oregon formula was satisfactorily used in Burlington couuty, New Jersey, while one of the Californian mixtures was successful in Washington, D.C. Mr. Marlatt had in previous years used the wash in Washington, fully as well made and applied under favorable con- ditions, always without satisfactory results. He attributes the suc- cess of 1900-01 to a period of dry weather, lasting three weeks after the application was made. The New Jersey result cannot be explained in this way, for rain began before the treatment was completed. Inas- much as in another State the same wash had been an almost absolute failure, we are left somewhat at sea as to the actual value of the material under Pennsylvania conditions. Applications will be made in New Jersey during the present winter under careful supervision on a scale large enough to determine the practical worth of the mixture in the East.* Inasmuch as the wash is absolutely safe on peach trees, the import- ance of a thorough trial is obvious and as some benefit is almost cer- tain to be derived, it may pay Pennsylvania peach growers to give it a trial. The Oregon formula which was used in New Jersey, is as follows: Sulphur, Ground (POUNCE) poke aces cr eteiemetetete stele « « 50 Lime; -unslacked (pounds), fi... ss... sere aie © cs 50 Salt, stock(poumd’s) 56 ee cs, Sascvteile wll cerry eo ce 50 This will make 150 gallons of wash. Slack the fifty pounds of lime in enough water to do it thoroughly, add the fifty pounds of sulphur and boil briskly for at least an hour, adding water in small quantities as necessary; then add the salt and boil hard for at least fifteen minutes more. Add hot water to make the 150 gallons and apply at a temperature of at least 100 de- grees, Strain before using and apply with a Bordeaux or similar coarse nozzle. *Since the above was written a year has passed. The wash has been extensively used and with almost uniformly good results. It has become the standard insecticide for this scale in some localities and is unreservedly recommended as best for peach trees, Ne. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 251 The formula used by Mr. Marlatt is: Pame Un Sl aAked: (BOUNUS), i)... /.:. civ. alpen « coe s desist nis 0 30 Saal ATI PLOUNG (MOUMGS) occ. css 5 eyes «cia ess ov lola. o's! as 30 SURE O CKO OO UINM) ei oschore ont otct sue ato chee tore Jsnite. eiere%s soe athe he 15 PRE Tro AML OID) et Ae eet Peso Siavlepaits TaPtPs ok ates) oot olay on 056 60 The mixture was steam boiled four hours and applied hot, A great diversity of directions for preparing this wash appears in the Pacific Coast publications; but the essential point is that there must be a very thorough boiling for at least one hour. Two, three or even four hours are often recommended and the mixture must be hot* when applied. In all my conversation with Pacific Coast or- chardists, this “long boiling’ was emphasized. Straining is always essential, and it should be noted that the wash is very corrosive. Pump and hose should be most thoroughly washed after using it and the hose will at best last only a short time. Leather, rubber or cotton packing must be well looked after in all cases. The price of this wash, aside from the labor involved, should not exceed two cents per gallon and it may be applied at any time during the winter. WHALE OIL.SOAP. This was the material first successfully used in Maryland in fight- ing the pernicious scale, and it can be usually depended upon for good results when applied at the rate of at least two pounds in one gallon of water. This is also a very caustic substance and cor- rodes the scales upon which it is spread. As the scales thin out, the moisture of the air dissolves the soapy coating and the mixture, in time, soaks through the covering, coming into contact with the in- sects below. ‘Too much rain may wash off the soap before it has had an opportunity to produce its specific effect, and the result will be correspondingly incomplete. At any strength less than two pounds in one gallon of water, the effect will not be sufficiently complete and the tendency has been rather in the direction of using two and one- half or even three pounds of soap in the same quantity of water. This makes a nasty mess to spray, and it should be at least warm to remain liquid enough to pass readily through the nozzle. Great thoroughness is necessary, that there may be material enough to *This not now regarded as essential for good effects; but the mixture sprays better when warm, 252 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. penetrate through the scale masses on badly infested trees, and that it may get into the crevices and irregularities of the bark. This strong soap mixture has one serious drawback. If applied in the early winter it. almost invariably kills the entire fruit set on peach trees and a large percentage of that on other orchard trees. As spring advances the bad effect on the fruit buds becomes less marked and, if the application is made just before the trees start, little or no harm will be done. This throwing the time of treatment so far along in the opening season is a great disadvantage, because any accident to machinery, or a long streak of adverse weather, may make it impossible to complete the work in a large orchard. On peach trees even one pound to one gallon of water will injure some fruit buds if applied early in winter; but on other orchard trees this seems to be safe. There is an incidental effect from both of the caustic mixtures de- scribed. The lime, salt and sulphur wash is a tolerably good fun- gicide and will kill off a very large proportion of the spores lodged on the surface of the treated trees. The soap mixture on peach trees seems to cure the leaf curl. There are several good fish oil soaps on the market. They are called “whale oil;” but, as a matter of fact, are made chiefly from re- fuse fish oil. The writer has tried and can speak personally of three of these. One is made by James Good, 939 North Front street, Phila- delphia, Pa., and is a soft soap. Another is made by W. H. Owens, Catawba Island, Ohio; and is also a soft soap. ‘The third is made by Leggett and Brother, 301 Pearl street, New York City, N. Y., and is a hard soap. Mr. Good makes two kinds; one that he calls Potash No. 3, and one containing and an indeterminate quantity of tobacco extract; but otherwise the same. The tobacco adds nothing to the soap as against the San José Scale. All these soaps are good and any one of them will answer for any of the purposes for which such soap is recommended here. The cost of all of them ranges between three and one-half and five cents per pound, dependent upon the quantity purchased. ‘A gallon of wash would thus cost for winter applications from seven to ten cents, ex- clusive of freight charges and other expenses of preparation. The effect of the material on fruit buds must be always kept in mind; but where this feature does not become important, as when trees are not of bearing age, the date of application may be any- where between January 1st and the opening of the buds. No 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 253 KEROSENE. The results obtained with this material have been excellent so far as effectiveness against the scale is concerned. They have been ex- tremely variable in their effect on the trees. ‘Some of the New Jer- sey growers are quite satisfied with it and will continue to use it; but the majority prefer the crude petroleum. | Kerosene may be used either undiluted, in a mechanical mixture with water or in the form of an emulsion with soap. For winter application the emulsion has proved a failure, prac- tically; but as it is a standard mixture, the directions for making it may be here given. IRCTOSCTIC AGA LOMS) 02a ce iano yale aioe ae ane ene ame WNUGE (2 ALLO) Meagan napster, siereuste siete Maes leis es cc aetre ele ee Hard-soap, shaved fine (pound)..30.60 ck bcc ocnls ees 4 ke bo Dissolve the soap in boiling water, warm the kerosene and pour it into the boiling suds. Churn with a bucket or other force pump for about five minutes, by pumping from and into the bucket through a coarse nozzle. This will result first in a milky white mixture and soon in a thin cream that becomes difficult to pump. It will be pure white when cold and of the consistency of butter at a tem- perature of sixty degrees. This emulsion contains sixty-six per cent. of kerosene and may be mixed with water to any extent; if well made it will keep, without separating, for several days. For summer applications this material has a great range of usefulness; but it is not so good against scale in- sects as the whale oil soap and not so satisfactory as the mechanical mixture. Rain water or other soft water should be used in making the emulsion; if only hard water is available, it should be softened with soda or borax. A mechanical mixture of kerosene and water is made by pumping with the same stroke from a kerosene and a water tank in such pro- portions as is desired. The liquids join near the nozzle and are forced out together in a milky, white spray. Anywhere from ten per cent. to fifty per cent. of kerosene to a corresponding percentage of water may be thus applied and a fifteen per cent. mixture is quite effective against scale larvae and recently set scale insects. But nothing less than a fifty per cent. mixture will serve for full grown scales and even this will not always give realiable results. Undiluted kerosene has done best for me, in my own practice and 254 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. some others have done equally well; but on the other hand, some have obtained bad results only. It seems to be very largely a matter of locality and climatic conditions. The same experimenter has spray- ed peach trees safely with undiluted kerosene in one section of his State, and killed every treated tree in another. Therefore undiluted kerosene should be cautiously and experimentally used, especially on peach, until its local effect is determined. The precautions to be observed are: Spray with a very fine nozzle; use no more than enough; see that the trees are dry and that the weather is such as to favor rapid evaporation. The cost of kerosene varies from six to ten cents per gallon accord- ing to locality. It is therefore about as expensive as whale oil soap of equal quantity; but kerosene is so much more penetrating and spreads so much better, that a given quantity will cover almost twice as much surface as the same quantity of soap suds. Kerosene depends for its effectiveness upon its penetrating power which carries it through and under the scale, into contact with the insect below. CRUDE PETROLEUM. Crude petroleum is the natural product as it is obtained from the oil wells, and varies greatly in composition. I need not go into de- tails on this point further than to say, that to be useful for insecticide purposes it should have a paraffine base and, if used undiluted, should have a specific gravity of forty-three degrees or over on the Beaume scale. I do not mean to assert that oils with an asphaltum base may not be useful; but I know nothing about them as insecticides. There- fore, whenever crude oil, or crude petroleum is mentioned in this Bul- letin it must be understood as a paraffine base oil of forty-three de- grees or greater specific gravity. Such oil is produced in Pennsyl- vania, West Virginia and Ohio, and it may be either green or amber in color. Crude oil contains the light napthas, the somewhat heavier illumi- nating oils, and, in addition, a variable quantity of paraffine and vase- line. When it is sprayed on a smooth surface so as to make a thin covering, the light oils evaporate in a very short time, leaving a film of greasy material which is the vaseline and paraffine. If the surface be non-absorbent this film will remain indefinitely through heat and cold, provided dust be excluded. In the heat it will thin out a little; No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 255 in the cold it will thicken. If dust be admitted it will adhere to the greasy surface until a layer is formed so thick that all the fatty mat- ter is absorbed init. If the surface covered by the film be absorbent every particle of the vaseline will find its way into the absorbent ma- terial unless a dusty or other covering absorbs it. Precisely this happens when a tree is sprayed with crude oil. The light oil is very penetrating, and soaks at once through the scaly scurf, carrying down also the vaseline and wax into contact with the insect. In a very short time this light oil is gone and the greasy coating alone remains: the scales absorb and hold’this. On trees with a smooth, waxy bark like certain pears, the surface is not ab- sorbent, the coating remains and no young scales can set until, by growth, uncovered bark appears, or until the dust has taken up the grease and the coating rubs or flakes off. On peach, the bark is absorbent except on the newest shoots, and whatever vaseline is left after soaking the scales gets into the plant tissue. If the bark is coarse and thick and the vaseline film thin, no harm is done; the inert outer layer takes it all. If the bark is thin and sensitive and the coating thick, the vaseline will replace the con- tents of the plant cells and kill them. It will continue to penetrate until it is all absorbed and so we have kills. In Southern States the bark on peach is more sensitive and thinner than in the North; hence oil, unless carefully used, is dangerous or fatal. In the latitude of Philadelphia it is safe with reasonable care. I have been thus explicit concerning the crude oil because I be- lieve it to be the most effective material tuus far employed against ~ the scale, and reasonably safe for all trees when its use is understood. The killing power is not only in the light oils, but in the vaseline residue; in fact, coating an infested bark with vaseline would re- sult in the death of every covered scale; probably also in the death of the tree. I have treated all the ordinary orchard trees with crude oil at all periods from recent dormancy to just starting and never killed a tree. I have killed peach buds by soaking them with oil, from a brush, but secured a full crop after spraying in October. I first sprayed and afterward painted a young peach and had a full show of flowers next spring. So I have drenched an apple by letting the oil run down from the tips of the twigs until the whole tree had as much oil as would stay onit. I killed the outer layer of bark on the trunk and large branches; but this flaked off, leaving a beautifully smooth bark underneath. The tree was as badly infested as it could well be and a few twigs died from the combination of oil and scale; but not a bit of real injury was done. Yet I know that others have been less for- tunate. One careful man finds it almost impossible to use the oil safely on Ben Davis apples; another who lives not ten miles away 254 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. from him declares that it is impossible to hurt Ben Davis no matter how much oil you put on. Mr. John Repp, of Glassboro, N. J., used 1,000 gallons of oil, undi- luted, during the winter of 1900-01, without hurting a tree; and his case is not exceptional. In the peach district of North Jersey the crude oil, used in a me- chanical mixture with seventy-five per cent. of water, finds most favor, and this seems to be the result of experiments made on peach by others. In a mechanieal mixture containing twenty-five per cent. of oil, each particle of oil is accompanied by three particles of water, and if the spraying be as carefully done as with undiluted oil, the same amount of oil is made to cover four times as much surface. As the water evaporates or is absorbed, the vaseline and paraffine remain; but the coating is only one-fourth of what it would be were the oil applied pure. It must be remembered that the oz/ is the killing agent and there must be enough to kill the insects. The water simply spreads the same amount of killing material over a larger surface. The evidence seems to be in favor of the effectiveness of the twenty-five per cent. mixture and its safety on trees. It may pay the careful man to ex- periment a little, especially as for this a lower grade oil may be used. It makes a difference on peach as to the time when the oil is ap- pled. ‘Trees treated in January have been killed where others in ad- joining rows, treated in March, were unhurt. Bark completely dor- mant is probably more absorbent than that in which the sap is ris- ing. On apple, pear or plum, it makes little difference at what time of the winter the application is made. Fruit buds will not be harmed by any reasonable covering. Yet I would not recommend treat- ment to be made before January. So I would prefer to have trim- ming done after the spraying, for if done before, the cut surfaces would absorb a certain amount of oil. If the cutting is close to the branch this absorption may cause injury; but if one-half to one inch stubs are left, no harm will be caused and the trimming may be done before the spraying. As to the price of the crude oil, that has varied from season to season and will vary in Pennsylvania in proportion to accessibility. In New Jersey, the Standard Oil Company demands thirteen cents per gallon and gets it. For this they furnish a green oil,—Insecticide oil they call it,—that tests forty-four degrees or very close to it. In Ohio, oil testing as low as thirty-five degrees has been safely used in a_ twenty per cent. mechanical mixture. I would be afraid of oil so low in grade; but forty degrees or possibly thirty-eight degrees might be safe in a twenty-five per cent. mixture if there is a material difference in price. : Pp é: eee | No. 0. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 257 SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICE. From the information given in the preceding pages, the fruit grower should be able to determine upon his plan of campaign against the pernicious scale; but a few suggestions based upon prac- tical experience may not be amiss. If the grower does the work himself, he can get along with crude oil only. If he must depend more or less upon hired help, whale oil soap should be on hand for the summer applications unless he prefers lime. At least once a month—better once every two weeks—every tree in the orchard should be looked at closely enough to note any serious increase in the scales. Whenever larvae are noted in such numbers as to render injury probable, the tree should be marked for immediate attention and this attention should be given—not merely intended. Whale oil soap, lime or crude oil may be used as indicated urder the head of summer treatments. The inspection in late Sep- tember or early October should be especially close, to lessen the num- ber of scales that are to be reached by winter treatment. I do not suggest treatment whenever larvae re seen ona tree, unless summer work is to be altogether relied upon; only when the insects occur in dangerous swarms. Spraying should not be done when the fruit is nearing maturity, especially in peach; but should be done, if need- ed, soon afterward, to prevent a drain that may interfere with the set: ting of fruit buds. When the foliage is all off, or at any time in December, a system- atic and careful inspection should be made to determine what trees should be treated. I am by no means in favor of dosing every tree because here and there a scale may be detected. Where scales are well distributed over a tree, treat by all means; but if only a few ex- amples can be found by close search, give the tree another year. In all except peach orchards I would unhesitatingly suggest crude petroleum for the winter treatment. Pears may be treated first, any time after the beginning of January. Plums may follow next. Apples had better come in February, and if peaches are also to be treated, let them come last, in March. My personal preference is in favorof the undiluted oil, carefully applied, for the following reasons: The oil alone kills; if only oil is applied, every particle is effective; if oil and water are applied there are three or four ineffective particles and where these strike, no benefit will be derived; any carelessness that results in the irregular action of the emulsion pump produces 17-—6-—1902 258 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. irregularity in results. Yet on peach it may be safer to apply the twenty-five per cent. mechanical mixture, unless either the lime, salt and sulphur or the soap mixture is preferred.* The former may be applied any time when a dry spell seems likely. The latter should be delayed just as long as it is safe to do so. If undiluted oil is used, it should not be too cold. It is very fluid at ordinary temperatures but thickens a little when they are low. The oil is a bad conductor and if a barrel comes from a room at sixty degrees, it can be completely sprayed out before it loses very much, even in a freezing temperature. The horticulturist must ever be observing, ready to act at a mo- ments notice, persistent in the fight, ready to take advantage of any opportunity to lessen the pest and studious to find what is the best practice in his own surroundings. He must not be afraid to try experiments and should not allow an occasional failure to dis- courage him. The man who brings the most intelligent consideration to bear upon his own case will be most successful in the end. MACHINERY AND HOW TO USE IT. The important point to be looked to, if oil is to be used, is the nozzle. Any good pump will do to supply the power; but there must be a Vermorel nozzle with a fine tip to distribute the material. This should be so, even if a mechanical mixture is used. On large trees a group of two nozzles or even a triplet may be used; but always get the cap with the smallest opening. A gas pipe spraying rod ten feet long is an excellent bit of accessory apparatus and it should have a shut off at the bottom. For whale oil soap, a Vermorel nozzel with an opening of larger size may be used; er a Seneca, Bordeaux or McGowan nozzle will answer. For lime, salt and sulphur the Bordeaux nozzle is especially suitable, but there are others that will serve almost equally well. The Vermorel nozzle may be obtained from all makers of insecti- cide machinery, and almost every one of these has something that corresponds with the Bordeaux nozzle, throwing an adjustible, fan- shaped spray. It is important that a noazle for the lime wash be easily cleaned in case it becomes obstructed. As to the pump for straight forward spraying, there are so many good machines on the market that it is unjust to recommend any one °The lime, salt and sulphur wash is now recommended in preference to all others. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 259 make over all others. Every agricultural paper has the advertise- ments of half a dozen makers and each will readily send descriptive catalogues. Each man must select a pump according to his needs and he should remember that, while a powerful pump can be made to do a little work, it is not possible to make a weak pump do work beyond its capacity. Be sure to get one fully equal to your needs. For orchard work, it is economy to have a good pump of large ca- pacity that may be mounted on a barrel, ona tank wagon or even on a wagon platform with a suction hose to go into the barrels of spray mixture. A good pump is one in which the valves and all the working parts are of brass, which is simple in construction, has a good sized air chamber, metal packing, a stout wrought iron frame, and a good leverage. Rubber is objectionable if oils are to be used, but leather is admissible. For the caustic washes, especially the lime, salt and sulphur, neither rubber, leather nor cotton will prove lasting. Besides a pump of large capacity, a knapsack pump is often useful in orchard work, especially among young or dwarfed trees. Particu larly is this so when summer treatments are to be made. The knap- sack pump should have a detachable oil tank for applying mechanical mixtures of oil and water. Of the emulsion pumps, only two types are known to me that come up to reasonable demands. One series is made by the Goulds Manu- facturing Company, Seneca Falls, N. Y., the other is made by the Spramotor Company, London, Ontario, Canada. Both of these are good and both come in various sizes and styles, from which the pur- chaser must select that which best suits him. In using these emul- sion pumps a few simple rules must be observed to make their work reliable. | Work the lever evenly and, so far as possible, continuously. If spraying must be stopped, shut off both pumps at the base attach- ment. Never allow either oil or water to get below the suction point. Attention to these details may make all the differences be- tween success and failure. As to prices for machinery, these vary so much that no safe esti- mate can be given. It depends upon the accessories needed and upon the demand to be made upon the machine. A good pump is always a cheap pump; but a cheap pump is not always one that costs least money. 17 ee 260 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. THE NURSERY PROBLEM. The agency of nurseries as distributors of insect pests has been elsewhere dwelt upon. The methods to be adopted to prevent this distribution are matters of control by the State authorities and not within the scope of this article. Experiments have shown that so far as the pernicious scale is con- cerned, stock may be thoroughly cleared of it by careful fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. As this destroys also many other fruit pests, it is not an unreasonable requirement that nurserymen should fumigate all their fruit stock before sending it out. Fumigation as here used, means exposing the dormant stock to the action of the gas ina properly constructed room or building, for . a time sufficiently long to kill the pernicious scale. A properly constructed room or house is one that is gas tight. It is best made of wood, may be of any desired size or shape, should have double walls with building paper between, should be ceiled with tongued and grooved stuff closely fitted and should have closely fitted doors and one window to be closed and opened from without. There need be no flooring; but unless the stock is fumigated on a wagon backed into the house, there should be a slat floor a foot above the ground. In the center there should be a place for the gas generator which may rest upon the ground. If a wagon is used, the generator may go under the wagon. The space below the slat floor is to allow the diffusion of the gas in every direction. The stock should not be packed too tightly and should be so arranged that toward each corner there should be a tolerably open chimney or passage through which the gas may get to the ceiling. The formula for each 100 cubic space is: Cyanide of potassium, 98 per cent. pure, by weight, 1 02. Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.83, by measure, ......... 2 OZ. WATORS: Gislsicim ote sib & adevone asoweleisee, oF se-700 tl ieee eae 4 07. Pour the acid slowly into the water and when everything is ready, drop the cyanide, broken into small lumps, into the mixture. Ina small house, the cyanide in a paper bag can be dropped by hand into the jar and before this bag is penetrated the operator can get out and close the doors. , In a large house, with considerable stock, the bag of cyanide may be suspended over the jar by a string, attached near the doors. When the doors are ready to close, release the cord that the bag of cyanide may drop into the dilute acid and close the doors 1g. 7—A properly constructed fumigating house; note the edge of the door. Size 16x10x7 feet. (From Smith, N. J. Exp. Sta. Repts.) 7 pe es - Ps : a a td 1o3 xy, a. . : ec — “i, g% aa che cay ‘am a ; ma y 4 a ioe eae hon a ; : Ae ee ee ve mae: we - ; j W No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 261 tightly. The jar may be any glazed earthenware vessel, sufficientl) large to hold double the amount of liquid necessary. This is to avoid slopping or sputtering over, when the formation of the gas begins. Fully dormant stock may be safely exposed one hour or more. Apple and pear will stand a much longer period. Peach is most sensitive and, if the exposure is to be a long one, the amount of material used should be reduced one-fourth. At that strength a house may be left closed all night. The essential points are an absolutely tight house; the generator in the middle and a chance for the gas to reach all parts of the room readily. It should be remembered that all the materials used to produce this gas are violent poisons and the gas itself is extremely poisonous. Care should be taken not to inhale any of it and, when the fumigat- ing house is opened, this should be done from the outside in such a way as not to get the first whiff from within. The one needed window should be opposite the door, and both doors and window should be open for at least ten minutes before the house is entered. Infested stock thus fumigated has been planted out, closely watch- ed and found free after three years. The effect is absolute if the work is well done and therefore it is well within the police power of the State to require the nurseryman to erect and maintain a proper fumigating plant, and to see that he understands its use. The nurseryman should not be hampered in his business more than is absolutely necessary to protect his customer, and this is a limita- tion that my experience with the trade leads me to believe will be acceptable. FINALLY. While the San José or Pernicious Seale is a most destructive insect, it has its good side. Its advent has stimulated the horticulturist to a closer study of his subject. It will drive out the incompetent and unintelligent grower by killing his trees. It will tend to the production of more limited crops of better fruit, for which better prices may be obtained. And, after all, we can control the insect if we set out earnestly to do it. If we cannot grow fruit without it, we can do so in spite of it. It has been and is being done in New Jersey. bo jor) bo ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. CANNING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. By PROF. GEORGE C. BUTZ, State College, Pa. THE CANNING INDUSTRY. The cnormous quantity of canned goods that is annually put up by American factories is astounding, to say the least, and when con- sidered commercially, is well worthy the distinction of an industry. The pioneers in the business may have hesitated to invest largely _ in this stock, but it is certain now that the canning industry is on as permanent a basis as is the iron or coal industry. The successful preserving of fruits and vegetables in tin wrappers in quantities to supply the world and for a price that will carry the goods into the humblest home, has been demonstrated by the experience of more than a quarter of a century. The demand for canned goods steadily increases from year to year, and it may be said even now that a large part of our population is wholly depending upon the canner for the fruit and vegetable part of their diet. This is true not only of the millions who dwell in tenements and other thickly populated por- tions of our cities, but also of other millions who formerly grew their fruits and vegetables in private gardens and abandoned them in favor of the canned articles which may be had at a less cost and with less labor. ‘A steady increase in population requiring increased quantities of foods, the introduction of special machinery to economize labor and cheapen production, and the tendency of men to engage in special and limited lines of work, force us to admit our mutual dependence for the products of each others labors. And so the canning indus- try has attracted to itself the men who are specially qualified to prepare and preserve certain foods which could not be enjoyed by millions of their fellowmen, except for this art of canning. The demand for canned goods will continue to grow and it is next to im- possible to estimate the probable development of the next quarter of acentury. The growth of the business done in the past decade is a pretty fair index of what may be expected in the future. Im the reports published by the American Grocer, the total packs in America of tomatoes and corn for the past ten years are expressed in figures as follows: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOMATOES. 263 S v N oO Lo] a : =| “y 5 g ° S g n ‘S i] Year. FA g 2 5; Pil airs 2 3) ag | £ | 3 a 2 a as Bao any 7 a 2 v gs z % 5 Ae a” a i SE AMF I Petar aretater avon, ehetofr GL sic eioyere we Aiie' a iniieve'e safaiernieals oie onic vaieis "sein wie.6 Sielajaleiaa w'eie 3,166,177 17% $1.00 ING. Sec Gicodaadeceier eR SS eo cBe Ent ae EE ese ee same Hanes ion rae 3,405,365 | .80 85 pCR ela ac stele litianel cic siete cieialate cieis ie eins eiers-cisisre siciala aiaisie steretaisielelete reels atateleteisreisiecese 3,366,792 | 8249 1.00 LUE. cegcaadedbe gab od bond oObURD Se GdD DOD COGRNCOUOUMODE HOUbOOdOb COND OODOT OD Ha 4,635,183 95 1.45 BP ae eee ete ocrcne a a¥e fave [aim cleve are velcvstarnie is! atolelcis|olstelele(e\are iw cisieicieyeielelere nieiale:aisisicielnie.eisve(e ele’ 6,586,979 | .70 1.10 PES ror clere ey arsro tere or< lee ielalatelcvaletoe a ieiccotmicieiele crarsiersieic sais eile she axatolng staiaals ocoistersiamiaee 4,194,780 | .60 75 LEG, ha bodddcihideecide SOeOOer OEE D BE DNS COOGCHOUE COCO DA See CCD n EOC aren cpce 3,541, 188 -571g -80 RG ea art trator stall cetersracd isto tiein ate sie iniaicleleisieieie,e « ove/e sic\esiwleisiaieseisieiesivepaisiaiaie ernie sole 4,194,780 | -60 1.00 BN Re Aiea erties ciate nia cieiaie cia atelier aietaiats cietaie e's wisiv eralele els wlaleie aivieee noite eles ee e'eie'e 5,797,806 | .80 1.15 SRS l ata eet cece wiato ele etciacetatetersioiec eisieleir s/cjeleleyaie;s\ersvolelecelaleictalateieiatsiecs wis eiateisinvevals 7,404, 923 -70 85 Ne ctaraistnts cieicia tic, svasaie’ ciate lave u ciatclajaiels,cieis'e © o/a\e:s ure Staleleioidieiovaie Bisse sfetsleiais sidlaleleie’eccajs 5, 849, 593 -65 -80 CORN. FoI o N o cs) a : S sais to/ are erate cic crete atciate Srare 6, elererore e sicjeisteva ci olerclotare oie oie 2,889,153 95 1.20 LERZ., -AtoaGS nO LCOS BOR COO HOCH REDRIC ASE ME CSHB TEE AFCO EOC Ic aan arr ioe 3,351,079 .95 1.25 ISMEY S8éedoc BeGOP SC HCOMEH Og COCOA ADA EIG Otic Aira Ger ee GEE rrr asian eee 4,301, 451 .80 1.10 Ep NSPE ERIN Stele crayetateie e(areretelafcfaie rs oicie ecto aie vic'e ic. cs(ele slo sicioiay wisleleiss eles ore siege manele 3,414, 808 .65 85 PEAR sPe tamed oye ce cteeratetetereyalaVara ot ovsyare oc stalcter os atete oiciatale aie alo:a Sarah arotn rol atu eyolarsteeto: bie o.eieletarejereis 3,121, 164 .55 -1 Di, ob lao Oda oo SOO CD aC OC BREE EEE Cece OBE H GAEROCT CECRCROE ACA MEETCEn 2,676,515 50 -T5 SEPIA CaS Pate si aet aster ste evel cf: craVele sini ale aio vovstere ei slaia cGieiaie nie ve'e ia miowleiareidieies arora eve ietelelale © 2,908,740 50 85 SIND (Gace SOBBG gS ACG HOBO COTS SACI CITI CoP e ne Seen Ieee an aa 4,448,563 -60 015 Rea cle acts OE Acs rayayite clcicla nso einicig eS atoie doit oie a’Sie bere stee alee ow petbin eee ejavimetae cea ete 5,440,920 6214 8) USUD. gecceccosbae dues Geecoe CO ce CCE ee OCE EEC UOTEORCE ECCT S CCE: er centre acne 6,485, 624 6214 -80 264 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The permanence of a business dealing with such quantities can- wot be questioned. It may be remarked also that the total output of the canning factories of this country in vegetables and fruits is practically all consumed within our own boundaries. The foreign shipments have been small, simply because the home consumption has held all the goods in this country. Zhe Trade, of Baltimore, a journal for canners and grocers, in a weekly review of September, 1901, says: “Meat has for many years been one of the steady articles of supply which the new world has sent to the old. Fish in the form of salmon and sardines, to say nothing of oysters and barreled fish, have fur- nished vast amounts of exports to foreign people, and it is as certain as the rising and setting of the sun that canned goods will yet form a vast amount of exports from America to Europe. If Europe, how- ever, counts upon America for any exports of canned vegetables and fruits this year, she will have to be prepared to compete with our home consumers for what she gets. There will be no surplus of any- thing this year for exports.” It is difficult to obtain statistics of the latest pack because the packers are not inclined to teli their output for fear of influencing the market against them. THE HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANNING VEGE- TABLE PRODUCTS. When we look for the beginning of canning fruits and vegetables, we find the credit and honor of the discovery is accorded to a French- man named Appert, who in 1810 published under the authority of the French government the results of his experiments im preserving fruits in air-tight packages after boiling. As early as 1819, Thos. Kensett, who probably learned the art before leaving England, is known to have put up canned goods in New York in partnership with Ezra Daggett. This firm obtained a patent in 1825 for an improved method in the art of preserving, from the United States government. During the subsequent fifteen years other attempts at preserving fruits, vegetables and fish were made in several quarters along the eastern coast, but they were not all successful. Isaac Winslow, of Portland, Maine, began his experiments in canning sweet corn i: 1839; at first he boiled the whole ears without satisfactory results. He then cut the corn from the cob before boiling, but was disap- pointed to find, later, that nearly every can swelled. He persisted, however, in his effort to find the error of his ways and after many years of failure and partial successes he perfected his methods and No. 6._ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 265 secured a patent for it from the United States in 1862, several years after the application had been made. Isaac Winslow was the first to pack sweet corn in cans for sale. In 1847 the first tomatoes were packed for sale. This was in New Jersey. It was not long before small canning factories were established in several States east and west, but many reverses were met with from time to time to dis- courage very extensive packing. As late as 1878, the corn packers of Maine lost their entire output by having it spoil, for a reason which they could not then discover. E. D. Duckwall referring to this event in his “Bacteriology” of canning in 1899 says: ‘‘The few manufacturers in Maine at that time suddenly had a very rough ex- perience in 1878, when the entire output spoiled, nor were they ever afterwards able to sterilize their cans by the boiling process. Capi- tal had been invested, and fhe business had been growing rapidly before, and now every thing seemed to be lost. New locations were tried, longer times of boiling were given, but without avail; the corn seemed to have changed into a new product which would not keep. Some manufacturers sent samples to chemists for analysis to find out what caused the trouble, but the real cause not being known they could not give the manufacturers any information of practical value, except that the spoiled corn contained small round globules which were not dissolved by boiling heat.” Such experiences kept canners shy of making heavy investments until a closer study of the diffi- culties brought about such modification of the processing of corn that “swells” became infrequent and are now reduced to a very small fraction of the pack. Twenty-five years ago the demand for canned goods became brisk and factories were springing up in many of the States, prominently in Maine, New York, New Jersey and Maryland, the last named being a strong leader in the industry for several years. In 1890, it is re- ported that 20,000 factories were in operation in the United States, and it is very probable that the late census will show that the num- ber has more than doubled with greatly increased facilities. CO-OPERATIVE CANNERIES. In recent years, agents of canning machinery manufacturers have visited rural communities to induce farmers to organize themselves into companies to grow vegetables and erect a canning factory to pack the crops. All encouraging information was freely given and the so-called “secrets” of canning were promised in the event of organization. The agent was interested only to the extent of mak- ing a sale of the factory outfit for which, often, an exorbitant price was charged. It stands to the credit of the farmers, however, that 266 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. but few such factories were established, probably the sad experiences of the co-operative creameries restrained them from venturing upon anything that had the word “co-operative” attached to it. INDIVIDUAL MANAGEMENT. The nature of canned goods is such that the management of the business of the factory is most successfully conducted when it is reposed in one responsible head. The person chosen may represent a company, but he should be possessed of such business traits that all confidence may be placed in his ability to buy materials and sell goods. He must have in his employment a “processor” whose ex- perience will bespeak a successful pack. Such men are paid from $50 to $150 per month, according to their qualifications. The work of the processor requires the greatest amount of skill, and while formerly a great degree of mystery was thrown about his work to guard the “secrets” of canning, it is now well known that there are no secrets, except where the use of preservatives forbidden by law is practiced. Canners have learned that it is better for them to throw open their factories to visitors, permit the closest inspection of their operations and disclaim any secrets, and thus retain the confidence of the people in the cleanness, wholesomeness and purity of the foods they can. No person can steal a processor’s skill by a visit to his factory; nor can one equal the capper’s speed by watching him at his work. Farmer’s are benefited by having canning factories operating in their section of country, as they find it more profitable to grow to- matoes, corn or peas for the canner than by growing any other crop. The basis of calculation is upon present prices paid for raw materials. The yield of tomatoes varies greatly im different years and soils. It may be considered as coming somewhere between 8 and 16 tons per acre, a fair average yield being 12 tons or about 400 bushels. During the- past season farmers contracted to supply to- matoes to the factory at $6 per ton, but owing to the unfavorable conditions existing in September, many canners were eager to get tomatoes at a much higher figure. Corn does not figure so well. The yield from good land is about 4 tons per acre for which the canner pays about $6 per ton. Where corn is being extensively canned, as in New York and Maine, the farmers count it a little more profitable to grow sweet corn for the canner than to devote the same land to their usual crops. Peas of the varieties grown for canning will yield 75 to 100 bushels per acre. Packers pay from 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel. The farm- ers of Delaware when peas are extensively canned, realize an aver- age net profit of $20 per acre, after accounting for labor, seed and fertilizer. No. 6. DECARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 267 LOCATION OF CANNING FACTORIES. There are several important considerations that determine the proper location of a factory. While there are a number of large factories in the principal cities, the great majority of them are in the small towns scattered over the country districts. Here the canner is in close proximity to the vegetables or fruits which he cal- culates to pack, and he may have them delivered at his factory in the freshest possible condition. Too much stress cannot be laid upon this consideration, for the quality of canned goods depends largely upon the condition of the raw material at the time of canning. If fruits and vegetables must be bruised and heated by much hand- ling and close packing for transportation, they cannot be expected to turn out of the cans with as fine an appearance and flavor as the goods that does not suffer such injury. The many establishments in the cities take advantage of the great surplus of vegetables and fruits that constantly pour into the markets and being perishable must be sold at any price. If a Jocality possesses a soil and climate adapted to the growing of such vegetables and fraits that it is desired to possess, it is a simple matter to induce the farmers of the region to plant and grow them when a profitable market is in sight. The farmers of Pennsyl- vania have long felt that they must find a crop to take the place of so much wheat, which it is no longer profitable for them to grow. Wherever factories have been successfully conducted, the farmers have been pleased with their experience in growing and supplying the raw materials, and they have profited greatly by the changes brought about by the establishing of a canning factory. ‘The two vegetables most extensively canned are tomatoes and sweet corn, and neither is very exaciing as to the character of its soil, therefore, one needs not travel far to find a suitable locality for a factory so far as the soil is concerned. Transportation Facilities.—The facilities for carrying goods to the centres of trade have much to do with the success of a canning business. Therefore it is desirable to choose a location with railroad and telegraph or telephone cummunications. Without railroads a canning factory cannot draw the raw materials more than a few miles ard its possible output would be exceedingly limited, and the marketing of its goods very expensive. On the other hand, with rail- road facilities the raw materials may be drawn from a much larger territory, and the cased goods can be placed in the markets at the least expense. If a private side track of railroad can be placed close to the factory, much time and labor may be economized in the loading and unloading of materials shipped and received. The ware- 268 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. room in which the cased goods is stored may also be conveniently located along the side track. Water Supply.—An abundant supply of pure water is constantly needed during canning operations. Materials must be washed or scalded, utensils and machinery kept clean, and in the processing so much steam is used up that the boiler requires frequent replenish- ing with water. Laborers.—\t is also well to consider the matter of securing the mecessary help to carry on the operations of canning to the fullest ca- pacity of the factory. If the factory can be located where the com- munity can supply sufficient hands, men and women, to successfully operateit the difficulties that attend the employment of non-residents will not be met with. The great bulk of canned fruits and vegeta- bles is put up within three months and during that time the perish- able goods are brought to the factories in immense quantities. At such a time a single day’s idleness or insufficient help, will entail a great loss to the business. About 10 hands (unskilled), will be needed to run a factory of 2,000 cans per day capacity. CAPITAL REQUIRED. The amount of capital necessary to properly conduct a canning business may be much or little, according to the capacity of the factory and the variety of goods to be canned. There have been remarkable financial successes in this business, but equally remark- able failures also, and the latter have frequently been attributed to insufficient capital forcing the sale of the entire stock of goods when the market price is low. With sufficient capital to carry the larger part of the stock until there is a real demand for it, a fair profit will be realized and dividends may be declared. For instance, a smali factory for canning tomatoes, with a capacity of 2,000 cans per day may put up 80,000 cans by operating 40 days. It will have a building and outfit of machinery and tools costing about $700. The cans will cost $1,600, the tomatoes $1,000 and the skilled and un- skilled labor for forty days will cost $650, sundry items of expense $50, making in all a total of $4,000. If such a concern is capitalized at $2,000 with the expectation of making quick sales to pay for ma- terials consumed, it may be forced to sell the entire pack at almost cost to meet its obligations and then find no profit in the investment, but with a capital of $3,000 or better, $4,000, labor may be promptly paid, the farmer will be made happy with his cash and all materials will be paid for at cash prices. The canner is then independent with his pack and can wait for a market that will pay him a profit of 10, 15 or even 20 cents per dozen cans of his tomatoes and he has realized from 20 to 30 per cent. upon his investment and owns his factory clear of debt. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 269 Several of the largest canning establishments are capitalized with over a million dollars, and operate many factories running night and day during the busy season, each factory at its best turning out 50,000 cans per day. Such large concerns are developed only after years of experience in the management of smaller establishments. This brief bulletin is prepared to meet the queries of persons seek- ing their first information about the canning business, and not as a guide to the experts. The small canning factories putting up a limited quantity of but one line of goods are better able than a large factory to give the closest attention to details and thus can insure an excellent quality in what they pack. Many of these factories contract to put up goods fer large factories and thus dispose at once of the entire pack. A fair price may be secured in this way, but large profits due to real or fictitious “short supply” reports are sacrificed to the larger speculator in the goods. The jobbers in canned goods are often responsible for extreme fluctuations in the market, and the small packer having no oppor- tunity to know the exact condition of the supply is induced to sell on a very small margin of profit. The packer should keep himself informed concerning the true state of affairs with information from the most reliable sources, that he may protect his interests against the misrepresentations of speculators. Much canned goods is sold ‘at first hand below cost, simply because the packer could not afford to hold Lis goods until an apparent glut was removed. As an illustration of a remarkable development of a great estab- lishment from a small beginning, we need only turn to the famous pickling and preserving house in our own State, that of H. J. Heinz Company, at Pittsburg, Pa. They write that “In 1869 the present business of H. J. Heinz Company was founded in Sharpsburg, a little suburb of Pittsburg, Pa., on three-quarters of an acre sown with horse-radish. The founder of the company was its entire force of cultivators, and two young girls were its manufacturing staff— grating the horse-radish for market. A common wheelbarrow was the only vehicle used by the company for marketing its products, and the entire manufacturing was done in a small two-story brick building. At the present day the expanded company is planting 18,000 acres with its own seeds and gathering the fruits of many thousand acres more. Its main plant at Pittsburg, Pa., occupies 17 large buildings, and it has 38 salting stations, 9 branch factories and 26 branch warehouses and offices, and employs steadily over 2,500 workers. Its original wheelbarrow has expanded into huge drays and speedy automobiles and a host of Heinz refrigerator and tank cars running throughout the United States.” Inspection of this magnificent plant is invited and every courtesy is extended. 270 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. ARRANGEMENT AND PLAN OF FACTORY. Whatever capacity of factory may be planned for, the dimensions of the building should be ample enough to permit the most conven- ient disposition of tables and kettles, so that there shall be no undue crowding of the workmen, and at the same time to secure such a compact arrangement that no unnecessary traveling is called for in passing from one step to another in the operations. A building 20x40 feet, two stories, will accommodate the outfit and necessary workmen for a capacity of 2,000 cans of tomatoes per day. For a capacity of 10,000 cans per day, the floor dimensions of the building should be 80x75 feet. The plan is not necessarily a rectangle. It may be more convenient to make the structure in the form of an L. For a capacity of 20,000 cans per day with the machinery for canning fruits, vegetables and meats, a building 50x100 feet would afford ample room. This, however, does not make allowance for a ware- room, which should have about an equivalent space. The plan should permit wagons bringing raw materials to pass over scales, to make record of the weight of each delivery before reaching the receiving platform. Close to this supply is placed the scalding kettle in which the first step in canning tomatoes is taken. From here they are placed upon the peeling tables to be peeled. This is work that must be done by hand and for which women are usually employed. The peeled tomatoes are passed to the packing tables if the cans are filled by hand, or to the hopper of the filler if a machine is used. The cans are then capped upon the capping table, tested in the exhaust kettle and when effectually sealed they are submitted to the cooking process in the process kettle. After the cans are cooled, which may be hastened by passing through cold water, they are temporarily placed in cases and stored until a suitable time for labeling. It is evident, therefore, that much time and labor may be economized by so arranging the tables, kettles and other apparatus to admit the simplest handling from step to step in the series of operations. The firms supplying canning machinery are prepared to submit designs for any style of factory to suit any set of conditions that may be proposed to them, and the cost of the structure can be es- timated by a local builder. Roark UT ad 0 Latborrs. & x50 [. WWar too wW 30 x 50pm. Roeeds Kettles. Coobivy Jawk Ca pprng n Y We a 5 Satta if vy] i Vranas ea ty fr ans (aco% Pasting ae aed VALLE 12.41. [as | Receving Scalder ieee No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 271 CANNING FACTORY OUTFITS AND SPECIAL MACHINERY. The simplest outfit for a canning factory is that used for canning tomatoes at the rate of 2,000 cans per day. For this it is customary to have a 15 H/, P. boiler to furnish steam for heating the water in the scalding kettle, the exhaust and process kettles; but a number of small factories are operated without a boiler by heating the ket- tles over a furnace. ... o2 iia 60.25 sce 2 45.00 Nowe tall t.in ch: Openings. ..21.,- osha, ale wieretene'sie 12.00 No. 2 tall 1g inch opening, ~ «2. . ce... 66. e sence 16.00 Mont slouch 1s INCH OPCUING,, coca 2 este Selo ene eier 3m us 12.50 Nos2ulunchelsinich OpeMmine.. -925%.5%: te eet aie os 17.50 Noe oval lg ainch, Opening tos oc. oak 2. wcities 2 oe 13.50 Nos 2 Oval Lpinch: Opening. 256 cic ss ise wieas oe os 18.50 No. 3 Jersey (44x5 inches) 2 1-16 inches, ........... 21.00 No. 3 Jersey (44x54 inches) 2 1-16 inches, .......... 22.00 No. 3 Jersey (44x54 inches) 2 1-16 inches, .......... 23.00 No. 3 Jersey (44x52 inches) 2 1-16 inches, .......... 24.00 For each increase in size opening, 50 cent per thousand additional. Less than car load lots, $1.00 per thousand additional. These prices are subject to change at any time. SOLDER-HEMMED CAPS. HEP MUIUCINISIZE,. & chose istakel eis «ise \ieteietola sue rh sie $0.95 per 1,000 Dae NG SITICHY SIZE, 2 sistcreis! stsics cc sveiara are of eieite 1 30 PAN AMVCHESIZOS raters ateuasetols aiee 1acels cere ee 1.70 Factories wishing to keep their employes at work through the win- ter months find it advantageous to secure a can making outfit and make their supply of cans in the winter. Where this is not an ob- ject, it is customary to buy the cans which are shipped in boxes con- taining two dozen cans. These boxes are the cases in which the canned goods are placed upon the market. LABELING. Much care is exercised in the choice of labels for canned goods. The grocers shelves and window display of such goods present an attractive appearance when tastefully arranged. The colored labels aid greatly in selling such goods. The price varies from $1.00 to $3.00 per thousand. 18 280 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The labeling of cans is deferred until the rush of packing is over except for orders of prompt delivery. The labels are usually put on by hand in factories with a capacity under 10,000 cans per day. The prices paid for this work is 25 cents per 1,000 cans. In the larger factories, machines for labeling and for boxing are used. CONTRACTS BETWEEN GROWERS AND CANNERS. It is customary for canners to furnish the farmers, who contract to grow certain crops for them, with the seeds or even plants for such crops. These are supplied in sufficient quantities and free of cost. The purpose of this is to insure a uniform and desirable qual- ity in the tomatoes, corn or whatever crop it may be. A written contract is always necessary to insure a sufficient tonnage to keep the factory in operation during the ripening season. It is fairer to contract to deliver the yield of a certain number of acres than a definite number of tons, for the yield is always variable, but the num- ber of acres may be a fixed quantity. A very brief and simple form of contract generally used with the tomato growers of New Jersey is as follows: FORM OF NEW JERSEY CONTRACT. Pissis: tovcertily: that wee 6 os ae ae ee aoe ee , have bought Olgas Macs micttse a, cte.a"t stage Ses the product of °c. ve. :+% acres of tomatoes for the season of ........ Bib oe 3) Sh wie ais per ton, delivered at our GRIM INETSY oo tsife wie eros 6 oc ie Syn Cel wa tee aes vanes cote Stock to be in first class merchantable condition. To be planted UD OU Gass ache cis erste cre a echo tare ee 190 SIS MAUUEC, ec isteletsreteteiel- «cleat Signature, he eee ee Other stipulations are sometimes inserted, limiting the time of de- livery of stock, defining refusable material, and to pretect the can- nery in case of fire, accident or other contingency. Following is a fuller form of contract: TOMATO GROWERS CONTRACT. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 281 nish the land and everything necessary to plant and cultivate in pro- per manner ........ acres of land in tomatoes, all to be planted with the yareuy.o1 seeds furnished by the ....-......20.-..... Canning Co.; and J agree to deliver ail the products of the above acreage to MLE eeeriat oy« eek ~pc ere. o's. 2 Cannime Co. AL tReie factory. Isc. aces chs leuens Pa., in a sound and ripe condition; I also agree to forfeit $5 per acre for any shortage in the cultivated area under the contracted figure. Perth c Sfoue otis seis Canning Co., agrees to pay me $25.00 per acre for all the tomatoes they fail to receive. In consideration of the compliance with the above conditions the 2.6 bh en eee Canning Co., agrees to furnish all the seed nec- essary free of charge, and to pay for the tomatoes $........ per ton (of 2,000 pounds) delivered at the factory as above agreed. Settle POM IEO MOC eA OW GMC Ere orcs Gh die oie eta vele cee eles o) ehevesehe Tomatoes to be delivered between the hours of 7 a. m. and 6. p. m., on each working day of the week, except Saturday. I hereby agree that im the case of the destruction of the cannery by fire, or the elements, or if for any unavoidable cause the factory is unable to receive all tomatoes grown, said factory shall have the right to limit the delivery of said acres. THE SALE OF CANNED GOODS. The sale of canned goods of all kinds is made principally through agencies known as canned goods brokers. Some small canners have disposed of their stock directly to the grocerymen of a neighboring city, and others, packing a single line of goods, have contracted with larger factories to deliver to them the entire pack of a season as soon as it is ready to ship. Such sales of goods are with or without labels. In the latter case the “country packer” has no brand and it is likely he will lose pride in his output. The factory receiving such goods places its own labels upon the cans and im consequence the consumers discover that certain brands are no guarantee of the quality of goods bearing them. This is one of the objectionable practices of the canning business. As has been said the great bulk of canned goods is sold through brokers, upon written contracts between the canner and the broker. Such contracts may be made early in the season for “futures,” that is for a certain number of cases of a particular brand of goods at an agreed price per case, to be delivered at a certain date. Goods sold under contract for immediate delivery are called “spots.” Packers are usually required to guarantee their goods six months against 282 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. “swells.” It does not matter whether the goods lies in the wholesale warehouse or in the store of the retailer, all spoilage occurring within six months from date of shipment, is redeemed by the packer. Con- tracts are made in triplicate, one for the packer, one for the buyer, and the third for the broker. A sample form of contract for futures is furnished by Messrs. Baker & Morgan, brokers, Aberdeen, Md. FORM OF CONTRACT FOR FUTURES. No. 9382. ; Aberdeen, Feb. 7th, 1902. Sold to Mr. James Smith, Cincinnati, Ohio. For account of Mr. C. Jones. One thousand (1,000) c-s No. 3 standard tomatoes, pack of 1902, Ber cteiestet iss brand, at ..........per doz. cash less 14 per cent. f. o. b. for prompt shipment when packed. Six months guarantee against swells. BE ansiin ec eoshotancsas ceete see tells hopegtat ike tenets eee nenone Brokers. A form in use in Philadelphia is as follows: No. 116 So. Front 8t. SS Oli ace voit see fi Melee ain so ee eee ess re enc Or one ore a tale en ore We guarantee to furnish promptly as possible well filled cans with fruit carefully selected. Quality to equal previous season’s pack or no sale. Plain labels put on free—Wrapper labels, 24 cents per dozen extra. When buyer’s labels are desired, notice must be given at time of purchase. Sellers not held responsible for non-delivery if caused by destruc- tion of factory. In case of partial failure of the crop, sellers to be only held respon- sible for delivery of 60 per cent. of sale made and for any portion of remaining 40 per cent. not delivered, to pay not exceeding 10 per cent. on contract price. TERMS—Note payable days from date of shipment, or Cash in 7 days. CARTAGE—2 cents per case. Mowpepacked OL lec te52 a poeee ee and shipped as early as possi- ble. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 283 Swells guaranteed to Juy 1st, fol- lowing date of shipment. Signed, ON ene: ee.0) 0! ere @ \e,'@ ‘@: 10.6 0 6.0) 0, 6/16; 6/010; 0, 6 ©),0)10 1918 VEGETABLES COMMONLY CANNED. The vegetables which take the lead in canned goods are corn, peas and tomatoes, the last named being the simplest to put up success- fully. It will therefore be considered here first. TOMATOES. It is estimated that an area of nearly 400,000 acres of good land is devoted to the growing of tomatoes for the canning factory in this country. The large pack of 1899 reported to have exceeded 7,000,000 cases of two dozen cans, indicates the importance of the tomato in the canning industry. The bulk of the crop is grown in a few States of which Maryland is in the lead. The tomato is adapted to a great extent of territory and new regions are rapidly being devoted to the tomato and its canning. The varieties best suited to the canner’s purposes are such as pro- duce large, smooth, solid fruits. They should be such as ripen to the stem. The “Jersey Red,’ so commonly seen upon labels of canned goods, is not a variety of the seedmen’s catalogue, but a local name in New Jersey, for a tomato that has been grown for the cannery so long that its true name has been lost. Paragon, Cham- pion, The Stone and Perfection are all very good varieties. The plants are easily grown from the seed by remembering that they are very tender and should have a seed bed sheltered from cold winds and much well decayed manure worked into the soil to make it loose and warm. The plants should be ready for the field not later than the middle of June, therefore, whenever late frosts would prohibit the development of a strong plant by that time in the open ground, it is necessary to start the seedlings in a hot bed. No effort is made to have the fruit for the cannery at an early date. In this latitude the fields planted for this purpose begin to ripen in August and yield heavily until frost overtakes them. The tomato varies greatly in its yield according to the variety, the treatment, and the character of the soil. Twenty tons per acre are frequently obtained, but the average yield for a term of years on fairly good soil is eight tons, for which the farmer may expect a contract price of $5 to $7 per ton. The form of contract is very brief, simply setting forth that the 284 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. product of a given number of acres of tomatoes has been purchased by a certain cannery at a stated price per ton delivered at the factory. Many factories can no other product than tomatoes, and nearly every factory includes this vegetable in its list of packed goods. The tomatoes are put up in two pound and three pound cans at a cost of about 45 cents and 60 cents per dozen respectively. The practice in canning the tomato varies slightly in method. Some packers do not exhaust the cans before tipping, but cap and tip the cans as soon as they are filled and then subject them to the process. Others prefer to exhaust before the vent is tipped, and still others will steam the filled cans in steam boxes before capping them. Where the product can be rapidly passed from the scalding to the process, the first method is claimed to retain the best flavor of the tomato, but if it passes slowly from step to step the tomatoes have time to deterior- ate and an inferior quality results. The treatment of tomatoes at the factory has been given else- where, but is briefly outlined here again. The fruit fresh from the vines is scalded by being dipped into boiling water kept “jumping” by the injection of steam. This does not cook the tomato, but sim- ply scalds the skin and tissue immediately under it so that the skin can be easily peeled off. This peeling is done by hand, and women are usually employed for the work. They are paid two cents per 14 quart bucketful, receiving a brass check for each bucketful as it is delivered to the packer. The checks are redeemed with cash at the office of the factory. The packer fills the cans (2 pounds or 3 pounds) as solid as possible, after which if there is to be no exhaust the cans are wiped, capped and tipped and then tested for imperfectly sealed cans by submerging about one-half inch under boiling water. This treatment promptly reveals any imperfection in the sealing of the cans by forcing out the air that rises in bubbles through the over- lying water. Such cans are picked out with the can tongs and their defects are removed. The batch of cans is then processed in the open bath thirty minutes for 3 pound cans and twenty-two minutes for 2 pound cans, or in the closed bath fifteen minutes for 3 pound cans and ten minutes for 2 pound cans. The cost of canning tomatoes like the cost of canning any other product, in fact, depends wholly upon the prices paid for raw ma- terials and labor and the mechanical devices used. When every de- tail has been properly arranged the cost of packing 2 pound cans will be about forty-five cents per dozen and 8 pound cans sixty cents per dozen. Artificial Coloring.—The market demands a very red tomato and the packer striving to meet this demand is in some sections tempted to use coloring materials. This of course is contrary to the Pure Food Laws and the conscientious packer will not transgress the law. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 285 It is very likely that materials used to color the juice and flesh of the tomato would also color the seed, and its presence could, there- fore, be easily recognized; but it is claimed by the manufacturers for the “Perfection” tomato coloring that it will not color the seeds z } : : , t 2 = “4 “3 THE SPRAGUE CORN CuTTER. Mopet M. 1900 StryLEC. when used according to directions and the colored goods would pass inspection. This coloring liquid is advertised at $2.00 per gallon, a gallon being sufficient to color 25,000 3 pound cans, and is claimed to be absolutely not prejudicial to health in any quantity that might be used. 286 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe: CORN. The canning of sugar corn is about of equal importance with that of tomatoes though the profits of packing are not so easily realized in the former by the small factory. So much special machinery for putting up corn has been invented that no factory can afford to pack corn without it. THe ULERKY-MERRILL-SOULE CORN SILKER. The varieties of corn grown for canning are the Stowell’s Evergreen and Egyptian. For a fancy grade of goods the Country Gentleman is preferred. It has small grains, white color and is sweeter than the other varieties named. The canning season is lengthened by hav- ing the seed planted at various dates in the spring at intervals of No. 6. DEPARTMHBNT OF AGRICULTURE. 287 one week from May 1 to June 15. Contracts with the farmers may stipulate the date of planting to regulate the supply of the crop. Good corn land well prepared and fertilized is used for this crop. The yield of ears in the husk as delivered to the cannery is from three to five tons per acre, for which the canners pays $4.50 to $7.00 per ton. ‘The lower prices prevail in the west and the higher prices im the east. The margin of profit to the farmer on the raw material is as small as it is to the packer on the packed goods. The canner prefers to have the corn in a young stage, just about when it is in the best condition for table use. He directs that the ears should be pulled early in the morning and delivered promptly at the factory. To have a good white product in the can, every detail in handling the raw material must be carefully managed. The contract with the farmer usually provides that the corn will be delivered at the factory according to the directions of the packer, that corn too young or too old may be refused, and that it must be delivered same day as it is pulled. Canners do not like to carry corn over night, hence insist tpon an early delivery each day. As soon as the corn arrives at the factory it is husked and the imperfect ears are trimmed of their imperfections and then passed with the good ears to the cutting machines. The Sprague corn cut- ter is in common use in large factories. It has a capacity of 15,000 cans per day. Corn is cut from the cob in two different ways, by the same ma- chinery according to the adjustment of the knives. In one case the kernels are cut off as nearly whole as possible. The corn is then passed through the silker to remove the silk and then filled cold into the cans. A weak brine is also added and the cans are then wiped and capped but not tipped. The cans are then exhausted by being immersed in boiling water for ten minutes to heat the corn and drive out the air. They are then tipped and put through the cooking pro- cess which takes place in the retorts at a temperature of 250 degrees ‘ahrenheit. The time of this process varies with different packers, being from forty to fifty-five minutes. After this process the cans are passed through a cold water bath to stop the cooking within, and to prevent the corn turning dark. This method is known as the moist pack or cold pack, generally practiced in Maryland. The other method of canning corn is called the dry pack or hot pack and is commonly practiced in Maine and New York. In fact it is generally being adopted in preference to the other method in all the new corn canning sections. “Dry pack” corn commands a higher price than the “moist pack” corn. The knives of the corn cutter are set to cut off only the upper half of the kernels while the rest is removed by the scrapers in the oon- 288 ANNTAL REFORT OF THE Off. Doc. dition of pulp. After passing the corn through a silker it is con- veyed to the “corn cooker” to be heated (not to be cooked strictly speaking, for this process takes place in the retorts later), and thor- THE CONANT SINGLE CORN COOKER. oughly mixed with the brine or syrup. This cooker fills the heated corn directly into cans, and these are then promptly capped, tipped and subjected to the sterilizing process as described for the other system of packing. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 289 Corn is regularly packed in 2 pound cans at an average cost of sixty cents per dozen. The margin on corn is very small and severe losses are sustained by “swells” and “sour corn.” The canner must make good to the merchant all the spoilage that appears in the warehouse or the grocery store. “Swells” are the cans which bulge out the lid of the can owing to a pressure from within occasioned by a fermentation of the corn. Such corn is usually “sour” and is unfit for use. It is evident that the cooking process did not effectually sterilize the contents of the can. Some bacteria resist very high temperature, West Process KETTLE. and the packer has learned by experience that the cxcessive cooking of high temperature turns his corn dark. Therefore the demand for whiteness and the fear of spoils keeps the packer anxiously awaiting the results of his labor. Heat travels slowly through a mass of corn in the can and since the sterilization is often imperfect, the processor keeps himself in- formed of the exact temperature in the corn at the very centre of the can by using an appropriate thermometer, made expressly for the purpose. Several styles of such thermometers are in use, a very good one is the A. B. H. self-registering sterilizing thermometer, which is firmly suspended from the top of a can made expressly for the test. The bulb of the thermometer is in the exact centre of the 19—6—1902 290 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. can. The can is filled with corn and introduced with a batch of cans in the processing retort; at the conclusion of the process the test can is removed, the thermometer taken out and the registered temperature is easily read. The test can is then emptied and cleaned for the next batch of corn to go into the retort. PEAS. The pea canning business has been greatly modified in recent years by the invention of some remarkable machinery, particularly the Chisholm-Scott Pea Viner. Formerly a great army of pickers was necessary in pea canning sections to pick the peas from the vines in the fields. Another army of hands was necessary to hull the green .) assem STOO | THE BALLARD PEA FILLING AND BRINING MacHINE. peas and so throughout the whole series of operations of canning peas the hand labor was excessive, tedious and expensive. Now the vines are cut with the scythe or mower, hauled to the factory and de- livered to the viner or huller which shells and separates the peas from the vines, discharging the latter to one side and the former to the cleaner. The patentees and manufacturers of this viner are the Chisholm-Scott Co., Suspension Bridge, N. Y. They do not sell the machine, but place them with canners upon a royalty basis in re- stricted territories. The varieties of peas most generally planted for canning are Alaska, Blue Beauty and French Canner. The first two varieties are known No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 291 to the canner as the “Karly June” peas. They are planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. ‘The peas may be planted in drills to permit surface cultivation or sown broadcast. The latter method, however, is successful only with certain rich soils and the dwarf varieties of peas. The quantity of seeds required to plant an acre by the drill method is about 24 bushels and by the broad cast method from 3 to 4 bushels. The vines are cut when they are yet green, before the oldest pods have begun to shrivel and delivered at the factory. The grower is entitled to the pea vines after the hulling. The pea being a legu- minous plant a “nitrogen gatherer,” the refuse tops are a valuable fer- tilizer, and if plowed under or composted with the manure heap they are worth many times over the cost of taking them home. It has been said the peas that are taken from the vines by the re- markable machinery called the Viner, then cleaned by passing through the cleaner, then graded into four or five sizes for the cans, must show a uniform size of peas to pass as properly packed goods. The smaller sizes command the best prices. The peas are then “blanched” by scalding them in wire or perforated iron baskets. This treatment cleans and heats the peas through, after which they are delivered to a machine that fills the cans with peas and brine ready for capping. After effectually sealing the cans they are processed in the closed kettle at 240 degrees Fahrenheit for fifteen to twenty-five minutes according to the condition of the peas whether young or old. After the cans are cooled they are ready for the pack- ing house where labeling and casing is done. Peas are put up in 2 pound cans at a cost of about seventy cents per dozen. BEANS, STRING. A large quantity of string beans are canned by factories fitted up for packing peas and corn. The varieties chiefly planted are Early Valentine, Early Mohawk and Black Wax. The yield varies greatly, but for fair land with good cultivation it may be estimated at 100 _ bushels per acre, for which the canner will pay about thirty cents per bushel. String beans are prepared for the can much as peas are, the ends and “strings” are removed and the large pods broken in two. The product is then blanched as described for peas, packed in 2 pound cans, filled with hot brine, capped and tipped. Process- ing takes place in the closed kettle at a temperature of 240 degrees Fahrenheit for forty minutes. 292 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. BEANS, LIMA. The Large White Lima and the Small White Lima are the two principal varieties of lima beans that are packed. The yield is about 75 bushels of shelled beans to the acre. The pods are shelled by hand and the beans are packed, without blanching, in 2 pound cans, dipped in a hot brine and sealed in the usual way. Lima beans are processed in the closed kettle for thirty minutes at 240 degrees Fahr- enheit. SUCCOTASH. A combination of sweet corn and small lima beans is much called for in certain markets and will generally be found among “quota- tions.” The proportion of each is about two parts of the former to one part of the latter. The corn is cut from the ear as for the “moist pack,” that is cutting off the whole grain. The combination is then put in 2 pound cans according to the “moist pack” method for corn. SQUASH AND PUMPKIN. Boston Marrow and Hubbard squash, and any good cooking variety of pumpkin are canned in limited quantities, the latter for making pies. Squash and pumpkins are first blanched, just enough to soften the rind to make peeling easy. They are then sliced and grated or mashed and packed into 8 pound cans making them full and using no liquor. The processing may be done in either the open or closed kettle, allowing forty minutes in the former and fifteen minutes in the latter. FRUITS. The precess of fruit canning is very simple and therefore fruits are excelient material for a canner to begin on. The principles on which commercial canning is based are the same as those by which fruits have been canned for many years in kitchens. But in the handling of large quantities of perishable fruit in the manner that be- comes necessary at a large canning factory, a considerable executive ability is demanded. The purchase of the fruit to be delivered in regular installments, the prompt preparation of it for the cans to avoid discoloration and deterioration, and every other operation to the conclusion of the process require some experience, wisdom and No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 293 good judgment. The cauning of fruit is upon very narrow margins of profit and therefore the success of a business. depends greatly upon careful management, so that every laborer will be constantly employed, every operation successfully performed and that every expense is reduced to a minimum figure. Fruit canning is most ex- tensively carried on in California where the opportunities for getting large quantities and fine qualities of fruit cannot be excelled. For forty-five years this industry has made rapid growth in California, and the eastern canners are meeting serious competition with the high grade California canned fruits in the eastern markets. California fruits are put up with greater care and selection than is practiced in the east. They are packed in four distinct grades. The first grade is of the choicest fruits, free from all defects, peeled by hand and carefully packed in cans using a strong syrup. These are known in the markets as EXTRAS, being put up in 3 pound and 2} pound cans. The second grade is known as EXTRA STANDARDS, being selected and handled with the same care as for the first grade. The fruits of the second grade are slightly smaller than in the evtras, and are always put in 24 pound cans. The third grade is known as STANDARDS. In this the size of the fruit is smaller than in the pre- ceding and the paring (when necessary), is done by machine. The fourth grade is known as sEconps. In this an inferior grade of fruit is used. The syrup uscd in these four grades varies from a 10 per cent. solution in the fourth grade to a 32 per cent. solution in the extras. All kinds of fruit may be canned successfully. Brief directions are given only for the fruits which are commonly packed in the eastern States. APPLES. Many small canning factories have been started in localities where apples are extensively grown, and have found it profitable to put up this one line of goods only. There are many old orchards bearing quantities of fruit that makes excellent canning material, but not being of the well known market varieties, do not command good prices when barreled. For this fruit the canner pays from 25 cents to 50 cents per bushel at the factory and the farmers are willing to sell at scch prices. Any variety that is a good cooking apple is acceptable for canning. The season may begin in August with the Red Astrachan, and this followed with Jeffries, Duchess of Oldenburg, Maiden’s Blush, St. Lawrence, King, Baldwin, Bellflower, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, etc. 294 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. At the factory the apples are pared and cored by suitable machines run by hand or steam power. They are then packed as solid as pos- sible into 38 pound cans or in gallon cans, as the market demands. The cans are then filled with cold or hot water; if the former, the cans are exhausted 5 minutes at 212 degrees Fahrenheit before tip- ping, if the latter, they are tipped at once and submitted to the pro- cess. If this is done in the open bath the boiling is continued 10 minutes at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, if in the closed bath 2 minutes are allowed for the process at 240 degrees Fahrenheit. PEACHES. Peaches are successfully grown in several sections of Pennsylvania and it is remarkable that there are not more factories in these sec- tions to work up that fruit which cannot find a better market. Peach canning is one of the important branches of the industry and a good quality of goods will find a ready sale. The best varieties are those with a firm, yellow flesh, like the Late Crawford, Elberta and Smock. The canner pays from fifty cents to $2.00 per bushel according to the season and quality of the fruit. At the factory the fruit is pared, cut into halves, removing the stones. The pieces of peach are then carefully packed into the cans and the ten degree cane sugar syrup is poured over them to fill the cans. They are then capped, ex- hausted five minutes at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, tipped and processed ten minutes at 212 degrees Fahrenheit in open bath or two minutes at 240 degrees Fahrenheit in closed bath. It costs from $1.50 to $2.50 per case to put up such peaches, and they sell in the market at usually double the cost. “Pie Fruit” is an inferior grade of peach not pared but cut into pieces and put up in the cans with water instead of a syrup. They cost less to pack and are of course sold at a lower figure than the other grades of peaches. PEARS. Pears in cans are always in good demand. The supply of the fruit is limited. The Bartlett stands at the head of the list of varieties, although it is not necessary to refuse any variety at the canning fac- tory. The best price is paid for Bartletts ranging from forty cents to $1.25 per bushel. Pears are put up in 2 pound cans in the east and in 8 pound cans in California. The fruit is pared, cut into halves or quarters, removing ibe core and bruises and put up in a cold cane- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 295 sugar syrup using a ten per cent. or even heavier solution. The cans are exhausted at 212 degrees Fahrenheit for five minutes then pro- cessed twelve minutes in the open bath or twelve minutes in the closed bath at 240 degrees Fahrenheit. The cost of putting up such pears ranges from $1.00 to $2.00 per case. Other fruits that are canned with profit by the factories located within reach of the products are cherries, plums, quinces, apricots, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, grapes, pineapples, raspberries, strawberries and huckleberries. APRICOTS AND NECTARINES. Apricets and nectarines are canned chiefly in California. These fruits are wiped but not pared (except for special grades of goods), cut into halves and packed into cans with a cane sugar syrup. BERRIES. Blackberries, currants, gooseberries, grapes and whortleberries are all packed to a limited extent. The method of canning is the same in all cases. When the fruit is cleaned it is packed in 2 pound cans with cold or hot water, sealed and processed as for apples. Raspberries and strawberries are prepared for the cans as for other berries, but are packed with a syrup using extra heavy syrups for the strawberries. The processing is about the same as for other berries. CHERRIES AND PLUMS. The best cherries and plums in cans come from California, though some cherries are packed in the east. These fruits are put up with a syrup and the white or yellow-fruited varieties are preferred. Other fruits are packed, but the principal ones of the east have been considered. The pineapple is very largely canned in Baltimore, using the fruits which are shipped north from Florida and other southern countries. Jellies. Canners of fruits often find it convenient to convert some of their fruit into jellies, but too often the fruit reaches them too ripe to make good jelly. The fruit should be at its first stage of ripeness, carefully cleaned and cleared of decayed spots. It is then run through a grinding machine and put into a kettle with just enough water to keep the fruit from burning or scorching. It is boiled slowly for a half hour to extract the juices gud then placed in jelly 296 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. sacks to drain the liquid from the pulp (ordinary sugar sacks washed clean are excellent for this purpose.) The juice is further cleared by passing through one or more layers of cotton wool. When it has been thus treated, the juice is again heated very slowly. To every gallon of juice is added four and one-half pounds of granulated sugar, and boiling is continued for twenty minutes more. ‘The jelly glasses are then filled full and left to cool, then a teaspoonful of boiling hot paratfine wax is dropped over the jelly in each glass, and a tin cover over the glass completes the work. Crystallized Fruit. ‘This style of preserving fruit is peculiar to the California packers. Candied, crystallized or glaced fruits are now found among all first class confections, and were first prepared about 25 years ago. The processes are evolved from much experi- mentation and are not made public. This much may be said of the general method of making candied fruit. The juice of the fruit is extracted and replaced with a sugar syrup which upon hardening prevents decay and at the same time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruits may thus be preserved. ‘The best fruits are selected when at the proper degree of ripeness for ordinary canning. The large fruits are pared and halved, and plums and cherries are pitted. The fruit thus prepared is placed in baskets or perforated buckets and suspended in boiling water. This re- moves the juice from the fruit and demands the greatest skill to be properly timed. After the fruit is cooled it is placed in earthen pans and covered with a very heavy syrup, ordinarily one testing 70 degrees by a Balling saccharometer. In this syrup, made with white granulated cane sugar, the fruit is allowed to remain for one week, then there is danger of a fermentation setting in which must be checked by heating to boiling point the fruit and syrup. This heating is repeated at intervals as necessary for about six weeks. The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, washed in clean water and is then glaced or crystallized as preferred. It is glaced by dipping into a thick sugar syrup and being left to harden quickly in the air. By dipping thus and causing it to cool and harden slowly, the sugar on the surface crystallizes and makes the crystallized fruit. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 297 THE STANDARD OF THE BALTIMORE CANNED GOODS EX- CHANGE. Officers of the Exchange. Wm. Miller, President. A. F. Jones, Secretary. Apples.—Pared and cored, clear in color; cans to be full of fruit, put up in water. Blackberries.—Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full after draining; fruit to be sound, put up in water. Cherries—White Wax. Cans to be full of fruit, free of specks and decay, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Cherries.—Red. , Cans full of fruit, free of specks or decay, put up in water. Gooseberries.—Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full after draining; fruit unripe and uncapped; put up in water. Egg Plums and Green Gages.—Cans full, whole fruit, free from reddish color or specks, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Peaches.—Cans full, fruit good size, evenly pared, cut in half pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Pie Peaches.—Cans full, fruit sound, unpared, cut in half pieces, put up in water. Pears.—Bartlett. Cans full, fruit white and clear, pared, cut in half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Pears.—Bell or Duchess. Cans full, fruit pared, cut in half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Pineapples.—Cans full, fruit sound and carefully pared, slices laid in evenly, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Plums and Damsons.—Cans full, sound fruit, put up in water. Quinces.—Cans full, fruit pared and cored, cut in half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Raspberries.—Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full and after draining, fruit to be sound, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar syrup. Strawberries.—Cans to cut out after draining not less than half full of fruit, which shall be sound, and not of the variety known as seedlings, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane sugar Syrup. Whortleberries.—Cans full, fruit to be sound, put up in water. 298 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. VEGETABLES. Lima Beans.—Cans full of green beans, clear liquor. String Beans.—Cans full, beans young and tender and carefully strung, packed during growing season. Corn.—Sweet corn only to be used from the cob while young and tender, cans to cut out full of corn. Peas.—Cans full of young and tender peas, free of yellow or black eyes, clear liquor. Pumpkin.—To be solid packed as possible, free from lumps and of good color. Succotash.—Cans to be full of green corn and green lima beans. Tomatoes.—Cans to be reasonably solid, of good, ripe fruit, cold packed. Oysters.—To cut out not less than five ounces for No. 1, and ten ounces for No. 2 cans; of dry meat, after liquor is drained off. ‘To be good size and bright color. STANDARD SIZES FOR CANS. Adopted by the Baltimore Canned Goods Exchange, November 19, 1893. Diameter. Height. NOR ESC ans® 4S cec hassles oe ometeae ne 2? in. 4 in. IN OMe AMS #562 2 eects ness teaptaenagean! allots We tottus tore to nee 3 7-16 in. 4 9-16 in. INO seated SOAS 58 eee Fite eo okaetalon hee aiererot eee a plas 4 3-16 in. 4% in. No. 6 Cans, twice the quantity of No. 3. INGO MO AIIS: fe Aires 2s te. cia: to Siencteve saeteNe tole tae ole ae te 6; in. T in. STANDARD SIZES FOR BOXES. Sizes of Boxes for Canned Goods—Inside Measurement. 2 dozen Cans? sizes. seis on. sil. bine oe were 114x 84x 84 inches. es A OC pte? oe hace (ate, arses see 144x104x 93 “ iy we v Oe haber apt sich aye:te ooh ak avait tke Slavens ae ae 174x13 x104 “ A ese i: oO hb tecbeiset: vee Bt aes beg ame eae 163xllix 8} “ 1 bg ses Sa Hate ke ee ee ee ee lijx 84x 44 “ tr. ak; es SO ety CORPS aie aie. obs acetone wee a iteeeeee 144x10dx 43 “ ens Gallom-Camsp). 5 -}.2.5 cb Stace: 3 state Rete 19 x1l29x 7 “ i ae s 6 high POXCS « Bou. see ene 19 x123x14 i: 1 bey a oo at iO Gis Gas otate Baas Saas RO eRe NPA E ma? NOG Camngs + saci.) tcrne shattered bie eeehaie 20gxl5gx 65 “ No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 299 SHIPPING WEIGHTS FOR CANNED GOODS. Num eM OEM gre Me cyaweten cise eynccpetemeys ors eityceoe oat © silence Giu.grevenai'e “tes 26 pounds. ENG yeepe es ONC See stter's a, citsliaite: a oscde ls elev ede erase scces hecans ie Pena mateceeie Oke 46 - eNO RESP «cherries ahs, ces eras ede eae vee a Teg PUBLICATIONS CONCERNING THE CANNING OF VEGETA- BLES AND FRUITS. The Art of Canning and Preserving as an Industry. By Dr. Jean Pacrette, of Paris. New York, 1901. Price $10.00. The Secrets of Canning. By Ernest Schwaab. New York, 1899. Price $5.00 Bacteriology. By E. W. Duckwall. Baltimore, 1899. Price $5.00. A study of the bacteria of canned foods. Fruit Growers Manual, for Canning Fruits, ete. By Hemlon-Mer- iam Co. California. Price $2.50. Tomato Growing (for the Cannery), Farmer’s Bulletin No. 76. U. S. Dept of Agr. By Edw. B. Voorhees, M. A. Director of New Jer- sey Agricultural Experiment Station. 1898. Pea Canning in Delaware. Bulletin XLI. Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Del. By G. Harold Powell, Horticul- turist of Station. 1898. These publications have been freely consulted in the preparation of this article and while making acknowledgments to the authors, the writer also remembers the canners who extended courtesies at their factories and the canning machinery manufacturers for the valuable suggestion they have made. Special thanks are due the Sprague Canning Machinery Co., and the Ayars Machine Co., for the use of illustrations of modern special machinery. —_—_— SUPPLY HOUSES AND MANUFACTURERS OF CANNING FAC- TORY MACHINERY AND MATERIALS. The American Can Co., Bowling Green Building, New York city, N. Y.; Merchant’s Bank Building, Baltimore, Md.; Merchant’s Loan and Trust Building, Chicago, Lll.; 209-221 Mission street, San Francisco, Cal. The Sinclair-Scott Co., Wells and Patapsco streets, Baltimore, Md. Cox Bros. & Co., Bridgeton, N. J. Stevenson & Co., 229 N. Holliday street, Baltimore, Md. 300 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Ayars Machine Co., Salem, N. J. Consumers Can Co., Baltimore, Md. The Fred H. Knapp Co. 42 River street, Chicago, Ill., labelling ma- chine. The Grasselli Chemical Co., Cleveland Ohio, soldering flux. Thomsen Chemical Co., Baltimore, Md., soldering flux. A. B. Robins & Co., 724 E. Pratt street, Baltimore, Md., outfits. H. Cottingham, Baltimore, Md., outfits. The Sprague Canning Machinery Co., Chicago, IIl., outfits. Burt Labelling Machine Co., 404 Atlantic Trust Building, Balti- more, Md. Remington Machine Co., Wilmington, Del. The Monumental Label Co., Baltimore, Md. Hastings Industrial Co., 79 Dearborn street, Chicago, Ill., out- fitters. E. J. Lewis, Middleport, N. Y., machinery. John E. Smith’s Sons, Buffalo, N. Y., kraut cutters. Stayman & Co., 125 East Falls avenue, Baltimore, Md., can mak- ing outfits. Thomson Manufacturing Co., 33 8. Gay street, Baltimore, Md., ma- chinery and cans. A. Schultz & Co., 1016 East Baltimore street, Baltimore, Md., sol- ders and fluxes. J. S. Hull Manufacturing Co., 125 127 East Falls avenue, Balti- more, Md., gasoline apparatus. Moore & McFerren, Hoopestown, Ill., cottonwood boxes. The Union Can Co., Hoopestown, Ill., tin cans; Buffalo, N. Y., tin cans. Adriance Machine Works, 252 Van Brunt St., Brooklyn, N. Y., can making machinery. CANNED GOODS BROKERS. Baker & Morgan, Aberdeen, Md. N. H. Dudley & Co., cor. Duane and Hudson streets, New York city. Walter G. Holcombe, 303 California street, San Francisco, Cal. M. Morfit, Baltimore, Md. T. J. Meehan & Co., 407 Water street, Baltimore, Md. H. H. Taylor & Sons, Baltimore, Md. J. L. Rowland & Co., Baltimore, Md. Wm. H. Nichols & Co., 42 River street, Chicago, III. Watson M. Null, 241 S. Front street, Philadelphia, Pa. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 301 Wm. G. Bonstedt & Co., 10 S. Front street, Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. J. Young, 53 8. Front street, Philadelphia, Pa. Thos. Roberts & Co., 116'S. Front street, Philadelphia, Pa. Wilson Sherborne & Co., 107 N. Water street, Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. Castle, 18 N. Water street, Philadelphia, Pa. CANNING FACTORIES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE UNITED STATES. California: Campbell, J. C. Amsley Packing Co. San Francisco, Hickmot Asparagus Canning Co. San José, J. H. Flickinger & Co. Colorado: Denver, The Kiiner Pickle Co. Longmont, The Empson Packing Co. Delaware: Bridgeville, H. P. Cannon. Camden, Stetson & Ellison. Harrington, Fleming & Co. Laurel, Geo. W. Stradley. Milford, David Reis. Rising Sun, Farmer’s Preserving Co. Seaford, Greenabaum [Gros. Seaford, Ross Bros. Smyrna, John H. Hoffnicker. Woodside, 8. H. Derby & Co. Illinois: Bloomington, Bloomington Canning Co. Elgin, Elgin Packing Co. Kureka, Dickinson & Co. Hoopestown, Illinois Canning Co. Indiana: Cayuga, N.S. Martz. Eaton, Indiana Packing Co. Greenwood, J. T. Polk. Muncie, Crampton-Tohey Canning Co. 19 302 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Indiana—Continued. Muncie, Magic Packing Co. New Castle, Blue River Canning Co. Sellersburg, Silver Creek Canning Co. Iowa: Fort Madison, Fort Madison Canning Co. Waverly, The Kelly Canning Co. Maine: Brunswick, Baxter Bros. Co. Farmington, C. 8. Dingley & Co. Jonesport, Jonesport Packing Co. Lubec, Eureka Packing Co. North Lubec, Lubec Packing Co. Portland, Portland Packing Co. Portland, The Twitchell-Chaplin Co. Maryland: Baltimore, W. W. Boyer & Co. Baltimore, The John Boyle Co. Baltimore, Gibbs Preserving Co. Baltimore, W. Grech & Co. Baltimore, S. M. Lawder & Sons Co. Baltimore, H. J. McGrath & Co. Baltimore, Thos. J. Meyer & Co. Baltimore, Wm. Numsen & Sons. Baltimore, The Sterling Packing Co. Baltimore, The Martin Wagner Co. Baltimore, Moore & Brady. Bethlehem, R. M. Messick. Buckeystown, The Buckeystown Packing Co. Cambridge, Ivey L. Leonard Packing Co. Kaston, Hubbard & Bro. Frederick, Monocacy Canning Co. Goldsboro, Robt. Jarrell. Greensboro, F. P. Roe & Bro. Havre de Grace, H. A. Osborn. Hillsboro, Stewart & Jarrell. Perryman, John W. Bay & Co. Ridge Summit, Emmond Bros. Union Mills, B. F. Shriver & Co. Westminster, B. F. Shriver & Co. Westminster, Smith Yingling & Co. Off. Doc. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Michigan: Adrian, Adrian Packing Co. Benton Harbor, Alden Canning Co. Kalamazoo, The Dunkle Celery and Preserving Co. Dowagiac, Dowagiac Canning Co. New Jersey: Bridgeton, B. S. Ayars. Freehold, Jos. Brakeley. Greenwich, Watson Bros & Co. Salem, Hiles & Hilliard. Salem, Stam & Bro. Salem, Mrs. J. W. Lippencott. Sharpstown, Kerrison M. Davies. Stevens, Frederick Cooper. New York: Buffalo, Erie Preserving Co. Buffalo, The United States Canning Co. Clyde,. Dwight Hemmingway. East Rush, Genesee Valley Preserving Co. Fairport, Howard Thomas Co. Fredonia, Fredonia Canning and Manufacturing Co. xeneva, Geneva Preserving Co. Geneva, Torrey Park Preserving Co. New York City, Romain & Co. Rochester, Curtice Brothers. Rome, Clinton Canning Co. Rome, Fort Stanwix Canning Co. Syracuse, H. C. Hemmingway & Co. Taberg, A. V. Lane. Verona, Empire State Canning Co. Verona, Fred Merry. Westernville, Mohawk Valley Canning Co. Williamstown, J. J. & F. White. Ohio: Ashville, Sciota Canning Co. Beach City, The Trescott Packing Co. Canton, Canton Canning Co. Circleville, C. E. Sears & Co. Cleveland, Cleveland Canning Co. Dayton, North Dayton Packing Co. 803 304 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doce. Ohio—Continued. Pleasant Hill, Pleasant Hill Canning Co. West Alexandria, Gem Canning Co. Pennsylvania: Delta, J. S. Whiteford. Girard, Hamilton Bros. Hanover, Winnebrenner & Co. Littlestown, B. F. Shriver & Co. McCall’s Ferry, E. W. Urey & Co. North East, The North East Preserving Co. Philadelphia, Wm. F. Beck. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Packing and Provision Co. Philadelphia, Selser Bros. Co. Pleasant Grove, E. M. Haines. Shamokin, Shamokin Packing Co. Stewartstown, J. B. Gable. Stewartstown, J. M. Jordan. York, York Packing Co. York, John H. Thomas. Wisconsin: Manitowoc, A. Landreth Co. Manitowoc, East Wisconsin Canning Co. Sun Prairie, Sun Prairie Canning Co. Two Rivers, E. J. Vodra Canning Co. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 305 BACTERIA OF THE SOIL IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. BY FREDERICK D. CHESTER, Bacteriologist, Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station The bacteria of the soil bear a most important relation to the nu- trition of plants. If a soil be heated to a temperature sufficient to destroy its bacterial life, the growth of plants will be maintained therein only up to the point of the exhaustion of its easily soluble and assimilable plant food, at the end of which time they will die of starvation. The reason for this is that new plant food can no longer be elaborated since the agents concerned in the latter process are wanting. Should this condition of sterility of the soil continue it can no longer produce crops, and were this condition universal the world would become a barren waste. In every soil a series of complete chemical changes are taking place, due to the activities of soil organisms. These changes involve the digestion of crude plant food whereby an otherwise useless con- stituent of the soil is put into such a state that it can be absorbed by the plant. Digestion, therefore, implies the rendering soluble of an otherwise insoluble substance. Nutrition whether applied to animals or plants implies three dis- tinct processes; digestion, absorption and assimilation. Digestion is the rendering soluble; absorption is the taking up of the soluble products, while assimilation is the elaboration of new tissues from the absorbed products. Substances to be absorbed must be so changed that they will dis- solve in the fluids of the organisms, which in the case of an animal, is the blood or lymph, and of the plant, its juices. Starch taken as food is insoluble in the fluids of the body; it therefore cannot be absorbed until it is converted into a soluble sugar A morsel of lean meat is insoluble, however fine its state of division, hence before it can be absorbed it must be converted during digestion into a soluble pepton. What is true of the crude elements of animal food is equally true of the crude plant food of the soil. Thus the granule of mineral matter, the bit of bone in a fertilizer, the shred of dried blood or other animal matter, the top and root of the clover turned under— 20—6- -1902 306 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. all these and many other forms of crude plant food are in themselves -of no use to the plant until the elements therein are put into such a shape as to be taken up into the juices of the plant through the absorbing rootlets. Furthermore, as we have intimated, this work of digesting the crude plant food of the soil is continually being car- ried on by myriads of microscopic organisms present in every normal soi]. Through their agency nourishment is gradually and continual- ly being supplied to growing crops as rapidly as their needs demand, and there results a beautiful and wonderful relationship and balance between the life of the highest and lowest of the plant creation. The one is dependent upon the other, and independently neither can nor- mally exist. Such is the general relationship existing between soil micro-organ- isms and plant growth. We are thus led to understand the importance of the study of Soil Bacteriology to general agriculture. The more detailed exposition of the subject, together with the relation of its principles to practice. will be outlined in the pages which follow. I. THE ELEMENTS AND SOURCES OF PLANT FOOD. Ninety-three to ninety-six per cent. of the dry weight of agricul- tural plants is organic matter, and is composed mainly of the four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The remainder is inorganic or mineral matter which is recovered for the most part in the ash when the plant is burned. The elements found in the organic portion occur in approximate proportions as follows: Carbon 45 per cent., oxygen 49 per cent. hydrogen 6 per cent. Besides these, nitrogen may exist in amounts varying from 0.5 to 1.0 per cent. of the whole. The green parts of all plants, but particularly the leaves, in- hale and exhale atmospheric air. In the latter is ordinarily con- tained about four parts of carbon-dioxide for every 10,000 parts of air. Carbon-dioxide is composed of the elements carbon and oxygen in the proportion of one part of the former to two of the latter. It is this compound which furnishes to the plant all of the carbon and a por- tion of the oxygen. The roots absorb water, and conduct it to the stem, whence it is carried to the leaves. Water contains the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Water furnishes all of the hydrogen and a portion of the oxygen. In other words, the two compounds, carbon dioxide and water, are brought together in the leaves and a chemical reaction No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 307 between the two takes place, under the action of sunlight, by which these elements are combined in such a way as to produce starch. Starch therefore accumulates in the leaf as a result of this process known as assimilation. The various changes which the starch undergoes, and the manner in which it contributes to the nutrition of the plant, is a matter be- yond the limits of our subject. But suffice it to say that 98 per cent. of the organic portion of the plant is manufactured by the process here indicated, so that it may be said that in the main the plant gets its food from the air and from pure water. But these elements alone will not suffice to maintain plant life; in fact no plant can grow without that vital substance within its cells known as protoplasm. Plants grow by a multiplication of their cells, and cells empty of protoplasm-are dead. Protoplasm, besides containing the elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, also contains about 16 per cent. of nitrogen, Most agri- cultural plants also contain in their dry water-free state from one- half to two per cent. of nitrogen in the form of proteids, Plants obtain their nitrogen mainly from the soil, and so import- ant is this element to their growth that a soil may be said to be rich or poor as its contents is high or low in nitrogen. In fact the prob- lem of agriculture to-day is to supply to the soil an abundant store of this essential element. The nitrogen of the soil is, in the main, stored away in its humus content, hence soils rich in humus are also rich in nitrogen. Thus it is nitrogen which the agriculturist seeks when he migrates to the prairie loams rich in humus, or when he reclaims the forest to possess a virgin soil. In fact it is the nitrogen problem with which the soil bacteriologist is more concerned than with any other, and its importance and bearings will be made more apparent as we proceed. As has been intimated, from four to seven per cent. of the dry weight of the plant is composed of inorganic or mineral matter. In this portion we recognize, as most important, potash, soda, magnesia, lime, iron, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine and silica. These occur usually in abundance in all soils, although not always in an available form; in fact many of them exist in an insoluble state and need first to be digested or rendered soluble before they can be absorbed by the plant. Soil bacteriology is partly concerned with those processes in the soil by which stores of mineral food are unlocked to growing crops. But to understand these processes in full it will be necessary to con- sider for a moment the question of the origin of soils, and thus trace each step in the operation. 308 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. II. SOILS, THEIR NATURE AND ORIGIN. Rocks form the solid crust of the earth. These when brought under the influence ef the atmosphere, frost and percolating waters, etc., are broken and disintegrated, forming a layer of loose materials con- stituting the soil. The nature of these disintegrations and their re- sulting products vary with each mineral, and hence the character of the soil is largely dependent upon the mineral composition of the underlying rocks. Let us take as an example a region underlaid by some rock of the granite family, such as is found under a considerable portion of southeastern Pennsylvania. Such rock will contain the following minerals: Quartz, orthoclase feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, biotite, hornblende, and accessory apatite and magnetite. The composition of these several minerals will be represented in the following table: Table I. SSS SSS SS SSS SS SS SSS SS SS SSE Name of Mineral. Chemical Composition. [ mM - odsogntocaoonocoes Silica. Onthoclase nicl. jacicisiccisicis + do. Alumina. | Potash. RIAEIOCIASO ie ciciscicieccielcies do. do. Lime. | Soda. | ST Otibe setae letels cisinieiic(ciieeine do. do. do. Magnesia. Hornblende, ............. do. | do. do. | do. Iron. PATIRELECS TTeicletele sicrcie is sicteie sisie do. Phesphoric | acid. Mg enetites ccccicccces cscs | do. | | From the table it is seen that in the granite rock under consider- ation most of the mineral elements necessary to plant growth exist, hence a soil formed from its decay will contain the basis of fertility. The process by which this rock becomes converted into soil is some- thing as follows: The orthoclase, the plagioclase, the biotite and the hornblende in the above list are compounds of silica and alum- ina, various alkalies and earthy materials as potash, soda, magnesia, lime and iron. These latter compounds are slowly dissolved out of their respective minerals by surface waters, rain and atmospheric moisture, more or less charged with carbonic, nitrous, nitric and various organic acids until there is left behind only the silica and alumina, which combined with water form clay. The hard minerals just mentioned, bound together into a rocky mass are thus converted into a soft plastic material. The quartz on the other hand, remains undecomposed, but its grains are set free by the disintegration of the other minerals, and there results more or less sand, which, mixed with the cluy, tends to loosen the latter and give it the character of an arable soil. It is not to be understood that all of the above min- erals undergo dissolution uniformily. The feldspars begin to dis- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 309 ‘ntegrate first, the hornblende next, while the biotite mica remains for a long time unaffected. Thus there results a clay, the final pro- duct of the disintegration, mixed with quartz particles, or sand, to- gether with fragments of undecomposed rock of greater or less size, giving the soil its open, porous or even stony character, so common in regions underlaid by the ancient crystalline rocks. Besides the direct chemical actions already enumerated, other factors in soil formation of a physical nature might be mentioned. These are the expansion and contraction of rock masses; frost and freezing water; plant roots forcing their way into rocky crevices; beating and scouring rain; all tending to disintegrate the rocky cov- ering of the earth and to open it more thoroughly to the subtle action of meteoric waters. Another type of soils are those formed from the disintegration of limestones. Limestones are impure mixtures of carbonate of lime with various proportions of sand and clay. In the disintegration the great bulk of the carbonate of lime is leached out, and the insolu- ble sand and clay are left as the final product. Thus a limestone composed of 75 per cent. of carbonate of lime, may when converted into soil contain only a trace of the original carbonate. This resi- dual soil is however more or less rich in the mineral elements of plant food while the as yet undecomposed particles in the residual sand, by continued disintegration, add new food materials to growing plants. Sandstones undergo disintegration by the solution in meteoric waters of the materials which bind together individual grains. In this way the component sand particles are loosened, together with clay, which is generally an important constituent of most sand- stones. Whatever may be the character of the rock or of its contained minerals the process is the same, i. e., the dissolving out by means of percolating waters of the elements of plant food contained within the minerals. These percolating waters are furthermore made active solvents in the disintegration of rock through the acid products which they contain, which in turn are produced by the decay of or- ganic matter through the agency of micro-organisms. Of the acid products the most active in this regard is carbon dioxide, which is the final product of the decomposition by bacteria of organic mat- rer. The chemical union between the carbon dioxide in percolating waters and the potash soda lime and magnesia in the minerals, re- - sults in the formation of carbonates and bi-carbonates of these bases, which being soluble, are in a large measure carried away in solution so that the residual soil contains but a certain proportion of these original stores of agricultural wealth. This loss of mineral plant 310 ANNVAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. food is illustrated in the following table, in which in the first column are given the percentages of lime magnesia potash and soda in au original gneiss rock, and in the second column the quantities of the same present in the residual soil, Maimbe 1( CaO). ie stein sea a eke h act she yw otc ie element era Eee 4.44 Trace Marmesia’ (Mor): Wenn os case cats: Cee 1.06 0.40 Potash CK 20). fe crschivct. tart ot ose ctstabbeusts cae Pome 4.25 i Ea Kt) Soda (Nai) saees. tes ta cise dt obat cckee ae the ene 2.42 0.22 The question might here be asked why are not all of these elements of plant food entirely leached from the soil, and in what form are these residual materials held. In most soils a portion of them are locked up in the form of undecomposed mineral particles and frag- ments of rock, and it is the continued decomposition of these latter which furnish fresh stores of available plant food. Another important chemical process going on in the soil is the formation of so called zeolitic compounds. As the alkalies, such as soda and potash, are dissolved out of the minerals by carbonated waters the carbonates thus formed possess a certain solvent action upon silica. This dissolved or gelatinous silica combines with the alkalies, resulting in the formation of zeolites. These secondary zeolites thus fix as it were the alkalies, notably potash, which might otherwise be leached from the soil. Furthermore, the especial affin- ity which potash has for zeolites fixes this, the most important of mineral nutriments, above all others. Thus if a zeolite be composed of silica and soda or of silica and lime, the potash in preference will enter into combination with the silica and the less valuable soda or lime will be set free. Zeolites differ from the more insoluble silicates found in rock- forming minerals in the fact that they are readily decomposed by acid soil waters, thus setting free to plants their valuable nutrients. Ill. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL BACTERIA. Active and Potential Fertility of the Soil. Since the different chemical changes taking place in soils, by which plant food is elaborated and rendered available, are in large meas- ures the result of bacterial action, it is assumed that the larger their numbers, up to certain limits, the greater must be the rate of elabora- : tion of plant food. This is instanced by the fact that soils which are under active fertilization and cultivation, and which in the popular sense are con- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 311 sidered fertile, are relatively high in bacteria as compared with those in the opposite condition. In this we must distinguish danas een active and potential fertility. A soil is actively fertile when plant food is being elaborated therein at a greater rate than required by the maximum demand of growing crops. Such soils not merely contain an abundance of crude plant food, but the latter is being actively digested. Such soils are, furthermore, always high in bacteria, showing that the latter are functionating vigorously under conditions most favor- able to them. A soil is potentially fertile when it is rich in plant food, but owing to unfavorable conditions or environment the soil bacteria are dor- mant, and thus either cease to digest plant food or do it so inactively as to fail to keep up with the demand of growing crops. Thus forest and woodland soil are rich in humus and other crude plant food, but owing to their usually acid condition, as well as to their compacted state, the bacteria therein are able to develop but slowly, and but little available plant food is elaborated. Such soils are low in bacteria; but let this virgin forest soil be brought under active cultivation, especially if its acidity be corrected at the same time by means of a liberal dressing of lime, conditions favorable to bacterial life are at once created, the number of bacteria rises, and an actively fertile soil is the consequence. Old pasture lands and permanent meadows possess potential rather than active fertility. In such soils the number of bacteria is relatively low, and plant food is but slowly digested. But such lands are at once converted into an actively fertile condition when brought under cultivation or when other means to stimulate bacterial life in the soil are utilized. It is the function of the agriculturist to understand how poten- tial can be converted into active fertility; in other words how land rich in crude plant food can be made large producer of crops. An average of the results of 49 analyses of typical soils of the United States showed per acre for the first eight inches of surface soil 2,600 pounds of nitrogen, 4,800 pounds of phosphoric acid and 13,460 pounds of potash. The average yield of wheat in the United States is 14 bushels per acre. Such a crop will remove 29.7 pounds of nitrogen, 9.5 pounds of phosphoric acid and 13.7 pounds of potash. Now if all of the potential nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash could be rendered available there is present in such an average soil, in the first 8 inches, enough nitrogen to last 90, enough phosphoric acid for 500 and enough potash for 1,000 years. This is what is meant by potential fertility, and yet such a soil 312 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. possessing this same high potential fertility, may, under certain con- ditions, be so actually barren of results to the farmer as to lead him to believe it absolutely devoid of plant food. A soil at Rothamsted, England, which has been successively crop- ped to grain for 50 years without the addition of manure, and which consequently had become exhausted especially in available phos- phoric acid, still contained a total of 2,880 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre in the first foot of surface, Of this only 72 pounds per acre was soluble in a one per cent. citric acid solution. In other words, a soil which contained enough total phosphoric acid to support a wheat crop for 300 years, had, as a result of 50 years successive cropping, its store of available phos- phoric acid so reduced as to leave a supply sufficient to last only be- tween seven and eight years. This case is typical of thousands of others, and is illustrative of what is meant by soil exhaustion. It consists in using up original supplies of available plant food at a greater rate than they are being manufactured in the soil. Most of the older lands of the Atlantic seaboard which have been regarded as “worn-out” and exhausted are in much the same condition. Never- theless they still contain large stores of unavailable plant food, which it only requires the application of modern agricultural practice to unlock. In other words, soils still potentially fertile must be made actively so, and since soils potentially fertile are low and those ac- tively fertile high in bacteria, it would appear that one of the primary requisites of active fertility is to fulfil those conditions of the soil which favor the best development of bacterial life therein. Numbers of bacteria in soils thus become an index of active fer- tality. IV. METHODS OF DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF BAC- TERIA IN SOILS. 1. Drawing the soil sample. The determination of the number of bacteria in the soil of a given area involves an elaborate and careful preparation of the sample. Studies at the Delaware Experiment Station have shown that the numbers vary considerably within rather narrow horizontal ranges, and thus to obtain an average sample, representative of an entire field, implies the collection and mixing of a large number of smaller samples. For most studies it will be sufficient to collect the first nine or twelve inches of soil, and for this a wood auger one inch in diameter is very satisfactory. To preserve the boring intact a device such as is shown in Fig. Fic. 1.—Apparatus for drawing soil samples. i, ee + aT" a ee > .* 7 aes dhe Pr i. aa —— ae aut on » Fin _ A). U ah a: gaa ke eat ota n ‘ee Ne , oo. fd . i, aka Bt) ie: moe ei v ane ty ‘ tenho OP) ney) 7 of ya see papi. © en So ee a ed pon ip a : >. ore aa), 2 5 ha ore x ¢ Pcie? a 7 veer 7 1.9 ee re vay 7 ra 7 . hee el - a dy ae pees, , “ rie - rz ate be es , Pe, Py peel ji Et a7 ay © &e ; An he e) A * ur . oe / ke ae Pee ek =3 IE, : BEAK No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 313 I, is used. It consists of a circular plate of copper, six inches in diameter, in the centre of which is a circular hole, one and a fourth inches in diameter, from which rises at right angles to the plate a copper tube of the same diameter and twelve inches long. The ground where the boring is to be made is cleared of all vegetation and the copper plate set firmly and held in place by both feet. The auger is then inserted into the copper tube, which should stand vertical to the ground surface, and the auger turned until the re- quired depth is reached, as determined by graduations on the stem of the auger. The auger is then drawn gently from the ground and into the copper tube until the core of earth is enclosed in the latter, and thus kept intact. The earth is then emptied on a sheet of clean paper. In getting an average sample for an entire field, borings should be ' taken along two intersecting lines diagonally across a field at in- tervals of ten or twenty feet according to the size of the plot. These separate borings are emptied into a clean box until the work is fin- ished. The collected soil is then sifted through a No. 10 sieve, reduc- ing the lumps but discarding stones and gravel. The sifted soil is then very thoroughly mixed, and from this a sample of about two pounds is taken to the laboratory. The latter sample is sifted through a brass sieve of a one-milli- meter mesh, and any lumps or coarse particles are reduced in a mor- tar until the entire sample has been made to pass the meshes of the sieve. The whole is then very thoroughly mixed and from this a small sample of about twenty grams is taken. This is then sifted through a 0.5 millimeter brass sieve which has been made sterile in a bath of boiling water, and dried over the bare flame of a bunsen burner. Any lumps or coarse particles which do not readily pass the sieve are rubbed in a sterile mortar until the last portion has passed. The siftings are then thoroughly mixed, transferred to a sterile test- tube and tightly corked. 2. Making the analysis. In a weighed glass-stoppered weighing- bottle approximately 0.5 a gram of the sample is placed, and the exact weight determined. The soil sample is transferred to a small sterile mortar and with a small quantity of sterile water rubbed to a fine mud, after which the last trace of soil in the weighing-bottle is transferred to the mortar by washing with sterile water. The supernatant muddy water in the mortar is then transferred to a 100 ¢c. c. flask containing sterile water; more water is added and the residue triturated; again transferred to the flask, and the opera- tion continued until all of the soil in a finely divided state has been washed into the flask. The latter is then filled to the 100 c. c. mark with sterile water, and the contents vigorously shaken for exactly two minutes. One c. c. of this turbid water is then transferred to a 314 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE “Off. Doe. second 100 ¢. ¢. flask, and filled to the mark with sterile water, shaken for one minute, and 1 ce. c. of the dilution transferred to a tube of melted gelatin (5 c. c. in each tube), the latter gently rocked, and the contents poured inte a Petri dish. The gelatin is made to solidify rapidly on a cold plate, and then placed in a cold water incubator for four days. At the end of this time the number of colonies on the plate are counted. The result of the analyses are expressed in number of bacteria per gram of dry soil, hence it becomes necessary to know the percentage of moisture in the sample. For this a given weight of soil from the same tube is taken, and dried for three hours at 100° C., and from this the percentage of dry matter in the sample is calculated. It is evident that in the mixing of the soil with water in the two 100 c. c. flasks there is in the 1 c. c. taken for the plate culture a one ten-thousandth dilution of the original quantity, hence the number of colonies on the gelatin plate must be multiplied by 10,000 to get the true number in the quantity of moist soil taken. To calculate the number per dry gram of soil the following formula is used: N’D eS ay in which N equals the number of bacteria per gram of dry soil, N’ the number of colonies on the gelatin plate, P the percentage of dry matter in the sample, D the dilution of the soil sample (in most cases 10,000), and W the weight of the moist soil taken for bacteriological analysis N V. THE NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL BACTERIA. In the superficial portion of ordinary cultivated soil the number of bacteria varies from several hundred thousand to several millions per gram of dry soil. The following list will show the range of vari- ation as observed by different authors: 1. Park ‘Montsouri,’Paris' (Miquel 1879) ee tse... 700,000 2.Santly soil: (Adametz, 1886),2 2205...) 3) eae 300,000 Se OLAV ESOM, 33:25) bes" euksde whe siete torciate wince cL akeeeme mene 500,000 4, Orchard, Potsdam (Fraenkel, 1887),* ......... 31,000 to 218,000 5. Soil of grain fields (Caron, 1895),°......... 937,000 to 1,600,000 6. Pear orchard, Del. Expt. Sta., ground under high state of cultivation (Chester, 1901),° ......... 2,200,000 7. Land in permanent grass for over 12 years, New- ark; Del (Chester! 1901)s°s tines 2 ieee 425,000 8. Land in grass for four years, Newark, Del. (Ches- LEP ALG OU) OE BS ATG Ie AND BOIS Ae sac neetemee 425,000 No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 315 9. Land, Newark, Del., under active cultivation aur- ing summer, now in crimson clover (Chester, ec OsN ee te irgee ears Terabavaton es at cferaastevele apts suelo eee 1,880,060 10. Soil from the center of a strip of woodland, New- ake Dela (CHester QOL) Cer p< tatty «6; nce serene 70,000 11. A family vegetable garden, Newark, Del. Rich in humus and actively cultivated,’ ............ 1,816,000 The preceding table, except No. 10, represents agricultural soils. In special instances the number may rise much higher, particularly in soils in the immediate vicinity of dwellings and stables. Accord- ing to Manfredi,?1 the number of bacteria in the dust of the streets of Naples varied from 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 per gram, and even higher. Maggiora?? gives figures as high as 78,000,000 for the num- ber of bacteria per gram of soil in certain inhabited spots. Adametz in 1886,? Fraenkel in 1887, and Caron’ in 1895, showed that the maximum number of bacteria were not found at the surface but at a depth of from nine to eighteen inches beneath the same. In 1887 Fraenkel* showed that at a depth of from thirty to sixty inches there was a rapid and abrupt diminution of the number of germs from 200,000 at twenty inches, to 2,000 at thirty-nine inches, while at a depth of five feet no living germs were obtained. These results are not altogether in accord with results obtained by the writer in Delaware, which show that the maximum number of bac- teria occurs in the first six inches of soil, below which they diminish at a very rapid rate, until at twenty-four inches only about one-five- hundredth of the number at the surface exist. Furthermore, it was found that the highest numbers exist not at the surface, but at a depth of about four inches below the same. In the following figure 2 is shown the rapid decline in the number of bacteria in the soil as the depth increases, determined at the Delaware station. VI. CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA IN THE SOIL. The observations of Maggiora in 1887 have shown (1) that the num- ber of germs in desert and forest soil is much smaller, other things being equal, than jn cultivated lands; (2) that the number is propor- tionate to the activity of cultivation and the strength of fertilizers used, and (8) that light sandy soils contain fewer germs than those rich in clay and especially those rich in humus. _ These results are in accord with those given in the preceding table, which show (1) the very low number present in woodland soil, (2) the very high number present in soils under active cultivation 316 ANNUAL REPORT OF THu Ofte Doc. and (3) the relatively low number in soils covered with sod. The reason for these differences is apparent. Woodland soils, although rich in humus, are usually too acid for the best development of bac- teria therein. Pasture lands, or lands for a long time in sod, are too compacted or imperfectly aerated. Most soil bacteria develop best in the liberal presence of atmospheric air, hence the opening up of such soils by tillage to the action of the atmosphere is essential be- fore the best development of bacteria can take place. Pasture lands also have a tendency to become acid, a condition unfavorable to bac- terial development. In the studies at the Delaware Station, the highest numbers of bac- teria were always found in soil which had been under active culti- vation, especially when liberally supplied with humus, either by plow- ing under of green crops or by the use of stable manure. Thus in soil No. 6, of the preceding list, where the number of bacteria was 2,200,- 000 per gram, the latter had been enriched by repeated crops of crim- son clover plowed under, accompanied by active tillage. Soil No. 11, a vegetable garden, had annual dressings of stable manure for a series of years, and had also been under constant tillage. The value of stable manure in increasing the number of bacteria in the soil has been shown by Miquel,? who found that after the applica- tion of this fertilizer the number of bacteria in the soil was increased from 700,000 ‘to 900,000 per gram. It may therefore be stated as a general principle that the com- bined effect of high manuring and cultivation ts to decidedly increase the number of bacteria in the soil, thus in turn setting free an in- creased quantity of available plant food. Soil Bacteria in Their Relation to Atmospheric Oxygen. It has been stated that the great majority of soil bacteria develop best in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Bacteria differ as re- gards their relation to this important element, and thus it has been the custom to divide them into three classes, (1) obligate aerobes, or those which do not grow except in the presence of oxygen; (2) anae- robes or those which grow only with the complete exclusion of oxy- gen, and (8) facultative anaerobes or those which are indifferent to the presence or absence of this gas. In recent times it has been rec- ognized that no such sharp lines as these can be drawn; on the other hand these different classes merge into one another by indis- tinct stages of gradation. A bacterium may, in a measure, show the ability to grow with the partial or complete exclusion of atmospheric oxygen, but it grows 1632000 1623000 iS) £ % Fic. 2.—Showing number of Bacteria in different depths of soil. Experiment Station Grounds, Newark, Delaware, September 21, 1901. Son Mee BG Pare oe een: Sy rt ces tees at fas fe > ga and non Ss 2S Se SS = ot x ; 7 Sa Te Fic. 3.—A showing wrobic growth, and B anzrobic growth of bacteria in gelatin stab cultures. Fic. 4.—A showing erobic, and B anerobic growth of bacteria in glucose 1 ouillon in fermentation tubes. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 317 less vigorously than when air is freely admitted; in this case the ten- dency is towards an anaerobic habit, but such a habit may not be fixed, and it may be changed in a measure by cultural conditions under the control of the bacteriologist. That is, an organism which has a slight anaerobic habit can be made to grow more and more freely with the exclusion of atmospheric oxygen. The relation of bacteria to atmospheric oxygen may manifest itself in a number of ways. Thus if a fine sterile platinum needle be dipped into a bacterial culture, so that its surface becomes covered with a particular germ, and if this contaminated needle be then stabbed into a tube con- taining solid nutrient gelatin, a medium in which bacteria grow readily, the latter are, so far as food material is concerned, free to grow at all points along the line of stab, and their development is only limited by their ability to grow in the presence or absence of atmospheric oxygen. If growth takes place as well in the depth of the medium, where air is excluded, as it does at the surface where air is abundantly present, such an organism is clearly indifferent to its atmospheric environment. If on the other hand no growth takes place in the depth of the gelatin, but only on the surface, the organ- ism would be aerobic in habit, as shown in Fig. 3 A, or again if the growth be confined to the deeper portion of the line of inoculation with no growth at the surface, the organism would show the op- osite or anaerobic habit, Fig. 3 B. Between these extremes there wili in different bacteria be seen to be a wide range of variation. In the different soil bacteria so far studied there was but little tendency for them to grow in the depth of the gelatin, practically all of the growth taking place at the surface, thus showing the generally aere bic habit of the great majority of them. Another valuable method of demonstrating the relation of an or. ganism to atmospheric oxygen is by means of a culture in a fermen- tation tube, seen in Fig. 4, containing beef broth to which two per cent. by weight of grape sugar has been added. In the fermentation tube it is noticed that one end of the same is open and exposed to the air while the other is closed and excluded from the air. If bacteria are disseminated throughout the broth in the tube, they will be free to develop in either arm as they find atmospheric oxy- gen favorable or unfavorable to their growth. Thus if the growth is confined to the open arm of the tube the organism concerned is aerobic, Fig. 4 A, and if confined exclusively to the closed arm, Fig. 4 B, anaerobic in habit, while if an equal amount of growth takes place in both arms it is indifferent to atmospheric oxygen and is con- sequently facultative anaerobic in habit. Of ten of the most common soil bacteria recently studied by the 20 318 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. writer, eight of them grew only in the open end of the fermentation tube, thus showing, in addition to the character of the growth in gelatin stab cultures, their distinctly aerobic habit. In Fig. 4 A, is shown a culture in a fermentation tube to which was added 1 ¢c. c. of a watery infusion of soil from the Delaware Sta- tion experimental grounds. In this 1 ¢. c. of infusion, something like 10,000 bacteria were introduced, out of the total of 1,000,000 present in the same, or one out of every hundred. It is therefore reasonable to assume that in this way at least the most important and predom- inating bacteria were introduced. As a result it is seen that all of the growth is confined to the open end of the tube. //ence we may believe that at least the predominating bacteria.of this soil were dis- tinctly aerobic in habit. 2. The Relation of Bacteria to Moisture. One of the primary requisites of bacterial growth is the presence of moisture. If a soil becomes perfectly dry, not only do bacteria cease to multiply therein, but a Jarge proportion of them die. It is the organic and in a slight measure, the inorganic materials in solu- tion in the soil moisture which supply food for bacteria, hence the maintenance of soil moisture is one of the essential requisites for bacterial development. In short, those moisture conditions which are most favorable to the plant are likewise equally favorable to the bacteria of the soil. A free and uniform distribution of soil moisture is furthermore essential to a uniform distribution of bacteria, and hence to the active elaboration of plant food in all parts of the soil. It is clear that when the soil becomes dry to a considerable depth bacteria cease to develop and with it the digestion of plant food ceases; hence the maintenance of soil moisture by proper methods is important. 3. Relation of Soil Bacteria to Organic Matter and Humus in the Soil. Inasmuch as organic matter and humus furnish food for soil hacteria it might be presumed that the greater the amount of such materials present the greater would be the number of bacteria and hence the greater the amount of plant food digested. Such is the case only within limits. If asolution be prepared containing one per cent. by weight of beef pepton, and be seeded with a soil organism capable of converting the pepton into ammonia and other decomposition No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 319 products, a vigorous growth will take place, and a relatively large amount of decomposition products will be quickly formed; but soon active growth will cease, and that before the full amount of the original pepton has been completely decomposed. In short, the organism has been either killed or its energies have been paralyzed by the products of its own growth, which in this case have been pro- duced in relatively large amount in the more concentrated solution. If on the other hand a solution be prepared containing only the one- hundredth of one per cent. of pepton, and be seeded with the same organism, growth in the latter medium will be relatively slow, with a correspondingly slow development of ammonia; but the decom- position wili continue until all of the pepton has been decomposed. Furthermore, the activity of the decomposition will be as great at the end as at the beginning of the process, showing that the vitality of the organism has not been impared. This is doubtless because in the diJute solution the toxic products are not sufficiently concen- trated to injure the life of the micro-organisms. What is true here would be equally true of the state of concen- tration of the organic matter in the soil. If the latter be present in excessive quantity bacterial development will proceed for a time at an excessive rate, but soon products injurious to their best de- velopment will be produced. There is, therefore, a limit to the aunount of humus which a soil should contain. In forest and woodland soils the amount of humus in the surface layer islarge. In such soils organic acids are generated in quantities too large for the best development of bacteria, and hence, as is found to be the case, the number of bacteria is low. It has been shown that nitrification practically ceases in forest soils, due doubtless to the fact that the nitrifying bacteria, more than any other, are injured by high acidity and excessive humus. The only condition. which renders possible the addition of large stores of humus to the soil is subsequent tillage, which so stimulates bacterial growth as to lead to the destruction of organic acids, or to the production of ammonia, which neutralizes them. ence when a crop of clover or other legume is plowed under it is best followed by a cultivated or hoed crop. 4, The Relation of Soil Acidity to the Number of Soil Bacteria. It is important to know the conditions of the soil which are most favorable to the rapid development of soil bacteria. Among these nothing is so important as to maintain a proper reaction of the soil. Acid soils are infertile because soil bacteria, which are digesters of piant food, cannot grow therein. We say that lime when applied to 320 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. land, among other benefits, assists in the decomposition of organic matter. This is true only indirectly. The lime neutralizes the acid- ity of the soil and renders it a more favorable medium for the develop- ment of those bacteria which are the true agents in the decomposi- tion. In determining the number of bacteria in soils it is necessary to use a medium the reaction of which is such that the maximum num- ber will develop. Thus from a given dilution of a soil with water an average of seveaty-two colonies developed in neutral gelatin, while with the presence of 0.25 per cent. of free alkali an average of thirty-four colonies developed, and with .07 per cent, of free hy- drochloric acid an average of only one colony developed. Increas- ing quantities of citric acid added to the medium had the same retarding action, showing that with a distinctly acid condition of the medium but few soil bacteria would grow. Of the different species of bacteria isolated by the writer from soils, none grew in a medium containing one-tenth of one per cent. of free hydrochloric acid, and either not at all or only feebly in one containing one-half of this acidity. All, however, grew in neutral media or in those feebly alkaline. A marked excess of caustic al- kalies in the medium, approaching .02 to .03 per cent., had a retarding action on the growth of the bacteria, but where the less caustic bases like lime were added a considerable excess proved favorable. The valuable results from lime added to neutral gelatin media is shown in the following table, in which is given the number of colonies developing in media containing different amounts of milk of lime, seeded with the same quantity of a one-ten-thousandths dilution of a soil infusion: Table II. as ov z B 28 A La Calcium Hydrate (Ca (OH).) Present in Medium, om 33 a KO Bog £53 Som Z pe ee ns a ee eee Yul eral} ieee UN @h Cha Gacocaonnachpo spsoaods cuggdUDO{aadocOD Ein cadopngdubodouandcadsodessedes00Gnr 67 POS Srams spermlOOlCr Chiat cc cicietele clelelaleiejato ef ciclote o\sloleloeleiaisieleletalatsieteinieisteleleloie. o's \s's\sleiefolalsitiefeicisisieininieletefelalslet= 75 PIS terams yper dO0 cameos clere seteiseiseiclemeieioletielejelerialeinrelcieteesta ioe teiaieteteteristetatersiciale’= =e’ = steieteleter sie ete eleietsterereintetere 82 MIGHT AIAB GOT WOO Cee Cap Malate ctalcrece ate cle /ale(evoiele(cisielale eisieieterajaie’aletotiateletelotevelnfelsiele(s sieicielaisicielelstelcieteeieiereietterelele ete ielets 91 ees es No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 321 The valuable results from the use of lime seem to depend partly on the fact that it stimulates the development of soil bacteria. This was shown in certain pot experiments conducted by the writer. Pots were filled with soil to which was added an equal quantity of clean gray stream sand. To pots one and two nothing was added. To pots three and four was added lime at the rate of 1,000 lbs. per acre. To pots five and six was added lime at the rate of 2,000 lbs. per acre. To pots seven and eight was added lime at the rate of 4,000 lbs, per acre, The number of bacteria per dry gram of soil in each pot was de- termined at the beginning of the experiment, and again seven weeks later. The results are shown in the following table: Taples Eur, Number of Bacteria Per Gram of Dry Soil. ' ro @ ® a ~ . Pot. No. an 3 = N z e 2 es 3 Sis od Pye z 2e & ao . +2 D < 77 TT rr ee The preceding experiment has been repeated with the same result, sufficient to demonstrate the value of lime, at least in the type of soils under consideration, in increasing the number of bacteria therein. 21—6—1902 322 ANNYAL REFORT OF THE Off. Doc. VII. THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED BY BACTERIA IN THE SOIL. THE ELABORATION OF PLANT Foon. The processes going on in the soil by which plant food in its crude state is prepared for the use of the growing crop are two, (1) the decay of organic matter and (2) the disintegration and disolution of mineral matter. They will be accordingly considered in turn. 1. The Decay of Organic Matter. Organic matter, whether of animal or vegetable origin, when freshly incorporated with the soil, undergoes a partial and incomplete process of decay resulting in the production of a dark material known as humus. The amount of humus in soils may vary from one per cent. in the soils of the arid region of the West to as high as five per cent. in black prairie loams. The original supply of humus in virgin soils becomes a constant source of plant food through its slow but constant decay. Long continued cropping and tillage produces in time, however, a “burning- out,” which means that the humus content of the soil is being gradually reduced. Thus according to Snyder,$a virgin soil with four per cent. of humus will, after twenty years of grain cropping, show a reduction to 2.5 per cent. of the same material. 2. Forms of Organic Matter in the Soil. Organic matter becomes incorporated with the soil largely in the form of vegetable materials such as fallen leaves, sticks, seeds, straw, stubble, sod, the roots of various plants, green crops turned under, ete. Such vegetable matter of whatever kind is composed of a frame- work of cells constituting its woody portion. The material constitu- ting the walls of these cells is, for want of a better term, designated as cellulose, since the latter substance in one form or another pre- dominates. Within the cavities of the cells, partially or completely filling them, may be found certain organic substances of which the most important are: (1) proteid matter, including protoplasm, proteid granules, aleurone and gluten; (2) carbohydrates, including starch, grape sugar, cane sugar, vegetable mucilage, gums; (8) fats and oils. Besides these are small quantities of a great variety of other sub- stances, as glucosides, tannin, alkaloids, essential oils, resins, bal- sams, turpentine, coloring matter, etc. Notwithstanding the great va- riety of plant products, the principal materials, forming practically No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 323 me entire bulk of plant structures, are included under the heads (1) cellulose, (2) proteid matter, (3) carbohydrates and (4) fats and oils. The decomposition of these several materials in the soil will be con- sidered each in turn, 3. The Decomposition of Cellulose or Vegetable Fibre. That straw and bits of woody fibre become soft and finally disap- pear as such when incorporated with the soil is a fact of common observation. Leaves and stems when mingled with earth rapidly Jose their structural characteristics and become converted into a shapeless mass of mould. The log or stump under the action of bio- logical and chemical agents decays more slowly, but eventually looses its structure and becomes converted into a brownish pulverent de- bris. These changes involve the fermentation of cellulose or vegetable fibre, and are of special interest. The walls of vegetable cells are composed of matter more or less complex in character; but since cellulose in one form or another constitutes the basal portion of all cell walls, it has been common to refer to them as composed of this substance. But more accurately speaking cellulose is now under- stood to include a large class of plant constituents. These latter may be grouped under two heads: (1) the celluloses and (2) the pectoses. The walls of different cells differ in the rela- tive proportion of these two classes of bodies. Thus the walls of cells which constitute so called succulent or parenchyma tissue are relatively rich in pectoses. This is particularly marked in the flesh of fruits. Cellulose differs in its properties and ability to undergo fermentative changes. In the latter respect cotton fibres are the most resistant and the cellulose of seeds the least so, while that found in the fundamental tissue of the higher plants occupies an in- termediate position. With the difference in the constitution of the cell walls of plants there results a marked divergence in their ability to undergo fermentative changes, and also a difference in the pro- ducts of such fermentation. For this reason the fermentative de- composition of cellulose becomes an extremely complex phenomenon. The dissolution of cellulose is brought about by the action of a fer- ment or enzyme known as cytase. In 1886, DeBary,’ found in the fungus Peziza sclerotiorum a sub- stance which possesses the property of causing cell walls to swell, become gelatinous, and in a measure to dissolve. Two years later H .Marshall Ward,” found that a similar ferment was secreted by & species of Botrytis, commonly associated with the soft rot of a num- ber of cultivated plants. In his study of the latter, the author observed minute drops ex- 324 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. uding from the filaments of the fungus, and in this exuding fluid was found a ferment in concentrated form, possessing the power when coming in contact with cell walls of softening and dissolving them. It was also observed that the ferment acted differently on different portions of the cell wall, and that its action was first upon the mid- dle portion, or what is technically known as the mzddle lamella. This was followed by a swelling of the remainder of the wall, and by the appearance of distinct stratifications, which dissolve one by one in turn. In the swelling of the cell walls the latter assume a semi- mucilaginous consistency which has the effect of softening the entire tissue. Thus plants attacked by cytase secreting fungi, such as the ones named, undergo a species of soft rot. In addition to the preceding observations Kean and Arthur” have recently shown that the fungus Rhizopus nigricans also secretes a cellulose dissolving enzyme. This latter fungus is a common cause of a soft rot of the sweet potato, a result in accord with the proper- ties of the fungus. It is, furthermore, probable that a large variety of fungi associated with the soft rots of fleshy fruits and roots, pos- sess the same property of secreting cellulose enzymes. A number of the higher toad-stools and shelf-fungi, are associated with dry rot of timber, in which process the hard wood becomes converted into a brown pulverent mass. This disintegration is af- fected, it is now believed, through the ability of these several fungi to produce enzymes capable of softening and in a measure at least of dissolving cellulose or woody tissue. Besides the fungi proper, certain bacteria have been shown to pos- sess the ability to ferment cellulose. Thus as early as 1850, Mitsch- erlich” made the observation that cellulose could become soluble by fermentation. In the fermentation of the potato for instance he found the cell walls dissolved, and associated with this change he noted the presence of a species of Bacterium. In 1875, Popff® noted the relation between the degree of fermentation of cellulose and the development of certain gases, as carbon dioxide (CO,) and marsh gas (CH,). Later, in 1879, Van Tieghem showed by experi- ment that a solution of cellulose was effected through the action cf a micro-organism related to Bacillus amylobacter. During the change, hydrogen gas was generated, also an acid, whose presence gradually hindered the fermentation process. Van Tieghem’s ob- servations that the fermentation of cellulose was due to the latter B. amylobacter was confirmed by Hoppe-Seyler® in 1886. This fermentation as originally shown by Popff, and later by FHroppe-Seyler and Schlésing, was accompanied by the vigorous evo- lution of carbon dioxide and marsh gas, and took place in the ab- sence of air. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 325 The process consisted probably in an hydration of the cellulose, and its conversion into dextrose or a related body, and the subse- quent fermentation of this secondary product as shown by the fol- lowing formulae: Gee wae Ost EEO. iy Ceti. Os Gy. His’ Os — 5 CO F3 CH: In 1890, Von Senus** showed that the fermentation of cellulose was not due to the action of B. amylobacter alone, but to its concurrent action with other organisms. In 1895, Omélianski” announced the discovery of a bacillus capable of fermenting pure cellulose, which he obtained from slime and soil rich in vegetable matte’. In the experiments of the author filter paper or c ton, repre- senting cellulose in its purest form, was immersed ins solution con- taining sulphate of ammonia, pepton and asparagir and into this culture medium the organism was introduced. Thc beginning of the fermentation was shown by the liberation of gas in from 6 to 10 days. An examination of the filter paper in from 3 weeks to a month showed an advanced stage of decomposition, and in from 34 to 5 months 79 per cent. of the cellulose had been destroyed. The products of the fermentation were found to be carbon dioxide, hydro- gen, volatile organic acids and minute quantities of the higher al- cohols. Whether bacilli identical with 4. amylobacter of Van Tieghem, or the Bacillus of Omélianski, are found in all soils is a matter yet to be determined, but it is believed that organisms with similar functions are present in abundance. Furthermore, whether these bacteria decompose cellulose through their ability to secrete en- zymes has also to be determined. DeBary in referring to B. amy- lobacter says it decomposes cellulose forming dextrin and glucose, and that it does so by disengaging an enzyme. Although the experimental proof of this is lacking it is probable that the assumption is true. Baccillus mesentericus-vulgatus, a common soil species, has been shown by Vignal:s to secrete a cytase which dissolves the middle lamella of vegetable cells. There is therefore every reason to believe that numerous organ- isms capable of fermenting cellulose exist in soil, and that they act upon cellulose, like the higher fungi, through their ability to produce cytase. The action of cytase upon cellulose is to incite a chemical union of water with cellulose, a process known as hydrolysis, and is an action similar to that which takes place when cellulose is boiled in 326 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. dilute acids. It consists in the conversion of the cellulose into some form of sugar, which differs with the forms of cellulose acted upon. These different forms of sugar are glucose, mannose, galac- tose, zylese and arabinose. The pectoses, which have been found also to be important constitu- ents of the cell wall, are under the action of cytase converted into reducing sugars. The different forms of sugar are then acted upon by other ferments and converted into organic acids. This explains the common tendency of soils rich in vegetable mat- ter to become acid, unless continued cultivation stimulates bacterial growth sufficient to decompose these less readily decomposable or- ganic acids into their final gaseous products, carbon dioxide and marsh gas. It has already been noted that all of the constituents of cell walls do not undergo dissolution equally. Hence when vegetable fibre undergoes fermentation in the soil there remains a residue which for a longer time withstands the action of these ferments. This lat- ter constitutes the great bulk of that heterogeneous material which is called humus. Humus is, therefore, in the main, the product of the incomplete decomposition of vegetable fibre. 4. The Fermentation of Carbohydrates. The carbohydrates in vegetable tissues exist mainly in the form of starch and sugar. In crops ordinarily used for green manuring they constitute between 40 and 50 per cent. of the dry weight of the plant. Starch is the most abundant carbohydrate of green crops, but sugar exists in small amounts, usually a fraction of a per cent. However, in fleshy roots, fruits, and in special cases, it may run much higher, reaching a maximum in the beet and sugar-cane of 15 per cent. Sugar exists in different vegetable tissues in three forms: as cane sugar or saccharose, grape sugar or dextrose and ‘fruit sugar or levulose. In animal tissues and fluids the carbohydrates exist: as glycogen, a modified starch, as dextrose, and in milk as milk sugar or lactose. Bacteria play an important role in the fermentation of carbohy- drate, and those concerned in these processes are abundantly present in all soils. The great majority of bacteria when growing in media containing grape sugar, milk sugar or cane sugar produce therein greater or less quantities of organic acids accompanied in some cases by the evolution of gas. These acids are lactic, acetic, butyric, formic, propionic, valerianic and succinic. When milk sours, lactic acid is produced at the ex- pense of the milk sugar by certain bacteria normally present in the No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 327 tluid. Fruit juices and infusions undergo an apparently spontaneous fermentation, the sugar being converted into alcohol through the agency of the yeast plant, wiih the subsequent conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid. Many bacteria are, however, capable of directly converting sugar into one or more of the organic acids, without the intervention of alcohol; in fact, it may be said that the ability to convert sugar into one or more of the organic acids is almost a universal property of bacteria, although they vary among themselves as regards kinds and quantities of acids produced. In order to better understand the fermentation of the different carbohydrate constituents of plants, it will be best to consider them in turn. (a) The Conversion of Starch into Sugar. When seeds germinate, a marked change takes place, the most notable of which is an altera- tiou and an eventual solution of the starch granules which fill the cells. In proportion as the starch disappears there is a correspond- ing increase in sugar. In the preparation of malt frombarley thesame change takes place. The barley grains are allowed to sprout under favorable conditions of heat and moisture, during which a consider- able proportion of the insoluble starch is converted into a soluble sugar. Ifa quantity of this malt be steeped in water, especially if the malt be macerated to a pulp, the greater portion of the sugar, a part of the soluble starch and dextrine bodies and other extractive matter pass into solution. If a portion of this extract of malt be al- lowed to act upon starch it will be found to possess the power of con- verting the starch into sugar. Furthermore, if several volumes of strong alcohol be added toa volume of the malt extract a whitish pre- cipitate will be thrown down, which can be collected on a filter and redissolved in a small quantity of water. If now this watery solu- _ Uon be allowed to again act upon starch, it will be found to possess properties identical with that cf the simple infusion. Malt extract, therefore, contains a substance which is precipitated by alcohol and which has the power of converting starch into sugar. This substance is called diastase or amylase. Diastase has an important function in relation to the nutrition of plants. Plant food exists largely in the form of.starch, but which in this shape is of no use, since it is insoluble and therefore incapable of being carried in solution to growing parts; in short, the starchy food of the seed must be digested before it is available, and this di- gestion is effected through the agency of diastase. Similarly, starch is formed in the leaves and other green organs of the plant, but be- fore it can be utilized as food it must be converted into sugar. To effect this change diastase is present in all leaves and organs where 328 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc, starch is being elaborated. Many trees store up during the winter reserve material in the form of starch which becomes food for un- folding buds on the advent of spring. Thus Desbarres” found in the young wood of hus elegans 17.81 per cent. of starch during the winter and only 1.57 in the spring. The sugar maple yields in the early spring a sweetish sap which is produced from the reserve starch accumulated in the wood during the preceding fall. Many roots and tubers are notable for their large content of starch, which, in all biennial plants, serves as food for a second season’s growth. When potatoes sprout they draw largely upon the starch of the tuber, and with the elongation of the sprouts we note a dimunition of the starch and an increase of sugar. With this there is an accumulation of diastase in the tuber at the points where the sprouts originate, In refering to the fermentation of cellulose, it was stated that it is a commen function of many enzymes, of which diastase is one, to ef- fect the hydration of certain organic substances, or their union with water. The hydration, or conversion of starch into sugar, is a complex pro- cess, not as yet altogether understood, but the two products of the change are evidently maltose and dextrin. It can perhaps be ex- pressed according to Musculus?* by the following: 2 Cre Hea Ov H: O Cre He Ou Cr He Ov SSS ap starch water maltose dextrin Dextrin, which is a residual product of the partial hydration of starch does not, however, remain as such, but is eventually converted into maltose. When vegetable materials are incorporated with the soil, it is not likely that bacteria play a very important role in the conversion of this contained starch into sugar. On the other hand the change is likely brought about by diastases normally present in the plants themselves, and the greater part of this transformation is effected before bacteria have time to reach the starchy materials within the cells. Thus in the decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil, much at least of the fermentation of starch is a process quite inde- pendent of the action of bacterial life. This does not indicate, how- ever, that certain bacteria and fungi are not capable of effecting this change, in fact Fermi has shown that a considerable number of bac- teria secrete diastatic enzymes, notably, Bacillus megatherium, Bacillus, ms nt riu-vng us and B cillus subtilis, forms com- monly present in the soil; and it is likely that a residual portion of unchanged starch may be acted upon by such organisms, though this No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 329 statement will require experimental proof. It is also kuown that cer- tain common moulds, for example, Pennicilium glaucum, Aspergil- lus niger and Erotium oryzae, possess the power of converting starch into sugar. As already mentioned, the action of diastase upon starch consists in its conversion into maltose and dextrin, but maltose has only a temporary existence in the animal and plant organism, since it is acted upon by another enzyme known as glucase, which further hydrolyses the maltose converting it into glucose. Thus glucose is the final product of the fermentation of starch. Glucase is present in the digestive fluids of the human body. It has been found in corn and malt, and in several species of fungi. That it probably exists in association with diastase in plant tissues is made probable by the fact that maltose as such is unable to nourish growing cells. (b) The Inversion of Cane Sugar.—When a solution of cane sugar is boiled with a dilute acid it undergoes an hydrolysis by which it is converted into glucose and levuleve according to the equation: Cru He Ou H:O Cs He OF Cs He Os a ay eRe =f cane sugar water glucose levulose That the same change can be effected through the agency of an enzyme has been known ever since the latter was first isolated from yeast in 1860 by Berthelot. This enzyme is known is énvertin. It has also been found in the intestinal juices of man and a number of animals, and from various parts of plants as leaves, seeds, roots and floral organs. Cane sugar is found often in considerable amounts in plant tis- sues, and yet as such it is of no direct use as a plant nutrient, but must first be digested or converted into glucose. Thus the beet may contain 15 per cent. of cane sugar. When, however, the latter is drawn upon for the production of flowers and seeds during the second year’s growth it has been noted that its content of cane sugar gradu- ally diminishes and glucose takes its place, the latter being traced in its ascent from the root to the developing leaves and flowers. Thus the presence of cane sugar in the plant implies the existence at the same time of invertin. The first step therefore in the fermen- tation of cane sugar is its conversion into glucose through the agency of its associated ¢nvertin. This change like the action of diastase is also one which takes place in the soil independent, in a large measure at least, of bacterial action. According to Fermi?! and Montesano the production of invertin enzymes by bacteria is uncommon, although certain prevalent soil 330 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. species, such as Bacillus megatherium, Bacillus fluorescens-liquefa- ciens and Bacillus vulgaris, are known to produce them. The action of invertin is favored by the presence of small amounts of acid; it is therefore likely that in the acid fermentation of plant tissues and the normal presence of invertin ferments there is every condition favorable for the conversion of all the cane sugar into glucose independent of the action of bacteria or other micro-organ- isms. (ce) The Fermentation of Glucose—From the foregoing statement it has been seen that all of the carbohydrates mentioned are eventu- ally converted into glucose mainly through the action of enzymes. It is in this form that they are supplied to the various soil organ- isms. Through their agency glucose is converted into the various organic acids, into one or more of the alcohols, with or without the evolution of gas in the form of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The great majority of bacteria possess greater or Jess power of producing one or more of the organic acids from glucose, although much work has yet to be done in determining the kinds of acids pro- duced by different species. The following table shows the products of the fermentation of glucose by a number of common bacteria: Bacillus acidi-lactici—acetic and lactic acids, traces of alcohol and gas. Bacillus aerogenes—acetic, lactic and succinic acids, alcohol, car- bon dioxide and hydrogen. Bacillus typhosus—lactic acid. Bacillus coli—acetic, formic and lactic acids. Bacillus prodigiosus—formic and succinic acids. , Bacillus butyricus Botkin—acetic, butyric, formic, propionic, lac- tic, and succinic acids; butyl and ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Bacillus amylozyma Perdrix—acetic and butyric acids, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Cholera Micospira—lactic acid. Micrococcus pyogenes—lactic and valerianic acids. Streptococcus pyogenes—lactic and volatile organic acids. The organic acids produced by the fermentation of glucose tend to combine with any free base in the soil such as lime, soda, potash, and, in a measure, to decompose carbonates. But where this base is not present in sufficient quantity the free acids accumulate and the sci) becomes sour. Under active cultivation, however, the acids and their salts undergo a still further fermentation whereby they are con- verted into carbon dioxide and marsh gas (CH,). Thus cultivation has a tendency to overcome acidity by stimulating the growth of those bacteria which destroy organic acids. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 331 (d) The Action of Oxidizing Enzymes in the Fermentation of Veg- etable Matter. It is a common phenomenon that where grass or green hay is made into’a pile the interior will begin to ferment, and with this there will be a considerable rise of temperature. A similar process goes on in the manure heap, and another when green fodder is packed in the silo. In the silo the temperature in the center of the fermenting mass may rise as high as 150 degrees F. With this fermentation there isa considerable loss of organic matter which may vary from 4 to 40 per cent. The temperature as well as the loss of material in the silo is dependent upon the amount of air, or more properly the oxygen present, and this depends upon the looseness or density of the pack- ing. The change is manifestly one of combustion due to the ab- sorption of oxygen, and the products of this change are the same as those evolved in any other combustive process, i. e., carbon dioxide and water. Furthermore, the amount of carbon dioxide evolved is a measure of the degree of combustion and of the organic matter consumed, as well as of the heat produced. Formerly it was supposed that the fermentation of silage was due to the agency of bacteria, but now it is believed te be simply an ex- pression of the vital energies of the plant cells. All vital energy manifests itself in the production of heat; this heat is the result of oxidation, or the actual burning or destruction of a portion of the vital substance. Yeast when massed into a heap shows a rise of temperature due to its vital energies. This rise takes place only in the presence of oxygen or air, and in a vacuum no such increase of temperature occurs. The germination of seed is accompanied by a rise of temperature, and oxygen is necessary to the process. The animal body gives off heat and the air we breathe is the draught for this ever consuming fire within, while the carbon dioxide exhaled is a measure of the rapidity of this combustion process. In a similar manner plants evolve heat and their substance is, in a measure, Oxidized or burned to supply this heat, a portion of which is converted into the vital energies of the plant. Respiration is the breathing-in of air.and the breathing-out of the gaseous products of combustion. This takes place in both animals and plants, ond heat is the result. Hence when green vege- table matter composed of living cells is massed together these pro- cesses of respiration will continue for a time, and heat is the re- sult. When such matter is massed together the heat evolved can not readily escape, and a considerable elevation of temperature is the result. 332 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. But the question may be asked, what causes the oxygen of the air to combine with the elements of organic matter whereby this com- bustion is affected. Under ordinary conditions oxygen has no af- finity for organic carbon. Something must be present to stimulate this combination. We have already found how water is made to combine with certain organic compounds through the agency of special enzymes, so in ac- cordance with this it has recently been shown that a number of oxy- dation processes can be effected through the agency of another class of enzymes known as oxydases. It has been already noted that yeast when in mass developes a rise of temperature, and it has generally been assumed that this is due to the respiratory activities of the cells, but it has recently been shown that there can be extracted from the yeast cells, independent of the cells themselves, a substance which has the power of oxidizing glycogen with a perceptible increase of temperature. Thus it appears not to be the vital protoplasm of the cell but some substance which can be extracted therefrom which possesses the power of oxidizing organic matter with the production of heat. This active substance is an oxidizing enzyme. It is now quite generally believed that oxidizing enzymes are quite generally distributed throughout vegetable tissues, and that they occur dissolved within the fluids of the cells. In the presence of oxygen they cause a union of the latter with carbon, carbon dioxide being evolved. Thus it may be considered at least a working hypothesis that all processes of respiration are as- sociated with the activities of oxidizing enzymes. When green fodder is cut and placed in the silo, cells previously protected from the air are exposed, and the combined action of the air and the liberated oxidizing enzymes results in a rapid oxidation with loss of substance. When fruits are cut open their exposed surfaces turn dark, due to the combined action of contained oxidizing enzymes and the atmos- phere. Besides the ordinary gaseous products of oxidation, it has been shown that oxidizing enzymes may produce certain by-products, notably the organic acids. Thus ensilage may become sour without a trace of bacterial fermentation. Fresh olives when placed in heaps ferment. With this there is an increase of temperature, a liberation of carbon dioxide, and the formation of acetic and other fatty acids. Talomei shows this fer- mentation to be due to a special oxidizing enzyme which he called olease. When green crops are plowed under their tissues continue to undergo an oxidation or respiratory process similar to that which No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 333 takes place in silage. The carbohydrates are mainly attacked with a certain loss of substance, the evolution of carbon dioxide and prob- ably the production of organic acids. This process, however, does not continue long but is succeeded by the ordinary bacterial fermenta- tion already stated. 5. The Decomposition of Proteid Matter. Proteid matter is a valuable source of plant food because of its contained nitrogen. This nitrogen before it can be easily assimilated by the plant must be converted into the condition of nitrate. The stages leading up to the production of nitrates are: Ist. Putrefaction or the conversion of proteid matter into am- monia (ammonification). 2d. The oxydation of ammonia to nitrites, the first stage of nitrifi- cation, and, 3d. The oxidation of nitrites to nitrates, the final stage of nitrifi- cation. These processes will be considered in turn. (a) Putrefaction and Ammonification. Liebig® and the older investigators considered putrefaction a chemical process, the final products of which were carbon dioxide, water and ammonia. In 1837 v. Schwann made the important discovery that fermenta- tion and putrefaction germs were invariably found in the atmos- phere, and it was left to Pasteur and his co-laborers to demonstrate finally that putrefaction was due to the agency of micro-organisms. Since the early discoveries of Pasteur it has been shown that a great variety af bacteria found in soil, water and organically pol- luted fiuids are capable of effecting the decomposition of albuminous or proteid matter. The first step in the change is the conversion of insoluble pro- teids into soluble peptones, a process similar to that which takes place in the stomach. The liquefaction, or as it is called, the pep- tonization of proteids is effected through the ability of the bacteria to secrete an enzyme of the nature of animal tryps¢n, All bacteria which liquefy gelatin have peptonizing properties to a greater or less degree, and hence the power of converting proteids into pep- tenes. Liquefying bacteria are abundantly present in all soils, hence the vital agencies are there at work which cause a rapid peptoniza- tion of all proteid bodies. The next step in the process is the conversion of peptones into -amido-acids and basic amines. 21 334 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The following is a list, after Rideal,“ of the amido acids which have been found as products of the putrefaction of proteids: Name. Constitution. | Formula, | Products of Further Decomposition. Glycocin, ....| Amido-acetic, ...... C Hz. (N H.)C OO48, | Ammonia and acetic acid. Leucin, ..... Amido-isocaproie,.. (coc a ISI soonddocs Ammonia and isocaproic acid. Tyrosin, ..... B-oxyphenol-amido | ie Hz CgH, (OH), ....J | Indol, phenol and skatol. propionic, CH, (NH.2) COOHj Aspartic, ...| Amido-succinic, ...)//C Hz2C OOH, ........ Ammonia -and malic acid, then |L\CH (N H2) COOH) succinic. Asparagin, .| Amido-succinamic,.|){C Hz CO(N Hg), ....J | Ammonia and malic acid, then i\l\CH (NH2) COOH succinic. Glutamic, .. | ---ccccescccsceceveccece feat (ONPSt) Sooscooc Ammonia and probably succinic E: | CIOSOTH eewccccats oes acid, The amido acids are next decomposed into ammonia and organic acids as shown in the last column of the above table. Tyrosin breaks into indol, phenol and skatol. Of the basic products of putrefaction we have non-volatile bases known as ptomaines and leucomaines, produced in minute quanti- ties, and certain volatile bases such as monomethylamine and tri- methylamine. These latter basic products by further decomposi- tion are converted into ammonia. From the preceding it is seen that the final products of putrefac- tive fermentation are ammonia and organic acids. Naturally the organic acids will combine with the ammonia to form salts, but these salts will undergo a still further change in which the acid is con- verted into carbon dioxide, hydrogen and marsh gas. The two latter escape while the carbon dioxide combines with the ammonia to form carbonate of ammonia. This completes the process, the proteid matter resolving itself into two gases, hydrogen and marsh gas, with a solid residium in the form of ammonium carbonate. Theoretically this is true, but in reality there remains as a “by- product” of these reactions, as Rideal puts it, “a varying but small quantity of dark pulverent matter resembling the humus or peaty substances of soil.” In addition to this it is known that under certain conditions of ex- clusion of air, and of the development of the more strongly anae- robic bacteria, a certain amount of the nitrogen escapes in the free state before it is converted into ammonia. While this takes place in putrefying fluids such as sewage it probably does not occur to any appreciable degree in soils. According to Sommaruga, aerobic bacteria growing in non-sac- charine nutrient media always form an alkali from albuminous bodies. These alkaline bodies so far as known are either ammonia No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 335 or amides, which in part become converted into ammonia. Thus it may be said that ammonia production is almost a universal func- tion of bacteria. In the following table is shown the production of ammonia by several common species of soil bacteria grown in beef broth at room temperature: Table III. Milligrams of NHs per100 | BES c. c. of Culture produced in) 6586 eo fo} off hae . ao un Her > oad A 3 A 5 ies n uo) id o 7 cs 2 P d | wage i] % 1s) SHED I 2 be) S528 o be ors B 5 r= bass un cm H Ay IBACLENIUM aI V.COIGEB em ee ccieciels'elcic cicicinieiersieleiciele(ersielereleieieiele’erclsielcreisiele(eie - 9.18 20.06 45.50 21.9 Bacillus subtilis, ....... Moliciciee ote nalce cine ieitinnalen mciiotis ception 6.46 18.35 46.20 21.4 Bacillus pulvinatus— Variety A, Variety B, : Bacillus No. 6, ... Bacillus No. 7, ... IMMIGLOSpPITAy CENUIBS voce ciclescesiacciscvcclesice sclsvicecisesecicicecisicieeses Bacterium fermentationis, In the above table it is seen that the highest quantity of am- monia was produced by Bacterium mycoides and Bacillus subtilis, the latter organism converting 24.4 per cent. of the total nitrogen of the medium into ammonia in thirty days. Both of these species are abundantly and constantly present in soils, and are important factors in the ammonification of organic matter. It is also noted that there is a marked difference in the ability of the different species studied to produce ammonia, and in the rate of its development; one form Jficrospira tenwis producing none after a period of thirty days. Complete absence of ammonia production is however the exception. (b.) Nitrification. The subject of nitrification is one which has received a large share of attention from scientific men, and the literature thereon is very voluminous, extending over a period of twenty-five years. In 1871-75, Sir J. H. Gilbert found that the drainage waters from 336 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. the experimental fields of Rothamsted contained more nitrates as the amount of ammonium salts applied to the soil increased. In 1878 Messrs. Schlésing and Miintz* laid before the French Academy the results of an experiment tending to prove that nitrifica- tion was due to the action of an organized ferment. 3 2 : Pee Character of the Manuring of the Land. E 3 ° 3 i S (o} a = i ® io} a ° ve) cg oO p> on bo. 2 Q gs 2 ei af fa ® P bh Se Ko) ae 2 Boll) US Gl tet | Omi ody cer a a 5 | w 4 e Z5 Bretereiereters 2.9 0.2 4.8 5.5 4.2 0.95 | Mixed mineral manures. GHdoeoane 14.7 0.7 6.0 5.4 5.4 1.22 | *200 lbs. ammonium salts and minerals. Ueooacods 27.1 1.4 Hee 5.4 6.8 1.54 | *400 lbs. ammonium salts and minerals. Choosa0ce 28.2 4.0 18.5 es) 9.3 2.10 | *600 lbs. ammonium salts and minerals. ibfogouonos 6.7 2.9 7.5 28.1 19.3 | © 4.87 | 7400 lbs. ammonium salts and minerals. Tistaretevossicis 29.7 1.8 6.6 5.5 Uleal 1.61 | 400 lbs. ammonium salts alone, LR Werercietaion 1.5 0.3 5.6 5.5 4.3 0.97 | Mixed mineral manure. Sasisteretsieleie 3.6 1.4 6.0 925 7.6 1.70 | Barn yard manure. LO eidistete 3.7 0.5 7.0 14.0 10.4 2.35 | Rape cake. tApplied in the fall. The use of large quantities of ammonium salts, or of nitrate of soda at the time of spring seeding results, as the last table shows, in an immediate increase of nitrates in the drainage waters. . There is every reason to believe that ammonium salts, when ap- plied to the soil, are very rapidly converted into nitrates, and in this form washed out of the soil. The same loss would follow similar applications at the time of autumn sowing as shown by the results from Plot 15, given in the last table. Hence whenever it becomes necessary to use ammonium salts or nitrates as a crop stimulant, they should be applied in small quanti- ties while the crop is growing. The custom of introducing nitrate of soda with the seed is accordingly a most wasteful operation. The Amounts of Nitrates Lost in the Drainage. It is calculated that the River Rhine discharges daily into the ocean 220 tons of nitrates, calculated as nitrate of soda; the Seine 270 tons, and the Nile 1,100* tons. Since the great bulk of this comes from nitrates produced in the soil it is easy to form some idea of the tremendous losses of this the most valuable of all plant nutrients. From what has already been said it is seen: 1. That given equal rainfall, the amount of nitrates lost in the drainage is greater in sandy than in heavy soils; and in direct ratio to the porosity of the latter. 2. That the loss by drainage, and hence the corresponding loss of No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 353 nitrates, is diminished by vegetation; hence in fallow land the loss of nitrates is greater than in land covered with plant growth. Thus from an unmanured field at Rothamsted, kept fallow and free of weeds, the loss of nitric nitrogen per acre per annum was for three successive years 38.9, 48.3 and 27.4 pounds respectively, while from an experimental wheat field at the same place the similar loss, as an average of 19 years, was in one case 9.1 and in the other 11.9 pounds per acre’ per annum. The pe of Mineral Fertilizers on the Loss of Nitrates and on Nitrification. I have already mentioned the effect of lime and plaster on nitrifica- tion; still another point needs mention. The nitrifying organism cannot multiply except in the presence, among other elements, of phosphoric acid and potash. Nitrification is, accordingly, aided by applications of mineral fertilizers. The effect of potash salts alone, or of potash salts mixed with car- bonate of lime, in increasing nitrification and ammonification in soils rich in humus, has been shown by Dumont. In soils differently treated the amount of nitric nitrogen produced in 1000 grams of soil in 40 days was in milligrams as follows: ORCC Kemmerer ela on oN fai aie oti anes Ses acu oan ater cash apenn ake 25S Otc carnonace, 0slsper Cents, s/iuv sss « os «6 eleiete es) < 57.8 Wnleachedsashes: 0:5 Per. Cents rod ss... «.'sleeto tiers as 6 19.0 Muriate of potash, 0.1 per cent., and carbonate of lime, 2 j OSES CLE Ts Aig eRe etcetera Rear ns A arr RR aes 38.0 Muriate of potash, 0.1 per cent., and Thomas slag, 5 per ReTM OM aes ose oo oats a fh bea uss «oy Stal 8 9s Syn) avaaneUaneUIANe alate 41.5 Prmnonateroislime: 2 per CEN, 85.5. ee ct clnee oo wares 5.3 From the preceding it is seen that a marked increase of nitrates resulted when some form of potash was used. In the mixture of muriate of potash and carbonate of lime, a double reaction between the two took place, producing carbonate of potash and chloride of calcium. The author claims that the action of the potash salts is to combine with the humates of the soil and form a compound which is very readily nitrifiable. Again, the ability of a crop to utilize the nitrates of the soil is considerably diminished when there is a deficiency of available mineral constituents, especially of potash and phosphoric acid. The effect of mineral salts upon nitrification and the loss of nitrates is well shown in the following table:** Pat 1902 354 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Table IX. Nitrogen as Nitrates in Soil and Subsoil and in the Drainage Water of Various Plots in the Broadwalk Wheat Field, in Pounds Per Acre. minerals. Nitric Nitrogen in the Soll— | o54 62 Pounds Per Acre, he 5° Eos | #8 o2R8 3 5 Laie 26g bu ons vi Be a) PR Plot. A ; & tow. | Sa Character of Manuring. n . uw ogn — co) mn rt) ° 12 oS. a ev rs} =| pepor= ty @ o 5) 4 3) a eel od yy OO cs} A rc 5 508 | Bo - a : Ves Tet loe eee ees oe tt + We) = Qh @ Wo ‘| | a | or) | H vA Ay | | Deis aerae 9.7 | 5.3] 2.8 17.8 11.6 65.1 | Unmanured. DEA eletetete ay |) tien | 4.6 24.3 13.2 54.3 | Mixed mineral manure. LOVE) cere cre ery |p ey | 7.3 33.4 31.1 93.1 | 400 lbs. ammonium salts. (hee Acar 22.3 LCS 5.7 39.8 24.1 60.5 | do. + mixed minerals. 5 OY FR Es500 17.9 9.3 3.6 30.8 27.5 89.2 | do. + super-phosphate. Staecieiccls 21.1 13.9 7.8 42.8 30.1 70.3 | 600 lbs. ammonium salts and mixed From the above we note that the total nitric nitrogen in 27 inches of unmanured soil was 17.8 pounds per acre; while in the same soil, treated with mixed mineral fertilizers, the amount was 24.3 pounds per acre. The percentage of nitric nitrogen which passed out in the drainage was also diminished as a result of the application of mineral fer- tilizers. The effect of mixed minerals, when applied with ammonium salts in diminishing the loss of nitrates in the drainage, is well shown in the results from Plot 10a, 7a, and 8a, in the preceding table. The Effect of Season of Year Upon Loss of Nitrates. The preceding table shows that in unmanured land, and in land to which only mixed fertilizers, free from nitrogen, had been applied the percentage of nitric nitrogen removed by the drainage from Sep- tember 1 to February 1, five months, was from 54 to 65 per cent. of the total quantity present in the first 27 inches of soil at the begin- ning of the experiment. In Table VIII similar results are observed. On Plot 5, fertilized by non-nitrogenous manures, the average num- ber of parts of nitrates per million parts of drainage for the whole year was 4.2 while the corresponding figures for the periods from wheat harvest to autumn sowing, and from autumn sowing to spring sowing, were respectively 4.8 and 5.5. The corresponding figures for the periods from spring sowing to the end of May, and from June to harvest, were 2.9 and 0.2. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 355 The losses of nitrate in a wheat field, or on fallow ground are there- fore greater during the fall and winter months; and least during the summer months. The increased loss of nitrates in a wheat field during the fall and winter months is due to a combination of causes: 1. Diminished evaporation and increased drainage. 2. The accumulation of nitrates in the soil during the summer months beyond the needs of the plants, which are washed out of the same during the fall and winter, and 3. The inability of wheat at this season to utilize the soil water and prevent excessive percolation. These considerations teach a most important principle, i. e., that ground should be kept in some crop as much of the time as possible especially during the fall and winter. The growth of wheat as one crop in a system of rotation is of course necessary, notwithstanding the inevitable losses of nitrates which follow its seeding. There are, however, certain violations of the above rule which need correction. Corn land should never be left fallow through the winter. The same is equally true of tomato and trucking land. Either these crops should be followed by wheat or some winter cover crop put in to conserve nitrates. In a loose sandy soil in which it is more diffi- cult to accumulate available nitrogen it would be inadvisable to fol- low a cultivated crop like tomatoes, or potatoes by wheat, but rather to use crimson clover or rye to hold the nitrogen. (f.) Increasing the Supply of Available Nitrogen in the Soil. Soils may become too rich in humus and available nitrogen. The use of crimson clover has in some cases in Delaware been carried so far as to work actual injury to the land, especially if the latter has a tendency to become heavy and retentive of nitrates. The majority of farm lands, however, are not open to the charge of being too rich; on the contrary, the improvement of land and the growth of larger crops is the great desideratum. I have already pointed out that most soils contain large supplies of organic nitrogen, which, by the aid of nitrification, can be made available to crops. The question of utilizing these stores of organic nitrogen already in the soil becomes mainly one of underdraining, deep plowing and more frequent cultivation. Every cultivation of a corn or potato crop is equivalent to a dress- ing of nitrate of soda in its cheapest possible form. Hence if we could cultivate twice to each once by our present system we would 356 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. considerably increase our supplies of available nitrogen, and in turn reap the rewards of such an increase in larger crops. Such a system of intensive cultivation carried on year after year would, however, result in the burning out of the land, and in greatly reducing the fertility. It is, therefore, necessary to make good these losses of organic nitrogen by the growth of such crops, or by the use of animal manures, as shall add to the stock of humus already in the soil. The effect of stable manure and clover in increasing the quan- tity of nitrates in the soil js brought out in the following table: Table X. Nitrogen as Nitric Acid in Pounds per Acre in Soils of Geescroft and Hoosfield Experimental Plots, Rothamsted. I. | II. III. IV. | _| | atin. : i? S ea eeee ot oedema woo S 5 nee Sas ia bo Pm Be ao CR) iE ia Ske Sook | a3 iS Onws Depth—Inches. nt cS ee aa } de S| oh ae oo | mB 0 = ei Lp eogq | (7) as > iS | Grav | yg EE qo | Sc al ba =2 ~ oO lanes co ] 2s on oO KRD | fo} = | Oo? =O. DHas £2» ne O° un o on | §aeZo | Bs a, & So obs near | n og aes 2Oog 8 o208 rae On CU aBE <) | & ss a 4.28 13.57 19.85 30.90 5.52 8.76 8.05 27.73 4.81 7.70 2.47 8.44 2.69 8.51 2.70 7.64 2.68 4.36 1.62 9.07 1.90 1.85 3.57 8.77 2.60 1.71 3.84 7.92 3.47 —4.00 2.28 8.34 Total, | 27.95 50.46 44.38 108.81 The results given in column I are from a field left for 30 years un- manured and exhausted by continuous cropping to beans, followed by fallowing. In column II it is seen how, even under condition of the most heavy drain upon a soil, the supply of available nitrogen can be maintained by the use of stable manure. In columns I and II above, the comparatively large quantities of nitrates in the lower zones of the soil will be noted as indicative of the effect of excessive downward percolation during 4-5 years of fallowing; for this reason the soils of the Geescroft field are really poorer in available nitrogen, within that zone occupied by the bulk No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 357 of the roots, than the amount of total nitrogen to a depth of 72 inches would indicate. In column III the effect of 35 years’ continuous culture of wheat on the same land is shown; the result is a soil richer in available nitrogen than might be expected. The comparative effect of 17 years in clover, as shown in the last column, is a marked increase of available nitrogen, and shows the good effect of such crops in increasing the store of this important element of plant food. The effect of permanent grass in increasing the store of nitrogen in the soil is marked, and is well bronght out in the following table by Sir. J. B. Lawes:»» Table XI. Nitrogen in Surface Soil (dry), First 9 Inches, and Gains in Pounds Per Acre in Land in Permanent Grass. Nitrogen. Gain. | | a a : Q | § 2; = | d Dates. | > 8 s } ky by £ 2 ie fl l J he +) ‘4 o = a Ome E 3 3 a E 3 bi hi RE Z a, 4 7 | 3,040 3,497 4,091 ters 4,690 594 45.7 599 59.9 1,650 50.0 It should be understood that the above field has been mowed for hay every year for 33 years, with average yield of 1.7 tons per acre per annum, and yet, notwithstanding this annual drain, there was an increase of nitrogen in the soil of 50 pounds per acre per annum. Thus the state of knowledge is sufficient to indicate that all soils can be kept sufficiently rich in available nitrogen by the judicious use of leguminous crops in a proper system of rotation, or by the use of grass and clover as a part of the same system, and this with out the necessity of purchasing a single pound of nitrogen in a fer- tilizer. 358 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. 6. Denitrification and Loss of Free Nitrogen. Through the agency of bacteria present in all soils, nitrates under certain conditions may be converted into lower oxides of nitrogen, into ammonia or into free nitrogen. Goppelsréder,® in 1862, made the observation that in soils rich in humus active denitrification took place. In 1882, Gayon and Dupetit*: found that in river water containing small quantities of nitrate of potash (0.02-0.2 grams per 1000) there was a reduction of the latter salt to ammonia. The reduction of nitrates through the agency of bacteria was later (1883) observed by Dehérain and Maquenne,® and also by Springer, which reduction they held to be due to the agency of anaerobic forms, similar to B. butyricus, which either reduced the nitrates to lower oxides of nitrogen or to free nitrogen. Heraeus,” in 1886, isolated from water two bacilli which posessed to an eminent degree the power of reducing nitrates to nitrites. Blasi and Fravoli,” in 1888, found in Palermo soil 27 different species, which they have studied as to their chemical action in gelatin con- taining nitrates. They found that in 1-3 days 'the quantities of ni- trates diminished with a simultaneous increase of nitrites. These latter reached their maximum in 6-8 days, and after 25-30 days en- tirely disappeared. Frankland,” in 1888, isolated from water some 32 different species of bacteria, of which no less than 17 possessed the power more or less completely of reducing nitrates to nitrites. Of these the most strongly reducing were B. ramosus and B. pestifer. Bréal,® in 1892, isolated from straw and other refuse a ferment which possessed strong reducing action. He found that if to straw fermenting in water, nitrates were added, the latter rapidly disap- peared, while if sterilized straw were put into water and allowed to ferment, no such reduction took place, thus showing the presence upon the straw of some specific denitrifying organism. The nitrogen, according to the author, appeared partly in organic combination and partly as elementary nitrogen. Gilthay and Aberson,™ in 1892, isolated from both soil and atmos- phere two organisms which possessed active powers in reducing nitrates, and which they named Bacillus denitriticans var. a. and b. Both of these liberated free nitrogen. Egunow,® in 1893, isolated from the surface of seed a bacillus which possessed the power of reducing nitrates to nitrites, etc. Egunow found that in flasks with broad flat bottoms, with mineral media and nitrates, and with the fluid only a few millimetres thick, the nitrates were finally converted into ammonia. Where the thick- ness of the fluid was 10 mm., the nitrates were converted into am- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 369 monia and free nitrogen. Where the thickness was 60-70 mm. no ammonia was formed, but only free nitrogen. Burri, Herfeldt and Stutzer,® in 1895, isolated from horse manure and from straw two bacilli, respectively B. nztrzficans I and II, which actively reduced nitrates. Schirokikh,” in 1893, isolated from horse dung a bacillus which liquified gelatin, and actively reduced nitrates. In broth contain- ing 2.5 grams of potassium nitrate to the litre, the latter was com- pletely reduced in 5.8 days, at a temperature of 30-35 degrees C. Again, Sewerin,® in 1897, isolated from horse manure 29 species of bacteria, of which 20 possessed greater or less power of reducing nitrates. In 1896, Richards and Rolfs® conducted some experiments with 25 different solutions prepared to typify conditions of water polluted with decaying organic matter (sewage), and at the same time con- taining nitrates. They note, (1) the rapid disappearance of nitrates, usually less than 10 per cent. of the original quantity remaining at the end of 3 days; (2) a corresponding increase of nitrites; (3) that when the so- lutions contained no organic matter other than that usually present in the water reduction took place very slowly and incompletely; (4) that the nitrogen which disappeared from the nitrates was finally given off in the free state; (5) that whenever nitrates were added to decomposing organic matter under such conditions that the growth of the bacteria required more oxygen than the solution afforded, the latter took it from the nitrates setting free nitrites, which in time were decomposed, setting free nitrogen. From the aforegoing citations it is seen that denitrifying bacteria are abundantly distributed in nature, and that they are found in water, soil, manure, sewage and upon the surface of plants, particu- larly upon straw. It is only necessary to add a small portion of soil to media containing nitrates to obtain active denitrification thus showing the general presence of denitrifying bacteria in soils. The majority of soil bacteria studied separately by the author possess this property to a greater or less degree. 7. Conditions Affecting Denitrification. (a.) Presenceor Absenceof Air.—It has commonly been supposed that the power of reducing nitrates belongs more exclusively to the an- aerobic bacteria, or those which live without air. The question is an open one as to how far denitrification is the result of a deficient supply of atmospheric air. All of the species of soil bacteria so far 360 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. examined by the writer, with one exception, are aerobic, and yet they all actively reduce nitrates. That active denitrification can take place in the presence of an abundant supply of atmospheric oxygen is shown by the following: A culture of B. pulvinatus was selected on account of its active denit- rifying properties. The bacillus was grown in a solution of Witte’s peptone containing one gram of nitrate of soda to the litre. Provisions were made for continually passing sterile air through the culture so as to provide an abundance of atmospheric oxygen. Simultaneously with the above, a culture was made in an ordinary flask, plugged with cotton wool, without aeration. At the end of 5 days 7.0 milligrams of nitrite of soda per 100 c. c. were found in the aerated culture and 30.0 milligrams in the non-aerated. At the end of 10 days 20 milligrams of nitrite of soda were found in the aerated and 40 milligrams in the non-aerated culture. In this case active denitrification took place even with abundant and continual aeration of the culture, although the presence of large quantities of atmospheric oxygen seemed to somewhat retard the process. These results are in conformity with those of Stutzer and Maul.” B. denitrificans and B. coli-communis in a broth culture caused a vigorous reduction of nitrates to nitrites, and in four days the ni- trites had entirely disappeared, when, however, a constant stream of air was passed through the culture, growth took place as before but the nitrates had not entirely disappeared until after the tenth day. It would, therefore, appear that denitrification can take place ac- tively even in the presence of an abundant supply of atmospheric oxygen, certain bacteria at least being capable of utilizing combined oxygen equally with that supplied in the free state. Contrary results were obtained by Pfeiffer, Franke, Gétze and Thurmann™ in their study of the loss of nitrogen in manures. They found that denitrification was more active when air was drawn through and over the manure than when air was excluded, the pres- ence of atmospheric air apparently favoring the process, and it has become a recognized principle that manures lose nitrogen less readily when kept closely compacted than when loose. (6.) The Presence of Organic Matter. The effect of organic matter upon the development of the denitri- fying organism was shown by Stutzer and Jensen in 1897.” The experiments of the latter indicate that denitrification can take place only in the presence of a sufficient supply of assimilable carbon, No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 361 otherwise the nitrates remain unaltered although the denitrifying organism may be present in abundance. Apropos to this principle the authors hold with Maercker that horse manure is more active in causing denitrification than sheep or cow manure since the former is much richer in assimilable carbon than the latter. It is a well known fact that denitrification is particularly active in stable manure, and denitrifying bacteria are especially abundant therein. The admixture of straw also favors the denitrification process in manure was accelerated by the addition thereto of a straw contains an easily assimilable carbon in the form of pentosans, The pentosans which are abundant in coarse manure and straw, fur- nish a much more readily available food to den-trifying organisms than cellulose or fibre. Still more readily assimilable forms of car- bon are found in such compounds as glycerin, citric acid, lactic acid, ete., and Pfeiffer and Lemmermann found that the denitrification process, and an explanation of this has been found in the fact that soluble calcium citrate. The loss of nitrogen in the free state in organic infusions seems to be associated with the presence of readily decomposable nitro- genous bodies, such as the amzdes.Thus Grimbert ‘-*found that the colon bacillus, when grown in a solution containing peptones and nitrates, yielded no free nitrogen, but when grown with nitrates in a solution made from beef extract and containing amides there was a considerable loss of nitrogen in the free state. The author, therefore, concludes: that the nitrogen does not come exclusively from the nitrates, but also results from the denitrifying action of the bacillus upon amido principles in the culture medium. 2. That the evolution of free nitrogen seems to result from the secondary reaction which nitrous acid, formed by the bacteria, exerts on these amido substances. It has been seen that one step in putrefaction and ammonification is the production of amido acids and basic amines, and this explains perhaps the rapidity of the denitrifying process in infusions rich in nitrogenous organic matter which are undergoing putrefaction. Kinger® showed that when nitrate of soda was mixed with liquid manure (urine) there was a decided decomposition of nitrogenous compounds and loss of nitrogen. And in the same connection, T. B. Wood" found that nitrate of soda when used alone as a fertilizer for oats gave much better results than when used with manure. This simply reiterates the former principle that nitrates readily decompose in the presence of an excess of readily assimilable organic matter. 362 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. (c.) The Relation of Denitrification to Cultivation. It has been stated that denitrification may take place either in the presence or absence of atmospheric air. With the presence of some form of easily assimiliable organic mat- ter, it may take place under any condition of aeration. Nitrification is the opposite and antagonistic process to denitri- fication. Furthermore, the conditions which are favorable to the former are inimicable to the latter. The question of denitrification and loss of nitrogen in soils is one about which much has yet to be learned, but it is generally believed that under ordinary conditions it is of no particular importance. At least this much may be said, that if the agriculturist will main- tain those conditions which are favorable to nitrification, any pos- sible loss of nitrogen by the opposite process can be disregarded. Hence cultivation, which effects the rapid destruction of easily assimiliable organic compounds, leaves little opportunity for the denitrifying bacteria to carry on their destructive work. 8. The Loss of Nitrogen From Stable Manures and its Conservation. It has been stated that denitrification and loss of nitrogen is com- paratively rapid in stable manures, because of the abundant presence of denitrifying bacteria and of easily assimiliable organic compounds which furnish food to the latter. It has also been noted that straw mixed with urine and excrement also assists the process by fur- nishing an easily assimiliable carbon compound in the form of pen- tosans. So deleterious is the action of straw that it has been suggested, as a feature of good farm practice, to keep the manure and litter sepa- rate, or to see to it that as little straw as possible becomes mixed with the urine and faeces. To what extent this is practicable must be left to the practical agriculturist to determine. But taking conditions as they ordinarily exist, i. e., with straw forming a considerable proportion of the manure proper, and with the natural losses of nitrogen which must take place to confront us, how can these be reduced to the minimum. There are twomethods forconserving the nitrogen content of stable manure, first, by the exclusion of air and second, by the use of pre- servatives. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 363 Regarding the first method it has been shown that denitrification is more active when air was drawn through and over the manure than when it was excluded. Under the former condition of free access of air Franke, Gétze and Thurman showed a loss of nitrogen amounting to from 27.6 to 42.6 per cent. of that originally present. Hence to prevent loss of nitrogen the manure should be kept well compacted; its storage in sheds, or even in closed receptacles, where- by it is protected from strong currents of air, is also advisable. The preceding authors have also made valuable experiments on the use of preservatives. Of these, the use of super-phosphate is especi- ally recommended. : In this case the transformation of the nitrogen in the form of free ammonia into free nitrogen was prevented by the use of a sufficient amount of the super-phosphate to combine with all the ammonia formed, thus fixing it and preventing its loss. Plaster or sulphate of lime acts in the same way but less energetically. The addition of 2-3 per cent. of caustic lime, or 5 per cent. of marl, decidedly reduced the denitrifying power of fresh manure. The use of caustic lime, however, is not to be advised as it was found to promote ammoniacal fermentation, and the loss of ammonia. According to the authors, the mechanical condition of the manure exerted a more marked effect upon its preservation than chemical preservation. Hence the keeping of the manure ina well compacted condition and free from strong currents of air is of primary conse- quence. ° 9. The Disintegration and Dissolution of Mineral Matter. This subject has, in a measure, been discussed in previous pages, but a few additional statements, in this connection, might be made. The mineral elements of plant food are absorbed in the form of salts. These salts are compounds of acids and bases, as shown in the following list: Plants Absorb. Acids. Bases. As Salts—i. e. IIETIC. Neccecovcccsccese Sea TPATNINONI D2 baccacc cee ssc. INTEPALES lon cccaee ccc cissisncecics Ammonia. RH TIG etencs ss ccises ea GLASS ce cae ncen acca Suiphateswesacecss-sesene sence Potash. PRRENEMEIO lcs asnccesccccese PSIG eee ee cies cacies cele | Carbonates? (.-.ssscss-set cee ot Lime. eHIDEPHOFIC, <.ccccccccccs EPO ceetcsacccdesscsaessel Whosphates Wee cccencacseces sn Iron, PRMREICU Sec ciscccecancecceos SOUR ua ones aececesscces |, Silicates( Or cooccacce aces onenice Soda or Hydrochloric, ........... | Magnesia, .............. | Chlorides, .....+-ssssseseeenee Magnesia. } 364 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Of these acids, certain of them have existed in the rocky crust of the earth, from which soils have originated, before the advent of life, and hence are not of bacterial origin. These are sulphuric, phos- phoric, silicic and hydrochloric acids. Others of them are products of bacterial life such as carbonic and nitric acids. Of the bases, all except ammonia are of primordial or earth crust origin. Of the salts, the sulphates, silicates, carbonates and chlorides, which are largely present in rocks, are not absorbed except in minute quantities, the greater part of the bases being taken up as nitrates and phosphates, and also as salts of the organic acids. , in the process of nitrification the nitric acid combines with the various bases present in the soil, and nitrates are produced. Phosphoric acid exists in the soil in the form of insoluble basic phosphates, which, under the action of organic acids, are converted into neutral or acid salts which are soluble. Hence the production of organic acids by bacterial fermentation renders phosphoric acid available to plant roots. We have already spoken of the action of carbonic acid, in disin- tegrating, and setting free as carbonates, the various bases locked up as mineral silicates. These carbonates unite with silica to form zeolites and these in turn are slowly decomposed by organic acids, and their contained bases again liberated as organic salts. H. Carrington Bolton has shown that many minerals are slowly decomposed by the action of cold citric acid, the zeolites and other hydrous silicates being especially susceptible. 7 Thus by the combined production of carbonic, nitric and the va- rious organic acids, through the action of bacterial life, we have all the necessary agencies at hand for the dissolution of the mineral elements of plant growth. VIII. THE ASSIMILATION OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN. 1. Historica SuMMARY. The Biology of Root Tubercles.—It is a fact familiar to all that the roots of leguminous plants contain nodular swellings or excres- cences known as “root tubercles.” These have been recognized from the earlier days of botanical in: quiry, and as far back as 1615, DeLéchamp used the characters of the root tubercles as a basis of classification, and the same use was inade of them by DeCandole® in his System of Vegetation. At different periods during the earlier part of the nineteenth cen- Ne. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 365 tury various opinions were held by different authors regarding these bodies. The more general view was that they were of the nature of fungus growths, or otherwise diseased conditions of the roots; a few held them to be the result of animal parasitism, and due either to insects or worms; while others considered them to be normal organs. regarding whose function there was difference of opinion. All of these latter views were, however, purely speculative, rather than based upon any serious study; and it was not until 1866 that any attempt was made to study them closely; when Woronin®™ de scribed their microscopic struciure. He found them to be composed of a central portion of thin walled cells, of an outer rind, and of an intermediate layer or vascular ring. In the central portion the contents were cloudy, and closer examina- tion showed the cells in this portion to be filled with peculiarly shaped bodies, which were sometimes rod-like, at others forked, and present- ing a variety of forms simulating the letters T and Y. Woronin re garded these bodies as living organisms, but since they differed from other bacteria or V7s4roz in form, he termed them Bacteroids. He regarded them as the causative agents in the formation of the tuber cles, although he offered no proof of this assumption. In 1874, Erickson” found in the newly developing tubercles long branching filamenis resembling the mycelium of a fungus.These threads he considered to be the infecting agents. Later on in the development of the tubercles he observed the presence of the bac- teroids, noted by Woronin, but failed to connect the two as corelated structures. In the early observations of Woronin and Erickson we have the germ and substance of all that has since been discovered regarding root tubercles. Both recognized, as is held to-day, the two classes of bodies the filamentous and the bacteroid. Both were right in as- suming that the organisms as seen within the tubercles were the agents in their production, although Erickson was more nearly right in assuming that the filaments were the real infecting agents. But it was left to others to show the relation of the filaments to the bacieroid bodies, and this question became the subject of much controversy and difference of opinion extending over many years. In the controversy which followed, covering the latter 25 years of the nineteenth century, the most eminent botanists were engaged. On certain points they agreed, on others they differed, but since the points on which they differed determined the position which these forms should occupy in a system of classification, the subject became of especial interest. All agreed to the presence of the filaments within the tubercles in the early stage of their development. These filaments were fur- 366 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. thermore regarded as the infecting parts, which forced their way into the younger roots and, by their iritating presence, set up a multiplica- tion or proliferation of cells which resulted in the building up of an excrescence or tubercle. It was upon the structure of the filaments, and upon how the bac- teroid bodies originated from them, that they differed, and upon this point it is surprising that there should havebeen such a wide diver- sity of view. These two views class themselves under two heads, which, for the sake of convenience, we shall term the endogenous and the exogenous theories. The former was held by Prazmowski, Frank and Maria Dawson, and the latter by Laurent, Ward and Atkinson. According to Prazmowski,® the leader of the endogenous theory, the infecting agent in the production of the root tubercles is present in the soil as a definite bacterium, which, after Beyerinck, he calls Bacterium radicola. Certain of these force their way into the smaller roots and for a time multiply therein; but soon the juices of the plant exert an un- favorable influence upon them, and to protect themselves against its injurious action they excrete a gelatinous substance in which they remain embedded, and in which they continue to multiply. With this multiplication the gelatinous envelope is drawn out into long strands or filaments, containing the rod-shaped bodies or bacteria. As long as these remain protected by their gelatinous envelope they continue to multiply and retain the rod-shaped form. As the filaments approach the central portion of the tubercle they swell out into rounded vessicles. Later on by the enlargement of these latter the enveloping membrane becomes so thin that it bursts and the enclosed bacteria are set free. From this time they cease to multiply, and by degeneration assume a variety of irregular branched forms, first observed by Woronin, and called by him bacteroids. Prazmowski, therefore, recognized (1) that the filaments were elon- gated pouches of gelatinous matter, the secretion of the bacteria, and in which the infecting bacteria were embedded; (2) that these bacteria multiplied as straight rods within the filaments, or en- dogenously; (8) that by the escape of the bacteria they underwent various degenerations by which they assumed the irregular forms of bacteroids. One essential point in Prazmowski’s position was that the bac- teroids were degenerated forms. Frank® in his later observation, held to the position of Prazmow- ski, but differed in regarding the gelatinous envelopes as a product of the cell rather than of the bacteria. Maria Dawson in 1899, also held to the view of Prazmowski. By proper staining she found the filaments to consist of strands of No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 367 straight rodlets lying parallel to the longer axis of the filaments and embedded in a colorless matrix. This matrix did not consist of cellulose, chitin, or any form of slime. The swellings, or vessicles of Prazmowski, occurred at places where the rodlets had become heaped up and eventually had burst liberating the rodlets. After liberation from the filaments they became transformed into X, V and Y shaped bacteroids. The exogenous theory is best represented by the researches of Laurent in 1891,*! and later by those of Atkinson in 1893.” Both hold that the filaments are not pouches containing bacteria, but true homogenous filaments, which, as they enter the cells of the central portion of the tubercle, show enlargements which afterwards, by a process of budding, give rise to the branched bacteroid bodies. This view was also held by Ward® somewhat earlier, and all agree in regarding the organism as a lowly organized fungus instead of a bacterium whose filamentous portion corresponds to the mycelium, and whose bacteroids are buds or gonidia thrown off from the latter. Yor this fungus, Laurent adopts the name Rhizobium leguminosarum originally proposed by Frank. Regarding these two views the bulk of evidence inclines to the exogenous theory, although there is opportunity for further study before the matter is finally settled. In what has been already said it was assumed that the root tubercles of leguminous plants are caused by an organism, com- monly present in the soil, which infects the younger roofs and re- sults in the formation of excrescenses or tubercles. In the earlier researches on the structure of the tubercle and their contained organism it was assumed that the associated fungus was the cause of the tubercle. But the first demonstrable proof of the relation of soil organisms to the development of tubercles was due almost simultaneously to Hellriegel® and to Ward,® in 1886. Hellriegel grew peas in sterilized sand free from nitrogen, but to which the other mineral fertilizers had been added. The plants grew until the stock of nitrogen in the seed was exhausted, when they showed signs of starvation. To these starving plants were added infusions of soil in which peas had previously been grown; in one case this infusion was sterilized, and in the other not. When un- sterilized soil infusion was used, the plants began to revive their vigor, and continued to grow to maturity. On their roots numer- ous tubercles developed. In the case of the plants watered with sterilized soil infusion, the plants did not revive, and no tubercles formed. From this experiment and others of like character it was shown that something, probably a living organism, existed in the soil in- 368 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. fusion, which was capable of infecting the roots and causing the formation of tubercles; and that by heat this organism could be de- stroyed. The experiment also showed that the renewal of vigor of the plant in a nitrogen free soil was corelated with the infection of the roots and the formation of tubercles; in other words, tubercle formation and nitrogen assimilation by the plant were interdependent. From this point the question of tubercle formation passed from one of mere botanical interest to one of great agricultural import- ance. Ward® went even further, and besides showing that tubercles could be produced at will by the inoculation of roots with soil infusions, succeeded in tracing the development of the fungus filaments into the root hairs, and thence into the cortex of the root, where he noted the development of the tubercles at these points of infection. In 1888, Beyerinck, succeeded in cultivating the root tubercle or- ganism on artificial media, and described a number of races from dif- ferent plants, which he considers varieties of one species of bacteria and which he names Bacillus radicicola. In 1890, Prazmowski,® by cultivating the organism of the root tubercles of beans ,succeeded in inoculating their roots with pure cultures of the latter by watering sterilized soils in which the plants were grown, with liquid cultures of the organism. In 1891, Laurent," by growing legumens in water culture, succeed- ed in inoculating their roots and producing tubercles at the points of inoculation by puncturing them with a needle whose point was con- taminated with root tubercle germs. And a little later, Atkinson® succeeded, by growing vetch in water culture, in inoculating their roots and producing tubercles from pure cultures of the organism. There is thus no doubt but that tubercles on the roots of legumi- nous plants are produced by infection from without, and by an organism entering the root from the soil, The organism as it exists in the soil is probably in the form of bacteria-like bodies, and most soils contain them in greater or less abundance. Their method of infecting the root is best described and figured by Atkinson. The bacterial body has the power to penetrate a root hair and is first seen therein as a filament, extending its entire length, as shown in Fig. 7 B-C, and thence entering the cells of the cortex of the root, causes their proliferation and the production of a swelling upon the side of the root, Fig. 7 A, which by further growth becomes a tubercle. Within the central cells of this tubercle the filaments can be seen branching in all directions as seen in Fig. 8 A. At numerous points are seen irregular swellings, Fig. 8 A-B, Fic 7.—Root tubercle formation. Infection of root through root hairs. A, a, infected root hair; b, beginning of a tubercle; B,a, point of entrance of infecting filament into root hair; b, infecting filament; Ca-Cb, as before. (After Atkinson. ) ” Fic. 8.—Root tubercle formation. ) Sprayed tco lon o oS ol drenched i , ‘ = a fi te i eS a ' i { ty iy (a) Sprayed to the proper point. (b) Sprayed too long, or drenched. PLATE IV. Apples properly and improperly sprayed. (From Bulletin 68 of the Ill. Exp’t. Station.) PLATE V. Apple leaves showing the results of the accumulation of the spraying material at the edges by running down and evaporating. The dark edges and spots represent dead patches on the leaves. (From Bulletin 68 of the Illinois Exp. Station.) No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 501 begins to branch out and continues growing upon the surface of the leaf or fruit, leaving its mycelium exposed. These are known as ex- ternal fungi, and are by far the easiest class of fungous diseases to combat. (See Fig. 1.) For it is obvious that the fungicide can be applied directly to the mycelium. In this way the fungus can be de- stroyed and its further development prevented. To this class of fungi belong the powdery mildews of the grape, the gooseberry and the rose. lu the other class of fungi, the internal fungi, the germinating tube penetrates the skin and there branches. Thus the mycelium is de- veloped within the tissues of the parts of the plant attacked. (See Fig. 2.) It is obvious, then, that the mycelium is wholly out of reach of any spraying compound, and, therefore, once the fungus has gained entrance it is practically impossible to arrest its development. The remedy can be only preventive in its action. The fungus must be killed before the germinating tube enters, otherwise all effort is lost. This isso fundamentally important that it will bear the strong- est emphasis. In addition to this it must be pointed out that the most commonly used fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, does not destroy the spores themselves. It is the little germinating tube only which is destroyed by the fungicide, and, therefore, before the remedy can be ctiective, the spore must germinate. Hence, the necessity of having the remedy applied in time becomes doubly important, for the germi- nating tube must be destroyed before it penetrates. The de- development of the disease will continue, despile the pres- ence of the remedy applied too late, and complete its life history by producing new crops of spores ready to spread the dis- ease anew. The downy mildew of the grape, the scab, the fruit rots, the cankers—in fact, most of the fungous diseases which afflict trees and plants in this region of the United States come under the head of internal fungi, and must be dealt with accordingly. Remedies should be applied before the fungi of this class have gained a firm foothold. Spraying should be begun upon the first appearance. It is not necessary to wait for it to make a “showing.” Otherwise, the spores may become so extremely abundant that, relatively, a large proporti .n of them may escape the fungicide and thus complete their missioy of destruction. Classes of Fungi Summarized. To summarize briefly, therefore, regarding fungi, it is seen that there are: External fungi.—powdery mildews of grape, rose and gooseberry —which develop on the surface or outside and which are thua comparatively easily killed at almost any stage of their _ growth by fungicidal mixtures coming in contact with their exposed mycelium. (Fig. 1.) 502 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. 2. Internal fungi—downy mildew of grape, scab, fruit rots, canker, ete.—which continue their development wholly within the tissues of the parts attacked and which are thus prevented from developing only by destroying the germinating tube of the fungus before it penetrates the skin. (Fig. 2.) PHysicAL PROPERTIES OF MIXTURES. li, order to know just how to use and apply the different spraying liquids now in common use, it is necessary to understand and appre- ciate their physical properties, their behavior in the tanks, in the pump, at the nozzles and on the plants. To do this most conveniently, spray mixtures may be divided, irrespective of their insecticidal or fungicidal properties, into three general classes: 1. Mixtures involving the suspension of insoluble substances ip water; for example, Paris green and other arsenites, Bor- deaux mixture. 2. Mixtures consisting of simple solutions; for example, copper sulphate solution, ammoniacal copper carbonate, sulphide of potash, different soap solutions, solutions of lye or caustic soda. 3. Emulsions or mechanical mixtures of oily or waxy substances with water; for example, kerosene and crude oil emulsions, or the kerosene and crude oil mixtures with water through the medium of the pump and nozzle, without the aid of emul- sifying agents. Mixtures Consisting of Insoluble Materials in Suspension. In the mixtures of this first class, insoluble substances are to be suspended in water and applied while in suspension. It is import- ant to bear this in mind, as upon this fact depends not only the method of application but also the method of maintaining the com- pound on the fruit or leaves, as the case may be. It is necessary that the mixing be thorough in order that the material may be equally disseminated throughout the liquid. For unless it is, the distribu- tion of the poison or fungicide will not be uniform, and hence effec- tive results cannot be obtained. The insoluble material is kept in suspension by means of agitating the liquid either by a separate agitator or by a devise attached to the pump handle. Agitators Considered. The proper and thorough agitation of sprays of this class is one of the most important points in the successful use of the materials No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 503 so used. The agitators now in common use are far from perfect and unless carefully watched are often the cause of failures. It has now come to be almost the universal custom to attach the agitating device to the pump handle, so that the liquid is stirred with every stroke of the operator. This at first sight seems a good plan. In some respects it is, for it at least secures some sort of agitation which is better than none at all. But the labor of pumping, so as to keep the pressure up to the required mark, is really heavy enough without adding to it the extra work of keeping a properly con- structed agitator at work. Then, too, the two motions can hardly be coupled to advantage. For the pumping, a long, steady stroke is hest, while for thorough agitation a quick, abrupt stroke is prefer- abie. Itis very much better, therefore, to have the agitating device separate from the pump. In this way a few vigorous strokes or turrs of the handle accomplish a great deal better work than the slow dipping of a paddle. Agitators having a whirling paddle with tilting blades arranged somewhat like a screw propeller are, on the whole, the most satisfactory. (Fig. 3.) With this instrument the liquid is given a whirling up- ward motion, which very ef- fectively dislodges the ma- terial from the bottom and sides of the tank. On the long, flat tanks now in gen- eral use it is practically im- possible to secure thorough agitation throughout the liquid by any device which may be attached to the pump handle. For these tanks the agitator should consist of a set of two or three paddles so arranged that they will keep the whole body of liquid in violent motion. These pad- dles should be attached to a lever or handle on top of the tank. Where Paris green is used alone, the agitation must be continuous while the pumping is going on, and in order to insure its thoroughness it would pay to put on an extra man or boy to run the agitator. With properly prepared Bordeaux mixture (as will be explained later) continu- ous agitation is unnecessary. Merely stirring the liquid from time to . v 504 ANNUAL KEFORT OF THE Off. Doc. time is amply sufficient to keep the precipitate in suspension. This can best be accomplished while the rig is moving from tree to tree, thus allowing one man to do the whole work. Some growers in New York have rigged up attachments on the wheels of their spray wagons which turn the agitating device and thus do away with this extra hand labor. Where Paris green is used combined with Bordeaux mixture, the latter helps to keep it in suspension and no further agi- tation is needed than for the Bordeaux alone. Proper Placing of Pumps on Barrels. Most of the pumps are now placed on the end or head of the barrel. lor use in applying mixtures consisting of suspended materials— especially Paris green—it is very much better to place the pump on the side of the barrel. When the barrel is laid down on its side, as it must be in that case, a bottom with a depression at the center is formed by the sloping sides. Most of the settling will go towards this depression and thus there will be really a smaller settling area than that afforded by the flat bottom. Moreover, the flat bottom and straight sides, when the barrel is used upright, offer some re- sistance to the movement of the liquid, while the sloping bottom, in the case of the barrel on its side, offers little resistance and thus aids rather than retards in the movement of the liquid. In order to see how difficult it is to dislodge a comparatively heavy substance, such as Paris green is, from around the sides of a barrel bottom, place a small quantity of the poison in a flat-bottomed tumbler and attempt to keep the material in suspension by stirring. It will be fonnd that it requires rather vigorous stirring in order to dislodge the green from the bottom and keep it from settling around the sides. [f this little experiment is performed, it will be well to note how very inuch more effective is a whirling motion over a simple dipping, il- lusirating the advantages of the whirling-paddle agitating device. How to Spray Properly. To spray properly is an art requiring both skill and intelligent care to accomplish it successfully. Moreover, it is of the greatest imiy ortance; for no matter how carefully the mixtures may be com- pourded or how nearly up to purity standards are the ingredients used, full success is practically impossible unless the mixtures are properly applied. It is not enough to go out with a vim and de- termination “to do an everlasting good job” and give everything a drenching. This is not only wasteful but positively less effective than when a smaller quantity is properly applied; for when drench- ing is practiced there will finally be less material on the trees, leaves No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL1IURE. 505 dnd fruit than when a smaller quantity is properly put on. To many this may seem strange. But nevertheless it is a fact, and an at- tempt will be made to show just how it comes about. In order to do this it will be necessary to study in detail what takes place in the drops of water after they leave the nozzle and become at- tached to the fruit or leaves. It will be remembered that the ma- terial is to be kept in suspension and equally disseminated through- out the whole mass of liquid in the tank. Consequently, each minute globule of water as it leaves the nozzle will carry with it a certain vmount of suspended Paris green, Bordeaux mixture, or both, as the case may be. Now, the settling which goes on in the spray tank takes place also in the globule of water after it becomes attached to the leaf or fruit. Therefore, it is desirable to have each globule of water deposit its suspended material at the place where it is attached to the fruit. But liquids have what is known as “surface tension;” that is a force exerted from within which tends to keep a small globule of water intact. Beyond a certain size this force is unable to keep the globule intact as such. Then it will not remain where it strikes the surface of the fruit or leaf, but will run down to the low- est point and there drip off. This happens when the globules are too large or if the smaller ones are brought so close together that they run together to form one or several large ones and the same running down and dripping-off results. This running-together may be easily seen by breathing against a cold window pane. First, it will be noticed that the globules of condensed moisture are exceedingly small, each one, however, remaining separate and distinct. Now continue breathing against the moist spot. The globules of mois- ture increase in size until a point is reached where they run together and form one large globule spread over the surface of the glass. But now, instead of remaining spread over the glass, when it isina vertical position, the large globule runs to the lower edge of the pane, and if there is moisture enough, will drip off. This is exactly what takes place on the surfaces of leaves and fruit when the spray liquid is applied. The globules are at first deposited as separate, fine “dew drops,” covering the entire surface. This is the ideal point to be reached, and as soon as it has been accomplished no more liquid should be applied. If more is put on, the small drops run together and trickle down to the lowest point. It has been said that the settling of the material takes place in the globule of water after it becomes attached to the fruit. The larger the globule, then, the more settling will take place. It has also been seen that the settling goes to the lowest point. Consequently, if the globule is spread over a large portion or the entire surface, the settling will naturally go to the lowest place in this instance also, and as the low- 506 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. est point is where the water drips off, the sediments go to that point and drip along with the liquid, thus leaving actually less material on the fruit or leaf than when a smaller quantity is properly applied. Or, if it does not drop off it will accumulate at this lowest place, often in quantity sufficient to cause injury, while the upper portions are left bare and thus exposed to attack. Plate III illustrates the running together and settling to the low- est point. This effect was produced by spraying two glass plates, (a) just to the proper point and (0) beyond that point until the globules ran together. In (qa) it will be noticed that the surface of the glass is uniformly covered by the dried material. But note what took place when the spraying was carried beyond the proper point. The globules ran together and the liquid flowed down in little streams and carried with it the suspended material, leaving bare streaks, and either accumulating it at the lowest point or carrying it away where it dripped off the plate. It must be emphasized that the material must be so applied that it forms an’ wnbroken thin coating over the entire surface of the leaf or fruit. This is especially true of the Bordeaux mixture. That remedy, as has been shown, is wholly preventive in its action. Any breaks in the coating are exposed to attack, and if attacked, become ceuters of infection, the birthplace of new crops of spores, thus in- creasing the chances for new infection. The more numerous the spores, then, the more carefully must the application be made, for when the spores are very abundant the chances for some of them to settle on the exposed places are correspondingly greater. Plate IV (a) shows an apple properly sprayed. The photograph shows the dis- tinct marks of the separate globules of mixture. In addition, there were many exceedingly fine globules too small to be seen in the picture. Plate IV (0) is an example of an apple which has been sprayed long enough to allow the globules to run together and drip off or accumulate in spots. Notice how unevenly coated is the sur face. In an orchard where the fruit rot or the scab is very abundant an apple or a leaf sprayed as that one shown in the plate is little bet. ter off than if it had not been sprayed at all. The injury due to the excessive accumulation from the material running down and evaporating at the lowest points has been men- tioned. Plate V exhibits examples of leaves so injured. These leaves were taken from a tree sprayed with nearly ten times the usual strength of ammoniacai copper carbonate solution until the liquid began to drip. The leaves were badly burned around the edges and at the tips, while the leaves of another tree properly sprayed, or without dripping, were not injured at all by the same solution. Thus, it will be seen, that two evils may result from improper spraying: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 507 Large spots may be left bare and exposed to attack, and injury may be caused by excessive accumulation in a few spots. Ouly a pump capable of maintaining a high pressure should be used, and for this class of work the finer nozzles are called for. The liquid should be kept issuing as a fine mist—so fine that it floats in the air as steam or smoke. This is impossible under a low pressure, for the higher the pressure the finer will be the mist, other things be- ing equal. The pressure should always, therefore, be kept at its maximum, if possible between fifty and sixty pounds, never below - forty. With the liquid issuing as a fine mist, the nozzle should be held some little distance away from the tree and the mist allowed to float in and condense itself upon the fruit and leaves in fine globules, thus completely bedewing the surfaces. Hence the importance of the injunctions: ‘‘ Use only a fine nozzle, use pressure enough to keep the liquid issuing as a fine mist, and spray only until the fruit and leaves are completely bedewed.” Mixtures Consisting of Simple Solutions. Mixtures of the second class, or diluted solutions, are somewhat easier to handle, in that the problem of agitation is absent. But they have to be considered from two standpoints and must be handled differently, depending upon whether they are used as insecticides or as fungicides, or whether for internal or external fungi. If used as a preventive against one of the internal fungi, then all the precau- tions regarding the maintenance of a fine mist upon the fruit must be observed. Otherwise, the two evils mentioned above—the leav- ing of exposed spots and the injury from excessive accumulation in spots—will result. Plate V has already been cited as an example of damage from the latter cause. If, on the other hand, the solution is used against the sucking insects or external fungi, and therefore intended to destroy by contact, a different mode of application is called for. In these cases a coarser nozzle, throwing a more or less direct stream is desirable. The effectiveness of the spray is often increased by having it strike with some force. Here the rules men- tioned above, regarding the maintenance of a fine mist, do not apply. Kvery part of the tree should be thoroughly wetted so as to have the spray come in contact with every insect and fungus spot. In this case the spray has usually done its work as soon as it strikes. It is not important, then, to have it remain on the trees; in fact, the re- verse is often desirable. Of course, when strong solutions are used, there is danger of injury from the accumulation by evaporation at the lower edges of the leaves, or if the solution is allowed to run down the trunks and thus saturate the ground around the root 508 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. crowns. -It is well, therefore to avoid waste when spraying in this way, and to carry the operation just far enough to wet every part of the trees or plants. Emulsions. The mixtures of this class are practically all used against sucking insects; scales, plant lice, and the like. A large proportion of these mixtures is also intended for winter use, when the trees are dormant, and are, therefore, not subject to the same rules as those used when the foliage is present. A more direct stream is desirable, for here, as with the simple solutions used for a similar purpose, the effective- ness of the spray is increased by having it strike with some force. A gocd many of the insects of the sucking class are protected by a voGlly, hairy or waxy covering, which it is hardly possible to pene- trate without projecting the spray against them. The writer has sprayed the plum aphis with kerosene and water through an or- dinary fine Vermorel nozzle without effect; while the same mixture put on through a somewhat coarser nozzle as a direct stream proved wholly effective. Ween kerosene and water or the crude oil and water are used the nozzle must not be too coarse. The mixing of the oil and water is accomplished at the nozzle. If the nozzle is too coarse, therefore, the mixing will not be thorough. The aim in the use of this class of mixtures is to secure a thin coating of oil over the tree—the thivner the better. For this reason the spray must reach and wet every part. It is not necessary to maintain the separate globules intact. Therefore, it is not so diffleult to apply this class of sprays properly. Excessive dripping must be avoided, and the mixture of oil and water must not be allowed to run down the tree trunks, or to accumulate in the crotches of branches. In the one case the root crown may be injured; in the other the bark in the crotch may be kilied and thus allow the entrance of disease spores to the heart woed. Spraying should proceed from the top downward, holding the nezzle in one place only long enough to wet that part, not until the liquid begins to run down. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 509 RECAPITULATION OF SPRAYING DIRECTIONS. To recapitulate the spraying directions for the principal mixtures in use, the following table is presented: Paris Green and other Arsen- ites. Bordeaux Mixture and combi- nations of Bordeaux Mixture and Paris Green or other Ar- senites. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. Copper Sulphate Solution. Sulphide of Potash. Soap Solutions. Tobacco Water. Caustic Lye Solutions. Emulsions. Kerosene and Water. Crude Petroleum and Water. Spray with a fine nozzle under heavy pressure; spray only to the point of covering the fruit or leaves with a continuous coating of fine “dew drops.” When used for internal fungi, apply as directed for Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. When used against external fungi, use as directed for soap solutions and the like. Spray in a direct stream so as to strike with some force, using a coarser nozzle than for Paris green or the like. Avoid exces- sive drip and do not allow the solutions to run down the trunks. Spray emulsions as directed for soap solutions, etc. For kero- sene and water and crude petro- leum and water, use a nozzle fine enough to accomplish a _ thor- ough mixing, but yet capable of projecting the liquid more as a direct stream than as a mist. Completely wet every part, but do not allow the mixtures to run down the trunks, or to accumu- late in forks of branches or in deep wounds. 510 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Purity oF MATERIALS AND PROPER PREPARATION OF MIXTURES. So far, but one side of the case has been presented. There is still another important phase of the subject to discuss before all the fun- damental factors leading to successful spraying results are explain- ed. Part of these factors are beyond the control of the fruit-grower, part are within his control. The purity of the materials used and theil proper preparation and combination are alluded to. These are of as fundamental importance as any of the points already men- tiored. For it is obvious that unless the materials used are pure and up to standard strength, their use cannot lead to successful results, no matter how skilfully and carefully they may be applied. It will be impossible to treat of the scores of materials that have been and are used in spraying operations. Space permits only of the discus- sion of those substances which now constitute by far the bulk of spraying materials in general use. These will be taken up in detail and their necessary qualifications explained.* Paris GREEN. This substance, known chemically as the aceto-arsenite of copper, was first used as a remedy for chewing insects about the year 1872, when it was recommended for use against the canker worm. n > 3 é od Fe ia & +s 58 : $8 : g§ ° ° q = oa S sere = “8 2 =H 2 al > & oa os on Ee Qa Es iy an & | -960 9.51 -932 16.81 -904 24.39 .958 10.03 .930 17.34 902 24.94 -956 10.54 .928 17.86 900 25.50 954 11.07 .926 18.42 -898 26.05 952 11.59 924 18.93 896 26.60 950 12.10 922 19.67 894 27.15 948 12.62 920 20.01 892 27.70 946 13.13 .918 20.56 -8390 28.26 944 13.65 916 21.09 -888 28.86 942 14.17 | 914 | 21.63 .886 29.46 940 14.69 912 22.19 884 30.14 .938 15.21 -910 22.74 882 30.83 -936 15.74 .908 23.29 934 16.27 | 906 23.83 jBeaume 16° indicates .960 sp. Beaume 20° indicates .960 sp. - Beaume 22° indicates .924 sp. Beaume 24° indicates .913 sp. Beaume 26° indicates .901 sp. SaAa8 If possible, nothing but rain water should be used in diluting the amunicnia for the solution. When ammonia is added to well or spring water, a heavy floccular precipitate is apt to be formed, which must not be mistaken for undissolved particles of copper carbonate. The latter are easily distinguishable, being light greenish blue in color and somewhat fiaky, while the precipitate from the water is formed in rather large, dark floccules. These floccules do no harm. The danger lies in mistaking them for the undissolved carbonate and adding enough ammonia to bring them into solution, which requires far more than plants will endure. The solution must be made in wooden or earthen vessels and wooden stirring implements should be used. Iron vessels would be soo1 corroded by the action of the copper. *Compiled from the Table of Lunge und Wernik, cited by Caldwell: ‘‘Elements of Chemical Analysis,’’ page 173. jLodeman: ‘‘The Spraying of Plants,’’ page 116. Off. 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G I “N[OS O}Uuy Je}Us [|B P[NOYS SIYy} Y}Suedj}s [[NJ Ss} BpUOUIIUY 9 “}3uny Irv ca We Ae Ms a a ; feoontiack tare eTaaiatite I ‘onpfsel 34} 0} ppe pue seul} 9a14} JO OM} BlUOWIUIE ‘zo OT 'SZ0 ¢ Z0 % Sele leeiefals ‘ayeuoqie9 reddop eq} JO 4Sel 9} 9INTIG “pInbiy ivalo Jo anod ‘ea1ojaq se 078 813985 0} MOT[V puv AI}s !]JeT aNpIsel 0} pp’ pue seuT] xIs Jo eA BlUOWIUIe 94} JO PAly}-3U0 JoyjOUe ayNTIGq ‘pmby qeajo Yo inod ‘2]}}a5 0} MOT[e pu A[snoIOSIA ANS ‘a}eu0gG -1v9 uo Inod ‘saul? 14S]9 10 UsADS VIUOWUIe 9Y} palYy}-aUO aINTIG “19}yVA YIM 9}BUOGIvO By} Jo aysed uly, v sxe! -uoqieg seddop [eoejuowmuy ‘uoj}eledsig Jo poyiew ysulesy pes aq OL “9IN}XTUI JO SUOTIVS YOT OJ sariuEenD “aIN}XIUL JO suo][es 0g IOJ set WUENy ‘ain}XxIuI JO suo[[es Gg JO} saljtjueney ‘OINIXIT PAIN G Jizz oT ANNO ot SS) w No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CUCURBITACEOUS PLANTS. BY H. A. SURFACE, Professor of Zoology, Penna. State College. CUCURBITACEOUS PLANTS. By the above term is meant those plants that belong to the botani- cal family Cucurbitacew. Although they are all vining plants, one could not give them the common name of “The Vining Plants,” be- cause such a term would apply as well to sweet potatoes, grapes, etc. Belonging to this family.are the following: Watermelon and citron, muskmelon or cantaloupe, cucumber, squash, gourd, cashaw, pump- kin,, ete. The citron is but 4 variety of watermelon that is used for preserv- ing, as regular citrons of commerce are preserved. Muskmellons and cantaloupes are identical, although some persons have attempt- ed to indicate differences. INSECTS. GENERAL REMARKS ON INSECTS. Since the insects that attack one species of these plants are found more or less injurious to all of the family, we shall not make a sepa- rate list of species of insects for each kind of plant, but shall discuss them in their’ consecutive entomological order. We refer for the practical measures of each to the separate discussions of preventives and remedies given in the latter part of the bulletin. CLASSIFICATION. In order to understand the principles of the classifications, life histories, and remedies given later, it is necessary to bear in mind the following fundamental facts concerning insects: The class of insects (/nsecta) is divided into large groups called Orders, and the latter are in turn divided into smaller groups, each called a Family. Families contain yet smaller groups called Genera and the final division of the latter is Species. The scientific name of an insect is the name of its genus and species written in the order here indicated. The classification of an insect is its order, family, genus and species. In the following pages we have expressed the classifi- a2 530 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. cations of the insects to be treated by naming the order and family and giving the scientific name of each. Orders and families are founded upon certain common important structures, the more potent and general of which characterize all insects belonging to the major group. There are nineteen orders known to modern entomologists, but the insects treated in this article represent only five of these. STAGES IN LIFE HISTORY OF INSECTS. Insects undergo transformations called metamorphoses. In their life cycle they exist in certain forms called stages. ‘Those treated in this bulletin have either three or four stages, according to their kind of metamorphosis. It may be “Incomplete,” in which the insect has but three stages: (1) The egg, (2) nymph or immature, and (8) imago or adult. (See Fig, 1.) In this group the young resemble the adult in form and generally in habits, lacking only the wings. There is no worm-like existence and no pupal or quiescent stage. The squash bugs and grasshoppers are good examples of insects with incomplete metamorphosis. The young are called nymphs. The representatives of the next group, or those with complete meta- morphosis, pass through four stages: (1) The egg, (2) the larva, or worm-like stage, (3) the pupa or resting stage, and (4) the imago, adult or mature insect. (See Fig. 2.) The young are called “larvae” and do not at all resemble the adults. They are popularly known as “worms,” but this common name should not be given them, since worms are independent creatures that do not transform into any other form or stage. (Example, the earthworm). Insects grow only in the nymph or larval stages. They do not become larger after having once reached the adult or winged stage. They live in the latter condition but a few days or weeks, mate, lay their eggs and then die. Some adult insects do not eat; others, like the butterflies, only sip a little nectar and do not have feeding habits similar to their young. Others, like the squash bugs and cucumber beetles, eat the same kind of food as do their nymphs or larvee. The feeding habits of insects is a fundamental feature in applying insecticides. Some have biting mouth-parts with strong jaws and chew the leaves or tissues of the plant. (Examples, caterpillars, beetles, etc.) These insects that chew can nearly always be killed by poisons, which are to be taken internally, among which the arsenites are prominent, and Paris green is the most valuable. (See Insecti- cides, A.) The insects that do not chew their food have piercing mouth-parts, as has the squash bug. (See Fig. 3.) As they are suc- torial and do not suck before the bill is inserted, they are not affected by poison lying on the leaf. They must be killed by contact applica- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 531 tions (See Insecticides, B.), which kill by entering the breathing pores, but not the mouth. THE SPECIES OF INSECTS. ORDER PHYSOPODA: Family Thripdzw: Thrips. (Fig. 4.) Tobacco Thrips or Onion Thrips ( ZArips tabaci). The Thrips are among the most minute of insects. Their mouth- _parts are fitted partially for sucking and partially for biting, but mostly the former. They do not eat away the tissues of the plant, but pierce the leaves and cause small white specks which may become so abundant as to give the plant a grayish appearance. These in- sects are from one-sixteenth to one-fortieth of an inch long and about one-fifth as wide. They are dark in color and have four very minute wings fringed with long hairs which increase their surface area and flying capacity. When disturbed they suddenly disappear by jumps or short flight. This species has been reported feeding on sixteen species of plants, besides on melons, squash and cucumbers; mostly on onions and cabbage, where they are at times very destructive. Their habit of sudden jumping flight gives the key to the remedy for them, which is Mechanical Device No. 3. They will fly down the wind and be carried against the tarred cloth or board held in their path of flight to the leeward. They can of course be killed by contact applications; also by Mechanical Device No. 3 and by in- secticides 6 to 12. ORDER HEMIPTERA: The True Bugs, Plant Lice, Scale Insects, Kte. FAMILY COREIDA#: The Squash Bugs. (Fig. 5.) The Squash Bug or “Stink Bug” (Anasa tristis). The squash bug is about five-eighths of an inch long and one- fourth of an inch wide, with antenne half the length of the body. The head is dusky, nearly black; thorax or part to which the wings are attached, dark brown; scutellum or triangular piece between the wings, dusky; sides of abdomen or posterior part banded with six yellowish bands; upper wings dark and brown or grayish at basal half and sooty black toward the tips, which are thinner; the under wings are smaller and very thin and gauze-like toward the base and 532 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. dark toward the tips. The legs are long and slender, the hinder pair weasuring half of an inch in length. The suctorial beak is very long (one-fourth inch), sharp and slender, and reaches back on the ventral side to the base of the hinder pair of legs. (See the upper specimens of Fig. 5.) The nymphs are much broader in proportion to length than are the adults. The adults of these insects fly readily by day and are not attracted to lamp traps at night. This common and well-known insect is the most destructive of the pests infecting Cuburbits toward the middle and latter part of the summer. It appears about the last of June and is found on the vines or fruit until after frost comes. ‘The first one found by us was on a plant just about sprouted, on the 15th of June. They feed on all Cucurbits, by sucking out the juice of the plant. According to the habit of many other bugs, they inject a poisonous saliva into the plant and this turns the leaves dark in spots and causes them to wither, crumple and soon turn brown. (Fig. 6.) They are social insects, living in groups under the crumpled leaves and under or sometimes upon the large leaves that lie on the ground. (Fig. 7.) The first mating occurs in the latter part of June and the first eggs are deposited in the early part of July. The eggs are large, oval and at first are white and adhesive. They gradually be- come cream colored, reddish brown, and wine red; later they become bronze red, and shortly before hatching are nearly black. They are deposited in diagonal rows in irregular-shaped patches, generally be- neath the leaves, but sometimes above. (Fig. 8.) The distance be- tween them is equal to one-half the width of the tip of the abdomen of the female. They are very conspicuous and can readily be de- tected for the remedies given below. The number in a patch varies from a very few to over fifty. They hatch in from ten to sixteen days, according to temperature, hatching sooner when the weather is warmer. They are so plainly seen that they can readily be de- stroyed. They adhere too firmly to be easily picked off, and we have found that they can be painted with a touch of pitch and killed. Painting with pure kerosene does not always prevent their hatching. The very young bugs are very brightly colored. Their bodies are light green and their legs and antenne are bright red. Within an hour the appendages turn dark and become black. The young bugs live in groups (Fig 9) and moult several times. They finally obtain wing pads and the next moult they have wings and are adult. After the final moult they are at first white, but in a few minutes become dingy brown, then darker, and in a few hours grayish. Soon they pair and the females afterwards lay from one hundred and fifty to three hundred eggs. A second laying of eggs often ensues and thus the second brood may appear. They have the same appearance and 1) ae No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 533 habits as the first brood. In the northern part of the United States there is but one brood. When the weather is cool they go under cover for protection, and come out into the sunshine to be warmed. (Fig. 10.) At night they seek the cover of a leaf, the under side of a board, ete. (See Fig. 44.) This habit leads them to their destruc- tion where board traps are used. (See Mechanical Device No. 4.) In the fall of the year the insects are quite likely to collect on the green fruits of the vine and suck juices from them after they can no longer derive any from the leaves. This is the time that they should especially be killed by kerosene spray or sprinkling to prevent their scattering and living through the winter to become the progenitors of of next year’s pests. As the broods are not sharply separated, but some individuals lay early and others lay later and the laying and hatching continues throughout the season, all stages can be found at one time, and there is the appearance of continuous breeding. (Fig. 11.) The winter is passed in hibernation in the adult stage, sometimes far away from the places where the infested plants grew. They hibernate in woods, along fences, in rubbish, under boards, espe- cially in lumber piles, in grass, sod, etc. On account of their offen- sive odor they have no conspicuous vertebrate enemies, such as snakes, toads, birds or skunks, as have many other species of insects, but they are greatly infested with the larvze of parasitic flies (Tachina). When the bugs become abundant, as in the summer of 1901, these parasitic flies multiply in the first brood and become so numerous in the second brood as to materially reduce the number of. adults going into hibernation. In fact last fall we could not find one adult that did not have upon its body one or more eggs or parasites (Fig. 12) and under or near these empty egg shells there could be found the tiny hole where a young fly larva had bored into the interior of its host. Owing to this fact we then predicted that there would be but few squash bugs during the season of 1902, and this prediction was fulfilled to a remarkable degree. : REMEDIES. Since these are sucking insects and do not bite the plants, they cannot be killed by poisons. The only remedies that can be effect- ively employed against them are clean farming, hand-picking, me- chanical contrivances (Nos. 1, 2 and 4, described later), contact sprays and painting the eggs with something like pitch to destroy them. To prevent next year’s brood it is important that the vines be de- stroyed and the green fruits be removed just as early as possible in the fall. If this were universally done there would be no bugs of the second brood coming to maturity. 534 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. ORDER HEMIPTERA: The True Bugs, Plant Lice, Scales, Ete. FAMILY APHIDID®; The Aphids. The Melon Louse (Apj/is gossypiz), and The Cucumber Louse (Aphis cucumerts). The Melon Aphids are very small, greenish insects with globose bodies not an eighth of an inch long. Some of the adults are wing- less and some are winged. As they belong to Hemiptera they agree with all insects of this large order (excepting the male scale bugs) in having only the three stages in their life history: Egg, nymph and adult. Yet the plant lice are parthenogenetic or give birth to suc- ceeding generations of living young without mating for each genera- tion. When winged there are two wings on each side of the body. These are long and delicate and so close together that they would be taken for a single pair. All plant lice are suctorial, feeding by suck- ing out the juices of the plant. They live mostly on the young leaves, terminal buds, and the unopened flowers, where their damage is greatest. (See Fig. 13.) Their effect is to check the growth and dis- tort and crumple the leaves. The two species named above are so nearly alike in appearance and effects that no difference is to be made in this treatise. They feed on dozens of different kinds of plants, cul- tivated and uncultivated, and they are therefore quite difficult to ex- terminate. They have probably more natural enemies than have any other kind of insects. Among these are many insectivorous insects, such as lady bugs or lady beetles, Syrphus fly larvee (Fig. 14), minute wasp- like internal parasites, the Aphis Lion or larva of the Lace-wing, ete. (Figs. 15, 16, 17.) They are also the common food of most small in- sectivorous birds, and are killed in great numbers by a fungus. They may prove serious at times if no efforts are made to prevent them, but if taken early enough in the season they are easily held in check by Mechanical Devices Nos. 2 and 3; Farm Practice Nea, 2, 3 and 4; insecticides Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (a and b), and 15. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA: Moths, Skippers and Butterflies. FAMILY PYRAUSTIDA; The Pyraustids. The Pickle Moth (#ndioptis nitidalis) (Fig. 18.) The larva of this moth bores into the fruits of squashes, melons, cucumbers and cushaws, feeding on the fleshy pulp, causing it to de- cay. It is quite a pretty brown and yellow insect called “the pickle No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 536 moth, because the caterpillar has the habit of feeding upon the cu- cumber, boring into and destroying it when about half grown. It is more common in the western States, and no satisfactory recommen- dations for its control have yet been made.’—(Smith). This insect has not yet found its way to Pennsylvania, bu. £ it does it can probably be successfully combatted by spraying in tiv.e with the arsenites (Insecticides, 1-5) before the ‘““‘worm” enters the fruits. This is to kill it when it commences to feed just as we now success- fully contend with the Codling Moth by the same means and upon the same principles. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA: The Moths, Skippers and Butterflies. FAMILY PYRAUSTID#; The Pyraustids. The Melon-worm (Margaronia hyalinata). (Fig. 19.) The melon-worm is another pest of the southern and southwest- ern States that is not yet common in Pennsylvania. It destroys the leaves of the water-melon and the leaves and fruit of the musk-melon. It is a light yellowish green caterpillar about an inch long. For all such biting insects the standard remedy would be the ar- senites, especially Paris green, No. 1, applied as soon as the first signs of the insect occur and continued weekly for three or four weeks. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA: Moths, Skippers and Butterflies. FAMILY SESIID@: The Clear-wings. The Squash-borer (J/e/ittia ceto). Figs. 20 aand 20 4.) The insect or so-called ‘“‘worm” that bores in the stem of the squash, pumpkin and some other Cucurbits is the larva of a moth that is called “a Clear-wing,”’ because it has a space in its wing that is clear and not covered with scales. The adult or moth measures over an inch in extent of wings from tip to tip, and has the front wings covered with dark green scales. There is a conspicuous tuft of red, white and black hairs on each hind leg which is characteristic end renders this moth easily determined. It flies by day, as do all clear wings, and at night remains quiet on the leaves of the plant its larve infest. On this account it is 536 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. easily found and killed by using lanterns at night. It does not fly into lamp traps. In its flight it resembles a wasp. The moth passes the winter in the ground and appears in this lati- tude about the last of June. It lays its eggs singly, either on the vine or on the stalks or petioles ot the leaves. The favorite place is toward the base of the vine. We have found many at the top of the leaf stem. (Figs. 21, 22.) When the larva hatches it eats into the interior of the vine or of the hollow leaf stem and follows the latter down and enters the vine. The small hole that it makes can be seen and generally fine borings or dust (ex- creta) can be seen at this hole. Their presence in the vine can first be detected by the presence of the dust at the small hole. Because it is an internal feeder it cannot be killed by an insecti- cide. It should be cut out with a sharp knife, cutting lengthwise of the vine, and dust rubbed on the wound to facilitate healing. The vine should be covered at intervals of a few feet with damp earth over the base of the leaves that roots can be formed there. After the new roots are formed the vine will continue to grow even though it may be entirely cut off at its base. We have grown good crops on plants treated in this way. (Figs. 23 and 24.) Another method is to plant summer varieties of squash to become large and receive the eggs and larve; then after the winter varieties (Hubbards and Marrowfats) are starting, gather the early fruits from the trap crops and destroy the vines by burning. Mechanical protection from squash borers is not possible because they attack the vines after the latter are too large to be covered by netting advantageously. Pumpkin vines are commonly infested and should be burned as soon as the crop is gathered or when found dying. (Farm Practice, No. 2.) ORDER COLEOPTERA: The Beetles. FAMILY COCCINELLIDA: The Lady-bugs, Lady-birds or Lady-beetles. The Herbivorous Lady-bugs (“pilachna borealis). The adult beetles of this species are large hemispherical, yellow with black spots. The larve are also yellow, elongate, oval, with long branched spines. ‘#pclachna borea vs is the northern and east- ern species, attacking cucumber, melon and similar vines, while E. corrupta.is found in the southwest, injuring beans. A curious feature in &. borealis is the manner in which the adult works out a circle at the edge of a leaf and feeds within it until all usable ma- ral Fig. 1. Three stages of the Squash Bug (Anasa tristis), (a) adult, (b) nymph, (c) egg, x2. Drawn by E. L. Westlake, from a photo- graph by the author. (Reduced.) Fig. 2. The four stages of the Striped Cu- cumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata), magnified five diameters; a. Eggs; b. Larva; c. Pupa; d. Imago. } Fig. 3. Illustration of Insects with Sucking Mouth-parts. Beak ‘partially extended. (Reduced.) Fig. 4. Different Species of Thrips, five times natural size. The one at the upper left corner is anymph without wing-pads. Fig.5. Adult Squash Bugs (Anasa tristis), natural size. Dorsal or upper side shown by the two below; ventral or under side shown by the two above. The two at the reader’s left are males, and the two at the right are females. Fig. 6. Squash Leaf Crumpled, showing effects of Squash Bugs. The colony of bugs living within its folds could not be entirely exter- minated by spraying with kerosene. The best treatment for sucha leaf is to carefully cut it off and either crush it under one’s foot on the ground or drop it into a vessel containing kerosene on water. — | Fig. 7. A colony of young Squash Bugs, of different ages. showing zre- garious habits. In sucha position as this they are readily reached by kerosene emulsion or kerosene mixture. Fig. 8. Eggs of the Squash Bug (Anasa tristis), natural size, in situ, on the under side of a squash leaf. This shows the regular distance between the eggs, the diagonal direction of the rows, and the irregular shape of the patch as a whole. i Fig. 9. Eggs and Nymphs of Squash Bugs, one-fifth navural size. The young have recently hatched and remain in a group near the egg sheils, \. which adherejto*the: leaves all summer. Cc. Fig.210. A group of Squash Bugs on a dead leaf in the Fall, show- ing where they can be killed by a stronger kerosene spray. Fig. 11. All stages of the Squash Bug (Anasa tristis) At the left of the center is the female, laying eggs, be- low the center is a row of eggs, and below and above the female are nymphs without wing-pads; while at the upper right corner is an older nymph with wing-pads. Photographed in the field, with the insects alive and in their own natural positions. One-fourth natural size. Fig. 12. Eggs of Parasites on Squash Bugs. It was through the abundance of these parasites, detroying the fall brood of 1901 after it became adult, that the bugs are rare and crops are free from serious injury during the season of 1902. Slightly more than twice natural size. Fig. 14. Syrphus Flies. Very im- portant enemies of Plant Lice on all kinds of plants, (a) Eggs; (b) Larva alive and eating an Aphis; (c) Adult. Twice natural size. The Larva is not the same species as egg and adult here shown but is larger. It is surrounded by the remains of the Aphids it has de- voured. Fig. 15. Aphis and its Enemies This photograph shows some live Plant Lice, both old and young. Some that were killed by fungus, some exuvie or cast skinsof Aphids. Syrphus Fly eggs and larvee (at X), and Lady Beetles. Nearly natural size. ub Fig. 16. Vhe Lace Wing Fly (Chry- sopa.) (a) Egg on stalk for protec- tion; (b) Larva, called Aphis Lion; (c) Adult Female Lace-wing. This is the individual that layed the egg shown ata. Twice natural size. Fig. 17. Several species of Lady Beetles, taken from Cucur- bitaceous plants. where they were devouring Plant Lice, In- sect eggs, ete. Twice natural size. Above are the larva and pupa of a Lady Beetle. Fig. 18. The Pickle Worm (Endioptis nitalis). Reproduced from ie Report of the United States Department of Agriculture. (Riley). No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 537 terial is exhausted before proceeding to another place to repeat the operation.”—(Prof. J. B. Smith.) It is remarkable as being the only herbivorous Lady-bug. All other species are insectivorous and beneficial. In both the larval and adult stages it feeds on the leaves of nearly all the cucurbits, and pupates while attacked to the leaves. It is killed by applications of any of the arsenites, the same as are the other Coleoptera or beetles here discussed, and is likewise pre- vented by covering the plants. It is killed under the paper tent, Mechanical Device No. 2. ORDER COLEOPTERA: The Beetles. FAMILY CHRYSOMELIDA!: The Leaf Beetles. The 12-Spotted Cucumber Beetle (Dabrotica 12-notata.) Fig. 26. The adult of this insect is a greenish yellow beetle, with six black dots on each wing-cover. It is very common on a great many kinds of plants. The adult beetle feeds on foilage, and the larva feeds on the roots of plants. It pupates in the ground and remains there during the winter. There are two broods each year, the adults of the second brood appearing during the first half of August. The effects of this insect, the remedies to be employed, and the enemies of this insect are the same as those of the next species. The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diéabrotica vitiata.) Fig. 27. This is one of the earliest and most destructive insects attacking cucurbitaceous plants. It injures all species of plants of this family as well as of some others. ‘The beetles are about one-fourth of an inch long and are yellow, with two black stripes extending length- wise on each wing cover. They are too well known to need detailed description. They ap- pear on plants by the first of June, or as soon thereafter as the young plants come above ground, and commence at once to eat ragged holes into the leaves and even to chew off the young stems. (Fig. 28.) They pair by the middle of June and continue breeding throughout the summer, there being two distinct broods which overlap and are thus indistinctly demarcated. In central Pennsylvania the second brood commences to appear about the second week of August. The adults feed on the leaves and tender vines and lay their eggs in the ground. (Fig. 29.) The larve feed on the roots and often cause the plants to wither and die without apparent cause. (Fig. 30.) If the 538 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. earth is carefully removed from around the wilted plant the small white “worm” may be found, and the rootlets and soft outer portion of the roots will be found eaten away. (Fig. 31.) They pupate in the grovud and hibernate as adults. The earliest remedy is mechanical protection (No. 1) by a net or cloth with finer mesh than the common coarse mosquito netting. The adults can be killed by the arsenites (1—5), also by to- bacco (11), lime (14), land plaster (13), and they can be prevented by the various methods under “Farm Practice.” The lary can be killed by using tobacco dust or pulverized stems in the soil around the hill. We have had decided success by sticking a few holes four or five inches deep in the ground around the hill and putting about a teaspoonful of calcium carbide in each and filling again with earth. Land plaster and turpentine are also preventives. » . , 7 4 ; a c i 7 p.. 7 r\ wi 7 2 . c.. ‘ a a Fig. 28. Effects of the Striped Cucumber Bectles on young plants. At the center and toward the up- per right corner of the picture are shown small plants that are wilting because they are partially cut off just beneath the ground by these Beetles when the latter entered it to deposit their eggs. Fig. 29. Larvee of Striped Cucumber Beetles, nearly natural size. These were taken from the ground at the same time and indicate differences in age in accordance with the differences in size. Fig. 30. Effects of the I.arve of the Striped Cucumber Beetle on older Cucumber Plants. The vine in the fore-ground is wilting with- out apparent external cause. Fig. 31. Roots of the,Vine shown in Fig. 30, showing that all of the softer outer substance and most of the rootlets have been eaten away by Larve of the Cucumber Beetles. Fig. 32. Several Species of Flea Beetles, ten times natural size. Taken with « micro-photographic camera. In the lefthand column the dorsal side or back is shown, and in the right column the ventral or under side is shown. Note the enlarged thighs of the hind legs, adapted to jumping. The top picture is a pair of Striped Flea Beetles (Systenablanda), while the second and smallest pair is the Cucumber Flee Beetle (Crepidodera cu- cumeris). Fig. 83. The Characteristic Effects of the Flea Beetles on Young Beans; one-half natural size. No. 34. The White-striped Flea- beetle (Systena blanda). Natural size. The dorsalor upper side is shown by | the upper pair, and the ventral ors | lower side is shown by the lower} pair. At the left are males; at the right, females. Fig. 35. The Cucumber Flea Beetle (Crepidodera cucumeris) and its Effects on Potatoes. Note that all the Flea Beetles prefer leaves of Potatoes and Beans to those of the Cucurbitaceous Plants. vt} § i x Fig. 36. Fly Larve and Pupe, of different spe- cies. but such as may be found in any part of a Cu- curbitaceous Plant as soon as it commences to de- cay. They probably hasten the decay, but are not the original cause. At the right are eggs, in the center are larve, and at the left are pupe. Fig. 37. Frame on the right, and net over frame on the left, showing how pliable twigs may be used to form an inverted basket to hold netting which protects plants from insects. Fig. 8%. Inclined Sticks at right, and a similar device covered with netting at left. The simplest, cheapest,’-quickest, and most satisfactory means of supporting netting over plants. Fig. 89. Netting attached to End-Boards, covering Plants as an inverted box. Also, one End-Board not covered, showing method of attaching sharpened stake to hold it upright when stake is pushed down, & - nr AE Fig. 40. Netting Material Lying in loose Folds over Plants, without support. Note that with all kinds of Nets the edges must be | carefully covered with fine soil. Common Mosquito netting is too coarse to keep out Thrips, Plant Lice, and the various small Beetles. | Fig. 48. Tarred Board, operated by one person. This is effective if properly and carefully done. After using this ten minutes, there were over two ,hundred insects,on one square foot of the board, Fig. 41. Paper Tents for Fumigating Plants. The Methods of Folding is shown by the one held in the hand of the assistant. OAT} -doyR oq OSTR [IM ourRay B AQ poitoddns pur avy 10 Youd ‘ouasO1oy [ILM poyVos TOP VW ‘QOV']T JULI pur satjoog vo] ‘sdiayy, 10g ‘usp Omg AQ posn ‘pavog podaey, “Gh “ST Fig. 44. Board Trap, showing effectiveness for Squash Bugs. Fig. 45. Cucumbers and Beans, growing simultaneously not fif- teen feet apart. Note that the Beans are seriously injured by Flea Beetles and the Cucumbers are not attacked. This indi- cates the value of a few beans, potatoes, and early squash or pumpkins as trap plants to take insects away from the more desi- rable crop to be planted later. Compare with Fig. 33 for the Beans. ee oF ee ae < 7 Fig. 46. Young Cucumber Plants Eaten by Earthworms. At the farther end of the straw from x were two holes of earthworms with portions of small Cucumber plants and other vegetation cut off and sticking in them. Fig. 47. The Young Fruit of Squash, eaten by Milli- pedes, Centipedes and Slugs, all of which were alive upon this at the time it was photographed, but as most of them were moving they are not plainly shown. Ne. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 545 It should be remembered that most substances that kill insects will also kill plants if applied in sufficient strength. Fortunately there is a safety limit of strength at which insects are killed and plants are uninjured. Our object should be to apply insecticides of such strength as to have the desired effect on the pests, but to save the plants. An insecticide should be applied at the proper time and for a certain kind of insect, and should be selected in accordance with the recommendations made for the destruction of the specific kind of insect under contemplation. A. Internal Poisons or Stomach Poisons, for Chewing Insects. 1. Paris Green. The poisons that contain arsenic are called Ar- Senites and Arsenates. Paris green is the arsenite of copper and contains about 69 per cent. of arsenic. It can be applied as either (a) a powder, or (b) in liquid. (a) Paris Green as a Powder: This is to be dusted on the plants, but it should be mixed with some diluting powder in proportion of one part of Paris green to from 20 to 50 parts of the dilutant. Ona small scale, flour is generally used, but air slaked lime, land plaster and even road dust or wood ashes are good. It will adhere to the leaves better if applied early in the morning while the dew remains or just after a shower of rain, while they are yet damp. It is washed off by a dashing rain and should be repeated after each rainfall. If there is no rain it is well to repeat the dusting about once every two weeks. For applying dusts or powders a “powder gun” or bellows will prove useful but not essential. Small hand “puffers” for this pur- pose are common in stores. ‘A good method is to put the powder into a thin cloth sack or coffee bag, carry it over the plants to be dusted, and pound it with sticks. Especial care should be taken to dust it over the vines of plants for the young borers when they first hatch and commence to eat their way toward the inside of the plant. This is the only opportunity to kill them without cutting them out or piercing them with a sharpened wire. (b) Paris Green in a Liquid: The Cucurbitaceous plants are very tender and easily injured. Therefore Paris green can not be applied to them in as strong a mixture as to apple trees, but it must be di- luted, as for peaches and plums. The formula for vines is: One pound Paris green to 200 gallons of water, or 4 ounces to 50 gallons. ‘Stir the poison well into the water, then mix with a little water an amount of air slacked lime equivalent to that of the Paris green used, and stir the “milk of lime” into the poisoned water. This is to prevent burning the tender foilage. It MUST be applied as a spray and not merely sprinkled on the plants. The work can pro- 33 546 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. perly be done by any spraying apparatus that will throw a genuine spray or mist. A knap-sack sprayer should be on every farm. 2. London Purple. This is mostly composed of an arsenite of lime, and contains about forty-two per cent. of arsenic. It is therefore not as strong as Paris green and is cheaper. A little more of it must be used in making up mixtures, and the lime should never be omitted. It is to be applied either as a powder or liquid, just as is Paris green. In applying nearly all insecticides used with water it should be remembered that they are not dissolved but are merely held in me- chanical suspension, and it is therefore a mixture instead of a solu- lion. The liquid should be well stirred frequently to prevent the poison settling at the bottom. If it is not stirred often it will settle at the bottom of the vessel and the last to be used will be much stronger than the first. 3. Arsenate of Lead. Do not put this into metal vessels or they will be corroded. Wood or glass can safely be used. Formula: 4 ounces of 50 per cent. arsenate of soda. 11 ounces of acetate of lead. 150 gallons of water. Dissolve the acetate of lead and arsenate of soda separately, each in four quarts of water, in wood, glass or earthenware, then stir them into the remainder of the water in the larger vessel. Apply asa spray as with other poisons. All such substances should be labelled and kept out of the reach of children, poultry or live stock, as they are deadly poisons. If they were not poisonous they would be of uo avail for the purposes to which we propose to put them. It is safe to spray all plants, even cabbage, with such applications, but they should be well washed with dashing water before being eaten or should not be gathered within two weeks from the time of the last application. 4. Arsenite of Lime. This can be made according to the following formula: 1 pound white arsenic. 2 pounds quick lime. 1 gallon water. Boil this mixture forty-five minutes. (It will not injure metal.) Keep it in a closed vessel, as a jug, properly labelled “Poison,” and whenever it is needed use it in proportion of one quart to fifty gallons of water. It can be kept as long as desired, and will be found quite effective for all kinds of biting insects. We have not yet had op- portunity to try this substance, but it is so highly recommended by those who have tried it that we do not hesitate to endorse it as a first class insecticide. 5. The Bordeaux Mixture and Paris Green: This has the advant- age of being both a fungicide for plant diseases and an insecticide No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 847 for their insect pests. It is in common use. The Bordeaux mix- ture itself without the Paris green is a fungicide rather than an in- secticide. The former is made as follows: 4 pounds copper sulphate (blue vitriol). 4 pounds unslaked lime. 25 gallons of water (‘full strength solution”), or 50 gallons water (“half strength solution”). Do not use metal. Dissolve the copper sulphate in water. Solu- tion can be hastened by heating. Slake the lime separately in enough water to make a “cream.” Pour the copper solution into the larger vessel of water, and strain the ‘milk of lime” into it through a fine sieve or cloth, stirring the liquid into which it is strained. Whenever lime is to be used in any substance to be applied as a spray it should first be strained carefully to prevent it clogging the nozzle. . To complete the mixture as an insecticide use four ounces of Paris green to every fifty gailons of the Bordeaux mixture as made according to the formula here given. This mixture is particularly recommended for Thrips, Flea-beetles, ete. bB. Contact Applications, for Suctorial Insects. 6. Kerosene Mixture with Water. It has recently been determined that it is not necessary, in combatting most insects, to take the trouble of making a kerosene emulsion (7), as a mere mechanical mix- ture of oil and water is sufficient if the kerosene is thrown in a very fine spray. The mixing is done by the apparatus as it throws the spray, the kerosene being carried in a vessel separate from the water. Several devices for this purpose are now on the market, but one of the best is the Kerowater Knapsack Sprayer. It can be purchased of most dealers. It can be set to make the mixture of any desired percentage. For Cucurbits it should not be used above eight per cent., and five per cent. will generally be found strong enough. Wherever the insects are not on plants that are to be kept growing it can be increased to twenty per cent. and will then prove certain and speedy death. It is particularly recommended for Squash-bugs. Even though plants are to be burned after frost, they should first be well sprayed with a strong mixture to kill the bugs that then col- lect on them and would remain over winter to infest the next spring’s crop. 7. Kerosene Emulsion. This is a famous remedy for all kinds of suctorial insects. Formula: 4 pound hard common coarse laundry soap. gallon water. gallons kerosene. =" bo 548 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. Shave the soap fine and dissolve it in the boiling water. Pour it into the kerosene (away from fire) while hot, and churn it through a force pump or sprayer until it becomes a thick creamy mass. It will keep as long as desired. For use, thoroughly mix one part of this with nine of water. Apply as a spray, thoroughly, to all parts of the plants and on both sides of the leaves. It must come into contact with the bodies of the insects in order to kill them. It is especially recommended for plant lice and Squash-bugs, but will kill all kinds of insects with which it comes into contact. It has the advantage of the kerosene mixture in the fact that it is not as liable to injure foliage. 8. Whale-oil Soap. This is made by dissolving two pounds of the potash whale-oil soap in one gallon of hot water. It is applied either asaspray orasa wash. As the latter, it can be applied with a brush, but it is a winter wash, mostly for scale insects, and under no circum- stances should it be applied to delicate leaves. When Squash-bugs are not on the living plants they can be killed with this. 9. Carbon Bisulphide. This is explosive with fire. It kills by its poisonous fumes, which are heavy. It is especially used to destroy insects in stored grain, but can be employed as a fumigant. One teaspoonful in any kind of a vessel or a clam shell under each of the tents described as Mechanical Device No. 2, will kill every kind of in- sect present in less than an hour and will not injure the plant. It should be sold by retail druggists at twenty-five cents per pound, or less. 10. Gasolene and Benzine. The fumes of these substances kill in- sects, but they should be left long enough to insure death, or should be buried or burned when stupefied. Gasolene is the cheapest sub- stance that can be quickly used under tents described as Device No. 2. When it is poured on the ground a greater quantity is needed than when placed in vessels. 11. Calcium Carbide. This is the substance that is used with water to generate the acetylene gas that is now used for illuminating pur- poses. We do not know of its previously having been used in this country as an insecticide, but our experiments demonstrate its value for this purpose. For insects infesting the soil, a smooth and shar- pened stick should be pushed into the ground to as great a depth as they are found (generally from four to six inches), and a tea- spoonful of the carbide should be dropped into the hole and the latter then firmly filled with damp earth packed into it. The carbide readily absorbs moisture from the earth and generates gas which permeates the earth and kills all kinds of insects found therein, as does carbon bisulphide. We have killed most of the larvee and pupe of beetles around cucumber roots by four or five holes around each hill. i Vel No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 549 For all kinds of insects on plants above ground, use the paper tents described as “Mechanical Device No. 2,” and put under each about a teaspoonful of carbide, either on damp soil or in water, and leave it for an hour. Vegetation is not injured. 12. Tobacco. This is a good insecticide for certain species when used either as a fine dust or in a decoction. It will not injure the plants, and will act as a valuable fertilizer. It should come into contact with insects above ground, as they will not eat it. For insects feeding beneath the surface of the soil nothing is better than tobacco stems or dust placed around the plant and stirred into the soil. They do not eat it, but can not avoid coming into contact with it. The stems can be procured at little or no cost from cigar fac- tories. Stems are as useful as any part of the tobacco plant in making a tea or decoction. This should be applied as a spray. 13. Sulphur. This is often applied as a powder, but is too expen- sive for general application on a large scale. It is not necessary to use the pure “flower of sulphur, or powder form, but it may be mixed with several times its bulk of some kind of dust, as directed for Paris green, although the proportion of the dilutant must be only about one-third as great. 14. Land Plaster. This is recommended more as a repellant than asaremedy. Itis also a fertilizer. It is applied by sprinkling it on the plants or sowing it broadcast over the field. When it is sown with the wind it drives certain species of insects to plants and weeds te the leeward. It is more effective as a repellant if some turpentine or kerosene be mixed with it. 15. Air-slaked Lime. This is used as in Land Plaster (No. 14), and is even more effective. The Cucumber Beetle, especially, is driven be- fore it, and can be kept away from the plants by its frequent use. Of course, a repellant only drives insects away, and does not kill them. This means that they become more abundant upon the plants to which they are thus driven, but it sometimes a good plan to drive them to one side of the field and there spray with some killing insec- ticide, according to that recommended for the species in question. OTHER INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS INJURING CUCURBITA- CEOUS PLANTS. Besides the insects discussed in the preceding text, we have found two species of slugs (Limax), two of Centipedes and one of Millipeds, injuring the fruits of cucurbitaceous plants by eating into them. 550 - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off, =Doct They are especially bad when the weather is very damp and the fruits lie in shaded spots. (See Fig. 47). The young squash shown in Fig. 47 was attacked by all of these pests, which were present upon it at the time it was photographed, but as they were crawling they are not plainly shown. The remedy is either a spray of Paris green upon the fruits, or better, a layer of wood ashes or other light dusty material on the ground around the bill and under the fruits. The latter can be re- garded as a specific against these pests. We have found some of our young plants cut off and pulled into holes by earthworms. It is a sure indication of their work to find the vegetation drawn into small, round and smooth holes. (Fig. 46.) They can be killed by salt water poured into the holes, No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 581 MODERN DAIRY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. By L. L.. VAN SLYKE, PH.D., Geneva, N. 1. INTRODUCTION. Dairying has for its objects the production of milk and the manu- facture of various food products from milk. Dairying may, there- fore, be divided into two fairly distinct departments: Dairying (1j as a branch of agriculture, and (2) as a manufacturing industry. Considered as the source of milk production, dairying is a branch of agriculture; for the producer of milk tills the soil, raises food crops for the cattle, rears dairy animals, and obtains milk as his fin- ished product. He is a manufacturer, employing agricultural meth- ods. Considered as a-source of cream, butter, cheese, etc., dairying is a manufacturing industry. The maker of butter and cheese starts with milk as his raw material and employs methods that are es- sentially industrial and in no way connected with agriculture proper. While these two departments of dairying have in the past been carried on largely side by side on the farm, the modern tendency has been toward a more complete separation. Attention is here called to these two divisions of dairying, because it is the writer’s purpose in this treatise to dwell almost entirely upon the second division. To attempt to cover the field of dairying in its broadest sense would practically involve consideration of a large portion of the broad domain of agriculture. Dairying is both an art and a science, whether considered in its restricted or broad sense. The art or practice of dairying embraces certain practices and processes which have been gradually developed by experience and observation. The art of dairying, in its widest application, teaches how to cultivate the soil for the production of certain crops; how to make and use fertilizers; how to breed, feed and care for dairy animals for the production of milk; how to produce cream, butter, cheese, ete., from milk. The science of dairying embraces a collection of the general prin- ciples or leading truths, arranged in systematic order, relating to the operations of dairying. Thus, among other things, the science of dairying explains the growth of animals, the relation of foods to milk production, the chemical composition and physical properties of milk and its products. It consists of an application of the truths of such sciences as physiology, chemistry, physics, botany, etc., to the practical operations of dairying. ‘ 552 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Dairying has undergone many profound changes during the last generation, and more particularly during the last fifteen years. This is true of both the agricultural and the manufacturing phases of dairying. We can fully realize this by noticing the changes in its very language. [Even ten years ago few dairymen would have been able to use intelligently, if at all, many of the expressions that are very common now, such as bacteria, lactic acid fermentation, pasteurization, sterilization, separator cream, ripened cream, fat basis for paying dividends, ripening tests, etc., ete. With all the advance in knowledge and the improvement in practice that we have witnessed in recent times, there are still many unsolved problems in dairying; but we do well to be impressed with the great things which have already been accomplished and to appreciate the advantageous position we are now in for making further progress, compared with the position we were in only fifteen years ago. These changes for the better have been brought about through the combination of a variety of educational agencies, among which may be mentioned our agricultural experiment stations, dairy schools, State Departments of Agriculture, farmers’ institutes, the agricul- tural press, farmers’ clubs, ete. Our dairy products, as a result of improved methods of producing milk and of improvement in manufacturing processes, are greatly superior on the average to those we made half a generation ago. The consuming public has, to some extent, become more choice in its tastes and exacting in its demands; in other words, the present standards required for dairy products are higher than they were. The object of this little treatise is to present, with a moderate degree of fullness, some of the results of these recent years of pro- gress, So as to give the reader some idea of what constitutes “Modern Dairy Science and Practice.” CHAPTER I. THE CHEMISTRY OF MILK. 1. General Composition of Milk. In milk, as well as in most of its commercial products, we find the following compounds and classes of compounds: (1) Water. (2) Fat. (3) Nitrogen compounds or proteids. (4) Sugar. (5) Salts or ash. (6) Gases. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 652 In giving the description of any individual chemical compound in connection with the chemistry of milk, we shall not need to repeat the description when we come to consider that compound in con- nection with the products of milk; for, it will be found, the descrip- tion given here will apply to the same compound wherever we find it. The word milk, as we shall use it, refers always to cows’ milk, unless otherwise stated. 2. Water. 1. Chemistry.—The water present in milk and its products, how- ever much its presence may be disguised, is one and the same com- pound of hydrogen and oxygen, with which we are everywhere fa- miliar. The water in milk and its products is simply plain, common water, possessing no chemical peculiarities to distinguish it from water found anywhere else. It is only ordinary water in the com- pany of other chemical individuals. (2.) Purpose.—The water in milk serves the purpose of holding in solution the soluble constituents of the milk. It also acts as a diluent, better fitting the mixture as animal nutriment. (3.) Amount of Water in Milk—The amount of water contained in milk varies considerably, depending upon a variety of conditions, such as individuality, breed, stage of lactation, age, character of food, amount of water drunk, condition of health, etc. (a.) Single Milkings.—Taking single milkings of individual cows. we may find the amount of water in 100 pounds of milk varying from S2 to 90 pounds or more, corresponding to 10 to 18 pounds of total solids. (b.) Lactation Period of Single Cows.—In case of milk from single cows for an entire period of lactation, the variation of water may range from 84 to 89 pounds, corresponding to 11 to 16 pounds of total solids. (c.) Herds.—Taking milk from herds of cows, the variations of water are within narrower limits, usually ranging from 86 to 88 pounds in 100 pounds of milk, corresponding to 12 to 14 pounds of total solids. In the case of average milk, as found in the United States, 100 pounds of milk contain from 87 to 87 1-4 pounds of water, correspond- ing to 12 3-4 to 13 pounds of solids. (d.) Breed—As regards the influence of breed of cow upon the proportion of water in milk, the following figures, taken from the Geneva (N. Y.) Station records, serve as a fair illustration: 554 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. a s Q = a a = g & = ° be he Name of Breed. 2 ai a Rie: E.: ° £ = ~ a Ha wo °F os ns ua 2o Qe H = ETOISE OI. Fe Sicreisic inte lOinrorarn’e js efabalejeters elereicieiavats (ele ares ofwiele(o\s aiaioieleleleleseicterstelcroieisieia owas | 88.20 | 11.80 AMIE TI CHN EL OlMSTNESS smi metisarisis levies ee cincieleieeinieter Seieictiow each elie vate | 87.35 | 12.65 Ayrshire. ceeceaaeeces Side “| 87.25 | 12.75 Shorthorn, a 85.70 | 14.30 Devons ye cis-teis Sn 85.50 14.50 Guernaey. 7. oe otic cewswicreleme fea qa00 stators ABnO pode 85.10 | 14.90 ARs 4) MonAqdoecnenaco obcod ano boonaann Oud adc doocncdunpaanTadbbodooueacabanead 84.60 | 15.40 (e.) Advance of Lactation Period.—The following figures, showing the variation of water in milk with advance of lactation of period, are based upon averages derived from an aggregate of nearly fifty lactation periods of individual cows, covering the first ten months of lactation: a Ss 2 Sl S & Sl nD c = ° fa a. Month of Lactation. 2 = 3 Gs B.; ° 8 4 wa = oe nw ad 2o Qa H H | 86.00 | 14.00 $6.50 | 13.50 86.53 | 13.47 $4.36 | 13.64 86.25 | 13.75 86.00 | 14.00 85.82 14.18 85.67 14.33 85.54 14.46 85.17 | 14.83 We notice a general tendency fer the water to increase for three months, after whcih there is a constant decrease to the end of the lactation period. A similar tendency is shown in the illustration given below, which covers a large number of samples of milk ob- tained from cheese factories, representing practically the first six months of the lactation period. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 855 : ui = 2 a] r= 3 a ri m i) E = Rs ° be a. Month. z ga ~ =a oF = * oF Ge Ow n 20 boys) 4 H 87.44 12.56 87.31 12.69 7.52 | 12.48 a9 atelars a4 soua 87.37 | 12.63 Stjpi@erllanny AocecodeadocsocogsescocuooccasoneonnUdoagocobunrnoo conoNocDoOgTeobor 87.00 13.00 COTO Ta pial clotetese arerotetatel ates oee etevet sol aYalalelesa(e!sYele oiaile eisio/e(ole’s|siela\vselale s/s)s3s e\elsiejele;s(o’e\ere)ois(cie\e 86.55 13.45 (f.) Age. There are not available many Gata giving reliable in- formation in respect to the influence of the age of a cow upon the amount of water in milk. There is more or less variation in differ- ent individuals. From the limited amount of data accessible, there appears to be a general tendency for cows to produce milk with least water during the second period of lactation, after which the amount of water in the milk increases with the age of the animal. 3. Milk-Fat (or Butter-Fat). 1. Milk-Fat a Mixture——Milk-fat is not a single, invariable com- pound, but is a somewhat variable mixture of several different com- pounds, each of which contains the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, combined in different proportions. Each of these separate compounds, contained in milk-fat, is formd by the chemical union of glycerin with some acid of a particular kind. These glycerin-acid compounds contain about ten different, acids, but some of them are present in very small quantities; in fact, 90 per cent. of milk-fat is made up of only four of these compounds. We can, in a general way, represent the composition of these four most important gly- cerin-acid compounds of milk-fat in the following manner: Glycerin and palmitic acid form palmitin. Glycerin and oleic acid form olein. Glycerin and myristic acid form myristin. Glycerin and butyric acid form butyrin. These four compounds are present in milk-fat (or butter-fat) in something like the following amounts: Palmitin, 40.5 per cent. Olein, 34.0 per cent. Myristin, 10.5 per cent. Butyrin, 6.2 per cent. 556 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The proportions of these constituents of milk-fat vary somewhat and this variation influences the character of the milk-fat. (2.) Melting Points of Constituents of Milk-Fat.—In order to under- stand more fully some of the properties of milk-fat, we will briefly notice some of the more important properties of the above-mentioned compounds. Palmitin has a rather high melting point, 144 degrees F. Myristin melts at 129 degrees F. Olein and butyrin are liquid at ordinary temperatures. Olein has the important property of being able to dissolve and hold in solu- tion the less easily melting palmitin and myristin, above certain temperatures. Palmitin and myristin tend to produce hardness in butter; olein and butyrin, softness. (3.) Glycerin is present, chemically combined with acids, in all fats. It forms, on an average, about 12.5 per cent. of pure milk-fat or butter-fat. (4.) Physical Properties of Milk-Fat——Milk-fat, in pure, fresh con- dition, appears at ordinary temperatures as a soft, white to yellowish mass, with mild taste and very slight odor. It easily takes on a granular structure. It melts easily and is lighter than water. Our knowledge of the color of milk-fat is very limited. Whether the color is a property of some one of the compounds of milk-fat, or whether it belongs to some special substance, mechanically held by the milk-fat, we can not say positively, but the latter supposi- tion is probably nearer the truth. It is well established that the color of milk-fat varies with individual cases, with breeds, with ad- vance of lactation and with the food. (5.) Milk-Fat in Form of Globules.—Milk-fat is present in milk in the form of very small, transparent globules, too small to be seen by the unaided eye. The sizes most commonly met with are be tween 1-2500 and 1-15000 of an inch in diameter, and the average diameter is not far from 1-10000 of an inch. Some globules are as large as 1-1500 of an inch and some as small as 1-40000 of an inch. The smaller fat-globules are more numerous than the larger ones. In one drop of average milk there are about 150,000,000 fat globules. Formerly it was very generally believed, and is still held by some, that fat-globules of milk are surrounded by a membranous covering. In some respects, fat globules behave as if they were enclosed in a membrane. The theory also has been advanced that the fat- globules are surrounded by a semi-solid membrane of slime. With- out going into details to state the reasons, we may accept it as es- tablished beyond reasonable doubt that fat-globules have no special covering, but are simply minute particles of fat floating free in No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 567 milk in the form of an emulsion. There is no difference in the com- position of the fat in the large and small globules. (6.) Amount of Fat in Milk.—The amount of fat present in normal milk varies greatly, going, in the case of single milkings of individual cows, below 2 per cent. and above 10 per cent. The average of fat in the milk of herds of cows varies commonly between the limits of 3 and 5 per cent. The average amount of milk-fat in milk produced in the United States, taking the true average for an entire year, lies between 3.75 and 4 per cent., and somewhat nearer the latter figure. Many of the conditions that affect the amount of fat in milk have been studied and are well established, while others are but little understood. We will consider briefly some of the better-known con- ditions. (a.) Individuality.—It is uncommon to find in a herd of cows any two individuals whose milk contains the same per cent. of fat, whether we consider individual milkings or the average of many milkings. This is simply one of many factors that go to make a cow’s individuality. (b.) Breed—It is well known that the per cent. of fat in milk varies in a more or less characteristic way with the kind of breed. While there is marked variation in indivduals of the same breed, there is found to be a fairly uniform difference, more or less marked, if we take the awerage of several individuals. It is largely owing .o this influence that we find the milk of one country differing from that of another, or the milk of one section of a country differing from that of another section. For example, the average per cent. of fat in milk in Germany and Holland is fully one-half per cent. lower than in this country, because the prevailing breeds of cows there are the ones producing milk comparatively low in fat. The figures given in the following table are taken from the records of the Geneva (N. Y.) Station and represent averages of several indi- viduals covering several periods of lactation: Per Cent. of Fat in Milk. : 7 Name of Breed. es : | o 5 45 Y z | to < = q LORE OLLIE TEINS tete oP he [alele oy sicieieis ete.sof0 s%e = feiercinicraieatersinaletsce.eietaverste 3.36 2.88 3.85 PENSW ASIEN Ur amore stalayerereisfefeicicieicic sis \cie elelsiezista o(6 aie eicin(aceielsle(nve/s\e(ojelevloues 3.60 3.20 4.24 PICT CHM EL OUACTINCS Sy. © icicle ainsi cicibie clviwlors o1s/atejels/o/ain'eieinia'elnisieje\e s 3.73 3.49 3.92 BER Coa EEN or Pm ayer stacey eis eate\cieratete (ats oterctsrarereie vialenste aielclarelelciews wivisiclosels 4.44 4.28 4.56 LENO, | casootopdaadaps bo cUgOU ORB SECU ODOL pe nOoccenouLcoOcOnEecs 4.60 4.30 5.23 PRTAETRI SG Vem tetn tere coals «bare eidies cin gw aoialoieaiteie ele haicieiewie See's 5.30 4.51 6.13 IRR. 2 cognap Dodd SGP ICHCUCEOBCOULE ORE DEBROAORACSaRErOCoOCOLOS 5.60 4.96 6.09 558 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. (c.) Age.—So far as published data throw light upon the question of the influence of age upon the amount of fat in milk, the more common tendency appears to be for milk to become less rich in fat with each succeeding period of lactation, especially after the second, though individual exceptions to this tendency are not infrequent. We need more extended data bearing upon this point before we can speak with any degree of positiveness. (d.) Advance of Lactation Period—In general, it is found that the per cent. of fat in milk increases as the stage of lactation ad- vances. The following figures represent the averages obtained from an aggregate of nearly fifty lactation periods of different cows. cov- ering a period of ten months: c | — & S Number of Month of Lactation. r=) o. OM 5 fy First, 4.54 Second, ... 4.33 Third, 4.28 Fourth, 4.39 Fifth 4.38 Sixth, 4.53 SCO TUE DN FE oia7-aacinicio eva sartcke sun /clcrets Siayelereve avatars ofelsvsralete\aYote tetet evel tortie iartiatelelaiataye:aluteterelets ia lermuelerevelciove einTovaere eleiae 4.56 DFAT ee ta es rape rato oterenetasavarctesevore excioicletarciovaietaralsteetetereferetetcie (oveinvaislovcrayaisieleteretsiaiatelsreteioinistaionelotneicteleicraieret baoiere eceictere 4.66 NERA eieictaie. 4 i 4 TONG LSS eho ee 10.0 | 15.0 | 13.0 Ter RN Rete CB So. cin cnc sha oudleniewhnaee 80.4 85.0 83.5 TOL amrtereerniare clelocie eters avele cinicieGie'sinte cicle aretelcioowiatele siclelaeeens claw 0.5 2.0 1.0 PASH (Kalt) Mann aera eae Fic Ny gs neh se Mate ces | 1.0 4.0 2.5 Good commercial butter should contain over 80 per cent. of fat, and not more than 15 per cent. of water or 38 per cent. of casein, 26. Ripening Cream for Butter-Making. The ripening of cream is essentially the process of developing enormous numbers of certain kinds of bacteria in cream, the most prominent ones in point of numbers and visible activity being lactic 584 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. acid bacteria. When butter is made in the old way, the cream is allowed to stand until it ripeos spontaneously, no attempt being made to control the process. As the result of the fermentations that occur in the ripening process, many complex changes take place in cream, the details of which are not fully understood. The most obvious results brought about by cream-ripening may be included under three general heads; (1) The formation of lactic acid, (2) the development of products that have charactertistic odors, and (3) the formation of substances that yield a characteristic taste on the tongue. To what extent these effects are produced by special organ- isms, we have little detailed knowledge, aside from the work of lactic acid bacteria in producing lactic acid. The real sources of the flavors of ripened cream we do not know specifically, nor do we know what these specific compounds are that give rise to the flavors. The amount of lactic acid formed is used as a measure of the extent or degree of cream-ripening, but other forms of fermentation are known to be present at the same time, at least during the early portion of the ripening process. Butter may be made from cream that has not been ripened at all, that is, from sweet cream, or it may be made with the help of artificial acid added to cream, but in neither case do we make a product that is in flavor like butter made from ripened cream. 27. How Lactic Acid is Produced in Cream Ripening. In order to have the lactic acid fermentation of cream ripening, lactic acid bacteria must be present in the cream and the cream must be kept at a temperature favorable to their growth. We may leave the cream to receive the bacteria by chance, or we may intro- duce them into the cream purposely. In the old-style method of butter-making, the former method is employed. We have already seen (section 12, p. 567), that milk nearly always contains lactie acid bacteria. During the operation of creaming, these bacteria usually develop to such an extent that, when the cream is exposed to higher temperatures, fermentation proceeds rapidly. However, under such circumstances, the rate of fermentation is not uniform in different lots of cream; at one time more lactic acid is formed, and at another less, during a given time, because the number of bacteria will in- evitably vary greatly when their introduction is left to chance. The formation of lactic acid can be controlled in respect to time and quantity, when we introduce the lactic acid bacteria purposely in sufficient quantities. Material, containing large numbers of lactic acid organisms, which is used to add to milk or cream for the purpose of causing lactic acid fermentation, is known as a “starter.” There are two varieties or sources of starters, (1) natural, and (2) pure cultures. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 585 (1.) Natural Starters— Among the materials used as natural start- ers in butter-making are buitermilk and cream from previous op- erations of butter-making, and whole milk or skim-milk soured under special conditions. While there are different ways of preparing natural home-made starters, the following method may be suggested as one that will give good results, if properly carried out: Milk is taken from a cow in perfect health, not too far along in lactation, and kept under proper conditions of cleanliness. The udder and under parts of the cow’s body are brushed and then wiped with a damp cloth, after which the cow is milked into a carefully cleaned vessel, the first few streams of milk from the udder being thrown away. The milk thus drawn is at once covered, taken to. the dairy and run through the separator. This skim-milk, put into a care- fully cleaned receptacle, is carefully covered, brought to a tempera- ture of 90 degrees F., after which it is placed where it will keep at a temperature of 65 degrees Ff’. to 70 degrees F. In twenty to twenty-. four hours, the skim-milk will be found properly ripened or just moderately thickened. In using this prepared starter for ripening cream, the upper portion to the depth of one or two inches is re- moved and thrown away, the rest is strained through a fine strainer © or hair seive into the cream, which should be at 70 degrees F., in the proportion of two pounds of starter for 100 pounds of cream. The starter should be thoroughly stirred into the cream, the cream vat covered and kept at a temperature of 65 degrees F. to 70 degrees IF. Usually twenty-four hours will develop the proper amount of acid for churning. When the cream is properly ripened, it should just form a soft curd, not a hard curd. In case of over-ripening, when the curd becomes too hard, there is danger that some of this coagulated casein will get into the butter and injure its quality and appearance. Some of this prepared starter, described above, may be used in preparing a starter for the day following, putting a little into skim-milk that has been heated to 180 degrees F. for thirty minutes and then cooled down to 70 degrees F., and the starter may thus be propagated from day to day; but this method of propa- gating must not be continued too long, as the starter gradually be- comes inoculated with undesirable forms of bacteria and sooner or later is unfit for use. These natural starters may be used in either pasteurized or unpasteurized cream. (2.) Pure-Culture Starters are special preparations consisting of certain specific selected organisms, known to be adapted to the work of cream ripening. There are on the market several different preparations for ripening cream, consisting of special cultures. Such commercial artificial ferments give the best results, when used in pasteurized cream. The chief advantage found by experience to 586 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off, Doc: come from the use of these pure culture starters is uniformity in character of the butter produced and better keeping quality. Full directions for methods of use always accompany these special start- ers and we do not need to consider them here. 28. Amount of Acid Needed for Cream Ripening. The ripening of cream was, for a long time, the most difficult step of butter-making to control, and the specially difficult point in this operation was to determine the amount of acid that should be present before churning. The appearance, odor and taste of the cream are guides, to some extent, as to the amount of acid formed, but they are far from reliable for accurate, uniform work. It is very important that the same amount of acid shall be developed from day to day in order to secure butter of uniform quality. When cream is ripened so as to show a test of five-tenths to six-tenths of one per cent. of lactic acid, it produces a higher flavored butter than that produced by cream ripened to four-tenths of one per cent. of acid. When cream contains more than sixty-five hundredths of one per cent. of acid, the flavor of the butter is too strong. More- over, in such cases, the particles of coagulated casein become very hard and form white specks in the butter. Such butter acquires bad flavors quickly. The whey should never separate from the curd in cream ripening. We now have an inexpensive, simple method for determining the amount of acid in cream, and, while the method is not strictly accurate, it is sufficiently close for all practical purposes in cream ripening. For careful work in butter-making, this method of determining the amount of acid in cream should always be used. The method is fully described in section 90, p. 658, Chapter XI. 29. Effects Produced by Cream Ripening. The effects of cream ripening are seen in several different ways, among which we will notice the more important. (1.) Improved Flavor of Butter.—In order to secure butter with the kind of flavor required by the average consumer, it appears to be necessary to ripen cream. This is probably the most important and far-reaching effect of ripening cream. The importance of flavor in butter is easily obvious, when we consider that flavor more than any other factor determines the market price of butter. Poor cream ripening means poor flavor and low price for butter. (2.) Ease of Churning.—It has been found true, especially in cream raised by the gravity system, that cream churns more readily when ripened. This is probably due to the influence of acid upon casein. Now 6: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 587 (3.) Increased Yield of Butter—In ripened cream, churning ap- pears to remove the fat more completely from the cream, especially in the case of gravity-raised cream, and, consequently, the yield of butter is greater. (4.) Better Keeping Quality of Butter.—It is quite generally be- lieved that the keeping quality of butter is better when made from properly ripened cream than from cream improperly ripened. (5.) Greater Uniformity in Quality of Butter—It is undoubtedly true that only by the use of properly ripened cream is it possible to produce butter that is uniform in quality from day to day. This is a matter of the first importance to butter makers, because the same customers want the same kind of butter, when they once get the kind that suits them. 30. Mixing Cream of Different Ages. It often happens that when the amount of cream produced in a day is small, that the cream each day is set aside and additions of new cream made from day to day, until enough has been accumu- lated for churning. There results a mixture of cream varying in degrees of ripeness. The different portions vary in the length of time in which they will churn, one portion requiring less churning than another. The result is that churning is stopped before all the fat has been removed from the cream and much fat is lost in the buttermilk. The flavor of butter made from such cream can hardly be as uniform as that made from cream uniformly ripened. If dif- ferent creams, varying in degree of ripeness, are to be churned together, it is essential that they should be mixed together, at least twelve hours before churning; then the degree of acidity will be uniform throughout the entire mass of cream. 31. Pasteurizing Cream for Butter-Making. In pasteurizing cream for butter-making, less care is required than when cream is pasteurized for direct consumption. The cooked taste occurring in cream when heated above 156 degrees F. is absent from butter made from such cream, even when cream has been heated at high as 185 degrees F. High heating of cream, however, acts injuriously upon the texture of the butter. In using pasteur- ized cream for butter-making, the heated cream should be quickly and completely cooled after pasteurization, and the ripened cream should be chilled to 48 degrees F. for about two hours before churn- ing. Treatment in this manner overcomes the tendency of any in- jury occurring to the grain or texture of the butter. 588 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. 32. Richness of Cream for Butter-Making. How rich in fat should cream be made for butter-making? By the gravity method of creaming, we obtain cream containing 15 to 20 per cent. of fat, and by the separator we produce cream of any fat content desired. Good results in every respect may be obtained by the use of cream varying greatly in fat content. The tendency has been to use rather rich cream containing 35 to 40 per cent. of fat, in which case a lower temperature is used in churning, usually with loss of less fat in buttermilk. In order to ripen rich cream in the same length of time as poorer cream, somewhat more starter needs to be used, as the richer cream ripens more slowly than poorer cream under the same conditions. 33. Conditions Affecting Churning. Churning is the term applied to the process by which the fat- globules of milk or cream are made to unite into visible aggrega- tions, and to separate from the milk-serum or buttermilk. This massing together of fat-golbules is usually produced by the vigorous agitation of cream in vessels especially constructed for the pur- pose, called churns. When milk or cream is agitated at a tempera- ture somewhat below 85 degrees F., the average melting-point of milk-fat, the fat-globules gradually attach themselves together, each of the small masses first formed continuing to increase in size by uniting with others, until finally the whole of the fat, thus sepa- rated, can be collected in one mass. The readiness with which fat- globules separate from cream in churning is influenced by several conditions, among which we may mention, as the most important, (1) the composition and size of the fat-globules, (2) the composition of the milk-serum, (3) the degree of ripeness of the cream, (4) the tem- perature used in churning, and (5) the kind of agitation or churn. (1.) Composition and Size of Fat-Globules—The readiness of fat- globules to separate from milk-serum and unite in visible masses during the process of churning, is influenced by the composition and size of the fat-globules. As pointed out in section 3, p. 18, milk-fat varies in its composition, and this variation in composition affects the hardness or softness of the fat. This quality is influenced by the character of the cow’s food. Thus, succulent feeds and feeds rich in starch and sugar make the fat softer. Cottonseed-meal makes the fat harder. Now, it is known that the fat-globules unite more easily in churning when they are composed of softer fat, and less readily when they have larger proportions of hard fat. In respect to the influence of the size of fat-globules upon ease of churning, the larger the fat-globules the more easily and quickly No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 589 they unite. Owing to their size, the larger ones come into contact more quickly and more often than do the smaller ones. (2.) Composition of Milk-Serum.—The albumin, casein and milk- sugar contained in milk or cream tend to keep the fat-globules from coming together easily. The larger the amounts of these consti- tuents, the less readily will the fat-globules come together. ‘This is one of the reasons why churning is often so slow and difficult in the ease of cream from the milk of cows far along in lactation, since at that time milk contains larger proportions of these constituents than earlier in lactation. (3.) Degree of Ripeness of Cream.—The fat-globules of ripened cream churn more readily and completely than those of sweet cream under like conditions, especially in the case of cream raised by gravity. The lactic acid coagulates the casein and thus greatly de- creases the strong influence it has in its usual condition to keep the fat-globules from coming into contact with one another. (4.) Temperature Used in Churning.—The condition that exercises most influence upon the ease with which the fat-globules unite in churning is the temperature of the cream. This determines, more than any other factor connected with churning, the hardness or soft- ness of the fat-globules. When the temperature is too low, the fat- globules are so hard that they do not stick together when they come into contact, and, consequently, no butter results. When the temperature is too high, the agitation of the fat-globules in churn- ing tends to break them up into smaller globules rather than to unite them into larger masses, thus forming a more complete emul- sion, more difficult to churn than the original cream. Fat-globules may be made to unite at temperatures as low as 46 degrees F., and as high as 80 degrees F. Thus, the range of possible churning tempera- tures is very considerable, but the quality of butter produced at differ- ent temperatures is very different, particularly in texture. The butter is in the most satisfactory condition at the end of churning, when the temperature of the cream during churning has been such that the fat-globules have united readily into firm, solid granules of butter, with a minimum content of buttermilk. No particular temperature can be prescribed for churning, as other conditions enter in to modify the temperature of churning, such as (a) the individuality of cows, (b) the stage of the lactation period, (c) the character of the food eaten by the cows, (d) the season of the year, (e) the thickness of the cream, and (f) the degree of its ripeness. The conditions men- tioned that are immediately connected with the cow, influence the composition of the milk-fat, making it harder or softer, as stated above. The harder the milk-fat, the higher the temperature at which churning should be done, and the softer the milk-fat, the ae ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Of Doc. lower the proper churning temperature. Im the case of cream from the milk of cows far along im lactation, or of cows fed exclusively on dry feed or with considerable cotiomseed meal m the ration, the churning temperature usually needs to be higher. Im the case of cream from the milk of cows im the earlier stages of lactation, or of cows fed on succulent foods or foods rich im siarch or sugar, the churning temperature should be lower. Generally speaking, a lower ehurning temperature should be used im summer and a higher one im winter. The richer cream is im fat, the lower the temperaiure that can be used successfully im churning, and the poorer the cream is im fat, the higher should be the temperature of churning, all] tem- peratures, of course, beime withim the limits required for making butter of good quality. For example, cream coniamimeg 15 per cent. of fat may be churmed ai 38 degrees F. to @ degrees F.; cream containing 40 per cenit. of fat may be churned at 50 degrees F. Lower temperatures remove the fat most compleiely. Ripened eream ean be saiisfaciorily churned through a greaier range of tem- perature than sweet cream can, especially im ithe case of coream raised by gravity. From the foregoing staiemenis, it eam readily be seen that no fixed temperature can be givem as the correct ane ai which cream im general should be churned. @) Kind of Churn —Different churns are made so as to give each a different kind of motion to the cream in churnmmg. Thus, we have (a) churms with a beaiimg action, (bo) swinging, cradle and rocking churns, (c) horizontal churns with dash, (d) vertical churns with dash, end (e) churns with 2 variety of special contrivances for siirrmg the eream. On the whole, experience appears to show thai the best churns are simple barrel or box churns, entirely hollow, without special paddles or stirring apparatus inside. Im such churns, ihe agt tation of the cream is caused by the sirikimg of the particles of eream upon the sides of the revolving churn rather than by a siirrmg moticn. When paddles or other means of siirring are used in churn- ing, it is believed that the texture of the butter is Hable to be mm jered. The speed of churnime should be such that the motion of the eream will stop jusi short of taking on the centrifugal motion of the ehurn. The objeci io be kepi im view is thai the particles of cream shall move about agaist one another most frequenily and thus give the fai-globules the greatest chance to come into coniact ome wiih another. si When to Siop Churning. Buiter is said te “begin to come.” or to “break” when ihe fat- globules have formed masses sufficiently large io be readily seen iz the cream. From this pomi, the process of churning is soon No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 591 completed. In finishing the operation of churning, two points should be aimed at, (1) completeness of churning and (2) retention of smallest practicable amount of buttermilk in butter granules, (1.) Completeness of Churning.—By completeness of churning we mean the extent to which the fat has been gathered from the milk- serum into butter. This is shown by the amount of fat left in the buttermilk, and is governed by several conditions, which have al- ready been mentioned. Thus, the loss of fat in buttermilk is greater in mixed creams of varying degrees of ripeness than it is in uniformly ripened cream; it is greater at higher temperatures of churning than at lower ones. As an indication of when the fat is removed as com- pletely as practicable by churning, the size of the butter granules may be taken, though not always. The usual instructions given are to stop churning when the butter granules are about the size of kernels of wheat. This cannot always be relied upon as showing that the churning has been completed, since, under differing condi- tions, the completeness of separation differs with the size of butter granules. The appearance of the buttermilk is usually a good indi- cation of the completeness of churning; when the fat has been most efficiently removed, the buttermilk should look bluish and thin or Wa.ery, an appearance not difficult to distinguish. As a rule, churn- ing should be continued until the buttermilk reaches this condi- tien, without reference to the size of the butter granules. When the “burning is most effective, the buttermilk should not contain more than one-tenth of one per cent. of fat. (2.) Amount of Buttermilk left in Butter.—The larger the granules of butter at the close of churning, the greater the amount of butter- milk remaining in the butter. This is an undesirable condition, since the keeping quality of butter is unfavorably affected by the presence of much buttermilk. Every effort should be made so to coutrol the conditions of cream ripening and the conditions of churn- ing that, when the butter granules are the size of wheat grains, the fat will be removed from the buttermilk as completely as is practicable. 35. Difficulties Experienced in Churning, It is a common experience, especially in making butter at home, to have churnings in which the fat-globules separate in granules with extreme difficulty from the buttermilk, or refuse to separate at all. Various conditions may cause this behavior. Some of these have already been referred to in connection with the conditions of cl nrn- ing. To some of these we will call more detailed attention at this 592 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. point, including (1) the influence of advance of lactation, (2) im- proper ripening of cream, (8) cream poor in fat, and (4) low tempera- ture of churning. (1.) Influence of Advanced Lactation.—In the case of cows that are far advanced in lactation, we find a combination of conditions that work against the ease of churning, such as small size of fat- globules, milk-fat of harder character than normal, and a larger amount than usual of albumin, casein and milk-sugar in the milk and cream, thus increasing the resistance offered to the uniting of the fat-globules. In the case of cows that come into milk in the spring, these conditions are noticeable in the winter, when, in addition, the food is often largely dry hay or straw. These conditions may also be aggravated by improper ripening of cream. To overcome the difficulties of churning caused by these conditions, the cows must be given succulent feed, such as silage or roots, and the cream must be ripened so as to develop more than the usual amount of acid. In extreme cases, some additional help may come from diluting the cream slightly with warm water or by adding dilute salt brine. (2.) Improper Ripening of Cream.—The cream should be ripened under the conditions previously given (see sections 26 to 28, pp. 553-586). (3.) Cream Poor in Fat.—Usually, it is more difficult to churn completely cream poor in fat. This condition needs to occur only when gravity methods are employed in raising cream. By using the centrifugal method of separating cream, no trouble need ever be experienced in this line. (4.) Low Temperature in Churning.—in churning at very low tem- peratures, the agitation mixes air with the cream and the cream often froths or swells. Under these conditions, it is best to let the cream stand several hours and then to warm it up slowly four or five degrees, before trying to churn again. Revolving churns give less trouble in this respect than dash churns. Then, again, in churning at low temperatures, the formation of butter may stop just short of the “breaking” point and not be affected by further churn- ing. In such cases, the difficulty may be overcome by adding a little dry salt to the cream or a little water of the temperature of 85 de- grees FE. to 90 degrees F. 36. Removing Buttermilk from Granules. When the churning has been completed and the fat has been gathered into granules successfully, the next step is to remove the buttermilk from the butter. As previously stated, the butter at this stage should be in granules not larger than kernels of wheat, and the buttermilk should be clear and watery in appear- ance, if the cream has been properly ripened and the churning done ee No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 593 at the right temperature. By the old way, the churning was con- tinued until all the butter was gathered into a fairly solid chunk and was then removed from the churn and the buttermilk was re- moved by pressure at the same time the salt was worked into the butter. The usual method now is to stop the churn when the butter is still in the granular stage, add a little cold water to favor the separation of the smaller fat-globules still remaining in the butter- milk. The buttermilk is then drawn off from the bottom of the churn and allowed to drain completely, after which water having a temperature of 45 degrees F. to 55 degrees I’. should be added in amounts about equal to two-thirds of the buttermilk removed. The water and butter granules in the churn are then greatly agitated, enabling the water to come into contact with every butter granule, care being taken to avoid an amount of motion that will cause the granules to mass in chunks. In about fifteen minutes, this water should be drawn off, the granules allowed to drain thoroughly, and then the operation of washing should be repeated a second time as before. The second wash water should appear clear as it runs away, or, at most, have only a very slight milkiness. If the churning operation has been properly conducted, two washings should suffice to remove the buttermilk. The less washing that is necessary to remove the buttermilk the better. A small amount of salt added to the first wash water aids in removing the buttermilk without salting the butter appreciably. The texture of the butter and the amount of water in it are affected by the manner in which the washing is done, and by the condition of the butter granules. (1.) Influence of Washing upon Percentage of Water in Butter.— When the butter granules are small and the wash water very cold, more water remains in the butter without appearing in the form of distinct drops than is the case when the granules are larger and the water less cold. If the end of the churning leaves the butter in chunks of the size of a small plum or larger, it is impossible completely to wash the buttermilk out of the butter, and especially if the butter is soft. Im such a case, the buttermilk must be re- moved by working, but can not be done completely even then, and the butter will have a high water content. (2.) Influence of Washing on Texture of Butter.—The temperature of the water used in washing butter affects the texture of the butter. When butter is soft at the end of churning, and it is hardened by being rapidly cooled down by the addition of large amounts of very cold water, the texture is likely to show the effect of the rapid change of temperature. When thus treated, the outside of the butter granules cools some time before the inside, and if time is not given for complete cooling before it is worked, we have a part of 38—6—1902 594 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. the butter still soft. In case the butter granules are soft at the end of churning, as the result of too high temperature in churn- ing, the proper method of procedure is to use the usual amount of water at the usual temperature and allow the butter to remain in it, until it has become thoroughly cooled clear through. If treated im this way, it can be worked without risk of getting soft again at once. In addition, the use of large amounts of water in washing butter is apt to remove some of the compounds that give the butter its flavor, producing a flavorless or tallow-like tasting butter. 37. Working Butter. The real objects in working butter are (1) to mix the salt with the butter and (2) to get the butter into a solid mass suitable for market. Working butter more than is necessary to accomplish these two purposes is not only useless but may be worse than useless when carried to such an extent as to injure the texture or grain of the butter. There is least danger of injuring the grain of butter, when the working is done by pressure, at a temperature of 45 de- grees FE. to 55 degrees F. The mistake should be avoided of de- pending upon working to remove moisture, since this is controlled by the size of the butter granules and the temperature of churning. Fine granules and low temperature favor assimilation of moisture. 38. Salting Butter. The specific purpose for which salt is added to butter is to give taste. The small amount of salt present in butter has little to do with the keeping properties, as only larger amounts of salt have marked antiseptic effect. The one guide upon which to depend as to how much salt shall be added to butter must be the special market in which the butter is sold, in other words, the taste of the consumer. in actual practice, the amount of salt varies all the way from a trace to two and one-half ounces for each pound of butter. The amount of salt preferred by most consumers is three- fourths of an ounce to one ounce of salt for a pound of butter. In some creameries, butter is made for several different markets, re- quiring all kinds of salting and extreme pains have to be taken to have each kind always uniform. In order to turn out butter of the same uniform quality from day to day, it is essential that the amount of salt retained in the butter shall be the same, or with the least variation possible. It would seem to be a simple matter to con- trol the amount of salt in butter by weighing the drained butter and salting this in proportion to its weight. But the drained butter is not of constant composition from day to day, because the size ae | No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 595 of the butter granules and the amount of water clinging to them are not uniform and, hence, the weight of the washed, drained butter granules does not bear a constant, deiinite relation to the amount of butter when finished. The larger the amount of water in the butter granules, the larger is tbe amount that will go out on salt- ing and working, and the less will be the amount of salt left in. When the creaming is done by a separator, and a cream of uniform composition is used from day to day, the weight of cream atfords a better basis for calculating the amount of salt to use than does the weight of washed butter granules. The salt can be incorporated easily and evenly into the whole mass of butter, if it is added while the waiter is being pressed from the butter in the worker. It is important to continue the working until the salt completely dis- solves, because undissolved particles of salt may cause mottled or streaked butter. A particle of solid salt remaining in the butter may later dissolve in the water contained in the butter and thus form a strong brine at that point, which tends to deepen the color of the butter that comes in contact with this drop of strong brine. Care should be used in the selection of dairy salt, as different brands of salt vary in their fitness for use in salting butter. Generally speaking, good dairy salt should have a uniform size of particles, should be dry and should completely dissolve to a clear solution. When a small amount of salt is desired in butter, it can be more uniformly and completely incorporated into the butter by using brine instead of dry salt. For this purpose, a brine is prepared by dissolving in warm water all the salt that can be made to dis- solve. This brine is cooled to the proper temperature and poured over the butter. The brine may take the place of the second wash water and allowed to stay with the butter about ten minutes, when it is drawn off and a second portion of saturated brine added to the butter for the same length of time. Then the brine is removed and the working done in the usual manner. 39. Packing Butter for Market. Butter is in condition to pack for market when the salt entirely in solution has been completely and uniformly worked through the butter, and the water in the butter reduced to the desired amount. When butter is to be kept for some time before marketing, it should contain less water than butter intended for immediate use. Popu- lar taste at present appears to call for a comparatively large amount of water in butter when it is consumed fresh. A large amount of water in butter that is to be kept awhile before consumption is objectionable, because sooner or later the water evaporates from the surface, leaving a coating of salt, and the appearance is injuri ously affected. 36 596 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The problem of a perfect butter package yet remains to be solved; that is, a package which is strong, light in weight and air-tight. Packages made of crockery, glass or metal are heavy and liable to be broken. ‘Tin and iron packages rust easily in the presence of the brine. Wooden packages are seldom air-tight. It appears to be the general impression that wooden packages are in all respects the most available. The materials most commonly used are probably ash, spruce and oak. Wooden packages are subject to the disad- vantage of imparting their flavor to butter when it is kept in them long. Therefore, great pains must be taken to remove the odor of wooden packages as far as possible before they are used. This may be done by steaming the packages thoroughly and then filling them with hot water, containing some salt. After standing twenty-four hours they are steamed a second time and then filled with cold water. For direct consumption, butter may advantageously be packed in moulds or prints. - The popular demand for this style of package has increased greatly within a few years and its popularity appears to become greater all the while. Prints in pound and half-pound sizes are found in every grocery. The standard size for pound prints is 48 by 24 by 22 inches, and the shape is rectangular. Each print is wrapped separately in parchment paper and special packing boxes are furnished for carrying them. 40. Qualities of Butter. Certain points have been adopted by common consent to use as a basis or standard in judging of the value of butter. The qualities that have been selected for this purpose are, (1) flavor, (2) texture, (3) color, (4) salt and (5) general appearance. To these may be added (6) moisture and (7) solidity. (1.) Flavor.—Butter is said to have a good flavor when it possesses the characteristic taste and odor of good butter in a well-marked degree. It is difficult to describe in words what this flavor is, but it is commonly described as a nutty flavor, clean, aromatic and sweet. It should be entirely free from any rancidity or any other unusual flavor. Personal preference forms a very large factor in judging the value of butter in so far as it depends upon flavor. High flavor, for some persons, means sour milk or buttermilk flavor, while, for others, such a flavor must be absent. The real flavor of high- grade butter can be produced only under most favorable conditions of manufacture. Every operation must be conducted with care, and extreme pains must be observed at all times in respect to clean- liness. The one step in the operation of butter-making that has most influence directly upon the flavor of butter is the ripening of ee PARI oe Wivenioad Me No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 597 the cream, and too great care can not be taken to have perfect con- trol of this delicate process. Food also exercises some influence. The flavors that are objectionable in butter may come from food, from the absorption of bad odors by the milk or cream, from the action of undesirable forms of bacteria and from excessive amounts of buttermilk retained in the butter. (2.) Texture—The texture of butter refers to what is called the grain and depends upon the condition of the butter granules. In its first formation ia churning, butter appears in very small, irregu- lar grains or granules. These grains retain their individuality throughout the rest of the process of butter-making and even in the finished product. The more distinct we can keep the individu- ality of the granules and at the same time make the butter into solid masses, the better is the texture. The granular texture of butter is seen when a mass of butter is broken into parts trans- versely, giving somewhat the fractured appearance seen in broken cast iron and free from a greasy appearance. Another method of testing the texture is to pass a knife blade or a butter trier through the butter; when it is withdrawn, no particles of butter stick to it. The texture of butter is injured by allowing the butter granules in the churn to become too large, and by working at too high a tem- perature or too much. The granular texture of butter is entirely and permanently destroyed by warming butter up near to the melt- ing point. 3. Color.—The standard of color for butter is the color given when the butter is made from the milk of a cow feeding upon fresh pas- ture grass—an even, bright, golden yellow. Just what substance it is that gives butter its natural color, we do not know yet, but we do know some of the conditions that influence its color, such as the breed of cow, character of food and stage of lactation period. Butter tends to become lighter in color toward the end of a cow’s lactation period, and especially if the cow at that time is fed exclusively upon dry foods. On fresh pasture, some cows produce butter some- what too high in color for the critical consumer. Most butter in commerce is artificially colored. There is quite a number of different butter-color preparations in the market, some of which are aniline compounds and are poisonous when used in considerable quantities. If a butter-color is used, it is wise to use annatto or other prepara- tions, which are known to be harmless. When butter is artifically colored, the colored product should be uniform, of a bright, golden- yellow color, free from any reddish tinge. Different shades of color are called for by different markets. (4.) Salt—The main point in connection with salt in butter as affecting quality, is that the salt should be entirely dissolved and 598 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. distributed uniformly throughout the entire mass of butter. As to the amount of salt in butter, this must be judged entirely according to the standard of the special trade for which it is made. (5.) General Appearance.—Under this head we include the at- tractiveness of the package and packing, cleanliness, ete. (6.) Moisture.—The water should be so completely incorporated with the butter that it fails to show its presence, not appearing in the form of free beads of water. (7.) Solidity.—By this is meant the quality of firmness or hardness, not melting or softening too easily. The different qualities indicated above are used in a specific manner for determining the market value of butter, each quality having assigned to it a definite numerical value. The following so-called scale of points is in common use in the markets of this country: Flavor, 40 to 45. Texture, 25 to 30. Color, 10 to 15. Salt, 10. Appearance, 5. 41. Composition of Buttermilk. Buttermilk is the product, containing water and milk solids that remains when fat is removed from milk or cream in the process of butter-making. In general composition, buttermilk resembles skim- milk, containing, like skim-milk, all the constituents of milk, but in different proportions. The amount of fat in buttermilk is of the greatest importance in connection with churning, for only by knowing the amount of fat in buttermilk can we tell with certainty how complete the churning is. So, the buttermilk should always be tested in order to know whether large amounts of fat are being needlessly wasted by being left in the buttermilk. We have al- ready discussed the conditions that affect the amount of fat left in buttermilk, in sections 33 and 34. If the conditions of butter-making are properly controlled, there need not be left in the buttermilk more than one-tenth of one per cent. of fat. Buttermilk from ripened cream differs from that obtained with sweet cream, the former con- taining less milk sugar, more lactic acid and less milk-fat. The fol- lowing analysis will serve as an illustration to give a general idea of the composition of buttermilk obtained under the best conditions: Saray to, No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 599 Her cenu. SNAG TIS s-9ai ct ci-cerar cite ecaynde we nadie Gs a ekilaa, wis. sii's) 03" chase 90.60 PU ems tars ct Seater PMO tsa eee oe eee Lee A are eee 0.10 @asem-andval bums. oso oc orste se eee ok 3.60 : J BU EGatS RE gine oie es ota 0 Reig re aera en Pa fe 4.40) PACU ens 2 Ske Pee le aah ees ic Ae Peele Pie 0.70 hactiicacid; <2 5.h<: A free ene ensues ees arene ae Psp 0.60 CHAPTER VI. THE RELATION OF MILK TO YIELD OF BUTTER. If we compare the composition of milk with that of butter, we are impressed with the fact that a very small amount of the solids contained in milk, excepting milk-fat, goes into butter. Below we give an illustration showing, under the conditions stated, the dis- tribution of milk-fat through the various operations of butter- making. 42. Distribution of Milk-Fat in Butter-Making. In the accompanying illustration we assume that we start with 1,000 pounds of milk, containing 4 per cent. of fat; that we produce, in creaming, 200 pounds of cream and 800 pounds of skim-milk, con- taining 0.10 per cent. of fat; that in churning we produce 155 pounds of buttermilk, containing 0.20 per cent. of fat, and 45 pounds of butter. We will assume also that the mechanical losses of fat amount to 0.30 pound of fat. The following tabular arrangement brings out the manner in which the milk-fat is distributed through these various operations: i ~ oS - bal ° ve) g eo, om 58 A 1,000 pounds of whole-milk contain 40.0 pounds of fat, ..........cceesccceucsceceenscees | 100.00 BUEDOouNds OG cream) contain 39.2 poundsiof fat, ...c.0s.a.c0+ cess cecleccueecueces seceeeoun 98.00 S00 pounds of skim-milk contain 0.8 pounds Of fat, .....cc.cccesccccccancedseccesecccnces | 2.00 155 BaUUdsrotabputtermilk contain O63) POUNGS Of fat. He Fite eee alk Sat aloe Name of Patron. Re ap Soe % ee OH CmAns : Go ., ne} Qn 2 0 ne NOS n on oq 5 RO uo} 4 Oghsd QA OP es fos | s2e2 | CBB | Soa Sioa 5000 MS 2, 53a Ay Ay Ay Ay JN 5 GB BOO COCO RODDED COOROOE RE Core ee 350 31.50 X 4 0== 14.00 ERM ele fors tise iele es orcieie lola Slonstefoyeiee Oe Sets 650 6.50 == 23.40 (ON GS DOSOO GO BG COREE OCS CEE e CEE itis SEincrc aris 835 .30 2K j= 43.42 Dinara ser ctote claro ciale over eicte sfoneicve.oereiete ties etts 965 95.65< 4°4-= 42.46 WBIpE Rae tapetsiers laneceisiacine sci sisicres ws tal wvameas eens 1,200 12.00 42 50.40 Total number of pounds of | fat delivered by all patrons, —I"on0S Rule. Step 2. To find the net value of one pound vf milk-fat:Di- vide the total net receipts by the total number of pounds of milk-fat delivered by all the patrons during the dividend period. Example: From the amount of milk delivered by the patrons, as given above, we have made, say, 195 pounds of butter, which realizes 18 cents a pounds, after deducting the cost of making and all other expenses. This will give $35.10 to distribute among the patrons. We now divide $35.10 by 1738.68, the total amount of milk-fat delivered by all patrons during the dividend period, and we have 20.2 cents as the net amount of money received from butter for each pound of milk- fat delivered. Rule. Step 3. To find the amount of dividend due each patron: Multiply together the number representing the pounds of milk-fat furnished by each patron and the net price received for each pound of milk-fat. In this case, the net price realized for each pound of milk-fat is 20.2 cents, and so we multiply by this the number of pounds of fat delivered by each patron. Example: 604 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. ! o ; &R 1a = as Cae Da, p ° a p° 5 2 ory Eb rary es) a Name of Patron. . AD rs HD a = Ya) = 5 ein Lod n SP Bu s£& = Ov eh) eSe ps6 Ay Z < GW Miele fate tele fatel o's alaterala(cletn eVotate ota areteloseioveveleie\ohe chelate lteleyerst ste 14.00 20.2= $2 83 1835 sophooGusuquonoD CCD bomondaconauocUodDOOD GODOleS 23.40X 20.2= 4 73 (Oh cpooboadacosarcoceoneDaaD cbadoD panacbUT oOdEE aNOd0 43.42X 20.2= 8 77 ID, op toudddebanbccouDdbo dab op couoodooDadEseCdDCO boc 42.46X 20.2= 8 58 19%)" op.cod00d000 00 odd 0b C6000 Godan oD NG aa dugadooaanouN 50.40 20.2= 10 18 (2.) In Creameries Where Milk is Purchased.—Uné@er this division come those cases where patrons sell their milk outright for such a price as may be agreed upon. In such cases, a standard may be adopted and milk paid for according to this standard. For example, suppose the proprietor of a creamery agrees to pay at the rate of one dollar a hundred for milk containing 4 per cent. of fat, the price being greater or less than this in proportion as the per cent. of fat is above or below 4 per cent. Paying one dollar for 100 pounds of milk containing 4 per cent. of fat is equivalent to paying 25 cents a pound for milk-fat. Applying this rate to the illustration given above, we have the following: | ad j we ES par] a Sah | B'S Sy fle & ae Pat * Vg F ab & O& Q Name of Patron. : HS uy wo fo} - fo} So a) ears ee — wn ~ ge Ags ESs Col oO xX orn 33 332: eSé a Zi fe _ a oS ~ -_ = ——— [lean eoeeyona cron ay Co ~ MM & St Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Cream bottles. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Bottles for skim-milk, whey, etc. Sa neserer a SS ea a a a Fo 0 00 et Fig. 23. Mann’s. —_—_—_— IN'O= 26) DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 649 the fat meeis the side of the tube and not from the surface of fat in the center of the tube nor from the bottom of the dark line caused by the refraction of the curved surface. The reading may be made with less liability of error by meas- uring the length of the column of fat with a pair of dividers one point of which is placed at the bottom and the other at the upper limit of the fat. The dividers are then removed and one point being placed at the o mark of the scale on the bottle used, the other will be at the per cent. of fat in the milk examined. Sometimes bubbles of air collect at the upper surface of the column of fat and prevent a close reading; in such cases a few drops of strong alcohol (over 90 per cent.) put into the tube on top of the column of fat, will cause the bubbles to disappear and give a sharp line between the fat and alcohol for the reading. When- ever alcohol is used for this purpose ,the reading should be taken directly after the alcoho! is added, as after it has stood for a time the alcohol partially unites with the fat and increases its volume. Whenever the fat is not quite clear, more satisfactory results may be obtained by allowing the bottles to stand until the fat has erystallized, and then warm them by placing the bottles in hot water, before taking the reading. If the column of fat is less than about one division, as will often happen with skim-milk and buttermilk, it may assume a globular form instead of a uniform layer across the tube; when this occurs the fat can usually be estimated with sufficient accuracy by simple inspection, but in such cases it is better to use specially constructed botties, like those illustrated in Figs. 20 and 21. 85. Testing Cream by Babcock Test. Accurate results can be obtained by the Babcock test in ascer- taining the amount of fat in cream, but much greater care has to be taken in sampling cream. Cream that is sour, or that has been exposed to air until the surface has dried, cannot be accurately - sampled. The same is true of centrifugal cream that is badly frothed. Sweet cream, from Cooley cans, that is not too thick to flow readily from the pipette may be tested with satisfactory results. The process, however, must be modified slightly from that used with milk, as the amount of fat in cream is so large that it can- not be measured in the ordinary test bottle, if the usual quantity is taken for the test, besides a much greater error results from the creain which adheres to the pipette than with milk. Both of these difiiculties may be overcome by taking two or three test bottles and dividing the test sample between them into as nearly equal por- tions as can be judged by the eye. The pipette is then filled with 39 650 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. water and this is run into the tubes in the same way as the cream. If three bottles are taken the pipette is filled with water a second time and emptied into the bottles as before. This serves to rinse the cream from the pipette, and at the same time to dilute it to a point where it can be tested in the same way as milk. The bottles are then treated in the usual manner, and the reading of the tubes added iogether for the per cent. of fat in the cream. The neces- sity of dividing the sample of cream as directed above may be avoided by the use of the special test bottle shown in Figs. 18 and 19. Cream may also be tested in the ordinary bottles by diluting it with three times its volume of water and proceeding in exactly the same manner as with milk, the reading being multiplied by three. Owing to the low specific gravity of cream, the test sample, if of the same volume, will weigh less than that of milk, and con- sequently the per cent. of fat as shown by the scale will be less than is found by gravimetric analysis, in proportion as the weight is less than 18 germs. Where a delicate balance is available, this error may be entirely avoided by weighing the cream used in a test, and calculating the per cent. of fat by multiplying the scale reading by 18, and dividing the product by the weight in grams of cream taken. If 17.6 c. ec. of cream are taken and the portion adhering to the pipette is rinsed into the test bottle, a close approximation of the true result may be obtained without weighing by correcting the scale reading as follows: For a scale-reading of 20 per cent., add 0.25 per cent.; for a scale-reading of 15 per cent., add 0.1 per per cent. Readings between these may be corrected in proportion. Below 10 per cent. no correction is necessary. Cream may be tested in the ordinary bottles in the manner pro- posed by Mr. Winton, in Bulletin 108, of the Connecticut Experi- ment Station, by using a pipette having a capacity of 6.04 ¢. ¢., which will deliver about 6 grams of average cream or one third of the weight of the usual sample. When this pipette is used, about 12 c. c. of water should be added to the cream in the bottle before adding the acid. The usual amount of acid should be taken and the test completed in exactly the same way as with milk. The reading should be multiplied by three to obtain the per cent. of fat in the cream. No correction for the specific gravity is necessary when this pipette is used. 86. Testing Skim-Milk, Buttermilk and Whey. With all products like the above, which usually contain less than one per cent. of fat, more accurate results are obtained by the No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 651 use of a special test bottle like that in Fig. 20 or 21. Less acid is re- quired for whey than milk. If only traces of fat appear in the neck of the bottle, the fat in the milk examined may be nearly 0.1 per cent. and this reading will be more nearly correct than estimates of from .01 to .05 per cent., which often appear in the agricultural papers. The reason for this is that minute quantities of fat are either dissolved or not separated by the method. The amount of fat lost in this way is about the same for all milks; it is compensated for when suffi- cient fat is present to form a complete layer across the neck of the bottle by reading to the point where the fat meets the glass instead of at the concave surface. 87. Testing Condensed Milk. The estimation of fat in condensed milk is accomplished in ex- actly the same way as with cream. As a rule, condensed milks are so thick that it is impractical to measure the test sample di- rectly with a pipette. This difficulty may be overcome by care-, fully diluting the milk with a known volume of water, making the analysis of this and correcting the result for the quantity of water added. The best method is to weigh the sample into a test bottle, taking about 8 grams, and after adding about 10 c. c. of water, completing the test in the same manner as with milk, the per cent. of fat being obtained by multiplying the reading by 18 and dividing the product by the weight, in grams, of the substance taken. The results are satisfactory. 88. Testing Cheese. The examination of cheese is not as satisfactory as that of other dairy products. The chief reason for this is the unequal distribu- tien of moisture and fat in the cheese, making it very difficult to ob- tain representative samples. On account of this, tests made from different parts of the same cheese, especially if it be very rich, often vary as much as two or three per cent. in the amount of fat found. To avoid this as much as possible, samples should be taken in a uni- form manner. Where the cheese can be cut, a narrow wedge reaching from the edge to the center of the cheese, will more nearly represent the average composition of the cheese than any other sample. This may be chopped quite fine, with care to avoid evaporation of water, and the portion for analysis taken from the mixed mass. When the sample is taken with a cheese trier, a plug taken perpendicular to the surface, one-third of the distance from the edge to the center of the cheese should more nearly represent the average composition than any other. The plug should either reach entirely through 652 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Oif. Doc. = er only half through the cheese. For inspection purposes, the rind may be rejected but for investigations ,where the absolute quan- tity of fat in the cheese is required, the rind should be itmecluded in the sample. It is well, when admissible, to take two or three plugs on different sides of the cheese and, after splitting them lengthwise with a sharp knife, take portions of each for the test. For the estimation of fat in cheese, about 5 grams should be carefully weighed and transferred as completely as possible to a test bottle. From 12 to 15 c. c. of hot water are then added and the bottle shaken at interwals, keeping it warm, until the cheese has become softened ,and converted into a creamy emulsion. This may be greaily facilitated by the addition of a few drops of strong ammonia to the contents of the bottle. After the contents of the bottles have become cold the usual amount of acid should be added and the bottles shaken until the lamps of cheese have entirely dis- solved. The bottles are then placed in the machine and whirled, the test being completed in the same manner as with milk. To eébtain the per cent. of fat, the reading should be multiplied by 18 and divided by the weight, in grams, of cheese taken. 89. Testing Composite Samples at Creameries and Cheese Factories. Provide a pint or quart fruit-jar for each patron, on which shall be a name or number distinguishing each. In each jar place about as much powdered potassium bichromate as can be held in the empty shell of a 32-0z. cartridge cr about as much as one can place on a silver dime; this will keep the milk from souring. Provide a small tin cylinder holding one or two ounces of milk when filled to the brim, provided with a handle of convenient length. When a patron delivers his milk, pour it into the weighing can from a height sufficient to secure thorough mixing of the whole, and immediately, before weighing, insert the small tin cylinder, fill with milk to the brim and transfer to the fruit jar set aside for that patron’s milk. In case this pouring does not mix the milk thoroughly ,then stir the milk in the weighing can with a long- handled dipper. This is repeated each day for six or seven days with the milk of each patron. Whenever a fresh sample of milk is placed in the jar, it should be mixed with the milk already in the jar by giving the jar a rotary motion. If this is not done, the cream which separates is liable to adhere tenaciously to the sides of the jar and make it difficult to take an accurate sample when the test is made. Whenever an additional sample of milk is put into a jar, it should be immediately and tightly closed. The jars should be kept in a cool place during the week. If kept too warm, the cream becomes hard and cannot readily be mixed back into the milk, which will cause low results in the test. Noe. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : 653 The quantity of potassium bichromate suggested above should be enough to keep the milk sweet for a week. In case one finds at any time that the amount does not prevent souring, then one should use more. If milk is delivered that has firm clots of cream in it, then mix the sample in the weigh can with a dipper and take out a small portion which can be poured from one vessel to another until the clots disappear, after which take out a tin cylinder full and transfer to fruit-jar. At the end of a week, one has in each fruit-jar a sample of milk which represents the milk delivered during that week. By test- ing this one sample, one secures the same results he would secure by testing the milk every day. This kind of a sample is known as a “composite sample.” $0. Testing Acidity of Milk and Cream. (1.) General Principles upon Which Acid Testing is Based.—The method of testing acidity in milk or cream is based upon the chem- ical action taking place between acids and alkalies. For example, if to any acid we add an alkali we change the acid and alkali both into a third compound, each of the others disappearing as acid or as alkali. Thus, suppose to some lactic acid we add some solution of caustic soda in just the right proportion, we then have neither lactic acid nor caustic soda, but a new compound formed by the union of lactic acid and sodium. To find out when a substance is acid or alkaline or neutral, that is, neither acid nor alkaline, we use some third substance, which is called an indicator. One very useful substance to use as an indicator is a chemical compound called phenolphthalein. When this substance is added to an alka- line solution, it turns pink, while, in an acid or neutral solution, it is colorless. For use 10 grams of phenolphthalein are dissolved in 300 c. c. of 96 per cent. alcohol, and a few drops of this are used. Now, what use can be made of these facts in ascertaiming the amount of acid in milk or cream? We will illustrate: To a measured amount of cream we add some phenolphthalein as indicator, and then to this cream add some caustic soda solution, so prepared that we know just how much caustic soda it contains. We add the caustic soda, stirring the cream after each addition, until finally a pink color appears and does not go away on continued stirring. The appearance of the pink color means that enough caustic soda has been added to combine with all the lactic acid in the cream. Now, we know just how much caustic soda was required to equal the acid in the cream and from this we know the amount of acid in the cream. For dairy work, the caustic soda is prepared in 654 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. such a way that a certain amount of it equals one per cent. of lactic acid. The two common forms of acid test are those devised by Mann and by Farrington. (2.) Mann’s Acid Test—Measure exactly 50 cubic centimeters of the cream or milk into a clean porcelain cup or a glass. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein and then let in some of the “neutralizer” (Mann’s name for the alkaline solution), from a burette, previously filled to the zero point. A pink color appears, but disappears on stirring. Continue to add the alkali carefully, stirring the cream or milk all the while. It will be noticed, sooner or later, that the pink color disappears more slowly after each addition of alkali. Finally, a point is reached when the pink color does not disappear even after considerable stirring. Add no more alkali. Then look at the burette and see how many cubic centimeters of alkali have been used. Suppose 30 cubic centimeters of alkali have been required to use up cr equal the lactic acid in the cream, then multiply 30 by .018 and the result is 0.54, which is the per cent. of lactic acid in the cream or milk used. (See Fig. 23.) (3.) Farrington’s Alkaline Tablet Test—In this case, the alkali and phenolphthalein are mixed together in the form of solid tablets. In using this method, one first puts five tablets into a graduated 100 cubic centimeter cylinder and fills this up with water to the 97 c. c. mark with clean soft water, distilled water if possible. The cylinder is then tightly corked and laid on its side until the tablets dissolve. The cylinder must be kept tightly corked, so that none of the solution can be lost while the tablets are dissolving. The solution will be good to use for twenty-four hours after being pre- pared. Solutions more than a day old should, therefore, not be used. The solid tablets will not change if kept dry. (See Fig. 24.) In making the test, the cream or milk to be tested is thoroughly mixed and then measured into a porcelain cup with a 17.6 e¢. c. pipette. This pipette is rinsed once with water, and the rinsings are added to the cream in the cup. Thena few c. c. of the tablet solu- tion prepared as above directed are poured from the cylinder into the cream and thoroughly mixed with it. The tablet solution is added in small quantities until the pink color in the cream or milk lasts for some time. Now, look at the cylinder and see how many e. ec. of solution have been used. One c. ¢. of tablet solution stands for 01 per cent. of lactic acid. Thus, if 20 c. c. of solution are used, there is .20 per cent. of lactic acid; if 50 ¢. ec. are used, the lactic acid is .50 per cent. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 655 91. The Use of Lactometers in Testing Milk. (1.) The Specific Gravity of Milk.—By the specific gravity of milk, we mean the weight of a given bulk of milk as compared with the weight of an equal bulk of water at the same temperature. For illustration, suppose we have a vat which, when just full of water, contains exactly 1,000 pounds of water. Now, if we fill such a vat full of milk, this amount of milk will weigh about 1,032 pounds, be- cause the milk contains beside the water in it several solid sub- stances heavier than water. Hence, we say the specific gravity of average milk is 1.032. Since the specific gravity of milk depends upon the amount of these solids in it heavier than water, then specific gravity will be found to vary, because we know that the amount of solids in milk varies considerably. So, we find some milk with specific gravity below 1.030, while that of other milk is above 1.035. The casein, albumin and milk-sugar are heavier than water. Since milk-fat is lighter than water, the more milk-fat we have in milk in proportion to the other solids, the lower is its specific gravity. By adding cream to milk, we make its specific gravity less than that of normal milk; on the other hand, by removing fat from milk, we increase the specific gravity, because we remove what it lighter and leave what is heavier than water. The addition of water to normal milk lowers the specific gravity. Thus, it is easily possible by removing cream from normal milk to increase the specific gravity and then, by adding water in right amounts lower the specific gravity back to that of the normal milk. The addition of sugar or salt to milk increases its specific gravity. Since water used to be the most common adulterant of milk, it was thought that adul- teration could readily be detected by ascertaining the specific gravity. (2.) Quevenne Lactometer.—A lactometer is an in- strument used for measuring the specific gravity of milk. The Quevenne lactometer has a scale divided into 25 equal parts, going from 15 to 40. Each divi- sion is called a degree. These divisions correspond to those on an ordinary hydrometer, ranging from 1.015 to 1.040. The Quevenne lactometer is graduated so as to give correct readings at 60 degrees F. For other temperatures the reading must be corrected by adding .1 for each degree above 60 degrees F., or by substract- ing .1 for each degree below 60 degrees F. So, when, ; this lactometer is used, the milk should be at 60 de- cece en grees F., or else the correction must be made. If the ‘ermometer Fig. 25. 656 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Quevenne lactometer settles in milk at 60 degrees F. to the point marked 29, it means that the specific gravity is 1.029, the lowest limit allowed for normal milk. (See Fig. 25.) (3.) Board of Health Lactometer.—Many city milk inspectors in the eastern and middle States used the so-called New York Board of Health lactometer. This does not give the specific gravity of milk directly, as does the Quevenne lactometer, but the scale is divided into 120 equal parts, the mark 100 being placed at’ the point to which the lactometer sinks when lowered into milk having a specific gravity of 1.029 (at 60 degrees F.), this being taken as the lowest limit of specific gravity in the case of normal milk of cows. The zero mark on the scale shows the point to which the lactometer will sink in water. The distance between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts and the scale is continued below the mark to 120; 100 degrees on the Board of Health lactometer corresponds to 29 degrees on the Quevenne lactometer, and the zero mark for both is 1, the specific gravity of water; hence, we can change the degrees on the Board of Health lactometer into degrees of the Que- venne lactometer by multiplying the readings of the Board of Health lactometer by .29.. Tables are often given showing the equivalents. (4.) Value of Lactometer in Detecting Adulterated Milk.—The value of the lactometer in detecting adulterated milk was formerly greatly overestimated. Taken by itself, the lactometer is thoroughly unreliable and misleading. Its proper use in milk inspection is simply to indicate whether a sample is suspicious and ought to be further investigated by detailed chemical analysis. As pointed out above, a milk could be both skimmed and watered and yet the lac- tometer would show it to be entirely normal. (5.) Use of Lactometer in Estimating Solids of Milk.—By finding out the specific gravity and per cent. of fat in milk, it is possible, by making a few calculations, to ascertain quite closely the amount of total solids in milk and the solids-not-fat. Babcock has given useful rules for this purpose, which are as follows: Rule 1. To find the per cent. of solids-not-fat in milk, add two- tenths of the per cent. of fat to one-fourth of the lactometer reading. Rule 2. To find the per cent. of total solids in milk, add one and two-tenths times the per cent. of fat to one-fourth of the lactometer reading. These rules give good results when applied to lactometer readings between 26 and 36 and to milk containing 2 to 6 per cent. of fat. Example 1. A milk contains 4 per cent. of fat and the Quevenne lactometer reading is 32. What it the amount of total solids in the milk? No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 657 We multiply the amount of fat, 4, by 1.2; it equals 4.8. Then, we find one-fourth of the lactometer reading (32), which equals 8. Then we add 4.8 and 8 and get the result, 12-8, as the amount of total solids in milk. CHAPTER XII. SPECIAL DAIRY PRODUCTS. In America most of our milk is consumed in one of the following forms: (1) Directly as milk, (2) as cream, (3) in the form of butter, and (4) in the form of cheese. To some extent, there are, in addi- tion, special products prepared from milk for a more or less limited market. Some of these special products are finding an increasing importance in trade and others promise to become additional sources for the increased use of consumers in those special forms. In some of these special dairy products, it is easily possible for an enterpris- ing dairyman to create a local trade. 92. Special Milk Preparations. (1.) Blended Milk is modified normal milk, made from normal milk, (a) by adding cream or (b) by removing a limited amount of fat, or (c) by adding a limited amount of fresh skim-milk, or (d) by adding cream and skim-milk at the same time. It is a violation of the statutes of many States to sell blended milk as normal milk, except when cream has been added to normal milk. Blended milk, how- ever prepared, is really a special preparation and should always be sold, not as normal milk, but as a special preparation with a guarantee as to its composition. The most common form of legiti- mate blended milk is the addition of cream to normal milk to such an extent as to bring the fat in the milk up to five per cent. The advantage of such milk is its uniformity in composition. It is usually supplied to a limited trade at higher prices than prevail for normal milk. Generally ,such milk is also prepared under every precaution of cleanliness from the stable to the delivery to the con- Sumer. When thus prepared, it is often called “sanitary” milk, and each bottle is labeled with a guarantee of purity. (2.) Modified Milk is milk so prepared as to make it resemble human milk in composition as nearly as possible. Such preparations are made in milk laboratories and their consumption is largely con- 42—6—1902 658 ANNUAL: REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. fined to cities and hospitals. Such milk should be used only by the prescription of a physician. In general, cows’ milk contained more fat and sugar, and less casein, albumin and ash than human milk. The following description serves to give an idea of how such preparations are made. The milk is cooled at once after milking, its amount of fat determined, and it is then diluted with an equal bulk of boiled water. This mixture is then run through a separator. By this process the liquid coming from the cream spout can be made to give a product higher in fat in relation to casein and albumin than in the normal cows’ milk and closely approximating their amounts in human milk. To 100 pounds of this product are added about two pounds of milk-sugar. (8.) Condensed Milk is usually prepared by evaporating water from normal milk in vacuum pans to a pasty consistency. Uusually, more or less cane sugar is added to it and, when so treated, it is often called “conserved” milk. Only milk that has been carefully produced in respect to cleanliness is used for condensing. The fol- lowing analyses give the composition of some condensed milks: Per cent. of casein and albumin. Per cent. of water. Per cent. of sugar. Per cent. of ash Per cent. of solids. Per cent. of fat. Condensed milk without added sugar,................ Condensed milk with added sugar, .............5+..6. Condensed milk is used only where fresh milk cannot be obtained, or where fresh milk is unsatisfactory in quality, and its use is, therefore, somewhat limited, but it furnishes an added outlet for the milk producer. 93. Special Varieties of Cheese. There are made in America and Europe more than 150 different kinds of cheese. In this country most of the cheese made is the cheddar variety, but there are prepared, to a limited extent, several other kinds, some of which are successful imitations of foreign varie- ties of the same name. American home-trade cheese is usually made by the “stirred curd” or “granular” process and resembles cheddar cheese in general qualities, except that it is made to hold somewhat more moisture. Sage cheese is ordinary cheddar cheese containing No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 659 an extract of sage leaves, imparting a characteristic flavor and light greenish color. Pineapple cheese is a firm, solid cheese, pressed into a shape resembling a pineapple. American Neufchatel cheese is a soft cheese, with a rather high water content, made from sweet normal milk; it must be consumed at once within two to four weeks after being made. It comes into market in small round forms, covered with paper and then tinfoil. Philadelphia cream cheese is a soft, moist cheese, somewhat resembling Neufchatel, but is made from cream and put on the market in thin, flat cakes, wrapped in parch- ment paper. There are also made in America, Edam, Limburger, Swiss, Brie, Camenbert, Gouda and other varieties. Primost or whey cheese is practically condensed whey, containing added cream, and pressed in the form of brick-shaped cakes. Cheese-Food is a form of cheese that contains all the solid constituents of milk. It is made in Wisconsin. In preparing it, an ordinary cheddar cheese is first made and cured; to about 100 pounds of this is added whey, evaporated to a syrupy consistency, from about 1,000 pounds of fresh whey. The mixture of cheese and evaporated whey is ground to a pasty consistency and pressed into cakes of convenient size. This cheese-food has good keeping quality and is very palatable, being mildly cheese-like in flavor and sweetish in taste. There are two other preparations to which more precise attention is called, because they offer to small factories and farm dairies an oppor- tunity for working up local trade. These are cottage cheese and potted cheese, or club cheese. (1.) Cottage Cheese is known under several names, such as Dutch cheese, pot-cheese, schmierkise, etc. Much of what comes into market is poorly made; properly made, cottage cheese is a delici- ous and nutritious article of diet, which can be readily eaten by many people who are unable to digest other cheese. Cottage cheese is usually made from skim-milk or buttermilk. The milk is allowed to sour, this process being hastened, if desired, by keeping the milk at a temperature of 80 degrees F. until well coagulated. If allowed to stand too long, the curd is likely to become soft and mushy in consistency and too sour in flavor, resulting in an unsatisfactory product. When well coagulated, the temperature is gradually raised and the coagulated mass is stirred, thus breaking the curd into small pieces, from which moisture is more readily expelled. The temperature is gradually raised to 120 degrees F. and the stirring is continued. When the curd is sufficiently firm, it is allowed to settle. Then the whey is removed and the curd dipped into a cloth strainer that can be suspended, and the excess of whey is al- lowed to drain from the curd, the process being facilitated by oc- casional stirring. After becoming sufficiently dry, the curd is salted 666 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe to taste, and, if a desirable article is to be made, it should have mixed into it a little cream or melted butter. It can be put up in various forms for the market, the chief requirement being that it shall have an attractive appearance. A cottage cheese of less acid character can be made by taking milk that°is only mildly sour and using a little rennet extract to hasten the coagulation. In this case the temperature used in ex- pelling the whey need not be so high. (2.) Potted Cheese, or Club Cheese.—This is on the market under various brand names, such as Club House, Canadian Club, Meadow Sweet, etc., being put up in small jars. This cheese is very easily prepared on a small scale. Take a piece of any good well-ripened cheese, pare off the rind, cut the cheese into small chunks and pass them through a meat-grinding machine. To the cheese thus ground, one adds one ounce of melted butter of good quality for each pound of cheese and works it through the cheese until thoroughly incorpor- ated. Then take small jars or jelly glasses, cover the inside with a layer of melted butter and pack into them the cheese, filling nearly level full. Then cover the exposed surface with melted butter and put over this a cover of paper. Set away in a cool place until wanted for use. The writer knows of cases where smal! dairy farms make cheese and put the product on to the local market in this form with great success. Any housekeeper can easily put up cheese in this way. Cheese put up in this way has, for the consumer, several advantages, since it does not dry out before being used up, is in con- venient form to set directly on the table, is exceedingly palatable and is soft enough to be spread on bread or crackers, if desired. 94. Special Dairy Beverages. The value of whole-milk, of skim-milk and of buttermilk as bev- erages has been long well known, supplying, as they do, readily digestible nutrition and quenching thirst, at the same time. There is one preparation of milk which deserves more attention as a com- mon beverage that it has received, and that is koumiss, prepared from cows’ milk. Its use is now largely confined to invalids, but it is a most desirable beverage for well people. In no form of prepa- ration does milk seem so easily digestible, even in weak stomachs, as in the form of koumiss. People can drink /owim7ss, who can not use ordinary milk. It can be easily prepared in any household and any dairyman could work up a good local trade in it, after once getting astart. Many people do not like koumiss at first, but readily acquire a taste for it and become exceedingly fond of it. A good article of koumiss can be prepared, on a small scale, as follows: To three quarts of fresh milk, add three level tablespoonfuls of Ne. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 61 ordinary granulated sugar and one fresh compressed yeast cake (Fleischmann’s), or an equivalent of any other form of yeast. Stir it thoroughly and warm the milk up to 100 degrees F. to 105 degrees F., and keep it at that temperature, stirring from time to time, until the yeast begins to work, which is shown by little bubbies of gas escaping from the surface of the milk. This may require from three to five hours, according to the activity of the yeast. When the yeast is working well, pour the milk into pint beer bottles or some similar bottle that will stand pressure and has a convenient arrangement for corking. Fill the botties only two-thirds full. Then put in stoppers and place the bottles in a warm place at 90 degrees F. to 100 degrees F. for half an hour. Then place at once in a cold refrig- erator or directly on ice, laying the bottles Gown on their sides. In twenty-four hours, the koumiss is ready to begin to use. If one have good yeast and keeps the temperature at 100 degrees F., there should be no trouble in making excellent koumiss. Koumiss a week old is usually too acid for the taste of some people. I opening a bottle -of koumiss after it is one or two days old, it is well to perform the operation in the kitchen rather than in the dining room, since there is usually such a pressure of accumulated gas in the milk that it may come out with a rush, especially if the contents of the bottle have been shaken just before opening. Milk from which half the fat has been removed or fresh separator skim-milk makes good kounmiss. 662 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Dor. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. By PROF. C. B. COCHRAN, West Chester, Pa. INTRODUCTORY. The amount of cocoa beans annually imported into the United States, and the amount of cocoa and chocolate manufactured and con- sumed in this country is increasing at a remarkably rapid rate. The same statement is true in regard to England, Germany and France. For example, the quantity of cocoa beans imported into Germany in 1898 was three and one-third times as great as that im- ported in 1886. In England, the consumption of cocoa has increased four-fold during the last twenty years. While I have not exact data for our own country, covering the same period, yet such sta- tistics as I have been able to obtain show that the increase in the consumption of the products of the cocoa bean in the United States has kept pace with that shown in case of Germany and England. ‘As the cocoa industry has increased, so also has competition be- tween manufacturers increased. This competition has led to a rather extensive adulteration of cocoa. The literature pertaining to the manufacture and adulteration of cocoa preparations is quite extensive, consequently to give a review of the subject with any attempt at completeness would make an ob- jectionably voluminous report. Believing that I have had fairly good opportunities for studying conditions as they now exist, par- ticularly in our own State I have confined myself chiefly to the re- sults of my own observations. (1) WHY OUR FOREFATHERS HAD NO PURE FOOD LAWS. Less than half a century ago almost the entire population of this country lived upon food that was home-grown and home-prepared. With the exception of a few articles requiring a different climate than our own for their production, such as coffee, tea, sugar, spices, etc., regarded rather as luxuries than necessities, the inhabitants of the country lived exclusively upon food of their own producing, while the dwellers of the city were supplied with the products of the neighboring farms. Provisions of all kinds were supplied in an un- prepared condition and their preservation or preparation for the table was accomplished at the home. Nearly every one was per- sonally acquainted with the various manufacturing operations nec- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 663 essary, not only for the proper preservation of the products of the larm, but ulso for the converting of these products into a variety of articles of food ready for use. Even the products of foreign lands were prepared for use at the home. For example, spices were home-ground and coffees home-roasted. With the advance of civiliza- tion and the specialization of industries the preparation. of our foods has gradually passed out of the home and imto the hands of manu- facturers. While this change has brought with it many comforts, and has rendered home life less burdensome and more enjoyable, it has also robbed us of that sense of security in the purity and cleanli- ness of our foods which was so greatly appreciated and highly prized by our grand parents. Because of our lack of knowledge of former methods and standards of excellence, as well as the various pro- cesses now employed by manufacturers, we are no longer capable of judging whether an article of food is pure or adulterated. (2) WHY WE HAVE PURE FOOD LAWS. Manufacturers of articles of food pursue their vocation for profit and are guided solely by business principles. Under the strong com- petition which now exists the problem that especially concerns them is to produce an article acceptable to the public at as little cost as possible, and to the solution of this problem they devote their ener- gies. The greater the demand for the products of their factories and the cheaper the cost of production, the greater are their profits. Whether the article is pure or whether it is what the name implies is oftentimes a matter of little or no consequence provided it is sale- able and acceptable to purchasers. Consequently oleomargarine is found in the market as butter, a mixture of cottonseed oil and tallow as lard; glucose syrup is made to take the name of honey, cotton- seed oil is called olive oil, and milk thickened with glue passes for cream. Similar adulterations or substitutions might be named in a Jarge variety of food products. All gradations of mixing, adulterat- ing and beautifying are practised by manufacturers until in many cases the finished article bears no resemblance to the old fashioned home product of days gone by. To make an article saleable and to make it at little cost are the keynotes to success. The above statement must not, however, be taken as universally true. Most reputable manufacturers cater to the best class of trade and put upon the market articles of a high standard of purity and excellence. But these same manufacturers under assumed names send out from their factories inferior articles of varying degrees of impurity to meet the varying demands of competition that exists in all classes of trade. The various preparations of cocoa have in the past offered a rich 664 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. field for adulteration, and with the constantly increasing consump- tion of cocoa and chocolates the opportunity for profit through the adulteration of these articles increases with equal pace. (3) DESCRIPTION OF THE CHOCOLATE PLANT AND ITS FRUIT. Cocoa, chocolate and cocoa butter are prepared from the seeds of Theobromacacas, a very small tree belonging to the botanical order Sterculiaceal and native to the tropical regions of the Western Hemisphere. A striking peculiarity cf the plumb is to be seen in the fact that the flowers and fruit, which it produces at all seasons of the year grow from the trunk and thickest parts of the branches, instead of developing from the youngest shoots. The flowers, which grow in clusters and are very small, have a corolla of five yellow petals and a rose colored calyx. The fruit is a five-celled pod from seven to nine inches, or more, in length and from three to four inches in diameter, nearly oval in outline, but somewhat pointed at the end opposite the stem. As cocoa pods are not articles of commerce they are rather diffi- cult to obtain. Through the kindness of the firm of Craft and Allen, chocolate manufacturers of Philadelphia, | succeeded in obtaining a number of very perfect pods from the island of Trinidad. Two of these pods are illustrated in Fig. 1. The larger of these two pods is seven and three-fourths inches in length, three and one- half inches thick and eleven inches in circumference. The distance around the pod lengthwise is eighteen inches As will be observed from the photograph the surface of the pods is rather rough and pro- vided with ten distinct grooves. These grooves represent the posi- tions of the midribs and the edges of the five carpels or pistil leaves which by their union have formed the seed vessel. In each of the five cells composing the pod is born a row of about ten seeds. As the fruit develops the cell walls become more or less obliterated so that on opening a ripened pod only a single cavity is seen containing five rows of seeds arranged about a central axis. This is illustrated by Fig. 2. At one end of the pod two of the seeds have been removed in order to show the central axis to which the seeds are attached. The pod illustrated by this photograph is five and one-half inches long and three and one-fourth inches thick and contained in all forty-eight seeds. The walls of the pod are from one-half to five-eighths of an inch thick and are composed of two dis- tinct layers an outer firm horny layer of a yellowish brown hue about three-eighths of an inch thick and an inner somewhat softer and lighter colored layer about one-eighth of an inch thick. Fig. 3 shows a cross section of a pod diminished to actual size. This photograph shows very clearly the two layers of which the walls MORSE ty <= FIGURE 1: es FIGURE 2. HMOOLT tO . & FIGURE 4. FIGURE 5. NO. “6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 668 of the seed vessel are composed. It also shows each seed attached to the central axis by a long funiculum or stalklet. As these seeds or beans, as they are usually called, form the only commercial pro- duct of the cocoa plant, they merit a somewhat extended descrip- tion. The white appearance of the seeds as seen in the pod is due to a thick closely adhering cover of whitish mucilaginous pulp. When this pulp is removed the seeds are found to be nearly oval in outline and of a reddish brown color. They vary considerably in diameter, but are usually from three-fourths to one inch in length, from one-half to five-eighths of an inch wide and from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in thickness. Fig. 4 shows the two surfaces exposed by a section through the middle of a cocoa bean, so cut as to show the relation between the length and the thickness of the bean, while the section in Fig. 5 shows the relative length and width of the seed. As can be seen from Fig. 4, the cocoa seed is composed entirely of seed coats and embryo. The two fleshy, much folded cotyledons or seed leaves attached to the little radicle or stem are very clearly shown in the photograph. The cultivation of the cocoa plant and the preparation of the seeds for the market form an exceedingly important and a rapidly growing industry in those parts of the tropics that are adapted to this purpose. The harvesting and preparing the cocoa beans for market involves the following processes: Ist, the cutting and gathering of the pods; 2d, opening and removing the beans; 3d, fermenting or sweating the beans; 4th, cleaning and drying. The taste of the bean is modified by the process of fermentation, cousequently their quality and value depend largely upon the care and skill with which this operation is conducted. (4) THE COCOA BEAN AND ITS PRIMARY PRODUCTS, COCOA HUSKS AND COCOA NIBS. To prepare the beans for the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate, they are first roasted and then as far as possible the cotyledons or seed leaves are separated from the seed coats and radicles, the former constituting the usable portion, the latter, waste. The total loss due to roasting and waste, amounts to about 20 per cent. of the original weight of the beans. In the roasted bean, the little radicle becomes very hard and is consequently difficult to grind. In the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate, it is important that the seeds be ground to the very finest powder possible. As it is not an easy task to grind the radicles to this fine condition their presence is ob- jectionable. After the beans are roasted, by which process their flavor is developed, they are crushed into rather coarse fragments 49 666 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. and then by a process of winnowing the seed coats and radicles are removed. These cleaned fragments or broken cotyledons are known as cocoa nibs and from them both cocoa and chocolate are prepared. The seed coats of the dried and reasted beans are about one-six- tieth to one-seventieth of an inch thick, are paler in color and much firmer in structure than the bean. They are known in commerce as cocoa shells or cocoa husks. (From them is sometimes made a drink which has some resemblance in taste and aroma to chocolate.) Analyses of the roasted husks made by various chemists indicate the followimg average composition. Per Cent. MOISTIEG 3x05. ta ra eho Ree te oe eee as ee 11.00 Bats. .Aoes), Sh te Aa ole eee ee ae 4.00 rn dle Terr Msi thea. koe Sete ass Aaa meee 15.00 BAAS th Bei 2) Ps ayaa atte is teas Co tel ar sare ae 6.00 PREG DrOMIMET s,.5-5< snore ee tyre a lee eaten 50 EPEOMCTOS GS Miya e co cctee ae, Shep EUs Ae REN ot OE oe 13.00 Other non-nitrogenous substances, ..... ce 50.50 While cocoa nibs taken from different sources show considerable variation, the following figures represent a fair average composition. Per cent. IMGIS CURE Fi 5 a eaceileae ons ets bday take atel ometnee seo? 5.90 PRS see cal en Segoe ey ood tented ee cent dace 3.50 Crugesnbens acc Mel. ee PL Ree eRe 3.25 Bate. ee. ssh ite noe ete tocas opal aye six omer phatroe, Wit Sra erseN 50.00 PTOUCIGS GC My sew Aens oe beatae: aS PE ea 14.00 SOE AINGH (weer sts, cus ciein Rc ook ele cin tele eet Aten see, ‘ 8.00 (Pheo bromine: «hae Oe ce, ee eee ee 1.50 Other non-nitrogenous substances, ......... 14.25 (5) CHOCOLATE AND ITS ADULTERATION. Chocolate or plain chocolate as it is sometimes called, consists of the cocoa nibs ground to a paste and moulded into cakes. In case of sweet chocolate, sugar and frequently flavoring matters also are added. The usual methods of adulterating chocolate consist (1) in the addition of some starchy material such as corn starch, wheat flour, rye flour, ground rice; (2) the addition of cocoa husks or in- sufficient removal of the same; (3) the removal of a part of the fat and the substitution of other fatty material in its place. In order to detect the usual adulterants of chocolate and to obtain a basis for estimating the amount of adulteration, the sample should be examined both microscopically and chemically. Samples of chocolate should be deprived of fat by extraction with low boiling No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 667 point gasoline or ether in order to remove the fat before subjecting them to microscopic examination. The presence of foreign starch is then very easy of detection, particularly, if the examination is made both with and without polarized light. As is shown by the figures previously stated, there is only a very small percentage of starch found in the cocoa bean, and this cocoa starch is composed of very minute granules which could not be mis- taken for the starches found in the common adulterants of chocolate. The following table shows some of the characteristics of the starches which are of most importance in connection with this topic. The figures given under the column headed diameter repre- sent average measurements of the larger granules. Off. Doe. ANNUAL REFORT OF TH | “payteul [ow | sSodo {A]JUBIT[IIq Joyyel ezZluelod ‘aZIS Ul a[QBIIBA So[NUBiD ‘* “Jules ssoso ‘11nd ‘aqnurut AJ9A AUBUI tezis Ul q aIqelea A[sulpesesodxe se[nuBupy [srt ‘yUuIBvy ssolo !A[Qoo | “yourysip ssod,) | SSOLO JOUTISIP B YPM ‘ATUBIT ME ‘JOUTJSIPUL SSOID 2 A[JULB SL ‘e++ ‘pus JeT[BuUIs 3B JOUTISIG ‘so[nuvIs eUOS UT 2TqISIA * eee ee eee nee sees ‘qoursIp reqyeU + ‘1ejs 10 YoOBIO [BIJUAD JOUTISIC. eee eee ‘yourys[ pul *aZIIBlOd “UNL tetees ‘QIqISIAU Wor ‘PIOAO | O0F-L 0} 00S- “pepunoy | 008-1 “rB[nonuey | 008-T ose 6 "ITelNSUy | 0008-5 “+ ‘aeinsuy | O0ST-T cress “punoy | 000-1 “qouy ‘adeys “Ia}sWUIVIG ‘ ‘07810 eee eee ‘OA see w eee ores “yorsys No, 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 669 The starches which I have most commonly met in adulterated chocolates are those of Indian corn and wheat or rye. As all of these starches differ greatly in size and manner of polarization from the starch belonging to the cocoa bean, the detection of the adultera- tion is an easy matter. The percentage of starch found by chemical analysis in husked and roasted cocoa beans averages about eight per cent. As would be expected from the definition previously given of choco- late, we find the same percentage of starch in pure chocolate as in the husked and roasted beans. Consequently if a chocolate is found by microscopic examination to contain added starch and the amount of starch in the sample be then estimated, all the starch found above eight per cent. may reasonably be regarded as due to adulteration. The substances used for adulteration in many cases, however, are not pure starch. For example, if wheat starch is found in a sample of chocolate, the substance used to adulterate the chocolate is prob- ably wheat flour. If the starch of wheat flour is estimated by the hydrochloric acid process, the yield is found to be about seventy per cent. Consequently if the excess of starch found in a sample of chocolate adulterated with wheat flour is found to be ten per cent., this number would represent only seventy per cent. of the actual adulteration, or the amount of wheat flour would be between fourteen and fifteen per cent. In order to detect cocoa husks in cholocate, the sample is best pre- pared for microscopic examination as follows: Boil a portion of the sample from which the fat has been previously extracted in dilute hydrochloric acid (about one and one-fourth of acid) for ten minutes, allow the powder to settle, decant off the liquid, wash several times by decantation, then boil for about five minutes in one and one-fourth per cent. caustic soda solution. After cooling, filter and wash. The residue is then bleached by chlorinated soda and again washed. By this treatment the dark colored and opaque tissue of the cocoa husks are rendered so nearly colorless and transparent that their micro- scopic anatomy is very easily seen. If a piece of cocoa husk be soaked in water, three coats or layers become plainly visible to the unaided eye. An outer and an inner coat, each composed of rather firm opaque tissues separated by a rather thick nearly colorless mucilagenous substance forming the middle layer. Ramifying through the inner coat which is quite thick and dense are numerous fibro-vascular bundles which can be seen by the unaided eye as fine parallel ribs apparently running from end to end of the husk. When examined by the microscope this inner coat is found to be quite complex and to contain several layers of cells. One of these layers is composed of oblong, thick walled cells which form a distinguishing microscopic characteristic of the cocoa 670 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. husk. These cells are from one-one thousand to one-fifteen hun- dredths of an inch in length and about one-two thousand five hun- dredths of an inch in width. If a sample of ground cocoa husks be prepared for microscopic ex- amination as previously described these. thick walled cells and the fibro-vascular bundles composed chiefly of small spiral vessels form very prominent and abundant objects in the field of the microscope. If microscopic examination of a sample of chocolate leads one to suspect the presence of an undue proportion of cocoa husks, and no other adulteration is detected, the amount of husk present can be calculated by determining the percentage of crude fiber in the sample. Samples of cocoa husks analyzed in my laboratory have yielded an average of fifteen per cent. of crude fiber. Following the method of analysis adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists of the United States, samples of roasted cocoa beans husked and ground in the laboratory have yield- ed about 3.25 per cent. of crude fiber. (Similar figures for crude fiber have been obtained in many samples of chocolate. If chocolate is made from cocoa ribs properly freed from husk, the per cent. of crude fiber will not vary much from 3.25 per cent. and I think this figure can safely be taken as a basis on which to calculate the amount of husk which is to be regarded as an adulterant. To il- lustrate, suppose a sample of chocolate yields on analysis six per cent. of crude fiber and microscopic examination shows no foreign matter other than cocoa husks. In this case the excess of husk in the sample is the amount required to raise the percentage of crude fiber from three and one-fourth per cent. to six per cent. To produce a chocolate containing six per cent. of crude fiber would require the admixture of thirty-six pounds of pure cocoa ribs (three and one-fourth per cent. crude fiber) and eleven pounds of cocoa husks (fifteen per cent. crude fiber). Such a chocolate might, therefore, be reported as adulterated with twenty-three per cent. of cocoa husks. (6) THE FAT OF THE COCOA BEAN. Cocoa butter is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of the so called breakfast cocoa. On account of the large amount of fat entering into their composition, roasted and husked cocoa beans, when ground at a comparatively warm temperature yield a thick chocolate colored liquid. This liquid consists of the melted cocoa fat in which are suspended the finely divided tissues and other pro- ducts of the cocoa bean. When this liquid is poured into moulds and cooled, the product is chocolate. In order to obtain cocoa but- ter, the liquid is placed in canvas bags and subjected to pressure. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 671 The oil that filters through the canvas forms cocoa butter. From the residue left in the bags breakfast cocoa is prepared which will be described hereafter. Cocoa butter is an interesting and somewhat unique fat, both in its physical and chemical properties. It is, when fresh, slightly yel- lowish in color and possessed of the agreeable odor and taste of choc- olate. At ordinary temperature it is quite hard and brittle, but readily melts in the mouth or when rubbed between the fingers. The readiness with which it changes from a hard brittle mass to a liquid oil is one of its peculiarities and distinguishes it from many other fats. On account of the comparatively high price which cocoa butter commands, it is not only itself subject to adulteration, but other fats are also sometimes substituted in part for it in chocolate and chocolate candies. The adulterants of cocoa butter commonly mentioned in the text books are beef or mutton tallow, paraffin wax, beeswax, stearic acid, copraol (a fat prepared from palm nut oil) peanut oil, almond oil, sesame oil, cocoanut oil and lard. The following table gives the most important characteristics of pure cocoa butter, and of such fats and oils as may be of interest in this connection. The figures given therein are copied from Lew- kowitsch and other authorities except those marked by a star which are given from determinations made by myself or my assistant Mr. C. S. Brinton: Off. Doe. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 672 "8o—8h “0L—29 ; *'8°FS quyod prjos ‘yujod prfos ‘yujod prjos ‘yujod pijos x00 ‘g— 01 F— TZ— 0} OT— veo “SS—Es “82—0 “pS—GC “S°Sh—éP “TS—PP “9F—98 ‘DO soo13 -9d—yUlOd 3uljz el seseee (gy 99 bieaeereeeseeeee (79s 7229" seteeeeeeeeseseenere (ggag: O “89d ST 38 G¢6°—LI6" OD “Bad St 3® $26°—E26" ‘O “dad ‘Sact 09 7@ yehelelerisiors cate aisfereisterttersyaxairisisteiascfers 1 ra) EYa 09 1 . Pome eee reece ees eeees eeeees rg— oO ‘sod 09 78 sense OD “SOC 09) 32 F°2d Le— “uoTPORAJaY JO Kopuy “sulpvay J19JIULOPORAJaY-OLAING 1D 19 3 SE #9" G6 OF S6— 6 “TaquunN ‘SploW Aq1ey aulpolL e[qn[osuy *ponulywoo—t WIaVvin meee meme eee eee eee meee e esteem eee e eee eeeeenne ‘XBM ULJBIBd ee eeee on ‘xBMsaogT “9ULIv94S-091O ‘Tlo paesu0}}0pD ** “T10 9ULBSag “Tro puowrTry ‘TTo Jnuved FOTO UOLOD GU “19 INN . tee ee eeeeee oe “ynu-O3T ‘TIo ynuBod0D ‘rayynq BOD0D *MO][B} Joo ‘MO[[V) U0INA! eee eee eee ‘paery 43—6—1902 674 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. (7) SOME PREPARATIONS MADE ESPECIALLY TO SERVE AS SUBSTI- TUTES FOR COCOA FAT. In addition to the fats and oils commonly mentioned as adulterants of cocoa butter, [ have met several fatty substances especially pre- pared to be used as partial substitutes for cocoa butter in chocolates and chocolate candies, or possibly also to be used as adulterants of the pure cocoa butter. The names given to these substances and the uses for which they were intended as stated on the packages delivered to me are as fol- lows: 1. “Oxaline. These goods are to be used in chocolate and choco- late candy together with cocoa shells. Selling price twelve cents per pound in ten pound tubs, eight cents per pound in bulk.” 2. “Alberine or Sheba Butter. These goods are used in chocolate candy. Cost ten cents per pound in thirty pound tubs, seven cents per pound in bulk.” 3. “Caramel Butter. Said to be used in chocolate caramels and chocolate with cocoa shells. Paid twelve cents per pound for ten pound tub. Cost eight cents in bulk.” 4. “Chocola. These goods are used in chocolate and chocolate candy with cocoa shells. Paid thirteen cents per pound for ten pound tub. Cost ten cents per pound in bulk.” 5. “Butter Oil, used as an adulterant in chocolate and chocolate confections.” 6. “Cocoanut Oil, used as an adulterant in chocolate and chocolate confections.” The results of the analysis of the fat of these products and of a sample of pure cocoa fat extracted from roasted cocoa beans in the laboratory are given in the following table: Ne. 6. TABLH II. —D “S9qd 0¢ 3B UOTOVIJOI JO xoepuy ‘Splow yey ‘laquinu ploy = SRG SSSSss : yey Jo Yurod Sule O ‘Sed 0s 78 Od aos sploe yey jo Suipvel ANMANN 19] 9W0JOBAJaI - O1AYNG Non “Sploe }RF idiogiow tt weis VvUuo 8ZI[BIINeU ' SOOICO CO\69 5s ir 0} WeYIe OT-uU 9 “D : oe ~ eHODIO onpeaA Jaya CGH EH ee » BEER ‘Ssplow yey 9[qnposu] 0 isis a ors—raor amr) oO: oe a: 2 an meknica ‘Jurlod 3ulye 1b 1S GIN | —_-—--—- ——— ‘O “Bed ¢°ST Bess Say ye JeyBM—'D “Bap BLARADS 66 ye AyAvIs oylosdg Ssoossse = a a | é = one an[va Uol}Boylucdeg | SEs . IG ID HON D Jaquinu sUIpot | 68 09 SHED = i} | Or) 5 “19q, | CONN -uinu $=[SSleJ{-}A9QoIoy | Hoknae ‘OD ‘Sed OF Inisipipin : ye uoTORAjoI Jo xapuy SOS AMEE Gs ‘D “Sed OF 12 Ja}BULOJOBAJII OIAY -nq Ssiez jo Sulpesy O19 00 1N LONI LD osoSisnon SH St Ho oeola, Bee icc cistavalcne areata eters Garam Sleep ucceny es sncceceticdccctletas Cocoa fat, Alberine, Oxaline, Butter oil, Cocoanut oil, vu DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 675 676 ANNUAL REPORT OF TH @if. Doe. An inspection of Table No. 1 shows that the presence of either cocoanut oil or palmnut oil in cocoa fat would be indicated on analysis by the following results: (1) A lowering of the index of re- fraction and consequently a lower reading of the butyro-refracto- meter both in case of the fat and of the mixed fatty acids. (2) A lowering of the melting point of the fat, and also of the mixed fatty acids. (38) A marked diminution in the iodine number. The presence of any of the other vegetable oils or fats mentioned in Table I would raise the index to refraction of the fat and of the mixed fatty acids, lower the melting point of the fat and of the fat acids and increase the iodine number. The results of the analyses of oxaline, alberine, chocola and caramel butter given in Table IL indicate that these fats are of animal origin and judging from the appearance of the crystals ob- tained from solution in ether I am led to conclude that the most im- portant constituent of each is beef fat. The lower index of refrac- tion, the higher meiting point, and lower iodine number of chocola indicates that this fat contains a rather larger proportion of stearin than is found in the other samples. The adulteration of chocolate or cocoa butter with any one of these fats would be detected: Ist, by the elevation of the melting point; 2d, by the high temperature at which a deposit is obtained in Filsinger’s test, and 3d, by the microscopic appearance of the crystals obtained when the deposit formed in Filsinger’s test is allowed to crystallize from solution in ether. The following table illustrates the effect of the addition of either oxaline, alberine, or chocola to cocoa butter so far as the above men- tioned tests are concerned. TABLE III. | | | Melting | Filsinger’s Test. | Crystals Obtained from Point. | Solution in Ether. Couva fat extracted in| 33 Deg.C., | No deposit at 8 Deg. C., ..| Very difficult to obtain; laboratory. shows very little tend- |} eney to erystallize at | | ordinary ¢temperature; | | erystals very small. 50 per cent. cocoa fat; | 42 Deg.C., | Considerable deposit at 25 Crystals resembling those 50 per cent. oxaline. | Deg. C., nearly filling obtained from beef fat. | liquid at 8 Deg. C. : 50 per cent. cocoa fat;| 44.5 Deg.C., | Considerable deposit at 25 Crystals in large nos. 50 per cent. alberine. | Deg. C., nearly filling | liquid at 8 Deg. C. . 50 per cent. cocoa fat;| 45.5 Deg.C., | Considerable deposit at 25 | Crystals resembling beef 60 per cent. chocola. Deg. C., nearly filling fat. | liquid at 8 Deg. C. | te NO: 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 677 Filsingers’s test is made as follows: Two grams of the fat are placed in a graduated test tube and dissolved in 6 ¢. c. of a solution containing four volumes of ether (sp. gr. 0.725) and two volumes of alcohol (sp. gr. 0.810), the tube is then tightly corked and the con- tents allowed to cool gradually. The temperature at which a de- posit occurs is noted, also the amount of deposit as the temperature is lowered. In case of pure cocoa fat it is said that Filsinger’s test gives a solution which remains clear even on cooling to O° C. My own observations, however, lead me to conclude that this statement is incorrect. Filsinger’s test on lowering the temperature to O° C. has in my hands on several occasions yielded a decided deposit from cocoa fat of known purity. Furthermore, many samples of cocoa butter from different manufacturers and the fat from many brands of chocolate have given heavy deposits at O° C. by the above named test, although no further evidence of adulteration could be detected. This fact, however, does not detract from the value of Filsinger’s test as it is not necessary to adopt so severe a standard as O° C. It will be observed in Table III that all the adulterated samples of cocoa fat showed a decided deposit at 25° C. and at 8° C. the deposit almost filled the liquid. In any case when Filsinger’s test is of value I believe a decided deposit will appear at or above 10° C., and so far as [ have been able to observe, pure cocoa fat does not give a de- posit at so high a temperature as this. Additional evidence as to the character of the fat deposited by Filsinger’s test can be obtained by proceeding as follows: Remove the supernatent liquid and dissolve the deposited fat in a small quantity of ether. Plug the mouth of the test tube with cotton wool and set aside until the ether has partially evaporated. In case beef fat or lard be present, a crystalline deposit will be formed which, if mounted in cottonseed oil and examined by the microscope, will show the characteristic appearance of the crystals of the one or the other of these fats. If however the sample be pure cocoa fat, there will be no crystalline deposit formed at ordinary temperatures (65° to 80° F.) until the ether has entirely evaporated. In fact, judging from my own observations, I am inclined to believe that cocoa fat does not crystallize at all from solution im ether at.ordinary tem- peratures. The crystals which finally appear are probably due to Segregation taking place in the liquid fat remaining after the evaporation of the ether. The following table gives the results of the examination of the fat of a few samples of chocolate. The abnormal figures indicated in this table led me to regard the samples as adulterated, probably with a product of cocoanut or palmnut oil. Although such determi- nations as indicated in this table have been made upon many samples 678 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. of chocolate in nearly every case except those here given, the figures obtained have been within the limits of those usually quoted for pure cocoa fat. bo bo: re & £e = & E £3 tS 2 5A oa = E Source of Fat. es Ae 4 3 fir Ea a a Ses 2 - os os 2 Bai aw ah — -_—T Eu hes = | #3 oOo i @o0 o | On fe } & a = CT QROCOLATSS Fai ores en ore vie ln iap'e tibia c/eisis\aivie vle'njelelniejalelelvialsielelnieiats 43.5 24 23.3 | 47 (PAV 1G) OYoro) Ci ae SA Se pode apbbcono Osa DeboD mee Sonnac npc omacce BET iinictere store eatere 26 46.5 CB) CHO COLATON Fi aieetetain ein lelate lee wlelelalniele eles ale wielnle!= =)atolelnieletelelotetotrs| 42.5 22.3 30. Ci 41.2 (DACHOCOL ALS es nase cies vaeictosisctts Acishine e eai-eemeauie gases 42 | 24 23.5 | 42.6 Some samples of chocolate confections known to be adulterated gave, upon examination, the following results: TABLE V. ! i 1 a — . & HO | Zo é ne s oO. et o & ° rape ts ¢ A SQ 3 : Se & Sample. | Bo S 3 ye i) E~ 3 Qi» Ex Pp a & o | go bo O38 o a | On cu os = =e rae ie ais = So a0 =o oO bo} | oA oo Od ea = | a ea a rf | . { | NY Gel Shtiaicie 5 Soca. saeGins Baer ase seid cen pepe 47.5 | Ske | 30.5 | 29 44.7 EN Oem Loita oisescie cise nate oie eave oleate sai Oae pele oem alors 47.2 | 36.9 32 28. | 47.8 ios Ry Eonéscocodaconcocaanpobeads cobanoocoddoape 47.1 33.2 33.5 27.8 | 49.4 | In case of samples No. 2 and No. 3 the above results show very little evidence of adulteration. Filsinger’s test also failed to furnish evidence of adulteration. (8) GLAZING CHOCOLATE, Much of the chocolate found upon our markets has been varnished or glazed. This process of varnishing gives a smooth glistening surface, and adds considerably to the beauty of the finished cakes. Two preparations used for glazing chocolate have come under my observation. The first was sold under the name of varnishine for glazing chocolate. Price $2.50 per gallon. The directions state that it is to be reduced with ninety-five per cent. alcohol and the chocolate cakes then dipped in this solution, or the solution painted on the chocolate with a brush. No 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 679 On examination, varnishine was found to be an alcoholic solution of shellac. The second sample was sold under the name of gum benzoin shellac, at eighty-one cents per quart. It was found to be composed of gum benzoin and shellac dissolved in a mixture of com- mon alcohol and wocd alcohol. 2 In making cheap chocolate confections, the desired chocolate color is sometimes produced by the use of suitable coal tar colors. A sample of Koko Brown said to be used for coloring chocolate confections, and accompanied by directions for using it, was found to be a deep brown or almost black fatty substance which, on melting, proved to be supersaturated with a coal tar color, An examination of the coloring material gave reactions indicating Soudan Brown. The melting point of the fat was 514° C. The saponification equiva lent and melting point led me to the conclusion that the fatty matter of the sample was probably stearin. (9) COCOA. Cocoa also frequently called breakfast cocoa, cocoa extract, cocoa powder, is prepared from the husked and roasted cocoa beans by a method which perhaps differs somewhat in detail in different fac- tories, but may be outlined as follows: Ist. Cocoa ribs are ground to a thin paste known as cocoa liquor. 2d, This cocoa liquor is subjected to a very great pressure in canvas bags made especially for the purpose. By this operation a portion of the fat is removed, and the residue remaining in each bag assumes the form of a compact cake. The third and last operation consists in grinding these cakes to a fine powder which is now ready to be put in packages of such size and shape as the manufacturer or wholesale purchaser may desire and put upon the market under any one of the names mentioned in the beginning of this paragraph. Analyses of the various brands of cocoa now found upon the market show a content of fat usually varying between 20 per cent. and 30 per cent., sometimes even less than 20 per cent. As the cocoa bean contains about 50 per cent. of fat, it appears that in the prepa- ration of cocoa, manufacturers are in the habit of removing from two-fifths to three-fifths of the total fat found in the bean. This fat, which forms the by-product in the manufacture of cocoa, is moulded into cakes and sold as cocoa or cocoa butter. The adulterants of cocoa are the same as those of chocolate and consequently do not need a separate description. The most common adulterants at the present time appear to be corn starch and wheat or rye flour, 6380 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Dec. POTATO CULTURE. BY ALVA AGEL, Cheshire, Olio. During the eleven years from 1896 to 1900, inclusive, the potato growers of the United States produced over one thousand millions of dollars’ worth of potatoes, valuing the crops at prices obtained upon the farm. The average yield per acre during these eleven years was less than seventy-seven bushels. The average receipts per acre at the farm were $34.57. If one-third of the present annual potato acre- age were released to the production of clover or other profitable crop, and if the remaining two-thirds were given proper fertilization, seed and tillage, it would produce with ease 115 bushels per acre, worth $51.85. There would be no increase in total crop to depress prices, but there would be great increase in net profit per acre to the grower, and it is for this that we, as individuals, till our fields. The. e would be, in addition, the saving of nearly nine hundred thousand acres of good land from the annual potato acreage. Profit in agri- culture must be sought in increased yields from a restricted acreage, perinitting a greater percentage of arable land to lie in clover and pasture a sufficient portion of the time to guard its fertility. This estimate of possible average yield per acre is made guardedly, and is well within bounds. Tens of thousands of growers would re- gard an average of 115 bushels per acre extremely low. It is an at- tainable average for our country, and would add many millions of cellars annually to our net profit from the crop. PREPARING THE SOIL. Potatoes are grown with a fair degree of success in many kinds of soil. The individual grower usually finds himself limited in choice, and may have nothing approaching a typical potato soil, which is deep, friable and retentive of moisture. It is the desire of the writer to indicate ways by which fairly profitable yields may be secured from land that is not perfect in its adaptability ito this crop, as it is so universally desired on our farms, either for home use or for market. Physical Condition.—The first consideration in the selection of the potato field is the physical condition of the soil. That soil of the farm should be chosen which is naturally well drained, retentive of No. 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 681 moisture and sufficiently loose for the development of tubers, or which is capable of amendment in this respect. Experience and ob- servation combine to convince me that the control of soil moisture is the great problem in farming, and it is true in an especial degree in respect to potato-growing. Underdrainage—If the land is naturally heavy and wet, under- drainage is required. There are few crops whose cash returns jus- tify the expense of underdrainage in higher degree than the potato. If a soil would become fitted for this crop by drainage, the work can be safely advised, even for those who might find it necessary to bor- row the money for the work. This is not the place for direction con- cerning drainage, but so many failures in potato-growing are due to an excess of water in the soil, that emphasis is placed upon the importance of underdraining any wet land that is to be given the costly seeding and tillage of the potato. The only first class ma- terial for underdrains is tile, and in most clayey sections of the country the yield of potatoes will increase with the extension of the use of drain tile. Humus.—The contro] of moisture, however, is not secured in most soils merely by drainage. Deficiency in a supply at critical ‘times in the growth of the plant is a usual cause of failure. In preparing a soil for potatoes, a leading aim should be to increase its capacity for storing moisture by the incorporation of rotted organic matter with it. The soil may be regarded as a big sponge for the holding of moisture, and its retentive character is fixed largely by its percent- age of decayed vegetation. Ifa soil be clayey and deficient in humus, the water from rains runs off it or is evaporated from its surface, while the particles of clay adhere to each other, holding little water in a form friendly to plant growth. If a soil is sandy, the water from rains rapidly descends and passes away through the subsoil. Hither class of soils is greatly benefited by the presence of decayed vegetation which stores moisture for future use of plants. Natural potato soils are rich in humus, and other soils must be made to ap- proach them in character by the use of humus-making material. The reader may have learned from excellent authorities that choice tubers are secured from land nearly free from humus, and it was formerly claimed by some that such land should be selected for this crop, but it was found that good yields could not be gotten in dry seasons without irrigation. After six years experimentation with potatoes, the Cornell Experi- ment Station has reached this conclusion (Bulletin 196): “Where the soil is in proper physical condition the moisture may be conserved through an extreme drouth by means of frequent shallow surface tillage. But if the soil has become deficient in humus no amount of tillage is able to make good the deficiency. 41. 682 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. “Tf all conditions are favorable as to.rainfall and temperature, the humus problem is not so important, but if it is expected to carry a crop successfully through a season of extreme drought, as was the summer of 1900, the soil must be abundantly supplied with humus, or otherwise it will part with its moisture and the crop will suffer. Intensive tillage for best results through a series of years must be accompanied with the use of farm manures, or of green manuring. This is especially true of potatoes where best results are secured ina moist, cool soil. Abundance of humus favors both these conditions.” Rotted organic matter performs in the soil the double office of improving physical condition so that moisture may be held, air be admitted and plant roots be developed, and of furnishing plant food. Sources of such matter will be considered in their two-fold capacity. lLegumes.—Clover will fit land for potato-growing more completely than any other one plant within my knowledge. Its roots run deep and are bulky. Their habit of growth secures a fine division of clay- ey land, penetrating every cubic inch with fibres, and thus producing the physical condition of soil so grateful to the potato. We incline to look upon clover only as a fertilizing plant, and as such it stands pre-eminent in the sections adapted to its growth, but it is a safe statement that in a rotation of crops which includes clover and po- tatoes, the effect of clover upon the physical condition of the soil gives to this renovating crop half of its value. Such statement does not minimize its fertilizing value, which is unexcelled, but calls at- tention to another value in it often underrated. Asa purveyor of plant food, clover is first among plants. It feeds upon the free nitrogen of the air through bacteria that live upon its roots and serve it while living upon it, and through deep-running roots the clover feeds in the sub-soil where there usually is a great wealth of fertility. But clover has a way of failing. Or we may have lacked foresight, and there is not time to grow the clover before a crop of potatoes is wanted from a certain field. There are other legumes of great value. Living near the southern border of our northern States, the writer has found it profitable to grow many acres of cow peas for plowing down for potatoes. The southern pea has its northern limitations, failing to make as luxu- riant growth nerth of the fortieth parallel of latitude as it does in the friendly heat of the south. But it makes a good root growth and a fair amount of vine that give a rich humus, and it adds to the supply of soil nitrogen after the manner of clover. The soja bean is another renovating crop of value, growing quickly and providing a good supply of humus. : Other Sods.—A timothy sod will give good results when handled intelligently. Bearing in mind the need of the potato plant for thor- oughly rotted organic matter, we may see that timothy can be made J 1+ No 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6383 to serve if plowed early. When the planting is to be done in early spring a timothy sod should be broken the preceding fall, and loss from winter exposure may be prevented by a seeding to rye. No in- considerable amount of potatoes is grown in the farm and village garden and truck patch that have no proper rotation of crops, and such land always should have its winter cover crop of rye, crimson clover, rape or other similar growth. Stable Manure.—The use of stable manure on potato land is very universally condemned by writers. When we view the ill effects only, the condemnation appears none too severe; but there is another side to the question demanding consideration. Fresh stable manure in the soil favors diseases that roughen the skin of the tubers. Our city markets bear evidence of the wide prevalence of soil diseases that reduce the value of crops, and it is the tendency of such diseases to increase and finally to cripple most seriously the industry of po- tato-growing. In view of this, the safe thing has seemed to be to discountenance all use of stable manure—especially that of the horse —on potatoes. But the writer shares the common experience of a host of growers that an application of farm manure, properly made, increases the net profit from potato fields, and we stop here to sift the matter for the sake of truth. Going back to the fact that the potato wants its organic mat- ter thoroughly rotted, we understand the good results gotten from potatoes after corn when the sod for corn has been sufficiently well manured to supply the soil for two years. The tubers are clean and thin-skinned, excelling in appearance the crop gotten where fresh organic matter abounds. It is right, then, to use manure on a crop preceding potatoes rather than upon potatoes, but the supply must be equal to the demands of the two crops, and if the first be corn, as is a common custom in some districts, that means a large supply. But I keep in mind, in this writing, the circum- stances of a large class that either have land in limited amount or have manure in small supply, and are led by necessity to the planting of potatoes in land not perfectly fitted. With them the question is not what they would choose to secure perfection of conditions but what they may do to make the best of their situation. If land is lack- ing in physical condition, having had too heavy draft upon its supply of humus, and withal is to be planted with potatoes, it is usually wise to use a dressing of stable manure. This manure should be ap- plied in the fall, and the best results are gotten from plowing it under to a depth of four or five inches before the middle of September in order that a winter-cover crop, like rye, may be seeded. In the spring the eover crop should be plowed down, the ground being broken deeply, and then the manure with its leachings is brought toward the surface and well distributed throughout the soil. The manure brings humus and fertility, and the soil lacking these should have the 634 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. manure even at the risk of the introduction of disease. It were far better if all land could be cared for properly, receiving its plant food and physical amendments at correct times in a wise rotation, but such conditions will never prevail universally, and hence the neces- sity of modification of methods outlined for perfect conditions. Commercial Fertilizers —A discussion of sources of organic ma terial for improvement of soils before planting leads naturally to the subject of commercial fertilizers, and as the practical man should plan his work ahead of the plow, we discuss further the subject of fer- tilization before considering that part of preparation for a crop that is done with plows and harrows. There are two methods of employing commercial fertilizers in com- mon use. One of these is based on the belief that such fertilizers can be used profitably only in starting a crop, and preferably those crops with which seedings to grass are made. The other method involves the use of large quantities of commercial fertilizers for the constant feeding of the plants from seed-time till harvest. I ‘forego the pleasure of a discussion of this important question except so far as it concerns the potato. Keeping in mind the necessity of net profit from the crop, we must secure all needed plant food as cheaply as possible. Most soils devoted to potato-growing, excepting now the seaboard sands that produce the early market crop, are naturally strong. That is to say, in them ure stored large amounts of plant food that become available slowly. The average arable soil is a store-house of inert elements of plant food. Availability is secured in part through the growth and decomposition of crops like clover, peas, vetches, timothy, rye, ete., and the legumes also add nitrogen from the air. If a light application of commercial fertilizer of any sort will put clover or peas ‘to work to supply the needs of a subse- quent cash crop, such fertilization is rational and profitable. Such is the scheme of a majority of farmers, though its successful opera- tion is not always apparent. There is failure oftentimes to get the full manurial crop or heavy sod, and the remaining crops of the rota- tion, dependent largely upon that crop or sod, are too small for best profit. The other method involves the feeding of every crop according to its supposed needs, and necessitates an expenditure of money that a majority of farmers, selling in average local markets, would regard, possibly with reason, as ruinous. But the potato, grown near good markets, more nearly justifies such feeding than do most staple crops. Its possibilities far exceed those of the staple grains, and usually it is quickly responsive to fertilizers. Scientists have sought a rule of universal application for the use of fertilizers. It was believed for many years 'that the composition of the soil, as shown by an analysis, would indicate the kind of fer- tilizer that should be used, but the theory would not stand the test No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 685 of practice. There are soils so deficient in some one element of plant food that safe inferences concerning fertilization may be drawn from the results of analysis, but these are not the common arable soils of the country. The chances always are that a chemical analysis would not prove helpful to a farmer. It probably would show the presence of a large amount of every element of plant food, and there informa- tion would cease. In practice one may know that the soil is lacking in available fertility, while nothing in the results of analysis would indicate such a fact. Another scheme of fertilization was based upon the composition ot the crop to be produced. The number of pounds of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash in a ton of potatoes is known, and it appeared reasonable that a fertilizer should approach the composition of the crop desired. This theory of fertilization is now discredited by lead ing scientists and by practical farmers, for two reasons: First, it fails to take into account the tons of available plant food in the soil. Land that has been given a heavy growth of clover, or a dressing of stable manure, may contain all the available nitrogen needed for the pro duction of a full crop, while there is lack of potash or of phosphoric acid. The soil may ‘be naturally so rich in potash that a score of crops would not exhaust the supply appreciably, and yet be lacking in available nitrogen or phosphoric acid—a lack not apparent from analysis of the soil, but apparent from results obtained when one of these elements is supplied to the growing plant. The other reason for discrediting this theory is the rather awkward fact that experimentation shows profitabie results from the seem- ingly excessive use of certain elements under some circumstances. A soil may be in fairly productive condition, and then give more net profit from a crop treated with twice the amount of one element found in the composition of that crop than it would from a lighter application, and at the same time another element may not increase yields at all. These puzzling results do not destroy our faith in the value of scientific investigation, but they assure us that the laws governing plant growth are not within our grasp in such degree that we can feed crops by any general formula prepared by others with assurance that we are doing the most profitable thing for our- selves. After turning to one and to another, we finally must de- pend upon ourselves and our own experimentation. Station Results.—I state the matter of self-dependence thus be- cause many are loth to give up the hope that others can save them from the trouble of farm experiments. They should understand that, so far as scientific research has gone, there is no way to know absolutely what fertilizers will pay best on a potato crop, or other crop, except by farm tests. And yet there are certain wide lines, fixed by Station results, within which we may confine our labors, and thus keep the chance of failure down toa minimum, 686 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. It is an old belief of growers that the potato is, in a peculiar de- gree, a feeder upon potash. It resulted that all special potato fer- tilizers a decade ago made potash the most prominent element. There is a reason for most things under the sun, and, in casting about for the cause of this confidence that the potato wanted potash chiefly, I am led to think that it arises in part from the known lack of potash in most sandy soils which have been devoted to potato-growing. On these soils applications of potash have been effective. It is further true that the ash of the potato is rich in potash, but in no higher de- gree than is the ash of some other crops. The New York Experiment Station, at Geneva, after a six years series of fertilizer experiments with potatoes, concludes that “this crop is not greatly unlike many others, including roots and forage crops, in its fertilizer requirements under given conditions.” It is known that sandy soils incline to be deficient in potash, and extensive growers of potatoes in such soils of Long Island, New York, use potash freely, having in common use a formula calling for four per cent. of nitrogen, eight per cent. of phosphoric acid and ten per cent. of potash. The correctness of this so-called Long Island formula naturally would be accepted for land of that class by reason of its general use were it not for the results gotten in the series of tests made by the Geneva Station under direction of Dr. Jordan. Very strangely the potash was wholly ineffective in some of these tests, and Dr. Jordan says: “The outcome of extensive experiments for four years on four farms presents good reasons for questioning the wisdom, under the condition involved, of applying more potash con potatoes than any other ingredient. It is now a trite saying, but a true one, that each farmer must discover for himself the fertilizer needs of his farm.” y Nitrogen.—Within certain lines we may infer pretty safely the nitrogen requirements of our potato soils. Land that is very rich in humus, such as black alluvial soil, is rich in nitrogen. This element is the most costly one in a fertilizer, and an unnecessary ap plication cuts net profits rapidly. Stable manure, made on cement er tight clay floors, and kept without waste until spread upon the land, is rich in nitrogen. Where a soil is liberally fed with stable manure the year previous to the planting of potatoes, we infer that the need of purchased nitrogen is slight. The presence of a good growth of any of the legumes is assurance of the presence of this element. In a soil rich in humus the clover may feed largely upon soil nitrogen, while under other circumstances it may get a goodly share of its supply from the air, but in either case the nitrogen is at hand if the clover or peas is present, and the percentage of nitrogen in the commercial fertilizer may be kept smail under ordinary con- ditions. Again, we learn to determine the content of nitrogen in a soil by humus, such as much black alluvial soil, is rich in nitrogen. This INE OR DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 687 the character of the growth. This element gives a rank growth of potato vines of a dark green color. Where the vines grow rank without application of nitrogenous fertilizers, we cannot hope to in- crease yields to any profitable extent by their use. Indeed, there is always danger of diminished yields as a result of excessive use of this element. This is frequently observable in old barn lots and in other spots that have had the leachings of manure. The vines grow to extraordinary size, while the tubers are very small at digging time. It may not be possible to state with certainty the cause of this phenomenon, but it has been supposed that the potato will not di- vert its energy to the development of tubers until the vines have reached a stage that permits the storage of some energy for this pur- pose, and where there is a quality in the soil inciting to extreme growth of vine, that stage of development favorable to forming tubers is reached too late in the season for good results. Be that as it may, the known fact that injury may result from the presence cf an excessive quantity of nitrogen in the soil is all that the prac- tical grower needs to place him on his guard. It is safe to say, how- ever, that most cultivated soils incline to be deficient in this element unless stable manure or the legumes is used, and the question with ' the grower often is not whether nitrogen could increase yields, but whether it would do so with profit, or in what quantities could it be used in view of its costliness. For Early Potatoes.—The nitrogen of the soil does not enter avail- able forms rapidly in cool or dry weather. The grower of potatoes for early market usually finds it profitable to supply an available form of it to his early-planted crop to force growth before there is sufficient heat in the soil to convert its own nitrogen into forms re- quired by plants. For this purpose the nitrate of soda is a common source. It is quickly available in the soil, and I prefer not to use it until the plants appear above ground, as the fertilizer will leach away if there are no plant roots ready to appropriate it. Slower or- ganic forms of this element, such as tankage, dried blood, fish, etc., are desirable carriers of nitrogen for use of plants in mid-summer when decay is rapid on account of heat. It is suggested that one- third of the nitrogen be supplied in nitrate of soda, and two-thirds in dried blood, fish or other organic forms. Nitrogen exists in unstable forms, and cannot be stored in the soil indefinitely. It wastes rapidly in the summer if no plant roots are ready to use it. If a potato-grower finds that he can use pur- chased nitrogen with profit, as is eminently true in the seaboard sands devoted to the early crop, it is advisable to provide part of the supply in organic forms that yield up plant food through decay as the season’ progresses, and to supply some immediately available nitrogen, in nitrate form, as a top-dressing during the late spring months. 688 ANNUAL R=PORT OF THE Off. Doc. Phosphoric Acid.—It is an admitted fact that most soils are rela- tively poor in phosphorus. Of the ten or more elements known as dis- tinctly soil elements used by plants for making growth, only three are ever found deficient in most agricultural soils. Two only may be lacking, and oftentimes only one element. In considering the mat- ter of fertilizing land for potatoes, I have tried to show that pur- chased nitrogen may pay, and it may not. Concerning this we judge by the character of growth the soil makes, and by field tests. Like wise, potash may or may not be lacking in available form. Concern- ing the third one of these three elements, phosphoric acid, the same may be said, but we assume that in nine soils out of every ten, if any one of these three elements is lacking, that one is phosphoric acid. If two elements are wanted, phosphoric acid will prove to be one of these two. The content of this element in the potato is small, and there remains a general impression that phosphoric acid is of minor importance in fertilization for potatoes, but a careful study of all Experiment Station tests is convincing that phosphoric acid cannot be left out of any potato fertilizer, and that the requirements for this element are wholly out of proportion to the amount actually stored in the tops and tubers of the plants. So pronounced is this that some careful experimenters have been led to say that phos- phoric acid is the controlling element in a potato fertilizer. A formula for a fertilizer carrying the elements in the proportion found in the potato tuber would require four and one-half per cent. of nitrogen, two of phosphoric acid and ten of potash. The Long Island growers have raised the percentage of phosphoric acid to 8, cutting the nitrogen to 4, and Station experimentation indi- cates that the formula should show a stiil higher percentage of phos- phorus, while the potash may be cut down. The whole matter of fertilization must be left within wide lines, and the individual grower must find by farm experiment just what plant food may be given With profit to his land, but the assumption should be that any potato fertilizer should be strong in phosphoric acid. Until the opposite is proved true in the field, I should assume that this element should be the dominant one in the potato fertilizer used. The assumption is based not only upon Station experiments in sands as well as clays, but also upon the trend of opinion among those growers who test these things for themselves. Let no reader get the impression that cropping should be done with phosphoric acid alone. Much land is being ruined to-day by such practice. But if heis a grower of potatoes he may begin experimen- tation with the fact that if any one element is lacking in his soil, this one probably is so lacking. Then he must learn whether he is supplying sufficient nitrogen through manures and cloyers, and he must take stock of his supply of available potash in the soil, and sup- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 689 ply a need of that element, if such need exists, as is very often the case, notably with sandy soils. Carriers of Potash.—The cheapest carrier of potash for most po- tato-growers is the muriate. It is a common impression that this material affects the quality of the tubers adversely, and the rather more costly sulphate is advised. In my own fields I have made some tests, selecting tubers from hills treated with the muriate, and other tubers from hills on an adjoining plat untreated, and having them cooked together under proper conditions. So far I have been unable to detect the slightest injury to edible quality from use of potash in the form of a muriate, and this has led to the study of Experiment Station tests with the result that the character of soil or season ap- nears to be a determining factor. There is less assurance of the slightest injury to the quality of the potato from use of the muriate than would be expected from the importance that has been attached to the matter by writers. It appears that in some soils quality is affected, at least, when the potash is not applied before the planting so that the salt may be washed out by rains. In other soils there are no ill results. It is a matter easy of test for the grower, as both sulphate and muriate forms are on the market everywhere. Kainit, a low-grade sulphate form, contains so big a percentage of salt that it should be classed with the muriate in effect upon quality. In respect to effect upon yield, it is probable that the more costly sulphate is the cheaper source of plant food for acid soils, while the muriate is most satisfactory for all other soils. The Rhode Is- land Station has arrived at this conclusion from the study of its own results in comparison with those of other Stations. Ashes.—An application of hard-wood ashes usually has a favor- able effect upon the yield of potatoes. As such ashes are rich in potash, this effect is doubtless one cause of the very common belief that potash is peculiarly a potato fertilizer. The truth is that ashes exert an effect upon most crops wholly out of proportion to their potash content, and therefore attributable to some other element or elements in the ashes. It is known that the lime in ashes is in an especially effective form, exerting much influence upon the soil. While, as has been stated, hard-wood ashes affect yields favorably, they promote diseases that roughen the skin of the potato, and their use is not advised except on acid soils. In some soils they also have an unfavorable effect upon the texture of the land. Coal ashes contain practically no fertilizing qualities, but I have found that it pays to draw and spread the home supply on the more clayey parts of the potato land for its improvement in physical con- dition. They should be spread before the harrow, and worked into the surface soil. 44—6—1902 690 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Plowing the Ground.—Soils in which potatoes may be grown with profit vary so much in character and in location that no hard and fast rules can be laid down. But keeping in mind the nature of the plant and its likings, we may make our practice conform to its needs. The first consideration, as has been said, is that of soil moisture. We want conditions under which a supply may be held for times of drouth. One method of securing this is by deep plowing. The storage capacity of land is increased by deepening the soil, as that is the part of the earth that contains organic material in such form that moisture is held as in a sponge. The deeper we plow, the more soil we have of such texture that the water of rains is received and held, provided the percentage of humus is maintained by increasing the supply as we increase the number of cubic inches of soil upturned by the plow. Within certain bounds we may make this rule for our guidance: The depth of plowing should be proportionate to the per- centage of humus. But the potato requires an abundance of this material, and if our soil is properly stocked with it, the plow should go deep. Depth in plowing is a relative term. I know successful growers on land that will not permit a greater depth than six inches. They feed that six inches well, and make money. Preferably, how- ever, the plowing should be deeper. Where six inches is a normal depth, seven should be gotten if possible. Where eight inches is a usual depth, nine inches should be sought. Kind of Plowing.—I like the rule given above respecting the depth of plowing. If a thin sod be buried deeply, and soil deficient in humus be placed at the depth the tubers shall form, a clayey soil will give disappointing results. Worst of all, a layer of soil deficient in humus, either in clays or sands, is utterly unfit material for the soil mulch that we make at the surface by tillage for the retention of moisture. If the amount of organic material be small, it should not be distributed throughout too many inches of soil by very deep plowing. It is better to sacrifice the benefits of depth under such circumstances to insure fair texture of the soil in which the tubers form and of that at the surface. This caution is for those only who from necessity plant land not well fitted for potato-growing. Where the soil is supplied with such a store of humus as the potato de- lights in, depth should be secured by deep plowing. It was Ben- jamin Franklin who said, “Plow deep while the sluggard sleeps,” and while the advice is much quoted and is wise within proper bounds, I venture the opinion that if the revered author were to return to earth and note the decrease in the humus-content of our American soils he would modify the statement so far as to say that the depth should increase only with increase of humus-producing material added in sods and manure. The Plow.—There are breaking-plows of many models. In respect to the kind needed for turning sod land for potatoes, let us reason a ed No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 691 the matter out. Assuming that the soil needs the improvement in texture due to rotting sods, we may be sure that the best of the sod should not be buried in the bottom of the furrow. There is more talk than practice of leaving the furrow-slices on edge. This is due to the use of plows having long and curved mold-boards, and to our liking for a smooth appearance in a plowed field. The sod should be left in such position for potatoes that it can be distributed throughout the soil, a fair proportion remaining near the surface. This means the leaving of the furrow-slice on edge, and that is done only by the plow having a short and straight mold-board. This point is not appreciated by growers who have a soil naturally loose and able to remain in good physical condition without the aid of or. ganic matter, but such soils are the exception. The short and rela- tively straight mold-board leaves the furrow-slice as required by the potato in ground of rather poor texture. It will not pulverize while turning the ground as does the long, curved mold-board, but that is merely one of the drawbacks of farming a soil not perfect in its adap- ‘ability to a desired crop. The plow should be set io run true on the bottom, and to turn not more than an inch in excess of what is ac- tually cut by the point. Thoroughness in plowing is more important for the potato than for either corn or wheat, necessary as the latter may be. The potato makes in the ground, and is more dependent upon good soil condi- tions than is any of the cereals. If the workman will set the plow to cut a trifle scantily and then hold against the plow-handle to off- set this, the furrow-slice can be partially pulverized with a very short, straight mold-board. Time of Plowing.—It is probable that four out of every five of my readers plant early varieties of potatoes, or else plant medium varie- ties early in the season. They have doubtless observed that early- plowed land retains moisture more perfectly than land plowed later in the spring. Recalling the fact that drouth is usually a factor in cutting yields of potatoes, and that the control of moisture is the first consideration, we learn that it is wise to plow early for this crop. There is less loss of soil moisture from the airing given by plow- ing, and there is more opportunity for spring rains to restore the close union of the top soil and sub-soil so that water may rise from below. Much as we value an addition of vegetable matter to the soil, we do not want plowing delayed until a growth of clover or rye becomes bulky and woody, as experience teaches that this bulk has robbed the ground of moisture in its growth and interferes with the rise of moisture from the sub-soil when plowed down. Early spring plowing is advisable for most land devoted to potatoes that are matured before the first of September. 692 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Fall-Plowing.—Regarding only soil fertility, land should be kept covered by a growing crop. Bare land is losing available plant food whenever it is not locked up by frost. Hence the condemnation of fall-plowing for a spring crop. But we do not invest money in land primarily to maintain its fertility, but we maintain fertility in order that we may make money. Income must be considered. There is land of such texture that a spring-planted crop can not be produced from it in profitable amount unless it undergo the ameliorating ef- fect of hard freezing. It cannot be put into fine physical condition after spring-plowing, while it does yield itself well to tillage when plowed in the fall and left frost-locked during winter. I am ac- quainted with some such land that is made to produce potatoes profitably for its local markets, and am sure that there is a serious mistake in condemning fall-plowing for it. Again, there is land now yielding good income from extra early potatoes that could not be plowed in time for the early planting if the work was delayed till! spring. It loses some in fertility, but amends are made to it by the application of plant food easily purchased from the proceeds of its crops. When consistent with returns from the crop, land should not be left bare during winter. The losses from this source have been heavy in American agriculture, but there are conditions justi. fying some fall-plowing for potatoes, and the matter is one worthy of careful study. If seemingly best, do it, but remember that when bare and unfrozen, there is a loss of fertility that must be made good be. fore net profit is figured. Harrowing.—Potato land should be made fine, but not too firm. Spring rains tend to pack ground unduly for potatoes unless it is naturally very friable. The perfect harrow would be one that pul- verizes each furrow-slice fast as turned, with power gotten from a horse walking on the solid bottom of the furrow by its side. I have tried to interest inventors in such a harrow, but am assured that too many farmers are indifferent to perfect work to make the demand for such a harrow attractive to a manufacturer. As it is, we plow land to make it loose, and then tramp it with horses while fining ii until a considerable percentage of the soil is packed down as tight as it was before the breaking-plow was used. When the weight of a horse is placed on the few square inches of surface covered by his foot, the ground under the foot is packed. This is especially true of soil that necessarily is worked in the spring as soon as it crumbles nicely. The track of the horse fills with loose soil, hiding the damage done, but let the farmer remove the loose soil and dig into the ground that was packed by the pressure, and he will realize what is being done. It has been my rule to cut the plowed land with a twenty- inch disk harrow, drawn by three horses. Two cuttings, each lap- ping half, equal to four single cuttings, have been given to tear the No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 693 sod into pieces. These were followed by an Acme, and then by a plank float. An estimate of the amount of surface covered by the feet of the horses in all this work is astounding. it may be thought that the harrows repair the damage, but usually they conceal rather than mend it. Ina fresh-plowed field the effect of the pressure given by the feet of the team goes much deeper than the average harrow. Indeed, thorough as my own harrowing has been, I find the firmed soil below the depth made by the extra large disks. Such pressure immediately under a hill cannot fail to do harm. This consideration enforces the necessity of letting a soil become fairly dry in the spring before the harrow goes upon it. It also leads one to defer some of the preparation of the land until after the plant- ing when the horses can be kept in the middles between the rows. This suggestion is made with some misgivings, knowing the tendency to slight preparation of a seed-bed, and the inclination to promise land additional work that is never given it. But I write of prepar- ing land for an early crop, when rains are sure to firm the plowed ground sufficiently to put the sub-soil into close contact with it so that moisture can rise from below. A later-plowed field must be harrowed with thoroughness and made reasonably firm to insure against drouth, and at a later period in the spring the tramping by teams does not pack a soil so severely. But no matter how early the planting, there should be sufficient harrowing to make a soil fine. After the planting, a deep, thorough tillage can be given to complete the work of preparation. This will be discussed under another head. It is always a mistake to plant potatoes among clods. The work of fitting with harrow and float must be sufficient to give to the piece of seed a surrounding of fine soil. The use of the plank float right after the plow, and again after the harrow, will do much to insure this state of fineness. There is no question in regard to the neces- sity of this much work. Some deeper tillage, however, may be de- ferred, provided one understands the need of it, and will give it be- fore the young plants have sent their roots out into the soil. THE SEED. Success in potato-growing is dependent largely upon the seed. A large percentage of failures is attributable directly to the character of the seed. While I base what I write »pon the experience gotten year after year in the culture of this crop, and upon the experiences of others, it cannot be expected that some readers will accept readily many of the statements, and to all such the request is made, in the interest of truth and their own income, that they put the doubted statements to the test of field trial. Many a farmer says that po- 604 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. tatoes cannot be grown profitably on his farm when the fault lies with the seed he has been using, and the easy trial of good seed is within his reach. There are large areas that will not grow potatoes well, and are not needed in the country’s production, but most farm ers Should grow their home supply, and do it with some profit. This may demand a different fitting of the soil than that given hereto- fore, but to poor seed is many a failure attributable. What is Good Seed?—The tuber of the potato is not the true seed of the plant; that is in the seed ball. Neither is it the root of the plant, as is the case with the sweet potato, It is merely an enlarge- ment of an underground stem. The plant puts forth branches above ground which form blossoms, and at a certain stage of growth the plant puts forth branches, or stems, that do not come above ground and blossom, but remain below the surface, enlarge at the ends, and form that which corresponds to the blossom of the branch above ground, with the addition of starchy material stored about the cells leading to the buds, which is intended by nature for the feeding of the young plants when they are started another season. These buds, cells and stored starchy material, wrapped up in one package, is the tuber for which we cultivate the plant. Just so sure as like produces like in this world, the tuber par- takes of the nature of the vine that produces it. If that vine has grown in a heat that weakened it, or has been affected by disease or insects that lessened vigor, the tubers have a correspondingly low vitality. As we know, :the potato thrives best in a cool climate. Excepting the high mountain elevations, all land south of the for- tieth parallel has too much heat during some period of the growing season in normal! years for the best development of the early-planted potato. It does not follow that big yields per acre are not obtained some seasons in the heart of the belt liked by our heat-loving corn plant. Our southern States grow good fields of potatoes, and yet the fact remains that the big yields are most easily gotten in north- ern latitudes—in Maine, New York, Michigan and the northwest. There the potato thrives in the absence of extreme heat, and has great vitality, as the size of the tubers attest. Potatoes grown year after year under unfavorable climatic or soil conditions, decrease in vitality, and the man who clings to such tubers for planting must reap what he sows. The vines lack vigor, and the underground stems, or tubers, lack in size. Excepting high altitudes in our mountain sections, there are no sections south of the States mentioned above where the vitality of potatoes is fully main- tained, and I am very sure that it would pay growers to get seed from the north every second or third year when prices are apt to be low. This statement could be put stronger by me, as I find it profit- able to get seed from more northerly sections every year. But even No. 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 695 if a change were made every second or third year, there would be far less loss irom inferior stands of plants. 1 refer now to ail growers who plant in early spring, ‘There are conditions under which vi- tality in comparatively warm latitudes may be maintained for a time by growing the seed in the cool weather of autumn, but the ex- perience of many successful growers is corroborated by co-opera- tive tests at the Vermont and Maryland Stations, in which the Ver- mont seed proved to be the better. The Missouri Station found Ver- mont and Wisconsin seed superior to that of Missouri, and in tests of Rhode island and Maine seed, the latter proved the better. Selection of Seed.—Growers have been puzzled by the contradict- ory evidence concerning the relative value of small potatoes for planting. Hxperiment Stations and individuals have gotten results {from comparative tests of small and large seed that conilicted with results irom other tests, and some farmers have concluded that there is no choice in size. Let us think over the maiter. ‘he tuber shares the degree of vitality possessed by the vine. It isa branch— only underground. Its size depends upon two things: the vitality of the vine and the time the tuber was formed. If it belongs to the second lot of setts made by the vine, and is small simply because it did not have time to become large before the vine matured, it comes of just as good stock as the larger tubers, of the first lot of setts, in the hill. It has good blood and can reproduce the vine that pro- duced it. Such seed, though small, may give a maximum jield. But there is the small tuber that was part of a spindling vine, low in vitality. it is small because there was not enough good blood in that vine to make any tuber as large as it should be. It is low in Vitality, as the vine was—a good-for-naught trifling—because the vine had no original vigor. There are two kinds of small potatoes. Those from vigorous vines may give good yields, while those from Spindling vines are a disappointment unless highly fed by a rich soil under favoring climatic conditions. it could not be otherwise according to nature’s laws, and it is not otherwise in our farm ex- perience. The ‘“Runty” Potato—Too much emphasis can hardly be placed upon the distinction between the tuber of small size that has been produced by a vigorous vine and the tuber of same size produced by a weak vine. In the former instance we have a potato—an under- ground stem or branch—that partakes of the great vitality of the plant as evidenced by the strong branches. It failed to attain large - Size because it belonged to the late setts of the plant, or because the plant was late and did not have time for full growth. The tuber of the other class is small on account of the natural weakness of the vine. When small potatoes, known by growers as “seconds,” are used year after year in planting, the percentage of runty individuals 696 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. increases rapidly. ‘Nearly the entire product of the spindiling hill falls into the “seconds” class. Let us suppose that in one season’s planting there is only one degenerate vine in a hundred. That will not affect the yield perceptibly. Assuming that each one of the ninety-nine vigorous vines furnishes one tuber of good vitality for the “seconds” class, and that the spindling vine furnishes five tubers, we have the next year five degenerates out of a hundred and four. The next season we may expect twenty or twenty-five out of a hun- dred. As a matter of thirty years observation in a potato-producing dis- trict, this rate of degeneracy is not at all unusual in the case of care- less growers. I have seen crops of thousands of bushels, produced from small seed taken from a crop grown from small seed, that run so inferior in size that they were not wanted in market, while fields planted with seed of high vitality produced tubers of fine size. The seed was “run-out” through the continued use of “seconds.” It is true that small tubers from spindling vines may not give a failure of crop when used for planting. It is possible to have a soil so rich and fine that high-feeding of the plants brings improvement of the stock. Equally, soil and climate may prevent deterioration of the stock when “seconds” only are used. Were it not for such possibili- ties in plant life, improvement of strains would be slower work than itnow is. But most potato-growers are seeking net profit from their land, and very many do not have any excess of fertility. As practical men, they should see that vitality in seed is a prime requi- site. The plant should come with vigor, not requiring superior fer- tility to give it courage to grow, but showing good hustling qualities when first it appears above ground, and ready to use to the full all the advantages that may be within reach. A vigorous plant will make a fair yield in moderate soil, and a better yield as opportunity is given it through applications of plant-food and through choice tillage. Medium Large Seed, Best —While a late sett of a vigorous vine, be- ing a second in size, has the vitality of its parent vine and may give as big a yield as a larger tuber, in ordinary field culture the chances are against it. In the case of some varieties, planted in certain soils, one need not hesitate to use “seconds” from vigorous hills. Nine out of every ten of my readers will do best not to use “seconds” at all for planting. They will obtain, as a rule, finer crops from seed pieces cut from larger potatoes. Some tests will prove convincing, but a little study of the matter may be equally so. The material in the potato is intended by nature as food for the buds or sprouts until they have root systems, capable of supplying themselves from the store of plant food in the soil. A large piece of potato will feed an “eye” and push its growth more effectively than a small piece. There are small whole tubers that will send up only one or two No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 697 sprouts. These belong to certain varieties, or else were produced from vines that never matured. These tubers have sufficient nourish- ment for the one or two sprouts sent above ground, and make de- sirable seed. But most “seconds” used in plauting push several buds, whether planted whole or cut into halves. They have more sprouts than they can feed vigorously. More than this, the number of plants in the hill is too great for the fertility of the soil. The soil of garden strength and tilth may take care of this excessive number of plants per acre, and push growth so that a fair proportion of the numerous setts will attain a good size. Some nearly maximum yields have been obtained in this way. But success was due not to the seed but the soil that was equal to the emergency. For the or- dinary soil and season, the number of plants per acre should be limited by the use of seed pieces having a smaller number of eyes than do “seconds,” whole or in halves. Form of Seed.—The form of the tuber is modified by the soil and season. . 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 723 should not be placed in contact with very dry soil. There are re- peated instances of failure when such fresh-cut seed has been drop- ped by hand in old furrows whose surface was very dry. The soi! becomes a sponge that absorbs the moisture from the potato. But when the shoe of the planter is run deep, as in this method of plant- ing, the potato is slipped into the moist soil, and the covering is from the sides of the furrow made by the shoe. It is fine soil, not hardened into minute clods by exposure to the air on the surface, and unlike the covering gathered by the disks in our rather clayey fields when the planter runs less deep and all the covering is given by the disks that gather up the surface soil. The fine and moist soil about the seed piece does not dry out readily because it is below the moisture level in the middles between the rows. If the potato seed were not cut, there would be no need of any moisture. The potato would start its buds just as readily in the absence of moisture as is done when seed is budded on the barn floor. After good sprouts have been started, and roots are put forth at the base of the sprouts, moisture is needed. In my own experience there has been one year when, on account of poor physical condition of the soil, I feared that the seed was too dry after the buds had started, and hay- ing secured the strong sprouts desired, the furrows were filled at once. But the method of planting that is recommended here for rather heavy soils can be accepted as safe in any sort of a season, and especially beneficial in a wet one that would close up a heavy cover- -ing of soil and thus exclude light and air from the seed at a time when it most needs it, viz., when it is putting forth its buds. Time of Cutting Seed.—In extensive planting the cutting of seed several days ahead of the planting cannot be advised, though some successful growers practice it. The serious objection is the danger of injury in case planting is delayed by the weather. Cut seed will heat if put in considerable bulk, and when not in bulk it is liable to dry out too much. By the use of potato boxes it may be kept in fair condition for a considerable period of time. The pieces should be dusted with plaster and the boxes should be tiered so that they can be covered with canvas to prevent the air from entering freely. In hot, windy weather a few hours exposure of cut seed spread on a floor will dry it unduly. The advantages of cutting seed considerably ahead of planting are the saving of time when the ground is ready for field work, and the decreased liability to rot in the ground if a rain should follow the planting closely. But there always is danger of a protracted wet spell during the planting, and the risk of losing the seed, or of having it damaged, when cut and unplanted, is so great that most extensive growers are agreed upon the plan of cutting the seed as wanted by the planter. A seed piece heals no more nicely anywhere than in fresh soil. The 724 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. one danger is that of rain before there is time for healing. In my own experience this is a thing to be feared. When a shower falls upon seed planted within two or three hours, the chances are that the fresh-cut surface of the seed pieces will not heal nicely, but will begin to slough in spots, and while there may not be missing hills, the plants are not as vigorous as those from undamaged seed. Seed cut and healed ahead of planting time can withstand the water. But everything considered, as a matter of fact in experience, it seems wisest not to cut more seed ahead of the planter than can be used before bad weather interrupts the work. In Dry Furrows.—A number of instances of a poor stand of plants are directly traceable to exposure of fresh cut seed in dry furrows for a short period before covering. When the sun is very hot and the fur- rowis dry,a piece of cut seed should not lie uncovered. In the old way of hand-dropping and covering with a plow I have left a strip of land uncovered during the noon hour when the furrows were dry and the sun was very hot, and have had a poor stand of plants on that strip, while the remainder of the field, with similar soil and seed, had good plants. Whole potatoes would have been uninjured, but the cut pieces were badly damaged. Potato Planters.—In the case of cereals, the automatic planter does good work because the seed varies little in size and is not in- jured by handling. The work of automatic potato-planters is less perfect for obvious reasons. The seed pieces are uneven in size, tender and more inclined to feed irregularly. Much has been done to obviate the difficulties, but I incline to think that we ask too much of the planter. So far, at least, no machine has been de- vised that will make no misses when all the work is left to it, and it is profitable to depend in part upon human labor. A machine can be so constructed that it will place the great majority of the pieces where they should be, but if five per cent. of the hills are missed in planting, the loss will be considerable. The missing hills on an acre of ten thousand hills would be five hundred, and if a hill repre- sent only one pound of potatoes, the total decrease in yield due to faulty machine work would be over eight bushels. Ten per cent. is not an unusual rate of missing among the automatic planters on the market. It is better 1o make a planter that will do all that reasonably may be expected of it, and have provision for aid from an extra man or boy carried on the planter. In this way it is possible to have the work done without any misses at all, except where the seed piece is thrown in the furrow by the motion of the planter. A planter does better work in some ways than can be secured from hand-planting. The seed is brought into a straighter line, and there - is greater evenness in depth. Straight rows, or rows in which the plants do not stand zig-zag, can be cultivated more perfectly than No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 725 others. When seed is dropped into the ordinary furrow, the pieces often fall to one side or to the other of the center, and are held up by little clods or other soil that has fallen back from the sides. I should prefer to pay one dollar an acre for use of a planter rather than to have the work done by hand free of charge. But the planter must be a good one that does not miss hills in its work. The man who plants five acres of potatoes a year should have the use of a planter. Ownership of such implements is desirable because then there need be no delay when the work should be done, though the hiring of implements may be entirely feasible in many instances. But in all this there is no desire to discourage the man who wants to plant only two or three acres a year and can not hire potato machin- ery. He is not greatly handicapped in his competition with larger growers. His small acreage can be given plenty of care, and can be made to yield nearly as much net profit per acre as that gotten in large fields by use of special machinery. The furrows opened to re- ceive the seed should have a chain dragged through them to push small clods or loose soil to either side, straightening the line ia which the pieces fall. The covering should be moist soil if the seed is fresh cut. ‘The seed should be cut with such care that all bad pieces are discarded. In these ways the prospect for a crop may be made even better on a small plat than that of a large field where there is constant temptation to rush the work at the expense of future re- sults. There is an old custom of putting two seed pieces into each hill. It has its advantage in case of the use of untrustworthy potatoes for planting, as there is the chance that if one piece does not send up a good plant, the other piece, cut probably from another tuber, may give a good plant, and the hill is not a total failure. But when care is taken to have good seed, nothing is gained by cutting fine and using two pieces in a hill, while there is loss from unnecessary ex- posure of cut surface to the soil, be it wet or dry. When a lot of seed is good enough to be used, there is loss and no gain from such fine cutting that two seed pieces are required in a hill. Distance Between Hills.—The width between rows is governed by the habit of growth of the variety. The rows should be sufficiently close to secure thorough shading of the surface when the vines have reached full growth. The shading prevents evaporation of soil moisture and helps to protect the stems from the burning rays of the sun. Thirty-six inches between rows give sufficient space for any variety, and for early varieties I prefer not more than thirty-two inches. In the drilled row the distance between hills is governed by the amount of seed used in the hill and by the variety planted. As- suming that the seed piece is a fair-sized block of potato containing two strong eyes, eighteen inches give good space for rank-growing varieties. Land may be so foul or heavy that checking is best, but in 126 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. case of ordinary soils, properly handled, drilling is to be preferred. Good tillage at the right time gives control of weeds, and the better distribution of the plants gotten by drilling favors the yield of crop. Applying Fertilizers—Theoretically all fertilizers should be dis- tributed throughout the soil. The plant roots go everywhere, and the feeders are formed chiefly near the tips of the roots. When ayail- able fertility is supplied close to the base of the stalk and there only, the plant roots do not spread as rapidly throughout their whole feeding ground as they should. In a loose soil that demands no deep tillage after the potato plants are up, the fertilizer should be broad- casted and worked into the ground before planting, or else applied with a fertilizer drill. But experience with rather heavy potato soils leads one to practice some row fertilization. ‘The tillage must be deep later in the season than is favorable to wide root growth, and there should be a full supply of plant food in the row. In such cases it may be a good plan to use the fertilizer drill as a harrow in preparing the seed bed, applying one-half of the fertilizer. The other half may be applied in the row when planting, or later if the deep fur- row with light covering be used. In the case of early potatoes it is often advisable to put all the fertilizer in the row. Planters have fertilizer attachments. When the planting is done by hand, and the fertilizer is put into the furrow before the seed is dropped, it is a good plan to go over the ground with a two-horse wheel cultivator and mix the fertilizer in the furrow. With one narrow shovel on each side of the cultivator, two rows may be prepared at a time. It will be found that a trace chain, fastened to each shovel and let drag behind in the furrow, will push little clods aside and assist greatly in securing an even depth for seed and straight rows. The seed can be dropped by hand in such furrows in lines nearly as straight as those made by a planter. But when the deep furrow with light covering is used, the fertilizer for the row may be effectively applied after the planting, and my individual preference is for this way. The potato needs no fer- tilizer for two weeks, or even longer, in the cold spring, because the sprout is fed by the seed piece. If there be nitrate of soda or other soluble carrier of costly nitrogen in the fertilizer, rains waste it. The available phosphoric acid, in my opinion, is most effective when first applied to the soil. There is no better time to apply such fer- tilizers in the row than when the sprouts are ready to come through the little soil that covers the seed pieces. It falls where some of the roots will form, and is ready to push growth. It is practicable to apply with a grain drill having a fertilizer attachment, spreading the horses with long neck-yoke and double-tree so that they have two rows between them. All holes in feed-box may be closed except the ones over the two rows. The drill should have extra large capacity, as is now provided for distribution of ground lime, and then the fer- No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 727 tilizer can be fed out in the desired quantity. All the hoes should be let down so that the ground may be cultivated, though only two or four are distributing fertilizer. On account of the deep furrows, the hoes do not disturb the setts, and the cultivation partially fil's the furrows, killing weeds and adding needed covering to the po- tatoes. But the grower of a few acres only may prefer to distribute the fertilizer by hand in the furrows, and the best work is done in this way. When it has been so scattered, a weeder or harrow should be used to make a partial filling of the furrows. In a few days the plants again appear, and another cultivation will complete the filling, giving clean, fresh soil in the row. Where the soil is loose, the weeder does this work well; in stiffer soils the harrow or spring- tooth wheel cultivator is more satisfactory. In defence of the practice of applying commercial fertilizers in the row, it is a pleasure to be able to quote so good an authority as Professor E. B. Voorhees. In his book on “Fertilizers,” page 217, he says: “In reference to the method of application, while very good results are secured from the application of fertilizers directly in the row, this is to some extent influenced by the character of the soil. Where the soil is somewhat heavy and the circulation of water is not perfectly free, it is less desirable than where the soils are open and porous and free circulation is not impeded; though where the amounts supplied are considerable, it is recommended that at least one-half of the fertilizer should be applied broadcast and worked into the soil, and the remainder placed in the row at the tume of planting. Naturally, when the soils are poor, a concentra- tion of the constituents is more desirable than when the surrounding soil possesses reasonably abundant supplies of available food.” CULTIVATION. One object of cultivation is to kill weeds. In potato-growing it is essential that the ground be kept clean by destroying the weeds be- fore they make much root. With the old method of planting shal- iow and ridging the covering, we got clean soil by dragging the ridge down immediately before the plants reached the surface. It was a good way of starting the potatoes ahead of the weeds. But we get the same results from leaving a furrow open over the plants and filling in as the plants grow. When they are above the level of the surface, the furrows have been filled with loose soil, and all weeds have been destroyed. It is always possible that rains may interfere with the work, and some weeds may be among the potato stalks in the unfilled furrows, but it is safe to use a wheel-cultivator, throwing plenty of soil against each side of the plants, and if some ridging is 728 ANNTIAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. done to secure complete burying of all weeds, the ground can be leveled with the weeder without injury to the potato tops. Until the plants are a few inches high, cultivations with weeder or slant-tooth harrow should be given whenever weed seeds are sprouting or a crust is forming. One Deep Working.—We now come to a cultivation of a kind that seems severe to the plants, and yet in all soils except the loosest it is essential to maximum crops. The potato makes its crop down in the soil. The physical condition of the land at time the crop is produced is more important toe it than it can be to corn. The latter plant makes its crop in the air, and has all the room it wants; the potato must displace soil to get room for its tubers. A naturally loose soil will remain in good physical condition throughout the season, but such soils are rarely retentive of moisture, and the great bulk of our potatoes is grown in land that becomes too compact for the best development of tubers. With such soils the only rational thing to do is to undo the work of the rains that have fallen after the planting by making the ground loose once more. Roots will be sacrificed, but this may not be an evil. Planting early, our potatoes incline to make root growth too near the surface of the ground dur ing the cold and wet weather usual to the month of May. These surface roots cannot be depended upon when heat and drouth come. It may be just as well that a deep cultivation is required to loosen ihe soil, as the destruction of these surface roots leads to deeper rooting. That is a point that does not require discussion here, the cultivation being a necessity for other reasons. It is my experience that this one deep cultivation, given when all plants are well above ground, can hardly be too close, if the soil is compact as a result of beating rains. A deep-running wheel-cultivator can be made to do fairly good work, and I hesitate to recommend any implement less modern. When it makes the soil loose in the row, where the tubers will be formed, nothing more can be desired. But very many of us are growing potatoes in heavier soil, and we are willing to give any sort of tillage that will show the most profitable results. An Old-fashioned Way.—The point of the shovel of the cultivator should be run under the plants at this stage of growth, if the ground has settled firmly. Tubers cannot form ina hard soil. It is not now a question of root growth, but of the possibility of good physical condition of the soil in the hill. If the shovels of a wheel-cultivator, running on both sides of the plant, are pointed under the row, they will lift the plant out. A number of years ago we abandoned the use of the more modern implements for this one cultivation, and jeaving them in the tool-house we returned to the use of the old- fashioned one-hoerse plow, having but a single stock. With a long and very narrow shovel, the plow could be held at such an angie No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 929 that the soil in the row under the plant could be shaken up. The method is slow and laborious. One man can cultivate only two and a half acres a day. But the work is rightly done, and potatoes are peculiarly responsive to right treatment. It is the soil in the row that interests the potato-grower. It should be loose naturally, if only such land were retentive of moisture. But if it were, it is not found on half the farms that should produce some potatoes. Deatl- ing with land that compacts in heavy spring rains after the planting, we learn to make it loose in the row just as late in the period of crop growth as we dare. ‘That time is when the plants are a few inches high. It is safe to go further and to say that if unusual weather conditions delay this work, and if the ground in the row is found very compact when the vines are even one foot high, it is better td sacrifice some root growth and make the soil loose enough for development of tubers than it is to go ahead without chance of crop. In such @ case some crop may be gotten by throwing up loose soil in a ridge so that the potatoes may grow in it, but that calls for root-pruning anyway. However, it is an unfortunate condition of things that justifies such heroic treatment, and indicates failure to provide humus for the soil before planting. The only safe course is to make close land friable by drainage and by plowing down vegetable matter, and then give all deep and close tillage before the plants are many inches high. The use of a single-shovel plow is a matter of arithmetic. If in the hands of a man who will use it faithfully and rightly it will do sufficiently better work than a more modern and rapid cultivator to pay, use it. Some growers find that it will; others think otherwise. If the soil is loose anyway, or if the workman is unwilling to hold the plow steady with point under the row, a wheel-cultivator is to be prefered. Soil Moisture.—Professor King, in his valued book entitled “The Soil,” says: “After the plant food has been prepared in the soil or in the air, it is useless until endowed with the possibilities of move- ment toward and through the living tissue. But water, through the action of capillarity and osmotic pressure, is the medium of trans- port by which the ash ingredients and the nitrogen of the soil are moved to the roots of plants, by which they are drifted into the sun- shine of the laboratories in green leaves and bark, and from which they are again taken to their final place in the structure of the plant. Nor is this all, for water is itself a food substance used in large quan tities by all plants of whatever sort. By its evaporation from the foliage of plants, it not only holds the temperature down within the normal range of the vital process there going on, but, because of this lowering of the temperature, it also hastens the osmotic flow of sap toward the leaves. The amount of water demanded by crops under 44 730 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. our methods of culture is very large.” In Wisconsin, Professor King has found that 422 tons of water are required to produce one ton of dry matter in the potato. Control of Moisture.—The first tillage in the potato field is to kill weeds and to break the crust. ) £ 5 a, g mee =. 2 l tao Mn s-ty ee i < a 2 8 68 a < | Z Ay oH Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), ...........- | 15.35 | 5.24 1.54 0.44 | 1.99 Perennial TYE STASS, 2 occ cccccnee cvs s cies siss\cleeleisisce.cw's sm 9.13 6.79 es) 0.56 1.55 Mbahiarivery Ce STASS) \cisiscles cjsieisies cicleielsieisievslats sie ain’oisia\cieiele(-farets Sates cccrsie sie 1.19 | 0.56 1.27 Salt Marsh Nay. ser lancucdudcs MISKIMELONS PeDUN PD!) cteiers co cleia=ys laters syclasnis aici eraic Ate ererersee vias 76.44 IMnucKmelONS MepUlp VIJUICO A” aie simi eiaye: [tee sie atetarere eee 5 ATOM Y CLLO We WOOC™ .aereieisraicte cisieineaieiels isieie/ciasisieigiens sicieioeere 0.045 PETG LACE BEWOO GI eo cies, arele sis lavece elect’ toyeerstersieleiels Giels.elstora ce | 0.030 SViCamMOre maw OO ta seem cet mre Men mee ee eames aes : 99 | | ; | 0.280 ANIMAL PRODUCTS. | | PERELEC OTM rave -ttcrateivelsisinicisveisiorea ateicie siete raters aisielo aivia caoriewislelon wie ans 91) 0.15: | 0.12 | 0.040 | 0.040 HSTLECS MAL an ( BH) Be sicte,sisicicesiciets cre eynineie aetelele nis ie'e sleleistern eters 90.12 0.72 0.64 | 0.220 | 0.210 ONEESC aia ce sisteisisielers evorsie:se¥e Miata alatatstaeimis(alaceleieictersisiaieceterae teleate | 33.25 | 2.10 | 3:93) | 0.600 0.120 Creare crave nse chle ce Seisedss clare cies wa asleee vane naa 74.05 | 0.50 0.40 0.150 | 0.130 Hoe Somme taveyet- tol arstorers aieto(cieireiatereisieleiese olets ie ties lore ceria bictote cttelerete ten 67.20 | 6.18 2.18 0.370 0.150 Megs) without ‘shell; ccccc.sco.csce ecco Wellies Saleisieeinie as 73.70 | 0.92 2.00 0.350 | 0.160 Mat renderings «Cakes: (5) i. ccccccsesacecsessacenss sae 9.52 6.38 | 9.38 | 2.20 0.199 Call fame tess Ntaeh eres Fe a Se EE eee ee | 66.20 3.80 2.50 | 1.380 0.240 (CRS, haan cedaaaaan ance ren Ronee COMIC RE a nA CR OOS are: SOs 4.66 2.66 | 1.860 0.170 SHEED iw cenee ccc mfolelotainietststammisteta Mote wietsteicre-tielsieie ats sfoiae aiststeraterecate 59.1 | 3.17 2.24 1.23 0.150 SSIVULILG UE avatars ate a\oTs alvieisia, aie rete faleresoretaleipietere.siecaier move oioie ote eee Sisloneicion 52.00 | 2.16 2.00 0.880 0.180 COWES NTL oe .i5sratate cys erslnns sareinta a teteiacoltleleie ares be oicisin Bistsiee eee 87.00 | 0.75 0.53 0.190 0.180 (Siidhecl tretile See aannaGseDpaeane ninelevolslateteteleisis\erele/siaters'ejofe'slelaia 90.25 0.80 0.56 0.200 0.190 Skim milk, centrifugal separation (7), ..........68. 9.60 0.74 0.49 0.210 0.200 RVING Virtua sreyctatcteratciorerete arsicis ( < - | { } GRAINS AND SEEDS. | Di HOUSHELNDATICY., S89 DSsiuiciec cieretavesicisiosoisieieleloielevelololelelsiolele/eisielaiels | 0.38 m9, | 52.6 bushels. 2.|1 bushel buckwheat, 48 IDS., ......cecceeeseeeeseceeeeeeees 0.21 | 1.0 100.0 bushels. 3 | 1 bushel clover seed, 60 ibe, souaodooobnabosondeasodpoUaHda 0.87 | 4.3 | 23.3 bushels. 4/1 bushel corn, 56 IDS., ..........cscceececccccccsececcnccece |. 0.39 | 1.9 | 52.6 bushels. Bi UShely Oats weS2 OSs | lavccracieicielelcinisleleleiallerereleoleleleietelaeforeleloinislere 0.26 | Leo. | 77.0 bushels. Gu MIS ushelsarvies 256 P1DSs i terete sioie,sleleicie\eieia(=\e(oivisierelelels}sisleinisivieleleisivieve 0.46 2.3 43.5 bushels. Wa bushel stimothy seed 145) UDSie) -cialssteie cieieteloisieialem ieleeieie.sicia 0.53 2.6 38.5 bushels. Salelebushel Gwheat, G0) VOSs yc crereteistecicteleisielelai A! 52H 83) oa | : E hey n 2 ce Dole 4 & BH J a She Estimated Crop. a = sO E g oP a . ° 4 io n — °o (s) be uu a | ° Pp = Pe 2, o.- Ble 3 Sie seer aes fee eal Orme sbO DUS hel steus stor raretsicw caceisvecie s ercicrstela erele ais alos etespajacatenyetels(isiataialuiseisiele'es 16.0 | 80 115 OBL rs MOUS Ol Ss wy npoycteya cis erotecoinielereeiarerelsiais vistt ortivielaloletajiaierats wielaioiaielsle Gysicisiele 10.4 52 74 AVVDe ate chM DUSN EIS rac crlecercnicmitec ceca oerelasl cb ininaens wae tauren 12.0 60 86 POtatOessealbOr DUSNE] Sie serpent yccatoeiers secarealasetl e selecieionicicineelelssinselac.s.ci| 14.4 | 72 103 PROMIALOCS! Gel OMCOUS! ate Nala rateisiclsis(olnrereereio nits teleiere Giolelelociviacatovetele e(eleteleleisisiavere, cit o(e | 4.2 21 80 CIO Vere ave m2. COMB: 2 sstoicoeveisia co iainie cle Ce areraiertieisie.s aide lermeleYele aieieicleisieleisieveln ste 22.4 112 160 SIMA OLINY pe Vee ot CONS! etree fers isicleror exc ole aes orate inrere siessieic rare oratea(eierale Gtels eel iateraie 27.6 138 197 IWiheatcstraw: P1IZOtOnsiedccctics ofectioe/s.e ns erste we oteisivcleletisisien’ sipeieisieelererse | 5.5 28 40 GreonwroddersCorn ssl 5. tONS ars sem eets ose elastics atefeie aisiecie caine s ettie oe olctars Siaisle 30.0 150 214 *Calculated on the basis of 14 per cent. available phosphoric acid. The figures given in Table 3 are not intended to show the amount of phosphoric acid needed for the growth of the whole plant or crop, but simply what would be removed in the parts which are generally sold. The quantities of phosphoric acid which are removed by one bushel of product or even by a crop from one acre as exhibited by the figures in the preceding table, in most cases seem to be very small and, indeed, almost insignificant, yet, when the fact is considered that most of the lands have been under cultivation for a considerable length of time, it will be seen that even these small amounts repre- Sent considerable when multiplied by 10, 20, 50 and even 100 or more crops. The figures which have been given in Tables 1, 2 and 3 will serve the purpose for each person to gain some idea of what is taking place in individual cases, but give little conception of the vastness of what is taking place in the State as a whole. The annual drain of phosphoric acid from the farms of Pennsy]- vania, by the principal crops, is shown by the figures in Table 4. Though large as these figures seem, yet they represent but a part of what is taking place. The amount removed by over one million 816 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. dollars’ worth of truck crops and small fruits annually sold from Pennsylvania farms is not accounted for in the table. Again, the live stock, poultry and eggs annually sold carry considerable phos- phoric acid with them. The total amount removed by the crops, as exhibited in Table 4, of 102,538,740 pounds would require, if it were to be replaced, over 566 thousand tons of standard (14 per cent.) dissolved phosphate rock. This would mean an expenditure of over three and one-half millions of dollars annually for this one plant food alone. TABLE 4. The Approximate Quantity of Phosphoric Acid Annually Removed from Penn- sylvania Farms by the Principal Crops. (Compiled from Yields of the Twelfth Census, 1900.) | ro 2 o & e Z é g a ° = a Ke] a o Crops. a ae ‘S) ° 1 : & je u fs| n o oO 7 yoo) a rs] wn Fi) = 5 © 53.0 i ° cal os a fy a at DAT OV pi cictoicieeleleloleicieieveleicisrerciele'elers araie visietaleietavele:sicle(atejeisre 197,178 | 9,464,524 0.79 74, 768 ATIC VASULA Win csistere ielelele ciale'clelceictalelelaisicivinlove’s etefereichelelel | seielelarsiarntoielsietalelels 15,389, 690 0.30 46,169 IB} Waveho | ohoscnodanddsuroaSmon oe csosanmdosoodd 3, 922, 980 | 188, 295, 240 0.44 828,499 Buckwheat Straw, ......0..ssceccscccscecsecesoes lucceccscceccseee| 320, 101, 908 0.61 1,952, 621 (Cloyaal, fehl. gooponboesougonodddcubuoboooGacopsuDdo 51, 869, 780 2,904, 707, 680 0.70 20,332, 953 (Cerna date bole ho oogoonsa goBepoCH SOD Aa be poaSEcoobeDal saonodcoodcabadd 5, 809, 415, 360 0.29 16, 847, 304 (GREE. 9 | & ao Ss ° 2 ra ° > 8 ° n fS = | a < & > = — = | : IRE CGH: oS Aes ee Ree nc hone eaeons cones BR Aes Seal bere sAneml ben ater | BEM Ie Secearse 760 One ASI mere coon ae meee aie eee fiommud sts (ee tere Reezoacas! [P 35705 he ceeee ae 718 ROTC LACK meseselajeverctorsysistefele!asleiaiava's\s.cretiaisin/eicinin we Boripaceene leselate:diojeveuare Leerararetetetencte | 2ER a iliateteeteeteloree 667 Bone black (dissolved),.. ....c0c0.ccesncercee 16.0 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 17.0 334 340 SOTO TIC AD oe apes cfars olotelsiareiaietstaralelejatels7 aywigtoterlein\e)e\sk« 0.4 | 6.5 | 15.6 | 22.5 188 450) Bonesmesal (fromeelue LaCctOry.), sccisiee crsteusse ote, sve ejere.c/oieis'e | 6.5 22.4 | 28.9 130 | 578 Bone: meal (dissolved); csncsecceccccescciscee 10.0 5.0 2.0 17.5 300 350 Garr bear GUAT ON eacreeeh oie cieleie 0) =\clove’s sie ielore,sjele’e'=:l eros ere siete’ e/eiei| e,eteie/elamlele’n’as\els(e(e(eials (sisixis)e\n(q.e/wle\e/e(a\eisteiols/aiaininieisiete(niasisis\eie'e 682, 365 ARGO MEER e eye erate ctescicta nv hetero ais cielo ora cteerale Ocieie aie nse ome aie elo clea lec aint msinisca eisenk ean ne maeme 783,924 TE Dihen seuie’ abnchdpadaae edo bodnacetic code sor ebndeL mo ScaandosoDcodpende co sadsaa ctibon dédocoadenusdeaBen 720,134 AOD Og ms sar oe eee Soe eae SAE TOR ea STO en eoice ee sic te biel c oie Soe ae B ee eTocs Mee eile vice sae tele ewlebicee 800, 660 ARGO MMAR rat fe cithalaie s(6: solaris Mole wisi sieve eicis(aicte(ne seis wo Sew acne ae aaaba wa oairee sie des cla ciewovelisielaelmecedecseee 874,000 HS DA rareee otercletaretcioiels/sie since stove olatstets viz ial ele ctaeimeis'elswieis « site Slorcielelecatelcie sie ee woisletotsie ie cinales's meleciarsisemeles 896,301 ROG Mec Ph ta raie certs ve tials rear eio's sje avercle sterete & sierevoic ore oistsis.o’tels]ele’ siete slefarnisleleretes eicte’s © sisle isioe/siecise es cei neteee 934, 235 TEs Ca ill ae a tna ee AO PANS nee Aan ee ARR C 962, 050 IRE -bosdas vondadsogocodeaotisaceo soobacanodrcedcocoanoD coding ccaopenccoobuae cosaucogaunoacencudadse 1,033, 002 TEPER ask cbccrOHOA HUGE OER ec SE COREE Dare abn ne aecricccenance nana craacn cuSarnncraaacer doa acer 1,105, 000 SUS MMR MRC eiseceicnm ccs noes jemebaconadaancs Oeste on ewidh vanes eno tae gee sections ccceesommateceee 1,250,120 GOO ees cre store els ctels eicie's clea Gieioielscciclesnia elsle/sts e’e crore sions nine aisle niet erotei coins sisvoreate sie eatalas eleteimisela aieaictclons 1,462, 325 71S” SREB OB e cee COC TIRE E Rico CLCe ane RAS En CoC DS ROA caro CR SEuSd Sa nRCc OD OM mACCECURORCCRECA| 1,700,000 BASIC SUPER-PHOSPHATE. This is a class of super-phosphate that was introduced in the Eng- lish market in 1900. It is made up of a mixture of slaked lime and ordinary super-phosphate. The idea that led up to the making of this mixture was caused by an eftort to produce an alkaline phos- phate with some of the characteristics of slag phosphate, but one which would also give results on sandy and other soils- that were deficient in organic matter. This basic super-phosphate can also be used on soils which are acid and upon which ordinary super- phosphate (acid phosphate) gives poor results. In fact, the claim is made for it that it possesses all the advantages of both slag phos- phate and of acid phosphate. The following laboratory experiments* show the relative solubility of basic slag phosphate and the basic super-phosphate: *Experiments of John Hughes, originator of the basic super-phosphate. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 835 —= — ——SSSaE= na ° si a Solubility in Cold Water After 48 Hours. iB (1 part phosphate to 1,000 parts cold water.) 2| wo a 3 3 ‘a a 2 o Basie: = —# - : es ee = Portion soluble. ins coldswater, © ae cc v(x tai nislo els «/ein(aie.cferars/s ataicinie'b\s/vis.» 01s eleivinleie cinislvicie'e | 66.80 6.66 Portion Insoluble: ALter AMNION, oi. ico: . rs) 6 | aah to < ts} : e+ 2 Oo i=) mn et ome) Ps a a O° o | pS) ° ~ ee 3 Pa a ° 4 Cc Zz Ay Ay { Soluble phosphorie acid (dissolved bone A&G lf Dlack), ....2secccceececscesseecececccrcccssces PAINE |B Senqooudo0d BZN Sereta o\statelete ae Muriate” Of; WOtaShy) caro iies/enisisienssle.e cles’ sieleloclereis PA eoecdnoosoon| |coscannonobc 100 Sulphate sof ammonia wees <1 sree sisiereloiaiseselatelors 240 EYE Be cbodonriseallsocoocodnsae Reverted phosphoric acid (dissolved hone black treated with an equal weight of B&H { CUT Ce DTT Gag terste eysinie| ole le erelolascletaielale sieteleieicleletereteletereinte PAN GoGs5d0 000506 CYA lSbodcocbshen MiUTLAEE MOE ADOCRASII A) savcciscleie’elaicie'sisleieicieieielelsleleiereiele ZU |cicfotavevatetoveleterel| cteletolalofataleletete 100 Silphate? Of “AMMONIA ei iciceicwineicicie'scicieteiclsjejoisisie 240 C1 \lagcaconaosnaljooqanqocoaac Insoluble phosphoric acid (fine ground bone), 150 4 4077) | (eretetoterelataterete CrSrr Miumiate Of pOtashs Wrtclecicclcicleisicislciels. sieve slseleleraivisre ZOO |Rereincleleteiereets leeseeeeeeee 100 Sulphate Of AMMO ay Weiac ciciceteseiocisicieleysisiciein) -desele 240 AIT A ctotfareiate a (oi ctote | lols lefata cveretaietare Insoluble phosphoric acid (ground South Di Se Ji GarOlima erOCK) iy aetewierc(elecie(ejeioieie(elsieiere(c(elslelnle(s\sela.e NEY WGdbecoosevon CU ecocopoccoud | Miiniatem Of DOtash: trcitsrsisissieicreieie(siise/s/cisisieisiele sles DOO:Gl eretetetelsiela sistetel liclste cieietersinlcsere 100 | Space Of ea mMON Lae weyeteicieieielsisiscsie!sleibiiotela/ele oes 240 Re | ocspeoncsna| ooce ROpadaAS PARKS Hie MUTIaAte LOL MPGtASINs | cepcreicie ce clase eleielaicieieielejeiaisis cleo ANDi eelelelaleielelsteiere’| sleisleletereleteoleie 100 | [Sulphate of ammonia, ......seseseseeeceeeceee 240 AG) | \arareletetecciois\o[ove)|sietetefeYe\ereleyeiot Se Ta) NOC WINS 4 eisisie o 01s cta(o'eiefoie'o.v(eie\cic\ose'slejejele\vieis.0/vicielelole\e e\e 0/e)||s\sle]sieisie‘e\sieie.e]| «isle'efa[e{o/ee,s{s/0]||eleieie/e[eeieis\elele\| |v olsiajsiole(e\eieials } The following isa summary of the results as given in that report: SUMMARY OF YIELD AND VALUE OF CROPS. WHEAT. Taking the average for the three years, 1884, 1888 and 1892, in- soluble phosphoric acid in the form of ground bone, and the insolu- ble phosphoric acid in the form of ground South Carolina Rock gave practically identical results, no phosphoric acid, stood third in grain and fifth in straw, reverted phosphoric acid in the form of dissolved bone black treated with an equal weight of lime, fourth in grain and third in straw, and soluble phosphoric acid in the form of dissolved bone black, fifth in grain and fourth in straw. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 853 TABLE 1. Average Yield Per Acre of Wheat of Plots. a ER =< | Average. a mm ‘i Grain. Form in Which it Was Source of Supply. of ane Applied. oF P a Dn wi | A 3 a=) no 4 : ef) eee alee : | gel ge es Sel ei alae — ~ Ay | > & C & J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, .......... Ground bone, ....sce0ss $27 79 $6 68 $34 47 D&J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, .......... South Carolina rock, .... 27 97 6 68 | 34 45 B&H | Reverted phosphoric acid, .......... Bene black and lime, “| 26 32 6 42 | 32 74 & K|No phosphoric acid, .........00.00- |e de Socyeiereheecaceret i ermreiccene 26 90 5 60 | 32 50 A &G | Soluble phosphoric acid, ............ BonerwDlackes nec cscteeriasice | 24 84 6 03 | 30 87 3 93 | 23 75 TOs By (ha oY se | oe, ay oe a | 19 82 HAY. | Taking the average for the three years, 1885, 1889 and 1893, in- soluble phosphoric acid (ground bone) was first, reverted second, soluble third and insoluble (South Carolina rock) fourth. TABLE 12. Average Yield of Grass (Hay) per Acre. et Average for Three Years. © - ! Form of Phospheric Acid Applied. é | a = S | 2 2 m : rd he | a 3 2a Oe ae | a) = as Ayo a a a Aw Se Ca SOMIDLE spPHOSDM OL Cw ACI eter cisisiote areie orainimisiviciolaieioieialeleieie eieinievereielele | 9,500 3,167 155 Ber | reverted phosphoric Aela sy eejrcictanicicn ic seveielcteinstein viejels eleieje’e ciate | 9,900 3,300 161 Gust) | Insoluble phosphoric: actd>, «....scassecssesecesesee sos ceeeese } 10,095 3,365 164 Die |Insoluble phosphoric vacid) n.. cee. dssceces cree eceeescsouce 9, 400 3, 183 153 HS Ka INO pPHOsphoricraAcld s varc cc clscisesivicisieieic’o\osisia ale BO OBOICUBOECGCS CROC | 7,475 2, 492 122 FE &L | Nothing, ....cccccccccccccccccccccvcccccccscccsvrccvevcccscccers 6,145 2,048 100 No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 855 The value of the crop per acre for the different fertilizers applied is shown in the following table: TABLE 13. Average Yearly Value of Hay per Acre. Form of Phosphoric Acid Applied in Connection Form in which the Plots. with Nitrogen and Potash. | Phosphoric Acid | Value. Was Applied. Créeck Insoluble PHOSPHOTIC! ACIA A \cieeciccc clecdt/sisieie\cle siete v'olsisieie' Ground bone, sic ieleeceic'e $i8 69 Bical Reverted PHOSPHORIC ACIG 0 fo. scis:0.0st10 ele si0,e)5/01s/v aco; 8/aisreieis | Bone black and lime,.... 18 33 A&G | Soluble Phosphoric Acid, 2.22.2 .scsecwrscsvessecvecsces BONeGmDlaACk:s owuiyeicsiteicrsletee 17 59 Py ede nsolublie” DHOSPHOriCM ACLs... scisis wisiais/e/eicicieieis els sielelels'e/ele South Carolina rock,.... 17 41 ET Geeks || INOMPHOSPHOTIC: ‘ACIAW Fier cc's oe vivinleicisie%e vice v\eis\vleluis)sie/eiisieieieleie line fico afetstata/oiels\o(a/ore eleleietecataleleistasterwrell 13 84 PBI GMIEN OPI E Me ttle cee eee oie se Sa oc ee reece neo cor | MSRP Se ans Be eRe A 18 33 { J | CORN. Taking the average for the three years, 1886, 1890 and 1894, in- soluble phosphoric acid (ground bone), was first in the yield of grain and stover, reverted second in grain and third in stover, soluble third in grain and second in stover, and insoluble (South Carolina rock) fourth in grain and stover. TABLE 14. Average Yield of Corn Plots. Average. Le} Ears. E Proporticnate. Form oc” hosphoric Acid Applied. | z - : By j Beer cor eee eee F 2 et [oe eee tee ead Ss ! aQ 5 = ou a S BR | 4 jee} wm H ea] n 2s AGG G Soluble: pHospnoric) ACIG> ays siecrereciscieiels citernsteree« | 3,420 | 48.86 | 1,942 | 5,362 148 189 B & H | Reverted phosphoric acid, ........0.s..20.0e. | 3,472 49.60 1,937 5,409 150 189 Cre iE | Insoluble* phosphoric) Acida cca... -\-sieece nels 3,637 51.96 | 2,073 | 5,710 157 202 D & J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, .............0c.0e0. 3,335 47.64 1,908 | 5,248 144 186 HyRoc GINO! wDHOSPNOTIG ACIAs | fx cire ase slate ce caiciece e’s'0. clala'e. cso | 2,848 | 40.68 | 1,667 | 4,515 123 162 1 CBB CW INOR YS onan dadasapquopoocooqunoModdapbosedoovene | 2,315 | 38.07 1,027 3,342 100 100 856 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. The value of the crop per acre for the different fertilizers applied, is shown in the following table TABLE 165. Average Yearly Value of Corn Per Acre. —————————ESESEESSSSS—aee——eeeee eee | ° Form of Phosphoric Acid Ap- Form in which the , @ plied in Connection with Phosphoric Acid z 8 : Nitrogen and Potash, was Applied. o a 5 wu ~! 3 fe} ° > 3 5 5 rs & a | ee a > bot a C &I | Insoluble phosphoric acid, .........- Ground bone, ............ $27 54 $5 19 $32 73 B & H | Reverted phosphoric acid, .......... Bone black and lime, .. 26 29 4 84 31 13 A &G | Soluble phosphoric acid, ............ Bone! DIage@ke crcsiecisseinielee' 25 89 4 86 | 30 75 D & J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, .......... South Carolina rock, .... 25 25 478 | 30 02 E & K | No phosphoric acid, ............00. arafall cava raiaveete ta cle ietayate olslstors cleleseinisictstare 21 56 fia, 25 73 Or Repl IN OLHIN Fo yejeleicie cleiels)oYolesele\s/sle/sle’a/elejaie.e|lalefeln'| lelolalsl = B 3 a a : F it : te = n re} a . n . cy) Q 4 2 | g Q 3B ro Sa) Fels Reet oe es LS | to ow oe | r | | oe, | E che ag z 4 |oa 2 7 : 3 aq |a!]s 3 a | Mo e Ra 3 A Nestea me Phe tl Mr de Wt pir P| A, | fa nm |e Be kicoe | aes |e A&G}! Soluble phesphorie acid, ...... 1, 400 | 43.75 | 1,387 2,737 39 113 | 122 117 105 B & H| ReVerted phosphoric acid, ....| 1,507 47.10 1,326 2,833 39 121 121 121 106 C &I | Insoluble phosphoric acid, ....| 1,580 49.39 1,595 3,175 39 127 146 136 106 D & J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, ....| 1,544 48.24 1,557 8,101 38 124 142 133 104 E & K| No phosphoric acid, .......... 1,457 45.54 1,217 2,674 38 117 11 114 104 Rel aia NO GINITL Sy ieleteroleleevelots eieretelvieieteleieiate cls 1, 242 38.81 1,095 2,337 37 | 100 100 100 100 No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8o7 The value of the crop per acre and weight per bushel for the differ- ent fertilizers applied, are shown in the following table TABLE 17. Average Yearly Value of Oats Per Acre. ie Q 4 : i Form of Phosphoric Acid 5 | is 3 Applied in Connection Form in which the | E 5 é 2 with Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid ei a 8 Potash. | Was Applied. 3 o g roy ~ s 2 Bobs heal eee & 3 3 ° g A | > > B B 1 | ie : De Sie oe ht S SOR ee | C &I | Insoluble phosphoric acid, ...| Ground bone, ........ $18 27 $3 19 $21 46 39 54 D & J | Insoluble phosphoric acid, ...| South Carolina rock, 17 85 3 12 20 97 38 66 B & H| Reverted phosphoric acid, ...| Bone black and lime, | 17 42 2 65 20 07 39 47 Pec Kalle N Om HOSP HOLICHACIOE ve eicie\ois elelerel| ose syerd. clereisiciis isin eimieiwicleir se sle.0's | 16 85 2 43 19 28 | 38 66 A&G} Soluble phosphoric acid, ....| Bone black, .......... 16 19 2 67 18 86 | 39 00 IE Gece Ueaia EIN O LOLLY Mitarn, stat ereratofolat as iele\ oi sie ere" ecels | hota ofoceYr/slelstera\olals(aiercio’a(ajaiielsicis | 14 36 2.19 16 55 | 37 16 _—— —--—_— ——_ — SS A ce, The conclusions, as set forth in the discussion of the above results, in the report, are as follows CONCLUSIONS FROM THE PENNSYLVANIA STATION EXPERIMENTS. 1. That soluble phosphoric acid is too expensive to be used by farmers having a limestone soil similar to the one on which this experiment was made, since fully as good results can be secured by the use of the much cheaper insoluble form. 2. That insoluble phosphoric acid in the form of ground bone is slightly superior to that in the form of South Carolina rock. 3. That corn is benefited more by the application of phosphoric acid than wheat, oats or grass (2-3 clover, 1-3 timothy). EXPERIMENTS AT THE MARYLAND STATION. These experiments were planned on a more extensive scale than those in Pennsylvania and were conducted with special reference -to the making a study of the availability of the different sources of insoluble phosphates. The detailed report upon these experi- ments was made in Bulletin No. 68, of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, published in September, 1900. The following gives a summary as to the plan of the experiments and. results: PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED. The general plan of the experiments conducted in the testing of the availability of different forms of phosphoric acid and means for rendering insoluble phosphates available in the soil. The idea in mind was to make these tests much more than a soil test of this 52 858 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. particular farm, but they were so planned and conducted as to make ihe results applicable to most parts of this State, and of general interest to agriculture wherever commercial fertilizers are used. The general idea that pervaded the plan was to imitate nature and get the land as nearly as possible in the same condition it was when a virgin soil and then continue to use nature’s methods for main- taining fertility. It is well known from chemical analysis of soils that they contain sufficient phosphoric acid to furnish all that is needed for good crops for many years. It has also been shown that some soils which fail to produce satisfactory crops contain more phosphoric acid than those that are considered fertile. Now, this difference in fertility must be due to a condition of availability. An examination of the conditions which prevailed in virgin soils, or in any soil that has just been cleared of its forest growth, soon makes prominent the fact that nature has filled that soil with or- ganic matter; this organic matter not only gives the soil a dark color and fine physical appearance, but it also performs functions in pro- ducing chemical changes that cannot take place in that same soil were it destitute of organic matter. Again, we find that a virgin soil will produce satisfactory crops for a number of years without the intervention of commercial fertilizers, but about as soon as the organic matter has been worked out, the soil fails to produce satis- factory crops and the use of phosphates is resorted to. Now, the phosphoric acid which these soils contained was not in a form soluble in water, nor was it in the form of reverted or di- calcium phosphates, but it was an insoluble phosphate of lime, magnesia, iron or alumina. Though termed insoluble, yet this phos- phoric acid was available to crops, through the chemical changes made possible by the presence of organic matter and the com- pounds formed through its decomposition. It was the water charged with carbonic, humic and other organic acids, formed by the de- composition of vegetable matter, that was able to dissolve the in- soluble phosphates of the virgin soils and place them either directly at the disposal of crops, or from such combinations as could be be utilized thereafter. As soon as the organic matter of the soil was used up, these favor- able conditions no longer obtained, and crops could not avail of the natural properties of the soil even though there was an abundance present. Now, if nature’s methods are observed again, it will be noticed that wherever she is producing vegetation she has devised means for depositing some vegetable matter in the soil in about the same proportion as she produces. Taking all these facts into consideration would it not seem reason- able that, in order to avail properly of the phosphates contained No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 859 naturally in the soil, that it would be necessary to imitate nature's methods and fill the soil with organic matter. Then, again, could not the phosphoric acid contained in the mineral phosphates be rendered available in the soil through the agency of organic matter if these phosphates were applied in their natural state, except being pulverized? If these questions be answered in the affirmative, and the farmer can arrive at an economical and satisfactory method of providing the requisite amount of organic matter in the soil, then it will be possible to avail of the phosphates already in the soil, and thus, on some lands, make it unnecessary to purchase phosphoric acid. When recourse to purchase becomes necessary, then a cheaper form of phosphoric acid can be used and do away with paying out so much money for dissolved or acid treated phosphates, which, in the end, is practically a means of accomplishing or arriv- ing at a mechanical condition. These are the ideas that call for the planning and management of the experiments outlined in the following program: TABLE 18. Phosphoric Acid Experiments. (Plots One-Tenth of an Acre Each.) | 4 |} a F eM § a z a Kind of Fertilizer and Treatment. 5 s > ca | ee) ~ B o yi or ro on S13) Ay ie) Co | CRIMSON CLOVER SEEDED IN CORN. | TP poublessuper-phosphatess (Soluble= Pat O's) 5% < sic «cists s'sislate,o/elctejeicisisiele cietslocsisionseie's}| Sora 319 Depissolveds bane! black, (Soluble. Pus \Og)s vases sccisc oc sisieinerors wars anaes ee « wietereiec aise | 73% | 735 S|. Dissolved Seuth Carolina rock. (Soluble’ Po, O's); sujec cites icie.cctcsslcieisisisie vivis'eies | 100 | 1,000 AED oublessuper-phosphates (Es (Ona ssacsecncasamseeeccneemetice: deen cinaanee: 37 370 Bal OC EUIN) ge rcte re vetelale renal fats cicieie\sle cite e’olcleteic oie) ctefafevereveisetelo aleve iesa(arel ote vero\s orele\svele sielece sra’eie iere/a[s]eietore))'© einie (els etercleleye [isieleteieteleleievs 6 sInon alumina phosphates(Reverted Ba iO yy eecccicicicicicie-olele\sicic/slesielercteis/aleleveisie ine’ 37 370 Vai BOne Dla cle CINSOMMDILE 2eq2 G's ie. cssefeieie eysiets tale ci sinistsistotelpieicieieus ote ere sisiese sie s)oleiece(siejele site | 6114 | 514 Sileevaw, DONeemMeal sCInsolublem Poy Og) eee csc: seielaiersisiareic sive! es eve] ele eersieieie(sicicieivieisisieicieveieie 66% 667 Hipslaraphosphatem(Msolubles bs, Os). cimicicc ciscissisielews cleiste oreisiels sieve vielsls wfsisicieio cvevstole | 92 | 926 HOM IPINO LENIN ameerctarevertevers clcveversieteicieserelele! > > > 5 & g & | & 2 & & 2 gs a a aa dy ah es ad £ pt al Weare of | & o2 A} o 2 ri 5 0: F] G4 > oOo }] @ > 9 a > oOo 3 7; ch HON Pn oo octet] < me |< & ! | | | | Corns s: siss< 5-year rotations, ........ 9] $3 23 | $| $2 30 4) $335 | 2] $3 36 1 Oatsyccacscicc 5-year rotations, ........ 10 377 2h 37k 3 4 37 | 1 3 71 3 Wheat,..... Both rotations, 2... 17 8 24 4 871: P3 | 8 68 | 3 9 37 1 Hay,........| Both rotations, .......... ) 129) 4) 19) 8 | L902, See enrO 1 | | By consolidating the values given in the above table and regarding it as representing the probable outcome of an average rotation in which the four crops have followed each other as in the actual ro- tation, then the value of the total increase per acre due to the various sources of phosphoric acid, when supplemented with uniform amounts of nitrogen and potash, will be represented by the follow- ing figures: | Per Acre. VB ILOvOtAINCrease from: DASICTE] AR eis cais.ciaicioia aici sie: cievararclarere(e cers oteTeCelaysiol ls etewisislolelelelctolels elclere sielscisietele $19 14 Valuerot increasesfrom’ dissolved bone) blacks)! sc cic okie os'sie «to .01018 ols ea}s aisles isiossiciateins cisieieieiscisie's 18 32 Value of increase from raw bone meal, ..... Ba Sercieiniavcrsiolale ieis tie niciciote oisletewie ciscieisle(eletcietsic clei wciniers 16 63 Valuevoftiincrease, from acid PROsphate icc cascsisieis cicieieisleios cioereisles ine e/asivies sie. eisibe.s eleleis eisisieiae 16 53 Taking basic slag phosphate as 100, we find the following as the proportionate values of these materials as sources of phosphoric acid: basicuslae phosphate Merher ae od oa nye oe 100 Dissolved: bone slackers = otxeiels oy oive GE Atore 90 Reawabone! meals er ves ces se seis 6 siete o.ceerea.s ees 87 MCI MOS Wd LOW eh carerae ielai ros ctrtcre ere ea eee 87 While these results are very close together in some cases, and more work will be necessary to determine their relative value, yet there seems to be no doubt that most crops have ability to utilize phos- phoric acid that is insoluble in water to a larger extent than is commonly recognized. 868 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. TEST MADE BY THE MAINE EXPERIMENT STATION. The Maine Experiment Station has studied the availability of dif- ferent sources of phosphates from two standpoints. 1st. The rela- tive producing capacity of different forms of phosphoric acid in growing the crops commonly used in the rotation in use in that section, and 2d. Testing the relative ability of different classes of crops to use different kinds of phosphates. The experiments conducted under the first head have had the results reported from 1886 to 1891. Since that time no results have been given in any of the Station publications. The summary of the results of the test are given in the Station Annual Report for 1891, page 129, from which the following table is copied: TABLE 21. Yield per Acre of Plots Fertilized with Different Forms of Phosphoric Acid, To- gether With Those of Plots Receiving no Phosphate. = — = —-— —— -~ —-- a Lo) ] ei oe ean (> i — Ge} Ao 0 be = go —~—= @o oc 2e 2B fon hee e eee eae 8 = 3 E aes . ok 32s ao2annd BSS ag era aie} ASaad Oaas arcs Teae |S oe | Seee | Seal, we Ss F oO =~ ieee PS vies ie) i ea | Sera es Oo , SoS QT cd) i} 2 BE) Eco = & Ss aGem S=g Oieces a7 > - wo Gr) “=P, x ig o i) £ & an 3S ow a) 2 at ao eo Dias S ics oc & Saga owe LY liar Sats cases 1S Awe De oO fSoel°R |/ae ag i oes ls Es wu eo 7 BLS ft es Cee cin oo onl 5 Ow | 3 Og Bo hie ik $3) (Se SE Ss Paces Le ot SPACES ooo “ a PEeel/hos, |hb22qa] sea os f Peso ee Selle se |) cae tens ° 2eak|Saeanal&s2a 35a a Sa AZ Q fx fy =} n | Yield per | Yield per | Yield per | Yield per | Yield per | Yield per acre—Bu. | acre—Bu. | acre—Bu. | acre—Bu. | acre—Bu. | acre—Bu. COPED EES" noaacadooodcacussdo0c5en 65.7 82.9 76.2 72.2 64.5 73.9 QatsAe ISS ia eile c/cisiciereiseicieicinicieieieelersrs 26.7 38.7 81.9 35.5 35.1 34.7 ELA Vas S88 sal S eteisteletalisicia sisieie clelerste’s 2,566 2,434 2,800 2,566 2,234 4,010 EDS GWAR SS OS satere ete retala/oicievoielalefstsiac) cielo | scleicieielercieteistal| (evetsteteleicialersiecal| eiarereteversiateleiciel| ‘sine/efe/eiele\eleictall eleleleisisteletaisicle | Kevsleleisloretctetemts Cas el OO0 Ee rialdeeisiscisicleisisiereteictsiseleicie’s 1253 15.0 15.7 14.3 12.7 22.7 ODES HMSO me ieicieiaie sicleloicteinctereenteisiciece's 38.9 44.9 45.9 38.7 43.2 51.4 Total crop in 6 years: BES Sates ojoteicielesose/nvelersietnielelelaicieleclece 121.3 166.5 154.0 146.4 142.8 160.0 TEV U mL SS ot a fersieleinieisisteseievcleieieiesice 2,566 2,434 2,800 2,566 2,234 4,01¢@ SYA | GudgonndasoncsnonuOsABasus 12.3 15.0 15.7 14.3 12.7 22.E From this table it will be seen that the dissolved bone black gave the largest total yield of oats, the second largest yield of peas and the smallest yield of hay. Fine ground bone gave the largest yield of hay and peas and stood second in the yield of oats. The ground South Carolina rock stood second in hay and third in oats and peas. It would appear from the yield of the stable manure plot that the land used was deficient in organic matter, which would acceunt fot No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 869 the falling off in the yield of the commercial manures and their lack of organic matter would probable be accountable for the in- soluble phosphoric acid of the South Carolina rock falling behind. At least, the experiments reported on previous pages by other sta- tions would indicate this fact. EXPERIMENTS BY THE MASSACHUSETTS STATION. The Massachusetts Experiment Station has conducted two classes of experiments with different forms and sources of phosphates. In the first test the phosphates were applied on the basis of equal money value and in the second test so as to have the same number of pounds of actual phosphoric acid per acre. The first series of experiments were commenced in 1890 on a soil which was well exhausted of available fertility. Previous to 1887 the land had been in meadow for a number of years. This meadow was well worn out and yielded but little. From 1887 to 1890 the land was cropped in corn, Hungarian grass, cow peas, vetch and serra- della, receiving no manure or fertilizer of any kind. The soil was 2 fair sandy loam. The following table gives the quality and analysis of the phosphates used: TABLE 22. Showing Schedule of Fertilizers Used in the Experiments Conducted by the Massachusetts Station. : * a $ 3} 3 3 . ~ . u ° Ly 3 Kind of Phosphate. ie 9 £ 8 os} >, = a) aa S ou 3 2 Le a < om =} Ay Ay Cc _ - - TOMMNIOB DHOSDD ACE sae iclatcte’oicrelcte ec! starstoistsloioyctelsicictersieictolclsieisiaterelaveiclete/aisjeleteleisiere(sletalolavote este ele etereieie’|| starsistetetetarciel | eletetoleisietsteta 1 | Slag phosphate, ........ Sa orsistetciateleters orsietelele ahsicteie cieseisistelal siete rnceters ele eielatalalele/avole(elsietove‘ere 19.0 889 2b NEON tls Ca 211 AN1 Ole tleyeloyelsialeleleteletelelelslsteteteiciele crsialele,oicieisiciereloletele ereleisie/ele'sietelereietetevarele stoss 21.9 896 Sib Onl OamSOLtMDNOSDIMACE seus saleielareiaiolclcleletarcicloteiciciels\sicterelele/sleveisiciciele:cisieicicielelele(etels\elelaleroisiers 21.7 903 As ESouthm Carol inae PNOSDUALC wiererecislelelers cictetelors cisiate'a clerelelere aie’ ejeveleiev%e!e(s/alelnjeisielaisisieielele eves 27.6 917 ABD ISBOLV.EO DONE DLAC Kia cteretsteleletelataiciois cretcisisisicrsisie’s'e\cicte reve coleleleisicletelelelolsis etevets/are everetstersieres® 15.8 546 *The quantity varied from year to year with the market value. +The no-phosphate plot was not used at the beginning of the experiment, but added in 1895. 870 ANNUAL RHBPORT OF THE Off. Doe. In addition to the phosphates each plot received an application of about 300 pounds of nitrate of soda, 400 pounds potash magnesia sulphate per acre. These quantities were continued until 1893 and since that time have been made very much larger though uniform for all the plots. The applications of phosphates were continued annually until 1893 and since that time none have been used. The object of withholding phosphate was to test their lasting effects. Subtracting the amount of phosphoric acid removed by the crops harvested from that applied, there shou!d have remained in the soil at the end of 1901, about the following quantities of phosphoric acid per acre: TABLE 23. Showing Quantity of Phosphoric Acid Remaining in the Soil at the End of Ten Years Cropping. - a be 13) e 3 2 Kind of Phosphate. ke g A 3 : S 5 Ay iH HE SLAL PR OSPNACE wir. ctelsroro.sieistetaloterslelerwioyeieleleisielejoloroisvo el siereraTezeloreleretevefetotelsrovelcictere)sverelareeloielersieleleiciersisiats 875 SGT ON A LSLAN GPE UAT Os ererere.c.cicisieiclalerelaisletelalerereil’e o/elo/s\siaveloictolercYolelerelsYelaietelveraialerlsisiebeisy sfelevelsteielaralsveretetars 208 SoM OriG ay PROSPHACCS, Ferrers cpererere a cc/orese c'e-ere wie crciole 6 wine e oisrejeletoserejelejeraieiejeistoreve oye ove te/aleistaictereveierelelelere sic 927 An South: Carolina PHOSPMALE sc ercicicrelerererevaielasale/niclefeferevatels vinteterclo!¥ioisre eisiareleietonele ie minterclersletelavetelelereteiete 714 Ba PDISSOLVECs DONE! DIG CH 2 xtc crete iaieiele ears lowe cre eterclaleiora’eleterors sleleleleievere aicielele eieisielaeietstareintejeioreioiateletetereictere 66 The crops which have been raised on the plots in the order of their succession are potatoes, wheat, serradella, corn, barley, rye, soja Leans, Swedish turnips,* corn, oats and cabbage. Representing the yield of the plat giving the highest return by 100, the relative efficiency of the phosphates at the beginning of 1902 stood as follows: Percent. Slag phosphatesn. Goa... ceils os! oe dais eetes crs oie 100.0 GroundgSouth Carolimaxrock. to... 2. on oe 92.3 Dissolvedsbone Dlacka\.nyceeame me tee ee 90.7 Monasisland. @uanos 4 cc \cccuAletesseies chore ete seers 88.3 Floridamphosplhates c.f. treated Florida rock, or “floats;” in the third, the phosphate of iron and alumina, or Redonda; the fourth box received no phos- phate. The next four boxes were treated in the same manner and so on to the end. Thus, it will be seen that for each kind of plant there were three boxes which received exactly the same treatment In addition to the phosphates, each box received ten grams sodium nitrate, five grams potassium chloride and five grams magnesium sulphate. In the boxes where the Redonda was used, ten grams calcium‘sulphate were also added. It was intended to supply all the elements essential to the healthy development of the plants, except that every fourth box receivd no phosphate. All the other conditions were made as uniform as possible in order that the differences in growth might fairly be attributed to the differences in phosphates used. KINDS OF PLANTS GROWN. EKighteen species of plants were chosen, representing seven orders: Peas, horse beans, clover and alfalfa (Leguminosae); turnips, ruta- bagas, cauliflower and kohl-rabi (Crusiferae); barley, corn, oats and timothy (Graminae); tomatoes and potatoes (Solanaceae); carrots and parsnips (Umbelliferae); buckwheat (Polygonaceae); sunflowers (Compositae). It was intended to carry each plant through three periods of growth, but the clover, the common red species (T. pratense), could not be matured in the time required for the other plants, and but two crops were grown. The sunflower and buckwheat did not thrive under the conditions of the experiment, and after a single trial were replaced by carrots and parsnips, which were grown for the two following periods. The seed was carefully selected, that only being used which was well formed and of uniform size. Of the larger plants, four or five were grown to each box. The smaller plants were thinned so that the number to each box was uniform for that plant. Such leaves as ripened before the plants matured were removed, dried and added to the plants when harvested. No attempt was made at the pollination. As very few insects were present during the growth of the plants, the fruiting, as might have been expected, was very irregular. As soon as the plants seemed to have attained their maximum development, they were har- vested, dried, weighed and the total amount of dry matter determined for each crop grown. In the diagrams that follow the average pro- duction for a single period is shown, the heavy lines representing the relative weights of dry matter, and the last column the weights in grams. 876 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TABLE 25. Off. Doc. Diagram Showing Relative Weights of Dry Matter of Plants Grown With Phos- Crops. Eforse, beans, .....ccc.cee- (CHOW “cdoodoondoconpocuodd PAN PANL AO ricieiersteicicisieieia'e eee PUTTIPS | cieecicieieieisie cle sisielelele e Rutabagas, ....... eeceoese Cauliflower, ...... eevcceces ORICA DI, o cisicis cievele cisiaivie AOO isENAGAA Gossccoonoacnd eoeee (Ofyerl, GocodeanusogconDAasbdos Oa tare aicrarsleicieraicleteicielsreieiea(ere AMICLINA Gasnocenouden0S we phoric Acid From Different Sources. a : Phosphate. Comparative Scale. if P=] be Oo z Acid rock, 167 PNOatss seas | ——_————_—_—_—__—. 122 | Redonda, ..... —————__.- 94 | No phosphate, |/-——————- 87 yece rock, ....| 269 4 Floats, ........ | 128 | Redonda, ..... | 118 | No phosphate, | | 86 | | ( Acid rock, vee] See 217 INNIS Gosoqaan —_—_—_——_- 169 | | Redonda, ..... = 126 | {No phosphate, |—- 83 | { Acid rock, ...,/ _—————_—__- 107 | WeEORts sce ce cece _ 97 Redonda, ..... —_—_——___-- 87 No phosphate, ——— - 90 | Acid rock, ....|_————___ 222 MOR ts se ccc lcisirere —_—_—_ 202 Redonda, ..... Scenes 187 No phosphate, 119 Acid rock, ....|———_______ | 152 Floats, ........|———-—————____ | 145 Redonda, ...../———____ | 122 No phosphate, |-—————- 64 Acid rock, ....|——————___________. | 196 MIOAtss seccwneie ———_- 167 Redonda, ..... 107 No phosphate, | 62 Acid rock, ....|—-———__________- 232 W1ORts, eccpecce 209 Redonda, ..... —_ 172 No phosphate, |———_—_ 130 | ( Acid rock, ....|———————_________ 338 MIOAtS ee eases oo 171 RECON, Wccie cc —_ 186 No phosphate, |———_- 146 | { Acid rock, .... | 218 ernoats taster 85 Redonda, ..... 98 | | No phosphate, |—-— | 31 | ( Acid rock, 6... |ARARARARAaA 662 Mloatsy sccce. -.|——_—————_- 307 Redonda, ..... _—_————-- 380 | | No phosphate, }|————_- 319 Acid ‘rock, 7... 410 BIOats; Sane. 68 | 329 Redonda, .....|/—————_____——__- 346 No phosphate, | 353 No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 877 TABLE 25—Continued. a # Pz Crops. Phosphate. Comparative Scale. | re P=] oe E ‘“A‘CId = TOCK:, |r. e,< - 135 PROMI ALOES a welersisiele.ctersis eielel wate WIOAtS a osciecnie —————_-- 92 Redonda, ..... ———_—— 79 No phosphate, ———- 36 | ( Acid rock, .... 260 POtatOesiiee cas usin isisjsrstche «slo He MODES @ vreciclerciais - 187 Redonda, .....;——————_- 156 No phosphate, | | 151 | ( Acid rock, .... - 214 WAPLOES HD jeece\eicieivisie vie) iv'eis.cisi< SIOSCS Harcisteresic.cs SEES 141 Redonda, .....| - 149 No phosphate, | 135 | ( Acid rock, .... | 237 Parsnipss ceenoeice sastelse Bevo | Pe EOLOGLES verecisisle a0 ae GH lei PRedonda,e..... - - 155 No phosphate, |- | 168 | ( Acid rock, ee leset eee. | 107 Buckwheat, .........-.. ---| 4 Floats, ........ Se 54 | | Redonda, ..... —__—____- | 51 RS phosphate, |———- | 37 Acid rock, —— | 101 ISUITITIOWIELBS . ois: ccicce!eieissatacescieies| IORES) yee secretes |— | 14 Redonda, ..... lee 15 | | No phosphate, |- | 11 \S(Acid- rocks ..+.|———_— = 100 TUPrnips,. -TOOtS), jie ceiece0.0s MIOBES Sc crers sire ee | 70 | | Redonda, ..... an | 90 | | No phosphate, |_——- | 44 f Acid rock, ....|——————_ | 62 Rutapseas,; TOOK 6 he ccie| EIOAES? A iare cisteieice | eee 47 Redonda, ..... i 32 No phosphate, —— | 16 Acid rock, ....|/————— | 50 Cauliflower, edible por- IOBCS Aestclaicteicce —— | 19 tion. Redonda, ..... Deere Une ween Meeiey ao MWe Thy [ooo . No phosphates! | -+eee A | [Acid rock, ....| - | 158 Kohl-rabi, edible portion, | { Floats, ........ |§——$_$____________ | 129 Redonda, ..... || *92 | | No phosphate, ————— 60 | ( Acid rock, ....,————____—__- 185 Potatoes, tubers, ........ Mloats ween a - 131 Redonda, ..... $a 140 ALAN ROY hgh Vos} 8) 08 of 115 | | } Acid rock, .....——————________- ets Carrots, roots, ........... WEWIORts'. meant | | 109 | | Redonda, ..... —S SSS 113 | [No phosphate, |—————_—— 102 | Acid rock, a ie | 196 Parsnips: roots) sc.naecese He RECTORS S| cece | | 115 | | Redonda, SSS 114 | bee phosphate, _—————————_ | 120 *In the case of the oats and timothy the scale has been reduced one-half to accommodate the lines to the space allowed. The relative length of the lines for the same plant has been main- tained. S78 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. RESULTS OF THE MAINE STATION EXPERIMENTS. In every case the acid rock gave the best returns. The gain was especially marked with the family Gramineae, three members of which, the barley, corn and oats, yielded nearly double the amount produced by either the floats or Redonda. The effect upon the sun- fiowers and buckwheat was especially marked, but if these plants could have been brought to ful] development it is probable the gain would have been less apparent. If we compare the amount of dry matter produced by the acid rock with that produced by the fioats for all the crops grown, we find the balance in favor of the acid rock to be 52 per cent. In other words, the effect of the available phosphoric acid, as com- pared with the insoluble phosphate, was to increase the product more than one-hali. In nearly every case the floats gave results second only to those obtained with the acid rock. With this phosphate the Cruciferae gave returns within ten per cent. of those obtained by the acid rock. This is not true of the edible portion of these planis, how- ever, for there the good eiiects of the acid rock were more marked. Of the three forms of phosphate used, the Redonda proved the least valuable, though supplying a larger amount of available phosphoric acid than the floats. In most cases, it showed itself inferior even to floats. The Germineae furnished an interesiing exception to this rule, yielding results with Redonda above those given by the floats. The smali yield from the boxes in which no phosphate was used is suilicient indication of the extreme poverty of the soil, and con- firms the belief that the amount of phosphoric acid thus supplied is not sufficiently large to seriously affect the experiment. Ti is interesting to nete that the plants of the same family show a remarkable agreement in their behavior towards the various phos- phates. The striking manner in which the Gramineae respond to the stimulus of the acid rock has already been alluded to. In no other case is the effect so marked. Another peculiarity of the members of this family is shown in their conduct toward the Re- donda. The relative value of this phosphate and floats is here the reverse of that shown by nearly all the other plants. The failure of the Cruciferae to respond to the acid rock furnishes a good illus- iration of a similar kind. The Umbelliferae, though responding to the acid rock, seem to derive no benefit from either the floats or Rendonda, since neither of the phesphates increase the yield above that obtained where no phosphates were used. This is true both of the whole plant and the roots. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OCF AGRICULTURE. 879 The alfalfa shows a strange indifference to the precise form in which the phosphoric acid is supplied. The crop was light in every case, and the phosphoric acid already present in the barren soil used, seems to have sufficed for the slender product. STIMULATING EFFECT OF ACID PHOSPHATE IN THE EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH. A report of this work would be incomplete if it failed to take note of certain facts observed in the course of the experiment which can- not be shown in the diagram, where only the final results are given. Throughout the whole series of experiments the effect of the acid rock was marked, the plants receiving it in nearly every case at once taking the lead, and keeping it to the end. The horse-beans fur- nish a marked exception to this rule, the more nearly equal devel- opment being perhaps due to the large amount of nutriment stored in the seed. When this supply was exhausted, the phosphoric acid hunger manifested itself. In by far the larger number of cases, especially with the clover, timothy, turnips and rutabagas, the good effects of the acid rock were more marked during the first few weeks of growth than ata later stage, when the roots become more fully developed, and had begun to forage for themselves. This fact, also, is shown in the figures of the clover and timothy. It would appear that the young plants feed but little upon the insoluble phosphates, but that the organic acids present in the sap of the roots exert a solvent action upon the insoluble phosphates in the soil, gradually converting them into available forms. It will be noticed that in this work only the immediate effect of the phosphates has been taken into consideration, no mention having been made of the unused phosphoric acid remaining in the soil at the close of the experiment. In actual field work, the good effect of the ground rock would, of course, be far more lasting than that of the acid rock. box experiments were made at the New Hampshire Experiment Station in 1893, with winter rye, the phosphoric acid being sup- plied by roasted Redonda, ground bone and basic slag. The re- sult showed that the rye gave nearly as good returns with the roasted Redonda as with the other phosphates. The result con- firms the work here reported. It will be seen by reference to the diagram here given that the corn, barley, oats and timothy (plants closely related to rye) gave better results with the Redonda plios- phate than with the finely ground Florida rock. 880 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. SUMMARY OF THE MAINE STATION EXPERIMENTS. 1. Plants differ in their ability to feed upon crude phosphates. 2. Turnips, rutabagas, cauliflowers and kohl-rabi gave nearly as good returns with the Florida rock as with the acid rock. 3. In every other case the good effect of the acid rock was very marked. 4. In most cases the crude Florida rock yielded better returns than the Redonda. 5. Barley, corn and oats seem to require an acid (soluble) phos- phate. 6. When early maturity is desired, the acid rock can profitably be used, 7. The largely increased production obtained by the use of the acid rock will often determine the success of the crop. 8. The solubility of a phosphate in ammonium citrate is not always the correct measure of its actual value to the plant. TESTS MADE BY THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION. In the winter of 1900-1901 some experiments were conducted at the Cornell Experiment Station upon the relative ability of various orders of plants to ut.lize different sources and forms of phos- phoric acid. These tests were conducted in a green-house and the plants grown in box pots. The soil in which the plants were grown was a white quartz sand prepared by grinding quartz rock. The soil or medium furnished practically no plant food, so that it was necessary to furnish an artificial supply of the essential plant foods. All conditions were made exactly similar except as to the kind of phosphoric acid supplied. The actual amount of phos- phoric acid supplied the different boxes was the same, but the sources were different. The following table gives the variety of plants used, the source of phosphoric acid supplied and the results obtained: 881 7] TOP AGRICUL iN PARTMIE . vi Dk No. 6. Weight in grams of dry matter pjoe olsoydsoyd on $180, youlq auog ayeydsoyd ploy plow omoydsoyd on 8801 IRIS ISK] yoRiq euog ~ proe ofzoydsoyd oN s}eold Ses olseg Movyq eu0g eyeydsoyd pry. plow olmoydsoyd oN SCO [WT Sels o1sug 7 MOR TQ aug azyeydsoyd pioy | 3vls oiseg f | teereeesseeeeerees (SQUSIDEY teteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeres CIQAOIO |. see eeeee i eee eee eee eens | eee ‘yonpolg Jo a[Bvog esAIBieduiop pue pas a}eydsoydq ‘umoIn doip *13pl0 ‘aeilajfonip ‘avasouluInza’y ‘Se0INOg JUeTIJIq Wolly ploy oloydsoyd YWM UMOIDH sjuR[q JO Jaye AIG JO S}USIOM DATIEIOY Surmoyg ureisvig ‘90 ATAVL 56—6—1902 Off. Doc. PORT OF THE — “4 os) Plow dtioydsoyd ON Ss] BOL 3vls o1seq yortq au0g aivydsoyd poy plIoe ooydsoyd ON S}eOT Seis seg — -yoRlTq suog aieydsoyd ploy plow olaoydsoyd on sels oIseg [ yoRlq auog aleydsoyd ploy ANNUAL RI SUIBIS Ul JSON jo ‘jyonpoig jo v[Bog aAT}eIedwoD puke pasg aieydsoyg $2 re) ° \ | ecccvcccsscccsecee ‘sdusivg a ‘halseg re ‘uMOINH, dolp *‘ponuljuop—9e ATIAVL “8120 TH eee ee eee eect oreesesresseee ~ | Peete ere se cree esesessesseeseese *12PIO ‘eBlazTIequin ‘gBulurBIL No. 6. DHPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. $33 The results obtained by the tests of both the Maine and Cornell Kixperiment Stations are valuable in that they show the relative ability of plants of varicus kinds to feed upon the different forms of phosphoric acid. These results also show that upon soils which are deficient in organic matter it is decidedly best with most crops to use some phosphate furnishing soluble phosphoric acid. Never- theless, these results seem to point out that the insoluble phosphates might be used on quite barren soils to grow such crops as turnips or rape for soil renovation or green manure purposes. Again, these results, when considered in connection with the results of field experiments made upon soil which contained a fair amount of organic or vegetable matter, would seem to give addi- tional evidence as to the necessity of having lands full of organic matter in order to obtain good results from applications of insoluble phosphates. SOME FOREIGN EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOSPHATES. Numerous experiments have been made from time to time upon different phases of points effecting the availability of phosphates and forms of phosphoric acid. To give an abstract from all of these tests would not be possible in a work of this kind, yet it might be interesting to note briefly a few which have been repeated recently and which would seem to be closely related to the tests made in this country. Experiments on the relative value of different phosphates, by Dim- itry Prianischnihoff (Vol. 56 (1901), pp. 107-146, Landw. Versuchs- Stationen). This was also a test of the relative ability of various crops to use sparingly soluble phosphates. The tests were made by pot culture in sand. The following numbers indicate the relative amounts of phosphoric acid assimilated as shown by the results up to the time of making the report: $ : : B s : 6 lave» be ae ae 2 ST ewtts iss FH < | CG i w 3 fh | AQ ; 4 8 Cereal] se eratsseyeteleieieio\sielatoleitets(o1etstals isa) el oJ 's cyazelatsis's atsisjetsistsvotsleysierstere ie 0-10 | 40 60-70 100 Buckwheatae IIpenss o a , ¥ Fertilizers. uw 8 g i) a E of bi ° ae co) par) oO Q 2 | 3 # | bes 5 CG 3 ESE a > n a) Gominict el, sere sata i Metre ees te hae Ay ove | 24.61; 25.38; —0.77 Rock-and-potash, 48 | 14.71 17.26 | —2.64 Dissolved bone, 2 30.87 26.00 | 4.87 Ground bone, 30 25.91 28.42 | —2.51 Dissolved rock, 56 13.48 13.57 —0.09 Fall, 1900. | (CoA GodnbocaqnammasaconcunsaancodoEoéopananatcdasccasendereseeds 130 | 24.00 23.22 0.81 RGCKand=potashys erica serieisteiieiisoieeiciencisielec or einai voeh iets 33 14.68 18.11 | —3.48 WDISHOLVE Ad) DONE Hess ceprenisielsceict aclocers cicisieitioineiciotisiote nine csiclotte cele oer: 2 22.74 23.50 | —0.76 Grounanone viet cesiccleciocle sen ciiareeccintutions neon tecweaiGw ate cents 17 26.87 28.73 —1.36 PD ISSOLV. CCRT OCK mets ise cieletsie ieiclniee eters nee teisteG aie eae eel eee uone 31 13.11 13.96 —0.85 Spring, 1901. | Womplete ng etree cles icte ear ot cla es aes Se Eee Gnas 291 24.76 23.92 | 0.84 Rock-and-potashte gncnece cece seen ono nee eee ane 60 14.60 16.20 | —1.60 Dissolved bone, a 29.00 28.00 | 1.00 Ground bone, 44 28.71 27.59 | 1.12 Dissolved rock, 49 13.51 18.90 —0.39 (Cat OIECS to Son dnoniaanncndonueyeonuocsde douEeoosennANBonsantansocasr 179 28.75 | ° 22.28 | 1.47 Rock-and-potash, 42 14.23 16.09 | —1.86 Dissolved bone, 5 23.36 23.91 —0.55 Ground Bponevera tesco ec eee eee eee naa aera EES 27.69 25.94 1.75 Dissolved rock, 49 | 13.82 | 13.18 0.64 | | a I A <== = tial “) CWits5) seine ssicisieleis cleivislerele\sleielsiviel viele eieieloie 2.25 2 08 211 (96 per cent., 90 per cent. basis). CWt., .........-ccscnccscccesenccceccs Waeisesoacse 211 214 Double manure salt (48 to 50 per cent., 48 per cent. basis), cwt., ....| 1 04 1 09 42 Kainit (12.4 per cent. actual potash) per ton at port of shipment, ....| & 80 SxSO Gee iiseisivletatesiste Sylvinite (per unit potassium "SulLAteyy cee/siseicelesicicie sielslesnisioisjeleieieleieloieisleleieis Jeeeeseeeee B8=aOUlicreicleiclorisivie Manure salt (20 per cent. potash), per unit potash, ................--+- lelercleleleiaisieis G2-GE Ns leteicecieisieymia This trade is so managed that, before March 1, nearly all whole- sale deliveries of the year are contracted for. Composition of Raw Materials. In order to form a correct idea of the cost per pound of the fer- tilizing constituents of these materials, it is needful to determine their composition; or, in other words, the quantities of valuable constituents each contains. The following table shows the composi- tion of the raw materials used in the manufacture of fertilizers. Very No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 908 few analyses for these materials, with the exception of ground bone and dissolved rock, have been made in Pennsylvania. The figures in the following table include the averages of the results of analyses made in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey and Pennsylvania during the past year, except in the case of ground bone and dissolved rock phosphates, where Pennsylvania results alone are included. Composition of Non-Acidulated Fertilizer Ingredients (Per Cent). A 3 | : cS 2 n ke Fe ou ad . ° ov KN a . a o> o a i aa » 2 ns Es Ps 8 8 Pa = ° oO a a fy H SULA COMOLLATIIN OD Uap tvanie is ctotersiele(aleiclecatersis ics aisles: (a:a/aelticisie’e e.sinaiccs eletee 1] nb ee We Nees Nitrate of soda, .. 19 15.68 Dried blood, ...... 6 11.43 Ground bone, ... 4h aa $ 77 | 3.11 Manas wee. ciecice Rri wees sc 11 | 5.54 PEROT TIS eas aciociernciecrcsiatsies oeatsice Stic cica stelec ete ciocteesias cle reewclnieelee 15 7.61 WOCEOMBSCE GT MCA aie ere stare) clereroletelelereiniasstetelela ajais otcicisie’s:c,ciciwsjeissetseicieleie stele 46 7.24 CASTOLMPOMACE Se, icc decisieiceicolieta cele cles vinierete aisiois/elale siereie sisters iale/a'e fe lciaiels 5 5.01 Sulfate ofspotash, “high rade s caciincicicicloie’s\clacis sic cic ae evainie wrejels ciete Selistetesinen ats MRUITIACCMOLBDOLASIS, (ei seiaiecreicloiovare e/ale ale wla'wclele »'e\s elnve'e\eisie' vise (ni s-0'elojeieicielsie's BO} || vcicisrciee siece HSDUTN Cease sities ctcisleiclotoictsic ovelcictcleielelc late siete cicteysleVele efeleieielelers eisteleie aisictela(ere eixiele gS loaGoonenad Double sulfate of potash and magnesSia, ........ccsceeceseeeee Balser eis Composition of Acidulated Fertilizer Ingredients (Per Cent). | = 3 a locas ON oe 5 ' ° ' [27 a iS n = 2 n a SCR am pies Were ° aa & a a a on a o aN a be} a o> fo ©, a fey 5 a3 z 2s 3s 23 Es 8 BD > Oo xs) 53 = a) a @ Za Z & wn G H Dissolved bone-black, ate 5 75 2.53 1.41 WDISSOLVEROS DONE TA cacwisicieisrercielsiore sie Stas 6 | 17.55 2.03 | 6.70 8.82 Dissolved rock phosphate, 8 9.86 1.48 *Also contains 2.40 per cent. nitrogen. The above figures, considering only those cases where a consider- able number of analyses are available, would indicate that there has been no great change in the composition of the raw materials used in fertilizer manufacture, Cost per Pound of Fertilizer Constituents. From the foregoing data showing the cost per ton, hundred- weight, or other unit of measure, of the several raw materials, and $04 ANNWAEL REPORT OF THB eff. Dee. the quantities of valuable constituents the average materials now on the market contain, the wholesale cost per pound of the valuable con- stituents can be readily estimated. In the case of ammoniates, the quotations are “per unit of ammonia” in many cases. The term “unit” is equivalent to “per cent.;” in goods sold by the ton of 2,000 Ibs., the unit is equal to 20 Ibs.; and 20 Ibs. of ammonia contain 16.47 Ibs. of nitrogen. In the case of refuse bone-black, unacidulated, the mean, 28.25 per cent. of phosphoric acid, is assumed to represent the average ma- terial on the market. Phosphate rock is sold by the ton of 2,240 Ibs.; this material is sold on the basis of the bone-phosphate of lime it contains, with draw- backs for injurious constituents. Since the bone phosphate of lime contains 45.8 per cent. of phosphoric acid, each per cent. of bone phosphate in a long ton of phosphate rock is equivalent to 22.4 Ibs. and contains 10.26 Ibs. of phosphoric acid. In the wholesale trade, it is customary to sell dried blood, azotine, horn and hoof meals, and concentrated tankage solely on the basis of ammonia, to the entire disregard of the phosphoric acid contained. Likewise, the insoluble phosphoric acid in dissolved rock is omitted from consideration, and contracts are based solely upon the “avail- able” phosphoric acid; that is, the sum of the “soluble” and “revert- ed” or “citrate soluble” phosphoric acid; nor in rock phosphates is any claim made for the small quantities of nitrogen and potash they always contain, nor in dissolved bone for the potash present. Under these conditions, the wholesale cost per pound in New York of the valuable constituents of such materials as furnish but a single fertilizing element, these materials being assumed to be in the state of preparation and in the package in which the manufacturer pur- chased them, are given in the following table; also, a figure repre- senting a fair retail price at the factory, the materials having under- gone no change in treatment or packing, and the allowance for ex- pense and profit in retailing being 20 per cent. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 905 Wholesale Cost per Pound of Fertilizer Constituents (New York). ———$—$$—_—_ i = a ————————————————— —— ——— = ade = o =) ° ry 5 | a PI > Material, Constituent Valued. re] = 23 Gai a soe 2a ea | Mees N E z SUlfAterOMeAMIMONI Ay wwe cile ccecieowlocte oe clciciv/s, els, sisceisieieieisieisie In bLa wol {20 conpodaduenpuodcoceac 14.30 | 17.16 INSET ACC VOL SOURS iis celeicis eco ic re cic are nls ais o disvele aiclaraie s\e\olels,sreielvieieie | INDEPORENS Eton sleccisisielels ce cletatvicisis 12.68 15.22 Dried MblOOM enIZM ETrade «crc salatcicicyaielate ies eleln-ciclsiele/a:c)eore0/e I NItrogen:,, “..ccrooses cnsieleciesiciers 13.59 16.381 Concentrated Ptankase wae ana. nceticieisis c/alelaisiereteieio\e,usreraterelsiesele INITLO SEN Mer issiseisicinieletrelelsieye(es 9.86 11.83 FETNSe HDONEG-DIACIC, Seance cssdatecatteisis tee crsmisocein’s esinn «sities Phosphoric acid total, .... 3.36 4.03 *Phosphate rock: | CRCACE RIVET HO) DOT CONTA SP seiswiew cs sists cle siclaleleisicleatetars Phosphoric acid total, .... 41 49 (CBRennessecteissPeriGeD tay’ ccjajeoccisisise'aciseicie(s sicleclasla'eie'eis Phosphoric acid total, ....| .39 -47 (South Carolinas. 60" perm cents) nec cc ce c.ciecicisicsisie cece Phosphoric acid total, ....| -53 67 ACL ADO OS DN ACOn miele creteieiciecicivislelsielereremniaicitieiercisisrs s.clelele cle?teiclercicte Phosphorie acid available, 3.13 3.78 DOUDLEVINANULETSAlUSS cecicrecrc, ces sivicieic's trelveicis iste sinisielecieleies ote ROCA SN vtec astecletcieiciciciciete onic 4.20 5.04 SuUlsatew Ore POtas ler oncooae asc ce iviewe esc e clecrcicle seis ole never POTASH. etic cciaecisiccisiensestenrets 4.28 5.14 Mirra EO MOLMBMOTASH Meera arerersie s,(ciaisicieiclaistors #.o,s s aloie sieieele'e'e/s(eiaicie IPPOCASH . fewiec cteiciecics Seloals salnetere 3.56 4.27 cairn EME eens elec ee ho cemies aides caine amaenieide aes lWPotash /5.)cstheetecssek oan 3.55 4.26 rg oer ram ereeeparie of abe Maeinceine and Mining; Jourdals The olcesvere potash are taken from the schedule of the Syndicate and those of the remainder from the Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter. The quotations for bone are given without specific reference to quality, so that it is impossible from these data to fairly apportion their several wholesale values to the nitrogen and phosphoric acid contained in this material. As compared with tankage, the general tendency is to assign a higher commercial rating to the phosphoric acid in bone and to the nitrogen a rating not very different from that given in tankage. . The quotations of Thos. J. White and Company show an average wholesale rate in Baltimore during September, 1901, to March, 1902, for crushed tankage to have been $2.26 per unit of ammonia and $6.10 _per unit of bone phosphate of lime. This is equivalent to $2.74 per unit of nitrogen and $0.218 per unit of phosphoric acid. The average composition of the ground bone and bone meal samples analyzed last fall in Pennsylvania was: Phosphoric acid, 22.53 per cent.; nitrogen, 2.94 per cent. The prepared bone contains less fat and moisture and often less nitrogen than the ordinary “rough bone;” but these differences tend, in a manner, to neutralize each other. Assuming for the rough bone quoted in the New York market the same composition as the bone meal sold in Pennsylvania and for the value of the nitrogen $2.74 per unit, the values per pound of the several constituents would be: 55 806 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE P Off. Doc. Wholesale Cost per Pound of Fertilizer Constituents, New York. IT. Bone. a2 = joc § | 8 z Bes Grade. Constituent Valued. a r=} 2 y\ase ce os g | 88 Sees E Be = | = Sl ea BROS BRON. Bin cre nied tacreras eciciais citi viteloe Coae ace teeta cen INAEROR CT al oct ncennasiecinte aici 1b ey 16.4 PRoOspnoric acids \ccerrs-002' 2.26 2.71 Ground bones tooo sein tales cs eae ee ee Meee Nitroren; co sieseccteds dastines 15.39 | 18.42 \ Phosphoric acid, ...........- 2.54 | 3.04 The average ground bone and bone meal on the retail market are probably inferior in composition to the rough bone on the wholesale market, hence these figures tend to be too high. Direct estimation of the wholesale pound values of acidulated bone (animal bone) capnot be made, as there are no wholesale data available for this purpose; for this computation, dependence inust be placed upon the retail selling prices. Valuations in Neighboring States. It is desirable, from all points of view, that the schedules of val- vation throughout a district in which similar market conditions pre- vail, should differ as little as possible. It has been our practice in the past, to conform our schedule to that adopted after very careful cu-operative study of market conditions for each year, by the New Kngland States and New Jersey, except where the peculiar conditions of our market have made the valuations diverge too largely from the actual selling prices, as in the case of ground bone and dissolved rock phosphates. The schedules for these States for 1900 and 1901 are as follows: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 907 Trade Values Adopted by the New England States and New Jersey. Cents per Ib. es Ay Aw =0 ns Be | Shes} 1901. | 1902. ie te) sa 38 oO > | Nitrogen: | | EM AIMIMONI A SALUS purse sles oisislcwisicicis esis coos cee wale alee clnwicig ng wide Sate ne a oswco orien | 16% | 16%} 100 TRING TUCO eat ctetalwrelare, orale ofe(o, seleielstarelare’ovela eloie sjsic: tela eisis,sin ererelatsieisiawlo nin sere vleisictors ere etaiereicie’s TA || TAS ee C0 Invdryeandetin e=Sroun densi actecc sce cjsisleldessieisicioaicaislecivls's siscels'ols Geelaccauaoleee| 16 16% 103.4 Ingmeat® blood rand@mixed fertilizers’, Wiycs sees cistacenecitiasctvines oialesiee siecle | 16 16% 100 Inehne-Fround honerands tankase 1. i6.< coi ccclejeiciaisioeie ec cicre'sieie's.e acigie giaisle ein cele | 16 16% 100 NIA COATSE BDONCTANG SLAM KASS Poss arcsjo's sicin/0/e\ajulnie'e\e) = . z a 2 z ow ha o} 7 3 a & o g 3 @ > os > us) =) s a S| = h * 2 2 E i g z 2 5 om 2 id) a) [ae Q 1) = , : Nimmber Of ANALYSES; sc. o2ae vis ccc sm cose niacieaaisiciese ese 289 2) 66 59 29 Moisture, Per CeNt., scccccsceccccsccceeccceivecerns cic 8.93 | 7.83 | 10.90 9.06 5.89 Phosphorie acid: | > Total, per cent., 10.77 12.96 | 11.89 15.88 22.22 Soluble, per cent., .... 4.85 | 2.65 | 4.95 9.43 sia latoroctannlele Reverted, per cent., . oe Sejete 3.41 | 4.45 3.37 4.65 2... seen Insoluble, per cent., .... 2.51 | 5.86 | 1.57 DSO ee reyaterescloteie EOtashtee PEr (COME. cm oistere eistclajelaleinvle/«lo/elelelelale/siei | 24.10 16.50 16.45 13.73 28.52 Commercial value of samples whose selling price | is ascertained, Bi Se Shoo p aa de sivtets eisiatwiataletetejejavelurmaccrers tele | 25.33 17 35 15.05 13.49 26.80 912 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Two tendencies appear upon a comparison between these data and ihe corresponding figures for the spring of 1901: A diminution of soluble phosphoric acid and a general increase in the percentages of reverted and insoluble phosphoric acid, while the total phosphoric acid is slightly increased; this tendency appeared in a great many brands. The use for acidulation of rock phosphates which, though richer in phosphoric acid, also contain more iron and alumina than heretofore, would account for this tendency, since the phosphates in acidulated goods from such rock tend to revert to insoluble forms. The second tendency is toward the greater use of potash, which ap- pears in both complete fertilizers and rock-and-potash goods. The dissolved bones were very inferior. The cases of departure of goods from their guaranteed composition observed this season, including only those cases in whichit amounted to two-tenths per cent. or more, were as fellows: Summary of Instances of Deficiency from Guaranty. Bee kee| vi 8 N 1 a ' = 3 a j Be] Bh ll Bowie oe cal ile a 2 a fi =| 3 @ be] 4S 0 a2 » co) i= o ie ie s > z <7 [e} ad fo} 5 wn n g a 8 2 2 16) A fc A oO DWeticient, in) four (CONSEITUCNESs, cece ccioccccicieje scleieieieis 1 |eececeeeee feceeeeesee feces eeeees | evare tnearelehetare DWeficlentsin] three iCONStIEUCNtS) Gi 2 r=] ay ae ° oe e fm © vey 43 | rt = Kh be he CY) C7) 5 Ay > O, < | < 1 saneeee oe ar = Fall, 1901. | Phosphorie acid: CIcCOEO Meets atecarcielelatctoi ere arersiciais Gisietste(evatoiefelsicietetalea ollie siateistarcicietaciatelcietetels ate sieletatslacstoislelslelatatereyste 11.51 9.82 PAS CPra ASHI] Gece Moe wc cana cian elauelarsietcle eieloieleinteloteralsicte alstale\eiutatercieielalevere(slevele\stelotoletetelete/staleleigistetalelslele 10.60 8.05 OTUs Wi eete eicte cleaves clelelsistolarsictclereroioielolsis elelevalelejavetevatsisielsletsiclaiete! Melatelnistaieiolels(olafaleleele/ete\ starctereleletersistele Deb 2.65 NSE SO Tow ie racetelalotereieisisteretetele crsicieleisieielatetetate ale eieierefeletaleterarsicvara(eleretsrelacetorelerelatorpralelststetsierateratavareyetetois 1.39 1.3) Spring, 1902. Phosphoric acid: TRO Cea see perecte is oto ats avo) clelarsicls (etecate(erafoiniels siolnlersercetelecictereteleieveretakeraioreleie1s stateleieletarevelsisiefeinietere(etelsvels 10.80 9.29 PCV EDIT ENED LE wate favo) olel 162] Complete fertilizers: | IRE tShoabel=c, Sadonapecuotco don UBDDCnOCOOD OREO AOD CH ACNCOCOOOeOOdOnGHAdGGod $23.60 | $24.70 | $1.10 INI cabGoeepob eo onabosdsaanasemoDAconGsas Ganob Senn ocaoncoennoEsaonaaed 22.98 23.42 44 1900, Spring, 25.38 24.61 | —.77 1 OEE ee Onc Seis don ciate Balers sisiete Abd 23.22 23.84 62 1901, Spring, P Pee eter dace Aga eialese ee 23.92 | 24.76 84 af a panes Pao cde 8 brite Rae ie 22.28 | 23.765 | 1.47 Ties Soli t enanbocecocccanndocosapnaciGoDOPSEoboriccorntaoapococdopudadcuen 24.10 | 25.33 1.23 Dissolved bone: TSSOP PLT, aeere stevcrescis ciehevers eveiciete eve ayoloie:steioiei ste arareie siace eislelaselelejerelersic.cieleeis victers eis ele ralny bye 21.81 06 EET ccintatererere ecco a le tateelsycfare la siehaiesoterciolestaccvsicselsiatatasarayata/ cys ela( = < cs S ue = ' — — = ' = } oO ra 6 | @e GS ERC ECAR SES WL oc cc eeaac nce aut eee 22338 5 62 56 Migunire per Cnt 225. o cece esos ena e sen eee eee 3. 3-78 1.30 $4 §.72 Phosphoric acid: ast Dee = Se OE ee ee ne oe ae eee 11. 15. 12.02 16.13 23.47 Soluble, per cent., 4. 3.66 5.82 a eG SSE Reverted, per cent, co 3.34 7-22 4.78 DTN Bececcree & Dre Sr ee ee 2.37 5.0 12 gD. | Bae NEES I Rn a cece oa en eine ee a oie IY oer ree) Bas sese-~s 3.3 Nitrogen, phe gale 2] Sa, | See a pe eee ae ee a La bie 7h Peete t sy i aaee Reta) See E-os < Mechanical analysis of bone: ERA ee a ra al em eg ee ee te me oli ttc file at 7 Coarse) 222-20 Se: % Commercial valuation, $27. $27.32 Average selling price, 25. 23.08 Commercial value of samples whose selling price 5G (pmeerisgmed kW. occ acne Se ncee ma ason ace aganoeeeene 23.31 | 27.0 Ls 76 27.51 The cases of departure of goods from their guaranteed composition observed this season, including only those cases in which it amounted to two-tenths per cent. or more, were as follows: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 938 Summary of Instances of Deficiency from Guaranty. un » oe . & Fo} a gv 3 Ml ~ = f= oa os} a 3) ° a a a ° FS ° o us} us} Le} 2 ~ o 5 o g > “ & e a ° | (2) O fa eo a O Devicient -inclour CONStItuents pve: eve c1eic(sieresyolexi0/a:em lain Vleet a ate Zeya ste lal| Caimvas epereteraeral| (erauais eyeve care [Tasereteletetelavare lrcretets\stee fore DEhicienteint three CONStITUENES | a1. as. cisiocicine’sls + cie's/s e'eele | (a WReaercidneicn| Wooconeoeal neaticconna leeterotataiatelets Deficientsiny two CONStituUeNtss «5S. 5.0.0 ces ae eee g204) 35 1 2 2 1 DEHCIENtWINGONEZCONStICUCTIES cicioenis:sictsclcleicleisisjvivie:rivisies se | 43 2 25 | 3 6 Total samples in which deficiency pecurrets| 84 | 3 | 250] 5 Mi | The cases of deficiency noted during the past eight seasons in the goods as compared with their guaranties expressed in percentage of the total number of goods of each class analyzed, are as follows: Percentage of Deficiency, 1899-1902. | Zz FS Biel s , - co - - lor) - oa ct nm 80 zt on a 3) mt =] ~ I = 5 = s Ae 3 5 = 5 a 5 2 n fe a fe D BE 1 On fe | Completes fertilizerss scccesssae icc lee | 38.4 | 33.7 42.0 40.8 |- 31.6 34.6 | 40.0 36.7 DISSOLVE T DONES Bernie <a 2a, < < Fall, 1901. Phosphorie acid: PROC eeicicicisis's 11.51 9.82 Available, 5 | 10.60 | 8.06 Potashes ccpinecsos- eats eiesere 2.77 | 2.66 INT EROS EM means cic ra nictcnicisivielsieleleicleleralatewsietereinieie nielolere(eveisieleicleiszetelatelsieeleleleletetoiaistateleloiereteistelelsi steve 1.39 1.39 Phosphoric acid: CIR Ue Get eet See a Peto AREER OCDE aa aC eR HOGH AOE oA amon Gob aceudadsee 10.80 | 9.29 PAC VILA LG a imeterereictele reve nielsieleseleistolere late sjeisieiala/sictelefereteleletel ste eleisierele(etetalelersistelevetslsislorcielefetelatelereteters 8.25 7.82 EAST verersicreroeeralove ale letererotovoie are aiaeieterelesclelevarersietactore atetete tole ate tcravevelelotaieietsialelstersteteyotcieletstavetoieietsre 3.90 3.66 ING EOS Clay eieteteicrerersialelorercietat ste fora cictelefeiieisis niotorereiersiavoleriere/alcieinisretereisieieiaictetslelereieinerecistaeieetemiee 1.62 1.58 Fall, 1902. Phosphoric acid: | AMOI GaaqaeapnoesdopuocosocqdaoscnocaduacuDodddanooac duousoncanomaccocunadoduodrans 12.58 | 11.40 BAS DULL OMe cpeicterctt ctciele sisteicielaleelsloisterteleleloicleleioloreteletsistelclesataleleletsteteiosetsteterereraicleloteteialereleiotaleloietats 9.95 9.29 PIOUS emeecteeieelele ee lalete tarsi rcielolclolerelelnlejeteistotete/oia)areteleleietetaivielols aielelaielalsisis]aipiviofetsieieie/oteleleferstotetetetslecetmie 2.69 | 2.60 IN ERO Re Dm iteliete teen fe lcistslercisiecicialee cere te eiaieletslanicte ete olaleteretelalaierns Meloveleicelsicioieteleleielotsiatetetalsie 1.57 1.55 It is of interest to note how closely the system of valuations, based upon the wholesale prices of raw materials in the principal markets during the most important buying season and upon certain average allowances for expense and profit on the part of the mixer and jobber, coincides with the retail prices later ascertained. A comparison for several seasons past is given below: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 923 Comparison of Selling Price and Valuation, 1899-1902. | § ven) 32 Bk a= . ” bo g ie: be of o= ra 8 By bo ~ n ae ee alias iH os xO ra > Q | Complete fertilizers | 1882, Spring $23.60 | $24.70 | $1.18 Fall, 22.98 | 23.42 Ad 1900, Spring, 25.33 | 24.61 | —.T7i Fall, 23.22 | 23.84 .02 1901, Spring, 23.92 | 24.76 | 84 IDEN AB AGG 22.28 | 23.73 1.47 1902, Spring, 24.10 | 25.33 | 1.23 Fall, 21.83 | 23.31 | 1.48 Dissolved bone: } | 1899, Spring, 21.75 21.81 | 06 AeA er eraterey cfeteicterersloterereretoistavelcie etatsictarsisisiveieiersionievateleielereeieisralctetsrelewe (a slave tate eteicve 19.00 21.12 2-12 1900, Spring, 26.00 30.87 | 4.87 ERtea RU Seemerate rete tercpeteravcinicre ete: ssioiciere risistete era alors pata oarctate caine icreieatcie eiela aisiee details 23.50 | 22.74 | —.76 1901, Spring, 28.00 | 29.00 | 1.00 Fall, 23.91 | 23.36 | —.55 1902, Spring, 16.50 | 17.35 | 85 ReaD PU aw role ctalafuiecetcielecievels nic ale tern aia nie’ais\clnicteie!ais vee lrete: cloterelatereieimiecoicinterais weve tats 25.30 27.08 1.78 Rock and potash: | | TREE: Glace 3, ete cagendboscpbensacverdaceres coda necbcneMensdacroceneercnctnese $16.83 | $15.16 | $1.67 IHSEDUPSMns, cfetereletstetetorsioretereicteierels:cisreleiotsicicteloccicicis sicieic\sisisisisieieisieteic\e sietelofcievets sveleverciers 17.28 | 14.53 | —2.75 1900, Spring, 17.35 | 14.71 | —2.64 Fall, 18.11 | 14.63 | —3.48 1901, Spring, 16.20 | 14.60 | —1.60 Fall, 16.09 | 14.23] —1.86 1902, Spring, .... 16.45 | 15.05 | —1.40 iia 11 ans Sete Sere Fee SOE ee abeom 144ee |) ones Dissolved rock: 1899, Spring, 13.36 14.03 67 Ie Agadoos 12.64 13.13 49 1900, Spring, 13.57 | 13.48 —.09 TET Va RR eR ne Q | 00 0S 0 0 tS Us Sé 3 OL . ‘eueed 5 S q | 4 08 OO) O51 |, 00) OGL | 6b Oe 0g uh 28 dota uos{ tel Zi 3 my a 4 m™ = | 09T | 00 2 ‘| 06 €¢ tf OS 9 “ uIP URI z, | 8 z oe = oS m2 ey 00 [tot OL cE 99 i" BE ee pee _f a 5 3° i) g a j a ey QO G9 ¢ gs OL t Wee. "91,048 wz m9 : an a © is fa) kd 99 oD Bocacianicr5 ‘a a on as ue tn 3 PA e a0) eect va z a z g = a a m g a a ace SeReTe 3 | ¢ ae ie Bes | aves Bea: Soules a | s S| salen onl ate werd alee) Fo) z | Galea oles, | ca ‘ He ee uae | ae Sere @ 2. ‘ roy it ie ® ¢ a ey ct 6 3 : S 4 = 2 = 5 & a p g 2 3 ope 5 Sy Ie ks 3 ze a aR ® & g 2 3 B & nM = o a ; re) 2 fay A a | 3 5 3 ¢ R Z : : . Le} . i] 3 | | | 3 | Pies eee ise 4903S VAT L 39d as selyunos ‘lTaysng Jaq / “ACH ———— “s]BerED 954 ‘panulquo0p —t06T UO LNOdatt douo PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 80° 0$ IL‘0$) 90°0$ | 90°0$ | 80°0$ | SO'0$ TS 2 | 9L 2 | 00 Sed | 00 L$ evs | shos | esos | LE°0$ or 0$ eb 0$ ica} I tL 10 90 G0 sit) 0S + 00 88 00 Gr | Lg ug && cg 69 SS Ee a oy “H10X (es RE as 60 80 | 0 90 00 S 00 OO 00 FL bg | 6S OF L9 GL piace as et vs‘ Suruod AA Ir PL 80 90 | $0 90 00 F cL 00 ¢ aiaauee (09 IP GL a) Se aa “puBel[ealOUTISI MA 60 Tr 10 10 70 80 00 F veel 00 OL Ch OL erie reravere |e se teeeeeeeeeees (OUAB AL IL oT 80 10 #0 90 0G 3 , ifs (HO Cue WEE eee han OY. OL 09 5 te “UOPSUTYSE AA 60 va 80 LO 90 80 GLG eri 0g ct | 09 89 8s 06 PEIN Win oR ck eo ke ON u 81 10 b0 bial) een OOS 00 OSL 0g 6 gc St 8g 08 st ate ‘OSUBUa A so ae 80 rt) $0 ¢0 ter 00 £9 00 6 0S 0g 8S FL ‘ vs “uoTu ty) 10 IL 90 90 | 80 +0 GL§& ped 00 8 3G | ag OV 09 08 : cite as OUT) 60 GL 90 90 | ¥0 c0 66S 00 05 00 OF | €2 | 49 GP GL 08 v ‘euuvyonbsng 4 60 L0 Lo v0 0 GZ Z hae ite: 00 OL Gy 09 6 09 06 : ; “UBATTING OL as 10 90 iil) 90 LES 00 Set 09 GE | 6f 6g OF 09 08 : aap ‘JosIsuIOS . 30 4s so ¢0 60 10 GL & 00 SL 00 TL | 0S eg 68 A) 82 ; Sate ee TOTALS ite OL St 60 gL 60 80 00 ¢ 00 GUT 00 FF | 3h 69 GE GL 08 BOBO OP URE INEST geese as . OT gL 80 90 J wwe enceel| eon eeees 0S 2 00 ¢9 00 Tl gc 09 z @9 Perera eee woe ‘19110q = OL Gt 90 90 80 sit) 1 eng 00 O0T 00 OL 89 | 19 0S “GL cs CP EO REO ATES ODEO H a UC Abe Off. Dos: ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 03 ,90 28 yest ey 4 OF T | 9% | $0 88 Z pees iat | 90 0¢ T ae 90 SI T Pibeaats| ee | 80 y cuea bs 9 6 | ee * | 02 | 90 eae Meese! 8 ir eee 02 190 | 00T | $2 | 61 | 22 1g 4 1Z & Be 02 £2 SI 12 St'o$ | ee |B | 8 eel as i i 5 c 4 Pe oo lta @ | = oe | age is = Blae: | oe ee t=) 5 ke] i ee ae = Ko} Ks} > ® Braliig ee s 3 Lo 4 n ‘ql toed ‘1aqing ‘JayIBUl 76 1% | OL 80 ny 60 10 GL 0g LL 4 | 4g 0 er) 80 ro) OO tam ||eesunneee 05 08 ac 80 or 80 b0 09 Sg rag 4 | 1S 80 ¥0 #0 0 OL 09 09 6— = | og 10 0 10 80 29 GL Lp 81 | ag 60 OL 60 OL 89 06 08 0% ch 60 10 80 G0 SL 98 28 1Z | 0S 80 90 80 Ww 98 8h OF & | 09 ra 80 OL IL 00OT | 00T | 09 81 09 OL 90 90 SsSocoOON iat PG WZ &% Sh 8 60 80 90 89 &8 09 9T gg 90 90 90 &0 GL oh 08 1Z 0g 80 | 90 10 90 00T | 00T | OF ee 18 iT 60 90 Seeeees| gg T [eters oy &% 0S OL 80 OL or 0OT | St ag 1Z 0g 60 a) or Or Gaye. Ikan | JAS 9% 0g $s Or or or 99 28 2g 02 cy 60 di) 80 sey 09 | 28 late ¥ | 09 or | 80 or 0 oot |S2T | 09 61 cy 80 | 80 90 60 99 | 28 | gg 02 $F 90 al) c0 smaneee siGg | 08 9g 13 $s 60 | 80 60 Ot CT a CO Cubes ese 4 09 OL 90 10 OL G@t | cet | 09 4 eh) 81 IL as | OL CT | 86 88 6T'0$ | 9P'0$ | So'os 90°0$ | 90°0$ | LOOK | GL-O$ | 68°0$ | L9°OS | | Q SE te Gerda a as em ete ea ea ise p ye Q a 3 5 5 9, iY Ss o a eh a a pt e a o oa o oO . a a 4 a col 3 a 3 = ba oO g Ko} 3 uo} a oo) S 4 od g ® GS u 4 cl io” fe) a a ko] (= A o : a ® 3 2 i) a o F : 5 He 8 FY zs a 5 = @ 4 2 5 : 7 x ® Ce o c 2 da rn) ae a 7 £ ry) * 8 Go| a @ | ‘YH ‘BNA ‘se1qeja30A eee steeee see ‘oll eee ‘MIG ‘QIB MBO * ‘urdneqd ts ‘pupyiequing ‘paojJMBID “eTquin[oD seen ‘WOULD *‘pleusvelD amen 00) © 4:3 £0) * ‘1ays9UO wee ‘aiqUID vee) IOC UES) me Con eclocats@) ‘BlIquieD srt “Tet MEL sees ‘syong ‘palojpRig tee Frere sane ‘sudo ‘ploy pod ts OARI ‘Sno1jsuly ‘Auay solv tieeeeeeeereres (onrepy ‘soryuno0D ‘ponulyu0D—Z061 UHOM SLUOdAU dOUD 957 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OL 0s St 0$ 0% 3 &% 1% ix 81 8T 8T 0% GS vas 02 “| 02 | ¥ °| FG G% GZ 1% 06 & SHi6E co rad 61 ST 1% Ss 02 a3 8T | 8% | 002 SCMmO1I9 LK Mra rBANAS S19 0010 | OS T @2'0$ | St'os | og"os 8% iG 8& 16 23 ug SB 96 84 13 1G 0S 83 1% 09 a &% 69 xg 1% a9 02 8T Ov 02 &% 0s &@ &% 09 8T 8T 99 9% TZ gg | 9T 4 0S | 83 &3 LY FG Ge QF | $3 iG 0g | 9 &% 0S gL 81 SE S@ 1% 09 | LG | &% 0g ve 06 gg 63 9 0g 9% xd cP 1% 02 Lg 06 | 8T 9 veteeeee Og 08 & 61 Lg GB ad gg |G a Sb &% &% OF | & | 61 gg & 1% oT, ize £3 99 KG | LT 0g 1% 6. gg 8T 8T 08 &% 8T 0g (ca LT 0s &% LT gy a 0% 09 (a 02 99 &% 8% 09 80°0$ | 10°0$ OL | Or OL eI 60 IL 21 | oT | 0 80 1) 60 | 0 80 80 “0 #0 OL 80 10 ¥0 or 90 80 0 90 90 90 90 30 80 60 80 OL 60 IL IL (aa 60 60 30 60 mi) 60 LO Or 0 or 60 OL 30 60 80 60 80 It ral 60 80 IL 60 90 | $0 80 | 0 10 20 80 | L0 IL OL 40 | 90 60 90 OL | 90 Or 60 90°0$ | 90°0$ | T8°0$ 60 OL 80 00 T 00 % gL 0g T 00 T 80 |: 90 | 00 T q 10 89 OL 80 | 0g 80 OL i) eevastes |aaraseee apn | $0 60 00 T ¥0 | 70 gL 80 60 00 T 80 90 | 00 t «0 | 0 | 00 T | 80 30 00 T | $0 10 rag 10 80 gL 10 90 | $b 10 0 | 26 80 $0 69 80 ol ge T | LO 110 | 96 80 90 18 T Bouse del Sseeeces ign 10 Or 00 T OL | 0 | 06 80 Or 09 90 ~~ «60 | 08 OL or 09 T 60 OL 00 1 90 £0 06 r0 ) gg 10 80 et T W 80 00 T 0 90 gz T rai | ra 00 T 90 «0 08 10 0 08 IL 40 OL T | OL or 0g T tee eeeeee “[B4UL seen newt eee eens ‘yI0 x ‘SurwocA MA ‘puBlatOUl}sa AA ‘QUAT MA, “HOPSULYSE MA ‘uadde MA. ‘o3ueUud A, * ‘woruy, “es0LL ‘guuByoubdsng “UBATTING ‘Josroul0g ‘sapAug > “WRIA YDS seers Ma} Og ve OMrey ses Cerydjopetud ‘£119 ‘puelsaqwun({}to N "* YoJdWIBY}AON ‘INOJUOP, + (K£I9WOSJUOPW ‘QOIUOTW “UTLUTIAL ‘TIdLOIN ‘uve MOW ‘+ “SuypuooAry ‘oUuLOZN'L cee “yd Tyary * ‘uouRBqaT ‘QOUDIMU'T ‘loysvouv'y ‘BUUBMEYIV'T “eyetuny ‘* ‘uoOsrazyer see “BUBIPUL ‘uopsurn EL * ‘auaddy “UOT “UT YUR IL ss Qsaloup ‘a OAR LT seen eeeee pete meee eaee sete e eee eee ee deen eeeceee ooo e3 ae S5S5 AAAAANIAANNHAM MON Off. Doc. 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OS T | OOT | 00 & 00 §9T | 00 ST | 00 SI : Te ‘UBATIINS ro} | €& @ 0s | 00 882 | GET | ST | 0002 | 00 O02 | 00 0g 00 83 teeeres VasTIWIOg SA | 0032 00 | 00 8& SLT 8s 00 ¢ 00 OFT | 00 &F | 00 O01 ; POOR OTE AL Ey oye iat » 19% | 8 | 00 618 | GOT | Sb | 00 0% 00 SYT | 00 83 | 00 OF ee E co TT BTTANYOS fy, os 2 | 0g | 00 G46 Of T | OOT 00 02 00 9LT | 00 96 | 00 SE art Se aetna oc he Toys | ©) ZG 80 | 00 G42 | cOT | $8 | 00 ST 00 0ZT | 00 UF =| 00 &9 Be POSE RE OOSURE PUIG! 2 cS 8& 00 &2@ «80 T as) 00 ST 00 Oct | 00 Ob = 00 &Y 2G sh ery d[apellid su SLT 80 00 SOL GOT gl 1 00 &— | 00 STT | 00 SE | 00 08 ae BOOCODRG OTD. (iw Oye | G06 LE 00 LFS | aL T GL 00 ST 00 OST | 00 8& | 00 GF ee ‘puBpllaquny Ion ca} € “* “uoJdWUBYy WON A a ae] < Q A T I u T 4 iE ut T T iv iS I i I IT iE " iE I iE [ tPF TI 00 Sab. SFT &I IT T T I T T T T ir I T i! 7 I l 1 T i T i I 3 | £96 T 00 &@ | 00 L8T | 00 2g | 00 OL | 00 & 09 00 OIL 00 T 00 T 00 9T | 00 6ST | 00 Sz | 00 OF rite | cadet ae | eae cane ‘oOLU0TN | #8 T € 00 024 | &E T &8 | 00 &@ | 00 S9T | 00 FR | 00 09 Sy Mai ae ae ee “ULI LIAL | oL@ 8& 00 00 «SFT 00 T 00 02 =| 00 002 00 08 | 00 Tr ¢ 6 Patonon Webbe ; 008 cL | 00 OST | SET Ort 00 2 =| 00 09T 0002 § 00 OF poo Ne oe ae serece® SIRO STOI | 00 3 ce ; 00 S9T O06 T o6 00 9T | 00 09T | 00 GF | 00 SD al $ tress (SuTUOOAT] 006 4 | 00 00 | ST T 06 00 LT | 00 S6t | 00 SF | 00 09 ME ed co ee setress “oudegny | 09 2 &% | 000 84 | S¢ T 00 T 00 LT | 00. 09T | 00 SS | 00 SL SG 9% seit TL SLU SCL 00 cE | 00 062 | 06 T 00 T 00 St | 00 Set | 0009 | 00 08 anaths £ jh So =, | Cordialednis vores “UOUBqaT 00 & 09 100 See | OST | OCT 00 & =| 00 06 | 00 GF | 00 08 SI 6G trees “SUT BIT / 00% 06 100093 | Sa T | 06 00 Si | 00 O9T |***""""") 00 OF cr Go vrtses ftoIsSBoOURT] 1o¢¢ | 0S | 00 883 | 08 T oot | 00 LT 00 06T | 00 SF | 00 GL St iG ‘ ‘BUU BM BYOB | 0& T 00 00 SLT | $8 & | 00 @ C0 98L | 00 G8 | 00 08 | 3 | 8Z Poo beo GO Malena adaltiy , 00& | 29 pues OORT tas 8 | 00 82 00 Sho | 00 63 | 00 OF Seed eae aeaeaaey bee > feoses “UOSIeTeL | o2@ | 0S | 00 008 | OS T SIT |.00 & | 00 SLT | 00 3&8 | 00 SF | OT | 02 Boy loot | 0¢ [evevetetatehsel| cheeievstolenst lira |-:-*"-+| 00 os | 00 st | 00 48 me Hressteracets “= gopsununpy 1eo | Le | 09 008 | oe T t | 00 @ | 00 2ST | 00 Sh | 00 &9 | 61 | 1% siideeiceie Oe COU) s | oot | 08 00 22 | 8s 00 &T | 00 08 | 00 SE | 00 OS POR HS | 8S Ga et OUT cr 00 & | he arate Oe : 00 ST | 00 OfT | 00 0S | 00 @ LT | 13 seeees SUT MUG 1; 02¢ | 06 00 02% | Oe T 00 T 00 S& | 00 OST | 00 OL | 90 Of 61 | 02 oe “Ya oT fgg. Wy 00 008 | OF I 00 1. 00 &z =| 00 czz | 0009 | 00 09F 200 ROSE OG Grd cuctoponce Lenina 960 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. TABLE NOM. COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. Giving the Maximum, Minimum and Average for Each Ingredient. From Farm Bulletin No. 22 of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The figures given do not represent the results of single analyses, but are the highest and lowest results which have been found in the case of each ingredient. They are given to show the limits within which each ingredient has been found to vary. Composition of Feeding Stuffs. | | i | $ a : 8 ~ 20 ° : ia] qd oO 5 ra) K 8 2 » : »” ao Hy . & 8 a i S S 3 5 i E © oo NN mH on a wo or o 1 “Inn nour OVA Climo wie bo HIND VOD HW tone Cin oO ot ond ‘(pS >So 0-1 nmwo i) to SIA18 wom rn> 10 ie 9 ‘ 1 1.8 | 6 0.7 8 2 OA eee 9 fe: eos 1 0.4 i0 Ob ese 16) oeeeeee 1.0 27 5 0.4 2 2 1.6 2 4 0.5 2 Goi) aver Tdi eee 0.8 | 49 of Oleh eee ra ee ee 0.3 6 0:9. ee rN aa 199 Wisden: 9 2.2 1 6 1.5 2 0 1.6 1 if TS} 1 O61 -- ee Fa ere 1.6 | 35 (Sie Py og ne 14 17 ryt rete ae rica eae 0.7 16 ee pd bere See ria aie 0.5 15 1.4 S173 |Eougocase 19 | No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - 963 Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Continued. | | i | | E i S $ i 3 ~ S a oC o = I a | 3 = ke =i 5) | vo he —~ iT) 2 a tes $3) 5 | ° 5 & ss Ui ie eS = Ep Pp) 2|a| & | Zl Bol 1 | | { : | HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER--Con- F tinued. Hay from: Per ct.|Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. Redtop, cut in bloom— | | NEI NITN UII coe cyacicloe creicisloie eSiachosels ictejeeiets 6.8 4.8 7.8 24.0 46.8 EGS esters MVEA ETIN UTILS We teee oe xeroe ctetsi elo elaine ahersserciere ets 11.6 5 10.4 31.8 47.8 223 lisoesacce PKNEHETSS. SEC OSD ROOCS CDEC SUBOOE EACe SO nona 8.7 4.9 8.0 29.9 46.4 PAI 3 Orchard grass— VEST TVA TIATINI Meters. te ovate cicteie caste cere efes= sieteieferaysins aicsie 6.5 5.0 6.6 28.9 32.9 bE Bl epee oer WEAR TINNUITN, eaeotele scsieoieieisies Seccecieiiose lee treme 13.6 9 10.4 38.3 48.6 Sea ooseace PAV ETA CAMP Teles soa. Mielonit sie settle isle sea 9°39 6.0 8.1 2.4 41.0 2.6 10 Timothy,* all analyses— VB TAT SVAUA TINS orto xiclereroretevare Goleta cic icre sia c.schare’oe 6.1 2.5 3.8 22.3 34.3 LOO i Wtevatatatess ote DE SRTTVTIND com ratcels cic. lefowisie sicre amas ac wissaleiniers 28.9 6.3 9.8 38.5 58.5 Ba aes wate IAW ELALC Mis cen cis iscivcciste eee mictloue soc ce cee ae 13.2 4.4 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 68 Timothy, cut in full bloom— Minimum, 7.0 225 5.0 22.2 34.4 2.0 Maximum, 28.9 6.0 125 Sted 48.5 4.0 Average, 15.0 4.5 6.0 29.6 41.9 3.0 Timothy, cut soon after bloom— EMM IMU NSS oes cco ca ceo ee clewlines eeieolas:s 7.8 63h) 4.6 25.7 37.0 1 Ey Gl teoeccco WES dhitbel, Iopeduoseocuredecopeemecosceascd 21.6 5.4 8.1 33.4 51.0 ba Cl isosenos ASV CLEVE Es oiresaiasajaie so ayolel ave eleiers ate e's fore ole tals sxatele laters 14.2 4.4 Bell 28.1 44.6 3.0 11 Timothy, cut when nearly ripe— WEinimiirin a oe ore eee atin ee een ae ee occa 7.0 2.7 4.3 24.8 38.0 aA al eae oy IVER ohio Pe. Are sceebud ster comCuaceemcoae Pa | 5.1 6.0 38.5 49.1 SSA Sse .gs BASE TA CMC DOT: rararcieiatcleiteer cre telereeheterernievoere ict 14.1 seo. 5.0 Slot 43.7 2.2 12 Timothy, cut when ripe— VET TVET UIT lela seas alates ccvaloiea(atas a cial ove, erareiesets, efere 14.3 4.5 .3 1 LTA 31.8 2:0 leases LUkeb aber) br i ane Saeee ee Oper Cr AeenCane 32.8 7.8 12.9 26.8 a3 Bah Cee eae chs PN OTA S Ogi et at in rereinie cre ste atelele sls svelese elvieicie termrels 212 6.3 7.8 23.0 37.8 3.9 10 Cut, when seed was in milk— IMETTUDTVIUT YDB atc fe ote aise ie eieiaine solos niente s 22-5 5.6 6.0 Ba) 33.2 Bee Panera WEbdiilhier, Boseoosaooc snOCOSDORCCoGeEroc or 26.5 7.6 6.6 24.9 35.4 Cle to cecnene PAV ET EG a taae opie aie reins rene is enforces ceeaic s 24.4 7.0 6.2 24.5 24.2 3.6 4 Cut, when seed was ripe— - a PNT ET ee ee ees cae crs ees Re ates act Bok: 5.3 20.4 3.6 23) oa. ceeee IVE ASTIN LINN base lerciojs.c eteterate cajceis cles otal cle Sint 32.8 7.8 6.0 Paya | 33.7 $52)| eee PAV ELAR OME cissaciasieleieic ieisisicie ae eelafitie staamaene 27.8 6.4 5.8 23.8 33.2 3.0 6 Hungarian grass— Mi bbdibemtibrt.| hatedecchascs cbsecneusdundocdoae 4.9 5.0 4.7 23.6 44.4 L5iiecosesee INET UTI ee clerciatorc evel ofetetei nie >: cysis-afoie viele abel orete 9.5 To, 13.3 36.3 53.0 Bey Race tone: PPA ClAC Crate ects Taner tele asetceteete aiafceteieer Naar 6.0 7.5 PAG 49.0 2.1 18 Meadow fescue— IVER TLETUULI Sees rericsssocheiesiciettie cities cnoetermers 7.4 5.5 4.5 20.8 28.5 VG" sweet Mie S dhialhhie hee ca oeenseTeqoearc me toncas ee tae 32.5 7.8 11.8 31.9 45.5 5 i Mate oir a JMU “ehaecoGROC aa UOh eo ONS Or PUABDCOOnGS 20.0 6.8 7.0 25.9 38.4 2.7 9 Italian rye grass— LitithieUhes, @oesonc-ceenooesesonneeeEeE tes 7.4 6.1 Greate 28.4 39.6 Le Shree IVE AKT IVU UID Se poche ha lersteisiel clase ctare/arsceve Syctole-ararernielele 9.3 7.9 §.8 33.9 48.9 19; Wins Seeks BAS CS Cee eee ete arene ae eins cia ore a Aa eran 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45.0 1.7 4 Mixed grasses— I bhoseehibe ye! seocdntomsdoadoEonaResoaosOsGboas 6.5 2.1 4.8 21.0 33.4 feel een IVES aba PITIE soeeeig gate oe Rat aeraeh temas 33.4 6.9 12-1 38.4 50.8 CY esmiciee. SAS GEOG Mba cfu e ctr ciiic cate he aint cia etekete niniotesoranes 1528 5.5 7.4 27.2 41.1 Zao 126 Rowen, (mixed)7— MIinimUuM=> see ascsaceeeeel: ac Gees ecleeeee 8.2 Bed 9.6 20.1 33.6 DED) \arerersistetare MAXIMUM.“ sciprcdale coer nieles Seiteiee ecisiccele 24.4 Rhee 14.8 20.0 44.3 425) |ereiosieee IAVOCPAS ES Menace See ition aie estos aera: 16.6 6.8 11.6 22.55] 39.4 3.1 23 Mixed grasses and clovers— } i haalbeahtion a GABA BAOSNS UAC OREOOEOBODDODOG | 8.2 329 5.5 tO 31.8 ite Woda ibe anoagesosanesonoenecectcooaseogcs | 25.9 9.6| 14.4 35.1 48.9 | EG ISSCCER cases eee cece ee | 19:9] 5.5| 10.1] 27.6| 41.3] 2.6] Swamp hay— | | MAT YNEYALEREYY sors! ysicyaiescselofafess clssete/s/ataiete/a'sjs/syeyetere's 7.8 3.3 | 5.0 19.4} 39.9 | OE 8l houegs oe Rte a ieee ee, 17:9\|| “1st||) fas Satie | eicr |) yeieiee: aw TOTS e na odunueeote tee ueeoaoenencee 1156 TON, | tre2 26.6 45.9 2.0 | $ Salt marsh— IM hosbhvsthhen, "ac qousdobUErOCOMGOAaHoT mater pctsh ste 7.8 | 5.4 | 4.0| 25.1 34.1 186) | ee Maxi arg eet a cieeicfatae tore cis ster atehe eiotetolee erat 1826) |e e188] (I SKIES 54.3 Sat ee eee IAC CT ale Omir rn ee ee on OL Hee eee 10-4( 7.71 5.51 3.01 44.1 9.4 18 *Herd’s grass of New England and New York. 7Second cut. “¢ 964 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Continued. 3 2 E 3 5 ‘a 3 § © % ‘ r= re . is] o a OS eerie eee ee alee ei fe 2 a x a = oS =} E < ay B | 2 Z | i as Patel | | HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER—Con- | | | | tinued. | | | | | | | j Hay from: Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.|Per ct. Per ct.) Per ct. Red clover— | | | | Minimum, 6.0 3.9} 10.0 15.6) 27.3 Ou parents Maximum, 31.3 | S3i| Oro se" 8be74) beeo fice) | Gaecoune Average, Lye Sh G2) 1253 24.8| 38.1) 3.3 | 38 Red clover in bloom | | | | I’ bhiliivelhGeopy SoccogsucocabcaIndeobeeacouOsosd 6.6. 5.6} 10.8 17.9] 27.3 PAT Paeccoece MM GER TIATED Nyy tat statis tonetsielelererstel stator rrstsiaoratesievarnicls 31.3 8.3 | 15.4 28211) AES at oeacono VNC TeA x Ohm srateroralotrare Mneiclenstoterere nee eemete sion 20.8 6.6; 12.4 21.9 33.8 | 4.5 6 Alsike clover— | | Minimum, bes 6.1 9.2 19.7 35.6 DG. | Sejate re ciets Maximum, 13.9 12-3 16.1 29.5 45.9 AD. ceenek Average, o.7 8.3 12.8 25.6 40.7 2.9 9 White clover— | IV bhotbestbbeth -pAgoopnpuocanoOO nun OOnCOODAGOnGS 6.1 4.5 13.9 20.3 33.4 MES featiccoce WIE brahoihasky | GroboqdeoanoceCUooCHdeDeannaaod 13.5] - 13.8} 20.0 30.3 47.3 Rte fascoeeod ISRO Bagpopdoanbo0e0de soUpOOCUdoUC SbdG Se ats 8.3 bei 24.1 39.3). 2.9 Y( Crimson clover— | Minimum, 5.9 7.4 13.6 20.1 | 29:3 DBs liccemeciee Maximum, 13.4 | 13.0 16.1 34.9 | 42.6 RIB) ieisieecerere Average, 9.6 | 8.6) 15.2 27.2) 36.6 2.8 7 Japan clover— | Average, 11.0 | 8.5 | 13.8 24.0 39.0 3.7 2 Vetch— | Minimum, 8.3 lel albeit 19.7 26.5 Ait A hooano Maximum, 15.8 | 11.6 | 23.1 28.1 40.2 ScOR meteor Average, 11.3 | 7.9) 17.0 25k 86-1 2.3 | 5 Serradella— | Minimum, Wee 5.4} 13.9 19.4) 40.5 QD aero Maximum, AA27i\\ LOS LOSGi} 9 2229)! | AGRON oO) lees Average, 9.2 | tan 15.2 21.6 44.2 2.6 2 Alfalfa*— | Minimum, 4.6 Sati = 1022 14.0 Spall UN eeagoooc Maximum, 16.0 10.4 23.3 33.0 53.6 SESE Recctecoee Average, 8.4 | 7.4 14.3 25.0 42.7 2.2 21 Cowpea— Minimum, 7,6 | 3.2 13.6 16.4 39.4 Ba ES eacebone Maximum, 14.0 10.2) 20.3 25.0 49.5 Bele Gooaocse Average, 10.7 7.5 | 16.6 20.1 42.2 2.2 8 Soja bean— Minimum, 6.1) 4.8) 14.0 17.3 31.8 Dok Wecatiesate Maximum, 20.1 8.9 | 19id 32.3 41.0 i Beal lecetere eterats PANY GIc2 Com ete clare] ajerelalale aisivialelefels/aletavstornletaysis'e ataiois 11.3 | 1.2 15.4 22.3 38.6 5.2 6 (= S631) eb iy 6 baeectssee || AwereT| = ce ene | 10.0 8.6) 21.9 32.7 34.0 cae 8.4 7.9 | 22.9 26.2 31.4 3.2 | 5 LW gb Abarthherh nou petea aaaaeeubon dusecdtooeancor 6.3 7.3 Qetilee 8233/6 88a, | ade lpeeeeeeee WMP QRATU INS) Gleisscte's ctslclosclntew-eletausrs sie se eve e.ajsts a's 7.8 abaya 11.7 33.3 | 50.4 BysSoltnncaneiecere INET AR EN 1 od aleamiincilenins ceeniee iran oem eacien 7.6 10.8 10.7 23.6| 42.7 4.6 6 Soja bean straw: | | | Minimum, 5.7 3.9 4.0 84.0} 35.3 | Wat | Sbaanodo Maximum, 14.0 4.9) 4.9 49.6 | 43.3 eye Beanoger Average, 10.1 5.8 4.6 40.4 | 37.4 U7 4 Horse bean straw: PA CTIUST ES oh Yosks aie acaraje 3s aca asate ate,0\o erelele it epecel scayciarate oreo 9.2 8.7 8.8 37.6 34.3 1.4 1 Wheat straw: Minimum, 6.5 3.0 229 34.3 31.0 VEEP lSedeccor Maximum, 17.9 7.0 5.0 42.7 50.6 T28: sickest Average, 9.6 4.2 3.4 38.1 3.4 1.3 7 Rye straw: | | Minimum, 6.3 2.8 | 2.2 $227.) 40200) DAO Mi ieretoniersters Maximum, 9.7 3.4 Segre 4923: b229)| Mel eaneeee Average, i feat 3.2 3.0 88.9} 46.6 | 1.2 | 7 Oat straw Minimum, 6.5 8.7 PACE 31.8 33.5 ae dl Sseranane Maximum, 11.4 6.7 6.9 | 45.1 46.6 3.2 | waters oie Average, 9.2 5.1| 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 12 *Luecern. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 965 Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Continued. | | 5 | oi | : } 2 3 4 a ra) F io} bs f is] o co) & cle Steclie cee luaes | 3 a 2 2 s 3 3 De e < A & IZ fy Z | | HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER—Con- | | tinued. | Hay from: |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. Buckwheat straw: | | | Milnit ratchet Seas sro eke essere ieee ooa tes 9.0 4.9 3.3 STz2)) 82.1) | Osler ae iMiizb aben\bterls. banerpeattie, DpAnorneLcrocretaree 10.4 6.5 7.8 46.8 38.9 1G fonnosetic ASV ELAR Grameen io aisovielcrsleite nistes) Sieve teteclaaniesiag 9:9 | 5.5 5.2 43.0 35.1 | 1.3 3 ROOTS AND TUBERS. | | | | Potatoes: VAT Ieee eee acc ec estes daicish cle scne 75.4 0.8) 1.1 0.3 Lado ete dciee alt tater VEG ATT) UTIE ome ctetoyn cle eicic iota nel ote sin sivie sisaine's ¢cle cts wis 82.2 1.2 3.0 0.9 20.4 a agncoxs IY ACH SB SOLA CID BE DOO CODCUCOTBOD COL OOECCDOOE 78.9 1.0 2.1 0.6 17.3 0.1 12 Sweet potatoes: Minimum, 66.0 0.7 0.5 0.6 18.0 VAC a loeiaoacan Maximum, 74.4 1.3 3.6 2.6 29).7 OG Sn series Average, (opal 1.0 1.5 1.3 24.7 0.4 6 Red beets: Minimum, 85.8 0.7 i (aa 0.6 3.8 OATS steretrs RS ehribiiesh, SAN CAUACOOUODEDECCDOCCIOOERCrD Can 92.2 1.6 1.8 1 EY 11.3 Ube del orients PAS ONES OM ia cernicteiate sleiaieis c/s Ce\staleia(aicjelecisie\eicisrvintsien cle 88.5 1.0 1.5 0.9 8.0 0.1 9 Sugar beets: INET THA TIVUT TID Bete etc wrelare siren tore watelel chess aleiolceletela sislaiers | 85.0 0.4 Tak 0.6 6.7 OST Seales ates NGAI LE ee <.o So ines meee Samlnmenicee sete ae | 90.8 | Lag B22 163 13.6 UF oomnance WAL) OT OE Babb cited areec stavsiske he shots a cietalslaeiaia sisieatesmratevar 86.5 0.9 1.8 0.9 9.8 0.1 19 Mangel-wurzels: Minimum, 86.9 0.8 1.0 0.6 2.4 Oe iG ae se ee Maximum, 94.4 1.4 1.9 1.3 8.7 Opulence Average, 90.9 al 1.4 0.9 5.5 0.2 | 9 Turnips: Minimum, 87.2 0.7 0.8 0.8 4.2 Oud lin ewes Maximum, 92.4 | 1.0 1.4 1.4 8.8 PAN Seek otic Average, 90.5 | 0.8 Vet 1.2 6.2 0.2 3 Rutabagas: | Minimum, 87.1 | 1.0 1.0 1.1 5.1 Osd! |i eeeeee Maximum, 91.8 | 1.4 1.3 1.4 9.1 O°3" | aotrcaeme Average, 88.6 | 1.2 1.2 1.3 7.5 0.2 4 Carrots: | Minimum, 86.5 1.6 0.8 0.9 5.1 0:2 |Rectcere Maximum, ip Wea! 1.3 2.0 2.3 10.4 On7) laren oreerete Average, 88.6 1.0 a eat alee} 7.6 0.4 8 Artichokes: | Average, 79.5 1.0 2.6 | 0.8 15.9 | 0.2 a GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. Corn kernels: Dent, all analyses— IW hbebbeskbherh, cricaGeonooBOUaDAOGeHLOGoOC oonaa. 6.2 1.0 7.5 0.9| 65.9 Bet SAGA Seer Wie-ateehb bers”. Gy ocRGUbCOneGnUaAcCOradae ooaeied 19.4 2.6 11.8 4.8) 76.7 Tebillmaceaaee AVG aie Cemerer OeTeiocin lelstsroicie delet tieinisislerste oie 10.6 1.5 10.3 222, 70.4 5.0 86 Flint, all analyses— | | Minimum, 4.5 1.0 TAU) | 0.7 | 65.0 O24 lis spe teeté Maximum, 19.6 1.9 1337 2.9) 76.7 et Aneanaric Average, mh Ne 1.4 10.5 ay 70.1 5.0 68 Sweet, all analyses— | | 1Gjbbelheeh lS AntadOton aceon Hs ac USdEEeaO snr 6.0 1.4 | 9.5 | 1.5 61.8 828) cisse DVS ATUUIIND, § acreia' sa ci cieje aleietereielolelalslelsieicisiejerecieiere | 109 2.4] 15.3 | 5.2 72.4 Hee ono dcodc JiR. Gonehe dooce bb Sooo DE UDbecoas pundod 8.8 1.9 11.6 2.8 66.8 8.1 26 Pop varieties— | Wubsthaibect, mosoopdedesbtoedeooacldodpancaae 8.6 | 1.2 9.7. 1.2 68.4 CP alereboaad Wish dT bIy, | GoGSEonOneAScsncuLemccercereeadl 1158) ieee 74 | S14 | silat 6:04 areas DRIES, COLA eee tee ne 1087 a Deol | A28l) ees | eos6 5.2 4 Soft varieties— | | Minimum, | 6.1 | 1.4 8.8 1.3} 66.0 BO) |lsoereeraets Maximum, 14.1 | 1.9 14.6 Sve 75.5 Bit Nicer p ernvers Average, 9.3 1.6 11.4 | 2.0} 70.2 5.5 5 All varieties and analyses— | } | | RU Bhalbestibealso carcsoCUlba coc TocaDr cdedSOnDOGUSe | 4.5 | 1.0 | 7.0 | 0.7 61.8 | Fal I se Ai 1 tb ghsetiber len GOB SbreDocSa uc Coon DEUCeOsOnOSde 20.7 2.6 eet 5.2 76.7 9733 asec VAG CARE Moe og. 8 OE eas igen 10.9 1.5| 10.5) 21] 69.6] 5.4 208 Sorghum seed: Lihiobheathbtth expo coUOS lOO OOTgUND ACO sO sODHOdGUS 9.3 1.4 fot 1.5 59.0 PI arericac Maer UM sak Saeccn cet cee silo eines en mn ete es 16.8 4.3 | 11.3 Sa 73.6 CWT Nd eepnocce IAKETEAEG,) lose «sic Reunite penddc saBcdarc DosGann 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6 10 956 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc, 4 nine 5 é , Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Continued. bts ae | | eI = | : ; 9 a S ; S - * fo} o o Eee Seal amine 4 Sie eee) CSO ee eel ee ae E | < Ay & | v4 & a GRAINS AND OTHER SEED—Continued. | | | | Barley: | Per ct.|'Per ct.|(Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct. DMA TNR UATIA occie ora rapate ies ste are tareteintots cieletei als otetachare tele Wee 1.8 8.6 | 1.3 | 66.7 BN tere ccsteyove IVE ASCITATIIN | Cocrcrevare ato eietalteyomi tare nvavaceeieiic cherie 12.6 | Bue | et 4.2] 73.9 Sool eistereree iets FAN CHASE eRe. Win eae ea a eee racioee ace 10.9} 2.4 | 12.4] 2.7] 69.8 1:8 | 10 Oats: Minimums, Deaascrosceron scree actin cieeeceremensen s 8.9 2.0 8.0 1.5 53.5 | Bl Seeiaoee iE a bene beet) myGH OAD AO oreo D aD Onenaele nyopersisletezsie 13.5 4.0 14.4 12.9 66.9 Pe oosscnoc AALVIGT SE Coe Tafareteieretcleie eevee aicictels siete elelevelersietolerciereciee| 11.0 3.0 11.8 | 9.5 | 59.7 5.0 | 30 Rye: | | | | Minimum, 8.7 1.8 9.5 1.4 71.2 oi Gases Maximum, 13.2 1.9 12.1 2.1 73.9 | Srl Waeestaterees Average, 11.6 ne) 10.6 Daca 72.5 | ae 6 Wheat, spring varieties: | | AVE TATUM terry teratotel tete.se, craters slere eleleieters:creterermvcloieleis 8.1 1.5 8.4 R33] 66.1 GSS Hi | cee aeretaes Wikb dbs. y~dodoupnadopasoopose suacean oododoed 13.4 2.6 15.4 2.3 74.9 Dui iore stents PSV OTIS OMe « fareseieereia: ctefelalsieiahe (oieselete’e oleic relataieretelefeleieierere 10.4) 1.9 1275; | 1.8 71.2 2.2 18 Wheat, winter varieties, all analyses: | | PMA YATRA ELIE Meets rore ciara rane aie ceisieitie caieeiorsieiectee fine 0.8 8.1 0.4 66.7 5 Ds er cis IVT TTINUTIN, © cic oi vaso:o:s\ssereictelors' sasbagobh bospadoaodndaDOLoooEBUoObadGoU 10.3 | 3.5 18.4 23.2 2.7 19.9 5 Cotton seed kernels (without hulls): | DVET VU UIVINUEVI ES erotarevaleie ete toteteoletelereieteraserelorointecretoteteielevene > 6.0 4.0 29.3 3.1 15.8 BLE jogos oboe iG. chegibhars | consnes cube one’ To OdconpuCOnraan 6.3 5.4 Sond 4.4 19.5 Sa [eee oe PANG T Oem referee caicietaareystchveia\eialtheleferersianeyarataretacelarere ¢ 6.2 4.7 31,2 path 17.6 36.6 2 Cotton seed, whole (roasted): | Whbhmiobheek, JoqqssauqbondbobonoodoboEsa5codndo0de ret) 2.3 16.1 16.8 PATA takai! | iataetosterete Mmm diaabbenl, oagoosndooobbdbonoGoousooconnoooddd | 9.3 8.7 17.6 24.0 25.8 DOT. | otecsterctnins Pade reaay, | Abadia senaDODUUO OCOD OUD DD ng nObeRae | 6.1 5.5 16.8 20.4 23.5: PTAC 2 Peanut kernels (without hulls): Minimum, | 4.9 1 23.2 2.0 12.7 ROW il kooads ono Maximum, | uber 3.8 31.4 18.4 19.1 CUR US Sacodos Average, 7.5 2.4 27.9 wed, 15.6 39.6 | 7 Horse bean, a la 8} 3.8 26.6 7.2 50.1 1.0 1 Soja bean: | Minimum, 5.9 Bad! 26.3 | 3.4 26.2 BPA lic Heese Maximum, L9ESH 5.4 40.2 | 6.1 32.8 TAGs loeianaaer Average, 10.8 | eT Ns BRIE 4.8 28.8 16.9 8 Cowpea: Minimum, 10.0 2.9} 19.3} 2.5] 50.5 1680 ere ener Maximum, 20.9 3.4 23.4 5.0 | 62.0 | TIA yl Beth 5 Average, 14.8 | S52)]\6 208} 144 55.7 1.4 | 5 | MILL PRODUCTS. | Corn meal: | IMiniimaettni = isortstsateie attests civiote ates orssisiememiereients 8.0 0.9 | (eile 0.5| 60.4 20d pewaaeure WiEB ibenthesy ) gaonoonnomoGdn de gocceMeeCHOOOUrsOL 27.4 4.1 13.9 Oil 74.0 | Biapllil overeat aistet NRE NORE RA ce coe EE ae micee eneee soc aer 15.0 1.4 9.2 1.9 | (| SAS 7 Corn and cob meal: | | | Minimum, 9.5 132 5.8 4.7 56.8 | PASTA Saapsooo Maximum, 26.3 1.9 12.2 9.4 | 60.7 | Fel cas ous) otatets Average, 15.1 1.5 | 8.5 6.6 64.8 | 3.5 x No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 967 Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Coutinued. ; ; ——a | 5 | | 3 7 | 3 $ | i > | © a Peek | 0 8 Ss re; c i] vo o 5 o H 2 = oc 2 o q ; £ 3s a 2 2 = 3 = | 5 < a E Z |» 2 MILL PRODUCTS—Continued. | | Oat meal: |Per ct.|Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct. AVG TDN UYU Meee rere elereretereintorelckereteiatetactclelelsiaisicictoreietaeiois 6.2 1.8 12.9 0.6 | 66.6 Gala Reiaee Mitwabeibe, eagansoddanttogpaaeoecarcoseonenass eee ad | SEL ee AN) VE sanage FASTA CMRI tn) yf ee Pn Mee Sid ues 729 8.0] 14.7 OBC [IRA aime pa 6 Barley meal: | AVETYIETINUTT pues: sterersteVoxis steforsjniets,a\enetaistore aftalslerctels o\cle's s 9.9 1.6 9.8 5.9} 63.5 | NEY Ros-aoo5 MVICEASE TNE UYINY Sy os css caters ove. 0:cte.s/sra nisiels cisie orsieiad drecetsioiieisie oe Se 3.8 12°77.) 7.0} 68.0} BEA esocdscd J AGUS EEE AAO RADA DBD OOO OSD OOOO OEE RDE crs 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 2.2 3 Rye flour: Minimum, 12.4 0.6 0.4 6.0 77.6 | O85) Meter Maximum, 13.6 0.8 6.9 0.5 ood O20) Bacseeee Average, 13.1 0.7 6.7 0.4 78.3 0.8 4 Wheat flour, all analyses: | PMTTATEMUUI IYI atotoe ee sis ae =e islelaicicte cratic cc tisieisiewrlrs 8.2 0.3 8.6 0.1 71353] O26) Sanaa WEIN TTI Ae Peter icret mate er clecinetoldaren acSlenionss 13.6 0.7 13.6 1.0 18:5) |i le) Pere JS RAGS URAC OC ARSE Obo BON CHO CICUC OL Dane eee 12.4 0.5 10.8 0.2 75.0 nea 20 Buckwheat flour: VETRTYEUUI IVA eee w cetnctcterarereis fete ateret crates tere’ ] fe ° is} o o 8 ee eo) ECE Bs 79.4 425 6.9 5.6 15:9 PB eres IAVIETAE CA Cac aielsoG oinis'e hoes ciew biel ese einem creme erase Oot 1.0 5.4 | 3.8} 12:5 1.6 15 Brewers’ grains, dried: | | | A hhethembhet « Boo qonaonccoodosnooodSsbeaoanooadodc } 6.2 3.3 19:3) 10.2 46.1 | eA Iaaoscdsen MIT UM ees. fee eee oe ee ee eae oe 11,9) 8.8] 208+! 1156) 662s) amen ere INWERENRES GogaonodonecacanoocuUbaonoonddcdodasd 8.2 3.6 19.9 11.0 ble 5.6 3 Geran OMEUUCCTA tetova clovclafore]stsieisistelolalsleletole/ele sisisreis(oie\sleretsis 5.8 220) oda | 12.0 33.4] 14.9 1 Rye bran: | | Wbbatoabhaly sArqqosoosonAONDD Osan Ide cacdnd doUdode See 2.9 11°65) 2.5 59.8 | A I ial Peep iMfp-ghealieasy ooodqcoubocancandocosnodsacsenopdda Sf 4.5 16.8 4.1 67.6 UE bl leone coos WAsiaic kate sBabocsanabe souodUboUSunpDoobupaceoneNa 11.6 | 3.6 14.7 |} 3.5 63.8 2.8 ii Wheat bran from spring wheat: | | Mira UE eile Re sicrcsio ciate one ee osiets octamer cians 7.4 | 4.0 14.3 5.4] 61.7 826) fowences MVE ATMA TY I ee roles cieseteleretorcietetaistoloiets Gistese. Stelter ajatetelersts | 13.0 6.0| 18.1 10-1) 58.1 Bon Bebaseeod JEN) Su pededncnonucoD Bands sdonangouropcddo pe 5.4 16.1 8.0 | 54.5 4.5 10 Wheat bran from winter wheat: | ANGE TALTANIA YIN ctstereleieiseresicfetsleleicieisiniewarnisiststots|sfeteissazeleters 10.6 | 5.0 13.9 7.2 | 50.5 SaDill ie tel cceiose IES ahaa bails aah Sono DD ent Aabeane sem baD asec at 13.6 6.4 17.8 8.9 56.2 AB ae srarcioys INVES Comes tome eG acticncisceaaiecenoine cities 12.3 ee) 16.0 8.1 53.7 4.0 Yr / Wheat bran, all analyses: istbebbipllieny) SebaTskoguenooepoaTolEAc CORTE SCL OS 7.4 2.5, 12.1 | 2.4 45.5 a Eel ooenbes NikWebselbbed, laagenaccenaanoooson00[ an0Ocue poDOd GO 15.8 ticks 18.9} 15.5 63.2 eh eeicrelerare PANT a Bere inn ce cele cissclteleleloieioleisieteye ciciele Beteveiersiciole ab) 5.8 15.4 | 9.0 53.9 4.0 88 Wheat middlings: Whhabebels Meaqoadenoocodno cosa sdodnonccoaacods 9:2 1.4 10.1 | 1.3 53.0 PXSU eaponooS IWGP shekthee SsocHeoagboonoocesLOEsoLoCEUdbaeoodG 16.0 6.3 2050)|" ee, 70.9 EA ailebodudes JAgeiintyy © Sao s50ob aktoSDdooUbpo bone Bboumeode 12.1 S358) 15.6 | 4.6 60.4 4.0 32 Wheat shorts: | Minimum, 4.1 2.0 1122 | 6.0 50.0 | Dea iatameteetee Maximum, 15.5 6.2 19.4 10.5 67.0 Gale eee Average, 1.8| 4.6| 14.9| 7.4] 56.8 | aS 12 Wheat screenings: | Wikbaitanbhes Beyacooooonesosberadoosdosyendobaeda 7.8 129 8.3 | ulpy! 61.0 | Diller setts Wikbélasibea, Soqqosnoo sooo qoonosoBuDsoconOSsEcenS 13.6 3.8 16.9 | 7.5 70.4 BeS I\e wre cokes IESENSS Gaba aoaddoasncononoodoseaacbeonDpoone 11.6 259 12.5 4.9 65.1 | 3.0 10 yIncluded in above average. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : 969 Composition of Feeding Stuffs—Contintued. Boy) oe pI | z “| » : - g | § is) ~~ or ° ; (=) ne 3 f=] o o oy tere roars |aeee = fly gal Sern ate teary eae eee S < 0 E a ees Z WASTE PRODUCTS—Continued. | | | | | | Rice bran: Per ct. ‘Per ct. Per ct.! Per ct.|Per ct.| Per ct. Mitnbeha}, abqendsesonnddeonpeeddh lobeadocaecde 8.8| 8.4] 10.9] 2.0] le sega nee WEB dbahihy rooseoScELasoaver GoDoe Uda pnadoece 1087 |, 12241), 1356 17.8 CVE REE lespqacac VAVOTE SCs. ceisicinisis\sis(ic' o/s, 0/eleleie.s/o/ale\ele\elotsfeleie\selo\e's)«:610 9.7 | 10.0) 12.1 | 9.5 | 49.9 8.8 5 Rice hulls: | | | | | iW hhibehloerh ee sqcqmnqncdencancondd poqbcocsoEcarc TET 10.5 2.9 30.3 36.0 0.6) eeepc VEER TVD UN TNR rete cate eleraiv. aie! sjele wieinieia’eis.e ciajaja/s,0's'e(sle'e n:cie 8.5 15.1 csey i 38.6 41.6 Te Sconce WAC err tema ete ola raie eiercielsini em slcislareiciecale/elelsincrepeleieiacs 8.2 13.2 3.6 Sbait 38.6 0.7 | 3 Rice polish | MGT TU THTe eee ec eicicicte ec leew odelcis cavclciele eee sienye 9.0 2:8 16.9 2.4 45.5 6.6) |(cseeriete RV xd rr UI ee sree ole easels ciciare 1 Laivielelelolelnv'eole'eieieis 11.2 bh es 12.9 14.5 63.3 SO ace. eee PAC CTAE © tne Bacio laleistclelaiclalaratefaiaveteleisiclece «/nlojoje¥olore\s 10.0 6.7 11.7 6.3 58.0 7.3 4 Buckwheat middlings: | f iMGbihabbuily “orGadcbases dBOoC CQOEDCCAOnrACOCnoT 9.5 4.4 25.1 2.4 36.3 5:7 VERA YITUTYI ee \oscters cto etsiaiete aleiaie'e sieleleieiciare.c.c\sysisieieis v'e'= 16.3 5.5 31.3 5.7 52.7 8.1 PCV ENA CH I isiicetaceine Neale seelsisies cic cjelsielsicfs(als sists 13.2 4.8 28.9 4.1 41.9 (ial Cotton seed meal: RTA rad ret yyT mee a ialeleteeiniclelsis:clelotereieicteyafotererstarerera\s 5.8 ny | 23.3 | 183 a Fy 828° |\esieeaee IMGs dhrakbhiaW » a cetong Ase oe Oa RDO DASOUs Eanes nae ocr | 18.5 8.8 50.8 | 10.1 38.7 1S On| poe F JSC EG» poeten cacoodbooprmuna cbonuue cadSaacd¢ 8.2 Ts2 42.3 | 5.6 23.6 10 35 Cotton seed hulls: WEhbhelbih. Benoccadhdeorencroodsnoucc moncocanc "9.2 | 1.8 2.2| 87.9 12.4 0:363)| eres MaXiMuM, ..cecccccccccscrcrccrccsctccsccccee 16.7 4.4 5.4 | 67.0 41.8 at ellonouicree VASC ETE Mle tiininele etl sieiciase ian tie a slalostersinsalaieteir(e/2 11.1 2.8 | 4.2 46.3 33.4 2.2 | 20 Linseed meal, | | | | Minimum, 5.6 4.6 20.7 4.7 28.4 Bilt cacers é Maximum, 12.4 8.2 38.2 12.9 41.9 ES Gul Wetrearectcte Average, 9.2 5.7 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 21 Linseed meal, Minimum, 6.0 5.0 27.1 7.6 35.2 DSB reeeaeyers Maximum, 13.4 6.9 } 38.4 4.0 48.0 fe erBACOA Average, 10.1 5.8 38.2 9.5 38.4 3.0 14 Peanut meal:* Minimum, 6.6 Sei 37-5 225 28.5 | Boonboct Maximum, 15.4 5.5 52.4 7.4 30.3 ITS eeoaccle Average, 10.7 4.9 47.6 Bel 23.7 8.0 2,430 Peanut hulls: } Minimum, 7.8 19 4.6 56.5 9.7 O29 | sscfe-ctece le Maximum, 10.8 4.6 8.6 72.3 18.9 2°20 inxostoeee Average, 9.0 | 3.4 6.6 64.3) 15.1 1.6 5 | | | MILK AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS. | | | | Whole milk: | | | | | Whitest breibbeghe manAbodhadoscodetioc unpOdkadGanccobene 80.3 0.4 | BLM stlestetere 2.1 RT etstersters iiietapsee © Sspqupdopnodeposecobodcooscanope babe 90.7 1.2 | (ay i eeooonad 6.1 | GSbioteaaeiee ISS SEAS. “Spe COPOUOODUUE CGN DORo OD OODOCLOODOR OGG 87.2 0.7 | 316! oe. eee 4.9 3.7 798 Skim milk, cream raised by setting: | | TEV ATHAUITYE fe tac ieiel teteinticiai aeisiceielele on sjoicinle eieiviejeisicieele 88.3 0.5 22 Gl sretatetessiers 3.8 Os2Aeerteresier IVES abihibit Ey SSoceAACODADD TOPCO OUTOODOOOODOC 92.6 1.0 al Idcoto cea 5.5 PAR eamocdc. PACVET AEG Meee ee iieicie oi siolels ererdie] sfe\elele elo slevelclerste(nvais 90.4 0.7 Bio) neh gece 4.7 0.9 $6 Skim milk, cream raised by separator: Minimum, GURY Udder lected InGoachinng POOnDOSG, Paceoranal diecos dae Maximum, (PS sar gece ena incbr nines badccoac paccurod licocdnce: Average, 90.6 | 0.7 Bille oaiaeac Bed, 0.3 7 Buttermilk: Minimum, 82.2 | 0.4 | MENTE Wetetere sfeiete ZED | Pecicesretoraltelemtoterione UT ex LEVRUITYT = Wasser stolatepalols atelaielctereteleraitaisteeia's ale 93.3 0.9 | EPA leacaenod| 5.6 | 524s |e ago eer PAU ET AEN lorcisitisrsiciciele s ciciet’='=:n\cfoseninsielvicwiseiselsia(ols 90.1 | 0.7 | SIONS oer inicio 4.0 | gil 85 Whey: | | | | INGA yer eae oer eae acies 93.2 0/3) e035 le-crr cere 4.4 IMI eases ‘ WGSdhabheth GoSrbODOORCCOL COC CUCOUCERCOSOGNES 94.6 0.6 | 12 J oeeeeeee 5.8 O22 alleieteterciete INGOT AREH (ae cst cc cies siete oles Jace Gono Adoormadabs 938.8 0.4 | 0.6 | aalestncive 5.1 0.1 46 *Mostly European analyses. 59 Off Doc. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 970 TABLE NO. IL. POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL ORGANIC MATTER NGREDIENTS (PROTEIN AND CARBO- HYDRATES [INCLUDING ETHER EXTRACT MULTIPLIED = 4 TIBLI ES D DIG AN AND FODDERS A OF WEIGHTS VARYING ]) IN 5) 99 sd oad Ys ESSENTIALLY A CONVENIENCE TABLE. G INDO WOM hc COM AON GIN INOS MN AAI OD oD FEEDS, BEIN Ci WN ER Stessic asa apete are ey a] Mpcatseaminieietcaieteiateryscre. © op > Oc (NUN mit she Wiener heaters: states 2 na “ SHawtins ‘oye ‘sazBapAYoqaeg ~ toon ONmMONON SEO ‘Ule}OIg Ma] SSSRRSSBS > SSRSSRERA a! SrAMVENAS ; S 3 Sssssssso 5 seosdécenn ee sescscescse EE eee eee he pe ee al ee AHDOHMHAMIO 9 ton inames BEI Ora toraoon 19}JVUL OTUBIIO ta Sra wracas SHA IG OO 4 a SHAMS mO | 3 3 § fs} Sanwnr-oimna= Q emoMmomoine % OALE ONT ‘leyJeur AIp [B}07, ra A riosia = or} 0518 wo Seo IS ‘Si SHNweineorwgd Bs MOM NOMA uw 1 hh b= 10 =H OD oo b= HA oom ; Cf eg ee hen is ONSET wa ER i a tS reat || a ah pratt meee ror Se St a Hl eet eaes ad Se setrcones ojo ‘SayBapAyoqavy =a SSHnnNAH OS 4 Sscdnnwticcr i SCHAAF dq nate ss) © oo ts WOOSSOSSSOO 5 CNHOroOLENE ~ rN o oD 1 J “uyoq 01g vi SAAB SRS g SAAR TESES he SSR AaARass g Sosssoscse an Ssscoseococa ace essescsceso we = = : ar : = R nm bo 1D HOO O19 HOA Py Hoenwawnoona ict IBSSRARA DOW ‘1a}}eUL OIUR SIO ry SOHnNMMIDOE 3 SH SWaArA = SHAaMTinoE =) 5 2 - $ | ——~ A n Ve — a AWINNCHIBNS e ld OM AIOCO on qoyvUr AIp [eOY, & SHAN mM MidSrw \4 na Snares sé CR a eee I en GN Pen esi y| reieee fom Oil ka rem oar iro: 4 He phone got a G9 BADE ovig atic a0 o Sad) lec aE DORE A foomomotoe oe ce O71 eee Wee sean ae Bll ere attra ae dP BES Ses ees se iS FeO 18 Sonate B Rute egeio pee eB Fe PA SUR OMe Myce vi Ke aera al n Seoln: Gece Oear ny 7 © BeOS OU OP Rate” p ° A bee ch retuiceiero.o2'5 un et I 6 Geo a a oo oo ihe Vibe clac Guo orl Obo CTL een en 22> Can ONDE CLD Ae Re ede oe MF PRR CRC rt My Crimi AO o Fa Oca Ast acmed “cnn FA I toe cia Chesed te 3 O B Gagnon soos ici g SPIO a tae 5 nop 8 Be awe? S | 2° Oo Goren wo 1560 ior 971 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. 6. OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL OR- ATTER AND DIGESTIBLI * NDS ~4 } TABLE IL—VPOU INGREDIENTS—Con- a di; M aS S) GANIC a: tinue ‘OJa ‘sayBapAyoqiey ‘uje}Old ‘1a}}VUL O[UBBIO ‘dayqyeu AIp [BOL ‘OYA ‘SayBupAYoqIeyD ‘uja}Olg “La}VVVLU —OLURSIO ‘dayqveul AAp [BIOL ‘OJ9 ‘sayRaipAYyoqley ‘ula}Old “LaVVUL ~—OTUBTIO ‘I9}}Beu AIP [BOL Pounds of Fodder. Oats and peas, 1:4.2. O91 I~ OD HS OO SCOnnANAN OST Ce Sir 2 et be CANMINOCWDAOS ocoooocooon MOOAIAMMOWO SCAN A OD TIO CO AD AN 0 OD SL SAN MIO I~ Green Hungarian, Green rye fodder, Green fodders. a Bt ey fi a NY (2 Alsike clover (green), L523. OH COLIN co SOMNAN 0) HIG SMwoOaio0or SN MIO OMr NS ooooooocer WONMIOM HOrmo CrNe TIN OM CM IND SOO OO SAN INOMmOS HOOT C1n CO CN ri et Sento wim; | SAAMI OMAS ~TAMWDAK HO CHAN TMIN~- WOOT aod TI 1D OMIM O SOHN OD OD HID Da NAAAN Co + SrA HINO ococoocecooo ID AIAN 0) Hd 6 tO SIAN OD HIG Oi OO WONMINI OO Barley and peas, Red clover (green), | 1:3.2. 57 Green fodders. (imma- 1:14.8. Corn silage ture), MOMAONA ICE CoE pete $ oat oie Dictate SOMA NM OD HID Nina tem maw SCOCn AAA OD OD oooocecooo IN POMAMMAMOW SMAIATOO HIS © bk INS AIAN OD OD = SMAI HIN bt CO TMOWINM rH oO SOMN wm Sie ArMaowmr~no OCOnmNA TOM OOor ooooooonr ete OMONING SHAAWMINWORS 1h KHON ONI~ SCnrAwmiGkDOor ae ATA WOO Aw, SOSTTNN MOO SHON weomaon Cnn TINE Or ocooooooor IN MA AW © O10 SOMNM BIO Ot INO HMR AANANNSA Corn silage (mature), 1:14.8. SOnN SH Wd owe wr woaae SSNAABSSS cococoocoe CNMWOANT- CMAN HOLM On I~ MOMM ODIO Green clover rowen, 1:4.2, SOnANMOM RtOArMOmMrae SHAN TIOM~e OS rt cooooceocrnn WONMINOMAIAAN SHAM TIN COS WMI SHIR OO Green fodders and silages. Off. Doc. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 972 TABLE II—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL OR- INGREDIENTS—Con- = My STIBLI MATTER AND DIGE GANIC tinued. ‘Oya ‘sayzBIpAYoqueD “ula}OIg ‘Ia}}JVUL dTUvSIO ‘Iaqzqeur Alp [e1OL 1:17.3. Potatoes, HOWOMHOmre MA SOHNMMDMIDwO DiQnHonmrenes SOOCOnnNN& oO ecoceocecoe wmwooeoocoo SnN oO tp Oro LO rt IAN NI o9 09 tt th 956s Carrots, NLD rt st op st oD xt 00 SOSH HANM OD min oi Ipoiwo SSaSanases ooooocecoo MisnSwonoenon SCOnnAN CA OOM MiINMoOMRDmnMow SOnMHRANNM YH UE Bre Turnips, ANWAMM~eNCOID SOCOnTNAMOD AWoOMatHamnd ‘oJe ‘sayearpAYyoqiep ‘ula}O1g ‘19}}] PUL O[UBZIO ‘IoyWeU AIP [e}OL ee oye Clover silage, RK SIG NENT MS oN) eHONCOSOHON 1:6.8. Sugar beet, OD LO I NP 09 OO mH SCOnnFN MO sO Oh HOt HS he SOnNN OO HID Rutabagas, 1:8.6. Sismiciescsics ose MID OMA tow SONnNMANM GS ‘oye ‘sa7BipAyoqreD ‘ule}O1g ‘1o}VeUL ~OLUvSIO ‘doyyeur Alp [8}0.], Pounds of Fodder. Corn stover silage, 1:16.6. | SOMA N DoH NOOR AID Or +H COSCON HAIN oeooooooosoe SHAOWM HMO COnNwMMWNOer INO AAA OW CO Beets, 1:6.5. NO oT OOO NO SOOCOMNHNANANM oD | din han? 2) eid SCnNN OD Sascocsess MIigMeOnMOneA COonnngnno a MON~- MAIN OwO etc. Silages, Roots. Mangel wurzels, Roots. 1:4.9, MNINMAHMHOMN SoOSCoOnnnnN Oon=NDMOs SOnFNN OOO eocoooooseo Amanoownon SSOCHRNANACO AtAAWMH MAO ON HOO ID OF SSOCOnHnNnHANE mS IWOINDINS SSAAAAM oF ecooocoooooe DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUI./TURE. 973 No. R, TOTAL OR- JIGESTIBLE INGREDIENTS—Con- =| w) TABLE IT—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTE MATTER AND GANIC tinued. ‘oJO ‘SayBIpAYoqIvyD ‘ule}O1g ‘19}}JeUL ~DIUPZIO ‘dajyeul AIp [e}10L MOMmnomwovdr SSSonnnnnNnN AoIOANMoOn SCooonnnnn ooocecocea mMMonanNinwogm SOCOCOnNnnAN NMOAANIINMAIO SOSCSOnNnnnANN Redtop hay, 1:10.3. NAHOONMOWOD PALICN OSHC EI CO.S3iGM AMOWMDONAMOS TAN OTOL ON oocoooococn Mo HOM AONID NTOWDONDOrH mnnnnN RHOWDHHROND AMOATIDONMSR Sheltetiad Rowen hay (fine), aber rNMHOMr-KOonmt AEN 69 11966 00 oo 4 ATE Onwe ow AMSHSAMSS Mmnnnin AMWIr-e HON ‘oJa ‘SaJeIpAyoqieD ‘ule}01g *1a}}eU ~DIUBSIO ‘IayJeu AIp [vO] Buttermilk, 1:1.7. AMBOMOANYD SOHHANNMO 1:16.5. Timothy hay, AMMDOMORBHAAIwD ballon eM eMC IC as! Es DMWMAISOS SHANNA ooooocooeo MANNY HANDS AMO DONAHOSO She ee | AMIN- OBONmE NWOWOCMMI- Se oe oe oe | ‘oJa ‘SayBIpAYyoqieyp ‘Ula}O1g “I9}BVU ~DIUBSIO ‘Ia}JeVU AIP [e1OZ Fodder. Pounds of 1:2.0. Skim milk, Milk. WMOoOANSAH s+ ScooconnnnNnN SOA THOME- NS SCnawTiNn~ OO Soecocoonn AMAMMI~NCOIN Mixed hay, 1:10.0. AN M WIDOr- AS Rowen hay (mixed), 1:5.6. aloes eee ier eSoocoseoosgo NANTOWON TOO MAMION RE BHM INS Pree bi re tem TAN 68 oO Hd tor mar nn RmnnnnA Kentucky blue grass 1:10.6. hay, OOD OI ocooecescsd Retort a3 HeainsaSracs rrr AMmOmNHOMOIW MOIS Arico rene Hays. CRS NS Sotelo Site) NiwkOSi9 Ann NN Hays. 1 an beoOowlMlmo SAR | Sf Doc: ANNUAL REFORT OF THE 974 TABLE II—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL ORh- NTS—Con- al w) t+ INGREDII DIGESTIBUI AND MATTER ile tinue ‘OJo ‘SayBupAYyoquey ‘ula}O1g ‘19JJBUL -DIUBSIO ‘layqveur AIP [BIOL ‘oJa ‘sayBupAyoqaen “ule}O1g ‘1a}}BUL DIUBBIO ‘layeur- AIp [e100] ‘Ole ‘sayBipAyoqiey “uleq}O1g ‘1a}}vBUL DiURSTIO ‘ta}VeW AIp [BjOL Fodder. Pounds of SHANNA 64 68 OID art O160 OO Tl in Syarecaree inte a eiaere ete o cena cgpaneiciersetst af since papcigextctaane vole ayte MAM WIDwoM~ OO Q MN Tisor~ao = HAN MwTinwr~wo nm od onl i mn a haa) a oa Weir © Ee ea - Saal a COnnnMNNNS a> OOM HANS ATrTioOS anata wr MN Hise ao a MMIn=- Wont - cooceoonnnn x ooocoocoon nSt SCoooceonnnn B coocecooo > a s —— £ iS AATIOOr- AON @ SCAMMDDMrI~ wo is Cr) NMOWoOnNntrer 5 NOI Mri Coa NANwrowonwrea ~ mm HN a mond > MMM HN a = Ye 2 = = ie) OONMHTrONN Lo) ONTOS AAT EB Heroraonis NwrSOrnmoon oe NTOWDON MOM fac) TC KH: Vicia mre jew Renan Ann Wi~-inm@nHowwoe i) NTOAANtHOWED SHANNEN COED 19 rye} SND td 1s OO S He Oa > Fae wiser as oF Gh o a + -—_ Lod ts] 7 ty TOT 19 M10 = AW Aywrwoc Mn stink oo on COMA MANNSD a ANYMTOMm Ao, & AMOWHON DEG = sceococoocsd gy Sscoceosen ER C—O ent.) o 6a rs TANK Hinaan § AANHK~rOCwIE eee NTIS OaN ~ MNDIONWDAANs pow Mink Arcsin ag ‘ NANrOWDON Mer un mr mw wenn at morn 5 ee : InomomMmonocoe S HAM HH IDOKD So MOAMNIDMOMA So newer acais 5 AMSNSAMSS id) AWOarascan Oo nn Hat manna mar AN a8 AOMr~womuqtnnnn NMIDOODMINC S Ni 09 10 0 00 cr 1 OY ne SHNMMDOKw rea ANMMINOOaH Ss HNO inOCnan = @ ve & as a z = ‘. Getic etal eae) MOMNIDHOMS AMT Or-DoO onrnr 02 OO SHAG a NiWWDABMOAN bh AwwOcConwor br ecoooocoeses a4 SOOnnRHRANN ona nn.) so == — = ~ L198 ke} HOHIGMAMOHOH Oh SHH NN OO HID On HAN Ned oD Oo Ie 2 mATIDOMHM Ho a Atownonwos AMSWSONAHOS 1 ou Adda & mans —] » ———$—$—$—$$$ << ______ i b HOON ANM- DID S NtOOnMIOe HY = MinwmceinMmnH so 5 ° AToONMHMIOKA 1 DEPARTMENT OF AGE No. rl Ay TABLE IL1—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTIE R, TOTAL OR- INGREDIENTS—Con- AND DIGESTIBLE ya - MATTER x J GANI tinued. ‘oJa ‘sayeupAyoqiep ‘Uls}OIg ‘1a}JVeUL OTULSIO ‘Iajyeul AIp [vO Onn nAANA OS MOH Ori COD SOCKTHANTIO DVismnworoaon SSOTnNM TOS COOCnNMMWOS AMA OMOINI~ DH SOeESCTHNDAMWODW Oat hulls, 1:18.2. AOD 1D HO His he Sooonnnns MmaAMICKHOMaS SCoooconHnaAn ooococeococoeco NWA OmMMIOO SCOOMN tt AIIAOoOr~ OC od SCOOCKHNANMNtHEA ‘OJa ‘SsayBIpAYyoqiey ‘ula}OIg ‘1a]}VBUul ~OTURSIO ‘IajVeul AIp [BOL ‘OJa ‘sazyBapAyoqiep NOOO Toe SOCHANMINGE re Ano HO SSCA COOCnMAM MOO AI HCD b= 0 SH OD HAD Provender (as sold in New England), 1:9.4. AMOMAICNwMs Seonnnnws NM TOR wD SOOM NN MIDS YY op E= & #09109 00 SCOCTMNM TOD “uleqOIg ‘Ia}}BUl O1UvSI9 ‘la}WeU AIp [evIOL SCCoConraAN Mn NAHoocniwnNad SSSHHARTS csecséésécce N SH COT if 09 BI 60 XH SScHAmHtoH ATS b= 6 HOD HIG Provender (4 %), 1:8.4, Aes OPM CO MN 1G SCoomnnannmwtes Aamo naAni~ COSCrAMMION Scsoecsscsa ONIN Ee COICO STC Socnanmwon At oD 6019 HLS Ly) Pounds of Fodder. * AN MM HINO OS o al f=r) 3S 5 Se a al AMIDOHAHAI : Ccoocoocnnn to - oeoceoooceesoo aol cd i « | Aid S ry DONO un ta AMOR OIGKN ey meannN § 5 — K2 > MOOMOAM~DA (4 ATK ASH sos | AAs * GarAOreowmn)s) = fateas lS eerie ita sa tee = aS SHNM TCO iss] oO oO . q a a OAM TWIOSrYAS 3 scoooossecocrn 2 z Ssccsesecd OR fon} Sod tol mW = HOD HOI DONS Geto Ute ie s|| 9 lene efibetaqacietncirchasiers ex NWOMDONWOM~ =e} aso Los} iss} o =] c MIN DSeMIN Ww i E AtomnsMmIANA ° SRN oO NMINGSORHAIC os MNO IDO MOH oo = zs w~ ial Ge) a aI =f MOANIDMDHMOS = yet j SSssAntaAnan inl rs | seoceooeocd = eS ts) g | AMMOMmAOCANIO a pmowtreas ae eae 0 S aa AMONOAMMO~H Lr yi Ana TN s ba we & MODHMAONY co) NAORHMONnA ~ rr rinNn vi OMCs Pee geet uw a Rates Pe neo a x 70 Oo Moth GO Fo. Or x Ee, oo ||| ast ekcsiersy Reese areas Re mill pepe Sudan coer eas, ae BR py il MOO SOLS (dj ' a tw ES ee es er Al ONIN O10 mann saitaed wis ra ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 976 TABLE I1.—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL OR- AND DIGESTIBLE INGREDIENTS—Con- GANIC MATTER tinued. NM WORN O10 wr Barley screenings, le Ore NOMr-MOMmMOW SOSLANMOO SSSRASISS ooocoeoocece NH 0 10 HOI 9 SOSCHTNM tO CO NSH CO 16 HO OO SCOSCHNM two Wheat screenings, 1:5.2., ANMOCMmOoMor SOSCHMHANN MIO anwo D2 WOO SOTMNN OHIO oococecoo AMA Oto INw; COOMA WOD OQ Ho 00 l= 10 CO OD SOSCHNANMDOW 1:8.0, Barley, ACO Hr OID AG SOSTNNMIOwS ASCH wOMOAMNOt SSCIANM TOO AHR Old HL COCHANMHHOD NAHM O- OWED SOSCHAMMNSOoO Wheat middlings, 1:4.6. SSERRASEBAR THAD CO NI OF OD HOO SCOOCnnANNAIO coooocooor AH Op Dh © HD xt SCCOOTMNAM MOO A Ho O19 HO 00 SOOCHN Cat OOO ‘Oya ‘sa}yBApAYOqreyD s SOSHHAGYS eo3 = “uyojod as SSSRARHTS on cocococecoooe — SS. an = ~ . Q_- AWA OHO IDwD 19}}PBUL O;UBBIO Obs) SSSHAMHC00 Ko = es eet ee ; 25) ANT Or oinwe dayyeur AIp [BJT iS SSoSonAMMOD . 5 MAIDOSMOCMr~AD oye ‘sayBupAyoqieD a SScHnnaass 3 PT i ct 2) so 10 tArtHoOr “UJe}OL > SS ia be reset od ocooocoonn ae Bes roi - = AWN O19 Hi9 hy J9}}BUL dJUBSIO $5: SSSriaicd wis os = = ie) : i . NAIWMor~-wowaorn Jaqyyeur AIP [8}OL q SScoHndadca A r MMnNnOoMmomwno oye ‘sayBIpAYoqIeD ro SSOSMAA Aes et ae é oO mA ~~ a “uls}0rd > SSHAR TRS Hos coosesooon = — By Lo iy . = AtnAmeowwtwor AsJVUL OUvBIO & SSSHAMHIS oS 2 3 NAWAWDD-ORAN 19}78U AIP [230], (e) SccHnaiswdd g ; age bi 8 98 Bee 3 2 SOR ave oO fe o Sata RStaegS pecteare 2 Bete HE ge 8 agncth et ¥) 5 SCOR SOs atest cs) Sepch URN SIRO IS ohale A} (apo SP tea Sage e ‘oad g is Sigsis pO See ee 5 mn cOetie chasm earns Lc Tn © Mee CRC oul” Olechuperca fy joa) Wf Ac ter aien se sek Fake it todo ’ ne RaneCenE er as SN lea ie FS | H. O. horse feed, etc. By-products, AMONDMHOIWA SOSCONMNANAN HIG DISS Ocot. Hay SOMNMMWOD eoercooosoeosco 1:6.4, AIOMM™ O19 HiOe SOOTHING ww AO ROM ODDS SOSTNM TOD Wheat bran, 1:3.8. ANMOMWOI MO SCoonnnnem st SSRABRSSEEAR ocooocoeoceorn NAMOWOMMHRNN SCOSCHMNMMDNODW AHHH O1ID HO CO Carel secre eC a SRSA totic 679) Heo = By-products. Rt eon ike 977 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6. No. TABLE II.—POUNDS OF TOTAL DRY MATTER, TOTAL OR- MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE INGREDIENTS—Con- GANIC tinued. ‘oO ‘sopPBIpAYO((AVH PNM MwWCTOOw Hi SOOSAWNGD OUStri Naw AME WH KHIOAS SSSA MS P = oy A fe 3 3 i te i) bl ~o WOiIANCAMD . nN - a SsSscssccs ge SsSsssssss ac SSSSSHHAG Sa = = * = vin . o CF HD b= 6 19 HG D e§ CA HOD HO XH OD SH LO Lape AH Om 10 HN OD SH JazjeUL OLUvSIO | = Scosnnanwen 5 SSScHAMmtSH ae SSSHA ww m Se ae 3 23 = = 4 a ees P NH Or In How 8 CI HOD 00 B= 19 XH CO 00 | AWROr~ OID H deyeur AIp [vjOL Sconammon | ScSSsHainmwow SSSHA Mw i ae ef TIRE AIE or ~ 09 rawaNesos | | ergo ntoeg wee de ‘seyeupAYoqaeD be Soonnad wis p Ses eel micsics ai | Ss | Sésodnnancs a a S ee PES SS — A O | ANWODIMs eoseec|e|eso - mien oa) ‘ula}O1g rhe SS Amisk ome § FRSRASSSE ie | SSaSaRBRS =] | ge SSoSonnAaMG he! SSoSoSonHnNM Se == Dans ———EE—S ax i o ‘3 AAMHHh Oi9 HO ae ON Ht on Be HOD SLO Lalpes s ATOM 1l HAT OD dayeUt OLUvsIO bo SSOSHAM MOO 2 SSSHAMH wo $0; SSOSCHAM HOH id — = a3 a {= : 3 Nignwroown 5 NIPMADDrOAN is | ainQRoroane de}yeut AIp [BOL fc ScoconAamwis SSSHAGWOS SSSCHAMHOO ns ‘ A - MmMincomMmnwoaon | CV OD CO 62 D 1 1 E OD | FAT FIDO oJo ‘SayeupAYyoquep cS SoonnNa mis a f SOSH HANMHS 4 o fe & ———| § | = Mr or~Oomron aH MAOAIOr- AANA = ‘ule}01g a) SSAASBSSe “ SSAGESSSAA a S 65 Sesecsonn * SscsossosH 3 Gos tS _ PE Pt = 2 z , BS HOO 19 69 6 09 eH u OH he HOD HD | a dayqeur o}ue SIO oa SSSHAG MSO a SSSHamtow 5 SSSHnAm tw a 2 as = hes pre a 2 E $ a K AH ROOM O1INt D fae] CI 1G HO 00 oO AHP or Olde dayyeur AIp [ejOL 5 SoSonANam woo SSSHamtoew re 5 Reh eS, Dhp oo v at alteomeniouestiten tems AS sere tetontents ° 2 Seen? ee 2 Sooaopeeiteer: 2 cF OS roe Sainte ie OBE Geh ms iat once 13) ean) ree eae 5 Sie aoa es 3 4 3 Oe OO Unt mcet. 1S FOSS Ter |i mr uaicti sh taretewher iecasiestue Lo} fo} a Wd oe ees z « ov fe 6:6. .6) 0 7p) i ie ox o slsiatige: ysipetcyisy's 4 3 tO oan i=] Al Pa emealWn Dosis cole sitate, veils iad 3 m 4 See ae ae pits ~ Gro Oe Oo HI le RI 9 ih OS Oe 04 ea aera pe cars 5 a * RA ee Arad Aes ee RARE aie a traci we sii ated WISE S oid tos GES 62—6— 1902 Off. Doc. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE 978 R, TOTAL OR- INGREDIENTS—Con- ry DRY MATTE 4 OF TOTAL AND DIGESTIBLE DS 7 ul II1.—POUN TABLE MATTER GANIC tinued. vio ‘SayBIpAYOqvyg “ula}OLg ‘Ag}IVUL OLUBSIO ‘de, ,}Blu AIp [BOL ‘OPO ‘SyBIPpAYOqIVH “ulaq}OIg ‘1aj}PVUL DURBIO ag}jyeu AIP [2}OL MAIO D QAM 4 OOO cola dw od SOCOM TRNMMSO Scorn aANSD SHAN TDOSOASOINS eocoooconnn NH Om Ooimne SCOOnMNo ron NIDA WOM OOM SOOCTMN MH HON Dried brewers’ L320: grains, rs COLIC tM 4.0 SCOooConnnwan *DMOnie= HOO TOMO Olid ocoeoeocooenn AITO OO 1D HO OO CSCOOMNM TOW NOAWMM™ ODA SCOSOSCMNMHOND Moor h=o Wert SHOnTAN AIO COON b= OS b= 10 6D SrNt= oni o SOOCMNAM NOW SOOnFNM HOD ‘OJo sayBIpAyoqiey ‘ula}Olg ‘L9}}PBUL OTULSIO dajjyeutr Ap [BOL Fodder. Pounds of | Starch feed, wet, 1:4.9. TAM ID rs OI oooconnnn Mw nON et SOSOCHMNHANwMIS ooocoeococse ANMCOte Om oooonnrnss MNM EY OME C10 ococoeonnnne TOO re 0 OO COOCOnnmtIN 10 EL NDAARHMYE SCnMMAMAHNS Seooonnnn AIO WOrORAN SOCOM nMmMOD AINA Ra ~ ON ~ re Slee scl ey eDU ct tcl eee) as £ SOOM HNNM.O eS) a AB Q “ ro) = BARMAN o © Shale ls Mette 38 ae SoSConANGA Ox é z a fs AMO Oh wInkhaD (2) SSOSOHANM MOH Cr) ad. i] i) o SS veo oe) G=| SGC) 5 NWO DM OID O rene se SOCHANMMON oO o) AACA HOH MIO Ee (eo) 0 Fe ir Paarl eb He RS AS = oCooonnnws “ag ae ee Os ae) i AONwMeENDOOor a+ Ea SHRSANSTA ake ar Sooconnann s vo bopa] Bs ap -~ -ry Ve} (=) CU Al a ok thera Ho = to SOSOHNAMMHOYN s og A =>) o . 5 Pen a= ATAMNOIN HOD 2! eae o) SSoSoHnaAmMHOwW 5 QUO) =f op 63 De NI OS OD ae A Seoseonnams 50 ai fs] aP — = HMONHOWOSH i SCmMOANC TN ~— pit ) ocooocoonrnam =o eins gH Eps | | Hoo in HOT re = SSSCHAMMOHD “ S ie ~ e AHR OM CIGD 5 4 Dinebein ete ie sipraph ey OSTiOn AnaOC uO OeCn 19 00 0.95 VGA CHM SS IIOT ES ube stercicinrs cleverciers siojeleloleiotorsiorsicieie sicisiatsiclelsvevelsialsiereieietelevel syolereieteielatalets 19 00 0.95 VMTN Salle age OG bc DRODOOTe DD HUT O OD HOC OOTOOCHNON SRR AD On UOHOONSOBRODTOURLIAS 5 00 0.25 FEEDING STANDARDS. Frem Bulletin No. 22, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DSC: Attempts have been made to ascertain the food requirements of ‘arious kinds of farm animals under different conditions. Large numbers of feedings experiments have been made under varying conditions with this end in view. From the results, feeding stand- ards have been worked out which show the amounts of digestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates supposed to be best adapted to differ- ent animals when kept for different purposes. The feeding stand- ards of Wolff, a German, have been most widely used. They ave as follows: No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 987 Wolff’s Feeding Standards. A.—Per Day and Per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight. | ] [ Digestible Food Materials. x —_ eines | = | & “a | . 2 Y @ £ 5 te} S 88 S ¢ 2 S ro) = = = $ Q ‘ a v ° - = ~ 3 rs a 3 ° Ee A, oO & & Pounds.| Pounds.| Pouade| Pounds. | Calories. Oxenwatgresering Staley: serecteyercclcreciiemnicrec salatercie)sterstaicinneveis ce 17-641 07 | 8.6 | 0.15 16,815 WOOlsheep, ‘COaTser::DrecdSs. -morecce.ca cs ceeetine sonic cen 20.0 | 1.2 | 10.3 | 0.20 22, 235 Wioolesheep ystiner preedSiss.. ciacioomiseices te slccencen come 22.5 | ass 11.4 0.25 25, 050 Oxernmmoderately, WOrked sy. 0 teaeacieeieenionnen eee eceiae 24.0 | 1.6 11.3 0.30 24, 260 OxenBheavily .WOrke diel vei ccc siajereiewe ccc seeicie disteior fale 26.0 2.4 13.2 | 0.50 31,126 ETOTSESeIMOGerately/ swOrked i ccsecciincisicce tee tcaicenecccs|| 22.5 1.8 aha 0.60 26,712 ETOTSESHNEA Vil Ys WOLKE oo ici sietess|s.sis'esersle'eie w eee eae uien oe 25.5 2.8 13.4 | 0.80 33, 508 IMETT CHB COWS pete sc cure nanan icc niece Ncioeietlceteloncten cl eisigieieine ale 24.0 2:5 12.5 0.40 29,590 Fattening steers: TUES CMB Gl OGL Maes ep eloeiareia en aie Saisie nactieiine nolo ee ocierc%e 27.0 225 15.0 0.50 34, 660 DECOHCMDETI OG sete artes sriclo cies tes eb as elaeias 26.0 3.0 14.8 | 0.70 | 36, 062 EDA indepen Odseer meee saitan acheter se oe oinet en coe 25.0 Def 14.8 | 0.60 35, 082 Fattening sheep: | | | | Cres ee OT OC yee spars ereterayovelstsre ce icse store atotaieelolnte townie ala aistare cnioe | 26.0 3.0 | 15.2 0.50 35, 962 Secondipperiod smemtcse tee eres meena ssh te 25.0 | 3.5 14.4 0.60 35, 826 Fattening swine: | LTS CUED) C1 OG emer ctets stehsisraictstetctacicloten ei clolersne ee sotc ce ee sient | 36.0 5.0 27.5 60, 450 Spcondmpericd a bec te ece ee ee eee une. 31.0 4.0 | 24.0 52,080 Di ras PeriOd paeereceas storie cela onclels sce eicnetsioniaiete oistoeie ears. « 23.5 2.7 | 17.5 37,870 | = | Af Digestible Food Materials. to Ss | | 2 EY 1 hes S S| = = 3 © ee Sr s 2 oo a ° > ow woo ° S co . = os A A ° a 2s s 3 = + z ion fe) q os | a 5 < | ia A, 'S) & i, | { Pounds.| Pounds.) Pounds., Pounds.) Pounds.| Calories. Growing cattle: | Age— | DaCORSeIMONCHS = see cise ersis eis lois isielole oleiectelere 150 | Seo 0.6 | Zeal 0.30 | 8,116 SMLONGAIMON ENS emigre sancti 300 | 7.0 1.0 | 4.1] 0.30} 10,750 Meat Oh IVONt Ss eircercls ster caisiaascletets misintonere | 500 | 12.0 ico 6.8 | 0.30 | 16, 332 AZ NLOMIS IN ONCTDS erietccre eicictstersyaisio\eiela tera 700 | 16.8 1.4 9.1} 0.28 20,712 ISREGREIMONtNS ane etter eee ce emeice $50 20.4 | 1.4 10.3) 0.26 | 22, 859 Growing sheep: | | | Age— | | H | BMCONG PINON CHGS 212. os cretesclstessaieleis\cfe's obeys .s/0 56 | 1.6 | 6.18 0.87 0.045 2,149 GEtOuSeMOnthss 2 eeeee conse os 67 ere} 0.17 0.85! 6.040 2, 066 8 to 11 months, Edi 75 | eta 0.16 | 0.385 | 0.037 j 2,038 11 to 15 months, ] 82 | 1.8 0.14 6.38 4.032 | 2, Oa TW OLORCOSINIOIERE: eisic crc jsicls sects cic csai~ staves 85 | 1.8 6.12 6.88 | 6.026 | 1,966 Growing fat swine: } | | Age— | | DL COpSaINON LOS tanta see crcincsnccucsn ens 50 2.1} 0.38 | 1.56 3,486 SotO iS MMONENS; 42.2 ves sieccioeseeiac oa 'se 100 3.4 0.50 | 2.50 5,588 SritonG MOonthss fp ssecter eee: eee 125 3.9 | 0.54 | 2.96 6,516 Gators months ia- nc oc etceicise asi cote nce | 170 4.6 0.58 | 3.47 7,533 GeLOWIA, MOMCHSS) aoe ce ewer eee eee 250 5.2 | 0.62 | 4.05 8, 686 } 988 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS AND MANURIAL VALUE PER TON. Taken from Bulletin No. 16, Prepared by Enos H. Hess, of the State Experiment Station, Pennsylvania. In commercial fertilizers there are only three ingredients which a7e assumed to have any practical value, namely: Nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash. The foods used in feeding dairy cattle con- tain more or less of these three ingredients, and, therefore, have a fertilizing value equal to the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash they contain. The nitrogen is valued at twelve cents per pound, the phosphoric acid at four cents and potash at five cents per pound. No allowance is made for the value of the humus, which has some value, but as to how much it has, will have to be left to the judgment of the reader, for as yet it has not been scien- tifically determined. Pounds in 100 Manurial Value in Dollars Pounds. per Ton. | 3 3 i) S) | s a | 2 2 d iB Fs S o aq : oO ro] . S a | 4% 3 a | a = E 2 & & 2 = & = fo) — io} vA = Ay a Ay Ay BH SOILING FODDER. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Corn—dent, cut before glazing, .............. |} 0.41 0.14 0.33 | $0.984.| $0.120 $0.33 $1.43 CORNICE gia cleteieloleletatelcleleinlalalwicinic ste(e's aln\eleioleieielsisiaisiarmtare 0.27 0.10 0.31 - 648 - 080 ol 1.01 Crimson clover (just heading),* .............. 0.40 0.12 0.34 - 960 0.96 «34 1.40 Crimson clover (full bloom),* ...........s..- 0.51 0.12 | 0.35 1.224 .096 .30 1.67 Orchard Verassi Gn DLOOMT) a erie cles) n 3) oa cf i & 4 5 a £9 Fa os ® See a 3 3 33 4 i S 5 5 Ay & 16) y | European: | Man catemoderate swOrks mmcniciss/sciies(leleecis nies ceeciciaciacincincieiiiee | 0.26 | 0.12 1.10 8,055 SVE ae ean A TCL im VO Te Kcpyureinie allt iote tol oleieleletete orsle levels fete ote tere lereletetaieleieie/= 382 | 22 -99 3, 370 American: | Man without muscular work, ...... 3,000 Man with light muscular work, ... 3,000 Man with moderate muscular work, ... oe R28 ee ont 3,500 Man with hard muscular work, ......... resceuess dasacadce| acl el bnonosencsllboadacosoa 4,500 The table of composition of food materials shows the amount of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, and ash content and the total fuet value per pound for each kind of food named. The protein, fac and carbohydrates all furnish energy. In addition to furnish- my energy, protein forms tissue. Since protein and energy are the essential features of food, dietary standards may be expressed in their simplest form in terms of protein and energy alone. Observation has shown that as a rule a woman requires less food than a man, and the amount required by children is still less, vary- ing with the age. It is customary to assign certain factors which shall represent the amount of nutrients required by children of dif- ferent ages and by women as compared with adult man. The virious factors which have been adopted are as follows: Factors used in Calculating Meals Consumed in Dietary Studies. One meal of woman equivalent to 0.8 meal of man at moderate muscular labor. Gne meal of boy 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.8 meal of man. One meal of girl 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.7 meal of man. One meal of child 10 to 18 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.6 meal of man. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1001 One meal of child 6 to 9 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.5 meal of man. One meal of child 2 to 5 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.4 meal of man. One meal of child under 2 years of age equivalent to 0.3 meal of man. These factors are based in part upon experimental data and in part upon arbitrary assumptions. They are subject to revision when experimental evidence shall warrant more definite conclu- sions. The plan followed in making dietary studies is, briefly, as follows: Exact account is taken of all the food materials (1) at the beginning of the study, (2) purchased during the study, and (8) remaining at the end. The difference between the third and the sum of the first and second is taken as representing the amount used. From the figures thus obtained the amount of the different food materials and the amount of the different nutrients furnished by them is calcu- lated. Deducting from this the weights of the nutrients found in the kitchen and table refuse, the amounts actually consumed are cbtained. Account is also taken of the meals eaten by different members of the family or groups studied and by visitors, if there are any. From the total food eaten by all the persons during the cntire period the amount eaten per man per day may be calculated. In making these calculations due account is taken of the fact that, as stated above, women and children eat less than men performing the same amount of work. Method of Calculating Dietaries. The following may be taken as an illustration of the way in which the table of composition of food products and the dietary standards may be practically applied. Suppose the family consists of four adults, and that there are on hand, or may be readily purchased, the folowing food materials: Oatmeal, milk, sugar, eggs, lamb chops, roast beef, potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice, bread, cake, bananas, tea, and coffee. From ihese materials menus for three meals might be arranged as follows: Breakfast Oatnieal, milk, sugar, lamb chops, bread, butter and coffee. Dinner.—Roast beef, potatoes (Irish), sweet potatoes, rice pud- ding, and tea. Supper.—Bread, butter, cake, and bananas. The amounts required of the several articles of food may be readily approximated by any person experienced in marketing or preparing food for a family. Thus, it may be assumed that four adults would consume for breakfast 13 pounds lamb chops, one-half pound oatmeal, one-half pound bread, 6 ounces milk, 2 ounces sugar, 61 1002 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. and 2 ounces butter. From the table of composition of food ma- terials the nutritive ingredients which these foods furnish may be easily calculated. Thus, if oatmeal contains 16.1 per cent. of pro- tein and furnishes 1,860 calories per pound, one-half pound would ecoutain 0.081 pound protein (0.5 * 0.161 = 0.081 pound) and yield 930 calories (0.5 < 1.860 = 930), and if lamb chops contain 16 per cent. protein and furnish 1,130 calories per pound, 14 pounds of lamb chops would furnish 0.24 pounds protein (1.5 pounds X 0.16 — 0.24 pound) and 1,695 calories (1.5 pounds X 1,130 — 1,695) calories. The others may be calculated in the same way. The assumed quantities of food materials which the four persons would consume in a day, and the calculated protein content and fue] value, would be as follows: Menu for Family of Four Adults for One Day. Weights. n 1@ (i an iS j 3 2 & = Food Materials. fe a : 3 ss a iS r = 3 2 x 5 2 2 g a 6 a; é ——— eee Breakfast. avec a, sere stare yote csi siseovey aie le iarehatedirs cavteraperstegleye) ard ac meetotorsrare slo oer ccero rate bers 930 VII ee etorerereiataratcletststsielsinrsieveveia's/efelsisic/el ekelaisieleles-veteicietteeicisieteteterstate referers ieteiele 122 SSD SEU To rains cicis leyorsloleleteys\eistors/aieloss|ayeiate ola cole ojeiate sicin alo evetetesaverets re aveveYe im carat eietare 23 Lamb chops (fron : 1, 695 18 Fest (ols Anos slefele oe 3 608 Butter, ; ave) |lavs\Steretetacveyell| 451 Coffee, * 417 PTC) CAA rar ove oy eyerotey rete s:0) 0101-2700) syatar#us) tat «(e/ejole ots aoia aiavarensvallesstotaustereYeren cies ois 4,555 Dinner GH ERS hin (GHUCK ME yeh eae ee eee ee eee le | 12) 77 1,435 NOLEN OSS Semtex olen ater fole) ete eraterale/aseletole areietore le els\ale/aieioiereie/apei-ectel olor te/ tote) ateletal tetetel| lpetarcrereisterere 12 | O14 233 Se Gan OLA OOS ce alate ot tere ctctatosoa ete telere/eletmtcvareyetatsioss\eitun staves «ss iataye wih cmetayar= eicnaral | etenete Aten Cole 12 | .011 480 : 6 456 2 451 4 408 4 160 6 122 2 232 410 4,387 912 451 2 - 00 225 Oe ai eaiess lve iafeiainicse(elelete watofere eie(elars aw ocerelare. chess(eint (oles erste rele rare es elarateeVaehs sevoteteTall evorceane terclerove 8 | - 082 838 PROS i retafcrorereraiessieters (eve retelor>.siaie;eelorere/cieielsisjeteteie wisistelw sceletsisca ever cloleceve/avainval | iotetereieinvatereedllsjeteCereratatciate .109 2, 426 MO CATON GS LIMO Saas comet aes eislete lei ee Ee eC ene | SSE | Mayas 909 11, 268 AV ETS ee HOLM MELSON sy snes No tyesicictepes os ielest terete maieleietereriell earch terete aval | raebtere rere 227 2,817 *Coffee and tea in themselves have little or no nutritive value. In the menu, allowance is made for the milk or cream and the sugar that would ordinarly be added. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1003 The American dietary standard for a man at moderate muscular work calls for 0.28 pound protein and 3,500 calories. It will be seen that the menu suggested above is insufficient; that is, more food must be supplied. For instance, cheese might be added for dinner, and pork and beans and inilk for supper. The amounts of protein and energy which a sufficient quantity of these articles for four persons would supply are shown in the following table: Food Added to Bring the Day’s Menu up to the Dietary Standard. ae = — — = ee Weights. vi o “4 B | : © 3 : 3) 3 Food Materials. £ dj F 3 ¢ iS) 5 = fs iI ° o {=} =) a f 6 a E (GINEGEDS, Goadpadédonossce conde noacasp oa dapdub ddubsdnabundope contoenasd| Meosom eats 4 0.069 53 PES CALI Star etcletets clavefelels!cseseletsieteloiclelevelelstoleletereisisishste'etslefelaressvele/ore(elejeleieisstevereteieveversiall| eielolelereierefare 10 141 1,005 MOY pairevereratere atecore erate erase re fale oicteverenascaicvein Oreretabe iota reioleverorelete:nieversvaraie cietelereioe inral | eretefereneictets 4 005 918 AT Ee Mammcrevolevcistatesascrersreiere ste arsiniersintoloveisiatotelersietats iaiarsrevscercinietsreisielatsieraieis evetereveieverc Dl learn steeaVoratehe - 066 650 Motalmamoun twa d dea ist Omi SIU a ayerclsteleleielsislerete|oleislere(cisieforeisxsistclell stclevelere\e/evelal lie cleieieieiciciels 281 3,109 These additions would make the total protein 1,190 pounds and the total fuel value of 14,377 calories for four persons, or for one person, 0.298 pound protein and 3,599 calories. (For the sake of sunplifying calculations no distinction is made between the amounts required by men and women.) These values are approximately the amounts required by the dietary standard. Following the above method, the value of any menu chosen may be easily calculated. It should be borne in mind that approximate rather than absolute agreement with the dietary standard is sought. It is not the purpose to furnish a prescription for definite amounts of food materials, but rather to supply the means of judging whether the food habits of families accord in general with what re- search has shown to be most desirable from a physiological stand- point. If possible to devise menus which will furnish the requisite amounts of nutrients and energy at comparatively low cost. Digestibility. The value of a food is determined not alone by its composition, but also by its digestibility; that is, by the amount of it which the body can retain and utilize as it passes through the digestive tract. The term digestibility, as frequently employed, particularly in popu- lar articles, has several other significations. Thus, to many persons 1004 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. it conveys the idea that a particular food “agrees” with the user, i. e., that it does not cause distress when eaten. The term is also very commonly understood to mean the ease or rapidity of diges- tion, and one food is often said to be more digestible than another because it is digested in less time. However, the term digestibility is most commonly understood in scientific treatises on the subject to mean thoroughness of digestion. The digestibility of any food may be learned most satisfactorily by experiments with man, al- though experiments are also made by methods of artificial diges- tion. In the experiments with man both food and feces are an- alyzed. Deducting the amounts of the several nutrients in the feces from the total amounts of each nutrient consumed shows how much of each was digested. The results are usually expressed in percentages and spoken of coefficients of digestibility. From a large number of experiments with man it has been calculated that on an average the different groups into which foods may for con- venience be divided have the following coefficients of digestibility: Coefficients of Digestibility of Different Groups of Foods. is o o 4 A ja 5 ui ts) a 5 5 5 5 g 2 Ay ° % FS ! a 3 S| Ay te : ee o oF ae >= re) 26 2 o 2) > B i) a’ mo om ied 6) = Amimals LOOGS) 2s 6; DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1011 MILDEW: 1. Bordeaux mixture on first appearance. 2. Burn vines after gathering the crop. Currant and Gooseberry. CURRANT WORM: i. Paris green or Hellebore when the worms first appear. 2. Re peat, using Hellebore every ten days or two weeks if needed. STEM GIRDLER: 1. Cut off stem three inches below the girdled place and burn. GOOSEBERRY FRUIT WORM: 1. Let fowls run among the plants. 2. Pick off and destroy in- jured fruit. 38. Rake up and burn the fallen leaves and rubbish near by, in the fall. FOUR-LINED LEAF BUG: 1. Spray, in May, with Kerosene Emulsion, one part; water five parts. LEAF-SPOT: 1. Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate soon after leaves open. 2. Repeat with Bordeaux mixture every two weeks as long as needed. 3. Gather and burn fallen leaves in the fall. MILDEW: 4. Spray with Potassium Sulphide solution (liver of sulphur) as the leaves begin to open. 2. Repeat every two or three weeks if needed. Egg Plant. LEAF-SPOT: 1. Bordeaux mixture as soon as plants are established in the field. 2. Repeat every two or three weeks till fruit is half grown. 3d. Then use ammoniated carbonate. Elm. ELM LEAF BEETLE: 1. Spray with Paris green or Arsenate of Lead when leaves first open. 2. Repeat two weeks later. 3. Repeat if necessary. TUSSOCK MOTH: 1. Gather and destroy the whitish egg masses in winter. 2. Re- peat in July or August, before the eges hatch and the caterpil- lars scatter. 3. If the eaterpillars are feeding, spray with Paris green or Arsenate of Lead as often as needed. 1012 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. Grape. ROSE BUG: 1. Collect the insects by hand. 2. Bag the forming bunches of grapes. See Report of Department for 1898. GRAPE VINE FLEE BEETLE: 1. Spray with Paris green or Arsenate of Lead as soon as seen. 2. Repeat every week if necessary. GRAPE VINE LEAF HOPPER: | 1. Dust the vines with insect powder or tobacco dust about the first of July. 2. Repeat one week later if necessary. ANTHRACNOSE: 1. Brush the vines over with Sulphate of Iron and Sulphuric Acid solution before the buds open. 2. Repeat three or four days later. Do not use after the vines start growing. DOWNY MILDEW, POWDERLY MILDEW: 1. Bordeaux mixture when leaves are fully opened. 2. Repeat about ten days before the flowers open. 3. Spray with potas- sium sulphide solution three weeks later if necessary. BLACK ROT: 1. Bordeaux mixture as the buds open. 2. Repeat every two weeks if needed, till fruit is half grown; then use ammoniacal copper carbonate, repeating every week or two if necessary. RIPE ROT: 1. Same treatment as 2 under black rot. Hollyhock. RUST: 1. Bordeaux mixture as leaves open. Repeat at intervals of ten days if needed. Maples. TUSSOCK MOTH: See under “Elm.” COTTONY MAPLE SCALE: i. Spray with Kerosene Emulsion early in June. 2. Repeat in two weeks if necessary. Nursery Stock. SUCKING INSECTS: 1. Kerosene Emulsion as soon as discovered. 2. Repeat in two weeks if necessary. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1013 CHEWING INSECTS: }. Paris green or Arsenate of Lead when discovered. 2. Repeat as may be needed. FUNGOUS DISEASES: 1. Bordeaux mixture when leaves open. 2. Repeat every two weeks if needed. Oats. LOOSE SMUT: Soak the seed five to ten minutes in hot water at 183 degrees F. This may be done some time before planting, if desired, and hasten sprouting besides destroying the Smut. RUST: No good treatment known. Onion. MAGGOT: 1. Put the onion bed some distance from the one of the preceding year. 2. Same treatment as for the cabbage root maggot. MILDEW: 1. Burn all the tops in the fall. 2. Rotation of crops. SMUT: 1. Burn all refuse in the fall. 2. Start the onions on land not used for onions the preceding year and transplant which pays for other reasons also. a process “Peach, Apricot, Nectarine. PEACH BORER: i. Wrapping trunk as described for Apple Tree Borer. 2. Mound- ing up earth a foot or more about June Ist, and removing about September Ist. 3. Wash trunk and lower parts of limbs with whitewash and a little glue, with a tablespoonful of Paris green to each bucketful. One, 2 and 3 are alternate methods treatment. See Report of Department for 1898. BLACK PEACH APHIS: 1. Dig refuse tobacco powder or stems, or Kainit into the ground about the roots. 2. Spray with Kerosene Emulsion when the Aphis appears above the ground. CURCULIO: = See under “Plum.” 1014 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Dec. SAN JOSE SCALE: 1. IXeep trunk and limbs covered with whitewash from June Ist, till frost appears. 2. Spray with Whale Oil Soap, 1 Ib. to 1 gallon of water, after the leaves are off in the fall. 3. Spray with Whale Oil Coap, 2 Ibs. to 1 gallon of water, before the buds start in the spring. 4. Cut back and thoroughly prune infected trees after spraying and burn the prunings. 5. De- stroy badly infested plants. See Bulletin No. 43 of Depart- ment. PEACH LEAF CURL: 1. Spray with Copper Sulphate before buds open in spring. 2. Spray with Bordeaux mixture when leaves are half grown. PEACH ROSETTE: No good remedy. BROWN ROT: 1. Spray with Copper Suiphate before buds open. 2. Bordeaux mixture before flowers open. 3. Repeat 2 every ten to four- teen days after fruit has set, until the fruit is half grown. 4. Repeat every five to seven days, using ammoniacal copper car- bonate instead of Bordeaux mixture. YELLOWS: 1. Destroy all affected trees by fire. 2. Dig out and burn roots also. Pear. BORERS: See under Apple. CODLING MOTH: See under Apple. PEAR MIDGE: 1. Apply 1,000 Ibs. of Kainit per acre, to the ground beneath the trees about the middle of June. PEAR LEAF MITE: 1. Spray in winter with Kerosene Emulsion, 1 part; water 6 parts. PEAR PSYLLA: 1. Spray with Whale Oil Soap, 1 Ib. to 1 gallon of water, in April, spraying only the trunk and larger branches. SLUG: See under Cherry. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1015 SAN JOSE SCALE: See under Peach. LEAF BLIGHT OR FRUIT-SPOT: 1. Spray with ammoniacail copper carbonate as the leaves open. 2, Bordeaux mixture just before the blossoms open. 3. Repeat 2 after fruit has set, at intervals of two weeks as needed. FIRE BLIGHT: Cut off and burn affected parts, cutting at least a foot below where the disease shows. SCAB: See under Apple. Plum. CURCULIO: 1. Spray with Paris green or Arsenate of Lead before the flower buds open. 2. Repeat 1 soon after the biossoms have fallen. 3. Gather the insects by jarring onto cloths beneath the tree, at night and in the morning. 4. Gather and destroy fallen plums every day. 5. Let fowls run under the trees. PLUM LECANIUM: 1. Kerosene emusion one part, water four parts, after leaves have fallen in the fall. 2. Repeat 1 in spring before the buds open. SLUG: See under Cherry. BORERS: See under Apple. SAN JOSE SCALE: See under Peach. LEAF BLIGHT: 1, Bordeaux mixture when the leaves first appear. 2. Repeat 1 after the fruit has set, every two or three weeks till fruit is three-quarters grown. 3. Now use ammoniacal copper car- bonate if needed, every two or three weeks. BROWN ROT: See under Peach. BLACK KNOT. See under Cherry. 1016 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doe. Potato. POTATO BEETLE: 1. Paris green or Arsenate of Lead as soon as insects are seen. 2. Repeat whenever needed. POTATO STALK BORER: 1. Gather and burn all stalks after gathering the crop. EARLY BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT: 1. Bordeaux mixture when plants are half grown. 2. Repeat 1 every two or three weeks. POAT ORO: 1. Bordeaux mixture about the middle of July. 2. Repeat 1 every two weeks. SCAB: Soak seed potatoes in corrosive sublimate 1 ounce, water 8 gal- lons, for one and one-half hours before cutting them. LATE BLIGHT OR MILDEW: 1. Bordeaux mixture when the disease appears. 2. Repeat 1 whenever needed. Quince. CURCULIO: 1. Jarring as for Plum Curculio. LEAF BLIGHT: 1. Bordeaux mixture before flower buds open. 2. Repeat 1 when fruit has set, and every two or three weeks until fruit is three-quarters grown. 5. Ammoniacal copper carbonate later, if needed. FIRE BLIGHT: See under Pear. Raspberry, Blackberry, Dewberry. SLUG: 1. Paris green or Arsenate of Lead when insects first appear. 2. Repeat 1 two weeks later unless fruit is nearly ripe. SNOWY TREE-CRICKET: Cut off and burn twigs pierced, during the winter, to destroy the eggs in them. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1017 ANTHRACNOSE: 1. Cut out all badly diseased canes. 2. Copper Sulphate selution before the buds open. 3. Bordeaux mixture after growth has commenced. 4. Repeat 3 every two or three weeks till fruit is two-thirds ripe. ORANGE RUST: 1. Cut out and burn all diseased plants. 2. Get your neighbors to do the same. Rose. APHIS AND LEAF HOPPERS: J. Kerosene Emulsion, strong soap suds or tobacco water as often as needed. SLUGS: Dust with quick lime. RED SPIDER: Syringe with clear water. If very abundant, Kerosene Emulsion. BLACK SPOT: Spray once a week with ammoniacal copper carbonate. MILDEW: 1. Spray with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal copper carbonate as often as necessary. 2. In greenhouses, fumigate with sul- phur. RUST: 1. Destroy all affected portions. 2. Gather and burn dead leaves in the fall. 3. Ammoniacal copper carbonate after leaves open. Strawberry. SLUG: See under Raspberry. WEEVIL: No good remedy. LEAF BLIGHT: 1. Bordeaux mixture after the crop is gathered. 2. Repeat 1 when leaves open in the spring. 8. Repeat 2 just before blos- soms open. 62 1018 ANNUAL R#PORT OF THE Off. Doc. Tomato. TOMATO WORM: 1. Hand picking. 2. Paris green or Arsenate of Lead, as needed, till fruit begins to turn in color. CORN WORM: See under Corn. FLEA BEETLE: Paris green or Arsenate of Lead as often as needed. = LEAF BLIGHT: 1. Bordeaux mixture as soon as disease is discovered. 2. Re- peat 1 every week or ten days. ROMs Same treatment as for Leaf Blight. Violet. RED SPIDER: See under Rose. BLIGHT SPOT: Bordeaux mixture when disease appears. Repeat every ten days when blossoms are not present. 3. Remove affected leaves. W heat. HESSIAN FLY: 1. Plant a trap piece about August Ist. 2. Plow under about September 10th, and plant main crop after September 20th. See Report of Department for 1898. WHEAT MIDGE: 1. Plow deep soon after harvest. 2. Carefully sweep up and burn chaff and “tailings” after threshing. See Report of Depart- ment for 1898. APHIS: No good treatment. See Report of Department for 1898. FORMULAS. PARIS GREEN. Parts. Per bbl. Paris sOTeECI ech fees aoe ian dais 4 Ib. Quick limes Losec: oe 6. cee Bt 1 Ib. 4 Ib. Writer. ons eon Aisett vabneweas COO pals sy 5Urralst No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1019 This is too strong for the peach, where 24 oz. each of Paris green and quick lime should be used instead of 4 Ib. Keep the mixture well stirred while using. To make it, mix the Paris green and the lime and add enough of the water to slake the lime, stirring while hot, then add the rest of the water. Good Paris green gives far better results than the cheaper grades. ARSENATE OF LEAD. This is a comparatively new insecticide, its value having only be- come known within a few years. It has several advantages over either Paris green or London purple, the chief ones being that it re- mains more easily suspended in water, thus requiring much less stirring up during the spraying; that it shows plainly on the leaves, indicating where the spray has reached, and where it has not; and that large proportions may be used without danger of burning the leaves. It is, therefore, especially useful where the leaves are par- ticularly sensitive. Parts. Per bbl. ATrSenate-Ol SOMA. - ss eines ofc ‘ 4 02. 2 OZ. AMCUC ALC Ol lead 7-1. ¥.saic eostasees en oe Le klsoz Bt 02. AYNAG oS SO oe eee eA SIRE ee LOO alse b0 calls: These two substances, when placed in the water dissolve rapidly, and combine, forming a fine white sediment which is the Arsenate of Lead. It can also be purchased ready for addition to the water, but it is usually better when prepared as above. It is as cheap, or in the end cheaper than Paris green, as it stays much longer on the tvees before being washed off by the rains. Some persons advise the addition of two quarts of molasses to each hundred gallons of the water, but the benefit to be derived from this is questionable. WHALE OIL SOAP. Parts. Per bbl. WihalesollssOapes tree <6 cose en. 2 Ibs. 80 lbs. NVALOT: Jas hoteles biciene celta: ; legal. 40 gals. This is much stronger than Kerosene Emulsion and should only be used during winter, when the trees are not growing. It can be ased for insects which cannot be killed by Kerosene Emulsion. In spraying for the San José Scale in the fall (see under Peach), it should be used at the rate of one pound to a gallon of water; in the spring before the buds open, or for winter work, it can be used as above given. 1020 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. KEROSENE EMULSION. Parts. Per bbl. Hard soap (shaved fine), ........ 4 Ib. aD. AT CNS) a Ch Rl es ee ee 1 gal. 2 gals. Kerosene, '..... Sisls whersteetenenemees eet 2gals. 34 gals. Dissolve the soap in the water, which should be boiling, and while it is very hot pour the suds into the kerosene; then churn it with a spray pump till it changes to a creamy mass, and then to a soft, but- ter-like substance. This should keep for some time. When it is desired to use it, add one quart of it to nine times as much water, mix well, and spray the plants. The water should be soft water, or else have some soda added to it. For the Four-lined Leaf bug take one part of the Emulsion and five parts of water. TOBACCO WATER. Place tobacco stems or refuse tobacco in enough hot water to cover; let stand several hours. Take one part of this to three or four of water, and spray over the plants. CARBON DISULPHIDE. To be obtained of druggists at about thirty cents per pound. In using, avoid bringing it near fire or even hot steam pipes, as it catches fire easily. Avoid breathing it also. HELLEBORE. May be applied either as a powder or in water. If used as a powder it may advantageously be mixed with an equal amount of flour, which causes it to remain better on the leaves. For use with water one ounce of fresh Hellebore is mixed with three gallons of water. INSECT POWDER. Insect powder is sometimes sold under the names of Pyrethrum and Bubach. It may be applied as the dry powder, when the plant 16 wet with dew. It may also be mixed with flour and used in that way, or it may be used in an alcoholic solution as follows: Insect powder (by weight), ......::....6.. 1 part. Micoholi(by werent), c52. 46, sciecter see ante le 4 parts. Put the two in a tight vessel and leave there for eight days, shaking it occasionally; then filter and spray over the plants. No. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1021 Tt should be remarked that Insect Powder is only of value when fresh and of full strength. Unfortunately it is difficult to obtain it fresh, and much of it is so adulterated as to be practically worth- less. LIME. Lime is often of much value as an insecticide, either as white- wash, sometimes with enough Paris greed added, to give it a slight greenish tinge, or as quick lime to be dusted onto the insects. When used in the preparation of Paris green it is added to combine with the free arsenic present, which would burn the leaves, if left uncombined. NORMAL OR 1.6 PER CENT. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), .......... 6 pounds. Quick lime (good stone lime), ........... 4 pounds. UV AR Io ree NERC 2 ct 20% 5 orc Vaz ananernt SRST a erate, ok oaaye 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of coarse clothing and hanging this in a vessel containing 4 to 6 gallons of water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. After the copper sul- plate is dissolved, dilute with water to 25 gallons. Slake the lime and add 25 gallons of water. Mix the two and keep thoroughly stirred while using. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to add two pounds more of lime to the above formula. BORDEAUX MIXTURE AND PARIS GREEN. Mix 4 ounces of Paris green as prepared above, with 50 gallons of normal Bordeaux mixture. AMMONIACAL COPPER CARBONATE. Coppersearbonaile. 4 s60- 2 op, Sak wars ses 4 ounces. PRATT ONE serge S sere te oe OE oa SH 3 pints. Baiactetres i We eer er ie le ta SS ons, GY Gye, OE 45 gallons. Make a paste of the copper carbonate with a little of the water. Dilute the ammonia with 7 or 8 times its bulk of water. Add the paste to the diluted ammonia and stir until dissolved. Add enough yater to make up to the 45 gallons. Let it settle and use the clear blue liquid only. Do not make this up long before using as it loses its strength on standing. It is used when the fruit is so nearly ripe that Bordeaux mixture would produce stains if it were used. 1022 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. POTTASSIUM SULPHIDE SOLUTION. (Liver of Sulphur.) POTASStUMeS TUE; s...2. 5.5, otis eta re ae $10 1 ounce. MELTS: eth. ois sin earn. 'sactieye coe DOES Ek se re nee 1 gallon. Particularly good for surface mildews but loses its strength upon standing, so should be used at once after making. SULPHATE OF IRON AND SULPHURIC ACID SOLUTION. WCET (OG) Saabs are, os jas lee salah ous ga ear aeaohe estates 100 parts. Iron sulphate (green vitriol), ....as an as the water will dissolve. Sulphuric acid (commercial), ..... SA ET te 1 part. Make the mixture with much care, as heat is produced. Use on plants when dormant only, aj pplying with brushes or sponges, as the solution is injurious to spraying machinery. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE This dissolves slowly and but slightly in water. The process may be hastened by heating the water. GENERAL REMARKS. In the treatinent of fruits by sprays it should be remembered that the substances used are in almost every case poisonous. It is ac- cordingly necessary to aveid spraying at times when fruit is nearly ripe, both on account of the possibility of placing poison on the fruit just before it is picked, and because of the danger of staining it, as would be the case if certain solutions were used. Spraying solutions often need to be carefully strained, and it is advisable to do this when putting them into the barrel or other re- ceptacle from which they wili pass through the spray pump. Noz- zles will clog from larger lumps in the fluid, and care should be taken to avoid this as far as possible. Every pump should have an agitator attached to keep the mixture well stirred in the barrel, and it should not be expected that the same nozzle will do first class work with every spraying mixture given. Some nozzles are especi- ally adapted to one kind of spray, and others to other sprays. Above all, an intelligent knowledge of what is causing the injury, and exactly how and when to take the proper steps to control it, should be one of the ingredients added to every formula here given. Orrici1AL DOocuMENT, No. 6. == — ——— INDEX BY AUTHORS. AY Page PAGE EE PAVE VE EO CATO) CUICIUTE Ze ,viere.cic'a1e.c'eelepsinisic's\aieis/e\eielolcielererare nchoodDo conta creo oSondoDocuasHCdboocusUD 680 B. BUM. ROE GHORGEH Cs, Canning of fruits and vegetables, 222 oo. e smc cic cies ocitsiseicle areas 262 Cc CHESTER, PROF. FREDERICK, Bacteria of the soil in their relation to agriculture, 305 COGERAN- EROn- CeB The pollution of domestic Wells, ceicnes:cc.c acl icc sisleisieisiisicseaiiciremete 205 Wea ANG TCNO COLAO prnninc Mod sis ieieteleosiaic © civ ols \elojeieie eleloSb ie eleleieiand ecomereicie steroreann lee atalavavewicialeeieceee eaiotera 662 COINPAGER DP) eely re es | Lee ATT VY SLOT Cy oie -)atch-jnicie(oioissaje/e ote a}afoisieiclele\cl=re!eicvelarniale clelaicinie iste Clevaicjaietereteieterstebeteeile 188 COPE, JESSE K. (Dairy and Food Commissioner): Report of work of Dairy and Food Division, 86 Gopy of Supreme: Court decision; 2. .2.0...600.56 89 Saipl Osman alyzed mmr mate octal ) cnisesiac ccc temcleinoe civlnw civic slolosisiclcld Vee a Gloie wets aEiowlels Oona Dae se oem 54 Agricultural organizations, ............ 69 MUN Lar eS SON UENO IS hy alercacinne art cre nse ciare svajeratslata lets stovaseiwlate'e miele’ oie: avcre ote fafa cloteta tslaverse aternnic/slom nineties 61 SEROTALNRULSSE wefessieroleleta alalotatalsleeterstelletece'e(a(stalaiercieielaieisleve om crevetetale retefors oie orci eiclecereioteie eleretareveleeraie wieierei siete ss sistavaraiameieieeoiaie 61 Live stock in Pennsylvania, 64 Prices of farm products, etc., as AGC ete PRO ISLALION © TGC GG: Mie eatatece ovepe eine ere cs) ue CareMeleVayera/S aicicre)avs eis ‘a saya /acajaries ole citatcioteceeea arate arcratetctere noe erie car aveentels 67 HIESTER, GABRIEL, The varieties of fruit that can be profitably grown in Pennsylvania, 412 (1023 ) 1024 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Off. Doc. L. LEE, DR. BENJAMIN, Annual address before the State Board of Agriculture, .............. 181 LONSDALE, EDWIN, The management of greemhouses, .......e.scesececececccsccscees weewesniee 710 M. MARTIN, HON. A. L. (Deputy Secretary and Director of Farmers’ Institutes): MEpOnt Ol) Warmers’ NStILULES,, lewlente siele cls eletetsiels alain cletn sisielele wielelalv)e/e\eiu1alei=lale}s «6; stnin/n/s|a1=\alsis}aisielaleceisiaiaie 70 Schedule of dates and places for holding institutes, ..........cccccccccecscccsccenesccesscsece 7L List of county and local agricultural societies, address of officers, 78 List of county and local agricultural societies, fall exhibitions, ..... 81 GRO MLE DOME ereraioca ele leleis(oroin.e eile leitle © eles w leis la/elelelerotoielelalslolelolnielele{ole’»/sieis!o[s! eles ete) e/e.sfais\nieisiatalefele(aielalnisl=eielevelaia\a/ate 85 Ma UlAcCeG CHOP eLCDONET | rleslelstelaseistoialclelole(siaivi SOUrCES! Of 7 “stereo: OUD ODOCOUpenon 160 SAMP]INE AGENTS, .ccccesscccercccsenesscces 31 Commercial fertilizers, valuations of, for TRIPS Saocodopadonncocbacoonsgoonnocndagapaodsae 895 Commercial fertilizers, samples analyzed, 31 F. Commercial fertilizers, analyses of spring SAT PISS abl GUD eee Corte das sete encene canes 909 | Farm help, a serious problem, 5 Commercial fertilizers, analyses of fall Harmelabor spricesmot. | maces eee eee eeee ree 67 samples, 1902, ..... Pe es acini 91g ; Farm work, necessity for better prepara- Commercial fertilizers, list of manufac- TOMESLON,, Carcce cer cinco incor eee eee eee en 212 urers and brands licensed in 1902, 925 | Farmers’ Institutes, organization of, 9 Gonwict Jabor! on moads) 92.22 sce ose eieis sem 43 | Farmers’ Institutes, directing the Work Convict labor on roads, cost of, .......... 45 OL; esis lejeis este in)» ale (aieiule(o/eia)a\ale aisinleleioidieieiateie\e'e els sieleye 11 Convict labor on roads, Pennsylvania Farmers’ Institutes, apportionment for iTS, Agee Ae or nie eer esate cre aronaee 45 aL eA Wana dearnere peed cone acon mene onsen. 13 G@ream), ‘composition Of) (25. -ssedenies ssc -lsce ie 574 | Farmers’ Institutes, Report of Deputy (Qifehon, ayouezhsleye) KOs, GoorcocgueaponsoouuanS 574 Secretary iia memos mca ack cones cee 70 Cream, regulating richness of, ..........++ 578 | Farmers’ Institutes, schedule of, .......... 71 Cream, profits derived from selling, ...... 579 | Feeding stuffs, composition of, ............ 960 Cream, Pasteurized, artificial thicken- Feeding stuffs, digestible ingredients of, 970 ANS OL: sania Toro occ Wassen ao amee se piieaare veers 579 | Feeding stuffs, average composition of, 980 Cream, testing by Babcock test, ........ 649 | Feeding stuffs, how to compute a ration, 983 Cream ripening, amount of acid needed Feeding stuffs, how to calculate the nutri- Tho, “mus arancsoosopponbunscdocosSsanbacsupoOsonOC 586 | tive ratio and total digestible matter of, 984 Cream ripening, effects produced by, 586 | Feeding stuffs, average Pennsylvania Cream separators, methods, ......-s-seceeee 575 Prices; Of, P hikicks cee soaeeweneeeen he eee ee 985 Creameries, losses by paying for milk Meeding) standards Baa.o:cenceasoneeeteneseree 986 ae eels MON eee Cea rece manaceeme te atetings 601 || Hermentationy ‘what isiccws-esece.sseseeet 7 6s. Creameries, calculating dividends on basis Rérmentation, Class@S, (Of, secwism-+ecicetn cen 564 Ghiih Heat Pies GENES abanoneuc sb DOs nOCOr OS eaDaOROO DD 602 | Fertilizers, commercial, instruction to Crop reports in Pennsylvania, 1902, ...... 4, 85 Samimline“aeents, y.csceeceeaees aces eee 31 Grop: reports, tabulated; 2.2... Joneses 954 | Fertilizers, commercial, samples. an- Cucurbitaceous plants, significance of, 529 RZ Ors oiatsnin lols haa rials a Sle\sislore clove elete efeeiciatctere eee 31 Fertilizers, commercial, publication of re- SULES ORT ANALYSES! ie 5S Soil, presence of organic matter in, ...... 360 Soil, the assimilation of atmospheric ni- EGO RETA STN 2 javny sca chatate,sieieiettelalecaie o.atasace:slo's afeieiecieeee To. ole! Soil, relation of, to tubercle production, . 374 Soil, what is meant by utility, 464 OMS OMECE OL EULA E. hi..c, vicsiccvesistalsvine 465 Soilwetrect, (of TOMS Ve iecce.coicieleinseecwiels ea 466 SOU ET STOP LOW tex ceisicleicicisovenicicieicle sce ects 467 Soil, cultivation after planting, .......... 469 Soil, loss due to methods of practice, 5 469 Soil, importance of vegetable matter in, 472 Soll, Kind of crop tO Zrow ON, .ssccseccces 472 Soil, improvement by red clover, .......... 475 Soil, improvement by velvet bean, ........ 482 Soil, when to lime, ..... mieoreibieeeieielestaieistereicteiels 487 PIG P OMe CALOCS i eile sisie@rs ciel ie:a sisiz(slcieiociere ecie 680 SOisinGQculationy ccc ocs': cei cicicie secre eniset cies 483 Solus) mature and origin: Of) eii = * ‘ - ' = ‘ “ Bs ¥ i. : = rs . : 7 ¢ wos oi at & ’ = © ‘ r F - re 7 * ‘ - ‘ i i . = 7 * . ¢ ” i] 7 4 ~ 7 - oe ~ oa 7 an 4 iy : 7 ? - * ‘ ‘ b % + z ‘ J ' . ‘ - - v a = i ] ‘a = “ ~My Es Botani p i yh iM aN Hi ss We oh ae Nite co xt i SC UNI aay ui % He ue a ois le ; iy Oy c PASSES eh Bae sh f DADA esi aa rhe WENO , aE