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THE APPLE
KING OF FRUITS

Practical Facts and Suggestions
“About. its eee et ft

By GEORGE T. bowie. President Agri-
cultural Experts Association of New York

Por Ten o Pals

THE APPLE, KING OF FRUITS

Propagation

MUSHROOM may complete its growth in twenty-four hours, but
an apple tree not inacentury. Hence, in planting this most
desirable of all fruit trees, it is of vital importance that the best
conditions be combined in the tree itself. This should be fol-
lowed by the best methods of after care and management.

There are questions that come to those who are interested in
the planting of trees which are overlooked by many writers who
do not sufficiently treat many points, or even make them clear
to the inexperienced, taking for granted that they do not require plain infor-
mation in its varied details. In the preparation of this brief treatise no opera-

tion in orchard management however small, will be considered unimportant.

From the long life and value of an apple tree its propagation becomes of
the first consideration. The general practice followed by the tree grower or
the nurseyman is to obtain the seeds of apples in the pomace taken from the
cider mills. These are planted and five or six months later the seedlings are
budded with the desired varieties. To the uninitiated it may seem peculiar that
nearly all the apple trees now growing are made up of parts of two trees, the
root grown from the seed of any apple, and the crown, taken from the desired
variety and grafted on this seedling root when it was young. The fact is that
seeds do not ‘‘come true.’? Plant roo seeds taken from typical Baldwin apples
and when the trees mature there may not be even one tree which will bear
Baldwin fruit.

In budding or grafting the seedlings it has long been the practice to take
the buds or scions from the young growing trees in the nursery. Trees that
are propagated in this way have no particular character. They are without any
special quality excepting one which is most prominent, that of growth. Where
buds or grafts are continuously taken from young and growing trees in the
nursery rows they are given the vegetative tendency or habit, and under good
culture often continue, for many years after being planted, to bear little or no
fruit. It is not uncommon to see trees growing ten or twelve years and often
fifteen before any fruit is borne.

A better plan for propagation is to select the buds or grafts from trees that
are mature and bearing fruit, those that have known and established qualities,
among which should be vigor, early bearing, productiveness and uniformity in
the size and shape of the fruit. These qualities are influenced by cultivation
and fertilizing to a large extent, but in some trees they are inherent, and when
such are discovered there is great advantage in propagating from them.

In growing trees in the nursery sufficient thought has not been given to the
difference in seedlings. In truth they vary as much as the kinds that are
budded or grafted upon them. Some are stronger and more vigorous than
others, in which case, the union formed between the bud and the stock is more
congenial and has greater firmness. Where such conditions are obtained the
trees will be free from many of the diseases and weaknesses from which their
weaker companions are liable to fall long before maturity.

The usefulness of an apple tree may be extended over so long a period,
even beyond a century, that more thought and care should be given to these

1

important principals in its propagation. A few nurseymen are now beginning
to work in this direction.

Location for an Orchard

After a superior tree has been produced it should be provided with such
conditions or environment*as will enable it to best utilize the advantages
gained from good propagation. The choice of location is first in importance.
This, if possible, should be upon a more or less elevated piece of land. The
exposure is not essential though ifa choice can be made a northern or westerly
slope is best. The reason for this is that there will be less danger from injury
to the trunks of the trees on account of winter sunshine which upon southern
slopes sometimes proves injurious. The freezing and thawing that sometimes
occurs when the sun shines directly upon the bodies of the trees in midwinter
will cause what is known as ‘‘sun scald,’’ which injures the bark. Where the
land is rolling or hilly this choice of an elevated location is procurable, but if
it is generally level, there is little choice to be made. On an elevation there
is good natural drainage of water. Also during frosty periods blossoms and
fruit suffer there less than upon a level position. Cold air, like water will
always seek a lower level. Hence, it will roll down the hillsides upon frosty
nights and the blossoms on an elevated place, if only of a few feet, will fre-
quently escape injury when those on the lower level will be killed.

The freer circulation of air on a higher point ensures greater freedom from
blights and fungous diseases while the longer period of sunshine through the
day will give higher and finer color to the fruit. For the same reason there is
greater freedom from insects that are injurious as they do not inhabit exposed
situations, but rather seek sheltered places.

The Soil

Tor Soins: The apple will exist on a great variety of soils. Even on a
poor soil it will struggle to maintain its life and reproduce through its fruit,
as reproduction is the real purpose of all animal and vegetable life. There
are, however, certain kinds of soils that are much better suited to the develop-
ment of apple trees than others. A soil that contains some clay in its compo-
sition is excellent. Trees will grow in a stiff clay and dowell, but such soil
is often over-saturated with water and trees do not grow well with too much
water about their roots. Air, which is necessary for the roots of the trees, as
well as for all plants, is frequently shut out by a heavy clay soil. Such soil un-
less well under drained will hold water for a long time particularly after heavy
rains. Soil that is made of a mixture of clay and sand called a clay loam is
admirable and would be the first choice.

Trees will grow on a sandy soil, but they will not grow as large, neither
will they produce as much fruit. The apples that are produced on the sandy
soil will not keep as long as those from a clay or aclay loam soil. The trees
and the fruit on sandy soil are more subject to insect attacks, for insects thrive
better in a dryer soil than in one which holds water a greater length of time.
There are, however, variations in sandy soils that give loams which not only
produce fine trees but an abundance of excellent and beautiful fruit.

SuB-SoILs: In selecting‘land for a country home or for farming, gardening,
or fruit growing it is important to know about the character of the sub-soil.
After examining the surface soil it is well to dig or bore down to the sub-soil
to knew of its character. The sub-soil in its organization is generally closer
and firmer than the surface soil and holds water for a much longer time for
which reason it becomes a most important factor. If the sub-soil should be
very hard and almost entirely void of vegetable matter with its particles of
fine clay closely knit together it is known as ‘‘hardpan.’’ This is impervious
to water and will therefore make the top soil soggy. If this hardpan should

2

lie up to within eight or ten inches of the surface it will be most undesirable
for any purpose, for it will keep the surface soil too wet in the spring after
heavy rains and in long dry periods will prevent the underground water from
rising and distributing itself through the particles of the surface soil.

A sandy soil that may have underneath it a close sub-soil at a distance of
several feet below would be very excellent for it woud be abundantly supplied
with water at all times, and good drainage of the surface soil would be assured.
A soil of this nature may be worked very soon after a rain, an advantage worth
considering. There is a great variation in the combination of clay and sand in
soils. If there is a good depth of surface soil varying from nine to sixteen
inches and if it is underlaid with a fairly close sub-soil (which may be deep-
ened with a plow occasionally one or two inches and mixed with the surface
soil, ) excellent trees and fruit may be grown. Districts where there is lime
stone in the soil are particularly adapted to fruit growing.

Preparation of the Soil for Planting

Before planting trees it is well to give the soil special preparation, but
there are no hard and fast rules to which one must rigidly adhere. If one feels
that he does not want to give time to careful preparation of the land before
planting, he may take ashort cut and yet establish an entirely successful
orchard. Following the first plan, it would be well to have the fields planted
in clover, for two years prior to setting the trees. ©

When ready to plant, plow the land in the autumn, excepting in extreme
northern states as planting at this season is desirable. By full planting a gain
in growth, often of two months, is obtained the following spring, if the season
is late, wet, and cold and is followed by adry period. If, however, there is no
clover in the field, fall plowing should not be done, as the ground would leach
too severely during the spring rains. If the plowing cannot be accomplished
in time for spring planting, stakes may be driven, holes dug, and the trees
planted without plowing, allowing such necessary cultivation to be done at a
later time. There is much discussion as to whether fall or spring planting is
the best. Fall planting allows the trees to start growth the following spring
with other vegetation, instead of having to be delayed until frost is out of the
ground and until the trees arrive. Many argue that the winter kills many
newly planted trees, but the gain on the other side of the question is so
marked that fall planting is highly advisable. Further than that, much better
trees can be obtained in the fall than in the spring and further still, the nur-
seymen are asa rule so rushed in the latter season that it is impossible to
have the trees when otherwise ready.

In laying the plan for an orchard, first decide upon the distance the trees
are to be planted, then measure the spaces, and drive down stakes with strips
of cloth tied to the ends so that they may be readily seen across the field.
The stakes should be driven on the four sides of the piece of land to be planted
with one row through the middle each way. Two men may then sight, one
across the field in one direction to the opposite stake and the other in the other
direction, while the third may mark the spot where each tree will stand in the
exact line with the stakes used is sighting. In this way one may be sure just
where to make the hole for the tree. It is important to have the trees stand
in exact alignment as there is less danger from injury in cultivation, for, if
the trees protrude or retreat much, they are more liable to be injured by plows
and cultivators. Ifthe field to be planted is not a rectangle it is easy for
one to mark the places for the trees by following out the same general lines
above mentioned.

Distances for Planting

The distance for planting will depend upon the policy that is to be fol-
lowed. For standard trees of most varieties, 45 feet each way should be given

3

that they may have an abundance of room and light. A very general mistake
is made of planting too closely. In more than half of the orchards in the
country better apples would be obtained if half of the trees were cut out.
When trees are set at this wide distance, interplanting may be done with dwarfs.
These being placed in the centre, between the standard trees 22 1-2 feet apart.
This plan will prove more profitable as many more trees may be planted to the
acre and these trees will produce apples for at least 20 years, or until it is neces-
sary to remove them for the benefit of the standard trees. It will require
courage to remove these interplanted trees especially if they are bearirg gocd
crops, but it is essential to the development of the trees that are to remain
permanently. If they are all left too long they will overcrowd both in the
tops and at the roots and as a result the orchard will deteriorate. It is some-
times profitable to interplant once again with trees that are excessively
dwarfed and which will bear a crop in three years.

Preparing the Trees for Planting

In buying trees from the nursery select standard varieties two years old.
These will be from five to six feet high and will have well developed root sys-
tems. When the trees are received from the nursery they should be unpacked
and placed in an open furrow in the soil and the roots covered with earth in
order to keep them moist and in good condition until they are planted. If,
by any means, the trees have been long delayed in transportation and seem
dry and shriveled, they should be thrown in water and left for ten or twelve
hours, after which they should be covered in the furrow as suggested.

When ready to plant, the roots should be pruned, cutting away all broken
pieces and shortening each leg about one-third of its length. Then prune the
top of the tree, cutting off all branches, except three, leaving those which have
developed at a distance of three to four inches from each other and from two
and a half to three feet from the ground after the tree is planted. Then cut
off the remaining part of the top. The three branches are to form the perma-
neut top of the tree, and should themselves be cut back one-third to one-half.
Endeavor not to have the branches opposite each other as they will form a
crotch which later when heavy loads of fruit are borne, is apt to split or break
apart.

This severe pruning may seem sacreligious, but it is very essential to suc-
cessful planting. The reason is obvious. When a tree is taken from a nursery
much of the root system is lost and the top does therefore not balance with
the roots. By this pruning an equilibrium is made which will allow the trees
to continue in a normal manner, and far exceed any growth made by a tree
planted as it comes from the nursery.

Planting

Dig a hole large enough to allow careful spreading of the roots. Loosen
the soil at the bottom, spread the roots out as well as possible and put the re-
maining earth over them to a depth of about four inches, packing it as firmly
and closely as possible especially about the roots. One man should hold
the tree in a vertical position and step on the soil, pressing it firmly in place,
while another man with a shovel should supply the earth until the work is
finished. ramping is important as the earth must be made firm over the
roots. By this method of planting 100 per cent. should live and grow. When
the tree isin position and surrounded by earth it should be 2 I-2 inches deeper
than it was in the nursery, the latter distance being easily determined by ¢x-
aming the tree before planting.

Cultivation

When an orchard is planted the work should not end there, though, in too
many instances further effort ceases. This is why there has never been over-

4

production of apples. If all the trees that are planted lived to produce fruit
there would be many more apples than could be sold or used, but for the
want of proper cultivation and care, not 50 per cent. of the trees mature. In
commercial orchards, the soil should be theroughly tilled. This operation
will keep the trees in a vigorous growing condition. If the planting is done
in a small or suburban lot, plowing and cultivation with horses may not be
practicable; but the soil may be spaded or dug about the trees even if for only
a distance of four or five feet, and the result will be beneficial. The soil may
be raked or hoed frequently throughout the season thus keeping a dust
mulch over the top.

In the commercial orchard it is well to plant corn for the first two years,
as this will shade the young trees during the hot months of July and August,
and the cultivation given the corn is excellent for the trees. Potatoes may be
grown providing five hundred or six hundred pounds of special potato ferti-
lizer is applied to the acre for each crop grown, otherwise, the soil will deter-
iorate. It is not wise to sew the small grains or to grow grass in young
orchards, It is sometimes desirable to grow small fruits such as strawberries,
currants and raspberries in the open spaces between the trees, leaving however,
a space of not less than six feet along the row of trees for cultivation. These
crops, if grown, should also be fertilized annually with five to six hundred
pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer. After the trees begin to bear fruit
especially where they are interplanted with fillers, it is better not to grow
other crops, but rather plow the soil in the early spring, harrow and cultivate
it weekly until about the first of July. At that time sow red and crimson clover
in equal parts at the rate of 18 pounds per acre, and cover the seed by harrow-
ing the ground lightly.

Clover is so-called leguminous crop. Inthe presence of certain bacteria
small nodules are produced on the roots which have the power of gathering the
free nitrogen of the air. In this manner, itis therefore possible to give the
soil nitrogen without spending money for fertilizer. Another object of clover
culture is to cover the soil during the winter, which is highly. necessary after
the fine tillage it has received, to save the washing away of valuable fine
particles of soil during the heavy rains of autumn and winter. Still another
purpose in sowing clover is for the improvement of the soil texture. Clover
roots penetrate deeply and bring up from the sub-soil unused plant food. It
also adds to the vegetable matter or humus which is an important factor in
holding and conserving the moisture.

The clover should be plowed under, the following spring, the soil again cul-
tivated until the early part of July and then re-seeded with the clover mixture.
Crimson clover being an annual will grow rapidly and make a large plant by
the latter part of the autumn. The red clover having a longer tap-root will stand
the winter better and will frequently come through the spring in good con-
dition, while the crimson will be more or less killed by the freezing and thaw-
ing weather. The crimson clover, however, has done its work the preceding
autumn and has left in the soil a good supply of nitrogen. Do not cut and re-
move the clover, rather leave it to nourish the soil.

There is much interest and discussion over a system of mulching the soil
by allowing the grass to grow, then cutting it and placing it about the trees.

While there may be a few favorable instances with naturally moist soil where
this system will work quite satisfactorily, yet in the great majority of loca-
tions, this plan will not be wise to adopt. The tillage combined with the
sowing of the clover as acover crop will give far better trees and fruit. In the
mulching system there is always greater trouble from insects and vermin.
Field mice find this an excellent place in which to harbor and many trees
have been ruined by them. Even though wire protection is placed about the
trees, a deep fall of snow will permit the mice to girdle the trees above the
wire. From these points it will be seen that it is not wise to plant orchards
upon land that cannot be cultivated. There are, however, many orchards
planted among rocks which live and thrive to a certain extent.

5

Varieties

In choosing varieties for planting, it is well to have them extend over all
seasons, Summer, autumn and winter. Apples now are so generally used, that
they are wanted even in times when peaches and other summer fruits are plen-
tiful. It is difficult to recommend varieties for all sections of the country.
Those that do well in the north are not all suited to the south. The west also
has conditions especially favorable to certain varieties such as soil and climatic
fitness. An excellent rule to be governed by, is to study in each section, the
varieties which are known to have done well over a long period, and to plant
more largely of these varieties. For the northern and middle states a very
good general list from which to select would be: for summer, Astrachan, Wil-
liams, Sweet Bough, Yellow Transparent ; for autumn, Alexander, Gravenstein,
Fall Pippin, Maiden Blush, Jersey Sweet, Duchess, Wealthy; for winter,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, King, Hubbardston, Sutton,
Roxbury Russet, McIntosh, Wagener and Lady Sweet. For warmer sec-
tions, such as the south and southwest, Jonathan, Stayman Winesape, Grimes,
Golden, York Imperial, Gayno and Huntsman are among excellent varie-
ties. The Ben Davis is well adapted to these sections, but it is lacking in flavor,
and too many of this variety are being planted. Among some choice varieties
for home use are the Chenango Strawberry, Richards Graft, Porter, Pound
Sweet, Rambo, Esopus Spitzenburg and Cox Orange Pippin. The Cox Orange
Pippin is a very rare English apple, but gives promise of being adapted to the
middle sections of the U.S. The Newtown Pippin is well suited to the Hudson
Valley, Va., and the northwestern states, Oregon and Washington.

Description of Varieties

THE ASTRACHAN is an early summer apple, yellow in color, splashed with
red, excellent for cooking, and when allowed to ripen on the tree is a good
dessert apple. Becoming somewhat soft on ripening, it is not suitable to ship
long distances.

THE WILLIAMS is a beautiful red apple of excellent flavor, a favorite in
Boston and other New England markets; it follows the Astrachan in season
and is strictly a dessert apple.

THE SWEET BOuGH is one of the best early summer sweet apples, is yellow
in color, with aslight blush, it is highly prized as a dessert apple, and is superi-
or for baking.

THE YELLOW TRANSPARENT, a Russian introduction, is a very early sum-
mer variety, pale yellow in color when ripe, and is excellent for cooking. On
account of its delicate skin, which easily shows marks, it has to be handled
with great care.

Tuer DucHEs is another of the Russian varieties. The tree is very hardy
and bears early, often at two and three years, while the fruit varies from medi-
um to large in size, is yellow striped with bright red and is highly attractive.
It is tender, juicy, crisp, and excellent for culinary uses, but it is too acid for
a dessert fruit. Its season is August and September.

THE WEALTHY is a tree of great hardiness, and often bears at two years of
age. The fruit is about medium size and pale yellow with strips and splashes
of red. It is a heavy bearer, the fruit requiring thinning. It is of good qual-
ity for all uses.

Tur GRAVENSTEIN exceeds the average size, is yellow overlaid with strips
of bright and dark red, and is very attractive in color. It is one of the finest
for culinary uses, and is equally good for dessert. It ripens unequally, and
needs to be picked several times as the apples drop easily when near maturity.

Tut ALEXANDER is another of the Russian varieties, and a large and very
showy apple. It is striped red in color, and has only culinary qualities. The
fruit is subject to decay, and the trees to blight. It is a popular variety in the

market.
6

THE Fatt, PrppIn is one of the best of the later autumn varieties, ripening
in September and October. It is large in size, is a rich yellow color and excellent
for all purposes. It is subject to the Apple Scaband needs thorough spraying,
with Bordeaux mixture.

THE MAIDEN BLUSH is a beautiful yellow apple with a blush which makes
it one of the most attractive ; the quality is not of the highest, but is most ex-
cellent for cooking purposes. Under good culture, and thinning, the tree
bears regular annual crops. This is one of the most profitable autumn
varieties.

Among the few autumn sweet apples, the JERSEY SWEET is one of the best.
Its color is a bright red and yellow, and it is good for both dessert and culinary
use. Its season is September and early October.

THE NORTHERN Spy may be said to lead all later varieties for excellence in
every respect. The tree is hardy and vigorous in growth. It has a strong
root system, differing in this respect from most other varieties. This makes
the tree a desirable one upon which to top work other choice but delicate
growing varieties as it imparts greater vigor tothem. The fruit is large, the
color yellow covered with streaks and splashes of red and carmine which makes
it most attractive in appearance. When full grown it is covered with a deli-
cate bloom which adds to its attractiveness and beauty. The flesh is crisp,
tender and juicy while its flavor is the highest, with a spritely pleasant acid,
and is fine either for dessert or culinary use. This very excellent variety is not
adapted to general culture. It is best when grown in the Hudson Valley,
north of Poughkeepsie, in the Champlain district, and in central and western
New York. It is also grown in its highest excellence in Michigan, Vermont,
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and the northern belt of the Connecticut.
When grown in too warm sections it ripens prematurely, has poor flavor
and keeping quality, often decaying on the tree before it matures. When
grown in a warm climate, the tree is not so good for top working.

THE BALDWIN is the great leading commercial winter apple, more of which
are to be found in the market than all other kinds combined. It is large in
size, bright red in color, and has excellent shipping and keeping qualities.
The tree is vigorous in growth, but in very cold sections is not entirely hardy.
The Baldwin reaches highest perfection on Long Island, in southern Connecti-
cut, and in the Hudson Valley. Grown in these localities, on account of its
very fine flavor, it has high dessert quality, but in most sections, its chief
value is for culinary use. It is particularly valuable for exporting and meets
with great favor in foreign markets.

THE RHODE ISLAND GREENING ranks in value with the Baldwin ; is particn-
larly adapted to New York State, but is well suited to New England, and is
as widely disseminated as the Baldwin. The tree grows to large size, is
spreading in habit and much of the time bears annual crops. The fruit is
large, green in color turning somewhat yellow when ripe. When grown to its
highest perfection, it frequently has a handsome blush of red on one side.
There is no better apple than the Greening for all purposes, while its crisp,
tender flesh, delicious juiciness and high flavor make it one of the best dessert
apples. There are known records where this choice old variety has sold for
$6.00 per bushel box. It is particularly prized by all New Englanders.

THE TOMPKINS KING ranks very high as a dessert apple; is large in size,a
beautiful red in color with yellow shading when fully ripe, is tender, crisp,
juicy, with a high flavor, the apples often selling for $1.50 per dozen. The tree
is constitutionally defective, being subject to several diseases, the most serious
being canker and collar rot. By top working it upon the Spy, or Tolman Sweet
trees, the King may be profitably grown in commercial orchards, and thus
propagated, will live to 100 years of age.

THE HUBBARDSTON, like the King is an early winter apple, in season from
December to February, and is an excellent dessert variety. Its color is yellow

7

streaked red, its size is large and its flesh crisp and tender, juicy and sub-
acid. The tree bears early, usually in three or four years, annually, and, like
the King, is subject to disease and is improved by top working.

Tur SUTTON, usually called Sutton Beauty, is of the Baldwin type, and isa
dessert apple. Its color is yellow splashed with carmine which makes it high-
ly attractive in appearance. It is about the size of the Baldwin, and is in
season from November to March. This variety is also better when top worked
in which case it is a strong and upright grower. The tops of the trees need to
be cut back frequently to keep them low headed and the fruit should not be
picked until it is highly colored.

THE ROXBURY RUSSET is the best of the Russet family, it is a late keeper
and is at its best in April and May after most other varieties have gone.
The tree is strong, hardy and vigorous, while the fruit is of very excellent
quality. It is a particularly valuable apple to ship to southern markets, and
should be included in every commercial orchard.

TuE McIn?TOoSH is of more recent introduction, but in point of fine quality
ranks among the best. It originated in Canada, and is being quite widely
planted. It is better adapted to northern New York, and northern New Eng-
land, where it isa winter variety. In warmer sections it ripens too early in
the autumn, issubject to apple scab, and would be disappointing if planted
commeicially. The color of the fruit is a deep red, the flesh is very tender,
crisp, juicy, and highly aromatic, with a flavor that is exceeding agreeable.
It is a tender fruit, and will not bear shipping long distances except when
well packed. This variety should be wrapped and shipped in boxes.

THE WAGENER is a high quality variety ranking among the best. The fruit
surpasses medium size, is a beautiful deep red in color with some yellow shad-
ing. The flesh is tender, crisp, juicy, sub-acid, of high flavor, and is one of the
best dessert apples. After one has had the luxury of the Wagener for some
time, he will feel somewhat dissatisfied with most other kinds, however good
they may be. The tree is not an over strong grower and it would be improved
by top working on a more vigorous variety. It begins to bear in three or four
years, and is particularly valuable for planting in the filler system-

THE LADY SWEET is one of the best long keeping winter apples, frequently
good in May. It is above medium size, handsome red in color and having a
thick skin, is an excellent shipper and export apple. It is especially good for
baking. The tree isa hardy and vigorous grower, and is adapted to a wide
territory.

For the warmer sections THE JONATHAN is one of the most valuable varie-
ties, although it does not growto so large a size in the northern states. If given
extra culture and fertilizing, it may be extensively grown and is of the very
highest quality. The color is a beautiful deep red; in size, medium; the flesh,
crisp, tender, juicy, and of a distinctly spicy flavor. It is a beautiful as well
as excellent dessert apple. The tree does not grow to so large a size, but bears
very heavily. If the fruit is thinned, the tree will bear annually.

THE GRIMES is a variety of high merit and especially adapted toa southern
climate. It may be grown for home use in southern New England, and the
southern portions of the middle states. While the apple is yellow in color and
does not sell so well as red fruit, it is one of the best of the dessert kinds, pos-
sessing exceedingly good quality.

THE BEN Davis in appearance is one of the most attractive apples, but its
quality is inferior, being good only for culinary use. It isbest adapted to the
warmer climate of the south, but even there it is being grown in too large quan-
tities as buyers are beginning to learn that consumers do not want too many
of them.

Tur Gano resembles the Ben Davis, but is somewhat better in quality.

THE HUNTSMAN is another variety that succeeds in the South. It is some

8

what subject to scab and to bitter rot, two serious diseases, but its quality is
good, and it comes under the list of dessert varieties.

‘THE YORK IMPERIAL is a handsome red apple and ranges from fair to good
quality. It has the peculiarity of growing unequal in shape, one side of the
apple being higher than the other. The tree is subject to Twig Blight, but
the variety is in favor with southern planters.

Among the CRABS are some excellent and very beautiful apples. The Excel-
sior leads in size, and is nearly as large as Jonathan, equally beautiful in
color and of excellent dessert and culinary quality. This is one of the largest

and best of its class. Q
THE Hysiop Cras is large in size, is of a beautiful red color, covered with a

delicate blue bloom.

THE LARGE RED AND YELLOw SIBERIANS are medium in size and very pro-
lific in bearing. These are used largely for jelly and for pickling, and are
excellent for these purposes.

THE TRANSCENDANT is another excellent crab of good size and quality.

The varieties named constitute the best and most desirable among the

large number in this class.

Dwarfed Trees

Excepting in gardens, dwarf trees have not been much cultivated in our
country. With the destructive work of some of the scale insects, and the increas-
ing numbers of injurious insects, this class of trees is receiving more thought and
consideration.

There are two types among them. The Doucin type are propagated by
budding the desired variety on Doucin stocks or roots, making half dwarf trees
that will grow from 18 to 20 feet high. The Paradise type are smaller trees and
are more strictly dwarfed, being grown on Paradise roots, making smaller
dwarfed trees. The advantage of these are that they may be more effectually
sprayedand pruned with less labor,while the fruit may be thinned and all imper-
fect specimens taken off. The Doucin trees may be planted 20 feet apart each
way, which would make rio to the acre, and the Paradise planted between thein
in one direction, making them stand Io feet from the Doucin trees, thus making
upon an acre about 218 trees. The Doucin Dwarfs may also be planted between

standard trees, the standards being planted 45 feet each way and the Doucin in
between each way also at 20 feet. The Doucin trees come into bearing, if grafted
with certain varieties, in three or four years, and they may be allowed to bear
for from 15 to 20 years before it will be necessary to remove them. The
dwarfed trees are well suited to suburban planting, as they require less space.
The trees should be planted deeper than standards; the union between the bud
and the stock seen by a slight enlargement at the junction, should be set at least
3 inches below the level of the soil. The reason for this deep setting is that the
roots of the dwarfed trees are shorter, and do not extend out so far into the
soil; hence when the trees are loaded with fruit, they are liable to blow over,
as the tops become larger and the roots cannot hold them. With a much larger
number of trees to the acre, and with all fruit made practically perfect, the
financial results are most satisfactory. The cultivation must be intensive, and
all methods will cost more than those generally practiced with standard trees,
but it will be well worth the time and effort to test on a small scale the value
of dwarfed tree culture in comparison with standards. The writer has over
1,000 dwarfed trees, some of which began to produce fruit at two years from
planting, the third year getting as many as fifty apples to the tree, while on the
fourth year, very satisfactory quantities of fruit were grown. Most varieties
grown on standard roots will do equally well grafted on dwarfed stock.

It is not altogether wise to judge of a new proposition until it has been
thoroughly tested, and as very few fruit growers have ever tested dwarf apple

9

culture in our country on a commercial scale, we are without definite knowledge
upon the subject. It will be wise, however, to give these trees a fair trial.

Cultivation of Dwarfed Trees

The cultivation of dwarfed trees has to be done upon more intensive meth-
ods than standards. The soil should be thoroughly tilled for about three months.
By constantly stirring the soil after it is plowed, the fine grains of soil are
pulverized and thereby more available plant food is liberated. The fine roots
of the trees as well as all plants obtain the necessary elements by taking up
water in which these elements are dissolved. Therefore, the finer the soil is made,
the more nourishment will be liberated, and proportionally greater will be the
growth of the trees. It is vitally important to obtain as rapid development of a
dwarfed trees as is consistent with healthy growth. As has been explained
before, frequent cultivation also tends to conserve the moisture of the soil during
long, dry seasons. Hence, intensive cultivation serves two purposes. A spring
tooth harrow and an Acme harrow are two of the best possible tools. Set the
spring tooth to a depth of 4 inches for the first cultivation, 3 inches for the
second cultivation, and 2 inches for the third. The Acme harrow should then
be used to keep the soil perfectly level by stirring the surface from one to one
and a half inches only. As the soil dries rapidly after plowing, an immediate
harrowing should follow.

As the temperature of the air begins to rise rapidly in May and June, the
water that is in the sub-soil rises to the surface with corresponding rapidity
and evaporates into the air. Frequent tillage breaks up the capillary passages
that are formed by this upward pressure of water and prevents evaporation,
thereby keeping the roots constantly supplied with water and incidentally killing
the weeds that grow on the surface.

When the trees come into liberal bearing it is well to apply, once in two
years, one two-horse load of well rotted stable manure to every 15 trees, and
on alternate years to apply six pounds of commercial fertilizer containing at
least 2 per cent of nitrogen, 12 per cent of phosphoric acid and 12 per cent of
potash to each tree. This should be applied early in the spring after the ground
has been plowed, and before the harrowing has begun. This method of ferti-

lizing will keep the trees in vigorous growing condition, such that they will give
regular annual crops.

Pruning

There are few operations about the management of trees that are so little
understood as pruning. For this reason many trees are not pruned, while those
that are, frequently are much injured by the process.

The first year after planting, little pruning will be required. The second
year, only such branches as are inclined to grow in toward the middle of the
tree, or those that tend to cross and interfere with other branches, need to be
cut away. Branches which grow out beyond others should be cut back to give
the proper balance to the tree.

The third year the head of the tree will need to be properly shaped by cut-
ting off the leaders or those branches which grow upward from the centre of
the tree. Make the trees as low and spreading as possible. If the leading
branches are four or five feet long, they should be cut back 18 to 24 inches, a
process which will give more active growth to all side branches.

If very large trees are desired. which will produce the greatest number of
barrels of fruit, a pyramidal form should be adopted by leaving a strong leader
in the center, allowing it to build out branches in all directions. With the
necessity for control of insect and fungous diseases the low spreading form
seems more desirable. In cutting off branches small or large, it is essential to

10

make the cut close to the body of the trees so that the bark may heal over
rapidly. Where the branch comes out from the body or from a secondary
branch there is a slight enlargement at its base. In pruning, cut close to, or
through this, leaving the two shoulders of the cut as nearly equal as possible
so that the sap flowing down from the leaves will form acambiumrlayer which
will roll over the cut. Too often branches are cut leaving a stub of from one
to six inches in length. Decay starts at the ends of these before the bark can
heal over them, and as a result decay will soon be found in the centre of the
tree. When pruning the outside branches of a tree, make the cuts as near above
buds as possible so that they will heal rapidly and leave no small stubs. It is
well to paint all wounds that are more than one inch in diameter, Any
kind of paint will answer. Bordeaux mixture or coal tar are commonly used.
Pruning may be done at any time of the year, although there are certain times
when certain effects will be produced. If the work is done in winter, when
the trees are dormant, the effect is to stimulate growth. If it is done in May
or June, growth is somewhat checked. If the variety is of weak or slow habit
of growth, prune when the tree is dormant. If, on the other hand, it is strong
and vigorous, prune in June to give it some check, as this is the time the sap
does not contribute so much to growth, but rather to the development of tissues,
which, from that time on to winter, mature and harden to withstand a cold
temperature,

It is thought that summer pruning has the effect to induce or hasten the
development of fruit, spurs and buds, and to bring trees into bearing at an earlier
date. The writer is carrying on extensive work in this direction and has a large
number of trees three or four years of age bearing apples freely. Another
feature of summer pruning is that the growth is apt to be diverted into the
fruit and leaf buds for the following year. Such buds begin to develop the first
of July. One special benefit from pruning is to admit the sun freely to the
foliage of all parts of the tree. It is through the foliage that the food supply
of a tree is digested. The food materials ascend through the sap wood to the
leaves, which, aided by the influence of the sun, the taking on of carbon dioxide
and giving off of oxygen, perform the digestion. This digested sap then works
down through the cambium layer to the tips of the roots, forming new layers
of wood, buds, fruit spurs and fruit.

An open system of pruning that will allow the sun to shine upon all the
foliage will therefore give the best results in the northern and New Eng-
land states. In the southern and southwestern states a method entirely opposite
should be followed; that of protecting the branches and fruits by shading them,
Jeaving the top of the tree quite dense and preventing the sun from scalding the
fruit. The very high temperatures in these sections often do great damage in
this respect.

The thinning of apples should be done when they are grown to one inch in
diameter, as then defective specimens may be seen and taken off. If there is a
heavy set of fruit one-third of it should be pruned away. The cost of thinning
will vary on large trees according to the set of fruit from 45 cents to 55 cents
per tree, and on young trees from 15 to 18 years of age, from 15 cents to 29
cents each.

A fine saw should be used in pruning and also a sharp knife. The blade of
the saw should be narrow so that it may be turned at any angle, making it possi-
ble to prune every branch close. For larger work an ordinary seven-point saw
is advisable.

Pruning shears are generally most objectionable, as they bruise one side of
the branch, often cracking it so much that it will not heal rapidly. For clipping
off the ends of smaller branches, it is often handy, however,

)]

The Renovating of Old Orchards

If old orchards have long been neglected, as is generally the case, too severe
pruning should not be done at one time. It is well to cut out not more than a
quarter or a third of the over-crowded branches at one time, for when too many
are cut away, nature will make an effort to replace them by forcing out a great
number of suckers or small twigs along the bodies and branches of the trees,
which later will have to be cut off. By cutting less at a time and taking a longer
period in which to put the old trees in order, labor will be saved, and it will be
much better for the trees. In the attempted renovation of old orchards, another
serious mistake is made in cutting away too many small limbs from the long
main branches. This causes all of the new growth to be made and fruit to be
grown on their extreme ends, which operation is often followed by breaking
down of the large branches when heavily laden with fruit. The ordinary system
of pruning as practiced by the inexperienced is to cut off every branch on every
main limb until there is merely a bouquet on the end. On the other hand, it is
wise to leave large branches scattered along the limbs and yet get the open effect.
Where a tree has been pruned in the wrong manner, a few of the suckers or twigs
that have started should be saved and allowed to grow, thereby filling up many
of the large holes in the top of the tree or filling in the centre to a certain extent.
Suckers may be allowed to grow every five or six feet, and they will be found
to bear excellent fruit. Where the trees have very high tops they may be cut down
ten or twelve feet, the ends being cut in a slantingdirection to prevent decay.
Not more than two branches should be cut in one year, as the shock might
otherwise be great enough to injure the tree. In this manner old trees may be
gradually renewed, tops lowered, and larger crops of excellent apples grown on
the new branches. The ordinary to-foot pruning hook is admirable for much

of this work.

Spraying for Protection Against Insects and Disease

This has become an adjunct in the care of trees that a few years ago was
unknown. With the more extensive planting of recent years. conditions have
been created for the increase of all kinds of insects that prey upon cultivated
trees and plants. Our international trade relations have become so greatly
extended, that we have brought into our country from foreign ports a number
of new and formidable pests. The San Jose scale, the gypsy and brown-tail
moth, and others like the cabbage and currant worms, are causing immense
annual losses.

There are two types of insects that need to be known and understood if
they are to be intelligently fought. One, the leaf-eating insects which have
biting jaws and chew or bite the foliage or fruit. Two, the sucking insects
which have piercing tubes with which they suck the sap from leaves and
branches. In this class is the aphis or plant louse. The first class has to be
treated by means of spraying poisons upon the foliage and fruit. The other
type is sprayed with oily substances that come into immediate contact with the
insect and kill it by corrosion or form a thin film over the breathing pores, this
suffocating the insect.

The apple has a large number of insects that prey upon it, but there are
few, however, that cannot readily be controlled. It is merely a problem of apply-
ing the necessary knowledge at the correct time of the year.

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar

This is one of the earliest apple pests to appear in the spring. The life
history is as follows: The moths appear in July and lay eggs in clusters of about
200 in number, fastened about the twigs by a substance resembling shellac, but

12

which is gummy at first. The color of the cluster is dark brown. The eggs
remain dormant until spring, when the caterpillars hatch and feed upon the
young foliage, making a web in the crotch of two branches. If there are several
warm days before the foliage appears, they are apt to hatch earlier and feed
on the young buds. thereby seriously injuring them. They usually appear in
May and their nests enlarge as the caterpillars grow until at the end of about
six weeks they are slightly over an inch and a half long, black in general color,
and have a white stripe running down the back with a few short, yellow hairs
on the side. They soon pupate upon reaching this size, and a fortnight later
emerge as adult moths.

As soon as the eggs begin to Hatch, spray the trees with arsenate of lead
at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water and they will be easily killed.
The poison will also kill other insects even though they do not appear at the
time, for it remains on the leaves for several months. If there is no spray-
ing apparatus at hand, tie a small bunch of cloth to the end of a pole and
run it up into the lower portion of the nest and then give a rolling motion so
that the threads of the nest will be twisted about the pole and together with
the caterpillars can be brought down. This is easily done, especially on low-
headed trees, but care must be taken to do it in early morning while the cater-
pillars are in their nests. There are several useful parasites, among them the
ichneuman flies, which pierce the eggs, and also others depositing eggs on the
bodies of the caterpillars, which on hatching feed upon and kill them. Some
seasons these parasites are so numerous that they leave no caterpillars to come
forth the following year, while at other times the conditions are just the opposite.

The Codling Moth

The Codling moth is one of the most serious of the insect pests, as it does
much damage to the fruit. It was imported from Europe about 100 years ago
and has spread through all sections of the United tates. Each female moth lays
about 50 eggs just after the blossoms drop in the spring. She flies from one
apple to another, depositing one egg in each flower. In about six or seven days
the eggs hatch and the larvae begin to bore into the apples and there remain
about four weeks. when they become full grown and eat their way out through
the apple. The apple frequently drops at this time and the insect crawls on to
the ground. It then crawls up the bodies of the trees, selecting a sheltered spot
under the bark, or else hides under fence boards or any rubbish that may be
lying about in the orchard, and there spins a cocoon. Changing its habit of life
to the adult moth in about two weeks, it goes forth to lay eggs for a second
brood or remains in the dormant state until the next spring, according to the
climate. The eggs for the second brood are laid anywhere on the tree, but most
of the larvae enter the side of the apple.

The most effective method of dealing with these insects is to spray the trees
as soon as the blossoms have fallen with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead, dissolved,
in 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. The latter is a fungicide and has no effect
on the insect, but is used to prevent the foliage and fruit from being attacked
by the apple scab and other fungi which cause the foliage to fall prematurely
and the apples to be covered with black spots. This Bordeaux mixture is used
with the arsenate of lead in the place of clear water to avoid two sprayings.
The mixture is made as follows: Four pounds of sulphate of copper should be
suspended by means of a gunny sack at the top of a barrel containing 25 gallons
of water, allowing it, however, to be totally immersed. It will dissolve in a few
hours. Four or possibly five pounds of lime are slacked and dissolved in 25 gal-
lons of water. The two ingredients are then poured together simultaneously ina
5o-gallon barrel. To these 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture the 2 pounds arsenate
of lead is added, and thus with one operation in spraying both the fungous

13

diseases and insect pests are controlled. In making the Bordeaux mixture it is

important that the lime and copper be diluted separately, as when being poured
together in the manner described they make the necessary chemical combination,
remain in solution longer and the spraying can be carried on without having
the nozzle clog. It is also very essential to get lime that is freshly burned in
order that it will not have become air slacked. When the young larvae of the
Codling moth hatch, they generally crawl around in the blossom end of the apple,
eating as they go. Hence, the smallest particle of poison deposited inside the
blossom will destroy the worm before it bores into the fruit. Care must be
taken not to spray the orchard until the blossoms have fallen, for otherwise
the bees which fertilize them will be destroyed.

Some eggs are laid on the leaves and twigs, and as a double precaution it is
necessary to spray the trees with the same mixture within ten or twelve days of
the first. A third spraying should be given again by the middle or last of July
to destroy the second brood. which, as has been said before, is common in cer-
tain localities of the country. The second brood works into the apple from the
side, generally speaking, hence, at this time, care must be given to spray the
fruit. As the apples are small at this stage, the poison will wear off before
harvest time. By spraying with these mixtures at the times recommended, over
go per cent perfect fruit may be obtained, while without spraying not over 30
per cent will be had.

There are few other biting insects that in some years are quite numerous.
The bud moth works in the apple buds very early in the spring and destroys
many of them. The canker worm sweeps over entire orchards periodically,
eating up all the foliage. In the spring of 1908 this insect was particularly
numerous. The yellow neck and red humped apple tree caterpillars are apt
to appear in late autumn. The one effective remedy for all these insects is
arsenate of lead, the only difference being that 3 or 4 pounds should be used
instead of 2 pounds. Bordeaux mixture should not be used in the third or last
spraying generally, as at that time the fruit is beginning to mature and it would
tend to discolor it somewhat.

The Fall Webb Worm

This is an insect that injures the apple trees beginning in the late summer.
As they make their tent, they are often mistaken for the apple tree tent cater-
pillar, but they come much later in the season. The moths lay their eggs from
June to August, according to the climate, and the young caterpillars which hatch
soon after eat the green matter from the underside of the leaves, skeletonizing
them, and enlarging their tents as they increase in size and spread over the trees.
As these caterpillars always remain in their tent and work under it, they cannot
readily be sprayed, but may be taken out of the tree with a pole as described
for the treatment for the tent caterpillar, or the infested branches may be cut
off and burned. The fall web worm is found on many forest trees, especially
the ashes, but their damage is only slight.

The Apple Tree Borer

The flat-headed apple tree borer is responsible for the loss of many young
trees. It bores in, either at the base or crown of the tree, and is a native pest,
widely scattered over the country. The adult of this larva is a small beetle, and
lays its eggs on the bark of atree. When they hatch in June or July, the larvae
begin to eat through the bark, often girdling the entire tree. Later the borer,
with its strong biting jaws, works into the centre of the tree and often going
upward finally emerges at a different place, escaping in the form of a beetle.

Trees should be closely examined in June, and if a fine saw dust is found
at the base of the tree, a soft wire should be run into the hole in order to kill

14

the borer. Another effective way to destroy this insect is to inject a small quan-
tity of bi-sulphide of carbon, with a very small syringe, covering the hole as
quickly as possible with earth. Being volatile, this liquid will evaporate into a
gas, bringing death to the insect. By a careful system of cultivation there is much
less danger from these insects, as many of the eggs are apt to be destroyed.

The Apple Aphis

Of the sucking class of insects, the apple tree aphis is one of the most per-
sistent. By close examination of the bark at the base of the buds, and in the
crevices of the bark of the twigs. very small oval eggs, black in color, may be
seen on infested trees. These are the eggs of the apple tree moth. They are
deposited in late autumn. When the buds begin to swell in the spring the eggs
hatch and produce very small lice which insert their beaks or sucking tubes into
the buds and young leaves and subsist upon their juices. The first brood are
all female and reach their maturity in about ten days, when they give birth to
living young for a period of two or three weeks. Then they die.

Each new brood matures in ten days and likewise gives off living young.
Hence, with several generations, each maturing in ten days, the geometrical
increase is enormous. By the middle of July many trees will be covered with
them to the extent of millions.

The leaves having sap taken from them so readily curl up, dry and drop
prematurely. Young twigs are very often affected in the same manner. In late
autumn both males and females are produced, and a stock of fertile eggs is laid
for the continuance of the species the next year. Plant aphis produce a sweet
liquid called honey dew which is secreted from a pair of tubes on the posterior
part of the abdomen. This is used as food for the young and the surplus is
greedily taken by black ants which are seen running up and down the trees.
The ants protect the aphis and will vigorously fight for their preservation. They
have been known to take a species of aphis living upon the roots of corn into
their quarters and there care for them during the winter, carrying them back
to the corn fields the next spring. Not until this discovery was made and the
ant hills destroyed were the enormous losses in the corn crop of our western
states, prevented.

To control this insect, the trees should be sprayed as soon as the first brood
is hatched, using 1 pound of whale oil soap to 7 gallons of water, drenching the
trees thoroughly. Some of the best scale destroyers may also be used at given
rates. If the first brood is destroyed, little trouble or injury will follow, but |
if the matter is delayed, a second and even a third spraying may be necessary.
The aphis has a large number of natural enemies. Myriads of them are
destroyed by the lady bird and their larvae as well as by the syrphus flies.

The San Jose Scale

The San Jose, or Pernicious scale, is one of the most important insects that
we have to fight in apple production. It has annihilated fruit industries over
entire sections of countries. Being a very minute insect it is hard to find. The
first prominent evidence of its presence in an apple orchard will be found in the
red ring-like spots surrounding each insect upon the apples when they are ready
to be picked. By further examination they may be observed upon the branches
in the form of small, round, conical forms with a dark spot or dot in the centre
of most of them. They are no larger than half the diameter of the shaft of a
pin. By scraping them, an oily substance will be observed, and the yellow, soft
bodies of the insects may be seen. By cutting the bark it will be found to be of
a reddish color underneath, often extending to the wood. The scale spreads
with alarming rapidity when it once becomes established, in a few years entirely
encrusting the branches of the trees. Usually the first brood appears in June,

15

and thereafter broods come out frequently day by day throughout the entire
season. Three or four individual insects in the spring will have millions of
“progeny by autumn. They are carried from tree to tree upon the feet of birds
while they are in the early stages of their larval life, before the scale begins to
form over them. They also adhere to feathers of birds. Nursery stock forms
a method of spreading extremely dangerous.

The scale lives upon a large variety of trees, including nearly all of the
fruits, as well as some of the forest trees. They also infest currants, roses, and
many shrubs. It is not, however, impossible to control them. A combination of
lime and sulphur has been generally used, and where the application has been
well made, the results are excellent. Twenty pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of
sulphur and fifty gallons of water should be boiled for one hour in orderto make
the proper combination. As it has to be applied while hot, or a short time after-
ward, it is most difficult to use. The materials being caustic, are very disagree-
able, often burning both the men and the horses. There are several miscible oils,
some good, some bad, that are now on the market. The advantage of these is
that they are readily mixed with cold water, and do no damage to the operators.
There are mechanical mixtures of lime and sulphur now being prepared that
promise to have equal value as an insecticide, and which may also be used in the
place of Bordeaux mixture.

Spraying for the scale should be done in the late autumn, as soon as the
foliage has dropped from the trees. At this time the covering of the scale is thin
and hence the material is more effective. Some of these materials penetrate the
scale coverings and kill by contact, and others form a film cover and kill by
suffocation. A second spraying in late winter is sometimes necessary.

The Department of Agriculture has been importing some of the parasites
of this pest from China, the country from which it was originally imported.
These have spread considerably in the southern states but as yet have not sur-
vived the cold of the North. Again comes the demand for the low-headed type
of tree which can be readily sprayed. With the new and improved apparatus
for spraying as well as the new compounds which are being perfected, this insect
may be successfully controlled at a small cost per tree.

Oyster Shell Scale

This imported insect came from Europe a century ago, and like many others,
when introduced into new territory, was found to thrive in a new environment,
free of its natural enemies. It has spread all over the United States and resem-
bles the oyster shell in shape, from which it takes its name. Generally they are
not common on apple trees, or at least not common enough to do serious injury,
but here and there is found an orchard badly infested. Underneath the scales
are masses of eggs ranging from 25 to 100 in number. The latter part of May
or early June the eggs hatch and the young move out toward the smaller
branches, where they settle down, and insert their beaks in through the bark
and subsist on the sap of the tree. Like the San Jose, they throw off their molting
skins as they grow and these form what is known as the scale, and which takes
the form of an oyster shell. As soon as the insect under the scale becomes adult,
the eggs are laid in the larger end of the scale.

To keep these in check, the trees should be sprayed with one pound of whale
oil soap to 7 gallons of water, or with any of the good scale destroyers now on
the market. Spraying should be done about the middle of June, and if repeated
the following year by a second application, there will be but little further trouble
from the insect.

The Apple Maggot

This insect is also known as the railroad work from its habit of working
throughout the apple making fine discolored lines in all directions. The adult

16

is a small fly with a sharp Ovipositor. It punctures the apples in July by means
of this appendage, and deposits the eggs underneath the skin in the pulp of the
fruit. In the autumn or when the apples fall from the tree, the maggot is ready
to change. It leaves the apple, burrows into the ground, and there remains in
the pupa form until the following season when the adult fly appears. There is
no appearance of its presence until the apples are cut for use, when they reveal
these discolored lines and spots. As the eggs are deposited under the skin there
is no way to reach them by spraying. The only known remedy for their control
is to pick off and destroy all fruit affected early in August before the larvae
leave the apples. This will prevent their further propagation and spread. It is
far better to sacrifice one crop or even two than to have them remain in the
orchard and destroy several crops. It is also well to pick up all the apples that
fall as soon as possible before the insects have a chance to leave. Another
excellent practice is to plow the soil in the autumn. This will turn up the pupae,
the form in which they spend the winter, and they will be quite generally killed
by winter freezing. If orchards were given more general tillage, many of the
insects that go to the soil to pass through their pupal stage, would be checked,
and often exterminated.

Summary

While the foregoing description of the few most prominent and injurious
insects that have to be fought in the culture of the apple may seem somewhat
discouraging to those who desire to produce fruit, it is really not as great as
may appear. The apple grower needs but to reflect that he was created with
unusual power, and man was given dominion over everything, including every
“creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth,” and that it is necessary only to
assert his superiority and keep the control. If he becomes discouraged and
allows the insects to acquire dominion over his trees, then the insects have given
evidence of their superiority. There are, however, generally speaking, only a few
insects which have to be carefully fought. The Codling moth is present every
year, and must be sprayed at least twice. The San Jose scale being particularly
destructive, should be carefully watched and if its presence is detected should
be sprayed every year. The railroad worm is quite common, but as a general
thing the other insects are found only occasionally. The owner of a fair sized
orchard should have a barrel pump equipped with two 75-foot lengths of hose,
two gas pipe spraying rods 10 feet long, and two nozzles of the best type. With
one man at the pump and two men spraying, the cost can easily be reduced to a
low figure for codling moth, but somewhat more for scale spraying. The opera-
tion of spraying is, in itself, not difficult. Care must be taken, however, to use
a fine, mist-like spray, applying it so thoroughly that it will not skip a leaf, or if
done in winter, a twig, and yet so carefully that the solution will not drop from
the leaves any more than is necessary.

The Handling of Apples

Important as is the cultural work, such as the control of insects, pruning,
and fertilizing, there is yet an equally important part, namely, the handling.
Upon this depends largely the value to be realized. Many good apples are
grown, but from that time on they are frequently depreciated in value on account
of poor handling. Good ladders and baskets should be provided where the
fruit is to be gathered from high standard trees. If possible, purchase basswood
ladders, as these are light and strong. The pine and spruce ladders ordinarily
used are from 18 to 20 feet long and are too heavy for general work, as the
pickers often let them fall against the trees, knocking off and bruising the fruit.
Local hardware dealers can easily supply orchardists with what is known as the
topping ladder. Baskets holding a half bushel are generally used.

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The pickers should begin at the lower branches of the tree, working upward
to the top. The baskets should be supplied with strong iron or wire hooks such
that they can be hung on the rounds of the ladder or on the branches of the tree
and thus be kept close to the picker. The actual operation of picking is impor-
tant, and one should turn the apple up in the opposite direction from which it
hangs instead of pulling it from the tree. By the former method they should
easily break from the fruit spur without damage to the spur itself. If, however,
the stems break-and the apples do not come off readily, they are not sufficiently
matured and should be left a few days longer. The opinion is quite general
that apples should be picked before they are fully matured in order that they
may keep well, but this is incorrect. They should be allowed to remain until
they have obtained their natural high color. Fruit that is allowed to get this color
and be well matured on the trees is not only very much finer in flavor, but will
keep better and longer. For instance, a bright red and yellow Northern Spy
is tender, crisp, and most delicious in its flavor, but one that is green or only
partly colored is insipid and unsatisfactory. In handling apples, they should be
placed in the basket and not thrown into them by the picker. They should
then be carefully turned from the baskets into the boxes or packages and car-
ried into the packing room. Bags hung over men’s shoulders are sometimes used
in the picking, but they are objectionable, as the fruit is more or less bruised
from this method.

Apples should never be put in piles on the ground, as is too generally the
custom when the crop is being harvested. The reason for this is that the earth
is still warm from the summer temperature and where great piles of fruit are
made the heat passing from the earth up through them forces further ripening,
and as a result the fruit will not keep as long as otherwise. It is preferable to
sort and pack them as soon as they are picked and keep them in as cool a place
as can be provided in some well ventilated building, or else put in cold storage.
In carrying them from the orchard to the packing room, it is advisable to put
them in bushel boxes. as in this way they may be hauled quickly and easily.

Packing and Packages

In the marketing of apples, the package in which they are placed determines
to a great extent the value that will be realized from them. The great bulk of
apples grown are packed and shipped in barrels. For many years the cost of a
barrel was 25 to 28 cents, but these prices have been steadily advancing, and in
late years the price has been from 40 to 50 cents each. Barrels are desired by the
general trade, the commission salesmen and grocers who sell the apples in small
quantities, and they are also extensively used in export shipping.

Boxes are preferred by the fancy fruit dealers and those who sell only the
finest apples, and this is the trade which brings the greatest net returns. For a
long time boxes could be obtained for 10 cents, but they have now advanced to
16 cents. The size of the box most generally used is of the following inside
dimensions: 9 inches deep, 181-2 inches long, and 113-4 inches wide. The
end pieces are 5-8 of an inch thick, and the sides in one piece 1-2 of an inch
thick, while the tops and bottoms are in two pieces, 5-8 of an inch thick. A box
this size will hold 40 pounds of fruit, or very nearly one bushel.

Packing Apples

Careful packing requires care, knowledge and skill which is too little under-
stood and practiced by many fruit growers. First the apples should be evenly
graded. For this purpose a so-called grading table is desirable, and the apples are
turned into it as they come from the orchard. These tables are of various forms,
but a simple plan is as follows: Make a table 12 feet long, 40 inches wide, and 36
inches high, securely braced so that it will be perfectly firm. On the centre of the

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table erect a light frame running the full length of the long way, 16 inches wide,
and 16 inches high. Divide this frame by cross pieces into seven compartments
each about 20 inches long. On these rectangles above the table 20 by 16 inches
tack pieces of gunny cloth or grain sack so that pockets will be made. Men or
women on one side of the table sort the apples according to their perfection into
the various pockets, while those on the other side are required to pack them
either in boxes or barrels according to grade.

If the apples are packed in barrels there should be two sizes—one running
from medium to large and the other smaller. All should be free from blemishes
and defects.

In starting to pack a barrel, the fruit should be faced by placing on the
head of the barrel, which is upside down, a good average selection with the stem
end next to the head; in other words, upside down, so that when the barrel is
finally open the fruit will look uniform and attractive. The same grade and
quality should then be put in the barrel until it is filled, shaking the barrel occa-
sionally that the apples may settle closely and firmly together. When the barrel
is filled, the fruit should project one inch above the end. After placing the
bottom pieces over the fruit a barrel header should be used. This device has a
screw on the top that puts heavy pressure on the fruit, so that there is no possible
moving of the apples after the barrel is closed. The apple header would appar-
ently bruise and crush the fruit, but they are not in any way injured, as they
have certain elasticity. When the header is screwed down, the bottom of the
barrel may be nailed down securely and the header removed. It is well to place
corrugated pasteboard on the inside at each end of the barrel, as it will often
keep the fruit from being injured.

To pack in boxes, it is necessary that more grades should be made, and only
selected fruit should be put into these. The selected grades should run according
to the variety. Four tiers to the box if extra large apples are used would make
three and a half tiers packed, while the next grade would make five tiers. Each
apple should be wrapped in plain white newspaper cut in sizes to fit each
grade, from eight to eleven inches square. With skillful packers the wrap-
ping and placing in boxes is done rapidly and the cost should not exceed 6 cents
per box. Much of it is done at the cost of 5 cents per box. In covering the
boxes a heading table is used, for which an iron frame is constructed with two
arms that project across the end of the box, and with the aid of a foot lever
and spring the cover is squeezed down and nailed. Corrugated pasteboard
pieces are used at the top and bottom of the box inside.

In packing a policy of absolute honesty in adhering to a uniform grade and
quality should be strictly maintained. The facing of barrels or boxes with fine
fruit and filling the middle of the package with inferior quality, is a fraud which,
whether perpetrated by a grower or a dealer, should be as severely punished as
for the forging of a note or for obtaining money under any form of misrep-
resentation. The extent to which this dishonest packing of fruit has been prac-
ticed has been a serious injury to both the growers and consumers of apples.
It is generally done by adventurers or speculators who have no reputation to
lose. First class dealers of fruit insist upon standard packing, for they under-
stand the necessity of maintaining the confidence of their customers; likewise,
the grower needs to maintain the confidence of the dealer.

Utilizing Waste Fruit

There is always a certain amount of fruit that is unfit for the market. Wind
storms frequently blow off large quantities, and usually this grade will not pay
for shipping. These may be made into vinegar or jelly or may be evaporated.

If there is an evaporator near by, this class of apples may be sold. If there
is no outlet in this way, portable cider mills and presses may be used, making

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the waste fruit into vinegar. Since the pure food legislation has gone into effect,
pure cider vinegar is used more freely and brings much better prices than when
cheap adulterations were made and sold.

In order to make vinegar, a good room is required where the cider may be
kept until it ferments enough to possess the required amount of acid. The room
should be moderately warm, and have a free circulation of air. Cider may be
boiled or evaporated and made into jelly. A rather better grade of apples is used
for this purpose. There are small portable dry houses made for small quantities.
but especially where there are many windfalls, a larger building may be neces-
sary. If a large evaporator may be reached, it is better for the individual fruit
grower to sell his apples than to attempt to evaporate them himself. Where there
are large orchards on an individual farm, an inexpensive building may be erected
that will evaporate from 75 to 150 bushels a day, and the cost of such a building
will range from $900 to $1,200. If one is contemplating the construction of such a
building, it would be well for him to go to the apple growing section where such
buildings are numerous and obtain plans for the same. When apples are
very abundant and prices low, the entire crop is sometimes shaken from the
trees and evaporated. There is a difference in the amount of dried apples that
the different varieties will produce, ranging from 6 to 9 pounds to the bushel of
white fruit, and this usually sells at from 6 to 7 cents a pound. The skins and
cores are also evaporated, and these are largely exported to France, where they
are converted into cider, vinegar, jelly, and sometimes champagne, selling for
1 1-4 to 11-2 cents a pound, while the small apples, chopped, sell for 2 to 21-2
cents a pound.

Storing of Apples

It is important that some provision be made for the storing of fruit, both
for home use and for marketing. Storage facilities make it possible to distribute
the fruit over a large territory, thereby preventing an over stocking of the mar-
ket. By means of this, fruit may be stored for many months until the following
spring.

Where there is a large local apple growing industry the members would do
well to establish a local cold storage building at their shipping station and put
their apples into it as soon as they are packed. If this is not possible, it is well
for individual growers, producing several car-loads, to ship direct to a large
cold storage house in the city. This places the fruit where it can be quickly
taken out and sold when the market is most favorable. The temperature in
these storage houses is kept exceedingly uniform, varying not more than one-half
to one degree for months at a time. Refrigerator cars are used to avoid high
temperatures and dangers of delays when the fruit is on the railroad.

Consumption of Apples

There is a constantly increasing consumption of apples. The fruit may be
used in so many ways, that it is always in favor as long as it will last. There
is too great a difference, however, between the price which the grower receives
and that which the consumer has to pay. The broker or the dealer adds the cost
of transportation and a reasonable profit to the price the grower receives. The
retailer adds his profit and the consumer has to pay generally an advance of 200
per cent over the value which the grower received. The retailer has to run the
risk of loss from decay, but if instead of asking such high prices, he asks less,
larger and quicker sales would result to the benefit of the grower, the retailer and
the consumer. It is hoped that a better equilibrium may be established in this
trade in the near future.

Pleasure and Profit ;
There are few occupations that give more pleasure than that of the care and
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development of an apple orchard. It is always an object of increasing interest
to watch its growth from year to year as the trees expand in size, to direct them,
mould and shape them into beautiful form, catch the beauty and fragrance
of the first blossoms, and finally to gather the perfect fruit, and experience the
satisfaction of having had intelligent control over every element that has con-
tributed to the perfect results.

Apple trees may be used much more than they have been in ornamental
planting and in landscape work, as they form a most attractive setting about
the suburban house. They may be also used in border planting, and massed and
grouped in ways to obtain beautiful color effects, when in full fruit. Their blos-
soms, too, are unexcelled for beauty. They may also be planted in a thousand
places on the farm, and every one of them will help the general farm income.

The profit in the culture of apples is determined by the amount of intelli-
gence and skill that are employed. The soil and trees are both responsive to
good treatment. There has been outlined above a general system to be followed.
It may seem to the prospective grower that there is much to cope with; on the
other hand, there will be found a most satisfactory return for all money, labor
and time wisely expended.

An investigation made in 1898 concerning the value of land used for orchard
purposes gave some interesting facts. Twenty farms in western New York
upon which the orchards were considered a secondary interest and were given
no special care or attention, produced on an average of $85 per acre for the
apples. This was for a period of five years, and during two years of the five,
no apples were borne by the trees. One where better care was given produced
$110 per acre as an average for the five years, another produced $140 and in one
year produced $700 worth of fruit per acre. During the years of 1906-7 there
are records of $1,000 income from an acre, of which 35 per cent had to be
deducted for cost of cultivation, spraying, picking and barreling. Taking the
lowest income that was received, namely, $85 per acre per year, the net annual
profit exceeded the value for which much excellent land may be purchased.
There are many thousands of acres of good land that can be bought for $20 to
$70 an acre. These will furnish homes and work for many who have a love for
nature as well as a desire to engage in congenial work and by it to secure a sure
and satisfactory income.

To the readers of this course the Boston Naturebureau offers its aid in
helping the owner of an orchard to do the work in the best manner. It will
cheerfully give such advice and instruction as is possible where and how to get
the best and cheapest supplies for the work, how to obtain further needed in-
formation, and to work out the highest degree of success with one or with many
trees.

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