DIVISION OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM THE HRDLICKA LIBRARY Dr. Ales Hrdlicka was placed in charge of the Division of Physical Anthropology when it was first established in 1903. He retired in 1942. During this time he assembled one of the largest collections of human skeletons in existence and made outstanding contributions to his science. On his death, September 5, 1943, he bequeathed his library to the Division, with the provision that " it be kept-exclusively- in-the-scid Division; where it-may-be-consulted but-not-loaned” out z ANTHROPOMETRY BY ALES HRDLICKA Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. 8. National Museum PUBLISHED BY THE WISTAR INSTITUTE OF ANATOMY AND BIOLOGY PHILADELPHIA 1920 PRESS OF THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY LANCASTER, PA. TO LEON MANOUVRIER MY INSTRUCTOR IN ANTHROPOMETRY CONTENTS TNFR OD UCTIO Nite cose crvernctetcrsrn are. c a waren ars leral'y Sudaiaie sates e alse eee ee alapees 7 IMONACOMAG RIB MUBIN Dees fee sys ater d eeorcicte.toiacetieteo: Sccisicessicats ala aavarceblens spear 10 GENIE VA A GRE B MIBINGD <<. syniavereioveye lo sfens int Giaus eratercieimiers che aichoteaciehelay ee savers 25 PRELIMINARIES: GRINOTEAT eesti arse mises conti eegehe nit a etme rear esas o Oee Oe pape ecole) ate 32 PRECISION; POLMPUI CIT Yee yet ee ie iat tesole rac ence teasers cole rene case oriaaet aie otolstonel ne 34 PREPARATION he ose ets reek aleF arch o SPOT aroha ake Srehic eset Wr Meets sre geeaenelafeNecode 37 TN STRUMENTS: LAND MARES ety ste aye) ststss eyeievehine. ry z “U1[xXBuUl cz 356 ampory | +7 30 uwom quien, | cmxeur | UN 2% 4 5 3 aeomen, reyueg H xopuy reyuwig | vmxerg | reset | “_oyoyny can i = 3 ; : Bo ‘0 Cy oS im Reape ee xopuy 4U3}OH Uva uojsea | weld utd -wuopa | £2 4Ite00T | wopoa1oD | ‘on engojEyED 2 Of] Aged" ae > § ica) > as gInvA ® sag < “DWUDLO ANTHROPOMETRY 105 tape, are the same as for measurements on the living; but in addition the student will need an outfit for measuring the skull capacity; one for drawing; a Broca’s mandibular goniometer; a transparent goniom- eter; and instruments for special purposes, such as the occipital goniom- eter, small sharp pointed calipers, an endocompass, curved brass probe, etc. For measurements on other bones of the skeleton he will need, in addition, the standard osteometric board with a block, a pelviphore, and apparatus for measuring the torsion of the humerus. With a few exceptions, these appliances are described and illustrated in Broca’s “‘Instructions Craniologiques et Craniométriques”’ (Paris, 1875); in Topinard’s “Eléments d’Anthropologie Générale” (Paris, 1885); in Martin’s “‘Lehrbuch der Anthropologie” (Jena, 1914); and in Mathieu’s, Collin’s, and Hermann’s Catalogues of anthropo- metric instruments. As far as additional description or remarks may be called for, they will be made most suitably in connection with the individual measurements. Landmarks.—Before proceeding to the description of methods, it will be useful to give a list of the landmarks on the skull and their definitions. We may here conveniently draw on Topinard’s and Martin’s textbooks and on Cunningham’s and other modern Anato- mies, which include lists of this nature; but it may be of some advan- tage to give the terms in alphabetical order, and in a few instances to supplement the definitions. Alveolar Point (or Prosthion).—The term ‘‘alveolar point” has a long priority of usage and no valid reason is apparent why it should be changed. It is the lowest point of the upper alveolar arch, be- tween the median incisors. Broca defined it as the lower ex- tremity of the intermaxillary suture, but occasionally the bone on one side or the other projects slightly beyond the suture, so that the above definition is preferable. Asterion.—The point of meeting of the temporo-parietal, temporo- occipital and lambdoid sutures. Basion.—The middle of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. Bregma.—The point of junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures. Dacryon.—The point of junction of the lachrymo-maxillary, fronto- maxillary and fronto-lachrymal sutures. Glabella—A point midway between the two supraorbital ridges. Gonion.—Point of the angle formed by the ascending branch with the body of the lower jaw. Gnathion.—See Menton. 106 ALES HRDLICKA Inion.—The most prominent point of the external occipital protu- berance. (Now of secondary importance. In some specimens the protuberance may be absent; rarely it may be double with a depression between; and in instances it may be wholly re- placed by a depression.) Lambda.—The meeting point of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. (Often displaced by Wormian or other intercalated bones.) Maximum Occipital Point—The point on the squamous part of the occipital most distant from the glabella. Menton (“Point mentonniére,’”’ ‘“‘Gnathion”’).—The lowest point in the middle of the bony chin. Nasion.—The median point of the naso-frontal suture. Obelion.—A point on the sagittal suture on a line with the parietal foramina. (When both foramina are absent, the point may be estimated by comparison with other skulls.) 2 Ophryon.—The central point of the smallest transverse diameter of the forehead, measured from on temporal line to the other. (Obsolete.) Opisthion.—The middle of the posterior margin of the foramen mag- num. Pogonion.—The most prominent point of the bony chin. Pterion.—The spheno-parietal (or fronto-temporal, when that form exists) articulation. Subnasal Points —The lowest point, on each side, on the lower border of the nasal aperture, 7. e., the lowest points anteriorly of the two nasal fossae. (If simian gutters are present, the subnasal points may be located on the lines limiting anteriorly the floor of the nasal cavity, or their location may be impossible.) Stephanion.—The point where the coronal suture crosses the temporal line. (Obsolete.) Vertex.—The summit of the cranial vault. MeErTHopDs. As with measurements on the living, so with the skull and the rest of the skeleton, our foremost and most binding authority are the International Agreements (q. v., p. 50 et seq.). But as in that case so here the directions may in places be amplified so as to aid the student and prevent misconceptions. More or less obsolete measurements, on the other hand, may well be excluded, for the object of this treatise is to deal with the essential parts, rather than with the entire large field, of anthropometry. ANTHROPOMETRY 107 THE VAULT Mazimum length: The maximum glabello-occipital diameter of the vault. Instrument: c.e.,! any pattern. Method: As specified by International Agreements (p. 14) and on the living (p. 68). Maximum breadth: The greatest transverse diameter of the vault above the mastoids and roots of zygomae. Instrument: c. e. Method: As specified by I. A. (p. 14) and on living (p. 69). Basion-bregma height.—c. e. Method: Place left forefinger in foramen magnum, press ball of finger lightly against anterior border of the foramen, apply one point of compass so that it rests on the lowermost point of the border in the middle and against the finger, apply other point to bregma, and read measurement. Or, apply point of right branch of compass to bregma and bring point of left branch to basion. Remark.—The maximum height of the vault is less desirable than the basio-bregmatic, because used by fewer observers, and on account of the not infrequent thickening and ridging of the bone in the sagittal region. Thickness: Thickness of left parietal, 1 em. above and along the squamous suture.—c. é. Method: Introduce one branch of compass into the cranial cavity, apply to anterior part of the lower portion of the parietal approximately 1 cm. above the squamous suture, bring other branch in contact with the bone externally, and pass backwards at about the same distance from the sutures, watching the scale of the instrument. Record observed minimum and maximum. These give a mean which is useful for comparison, and which must be taken account of in estimates of skull capacity from external dimensions. Minimum frontal diameter.—c. e. or c. g. Landmarks and method as given by the I. A. (p. 16). Capacity—This measurement, corresponding closely to the volume of the brain, is one of considerable importance, and as it is also beset with difficulties it demands special attention. An ideal method of obtaining the capacity would be by some liquid, water or mercury, which could be easily and directly measured; but attempts at such a procedure have met thus far with unsurmounted difficulties due to the porosity of the bones, the numerous canals and foramina, and the sharp processes on the inside of the skull. 1 Compas d’épaisseur. 108 ALES HRDLICKA The various older methods of measuring cranial capacity may be segregated into five groups, namely: 1. The skull is made impermeable and after that filled with some liquid, preferably water, which is then weighed or measured; or the water is forced into a thin rubber bag until it fills with this the entire skull cavity, after which the liquid is measured. These methods, employed by Broca, Schmidt, Matthews, etc., yield good results, but are too complicated or tedious for ordinary use. 2. The skull is filled with sand or other substances, and this is weighed, the result giving a basis for calculating the capacity. This method, used especially by some American anthropologists of the last century, was not sufficiently accurate, and soon became obsolete. 3. The skull is filled with small, rounded seeds, beads, shot or other substances, and the contents are then measured (Tiedemann, Busk, Flower, etc.). The filling or the measuring (or both) is aided by cer- tain manipulations (tilting, tapping, etc.), but, except the measuring vessels, no implements are required. The method in its numerous modifications is comparatively easy and has other advantages, but the results are mostly not as accurate as desirable. 4. The method invented and regulated by and named after Broca. In this procedure the skull is packed with shot, which is then measured; but both the filling and measuring are aided by certain implements, and every step of the procedure follows definite rules. Among the implements used appears a funnel of certain dimensions, which con- trols the flow of the shot. The method gives steady results, but can not be used with frail skulls, and the capacity obtained is always larger than actual, the proportion growing with the size of the skull. 5. Welcker’s method.! In this procedure, which is the outgrowth of the majority of those mentioned, but more directly of that of Broca, the most important part is delegated to the funnel, which, by its size, controls the measuring of the contents of the skull. The mode of filling the skull, so long as efficient and uniform, is immaterial; all that is required is that each worker should, with the aid of a standard skull, find the exact size of the funnel necessary to give him, in measuring, the correct result with his particular method and substance used for the filling of the skull. Any rounded seed or substance can be em- 1 Arch. f. Anthrop., Bd. XVI, 8.1 et seq. E. Schmidt, ‘‘ Anthropologische Metho- den,” pp. 217-219. A modification of the instruments with a form of a funnel stopper has been proposed independently of the author by E. Landau, Jntern. Centralbl. f. Anthrop., etc., 1903, I, pp. 3-7. ANTHROPOMETRY 109 ployed for the filling, as it is possible to completely fill the cranial cavity without using the process of jamming, such as that used by Broca; this allows the most fragile skull to be measured without any injury. Welcker advocated a funnel large enough to receive all the contents of the skull. The contents of the properly filled skull are emptied into a separate vessel and then “with one movement is versed into the funnel,” which is open (not provided with any stopper) and held in position vertically and centrally above the graduated receiving vessel. Each new series of measurements is controlled by the standard skull. The author’s method, in use since 1901,! is a modification of Welck- er’s. It is based on the observations, that: (a) The same substance poured through the same funnel with the same rapidity will always give the same, but with different rapidity will give differing, measures; (6) each different substance that can be utilized for the measurement of cranial capacity, flowing through a definite size of funnel and with regulated rapidity, will give different results from those given by any other substance flowing through the same funnel and with equally regulated rapidity. (c) Given the same regulation of rapidity of the flow, there can be obtained, through the proper selection of funnels of different diameter, any measurement, ranging between the minimum and maximum of a substance of medium weight and size, by all the solid substances employable for filling the cranial cavity. Efficient regulation of the flow of the substance used was obtained by adding to the funnel a movable stopper. By doing this, it becomes immaterial as to with what rapidity, or in what manner, the funnel is filled before opening the stopper. This removes at once all source of error connected with the emptying of the cranial contents, and allows us to dispense with the extra vessel used in measuring the cranial contents in Welcker’s procedure. With the funnel closed, the cranial contents are poured into it entirely at the convenience of the measurer. The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 17. The mode of filling the skull is that used by Flower. To measure the contents, they are emptied directly, in any way desired, into a combination of a zinc vessel (higher than, but otherwise similar to, the standard Broca’s double liter) and a removable funnel of 45° dip, with 15 mm. high vertical section, which, for my purpose (using old, dry mustard seed) is 20 mm. in diameter. Immediately below the funnel is a movable disk which acts as its stopper. The disk is attached to a rod which rises along the side of the vessel and above its border, and ends in a lever; by using 1 Described in Science, 1903, 1011-14. Published originally in Science, 1903, 1011. 110 ALES HRDLICKA this lever the disk closes or opens the funnel. A number of extra fun- nels, of the same dip but of different sizes, are provided, from which to choose if another substance than mustard seed is used for the filling. The vessel with the cranial contents is placed on the top of a 2,000-c.c. graduated glass tube (such as used by Ranke), which is fixed in a vertical position. The zinc vessel is provided with a groove in its bottom which \ | Fic. 17. Hrdli¢ka’s apparatus for measuring cranial capacity. exactly fits the border of the glass, the opening of the funnel being central. Then the lever is rapidly pushed to either side, opening the funnel at once and completely, and the flow left to itself; the level which the seed reaches (determined simply by the eye or, preferably, the careful aid, without any shocks or pressure, of a niveau finder, such as comes with Ranke’s tube) is the skull capacity. The measuring part of the capacity determination is thus reduced to a mechanical procedure, which not only makes it easy, but eliminates from it practi- cally all source of error due to personal equation. What the student needs to learn is some method by which a complete and uniform filling of the skull can be effected, and then, working with the aid of standard ANTHROPOMETRY ral skulls, choose the proper funnel; the rest is controlled. The results, always with the condition that the proper use is made of the standard skulls, are as uniform and as near the reality as can be reasonably hoped for. Face Menton-nasion height (or ‘‘nasion-menton diameter’’).—C. e., or c. g. The distance from menton to nasion, with the lower jaw in place and the teeth in apposition. Note condition of teeth, especially as to wear. Alveolar point—nasion height (or ‘‘naso-alveolar diameter”’).—C. g., or C. é. Landmarks.—See I. A. (p. 16). Maximum bizygomatic diameter.—C. e., or c. g. Landmarks, etc-—See I. A. (p. 16). BAsE Basio-alveolar diameter.—C. e. or c. g. Distance between basion and the alveolar point. Basion-subnasal point diameter.—C. e. Distance between basion and the left subnasal point. The triangle basion-alveolar point—subnasal point-basion gives the measure of alveolar prognathism, which it is useful to show separately from the facial prognathism. ; Basion-nasion.—C. e. Distance between basion and nasion. The angle between the basion-alveolar point line and that from the alveolar point to nasion, gives the facial angle, which is the expression of the combined alveolar and facial prognathism. Nos Nasal height.—C. g. Landmarks: As given by I. A. (p. 16): Method: Measure to base of spine, or separately to each subnasal point and record the mean. Nasal breadth.—C.q. Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). 1 The apparatus is not made for the market, but it should not be difficult for any one to have it constructed by following the given directions. 2 The question as to whether to allow for the wear of the teeth, when this is present, or not, has not as yet been decided. Until a definite international rule is established, it seems best to record both the actual measurement, and an estimate of what the latter would be with teeth in normal condition. 112 ALES HRDLICKA ORBITS . Orbital breadth.—C. g. Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). Orbital height.—C. g. Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). Uprrrer ALvEoLAR Process (“‘ PALATE”) Breadth... g. Length.—C. g. Landmarks and Methods: Follow I. A. (pp. 17, 18). LowER JAW Bigoniac breadth.—C. g. The diameter between the most distal points on the external surface of the angles of the jaw. Method: Use stub branches of the compass. Apply instrument so that the rod rests on each side against the ramus ascendens, while the branches are brought to the most prominent points about the angles of the jaw. Angle of lower jaw.—Broca’s mandibular goniometer. Method: See I. A. (p. 21). Note: The angle differs in general on the two sides of the jaw. The logical procedure is to measure the angle on both sides and record the mean. Height of symphysis.—C. g. Height of the body of the lower jaw.—C. g. Maximum thickness of the body of the lower jaw.—C. g. Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 20). Note: To obtain the thickness, measure same on both sides and record the mean (if marked difference is found, individual measure- ments may also be given). The instrument should be held so that the midline of the teeth (antero-posteriorly) corresponds to the midpoint of the rod of the compass between the two branches. MIscELLANEOUS Maximum Circumference.—A. t. Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 19). Sagittal arc.—A. t. Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 18). ANTHROPOMETRY 113 Note: If subdivisions of the are are to be recorded, include only those specimens in which there are no intercalated bones at bregma or lambda. VISUAL OBSERVATIONS As in the case of measurements, so in that of visual observations. only those will be included in the scheme presented here which are of more than casual importance, and which are needed if the observer is to transmit, or the student receive, a well-rounded impression of the specimen or series examined. On special occasions other observations may become of importance and may then be included in the general scheme, or be carried out separately. A well organized system of observations renders work easier, more rapid, and more accurate. The main care to be exercised by the stu- dent in this connection is that his standards correspond as closely as possible to those generally accepted or understood; and in the report on his work he should invariably include brief but clear explanatory statements as to his use of terms and standards. In recording, all unnecessary details should be avoided. Observation blanks are given below. The subsequent notes will be of assistance in recording the visual observations. They are given in the same order as followed in the blanks. In recording, for ‘‘average,”’ ‘medium,’ “ordinary,” “normal,” use always the sign+; for other characters use abbrevia- tions. Rare features deserve separate and comprehensive description. Notes Pathological: Under this term are included injuries, signs of disease, and pathological exostoses, but no morphological abnormalities. Vauut: Form from above (Norma superior)—Main types: Ovoid, pentagonal, elliptical—short, medium or long; rotund. Supraorbital ridges: Traces, slight, moderate; medium (+, feminine, masculine); pronounced; excessive; neanderthaloid arch. Mastoids: Small, moderate or submedium, medium (+), large, excessive; peculiarities. Forehead: High, medium (+), or low; vertical, slightly, moderately or markedly sloping; eminences reduced to one central, or unduly bulging; assymetry (slight or marked); overhanging (hydrocephalus). Metopic suture; metopic ridge. 8 114 ALES HRDLICKA SAMPLE BLANKS: CraNIA—OBSERVATIONS Sex—— Vault Cat. Patho- No. | logical | Shape from Se Sagittal | Temporo- above (Norma) orbital | Mastoids | Forehead) Region Parietal | Occiput Superior) Ridges Region CrANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) Sex—— Sutures Face Temporal | Occipital Synostosi Prognathism: Great ne Serration (etorualis) Anomalies | Pterions (a) Facial Orbits (®) Alveolar CrANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) Sex—— Nose Palate Base Lower Suborbital | Nasal Borders Pecullar- | Foramen Malars | Zygome Fosse Bones Spine of Aper- Form ities Lacerum ture Medium CRANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) ses—— Lower Jaw Teeth D i f Special and Pea Darts Styloids | Special | Chin |Peculiarities| Dentition Wear Decay pe omattes ANTHROPOMETRY 115 Sagittal region; Under normal conditions, from side to side, oval, moderately or markedly elevated (keeled). Temporo-parietal region: Parietal eminences may be indistinct, medium, or prominent; temporal region may be flat, medium, or bulging. Occiput: Assymetry? Flattening? If undeformed: convex, moder- ately protruding, markedly protruding. External occipital protuberance: absent, moderate, pronounced, double; iniac fossa. Temporal crests: State nearest approach to sagittal suture; and whether or not extending over the lambdoid suture on to the occipital. Occipital crests: Absent, slight, moderate, well developed, pronounced. Sutures: Serration—none, slight, medium, complex (terms based on conditions in average skulls of Whites). Student may also refer to given standards (Broca, Martin), but above terms when used with proper care are quite sufficient. Synostosis: State briefly location, and percentage of suture involved. Anomalies: Abnormal sutures— give location and extent. Intercalated bones—state briefly location, nature, number; in more important cases give separately size and other particulars. Pterions: Give type (H, K, X, I); breadth, if special; note epipteric bones; watch for possible anomalous sutures in wing of sphenoid. Face: Prognathism, facial and alveolar—none, slight, medium (+), above medium, pronounced. Orbits: Borders sharp or dull; note important anomalies. Suborbital fossae: Slight convexity instead; or, concavity slight, medium (+), pronounced. Malars: Size—submedium, medium (+), large; protrusion—slight, submedium, medium (+), marked. Watch for partial and complete malar sutures. Zygome: Strength: Slender, moderate, strong, massive. Nose: Nasal bones—narrow, medium (+), broad; anomalies. Nasal spine: Absent (may even be groove instead), diminutive, medium (+), pronounced; when small may be bifid. Lower borders of nasal aperature: Sharp, dull; simian gutters— moderate or pronounced; subnasal fossae—small, moderate, large. Assymetry. Palate: Form—elliptic, ovoid, U-shaped, rotund, horseshoe-shaped. Shallow or high. Torus. Marked remnants of or complete inter- maxillary sutures. 116 ALES HRDLICKA Basse: Foramen lacerum medium: Of evolutionary and developmental importance.!_ May be small, submedium, medium, or spacious. Depression of Petrous Parts: Of evolutionary and developmental importance.! The depression is in relation to the inferior surface of the basilar process. The petrous portions may be slightly above the level of the process, or present a slight, medium (++), or pronounced depression below the plane of the basilar process (as viewed with the base facing the observer). Styloids: Absent, diminutive, small, medium (++), excessive. Special: The base offers numerous anomalies, such as pterygo-spi- nous foramina, defects in the floor of the auditory meatus, basilar fossa, pharyngeal canal, great inequalities of the jugular canals, various anomalies about the foramen magnum—basilar spine, third condyle, pre-condylar processes, rudimentary atlas, accessory articular facets, paroccipital (paramastoid) processes, etc. In view of the multi- plicity of these features it is best to make a special examination for those the observer may wish to report upon. Lower Jaw: Chin—pointed, rounded, square; receding, vertical, slight, medium or marked protrusion. Peculiarities: Report extra- ordinary features of importance. Trrtu: Dentition: In children and adolescents note all teeth erupting or erupted. Teeth of first and second dentition must be carefully dis- tinguished. Wear: None, slight, moderate, marked, excessive. Decay: Note number of teeth lost through or affected by decay. Special and Anomalies: Ventral surface of upper incisors may be marked by shovel- shaped concavity with pronounced rim, which is characteristic of the American Indian, occurs occasionally in other yellow-brown people, but is rare or less frequent in other races. In line of dental irregulari- ties and anomalies note crowding, impactions, congenital defects of eruption, supernumerary teeth, and abnormalities of individual teeth. A study of the cusps, as well as that of the form and size of the teeth, is best carried out separately. 1See Hrdlitka (A.), “Certain Racial Characteristics of the Base of the Skull,” Science, 1901, XIII, 309; also Proc. Assoc. Amer. Anatomists, 15th Session, Amer: J. Anat., 1901-2, I, 508-9. ANTHROPOMETRY 117 OSTEOMETRY Anthropometry of the skeletal parts (outside of the skull) is a fertile and fascinating field in which much as yet remains to be exploited and even explored. It is, moreover, a large field, which few workers may hope to cover in its entirety. Every bone of the body presents sexual, racial and individual variations, many of which remain to be thoroughly studied; and some of these features, according to indica- tions, possess a very considerable phylogenetic and racial importance. Investigations on the skeleton are for the most part of a more recent date than those on the skull or those on the living, and have been largely the work of anatomists. Descriptive observations, such as those on the sexual characteristics of the pelvis, or those on the perforated humerus, pilasteric femur, platycnaemic tibia, etc., preceded and accompanied measurements. The first serious attempts at osteometry were made essentially in France, and the first system of measurements was developed by Broca and his pupils in Paris.! Since the early seventies a whole series of valuable contributions to the subject of bone study and osteometry have been made,? and 1See Broca (P.)—Sur les proportions relatives du bras, de l’avant bras et de la clavicule chez les Négres et les Européens. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1862, III, 162-172; ibid., 1867, 2 Sér., II, 641-653. Hamy (T.)—Recherches sur les propor- tions du bras et d’avant-bras aux differents Ages de la vie. Rev. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1872, 79. Topinard (P.)—Eléments d’ Anthropologie générale, 8°, Paris, 1885. 2 Bello y Rodriguez (S.)—Le fémur et le tibia. Thése, Paris, 1909. Bumiiller (J.).—Das menschliche Femur. Phil. Diss., Miinchen, 1899. Bertaux (T. A.)— L’humerus et le fémur considérés dans les espéces, dans les races humains, selon le sexe et selon l’Age. Thése, Lille, 1891. Fischer (E.)—Die Variationen an Radius und Ulna des Menschen. Z. f. Morph. & Anthrop., 1906, IX, 147. Lehmann-Nitsche (R.)—Ueber die langen Knochen der siidbayerischen Reihengriberbevélkerung. Phil. Diss., Miinchen; and Beitr. z. Anthrop., & Urgesch. Bayerns, 1894, XI, H. 3&4. Livon (M.)—De l’omoplate. These Méd., Paris, 1879. Hrdli¢ka (Ale8)— Physical Anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares, and of the eastern Indians in General. Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. Pfitzner (W.)—Beitrage zur Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremitiitens-skeletes. Morphol. Arb., 1892, I, 516; 1893, II, 93. Rollet (E.)—La mensuration des os longs des membres. These méd., 118 ALES HRDLICKA much work in this line, particularly in the United States, is as yet un- published. The repeated discoveries of skeletal remains of early man have in particular stimulated research in this direction. Not- withstanding all this, however, we are still far from a satisfactory grasp of the evidence which the bones embody. The reasons are, in the first place, that the gathering of skeletal material has always lagged behind that of the skulls, so that even today most anthropologi- cal collections are relatively poor in that respect, which hinders com- prehensive and conclusive investigations. Besides this, the bones of the skeleton present many features and correlations the study of which demands large series of specimens, and in many cases also the presence of all the important constituents of the skeleton or the bones of the two sides of the body, conditions which are realizable with difficulty even among the Whites, not to speak of other peoples. The field will long remain, therefore, one of a very considerable importance, and no pains should be spared to develop the technique of osteological in- vestigation. The scheme here presented rests on the same principles as those presented before for anthropometry and craniometry. It utilizes the most useful procedures of other scholars, supplements these where extensive individual experience warrants, leaves aside every- thing superfluous or of value only in special studies, and aims at the utmost simplicity. INSTRUMENTS The matter of osteometric instruments has already to some extent been dealt with in the section on Craniometry (Vol. II, 1919, p. 50), The essentials are few. They are the Broca’s osteometric board (pl. 1), the small compas glissiere and for a few measurements also the large sliding compass; but other instruments may be needed for special investigations. Lyon, 1889; Intern. Monatschr. f. Anat. & Physiol., 1889, VI, 345. Soularue (M.)— Recherches sur les dimensions des os et les proportions squeletiques de l'homme. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1899, Sér. 4, X, 328. Turner (Sir Wm.)—Report on the human crania and other bones of the skeletons collected during the voyage of H. M. 8. Challenger, 1873-6: II—The bones of the skeleton. Challenger Reports, Zool., 1886, Pt. XLVII. Verneau (R.)—Le bassin dans les sexes et dans les races. Thése Méd., Paris, 1875. Volkov (Th.)—Variations squelettiques du pied ches les primates et dans les races humaines. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1903, Sér. 5, IV, 622; 1904, V, 1, 201. Waldeyer (W.)—Das Becken. Bonn, 1899. Wetzel (G.)—Volumen und Gewicht des Knochens als Massstab fiir den phylogenetischen Entwicklungsgrad. Arch. f. Entw. d. Organismen. 1910, XXX, 507-537. 119 ANTHROPOMETRY peulurexe pure paMsveul Sutoq ofA sT[Nys Jo y10ddns 10} ‘SUII dq} C2] c qusonysuvs}) JoJ9UTOTUOS { yooT YIM prvog o1jouI0N4s I I SOOTY FIA prod ot O 8 [1g 120 ALES HRDLICKA The osteometric board is too well known to need special description; but for the original accessory square the writer uses a block of light wood (see fig. 18), which offers certain advantages. The block is 9.5 em. high and 4.5 em. thick, while its length equals the breadth of the board. For description of instruments used on special occasions the student should consult the original sources.! BLANKS The matter of blanks in osteometry presents some difficulties on account of the many distinct bones each of which requires its own blank. An outline of a blank such as used for general purposes by the writer will be given separately with each bone. Such blanks may be made by the student himself, and their scope may be enlarged as demanded by the needs of the occasion. As they are they represent what invariably we should know of each of the bones. OBSERVATIONS: TYPICAL BONE VARIANTS IN FORM Before proceeding to the measurements, attention should be given to the important subject of bone variations in shape. Each of the long bones, and also the scapule, first rib, ete., present a variety of forms which are reducible to definite types, and the fre- quency of these types differs from race to race. In the remainder of the skeletal parts similar variations occur, but they are less classifiable. The whole subject is of very considerable anthropological and phylo- as well as ontogenetic importance. In the long bones the part that varies most in form is the shaft;? in the scapula it is in the contour of the bone. Bones of less conse- quence will be considered on other occasions. 1 Besides the Memoirs of Broca and the textbooks of Topinard and Martin, see: Emmons (A. B.)—A study in the variations of the female pelvis. Biometrica, 1913, IX, 34-57. Garson (G.)—Pelvimetry. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1882, XVI, 106-134. Frassetto (F.)—Lezioni di anthropologia, 1911-1913. Hepburn (D.)—A new osteo- metric board. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1899, XXXIV, 111. Matthews (W.)—An apparatus for determining the angle of torsion of the humerus. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1887, X XI, 536-8. Russell (F.)—A new instrument for measuring torsion. Am. Nat., 1901, XXV, 299. 2 For original reports on this subject see Hrdli¢tka (AleS)—Study of the normal tibia. Am. Anthrop. 1898, XI, 307-312; Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., 11 Sess., Wash. 1899, 61-66.—A further contribution to the study of the tibia, relative to its shapes. Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., XII & XIII Ses. Wash. 1900, 12-13.—Typical forms of shaft of long bones. Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., XIV Sess., Wash. 1901, 55-60. Also Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash. 1916. Consult also: Manouvrier (L.)—La platyenémie ANTHROPOMETRY 121 Long Bones: The form of the shaft of the long bones is best differenti- ated at or near the middle of the bones, in adult individuals. Variation in these shapes is greatest in the Whites. There are considerable racial and other group differences in the relative fre- quency of the different types of the shaft of the various bones; no one type, however, occurs exclusively or is completely absent in any of the human groups now existing. Some of theshapes are common to the anthropoid apes, and others occur far back in the animal kingdom. The bones of the lower extremity show more numerous and better defined differentiations of form than those of the upper extremity. Of the individual long bones, the fibula presents the greatest variety of shapes; then follow in the order named, the tibia, femur, humerus, ulna, and radius. Perfect representations of the various types of each bone are found whenever large collections are examined, but the less perfect and less clearly distinguishable types are always more common. Besides there is always a considerable percentage of bones which present intermediary or indefinite, and a small proportion which show com- bined forms. The form of shaft common to all the long bones in man is the pris- matic (No.1). The outline of the cross-section of a shaft of this type approaches the equilateral triangle. This type is also common in apes, and more or less modified in lower mammals. The base of the prism is formed in the tibia, fibula, and humerus by the posterior surface; in the femur by the anterior surface; in the ulna by the in- ternal, and in the radius by the external surface of the bone. In whites this type of shaft is most frequent in the humerus and tibia. In the fibula it is more or less modified by the narrow anterior surface of the bone. The nearest modifications of type 1 are types of shaft Nos. 2 and 4. Type 2 occurs principally in the tibia, fibula and humerus, and is characterized by the obliquity of the posterior surface of the bone. The outline of the cross-section is a lateral triangle, a half lozenge (more or less). Type 4 occurs in all the long bones, and is charac- chez l’homme et chez les singes. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1887, Sér. 3, X, 128.— Mémoire sur la platyenémie chez l’homme et chez les anthropoids. Mém. & Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1888, Sér. 2, III, 469.—Etude sur les variations morphologiques du corps de fémur dans l’espece humaine. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1893, Sér. 4, IV, 111; Rev. d’Ecole d’ Anthrop. Paris, 1893, III, 389. And Graves (Wm. W.)—The scaphoid scapula. Med. Record, May 21, 1910; Wien. klin. Woch., 1912, XXV, No. 6; J. Cutan. Dis., etc., April, 1913; and others on same subject. “ANUIO,J—AMOI TOMO] !BNGIY—AMod opprar ferqry—Aor addy “OTPPIUL 4B 4yNd-sso19 ur ‘AGTUIEI4XO JMO] JO SaUOg BuO] Jo soedvys pwardAy, ‘Gy “pI aT OLN fae NN Py 77 ¥ HRDLICKA y ALES 122 ANTHROPOMETRY 123 terized by the presence of a distinct additional surface on the shaft. The formation of the surface differs in the various bones. In the tibia the additional surface results from a division into two, by a vertical ridge, of the posterior surface; in the femur it is the anterior, in the radius the external, and in the ulna the posterior surface, which occasionally, through the influence of a vertical ridge, shows a forma- tion of a distinct additional plane; in the humerus, finally, a new, anterior surface results occasionally by the broadening out of the anterior border of the bone. The cross section of the shaft in these cases differs from lozenge shape (more or less) to a more even quad- rangle. A special class of modifications of the form of the shaft is that where one or more surfaces of the bone show a pronounced concavity. We find such types (3, 3a, 3b,) particularly in the fibula, but also in the tibia, ulna and radius. In the fibula the concavity affects es- pecially the external, but also the internal, and occasionally both the external and internal, and even the posterior surfaces; in tibia the character is observed on the external, and in the ulna and radius mainly on the anterior, flexor, surface. Types 5, 6, e and r, are widely differing forms of the shaft of some of the long bones; all these types have, nevertheless, two features in common, and that is an indistinctness or complete absence of one or more of the borders of the bone, with marked convexity of two or all the surfaces. Type 5 occurs occasionally in the tibia and frequently in the radius. It is marked by the convexity of the posterior tibial and external radial surface, and by indistinctness of the internal and sometimes also the external border in the tibia and the anterior and posterior borders in the radius. In both bones, but particularly in the tibia, this type of form represents a deficiency in the differentiation of the bone. Type No. 6 occurs in the tibia, femur and humerus. The shaft is plano-convex. Typese (elliptical) and r (round, cylindrical) are found in the femur. The condition of flatness in long bones occurs quite independently of the shape otherwise of these shafts. Flatness is not only found in the tibia, but also in the fibula (lateral), in the femur (antero-posterior of whole shaft, and, independently, antero-posterior of the upper part of the shaft, below the minor trochanter), and in the humerus (lateral). The flat femur (whole shaft) occurs almost exclusively in whites and independently of the flatness of other long bones. It is a ALES HRDLICKA 124 “SIPEY—AOT JOMOT !BUTA]—AMor o[pprox {‘snroumpP—Mox soddy “OTPPrUr 4B yMo-sso40 Ur ‘AjTUIeI}xe Jaddn jo sauoq Suoy jo sedvys [eordAy, *0% ‘pq OA Pept i> DS isi iy ANTHROPOMETRY 125 rare and possibly abnormal condition. A flat tibia is often accom- panied by a flat fibula, and not seldom also by a platymeric (flat in upper part) femur. The scapula presents three main shapes or types, namely, the triangular or wedge-shaped; the bi-concave, with its axillary and especially vertebral border concave (the ‘‘scaphoid” scapula of Graves) ; and the convex, with its vertebral border markedly convex. Causes.—The shape of the bones is influenced by heredity, stage of development, sex, muscular activity, size of body, and pathological conditions. Heredity: There are reasons to believe that certain types of bones run in families; and essentially through differences in heredity there are marked differences in the relative frequency of occurrence of the various types in different races. Stage of life: During fetal life and early childhood, the shapes of bones are fewer in number, and do not always correspond to the shapes the bones will eventually have in the adult. Differentiation advances with age and the shape of a bone is probably not fully stabilized, particularly as to fluting, before advanced adult life. Sex: Male bones show on the whole a greater differentiation of shapes than those of the females; also, some types of form are more common in one sex than in the other. Most, if not all these differ- ences, may, however, be due to differences in muscular activities. Race: The modern cultured Whites show more variation in shape of bones than the Indians, and the Indians more than the Negro or Negrito. The causes appear to be partly hereditary and partly occupational. Muscular activity: Muscular peculiarities and muscular activites of the individual exercise a potent influence in modifying the shape of the bones. Size of the body: The largest and the smallest bones of any variety show in general less differentiation than the average; and weak bones show more uniformity than the strongly developed. Pathological: Very prolonged undernourishment or vitiated state of blood during fetal life or childhood may undoubtedly affect the general development as well as the shape differentiation of bones; but no proof exists that special pathological states are responsible for any special form-types of individual bones. The sum of the observations points to the fact that the principal causes of the various shapes of the shafts of the long and bodies of o 126 ALES HRDLICKA other bones must be sought for, first, in original differences in the attachment of the various muscles to the shafts; and second, in an unequal development and work of the individual muscles during child- hood and adolescence. The original differences in attachment, some of which can be clearly seen on the bones, are in all probability partly hereditary, partly early acquired conditions. The manner in which the differently attached or differently developed muscles affect the shape of bone must of course be largely if not entirely mechanical. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS In addition to shape, the bones of the skeleton offer an array of highly interesting points for observation, and many of these, as already mentioned, are of phylogenetic importance. Of these, the main ones will be included in the blanks to be given. Blank: Humerus ETIDe a eeu hocalityamrerieee veces Observers. aaasecee Right Left eee At Middle: Observations : ae Cat.|Sex}Age| Length | Diam. | Diam. Index Shape | Perforation Supra- |Special) Patho- No. Max. | Major | Minor | /b x 100 of of Septum? | condylar logical (a) (b) ai Shaft! Process® ‘Type 1 = prismatic; 2, 2a = lateral prismatic (2 = posterior surface facing backward and inward; 2a = posterior surface facing backward and outward); 4 quadrilateral (anterior border broadened out to a distinct fourth surface); 6 plano-convex; 7 = intermediary or indistinct. * pp = pin point; sm = small; m = medium;] = large. When double or multi- ple, state so. * None (—); rough trace = r. tr.; ridge: slight, medium, pronounced (r. sl-m-pr); tubercle: slight, or medium (¢b. sl-m) } process: 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, ete., complete (pr. 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, etc.). Notes.—The length is taken on the osteometric board. Apply head to the vertical, take hold of bone by left hand, apply block to distal extremity, and raising bone slightly, move up and down as well as from side to side until maximum length is determined. ANTHROPOMETRY 127 Diameter major at middle-—C. g. Determine mid-point of shaft on osteometric board and mark with pencil Lay rod of compass to the antero-lateral surface and apply branches to the bone. Diameter minor at middle-—Apply fixed branch of sliding compass to the antero-lateral surface at middle and take measurement. aera ata teatcncle Observer Cat. Sex Age Length Shape! Anomalies |Pathological Radio— No. Max. Humeral Index? Note: Maximum length is taken in same way as that of the humerus ULNA PDYIDG = rcs reson Mocalityeacrecce a. Observerirenie(ist- ite cys Right Left Cat. No. Sex Age Length Shape? Anomalies | Pathological Max, Note: Maximum length is taken in same way as that of the humerus. 17 =prismatic; 2 = flexor surface concave (fluted); 5 = external surface con- vex, borders indistinct. , Length of Radius x 100 Length of Humerus ~ 81 = prismatic, 2 = flexor surface concave (fluted); 4 = quadrilateral (posterior) surface divided into two, so that the shaft presents four distinct surfaces, borders and angles. 128 ALES HRDLICKA Femur EDTIDG Sais cies oes Locality) cscieescncce Observer: eis. ees Right At Middle: Cat. Sex Age Length Length Humero- | Diam. Antero- Diam. Index® No. Bicondylar Max, femoral Posterior Lateral Index! Maxim. (Continued) Left At Upper Flattening: Observations: Diam. | Diam, Index? | Shape of Third Linea Anomalies Patho- Lateral Antero- Shaft* Gondyle’ Aspera® logical Maxim, posterior re pS Minim. Jrrochowe Notes: The bicondylar length of the femur is taken by adjusting both condyles to the vertical part of the osteometric board and, with the bone reposing on the board, applying the block to the other extremity. The length maximum of the femur is measured in the same way as the maximum length of other bones (see under Humerus). The antero-posterior diameter at middle (middle of shaft determined and marked beforehand) is the diameter maximum. The lateral diameter at middle is taken so that the linea-aspera reposes on the stem of the sliding compass midway between the two branches of the same when these are applied to the bone. 1 Length of Humerus x 100 Bicondylar length of femur 2 Diam. lat. x 100 Diam. ant.-post. * Diam. minimum x 100 Diam. maxim. «Type 1 = prismatic; 4 = quadrilateral (anterior surface divided by a vertical ridge in two); r = cylindrical (juvenile); ¢ = elliptical; pc = plano-convex. Sr = ridge; o. t. = oblong tuberosity; r. t. = round tuberosity; d = depression; all: slight, moderate, or pronounced. 6sl., mod., pron. ANTHROPOMETRY 129 In plano-convex and related femora the shaft is so deformed and the linea-aspera so displaced, that the measurement of the diameters is impractical and should be omitted. Circumference of the shaft at middle as taken by some observers and contrasted with the length of the bone, gives data of some value for sexual identification; but the same may be done with the mean of the two diameters. Trpia ft yl oe eerie ae Hocality.<..o3 s2as- Observer: ..5.:.-...: ae Right At Middle: Cat. Sex Age Length Length | Tibio-femo-| Diam. Antero- Diam. poe No. (Less Spine)} Maxim. | ral Index! | posterior Max. Lateral (=) (2) (a) (b) a (Continued) Left Observations: | 1 Shape?* Peculiarities re estar a : Exostoses Other Notes: To take the ordinary length of the tibia introduce the spine into the orifice provided for this purpose in the vertical part of the osteometric board, apply outer parts of the condyles to the vertical outside of the orifice, let body of the bone repose on the horizontal part of the board, and apply block to the most distant point (mal- leolus). 1 T x 100 Bicond. l. of femur 2Type 1 =prismatic; 2 =lateral prismatic; 3 = external surface concave (fluted); 4 = posterior surface divided in two; 4 = posterior surface convex, in- ternal border indistinct; 6 = plano-convex (gorilloid). 3) 130 ALES HRDLICKA It is also useful to take the maximum length of the tibia. This is secured by placing the spine within the orifice as with the previous measurement, applying the most prominent point of the condyles to the vertical, taking hold of the body by the left hand and moving the bone from side to side as well as slightly upward and downward, while holding the block applied to the malleolus, until the maximum length is determined- FIBvuLa ABulolaiomecuaaeue ocalityocme scores Observer... Ge esos Right Left Cat. No. Sex Age Length Shape! Anomalies. | Pathological Max ScaPuLa “byl oleae canoe Ibocalitvecie cdc Observeri:.,nceeteree Right Cat. Sex | Age | Height | Height | Height | Breadth) Glenoid| Index: | Index: Index Type® No. Total | Infra- | Glenoid| (c) pt. Total? |Inferior| (Hrdlitka) :4 (a) |spinous} pt.— Breadth (0) Infer. y Angle Notes: The total height of the scapula is obtained by measuring in a straight line the distance from the superior to the inferior angle. 17 =Ordinary quadrilateral, approaching prismatic; anterior surface nearly absent to moderate; posterior surface facing directly backward or nearly so. 2 = Lateral prismatic; posterior surface facing backward and inward; medial surface much less in area than lateral; anterior surface narrow to broad. 2a = relation between medial and lateral surface reversed, the latter being the narrower. 3 = medial surface fluted; 4 = lateral surface differentiated into two surfaces; 6 = lateral surface fluted; 6 = both medial and lateral surfaces fluted; 9 = all three surfaces fluted. 2¢ x 100 se x 100 4y x 100 a b x 5Type: 1 = triangular; 3 = biconcave (“‘scaphoid”’), axillary and vertebral borders concave; 6 = convex, vertebral border convex. ANTHROPOMETRY 131 ScapuLa (Continued) Left Observations: Shape of Su- Notch? Vertebral Axillary Anomalies Pathological perior Border! Border? Border The infra-spinous height is the height from the inferior angle to a point at which the spine transects the vertebral border of the bone. To determine this point hold scapula in left hand with dorsal surface up in such a way that the eye can follow the prolongation of the spine to the axillary border. Mark the mid point of the juncture of the spine with the border (and not the lower or upper limit). The glenoid point height is the distance from the inferior angle to the center of the little roughness or fossa situated near the middle of the glenoid cavity. The breadth of the scapula (c) is the diameter from the middle of the outer (dorsal) border of the glenoid cavity to the point where the spine intersects the vertebral border. (Broca, P. —Sur les indices de lon- gueur de l’omoplate chez homme, les singes et dans la série des mammiféres. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., 1878, Sér. 3, 1, 66.) The glenoid point breadth is that from this point.® SrperNuM® MDribey Savncses neice Thocallity, tsr..oc acer Observers. ca./c secs Cat.) Sex | Age Total Length | Manubrial | Great- Sternal Maxi- | Number} Anoma-| Re- No Length |of Man- Index est Index mum of Rib lies marks (Less ubrium | /mX100\ |Breadth} /6x100 Thick- | Facets Xiphoid) s of Body) $ ness of (s) (m) (b) Body, | x, | 7. 17 =horizontal, at right angle, or near, with coracoid; 2 = moderate obliquity upwards, angle 55-80; 3 = pronounced obliquity, angle near 45; 4 = semiquadrate; 6 =semicircular; 6 = wavy. 21 =none; 2 =slight; 3 = moderate; 4 = nearly a foramen; 5 = foramen. 31 =straight; 2 = concave; 3 = convex: slightly—moderately—pronouncedly. 41 = straight; 2 = teres process slight; 3 = moderate; 4 = pronounced. 5 The glenoid point is a less variable landmark than the glenoid border; also it is the more suitable in measurements of scapule of various animals. The y — x index is the most stable index of the scapula. 6 Consult: Anthony (R.)—Notes sur la morphogenie du Sternum chez mammiféres. 132 ALES HRDLICKA Notes: The length of the sternum as well as that of the manubrium is best measured on the osteometric board; the breadth and thickness of the bone are measured with the sliding compass. The thickness of the body should be measured between the facets for the ribs. Among the anomalies are to be observed especially the foramen or defect in the lower part of the bone, and the occurence of episternals. The relative proportions of the manubrium and body of the sternum show sexual as well as group differences; and the same may be said in regard to the fusion of the manubrium with the body of the bone. Cuavicies! MrIbe si aysteakesierss Mocalityiaesicusc wetras Observers een eee Right Left Cat. Sex Age Length Conold Strength? | Curvature} Anomalies No. Maximum Tuberosity Notes: The length of the clavicle is best determined on the osteometric board, but may also be measured by the small or the large sliding compass. The comparison of the length of the clavicle with the length of the humerus (claviculo-humeral index) is useful as an indication of the relative development of the thorax. The acromial extremity may in rare cases be separated; a few other anomalies may also occur. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1901, II, 19-48. Dwight (Thos.)—The Sternum as an index of sex, height and age. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1890, XXIV, 527-535. Krause (W.)—Ueber das weibliche Sternum. Intern. Monatsschr. f. Anat. & Physiol., 1897, XIV, 21-32. Parker (W. J.)—Structure and development of the Shoulder Girdle and Sternum in the Vertebrates. Roy. Soc. Publ., Lond., 1868. Paterson (A. M.)—The human sternum. Liverpool, 1904; also Brit. Med. J., 1902, II; and J. Anat. & Physiol., 1900, XXXYV, Pt. 1. 1 Consult Pasteau (E.)—Recherches sur les proportions de la Clavicule. These méd., Paris, 1879; also Parsons (F. G.)—On the proportions and characteristics of the modern English Claricle. J. Anat., Lond., 1916, LI, 71-93. 2 Sl = slender; m = medium; str = strong; mas = massive. 3, Sl = slight; m = medium; pron = pronounced. ANTHROPOMETRY 133 Riss! bribes. soa eo. ocality pe atasee cee Cat. Sex Age Number Present Anomalies | Fractures and ist Rib Remarks No. — Pathological Shape.? | R. L. Notes: In skeletal material obtained from older graves the ribs are seldom all present and in good condition; nevertheless their examina- tion should not be neglected. Cervical, supernumerary, bifid, bici- pital and fused ribs are of special interest; and other anomalies may occur. The first rib deserves special attention, particularly as to its shape. The development of the scalene tubercle may also be noted on the first rib. MPIC ests eases we LOCALE cae s ck sec Observer. ee Atlas: Other Cervical: Dorsal: Lumbar: Cat.|Sex.| Age|Anoma-| Re- Num-! Anoma- Re- | Num- | Anoma-| Re- | Num-/Anoma-| Re- No. lies |marks| ber lies marks ber lies marks ber lies marks 1 Bardeen (Ch. R.)—Costo-vertebral variationin Man. Anat. Anz., 1900, XVIII, _ 377-382. Hrdli¢ka (Ale’)—Contribution to the Osteology of Ribs, Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., XIV Sess., Wash., 1901, 61-68. Tredgold (A. F.)—Variations of Ribs in the Primates with especial reference to the number of sternal Ribs in Man. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1897, XXXI, 288-302. 21 =curved (semilunar); 2 = monoangular or pistol-shaped (nearly straight neck, with nearly straight body); 3 = biangular (distinct angle in body, besides that between neck and body). 3 Consult: Anderson (R. J.)—Observations on the diameters of human vertebrae in different regions. J. Anat. & Physiol., London, 1883, XVII, 341-4. Bardeen (Chas. R.)—Numerical Vertebral Variation in the Human Adult and Embryo; Anat. Anz., 1904, XXV, 497-519. Cunningham (D. J.)—Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes. Dublin, 1886. Dubreuil-Chambardel (L.)—Variations sexuelles de VAtlas. Bull. & Mém. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1907, VIII, 399-404. Dwight (Thomas)— 134 ALES HRDLICKA Notes: Various measurements and many detailed observations are possible on the spine and its different constituents. As to measure- ments, the most interesting are the relative lengths of the cervical, dorsal and lumbar parts of the spine compared with the total length of the three. The length of these parts is best taken by the small and large sliding compasses, between the mid points anteriorly of the upper and lower border of the body of the first and last vertebra of each segment, with the bones held in a close and natural apposition. The atlas should receive special attention, for it is subject to many independent variations, particularly in respect to blood vessel foramina and canals. The lowest part of the dorsal and the uppermost as well as lower- most parts of the lumbar segment, are also of special interest, the former on account of occasional numerical variation, the latter on account of occasional separation of neural arch, a presence of a sacral element with more or less assimilation, etc. The minor anomalies of the spine and its constituents should be reserved for special study. Sacrum, Petvic Bones, PELVIS Ab ule) Reerirpcoc eed WOcalityaeemren cet: Observersern een Sacrum: Cat. Sex Age Height Breadth Sacral | Number of | Curva-| Curvature | Special No. Maxim. Maxim. Index? Segments ture? | Begins at* a Description of the Human Spines showing numerical variation. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1901, 237-312, also, Anat. Anz., 1901, XIX, 332, 337-347; and Anat. Anz., 1906, XXVIII, 33-40, 96-102. Hrdli¢ka (Ale’)—The atlas of Monte Hermoso. In Bull. 52, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash. 1912, 364-9. Papillault (G.)—Variations numériques des vertébres lombaires chez homme. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1898, IX, 198-222. Ranke (J.)—Zur Anthropologie der Halswirbelsiule. Sitz. math. phys. Cl. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 1895, XXV, 1-23. Ravenel (M.)—Die Maas- verhiltnisse der Wirbelsiiule und des Riickenmarkes beim Menschen. Inaug. Dissert., Leipzig, 1877, 1-27. Regalia (C. E.)—Sulla causa generale delle anomalie numeriche del rachide. Arch. p. Antrop. & Etn., 1895, XXV, 149-219. Rosenberg (E.)—Ueber die Entwicklung der Wirbelsiiule. Gegenbaur’s Morphol. Jahrb., Leipzig, 1875, I, 1-111. Soularue (G. Martial)—Etude des proportions de la colonne vertébrale chez ’homme et chez la femme. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1900, Sér. 5, I, 132-147. Zoja (G.)—Sulle varieta dell’atlante. Bol. sci., 1881, Nos. 1 & 2, repr. 24 pp., Also C. R. R. Ist. Lomb., Cl. Se. mat. & nat., 1881, XIV, 269-296. ANTHROPOMETRY 135 Sacrum, Petvic BongEs, PELVIS (Continued) Ossa Innominata: Pelvis: Height Maxim. | Breadth Maxim.) Mean | Special |Breadth; Total |Superior)/Diameter| Pelvic Re- —|——_—__————] Index |Features]Maxim.!; Index! | Strait: | Antero-| Index | marks Breadth) posterior Right Left Right Left Maxim. | Maxim.® Notes: In measuring the height of the sacrum use sliding compass and apply points of instrument to middle of promontory and middle of anterior-inferior border of the fifth sacral vertebra. For general comparative purposes measure only sacra with five segments. In measuring breadth apply stem of compass to the upper surface of the body of the first sacral vertebra and measure the greatest expanse of the lateral masses of the bone. The height of the ossa innominata is best measured on the osteo- metric board. Apply ischium to the vertical part of the board, hold bone with left hand, apply block to iliac border with right hand and move bone up and down and from side to side until maximum measurement is obtained. The breadth of the ossa innominata is best measured by the sliding compass. It is the distance between the anterior and posterior superior spines. For measuring the pelvis as a whole articulate the bones, hold with both hands, invert, and secure breadth maximum of ilia on the osteo- 1 Long branch of sliding compass applied ventrally, in median line, to anterior border of lower end and to promontory. 2Breadth x 100, Height 3 Slight, moderate, pronounced. 4 Name segment (from above). 5 Mean breadth x 100 , Mean height * Pelvis held together with bones in natural position; the breadth is the bi-iliac maximum, and can be taken handily on the osteometic board, or by a second person with the large sliding compass. 7 Breadth x 100 : Mean height of ossa innominata 8 From promontory of the sacrum to the nearest point on the ventral border of the pubic bones. 136 ALES HRDLICKA metric board. With the help of a pelviphore (such as that of Emmons) the taking of this measurement and of those of the brim becomes a simple matter. To measure the diameters of the superior strait or brim of the pelvis without a pelviphore, hold pelvis in left hand, and use small sliding com- pass. The antero-posterior diameter is that between the mid point on the promontory of the sacrum and the nearest point on the ventral borders of the pubic articulation. The lateral diameter is the maxi- mum transverse diameter of the brim. A natural slight separation of the pubic bones should be retained during all measurements. Sort Bones Patella. aPTIDE Screens Thocality/-.ec.c acne Observer: +...-/rswicterce Right Left Cat. Sex Age | Height |Breadth/Thickness | Breadth-Height | Patellar Mod- | Vastus No. Maxim.) Maxim.| Maxim. Notch? ndex ule (BxX100) | (+B +7) H 3 _————_|| Ee EE EE Notes: All the measurements to be taken with the small sliding compass. In measuring the height and breadth of the bone, move the latter slightly from side to side between the branches of the compass until the maximum measurement is determined. The height is taken by applying the fixed branch to the anterior surface of the bone and bringing the movable branch posteriorly over its thickest parts. The vastus notch shows interesting variations. 1 Consult: Corner (E. M.)—Varieties and structure of the Patella of Man. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1900, XXXIV, XXVII-XXVIII; also Ten Kate (H.)—Rotule. Rev. Mus. La Plata, 1896, VII, 12-16. Also Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Wash. 1916. 2— none; sl = slight; m = moderate; 1 = large. ANTHROPOMETRY 137 CatcaNnrvs! Mriheccastrttaciaaes TLocalityi.t.1-2cosee Qbserversa-cttcciiiss Right Left Cat.|Sex | Age Breadth- Breadth- Height- Module Articular No. Length Height Length |(L+B+AH)) Facets for Index Index Index Astragalus (B x 100) | (B x 100) | (Hx 100) a L H L | Anomalies | Remarks Notes: All measurements to be taken with the small sliding compass. The taking of the maximum length will be self-evident. To secure the breadth, the branches of the compass should be applied to the sides of the bone in the region of the minimum thickness of its body. The most practicable height of the calcaneus is obtained by moving the bone from side to side between the branches of the compass, which are applied to what is seen to be the greatest constriction of the body (approximately its middle). As to visual observations on the Os calcis, the greatest interest attaches probably to the number and conformation of the articular facets for the astragalus. These facets may be two in number, an- terior and posterior. But the anterior facet may be divided into two by a ridge; or it may be replaced by two facets, anterior and median, completely separated by a narrow to moderately broad groove or space; or, finally, in place of the single oblong anterior facet there may be a small to rudimentary anterior and a medium-sized median facet, separated by a broad and deep notch. An additional point of some interest is the development of the peroneal spine. 1 See Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 138 ALES HRDLIGKA ASTRAGALUS! ERTIDG |S sccimye encrsleveysie Tbocalitys (cr. Sd eyecreeien's Observeri..:.jc cuts Right Left Cat.| Sex|Age}| Length |Breadth| Helght | Breadth- Height- Module Facets for No. Maxim.| Maxim.) Maxim.) Length Length |(L4+8+H)| Calcaneus? | 3 Index Index 3 3 (BX 100) | (7X 100) z L L Notes: For length maximum, apply stem of sliding compass to lowest (most prominent) parts of the medial surface on the bone: The maximum breadth is taken by applying the fixed branch of the sliding compass to the lowest (most prominent) parts on the medial surface of the bone. The maximum height of the astragalus is best taken on the osteo- metric plane, on which the bone is placed so that all the three lowest points of its inferior surface touch the vertical part, while the block is applied to the most prominent part of the bone from the opposite direction. A comparative study of the calcaneus facets on the talus with the corresponding facets on the latter bone, is of considerable interest, and shows some racial variations. ScaPHorp! TTIDE Scns svacveranie Locality...... sess Observer. .scs he ses Right Left Cat.| Sex| Age|Breadth | Height Height- Stoutness- | Facet | Facet |Tuber-| Addi- No. Maxim. | Maxim, Breadth Breadth for for osity® | tional Index Index Cubold‘| Talus, (HX 100) | (SX 100) Form’ B B 1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 271 = one facet not divided by any ridge; 2 = one facet divided into two by a ridge; 3 = two distinct facets, but slightly connected or completely apart. 3 See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 4 Present or absent. 5 pf = pyriform; g = quadrilateral; i = intermediary or indefinite. *p = pointed; bl = blunt (markedly); sq = squarish. ANTHROPOMETRY 139 Notes: The maximum breadth of the bone is taken by the small sliding compass and is measured from the extremity of the tuberosity ad maximum. To take the maximum height of the bone use the large sliding com- pass with broad branches; hold instrument vertically, lay bone on movable branch on its talus facet, raise the branch until the bone touches the under surface of the fixed branch and read measurement. To measure the stoutness use same instrument as for height. Lay bone on the movable branch of the compass on its dorsal or superior surface, let it assume a natural position, and raise the branch until the most prominent part of the plantar surface of the bone touches the under surface of the fixed branch. Cusor! PENI Os sseravsteresthel sie TWhocality:crercisa-cr-ryaee Observeninccrc- cere Right Left Cat.) Sex | Age| Length | Breadth} Thick- | Breadth- | Thickness- Module |Facet| Facet | Addi- No. Maxim.) Maxim.| ness Length Length (Z+B+T7)| tor for | tional Maxim.| Index Index 3 |Cunei-| Talus? (BX 100) (7X 100) form? L L Notes: The maximum length of the bone is measured with the small sliding compass, between the most prominent point on the superior and inferior borders of the distal or metatarsal facet of the bone and the point at the inferior medial angle (calcanean process). The maximum breadth is obtained with the cuboid resting on its medial surface in such a position as it naturally assumes. This and the next measurement are best taken by the large sliding compass with broad branches. The maximum thickness is taken with the cuboid resting on its anterior surface in such position as it naturally assumes. 1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 2s = single; r = divided in two by a well marked ridge; 3 = double (connected or not). 3 Present or absent. 140 ALES HRDLIGKA INTERNAL CUNEIFORM! Tribe yc vccaees Locality. 00... .0s08 Observer... j-erta-feits Metatarsal | Additional No. Maxim. Minim. Index Facet? Cat. Sex f Age Height Breadth | Breadth-Height (B X 100) H Note: Measurements taken with sliding compass. Height maxi- mum is secured by applying the fixed branch of the compass to the most prominent parts of the inferior surface of the bone and bringing the other branch into apposition. The minimum breadth, in the middle of the bone, is obtained by applying the fixed branch of the compass so that it rests on both lips of the scaphoid facet, and bringing the other branch into apposition with the bone. It is the only practicable breadth in all specimens. External cuneiform: Note frequency of absence of facet for fourth metatarsal, also for second metatarsal. Middle Cuneiform: Note character of central ligamentous depression and canal running downward from this. Bones or THE Hann! TIDES cinaweninase Thocalityen.ccecaaere Q@bservers.o. eee Bones of Carpus:|Metacarpals: Phalanges: Cat. | Sex | Age |Number| Obser-|Number| Re- Length |Metacarp0-|Number| Re- No. vations marks Max. of Humeral marks 1st Meta- Index‘ carpal 1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 2 Single or double. 8 See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. «Max. length of 1st metacarpal x 100, Max. length of humerus ANTHROPOMETRY 141 BoNnEs OF THE Foot! DIDO S ho.k cleyererevateis Tocalttytests ses -te-s-'0 Observers st iisi< 5 — ——Mesorhinie® ets. ac scents 70-84.9 Platyrhinic= secrete acre 85 and above. B X100 DLeptorhinic:. 20266 .ceee up to 47.9 Nasal Index: (on Skull)— a —=Mesorhinicia.arasrsiastrnepeetosrete 48-52.9 Platyrhiniccy.iniete erie terse 53 and above. Ear Index: (on Head)— = Dolichouranie™.:s-sfacnerten caterers below 110 Palatal Index— BreMO Se reeieaic He aetnod oie ATMA OAT CGI CUO NOOr 110-115 Brachyuranic..... te eins enchcrateietesareasinrates above 115. Microdonterestrericiey setae up to 41.9 Dental Index— x entel length zs ~~ —= Mesodont eco. s.o.cc2s cis .cieere cetera oe 42-44 ae Megadont). iis cos aereremierevcion above 44. BODY. ee ‘ HS x 100 Sitting Height Index— TRiatane ‘ Weight in grams Hey Wieriiinlex Stature in centimeters Diam. antero-posterior (mean) at nipple height x 100? Chest ‘Index Diam. lateral (mean) at same level Maximum external breadth of pelvis X 100° Breadth of shoulders Pelvis—Shoulder Index— 1 Distance in situ between most anterior point on 1st premolar and most posterior point on normal 3rd molar. 2 Tn female at the upper level of the 4th chondrosternal articulation. + Between outer lips of iliac crests. ANTHROPOMETRY 153 B xX 100! Foot Index— L Hand Index— B X 1001 L SKELETAL PARTS. Mean max. height of ossainnom. X 100 Greatest external breadth of pelvis? Pelvis: Total Index— Pelvic or Brim Index— Antero-post. diam. of superior strait < 100 BORO IG cet IE UD ~—— Mesatipellic........... 95-90 Greatest transverse breadth of the strait Pineypeliions oat below 90. g BX100__ Dolichohieric......... up to 100 Boe hS L Pintyhiericeanaeeeeecs above 100 : Brachykerkik . .. .less than 75 Radio-Humeral Index— Max Lot = dius x 700 _ Mesatikerlakey 2)... oss - 75-80 ax O Dolichokerkik...... above 80. = Lof tibia (lessspine) X 100 _ Brachycnemic ... .less than 83 Tibio-Femoral Index— Bicondylar L of femur Dolichocnemic ...83 and over. Max. L of humerus X 100 Bicondylar L of femur L of radius + L of humerus X 100 Standard L of tibia + Bicondylar L of femur Humero-Femoral Index— Intermembrae Index— Diameter minor of shaft of humerus at middle x 100 Diameter major Platybrachic Index— Diameter minimum of shaft of tibia at middle x 100 Platyenaemic Index— DRE Diam. minimum at upper flattening of femur x 100 Platymesic Index— DG RGA B, glenoid point to spine point < 100 Scapular Index (new)— L, glenoid point to inferior angle B, m. of outer border of glenoid fossa to spine point < 100 L, from superior to inferior angle B X 100 L, from spine point to inferior angle Greatest B of body x 100 Total L with manubrium but without xiphoid Scapular Index: Total— Infraspinosus Index— Sternal Index— For other indices see text under the individual bones. 1 For definition of measurements see text. 3 Between outer lips of iliac crests. 154 ALES HRDLICKA INDEX TABLES. To lighten the exacting and tedious work of calculating the indices, we now have a number of printed “‘Tables.”” The best of these are those of Carl M. First (Index-Tabellen; 4°, Jena, 1902); but even these are not sufficient for all occasions and much work has to be done by each student himself. When a large number of indices are to be calculated for which no ready-made tables can be found, it pays to make such tables. A INK PELNO IS Or OlosanjnOiess\9 sono cenEoeeeanoMemappoeadosodbco ood 82 UN CLONE OME ae eret ea Tere re aa PE oun cetet esis oe fete eae sone, stale eenaie ooh ahote costello sista saNG 28 INBSY Caos h/Soos ae pObS aa bomen A Banos eo COMI aOe oa Oo Te sD b bot madcc 43 Cale ATOM WAIN ooo .o ote o 0G ODER DR ERE doaKeontoromanooe ar 43; 44 estimation ofroniskeletakumatertalicn wit «eile cle -1 esse cael eal pam ree olee 96 FAITTECINEN tS Otel OD ACO Mm vate cievareyrcyes oie avers ayavaveyer eke a) 2 Suc, <) yess yacht ahateneteimnaielon 10 Gi (CE eign op SUS Bacto AMGEa on aa ae Rone Omen enn bore 10; 25 PAT COLA TAT CLM Pate Neer gear e ars MMR are cree eae en cenant. peatdernamnet eae 17; 18 MPPEL AIMCASUPEMENTGIOL «saree case sce cs) sce, ale) steieie, sv, esrme ohsysle sizes ev6 112 IN RETIETS I RONTic bon SO SO cle On SEAS ADRIC ones DEM CT nn Cha SED Crane oc 105 INA ER.S2 5.3, Ge Roe oe ett GOAT olen ere bs CORE OE Cn ee enon 28 PAU rOWOMEbE cater every eeeroest aves a oe n eta Ie ae ree eee ehaVers cp ciel agen Orale ovale tohe tet ator 53 FAN UATOMOMELIC! ATRL YRS raya tacts poral (oie cevepsieiecctcl ate ete eteue ts wlinsmhe toe synuc?eney ems eye's 36; 37 Anthropometric Commissions, of Moscow.........-....--:seeeeee eee e eee 12 Anthropometry: Anthropological system of..................000-0-2ee eee 8 @rimainalBecre renter erate teintcicckelais Cushaten ale hege ucbae eerie 8 (6 [ibeiinte) Nehenc ceo C07 COC OO E ROCIOeE Rice Err 7 CLIVENSUt Vaercectete cle orcteeete aos st che co)! ails eS2 saa tse eyo Myeaos uot! epsienaeees eves 7 BUG EN I Ce eeracaeite ena teas tere Siena: cfs/ Sh orks Cleary hers Gia Rusia 8 EUG] TeV 506s S ig ho BG SCN RASC I eae ee eS 49 iRrenchyschooleers some ecisks Aerie are cas eens shroicisa mer score 9; 13 (Germankschoolbnaeaee sparen tinierevere taco sey ty Medaee teas ia, avedaleyerte dears 9 HERA Oto hdc ObragOs Eat ome OEIC TO SLO Oe oe ere enon 8 Ibe Utsihatl he oes AiG oo oe eC SEIO Dao a Picci ee ie eet 8 TUR VIDAL esr Mey erste ake ney site uaa) Beareu se adel atlas aetna 8 ANSUTUCTI ONS AM es vei severe serve yo oy toy oehens glade sels) vera ayctonters te 34 IM edi cal tees arate nic eceiete morc e- arate i seyalts Whang abe otebons sits a leg bye eave 8 IMIR Geary A cs cuseet series) fees ere Tareas el sirata ei Sache raetols sms econ aueters 8 Oniubhepliyann gays Gop Orstacsscvereceye fo.2. Sic ca dares ave, eg dvarnteeak agate ovate ar pevexs te 52 DLECISIOWSI Tap ene race See een otelviatel sso Sunes, oy > 5a apse mene ve010) 3 34 LEPATAGLODELOR pots tees roe acs cessteee sacs aca ap sist oncas es omaanoiewe heats 37 PLOCEMUTE recctetris nda vorale ens uate Ne rate, ciate Wi wis Se CRO BI TOR Boasts mene 38 BITNIDNICIE yaa eag rales ecers rele k tee: snes ver ede ses, leva csiave chepeyercpe cP aaie ee 34; 36 phate of nw Ws Sra crscksicic ciensinue us sisi cte 6) cole RAND OS OS eeu Isc cL SCG Renee eee 87 EGO Weer reece ean ra tote ee ene ors aie cto here otek evetue oho ueis sscSicanet iste latayiteana ave 28 BVO rnin CARULEINENLE ON a pertey yates eshsret kala eTanavore © einievcts teva alae salute: susissayskessior sverersie aie 23 WES COLO Wis bes tecre rere taatsfeicecarek et tavere teil faseret cle esereea aw Toast wextniela Gray au6 eeaharteea een ecw yeeec nce rete 85 IBRD AB 6 eorc Odseus eRe a O OCS PUCCIO ETE OE IE ET IoC eit s 59 (Go) eee) tas, eines Gedo Obiosero. 6 Oo CO Oe Be cay ORES Ba eG cais 83 TORE tag o ECG BSH BOT COE OF Sin CE ae etc CORTE oer eictere 83 F HACE INCASUTEIMENTS OLee iets crete eco re ateee ate ec lacnl bh ahaa oie pin oleerearars 72 phrletH) «Ved Wa bY gate, anes eae ot es openers CHES pee ace A OI 21; 22 WACO React liperceny oe ceye ther seots Po ey eels aioe oeclovt a laierase-aiar awe | haeIN Ae eerie 8 73 Dironialdiameveren cere lecrercrecsiorn eyes Nie aT oveverds Fs Sse Oa Le aero 73 Nei ght LONCTINIOM ta Moicecteeaee reer sierccatareuaseletetnalcne- « shovavdlenaysla Seoeesen. ahere 73 Merape thane peepee eevee eee CPO Lee Par xR aT tS oUt at coe) HR Beebe ates Daas 72 LOOT THING GS cer ceraee ara. clei creat i FIST ONG RCI Te ICRC ERR ot torrie a hea ee 16 Hemoralanadl cess Tater ors oa ker clerwotere hoe vave oe aversteie sled vestvinteaee arenes ramet 128 Hemur, measurements and.observations. ... 2... e201 Mees cece een cece es eewe 128 RA OSIZO) CNS Cote nantes COTSOe a OIE CII PSR nC ROCA OC err Src a aera PU Ne 122 Fibula; measurements|and observations... ........ 020-0) sees esses ssscees 130 ED ESN OL tepee- tere raver cstster arene ve ea erereia tales aia: s aivuste tists Moapctarale deine aha Bassey 122 ieldgworkaboxesp Ora tatircs: ore cienie ie tale Gain ele pisses nao eae acto 50 158 INDEX Mield work; transportabion; ccc cecln teh eee ee 49 Hinger, aiddles 25 /f.:407 sei oo ed Sacco eee 28 1 O00 .-) 9: ee re, ero RR Ain Porn A ail Bic ond cial gow 87 Foot, bones, measurements and observations.................0eeecceceeeee 141 MeasUTEMENtS OF S's) scsrice earaete cues mente ee eee eee 31; 79 Foramen:lacerumimedium® <1... senor 116 Foramen) magnus 55'. 4.6 diiin suctenstoe ato ate OL aehehs oe ER ae es 18 Forehes alc’ 3.5 ays bso dea aeaseee sheesh Ne ORE oe ET Se ee 85 Frankfortiagreement i) .casce «nace saved aes citar aerate ee eee 9; 13 G General! considerations) cecte Ge. cea ecractecs hale ont Creer ee ayes Ronee 34 Geneva, International agreement on anthropometry..................-..... 25 Gabelli ay. ie cfc Salers sete oe eae te Sn U SRO TR IS Sea AEC EPIC noe 105 Gnathions & .2.snicseen atrteneinn tye awe see a hte toe mie te mithe a ickr aye eee 105 C10) 1110) I aoe eee cree earn eco ras On te ae es wah SA OR | 105 Grouping, instructions: ini. cic cvaecrot cates eee Wao Viel einen obo teie nerve 43 H 1c Pht ed eee eh nnn a eee eee hs Fe oo Oe S.nee 59 characteristics Of s.522 denies wewineauee. none eae ae ee eee 84 COLOT OFS 208? 2 Ae y Siatateiauas cata ate, ne ratels @atetal shee eo le eT eee 84 Hand, bones, measurements and observations. ............2...0ceeeeeeeees 140 messUTaMeNtS Oy. cs eee cr. crows wren eae Ae astra een ee ee 30; 77 ead smeasirementarole ok. craves conc ioe cu sce neon roioere in tea ee ee oe 21; 68 Ppreadthe’® sissies onsen eke ins syalei nets aie athvonie Mee atolols Ginevae ee oie eee 69 diameterfrontaliminimum ice c etre eee aicicieeiicns ote tia aetna 73 Reiner mest skin laa nace Settee MMM << eN Cie een ROat cree se eee 70 (-Xe¥'4 1 oer pins On orassing Penemonar Otieren ice cS Oe OOOO Sh teint OD eID On 68 height of forchead os, a .6% ckassciaveooectetan re wake Cees ae eee 73 eight; ispexrial 5 sis ccvoisyeis wieraters csonemnehe aera er sse (oie ese ke escort een eR eee 30 tothe Shoulders, «oa. cusisces cuecig. bas wcenele aie evesahetone ic allsncie sot eee eta 67 tothe 'suprasternal notebys: 664, so2 cscs s oi cierns ates torte cratevers a eke teres 66 TO) ee ae ary RC ay ae eR ene Sem aR Ono ETE CC ooo OMS ac 27 Heredity; in bone forms 22): cess ne ct ee nae ae eae eee 125 Mumero-femoral ‘ind x's 55 oss a Sock se Sew Fav acone, sons ov: vay sree ane wee ere eto ciate eee tetereers 128 Humerus, measurements and observations.......-.......:00s cee eee eee 126 EYPES OL scsiesend eae hala sralareree eel diene Siene lavas ieraorove ae ateustet steer ke aneaers 124 I Identification, of skeletal remains and parts.............. 0000 eee cece ee eees 100 Indices; anthropometric TEROC MUST ant Men Ince 125 SAECO GR INEE UCI gg SO AGO CODER ROAD EOS RG: RAD Come RETA e 103 PSLeeVE Rp SaaeNa CLOTS cco. ererstees cio hit CO COIL EOD OOOO AOTC a CIES Geant ae 99 Sex, determination of, from skulls and bones.................000eeeeeeeees 91 DIcuNPsheizht measurements Olive eis