LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN ae i >= = > > } ~~ i ad - = big - i_ as a gohs i , : ' ue? . . a i: ba me = iy ' . ‘ ; : . ~ , -- 2 ‘ | - 7 ii, 2) ey) aD fo - a i. & i ’ * af) J o Bt i © nt co — ’ ~~ a) _ ee ee 4 a 2 ane . PORE: Fy coe ee ee ee ee 7 ic Oe ict ~ =; i ‘3 ‘5 ." “G oo ere. 8 aula s\\ 130 ar 2h, wy he i babe S menor at ae oe BS case 7 ee a ee LEA, © be Lereere awe AP Sl ei None alae Pi aes Oh eects) SREY sea a Pole ae gee Eek ee ee ie Ree har cee acer Nein ok ii AIR ie | te pale dagen ee 5 £ Ps 7 - a - is CE aa) aed eae Bara te A eee Pia PER i bee hae oe. leon if, oe tee CORRS O* Poko i : > “ey > be ohagie : - 7 ‘ Ny ‘ revi. s, et oe, - ae Ee hse ace cae wits ae fee Po Soe a Ge ah i ee . i - . re =the VE A sag a ake ie 4 nae Fs e ; gkillinek A g OF aoe & Sy aoe =seN a nea Xe oa ‘ J 5 er MISTASSINI a, ‘ \ See Bm & pon ee \ ‘ BONS ey SOEARES ‘ 2 1ST. JOHN i] ~ S70 MAP OF LABRADOR Adapted from Speck (1981, p. 565), showing approximate location, since about 1850, of local bands of Montagnais-Naskapi and Eskimo (oblique lines). The principal settlements along the northeast coast are indicated. The territory west of Ungava Bay is still uninhabited except for inland caribou-hunting parties of Eskimo ANTHROPOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR BY T. DALE STEWART DIVISION OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM MATERIAL AND DATA COLLECTED BY WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY FORMERLY ASSISTANT CURATOR OF NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VY fe MACHA fy HISTORY ie Se ott srerblU 3 m Simm 4 Wee ae ee FOUNDED bak MARSHALL FIELD Son CAGO ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME 31, NUMBER 1 DECEMBER 30, 1939 PUBLICATION 462 KRAUS REPRINT CO. New York 1971 Reprinted from a copy in the collections of the University of Illinois Library Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher KRAUS REPRINT CO. AUS. Division of Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited Printed in U.S.A. P pot Ts CONTENTS PAGE NG CNP TUE ANNU a i a es ces seta se pales Osea ae ae 8 i PRICPACH Si ss ld oe ey oe oe ee er 9 1: INTRODUCTION: 55. oe0 eee Senos eck ear ra ee ey EE ns Le 13 Whe Makino, 5.5 3) eee ss a Ee EY Oe OS hiss 13 Fropiem of Affiliation 0... 2. SEAS, BIS dc. 13 Problem of Physical Changes Due to Altered Diet... ... 13 The: Indians 3 51s. 2s SE ee oe, RR, ee 15 II. THEORIES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN MIGRATIONS .......... 17 "Ene HeKNO: 6 78 he ee a ee, Se eee ie a eins 17 Recent: Labrador: Eskimo. 25. os5. s&s ance bins se 17 PE TUHG LBTINON Macc ary cote at) encom i) fee ee ets 17 PRO, POUR ii oo, et Side Cog a ee ee ee 18 Prehistoric Inhabitants of Labrador ..........2.. 18 TE RGGTGGR ether eT eee gee MP ay fot eens Bee 19 Significance of Theories to Physical Anthropology ...... 22 Li SINS Se eee cet ear at ag ha et te ces ee he es a a 23 III. ANALYSIS OF METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SEBLETAL REMAINS) 635 of Oe eer ee a awe eee ee 25 TA OUNOGE IV an) Oh kee Oe ee eo ee ee 25 PGISOTIAL ELETOP Sper eer nb ANS es Sr eee A ge 2 Measurements of the Skull: Old Stone Grave Series ....... 31 PO esa gh Rg Gane i Seka, SATS S RAT ken gh SE A ads la tee 31 PEO V RUNG: 1 ccs arse s,s ees bg RNG anes a ae A hae a 31 Diameter Antero-Posterior Maximum .......... 31 Diameter Lateral’ Maximum: .. .. 26:28. 20.05, 4 4 32 Basion-Drogma Temgnt 5662085 2 Ga a we 33 Gy SnislGERGOR ie ete haere ene PORE ee as ee fs 34 Eioightt tmaices Se F665 ate 20 EO ie ws Se eS 34 Cranial Module: t..0 2 opt ee ee erence Se, 34 TTC SNR CO or os ice i ay Secs OF ey SER DRS ee eee oe 34 Dinmeter: Mrontal Minimum) 730-65, Gage so oe 8 34 Menton-Nasion Height. s).s) bn) a egloeasicce: eo -1 eh 34 Alyeotar Pomt-Nasion Leight.) 4 oe ne aa, es ol ee 34 Diameter Bizygomatic Maximum ............ 36 SP ACURL LUIOR a, we ale ha en ee ee Nk 36 Banon=-Nasions. os ey ee Gd aa ts ah wae ee ae ae eee pe 37 Banion-Aiveolar: Point oe a2 fe od ee occ. en 37 The Orbits, Nose, and Alveolar Arch. ........... 37 Orbital Heiwht® Meanves yw ee eee ee eo eee ees 37 Orbital Breadth; Mean? 9. ge) ans Soin &, i sy ale 37 CORDIAL ERE, POON ns ee te ee oe eh aes 37 Nasal TERE ce oe Gee ak Pettus oc e sie ee 37 PUM TUR ol ie PO od lures oe Mone Fees 37 ISSR INGO!) SO ei ek ee eek i ay Be 40 Reneth OF Rivepiar Atcha. Gok eo Ae SP 40 Broaucn-of Alvesiar Aven. 206 5 2 ta ple ee SiS OS 40 Alveolss Avcy Tndee 5 nk oe eeies Fe fa a 40 DDISCUBBIONSC8G- ge po Bee sabe a ne Ae, ua me 40 Measurements of the Skull: Recent Grave Series ........ 42 3 4 CONTENTS Non-Metrical Observations on the Skull Norma Lateralis . Profile . Pterion-. ~: External Auditory Meatus Lower Jaw : ¥ Norma Frontalis. . . . Inclination of the Orbits Norma Verticalis. Parietal Foramina . Norma Basilaris . Jugular Fossae . . Perforation of the Tympanic Plate . Teeth. <.. ; ; Palatal and Mandibular Tori General . : ; Microcephaly ; Pathology. Discussion i Measurements and Observations « on the Teng Bonen : Humerus. . Septal Apertures . Radius . Remur : Third Trochanters : Tibia ss.73: : Long Bone Relationships ; Reconstructed Stature . Reconstructed vs. Living Stature: St. Lawrence Island Eskimo . Reconstructed vs. Living “Stature: Nunivak Island- Hooper Bay Eskimo Reconstructed vs. Living Stature: Labrador Eskimo : General Observations Vertebrae . Pathology. Discussion IV. RECORD OF CONTACT BETWEEN EUROPEANS AND NATIVE POPULATION OF NORTHEAST LABRADOR bey Tenge The Moravian Missions. . . . . . . .\. Population Rc oer herds LONG ee Intermixture Longevity. V. ANALYSIS OF METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL OBSERVATIONS ON LIVING ESKIMOS AND INDIANS Circumstances Surrounding the Collection of the Data , Problems Involved in Data of This Nature . Personal Error. ‘ Trial Measurements : Duplicate Measurements . Comparative Data . Age .. é Birthplace VI. VII. CONTENTS Résumé of Conditions Affecting the Labrador Series ....... Individual Measurements and Observations. .......... SUUBUUIG NS iets ae lay Fr ee eee inr ne ae eR ee met Oe era oe CE Re aie dea ar eee ae Pe! Sey Sey RENTS les Relative Site Toetwnt ~.. ee St ae, aR es TIGR SL NOCN roe Oo s = CF a8 coe Cre ee ee ee ee he te ae Pai SOPOONIU oe oo. age aus eo ees Bt oes Caphalie Trider- si 5 8c. PS insite ieee See sa EEE EI Ler see oe ios NB ca ce oa ea re ee ee Height-demptis Poeex 5. tess: ie eas dards he ew REE Mininvwsn Prantal. Diamoter <2. 6k 6 ke a me Freonto-Paristad Index: 0.0 oie Bs cha ea ce eee ei eed Maximum Bizygomatic Diameter ............. Cophmo-Feciat Index i. daca iu orth a. sl ad Ge Dipopial Dinmoter fs) FN Oe Ni a ee A PR Genlo-Aygomatic: Index. 32a 6 6 cs aie) eo 5 ee) tes DEON TINION, ON ee Oe nda Ue at fete Total (Physiognomic) Facial Index ............ WTR PEIN rie chen ee ee ee ae ee en ele Poratiead Ficwne ea ap elnit 6 See eS. Dos eet POUR TOONNNG Fo eat ee et Sc a eee DUC TIPOM ca. ee ale Bt we ace Ta a de Ree PAGURS TOGO! eo 5h 2-5 soca: OS EA Pd Ob Ee Re acig bade ME RAMEN dd eo en 8 ee atic oi ee oe ee Wear UN i ie 5 ek ene ee ae a ee 24 ee ee eM Yel cee Wey oe MR Ne eA uke al Tk tee. Hy eee eg a MAMAS TT OOUN Cy a ee Oe, Oe Ee ae Br le ae FURR TRADING oes ee a Oe Pali ke ee eh as MIN ORSIORE 3) 5.5 2 os is rs ae ve LE RR, Pica? 3 oe Mare eed ce a te OA tal Aer es Oe OR) Tre ier Bol pre Ser Aer Penk te) Gr fe ite OS ed 16 he me ee ee Pet om ae Sw aS) OR Oa 1 6 el 46. So 8 Cee Cee ey lek TC lee wee a oe eke ae INDEX SSS Se a LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES . Four views of skull 192001 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Old stone grave series. Old male. . Four views of skull 192031 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Old stone grave series. Old female. . Four views of skull 192006 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Male, 69 . Four views of skull 192007 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Old male. Note pathological changes in maxillae. . Four views of skull 192008 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Male, 73 . Four views of skull 192009 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Male, 43. . Four views of skull 192010 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Male, 37. . Four views of skull 192013 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Male, 21. Note diminutive upper lateral incisors. . Four views of skull 192025 (Field Museum) oriented in Frankfort position. Recent grave series. Female, 52. . Two views of the right humerus of 192009 (Field Museum) showing patho- logical proximal extremity. Recent grave series. . Male Eskimos from Nain, Labrador. Figs. a, b, and d are Strong’s subjects 21, 188, and 13, respectively. Photographs by Strong. . Male Indians of the Davis Inlet and Barren Ground Bands. Figs. a to d are Strong’s subjects 1, 4, 3, and 39, respectively. Photographs by Strong. . Indians of the Davis Inlet and Barren Ground Bands. Fig. d is a female. Figs. a and ¢ are Strong’s subjects 34 and 43, respectively. Photographs by Strong. . Eskimo women from Hopedale or Nain, Labrador. Photographs by Langford. . Figs. a and b, Eskimo women from Hopedale or Nain, Labrador. Figs. c and d, Indian women of the Davis Inlet Band. Fig. c is Strong’s subject 5. Photographs by MacMillan and Strong. . Female Indians of the Davis Inlet and Barren Ground Bands. Figs. a, b, and c are Strong’s subjects 8, 7, and 37, respectively. Photographs by Strong. TEXT FIGURE PAGE 1. Graph formed by connecting the Xp.e.’s of various measurements and indices for three Eskimo groups as calculated against the Labrador group. All points above the horizontal line at the level of 3 Xp.e. are considered statistically significant..................000 cee eeee 41 MAP Map of Labrador adapted from Speck (1931, p. 565) showing approximate location, since about 1850, of local bands of Montagnais-Naskapi and Eskimo (oblique lines). The principal settlements along the northeast coast are indicated. The territory west of Ungava Bay is still uninhabited except for inland caribou-hunting parties of MMB nS o ass ga x45 cha BA ok RWS 2 ak Rd a Re A Frontispiece oo 4 ees F a= - Me = hae oe ee ee 7 ce BU eee nn ; ee Pe foe a lalee 4 i i en se = a oe foe a a y > 5 ie ae aE | ae pes, te a) en a 1% oF ae i, ares hin oa Pager ai ae Rec . i ae - PREFACE Among the important results of the 1927-28 Rawson—MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of Field Museum are the measurements secured by Dr. W. D. Strong on a large series of living Labrador Eskimos and a small group of Montagnais-Naskapi Indians. When obvious mixed-bloods and sub-adults are eliminated, these series comprise 137 Eskimos (58 males, 79 females) and 18 Indians (11 males, 7 females). In addition, physical anthropology benefited by the Expedition’s recovery of considerable Labrador Eskimo skeletal remains. This material includes 32 measurable skulls (17 males, 15 females), many of which have associated skeletal parts. The present study, while based primarily upon this collection, also presents new observations on much other material, as will appear. Originally this study was conceived, and indeed largely com- pleted, as a report on the measurements of the living Labrador Eskimos and Indians secured by Dr. Strong. These observations on the living seemed such a natural descriptive unit that, although I knew Dr. Strong had also obtained skeletal remains from the same region, I did not at first consider their inclusion in this study. It was only after analysis of the measurements on the living was well advanced that I perceived the need for information on the earlier population of Labrador. Obviously, without some knowledge of the prehistoric Labrador physical type it is impossible to determine what changes may have taken place during the historic period and this complicates group comparisons. Since measurements on the living of the northeast coast of Labrador date back only to 1880, whereas the historic period began there about 1770, the earlier physical type can best be identified in the skeletal remains. Moreover, since the published data on Labra- dor skeletal remains are limited to scattered reports on small numbers (see Appendix A), it is desirable to increase these observations. Unfortunately, this applies only to the Eskimo; no skeletal remains of Labrador Indians have been secured. When I thus undertook to broaden the scope of the study it appeared that the available skeletal remains from Labrador, in combination with the data on the living, constitute a rather unusual series. Dr. Strong secured for Field Museum some skeletons of Eskimos who had received Christian burial during the middle of the nineteenth century. Also, he obtained a few skeletons from pagan 9 10 PREFACE stone graves. It is the latter type of grave, dating back to the eighteenth century or farther, from which have come the few Labra- dor Eskimo skulls and skeletons described in the literature. Thus there are available for the Eskimo population three groups represent- ing separate chronological periods: (1) an old stone grave series (pre-White, or its equivalent as far as the influence of civilization is concerned); (2) a mid-nineteenth century grave series (early Mission period); and (8) recent living (1880-1928). Naturally, measure- ments on the living and on the skeleton are not strictly comparable except for a few characters such as head shape and stature. Never- theless, the combination of these two forms of data for intervals during more than a century is unique for many native populations, and especially so in the far north. Having secured permission to examine and include the skeletal material, I decided to leave the section on the living essentially as originally planned, except for broadening the interpretation. As will be seen by reference to Chapter V, the comparisons are made chiefly with other data on the living of Labrador. The reason for thus restricting the comparisons is due to the fact that as recently as 1983 an extensive study of measurements on living Eskimos was made by Seltzer. Also, no new information regarding the anthro- pometry of Labrador Indians has appeared since Hallowell’s pioneer study of 1929. In presenting the skeletal data, unlike those for the living, it became necessary to make certain general comparisons because newer figures have appeared since Oetteking’s report—the one study dealing largely with Labrador crania—was published in 1908. It may be added that the series of Labrador Eskimo skeletal remains heretofore studied either are inadequate in number or are not com- pared with other Eskimo groups. During the progress of this study, as outlined, I have received from a number of sources assistance which I am pleased to acknowl- edge. It is desirable in a few cases to tell the story of this co-opera- tion, since it has an important bearing on the course of the study. From early reading on the subject I was aware of Shapiro’s state- ment (1931, p. 355) that Duckworth and Pittard seem to have measured the same group of Labrador Eskimos. Apparently a group of 26 individuals from Hebron was being exhibited in Europe and was seen by Duckworth in 1899 and by Pittard in 1900. When I noted also that Dr. Boas had reported (1895) the stature of 26 Labrador Eskimos, presumably measured at the Chicago fair (1893), PREFACE 11 it occurred to me that perhaps some of this group! might have been taken on the European tour. Upon questioning Dr. Boas on this point he stated that his measurements were all taken in Labrador and not at Chicago. Furthermore, he generously sent me the original data, which proved to have been taken in 1891-92 by Professor Leslie A. Lee (see Cilley) and Mr. J. D. Sornberger. These records show that the subjects measured all lived in settlements to the south of Hebron. Since most of the Lee-Sornberger findings have never been published, they greatly enhance the value of the present study. I discovered that perhaps the largest collection of skeletal re- mains from Labrador old stone graves is in the Peabody Museum, Harvard University. This collection, for the most part obtained by Sornberger (at the time he measured the living), was reported on briefly by Russell and Huxley in 1899. Since only average measurements are given by these authors, I inquired of Dr. Hooton whether the original detailed records were still preserved. When these records could not be located, Dr. Hooton kindly granted me permission to restudy the collection. The facilities of the labora- tory of Physical Anthropology in Peabody Museum made the exam- ination of this material both easy and pleasant. As already indicated, Dr. Oetteking published in 1908 the only extensive study heretofore made upon Labrador Eskimo crania. The nucleus of this study was the Hantzsch collection at Dresden, consisting of nine skulls from Labrador, two from Greenland and one from the Aleutian Islands (to mention only the adults). For the purposes of his study Dr. Oetteking did not sex these skulls, pre- sumably because much of the comparative material from Greenland (Bessels, Fiirst and Hansen)? also was not sexed. When I explained to him that I wished to include the Labrador adults in my series, Dr. Oetteking very kindly secured the proper sex identifications for me through Professor Struck of Dresden. Professor Suk of Brno, Czechoslovakia, kindly sent me his copy of S. K. Hutton’s privately printed publication (1926) entitled “Health Conditions and Disease Incidence among the Eskimos of Lab- rador.’’ A copy of this book could not be procured in this country. Finally, but not least, I am indebted to the Smithsonian Institu- tion for the full support which I have received during the course of 1 The correspondence in number is, of course, a coincidence, because the group visiting Europe included children. ‘ ? The individual skulls were sexed by Fiirst and Hansen; but with the exception of C.I., all distributions and calculated means are for the combined sexes. 12 PREFACE this study. Not only have I been permitted to use my official time, and the facilities of the United States National Museum, for this purpose, but the Institution has given me leave and defrayed my expenses to Chicago and Cambridge for the purpose of studying the skeletal collections in Field and Peabody Museums, respectively. December 9, 1938 T. DALE STEWART United States National Museum The field work forming the nuclear body of the present report was accomplished in northeastern Labrador during 1927 and 1928 while the investigator was serving as anthropologist with the Rawson-— MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of Field Museum. I wish first of all to acknowledge my gratitude to President Stanley Field and the Trustees of Field Museum, to the late Frederick H. Rawson, and to Commander Donald B. MacMillan, for the opportunity thus afforded. To the Moravian missionaries at Hopedale, Nain, and Hebron, Mr. and Mrs. Walter Perrett, Mr. and Mrs. Paul Hettasch, and Mr. and Mrs. Waldman respectively, I am indebted for complete scientific co-operation and unstinted hospitality during my travels up and down the coast. Dr. E. K. Langford was an invaluable companion and assistant on many of these journeys. Finally, I am grateful to Dr. T. Dale Stewart for taking these rough and too often incomplete data and painstakingly fitting them into the present larger study. For certain errors in a portion of the basic data herein pointed out I accept full responsibility. In part they are personal, in part due to defects in training. Since I am deeply convinced of the basic necessity of the combined biological and cultural approach in anthro- pology this lack of training and practice in anthropometry is sig- nificant. Until all our university departments in anthropology offer adequate opportunities for, and enforce, sueh training, penetrating biological and cultural correlations will rarely be made by anthro- pologists. That a field ethnologist among a willing people should fail to record biometric data seems absurd. Yet so long as the field ethnologist or archaeologist lacks the necessary training and practice in this regard the results of such work must always be suspect. December 15, 1938 WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG Columbia University ANTHROPOMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR I. INTRODUCTION THE ESKIMOS The northeast coast of Labrador is peopled by a remnant of the Eskimo population that at the beginning of the historic period extended to the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Speck, 1931, p. 560). This remnant, probably somewhat mixed in blood through long contact with Europeans, nevertheless excites the curiosity of the physical anthropologist for several reasons. PROBLEM OF AFFILIATION The coast of Labrador, as far as the Eskimo is concerned, seems always to have been a sort of cul-de-sac; the entrance was from the north; to the south and recently in the interior were hostile Indian tribes. This being the case, speculation naturally arises as regards the wave or waves of migration represented in the modern population, as postulated in the various theories of Eskimo origin and dispersal (see Chapter II). The solution of this problem is hardly to be expected of physical anthropology alone; archaeology must lead the way here. However, the analysis of new anthropometric data from Labrador in the light of recent data on other Eskimo groups, should at least define the problems more clearly. PROBLEM OF PHYSICAL CHANGES DUE TO ALTERED DIET From another standpoint new anthropometric data on the Eskimo population of Labrador are of peculiar interest. Since 1771, when the first Moravian mission was permanently established, the major part of the northeast coast has been under the spiritual, moral, and commercial guardianship of the Moravian missionaries. The still relatively high percentage of fullbloods here, retaining many of their original customs, is probably due to the fact of this protection from rapacious commercial interests. In this connection, the mis- sions, while rapidly changing Eskimo beliefs, have seemingly retarded the introduction of such things as European foods. The result is that both the mixed-bloods and the amount of European foods consumed decrease as one goes north; or, in other words, as the influence of the Moravians increases. 13 14 INTRODUCTION On this subject Dr. 8. K. Hutton, a medical missionary and a keen observer who spent several years in Labrador, has commented as follows: At Okak, and in the north generally, the people are broad and plump, with flat faces and sunken noses; but farther south I have seen lean, sharp- faced Eskimos, with bony limbs and pointed noses. They are pure-blooded Eskimos, all of them; they may be lean and bony without any admixture of other blood; and the cause of the change lies in the altered food and habits of the people themselves. At the southern stations they are more in contact with the outside world, and, especially, there are English-speaking settlers living among them, cod- fishing and fur-trapping. The Eskimos are born imitators; they do what they see others do; and when they have settler folks living among them in little wooden shacks like their own, and passing in and out among them, it is small wonder that they fall into the settler habits of food and clothing (1912, p. 215). The missionaries have done the people a good service in persuading them to remain Eskimos in their food and clothing; there has been no attempt to force European ways upon them; and I am convinced of the wisdom of this attitude because I have seen how the natives degenerate when they take to European food. They lose their natural coating of fat to a great extent, and need more clothing to withstand the cold; they become less robust, less able to endure fatigue, and their children are puny (p. 279). This factor of altered diet is one that has entered all too little into the researches of physical anthropologists, chiefly of course because it is obscured by other factors and also because series of measurements representing different time intervals are not often available. However, among the Western Eskimos the appearance of dental caries has been attributed by Collins (1932) to a change in diet., Also attacking the problem of dental caries from the anthro- pological approach, Dr. Weston A. Price of Cleveland has made an extended series of investigations among highly immune primitive racial stocks at their zone of contact with modern civilization. He made these further observations: ... 1 have found that several other degenerative processes rapidly appear in the group being modernized. Among these are a lowered resistance to infective protesses and the development of physical disturbances. These are proving to be the result of an inadequate nutrition of the individual during the formative period and related directly to the nutrition of the mother. This latter group often includes facial deformities, crooked teeth, abnormally narrow nostrils with inadequate nasal openings, and a narrowing of the body pattern including the hips. An important phase of this change in physical development is expressed by a narrowing and lengthening of the face. It is most significant that these changes in physical development produce a series of deformity patterns which are characteristic of the people of our modern civilization. It is also of great significance that these deformity patterns are INTRODUCTION 15 the same for all of the primitive racial stocks studied when they have adopted the imported staple foods of our modern civilization, including white flour, sugar, polished rice and canned goods (1937, unabridged abstract). In view of these opinions, the Labrador material of the present study affords an opportunity to test the effect of this dietary factor, for not only does the consumption of European foods vary geo- graphically, but also in time—as the canning of foodstuffs became more efficient, to mention only one element. On the other hand, if physical changes have taken place in the Labrador population as the result of diet, then it will be appreciated why physical anthropology is handicapped in solving the problem of affinities. THE INDIANS Another native element in the population of the Labrador penin- sula, and apparently a relatively recent arrival, is the Indian of the interior—the Montagnais-Naskapi tribe of the Algonkin linguistic family. The people of this tribe are nomadic hunters organized into bands, each of which claims a large section of the territory as a hunt- ing preserve (see Map). Extending southward all of the way to the Gulf, the Indians have become much mixed with European blood, especially in the south. Speaking of these southern bands, Hallowell states as follows: That [White admixture] has taken place is not to be denied.... In some families indeed, it is not only traditional but, as expressed in a few traits, perfectly apparent to the eye (1929, pp. 338-339). On the other hand, the Indians and Eskimos have always been hostile and probably have not admixed appreciably. Thus Kohl- meister and Koch, writing in 1814 of a voyage of exploration from Okak to Ungava Bay, say that ... to the south of Hopedale the Indians and Esquimaux sometimes meet, but as the Hopedale Eskimaux seek to cultivate their friendship, quarrels and bloodshed seldom occur. In Ungava, however, though they often exchange tokens of friendship, they are apt to give way to their national jealousies; and provocations being aggravated, their meetings now and then terminate in murder. The Esquimaux are much afraid of the Indians, who are a more nimble and active race (p. 57). About one hundred years later Hutton (1912) found the same reaction at Okak: Eskimos and Indians are hereditary foes: even in my time I have seen Eskimos scared at the mention of ‘‘Indian,’’ and when I travelled southward my drivers once asked me in awestruck voices, ‘‘Shall we see the Allat?’’ (Indians) (pp. 110-111). 16 INTRODUCTION Dr. Strong’s data include measurements on living Indians of two of the most northerly bands (Barren Ground and Davis Inlet). It might be supposed, therefore, that these remote bands, as in the case of the Eskimos, would be relatively pure-blooded. However, Dr. Strong’s records show that even here both White and Eskimo blood is present, though dilute. This is indicated by the following account of the origin and history of the Davis Inlet band, which I have abstracted from Dr. Strong’s ethnological manuscript: Paradoxically enough the Davis Inlet band of Indians owes its inception to the mating four generations ago of a Scotchman (or Scotch-Cree halfbreed) and an Ungava Eskimo woman. According to the account of his descendants, this man was a Hudson Bay Company clerk at East Main or some nearby post on James Bay. His post was attacked by Indians, said to be the Moca- nuinuits or Rupert House people, and was burned to the ground. Following a successful punitive expedition against the attackers, Mantish |Macintosh?] as he is called by the Indians, went to Northwest River and thence to Petis- kapau Lake where he established a post. The local Indians here were the petisképauiniuts “‘Petiskapau people,’’ but even the Barren Ground people occasionally came this far south to trade. The post was later abandoned and Mantish crossed overland with the Indians to Ungava. Here he built another trading post after returning overland for supplies and material which he took to Ungava by sea... here he married an Eskimo woman named Habidinik and had several children. He died in Ungava at a ripe old age. Most of the children of this mating reverted to their mother’s people and their descendants today are probably Eskimo. One son, however, Edward Mantish (or Rich), returned on his father’s trail to Northwest River where he married a fullblood Mingan Indian woman... but for some reason... he moved north to the vicinity of Davis Inlet. ... For many years after leaving the Northwest River band he lived with the Barren Ground people in the interior and his six sons grew up with these people and with other nearby Labrador Indian groups. Three of the sons married Indian women from the Northwest River band, one married an Ungava Indian woman and two died unmarried. ... Besides the Riches, another family, that of Long Shan, makes up the Davis Inlet band. Long Shan is a cousin of uncertain degree .. . and came from Northwest River many years ago. ee The present generation of the Davis Inlet Band have for the most part married women from the northern [Indian] bands. ... II. THEORIES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN MIGRATIONS THE ESKIMO In comparing the Labrador and other Eskimo anthropometric data it is important that those groups be included that may, if possible, throw some light on the problem of Eskimo migrations. To this end it is necessary to review briefly the cultural differentia- tion of the Eastern Eskimo and the theories accounting for their widespread distribution. The older views—largely speculations— can be ignored here in favor of the latest theories grounded directly upon archaeological and ethnological evidence. RECENT LABRADOR ESKIMO Before becoming altered by contact with European civilization, the culture of the Labrador Eskimo seems to have been most closely related to that distributed over the central Arctic. Thus in his study of relationships based on the archaeology of the Central Eskimos Mathiassen makes the following statement: ....In several respects Baffin Land and Labrador differ from the Central Eskimos, in that more of the Thule culture has been preserved there than in the central regions proper. This has, for instance, been observed when dealing with the form of houses, the whalebone house still being used in places along the east coast of Labrador. Some of the elements which Baffin Land and Labrador, but not the Central Eskimos, have in common with the Thule culture are, it is true, objects found in the earth which may date from the time of the Thule culture: lamps with a ridge and round-cornered, square cooking pots, etc.; but other types are used to this day and show that the present day Baffinlanders and Labrador Eskimos have inherited a good deal more from the Thule culture than their western neighbours: whaling harpoon, women’s boat, etc. In addition, these Eskimos are coast dwellers to a much greater degree than the other Central Eskimos and consequently live a less nomadic life. And yet in most features—and the most important ones at that—they resemble the other Central Eskimos: snow house, sledge, hunting implements, clothing, ete. They are much closer related to the Central Eski- mos than to the Thule culture, even if they have taken over a number of its elements (1927, pp. 163-164). THULE ESKIMO The Thule culture mentioned in the above statement, the details of which are unimportant here, is a prehistoric phase of Eskimo culture centering in the Hudson Bay region of northern Canada, but also known from Greenland. Some sites in Greenland have yielded artifacts of Norse origin, thus aiding in establishing the chronological position of this culture. Generally, though, in the eastern Arctic, 17 18 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Thule remains are known only from pre-contact sites, and, where the two occur together, underlying the deposits of the modern Eskimo. However, one group of Thule Eskimos is known to have survived on Southampton Island until about 1902 (Mathiassen, 1927, pp. 284-286). DORSET PEOPLE Although Mathiassen considers the Thule to be the original Eskimo culture in the eastern Arctic, Jenness has presented evidence that the Thule in turn perhaps were preceded by the so-called ‘‘Dor- set’’ people. He says: Objects of Dorset culture types...have been found in many scattered districts throughout the eastern Arctic. ... Thule remains also are known from nearly all these places, or from places not far distant, so that it might still appear probable that the Dorset culture was not an independent phase in Eskimo history, but in some way linked with the Thule. In 1929, however, W. J. Wintemberg, of the National Museum of Canada, discovered several pure Dorset sites (that revealed no trace of European contact such as iron, and, therefore, could not be later than A.D. 1500) along the northwest coast of Newfoundland, and also at Bradore, on the coast of Labrador to the north- ward. Here the genuine Thule culture was conspicuously absent, as it seems to be also along the coast of Labrador to the northward. It is very difficult to believe that both the Thule culture itself, and a peculiar twelfth to fifteenth century phase of it, could overlap each other in so many parts of the eastern Arctic and preserve their separate characteristics alongside of one another; that this peculiar phase, practically unchanged, could extend from northern Greenland and Ellesmere Island to Newfoundland within one or two centuries. Every difficulty disappears, however, if we regard the Dorset as an independent culture contemporaneous in some places with the Thule, in others preceding and probably extinguished by it (1933, pp. 390-391). PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF LABRADOR For northeastern Labrador Dr. Strong has described (1980) a stone culture found at three sites between Hopedale and Nain by the Rawson—MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of Field Museum. Owing perhaps to the small number of artifacts recovered, or to the nature of the sites (workshop, small camps) this stone culture is of uncertain relationship to the Dorset and Thule cultures. After describing his finds, Strong concludes: There is a striking difference between the sites known to be of Eskimo origin in northeastern Labrador and those we have been discussing. ... Most of [the Eskimo sites] we examined and excavated dated from early mission times, that is, the latter half of the eighteenth century, and contained objects showing early Caucasian contact. The bulk of the material, however, was Eskimoan and consisted for the most part of steatite (cooking pots and lamps), bone, antler and ivory work, with stone implements other than steatite in a THEORIES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN MIGRATIONS 19 decided minority. Like the stone, sod and whalebone houses, stone graves, gift cairns and box traps, the material culture revealed by excavation most closely resembles the Thule and the later Eskimo cultures of the central Arctic. . .. Both the Thule and Cape Dorset cultures, like the known Labrador Eskimo sites, are characterized by bone, antler, ivory, and steatite artifacts, whereas the Labrador stone culture under discussion contains almost nothing of these materials and possesses in addition such unique types as the gouge, ground chisel, and oval celt, which are not at all characteristic of the Eskimo. Moreover, these stone culture sites are entirely without the surface indications or abundant bone débris that mark the Eskimo remains. Certain isolated finds such as the stone adzes previously described, suggest that an older Eskimo culture may yet be distinguished in northeastern Labrador that will bridge the wide gap between the old stone culture and the later bone and steatite-working Eskimo culture. This is a possibility, but until such evidence comes to hand I incline toward the belief that the true Eskimo culture reached northeastern Labrador in much the fully developed form revealed in the eighteenth century ruins. If so, this leaves the earlier stone culture with its Eskimo-like stone ulus, ground slate points, and chipped scrapers to be other- wise accounted for (pp. 131-132). The more recent (1934) work of Bird at Hopedale appears to substantiate Strong’s conclusions. Moreover, Bird believes that, owing to the finding of European objects in all the sites he excavated, the Eskimo could not have been in Labrador longer than 400 years. THEORIES In broad outline, this is the picture of the known succession of eastern Arctic cultures extending back into the prehistoric. By fitting into this picture the mass of ethnological detail for the widely scattered living groups—especially that for the “primitive” Caribou Eskimo of the interior, west of Hudson Bay (Birket-Smith, 1929)—-several theories of Eskimo origin and migration have been formulated. Mathiassen, as already mentioned, regards the Thule as the original Eskimo culture, the first to spread eastward over the Arctic coast of America. To him the Caribou Eskimo are primitive only in the sense of being descendants of Thule people who went into the interior and gave up many of their former customs. Birket-Smith, on the other hand, considers the Caribou Eskimo as a relatively unchanged remnant of the population from which all the other Eskimos arose. Some time in the past he would have a group move to the central Arctic coast and adapt themselves to the environment of the seashore. Moving westward to Alaska these “‘Palaeo-Eskimo”’ in turn would give rise in the course of time to a “‘Neo-Eskimo” group with a whale-hunting, or Thule, culture. Thus, 20 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR it would be the eastern migrations of the ‘‘Neo-Eskimo” that led to the introduction of the Thule culture into Baffin Land, Greenland, Labrador, and elsewhere. Later, also according to this theory, a second group moved out of the central regions to overcome the Thule people and become the present-day Eskimo (‘‘Eschato-Eskimo”’). Since neither of these theories accounts for the Dorset culture, Jenness (1933, 1987) has been led to formulate still another theory. Speaking of Eskimo movements in Canada during the Christian era, Jenness, in his latest publication, explains his theory thus: Some time around A.D. 500, apparently, bands of Eskimos, spurred from Arctic Alaska by some unknown cause, began to spread eastward, dropping settlers all along their route. Some families hugged the mainland and con- tinued to Hudson Bay, others scattered over the islands to the northward and eventually reached Greenland. There, in the southwest corner of the island, Eric the Red and his Norsemen found their traces in A.D. 982; and at Repulse Bay, in the northwest corner of Hudson Bay, the Danish archaeologist Mathi- assen recently excavated some ruined stone houses that were built about the same period. Meanwhile other and more primitive Eskimo roaming the hinterland behind Hudson Bay felt similar stirrings of unrest, and sent out colonies to the coasts of the eastern Arctic. A few families reached Ellesmere Island and Greenland; others monopolized the coast and islands in Hudson Strait; and still others, working down the coast of Labrador, or else traversing the heart of that peninsula, took possession of the north arm of Newfoundland. Whether this movement from the interior to the coast preceded or coincided with the eastward movement of the Alaskan Eskimo we do not know. We suspect that it started several centuries earlier, and that in places where the two peoples subsequently clashed, as in Baffin Island, the western Eskimo had the mastery. We have reason to believe, also, that these western or “Thule” natives differed not only in culture but in physical type from the eastern Eskimo—both those who remained inland and those, the “Dorset’’ people, who settled on the coast—because the eastern natives seem to have acquired the features of the neighbouring Algonkian peoples with whom they jostled and intermarried through many centuries. . . . Still holding our gaze on the Eskimo, but dropping down a few more centuries, we can detect, about A.D. 1200, a new impulse surging through the Arctic. Again the Indian-like Eskimo behind Hudson Bay began to stream seaward, this time not to Hudson Bay alone, but to the Arctic coast northward and westward beyond Coronation Gulf, possibly even as far as Alaska. Little by little these newcomers swamped the older coastal inhabitants, both the “Thule”? people and their own kinsmen of the “Dorset’”’ culture, until they held undisputed sway from Coronation Gulf to Labrador. A few descendants of the ‘‘Thule” people managed to survive on Southampton Island until the beginning of the twentieth century, but the ‘‘Dorset’’ Eskimo, or at least their culture, disappeared completely before the arrival of Europeans, even in Newfoundland. Meanwhile, the rising islands in the far north shuffled off the seal- and whale-hunting population they had gained so short a time before. THEORIES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN MIGRATIONS 21 The majority of these natives made their way to Greenland, where they may have assisted in overwhelming the settlements of the early Norsemen; others, perhaps, retreated to the mainland, only to be submerged by the tide of Eskimo from the interior. .. . We are now in a position to understand why the present-day Eskimo of Canada fall naturally into three divisions. The natives in Mackenzie River delta (and, until 1902, the inhabitants of Southampton Island also) descend from some of the old ““Thule’”’ people who migrated from their Alaskan home to the eastern Arctic 1,000 or more years ago, dropping colonies all along their route; on the Barren Grounds behind Hudson Bay the primitive ‘‘Caribou”’ Eskimo, numbering in 1923 less than 500, represent the survivors of the second great reservoir of the race—the inland Eskimo, now shrunken to a fast vanish- ing pool; and occupying the whole coast-line from Coronation Gulf to Labrador are the Eskimo who flowed out of this inland reservoir about A.D. 1200, over- whelmed the earlier coast-dwellers, and in their new environment gained a fresh lease of life and vigour (1937, pp. 34-35). This theory, as presented by Jenness, and intended primarily to apply to the Canadian Eskimo, is not complete without some refer- ence to the work of Collins in Alaska (1937a). The work in this area has revealed cultural stages (Punuk, Birnirk, Old Bering Sea) pre- ceding and presumably ancestral to the Thule. In addition, Collins has presented evidence of a late return movement of Thule people into Alaska (1937b). In general, however, the theory stated by Jenness, particularly as applying to the eastern Arctic, may be accepted for working purposes. On the grounds of culture successions, therefore, it seems best to assume two reservoirs of population at the beginning of the Chris- tian era: one in Alaska and one in the central Arctic. Presumably, also, since these two bodies of Eskimos have so much in common culturally, they must have been united at some earlier time, but certainly before the development of the earliest culture thus far recognized—the old Bering Sea culture. Mathiassen (1936) and Collins (1937a) have suggested that the early Central, or Dorset, group of Eskimo may have been of Indian origin. Collins says: One of the most important problems of Arctic archeology is that of the origin and relationships of the Dorset culture .... Its peculiar artis toa certain extent suggestive of the earliest phase of Old Bering Sea art, and it likewise resembles the old Alaskan culture in its highly developed stone chipping technique. It cannot have been derived from the Old Bering Sea culture as we know it, however, for the latter is already in many respects a highly developed Eskimo culture, possessing numerous important features of which the Dorset culture had no knowledge. As Jenness has pointed out, the Dorset culture shows unmistakable Indian affinities, particularly with the Beothuk and the prehistoric “Red Paint’’ culture. Jenness has suggested that since the Dorset culture preceded the 22 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Thule, it may have been derived from that of the Caribou Eskimos. In view of the divergence of the Dorset culture from Eskimo culture generally and its rather close relationship to that of the Indians, it would seem that its origin might with equal propriety be sought in the latter direction; in which case we would suppose the Dorset to have been an originally Indian culture, which before the spread of the Thule culture to the central regions, had gradually worked northward; later, with the advent of the Thule Eskimos, the Dorset peoples would be forced to give way, and gradually succumb to the better equipped and more aggressive newcomers from the west. This, of course, is only speculation. .. (p. 373). SIGNIFICANCE OF THEORIES TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY From the foregoing, it appears that in order to interpret fully the Labrador physical type in terms of Eskimo origins and migrations some knowledge is necessary of at least the Thule and Dorset physical types, in addition to those of recent eastern groups. This goal is impossible at the present time because no Dorset skeletal remains have as yet been identified. Nevertheless, according to Jenness’ theory, we still have, in the Thule and modern Eskimos, representa- tives of the two earlier reservoirs of population. Since the Thule physical type has been identified only during the past year (Fischer- Mller, 1937) it is now possible for the first time to carry out even to this extent the comparisons suggested by the theories of migration. Another archaeologically identified physical type, and older even than the Thule, is that of the “Old Igloo” (Birnirk) remains from Point Barrow, Alaska, described by Hrdliéka (1930; see also Collins, 1934). Itis desirable to compare this and the Labrador series because of the contradictory opinions held regarding the physical affiliations of the ‘Old Igloos.”” Thus, Hrdli¢ka says (1930, p. 323), in speaking of the skull: “It is the Labrador-Greenland type throughout... .”; whereas Seltzer, although mistaking the “Old Igloos”’ for Thule people, and apparently thinking only of the living Labrador Eskimo, says (1933, p. 357): “The present Labrador Eskimos do not resemble the Old Igloo Thulers.”’ Except for contributing fuller evidence toward this controversial matter, there seems to be little reason, on the basis of Jenness’ theory, for expecting to find unchanged representatives of the Birnirk people in the eastern Arctic. It should be added also that these theories of Eskimo migrations, while helpful in directing anthropometric comparisons, necessarily do not indicate how completely the people of one culture phase have displaced or absorbed those of another. The skeletal remains may be the only clue to this. However, in view of the isolation and inbreeding of such relatively small groups, and unless fairly distinct THEORIES OF ESKIMO AND INDIAN MIGRATIONS 23 physical types are represented in the bearers of the different cultures, the results of physical anthropology alone are not likely to be con- clusive in establishing the course of events. THE INDIANS Relatively little is known regarding the early history of the Montagnais-Naskapi Indians. The early records have been sum- marized recently (1931) by Speck, from whose writings the following is extracted: Evidence of an eastward drift of Indian tribes, known as Montagnais, along the St. Lawrence coast of the peninsula occurs as early as the seven- teenth century in the Relations of the Jesuits. This evidence has been accepted without question by most historical authors.... Since there is little reason to doubt its correctness, we may next seek for more knowledge respecting the time and extent of the movement, and of the forces behind it. The sources generally agree in ascribing one such force to the Iroquois. ... At the time of the arrival of the French in lower Canada the Montagnais were apparently located en masse in the territory north of the St. Lawrence between Quebec and the Saguenay inland to Lake St. John, and eastward to Moisie River and Seven Islands, and the waters inland to the Height of Land. At this time we do not hear much of any people residing north and east of them. With the subsequent expansion of French trading stations and mission influence, we hear of the Montagnais working eastward along the coast to Blanc Sablon. . . (p. 561). The eastward migration of Montagnais is a matter of convincing certainty from published records, showing that from Mingan eastward, and from per- haps still farther toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, the so-called Montagnais were urging their hunting and trading down into the Gulf coast, keeping pace with the retreat or annihilation of the Eskimo, even actually push- ing them onward. This move correlates with the reasonable supposition of the eastward and northward drift of the Naskapi, resulting in the peopling by Algonkian-speaking Indians of the interior plateau and the coast—a process by the present time nearly complete; but not quite so in view of the still un- inhabited peninsula west of Ungava Bay [see Map]. I have only hinted at the possibilities here, for we are as yet woefully ignorant of what will be dis- closed by archaeological investigation (p. 564). Thus, although the contact between the Indian and Eskimo in Labrador appears to be of rather recent date, it is important to keep in mind the fact that both groups migrated there from farther west and that a remote relationship has been suggested (cf. Strong, 1930, p. 142). Mathiassen’s and Collins’ speculations as to the possible Indian origin of the Dorset culture have already been discussed. Shapiro (1931, 1934) has gone further and made anthropometric comparisons between modern Eskimo, Chipéwyans, and Hurons. The linkage of the Chipewyans, Cree, and Eskimo has been confirmed 24 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR by Seltzer (1938). Shapiro has theorized on the basis of his anthro- pometric findings thus: The Thule type, composed of the Old Igloo and the Angmagsalik series, is, on the evidence of the Old Igloo dating, identifiable with the Thule period. Apparently, this type was once spread from Alaska to Greenland as a remark- ably stable and uniform population. Coming from the south, a population of Indian origin absorbed and in part replaced the Thule people. In the west the newcomers emerge as the type I have named Seward-Barrow .... The Indians who best represent the original stock are Athabascan Chipewyans and the Algonkian Cree and Iroquoian Huron. These three Indian groups appear to have a common bond in their conformity to the Algonkin type. The eastern Eskimos, successors of the Thule type in Greenland and Labrador, appear in some respects to be a blend between the old Thule people and the invaders of Indian origin. Another suggestion which must await ampler data points to the eastern Algonkin as a possible source for the new- comers in the eastern Eskimo area (1934, pp. 2731-2732). Discussion of these theories is best postponed until the present evidence is presented. However, I would point out here that Shapiro and Seltzer, like many others, have been misled by a mistaken identi- fication of the Old Igloo remains, which are pre-Thule, as Collins (1934) has clearly shown. III. ANALYSIS OF METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS METHODS Circumstances usually determine the pattern assumed by a study of this nature. Although it is generally desirable to place on record a large body of measurements and observations for future reference, there is a lack of accord among physical anthropologists as to the items that should receive attention. Needless to say, the possible measurements or observations are innumerable. However, unless the material is permanently at hand, and time is plentiful, this course is not always possible. In the present case, the study of the skeleton was undertaken initially to facilitate analysis of meager data on the living. Also, the author had to go to Chicago and Cambridge to measure the material, and could spend only a few days at each place. These circumstances were sufficient to limit the records to essentials. The decision as to the essential measurements depended upon those available for comparison. In making comparisons of the skeletal measurements I have been guided by three considerations: (1) That the Labrador Eskimos are usually grouped with those of Greenland as the “eastern long heads’; (2) that in a search for relationships primary attention should be given to archaeologically established groups, as discussed in the preceding chapter; and (3) that, because of the high degree of homogeneity among the Eskimos, the factor of personal error should be held to a minimum. The following circumstances favor these desiderata: My training in anthropometry has been almost entirely under the influence of Dr. Hrdlit¢ka and as a result we accord very well in our anthro- pometric technique, as will be shown below. It happens also that Dr. Hrdlitka has reported (1924, 1930) on one of the best series of Greenland skulls available—for the most part collected by Hayes in 1860-61 and described (without sexing) by Bessels in 1875. Further- more, Dr. Hrdli¢ka has measured skeletal remains of the only two early Eskimo types thus far identified archaeologically: (1) the Barrow ‘“‘Igloos’’ (1930), and (2) the ‘‘Thule” of the central Arctic regions (Southampton Island, 1910). These groups permit a very broad comparison in which the personal error can be evaluated. Fischer-Mgller (1937) has extended the series of known “Thule” 25 26 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR remains; his data are too important to omit. For further comparison the reader is referred to Dr. Hrdlitka’s Alaskan survey of 1930. The restricted number of measurements here reported, as dictated by circumstances and the comparative data, still include the more significant figures, and almost all of those available for the groups mentioned above. The technique of measurement used by the author is that described by Hrdli¢éka (1920). Minor exceptions will be explained in the appropriate places. I have subjected the data to a minimum of metrical analysis, but sufficient, I believe, to enable others to check the validity of the con- clusions. Moreover, by giving the basic data in detail in the form of appendices, it is possible for others to amplify this phase of the study. Having at my disposal, through the kindness of Dr. Hrdliéka, most of the original records for the comparative series, I have ex- tended the same statistical treatment to these. The formulae involved are available in any standard work on statistics. In calculating probable errors of the means and standard deviation I have relied upon Pearson (1914). Because the labor involved is not proportional to the return, I have not employed statistics in series of less than 20. PERSONAL ERROR As already stated, it is desirable to reduce personal error to a minimum in anthropometric records, and especially in those per- taining to Eskimos. To this end fairly precise directions have been formulated and are to some extent the subject of international agree- ments. Nevertheless, error is still introduced into these records chiefly in the matter of sexing and through differing interpretations of landmarks that require some judgment as to location. In addition there is the possible instrumental error that may either add to or compensate for unconscious bias in technique. As is well known, the difficulty of an experienced observer in sexing skeletal material varies both with the completeness of the skeleton and with the particular parts preserved. When the entire skeleton is available, the accuracy of sex identification is high; when the pelvis is missing, this accuracy diminishes considerably; and in that small group of large females resembling weak males (and vice versa), the chance of accurate sex identification, without the aid of the pelvis, is about fifty-fifty. This problem, so far as the Eskimo is concerned, has been emphasized by Morant (1926) in commenting upon his coefficients of racial likeness for Greenland crania as cal- OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 27 culated from the records of Hrdlitka (1924) and Fiirst and Hansen (1915): So there is sufficient statistical justification for considering that the two series of male means represent samples drawn from identically the same popu- lation. The female indices are also in perfect accord, but nearly all the female direct measurements show differences that are just significant, Fiirst and Hansen’s means being greater than the corresponding ones given by Hrdlitka. The discordance is evidently not symptomatic of a racial difference. The difficulty of sexing their material was stressed by the writers of the Crania- Groenlandica (see p. 56) and by others who have examined Eskimo crania. The observed differences between the means are evidently due to inaccurate sexing and we are inclined to accept as accurate the determinations of the Professors of Anatomy in the Universities of Lund and Copenhagen on account of their wider acquaintance with the racial type, the fact that they were helped in many doubtful cases by an examination of the pelvis and that their male and female distributions of characters are closely fitted by normal curves (p. 260). That Morant’s confidence in the superior sexing ability of Fiirst and Hansen is somewhat in the nature of wishful thinking, appears from an examination of the quotation referred to: If in certain cases there can be no doubt as to the sex of the cranium, there are many instances in which it is very difficult, not to say impossible, to assign a skull with certainty to one or the other sex.... Still it should be added that, in seemingly doubtful cases, the diagnostic of several crania could be later on confirmed by the pelvis and in rare cases by grave findings (p. 56; italics mine). It is hardly to be expected that even the most experienced of observers will agree entirely on the sex of a series of crania. In this connection I am able to present some interesting data on the error due to sexing. The series of Greenland crania measured by Hrdlitka (1924; re-examined for the 1930 report), as already indicated, is made up for the most part of the Hayes collection (expedition of 1860-61 to the Greenland side of Smith Sound near Etah), acquired through the Army Medical Museum (see Otis catalogues 1876, 1880; Nos. 1182-1253). This is part of the famous series measured, but unsexed, by Bessels (1875). Otis records the same measurements as Bessels (with only one exception, so far as I can discover: 1250-C63), and adds the sex. Since the original numbers are still visible on most of the skulls it is possible to correlate the records of Bessels, Otis, and Hrdliéka. The Hrdli¢éka 1924 series includes 55 skulls of the Hayes collec- tion; the 1930 series 62. Of the 55 common to both series all but four agree as to sex; at the re-examination three were changed from male to female; one from female to male. Of the 62 in common to the Hrdli¢ka 1930 and the Otis series, 44 are of the same sex; 18 have been considered female by Hrdlitka and male by Otis. 28 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR The personal error of these same observers due to other factors can also be determined by combining the sexes. Unfortunately, there are only two measurements which are both comparable and common to the various series: length of skull and breadth of face (bizygomatic diameter). Bessels confined his measurement of skull breadth to the parietals,! whereas Hrdlitka has recorded the maxi- mum. With this fact in mind I will include this measurement also. Combining the two sexes, I find that the 62 skulls measured by Hrdli¢éka (19380) and Bessels have identically the same average length; the average breadth differs by 1.8 mm. (in favor of Hrdlitka) as might be expected from the above explanation; and the face breadth (obtained on 51 specimens) differs on the average by only 0.2 mm. (in favor of Bessels). I would conclude, therefore, that where the measurement is defined in the same way, the error from technique is negligible. We may now consider the effect of these combined errors on the averages of the respective series (Table 1). It will be seen that the tendency has been to decrease the number of males and increase the females; in other words, skulls have been removed from the lower range of the males and added to the upper range of the females. Since the decision for this change, lacking the pelvis, rests primarily upon the size of skull, the effect upon the averages has been to increase those of both the males and females. Thus it appears from the males at least that an error of 3 mm. or more can result in a small series from errors of sexing. TABLE 1.—THREE INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE SAME SERIES OF GREENLAND CRANIA: EXAMPLE OF ERROR DUE TO SEXING (In millimeters) Observer Males Females Length maximum(54) Otis(Bessels):.:.ccaheww yo ls (41)186.4 (18)180.8 Hirdlitka Glo 24) ese rato (28)189.5— (26)180.6 Hrditka (1930) eit re ee (26)189.4 (28)181.3 Skull breadth(50)* Otis(Bessels)!..09) 2... elites as. (39)132.2 (11)126.2 Hirdbtka (1924) arrester ton ceyen (26)184.8 (24)129.5 dobglidel +: (Gh /: 10) Malena sbap tra inka (24)135.2 (26)129.6 Bizygomatic diameter (35) Otis(Foupelp) i552 eee fae (27)136.3 ( 8)128.6 PAPONUCRU LOR) is eum eee (17)139.0 (18)128.0 FIPOUEKSCT OOO) os pee dees (15)140.7 (20)129.7 * Bessels by definition limits this measurement to the parietals; Hrdli¢ka takes the maximum. In 62 specimens (sexes combined) the difference in method favors Hrdli¢ka to the extent of 1.3 mm. 1 Fiirst and Hansen, evidently not aware that Bessels defined his measurement of breadth differently, conclude that the average breadth increases from north to south in Greenland. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 29 The results of two observers measuring the same collection, and thereby showing their personal error, are not often available. For this reason, and in order that due consideration may be given to this factor in the present analysis, I give two more examples, this time involving myself. The first of these examples (Table 2) shows my findings on the Peabody series of Labrador Eskimo skulls in relation to the published results of Russell and Huxley (1899) on the same collection. Two factors of uncertainty enter into this table; namely, that it is im- possible now to determine (1) how many individuals were measured originally, and (2) how they were sexed. For the most part the differences in the results are probably due to sexing. Nevertheless, the numbers of individuals are large enough, and the results for the two sexes are consistent enough, to justify the conclusion that at least some of the major differences are due to technique. Table 2 shows that in general I tend to get slightly smaller measurements than did Russell and Huxley. However, three measurements yielding pronounced differences are emphasized: (1) diameter lateral maxi- mum, (2) alveolar point-nasion height, and (3) orbital breadth. These differences are best discussed in the light of the second example. TABLE 2.—INDEPENDENT MEASUREMENTS OF THE SAME SKULLS PEABODY SERIES (LABRADOR)* (In millimeters) MALE FEMALE Russell and Stewart | —- Russell and Stewart ser fi Measurements Huxley(13?) (14) Dif. Huxley(15?) (21) Dif. Diam. ant.-post. max....... 189.2,..188.5 _--0.7%. 179.6 179.4. —0.2 Diam. lateral max.......... 186.2 184.4 °° —1.8 129.9 1328.2 °° —1.7 Basion-bregma height....... 186.0 135.4 -—0.6 180.4 127.8 -—2.6 Diam. frontal min.......... 93.9 93.6 —0.38 90.4 89.5 —0.9 Menton-nasion height...... 125.0 123.8 -—1.7 118.8 118.4 +40.1 Alv. pt.-nasion height....... 72.3 74.4 +2.1 65.5 68.8 +3.3 Diam. bizyg. max.......... 188.1 ..186.9 - —1.2. 128.6 127.9. —0.6 Basion-nasion.............. 104.1 102.8 -—1.8 97.6 Sit E01 Basion-alveolar point....... 100.9 102.1 +41.2 96.8 96.5 —0.3 Orbital height, meant....... 37.1 386.0 -—1.1 34.6 34.4 —0.2 Orbital breadth, meant..... 42.4 40.1 —2.3 39.7 37.8 —1.9 Nasal: height. ..f..) 405 3% §2.7 52.3 —0.4 49.4 48.6 —0.8 NOSE DTOMIER oes dc aa on 22.7 22.4 -—0.3 21.8 21.6 -—0.2 Alveolar length............ 54.5 54.3 —0.2 51.1 62:2 -+1.1 Alveolar breadth........... 64.1 63.2 —0.9 61.2 62.0 +0.8 * See Appendices Al-3 (old stone grave series) for details. + The mean is assumed for the data of Russell and Huxley. In order to show how my results check with Dr. Hrdlitka’s, I measured 30 of the Greenland and Igloo skulls reported by him in 1930. The comparison, disregarding sex, is shown in Table 3. Again I more frequently get lower averages, but near agreement is the rule, 30 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR with the exception of diameter lateral maximum and nasal height. Only the first of these two exceptional measurements is common to the two examples; in both cases I have gotten a smaller figure for head breadth. Since we are all seeking maximum breadth, and since neither Dr. Hrdli¢ka nor I take this measurement on the temporal crest, the difference would seem to reside in my greater conservatism in estimating the flare of the temporal squama, for the maximum very often coincides with the edge of this structure in Eskimos. TABLE 3.—INDEPENDENT MEASUREMENTS OF THE SAME SKULLS NATIONAL MUSEUM SERIES* (In millimeters) Measurements Hrdliéka (30) Stewart (30) Dif. Dian ant.-posts.Maxus vest ea eae: 186.3 185.7 —0.6 Diim? lateral Maxie eV tee 133.8 LSBE62 2: ee Basion-bregma height................... 136.0 185.6 —0.4 Alvepti-mnasion: beignitiic i: eee 73.9 73.38 —0.6 DIAM DIZV Be MAK oa oni Seek 137.6 187.3 —0.3 Baslon-enasion wuer kes c cies ks Spee ots = 104.5 104.7 +0.2 Basion-alveolar point =): sasac eso nce eee 104.3 104.0 —0.3 Orbital héight; mean e's oo... cde e eee: 35.4 35.2 —0.2 Orbital, breadth, mean ::. 0.555 Sew oes 39.4 39.5 +0.1 Nasalsheignt acd vain eevee eam eee tee 51.4 H282 +0.8 Nagalibrendthd ct ci eto e ar et 22.9 23.0 +0.1 Alveolar tengeh 2st Benger eee wo hemes 55.2 54.7 —0.5 Alveolar. bread theese was ee ee 64.4 64.0 -—0.4 * Mostly Greenland; sexes combined. Morant (1987) has pointed out (p. 4) that between 1924 and 1930 Hrdli¢ka seems to have changed his technique of measuring upper face height and nasal height. I am unable to learn whether Hrdlitka changed his method of taking upper face height during this period, although it is certain that his present practice of locating alveolar point differs somewhat from the definition appearing in his ‘“‘Anthro- pometry” (1920, p. 16, item 12). Because the point on the alveolar border between the two upper median incisors is so easily altered by absorption of the bone following tooth loss,and also since this point is not always the lowest point on the border even when the teeth are present, Hrdlitka estimates the position of the point in these cases so as to bring it into alignment with the points between the upper median and lateral incisors. Thus, a slightly larger measurement results, and some approximate measurements are included. As regards nasal height, it can be shown that Hrdlitka changed the definition of the inferior nasal landmark following his experience (1925) in measuring Australian skulls: In Australia considerable difficulty was encountered with the measure- ments of the face and nose.... With the nose...the difficulty lay in the peculiarity of the lower border of the aperture. In many cases there was found OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS St a double inferior border, a higher internal and a lower external one, with a depression (prenasal fossa) between; or there was but the higher border, the lower one being indistinct. The proper measurement of the nasal height, it was determined, is to the level of the upper border, which is also the level of the nasal floor. . . (1928, p. 2). Previously (1920, p. 16, item 13) he had recommended measuring “to the upper limiting line of the gutters.’”” Thus the measurement has been shortened. Until engaged in the present investigation of personal error I did not realize that I was still following Hrdlitka’s earlier definition. In pursuing this policy, which has given results similar to those of Russell and Huxley, I have often compromised by measuring to the crista spinalis of Gower (1923). The considerable difference in orbital breadth obtained by Russell and Huxley and by myself is due mostly of course to the use of different landmarks medially. Dr. Hrdli¢ka now uses lacrimale almost, if not entirely, and I follow his example. It seems obvious that Russell and Huxley have used dacryon or maxillo-frontale. It is unfortunate that this measurement is so seldom defined. MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULL: OLD STONE GRAVE SERIES It is desirable that we consider first the oldest known physical remains of the Labrador Eskimo. Thus the data on the skeletal material will be analyzed before those on the living, and the ‘‘old stone grave” series of skeletons before the “‘recent grave’’ series. In this way only is it possible to detect and interpret ‘changes in the physical type. AGE I have very little confidence in rules for aging the skull, particu- larly in a group such as the Eskimo, hence only three broad age periods are recorded here. On this basis the only difference in age distribution between the two sexes is the greater number of young adults among the females. Combining the two sexes (55), one- quarter (25.4 per cent) are found to be old (50 years or over), 36.4 per cent middle-aged (35-50 years), and 38.2 per cent young (up to 35 years). There is no reason to believe, therefore, that this series includes an unusual representation of either immature or senile individuals. THE VAULT Diameter Antero-Posterior Maximum (Tables 4, 5).—In the four groups here compared this diameter is smallest in Labrador, but the difference in size is statistically significant only in relation to the 32 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 4.—STATISTICAL CONSTANTS OF MEASUREMENTS OF THE VAULT: MALES Group No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +-p.e. C.V.+p.e. Xp.e. Diameter antero-posterior maximum Labrador*.. 38 171—202 187.66+0.75 6.838+0.53 3.6440.28 .... Thulets3: : Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... Ji cls) Ue eee Greenland. . Old Igloo. . No. 31 22 28 42 23 oo C.V. +p.e. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. Diameter frontal minimum 90—106 95.32+0.43 3.594+0.31 3.76+0.32 89—104 96.68+0.56 3.924+0.40 4. vecca 41 Menton-nasion Ondans 115—131 123.17 117—133 125.87 111—134 123.83 109—134 124.16 Alveolar point-nasion height 69—80 74.2540.38 3.18+0. 71-80 76.50 66—86 76.06+0.39 3.89+0.2 71—84 77.04+0.39 3.00+0. Diameter bizygomatic maximum 126—150 136.46+0.71 5.60+0. 135—149 142.41+0.57 3.96+0. 129-151 140.4740.54 5.5140. 132—151 141.45+0.56 4.48+0. Facial index total 82.0—95.3 89.61 78.5—97.8 88.22 78.2—95.6 87.31 76 .8—96.2 87.40 Facial index upper 50.7—59.4 54.68+0.29 2.27+0. 47.7—58.5 53.66 .. Peon tard 47.9—60.6 54.19+0.28 2.8440. 50.0—58.3 54.56+0.31 2.42+0. Basion-nasion 88—113 102.9740.59 4.82+0. 98—114 106.8140.48 3.2340. 100—115 106.0440.34 3.49+0. 100—116 107.1340.47 3.8340. Basion-alveolar point 93-111 101.5740.55 4.3140. 103—114 107-62 02: ; 93—115 105.62+0.47 4.5440. 95-114 104.8340.63 4.47+0. * See Appendix A2: old stone grave series. t Fischer-Mgller (1937), Hrdlicka (1910). t Hrdliéka (1930). 27 a 5. 3. Own >» www .29+0.36 12+0.36 89+0.36 -11+0.37 -78+0.28 -92+0.27 -17+0.28 .16+0.38 .2340.37 4440.41 -68+0.41 -03+0.32 .30+0.23 .57+0.31 .24+0.38 .30+0.32 260.42 Xp.e. 1.92 Cer: aoe: or ton: - wowW: +: ae oO 13 1] _ 5.62 3.88 Considering that Fischer-Mgller may have interpreted alveolar point differently, and more like Russell and Huxley (see p. 29), there is a possibility that the largest diameter occurs among the Thule. On the other hand, it is definite that the lowest diameter occurs in In the males, at least, this figure is significantly different from those for Greenland and the Igloos. Labrador. 36 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 7.—STATISTICAL CONSTANTS OF MEASUREMENTS OF THE FACE: FEMALES Group No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V.+p.e. X pe. Diameter frontal minimum Labrador*.. 36 85—97 90.00+0.89 3.45+0.27 3. nea 30 Thule ti v.93 10 93—102 SOtSQ CR yee Ce Greenlandt{. .. PETA cm rates Old Igloot. .. Bi he rg i re Menton-nasion ets Labrador... 11 109—123 116.09 TRUE: id is 3 117-123 119.67 Greenland... 5 108—121 115.20 Old Igloo.. 19 98—124 114.10 Alveolar point-nasion height Labrador... 32 63—75 69.09+0.41 3.42+40.29 4.95+0.42 Thule.cia. 9 66—76 OG ees ns eek mena ee Sarat ye! Greenland.. 45 61—78 70.5140.35 3. 4740.25 4.9340.35 2.63 Old Igloo.. 22 59—78 70.32+0.70 4.88+0.50 6.94+40.71 1.52 Diameter bizygomatic maximum Labrador... 27 120—136 128.3834+0.57 4.40+0.40 3.48+0.31 Thule... ::, 9 127-1438 136.67 i i... em Bree a ery Greenland.. 50 122—143 130.3440.45 4.6940.32 3.60+0.24 2.75 Old Igloo.. 29 117—189 130.86+0.61 4.90+0.438 3.74+40.33 3.05 Facial index, total Labrador... 8 84.7—96.8 Thuler. 2. 3 86.2—87.9 86.93 Greenland.. 5 79.4—90.6 Old Igloo.. 19 76.0—96.1 Facial index, upper Labrador... 26 48.8—58.9 58.94+0.85 2.67+0.25 4.95+0.46 PH Wien ey 9 46.1—56.6 BOE Blo Nye owe Matta ini 3 eda Oke rte Sein Greenland... 45 47.9—60.8 54.17+0.31 3.07+40.22 5.67+0.40 0.41 Old Igloo.. 22 45.7—59.7 58.98+0.41 2.82+40.29 5.22+0.53 0.06 Basion-nasion Labrador... 35 87—107 98.1140.55 4.79+0.39 4.88+0.39 Thule. ¢o5.3. 9 100—107 LGB LOO: es eae er cmt Henk ee rd Greenland... 52 95—108 101.3140.30 3.18+0.21 3.1440.21 5.08 Old Igloo.. 30 95—109 101.70+40.47 3.80+0.83 3.78+40.382 4.99 Basion-alveolar point Labrador... 31 87—107 96.78+0.56 4.63 +£0.40 4.78+0.41 THUG sc es 4 96—104 10025 3: Betas ene ee ay Sate Greenland.. 45 93—110 100.93+0.45 4.50+40.32 4.4640.82 5.76 Old Igloo.. 19 92—108 POI s84 525: ace ie elena * See Appendix A2: old stone grave series. + Fischer-M@ller (1937), Hrdli¢ka (1910). t Hrdliéka (1930). Diameter Bizygomatic Maximum (Tables 6, 7).—Both from the range and from the average it appears that the narrowest face occurs in Labrador. On the same basis, the Thule have the broadest face. In the males the differences are significant in all cases. Facial Indices (Tables 6, 7).—Because the trends are the same for length and breadth of face in the four groups, the relative pro- OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 37 portions are not very different; indeed, none of the differences is significant in the case of upper facial index. Basion-Nasion (Tables 6, 7).—This diameter in the Labrador series is significantly smaller than in the three groups here used in comparison. This finding would be expected in view of the usual good correlation between basion-nasion and skull length, and the fact that absolute skull length is smallest in Labrador. Basion-Alveolar Point (Tables 6, 7).—Here again this diameter is smallest in Labrador, and generally the differences between the Labrador series and the other groups are significant. This is the expected finding in accordance with basion-nasion and skull length. THE ORBITS, NOSE, AND ALVEOLAR ARCH Orbital Height, Mean (Tables 8, 9).—The means of this measure- ment for all four groups are very close, probably reflecting partly the accuracy with which it is usually taken. Orlital Breadth, Mean (Tables 8, 9).—The fact that Fischer- Mgller’s measurements (Thule), as well as those from Labrador in the literature (see Appendix A3), all involve dacryon as the medial orbital landmark, whereas Hrdli¢ka and I have used lacrimale, is reflected in the means. Thus, greatest orbital breadth occurs in the Thule, with Labrador next. It is likely, therefore, that none of the differences is significant. Orbital Index, Mean (Tables 8, 9)._Keeping in mind the above statements regarding orbital breadth, it may be conceded that a higher index will result from the use of lacrimale than dacryon. Hence it would appear that there is even less difference between the groups than is indicated in the table. Nasal Height (Tables 8, 9).—It has been pointed out in the dis- cussion of personal error (p. 30) that I tend to get a larger figure for nasal height (by about 1 mm.) than Hrdli¢ka. The fact that the mean for the Thule is considerably higher than those for the other groups, suggests that Fischer-Mgller likewise takes a different point for the lower nasal border. Reducing the Labrador mean for the males to 51 mm. makes this the lowest of the four. By this change the X p.e.’s for the Igloos and Greenland increase, but that for Green- land remains without statistical significance. The females show less marked differences. Nasal Breadth (Tables 8, 9).—This diameter is not subject to personal error, hence the difference between the means of Labrador and the Igloos is noteworthy. Moreover, it accords with the signifi- 38 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 8.—STATISTICAL CONSTANTS OF MEASUREMENTS OF ORBITS, NOSE, AND ALVEOLAR ARCH: MALES Group Labrador*.. Greenlandt. Old Igloof. Labrador... Thultess. Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... ‘Thulets se Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... FEIN eee Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... "Phule:.2 6c: Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... Thule? .<.', Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... Thule: dys. Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... THUG 205.625 Greenland. . Old Igloo.. Labrador... Thules ass... Greenland. . Old Igloo.. No. 29 22 16 44 26 Range 32.5—40 33 .0—42 .2—40 .2—40 .2—45 .2—45 .0—44 .2—42 Orbital index, mean ¥ .38— 100.0 0— 98.7 .l— 98.2 .2— 98.8 48—58 52—60 47—59 50—61 18—26 22—26 20—26 20—28 32.7—50. 36.7—46. 38.5—52. 36.4—50. Coro 49—60 50— 62 45—62 50— 63 8 .0 .0 “6 Or 0 0 .5 5 Mean +p.e. 89.52+0.51 88.68+0.88 91.44+0.42 90.34+0.56 Nasal height 52.42+0.29 55.41+0.29 52.40+0.26 54.58+0.32 Nasal breadth 22 .58+0.20 23.00+0.17 22.69+0.16 23 .90+0.21 Nasal index 43.10+0.47 41.50+0.37 43 .33+40.33 43.87+0.40 56.06 56.30+0.32 3.20-+0.2 55.73 +£0.35 \2.62:£0. pat ped et bo po po bo me Bm oD CO wwh ce .92+0. -12+0. .28+0. .45+0. 4340. .04+0. 6440. 5740. .62+0. .21+0. -60+0. .68+0. .89+0. .55+0. -389+0. .28+0. Length of alveolar arch 54.04+0.35 2.58+0. Breadth of alveolar arch 57—68 58—75 57—75 62—76 106.7— 134.0 106.6—132.7 117.80+0.61 6.00-40. 111.9—133.3 120.3840.59 4.4740. 63.86+0.41 2.86+0. 67.47 66.25+0.35 3.4540. 67.04-40.42 3.1840. Alveolar arch index 110.0—186.7 118.45+0.98 6.82+0. 120.02 * See Appendix A8: old stone grave series. + Fischer-Mgller (1937), Hrdliéka (1910). } Hrdlitka (1930). © When only one orbit could be measured it has been included with the means. S.D. +p.e. Orbital height, mean J 86.02+0.21 1.68+0. 86.50+0.32 2.20+0. 36.45+0.18 1.8440. 36.02+0.26 2.0440. bital breadth, mean J 40.17+0.23 1.7740. 41.18+0.24 1.6640. 39.9340.12 1.19+0. 39.83+0.16 1.32+0. C.V.-+p.e. mm Or CO ee Oe On > AOI > AANA AAD -41+0. -03+0. .9830. .382+0. .388+0. .90+0. 690. .93+0. -64+0. -68+0. .03+0. tEeO. 1840, .25+0. .04+0. .03+0. -02+0. -15+0. .83+0. -48+0. .78+0. 68-40. -71+0. ab 0) 2140. ~74+40. 1540. 09-40. Re Se = Ue -66+0.41 .03+0. .05+0. -66+0. rh OrF: RONT: eho: HOW: + thee -OonM-: i X p.e. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 39 TABLE 9.—STATISTICAL CONSTANTS OF MEASUREMENTS OF ORBITS, NOSE, AND ALVEOLAR ARCH: FEMALES Group No. Range Mean -+p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V.-+p.e. Xp.e. Orbital height, mean { Labrador*.. 32 32.0—39.0 85.083+40.21 1.77+40.15 5.05+0.438 Thulef.... 9 32.0—39.0 36 222). ~ 1336 hate hea ened PaaS Greenlandt. 50 31.5—39.5 35.5640.18 1.8440.12 5.18+0.35 1.96 Old Igloot. 25 32.0—87.5 85.00+0.24 1.77+40.17 5.06+0.48 0.09 Orbital breadth, mean § Labrador... 31 35.0 —42.0 38.22+0.21 1.73+40.15 4.5340.39 .. Thule:..... 8- ; $7.0 —438.0-...-89.75- i ali. 3 we =F f Mine Coe ae. ie ee EPR. Sp as 3-9-3 8.2 38.258 2. pasties ¥ 223 m9) -& Sou S..6 8 OO Sy Othe it eS 2 MO LS ss ' ! 1! i] 1 1 ' ' ! ' 1 ! ' ' i] ' ! 1 ! t 1 oL ? 6. * rat 4 6L i SL f Z We Pane 4 yas 7 © 3 top ; J +—_t-+4 ve i, 5 + + WA ! V7 ’ ve 8 | 1 \ H ae a 3 7 . 7) Ge Se 1 1 4 2 ‘. 1 s 1 1 a 1 1 a PTO 2 ee ed, | THULE -——--- GREENLAND orvmmene IGLOO Fic. 1. Graph formed by connecting the X p.e.’s of various measurements and indices for three Eskimo groups as calculated against the Labrador group. All points above the horizontal line at the level of 3 Xp.e. are considered statis- tically significant. findings of Russell and Huxley (Table 2) on some of the same crania point in the same direction and the study of personal error (Table 3) rules out instrumental error.! That the differences between the Labrador and Greenland groups are not dependent upon the particular Greenland series employed may be proved by making similar comparisons with the Fiirst and 1In checking my results with Dr. Hrdlitka’s on the Greenland crania I used the same instruments with which the Labrador crania had been measured. 42 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 10.—CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS DIFFERING SIGNIFICANTLY BETWEEN LABRADOR AND GREENLAND Series Mean +p.e. Xp.e. Basion-bregma height Tea brador enacts Sette reece ee Nore 136.4+0.50 Greenland IPG deel ere eer 139.5+0.41 4.82 Furstvandtlarisen. o>... 4 eke 138.2+0.24 3.21 Bizygomatic diameter Tia DPAd OR oder sacs telson aeou oe: 136.8+0.71 Greenland da bue ll (did: tere een tm dan pone Etta 140.5+0.54 4.17 Hurst: and Hansenise ccnt. 3 oe 139.5+0.32 3.46 Basion-nasion Labradors. oer eee 102.8+0.59 Greenland FITC ase tea ee ee earns 106.0+0.34 4.81 Hirst-and Hansen: oir ocean 105.6+0.20 4.52 Basion-alveolar point PSADIAGOES 0 5 hae sces a ak ne ve ee 101.9+0.55 Greenland Hrdhitkan cee cee oe eee we hae 105.640.47 5.21 Miirgtvand ‘Hansen= 4.945 e oe eee 104.4+0.27 4.10 Hansen series. We are indebted to Morant (1926) for working out the biometric constants for this material. The measurements given in Table 10 are the only ones differing significantly and at the same time being wholly comparable by definition. MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULL: RECENT GRAVE SERIES As pointed out in the introduction, the small group of individuals composing the recent grave series all received Christian burial during the middle of the nineteenth century. By thus representing, both in time and in the process of acculturation, an intermediate group between the old stone grave people (probably eighteenth century) and those who have been measured during life in recent times, they should indicate whether or not a physical change had taken place during this interval. Table 11 gives the arithmetical means of both the recent and old stone grave series, male and female. Since only measurements taken by the author are here considered, the factor of personal error should be constant. The main physical changes indicated in this table may be summarized as follows: As compared to the pagans the Christians have shorter and smaller heads with longer and narrower faces, relatively higher orbits and relatively narrower alveolar arches. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 43 TABLE 11.—COMPARISON OF MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES OF OLD STONE AND RECENT GRAVE SERIES* nerve cd ees Measurement or Index “ Old Recent lees Recent » (21)t (12) Dif. (30) (8) Dif. Diam. ant.-post. max. ....... 188.0 185.7 -—2.3 179.9 178.6 —1.3 Dias faces nak eee ei 184.9 184.4 —0.5 128.3 180.7 42.4 Bas.-breg. height............ 135.5 184.1 -—1.4 128.3 128.3 35% Granial index: 2. occas. oa ctcs 71.8 72.6 +0.8 71.6 73.8 +2.2 Pant MOCK Grr Teel 72.7 +0.6 1138 738.8 +2.5 Br.-ht. index. .............. 100.6 99.8 -—0.8 100.0 98.9 —1.1 Mean ht. index. «<5. oc ence = 84.0 _ .8h.1-.. +051 88.3): 8h2h oI Cranial miodtle = o.chis ee 152.9 151.0 -—1.9 144.9 144.1 —0.8 Diam. frontal min........... 94.5 92.2 -—2.3 89.9 87.9 —2.0 Ment.-nas. height........... 123.1 128.0 +4.9 115.1 123.0 47.9 Alv. pt.-nas. height.......... (Ee UP Ore LOO eink oon Diam. bizyg. max. .......... 186.3: 19820 =—8:1)* 128.1°°127.0 —1.1 Facial index, total........... 91.6 98.1 +6.5 88.3 98.0 +9.7 Facial index, upper.......... 54.7 59.4 +4.7 58.9 57.8 +8.4 Basion-nasion............... 102.9 100.9 -—2.0 98.1 97.3 —0.8 Basion-alveolar point........ 102.1 4200:2 —1.9 97.8: $1.5 —5.8 Orbital height, mean........ 35.9 35.8 -—0.1 384.8 35.3 +0.5 Orbital breadth, mean....... 89.9 38.8 =—1.1:--38:2. 38.4 +06.2 Orbital index, mean......... G08? 9692.65 EBok OT FW OS 28 +8. 7 Wasal Weient 2 os. cease B20) 3609. 1 2a8e7 50.3" 6 Nasal breadth ic.55).6.s0c2.0-4- 22-4. 22.6... 4-011 — 28:39: 22:05 023 Nasabimdex -)ceee8cc se ost LOO RO died ROO Lee BO Length of alv. arch.......... 54.4 55.0 +0.6 52.2 51.8 —0.4 Breadth of alv. arch......... 63.5 63.0 —0.5 61.8 60.0 —1.8 Alveolar arch index.......... 117 20) F158) 222) 11728. (116367 -—056 *In this table the old stone grave series is limited to the material measured by the author in Field and Peabody museums (see Appendices Al-3). + Maximum number. It is uncertain whether the nose has changed. Unfortunately, the sample from the recent graves is not adequate to prove that these changes are statistically significant. NON-METRICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SKULL In working with cranial measurements not infrequently the fact is overlooked that dimensions are very incomplete descriptive agents. Even the relationship between two dimensions, known as the index, fails to tell anything about the shape measured, except the proportion of length to breadth. Thus it is possible to find diverse races agreeing closely in a few measurements and even indices, but showing their true relationship only when many measurements and indices are brought into consideration. On the other hand, when working with subdivisions of one racial group, where the resemblance is close, as in the case of the Eskimo, it is desirable to supplement the metrical with non-metrical, or visual, impressions. Non-metrical observations apply generally to such characters as do not lend themselves readily to measurement, and include state- 44 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR ments of presence or absence and degree of development. In so far as these observations record more complex entities than do dimen- sions and indices, they aim at greater refinement of observation and comparison. However, refinement is usually accompanied by difficulties. Whereas measurements are recorded in standard units and obtained by well-established techniques, visual observations depend for their standards largely upon individual experience. The average European, or North European, which are the standards used by Hrdli¢ka and Hooton, are but vague conceptions at best. For the most part non-metrical observations have value to others only in a general descriptive way. Nevertheless, few will deny that the eye can see differences which often escape metrical analysis. In undertaking the present study I soon found that detailed non- metrical observations on Eastern Eskimo skulls are practically non- existent. Of course, the various peculiarities of the generalized Eskimo skull are well known; but such data are not recorded for those groups which are here used for comparison. After thinking over this situation, I decided to record for the Labrador Eskimo certain simple observations for which the standards are fairly clear. Since, as mentioned above, the time available was limited, these observations had to be limited in number. I report here in some detail only those which subsequently appeared to have some com- parative value. For comparison in these cases I have made similar observations on 30 male and 30 female Greenland skulls from the National Museum series. The sexing is that reported by Hrdlitka (1930). The main cranial contours, as well as other details, are best shown by photographs, and for this reason the most complete of the Field Museum specimens are shown in Plates 1-9. Unfortunately, only two stone grave specimens could be used for this purpose. The reader can supplement these with the three shown by Oetteking (1908, 1981).! NORMA LATERALIS Profile-—It happens that the two stone grave specimens from the Field Museum series have considerable natural lambdoid flattening, in contrast both to those shown by Oetteking and those from the recent graves here illustrated. The rounded form is more typical. Otherwise the contours, except as affected by difference in length, are rather uniform. 1 Unfortunately the skull from Sculpin Island (near Nain), Labrador, was overlooked, owing to the wording of the title, until too late to be included in the calculations. The measurements of the long bones have been used. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 45 Pterion.—In all cases that could be observed, except one, the H-form of pterion was present. In the exceptional case (59658) there was temporo-frontal contact (x-type) on the left; on the right the separation was only 3 mm. This general observation may be sup- plemented with approximate measurements of the minimum temporo- frontal separation (Table 12). The larger number of cases from Labrador in which the form of the pterion cannot be determined reflects mostly a difference in age distribution and preservation. There is a suggestion, especially among the females, of a smaller temporo-frontal separation in the Labrador stone grave series than in the Greenland series. TABLE 12.—WIDTH OF PTERION (In millimeters) Group Side 2? 0-83 46 79 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21 No. Aver. Labrador - Mole Recent grave. . { as 4 eae : y : ¢ 12 12° Stone grave... ie i ; ; : : : 31 115 Greenland....... { Sp ek ? “f ; : of He it 4 Labrador . Female Recent grave. . { ps fen : RCP Tago Lame ate é 12.5 Stone grave... { Right ob 2 ; 6 a v t 50 ee ae eke ene External Auditory Meatus.—In 1933 I made a special study of the ear in Eskimo and Indian skulls. Hyperostosis of the tympanic plate is one of the characteristic features of the Eskimo skull, as contrasted with the Indian. This bony development is largely at the expense of the external auditory meatus, which in extreme cases is narrowed to a small tube. It is possible, therefore, to express this condition as it affects the meatus, the grades being: tube-like, slightly funnel-shaped, medium funnel-shaped, and marked funnel- shaped. Since the Greenland Eskimo were among the groups studied in 1933, the present findings on the Labrador series may be shown in comparison with the earlier findings (Table 18). The considerable difference in the figures shown in this table may be due in part to the size of the series, but it is not impossible that I have unconsciously changed my standard during the interval. However, two things seem clear regarding the condition of the meatus in Labrador; namely, (1) that the feature is typically Eskimoid, 46 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR more so in the females than in the males; and (2) that, broadly speaking, the resemblance is with Greenland rather than with the Western groups (see Stewart, 1938, Table 3). I may add that, as in other Eski no groups, the shape of the porus acousticus varies from oval to round, with its axis vertical or slightly inclined to the horizontal (Frankfort). In no case was an ear exos- tosis observed. TABLE 13.—FORM OF EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS Slightly Medium Marked Tube- funnel- funnel- funnel- Group No. like shaped shaped shaped Labrador Male Recent grave......... be 1 8 3. \ ve Stone grave. ......... 21 1) 16.2 13} 87.6 pte i } 3-0 Greenland. 4.07 ens 38 Gee: 34.2 Aor: 18.4 Labrador Female ; Recent grave......... 6 Z 3 1 an Stone eravercn: = 21s 50 gp 22.2 17 } 55.6 eee Soe Greenland .i.2) as ts50585 48 Seo 2922 Vat fre | 6.2 Lower Jaw.—Attention may be called in passing to the orientation of the lower jaw in the views of the recent grave skulls (Plates 3-9). These pictures give the impression of an unusually lengthened lower face with resultant increased inclination of the mandible, an un- Eskimo feature. Number 192013 (Plate 8) is somewhat extreme in this regard. It will be recalled from Table 11 that the recent grave series is distinguished by an absolutely longer face. NORMA FRONTALIS Because the characteristic keel-shape of the Eskimo skull is a construction limited largely to the parietal region, this feature is not so evident when the skull is viewed from in front. The two old stone grave specimens here illustrated (Plates 1, 2) do not show the usual Eskimo facial characters of flatness and breadth. Oetteking’s illustrations are more typical. However, neither do the recent grave specimens show these characters. More- over, experienced observers might have difficulty in identifying the latter racially from these views alone. The difference in appearance would seem to reside chiefly in the relatively longer and narrower face, as pointed out in connection with Table 11. Inclination of the Orbits —A feature of the orbits, which is not described by the usual measurements or even by statements as to shape, is the inclination of the long axis. Although the angle of OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 47 orbital inclination is one deserving exact determination, since it varies considerably among races, the procedure is time-consuming. However, rather than express this angle in terms of some vague standard, I have attempted to estimate it approximately; that is, whether it approached 5, 10, 15, or 20 degrees. With the skull on a pad in norma frontalis and with the aid of a narrow strip of cardboard, or a celluloid ruler, I mark the point where the long axis from lacrimale crosses the outer border of the orbit. In the same way I mark on the outer border the position of the horizontal through lacrimale. Then by comparing the angle formed between these three points with cardboard or metal angles (triangles) corresponding to the four degrees above-named, it is a simple matter to state which is the nearest to fit. It is convenient also, characteriz- ing these four angles by descriptive terms, to say whether the group tends to have slight, medium, moderate, or pronounced orbital, inclination. The chief disturbing factor in this method is the visual determination of the horizontal; the position of the observer in relation to the skull affects this. A refinement would be to inter- polate between the given angles. The showing of the Labrador and Greenland series, as determined in this way, is given in Table 14. The figures would seem to indicate a considerable difference between the Labrador and Greenland groups, the latter being characterized by lesser inclination. How much the personal factor has entered into this result is uncertain, since I am unable to check the specimens. In any case it is safe to say that the majority of the Eskimos of Labrador and Greenland have from 5 to 10 degrees (slight to medium) of orbital inclination. TABLE 14.—INCLINATION OF THE ORBIT Slight Medium Moderate Marked Group 5 10° 15° 20° Labrador Male Recent grave......... 2 2 3 e Stone grave. . .i...... 5} 15.4 3} 42.3 3} 42.3 ere Greégniand 3s sateen tok SeA26u0 20 66.7 2 we Labrador Female Recent grave......... 1 1 2 oe Stone grave.......... 7} 25.8 16 } 54-8 i) 19-4 ae \ ea Greenland cts eee ee 15 50.0 15 50.0 NORMA VERTICALIS The convention of illustrating the skull in the Frankfort position fails ofttimes to bring into one plane the maximum horizontal dimen- sions; the vertical photographic view may present a shape differing 48 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR slightly from that indicated by the cranial index. However, it may be seen that in general the shape of the Labrador Eskimo skull varies from elliptical to ovoid. Parietal Foramina.—It is not clear that the variability of this feature has much comparative racial significance. Moreover, it is difficult to express the condition concisely for comparative purposes. I propose to give here the distribution of the various combinations (Table 15a), together with figures (Table 15b) derived with the aid of Stevenson’s formula (1931). This formula, since it weights the different grades, is useful for converting non-metrical data to a form suitable for comparison: Pit2p2+3ps 3 Pi, P, and p, being the percentages of the different positive grades (small, medium, and large). It seems wise to disregard exceptional cases (one foramen in midline, multiple foramina). TABLE 15a.—PARIETAL FORAMINA: COMBINATIONS LABRADOR my LABRADOR 3 Ee ze = Be ge A 26 ab c 36 ab 5 Male Female Absent) ccc3 bsts5 nt 5 vi 3 8 9 AuSrNnalls Tent it 2 2 2 1 fe smianlsjlelte.c a: su: 2 2 ae 1 2 1 1 medium, right.... ik 6 2 1 3 1 1 medium, left... .. 2 1 2 ie 1 1 large: teftic... ye. AS aS 1 - 2 2smalls 3 oe es Z 1 6 3 5 2>mMediumM' eis es 2 4 6 5 1 2, right small, left medium..... v2 1 4 2, right medium, leftismall ins .2: 4m Fis 4A ee nee aay TOtAN eee 11 21 30) Oe OG 27 26 TABLE 15b.—QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATE (STEVENSON’S FORMULA) MALE FEMALE BorTu | SEXES Right Left Right Left ‘Right Left PAB TAGoS ecent grave....... 27.3 36.4 eth 6.7 ; z Stone grave........ 36.5 20.6 32.1 28'9 } 31-8 24.5 Greenland: 06): 35.6 36.6 20.5 SZule 28.6 34.6 The results, although not very consistent, suggest that the foramina are about the same, quantitatively, in the two series, with perhaps a lower frequency in the females and neither side favored. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 49 NORMA BASILARIS Jugular Fossae.—Because of their position the relative sizes of the two jugular fossae do not always appear in photographs of the base of the skull. As a general rule, in man the right is larger than the left, but the reverse is not uncommon, and they may be approxi- mately equal. This condition usually reflects also, among other things, the relative sizes of the sigmoid sinuses, which leave their impressions within the skull. Since considerable judgment is re- quired in those cases where the difference in size between the two sides is not great, I have distinguished in Table 16 between those cases where the difference is marked and those approaching equality. TABLE 16.—RELATIVE SIZE OF JUGULAR FOSSAE Group No. R>L Rsl>L Equal L sl>R L>R ba peso 4 ; M m ‘ ; ecent grave... Stone grave... 19 13 } 64-3 4 A OfBO.T 2 ii proers Greenland........ 30 Lt. «36:7 1 5 3 30.0 10 33.3 Labatt 5 , Zou ecent grave... Ah Ss a2 Stone grave....25 11f 44-4 2 7 140-7 4} 14.8 Greenland........ 30 15 Reg Ti hai 3 4 5 40.0 lays es There seems to be a decided difference between the Labrador and Greenland series in that the latter shows greater frequency of the L>R arrangement. Absolute size is not considered here. Perforation of the Tympanic Plate-—This feature varies consider- ably among racial groups; it is probably in the nature of a develop- mental defect. The conditions shown in Table 17 for the Labrador and Greenland series indicate fairly consistent differences. Fewer TABLE 17.—PERFORATION OF THE TYMPANIC PLATE Group Side Absent Small Medium Large ? Labrador Male Recent grave. (12) Hak : : } y 4 2 Right 16 78.8 5 ( 18.6 sh (oo 3.0 4.5 Stone grave. . (21) left 19 | 1 j im i Sy Right 26 3} 10.0 pe = =) Labrador Recent grave. . (6) Stone grave. .(31) { Greenland. . . . . (30) { ut ae } 88.3 { {Le Greenland.... . (30) if 50 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR perforations are found in the Greenland group. When summarized by means of the Stevenson formula, combining sexes and sides, the weighted percentage for Labrador is 9.9, and for Greenland 8.1. This compares with approximately 15 per cent for Algonkin Indians of the eastern United States. Teeth—Although the condition of the teeth, especially the pathological aspect, appears to be largely environmentally deter- mined, it is important to place it on record, and this is a convenient place to do so. We will consider the degree of attrition and the ante- mortem tooth loss, as well as anomalies, etc. Attrition varies among the individual teeth of the same jaw, and so the several degrees of this process as here recorded cannot be closely defined; they are general impressions based upon the previous examination of considerable material. Since Eskimos generally give their teeth hard usage, attrition is apparent at an early age. Thus the age composition of the series perhaps influences the picture less here than elsewhere. There is no point in comparing in these regards the Labrador and Greenland series. The chief interest lies in the two Labrador series, in which altered food habits TABLE 18.—TOOTH WEAR IN LABRADOR DEGREES OF ATTRITION a Group Jaw o- 2 3 4 ? Male Labrador Recent grave....... [pper : >} 10.8 x 3 } 25.0 t\4 2 Stone grave........ | pper : 8} 47.0 3} 29.4 § p23 5 Female Labrador 4 Recent grave....... es 4 1} 78.6 < ; es \14.3 eae: Stone grave........ { pene 2 : S 55.0 : ; } 22.5 4 \ VAS may have left a mark on the teeth. In Table 18 are included all those specimens in which the degree of attrition could be estimated. Lower jaws were missing for many of the old stone grave skulls. This table shows that the first two degrees of attrition are much more common in the recent grave series than in the old stone grave series. The third and fourth degrees are somewhat more frequent in the latter group. It appears also that there is less wear among the females, which is surprising in view of the fact that Eskimo women under aboriginal conditions soften hides by chewing. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 51 Ante-mortem tooth loss and congenitally missing third molars are summarized in Table 19. Generally speaking, Eskimos lose their teeth through the following chain of events: attrition, exposure of the pulp cavity, abscess formation, evulsion. The group showing more tooth-wear would be expected to have more missing teeth. The old stone grave people exceed the recent grave people in both respects. One thing is contradictory, however: The females of the old stone TABLE 19.—ANTE-MORTEM TOOTH LOSS IN LABRADOR (INCLUDING CONGENITALLY ABSENT M3) TEETH ALL cr A~A——_ TEETH Group Sex No. 1. 3% 3 4 5 6 7 8 % Upper pene Mal 127. 4 Le RT RO ee Oe ae ko ale aE Recent grave...... { Pevale | aegypti Pr part ae eee <4 8.9 Male 2-22 =: LB) 2d VB OSB Stone grave....... { Pexale a6 CL ae 8 BG 19} 9.8 Lower Labrador Recentgravess::-v4 Bema pode are ot Tp Male T6N Ge che ee 2b 4 Stone grave....... { Raniale Leite Cen AP eee eS is} 14.5 grave series have less attrition than the males (Table 18), but more - missing teeth (Table 19). The explanation probably is that those cases with extensive tooth loss are included in Table 19 and not in Table 18; when the teeth are missing the degree of attrition cannot be stated. Another feature may be pointed out: The females of the recent grave series show very few missing teeth as compared to those of the old stone grave series. Congenital absence and ante-mortem loss of the third molars cannot always be distinguished. However, reduction in size of the third molars is a stage in the evolutionary process leading to con- genital absence. In the present material one case was observed (47872) where, in addition to absence of the upper third molars, the upper second molars were greatly reduced in size. Unfortunately, the lower jaw of this specimen was not present. Eight other cases of reduced third molars were noted. Three cases were observed also in which the upper lateral incisor on one or both sides was con- genitally absent or diminutive (192013, both diminutive, see Plate 8; 47990, right missing; 573382, left missing). In only one case, 192023, were teeth observed in malpositions: the upper canines and the lower first premolars were displaced labially. -ynveurt IV NDIVANVHO ynvad SIONITH 40 ALISUSAINA 52 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Palatal and Mandibular..Tor1.—These two characters have long been recognized as especially common among the Eskimo. Hooton (1918) concluded ....that the mandibular torus is essentially a functional adaptation rather than a racial character and that it occurs especially among peoples living in northern latitudes and existing principally on animal food. We may call it an Eskimoid character because it is predominantly present in the crania of the only Arctic people whose anthropology is reasonably well known (p. 58). He expressed much the same opinion regarding the palatal torus (p. 62). I pointed out in 1933 (p. 494) that Hooton has since in- clined to the view that this character is hereditary. This etiological uncertainty handicaps interpretation of the data that follows: In the 60 Greenland skulls which I have examined, palatal tori were present in 62.7 per cent, mostly of slight to medium develop- ment. In contrast to this, of the 46 old stone grave skulls from Labrador in which the palate could be examined only 34.8 per cent had tori present; of 13 recent grave skulls 15.4 per cent had them present. Of the Labrador specimens only one showed a torus of more than slight development. Regarding the mandibular torus there is this information: Labrador and St. Lawrence Island jawe(3l)e- cs ak present in 87.1%... . Hooton (1918) Greenland jaws (large number). .present in 80.0%... . Fiirst (1908) Labrador jaws (18).22.2 aes sce 5 present in 50.0%... .Russell and Huxley (1899) Many other records could be added, but this is sufficient to show the general frequency among the Eskimos. I made no detailed observa- tions on this feature, but did note when it interfered with measure- ments of thickness of the horizontal ramus at the second molar. There was one such case (slight) among the jaws from recent graves (18) and 6 (2 marked) among those from. old stone graves (81). Fischer-Mgller (1937) notes merely that “‘in several cases the Naujan skulls and those from Baffin Island exhibit this peculiarity.”’ (p. 49.) According to the views regarding etiology expressed above, the lower incidence in Labrador, and especially in modern times, may be due to the lesser activity of the masticatory apparatus, or to a difference in heredity. GENERAL Microcephaly.—Three skulls were encountered among the old stone grave material, one at Field Museum (192035) and two at OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 53 Peabody Museum (47872, 57340), that were so small as to suggest dwarfs. They were not included in the series. It is interesting to note that Hutton (1912) describes such a dwarfed individual from Okak, known as Little John: I thought as I looked into his eyes, ‘‘Here is the smallest Eskimo that I have seen.” Most of the Eskimos are small as inches go, though broad and bulky, but here was a veritable pigmy, a well-built man with brawny muscles, but standing but an inch or two over four feet. Pathology—The only notable pathological process encountered in the skulls is shown in Plate 4. In this case there seems to have been a cist in the roof of the palate. DISCUSSION The observations recorded in this section must remain largely descriptive, owing to the lack of comparative data on other Eskimo groups. Although a certain difference can be demonstrated between the Labrador and Greenland series, it is not certain how far this is the result of the small numbers in the series, or how these findings stand as regards the Eskimos in general. Nevertheless, a clear difference appears to exist between the recent and old stone grave series of Labrador. This difference may be appreciated better in the photographs than in the detailed analysis. In general it seems to involve a rounding of the head and lengthening of the face in the recent grave people. During the interval involved here the teeth do not seem to have suffered in development, but they have been subjected to less hard usage. MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE LONG BONES Whereas cranial studies on the Eskimos of the eastern Arctic are fairly numerous, skeletal studies are almost entirely lacking. Indeed, the first draft of this section omitted Greenland entirely, because data on an adequate series were lacking. With the appearance of Fischer-Mgller’s recent (1938) paper on the.skeletons from ancient Greenland graves, however, I have been able to include this import- ant area. The Labrador series is scanty, but exceeds that of the Thule and equals that of the Igloo. Only the major long bones will be considered in detail since the others are few in number and not represented in the comparative series. The method of measurement is that given by Hrdlitka (1920). Sexing was done as far as possible with the aid of the pelvis but otherwise is a matter of individual judgment. 54 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 20.—INDEPENDENT MEASUREMENTS OF THE SAME LONG BONES PEABODY SERIES (LABRADOR) (In millimeters) Russell and Measurements Huxley Stewart Dif. Male Maximum length of humerus.......... (10)295.6 (11)292 .7 —2.9 Maximum length of radius ............ (5)219.5 (7)214.1 —5.4 Maximum length of femur............ (16)425.8 (15)424.8 —1.0 Bicondylar length of tibia............. (15)345.3 (10)342.3 —3.0 Female Maximum length of humerus.......... (9)287 .1 (7)281.0 —6.1 Maximum length of radius............ (7)202 .6 (4)199.5 —3.1 Maximum length of femur............ (5)388 .0 (5)390.6 +2.6 Bicondylar length of tibia............. (9)313.9 (9)314.2 +0.3 I am unable to investigate personal error in measuring the long bones as in the case of the skull. However, there is some interest in my results as compared with those of Russell and Huxley, although numbers and sexing are not the same (Table 20). The largest dif- ference between these two sets of observations appears in connection with the length of the humerus and radius. Probably this is due to sexing, since some of these bones are not accompanied by other skeletal parts that might assist identification. It should be noted, also, that the numbers represent rights and lefts combined. HUMERUS The arithmetical means of three measurements and an index are set forth in Table 21 according to sex, side, and whether or not paired. In all of the dimensions given, the combined Labrador groups fall far short of both Thule and Igloo. The differences between the Labrador and Greenland series are less marked and tend to disappear in the midshaft diameters. It is not clear that the shape of shaft at the middle differs significantly among the groups. Septal Apertures—Septal apertures of the humerus are not com- mon among the Labrador Eskimo (Table 22), only 11 cases being observed among 62 bones (17.7 per cent, sides and sexes combined). Although 8 of the 11 cases occur among the old stone grave people, the numbers of specimens are too small for this to have significance. When analyzed quantitatively by Stevenson’s formula (see p. 48), we get 15.6 per cent, which compares with 8.8 per cent for the Igloos and approximately 24 per cent for Algonkin Indians of the eastern United States. It may be noted also that Fischer-Mgller (1937) found septal apertures in 3 of 14 Thule specimens, whereas in Greenland (1988) he found them in 19 per cent of the male and in 50 per cent of the female humeri. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS TABLE 21.—MEAN DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMERUS 55 MAXIMUM Max. Diam. Min. Diam. INDEX AT LENGTH AT MIDDLE AT MIDDLE MIDDLE Group Right Left Right Left Right Left Right Left Male Labrador : (9) (9) (9) (9) (9) (9) (9) (9) Paired 302.2 295.7 24.06 28.22 17.72 17.389 78.69 74.94 Recent. { 2 Qi GS A GO) a tay GG) Single 301.5 298.0 24.00 19.00 19.00 17.00 79.75 89.50 i 5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) Paired 293.8 288.6 22.20 21.00 17.90 17.40 80.84 82.80 Old...) Ray 6) to a) ee ee NB Oy Single 296.0 298.4 21.00 238.00 15.00 18.20 71.45 79.78 (18) (20) (18) (20) (18) (20) (18) (20) TOtREo cose. 2991 -294;'%2; 23.19 722.40. 2077.61. 17.58) 76.10 8,34 Thule (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) Paired 3.0. cw 2. 316 .2>°:311..2;..27550 .. 26.00 (20.25. -20..00,,;73.62., <77.80 (1) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) Singiot.......23/ 310.0 293.0 26.50 26.00 19.50 19.00 73.45 73.10 (5) (5) (6) (5) (6) (5) (6) (5) Totals! 124 815.0 307.6 27.17 26.00 20.00 19.80 73.57 76.46 Greenland (23) (23) (22) (22) (22) (22) (21) (21) POG eds beck 8.8 305.0 28.90 22.80 17.20 16.90 72.40 75.10 Old Igloo (16) (16) (17) (17) (17) (17) (17) (17) Paired. oo 314.0 308.1 25.00 23.76 18.59 18.41 74.64 78.03 (3) (6) (3) (5) (3) (5) (3) (5) Sige. = es 318.7 S1L.8 26.67 23.80 18.33 18.70 ° 71.67. 78.74 (19) (22) (20) (22) (20) (22) (20) (22) TOL: 631 314.7 3809.1 "25.10 23.77 18.55: 18.48 ‘'74.20'° 78.19 Female Labrador , (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) Paired 276.5 270.7 20.08 [60° -14:50° 14.68: 12:27. 74.92 Recent. | 2 (1) (1) i (1) (1) Single ..... ad A | ee ee 200: et 16:00) oh 76.20 : (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) Old Paired 275.0 269.0 19.67 19.00 14.33 14.00 73.00 74.13 Silene TA (3) (1) (3) (1) (3) (1) (3) Single 275.0 287.7 23.50 19.67 16.00 14.33 68.10 72.80 (10) (13) (10) (13) (10) (13) (10) (13) LOval os. e a 275.9 274.8 20.380 19.54 14.60 14.50 72.07 74.35 Greenland (15) (15) (16) (16) (16) (16) (14) (14) Paireds:.% 022.54 285.4 279.7 20.60 20.10 15.10 14.80 72.80 73.20 Old Igloo (13) (13) (14) (14) (14) (14) (14) (14) AITOO Nicos 284.0 279.2 21.00 20:21 16.00 15.75 76.84 78.18 (5) (4) (5) (3) (5) (3) (5) (3) Single v2. 287.8 290.2 22.40 21.67 16.70 16.67 74.58 76.90 (18) (17) (19) (17) (19) (17) (19) (17) Totaly ss 2 <3 285.0 281.8 '.21.37 20.47 16.18: 15.91 76:87 77.95 56 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 22.—SEPTAL APERTURES OF THE HUMERUS Weighted % Group Side Absent Small Medium Large (Stevenson) Labrador base ee bet ight Recent grave..... { Left 11 . ‘% Stone grave......... { pe ha : me " 2 Female 4 ao te ae Z 5 . 6 Right 5 a 1 Recent grave........ { Lett 6 in ea i Stone grave......... { ge i : - 30.00; oboo0 22200. 22270. 65-009 “738.25 (17) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) ROtaleecse cts $56.21 358.7 (32.58 (32:08) (21.44 2175: 65-90: 67.96 Female Labrador (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) Paired 300.4 300.1 25.50 25.00 17.64: 17.78 69.46 °712.44 Recent. oy (1) = (1) * (1) pe (1) Single O85. OF eh a4 23.00 wate LELOO Seat OOO : (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) ( Paired 31140) 810.87 © 252880. 25.0075 18.350" 18-38 72240 73-47 Old... Bie (NS te Oe 2h Sh 42) MB 2) Single: 306-3. 318.5 25:00 27.00 19.3 LOX OO 77248 1 27 OF 45 (18) (18) (13) (138) (13) (13) (13) (18) Totaly 304.2: 804-2 25.35: 25.102 T8i19 18704" 72298 377.95 Greenland (59) (61) (61) (58) Singlets: 5 c. 306.6 25.2 18.1 71.90 Old Igloo (11) (11) (11) (11) (11) (11) (11) (11) Paired: eee S1eel SLbe 6 242825 2h:568 ‘48.23 18.59 65.74 67.28 / (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) Singles. <-: aca 5 92422 (308.0 28260: 26500: 20220)" 18.50: 27170) -77:510 (16) (13) (16) (18) (16) (13) (16) (13) LObal = cect, 319-4: STG A 28-06" 27.42.7518 284 818508) 67.41 67. 87 * Right and left combined. The techniques of measuring the diameters at the middle should be the same. Here the measurements are also somewhat smaller in the Labrador than in the Igloo series, and there is near identity with Greenland. The index in the Labrador and Greenland groups is consistently higher than in the Igloos. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 61 LONG BONE RELATIONSHIPS Three indices demonstrating the relative lengths of the four principal long bones are shown in Table 26. Figures for the Thule and Greenlanders are not available in such detail, the only distinction made being that of sex. For this reason the figures in Table 27 are given for comparison with those of Table 26. The greatest difference among the groups appears in the humero-radial index, doubtless due to the exceedingly short radius in the eastern Arctic. The closest agreement between these series is in the humero-femoral index. I sus- pect that the femoro-tibial index would be closer, were there better agreement in the technique of measuring the length of the tibia. RECONSTRUCTED STATURE! Now that the lengths of the major long bones have been given, it is worth while attempting to calculate therefrom the approximate average stature of the Labrador group. Except for Hrdliéka’s calculations (1930, p. 317) of the percental relation of the lengths of the long bones to stature for the Smith Sound and St. Lawrence Island Eskimo, all methods for reconstruct- ing stature from long bones are based upon European races. Of these methods the one with the greatest show of scientific backing is that of Pearson (1899). Starting from French cadaver measurements, Pearson first worked out formulae that would predict French cadaver stature from measurements of the fresh long bones. From this point he introduced corrections so that he could predict the living stature of any race from measurements of their dried long bones. Pearson’s confidence that these formulae applied equally well to all races was based upon a single test case; he was able to predict the stature of a group of Aino from the long bone measurements of a neighboring group. The Aino being a divergent type from the French, in Pear- son’s estimation, he felt justified in urging the universal application of his formulae. In 1929 Stevenson cast some doubt upon the general applicability of the Pearson formulae when he found that they failed to predict male Chinese cadaver stature by about 4 cm. From the discussion of this paper it appears that the Aino may not be so divergent from the French as Pearson supposed. Moreover, there is reason to ‘The data presented under this heading, together with those on cranial and cephalic indices, formed the basis for a paper by the writer entitled ‘Change in Physical Type of the Eskimos of Labrador since the 18th Century,” read at the Pittsburgh meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists on April 16, 1938. 62 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 26.—LONG BONE RELATIONSHIPS: LABRADOR, IGLOO RIGHT LEFT 3 2 5 q s g Group P * * % FI * Fi “ Ki * t “ 53 ES Eee EES Es EE m.8 [=| m8 m.8 8 ms Male Labrador (2) (12) (9) (2) (12) (9) Paired 71.6 79.3 282 71.9 TO S41 70.8 Recent. (4) es (2) (8) bs (1) Single 71.0 TOON F 70.6 14-2 fete fseys Paired-.... Marae es Tas es peas ae Old.... 5 a. (2) (1) (1) (1) (3) Single .... 81.0 COG 75.6 80.8 70.7 (6) (14) (12) (6) (18) (13) Totaly aca (Bay 79.6 TAGaS 73.6 W9e2 70.9 Old Igloo (10) (11) G12) (10) (11) (12) Paredtcs on be. TAAL 81.5 72.4 75.7 81.8 71.4 ; (5) (4) (4) (5) (4) (4) Sing Gna eeeeas. es Oro: 80.6 71.6 75.4 80.5 68.8 (15) (15) (16) (15) (15) (16) PLOUAl arse eae THe 81.2 (22 75.6 81.4 70.8 Female Labrador (3) (6) (4) (3) (6) (4) Paired 69.4 tie’ 7250 TOet TIA 71.6 Recent. Me ie (1) (1) v (1) Single .... Lvaner Wonk 70.4 69.2 : (1) ae (1) (1) (1) Paired 69.6 cae PAE | 71.6 71.6 Old ize (1) (2) a ae Single 72.7 (HERS (5) (8) (6) (5) (6) (6) RO tal acc. seer: qAVea 17.3 72.6 70.4 Rich. (1.2 Old Igloo (5) (9) (6) (5) (9) (6) Pairediz.. creak Mowe 80.6 Toa (433 80.4 70.5 (7) (5) (8) (3) (2) (4) SINGIO Gass USe2 80.3 72.0 \. 76.6 81.0 70.6 (12) (14) (14) (8) (11) (10) Totalensenee (BY Ve 80.3 12:20 5 22 80.5 70.5 TABLE 27.—LONG BONE RELATIONSHIPS: THULE, GREENLAND Hum.-rad. Fem.-tib. Hum.-fem. Group index index index Male MULE ea tees re ees Uaioe 80.9 200 Greenland....... 12.5 78.2 72.3 Female EMINC, 85 ee te 82.8 67.4 Greenland....... 72.0 78.8 71.9 OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 63 believe that the Pearson formulae do not apply to groups with rela- tively long trunk lengths, such as the Chinese and Eskimo. Unfor- tunately, Stevenson did not adjust his formulae for predicting living Chinese stature from their dried long bones. Since there is some uncertainty as to whether Pearson’s formulae will correctly predict living Eskimo stature from the measurements of their dried bones, it will be of some value to test these formulae on two Alaskan Eskimo groups for which we have both long bone and stature measurements. Such a check on the formulae is desirable before applying them to the Labrador data, because in the latter case the measurements for the long bones and living stature relate to different periods. Reconstructed vs. Living Stature: St. Lawrence Island Eskimo.— In 1912 Dr. R. D. Moore visited St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea and obtained a series of measurements on the living, as well as numerous skeletons. The latter have been measured by Hrdlitka (1980). Of these measurements the following, pertaining to the right side alone, are used in the Pearson formulae: LENGTH (mm.) “Male Female Memur (maximum) 222 25 622 ek oS (49)428.3 (17)384.1 Wipla: (WIGCNOUL: SPINE) .o09 6.6 ae Coe eas (26)344.2 (23)310.5 PEIN CTU rt es et ote oes ere te he oe (31)305.2 (24)279.0 Radius..... SRE IO Sen Rik ae ea (11)230.0 (16)209.7 Table 28 shows that Eskimo stature as reconstructed by the Pear- son formulae from the above measurements falls short of the ob- served stature by 3.1 cm. in the males and by 3.2 em. in the females. TABLE 28.—RECONSTRUCTED VS. LIVING STATURE St. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO (In centimeters) Pearson formula Male Female eases cite ee et Steed eee 161.8 147.6 (Boe en ci See eee te 159.0 148.3 (OC) isc ets eee eee 160.4 147.8 (A) a ee ORs Peer epee cs ir ae 161-2 151.3 (6): Boe, ape ee aaa: aes eos 160.8 147.4 CE oe irene tie hr ee ae 160.9 147.4 (SE) ores ies ee rin eda hg ores 159.4 149.5 CIs avec Oe Aare Net ne eee 158.8 148.3 6) ener nr Rem eae ene seme One 160.0 147.5 GE), Pech, oo Sas bier he os 159.9 146.9 PANETAGO O.8N ie tease 160.2 148 .2 Laving: (Moors) .sccs.¢853. maz (53)163.3 (48)151.4 Diflerences: 6 eel ee ae nes Sul 5 64 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Reconstructed vs. Living Stature: Nunivak Island-Hooper Bay Eskimo.—In 1927 Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr., and the writer measured a series of Eskimos on Nunivak Island in Bering Sea, and at the same time collected skeletons known to have been the ancestors of the living. Mr. Collins was able to increase the series by securing data and specimens the same year at Hooper Bay, north of Nunivak. Both of these localities are fairly isolated. Again, the long bone measurements of Hrdli¢ka supply the following data for use in the Pearson tables: LENGTH (mm.) eS Male Female 5 Pemur (emmy). AA See ey. oie (83)422.9 (27) 402.8 LIDIA CWILHOUL MINNO) 5 oschace to tease inks (28)333.0 (28)312.7 EL UIMOPUS tr. 5 CHIE om creecaist alt ec nett meetin evento bie (27)308.2 (27)290.6 PAGE Ce eee eee re Ween oertel ad ae (27)226.7 (21)203.7 The results shown in Table 29 are rather similar to those for the St. Lawrence Island Eskimo. The differences between reconstructed and living stature in this case are 4.3 cm. for the males and 3.8 for the females. The findings on these two series suggest that Pearson’s formulae fail to reconstruct Eskimo stature by at least 3 cm. TABLE 29.—RECONSTRUCTED VS. LIVING STATURE NUNIVAK ISLAND-HOOPER Bay ESKIMO (In centimeters) Pearson formula Male Female (aye Ae Rey cls Gree ei cir oteeze Vents 160.8 TOLL? (10) Bite Scop in sey Patt oh Pe nic ee Oe ene? 159.8 151.5 CC) ae A er RN Sct Bos Be a 157.8 148.3 OAR OR PSA Sr one CRA al Ae a 160.1 149.3 (OV eee ise ok A Re 158.9 149.7 (Deas ete a 159.0 149.7 (2 one AEE anes Ae ea 159.4. 150.4 (Bee canteen oe rn aie: 159 eb ie 151.3 CD) oe or a 159.9 151.2 (KS) exert eee ea aareuch es a aoe 159.2 150.3 IAN OTAGO g.-fhesls ee diva trite ts 159.4 150.3 Living (Collins and Stewart).... 168.7 154. Wiflerence 20s oak ks os ke 4.3 3.8 Reconstructed vs. Living Stature: Labrador Eskimo.—On the basis of the above findings we can now proceed to apply the same formulae, with the correction, to the Labrador series. The data for these calculations are as follows: OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 65 OLD STONE GRAVES LENGTH (mm.) “Malle Female — Femur (maximum) 5655 26s lek 8 ek (10)426.7 (4)384.5 Tibia Ceithout spine) tics... sisi ease cx 0t (8)343.4 (6)308.7 SERIO re ee os we eee a es (7)294.4 (4)275.0 Pads 5 is ee Za des Pa acl es (3)219.0 (2)199.0 RECENT GRAVES WPOMNME (IMARINUM) <5 5 bc sce ek ile eee (12)421.4 (8)388.5 Tibia (without:spine)=.... 5 f:.. hi eek: (12)332.4 (7)300.4 PETONOR oa ce et ee ee (11)302.1 (6)276.5 PRMER oe onicnk sgh eh erire haere ieie he ee aN (3)216.4 (3)189.7 Admittedly the numbers are inadequate, but they are all we have. Table 30, in which we have anticipated the findings on the living (p. 85), suggests that Eskimo stature has decreased in Labrador since the eighteenth century. TABLE 30.—RECONSTRUCTED VS. LIVING STATURE LABRADOR ESKIMO (In centimeters) EIGHTEENTH CENTURY NINETEENTH CENTURY Pearson GRAVES GRAVES formula Male Female Male Female Cpe re eR ee ten 161.5 147.6 160.5 148.4 (DY oo econ aes us 155.8. 147.2 158.1 147.6 CO) Bein io ae Shee treba 160.2 147.4 157.6 145.4 COTS enc k oo hen eRe 157.6 147.8 156.7 144.6 WY errno se are tny a cents 160.5 147.2 158.6 146.7 (Dyce ca tenascneons 160.6 147.2 158.7 146.8 | RUS a Eri a ee pre ert 155.7 147.1 156.6 145.8 LAD ieee peo ALAR Id Sea SO 155.6 147.1 157.6 147.3 Rates aathoeias aati 158.2 147.2 158.8 147.8 CBN oa viet arene ae 158.6 147.1 158.4. 147.8 AVOTEGO S60 Fi e:06.4-5% 158.4 147.3 158.2 146.8 Correction........ +3.0 +83.0 +3.0 +3.0 161.4 150.3 161.2 149.8 Reconstructed stature Male Female Eighteenth century graves.. *(10)161.4 (6)150.3 Nineteenth century graves.. (12)161.2 (8)149.8 Living (1880-1900)........... (37)157 .0f (22)150.4t Eaving: (1928). sca Gerastcaternc (58)158.4f (78)148.3f * Maximum number. t Difference not significant (see Table 36). GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Vertebrae.—I have reported (1931, 1932) on the unusually high incidence of separate neural arch in the lumbar vertebrae of the Western Eskimos. The difference in incidence north and south of the Yukon River suggests, in view of more recent knowledge, that 66 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR this anomaly may have been more common among the Thule Eskimo and that its presence in the Seward Peninsula is due to a late return migration of this people into Alaska (Collins, 1987b). On account of this explanation it would be desirable to have more information regarding the distribution of this anomaly in the eastern Arctic. Unfortunately, the present collection does not help us much. The entire spine was preserved in only three of the recent grave speci- mens, and in only two others was the lumbo-sacral region preserved. However, of these five, two had the anomaly present (192005, L 4 and 5; 192008, L5). Only two isolated anomalous lumbar vertebrae were observed (57352, 61604). Of the three complete spines, two had the modal number of segments, whereas one (192010) had 6 lumbar and 4 sacral vertebrae. Pathology—Hutton (1926) and Suk (1927) have pointed out that syphilis reached Labrador about 1902 upon the return of some natives from an exhibition in the United States. Prior to this the Eskimos about Hudson Bay and Straits may have acquired the disease from whalers, but there is no clear evidence that it penetrated to the coast of Labrador from this northern source before 1902. Until 1912 Hutton saw only primary and secondary stages in the living. By 1927, however, Suk was able to witness a number of cases in the tertiary stage. Regarding the older population, Suk says: My attention was focused on this question and for this I examined very carefully as many of the so-called heathen graves along the coast in different places as I had the opportunity of doing. It is not easy to say how many persons these skeletons represented, as many of the graves contained several individuals and the graves were already very much disturbed; all I can say approximately is that I examined about 150 to 160 long bones, a couple of skulls and some parts of skulls, in these different graves with the special object of finding traces of osseous syphilis. But there were no traces at all, none on the long bones and none on the few skulls I saw (p. 8). My examination of the material forming-the basis of the present study revealed no evidence of syphilis, either in the old stone grave - series or in the recent series. As far as this material goes, therefore, it is fairly certain that syphilis was not present in Labrador in the middle of the nineteenth century. Hypertrophic arthritis, a natural phenomenon of old age, showed little that could be called unusual in the Labrador material. In one of the recent grave skeletons, 192007, there was marked erosion of the left lumbo-sacral articular surfaces. The vertebrae in this case exhibited considerable lipping generally. Number 192014 had the vertebrae of the lumbar and lower thoracic regions fused in marked OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 67 kyphosis. There is some reason here for considering tuberculosis as the etiological agent causing this deformity. The only other notable pathologic process is that involving the right humerus of 192009. This specimen is shown in Plate 10. Unfortunately, the corresponding scapula was not recovered, so the nature of the articulation is not known. I will not venture to diag- nose this condition. DISCUSSION Interpretation of the findings on the long bones is handicapped chiefly by the small numbers involved in the groups represented. As far as the comparisons go, the long bones from Labrador are peculiar in their small size. In this respect the affiliation of this group is much more likely with Greenland than with the Thule or western groups. The significance of the unusually short radius must depend upon data from more representative series. The error in sexing undoubtedly contributes in large measure, especially in small series, to the differences between the various groups. Nevertheless, in general the relative extremity proportions for the Labrador group are typically Eskimo. It is not clear that the recent grave series shows anything different in this regard. Application of the correction factor to the reconstructed stature of the Eskimos, one of the most important items in this chapter, brings to light some interesting relationships. Fischer-M@¢ller has calculated by Pearson’s method the stature of two groups: Naujan in Repulse Bay, and Greenland. Bearing in mind that the skeletal remains upon which these calculations are based are in general from a much earlier period than that in which measurements on the living have been obtained, the following rela- tionship appears: RECONSTRUCTED LOCALITY STATURE LIVING STATURE (Male) (Nearest locality) Fischer- Corrected Mller (+ 3 em.) INUIT. osacn yseaa ssaceve erate hs 162 .0* 165.0 166.0 (Melville Peninsula; Parry, 1824) 162.0 (Southampton Island; Tocher, 1902 West and southeast Greenland 159.1 162.1 162.0 (west Greenland; Han- sen, 1893) 160.4 (southeast Greenland; Hansen, 1914) 157.6 (southwest Greenland; Hansen, 1914) Northeast Greenland........ 162.67 165.6 ? * Maximum number of any one long bone (right side): 7 (femur). + Maximum number of any one long bone not over 9. 68 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Only males are considered here, but the females give about the same indications. It is interesting to note that Fischer-Mgller has commented as follows on the reconstructed stature of the Greenland Eskimos: A stature of 159.1 for males and 148.2 cm. for females in prehistoric Green- land (i.e. prior to Hans Egede’s time) is low, but the writer does not consider the estimate to be much too low.... If in particular we take Sgren Hansen’s measurements [1893], which comprise about two thousand individuals, the height is 2.9 cm. higher for males and 3.8 cm. for females compared with our heights calculated from the extremity bones. It must be remembered, however, that in the two to five hundred years which lie between the skeletons and those alive today the stature in all probability has increased as a result of the improved social con- ditions, just as stature has increased in Denmark and many other countries. In addition, there is the crossing with the Nordic race. S. Hansen states that for Greenlanders whose fathers or grandfathers were Danish, the average stature was 166 cm. (1988, pp. 25-26). In view of the evidence showing that Pearson’s formulae do not reconstruct Eskimo stature by at least 3 cm., I suggest a more likely explanation of the Greenland situation than that presented by Fischer-M@gller; namely, that (except in the northeast) the ancient Eskimo had a stature about the same as reported by Hansen for west Greenland in 1898, and that among the fullbloods changing to the foods of civilization this stature has decreased (as witnessed by Hansen’s measurements in southwestern Greenland). That Hansen (1893) did not find the stature of the west coast Eskimo much different from that of the Eskimo of the southeast coast is due perhaps to his inclusion of mixed-bloods among the former. This possibility is suggested by the increased range of the measurements from west Greenland: Locality Male Female Source West Greenland... (346)140-1838 (295)133-173 Hansen, 1893, p. 185 Southeast ire Greenland...... (22)148.6-168.2 (23)148 -0-163.0 Hansen, 1914, p. 155 Labrador......... (58)144.0-172.1 (78)186.4-156.7 Strong (Table 36) labrador). ..022- (37)148 . 8-167 .3 (22)187.4-161.2 Lee et al. (Table 36) Unfortunately, there is little information available as to the range of the lengths of the long bones from the ancient population of Greenland. In the case both of Naujan and northeast Greenland we are deal- ing with reconstructed stature based upon few measurements, and so this stature may not be entirely accurate. Still, it is interesting to note that the two figures are very similar. This is important in view of the fact that both groups are Thule (for discussion of this point OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMO SKELETAL REMAINS 69 see Larsen, 1934, pp. 161-172). Since, according to the latest theory of Eskimo migration (Chapter II), the Thule are considered to be a western people, and Eskimo stature today is higher in the west, our correction of reconstructed stature makes the picture more consistent. For example, the modern Point Barrow Eskimo are considered to be of Thule origin (Collins, 1987b). The two records of stature for this group disagree; Ray (1885) gives 161.3 for the males, whereas Seltzer (1933) gives 164.6. It will be recognized that the latter agrees with the reconstructed Thule statures given above. The data in Tables 21-25 permit the reconstruction also of the Barrow Igloo stature; this in males is 166 cm. (corrected). Seltzer gives a stature of 169.5 cm. for the Old Igloos (1933, p. 358) which, although probably calculated by the aid of Pearson’s formulae, seems to be excessive. It appears therefore that perhaps two stature groups can be distinguished among the Eskimos: (1) a low-statured group, aver- aging in the males about 160-162 cm., and found chiefly in the east (Labrador, southern Greenland); and (2) a high-statured group, 164-166 cm. in the males, found chiefly in the west, but also among the Thule people of the east. In connection with the first group it is interesting to note that Birket-Smith (1925) has reported a stature of 160.6 cm. for the Caribou Eskimo (males). This may be significant in view of the theory (Chapter II) that the Caribou Eskimo represent a remnant of one of the “reservoirs” of population. Seltzer (1933) has already called attention to this distribution of stature: I have shown, on the basis of somatological criteria, that the Hudson Bay Eskimos are undeniably related to a particular group of Cree Indians. I have also pointed out how the Hudson Bay, Labrador and Angmassalik Eskimos all belong to a single physical type. It follows, therefore, that this short- statured type of which the Hudson Bay tribes are members, is also closely affiliated with the Cree.... In Greenland today, both the east and west coasts are racially so mixed that very few pure Eskimos are to be found. There is no doubt in my mind that the bearers of the Thule Culture arrived here, but not in any great num- bers. The Eskimos who have maintained their purity up to the present, are usually of the short-statured dolicho group. Occasionally, we find among them a few tall individuals, who are probably descendants of the Old Thulers (p. 366). IV. RECORD OF CONTACT BETWEEN EUROPEANS AND NATIVE POPULATION OF NORTHEAST LABRADOR! The historic period of Labrador divides itself naturally, and geographically, into two parts: That involving the section south of Hamilton Inlet, and that—more important from our point of view —involving the northeast coast. The coast north of Hamilton Inlet is more difficult of access and less inviting than that to the south, and hence remained largely isolated until the arrival of the Moravian missionaries in the eight- eenth century. As Hawkes has so aptly phrased it: The wiping out by the combined Whites and Indians, of the entire southern branch [of the Eskimo] south of Hamilton Inlet, which remained hostile and pagan to the last, and the careful nourishing of the northern branch by Chris- tian missionaries, form one of the many paradoxes with which the history of native races in their relation to the Whites abounds (p. 1). This quotation clearly indicates the end results for the two areas. Since we are concerned chiefly, both as regards the living and the dead, with the northeastern part of the peninsula, I will not go into the history of the southern part of Labrador. Hawkes has given a good account of this to which the reader may refer. Unfortunately, the history of northeastern Labrador concerns chiefly the Eskimos, because they have always been the coastal people, and exploration and trade by Europeans followed the coast. THE MORAVIAN MISSIONS According to Hawkes, before the Moravians took up their work on the north coast they demanded and received 100,000 acres of land for each settlement, so as to “keep the Eskimo away from the con- taminating influences of dissolute whites.’’ After an unsuccessful attempt to settle near Hopedale in 1752, the Moravians established their first mission at Nain (see Map) in 1771. During the next century five other stations were started in the following chronological order: Okak, 1776; Hopedale, 1782; Hebron, 1880; Zoar, 1865; and Ramah, 1871. The last two were abandoned in 1890. Finally, two more stations were established: Makkovik in 1896 and Killinek, at Cape Chidley, in 1904. Killinek, too, has since been abandoned (Suk, 1927, p. 1). 1 This chapter is placed here rather than following Chapter II because it deals primarily with observations on the living, which is the subject next to be con- sidered. This position also facilitates reference with Chapter V. 70 EUROPEANS AND NATIVES OF LABRADOR 71 The missionaries discovered early that it was difficult to combat the lures of the southern white traders. This led them to establish trading stations in connection with their missions so that they might regulate the trade. It is generally conceded that these trading stations did not seek to profit unjustly at the expense of the natives, and neither did they attempt to hasten unduly the process of accul- turation. Through the efforts of the missions other commercial interests were for some time prevented from gaining much of a foot- hold along this part of the coast. POPULATION The history of the coast is largely that of the mission stations, where, once established, a missionary routine ensues. Hutton (1912) has given a readable account of such a course of events at one of the northern stations (Okak). Much of this detail is of little interest anthropologically. Of considerable interest, however, is the popula- tion trend, which declines with each tragic epidemic and with the TABLE 31.—POPULATION OF LABRADOR MORAVIAN MISSION STATIONS Mission Records (Hawkes) Official Censuses 1840 1850 1860 1880 1890 1891 1901 1911 1921 1935 Killinek: 200 33.<. pi Me he ane nee BOs 0G ee, Ramah... fee: atl 44 59 64 72 es 1 Be sets Hebron.... 179 346 206 202 or 256 .211. 1296 12.-.- 182 Okako 2 .> aoe 408 314 329°. 350 362 396 3651 17 14 Naitt:.. 2. 298: 314°:277 | 282° 268 Zio 26t. 200 159 250 Zoar ee nae ore 130 89 92 Hopedale.. 205 229 241 315 331 341 229 2138 170 158 Makkovik.. ... eee pees whe: aes uk * Including Turnavik. steady course of acculturation. There is little need to detail the various epidemics, because they are imperfectly recorded and the causative agent is often in doubt. The result is reflected in the mission and census records. The figures given above in Table 31 do not represent the full Eskimo population; the records give only the resident populations of the stations; that is, the Christian natives, plus a few Whites. The figures of the last two censuses are confusing because of the effort at refinement; many small places are listed which formerly may have been figured in connection with the main stations. More detailed figures for part of this period (1918-27) were obtained by Dr. Strong from Mr. Walter Perrett of Hopedale. They relate to six of the stations given in Table 31; that is, all except Ramah and Zoar, which, it will be recalled, had been abandoned: 72 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Year Population Change VOUS re pie teceee 1 SL Re eases Sees: ? ak: fb: Be eee O08 ay he ene — 380 WOO, wicks. ees BAT 8. va: See — 12 1h A Dee es SHOR Ase + 8 5h PAL Sone treet 1S LY AER EA ap hee rE = F028) sali. tale 884i ohne + 32 BOVE Tre eae SiS eee Re ae POZO AL eh pers OT ieee ice ree + 28 9263205 ei ei SOO et teeta: — 1 dh! Pad RP Re Rn pre O84 ae | ae ee + 35 These figures seem to pertain to the early part of each year, because the great decrease in population between 1918 and 1919 was attrib- uted by Mr. Perrett chiefly to the influenza epidemic that came north in the autumn of 1918. According to Mr. Perrett this disease was carried from St. Johns, Newfoundland, by ship to Hebron and then to Okak. About 350 Eskimos died at Hebron and Okak. The latter, formerly a prosperous settlement, Strong found practically depopulated when he visited it in 1928 (cf. Table 31). The fact that the southern stations were so much less severely affected by the influenza was attributed by Mr. Perrett to the existence there of a smallpox epidemic. Only about 40 people died at Hopedale and Nain. In spite of the fluctuations, it is clear that the general trend of the Labrador Eskimo population is downwards. The smallest figures are for the year 1920 (1921 of the census); there seems to have been somewhat of a recovery following this. The general trend is also shown by the census figures on “other denomination,”’ which seems to be made up largely of Moravians: Year Number (OGG yee ee 1383 i: a I ms tes 1312 BOR ee 177 iS RR Aaa Obie 1110 INTERMIXTURE Se Not indicated in the census reports are the proportions of full- blood Eskimos, mixed-bloods and Whites constituting the Labrador population. Few figures of this nature are obtainable, partly because the missionaries may wish to minimize the extent of the intermixture, but also because untrained observers are not capable of estimating it correctly. It seems likely that mixture, getting an earlier start in the south, reaches a peak around Hamilton Inlet. Against the possible introduction into Moravian territory of mixed-bloods from the south is the repeated statement in the official reports that a population shift has taken place from the northern to the southern EUROPEANS AND NATIVES OF LABRADOR 73 stations. Thus, in his reports of official visits to Labrador in 1905 and 1908 Sir William MacGregor says: Some 28 of the natives settled at Hebron migrated further south this year. The missionaries of that place believe that the whole race has at present a tendency to move southwards (p. 88). To show how far intermixture had proceeded at Hamilton Inlet by the early part of the nineteenth century the figures of Thomas Hickson may be quoted (Young, 1931). Hickson was a young minister who spent the summer of 1824 exploring Labrador for the Wesleyan Conference. Under date of July 9 he recorded in his journal: This morning I conversed with two real Esquimaux women with their ungodly European partners, with whom they have been living in a state of concubinage for many years. This I find to be a practice which prevails to a very great extent in this part of the world; it has sometimes been the case that they have left the poor Esquimaux and their little ones in the most distressing circumstances. I expressed my disapprobation of their conduct (p. 23). On July 28 he recorded that A few of [the natives] assisted me to ascertain the probable number of the inhabitants of the bay, which is as follows: TEQOR, DACUORUK: MEMEO icc file's vom 5 Widen. 68 100 Real Esquimaux children.................... 60 PEE RAMAN ids oa 5 ls a bookie WR oka 0 60 POONER WO eka ca cna dees ca exe 90 CRIA TIE Cie Whe a ne ee erence 16 (p. 33) Another source of admixture is the Labrador fishermen. Writing in 1885, Packard says: Few Europeans or Americans had previous to 1864 visited the Labrador coast north of Hopedale, and there the race has been preserved in most cases intact, though there may now be an occasional intermixture with the New- foundland fishermen, who now go as far as Nain (1891, p. 271). Writing again in 1891, Packard says: It has been already stated that the fishermen have only in recent years gone up the coast for their fares beyond Hopedale. When we visited the coast in 1864 scarcely any fishermen went beyond Hamilton Inlet... . The American fishermen have abandoned the Labrador coast, preferring the Newfoundland banks, which are nearer to their homes. As late as 1880 about one hundred Canadian and Nova Scotia vessels were annually engaged in the Labrador fisheries. Formerly a good many Jersey fishermen frequented the coast, where there were several of their fishing establishments; but of these only three remained up to 1880, while all the English mercantile houses have been withdrawn (1891, pp. 240-241). Delabarre reports essentially the same thing in 1900: Very few of those [fishermen] who go down the Atlantic shore ever get beyond Nain or Port Manvers. One venturesome man alone maintains a fishing station at Cape Chidley all the year round, and goes to it every summer 74 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR in his steamer. These Newfoundlanders are almost exclusively of English descent, with a queer, oldtime flavor to their speech, with an almost fanatic formal piety and respect for the Sabbath. .. (p. 152). On the other hand MacGregor reports that: According to the missionaries the fishermen on the coast do not often give liquor to the natives, or interfere in any way with the family affairs of the Innuit (p. 88). Such figures on mixed-bloods as are available I will give for what they are worth. MacGregor obtained the following figures during his visits to the coast in 1905 and 1908: In 1856 there were practically no half-castes, ‘‘settlers,” on the coast. In 1874 the Innuit Christians were 1,176, the ‘‘settlers’” 115. In 1904 the Christian natives numbered 1,018, the heathen Innuit about 30, altogether say 1,050 persons; while the half-breeds or “‘settlers” were about 280. . . (p. 100). To this he appends a letter from C. A. Martin of Nain giving further figures: On the 31st of December, 1905, the population of our seven stations and their neighbourhood (i.e. from Killinek north to Cape Harrison south) was as follows: Koallinioks:'.v0 choy ye tessa Oita £8 Gaga 81 (Eskimo, 78; settler, 3) RAM as eee nye ea en een ee 79 (Eskimo, 75; settler, 4) HV eDrOn sce rat here, iar eos eset ine 174 (Eskimo, 166; settler, 8) CORN Spats 1 esa Mpa cre ants he Saas 329 (Eskimo only) INANE as Core ee ere ears 287 (Eskimo, 233; settler, 54) TLODOOURIO: 47 occa a aiden Rasen ote 233 (Eskimo, 1238; settler, 110) Makkoniks 6 im cutee oan a 138 (nearly all settlers) ....L was very sorry to find that in the last ten years the Esquimaux on our Stations have decreased rather rapidly. While in the [decade] 1877-87 the decrease amounted to 15; 1887-97 to 56; now in the past ten years it amounts to 127, and in those ten years we had no special and severe epidemic on our stations, besides the influenza. The rates per 100 for the past seven years, as I found them, are the following ones: 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 Eskimaux { Bots: 4:4) 4200 6.0 4.8." -5:8) -4.38:>.4:2 Deaths. 4.6 6.2 8.8 9:6 “7:8: G5 6.6 02120. 6S 0 eee ee Births <, 18.2 2:3: - hha? 227-40 870" 27 Settlers... { Hesthe.. Bele Ole) C100 8 vied De One 28 +1.1 ... $38.4 +0.4 +2.6 41.0 +0.4 (pp. 212-214.) In 1926 Dr. Suk, Professor of Anthropology and Ethnology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechoslovakia, visited the mission stations on the north Labrador coast in a medical capacity. His notes on intermixture are of importance here both because of his anthropological training and because the date is so close to that of Dr. Strong’s visit. As a result of stopping twice at each of the sta- EUROPEANS AND NATIVES OF LABRADOR 75 tions and staying at each place from four to ten days (seven weeks at Hebron) he gives the following opinion on intermixture: Makkovik with prevalent population of the Labrador settler type, i.e. White and Eskimo mixed breed in various shades and degrees of hybridism between the two human groups, from a cross between a pure blood white man and a pure blood Eskimo to a Near White with, say, one sixteenth or less of foreign admixture, and perhaps one or two pure Whites (the term “Near White” is a distinction used in the United States for an offspring of an octoroon with a pure White and we use it here in an analogous way). Hopedale, Nain, Okak in the majority pure Eskimos, the remainder hybrids of different shades. Hebron almost entirely pure Eskimos but for five or six mixed breeds. As for pure Eskimos this is the best station and at present the largest settlement on the Labrador Coast. . . (p. 1). LONGEVITY The mission stations having been established in Labrador so long, it is a comparatively easy thing to get the approximately correct age of most of the natives. The skeleton cannot be aged as closely. Nevertheless, there is some interest in the process of aging among a people subjected to the rigorous Arctic environment. Packard has observed that At Hopedale we understood the oldest person, the patriarch of the colony, to be a woman of seventy years: we saw her—a picture of ugliness which still haunts our memory. There were three Eskimos who were sixty years old. A man becomes prematurely old when forty-five years of age, as the hunters are by that time worn out by the hardships of the autumnal seal fishery (1891, p. 208). MacGregor says further that It is a strange peculiarity of many of the young Innuit girls of about a dozen years of age that, if one looks only at the face of the girl, it would pass as belonging to a woman of thirty (p. 81). Hutton also found age a very deceptive thing: “‘Sixty-two”’ might be the answer from a bowed old figure crouching over the stove—I would have guessed twenty years more than that. The fact is that the Eskimo wears out fast; after fifty he begins to decline, and few live long after sixty. I have known a few over seventy, and the people told me with wonderment about an old woman who lived to be eighty-two, and who worked to the last; but these are great rarities, and it must be a unique thing in one’s lifetime to meet with an Eskimo great-grandmother. These very old people nearly always seem to be active to the last; they have an unusual store of vitality; and they die in harness, dropping out like those who are too tired to go any further, and passing away without illness or suffering. They are always those who have clung closely to their own native foods, and can always speak of having been mighty hunters once upon a time (1912, pp. 111-112). The 1935 census lists 15 individuals, mostly females, of 70 years or over at Hopedale, Nain, and Hebron. V. ANALYSIS OF METRICAL AND NON-METRICAL OBSERVATIONS ON LIVING ESKIMOS AND INDIANS CIRCUMSTANCES SURROUNDING THE COLLECTION OF THE DATA In addition to the skeletal material already considered, Dr. Strong obtained during 1927-28, among other things, anthropo- metric measurements on a good series of Eskimos and a small series of Indians. In this work he was assisted by Dr. E. K. Langford, physician to the expedition. These data were turned over to the writer for critical analysis in the fall of 1935.1 In anticipation of the opportunity of securing anthropometric records while in Labrador, Dr. Strong had reviewed the subject of anthropometry with Dr. Henry Field, who was then preparing for his work in Arabia. Dr. Hooton had advised both men regarding desirable measurements to be secured, and in Strong’s case had suggested that observations be included on the dentition and palatal torus. In addition to this preparation, Dr. Strong had provided himself with three handbooks on the subject; namely, those by Hrdliéka (1920), Sullivan, and Wilder. Dr. Langford’s only instruction in this subject was that given him by Dr. Strong. Instruments were provided by Field Museum and consisted of Martin’s anthropometer, spreading caliper, and small sliding caliper. Von Luschan’s color scale was used for comparing skin color. All measurements and observations were recorded on blanks supplied by Field Museum. The expedition established its headquarters at Anatalak Bay (see Map) and here several Montagnais-Naskapi Indians of the Barren Ground Band were measured in December of 1927. During January of 1928 some members of the Davis Inlet Band, encountered at a camp in the interior west of Davis Inlet, were measured. In April of 1928 three additional members of the same band were measured at Davis Inlet. Also during April and in May, measure- ments were recorded on Eskimos at the following places: Hopedale, Nain, and Hebron. Finally, one Indian of the Barren Ground Band was:measured in June at Anatalak. Before measuring any of the Indians, Strong and Langford had checked their techniques. This procedure was repeated again in the spring of 1928 before measuring 1The writer gave a preliminary report on these measurements at the New Haven meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, May 1, _ 1936, under the title “New Measurements on the Eskimos and Indians of Labrador.” 76 OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 77 any of the Eskimos. All the Indians, and all but seven of the Eski- mos used in the final analysis were measured by Strong, with Lang- ford recording. Any suspected admixture of white blood was noted at the time of measurement and all such individuals have been eliminated in analysis. In the case of the Eskimos the records of the Moravian Missions formed the basis for estimates of pure-bloodedness, as well as age. After deletions of mixed-bloods and subadults the series have the following composition: Eskimos: 58 males, 79 females; Indians: 11 males, 7 females. The numbers of mixed-bloods and subadults are too small to warrant analysis. In addition to name, age, sex and birthplace, the data thus secured comprise the following items: Stature Menton-nasion (part only) Sitting height Forehead height Head length Nose height Head breadth Nose breadth Head height Ear length Minimum frontal diameter Ear breadth Bizygomatic diameter Skin color Bigonial breadth Number of missing teeth Menton-crinion (part only) Development of palatal raphe (torus) PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN DATA OF THIS NATURE The analysis of anthropometric records collected by those who, although thoroughly conscientious in their efforts to advance anthro- pological knowledge, yet are not experienced physical anthropolo- gists, often presents some problems. In the first place, it is doubtful whether a hasty review of anthropometry preliminary to such a trip is fully retained in the memory. This is especially true when physical measurements are not the primary objective, as in the present instance. The problem thus created is whether or not resulting metrical differences from the comparative material are due to faulty technique or are inherent in the samples. It is undoubtedly true that if the observer clearly understands the definition of a particular dimension and tries conscientiously to obtain it, his result (in the form of the mean) will be reliable, provided as always that the series is adequate in number. On the other hand, when the true position of a landmark is not comprehended (the most frequent error) all measurements involving this point will likely be biased; they will be consistently either greater or less than the true dimension. As is commonly known, one of the landmarks most difficult to locate in the living is “nasion,” and because of its uncertainty of location the 78 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR measurements of nose and face height, as obtained by the beginner, often are not trustworthy. A second problem concerns the full-bloodedness of the subjects measured. Since it is usually impossible to obtain reliable genealogies among primitive peoples during a brief sojourn, it is customary to select the full-bloods by any means available. The ability to dis- tinguish between full- and mixed-bloods by inspection increases with experience and cannot be imparted fully by instruction beforehand. In this respect an experienced physical anthropologist encountering a racial group for the first time would be at much the same disadvantage asanyoneelse. Even wherelocal records are available, as in the present case, it is doubtful whether these are unerring. This situation may be obviated to someextent by securing photographs of as many of the sub- jectsaspossible. Unfortunately, in thefarnorthitisnot alwaysconven- ient or possible to get a photograph when the opportunity presentsitself. In addition to the above standard problems associated with this type of material, the present case offers another difficulty. The anthropometric form supplied by Field Museum listed the usual measurements, including total facial height and upper facial height. The first of these was interpreted by Strong at the beginning as menton-crinion, but later as menton-nasion; the upper facial height was interpreted throughout as nasion-crinion (forehead).! Of the several problems thus described, the first—the technique of measuring—offers the greatest difficulty in evaluating. One of the first aims in presenting these data, therefore, will be to judge their reliability. As far as the full-bloodedness of the sample is con- cerned, we are forced to assume that most cases of recent admixture were avoided. However, the few photographs secured (Plates 11-16) indicate that at least some individuals are not full-bloods. PERSONAL ERROR_ The reliability of the present measurements may be tested in three ways: (1) by examination of trial measurements on members of the expedition; (2) by comparison of measurements on the same subject as recorded by two different observers; and (8) by compari- son with data from other sources. TRIAL MEASUREMENTS Before attempting work on the natives, Strong and Langford measured one another as well as other members of the party. It has 1 Others have been confused in measuring face height; Stefansson, for example, measured to glabella instead of nasion (Seltzer, 1933, p. 318). OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 79 not been convenient to remeasure Langford or the others in con- nection with this analysis, but I have secured Strong’s measurements. These figures are here presented (Table 32) in contrast to those (up to three trials) taken by Langford. The chief indication from this comparison is that Langford has failed to get maximum head and face breadths and is not measuring minimum frontal diameter. However, since Langford measured relatively few subjects, the above is of interest mainly for what follows. TABLE 32.—EVALUATION OF TRIAL MEASUREMENTS Strong z Strong measured by measured by Stewart (1936) Langford (1927) cM. cM. State o.6s ie 5.s35 5%. 178 (with shoes) 175.5-175 (moccasins) Sitting height......... 95.8 91.1 MM. MM. Head length.......... 201 201-200-196 Head breadth......... 157 147-148-154 Head height...... : SC eee 131(proj. method) Min. front. diam. ..... 112 121-120 Bizyg. diam........... 146 142-134 Bigon. Giam: .... ..65~. 108 107 Menton-crinion....... (hair loss) 164-163 Menton-nasion........ 116 126-119 Nasal height.......... 54 58-— 56 Nasal breadth........ 35 32- 33 Bar jength)) 6.02.4. 67 65- 65 Rar breadth: 225.05. 37 34- 33 DUPLICATE MEASUREMENTS The data contain three cases where the same subject was measured by both Strong and Langford. Also, some measurements were obtained on the same individual (4 or 5 years apart) by Strong and the late Dr. Truman Michelson. The identity of these subjects is assured by the agreement in name, age, and birthplace. Their measurements compare as shown in Table 33. Here it is certain that Langford is not measuring minimum frontal diameter. Also, it seems probable that Strong is not securing maximum face and head breadths, but this is not definite because of the poor agreement between the different observers. However, Strong is consistently high in nasal height and low in forehead height, from which it can be concluded that he located nasion too high. COMPARATIVE DATA With these indications in mind we can turn now to comparison with the data from other sources. Here a noteworthy situation exists: The largest series of Labrador Eskimo of one sex (male) heretofore reported in the literature (Duckworth) for which a number 80 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 33.—DUPLICATE MEASUREMENTS ON THE SAME SUBJECT E : & g Ae S ; ; z ; eee Cem a iin eee ee ; 3 g re ee ae ee ee a 2 3 3 3 3 3 r 2 Z hee Eh ee ee eee StrON Go ieee 15 140.2 74.6 180 134 110 104 128 Langford 2.4... 23 141 67 175 136 112 111 113 Strong. 5. nee 9 161.1 85 194 142 124 112 140 Langtord’ <2. one 24 162 87 192 146 121 125 134 Stron Gane aoe 130 145.3 78.4 190 144 133 103 112 bangton: <2.5.45 31 142 71 182 145 136 125 132 Strong: ac cssce5 ¢ SA ct uanctens Boee 180 137 eae Sed 134 Michelson ...... OSs eee ate 181 140 Weed ae 142 TABLE 33.—DUPLICATE MEASUREMENTS ON THE SAME SUBJECT (Continued) s R=} S .) $ : g a 4 : ee ee oe ee ee = 8 8 3 vi ai § x i 2 Ss + P| = = a rr) Z 3 & E 5 3 3 4 5 re) 7) ea) = ios a Za <3) ea} SOON .6 ite se 15 102 176 58 51 35 70 38 Langford ....... 23 101 175 72 38 29 67 30 SETONG 4. cles 9 112 187 71 59 40 68 38 PQneGKO. co se on 24 110 196 74 51 41 73 31 Strong 130 110 195 76 BZ 34 70 36 PMNGIOR 47 31 120 194 76 48 34 70 31 Stronger tesa as: 32 inet pnt - 59 40 az Michelson ...... 7 ee ais bas 50 40 of measurements are given comprises 11 individuals—certainly not an adequate sample. As for the Indians, only one series has been reported (Hallowell), and, although adequate in number, it contains many frankly mixed-bloods and is from the southern part of the peninsula. Neither of the bands measured by Strong (Barren Ground and Davis Inlet) is represented in Hallowell’s series. Fortunately, the situation as regards the Eskimo is improved through the kindness of Dr. Boas in allowing the use of unpublished measurements collected for him by Lee and Sornberger during 1891- 92 (see Appendix C). This is the same series (26 males) for which Dr. Boas reported mean stature in 1895.! Likewise, it includes the series of 10 males measured by Lee and for which head and face breadths were reported by Dr. Boas in 1901.2, Without these meas- 1 Dr. Boas eliminated a number of mixed-bloods in order to obtain the final 26. In going over these records I was unable to get a combination of 26 that gave the same mean stature as reported in 1895. 2 One subject is not used here because of stated White mixture. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 81 urements for comparison it would be difficult indeed to analyze the present material. . The remaining small series of Eskimos described in the literature " were measured, probably under laboratory conditions, in Europe by Duckworth (11 males, 10 females), Pittard (8 males, 6 females) and Virchow (3 males, 2 females) and thus probably are reliable. As to Lee’s and Sornberger’s techniques, Dr. Boas states (personal com- munication dated September 24, 1935): “I consider the observations TABLE 34.—DUPLICATE MEASUREMENTS ON THE SAME SUBJECT i=] ~ a So a Ps = | ~~ » > i bode Pope dogs E , Sone - : (ew ta a Ae 2 as 2 A eS De FE es ° na na gq a es] | = ro) rAd ey | RY Ph ee ratty ate 59 167.3 169.4 89.1 196 154 124 149 50 88 Sornberger....... 13 166.2 170 88.3 200 155 1238 150 56 38 Lee. 2ees...7.2% 56 168.6 158.2 84.9 198 152 118842 47 36 Sornberger....... 12 158.2 161.6 980.4 190 151 115 144 46 35 TABLE 35.—AGE DISTRIBUTION IN LABRADOR ESKIMO SAMPLES STRONG OTHERS* AGE PERIODS “Number Per cent “Number Per cent Males BeBO ES cs eS oe eee ek 19 32.8 18 48.6 SIO, Sensis cS ea ee 12 20.7 8 21.6 BSED tio acc kadai oo 7 12.0 6 16.2 pd Asean arr eta a ick ar 2 kal 9 15.5 5 13.5 GION ee ss 11 19.0 ue Sahel Totnbis dc BU sie ei 58 100.0 37 99.9 Females TT=30. eee ce se ey 22 28.2 10 47.6 S40 ee cae esa. 15 19.2 s 14.3 AVEO os ae ecu eee cee 12 15.4 3 14.3 GIB is Richa oh a 12 15.4 1 4.8 CIEOIGs sl ho aan 17 21.8 4 19.0 OCR Sk Gate ne 78 100.0 21 100.0 * Lee, Sornberger, Pittard, Virchow. by Lee reliable. In regard to the others I am not quite so certain.”’ On this point there is somewhat of a check owing to the fact that both men measured the same subject in two instances. The identity of the individuals is established by agreement in name, age, and places of observation and birth. The agreement here (Table 34) is fair and certainly better than in the preceding cases. As far as personal error is concerned, I feel that it is safe to combine all these observa- tions into one series. 82 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR In addition it can be shown that the comparative data are very similar to Strong’s series both as to age distribution and birthplace. Age.—Owing to the long existence of the Moravian Missions in Labrador, it has been possible to record fairly close estimates of age of the Eskimos measured. The general distribution of these ages in five large periods is shown in Table 35. The point that I wish to emphasize is the frequency of old individuals, especially among the females of both series. However, Strong believes now that none of these old people was decrepit. The same probably applies to the comparative series. Birthplace.—Strong failed to record the birthplaces of the Eskimos measured at Hopedale and Hebron. However, in the 62 cases in which this information is available the following localities (from north to south) are found: Locality Males Females Rea rrial ees tec ere is orate et pee 1 Hebron ees ae eee Ce ear ee 4 q ORE ces hey Tourn tn tins eee ge eI ene ash ar heen welts | 4 INIT tieech Sete oes ae ve hE een meee 15 17 OE: | aati RARE N nd Sereda MERA ADREAR UE PE INTC Wa ren emniAn eA PAbe ge Se 2 2 Davis THOU: sch pies acre ert ne sai ieee a 1 Hopedale sss eue stores tices aed ah ee ea ens vA Bul 31 Lee and Sornberger measured Eskimos with the following birth- places (north to south) :! Locality Males Females Una Vay Bay 0) he dcr arr ee eee: 1 ae IN BOR Vater re ee a en ed ay eee ree 1 1 Ok akAac: siete Se ek on eee wen. as ne nee ew 1 ae IN Era reson ieee eh rare en rte kage 2 cs Davisiinlete x. sao jee ee hts otek eta ee 1 1 FIGHCURIG = Brig eae oe Ae hee 5 7 Aillik'to- Hamilton Inlet? 30. 2008.4 Kettner 13 3 24 12 Both Pittard and Virchow measured individuals from Hebron, but their birthplaces are not stated. Duckworth seems to have measured the same group as Pittard (see Shapiro, 1931, p. 355). Thus the comparative data on the Labrador Eskimos include individuals from the same localities as found in Strong’s series, and in addition some from farther south. Perhaps even these southern localities are included in Strong’s series, since some of the Eskimos measured at 1 Two localities have not been located; namely, Francis Harbor and Manaska Island. A male and a female are listed from each. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 83 Hopedale may have come from the south. It should be remembered, however, that the Eskimos seem to be moving southwards (see p. 72) and mixing with the Whites. Today few full-bloods live south of Hopedale, whereas in 1891-92 Lee and Sornberger were able to find a number who had been born as far south as Hamilton Inlet. RESUME OF CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE LABRADOR SERIES Before presenting the detailed results it may be well to review the situation as thus far disclosed: Strong has collected measurements on a large series of Labrador Eskimos and a small group of Mon- tagnais-Naskapi Indians (Davis Inlet and Barren Ground Bands). A few of the measurements in the case of the Eskimos were taken by Langford. By comparison of records of individuals independently measured by these two men, there is reason to believe that the tech- niques of both were faulty as regards certain dimensions, and prob- ably both had large individual errors. In view of the fact that there is some comparative material available for similar groups of Eskimos and none for the northern Indians, it is possible in the former to apply the final test of com- paring means. This rather reverses the usual process in anthro- pometry; namely, to seek more refined measurements in order to check the older data. However, in this instance there is no alterna- tive if we wish to be thoroughly critical, and especially if we are going to evaluate the figures for the Indians. The importance of the measurements on the Indians, as already suggested, is due to the fact that they are representatives of the most northern bands and probably as nearly full-blood as can be found. The Indians measured by Hallowell, for the most part from southern bands and frequently mixed-bloods, were brachycephalic, in contrast to the mesocephalic Eskimo. Hallowell says: Data obtained from bands bordering on the habitat of the Eskimo would furnish a very interesting problem, since the results might be compared with the Indian groups farther away as well as with the Eskimo themselves, for whom, however, the available data are very inadequate (p. 339). Thus the problem is to test the present measurements of the Eskimo against the comparative data from other sources and on the basis of this showing to evaluate the differences between the two Indian samples. Unfortunately we are additionally handicapped by the smallness of the present Indian sample, inasmuch as the differ- ences cannot be checked statistically. 84 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS The means of the various measurements (see Appendix C) together with their statistical constants, as far as significant,! will now be considered individually. In view of the fact that measure- ments on the Eskimo in general have been summarized recently by Shapiro (1931) and Seltzer (1983), no attempt will be made to repeat this work. The chief comparison in the case of the Indians, aside from Hallowell’s (1929) Labrador series, will be with the Cree and Chipewyan as measured by Grant (1930). Only in cases where these comparative data are lacking for the Labrador Eskimo and Indians will the measurements of more remote groups be included in the tables. STATURE This is the one measurement on the Labrador Eskimos, known since 1895, which has been based on an apparently adequate number. The present series (Table 36) verifies the earlier finding that the modern Labrador group is among the shortest of the Eskimos. Shapiro has commented as follows (19381, p. 359): If there is any significant admixture of European blood among these Labrador Eskimo, it is rather difficult to reconcile that fact with the very short stature characteristic in this area. On the whole, the stature of the Eskimo definitely appears to increase from east to west. This latter observation is not as clearly shown by Seltzer’s table (1983, p. 341) in which, however, many smaller series are included. In the discussion relative to stature reconstructed from the long bones (p. 65), I have shown that these extremes were not as pro- nounced in prehistoric times. An increase in stature would be expected not only from mixture with a taller group, as Shapiro has pointed out, but also from improved nutrition. Lacking both of these factors, and, on the other hand, with nutrition impaired, due to the increasing consumption of white man’s food, the decrease in stature here demonstrated seems not unreasonable, and degenerative in nature. Strong’s findings for the Labrador Indians, in spite of the small numbers, are in agreement with those of Hallowell. The Indians 1 As in the case of the skeleton, series of less than 20 have not been treated statistically. Even this size series is probably too small to give entirely trust- worthy results. When the series was adequate the means have been calculated by the dispersion method. Pearson’s tables for statisticians and biometricians (1914) have been of assistance in calculating the probable errors. The ‘‘Xp.e.’’ indicates the number of times that the difference between two means exceeds its probable error. According to general agreement a difference which is three or more times its probable error is almost certainly significant. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 85 TABLE 36.—STATURE (In centimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V.+p.e. Xp.e.- Labrador Eskimo: Male SUrang an 4c. 58 144.0—172.1 158.35+0.50 5.60+0.35 3.54140.22 .... Liners | gy HEIs Sorn rger. 7 .7—162. Pid 8 387 148.8—161.8 156.99+0.48 4.30+0.34 2.74+40.22 1.97 Virchow . 3 155.0—168.5 Duckworth 11 z 167 7 caren se ebieeeieastiiee ta cemisecpe: fens Labrador Eskimo: Female Simones. 6 2: 78 136.4—156.7 148.82+0.32 4.20+0.22 2.88+0.15 .... No he ae He ile er Sornberger . 137.4- 4 ited... 6 22 147.5—161.2 150.45+0.94 6.54+0.66 3.00+0.30 2.15 Virchow.... 2 144.8—152.4 Duckworth. . 10 us BF eek iA AG: eet eee de Ee otne Pee oe Indian: Male Strong ss )c ss: 10° 156, abd 164 Oe ete ee is a SH ee AR ‘ Hallowell..... 41 155 —177 166.2+0. 61 5. 80+0. 43 3.50+0.26 . ree Granticc 3s, oes 22 146.5—170.5 161.0+40.91 6.386+0.65 3.95+0.40 . Chipewyan CSTet etc 44 152.5—179.5 166.440.67 6.57140.47 3.95+40.28 .... Tbvedioy Indian: Female Strong. .:..-;. 1 Add Oi U6O Gout 6S. Sele tee. Sihasd ea av Mace. etaits lew hie 6 Hallowell sh ates 29 143 —162 154.6+0.56 4. 50 +0. 40 2.90+0.26 . Chipewyan ; Grane :5'.. es: 20 140.5—155.5 150.9+0.76 5.06+0.54 3.36+0.36 . *In 1895 Boas reported a stature of 157.5 cm. for 26 males measured by Lee and Sornberger. The composition of the present series is probably not identical with that studied by Boas; it gives an average stature of 156.3 cm. t Boas (1895) reported a stature of 148 cm., without stating the number of individuals. Average of the present series (14) is 148.4 cm. t Boas (1895) reported a stature of 168.5 for 57 males (no details), and 156.2 for an unstated number of females. are decidedly taller than their Eskimo neighbors. Yet, as Hallowell has shown, they suffer by comparison with other eastern Indians and are exceeded by distant Eskimo groups. The Chippewa (Hrdliéka, 1916), for instance, average 171.9 for the males and 157.2 for the females. The Mackenzie Eskimo (Seltzer, 1933) average 169 for the males and 155.5 for the females. Such widely divergent figures for male Cree stature as 161 (Grant) and 168.5 (Boas) must cast doubt on Seltzer’s claim (1933, p. 363) that ‘‘we cannot escape the conclusions that the Cree Indians and the Hudson Bay Eskimos are physically identical.’ SITTING HEIGHT Heretofore Duckworth’s figures for small series have been the only record of sitting height available for the Labrador Eskimo. 86 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Strong’s series yield very similar means (Table 37). Although the means of the Lee-Sornberger series are slightly higher for both sexes, the difference is not statistically significant, at least in the males (see, however, under “Relative Sitting Height’’). In view of the short stature of this group it is quite natural that sitting height is short here in comparison with that of other Eskimos (Seltzer, 1983). Doubtless, as in the case of stature, this extreme was not as pro- nounced in prehistoric times. TABLE 37.—SITTING HEIGHT (In centimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. X p.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong@::.2 22 ; 57 eer 81.7340.34 3.7540.24 4.5940.29 .... Pee eet si tee, 77.3—90. fe eee een a 199287 .9 | 83-14+0.40 3.01+0.28 3.62+40.34 2.71 Duckworth. . 11 ? 81.0 Meee Labrador Eskimo: Female SELON Gey aii: 78 71.0—85.5 78.69+0.24 3.19+0.17 4.05+0.22 Sornberger.. 4 75.2—85.0 : Duckworth. . 10 r4 ORT. Tebeadoe Indian: Male Strong4...5. 42... 10 77.7—89.4 84.4 Et ee inn) ne Spee PrN - Hallowell... .. 41 79 —95 87.4040.382 3.0040.22 3.40+0.25 ree Grantinis-s ee 22 79.8—96.3 89.1040.55 3.8240.39 4.28+40.44 Chipewyan Grant........40 84.3—94.8 89.404+0.30 2.794+40.21 3.11+40.32 Tahrader Indian: Female Strong? 55s {RTS ISR to ee (oad i es Nad at ete ace ne Ue TORTS Seer Ge Hallowell.....29 64 —86 79.90+0.49 3.9040.34 4.90+0.34 Chipewyan Grant........14 76.8—87.3 82.40+40.52 2.86+0.36 3.47+0.44 Considering that Strong’s Indian series do not show as great ranges as Hallowell’s, the means are in fair agreement. All of these figures, however, are below those obtained by Grant on tribes to the west. RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT Table 38 shows that, relative to stature, mean sitting height for males is significantly different in the Strong and the Lee-Sornberger series. However, the figure for Strong’s series is in agreement with that of Duckworth. By comparison with the Labrador females and other Eskimo groups, it would appear that Strong’s figures are too low. I suspect that there has been some error in obtaining sitting height. Since this measurement involves the deduction of bench height, there is always a chance for error. I note, for instance, that OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 87 Strong used chiefly three benches of heights 53, 48.3, and 43.3 cm., respectively. The first two benches are probably too high for people of short stature. In addition there is the possibility that the second and third benches were really one and the same, the eight being mistaken for a three, or vice versa. The relatively long trunk length in the Eskimos, as compared to extremity length, is believed to be the factor which interferes with the prediction of stature from the long bones of this group. Thus, the approximate figure of 53 for the Eskimo compares with the 51.9 for the French given by Stevenson (1929). TABLE 38.—RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. $.D.+p.e. C.V. #p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong: 2... 57 51880) 51.58+0.18 1.4440.09 2.79+0.18 .... eee eB 50.1—57.0 Sornberger . “17 ) 26 51.5—55.3 f 03:08+0.20 1.48+0.14 2.79+0.26 6.25 Duckworth. . 7 51 .4* . Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong...... 78 46.1—57.5 53.0340.14 1.80+0.10 3.40+0.18 Lee cps ces ees wane 48 .6—55.9 | 55 9 Sornberger.. 4 i Sy et ah Duckworth. . i ? 53.=2* Laiitilics Indian: Male Strong. <....... - 10 50.1—52.8 51.3 Hallowell... 41 49 —55 52.4040.18 1.7040.13 3.20+0.24 Grant......... 22 58 —59 55.8040.23 1.6340.17 2.92+0.30 Chipewyan Oo ae 40 49 —57 53.80+0.22 2.0640.16 3.883+0.29 ee ee Indian: Female Strong........ 7 50.6—53.6 652.1 wad aoete ds. be c. -2RG Hallowell. .... 29 42 —53 51.70+0.28 2.2040.19 4.20+0.37 Chipewyan ET RE ia 14 51 —57 54.80+0.29 1.6240.21 2.96+40.38 * Calculated from means. The figures for the Indians shown in Table 38 are low as com- pared with Grant’s figures shown and with Hrdlitka’s findings on the Sioux (1931) and Southwestern Indians (1935). HEAD LENGTH The early measurements of head length for the Labrador Eskimos, as published by Duckworth, Pittard, and Virchow, showed averages for the males ranging from about 191 to 197. When these small series are combined with those of Lee and Sornberger (Table 39), a mean is obtained for each sex that agrees fairly well with Strong’s; only that for the females is significantly different. It will be 88 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR observed, however, that Strong’s ranges are slightly lower, suggesting a small personal error. For the Indians, Strong’s range for both sexes is within that of Hallowell’s, and yet Strong’s mean is lower. This is probably due, for the most part, to the small series. In any case it does not appear that these Indians are very different in head length from the Cree or Chipewyans. TABLE 39.—HEAD LENGTH (In millimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. zp.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong...... 58 177-204 192.174+0.55 6.27+40.39 3.26+0.20 | oe eee 9 184—196 | Ser nperkerO 21 \'a7>, 32) cage h 180 803.0.88 G124:0748 8217.0.26) 0.88 Virchow.... 8 188—205 Duckworth. . 1d ? POie2 Labrador Eskimo: Naacld StPONG: =..1405 79 170—196 185.04+0.42 5.55+0.30 3.00+0.16 Sorberaer 3 ise shee | ornberger.. 3 185—192 Pittardy(.!)- 6 21 186—197 { 189.48+0.80 5.48+0.56 2.86+0.30 4.93 Virchow 5.24 189— 192 } Duckworth. . 10 ? 190.2 Labrador Indian: Male STON Gis ce 11 180—201 189.4 . Let dhs hel ae Nina atl y Hallowell. .... 67 178-208 194.50+0.56 6.80+0.40 3.40+0.20 ree Grantees 25 1838—201 198.20+0.67 4.944+0.47 2.56+0.24 Chipewyan Grantees 438 180—204 193.50+0.56 5.41+0.39 2.80+0.20 Labrador Indian: Female Strong... .. T 180-188 184.1 : bee SON tae, Re fem nt) Hallowell... . . 54 173-205 187.30+0.59 6.40+0.42 3.40+0.22 Chipewyan Grantee 21 180—195 186.60+0.58 3.96+40.41 2.12+0.22 When we examine these figures in the light of the comparative lists compiled by Shapiro (1931) and Seltzer (1933) for the Eskimos there is little apparent order. Several reasons can be advanced to account for this. In the first place, a strict east-west arrangement ignores the cultural background. In the second, small series, just as in Labrador, give means deviating widely from the true means. Third, variations in head length may reflect differences both in shape and size. The last fact makes it necessary to postpone further com- parison until head breadth has been examined. All that can be said here is that head length among the Labrador Eskimos is in the lower part of the range of all Eskimo groups and about the same as that for the Labrador and other northern Indians. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS HEAD BREADTH 89 When the earlier measurements of Pittard and Virchow are com- bined with those of Lee and Sornberger (Table 40) a mean is obtained for the males that is higher than that of either Strong or Duckworth, and the difference is statistically significant. TABLE 40.—HEAD BREADTH (In millimeters) In the case of the Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong...... 58 133-164 148.31+40.45 5.09+0.32 3.48+0.22 8 lech ys ao EER ornberger. .17 143—168 Pittard Reh ee, 8 37 146—154 151.49+0.73 6.56+0.51 4.33+0.34 3.70 Virchow . 3 146— 152 Duckworth. . 11 ? 147.6 Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong... <. 79 1380-151 142.26+0.40 5.2140.28 3.66+0.20 capa? ME 10 ) 141—152 rnberger.. 3 124—160 = Pittard” 6 21 142—147 143.7241.00 6.7740.70 4.71+40.49 1.35 Virchow.... 2} 131—143 Duckworth. . 10 ? 141.8 Labrador Indian: Male Stromg:..... D1” AGI ABG; MOAR fo dected sacs. esas Seer Hallowell. .... 67 145-167 156.80+0.39 4.70+0.27 3.00+0.17 ree Granbei x5 i> - 25 141-156 150.00+0.63 4.70+40.45 3.13+0.30 Chipewyan Granberg AK - 44 141-162 153.7040.44 4.35+0.31 2.83+0.20 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. ....... T Stleoewee: YAR Oho ote ee Pee, | eae Hallowell. .... 54 142-165 151.70+0.34 3.70+0.24 2.40+0.16 Chipewyan Saat. ko hss 21 141-156 148.60+0.52 3.54+40.37 2.38+40.25 *In 1901 Boas reported a head width of 149 for 10 individuals measured by Lee. females the difference is much less and hence not statistically signifi- cant. It will be observed that throughout both the Eskimos and Indians, Strong’s range is below the others. We have seen (Table 33) that Strong got a lower figure for this dimension than either Langford or Michelson. I would suggest, therefore, that this constant personal error accounts for Strong’s lower means. As in the case of head length no perceptible order exists in Sha- piro’s and Seltzer’s comparative lists, and the same explanation applies. However, the Labrador figures for head breadth, both Eskimo and Indian, do not appear to be so low in the range of the other groups as in the case of head length. 90 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR CEPHALIC INDEX The earlier figures on the cephalic index of the male Labrador Eskimos vary from 75.5 (Virchow, 3 individuals) to 77 (Duck- worth, 11 individuals). By combining the data of Virchow and Pittard with those of Lee and Sornberger (Table 41), we get a mean index of 78.6 for the males, which is not significantly different from Strong’s figure of 77.8. Similarly the difference between the female means is not significant. TABLE 41.—CEPHALIC INDEX Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V.+p.e. Xp.-e. Labrador Eskimo: Male \ Strong... 3.3 58 69.6—83.6 77.28+0.28 3.21+40.20 4.15+0.26 Peer eres. 9 \ 75.0—80.2 | Se odrsearh Sade eas OU reo fg 4; 78-6140.43 3.920.381 4.99+40.39 2.61 Virchow.... 3 74.1—77.6 Duckworth. . 11 ? 77.0 res Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong...... 79 70.6—88.7 76.94+40.22 2.94+0.16 3.82+0.20 ee oe Ue, 72.7—83.7 ) Sornberger.. 3 \ 91 67.0- 88.8 \ 75.8840.85 3.7740.39 4.9740.52 1.80 Virchow.... 2 oa 2 87 | Duckworth. . 10 ? 74.5 Labrador Indian: Male Stones cise 11 68.2—80.6 76.1 I ce EOS Bein BOR SE Wl Bee Hallowell... .. 74 74 —86 80.60+0.24 3.00+40.17 3.70+0.20 .... Boas (1895). ..79 74 —98 81.484+0.24 3.2140.17 3.9440.21 2.44 ree Grantes sce: 25 73 —81 77.60+0.26 1.92+40.18 2.4740.24 .... Boases ce olla — 8 79.80+0.19 2.60+0.14 3.26+0.17 6.88 Chipewyan GYant Ase eat 43 73 —85 79.30+0.238 2.254+0.16 2.84+0.21 Labrador Indian: Female SOOM M Soke tT | | PO eas Carel Scere Wasese Saree at ene Hallowell... .. 58 74 —90 81.10+0.27 3.10+0.19 3.80+0.24 Chipewyan Grant iu 21 75 —83 79 .60 +£0.25 1.69+0.18 2.12+0.22 As for the Indians, Strong gets means well below those of Hal- lowell. In turn, Hallowell’s mean for the males agrees with that of Boas (1895) for the Montagnais, and is close to Grant’s figures for the Cree and Chipewyans. Although there are few individuals in Strong’s series of Indians, still, in view of his good results in the case of the Eskimo, it is reasonable to believe that his Indians were some- what different from those of Hallowell. It is not impossible that the Labrador Indian was longer-headed before becoming admixed with the White, but admittedly this is contrary to Sullivan’s observations (1920) on mixed-blood Sioux. OBSERVATIONS ON ESK'MOS AND INDIANS 91 I would point out also that, whereas the female Eskimo in Table 41 have relatively longer heads than the males, in the Indians the opposite is true. This, I am told, is probably due to the fact that the Indian women braid their hair on the side, thus rendering it difficult to obtain the true maximum breadth. On the other hand, this sex difference seems to be peculiar to the two groups. Seltzer (1933) says of the Eskimos: It must not pass unnoticed that, with the exception of the Mackenzie, all the female groups have lower mean cephalic indices than the corresponding males (p. 327). A higher mean cephalic index for the Indian females, as compared with the males, appears in Hrdlitka’s studies of the Chippewa (1916), Sioux (1931), and Pueblos (1935). The relationship of this index on the living head and the skull has received considerable attention (see Stewart, 1936b). A dolicho- cranial group may reasonably be expected to have had an average index at least 1.5 units higher in life. We have seen (Table 4) that the male Labrador crania from the old stone graves have a cranial index of 71.8; that in recent grave crania this has increased to 72.6 (Table 11). In contrast to the cephalic index of 77.3 (Strong) for the living today, the above figures are 5.5 and 4.7 units lower, respectively. Turning to Greenland, we see a like condition: cranial index, 71.7 (Table 4); cephalic index, 76.8 (Deniker, 1913); difference, 5.1 units. Also, quoting Hansen (1914): As will appear from the special investigation of the skulls to follow below, their average index is 72.1..., that is to say, they are pronouncedly doli- chocephalic. If, for convenience, we consider the two sexes under one head, the average index for the 91 men and women measured on the East coast is 76.4. .., that is to say, larger by 4.3 than the index of the skulls, and the living population thus turns out to be mesaticephalic (p. 161). For comparison I give similar figures for two mesocranial groups from Alaska: Skulls Living Difference Nunivak Island........ 75.0(46) 78.6(19) 3.6 \ F : St. Lawrence Island.... 77.1(153) 79.7(63) 2.6 f Hrdlitka, 1930 These examples from among the Eskimos all show a larger dif- ference between the indices of the head and skull than would be expected on theoretical grounds. This is to be accounted for partly by the fact that the living and dead are not the same individuals, but. rather, different and sometimes inadequate samples of the population. Hansen (1914) has suggested another explanation: 92 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR The question now is whether this difference is to be regarded as evidence that the skulls have belonged to a more dolichocephalous, and perhaps older, tribe than that now living, or whether it should be ascribed to special circum- stances in the measuring... . Quite apart from the intrinsic improbability of the first alternative, there seem to be no grounds for doubting that the cephalic index of the living East Greenlanders is considerably greater than that of their skulls, notably on account of the powerful development of their masticating muscles, of which the musc. temporalis alone might easily increase the latitudinal diameter by the few millimeters in question... . Even the more careful investigations of recent times do not seem to have settled the question; ...the difference in question must naturally be greater in a vigorous primitive race like the East Greenlanders, than in the population of European towns, which latter have furnished the materials for most of these investigations, where persons emaciated by sickness must often have been the subjects of examination (p. 161). It is true on theoretical grounds, as I have shown (1936b, p. 136), that a disproportion in the thicknesses of the tissues of the head, favoring those laterally (the temporal muscles), increases the dis- proportion between the cranial and cephalic indices, and especially in dolichocranic skulls. However, it must not be overlooked that the use of white man’s food and customs by the Eskimos undoubtedly leads on the one hand to developmental changes, and on the other to decreased activity of the temporal muscles. I believe, therefore, that in Labrador the Eskimo skull has become more brachycranic as a result of changed nutrition. Evidence of this new type is already apparent in the ‘‘recent grave” skulls (Table 11). It seems probable also that a similar change has occurred on the west coast of Greenland, which has long been in contact with Whites, and from where Hansen (1914) reports a cephalic index of 78.1 for 21 men (stature 157.6 cm.) as compared with Poulsen’s 76.5 for 29 men of the east coast (stature 161.1 cm.). This explanation, in which a rounding of the skull accompanies the decreased activity of the temporal muscles, would seem to be a re-statement of the old theory attributing the shaping of the skull to the temporal muscles. This implication is not intended. I believe that the essential] factor is altered nutrition. We have yet very little knowledge regarding the effect of malnutrition during the develop- mental period upon the shape of the skull. Again, I may call attention to the lack of agreement between the figures for the Cree (Grant, 77.6; Boas, 79.8). It would appear that the “truly startling’ results obtained by Seltzer (1933, p. 363) with Shapiro’s ‘‘statistical device’ were determined partly by theseries used. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 93 HEAD HEIGHT This is one of the less satisfactory measurements, owing to the use of different instruments, techniques, and landmarks (see Howells, 1988). Of the older data, Virchow defines his merely as “Ohrhéhe’”’; Pittard uses the phrase “hauteur du crane.’”’ Duckworth gives two head heights: (1) “auriculo-bregmatic”’ and (2) stature less height of auditory meatus from ground. Presumably the method used in each of these cases was either projection or subtraction. However, the results given by Duckworth do not agree. Thus, the male auriculo- bregmatic height is 140.4, whereas by subtracting from stature the height of auditory meatus from ground we get 121 for the males. Strong used the projection method of Martin. Two other methods TABLE 42.—HEAD HEIGHT (In millimeters) Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong....... 58 114-152 182.34+40.71 7. ewenade 50 6. 7 38 Pitter. .....:. 8 139-149 (142.5) . Virchow..... 3 121-124 (1238.7) Duckworth... 10? ? (140.4) Western Alaska Moore*...... 638 120-149 182.274+0.40 4.76+0.28 3.60+0.22 0.08 Stewarty... 38 124-139 130.9040.40 3.6140.28 2.76+0.21 1.76 (1933)..... 174 128-151 139.0 Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 79 100—154 126.20+40.73 9.57+0.51 7.59+0.41 Pittard....... 6 129-140 (134.5) .... Ree SIROTA tees Virchow..... 2 118-121 (117.0) Duckworth... 11? ? (183.5) Western Alaska Moore.. . 48 120-1387 127.5840.41 4.25+0.29 3.3340.28 1.64 Collins and — Stewart.... 27 122-1389 128.384+0.56 4.29+0.39 3.34+0.31 2.32 Labrador Indian: Male erome :.« - >.<: 105 100-806 (EBB .S)) mre noe bases Mere, oe Balowslt. 41 125-145 134.204+0.49 4.7040.35 3.50+0.26 Hrdlitea(1916) 17 129-149 137.8 Sioux Hrdlitka(1931)72 121-146 135.6 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. 7 111—182 (118.6) Hallowell . 12 121—144 133.2 ippewa Hrdlitka..... 42 127—139 133.6 Sioux Hrdlitka..... 86 120—140 130.8 *See Hrdlitka (1930): St. Lawrence Island. +See Hrdlitka (1930): Nunivak Island and Hooper Bay. 94 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR were used in obtaining the comparative data given in Table 42: (1) Hrdlitka’s method (1920) for the data from western Alaska, and on the Chippewa and Sioux; (2) Todd’s head spanner used by Hallowell on the Labrador Indians. It may be pointed out in addition that these different methods involve different landmarks: the projection methods generally use tragion; Hrdlitka’s method uses the floor of the auditory meatus; Todd’s method uses the roof of the auditory meatus (porion). In view of all these complicating factors the data in Table 42 can serve only as a summary of the information available, not as strictly comparable data. A surprising thing about these findings is that Strong’s figures for the Labrador Eskimo compare well with TABLE 43.—HEIGHT-LENGTH INDEX Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong....... 58 57.4—79.6 68.90+0.41 4.60+0.29 6.67+0.42 Pittard. ..... © 8°70:6—76.4 (7321) #2: Ly cesar eee Virchow..... 3 59.0—66.0 (62.3) Duckworth... ? 4 (73.5) Western Alaska Moore*:..5. 63 61.5—74.7 68.47+0.24 2.894+0.17 4.224+0.25 0.90 Collins and Stewart*... 38 63.2—73.6 67.87+40.26 2.3840.18 3.53+0.27 3.19 Hrdlitka (1933) noe 174 ? 72.4F Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 79 57.8—86.0 68.22+40.36 4.81+40.26 7.05+0.38 Pittards <5 ee OO: UO tOros (69S) oe tue oe Ah ris alte Virchow..... 2 59.8—63.0 (61.4) Duckworth... ? z (70.7) Western Alaska Moore....... 48 64.1—75.4 68.72+40.19 2.0040.14 2.91+40.20 1.22 Collins and Stewart.... 27 65.1—74.7 68.0440.26 2.02+40.18 2.971+0.27 0.41 Labrador Indian: Male Strong. sa0:5. 10 59.8—69.5 (65.2) .. De eal Hallowell . 41 65 —T74 68.90+0.27 2. 600.19 3.70+0.28 Chippewa Hraligka(1916) 17 67.0—72.2 69.4 Sio Hrdlitka(1931) 72 62.6—73.1 68.1 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. . 7 59.4—71.7 (64.4) Hallowell . 12 66 —82 T2=5 Chippewa Hrdlitka..... 42 65.7—74.3 70.4 Sioux Hrdlitka..... 36 64.0—76.4 68.6 *See Hrdlitka (1930). + Calculated from means. OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 95 those for the Western Eskimo, whereas his figures for the Labrador Indians disagree completely with those of Hallowell and Hrdliéka. In the case of the Eskimos, Strong’s range is large and-his standard devi- ation high. Measuring larger numbers of Indians Strong might have gotten more comparable results. This is evidently a case where con- siderable error in theindividual measurements disappears in the mean. HEIGHT-LENGTH INDEX It may be remarked in connection with Table 43 that the results shown are as reliable as the individual measurements from which the index is derived; Strong’s large range of head height is reflected here. Compared with the Western Eskimo the Labrador Eskimo show almost no difference, as regards this index, that is of statistical significance. TABLE 44.—MINIMUM FRONTAL DIAMETER (In millimeters) Observer No. Range Mean =+p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong: .,....),5'- 52 94-114 105.36+0.37 3.9640.26 3.76+0.25 Pitard -. oc... BA he 7s 1G 119) pe ee oe ae mae sg ene Western Alaska Moore*....... 63 94-124 109.4140.48 5.041+40.30 4.60+0.28 7.10 Collins and Stewart*.... 39 96-114 104.4140.47 4.33+40.33 4.15+0.32 1.53 Hrdlitka (1998):; .. .-.. 165 92-116 103.0 Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong........ 78 95-112 102.5040.27 3.5540.19 3.46+0.19 Pittate 223 6 110-115 (112.7) snip ON Mantas en any Serene Western Alaska Moore........ 48 97-115 105.88+40.41 4.2214+0.29 3.99+0.27 6.90 Collins and Stewart..... 27 98-110 104.04+0.44 3.387+40.31 3.24140.30 2.96 Labrador Indian: Male PORE Fo ke HO DIRC LAUEN Ge Arpt cea Lote erate oaks é Hallowell... .. 41 102-128 112.3040.58 5.50+40.41 4.90+0.36 “ree Grahtyoo'sc 25 91-112 1038.20+0.68 4.6940.45 4.54+0.43 Chipewyan Gtant ca 44 94-118 104.20+0.45 4.3940.32 4.16+0.30 Chippewa _Hrdligka (1916) 17 103-114 107.6 Sioux Hrdlitka (1931) 72 93-114 106.4 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. nasa xo - ch LO0Z5109" 10426 ee aes ar ee oe Hallowell. .... 29 99-130 111.10+1.06 8.504+0.75 7.70+40.68 Chipewyan Grant)... 23% 19 94-109 102.40+0.53 3.42+0.37 3.34140.36 Chippewa Hrdlitka...... 42 93-108 102.6 Sioux Hrdlitka...... 386 94-113 103.0 *See Hrdlitka (1930). 96 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR MINIMUM FRONTAL DIAMETER Pittard is the only one giving figures for this dimension prior to those here presented. His results seem much too high. When Strong’s figures (Table 44) are compared with those given by Hrd- liéka (1930, 1983) for western Alaska a significant difference appears only in the case of the St. Lawrence Islanders. Hallowell notes (p. 366) that his figure for the minimum frontal diameter of the Labrador Indians is high as compared to other Indians. Here Strong’s result is undoubtedly more correct. In taking this measurement it is possible for the inexperienced to fail to get minimum breadth. TABLE 45.—FRONTO-PARIETAL INDEX Observer No. Range Mean -+p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong....... 52 63.1-79.4 71.3040:31 3.3640.22 4.71+40.31 Pittare 6 2.5.: SINR PAL ort oy Ay ABBe Wa}, 0) Gace atin We Reeder enietinas rented tir Penn Western Alaska Mooret.3 3; 63 61.8-77.6 71.024+0.26 3.0540.18 4.30+0.26 0.70 Collins and Stewart*... 38 61.9-71.5 67.441+0.26 2.4340.19 3.60+0.28 9.65 Hrdlitka (CESSS) eons: 165 ? 66.4 fT Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 78 66.0-81.5 72.1840.24 3.1640.17 4.37+40.24 Pittard). 775.) 6 ST DEIRBOL So CIS eke cee aoe” Shona a eee Western Alaska Moore: 3.2). =. 48 65.5-75.9 71.5540.28 2.90+0.20 4.06+0.28 1.70 Collins and Stewart.... 27 64.7-78.1 69.15+0.30 2.29+0.21 3.3140.30 7.97 Labrador Indian: Male Strong cc O Le OOO nO el aetae: Meet rad pra aurea cl gene ei ao Hallowell.... 41 63 -79 71.70+40.39 3.70+40.28 5.20+0.39 Chippewa Hrdlitka(1916) 17 q 71.0+ Sioux Hrdliéka(1931) 72 ? 67.77 eG Labrador Indian: Female NS Strong....... 7 69.4-75.0 72.5 AG UH Deas ies, Me Ne ere Tote Hallowell.... 29 64 —-84 72.80+0.66 5.30+0.47 7.30+0.65 Chippewa Hrdhtka: °..2242 ? PAA Sioux Hrdlitka..... 36 ? 66.7+ *See Hrdli¢ka (1980). + Caleulated from means. FRONTO-PARIETAL INDEX This index expresses the relationship between the minimum fore- head breadth and the maximum head breadth. It will be recalled that there is some evidence indicating that Strong failed to get maxi- OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 97 mum head breadth. This perhaps accounts for his higher fronto- parietal index. However, in the case of the Eskimos (Table 45) Strong’s figures seem more nearly correct than Pittard’s. For the Labrador Indians neither Strong’s nor Hallowell’s figures for the fronto-parietal index can be correct, both being too high. MAXIMUM BIZYGOMATIC DIAMETER One of the things shown in Table 33 is that Strong did not always get maximum face breadth. This seems to be borne out by a com- parison of his means and ranges for the Eskimo with those of the combined earlier groups (Table 46). The differences between these means is significant, at least in the case of the males. TABLE 46.—MAXIMUM BIZYGOMATIC DIAMETER (In millimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong... 2... 58 126-154 141.74+40.51 5.78+40.36 4.08+0.26 Lee®iuetes .. 839 134-149 slater a AS37134 136 } 144.9240.59 5.3040.42 3.6640.29 4.09 Virchow..... 3 141-152 Duckworth... 11 ? 42.2 an’ Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 79 112-149 133.35+0.54 7.14+0.88 5.35+0.29 Tees. Spe. 10 | 124-142 shee jes ae } 22 138-144 | 135.5940.74 5.1840.52 3.7840.38 2.43 Virchow..... at 132-137 | Duckworth... 10 4 136.6 Labrador Indian: Male Strong.........11 184-150 141.7 BAC Ms ie eens Oa hcg ene lt Seng x Hallowell. ..... 67 136-159 147.20+0.40 4.90+0.28 3.30+0.19 ree Grant. 0-56... 25 138-147 144.60+0.39 2.86+40.27 1.97+0.19 Chipewyan Grant.........44 138-159 149.60+0.50 4.89+0.35 3.27+0.24 Labrador Indian: Female Strong.:.. ¢<225..7. 128-144 134.3 Seeger poe Erne een igae e Hallowell. ..... 54 126-149 139.30+0.42 4.6040.30 3.20+0.21 Chipewyan GYant. 25, 28e 2 21 132-150 141.90+0.74 5.03+40.52 3.54+0.37 * In 1901 Boas reported a face width of 142 for 10 individuals measured by Lee. A similar showing appears likewise in the case of the Indians; Hallowell’s higher figure is probably more nearly correct. It will be observed that the Labrador Indians thus fall between the Cree and Chipewyans. The fact that the Labrador Eskimos and the Cree have equally narrow faces fits in with Seltzer’s theory as to their relationship. 98 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR We may recall, however, that the old stone grave population of Labrador showed a slightly broader face than the recent grave popu- lation (Table 11). I would call attention also to the unusually small range for this measurement in the Cree (S.D. 2.86-40.27), which would suggest that the mean is atypical. There is thus reason to believe that there has been a convergence in the face breadths of these two groups that can be explained otherwise than by close relationship. CEPHALO-FACIAL INDEX This index shows the relationship of the maximum breadths of head and face. The fact that Strong has not obtained the maximum of each of these dimensions is masked in Table 47; there is no statis- TABLE 47.—CEPHALO-FACIAL INDEX Observer Number Range Mean -+p.e. S.D. =p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strongs..05-> 58 85.1-107.4 95.66+0.88 4.29+40.27 4.4940.28 .... crepes Mk ai 91 .2- ante Sornberger. .17 86 .2— 99.3 | ; me Bisards on 8 Bil 93 _3-102.0 95.77+0.39 38.50+40.27 3.66+0.29 0.20 Virchow.... 3 96.6-100.0 Duckworth. . 11 ? OG Sra kertene ee oli een EON, geiee nee Carg Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong.) 79 77.8-107.7 98.78+0.39 5.16+0.28 5.50+40.30 .... pobre oS a 86.1— 94.6 Sornberger.. 3 90.0-110.4 as . e Pitted oc 6 21 93.0- 97.2 94.385+0.77 5.26+0.55 5.58+0.58 0.66 Virchow.... 2 92 .3-104.6 Duckworth. . 10 ? QOS cee ee ee tee en A Ne Pate, Sen oats Labrador Indian: Male Strongos se 11 90.5-109.5 98.6 ERNE Ree Oa tn, Ae NRE ROE Hallowell..... 67 86 -101 94.00+0.23 2.80+40.16 2.90+0.17 .... ree Grants. 4.94. 25 93 -101 96.60+40.81 2.2740.22 2.35+40.22 .... Chipewyan : Grant! 321%. 44 91 -101 97.6040.25 2.494+0.18 2.55+40.18 .... Labrador Indian: Female Strong ise tee sel SOS0 FO TsO ec 9G Oa ee ine erie eee ig InN aeons Hallowell..... 54 84 —- 97 92.50+0.31 ‘3.40 40.22 3.70+0.24 .... Chipewyan Grants. € uk 21 87 - 99 95.50+0.42 2.88340.30 2.96+0.31 .... *In 1901 Boas reported an index of 95 for 10 males measured by Lee. + Calculated from means. tically significant difference between Strong’s figures and those of the combined earlier groups. According to Seltzer’s table the nearest approach to the present Labrador figures is that for Hudson Bay (Birket-Smith). For the Labrador Indians Strong’s small series give higher indices than Hallowell’s. However, the latter is below those of Grant for the Cree and Chipewyans. QBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 99 This index is of little value for differentiating Indian from Eskimo, as Shapiro has pointed out. Undoubtedly this relationship between head and face (a high index) is a generalized Mongolian character. BIGONIAL DIAMETER The earlier data from Labrador regarding the breadth of the angles of the lower jaw consist of small series measured by Duck- TABLE 48.—BIGONIAL DIAMETER (In millimeters) Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D.+p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labredér Eskimo: Male Strong... ... 58 100 -128 114.33+0.56 6.37+40.40 5.581+0.35 Virchow.... 3 116 -186 (125.0) ... REE AGA, AA IB IOL, ae Duckworth.. 11? ? (181.2) East. Greenland Poulsen..... 26 104 -125 114.92+0.72 5.4414+0.51 4.74+0.44 0.65 Coronation Gulf Jenness (1923).... 82 100 -129 115.80+0.48 5.80+0.30 5.00+0.26 2.07 Western Alaska Moore*..... 63 102 -1386 117.83+40.52 6.11+40.37 5.18+0.31 4.47 Hrdlitka (1933)... 165 102 -140 117.8 Tl hreAne Eskimo: Female Strong. ..... 79 94 -121 107.43+40.40 5.22+40.28 4.86+40.26 Virchow.... 2 116.5-117 (116.8) .... Se re Duckworth... 10? ? (126.2) East. Greenland Poulsen..... 10 105 -119 111.8 Coronation Gulf Jenness..... 42 99 -120 110.30+0.58 5.60+0.41 5.00+0.37 4.10 Western Alaska Moore...... 48 101 -1238 111.883+40.51 5.26+0.36 4.71+40.32 6.77 Laheador Indian: Male Strong...... 11 96 -120 (109.3) . Pe Mra Ac idee My tat ad Hallowell... 41 104 -132 117.30+0.67 6.40+0.48 6.70+0.42 Labrador Indian: F: emale sirong. 4°. ; 7 100 -109 (102.4) Hallowell . 28 101 -124 110.2040.80 6.3040.57 5.70+0.51 *See Hrdlika (1930). worth and Virchow. In both cases the means are high, judging by other records. Strong’s means are slightly lower than those for other Eskimo groups given for comparison in Table 48. This difference may or may not be due to personal error. In the case of the Indian, Strong’s means are below Hallowell’s. The latter gives figures comparable with those of the Western Eskimo. These seem to be a little high compared with other Indians. 100 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR GONIO-ZYGOMATIC INDEX We have seen that Strong tends to get low means for both the bigonial and bizygomatic diameters. This fact is reflected in Table 49, where Strong’s mean gonio-zygomatic index compares well with those of other Eskimo groups. TABLE 49.—GONI0-ZYGOMATIC INDEX Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. X p.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong....... 58 70.8-91.7 80.62+40.37 4.19+0.26 5.20+0.32 Virchow..:) 2... 3 78.9-89.5" (85.2) celal ys hs Se meee eeeama ares pecker pert Duckworth... ? ? (93.1)* Eastern Greenland Poulsen) 2-2. 26 74.3-84.4 79.584+0.32 2.3840.22 3.0040.28 2.22 Coronation Gulf Jenness (1923) 82 66 -89 79.40+0.29 4.00+0.21 Western Alaska on .00+0.26 2.60 Moore}.225..5 63 71.1-92.0 79.9140.82 3.7940.23 4.7440.28 1.45 Hrdlitka (19383):25 165 ? 79.0* Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 79 72.5-98.2 80.494+0.32 4.2640.23 5.29+0.28 Virchow..... 2.° 8534-88-22 (8608) °" 005.0 ok SES ieee pete Duckworth... ? ? (91 :4)* nono. Eastern Greenland Poulsen...... 10 79.0-86.9 81.7 Coronation Gulf Jenness...... 42 71 -86 80.10+40.40 3.90+0.28 4.80+40.35 0.76 Western Alaska Moore....... 48 72.9-84.8 79.45+0.30 3.0440.21 3.8240.26 2.36 Labrador Indian: Male Strong. . 11 67.8-84.4) T%.0' Re Ny ee ORSON Hallowell.... 41 73 -89 80.10+0.36 3.4040.25 4.20+0.31 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. . tT (326=(8.1 “7634 Hallowell.... 28 73 -86 78.80+0.48 3.404+0.31 4.40-+0.40 * Calculated from means. t+ See Hrdliéka (1930). The poorer agreement in the case of the-Indians is doubtless due to the smaller sizes of the series determining the figures upon which the index is based. Comparative data are generally lacking for the Indians, but it appears that the relationship between breadth of jaw and face is about the same in the Labrador Indians as in the Eskimos. MENTON-CRINION As mentioned on page 78 Strong began by measuring menton- crinion and forehead height (nasion-crinion) directly, but with sub- ject 150 he changed from menton-crinion to menton-nasion. Thus, for these two face heights there are direct measurements in only about half of the cases. In the remaining cases menton-crinion can be OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 101 obtained by the addition of menton-nasion with forehead height; menton-nasion by subtraction of forehead height from menton- crinion. It will be recognized, however, that both forehead height and menton-nasion involve the landmark “nasion,’’ which the TABLE 50.—MENTON-CRINION (In millimeters) Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Share { 32* 178-222 200.2241.18 9.89+0.83 4.83+0.42 G.-.---+ | 26 196-230 (209.7) .... LiSBIMAY 2 Virchow...... 3 191-198 (194.3) Western Alaska Mooret. .. 63 180-230 200.1140.79 9.29+0.56 4.6440.28 0.07 Collins and Stewartt.... 39 175-209 193.2320.87 8.11+0.62 4.2040.32 4.75 (1933)...... 174 174-228 197.6 Labrador Eskimo: Female Stron { Bat 172-200 186.87+0.70 6.99+0.50 3.74+0.27 Seer 2) See ABteeee ROOCE), cai es Rec le Spee Virchow...... 2 177-192 (184.5) Western Alaska MAOGTO? So os: 47 167-201 188.13+0.78 7.88+40.55 4.19+0.33 1.20 Collins and Stewart..... 27 164-206 184.37+1.20 9.2340.85 5.00+0.46 1.80 Labrador Indian: Male Strong =... s ><; 11* 178-199 188.7 BREE: Cree ‘ Grant... 625.4; 25 160-195 184.00+40.97 7.2140.69 3.92+0.37 Chipewyan Cnistone Cee ea ce 44 170-210 187.60+40.83 8.1340.58 4.34+0.31 i Hralika (1916) 8 183-200 189.1 Sio Hrdli¢ka (1931) 72 171-216 194.2 Labrador Indian: Female siren se. TE LTOSLTT (174.8) Chipewyan SEPANG. 8s 21 160-195 180.8041.13 7.70+0.80 4.26+0.44 Chippewa Hrdligka...... 10 172-190 181.5 Sioux Hrdlitka...... 36 164-195 180.7 * Measured directly. + By addition of menton-nasion and forehead height. +See Hrdlitka (1930). beginner has difficulty in locating. All measurements involving this landmark must be examined very critically, hence I have distin- guished between those cases in which the measurement was taken directly and those derived indirectly. The only earlier figures for menton-crinion in the Labrador Eskimo are those of Virchow. These can hardly be reliable, since 102 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR they were taken on only three males and two females. However, it will be observed (Table 50) that these figures agree with the findings of Collins and Stewart for the Western Eskimo. Strong’s direct measurements are higher than those of Virchow, but are close to those of Moore and Hrdliéka for the Western Eskimo. Strong’s figures for menton-crinion as derived by the addition of menton-nasion and forehead height are considerably higher than his direct measurements. It is certain, therefore, that one or both of the constituent measurements are too large. This in turn implies that nasion was located too high in taking menton-nasion, or too low in taking forehead height, or both. Strong’s figure for the male Indians is in fair agreement with the comparative data; his figure for the females is low. Accepting these figures as approximately correct, it seems that the Indians, especially the Cree, have shorter faces than the Eskimo. TABLE 51.—TOTAL (PHYSIOGNOMIC) FACIAL INDEX Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. X p.e. ‘chang Eskimo: Male Strong....... 82 638.3-77.9 70.07+0.46 3.85+0.32 5.50+0.46 Virchow..... BTR 1 Oe CLOT) EE Uo he Ae Pe eee Western Alaska Moore*...... 62 64.8-83.2 73.6640.32 3.78+0.23 5.1440.31 6.41 Collins and Stewart*... 39 70.2-84.6 77.78+0.35 3.22+0.24 4.14+0.32 11.61 Hrdlitka (LOSS) 2 174 67.5-86.7 75.4 Eskimo: Female Labrador Strong....... 45 57.4-77.5 70.27+0.40 4.0340.29 5.73+0.41 Virchow...... Bee VI AS=T4e 6 (350) ee oe pase eA Western Alaska Moore....... 47 68.9-82.4 74.68+0.31 3.1440.22 4.2040.29 8.65 Collins and Stewart.... 27 70.9-84.7 78.01+0.42 3.2140.29 4.12+0.38 13.34 Labrador Indian: Male Strong. . ; 11 69.4-79.4 75.2 Chippewa Hrdligka(1916) 8 74.8-838.4 78.7 Sio Hrdlitka(1931) 12 690-8621. (7724 Indian: Female Labrador Strong. ec. G-.72.38-84.2 . 11.2 Chippewa Hrdlitka..... 10 72.6-82.6 177.3 Sioux Hrdlitka..:.. 36 71.3-90.4 80.8 *See Hrdliéka (1930). OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 103 TOTAL (PHYSIOGNOMIC) FACIAL INDEX Only the indices derived from Strong’s direct measurement of menton-crinion are considered in Table 51. Since this index expresses the relationship of the bizygomatic diameter to menton-crinion, and since Strong may not have obtained the maximum for the former in all eases, his mean index is low compared to the values for the West- ern Eskimo. The index for the Labrador Indians may be low for the same reason. MENTON-NASION It has already been explained in connection with menton-crinion why Strong’s measurements are divided into two groups. Also, it has been pointed out that the landmark “nasion”’ is difficult to locate in TABLE 52.—MENTON-NASION (In millimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D.+p.e. C.V.+p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Stion \ Bot 116-148 1380.04+0.81 6.18+0.57 4.72+40.44 Rae 32+ 108-150 (124.8) .... L akea sae bee 3S 118-129 | Sornberger...17}29 110-131 }121.384+40.66 5.274+0.47 4.34+0.38 8.36 Virchow..... 3 125-131 Duckworth... 11? ? 127.0 oe Labrador Eskimo: Female Pica ore 105-140 123.47+40.88 7.58+0.62 6.18+0.50 Ba pret: 45+ 108-142 (115.4) .... Shae hah, PRO A sie SLO 111-117 ) Sornberger... 4}16 99-116}112.8 Virchow..... 2 117-121 } Duckworth... 10? ? 116.5 Labrador Indian: Male Strorigy:.. .....5. 11+ 116-128 (121.1) <.., eh ee ae hee Pie Hallowell......41 110-134 119.70+0.48 4.70+0.35 3.90+0.29 Tee Grant.........25 118-1384 124.60+40.83 6.18+40.58 4.92+0.47 Chipewyan Grant ot sh. 44 113-148 125.30+0.68 6.64+0.48 5.30+0.38 Labrador Indian: Female SEONG. 5 one 7t 104-116 (109.7) . Sees eae Hallowell. ..... 29 103-122 112.20+0.64 5.10+0. 45 4.50+0.40 Chipewyan Grantee. 2 ce: 21 107-128 120.10+0.77 5.19+0.54 4.382+0.45 * Measured directly. + By subtraction of forehead height from menton-crinion. the living and that marked variations in the means must be looked upon with suspicion until carefully verified. By reference to Seltzer’s Table 9 it will be seen that for menton-nasion the male means range from 123.5 (Hudson Bay, Birket-Smith) to 131.5 (Mackenzie, Boas). If we add to this the combined series of Lee, Sornberger, and Virchow 104 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR (Table 52) for the Labrador Eskimo, we get the range extended down- ward to 121.8. A range of 1 cm. for the means of 18 Eskimo groups may be possible, but, in view of the fact that many of the groups have been measured by amateurs, needs verification. The great range between the two Labrador Eskimo series (Lee, Sornberger, Virchow; Strong) suggests that Strong is locating nasion too high, and the others are locating it too low. Strong’s figure for the male Labrador Indians agrees with that of Hallowell, but both are below those of Grant for the Cree and Chipewyans. Since this measurement carries so much suspicion with it, I will not give the lower (morphologic) facial index. FOREHEAD HEIGHT In Table 53 are shown two series for the Labrador Eskimo in which forehead height was measured directly. The rather good TABLE 53.—FOREHEAD HEIGHT (In millimeters) Observer Number’ Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strongest g 58 56-97 77.88+0.68 7.72+40.48 9.99+0.62 Sornberger... .17 20 56-91 73.2 Virchow...... 3 64-69 y Western Alaska Moore? 22 as: 62 57-89 78.385+0.51 5.96+0.36 8.18+0.49 4.68 Collins and Stewart®.o:...-> 39 52-78 67.23+40.58 5.388+40.41 8.00+0.61 11.35 Hrdlitka (1938)...174 58-86 71.6 eto ah eRe A oe see us Labrador Eskimo: Peete Strong =3. 423. 79 56-90 73.58+0.55 7.30+0.39 9.91+0.53 Sornberger.... 4 6 51-79 68.5 Virchowi... i<.% 2 60-79 z Western Alaska Moore.. ..47 69-82 72.66+40.55 5.62+0.39 7.73+40.54 1.18 Collins and — Stewart .o..5..%5 27 54-74 63.68+0.68 Nh.22 +0.48 8.21+40.75 11.44 Labrador Indian: Male Strong. . Pe Te Sal 5 a Chippewa aes Hrdligka (1916).... 8 57-75 64.6 Hrdlitka (1931)....72 54-78 64.8 Labrador Indian: Female Strong... gos oan ol 205-69: S643 Chippewa Hydhiekae, 23 oN: 10 53-68 61.9 Sioux Pralidkas 33 tats. f 86 48-71 59.3 NOTE: Strong and Sornberger measured forehead height directly. All the athais determined it indirectly by subtracting menton-nasion from menton-crinion. *See Hrdlitka (19380). OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 105 agreement of the Sornberger-Virchow means with those from western Alaska suggests that Strong’s figures are too high; in other words, that he located nasion too low for the purposes of this measurement. Likewise, Strong’s figures for the Labrador Indians are high as compared to Hrdlitka’s for the Chippewa and Sioux. NOSE HEIGHT The earlier data on nose height in the male Labrador Eskimos vary from 51.9 (Pittard) to 58.7 (Virchow, 3 individuals). When these series are combined with those of Lee and Sornberger (Table 54) TABLE 54.—NOSE HEIGHT (In millimeters) Observer Number’ Range Mean =p.e. S.D.+p.e. C.V.+p.e. X p.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Sarelig 240s... : 58 45-73 56.9840.48 5.4640.34 9.58+0.60 ligt. i APH og 46-56 Sornberger......17 a7 44-89 \ 52.0040.42 8.76-40.29° 7.2240.57 7.78 Virchow .',....%.. 3} 57-60 Duckworth...... 11 ? 57.4 = Labrador Eskimo: Fowles Brome: 25.5 8 A 79 44-71 54.82+0.33 4.3740.23 7.9740.43 LQG hd aon 43-52 Somnberger. wee 22 te ge )48-2740.41 2.8840.29 5.96-40.61 12.36 WEN... 3.. 2) 51-53 } Duckworth...... 4 ? &1 .2 Labrador Indian: Male Strong. ie S208: “STS he Ree Pe eer ee Hallowell . Seek eee 41 44-63 51. 80-+0. 41 3.90+0.29 7.50+0.56 ree Grant............25 50-59 54.70+0.37 2.7240.26 4.97+40.47 Chipewyan Of | SN eae eet 44 47-62 55.10+0.31 3.07+40.22 5.581+0.40 Labrador Indian: Female Strong. as Oe dar LOS OO 9 DOA! 4 SA AK eet Se eRe Hallowell......... 29 41-54 47.10+0.41 3.30+0.29 7.00+0.62 Chipewyan CONE hs es see 20 41-56 53.7020.57 3.9340.42 7.32+0.78 a mean is obtained, 52, which is significantly different from Strong’s mean, 57, and yet is well below the general Eskimo figure (see Sha- piro’s Table 10); indeed, Strong’s mean is very close to the general mean of the Eskimos. Nose height, of course, is another measurement involving the landmark “‘nasion.’’ For this reason, and in view of the above facts, it is difficult to say whether Strong is locating nasion too high in this case; but Table 33 suggests this, and we have noted the same tendency in connection with the measurement of menton-nasion. On 106 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR the other hand, it is not impossible that many of the earlier group measuring the Labrador Eskimo have located nasion too low. An irregular technique is perhaps reflected in the extreme upper range of Strong’s measurements. This has resulted in standard deviations which in the case of the males exceeds Howells’ (1936) computed ‘‘mean sigma’’ plus three times its standard deviation. The same situation exists in the data for the Labrador Indian; Strong’s figures are much higher than those of Hallowell’s. Still, it should be noted that Hallowell’s figures are well below Grant’s for the Cree and Chipewyans. Hrdlitka reports 59.4 and 56.6 for the male Sioux and Chippewa, respectively. NOSE BREADTH The earlier data on nose breadth in the male Labrador Eskimo vary from 36.8 (Duckworth) to 39 (Virchow, 3 individuals). By combining the earlier series (Table 55) we get a mean of 38.3, which is not significantly different from Strong’s mean of 38. The dif- ference is slightly greater in the case of the females, but still this is TABLE 55.—NOSE BREADTH (In millimeters) Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. X p.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male SOLON an Age 58 32-45 37.9540.27 3.04+0.19 8.02+0.50 Tees tye ene ac 35-41 Sornberger...... 17 8h4-LL p Pitted ee 8 37 35-4] 38.27+0.29 2.61+0.20 6.8140.53 0.80 Virchow:.. . =. «. 3 37-42 Duckworth...... 10 ? 36.8 Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong. 79 28-42 34.1140.21 2.88340.15 8.30+0.45 ee a 30-38 | Sornberger...... 4 33-40 Seca tpg aatoea ga OU 25.0440.37 2.5740.26 7.8240.74 2.21 Virchow........ 2] 32-35 Duckworth...... 4 ? 32.0 Eahrado? Indian: Male SEONG ot oul 0 GAS AD eA OO NOs cer a seer es hee eee 6 Tigilowell see 5 ese 41 29-46 37.60+0.386 3.40+0.25 9.00+0.67 ree Grant............25 381-45 38.20+0.42 3.1440.30 8.23+0.78 Chipewyan Grant............44 31-45 39.70+0.338 3.28+0.24 8.26+0.59 Vabesdor Indian: Female Strong........2.0. 7 8844. 38.7 PO AARNE Maoh cee oe yet eras a Hallowell. 5) ..-<. 4: 29 29-40 35.10+0.36 2.90+0.26 8.10+0.72 Chipewyan Grantin ii. 0. utb: 20 33-41 36.20+40.33 2.22+0.24 6.12+0.65 OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 107 not significant. According to the comparative data assembled by Shapiro these figures are close to the general mean of the Eskimos. Strong’s means for the Indians are slightly higher than Hallo- well’s, and closer to Grant’s means for the Cree and Chipewyans. The Indians appear to have absolutely broader noses than the Eski- mos. However, these northern Indians seem to have absolutely narrower noses than those to the south, for Hrdlitka reports breadths of 41.8 and 42.8 for the male Sioux and Chippewa, respectively. NASAL INDEX From the wide range of variation in the means of the earlier data on nose height and breadth for the male Labrador Eskimo, as noted under these respective headings, it is not surprising that the mean nasal indices from these same sources vary from 64.1 (Duckworth) to 72.3 (Pittard). The mean for the combined earlier series for male Labrador Eskimos (Table 56) goes still higher, 73.8. Not only is this figure higher than any of those assembled by Shapiro in his comparative table, but it is significantly different from Strong’s mean of 67. The latter figure is more nearly in line with TABLE 56.—NASAL INDEX Observer Number Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Stone: 5.4: 58 53.3-84.3 66.98+0.65 7.38+0.46 11.01+0.69 Lee . 9 62.5-89.1 Sornberger. .17 64.9-90.9 Pitter’ ws 3/37 679-7914) 73-8140.74 6.72+40.53 9.10+40.71 6.97 Virchow.... 3 62.7-70. 0 Duckworth. . 10 64.1 he Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong.. 79 47.5-78.7 62.54+0.52 6.90+0.37 11.03+0.59 Lee.. +40 64.7-79.1 Sornberger.. 499 68.8-87.0 | 79 9749.86 5.95-40.60 8.1740.83 10.23 Pittard. =. 4. 6 70.6-78.7 Virchow.... 2 60.3-68 .6 Duckworth. . 4 ? 62.4 Labrador Indian: Male Strong.. ...10 56.7-83.3 68.9 : pe dts cee Te et Ra i os ts Hallowell... .. 44 62 -92 73.00+0.81 8.00+0.58 11.00+0.79 ree Grant. .....:.25 66 -86 69.2041.01 7.49+0.71 10.88+1.03 Chipewyan Grant..< 2 32... 44 55 -85 71.90+0.71 6.95+0.50 9.67+0.70 Tabrtdor Indian: Female Strong.. 22% 61.0-765-9. 68.6: “. ATA OA cre dN Te Hallowell... .. 29 67 -93 74.80-+0.89 7.10+40.63 9.50+0.84 Chipewyan Grant........20 55 -85 71.50+1.19 7.89+0.84 10.04+1.07 108 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR the general mean of the Eskimos. A similar difference appears in the case of the females. Strong’s mean indices for the Labrador Indians fall well below those of Hallowell and agree with those of Grant on the Cree and Chipewyans. There is thus a suspicion that Hallowell’s figures are too high, although we cannot be certain of this because they are still within the range of other American Indian groups. The probabilities are that these northern Indians have a relatively broader nose than do the Eskimos. EAR LENGTH The ear is not commonly measured and there is thus little com- parative data on this feature for the Eskimo. However, the few early measurements of ear length for the male Labrador Eskimo give TABLE 57.—EAR LENGTH (In millimeters) Observer Number’ Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong cea, 58 56-84 70.88+0.49 5.57+40.35 7.86+0.49 Pittard! O00 ect 8 11 60-75 \ 67.2 Virchow:..2; 3.0% 3 62-70 : Duckworth........11? sg 67.5 Western Alaska Moore*.......... 638 64-86 73.94+40.42 4.9840.30 6.741+40.40 4.78 Collins and Stewart®.......<. 89 60-81 69.183+0.53 4.89+0.37 7.07+0.54 2.43 Hrdlitka (1933)...173 60-87 71.2 bgt oo Bele eR Meee Chahta Labrador Eskimo: PeGhe Bene ie 79 51-82 66.47+0.48 6.34+0.34 9.54+0.51 Pittard . ¥a6 8 60-71 64.5 Virchow . WA 60-69 : Duckworth. . 10? ? 63.6 Western Alaska Moore. 48 58-77 67.29+0.44 4.494+0.31 6.68+0.46 1.26 Collins and Stewart.27 54-73 65.04+0.60 4.66+40.43 7.1740.66 1.86 Labrador Indian: Male Stung. tien: it © BO-84. S66. 1). Cree Grant............25 56-74 65.60+0.59 4.35+0.42 6.68+0.63 Chipewyan Cuntens 5 a SEAS DARKE BF 44 59-77 67.00+40.51 4.99+0.36 7.45+0.54 a Hrdlika (1916)....17 64-89 72.00 Hrdlivka (1981)..:.72 -61-84 73.3 Labrador Indian: Female Strong cas cseene) De—06- (63.0) Chippewa Hrdlitka..........42 58-80 68.5 Sioux Hrdhitka). oo cc5.: 86 62-78 70.5 *See Hrdliéka (1930). OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 109 a mean of about 67. This figure is low compared with those for the Western Eskimo (Table 57). Strong’s figure of 70.9 is more nearly in agreement with thelatter. Thesamerelationship holds for the females. Strong’s series of Indians are inadequate for reliable means. However, his mean for the males is close to those of Grant for the Cree and Chipewyans. On the other hand, Grant’s figures are well below those of Hrdlitka for the Sioux and Chippewa. It would be interesting if these northern Indians were intermediate in ear length between the Eskimos and the American Indians. EAR BREADTH The mean ear breadth for the Labrador Eskimo as obtained by Strong (Table 58) is in good agreement with the earlier data both from the same area and for the Western Eskimo. TABLE 58.—EAR BREADTH (In millimeters) Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V. +p.e. X p.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong........... 58 27-45 37.4540.33 3.77+40.24 10.06+0.63 Pitterdy 3 20° 30.-5 & $643 38.6. ..: 510 RES Duckworth....... 11? ? 36.1 Western Alaska Moore*.......... 638 83-47 40.4040.21 2.4440.15 6.03+40.36 7.56 Collins and Stewart*....... 39 31-43 37.95+0.381 2.9040.22 7.64+0.58 1.11 Hrdlitka (1933)...173 32-45 37.7 Rn, eek SOS OR Loh NY PAO Rhode Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong........... 79 25-47 35.4340.27 3.6140.19 10.20+0.55 PCEREO os nee oe 6 34-39 36.2 Sb hiewr Duckworth....... 10? 6 (30.2) Western Alaska Moore.. ..... 48 31-41 35.67+40.23 2.3740.16 6.63240.46 0.68 Collins and Stewart........ 27 27-39 34.4140.31 2.42+0.22 7.04+0.65 2.49 Labrador Indian: Male SUTONe: oo tee LL 8-89! 85.5 ree (STONE roto 25 29-39 35.20+0.28 2.09+0.20 5.95+0.57 Chipewyan Grane ccs ooh 44 33-43 36.80+0.23 2.30+40.16 6.23+0.45 sas enctite _Hrdlitka (1916)... 17 35-43 38.8 ioux Hrdlitka (1931)... 72 34-45 39.3 Labrador Indian: Female Strong..........: 8 382-85 (83.0) Chippewa Brdhtica: <. cs... 42. 8842. 387.7 Sioux Hrdlitka......... 36 34-48 37.6 *See Hrdlitka (1930). 110 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR For the male Labrador Indian, Strong’s mean agrees with those of Grant for the Cree and Chipewyans, and all of these are inferior to Hrdlicka’s means for the Sioux and Chippewa. We have noted a comparable relationship in the case of ear length. If true, this can only mean that these Indians have absolutely smaller ears than either the Eskimos or certain American Indians. EAR INDEX Differences in absolute size of ear are masked in the index. According to Table 59 there is little sex difference noticeable, as is true in most races, and indeed very little group difference. In general it may be said that the Eskimos and Indians are alike in having relatively somewhat long ears. TABLE 59.—EarR INDEX Observer No. Range Mean +p.e. S.D. +p.e. C.V.+p.e. Xp.e. Labrador Eskimo: Male Strong....... 58 38.6-65.2 52.97+0.45 5.09+0.32 9.61+0.60 Pittard . 0... 8 62.8-63.3 (67ST)? 7i28: eth Le Duckworth... 11? ? 53.0 Western Alaska Moore*:)2.. . 63 46.9-62.9 54.61+0.29 3.40+0.20 6.2340.37 3.04 Collins and Stewart*... 39 47.7-62.9 54.9140.48 3.97+40.30 7.2230.55 3.13 Hrdlitka (1988). 2... ISA ON2=OO ST OS OO: aati eh ee ee rs aa Labrador Eskimo: Female Strong....... 79 41.1-70.6 58.36+0.36 4.75+0.25 8.90+0.48 Pittard :'::. =. 6° 50.7-65.0 (56.8) .... Pree Amtek ON Duckworth... 10? ? (47.4) Western Alaska Moores... 48 43.4-62.9 53.12+0.389 4.0140.28 7.55+40.52 0.45 Collins and Stewart.... 27 44.3-60.7 53.04+40.52 3.994+0.37 7.538+0.69 0.51 Labrador Indian: Male Strong... «a. ll -49;.2-61.3— 63:8 teat Se garreyy Cree Soe Grant oo). .c~ 25 46 -61 53.40+0.52 3.83+0.36 7.17+0.68 Chipewyan GPENS 60, 44 43 -64 55.00+0.47 4.65+0.33 8.47+0.61 Chippewa _Hrdlitka (1916) 17 47.2-60.9 53.8 ioux Hrdlitka (1931)72 42.2-64.2 53.6 Labrador Indian: Female Strong\.. 3.4: 8 49.2-55.2 (52.5) Chippewa Hrdlitka..... 42 48.1-65.2 55.4 Sioux Hrdlitka..... 86 46.7-61.5 53.3 *See Hrdlitka (1930). OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 111 SKIN COLOR The skin of the inner side of the upper arm was judged as to color tone by comparison with von Luschan’s scale. There are no comparative records for Labrador Eskimos, but Hallowell made the same test on his Indians and Shapiro reports Weyer’s observations on Alaskan Eskimos (Seward Peninsula). In combining these cbser- vations (Table 60) I have followed Coon’s (1931) recommendations: Numbers 1 and 2 [of von Luschan’s scale] are seldom encountered, and numbers 4 to 6, shades of yellowish unvascular brown, interrupt the more or less logical sequence, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, ete. I have divided this range TABLE 60.—SKIN COLOR: VON LUSCHAN SCALE (Inner side of upper arm) LABRADOR ALASKAN EskImMo EskIMo LABRADOR INDIANS Color (Strong) (Shapiro) (Strong) (Hallowell) number No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent Male Se ere er as vf RL ae iG. ad). 2 (30.8 i« 2 fil § 9 13 ap 3 i Pe Cea 14 9 2 13 I: LR ee ee 10 12 Fy 5 BO ori, ci Ares 8 63.5 5 70.0 J 3 50.0 14 62.3 iT Seer a rere 1 Z 3 1 Tac: a ys 1 1 eo ee te ee ee tk 7 Cea Non rs are 1) 1 2) eOtaL nw...) 52 0 10 53 Female Bee Se gs win eel | i 1 isdata ote Seat eee ate oe At SB. XEctegeEert . 1 | 2.6 Pe vistas ae Rat a bl 1 wa ae a Res es Ms tore 37 1 6 ra re 5 Soe ee en ad 16.{.97°* g {57-1 12 { 9-6 RBA Noa fee 6 1 1 14>. : ) Zs : 1 0 A an lin eas: 5.1 1 (47-9 9 [ 28.6 : Uf 8 5G aR OU chat 1 1) Totaliissci; 78 7 35 as follows: light, 3, 7, 8, 9; medium, 10, 11, 12, 13; dark, 14 and all thereafter. The divisions are of course purely arbitrary but were made because they seem best to coincide with my own observations made in 1928 (p. 254). The classification “light,”” numbers 3, 7, 8, and 9, are colors such as one would normally find in Europeans with a considerable increment of Nordic or North European blood; a skin almost without pigment, and made pink by 112 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR the presence of capillaries close to the surface of the skin. Under ‘‘medium’’ comes the color range usually found among South European Whites of brunet stock, with black hair and dark eyes; a skin more deeply pigmented than and not as highly vascular as the former. Under ‘‘dark”’ are included those hues which are found, in the south of Europe, among persons in whom the possession of a slight increment of Negro blood is visible, and all shades of brown deeper than this.... Although this method of lumping together the skin color observations into three categories may be somewhat crude, it has the advantage of greater reliability than the confusing and specious accuracy of a strict compilation, number by number, of von Luschan’s categories (p. 256). Allowing for individual variations in the color sensitivity of the observers, it is remarkable that the results shown in Table 60 are so uniform. With the exception of Strong’s insufficient sample of Indians, the majority in each series falls in the group of colors numbered 10-12 (medium). On the basis of Ridgway’s color stand- ards (1912), these tones of most frequent occurrence may be described as ranging approximately from light pinkish cinnamon to light vinaceous cinnamon. The lightest tone encountered (no. 3) may be described, on the basis of the same standards, as shell pink; the darkest tone (no. 17) as wood brown. That there is a tendency to slightly darker skin in the Indians than in the Eskimos is suggested by the fact that both Strong and Hallowell agree in recording higher percentages of the dark group of colors for the Indians. MISSING TEETH Strong was not equipped to make a full dental examination. However, he looked for caries as best he could and when they were present he estimated the amount of destruction in one of four degrees. In addition, he recorded the number of missing teeth. Since dental destruction is of very little value for comparative purposes unless detailed, I have considered only the record of missing teeth. Table 61 shows the frequency of missing teeth ’ according to age and sex. It is quite apparent, of course, that more teeth are missing in old age and in the females. If we count the number of missing teeth for each sex and compute the frequency in relation to the usual complement of teeth (32 per person), we find that in males 15.2 per cent and in females 25.6 per cent were missing. This compares with about 12 per cent for the skulls of the old stone grave series (Table 19). Although there is thus a considerable difference between the modern and prehistoric peoples in this respect, these figures do not tell the whole story. We have seen in Table 18 that dental attrition was markedly greater OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 113 in the prehistoric group than in the early historic. This factor is undoubtedly responsible for the tooth loss of those early times, for the Labrador Eskimo then had caries very infrequently, just as did other Eskimo groups before contact. with civilization (see Goldstein; Pedersen). Today the teeth of the Labrador Eskimo living on white man’s food do not get heavy wear but are lost through decay. Unfortunately, our data are not full enough to show that the amount of dental decay varies with locality and therefore with the amount of white man’s food consumed, a fact established by Collins (1982) for the Western Eskimo and by Pedersen for the Greenland Eskimo. TABLE 61.—FREQUENCY OF MISSING TEETH IN LIVING LABRADOR ESKIMO NUMBER OF TEETH MISSING Age 0 i-4 5&8 Q912 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28 29-32 Total Male 18-30. 3 11 yd we 16 31-40. 3 6 2 1 12 41-50. o% 4 1 1 1 7 51-60:..0.65 6. 1 ee 2 3 : 8 6l-old..... .. 4 we 3 1 1 1 10 Total. . 7 27 7 8 2 1 1 53 Female 17-30. 4 12 1 z¢ ae 1 na 18 31-40...... 4 3 3 cP 1 1 1 13 41-50. 1 4 1 3 a sf 1 th 11 51-60. 1 4 1 ty 2 2 1 ea 1 12 61-old 1 oe 5 4 ye 2 1 1 1 17 Total Peg. li | 23 i 7 5 7 4 1 ve 71 It is important to note that the record for the Indians is very different from that of the modern Eskimos. Although there are records for only thirteen Indians, none of them had any teeth missing. Presumably this situation is to be accounted for by the fact that these northern Indians have very limited contact with civilization. PALATAL RAPHE In life there is a line or ridge marking the midline of the hard palate, known as the “raphe.” This structure overlays the suture connecting the two maxillary bones anteriorly and the two palate bones posteriorly. Since hyperostosis of the borders of this suture, the so-called ‘‘palatal torus,” is fairly common in Eskimos, Strong palpated with his finger the hard palate of each of his subjects in order to determine the degree of development of this structure. When the raphe was palpable it was recorded as 114 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR slight (trace, faint), medium (+), or marked. In a few cases the expressions “‘present’’ and “not marked’ were used and these have been interpreted as “‘medium.”’ The records comprise 52 males and 76 females. Of these a raphe could not be detected in 23 males and 23 females; in other words it was present in 55.8 per cent of the males and 69.7 per cent of the females. Two males and six females were noted as having this structure markedly developed. Only in these eight individuals (6.2 per cent) could there have been much of a bony torus present. It will be recalled (p. 52) that of 59 Labrador skulls examined by the writer only one showed a torus of more than slight development. The difficulty as regards interpretation has been mentioned in con- nection with the torus. As regards the Indians it may be noted that of the thirteen individuals for which a record was made, five, all males, had the raphe present. In two of these cases the raphe was stated to be of marked development. DISCUSSION Of first importance in this study of Strong’s observations on the living is the evaluation of the reliability of the measurements. Having reviewed the evidence for personal error and studied the measurements in comparison with the best available data, the conclusions may be summarized briefly as follows: SERCO cioks Glia 5 Se oer Good Sitsing height. 5 on. oh. eG Slightly low FieAg tenet oe. OL oa A Slightly low Head breadth... csi. fgcnretnne's Slightly low $eGG BOIPNG. 5 ots eae es oe Agrees with comparative data for Western Eskimos Minimum frontal diameter... . Best data available Bizygomatic diameter.........Slightly low Bigonial diameter............ Best data available Menton-crinion.............. Direct measurement good Menton-nasion.,.. 0656 00.% 5055 Direct measurement high Rorehedd: heights. c ee see High Noee height. (...5...05...0 5G: Possibly high, but close to general mean of Eskimos Nose breadth *'.')) ofS) se Good Bar length ..... os Hisiaie ses e- Best data available War -Ureagine bic 088 ook eu Good The least reliable measurements are those involving nasion; namely, menton-nasion, forehead height, and nose height. In these three cases the means are higher than would be expected. In four other cases errors in technique are probably responsible for failure to obtain the maximum measurement: sitting height, head length, head OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 115 breadth, and face breadth. Here, naturally, the means are lower than would be expected. All the remaining eight measurements are fairly reliable and for the most part represent the best data available for the region. In the course of this analysis mention has been made of the fact that an unrefined technique may lead to increased ranges of the measurements and still give reliable means. I would attribute to this factor, rather than to White admixture, any unusual variability shown by Strong’s data. Under these circumstances it is desirable to summarize the variability of this Labrador series in relation to other Eskimo groups. Howells (1986) has pointed out that The Coefficient of Variation has a proper application in comparing the variabilities of different anthropometric criteria, as such, with one another, but it should not be used in comparing the mean variabilities of different human groups: the reason for this is that while it measures the variability of the sample, it is at the same time measuring the inherent variability of the character to which it applies, and the latter is a considerable differential which should be removed (p. 594). Howells has gone to considerable trouble to calculate the mean standard deviations (mean sigmas) of all the available series of 50 or more cases. On the basis of these figures he proposes to sub- stitute for the Coefficient of Variation a ‘‘sigma ratio’: This is arrived at by dividing any individual sigma by the mean sigma for that character, giving a ratio, or percentage of the mean sigma. Ideally, and on the average, this figure will approximate 100 (when expressed as a percent- age) which may thus be taken as a norm. Therefore, for any given sample the mean sigma ratio for all available measurements and indices will con- stitute an index of the variability of that group relative to the general average which is represented by 100 (p. 594). Using this device I have calculated the mean sigma ratios of Strong’s male Labrador Eskimo series and of such other Eskimo series for which sigmas are available and where the number exceeds 50. These figures are shown in Table 62 and seem to indicate that the Labrador series is of little more than average in variability (nose height excluded). Furthermore, as far as the data go, the Labrador series seems to be less variable than either the Barrow or Nunatag- miut series of Seltzer. . Another thing brought out by this study is the fact that we should be very careful about generalizing from the measurements on the living Eskimos of Labrador, because they have undergone certain changes in physical type during the historic period. There is good reason to believe that stature has decreased slightly here. 116 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR The skull, too, has probably become more rounded, although it is not certain that this is detectable in the living, owing perhaps to the decreased thickness of the temporal muscles (p. 92). A narrow- ing and lengthening of the face is also suggested. TABLE 62.—SIGMA RATIOS OF MALE ESKIMO SERIES WITH MorE THAN Firty INDIVIDUALS LABRADOR CORONATION GULF BARROW NUNATAGMIUT Strong Jenness Seltzer Seltzer Seltzer Measurements (58) (82) (65) (62) (64) Stature). cuoh.e kl. 96.4 94.7 Das Head length....... 100.6 94.7 89.6 102.6 76.7 Head breadth...... fa 78.2 82.4 109.0 87.2 Min. front, diam.«.) 8422 fc ree: aes oe ahah ee Bizyg. diam....... 109.5 102.3 87.9 122.2 138.8 Bigon. diam....... 110.0 100.2 ee ie pe Face Waeht 2 Boe ere 99.5 102.0 L212 116.5 Upper face height.. ..... 81.5 Pa TT toe choc Nose height....... .....* 108.8 ie Pkare Nose breadth...... 104.1 99.3 aes eatans Cephalic index..... 94.7 76.4 12:0 95.0 86.7 Ceph.-fac. index... 122.2 OU? 78.6 92.6 134.8 Facial: indexiis.3)co). acs. 60.9 88.0 96.1 78.4 Nasal index....... 94.9 83.1 eee Sat hiey kay Lets Peto bnighs (10) (13 (7) (7) (7) Mean sigma ratio 101.1 90.1 85.8 105.5 102.7 as Excluded because standard deviation exceeds the “mean sigma”’ plus three times its standard eviation. That these changes have not produced a type differing very con- siderably from that of the main comparative series from the eastern Arctic appears from Table 68. As Seltzer has clearly shown, these Eskimo groups are characterized by low stature, as compared with those of the western Arctic. Considering the possibilities of personal error and other factors affecting these figures, as brought out in the present study, there seems to be no justification for evaluating the TABLE 63.——_COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS ON\LIVING ESKIMOS (MALES) OF THE EASTERN ARCTIC EASTERN NORTHWESTERN HUDSON LABRADOR GREENLAND GREENLAND Bay Strong Others Poulsen Hrdli¢ka-Steensby __ Birket-Smith Measurements (58) (37) (29) (11) (99) Stature. ou. 158.4 157.0 161.1 157 ;4 160.6 Head length.... 192.2 192':9 192.0 195.8 193.7 Head breadth... 148.3 151.5 147.0 152.2 149.7 Cephalic index.. 77.3 78.6 76.5 HOME 77.3 Bizyg. diam..... 141.7 144.9 141.7 147.0 143.4 Ceph.-fac. index 95.7 95.8 98.4 96.5 95.8 Bigon. diam. ... 114.3 Sige 113.9 er bre Say Gon.-zyg. index 80.6 ee) 80.4 Nose height.... 57.0 52.0 7 ER HERON ARS eae eae Nose breadth... 38.0 38.3 SU irre Pam eee eG es ars Nasal index.... 67.0 73.8 69.2 OBSERVATIONS ON ESKIMOS AND INDIANS 117 differences too closely. I would point out, however, that the low stature and other differences reported for northwestern Greenland (Smith Sound) by Hrdlitgka and Steensby cannot be accounted for on the basis of contact with civilization as in Labrador; indeed, the reverse is true, and it is necessary to look upon this group as having had a different origin or as the product of inbreeding in isolation, unless of course the sample is not representative. In addition to considering the Labrador Eskimos in relation to the other Eastern Eskimos, it is desirable to review the evidence upon which Seltzer has based his contention that The ‘“‘Algonkian Cree”’ stock sent their numbers to the north and east in successive waves of migration. The first group occupied the whole territory of Hudson Bay, Labrador, Baffin Land and Greenland, supplanting still exist- ing bands of Old Thulers. The second group, represented by the present Caribou Eskimo, at a later period invaded the Barren Grounds where they are to be found today (1933, p. 368). The relationship of the Eskimo groups mentioned in this quotation has been pointed out (Table 63), and is based considerably upon low stature. In establishing the connection with the Cree, Seltzer used Grant’s figures for the group living at Chipewyan, a reserve located at the western end of Lake Athabaska, Alberta. Here again the relationship was based largely upon low stature, for Grant’s Cree gave a figure of 161 cm. (male). I have called attention, how- ever, to the fact that Boas (1895) reported a stature of 168.5 em. for 57 males. Moreover, Grant himself has reported a stature of 172.5 em. for 55 male Cree measured at Oxford House, northeastern Manitoba. It is true that Grant attributes the high stature of the Oxford House Cree to White admixture, but it seems doubtful whether this factor would account for the total difference of 11.5 cm. In view of the fact that the stature of northern male Indians generally is around 166-168 cm., I would suspect the stature of the Chipewyan Cree of being atypical. In view of this situation, and the new data available in this study, we may restate in Table 64 the metrical comparison between the Cree and Labrador Eskimo, using Shapiro’s statistical device,’ and giving Boas’ figures for stature and cephalic index as alternates. It will be seen from this table that by the use of different figures, and with six additional measurements, it is possible to get average differences exceeding 2.6. In interpreting the size of this difference 1This consists merely of calculating for each measurement and index the absolute differences between the various groups, and the averages of these absolute differences, disregarding signs, for the various groups. The quality of the sample is disregarded. 118 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR TABLE 64.—COMPARISON BETWEEN MEANS OF CREE INDIANS AND LABRADOR ESKIMO MALES CREE LABRADOR Measurements 3 Grant Boas Strong Dif. Others Dif. Stature At: 5 ibis, 161.0 168.5 158.4 2.6(10.1) 57:0 - :4.0(1'1%-5) Head length........ 193620: 5. seer. 192.2 1.0 1.92 9. 308 Head preadth =e 6 LOUL0 pos: 148.3 - 1 aS aise ew bes Cephalic index...... 77.6. 79.8 77.3 0.3(2.5) 867 OLE 2 Face height........ AB4i G4 hoghiice) oo se 124-3337; 3 33 Face breadth....... AAS Oo ose TAL AT 3239 144.9 0.3 Facial index........ BO31 GRY bottle SS.a* N24 Ceph:-fac, index...... 56:9 6 23,3 e073 95::7-,0.9 96.8. «0.8 Average differences........00.....000.. 1.57(3.18) 1.70(2.66) Nose height........ CY AY Graces OVER eee ats: He Ore 227 Nose breadth....... Sco. rte 30.0. 022 SO ous FOL Nasal index.:...... Ce ee, 67.0 232 938.8 4:36 Ear length......... BHeGrs 34 Hy 10.9 i523 Sate bane Ear breadth .... 2:2. Ome Cs ieee 274. 82:2 Par index. gk a: OS ie ow tek 53.0 0.4 Di Pee Average differences...........2...0853 1.83(2.64) 1.91(2.61) * Calculated from the means. I shall do no more than quote Seltzer’s remarks regarding the differ- ence of 2.29 which he found in comparing the Smith Sound Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians by the same method: This is not a small average difference, but still not excessively large. The difficulty arises in reconciling the exceedingly small stature of the Smith Sound Eskimos (157.4 cm.) with the much taller Chipewyans who have a mean of 166.4 cm. This great stature difference of 9 cm., in my opinion, is sufficient grounds for calling in question the Chipewyan origin of the Smith Sound Eskimo (p. 361). I may add that, just as the modern Labrador Eskimo are not entirely typical of the prehistoric Labrador Eskimo, so the Cree at Chipewyan may not be like the prehistoric Cree. According to Grant, the Post at Chipewyan was established in 1789, and it seems likely, therefore, that these Cree have been influenced by civilization as long as have the Labrador Eskimo. Until more data are at hand I see_no reason for accepting the band of Cree at Chipewyan as unchanged representatives of the Cree as a whole or of that portion of the Cree that may have given rise to the ‘‘Eschato-Eskimo.”’ Finally, without claiming more than an elementary knowledge of statistics, I venture to suggest that the statistical device employed by Shapiro and Seltzer has all the defects, and more, of the coefficient of racial likeness which Seltzer has condemned (1987). VI. GENERAL DISCUSSION One of the objects of this study has been to present a critical analysis of the measurements under consideration. I have felt that the anthropometry of the Arctic region will advance more rapidly if we recognize the deficiencies of the data, rather than minimize them —a general impulse, not to say tendency, where one is working up the material of a colleague. To this end I have tried to be critical likewise of the comparative data. In connection with the latter I would like to emphasize again the fact that the great majority of our skeletal collections from the far north are restricted to skulls without associated cultural objects. The chances of correct sex identification decrease considerably in the absence of the skeleton and the mean measurements of the two sexes vary accordingly (see p. 28). By ignoring cultural associa- tions we miss one of the few indications of time. If we complicate this situation still further upon measuring the material by introducing new definitions of landmarks, etc., there is little wonder that metrical differences appear in the results. Passing on to the living of the far north, we encounter even greater difficulties. For one thing, the majority of measurements, usually on small groups, have been taken by those with limited anthropo- metric experience, much as in Strong’s case. To this must be added the unfavorable working conditions encountered in these regions, and their attendant influence upon technique; the uncertainty of detecting mixed-bloods; the change in physical type following acculturation, ete. Although these difficulties are quite well known to most workers in this field, there is a general tendency, especially noticeable here, and encouraged by modern biometric procedures, to be uncritical of measurements. Once having accepted the figures it is an easy step, of course, to generalize from the metrical similarities. Started upon this course, too, the time element means nothing. In brief, one has to discount the attempts of the physical anthropologist toward the solution of the Eskimo problem because of the unsatis- factory nature of his present material. Morant’s recent (1937) analysis of Eskimo skull measurements by means of the coefficient of racial likeness is a case in point. In dealing with Labrador I have found it necessary to review the evidence upon which Seltzer claims close relationship between 119 120 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR the Eskimos of this region and the Cree Indians of central Canada. I have set forth arguments against the procedures by which this ‘relationship has been established in the discussion concluding the last chapter. I object chiefly to drawing such far-reaching con- clusions from such unequal material, as described above; in other words, to concluding from the similarity of a few measurements taken on small samples of widely separated modern groups, speaking different languages (Eskimo, Algonkian Cree) and undergoing different stages of acculturation (Whites), that they must have had a common ancestry a little over 1,000 years ago (according to Jenness’ theory; see p. 21). I have not attempted to analyze the material upon which Shapiro (1931) has based a similar connection between the Chipewyans of Athapascan Indian stock and the Western Eskimo. However, the same general opposing arguments would apply. I may add that Shapiro (1934) has also studied skull measurements by the same method and, being thus able to ignore stature and other features, has found a close similarity between the Western Eskimo and the Algonkins and Iroquois of the United States and Canada. This similarity has not been confirmed by von Bonin and Morant’s (1988) analysis of the same data by means of the coefficient of racial likeness: ... comparison of the six calvarial measurements suggested that seventy- eight of the 112 comparisons between the American Indian and Eskimo series would give reduced coefficients of racial likeness greater than 19.' It was found that thirty-one of the remaining thirty-four comparisons also give values above the same limit, leaving the following three reduced coefficients: Western Eskimo (220.0) and Arikara (49.1)—7.07+0.31 (15); Western Eskimo (220.0) and Western Algonkin (44.1)—15.91+0.33 (15); Point Hope Eskimo (125.1) and East-Central Algonkin (58.5)—17.820.31 (15) (pp. 117-118). In thus criticizing Shapiro’s and Seltzer’s methods I do not wish to minimize the contribution they have made in calling attention to the unusual similarity between the sets of measurements of these widely scattered groups. Part of the strength of their argument does not appear on the surface; namely, that it is almost impossible to find like agreement between the Eskimos and other Indian groups. Of course this is less surprising in view of the fact that the Algonkins and Athapascans are neighbors of the Eskimos. However, granted that further material will maintain a certain ‘These authors classify the C.R.L. into three groups: less than 5, 5-10, and 10-19, which presumably indicate close resemblance, moderate resemblance, and slight resemblance, respectively. GENERAL DISCUSSION 121 similarity, there remains the problem of interpretation. Are the differences small enough to have been developed from a common parentage in the central regions of Canada during the short interval allotted? Or can they be accounted for by the intermixture of neighboring groups? Or do they indicate a convergent evolution of more remotely related groups? The answer to these questions cannot yet be stated categorically and is better left to future investigation than to speculation. Throughout this study I have emphasized the differences between the living Labrador Eskimos and their early historic and proto- historic ancestors. These differences would probably be more obvious if we had skeletal measurements on the modern population for comparison with the ancient. As it is, we find, for example, that there is an indicial difference in head shape between these two groups, of more than five units, on the average. I have tried to explain this indicial difference by the extreme development of the temporal muscles in the living (p. 92), but find it impossible to reconcile all the facts. For instance, all reliable measurements on the skull, regardless of race, show a higher cranial index for the females than the males. This relationship is preserved in most living Indian groups (cf. Grant’s Chipewyans), but is reversed in the Eskimos (see p. 91);! in other words, the Eskimo woman, start- ing with a relatively rounder skull than the man, has a relatively longer head in life, in spite of using her masticatory apparatus more than he does in chewing hides. Although it is hard to see how this result comes about, we are asked to believe that by taking on an Eskimo culture a group of northern Indians achieved a relative lengthening of the women’s heads as compared to the men’s. Returning to the indicial differences in head shape mentioned above, we must not lose sight of the fact that the old Labrador Eskimos were very dolichocranic. Moreover, it seems well estab- lished by Strong’s early nineteenth century (recent grave) series that the Labrador Eskimo skull was rounder 75 years ago at the mission stations than in the prehistoric period. I have attributed this change in head shape, together with a possible decrease in stature, to altered diet. I do not believe that it can be satisfactorily explained otherwise. There is a growing body of evidence from ' Jenness (1923) has noted this reversal in the Eskimos, for he says: ‘‘In regard to sexual differences the cephalic indices of the women seem to be everywhere slightly lower than those of the men, the difference varying from about 1 to 2.5. Such skull measurements as are available give a directly opposite result.” (p. B57.) 122 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR other racial groups showing that both head shape and stature are rather easily changed when the environment, and especially nutrition, is altered.! The substance of this argument, then, is that measurements on living Eskimos that have been in contact with civilization for upwards to 100 years are of minor value in tracing Eskimo relation- ships. Not only is this true because of the physical changes attrib- utable to acculturation, but also, of course, because measurements on the living cover such a brief period of time and are not strictly comparable with those on the skeleton. The data on the prehistoric Labrador Eskimo skeletons here presented establish more firmly the fact that the physical type represented is much the same as that predominant in Greenland; it differs materially from that of the ‘‘western longheads’ (Old Igloos).2 Also, this type contrasts rather clearly with the Thule, at least with that of the late survivors. Assuming that Labrador was originally populated by Thule people of a physical type seen in late survivors elsewhere, it is safe to say that the type did not survive here. Whether or not the Labrador and Greenland physical type was derived from a mixture of Thule and Dorset peoples, or is a representative of the latter alone, cannot be stated until the Dorset physical type is identified. That some such explanation may be forthcoming, however, is suggested by recent investigations which have shown a wider distribution of Dorset culture elements in the eastern Arctic than was heretofore known (personal com- munication from Mr. Collins). Although in general, and on a metrical basis, the Eskimos of Labrador and Greenland have a similar physical type, we must 1 Krogman (1938) has summarized this literature (pp. 233-236). He says in part: “Finally, we must give attention to a factor, or a set of factors, that is as difficult to evaluate as it is to describe: the environment, whatever connotations this term may have. Both Ripley and Buxton agree that local shortness of stature among a people generally tall may be due to so-called ‘misery spots.’ The com- bined effects of disease and undernourishment may result in a stunting of the pre- sumably ‘racial’ growth pattern.’ (p. 235.) “In a very definite sense food and health are part of the environment. There ‘are several suggestive studies to demonstrate the effect of these two factors. Neu- bauer fed rats an inadequate diet and found that avitaminosis, prenatal or post- natal, resulted in a definite tendency to brachycephaly. Bakwin and Bakwin found in children who had suffered from intestinal intoxication during the first year of life a marked diminution in the transverse diameters of face and thorax... .”’ (p. 236.) 2 Morant (1937) found a C.R.L. of 6.10+0.49 between the Old Igloos and Greenland. This presumably denotes moderate resemblance. GENERAL DISCUSSION 123 not forget that the skeletal dimensions of these two groups in some instances differ significantly; indeed, the Labrador skeleton on the average is uniformly smaller than that from Greenland. This fact, whatever it may mean, needs to be taken into consideration in establishing the relationships of these groups. VII. CONCLUSIONS Briefly stated, the following are the main points developed in the course of the present study: SKELETON (1) Errors in sexing contribute considerably to the metrical differences between series of Eskimo skulls. (2) Personal error in measuring Eskimo skulls is due largely to differing interpretations of landmarks. (8) Comparisons between skeletal series of prehistoric Labrador, Greenland, Thule, and Old Igloo Eskimos show the closest metrical resemblance to be between those of Labrador and Greenland. (4) The old Labrador Eskimo skeletons differ from all others in the eastern Arctic in being uniformly smaller, on the average. (5) Pearson’s formulae for stature reconstruction fail to predict Eskimo stature from the long bones by at least 3 cm. (6) The application of this correction factor to the data on reconstructed Eskimo stature clarifies the distribution of stature among the Eastern Eskimo in prehistoric times: the Thule people were taller (164-166 cm.) than the Labrador-Greenland people (160-162). (7) Comparison of the recent grave series (mid-nineteenth century) of Labrador Eskimos with those from prehistoric times shows that the former have shorter and smaller heads with longer and narrower faces, relatively higher orbits, relatively narrower alveolar arches, and slightly lower stature. LIVING (8) Of Strong’s measurements on the living the three involving the landmark nasion (menton-nasion, forehead height, and nose height) are the least reliable; errors in technique somewhat affect the reliability of four other measurements (sitting height, head length, head breadth, and face breadth). The remaining eight measurements are judged to be fairly reliable. (9) The physical differences between the modern and ancient Eskimos of Labrador, as witnessed chiefly by the change in head shape and the decrease in stature, are due for the most part to altered diet. 124 CONCLUSIONS 125 (10) As far as can be judged from Strong’s inadequate Indian sample, the northern bands of the Montagnais-Naskapi differ from those to the south, as described by Hallowell, and are, if anything, less distinct from the Eskimos. (11) Taking into consideration the defects of the data on the living Eastern Eskimos and northern Indians, there is little justi- fication for drawing far-reaching conclusions from the metrical similarities or differences shown by these data. APPENDIX Al MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS E wf 4 bo “ ; 9 o.8 s rs 4 a = © : ety a ey 7 2 ay Sg gy 88 é 4°49 “Aeniae: 6 SA age BS ice Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 x 186 ;:' 186%.-:184 «78 2. 722 50 98:6 _ 83.2...1§2.0 192006 69 181 -A34°- “184. "76.0" 74.0 100:0> “85.1 *- 149.7 192007 O OZ ASO Pala ier 727 Le LO me LOS ee a SOS MALO’ 192008 73 186-° 184 9388 72.0 74.2 108.0 86.2 152.7 192009 43 ACT £89 18s 9S —6.: 276-8 97.1. -B525- 150.3 192010 37 184.0184" (190°, (7258. 70.6 97.0 81.8 149-3 192011 50 ISG" 328" .482" “65.8: . 6758 (108.1- -8tcb: 7162.0 192012 44 190 SAT Cte O 5 rae, eas easy nes 192013 All 180. *- 139'- 1860. .77.8-. 73:2 98.5. 81.8 ~ -149..7 192015 42 LOZ SES 0) tose eC (Gee sata ee. ee ENE ere 192016 M 9s SOR S L8l 79 6o) See al OOS Shes a LAG 192017 Xx 186 (331) 186" -70e8: 75.0 08.0" 85.4° 150.3 Recent grave series: female 192018 M LGD. ASE ESD. ITO 70 95.4 83.3 141.7 192019 66 oaks 192020 47 POG. Ln |e UPA Ors ate ota Sivek oH 192022 ae & Se Sa ey (ry Silage poe ye sate Steet Sasi: 192023 Bt. «479. ,- 125; 1 Uee* 69.8. 74.9 A072 88.2% - 14620 192024 0? EST. AI20)s- at oe (OT eee ee sae ae ers rae 192025 oo. Le: (AOA AG: O22 Fee 94.0 81.8 144.7 192026 AG: DEO CRO: Bian CEO 8 a evn we emis ie a Old stone grave series: male 192001 O 189 136 184 72.0 70.9 985m @ Serbo, llb3e0 192028 M 186: 00. ghee Fi ec Ou ot lee O7Ow M8eee) LOL eO 192033 iY? 178220132). 129" (9552). (72555 (9727) (88.2) (146.3) 192036 M 1942 140 9140S 7 o-2 Vets 10020" 2886" 7108.0 192038 M 190. (140). 142° (78.7) > 7E.7 (GOl.4). (8651) (157-8) Peabody Museum 2708t Ys 1854 1882) 187% 7.67520 99-8 . °8h.8 11538 47871 ag 188° 7182 194. 69.7 71.82 108-8) 8620. ASL 47990 M TBO), 128% “TAT.. 6767 ee 102 89-0. beet 47992 M 18034) 498. 779 6.2 O79" * “85 7-1 1588 47993 x6 189 130 134 68.8 70=9 108.1 84.0 151.0 57326 M 186 I32-. 1388 “22.0:- Fics. “100.8. 988.6: 150.3 57328 M 192 ABS 142 6938S 7 hO eLO06r 8) BSiae 507. 57331 M 198 140" 330 - 72.5. 567-4 02.8. F382) “154.3 57333 x: 18% mad SSS a 7720-) aoe 95.8 88.4 156.3 57335 O 194 < (182): 186s (680) 704) - (108 20). Sas) 1154.0) 57336 O nly ems a LE ese TS |b ace iG Rn ety Ny 9988 86.9) STAD SO 57337 O L923 SSP al a0 a7 doe 67a, Iho -F8r8>. LDS. 3 57339 Ma 200) (129-5 SSS 26h 5s 269507" 1078 Or sso abo a7, 57358 M ach! iit Ae 0m 3 YC aera 1029 5 eee Neo eee: 58795 y T8451 SO e186 Se oe LOS Ole ool = 8100 41 59657 O 190. S65. 188s 271 022-7862. 108.228 Sh Gia o43 * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. + Except where age is known, three age groups have been distinguished: Y, young adult (up to 35); M, middle-aged (35-50); O, old (50-). tA few measurements on this skull were reported by Wyman (1868). 126 af F Ls é ae 2 7 beets’ + © Weg. .: .4 te: 5 eae ~oe Ge GS As ae pit University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) 371 Adult 195 135 AS Soares Sem, Dares) It 872 Adult 190 132 COS? ENO cant 373 Adult 180 128 PEA. eer veces Collection? (Virchow, 1880) rips chide Adult 201 1389 69.2 ere: Lausanne Museum (Schenk, 1899) 1 M 192- 104 -184- :69-38:- -69:3°, 10050. 84 2 oO 190 188 184 72.6 70.5 Orat +. con, Paris Museum of ‘“‘Comparative Anatomy” (Sergi, 1901)§ 10241 » § 182 1386 7h.8 fash anes 10244 M 196 144 73.5 University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 1868 Adult 183 188 145 "Ss—— 79.2 105.1 90 1869 Adult 202 183 140 65.8 69.3 105.3 83 1870: Aduit:. T71?. 128*+ 2. 1 8 iy ests Le tes 1871 Adult 181* 130 139 71.8 76.8 106.9 989 Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) § 1440 Adult 185 188 188 74.6 74.6 100.0 85. 8918 Adult 188°: 182 189 - 78.1 ‘76.9. 108:2 ‘88. 3922 Adult 188 137 134 72.9 71.3 97.8 8S. 8923 Adult 185 131 139: :70-8~ « 76-1 106.1 88. $926. Adult: 178. 180: *128)- 73:6) >721-9 98:5 88. Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192027 M 178 (180) 184 (78.0) 75.3 (108.1) (87 192029 v 180 184 125 7.4 69.4 93::$: (79. 192030 M Pe \.cepp |,’ eee enn LOST 192031 O 190: -126:> -180 66:3: 68:4 - 108:2- : 88 192032 O 188: (182) 132°: (70.2)" .70-2:_ (100.0): (82 192034 >a TESo LOSE eee ete el Ses he 192037 M 181 meee Oe gO en URNS ets Peabody Museum 47873 M 179) 180." ASS? 78.62 74-8 10228> (86 47874 ay: 3). 180)> 12t 75.1 69.9 93 .1 79 47875 M I7Ge Lee. 126% 1169-30 “71.65 “108°S;. 385 47989 O 180s ante M126 ee 700 2: ‘ 47994 M 1Seu. eon olen. ‘67200 164-9 96-8: 77. 47995 ny: bes 26) B22) 7820. (6987 96.8 8 47996 M 182 134 AZS- F867. 70:3 95.5 8&1 47997 O LO 128); 124 (715) 69.8 (96.9) (80. 47999 O 178 “128 122" 7129), “68.5 95.8 79. 57327 a‘ 1802 3180- 128) (72-2. i711 98.5 82. 57329 Y: 174 181 122:;- *76:-S 70.1 93 .1 80. 57332 By: 134. “1824 127) 71-7 --69..0 96.2 80. 57338 M 181 131 134 (7255 4" 16.0" 102-8 O30. APPENDIX Al MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued Z 127 33 £ cE 2 ~ TERS 7 154.0 8 1655.3 6 158.3 i 18020 4 153.7 2 151.3 5 153.0 0 161.7 1 145.3 0) (147.3) 6 146. 3 ids? 5) (150.7) wt? 14753 -9 141.3 -6 141.3 7 id6'3 sir 4441.0 .O 148.0 8) (148.7) oe VaBy 6 146.0 0 142.3 Tae yey e 9 148.7 * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. + Except where age is known, three age groups have been distinguished: Y, young adult (up to 35); M, middle-aged (35-50); O, old (50-). §Sex of 10241 unknown; 10244 stated to be female. "| Sex identification made in Germany at request of Dr. Oetteking (1937). 128 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued 38 : : 5 i Bo ee oe FT e a9 43 5 < <£ 45 Peabody Museum—Continued 57341 »'4 Ve See Oa.) 57343 ys E78) ~ 132 57344 ye 172 180 57345 O 180 124 57346 O 184 130 §7351A O 190 bya 57475 rs 181 126 57476 a6 £79) 30 58794 6 180;° 122 59658 ¥, 169 128 127 128 Cr. index University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) 374 Adult 188 135 375 Adult 178 134 University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 73. (abe 1872 Adult 181 133 1873 Adult 180 128 Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) 4 3917 Adult 180 131 3920 Adult 174 129 3921 Adult 178 135 3924 Adult 171 126 139 129 135 133 128 128 71 72. (Or 75. 73. + Except where age is known, three age groups have been distinguished: M, middle-aged (35-50); O, old (50-). ROAAM: HRonwr 8 75.3 5 1 8 1 8 7 76. (Bbc 75. 76 71 74 NRE RWASWRWO “2 Co 0 4 9 8 3 = a2 fa od. ts m8 2s O§8 110.8 88.8 139.3 101-5 86.4 148.0 NOL ba Ol he ae 104.8 85.5 144.7 106.2 87.9 150.7 101.6 83.4 145.0 96.9 81.6 145.0 104.1 84.1 143.0 10020" 8652 Lay 104.5 88.5 151.0 100.8 83.8 145.7 103.0 86.8 148.7 103 .1 87.8 145.3 OES 81 bila 0 101.6 86.2 141.7 Y, young adult (up to 35); {| Sex identification made in Germany at request of Dr. Oetteking (1937). a ee S s = rs} & Field Museum 192005 91 192006 93 192007 98 192008 90 192009 86 192010 96 192011 98 192012 89 192013 90 192015 92 192016 92 192017 92 192018 85 192019 86 192020 96 192022 90 192023 94 192024 82 192025 86 192026 84 192001 94 192028 99 192033 96 192036 98 192038 98 Peabody Museum 2708 92 47871 98 47990 92 47992 91 47993 98 57326 92 57328 90 57331 90 57333 97 57335 94 57336 91 57337 94 57339 92 57358 99 58795 94 59657 95 Ment.-nas. ht. (114) 1309 1249 129 131 135 130 124 (117) Recent grave series: female 126 Old stone grave series: male 122 included in the calculations. {| Measurement altered by tooth wear. APPENDIX A2 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS Alv. pt.-nas. ht. (61) 77 (75) (76) 76 82 : 3 E 3 3 3 & 4 of Recent grave series: male 136* (83.8) 133 97.7 140 88.6 130 99.2 130 100.8 135 100.0 17 73 (68) 69 17 72 72 73 77 V1 127 130* 126 134 128 133 129 9h. 90.7 Facial index upper (44. 57. 6 105 113 -5) 104 (100) 5 93 91 alt 99 105 57.6 53. ars Ee oiviers 59. * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in pa 61. Bas.-alv. pt. 8) (99) (99) 9 98 102 jE eg 6 | 9 iH 96 98 105: <= 23. 99 102 98 4 107* ::. 109* 103 103 5 106 97 6 102 102 -9) 109 104 4 108 101 8 101 100 4 103 104 sou i SLEE 111 9 88 93 4 91 94 4 103 105 9 100 99 a 8 104 107* 9 113 110 | 101 103 2 103 100 4 102 101 rentheses and have not been 130 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued ko cage 3 3 : ad rl § 8 iS ae i : : 7 ‘) | s : 3 oO ; a 3 d 6 as S a a 8 > a d : a E a a 4 pre | : > = 3} 3 * : & ee iaanee Wimp é é 3 3 University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) 371 98 ae 74 133 AEA 55.6 372 100 ae 70 136 te 51.6 373 91 ee 73 129 wa 56.6 Collection? (Virchow, 1880) petty : 120 a 141 85.1 University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 1868 ae Pe, sp rane ae kes 101 104 1869 ase ans ea ie aa ie 107 eS 1870 sh re Mee aes Tee a, 1871 ee RS Lausanne Museum (Schenk, 1899) 1 97 oe 74 137 tial 54.0 106 103 2 97 seed 74 134 mee 55.2 102 100 Paris Museum of ‘‘Comparative Anatomy” (Sergi, 1901) 10241 i 124 76 134 92.5 56.7 10244 Seas 123 76 150 82.0 50.7 Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) 1440 106 ae 75 136 ea 55.1 102 98 3918 99 ey 71 ee ae Soa 104 102* 3922 93 oe 78 134* ee 58.2 102 95 3923 93 123 72 134 91.8 53.7 103 100 3925 97 126" 78 145 86.9 53.8 101 100 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192027 96 ne Ti C226) aN (56.3) 99 99 192029 90 ae 65 129 rel 50.4 100 97 192030 94 re 68* 128 tare 68.1 98 100 192031 87 ee 65 126* eee 51.6 99 98 1920382 96 ae 74 134 fovea 55.2 107 107 192034 85 ae oe eis re ee OO Re fry oe 192037 94 123 73 ae ars or ee Peabody Museum : 47873 92 120 74 129 93 .0 57.4 104 105 47874 86 ee Goro Pate ee 87 89* 47875 85 bee 70 123 coche 56.9 97 93 47989 90 115 WS 228 89.8 55.6 93 92* 47994 93 TER 73 ant 87.4 by pate) 97 99 47995 88 115 70 183 86.5 52.6 100 97 47996 90 ae 67 133 nee 50.4 97 96 47997 86 ae 65 122 Pare 58.8 90 89 47999 89 bbe if ee. ong ae 97 ae 57327 93 Sirs 69 het ee More Some 1015 57329 85 he 65 121 puke aSie7. 87 87 57332 86 : 69 128 53.9 92 104 * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 4 Measurement altered by tooth wear. APPENDIX A2 131 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued z x g : 3 G 3 5 s ; Z 3 $ hy 2 bo] : ~~ =] é . £° 4 z z i y 4 4 3 a g rc r 5; = 3 : 8 > N 8 3 3 q 0 & = = a = 2} a Peabody Museum—Continued 57338 93 117 71 fas ie Seok irk = 102 95 57341 88 (118) 69 124 (91.1) 55.6 100 98 57343 95 (105) 65 128 (82.0) 50.8 101 95 57344 90 ica eee ESE ie: 52.8 99 97 57345 88 io (68) LOOR. ten (52.8) 103 (94) 57346 91 ale 66 s+, 53.6 99 98 57351A 90 cat ly re kn eee Ai 10a* as 57475 90 111 70 131 84.7 53.4 105 103 57476 92 Aves ye ASB: eee 52.6 101 102 58794 87 109 65 << Ae Fe Ah, 99 97 59658 89 at 74 127 ers! 58.3 92 95 University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) 374 94 ie 70 135 Aare 51.8 375 97 fete 15 128 Pane 58.6 University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 1872 a rae Re ive cureas ae! 106 98 1873 ie: ike 3 Se peice Hes 97 91 Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) 3917 86 116 72 136 85.3 52.9 100 94 3920 85 ey 63 120 eta 52.5 93 96 3921 89 120 73 124 96.8 58.9 94 92 3924 91 120 64 131* 91.6 48.8 100 96 ‘ * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. APPENDIX A3 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS a ; ewe d : E a ge eee e E g : = ean a o re) i z R=] a 5 &. 2. 2 a a A a = a S a . : Z UMD Sag ton Ree a Oo ° ° >) vA a Z 4 a) < Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 2... is ze i aD ete tee ee 192006 35.0 40.0 87.5 DO 220 hh) OP 107-0 192007 31.5 39.5 79.7 46* 25 54.8 58 64* 110.3 192008 36.0 38.5* 93.5 56 21 $37.5 Ee nae 192009 35.8 37.0 96.8 60-21: 42:0. 62 62: 719.2 192010 38.0 40.0 95.0 54. 240 hE «6060's 64—s«106..7 192074. 25.0. ear eran ee We eee oe! pe iby |) a Fee Rate fe 228. Seas Oe) 16D. 220% 192013 36.5 37.0 98.6 OL 22). e510 68 62 750 192015) = eee ies iene See Mer. Se diy sae 192016 38.0 39.5 96.2 49 22 44.9 55 62 112.7 POZO Sass ties ie se as Te ar trey takes en tiga | amen ers Recent grave series: female 192018 38.2 39.8 96.0 62. 2h 40.5. 50r 56" 11230 192019 > 2). Aken ae Sa oe ee en Cer NNO Ca ere: 192020 36.0 39.5 Old 50 23 46.0 58 60 108.4 192022 .... estes oe PEs tet Mae sae skp eee airaae 192023... ake ee Se tas GY ee nO HORE LOC 192024 .... wee et as ne ee ee 192025 33.0R (38.0) (6552) Os oi ee DE. OU S178 192026 34.0L 36.0L De pasa Ae AAS ig tee ne rae ads dors Old stone grave series: male 192001 35.0 41.0 85.4 50. -25.°-50:0- 53 968: 128.5 TONES 6 ks sre seg ee Pp ce ear ty Amor berm eye | 192033 36.0 38.8 92.8 560620 = 0.0" Sh iby. . 111.8 LOZ086) - <2 2 Wes ee Be. (26. “4S.h coor <67> “11956 192038 35.0 40.0 87.5 50 22 44.0 55 65 118.2 Peabody Museum et 2108: 37.0 41.5 89-21, “Sa. 23. fhe 49) Gh TS6.7 A7T871 35.5 39.0 91.0 OL. S20). As fe Toe Oe. 211855 47990 32.5 39.5 82.3 50 24 $8.0 55 63 114.5 47992 35.5 7.2 95.4 Sp. 18°. S257" “b2. G8) + 12122 47993 36.2 40.5 89.4 BO 222" 0s “Bee 06.6 21 ICS 57326 35.2 39.5 89.1 Bl 22 = Sh 58. 66) 18 57328 37.2 42.0L 88.1 54> 26° 46:8 60" '66* -710:0 57331 36.5 38.2 95.5 BO otek SERi0-- 7 64 “Gas e116 27 57333 38.5 40.0 96.2 5D 2een= 4050) 54-2 Ol 11S.) 57335 34.0 40.0 85.0 Bl G24 47:30. 2547 (62) 18.8) 57336 34.2 39.5 86.6 BOs; 22iot MBE Saat eae See 57337 36.8 40.2 91.5 50. 22. --40.0> “58* %60:- 213-7 57339 40.8 45.0 90.7 58:.° 22 - $7.9" -.06;° “G2 110.7 L= left orbit R=right orbit _ .*Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 132 APPENDIX A3 133 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued § x : s 8 3 2 E i § FF : ; £ £ 8 r 3 = S pt} ro z ¥ 5 & § g 3 Zz = s & pa a a a aes 4 4 124: . bo 3. ks 3) 5 $ 6 a Z hfe | < Peabody Museum—Continued 57358 35.0 40.5 86.4 BO: 26" “bDVO6 Ga tie aS: 68795 38.5 37.5 89.3 be 1227 ies 56 65 116.1 59657 38.5 38.5 100.0 G2 :< 28>, BES. BT GOH: RAYS, University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) Bia. te: ibe nae = 7 ohre'S £6 fog) atigene Collection? (Virchow, 1880) 37.0 44.0 84.1 Mae cee 5S ee een’ g University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 1868 36.0 39.0 92.3 ae ee”! Rama Pea Sb’ e Ope 1869 38.0 43.0 88.4 iS oe Eten 7 4h ietee A gA 1871 Behe oe Lausanne Museum (Schenk, 1899) | eae ane ee G6 Bert hf .2 oe. ed, we Dace Meee ee Bo, ee AGE ee sar, Mutan Paris Museum of ‘‘Comparative Anatomy” (Sergi, 1901) 10241 35.0 40.0 87.5 GE. BPC uge Sie tees, 10244 35.0 40.0 87.5 OG eke SOS eh RE RAR Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) 1440 37.0 40.0 92.5 52.28: .bbsi@. 64... 6B; 116.7 3918 36.0 Sen woe 53* 26 49.0 52 66 126.9 3922 36.0 41.0 87.8 54. 22 HD. 60 BZ 184.0 3923 35.0 39.0 89.7 50. 21 BRO: «656. BBC 188.6 3925 37.0 Lice ce ae 566 22 ~«C 89.8) «8682. BB 48.9 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192027 34.5 38.5 89.6 BO? 28 SS eae Ser are 8 192029 34.8 39.2 88.8 AN t2e - 40,8" AS. ooo «27855 192030 37.0L 39.5L O87. 48 2b. B83 e 192031 35.0 38.8 90.2 49: 24 £90" “5-68: 188" 5 192082 36.0L 40.0L 90.015. -3O*-- 5: pecs OEP eg 192084 .... et re 7 Me ae ae = 1920387 34.5 37.0 93.2 62, 22 4 ASS 82: ---65;. 225.0 Peabody Museum 47873 35.2 40.5 86.9 50 22 44.0 6855 66 118.2 47874 32.0R 35.0R SIR: 4G 20 SE6 ORE et 47875 33.5 35.0 95.7 5S: Ze: 417s: -BO. G2 18450 47989 34.5 37.5 92.0 BO 28> 2G Oo HOO 52. eS 47994 34.8 38.0 91.6 48 22 61.2 6&5 68 114.5 L=left orbit R=right orbit * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 134 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR - MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SKULLS—Continued 3 is) : F d aamde ea : : . Ms ee ee: E E Se ee 2 ° + us ao) z a] = 8 4 ie 7A a s & a = a a a 3S € £ € 3 Q q E . > e) fo) fo) fo) Zz Zz Zz 4 0 < Peabody Museum—Continued 47995 35.0 37.0 94.6 49 24 49.0 650. 62 124.0 47996 37.0 40.8 90.7 48 22 45.8 49. 56 114.8 47997 34.5 36.0 95.8 Ae le Le cP oe te MIS99 ies bed Ata Ack Seite eae ee shi BYSYNG. eee eae Seka 465 (22: “47-8 55" “64: 116.4 573829 32.5 35.5 97.5 48" 19. “$9.6: 49: 54° 120:2 573382: 32.0 39-2 81.6 AD 925 5120 6. 61. © 119.6 573838 34.2 39.0 87.7 ble 326) fb (OL) cG4— (1 25r5)) 57341 35.2 36.0 97.8 ADTs VIS -S8s8 88" UG, 1153 57343 32.0 37.0 86.5 45 19: «29:6 60: -67%).- 114.0 57344 35.0 38.5 90.9 AS 202" splice Oak Ole The Lar 573845 38.5 40.0 96.2 54 21 $8.9 Sen Dn AR 573846 34.0 38.0 89.5 AS. 9295-55729 63" <6 115.7 S(abLAssore See ae or ae A Shi! 57475 = 3.4..2 33.2 89.5 GO - 22 a £L50.- 53): 261? (726 57476 34.5 38.0 90.8 bUL 225 08s 600 66) 12070 58794 36.0L 39.0L ORES j Ad: ee Aol De oe. Ook me OOG me O72. 59658 387.8 42.0 90.0 BO: -23. 26200 “64-7645 637855 University of Géttingen (Spengel, 1874) BDH eiyaiae. viedo seas age ae WES ae AS EES: University of Cambridge (Duckworth, 1895) 1872 37.0 41.0 90.2 BT e23.5 LOL 1873 36.0 38.0 94.7 BOM Zoi LEO Dresden Museum (Oetteking, 1908) 3917 37.0 37.0 100.0 Ol S2ie 029 2 7498" 68" 128156 3920 33.0 37.0R SOOT Abr S eres 2 ha er eee9 3921 139.0 39.0R TOOCOR “00— 219," S820) “ol 63.55. 728 75 3924 35.0 tapi © ae NE eis SOc ellen ehO-2 Om moot te Oc0 L=left orbit R=right orbit * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. : APPENDIX B1 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL HUMERI g @ g oo 3 3 Ek 33 Se 3 e 7° oo gs 33 4 o) = 23 aa 8 RIGHT Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 300 8623 17 73.9 293 192006 303 22 16 72.7 293 192007 2i6 = 25 18 72.0 270 192008 309 25 18 72.0 301 192009 Saleh im h Searaw en eons ee 298 192010 318 24 16 66.7 313 192011 304 24 18 75.0 296 192012 303 23.5 18 76.6 296 192014 297 24 19.5 81.2 289 192015 298* 22 19 86.4 ae 192016 305 26 19 73.1 So 192017 316 26 19 78.1 310 Recent grave series: female 192018 295 22 17 77:3 294 192019 264 21 15 71.4 256 192020 292 19 14.5 76.3 284 192023a 280 20 13 65.0 275 192024 aay win anes cae 279 192025 275 20.6. 18.5 65.8 270 192026 253 «18 14 77.8 245 Old stone grave series: male 192001 291 22 16 72.7% 282 192004 Mais 4 hee anes 9 watorek start 307 192033 302 .22 18.5 84.1 296 Peabody Museum 47992 298 21 14 66.7 ee 47998C1 294 21 18 85.7 287 47998C2 294 21 16 76.2 an 47998C3 ... Gay stead Boni 286 57352-2 -... aes ne Meo 297 57354 ae ee eer ere 304 57360-1 285 21 18 85.7 282 61604 297 25 19 76.0 296 Museum of the American Indian esac 1931) 897 Be eat 298 Field Museum Old : stone grave series: female 192029 266 18 14 77.8 262 192039 2b. 23.6) 16 68.1 : Peabody Museum 47998C4 ... cee ane oe 295 57348 286 20 13 65.0 277 57352-1 ... ome Hips satan 303 57356 oie: Soe’ 16 76.2 268 BTS60-2 8!) ke 265 Max. diam. at middle 20 i 14 Index at middle Co vs) + WAOWANDONS \- Co: i=) Se i) BOWNBH OS =) NH > R=) i=; nr Sooo * Measurement apitroxivates estimated auaeseasanta are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 135 APPENDIX B2 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL RADII; RELATIONSHIPS OF INDIVIDUAL LONG BONES i r=} 7 ome 3 ner F Ss 8 - 3 i ae eee ear So we bo] So Pe Oe ee gig RIGHT Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 220 78.8 78.8 71.6 214 73.0 192006 pete Cs dee 82.0 73.5 oT ee eee 192007 198: 70.2 76.7 71.0 aoe a 192008 216 69.9 75.8 69.9 213 70.8 192009 O22. Oss. se BA od abe 224 75.2 192010 Gen 7156 | -BS.0 72.0 ae eee 192011 ee tae 78.8 74.9 215 72.6 192012 222 73 .3 79.3 71.3 eee ae 192014 Ned waxicen as ee 78.2 216 (eS 192015 : gee: 71.8 a Sane 192016 as aha GOT 69.6 sie 192017 218 69.0 79.8 72.8 Recent grave series: female 192018 asics | Meets» A: Tae 207 70.4 192019 182 68.9 77.2 ely 4 182 71.1 192023 ee er ee) gee As ones 192028a 190 67.8 77.5 72.5 187 68.0 192024 ee eee eos Des ay ee 192025 19T 72.6 76.4 71.0 192 71.1 192026 Seater rai eA 72.4 aes Old stone grave series: male 192004 192033 a ape Ba. 192036 235 82.9 233 Peabody Museum pihecem es 203 47998G1 ... 215 47998G2 202 Nee 57352-1 ... 211 57352-2 220 218 Pans 57354 ae 230 75.6 61604 ee 70.7 its Pek Museum of the American Indian (Oetteking, 1931) 897 79.0 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192029 75.1 72.7 192037 80.2 ae Peabody Museum ATSOBGS. fs © © eek 208 Se 57348 208° 32.7 inns rept 57356 190 69.6 192 71.6 136 LEFT Fem.,-tib. index a] co > Nn Co NOK WOWMWWNOPH ba 3 i) “NSE RORY 80.8 Hum.-fem. index ba J FSS) » MOK WREOABD _- um. > ba J ms a Foe - Ke 70.4 APPENDIX B3 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL FEMORA z 2 | : 3 é = ¥ 3 : Z : 3 a E 7 3 a 8 S 3 3) = =) < | 4 RIGHT Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 422 419 28.5 25 87.7 192006 412 412 82 27 84.4 192007 391 387 28.5 25 87.7 192008 443 442 31 26 83.9 192009 410 408 27 26 96.3 192010 438 435 35.5 27.5 77.5 192011 411 406 29.5 25 84.7 192012 427 425 31 27 87.1 192014 411 406 33 28 84.8 192015 417 415 26 26 100.0 192016 440 439 34 27.5 80.9 192017 435 434 29 29 100.0 Recent grave series: female 192018 396 395 28 29 103.6 192019 373 368 25 23 92.0 192022 408 401 26 22 84.6 192023 391 387 25 24 96.0 192023a 390 386 27 25 92.6 192024 409 406 28 27 96.4 192025 392 387 25 22 88.0 192026 349 348 23.5 21 89.4 Old stone grave series: male 192004 438 436 29 26 89.6 192036 446 444 32 29 90.6 Peabody Museum 47998A1 434 433 32 28 87.5 47998A2 430 429 33 30 90.9 47998A3 421 415 30 27 90.0 47998B 403 395 25 26 104.0 47998A4 410 402 25 rat 108.0 57352-1 (435) 435 29 26 89.6 57352-2 434 432 33 28 84.8 61604 422 420 32 27 84.4 Museum of the American Indian (Oetteking, 1931) 897 429 424 32 29 90.6 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192029 370 366 25 23 92.0 192037 397 395 26 24 92.3 Peabody Museum 47998A5 385 383 26 25 96.2 57360-1 3886 382* 25 23 92.0 32 27 29 30 31 30 21 22 21 19 Platymeric index i 3 css) SOS BEE OD D> Or Co % ee: —_ D Cot + CoM %® OD 93.7 77.8 75.9 70.0 61.3 as * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 137 138 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL FEMORA—Continued g 2 3 a A 3 § ny ‘ AI | ee ae fa gg § z ee: eae ome fee ss E 4 5 é E Bs Be oe 2 8 3 & E 3 = 88 $3 = LEFT Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 423 421 28 26 92.8 32 26.5 82.8 192006 411 409 31 26 83.9 31 25 80.6 192007 390 386 28 24 85.7 32 22 68.8 192008 442 440 31.5: 26.5 84.1 31 26 83.9 192009 412 410 26 25.5 98.1 30 23 76.7 192010 436 433 34.5 29 84.0 31 26 83.9 192011 409 405 28 24 85.7 32 23 71.9 192012 424 423 29.5 Atk 91.5 29 25 86.2 192014 413 410 32 28 87.5 36 or 75.0 192015 419 415 26 28 107.7 34 24 70.6 192016 440 438 35.5 29 81.7 33 28 84.8 192017 435 434 30 29 96.7 33 26 78.8 Recent grave series: female 192018 391 390 27 29.5 109.2 33 25 15.6 192019 376 373 25 23 92.0 28 21 75.0 192022 409 402 26 23 88.5 27 21 77.8 192023 387 385 25 24 96.0 30 23 76.7 192023a 390 385 27 26 96.3 29 23 79.8 192024 406 403 29 27 93 .1 32 24 75.0 192025 386 381 25 22 88.0 25 21 84.0 Old stone grave series: male 192004 442* 437 29.5 26 88.1 32 24 75.0 192033 420 414 28 26 92.8 34 24 70.6 192036 450 445 31 30 96.8 36 25 69.4 Peabody Museum 47992 417 412 29 rat 93 .1 32 25 78.1 47998A1 440 437 32 29 90.6 36 26 (hs 3 47998A2 440 437 33 28 81.8 33 26 78.8 47998A3 402 396 26 26 100.0 31 21 67.7 47998A4 419 411 30 27 90.0 32 25 78.1 57352-3437" 433* 30 oT 6.0 ee 57360-2 428 426 32 Pa | 84.4 33 24 ese Museum of the American Indian (Oetteking, 1931) 897 426 423 30 29 96.7 33 29 87.9 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192029 370 366 25 22.5 90.0 26 20 76.9 192037 397 391 at Vt ale es SR te. 28 yA 75.0 Peabody Museum 47998A5 384 382 26 26 100.0 29 22 75.9 47998A6 411 402 23 26 112.0 29 20 69.0 57360-1 387* 385* 25 24 96.0 30 Zi 70.0 * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. APPENDIX B4 Ant.-post. diam. 30 32 MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL TIBIAE g 3 | = 3 S$ r Be ° . * . A i) i = s 3 bog E 3 E 3) a < 4 8 m RIGHT Field Museum Recent grave series: male 192005 $30). 29: 21 wae 330 192006 $88 28. 18 63 .2 337 192007 297 i327 21 77 36 298 192008 835 28 20 71.4 333 192009 S21*, 28 19.5 69.6 333 192010 361 31 20.5 66.1 856 192011 $20: * 29. 21 71:2 319 192012 837 - 30 18 60.0 330 192014 826 §=6.30 22 73.3 327 192015 82047 28 19 67.8 317 192016 350 29 238.5 81.0 346* 192017 844 31 21 67.7 346 Recent grave series: female 192018 803 28 16 57.1 302 192019 284 28 19.5 84.8 284 192020 305 26 16 61.5 306 192023 802: 25 18 72.0 296 192028a 299 26 18 69.2 297 192024 S18: 27 21 77.8 320 192025 292 28). 15 63.8 296 192026 ‘ en ees Ctockte 285 Old stone grave series: male 192036 868 29 24 82.8 Peabody Museum 2I0TA se ee peor hae 838 47992 $31- 29 22 75.9 333 47998D1 344 30 21 70.0 Raye 47998D2 317 27 20 7h.1 57352-1 344 28 Ze 78.6 miter 57352-2 359 30 23 76.7 358 57360-1 349 382 26 81.2 350 Museum of the American Indian (Oetteking, 1931) 897 8857 282 20 62.5 Field Museum Old stone grave series: female 192029 275 24 19 79.2 192037 SEG 25 20 80.0 Peabody Museum 2708C 3827 26 19 73.1 ae 47998D3 ... afew re See 812 57348 319° 25 19 76.0 320 573856 800 26 18 69.2 296 7360-2 314 25 18 V2i0 315 57360-3 825 28 5 Lateral diam. eo 25 19 Index at middle “_ cS) NE VO SH OFF OO NX tS) WAWSWOR™SO 73.8 78.1 i>) © SW*MwH- 67.8 * Measurement approximate; estimated measurements are shown in parentheses and have not been included in the calculations. 139 APPENDIX Cl INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING Birthplace Z, * 5 PRC ee re ee ee ee ee ee ee re ee 2 Okak Nain Nain Hebron Hopedale Okak Okak Nain Nain Okak Nain Nain Nain Nain Okak Nain Okak Nain Zoar Nain Hopedale Nain Stature Eskimo: Male 161. 169. 155. 161. 156. 157. 148. 151. 149. 158. 154. 157. 162. — On . . . . . . . a AOPAN APA AWAWPONRFOOCOWONDODOWWWHOROTHNONAMNHNHOCOCOCOCONNH 4 Bo 3 3 = a a i. 2 z a 2 85.0 52 89.0 52 82.5 53 81.0 50 (98.0) .. 88.0 52 74.0 50 12.0 47 74.0 49 84.0 53 78.9 51 84.1 538 84.0 51 84.5 53 78.5 49 82.6 53 81.5 52 87.2 50 80.8 50 82.2 51 86.1 52 82.6 50 78.4 49 81.4. * “61 17.2 50 84.2 51 78.5 50 84.9 53 80.2 51 83.7 58 82.8 52 85.9 49 10 .W-$9. 85. 1 s2 83.1. 58 81.9 58 84.0 49 82.7 &h Sict, 49 SO. 35t 83.5 52 15.9 652 85.3 52 80.6 49 82.0 52 81.0 52 83.3 52 85.0 53 86.9 52 BH S9 Co NE CHL DHE AAA AE G MU E WS OEE bo OE WWW O NWS AW RMNWKRVVSOS: Wm oH Head length Head breadth Cephalic index a) . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . =) DID BD ND GV 7VW™— AWW Co Sa MH AYWH WWD HH ®W © COND MN 8 OPS SHH W OOH WAAKHAHOW WSO OMR* NX Ss > E : & Strong—Continued 193 58 196 59 207 36 208 30 210 34 211 44 215 38 216 St 217 19 Lee 10 40 40 25 47 51 51 29 52 25 53 38 54 59 55 41 59 25 Sornberger 1 35 3 35 6 37 8 42 14 1% 17 48 18 21 19 16 20 60 21 30 22 25 23 20 25 50 27 58 29 25 30 30 32 19 Pittard (1901) 1 §2 2 28 3 29 4 32 5 46 6 20 7 18 8 42 Virchow (1880) : 35 ‘ Zi 40 APPENDIX Cl INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued Birthplace Zoar Okak 9 ee ee Francis Har. Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Nain Manaska Is. Davis In. Nachvak Ungava Bay Okak Nain Hamilton In. C. Harrison Webeck Har. ?Webeck Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. Black Brook ee he eh ne) ec) WOHDSNWMOW SH or 00 S O29 CHEN “IONE HO OTS 00 0S OHIO I AMOAIWOWS aon Sitting height NOAA PPP RDO Re wOOWNO Ww HOSSOMPOWMAROOORO Nn . . . . oS! . NVNSOWOOS n> or WOBMWOHK OOD Qn cS) 8 Co DS 1 & HW OM HOMES W OC On i) rs) 141 Cephalic index re] x FOWABABGOOH © “ 3 AWMNCHOAAASDW*W Co > Ne DOM 84.4 XN NX AOMBWWAKNVO®W’W “_ co WH ONKOO%S a] a mao 142 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued Birthplace OND OD 0D 0D 0D 0G 0D 0D 09 0D -~D AD PAD OAD OAD OD OAD OD OAD 09D 09D OD 0D 9D 09 09D OD OAD OAD 0D On OAD OAD OAD OAD OAD OY OAD O09 OAD 0nd nD 009 0D OD Hebron Hebron & g o S 8 Fe n n Indian: Male 166.2 8&5 177.4 ~ 89 168.2 84 157.6, - 81 162.6 84 163:.2° “286 168.2. <85 Loe 17, 16b23e 287. 16255... 838 Eskimo: Female 154.0 8&3 15379) *-84 145205281 142.0) 271 15025-" 83 148.6 79 1541. 384 VAT 36> 07 151.4 80 148.5 79 TAQ ie 148.0 76 145.3 80 143-6 78 ply. bi seo ema V5135- “82 152.1 80 T4823-0 219) 14673: 01 151..0-- 279 146.6 80 148.6 78 ASO! S47 141-0 273 L547 1500. “78 144.0 77 148.6 -- 77 148.6 80 LEAs 6 382 152-6: --81 145.8 78 145:341 37-74 13654 --75 152.3 80 15251 280 1428: U4 154.0: 371 150.6 83 0 RONG: HACmARA Qn SS) WODMWWOSOSCHOWNAWNHOWRWARBHOWANAHAAINIMAMNPOROO nn s Rel. sit. height AWN oom NH ray Nn rss) AAA: meweodso: DWH W AVM D ONAN S WW VLG 00 2 OW & MN G9 DHE HE WH Wo NH ME DAH Head length Head breadth Cephalic index WM ABKWKAROD Ce Ki Co DS Co D CoO Ki Co D 00 [ SD Oo YS & bo D CON So So WOE AAH OEE ABHSW AERA E 2 z 2 Strong—Continued 130 59 182 55 136 53 148 44 149 28 150 26 152 51 153 43 154 21 159 21 160 29 163 52 165 25 166 50 168 42 169 62 170 77 172 66 174 35 176 31 177 34 180 72 182 63 184 56 185 63 194 69 198 72 199 71 200 18 201 59 202 66 203 38 204 23 206 33 209 26 212 44 213 32 214 34 219 ? Lee 12 50 39 46 41 20 44 40 45 20 46 42 48 64 49 20 56 32 57 69 APPENDIX C1 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued g Birthplace Hebron oe6 BEE Nai Z 5 Nain Nain 5 e. Nain oe EE Nain Nain ee BE Okak Hebron Hebron ee ee ee Francis Har. Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Hopedale Manaska Is. Aillik — _ oO Nag . . . . NATADASCMOAWWDAIAWOWOPND Or m e ~ or so S . . . WORMWOHWOCOWRAH FS Sitting height Co oo THD HHA WAONSOOOWNAHNARANH NH ORE IOINOONOWOE 4 x rT) oo Rs NOOR OWORAROS a) on . . . . AND HOM WOW OAHMWMRVW WH WOO HH WH SHANG CH WAAWBOWCHMO Qn Qn Se cS) e's DS HW ROMNO ODS Head length 148 Cephalic index x » . . . . . COMO SWAY CHA VWI WOASWHNO 74.0 Co La AKPOOHAOWAWASWwS a) > Com P DOOM ONAN ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MBASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued 144 5 g & vA < Sornberger 5 17 9 38 24 25 26 17 Pittard (1901) 1 17 2 old 4 19 6 52 7 25 8 old Virchow (1880) 24 Strong 5 20-30 6 30-40 {( 20-30 8 30-35 37 20-25 38 20-25 41 25-30 Birthplace Nachvak Davis In. Hamilton In. Hamilton In. HIV Vo evy ey OND OAD 0-9 0~D 0D 0-9 0-~D 152. Indian: 149. 159. 144. 157. 153. 154. 155. =] oo oS a a 2 oA, 150 aa 80 Do Ib .2 ED L929 ye ye .5 6 A 8 4 .8 Female 5 =680.1 6." Sl 3 OF 1353 SMP AR 0, 8250 8° 781 35.4, 0200 Rel. sit. height ay Gal 55.8 52.2 54.0 53.6 50.9 50.9 52.4 53.6 50.6 52.8 r 3 % 3 Sts ~~ us] $ $ a my 185 124 192 160 (143) (135) 190 144 186 ©6144 196 =147 190 142 197 144 191 = 1438 196 1465 192 181 189 = 148 180 142 180 §=136 182 142 184 144 188 148 188 147 187 =149 Cephalic index 75 77. 75 7h. 73 7h. 7h. 68. 75. 78. 75. 78. 78. 78. 78. 79. - GO » NX SoOKRO Ne NWNWODS Head height APPENDIX C2 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING * -~- ov s Oy $ 3 . 2 38 € Fe GY 7 £ 8 Z 2 ™ q Sx : aes =| a) Od sé £5 x E $3 % S ss 33 £s a6 & a2 6 Eskimo: Male 63.9 112 78.9 140 98.6 112 80 57.4 110 76.4 142 98.6 124 87 59.0 112 hee é 148 102.8 114 77 67.5 on ae 142 95.9 125 88 70.3 Si - 152 98:7 -122 »80 65.8 ae a 131 89.1 100 76 Thick Se the 133 87.5 122 91 78.3 2 beet 148 98.0 116 78 78.0 ee ee 137 92.6 pt A 81 68.8 110 75.9 138 95.2 114 82 66.5 102 68.9 140 94.6 120 85 64.3 107 7237 146 97.3 127 87 61.4 104 71:2 142 97.3 118 83 64.3 104 7237 147 101.4 122 83 72.4 108 69.2 144 92.3 117 80 73 4 102 68.9 140 94.6 106 75 79.6 105 78.9 138 103 .8 112 81 67.3 108 73.3 148 101.4 124 83 64.8 104 fe de 138 95.8 115 83 65.4 102 69.4 126 85.7 108 8h 64.9 110 73.8 136 91.3 114 83 TOT. “AGT 70.4 140 92.1 104 74 TE:2 108 73.0 132 89.2 108 81 68.0 114 76.0 135 90.0 121 89 74.6 102 °68:9 145 96.6 108 7h 69.2 107 70.9 138 91.4 109 79 75.0 104 67.5 131 85.1 LIZ 8h 67.3 108 T250: 141 94.6 1138 80 70:3 104 69.3 140 93.3 118 84 74.0 108 73 .0 144 97.3 102 70 68.4 104 72.2 133 92.4 108 81 12.9 104 70.3 150 101.4 108 72 61.3 107 W125 143 95.3 111 Ne 75.9 111 72.5 145 94.8 TLE 80 67.2 106 69.3 145 94.8 115 79 78::0 104 67.1 143 92.2 115 80 67.5 108 73 .0 144 97::$ 121 8h 67.6 107 75.9 144 102.1 1H it 77 66.5 98 Ws 1 134 100.0 109 81 75 .4 108 73.5 141 95.9 106 7h 70.0 100 65.4 148 96.7 115 77 68.9 100 69.0 139 95 .2 LIZ 80 68.0 103 68.2 154 102.0 120 77 69.3 103 67.8 142 93.4 117 81 7h.4 94 6Sict 147 98.6 116 78 th 3 101 67.8 145 97.3 1g 77 66.0 102 69.9 142 97:3 107 7 71.0 103 68.7 138 92.0 110 79 Lae be Oo 22 fo Aa So KK SE OD MW DW Oo bo KYO 0 DM Oo Co 0] HO WW UADHORNA WE VKH SSWS Menton-crinion Total facial index + BEBO Op Az Oo BO DH HW = _W W SD Oo Oo WW 22 Co Hi AQ Oy DM ho & WH HSH RES 146 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued * of G 3 i o E o 5 ce) iB 4 = z » Sere ee ee ee ee Gg eee ae B § 3 & 58 P| a8 £ § 2 H eke Se @ Strong—Continued 192 129, 66.2 101 €7;8 148 99.3 128 86.5 193 134 «667.8 «© 108 «6 70:6 156 98.0" AA = <76 37. 196 180 69.9 100 69.4 .:138 95.8 109 79.0 207 123112 266 s7 101 69.2 140 95.9 110 Vil feres 208 180° 566.0. Adi '78..0-. 144 Oh - 122) 8h 57 210 129 “68:6 104 °71:2 184 O83 ANE 776 211 195°. 27058 iAO8” “WOE 446° 207-0 -120~ «84.2 215 439: 62.1 308) (7032-161 98.0 122 80.8 216 189 69.8 108 68.2 145 O80) TO, Be.7 OG Tat -6Db~" “E10. 87025" -<148 94.9 118 76.4 Lee 10 146 94.8 40 135 92.5 47 187 99.3 51 134 91.2 52 142 95.3 53 141 92.8 54 147 98.6 55 147 98.0 59 149 96.8 Sornberger 1 145 98.0 3 143 98.6 6 156 94.5 8 145 99.3 14 137 95.8 17 154 92.5 18 155 92.3 19 146 89.0 20 148 93.7 21 154 98.7 22 149 99\3 23 147 95 25 144 96.0 27 143 95 .3 29 139 86.2 30 138 90.8 32 144 C8 Base Pittard (1901) 1 141. 2982-1098". 206° Aah «10037 2 LAG TS Pr TID e926 a2 EG 94.1 3 145 72.0 118 80.8 146 §=100.0 4 139 70.6 115 78.8 149 102.0 5 LAG bar Aes Cae. kee 97.3 6 TAS. TRIE DI Pee ASG 97.3 1 TALS OO ASE > B07 VASO 93 .3 8 189° 78.9 199° 7039 442 95.3 Menton-crinion Total facial index Number Virchow (1880) 12 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued Head height 124 129 130 Head-length index SO& WA? GRwMRE MODE CARBWWK WORE RVSWOBKL WH WOH SRK SWE Min. frontal diam. APPENDIX C2 P = 3 4 2 . 3 oS i) a ee 3 . a, 23 ¥% 3 147 98 141 96 152 100 Indian: Male 19%4:2 148 108; 72.6 146 100 78.0 $42 95 70.8 184 90 7h. 4 134 97 85.5 140 106 8037 441 -100 Vix 344 93 76 2 437 94 Viok 150 109 61.9 143 92 Eskimo: Female 127 90 112 80. 121 85. 76.9 182 98. 70.6 1384 93. 77.0 TDS: 102; ces | aoe 88. 73.3 133 or: Ta.0- 20G 97. 80.0 140 107. 71.8 130 91. 723 See 98. 76.9 122 91. 74.6 126 94. 71.6 182 89. 81.5 123 94. 7E78°. 188 91. 78.2 1384 oF. 73.0 134 90. 7656 188 200. 77.9 140 102. 73.0 129 96%; 79.1 188 99. 71.3 130 90. 74.8 134 99. 75.8 136 108. 74.8 8184 © 96. 74.1 1382 89 69.0 125 88. 70.1 1383 97 (cry ae Oy EB be 73.3 ©1381 97. 738.6 1382 OL; 8 aa XR ~ > 8 & 1 Oy 2 & © & & DS Oo NaS VS NS VO tt © WW] BMH NAMWSOANRONSWWA Car Bigon. diam. olla wre wan 136 Gonio-zyg. index 0D ME OKA 00 D Oo Se KA dr Be BO 00 00 LD VEE OO) So EEE © & Le do © 00 Oo DEW bo bo D So Neo Menton-crinion a wow Ce 147 Total facial index & v Oo NH OO RUPEE WEN WAVWRD H ODRNN AW AWWA ACHE WH KARE OAAN INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Head-length index 62. XN . . . . . . . . . S ~z Co Co S GO DS OO WH WH NH TN 9 W WH OH NE B © CO OH COS DH MD AND S89 CO M9] BDO WH WVWO MNO OO fo) > S 148 & he oa e- ao] 5 og a q Strong— Continued 111 113 112 130 118 140 119 116 121 128 127 129 129 128 130 133 132 127 136 142 148 139 149 136 150 132 152 122 153 128 154 137 159 119 160 132 163 135 165 125 166 134 168 125 169 134 170 123 172 128 174 130 176 135 177 119 180 129 182 133 184 133 185 129 194 130 198 130 199 129 200 121 201 120 202 124 203 123 204 120 206 120 209 130 212 125 213 113 214 126 219 119 Lee 12 39 41 Min. frontal diam. Fronto-parietal index £9 FON SOSH & AMS AWE S WW AE WS WNW AWN ANS WON ON RE WH GE WEK Max. bizyg. diam. Cephalo-facial index ve) im>) W NVW_®W DWE ~ Co G1 ~W G09 ® © CO WD NV_OHO Bigon. diam. Gonio-zyg. index D> Co Re CO KE A2 DOONEY Oo 1 1S ONS W DH K f REEE DO VWWNHS WoO Oy bo DSWD WOW ON AR Menton-crinion Leal 5 ial anal anal anal anal amelie aed OWS O~1WOO-10 C00 DOMNID EP LDODO 193 191 Total facial index - MORHEEBAALVSOS OAD FPDOKe Virchow (1880) INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued * Head height 129 121 113 Head-length index Min. frontal diam. 115 113 115 111 112 110 106 102 106 104 103 102 109 APPENDIX C2 F 3 3 - = te $ 2 8 p $ aoe © 23 x $ me a 8 128 = 89.5 126 88.7 133 98.7 1381 88.5 142 98.4 18 Ee 138 110.4 144 90.0 eee 140 3997.2 79.9 184 98.1 76.9 141 95.9 80.8 187 96.5 77:2) 18% «= 5.1 78.3 186 95.1 75.9 141 97.2 137 104.6 sf p89 Indian: Female 73.9 140 97.9 75.0 130 95.6 78.9 180 91.5 72.2 140 97.2 69.6 128 86.5 69:48 128 -87.1 73.2 144 96.6 Bigon. diam. Gonio-zyg. index Menton-crinion 192 177 177 170 172 174 177 177 171 149 Total facial index Number Strong 151 158 161 164 167 pf 173 175 178 179 186 187 188 189 Menton-nasion{ 125 124 129 126 136 129 148 127 135 128 135 132 130 129 Forehead height{ 73 APPENDIX C3 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING Nose height{ 55 Nose breadth 39 Ear length Ear breadth Nasal index Eskimo: Male 67.8 68 38 53.3 74 40 64.1. -69> ~35 64.8 2 41 thot Te 80 RO < Te “2%, oe lee OO 80.0 64 31 61.5 56 30 Thee, (08 240 Gb ter, OF 6536" 1b. AS fare. Ue OO Webs. TO. St Oh59' Th 35 Slice. | 100. goo (hE ae (See 7027. =-69" 40 53.4 74 40 6372: 64 2:39 60.3 65 40 59.4 72 36 Glen te “as 84.38 65 38 58.2 80 40 S724" GT 35 56.9 64 38 63.0 69 34 63.0 63 34 76.5 66 43 i Ae aie ot aa (0.2. Ta 40 69.8 60 33 C6: Ne ay (ec 65.4 3 36 ORT tS 43 62.7. “Th 3s 61.8 84 465 60.0 8&1 37 6741 685-40 738.7 83 45 65.4 69 35 (Leen aits a4 63.2 70 36 6728) - {G0) 439 OD eet 7 OD Ear index 48. DOH WWD OHO VWREHH VO OMNWS WH WDUADNO SDE OW VNSW OAR HOARWORSE Skin color dat 8 9 +The measurements involving the landmark nasion should be used with care. 150 Teeth missing [oonll ooetione’ ANAT DM -yYvvvrevywwwsc ps p= Co PR NN ORE NF OrROCOWAN FOr NFH & 6wOt —" He ee On co, — Palatal raphe E+ not mkd. Ko) FHIFHISEHIIPEP IS Ltt tt i tt (+1 4+4+tttt4 99-99 1 APPENDIX C3 151 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued g 4 x} te eo 3 = 3 3 8 a 5 I a S = i) i=] oi 8 5 “ £ $e Fa tSe i Regs 9:53 : 3 eae ee ee re oe, ee eee ee ee Zz = me Z a A a a ra Ey Strong—Continued 190 122 86 54 .. 48... 79.6 ~80.+ 48. . 53.8 3 1 cr: 191 128 97 652. 86° 69:2 3:67, .84.. 40.7 10 5 + 192 182 .-79> 58°32 37 “66.8 A430 88s. GS. 0 9 0 - 193 188. 81. (64% ~ 4039 -762S 1 SC ES 20 9 8 _ 196 136 67 56 £35.” 6275.4; 70:38" 54.8 10 4 = 207 126°. 12: — 09: 886 Lega 68 930" 6105 11 0 208 1385 91 65 40°: 72.7 267°" 32 ° 27.8 10 0 — 210 126' 76 » 54 * 85°" 64°38 °"70 ° 38 56.7 10 1 mkd. 211 1838 75 61 +48: 8RS *“T4 GHEE S54 10 - _ 215 131 98 ¢-48. 98%: 22. 66 5 S85 S7V6 12, 4 faint 216 181° 84 ° 63 ~- 40)! W.8 2°67>°36°. 58.7 aba 7é - 217 116° 84 ‘60. -40-4 8050 #74 : 39-4. 52:7 13 1 — Lee 10 119 565: «41 74.5 ? 40 129 54 .387 68.5 ? 47 118 48°" 3T FT ? 51 128 BG. (3b: 6255 ? 52 122 58+ 88.. 5-7heF, ? 53 128 62 86 69:2 ug 54 120 561 ©8389 76:65 ? 55 119 46 41 89.1 ? 59 124 50 388 76.0 ? Sornberger 1 181-80 59 40 £67.8 ? 3 124 971 3° B4 ad, . 816 ? 6 124.43, 10 767 28R> Y6h59 ? 8 LLB: 82> AS Ali~ 8857 ? 14 120.6 249" 2382 7IAL ? 5 Wy 126.3 °c 9) 52 42 80:8 Hs 18 120.27 81 563 41 7745 ? 19 118 * 68 48 35 78:59 ? 20 116° 79 49 248. 87-8 ? ral | LIS 84 V1 5 487 72.5 ? ae 116.478: «52: 387. (7228 ? 23 118 * 87 ‘44 ‘40: 906.9 ? 25 124.92 ~s'35. 423" 763L ? at 118 + 69 '°54 <37%. 686 v 29 117 “72 #8680 ‘86; 700 ? 30 11S) 156. 485 O37 (a dee | ? 32 110.67" (44: 8385 = 78-9 ? Pittard (1901) 1 ef oh bl. 489" 7635: 125 241¢ 54.7 v4 Pe Ene Be 54 41 75.9 70 37 52.8 i 3 §8 . $6: 6%:9 “T1 43 60.6 ? 4 ae ef 51 40%. 78ih: 365 .86° 55:4 ? 5 bas By. 63 %87Tuc6as 70 38 54:8 ? 6 Ae 51 35 68.6 .60 388 68.8 ye ff 60 -«8G:. 72:30 +65 37: 66:9 xe 8 ee ue §2 w3G: 69:2 -66 39°. &9:1 = ? } The measurements involving the landmark nasion should be used with care. 152 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued +e ~ 8 ‘So ++ x es o ~ »~ rd ee ar Day € 3% x ts to, ae Oe SR ee eo E a cee Mike ie mame es arma ee Z | 4 Zz © z a n | a Virchow (1880) 125 69 DOU ek. 16827 4462 PST 6G? sbT4e88 66-6: “65 127° 64° 60 42 70.0 *70 Strong Indian: Male 1 70 54. 48 79:.6- -68 «30,. G25 Ly 2 66: 41639 * 42: -G007.>:' G67; 34) 5057 14 $ 64 54 45 88.3 60 «36: &8.8 15 4 584.625 Grae 78.1 65 <365 58.7 15 32 fae 59), 403 6938: 67 «3 Sh 9-2 13 33 15 53 Te 10 «3% 52.8 13 34 1S 268 200 “6S28 O71. 39 =54.9 we 39 69. 58 389: 67.2 67 88 49.2 10 40 Diy 2600") 204) 5677) 3261 as. Ol 10 42 66 61 42: 68.8 —62 38: 6138 13 43 70 58, 86 62.7 69 39 56.5 15 Strong Eskimo: Female 12 o- Ooe OU 67.58 62: 238: 5&2 14 14 (o- 400%, .00y (65.5 638 ~ 38: 62:4 11 16 15 OS" Js0n 26759 64 (38: 59.4 13 22 Tat aa ase 780° -d51 25 49.0 me 52 61 BT. 34/2456 9.6 61 oo. 65.1 10 54 662 7a Sime Oeil TA: = 36r 4356 15 55 71 DS) 38 Gono. ‘Gla goo 4952 12 56 69 59 8637 62a 65: Kobh | S78 10 bY 66 bb: “94-9 “6 28-— 6Ol ¢aGr. O05 nS 59 81 50. 31 G20L" 50% Loar cove nl 60 60° 59. 36. 62:0 “FL 486: 50,7 -..12 61 19 << 6Y “229? 17-5. 6.66 9B. 26850-" 18 62 2 Bho. St 67 8 Gh eases <8. 8 18 63 57 G2 87 S827 64. «Shs, 68452 18 64 Te-- GP oSk: “S08 68 1A St gel on he 65 76° 69-85. 69°87 Es, pore’ 26 66 70 55 37 67.8 68 34 \54.0 11 67 $8: 62° Sh 56.4. CT 2828 are 11 68 Th G62 400” 69.7. 69 --90~ Bech. 112 7 69 59 31° 5e°5' 61 “S4i S8S7 +: 10 fie 68. G50: Soot etoSe9 268s ba eee 10 72 18 57 34 69:6 64 «86> 56:2 +42 16 16: BE OST OO BoE Sk. OEE Cole 88 56° 59° 34° 57:6" 68° 934. 60:0 12 90 69 57 °*84 59:6 °61 86° 70.6 :i11 91 62 58. 32. 55:2 074 940 SEO 14 92 845 58 088.. 7817" 177 885° 4s. 12 93 1. 54 “Shs 620k. (24 GAR -56ch . 01 94 64 58 88: 68.8 %64 ‘835° 64:7 10 95 82° 6E 938s Seu Ub 38h 675, «12 96... 69 64 °88-. 61c2 858. ‘188 56:9 10 97 64 55 385 68.6 55 382 58.2 10 t{ The measurements involving the landmark nasion should be used with care. Teeth missing oooo7yvoocoocoOo NN, i) = SPRWOOONWOMAWYPADOWIRDwvy — bo po 18 Palatal raphe a) eee het et eae eeesiol iees ee es APPENDIX C3 153 INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued go oe § iC ++ = 2 i 1 eS x aot te 4 = 3 3 2 = 3 § 8 £ Pelee ae. Zz : ee ee eee Z a a 3 3 : Ey Strong—Continued 130) sic 68 6B Sc SReer SRS OL BRS G8. 2 2 ? 910-1. 68° 85 BA GER. ERC SB EE 14. 82 ~_ 2 .:...° 65 BB--O0 BPE 06'594°" 51.6 10 1 118 wos «84 6O- .86.::,68.2 .. 67x36" 58 37 13 4 _ 0... 65. BL... 90 388, 8 8855759 12 2 ~ im OT OS Re Sa ee 10 3 + ey 8 BE BO A DS Sk e567 . “16 4 a 199 i. 65 AT OA OO eS: 97 59:7 10 2 _ IO. oc 16 BS SA See 86 51.4. 310° «Se - 132 yas “Of (S38 34, ORE) GS 38: 6028 12 Z — 136 yon... 88°, (BL. 3b. Gk. ate, «46: 68:2 10 0 — 148 7 6) 92° BES 2S .. Se 3807 9 10 + 149 wax Ok AT OSU 78.T SD 5 8T 52 56.9 10 4 oi 150 109 74 51 29 56.9 60 386 60.0 il 0 is2 118" 82 60 88 66.0 67:-88,.56.% 10 6 > 158 1296 65 54 29 ‘59:7 60° 3050.0 10 0 + 164. 328° 68 52 28 S8.8 °66 > B12 47.0 6 +; a 159 128° 81 61: 836 > 6826, 14:.° 40 + 540 10 0 - $00 «12 75 G2 i> 82 2 61h G2. - 88%. 58. 20 4 mkd. 168» 120 76° 6&1 -82:.69.4% Hs 807: 41:58 10 14 + 165... 111 70 51°82 -68.7.° 76:- 88:;: 50.0 10 3 _ 106 22125 -68°- BEAT 8S 6b) OS 88S ise 11 1 = mkd. 168 126.81 86°< 34 560.9 ~ 6€4%S6 5: 54:0 ~ 12 1 BN 100s. Yee 18> 68 OR: SERA 1S BE ae 10 0 - 170-184 69 «6Y. 88 62.3. 78 41 Be TT oe + 172 (184. 75 «266 88 58.9) S71 8B GOFF = 10 5 + 174 126 79 55 38 60.0 67 385 52.2 10 16 _ VIG: 900 0 00 | BL 512 SE 8S eS 10 AT + 177 «194 81 56.85 6856 Or 81: 4824) 11 8 _ 180 < 228. 86 85 86 68:4 %Ws87 seis 10 18 + ise) 5380 08-18 OK 395 57k 9 _ 184 -182 $8 56 42 76.0 @ °48;: 648. i2 3 mkd. isk: 195 80 SO 689 6 78.0 WH Oesis % 18 oo 194 (120 8S 66: $5: 62.5 68-393: 574% 0 17 tr. 198 «729 «686. GO °.885< 68M TN AT EIB 88-12 ~ 199. :120 | 4% 6B a eT Oe gO 6 tr. 200 115 6B 247.81 266.0. 68>. Sho Gh.0.- 8 0 - 201 118: 46>" BS88° 67:9 70" 84. 4826 10 1 =" 202 184 75 6&9 88 56.9 70 98$7..62.8 11 8 208. 124. 7% BASE 6h.8: 65 88 50:6 10 2 tr. 208 1155 70s eG BT OB SK Ee 1 = 206 198.. 81:56 -86- 68.5 68. $2 4&7.0° 10 0 —_ 200° 419° °76 48: (86. 72:9 ST 86: ese 12 4 tr. 219%, 196 1G be. St RES BE 8S Re 2 mkd. OIS 182 (9E BR ORR 8D OG Bee Bie se 10 4 + 214° 162 82 60. S4. 68.0 68 86 61:6 10 0 + 219 105 90. @7°°:86' 75.5 70 36 68,4°- 10 3 + } The measurements involving the landmark nasion should be used with care. tSupernumerary teeth. ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING—Continued 154 a 8 a is 8 : ae Lee 12 113 39 117 41 111 44 kit 45 112 46 116 48 111 49 115 56 115 57 117 Sornberger 5 106 9 116 24 99 26 108 Pittard (1901) 1 pide 2 4 6 7 8 Virchow (1880) 121 117 Strong 5 6 7 8 37 38 41 Forehead heightt 55 Nose height{ 59 Nose breadth 36 Nasal index 60. Bo DW WVWH CoH td oORRNON 3 6 Ear length 60 Ear breadth Indian: Female 68. 7h. 75. 66. 67. 66. 61. 4 6 9 1 9 0 0 65 66 58 3 32 t The measurements involving the landmark nasion should be used with care. Ear index 55.2 Skin color 12 Teeth missing SOOO Nyon Palatal raphe OD OD OD ND DN INI OND ee) AND WD 0~D 0D 0-9 0D Il fwd BIBLIOGRAPHY 1893. Census of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1891. Table I, Population, etc. St. John’s, Newfoundland. 1908. Census of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1901. Table I, Population, ete. St. John’s, Newfoundland. 1914. Census of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1911. Table I, Population, etc. St. John’s, Newfoundland. 1922. Interim report of the census of 1921. St. John’s, Newfoundland. 1923. Census of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1921. Table I, Population, etc. St. John’s, Newfoundland. 1937. Tenth census of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1935. Vol. 1, Population by districts and settlements, St. John’s, Newfoundland. BESSELS, EMIL 1875. Einige Worte iiber die Inuit (Eskimo) des Smith-Sundes, nebst Bemer- kungen iiber Inuit-Schadel. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Bd. 8, pp. 107-122. BIRD, JUNIUS 1934. (Mention of work in Labrador under heading ‘“‘Science in the Field and in the Laboratory.’’) Natural History, American Museum of Natural History, New York, vol. 34, p. 768. BIRKET-SMITH, KAJ 1925. Preliminary report of the Fifth Thule Expedition: physical anthropology, linguistics and material culture. Compte-Rendu de la XXIe Session, 2e partie, Congrés International des Américanistes, Géteborg, 1924, pp. 190-205. 1929. The Caribou Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-24, vol. 5, Copenhagen. Boas, FRANZ 1895. Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Bd. 27, pp. 366-411. 1901. A. J. Stone’s measurements of natives of the northwest territories. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, vol. 14, art. 6, pp. 53-68. BONIN, GERHARDT VON, and MoRANT, G. M. 1938. Indian races in the United States: a survey of previously published cranial measurements. Biometrika, vol. 30, pp. 94-129. CILLEY, J. P., JR. [1906?} Bowdoin boys in Labrador. Rockland, Me. (A. J. Huston). Co.uins, H. B., JR. 1932. Caries and crowding in the teeth of the living Alaskan Eskimo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 451-462. 1934. Eskimo archaeology and somatology. American Anthropologist, vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 309-313. 1987a. Archaeology of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Smithsonian Miscella- neous Collections, vol. 96, No. 1, 431 pp. 1937b. Culture migrations and contacts in the Bering Sea region. American Anthropologist, vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 375-384. Coon, C. S. 1931. Tribes of the Rif. Harvard African Studies, vol. 9, Cambridge. DELABARRE, E. B. 1902. Report of the Brown-Harvard expedition to Nachvak, Labrador, in the Fae tla Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 3, pp. 155 156 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR DENIKER, J. 1913. Races of man. London. DuckwortTH, W. L. H. 1895. On crania of Eskimo in the University Museum, exhibited by Prof. A. Macalister. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 25, pp. 72-144. Also No. 23 in Studies from the Anthropology Laboratory, the Anatomy School, Cambridge, 1904, pp. 181-183. —— and PAIN, B. H. 1900. An account of some Eskimo from Labrador. Proceedings of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society, vol. 10, pp. 286-291. Also No. 34 in Studies from the Anthropology Laboratory, the Anatomy School, Cambridge, 1904, pp. 268-273; see pp. 196-197 for corrections. FISCHER-MOLLER, K. 1937. Skeletal remains of the Central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition, 1921-24, vol. 3, No. 1, 96 pp. 1938. Skeletons from ancient Greenland graves. Meddelelser om Grgnland, Bd. 119, No. 4, 30 pp. Furst, C. M. 1908. Der Torus mandibularis bei dem Eskimos und andern Rassen. Ver- handlungen der Anatomische Gesellschaft von Berlin, Bd. 22, pp. 295-296. —— and HANSEN, FR. C. C. 1915. Crania Groenlandica. Copenhagen. GOLDSTEIN, M. S. 1932. Caries and attrition in the molar teeth of the Eskimo mandible. Ameri- can Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 16, pp. 421-430. GowER, C. D. 1923. A contribution to the morphology of the apertura piriformis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 6, pp. 27-36. GRANT, J. C. B. 19380. Anthropometry of the Chipewyan and Cree Indians of the neighbourhood of Lake Athabaska. Bulletin 64 (Anthropological Series No. 14), Canada Department of Mines and Resources, National Museum of Canada. HALLOWELL, A. I. 1929. The physical characteristics of the Indians of Labrador. Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, T. 21, No. 5, pp. 337-871. HANSEN, SOREN 1893. Bidragtil Vestgonlaendenes Anthropologi. Meddelelser om Gr¢gnland, Bd. 7, pp. 163-248. =e 1914. Contributions to the anthropology of the East Greenlanders. Meddel- elser om Grgnland, Bd. 39, pp. 151-179. HAWKES, E. W. 1916. The Labrador Eskimo. Memoir 91 (Anthropological Series No. 14), Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey. Hooton, E. A. 1918. On certain Eskimoid characters in Icelandic skulls. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 1, pp. 53-76. HOWELLS, W. W. 1936. Some uses of the standard deviation in anthropometry. Human Biology, vol. 8, pp. 592-600. 1938. The techniques of measuring auricular height in the living. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 185-198. BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 HRDLICKA, ALES 1910. Contribution to the anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, vol. 5, No. 2, 280 pp. 1916. Anthropology of the Chippewa. Holmes Anniversary Volume, Washing- ton, pp. 198-227. : 1920. Anthropometry. Philadelphia. 1924. Catalogue of human crania in the United States National Museum collections: the Eskimo, Alaska and related Indians, North Eastern Asiatics. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, vol. 63, art. 12, pp. 1-51. 1928. Catalogue of human crania in the United States National Museum collections: Australians, Tasmanians, South African Bushmen, Hottentots and Negro. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, vol. 71, art. 24, pp. 1-140. 1930. Anthropological survey in Alaska. 46th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 374 pp. 1931. Anthropology of the Sioux. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 16, pp. 123-170. 1933. The Eskimo of the Kuskokwim. American Journal of Physical Anthro- pology, vol. 18, pp. 93-145. 1935. The Pueblos, with comparative data on the bulk of the tribes of the Southwest and northern Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 20, pp. 235-460. 1937. The gluteal ridge and gluteal tuberosities (3rd trochanters). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 127-198. HutTTon, S. K. 1912. Among the Eskimos of Labrador. London. [1926.] Health conditions and disease incidence among the Eskimos of Labra- dor. 74 pp. Poole, England. JENNESS, DIAMOND 1923. The Copper Eskimos. Part B: Physical characteristics of the Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18, vol. 12, 87 pp. 1933. The problem of the Eskimo. Chapter X: The American Aborigines, their origin and antiquity, pp. 373-396. Toronto. 1937. The Indian background of Canadian history. Bulletin 86 (Anthro- pological Series No. 21), Canada Department of Mines and Resources, National Museum of Canada. 46 pp. KOHLMEISTER, BENJAMIN, and KocH, GEORGE 1814. Journal of a voyage from Okkak, on the coast of Labrador, to Ungava Bay, westward of Cape Chudleigh; undertaken to explore the coast, and visit the Esquimaux in that unknown region. London. KROGMAN, WILTON MARION 1938. Cranial types from Alisar Hiiyiik and their relations to other racial types, ancient and modern, of Europe and Western Asia. Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 30, pp. 213-293. LARSEN, HELGE 1934. Dgdemandsbugten. Meddelelser om Grgnland, Bd. 102, No. 1. MACGREGOR, WILLIAM [19092] Reports of official visits to Labrador, 1905 and 1908, by the Governor of Newfoundland. St. John’s, Newfoundland. MATHIASSEN, THERKEL 1927. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedi- tion 1921-24, vol. 4, Copenhagen. 158 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR 1936. The Eskimo archaeology of Julianehaab District. With a brief summary < the prehistory of the Greenlanders. Meddelelser om Grgnland, Bd. 118, Ook. Morant, G. M. 1926. - Studies of Palaeolithic man. Annals of Eugenics, vol. 1, pts. III and IV, pp. 257-276. 1937. A contribution to Eskimo craniology based on previously published measurements. Biometrika, vol. 29, pts. I and II, pp. 1-20 OETTEKING, BRUNO 1908. Ein Beitrag zur Kraniologie der Eskimo. Abhandlungen und Berichte des Kénigliche Zoologischen und Anthropologisch-Etnographischen Museums zu Dresden, Bd. 12, No. 3, 54 pp. 1931. A contribution to the physical anthropology of Baffin Island, based on somatometrical data and skeletal material collected by the Putnam Baffin Island Expedition of 1927. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 15, pp. 421-468. Ori, G.-A. 1876. Check list of preparations and objects in the section of human anatomy of the United States Army Medical Museum for use during the International Exhibition of 1876, in connection with the representation of the medical department. U.S. Army Medical Department Exhibits, No. 8. 135 pp. 1880. List of the specimens in the anatomical section of the United States Army Medical Museum. Vol. 8, 194 pp. PACKARD, A. S. 1891. The Labrador coast. New York. Parry, W. E. 1824. Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years 1821-22-23, in His Majesty’s ships ‘Fury’ and ‘‘Hecla.’”’ London. PEARSON, KARL 1899. IV. Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution. V. On the reconstruction of the stature of prehistoric races. Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society of London, Series A, vol. 192, pp. 170-244. 1914. Tables for statisticians and biometricians. Cambridge. PEDERSEN, P. O. 1938. Investigations into dental conditions of about 3000 ancient and modern Greenlanders. The Dental Record, vol. 58, pp. 191-198. PITTARD, EUGENE 1901. Contribution 4 l’étude anthropologique darieeuuinuus du Labrador et de la Baie d’Hudson. Bulletin de la Société Neuch&teloise de Géographie, T. 13, pp. 158-176. POULSEN, KNUD 1909. Contributions to the anthropology and nosology of the East-Green- landers. Meddelelser om Gr¢gnland, vol. 28, pp. 1383-150. PRICE, W. A. 1937. a, in facial and dental arch form in native groups following adop- tion of modernized foods (abridged abstract). Abstract No. 4, Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 22, No. 3, and Supplement, p. 4. Ray: P. Hi: 1885. Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Washington. BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 Ripeway, R. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington. RUSSELL, FRANK, and HUXLEY, H. M. 1899, A comparative study of the physical structure of the Labrador Eskimos and the New England Indians. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 48th meeting, held at Columbus, Ohio, pp. 365- 379. SCHENK, ALEXANDRE 1899. Note sur deux cranes d’Esquimaux du Labrador. Bulletin de la Société Neuchateloise de Géographie, T. 11, pp. 166-175. SELTZER, CARL C. 1933. The anthropometry of the Western and Copper Eskimos, based on data of Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Human Biology, vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 313-370. 1937. A critique of the coefficient of racial likeness. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 23, pp. 101-109. SERGI, G. 1901. Crani Esquimesi. Atti della Societa Romana di Antropologia, vol. 7, fasc. 3, pp. 93-102. SHAPIRO, H. L. 1931. The Alaskan Eskimo. A study of the relationship between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 31, pt. VI, pp. 347-385. 1934. Some observations on the origin of the Eskimo. Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific Science Congress, Victoria and Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 1933. B2, 3, pp. 2723-2782. SPECK, F. G. 1931. Montagnais-Naskapi bands and early Eskimo distribution in the Labra- dor peninsula. American Anthropologist, vol. 33, pp. 557-600. SPENGEL, J. W. 1874. Die von Blumenbach gegriindete anthropologische Sammlung der Universitat Géttingen. Die anthropologischen Sammlungen Deutschlands, 93 pp., pt. II, 1877. STEENSBY, H. P. 1910. Contributions to the ethnology and anthropogeography of the Polar Eskimos. Meddelelser om Gr¢gnland, vol. 34, pp. 253-406. STEVENSON, P. H. 1929. On racial differences in stature long bone regression formulae, with special reference to stature reconstruction formulae for the Chinese. Bio- metrika, vol. 21, pp. 303-321. 1931. Conversion of non-metric data to form suitable for statistical comparison. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 16, pp. 91-96. STEWART, T. D. 1931. Incidence of separate neural arch in the lumbar vertebrae of Eskimos. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 51-62. 1932. The vertebral column of the Eskimo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 123-136. 1933. The tympanic plate and external auditory meatus in the Eskimo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 481-496. 1936a. New measurements on the Eskimos and Indians of Labrador. Abstract No. 15, Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the American Associ- ation of Physical Anthropologists. American Journal of Physical Anthro- pology, vol. 21, No. 2, and Supplement, p. 10. 160 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR 1986b. Anthropometric nomenclature. Part I. The cephalic (length-breadth) index. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 22, pp. 97-140. 1938. Change in physical type of the Eskimos of Labrador since the 18th century. Abstract No. 9, Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 493-494. STRONG, W. D. 1930. A stone culture from northern Labrador and its relation to the Eskimo- like cultures of the Northeast. American Anthropologist, vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 126-144. SuK, V. 1927. On the occurrence of syphilis and tuberculosis amongst Eskimos and mixed breeds of the north coast of Labrador (a contribution to the question of the extermination of aboriginal races). Publications de la Faculté des Sciences de l’Université Masaryk. SULLIVAN, L. R. 1920. Anthropometry of the Siouan tribes. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 23, pt. 3, pp. 85-174. 1928. Essentials of anthropometry. Handbook of the American Museum of Natural History, 72 pp. TOCHER, J. F. 1902. Note on some measurements of Eskimo of Southampton Island. Man, vol. 2, No. 115. VIRCHowW, R. 1880. Eskimos von Labrador. Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, pp. 253-274. Published as a supplement to Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Bd. 12. WILDER, H. H. 1920. A laboratory manual of anthropometry. Philadelphia. WYMAN, JEFFRIES 1868. Observations on crania. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. 11, pp. 440-462. YOUNG, ARMINIUS [1931.] One hundred years of mission work in the wilds of Labrador. London. Bs INDEX . Admixture, Eskimos with Whites, 72- 75, 77, 80, 84; Eskimos with Indians, 16; Indians with Whites, 15, 16 Age, distribution of, in series of living, 81, 82, 140-144; in series of skulls, 31, 126-128 Alveolar arch, breadth of, 29, 30, 38- 41, 48, 182-1384; index, 38-41, 43, 182-184; length of, 29, 30, 38-41, 43, 132-184 Alveolar point, definition of, 30 Alveolar point-nasion height, 29, 30, 34-86, 41, 43, 129-131 Antero-posterior maximum diameter of skull, 28-38, 41, 48, 126-128 var wisspeeiceels instruction in, 12, 25, Antiquity of Eskimos in Labrador, 19 Arthritis, hypertrophic, 66 Auditory meatus, external, 45, 46 Barren Ground Band, measuring mem- bers of, 76; origin and history of, 16 Basion-alveolar point diameter, 29, 30, 35-87, 42, 43, 129-131 Basion-bregma height, 29, 30, 32-34, 41-48, 126-128 Basion-nasion diameter, 29, 30, 35-37, 41-48, 129-131 Benches, height of, for obtaining sitting height, 86, 87 Bessels, Emil, 11, 25, 27, 28 Bigonial diameter in living, 99, 114, 116, 145-149 Bird, Junius, 19 Birket-Smith, Kaj, 19, 69, 98, 103, 116, 117 Birthplace of subjects measured, 82 Bizygomatic maximum diameter, in living, 97, 98, 114-116, 118, 145-149; ga seun 28-30, 35, 36, 42, 48, 129- Boas, Franz, 10, 80, 81, 85, 89, 90, 92, 97, 98, 108, 117, 118 Von Bonin, Gerhardt, and Morant, G. M., 1 Breadth-height index on skull, 32, 33, 41, 43, 126-128 ae Eskimo, theories concerning, Cephalic index, 90-92, 115-118, 140- 144; relationship to cranial index, 91, 92, 121 Cephalo-facial index, 98, 99, 115, 116, 118, 145-149 Chipewyans, measurements on living, 23, 24, 84-110, 117, 118, 120 Chippewa, measurements on living, 93- 96, 101, 102, 104, 108-110 Cilley, J. P., Jr., 11 atest of racial likeness, 118, 120, Collins, H. B., Jr., 14, 21-24, 66, 69, 118, 122; and Stewart, T. D., 64, 93- 96, 101, 102, 104, 108-110 Coon, C.S., 111 Cranial contours, 44, 46-48 Cranial index, 29, 30, 82-34, 41, 43, 91 Cranial module, 32-84, 48, 126-128 Cree, measurements on living, 23, 24, 84-110, 117, 118, 120 Cultural relationships of Labrador Eskimo, 17 Culture, see Dorset, Thule, Stone Davis Inlet Band, measuring members of, 76; origin and history of, 16 Definition, of alveolar point, 80; of inferior nasal landmark, 30, 31; of median orbital landmark, 31, 37 Delabarre, E. B., 73 Deniker, J., 91 Dental caries, 14, 113 Diameter, see under names Diet, effect on Eskimos of change in, 14, .96;121; ‘122 Dorset culture, 18, 21, 22, 122 Duckworth, W. L. H., 10, 80-82, 85- 110, 127, 128, 180, 181, 133, 134 Ear, breadth of, 109, 110, 114, 118, 150- 154; index, 110, 118, 150-154; length of, 108, 109, 114, 118, 150-154 Ear exostosis, absence of, 46 Epidemics, 72 Error, due to sexing, 54, 67; personal, 26-81, 54, 78-838, 89 Facial index, total, on skull, 35, 36, 43, 129-131; upper, on skull, 35, 36, 41, 48, 129-131 Femur, dimensions of, 57-59, 187, 138 Field, Henry, 76; Stanley, 12 Field Museum, 9, 12, 78, 126-139 Fischer-Mgller, K., 22, 25, 32, 33, 35- 39, 52-54, 56, 57, 67, 68 Food, European, use of among Eskimos, 13 Forehead height, 104, 114, 150-154 Formula, of Pearson, for reconstructing stature, 62-64; of Stevenson, for com- paring non-metrical data, 48, 54 Frontal minimum diameter, in living, 95, 96, 114, 115, 145-149; on skull, 29, 34-36, 48, 129-1381 161 162 Fronto-parietal index, 96, 97, 145-149 Fiirst, C. M., 52 Fiirst, C. M. and Hansen, Fr. C. C., ET; 27,28, 42 Goldstein, M. S., 113 Gonio-zygomatic index in living, 100, 145-149 Gower, C. D., 31 Grant, J. C. B., 84-110, 117, 118, 121 Greenland, comparison of cranial series from, 42; measurements on living Eskimos from, 91, 92, 99, 100, 116; measurements on skulls from, 28, 30, 32-41 Hallowell, A. I., 10, 15, 80, 84-108, 111 Hansen, S¢gren, 67, 68, 91, 92 Hantzsch collection, Dresden, 11 Hawkes, E. W., 70, 71 Hayes collection, Washington, 25, 27 Head, breadth of in living, 89, 114-116, 118, 140-144; height of in living, 93-95, 114, 145-149; length of in liv- ing, 87, 88, 114-116, 118, 140-144 sey Obed index in living, 95, 145- Hettasch, Paul, 12 Hickson, Thomas, 73 Hooton, E. A., 11, 44, 52, 76 Howells, W. W., 98, 106, 115 Hrdlitka, A., 22, 25-33, 35-39, 44, 53, 57, 62-64, 76, 85, 87, 91, 93-96, 99- 102, 104-109, 110, 116 Humerus, dimensions of, 54, 55, 185 Hutton, S. K., 11, 14, 15, 58, 66, 71, 75 Index, see under names Instruments, anthropometrical, 41, 57, 76 Jenness, D., 18, 20, 21, 99, 100, 116, srkal Jugular fossae, 49 Kohlmeister, B. and Koch, G., 15 Krogman, W. M., 122 Landmarks, definition of, 94, 119; inter- pretation of, 30, 31, 78 Langford, E. K., 12, 76, 78-80, 89 Larsen, Helge, 69 Lateral maximum diameter on skull, 28-30, 32, 33, 41, 48, 126-128 Lee, Leslie A., 11, 85-110, 141, 148, 146, 148, 149, 151, 154 Length-height index on skull, 32, 33, 41, 48, 126-128 Little John, dwarf of Okak, 53 Living, circumstances surrounding col- lection of data on, 76, 77; deficiencies of data on, 119 ESKIMOS AND INDIANS OF LABRADOR Long bones, inter-relationships of, 61, 62, 186; see under individual bones Longevity, 75 Long Shan, 16 MacGregor, Sir William, 73-75 MacMillan, Donald B., 12 Mantish, 16 Martin, C. A., 74 Mathiassen, Therkel, 17, 18, 21, 23 Mean height index, 32-84, 41, 43, 126-128 Mean sigma, 106, 115 Menton-crinion diameter, 100-102, 114, 145-149 Menton-nasion diameter, in living, 103, 104, 114, 115, 118, 150-154; on skull, 29, 34-86, 48, 129-131 Methods of measuring, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 47, 57, 98, 94 Michelson, Truman, 79, 80, 89 Microcephaly, 52, 53 Mixed-bloods, see Admixture Module, cranial, 32-34, 48, 126-128 Montagnais-Naskapi, history of, 23 Moore, R. D., 68, 98-96, 99-102, 104, 108-110 Morant, G. M., 26, 30, 42, 122 Moravian missionaries, 12, 13 Moravian missions, history of, 70, 71 Nasal breadth, in living, 106, 107, 114- 116, 118, 150-154; on skull, 29, 30, 37-39, 41, 48, 182-134 Nasal height, in living, 105, 106, 114— 116, 118, 150-154; on skull, 29, 30, 387-39, 41, 48, 1382-134 Nasal index, in living, 107, 108, 115, 116, 118, 150-154; on skull, 38-40, 41, 43, 132-134 Nasion, difficulty in locating, 77, 78, 101-106 Oetteking, Bruno, 10, 11, 44, 46, 127, 128, 130, 131-1389 oe enue series, measurements on, Old Igloos, measurements on skulls of, 32-41; opinions regarding, 22 Orbit, inclination of, 47 Orbital breadth, mean, 29, 30, 37-389, 41, 43, 182-134 Orbital height, mean, 29, 30, 37-39, 41, 48, 182-134 Orbital index, mean, 37-39, 41, 48, 182-134 Otis; G; A., 27, 28 Packard, A. S., 73, 75 Palatal raphe, 118, 114 Parietal foramina, 48 Parry, W. E., 67 INDEX Pathology, of long bones, 66, 67; of skull, 53 ay ci Museum, Cambridge, 11, 126— Pearson, Karl, 26, 62, 84 Pedersen, P. O., 113 Perrett, Walter, 12, 71 Photographs, comments on, 78 Pittard, Eugene, 10, 81, 82, 85-110, 141, 144, 146, 149, 151, 154 Population, records of mission stations - on, 71, 72; trend, 72 Poulsen, Knud, 92, 99, 100, 116 Price, Weston A., 14 Problems, 13-15, 77, 78, 83 Pterion, 45 Radius, dimensions of, 56, 136 Rawson, Frederick H., 12 Rawson—MacMillan Subarctic Expe- dition of Field Museum, 9, 12 Ray, P. H., 69 Recent grave series, measurements on, 2-43 Relations between Labrador Eskimos and Indians, 15 Relationship, between Greenland and Labrador Eskimos, 40, 41, 122; between Old Igloos and Labrador Eskimos, 22, 40, 41, 122; between Thule and Labrador Eskimos, 41, 122; of Eskimos to Indians, 23, 24, 117-120 Relative sitting height, 86, 87, 140-144 Reliability of Strong’s measurements, 114, 115 Ridgway, | ae Sb Russell, Frank and Huxley, H. M., 11, 29, 31, 35, 41, 52, 54 Schenk, Alexandre, 130, 133 Seltzer, Carl C., 10, 22, 24, 69, 78, 84-86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 108, 115-120 Septal apertures of humerus, 54, 56 Sergi, G., 127, 130, 133 Series, composition of, 9, 77; résumé of conditions affecting, 83 Sex, identification of, 119 Sexing, error due to, 26-28 Shapiro, H. L., 10, 23, 24, 82, 84, 88, 89, 92, 99, 105, 107, 111, 117, 118, 120 Sigma ratio, 115 Sioux, measurements on living, 93-96, 101, 102, 104, 108-110 Sitting height, 85, 86, 114, 140-144 Skeletal collections, deficiencies of, 119 Skin color, 111, 112 Smithsonian Institution, 11, 12 163 Sornberger, J. D., 11, 85-107, 141, 144, 146, 149, 151, 154 Speck, F. Q; 13, 23 gy i J. W., i27, 128, 130, 131, 1383, Standards for non-metrical observa- tions, 44 Statistical device, Shapiro’s, 117 Statistical treatment, explanations of, , 84 Stature, of living, 84, 85, 114-116, 118, 140-144; reconstruction of, 62-65, 67-69 Steensby, H. P., 116, 117 Stefansson, V., 78 Stevenson, P. H., 48, 54, 62, 63, 87 Stewart, T. D., 12, 29, 30, 46, 54, 62, 65, 76, 91 Stone culture in Labrador, 18 Strong, W. D., 9, 12, 16, 18, 19, 23, 71, 72, 76-116, 118, 140-154 Struck, Professor, Dresden, 11 Suk, V., 11, 66, 74 Sullivan, L. R., 76, 90 Syphilis, 66 Teeth, 50, 51, 112 Temporal muscles, effect cephalic index, 92, 121 Theories of origin of Eskimos, 19-22 Third trochanter of femur, 57 Thule culture, distribution of, 17 Thule Eskimo, measurements on skulls of, 82-41 Tibia, dimensions of, 57, 60, 139; method of measuring, 57 Tocher, J. F., 67 Torus, mandibular, 52; palatal, 52, 1138, 114 Tuberculosis, 67 Tympanic plate, hyperostosis of, 45; perforation of, 49 of upon United States National Museum, 12 Variability in Strong’s series, 115, 116 Vertebrae, anomalies of, 65, 6 Virchow, R., 81, 82, 85, 127, 130, 133, 141, 144, 147, 149, 152, 154 Waldman, 12 Western Eskimo, measurements of liv- ing, 64, 91, 93-96, 99-102, 104, 108- 110, 115, 116 Weyer, E. M.., Jr., 111 Wilder, H. H., 76 Wyman, Jeffries, 126 Young, Arminius, 73 ott 3 Rae « ona On Wee 1) etl yeahs ae pare Yonets: ; oh sShrtaega BET BOTH ARIF) EDO HEC EP Aas ON SRR OG alice ag i : 4 2 . fay Ag pemede Met fad aoe ees tee 1 ULE Te : H ve it TS MRA aT COO SER Fe gah, > . Ait 4 rT vakS. ¢ Pg! 7 t e re = ’ ¥, a, r t aa es ay 1 mie Ay rot Te ro T yG key HE ES he N k, a ae a ¢ ft em Fe Ae i aa ye taut mig a2 i oe cs aks Aree le ny bi * . h OSs bs aaa ers el on A Fes” : a ta “wae t 3 3, We) ee Her LA ea a at Wi ee Rae eA Wid CASEY SiVg's 5) ei, Lhe Mare a5! ey Mad vise ant : ig 4 die pete. Tyvior ri Sepsis atari Bot RAMA? pie” iat rela } as Si oe nad herd ; P eee es 0 BT: pak a TY ak Se Eon: a: fi 2 el Tica, tnd 4 , { “t a F (: ata ey, Boy eet Ce ae LO) ibe ee ere LS ee Mean tN a a he ah SU te > ie weer ot a re Ret ee ee ee Sy ATA patios Mere PINAY ee cathy soo | Raa Sin me Ce R Me SU TLELO CS Ale ral AP uh eth at Fa Re een heat ee bi oa ae Sok. tea & TOSSES | EE SSE eta a Were Rete croad amr a) 4 Gare 40 p et a oad ott Mae eal Aca ek 4 = <_ Ly ee she = (ies Te Sea se Sita ail al z 3 Nae 2G oe a BES Tek. TL a " - ; Mee et Gece, eenenegves ; ‘sé, ty te he ae iartaien wees ia/ it Sgt aoe » BE viliats. 5 = 7s tii 4 re Bid Case, Bom aesth rt Sanrity (om Bi W's ao P85 Mies oar t Poy eS, yl ' ae * , oe “ Gn a Gan ei aa Br , an WS Vikeeieaes weet JOS) othe aris we, a Las MARES ES ELS ailyange” Erbe § aed S013 ct em Ths 1 “a bse hs Soar Bet wD +H ere pay ba. a a aerate cf fants aid tm, SMe VL. fh Raye), with “| qf Ase, tery por Bengt rad Bishh “on ett Sree Sys eT tp Ct? 3 Pigs eee) | i ne rag Bayo \ Li ‘ Fish uF Ely ad ine itgtag: noni elo tele a Tyga . ; Pie eA “trie Wyatire te Py) eee em Cee Wes Gr Se Rt ett: LE neat eee ee et ak ot Sei “4 7 f PAs ¥ hase aero an Oy - Aaa Pas thas Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 1 SKULL 192001 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Old stone grave series; old male Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 2 SKULL 192031 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Old stone grave series; old female Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 3 SKULL 192006 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; male, 69 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 4 SKULL 192007 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; old male. Note pathological changes in maxillae Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 5 SKULL 192008 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; male, 73 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 6 SKULL 192009 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; male, 43 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 7 SKULL 192010 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; male, 37 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 8 SKULL 192013 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; male, 21. Note diminutive upper lateral incisors Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 9 SKULL 192025 (FIELD MUSEUM) ORIENTED IN FRANKFORT POSITION Recent grave series; female, 52 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 10 RIGHT HUMERUS OF 192009 (FIELD MUSEUM) Showing pathological proximal extremity. Recent grave series Field Museum of Natural History ; Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 11 Tes sana a MALE ESKIMOS FROM NAIN, LABRADOR Figs. a, b, and d, Strong’s subjects 21, 188, and 13, respectively (photographs by Strong) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 12 i d MALE INDIANS, DAVIS INLET AND BARREN GROUND BANDS Figs. a-d, Strong’s subjects 1, 4, 3, and 39, respectively (photographs by Strong) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 13 c d INDIANS, DAVIS INLET AND BARREN GROUND BANDS Fig. d, Female. Figs. a and ¢, Strong’s subjects 34 and 43, respectively (photographs by Strong) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 14 — ee 2 ‘ 2 ESKIMO WOMEN, HOPEDALE OR NAIN, LABRADOR Photographs by Langford Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 15 * % ESKIMO AND INDIAN WOMEN Figs. a and b, Eskimo women, Hopedale or Nain, Labrador. Figs. ¢ and d, Indian women, Davis Inlet Band. Fig. ¢, Strong’s subject 5 (photographs by MacMillan and Strong) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. 31, Plate 16 FEMALE INDIANS, DAVIS INLET AND BARREN GROUND BANDS Figs. a, b, and c, Strong’s subjects 8, 7, and 37, respectively (photographs by Strong) _ e - e by 5 - —— 9h ie afr a : * 7 eS ST a > oe! = = bd ») : i . . : ' od E i : . iy x oy : , , ; - as ¢ . - os : 7 : a i . : : ~ a : j | x x 2 ge 1 a ; | ; - | vi | ‘ | , : . ff io ie F al . a > - ES . H s : : baa 7 : s ‘ - | | f vy : . | = i ie ; A ' a ; iva ; : w : Lf ; ‘ 7 A . ks is i ; i i Er . ; : ’ « ‘ 2 | ay ; ; : * z on ' : a : “" * f UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 084204715