sks eek veces Seve . tia oa Coes cea deo Bae 16,959,008 6,230,002
United States... oo wns coh et ee 4,489,088 2,860,885
PYRUCO oi ics pe sine ch era RE Oe REY 4,174,137 2,599,601
Argentine Republic................. 5,366,756 166,823
OP. kan bacsege seas samen et ata 3,402,459 1,470,450
Brazil... .4-Gisk fa ese sa ees era ee 334,135 159,185
RGALY ¢2zccn dd On teeerp aan een meacees 441,999 39,173
In 1884 Great Britain furnished 38 per cent., in
1889 nearly 43 per cent., in 1894 about 46 per cent.
of the imports. Germany furnished in 1884 about
19 per cent., and the share of France was nearly as
great; in 1889 German imports constituted 28 per
cent. of the total, while those of France were less
than half as much; in 1894 22 per cent. of the im-
ports came from Germany, and only a sixth as much
from France. For the whole ten years 42 per cent.
of the total imports came from Great Britain, and
over 22 per cent. from Germany. The large pro-
portion that Great Britain has in the trade is due
greatly to large imports of coal, aided by heavy
shipments of iron, steel, and a few articles of small
manufacturing importance. There is a variety of
manufactured articles in which the Germans have
beaten the English by lower prices and adaptation
of the goods to the requirements of the markets,
though at equal prices British goods are still gen-
erally Hapciaea While Great Britain has gained
in machinery and a few manufactured articles, Ger-
many has made great progress also in machinery,
and in furniture, earthenware, chinaware, hardware,
and in textile goods, mainly at the expense of
France, which has lost ground all round, and in
some articles has almost disappeared from the trade
of Chili.
The foreign trade in 1895 amounted to 142,126,-
434, an increase of 15,602,398 over 1894, The value
of the imports was 69,206,552 pesos, showing an in-
crease of 14,722,396 pesos. he value of the ex-
ports was 69,206,552 pesos, an increase of 713,462
pesos.
Navigation.—During 1893 there were entered at
Chilian ports 1,791 vessels in the ocean trade, of
2,682,542 tons, and cleared 1,662, of 2,509,279 tons.
The vessels were mostly German, English, and
French steamers trading with Europe by way of
Cape Horn, and English and Chilian steamers trad-
ing between Chilian ports and Peru and Panama.
The coasting vessels entered in 1893 had a total.
tonnage of 6.257,463 tons.
The Chilian merchant navy comprised 187 vessels
in 1894, of which number, having an aggregate
a ag of 102,199 tons, 89 were steamers, of 43,741
ons,
_ Communications.—The total length of railroads
nm operation in 1893 was 1,782 miles, of which 686
miles belonged to the Government, which had ex-
CHILI.
pended in the’construction of these lines 64,459,179
esos. Of the Trans-Andean Railroad, from Santa
osa to Mendoza, already 18 miles had been built
on the Chilian and 88 on the Argentine side, requir-
ing 46 miles more to join the two, sections. There
were 400 miles of railroad building in 1894.
The length of the Government telegraph lines at
the beginning of 1895 was 6,965 miles, with 8,330
miles of wire. During 1893 there were 894,280 tele-
grams sent. The Government had 22 telephone
systems in operation. The railroad and private
telegraphs had a length of over 4,500 miles.
The post office carried in 1893 the number of 25,-
419,553 letters, besides 1,893,032 circulars and 30,-
839.684 newspapers and books. The revenue in
1893 was 987,420 pesos, and expenses were 812,235
esos.
2 International Relations.—Chili and Argentina
seemed to be on the verge of war in the early months
of 1896 over the dispute in regard to the boundary
line in Patagonia. In both countries financial
measures were taken and military preparations
made for such an eventuality. The jealousy and
hostility existing between the peoples of the two
republics was very apparent, but the governments
handled the question at issue with calmness and
discretion. Finally they agreed on April 17 upon
a protocol referring the question to the arbitration
of Queen Victoria. Negotiations for the determina-
tion of the definite ownership of Tacna and Arica
were continued between Chili and Peru during 1896
without coming to a complete agreement. Accord-
ing to the treaty of Ancon, concluded in 1883, the
provinces were to be held by Chili till 1895, and
then the citizens were to hold a plébiscite to decide
whether they would return to Peru or remain with
Chili. According to all indications they would
vote overwhelmingly to return to Peruvian alle-
giance. The date passed without any steps bein
taken to put the question to a popular vote, an
subsequently the negotiations were ee which
hinged on the immediate payment by Peru of the |
indemnity of 10,000,000 pesos, and on other con-
ditions and guarantees demanded by Chili.
A treaty has been negotiated with Brazil provid-
ing for free trade between the two countries. A
treaty of amity and commerce with Bolivia proved
at once advantageous to both countries. An extra-
dition treaty with Spain was submitted to Congress
in August.
An agreement was reached in January, 1896, by
which all claims of citizens of France against the
Chilian .Government for wrongs committed upon
them will be canceled by the payment of £5,000.
The total value of the claims presented to the
Anglo-Chilian tribunal amounted to 4,050,854 pesos,
of which only 295,297 pesos were allowed. The
claims presented to the Washington arbitration
tribunal amounted to $28,555,715, while the awards
against Chili amounted to only $240,564. Sixteen
claims for $9,135,699 were undecided when the day
came for closing the tribunal. In this amount
figured the claim of the North and South America
Construction Company for $6,334,203, which was
settled in 1896 for $150,000. For the settlement of
the remaining 15 claims, amounting to $2,801,496,
the Chilian Government agreed to the reorganiza-
tion of the Washington tribunal, subject to the ap-
proval of the Congress, |
Legislation.—Congress met in extraordinary
session on April 27. President Montt announced
that the Government was working for the better-
ment of its finances, the completion of necessary
public works, the advancement of popular educa-
tion, the extension of useful industries, and the en-
largement of commerce. Among the measures in-
troduced by the Executive was an amendment of
CHILI.
the Constitution providing that Congress shall have
no power to vote any sum of money in excess of the
amount designated in the budget. The budgets
for the last few years, after going through Congress,
show an ever-increasing amount of money voted
4 Congress in excess of the sum asked for by the —
Xx
ecutive, the consequence being that all the calcu-
lations of the Government are upset, and a pre-
sumptive surplus running into millions is swallowed
up in appropriations for local schemes concocted by
crafty politicians to strengthen their hold on their
constituencies. In this way 7,000,000 pesos was
voted away by the preceding Congress, and the
Government asked to have this vote annulled. An-
other bill forbade any foreign bank to be established
with a less capital than 2,000,000 pesos, and required
insurance companies doing business in Chili to de-
it with the Government a guarantee for a reserve
Fund of 1,000,000 The Government further
proposed to limit the expenses of the state railroads
to the amount of their ‘earnings, and accordingly
framed a bill which will not in future allow them
to fall back upon the national treasury for large
deficits as they have done in the past. The rail-
road department will fix the estimates for each
year, and the total expenditure will have to be paid
out of the income, and will no longer figure in the
budget. Another bill provides that no municipality
shall have power to contract loans without the au-
thorization of the Senate. Till now the municipali-
ties have raised loans indiscriminately on their own
responsibility, and in the end, to save confiding in-
vestors from losses, the Government has saddled
itself with obligations contracted without its leave
by local authorities all over the country.
The regular session of Congress was opened on
June 1. The chief subject of legislation brought
forward was the reform of the customs tariff for
the protection of national industry. The new pro-
tective tariff took effect on July 1. With wool pro-
duced in the country and cotton in Peru, and with
abundant deposits of iron, copper, tin, and other
minerals, and wheat and wine, more than sufficient
for their annual consumption, the Chilians look
forward to economic independence and industrial
development.
Presidential Election.—The election of a new
President to succeed Admiral Montt took place on
June 25. A coalition convention, in which Cler-
icals and Conservatives joined with the section of
the Liberals allied with the aristocratic class and
moneyed interests, nominated Federico Errazuriz
on a platform calling for the faithful execution of
the plan for the conversion of the paper currency.
The candidate of the Advanced Liberals was Gen.
Vicente Reyes. No contest for the presidency was
ever attended with such excitement and tension of
public feeling. When the day drew near, fights oc-
curred between partisans of the two candidates in
Santiago and Valparaiso. The Government an-
nounced that it would preserve the peace with the
utmost strictness, but would abstain from all inter-
ference or pressure and allow the people to decide
the issue with perfect freedom. The sincerity of
this declaration was proved by the removal of
officials who too actively supported Errazuriz, the
candidate approved by the Administration. The
election passed off, indeed, without any executive
interference, the first perfectly fair and free elec-
tion that has been held in Chili. Peace and quiet
reigned generally throughout the republic, and this
also was a novel phenomenon in the country’s his-
tory. The election was so close that the public
were held in suspense as to the result even after the
colleges of electors gave their vote on July 25, show-
ing a majority of 4 for Errazuriz. The question of
the nullity of certain electors was considered by the
CHINA. 127
united houses of Congress after they met on Aung.
30. On Sept. 3 Sefior Errazuriz was proclaimed
President by Congress, having obtained a majority
of 2 votes. The supporters of the unsuccessful
candidate behaved with exemplary moderation.
The President-elect had much difficulty in select-
ing his Cabinet, which he desired to have composed
of Liberals who had supported him, excluding on
the one hand the Reyesta section of the Liberal
party and on the other his Conservative allies. It
was considered inexpedient, moreover, to take mem-
bers of Congress into the Cabinet, because that
would weaken the President’s party. A ministry
constituted under these conditions was not likely
to last or to accomplish anything in the fate of the
Reyesta majority in the House of Representatives.
Anibal Zanartu accepted the task of forming the
new Cabinet, which was announced on Sept. 14, as
follows: Premier and Minister of the Interior,
Anibal Zanartu; Minister of Foreign Affairs, En-
rique de Putron; Minister of Justice, Adolfo Ibanez;
Minister of Finance, José Francisco Fabres; Minis-
ter of Public Works, Francisco Baeza; Minister of
War and Marine, Gen. Manuel Bulues. The Presi-
dent was inaugurated on Sept. 18. Admiral Montt,
the retiring President, was appointed the head of
a naval commission to visit Europe for the purpose
of examining ships and armaments. The new Gov-
ernment was confronted with a monetary and com-
mercial crisis and a shrinkage of revenues indicat-
ing a deficit of 10.000,000 pesos. While many
Chilians clamored for the reissue of paper money,
foreign bank managers declared that the only
means of solving the crisis was an announcement
by the Government that it would maintain the
gold-conversion law at all hazards. When Con-
gress convened on Nov. 2 its first act was to cen-
sure the ministry. The ministers resigned, and
Sanchez Fontecilla, having given up the task of
forming a new Cabinet of the President’s adherents
because the majority insisted that all shades of
Liberal opinion should be represented, E. F. Albano
was commissioned to form a ministry, which was
completed on Novy. 17, as follows: Minister of the
Interior, Carlos Antunez; Minister of Justice, Luis
Claro Solar; Minister of Finance, Justiniano Soto-
mayor; Minister of Public Works, Elias Fernandez
Albano; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Carlos Morla
Vicufia; Minister of War and the Navy, Gen.
Amunategui.
CHINA, an absolute monarchy in eastern Asia.
The Government is regulated by historical prece-
dents and the Confucian principles of morality. The
throne is hereditary in the Manchu or Tsing dy-
nasty, established by the Tartar conquest in 1644.
The Emperor chooses his heir from among his sons
by his first three wives. The present Emperor, who
reigns under the style of Kwangsu, which means
continuation of splendor, was proclaimed irregu-
larly, his uncle an hee pial having died a minor
without leaving a legal successor. He was born
Aug. 2, 1872, being the son of Prince Chun, seventh
son of the Emperor Trokwang, and came to the
throne after the death of the Emperor Tsaichun,
Jan. 12, 1875, under the direction of his aunt and
adopted mother, the Empress Dowager Tsu-Hsi,
mother of the late Emperor, who as co- Regent and,
after the death in 1881 of the Eastern Empress, sole
Regent, continued to direct the affairs of the em-
pire until the young Emperor became of age and
married, and on March 4, 1889, assumed the Goy-
ernment. Only the Jiterati, men who have passed
the literary examinations, of which there are many
pane, are eligible to public office. There is a
sung-Tu, or governor-general, over the capital
province of Pechili, and others have charge of
the Liang-Kiang, Min-Che, Liang-Hu, Chan-Kan,
128
Liang-Kwang, and Yun-Kwe groups of provinces
and over Szechuen, while each province has its Sun-
Fu, or governor. These officers and the subordi-
nate local officials are almost independent of the
Imperial Government, which has little to do with
the people in general, but the local administrators
are held accountable by the imperial authorities
for their manner of administration, and may be re-
moved at any time and degraded in official rank or
punished even with decapitation for wrongdoing,
while on the other hand a virtuous and successful
administration brings rewards.
Area and Population.—The area of the 18
provinces of China proper is estimated at 1,336,841
square miles and their total ag ees at 386,000,-
000. The dependencies are: Manchuria, with an
area of 362,310 square miles. and about 7,500,000
inhabitants; Mongolia, with an area of 1,288,000
square miles and 2,000,000 inhabitants; Tibet,
with an area of 651,500 square miles and 6,000,000
inhabitants; Jungaria, with an area of 147,950
square miles and 600,000 inhabitants ; and Eastern
Turkestan, with an area of 431,800 square miles
and 580,000 inhabitants. The island of Formosa,
having an area of 14,980 square miles, and a popu-
lation of 3,600,000, was ceded to J ae. by the terms
of the treaty of peace ratified on May 8, 1895, and
was formally transferred on June 2, 1895. The pop-
ulation of Pekin, the seat of the Imperial Govern-
ment, is variously estimated between 500,000 and
1,650,000. Canton is supposed to have 2,000,000 in-
habitants; Fuchow, 1,000,000; Tientsin, 950,000 ;
Hangchow, 800,000 ; Shanghai, 400,000; and Ning-
po, 255,000. These are the most important of the
treaty ports. There are cities in the interior that
' have an enormous population. The foreign popula-
tion of the treaty ports at the end of 1894 was 9,350,
of whom 3,989 were British, 1,294 Americans, 807
French, 780 Portuguese, 767 Germans, 380 Span-
iards, 356 Swedes and Norwegians, 253 Japanese,
206 Italians, 123 Danes, 106 Russians, and 289 of
other nationalities. In 1895 the foreign residents
increased to 10,091, of whom 4,084 were British,
1,325 Americans, 875 French, 812 Germans, 805
Portuguese, and 2,190 of other nationalities.
Finances.—The revenues of the Imperial Gov-
ernment are not published, except those derived from
the customs, which are collected under European su-
pervision. Herr von Brandt estimates the total nor-
mal revenue at 100,000,000 haikwan taels, equivalent
before 1874 to $161,000,000 in gold, but in July,
1896, to $81,900,000 only, owing to the depreciation
of silver. The receipts from the various sources,
according to this estimate, are as follow: Maritime
customs, including inland duty on foreign opium,
28,000,000 taels; land tax, 35,000,000 taels; inland
transit duties, 12,000,000 taels; native customs and
duty on native opium, 10,000,000 taels; salt mono-
poly, 10,000,000 taels ; sale of titles and brevet rank,
5,000,000 taels; rice tribute, 3,000,000 taels ; licenses
and other items, 2,000,000 taels. The expenses of
the Manchu Government at Pekin are about 7,000,-
000 taels a year; expenses of the court, 1,000,000
taels; cost of the frontier armies, 5,000,000 taels.
About 2,000,000 taels a year are paid for the regula-
tion of the Yellow river. The land and salt tax
and other revenues, except the maritime customs
revenue, are collected by the provincial authorities,
and the bulk of the revenues are applied to their
own expenses. The Imperial Government receives
no fixed proportion of these taxes, but makes a req-
uisition each year upon the more prosperous prov-
Inces for about the same amount in normal times,
while from some of the poor provinces it demands
no contributions, The cost of the troops, except
the frontier garrisons, is defrayed by the provinces,
as well as the salaries of the civil service, the main-
CHINA.
tenance of the river and canal flotillas, and what-
ever is spent on public works. The land tax was
fixed once for all by a fundamental law about a
century and a half old. The salt tax is practically
unalterable. The dikin, or transit duty, is deter-
mined by the local authorities, and is capriciously
and arbitrarily changed to suit their exigencies,
The Government agreed in the Chefoo convention
to exempt imports from /ikin on which 24 per cent.
duty is paid on entry in addition to the 5-per-cent.
customs duty. But some of the governors refuse to
be bound by this agreement, and still levy likin on
goods that have paid the commutation, as well as
on all the products that pass through the likin bar-
riers, which are often not more than ten miles apart.
The receipts of the maritime customs amounted in
1894 to 22,523,605 taels, of which 6,546,299 taels
were collected on imports, 8,820,012 taels on exports,
5,050,303 taels on foreign opium, 1,203,458 taels
from lighterage, 479,635 taels for tonnage, and 423,-
898 taels from transit dues. The customs revenue
for 1895 was 21,385,000 taels, the decrease being due
to the port of Niuchuang yielding no revenue dur-
ing the Japanese occupation, and the cessation of
the revenue from the treaty pens of Formosa upon
the cession of that island to Japan. Making allow-
ance for these losses, the revenue exceeded that of
any previous year. The opium duty, which amount-
ed to 6,197,906 taels in 1891, was only 4,104,145
taels in 1895. ;
The expenses of the Japanese war and the war
indemnity of 200,000,000 kuping taels, about $161,-
000,000, with the indemnity of 30,000,000 kuping
taels for the evacuation of the Liaotang peninsula,
burdened the Chinese Government for the first time
with a large debt. Before the war the only debts
outstanding were a German loan contracted in 1888
at 54 per cent., of which 3,500,000 marks remained
unpaid; a loan of 10,000,000 taels obtained from
the Hong-Kong Bank in 1879 at 7 per cent.; and
£5,000,000 advanced by different banks between
1892 and 1895. All these debts are secured on the
customs revenue. After the war the Imperial Gov-
ernment obtained the Russo-French loan, amount-
ing to about $77,000,000, on which 4 per cent. in-
terest is paid. In 1896 the Anglo-German loan of
£16,000,000, or $77,866,000 was contracted at 5 per
cent. This makes the total present indebtedness
$187,900,000, on which $8,388,000 interest must be
paid annually. The Russo-French loan was guar-
anteed by the Russian Government. The Anglo-
German loan, which was taken by the syndicate on
March 12, 1896, at the contract price of 94, was not
guaranteed by any government, but was made a
charge on the customs revenue that was not already —
pledged, and protected by a stipulation that the
present administration of the maritime customs
shall remain unchanged. :
The only official coin is the copper cash, of which —
11 are equal to a cent in United States money.
The ordinary medium of exchange is sycee—i. e.,
silver ofa certain fineness that is weighed, not
counted. A silver dollar of the same size as the
United States dollar or the Japanese yen has been
coined at the new mint in Canton since 1890, and
is current everywhere by imperial decree, but it
has not come into general use. Payments are ac-
tually made in bullion by weight. The liang or
tael, which is the standard, varies in different parts
of the empire. The haikwan or customs tael is 1}
ounce of pure silver. The Government in July,
1896, announced the intention of reforming the na-
tional currency by introducing a uniform coin and
unit of value equivalent to the Mexican dollar.
The copper cash has not been coined extensively for
many years, owing to the fact that it costs now a
tael and a third in silver to coin a tael’s worth at
could not kee
_ tempted to hold their exchange value at 1,000 cash
_ cash, though the
»
=
and Krupp field pieces. The force garrisoned in
CHINA.
| the rate of exchange that has been established from
ancient times, about 1,500 cash to the tael. The
available stock of cash consequently diminished,
until in 1895 they began to go to a premium
and rose till only 1,150 would be given for a tael.
The decline in the price of silver has caused a
' shrinkage in the quantity of foreign goods import-
ed, with an increase in their total value. - Exports,
- owing to the same cause, have increased in quantity
as well as in value. The imperial customs receipts
have fallen off a full third in gold value in the last
few years. Forthis,among other reasons, Li-Hung-
Chang went to Europe in 1896 to endeavor to get
the consent of Great Britain and other countries to
an increased rate of customs duties, unless there was
q 1 sia of the restoration of silver to the mints.
e
prices of domestic commodities and services in
China have changed very little in consequence of
the depreciation of silver. More revenue than was
formerly required is necessary in order to pay in-
terest on the heavy imperial debt incurred on ac-
count of the war. The proposition was to raise the
import tariff from 5 per cent. to 10 per cent., the
same concession that was granted to Japan in 1895.
The 5-per-cent. tariff was established in 1860 by the
_ Pekin convention supplementary to the treaty of
- Tientsin.
So troops held the capital.
It was forced upon China when Euro-
When it was signed
aid in taels of an exchange value of 3
to the pound: sterling, enabling the Chinese to make
extensive purchase in the Western markets. In the
last twenty years the exchange value of the tael has
fallen to such an extent that the Chinese are now
obli to remit 7 for each sovereign. A doubling
of the import and export duties would consequent-
ly only place China in the original position she oc-
cupied when the conventional tariff went into force.
France, Russia, and Germany gave their consent to
the proposition to increase the duties; England held
out for large compensating concessions, such as the
abolition of all /zkin duties.
The Viceroy Chang-Chih-Tung established a mint
at Hangkow for the coinage of Chinese dollars, but
them in circulation because he at-
hina was
by making them receivable for taxes at that rate,
while the gee ag would accept them only for 860
cash. He a quantity of cash minted, weighing
5 instead of 8 candarins each, and Viceroy Lieu, of
_ Nankin, took steps in the same direction, but the
Emperor refused to sanction the issue of debased
ple were willing to take them.
The Army.—The central army, stationed at Kal-
gan, near Pekin, has a strength of 50,000 men in
time of peace, capable of being doubled in war, con-
sisting of strong and well-trained men, armed with
Remington rifles. The army of Manchuria num-
bers about 70,000 men, equipped with Mauser rifles
Turkestan is also well armed and drilled. The
_ provincial troops, constituting the bulk of the forces
that were often beaten easily by the Japanese in the
late war, are badly armed, not efficiently trained,
and not ae to fight. Of these braves a force of
200,000 is kept up in peace time, which is capable
of being raised to a strength of 600,000 in case of
war. The Chinese arsenals, under foreign super-
vision, turn out large quantities of modern arms
and ammunition. The official military statistics
represent the efficient troops mentioned above,
classed as the Eight Banners, or Imperial Army
of Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, to have a
bees of 323,800 men, of whom 100,000 are sup-
po to be reviewed by the Emperor every year,
_ while the national or Chinese army is reported to
consist of 6,459 officers and 650,000 men. A scheme
of military reform and reorganization has been
VOL, XXxv1.—9 A
129
adopted, in the execution of which European offi-
cers will be employed. Li-Hung-Chang made con- -
tracts when in Europe in the summer of 1896 for
rifles in France and artillery in Germany.
The Navy.—The Chinese navy was strong in
ships and guns before the war, and was not
badly manned, but it broke down completely be-
cause the administration was inefficient and cor-
rupt and because the principal fleet was prevented
from effective mancuvring by the order of the
Government to remain in Chinese waters, while the
other forces were kept from co-operating with it
by the provincial authorities. The northern squad-
ron, containing the effective fighting ships, was
captured or destroyed by the Japanese in the bat-
tles of Yalu and Wei-Hai-Wei. After the war
China had no battle ships left. The present force
consists of 3 coast guards, 7 second-class cruisers. 9
third-class cruisers, 33 other steamers, and 30 first-
class and 13 second-class torpedo boats. There
were at the beginning of 1896 in course of construc-
tion 1 cruiser, 1 dispatch boat, 4 gunboats, and 4
torpedo boats. The creation of a new navy is one
of the first objects to be attained as soon as Chinese
finances can be reorganized. The plans adopted
are for a fleet of the English fashion, with English
naval officers.
Commerce and Production.—The chief com-
mercial products of China are tea, cultivated in the
western and southern provinces, and silk, which is
raised in all the provinces, but best in Kwangtung,
Szechuen, and Che Kiang. Opium for home con-
bag is largely produced in the west. In the
north cereals, such as wheat, barley, millet, and
corn, are cultivated, and in the southern provinces
rice and sugar are important crops. The coal
mines at Kaiping are worked under the direction
of foreign engineers. Mines have been opened also
at Hang-Kow. Thick beds of coal underlie nearly
the whole of China. Iron and copper are mined in
a primitive manner. In the copper mines of Yun-
nan Japanese engineers have lately been employed to
introduce modern methods. The total value of im-
ports in 1894 was 162,102,911 haikwan taels, taking
the market values in the ports of China, including
duties paid and costs of landing, storing, and sell-
ing. The value of exports, not including the ex-
port duty and cost of packing. and shipping, was
128,104,522 taels. Deducting the extraneous charges
in the one case and adding the cost of exporting in
the other, the corrected values are 139,569,201 taels
for imports and 144,690,042 taels for exports. The
direct trade with foreign countries in 1894 was dis-
tributed as follows:
COUNTRIES. Imports, Exports.
PERRMEMODIE oh 39% Grid ca cvasete sia 82,424,351 50,793,504
Great ee oe Pro Pee eee 29,943,379 11,500,254
Par oa. Sicdawtocurnnde dhse accra. 19,929,092 2.542.611
RSSULONE RUD 3 scenes tesencius seuss, 9.263, 16,442,788
SEDO Seay teed Mpheeenaines vey saa’ 9,130,173 9,256,632
Continent of Europe............... 5,770,594 19,119,081
Russia in Europe and Asia......... 1,058,7% 11,023,184
The imports of opium in 1894 were valued at
33,336,067 taels; of cotton cloth, 32,405,000 taels;
of cotton yarn, 19,700,000 taels; of raw cotton,
556,203 taels; of woolen goods, 3,540,195 taels; of
coal, 3,221,343 taels; of kerosene oil, 8,005,314 taels;
of sea products, 5,157,616 taels; of rice, 9,743,000
taels; of sugar, 9,507,000 taels; of iron, 2,584,000
taels; of tin, 2,047,000 taels; of timber, 1,690,000
taels; of matches, 1,639,000 taels ; of aniline, 1,169,000
taels. The value of the exports of tea was 31,854.-
575 taels; of raw silk, 33,004,000 taels; of silk
goods, 7,980,000 taels; of cotton, 7,361,000 taels;
of straw braid, 2.531.219 taels; of sugar, 2,436,625
taels; of wool, 2,355,000 taels; of clothing and foot
130
wear, 1,850,635 taels; of paper, 1,784,366 taels; of
cow and buffalo hides, 1,089,919 taels; of chinaware
and pottery, 1,231,136 taels; of tobacco, 1,281,000
taels. The quantity of tea exported was 1,862,312
piculs (1 picul = 133} pounds), of which 757,287
piculs went to Russia, 403,197 to the United States,
307,504 to Great Britain, 165,504 to Hong-Kong,
and 80,323 to Australia. ;
Neither the war with Japan nor the riots and
disturbances in certain provinces seriously inter-
fered with trade, which was remarkably active and
prosperous during 1895. The right to import ma-
chinery, conceded by the treaty of peace, gave an
extraordinary impetus to industry, especially cotton
spinning and weaving, in which Chinamen and for-
eigners have now invested much capital. Cheap
labor and abundant raw material, with the continu-
ance of the advantage that the East enjoys by the
fall in the gold price of silver, hold out every pros-
pect of China becoming a most important manu-
facturing country, which will lead to a keen and
formidable competition in textiles between the
East and the West. The total volume of trade in
1895 was 314,989,926 taels, surpassing the previous
year by 24,000,000 taels. The total trade of China
has more than doubled in ten years, the figure for
1885 being 153,205,729 taels. In this period the im-
ports have increased from 88,200,018 to 171,696,715
taels, and exports from 65,005,611 to 148,293,211
taels, showing that there has been no change in the
relative position of imports and exports as in Japan.
The imports in 1895 amounted to 171,695,715 taels.
The increase of 9,593,000 taels was in part illusory,
owing to the inclusion of what was coastwise traffic
in former years by reason of the acquisition of
Chinese territory by Japan. The great decline in
the opium trade observed in 1894 continued in an
accelerated ratio, owing to restricted production in
India, higher prices, and increased production and
improved quality of the native drug. The import
of foreign opium has fallen from 67,800 piculs in
1836 to 51,306 piculs in 1895. There was a large
increase in the imports of morphine, showing an
alarming increase of the morphine habit through a
greater use of the so-called antiopium pills. An
increased importation of staple cotton fabrics, not-
withstanding the fall of silver, causing an advance
of over 27 per cent. in prices since 1886, is an en-
couraging symptom of improving economic condi-
tions. The yearly importation of over a million
piculs of Indian yarn affords evidence of the great
increase of the native hand-weaving industry
throughout the empire, stimulated by the high
price of foreign cotton fabrics. Besides native
cotton mills already established, 4 new ones, with
capacity for 143,000 spindles, were started and a
score of others were projected by European, Chinese,
and Japanese capitalists.
The fall in silver has enhanced the price of woolen
goods to such a degree that ordinary silk and satin
cost little more. Metals have likewise suffered from
this cause. The importation of machinery was
nevertheless in 1895 twice as much as in 1894. The
exports in 1895 amounted to 148,293,211 taels, show-
ing an apparent increase of over 15,000,000 taels,
which was partly due, as in the case of imports, to
including for the first time the trade with Formosa,
but there was a positive gain of over 9,000,000 taels
in exports of silk, tea, cotton, and other staples.
Silk is now the chief export, tea having receded to
second place, The export of white, yellow, and
wild silk and China filatures in 1895 was 110.620
piculs, 11,100 piculs more than in 1894, Morecver,
the sale of cocoons exceeded that of all previous
years, while the shipments of silk goods were nearly
3,000,000 taels more than in 1894. In ten vears the
export of silk and satin goods has more than doubled,
CHINA.
The Pasteur system of detecting and eradicating
the silkworm disease has been successfully em-
ployed in Canton province. The Russian demand
for black tea is increasing, and the purchases, at
exceptionally high prices, both for the Black Sea
and the Kiakhta overland route, were in 1895 the
highest yet recorded. This trade has grown from
287,900 piculs in 1891 to 384,300 piculs in 1895; but
this increase does not make up for the decline in
the black tea trade with Great Britain, which has
fallen from 409,800 piculs in 1891 to 250,400 piculs
in 1895, when it was 94,000 less than in the previous
year. Raw cotton is an export that is increasing
very rapidly, owing to the demand of the Japanese
mills. The export amounted in 1895 to 896,000
piculs, of which Japan took 744,000. The export of
skins of dogs, goats, and sheep, both tanned and un-
tanned, for clothing and rugs has grown from 881,000
taels in 1891 to 2,649,000 taels in 1895. Another ~
remarkable development is the export of nankeens
for Chinese abroad, who find this durable homespun
cheaper than the more flimsy European fabrics
since these have been enhanced in price by the ap-
preciation of gold. Of the total trade of near
315,000,000 taels in 1895, the share of the British
Empire was over 215,000,000 taels; of Japan, 32,-
000,000 taels ; of the Continent of Europe, outside
of Russia, 29,000,000 taels; of the United States,
20,500,000 taels ; of the Russian Empire, 17,000,000
taels. The share of the port of Shanghai in the
total trade was nearly 219,000,000 taels.
Navigation.—During 1894 there Were 38,063 ves-
sels, of 29,622,001 tons, entered and cleared at the
ports of China, of which 20,527, of 20,496,347 tons,
were British; 13,123, of 5,539,246 tons, Chinese;
2,429, of 1,983,605 tons, German; 420, of 379,044
tons, Japanese; 107, of 129,127 tons, American; and
293, of 848,291 tons, French. Of the total number,
30,027, of 28,506,074 tons, were steamers.
Communications.—The means of internal com-
munication are innumerable roads and paths, much
traveled, but badly kept, and numerous canals and
navigable rivers. The railroad that brings coal
from the Kaiping mines to deep water on the Petang
has been extended to Tientsin and northeastward to
Shan-Hai-Kwan, a total length of 167 miles, while
surveys have been made for 200 miles beyond the
Great Wall to Kirin, the capital of Manchuria. The
Emperor in 1889 ordered a railroad to be built from
Pekin to Han-Kow, but this has not yet been begun.
A line from Tientsin to the capital, 80 miles, has
been actually begun. The cost is estimated at
2,400,000 taels. A survey has been made for a line
from Shanghai to Soochow, which will be extended .
to Hangchow. In a recent edict, in reply to a me-
morial of the Minister of War recommending the
appointment of a high officer to take charge of the
construction of railroads, the Emperor observed
that these are most important for the maintenance
of trade as well as for the employment of the masses
of the people; hence he has decided to encourage
railroads in every way. He appointed Hu, who
first suggested and has charge of the construction
of the Tientsin-Pekin line, to be director general of
railroad construction. The grand trunk line from:
Pekin to Han-Kow is being built as a commercial
undertaking, with which Government officials may -
not interfere, by wealthy men of the provinces who
can raise a capital of 10,000,000 taels. Permission
has been granted to run a branch of the Russian
Trans-Siberian Railroad from Stratensk through
Chinese Manchuria to some open port. A Russian
bank undertook to finance the enterprise and
French engineers obtained the contract.
A Russian steamship company, through its agent,
an American named J. Smith, obtained a concession
and undertook to build wharves at the treaty port
CHINA.
of Chefoo. The Governor of Kwangsi was ordered
to construct a railroad from Lunchow to the Ton-
uin border to meet the French line from Haiphong.
rench engineers were engaged to carry out the
work. Great Britain,in order to prevent the French
_ from gaining a start in the competition for the
trade of western China, demanded that West river
be opened up at once, but the Chinese Government
demanded as a condition that China be allowed to
retain the territory ceded under the Burmah-China
convention of 1894.
Telegraphs connect the capital with all the prin-
cipal cities of the empire and with the frontiers.
_ A junction was made with the Siberian oyerland
line to Europe in 1892, and more recently with the
Burmese line to Yunnan.
The postal service is carried on by the Militar
department. Private messengers are also employed.
For commercial purposes the Department of Foreign
Customs has maintained during the winter months
a service between Pekin and the maritime ports.
On March 27, 1896, an imperial edict was issued
expanding this latter service into a natural postal
department, of which Sir Robert Hart was con-
tinued as chief, with the title of Customs and Post
Inspector General.
New Treaty Ports.—Of the treaty ports that
have been declared open to the residence and
trade of foreign merchants, three are on the is-
land of Formosa, which is now a Japanese posses-
sion. Under the treaty of ponte with China four
new ones were opened in China, making the total
number now 25, not counting Nankin, which the
Chinese Government consented in 1858 ithe treat
with France to throw open, but has not yet opened.
Of the new treaty ports Hangchow, capital of Che-
richest city in China, the center of its greatest silk
and tea districts, the general emporium for all arti-
_ cles that pass between the northern and southern
_ provinces, already one of the chief manufacturing
cities of the empire, employing hundreds of thou-
sands of people in silk weaving, fan making, straw
_ plaiting, cotton and hemp industries, the making
_ of wine and soy, and the preparation of tea for the
market. Of equal manufacturing possibilities is
the enormous city of Soochow, reputed to contain
a population of 7,000,000, situated on the Grand
Canal, in the province of Kiangsu, and famous for
‘its fine silk. Chungking, in Szechuen, on the
Yangtze river, opens to foreign commerce the
_ richest province of China. By the treaty of Che-
_ foo, made in 1877, it was to have been opened soon
after Ichang was, but the Chinese Government
- failed to keep its promise to Great Britain. Shashi
_ is the busiest center of trade on the Yangtze above
_ Hang-Kow, with a population of 600,000, about the
same as Chungking. In accordance with the terms
_ of the treaty of Shimonoseki, the ports of Foochow
_and Hangchow were opened as treaty ports on Sept.
26, 1896, and assurances were given that the two
new Yangtze ports would be thrown open at an
early day.
ass with Japan.—A commercial treaty be-
tween China and Japan, drawn in accordance with
the treaty of Shimonoseki, was signed at Pekin
on July 21, 1896. China grants to Japan the most-
favored-nation treatment, though no similar right
is given in return. Japanese factories are per-
mitted to be established in China, but the duties
the products are to pay remain to be fixed. The
likin and export duties remain unchanged.
The Mohammedan Rebellion.—A|though Gen.
Tung had been commended and rewarded for sup-
ressing the rebellion in northwestern China, the
ungans were by no means crushed. They emerged
from their winter quarters and became active in
‘Kiang province, is the most important, being the |
CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 131
April, capturing the town of Kiayru-Kwan, in
Kansu, and advancing westward. The war was
cruelly waged on both sides. Whole districts were
ravaged and laid waste, and a large population was
reduced to starvation.
Attacks on Missionaries.—On May 12 an anti-
missionary riot occurred at Kiangyin, where the
American Protestant mission was looted and
burned, and the missionaries escaped with difficulty.
The trouble was started by the usual slander about
missionaries using the hearts and eyes of Chinese
children for medicine, which in this case was put
in circulation by a Chinese physician from motives
of revenge. The instigator of the riot was duly
mare and the indemnity demanded by the
nited States Government was paid. Hatred of
Christians was especially rife in Honan and north-
ern China. In Yunnan the missionaries had a quar-
rel with the authorities regarding the acquisition
of building sites, and were compelled by the man-
darins to relinquish property that they had bought.
In June the members of secret societies in a turbu-
lent district of Kiangsu rebelled against the au-
thorities, and, after capturing several villages, at-
tacked ruthlessly the communities surrounding the
Jesuit missions at Sinchow, Tangshatsien, and Sut-
sien, burning down the houses of the native Chris-
tians and maltreating them so that several persons
died. In the adjacent part of Shan-Tung the Ger-
man Catholic mission was demolished, one of the
priests was killed before he could flee, and the na-
tive Christians were driven out of their homes.
The mandarin sent soldiers to protect the build-
ings, but the rebels compelled them to retreat.
Shortly after the Restche massacre of 1895 some
of the senior Protestant missionaries drew up a
memorial to the Chinese Government praying that
literature slandering Christian missions should be
suppressed really ; that mandarins, as. well as the
common people, should be free to adopt Christianity ;
and that the local mandarins should be ordered to
treat missionaries without suspicion and regard
them as friends, since they desired nothing but the
ood of China. They were introduced to the Tsung-
i-Yamen by the American and British ministers,
with whom, however, the German minister declined
to co-operate. The majority of the Yamen seemed
disposed to grant their prayer, when suddenly their
chief supporter, Wang, was unexpectedly degraded,
and, further, the French minister intervened with
objections against any reply being made to the
memorial, as this raised anew the question of the
right of missionaries to deal directly with the Chi-
nese Government, a right which the French had
induced the Pope to withdraw in the case of
Roman Catholic missionaries a few years before.
Subsequently the deputation requested the British
and United States representatives to aid them in
obtaining the three points asked for in the memorial,
as well as an agreement that whatever privileges
were granted to Roman Catholics might also be ex-
tended to Protestants. This was considered im-
ortant, because the French minister had been
indefatigable in the interest of Roman Catholics,
and had succeeded, after the riots of 1895, in secur-
ing a convention by which Roman Catholics could
secure land without the consent of the local man-
darins, and also a promise that statute law shall
henceforth be published in. accordance with the
treaties granting religious liberty, and not with the
old law forbidding Chinese to become Christians.
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. ‘The General Conven-
tion of the Christian Church, South, met in Bur-
lington, N. C., June 5. The Rev. W. W. Staley was
re-elected president. The president’s biennial ad-
dress called attention to Elon College and its in-
debtedness of $12,000; the nomination of candi-
132 CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR.
dates for the vacant trusteeships in the institution,
from whom the Board of Trustees should elect half
the number; the provision of a dormitory for girls
at the college; assistance in home mission work;
the foreign mission in Japan; the publication of a
hymnary; the establishment of an orphanage; aid
to the colored people; and the Young People’s So-
ciety of Christian Endeavor as subjects inviting
action. An amendment to the articles of “ Princi-
les and Government” was adopted, to read: “ The
ord Jesus Christ is the only Head of the Church,
and any other pretending to be the head_thereof
should be regarded as that man of sin and son of
perdition who exalteth himself above all that is
called God.” The establishment of an orphanage
was approved and a committee was appointed to
further it, with power to raise funds, purchase a
site, and do whatever else they may think advisable.
In connection with this subject the convention di-
rected that the funds already collected for the Chil-
dren’s fund go to the education of young ministers
as hitherto ordered, but that whatever may be col-
lected hereafter shall go to the sustenance of the
orphanage after it is built. Should the orphanage
not be built, it was provided that the funds should
go to the biblical library at Elon College. The
trustees of the college were asked to provide for
biblical instruction at as early a date as possible.
For the education of the colored people the conven-
tion decided to arrange for co-operation with the
brethren of the Christian Convention, North. The
North Carolina and Virginia Conference was granted
the privilege of co-operating with the Methodist
Protestant Church in works not in conflict with the
general work of the connection, An arrangement
with the Christian Convention, North, for the pub-
lication of a word edition of the Christian Hym-
nary was left in the hands of the Publication Com-
mittee. Ministers were advised to inform them-
selves respecting the work of the Christian Endeavor
Societies for the purpose of introducing them in
their churches.
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, SOCIETIES OF.
The whole number of societies is given in the report
made to the International Convention at Washing-
ton as 46,125, and the number of members as 2,750,-
000. Of these societies Canada has 3,292 ; the United
Kingdom, 3,000; Australia, more than 2,000; France, -
66; the West Indies, 63; India, 128; Mexico, 62;
Turkey, 41; Africa, 38; China, 40; Germany, 18;
Japan, 66; Madagascar, 93; and all foreign and
mission lands, 6,399.
Two new branches of the Christian Endeavor
work, the Mother’s and the Senior, had been organ-
ized during the year covered by the report, the for-
mer with 50, and the latter with 20 societies. Hight
thousand societies had asked to be placed on the mis-
sionary roll of honor. They included 5,869 Young
People’s Societies and 2,331 Junior Societies, and
had given $154,022 through their respective denom-
inational boards to the causes of home and foreign
missions, and $206,150 for religious work in other
ways,
COLOMBIA, a republic in South America. The
Senate has 27 members, 3 for each department,
elected for six years by indirect suffrage. The
House of Representatives has 68 members, 1 to
every 50,000 of population, elected by direct suf-
frage for four years, every citizen having a vote
who can read and write or owns real estate or has
an income of 500 pesos. The President is elected
for six years by an electoral college. Miguel A.
Caro, Vice-President, became President on Sept. 18,
1894, after the death of President Nufiez, for the
remainder of the term ending July 20,1896. The
following ministers were in office at the beginning
of 1896: Interior, C. D. Ospina; Foreign Affairs,
COLOMBIA.
M. F. Suarez; Commerce and Communications,
Carlos Uribe; War, Edmundo Cervantes; Instruc-
tion, L. Zerda; Finance, M. Abadia Mendez.
Area and Population.—The area of the repub-
lic is officially estimated at 513,938 square miles.
A more recent calculation makes it 464,400 square
miles. The population was estimated in 1881 at
3,878,600, including 220,000 uncivilized Indians.
Bogota, the capital, situated at an elevation of
9,000 feet above the sea, has 120,000 inhabitants.
Education is free, but not compulsory. There are
1,817 primary schools, with 89,000 pupils. The uni-
versities, technical institutes, and normal schools
have about 8,200 students in attendance. The Ro-
man Catholic is the state religion. Other forms are
tolerated so far as they are judged to be not contrary
to Christian morals nor the law.
Finances.—The revenue is mainly derived from
customs. For the biennial period 1895-96 the reve-
nue was estimated at 26,226,300 pesos and expendi-
ture at 26,283,191 pesos.
The internal debt on June 30, 1894, was stated to
be 9,413,060 pesos, of which 5,466,896 pesos repre-
sented the consolidated debt and 3,946,164
the floating debt, which latter should be paid off
by a sinking fund established in 1888, amounting
to 604,000 pesos per annum; but these funds have
not been so applied since the insurrection of 1895.
The interest on the consolidated debt is 262,196
pesos per annum. Besides these debts there is a
forced paper currency amounting to 26,135,060
pesos. The old Bolivian silver peso was of equal
value with the 5-frane piece, but the fineness was
reduced from 0°835 to 0:500, and now these debased
coins have been driven out by paper money. A
law was passed in 1894 that provided for the re-
demption of the paper currency and the free coin-
age of gold, with subsidiary silver to be coined for
the Government in Europe. No gold, however, was
brought to be coined. Silver coins, 0°835 fine, were
minted in Birmingham to the amount of 8,251
pesos only, On the Isthmus of Panama Peruvian
silver circulates; in other parts of the republic
the money is depreciated paper. A new law pro-
hibiting the importation of foreign silver was en-
acted by the Congress and went into effect in.
July, 1896. The effect was a serious derangement
of the trade with neighboring countries.
Commerce and Navigation.—The chief imports
are articles of food and drink, textiles, and iron
and steel manufactures. The chief exports are
coffee, peanuts, silver ore, cacao, cotton, dyestuffs,
live stock, hides, tobacco, rubber, and woods. Some
of the minor exports to the United States are straw
hats, cocoanuts, balsam copaiba, bananas, ivory
nuts, heron feathers, pearls, gold dust, manganese
ore, mother-of-pearl, and tortoise shell. The trans-
it trade across the Isthmus of Panama is more im-
portant than the direct commerce. The transit
traffic between San Francisco and Europe fell away
to almost nothing until, in 1895, it suddenly re-
vived and became important. The vessels of the
Pacific Mail and Panama Railroad companies (both
American), the Chilian South American Steamship
Company, and the English Pacific Steam Naviga-
tion Company call at Panama. Of 863 steamers
that were cleared during the four years ending
June 30, 1895, 356 were American, 384 English, 115
Chilian, and 8 were German tramp steamers. The
American steamers have steadily increased, and
they now carry twice as much freight as all the |
In all the ports of Colombia 1,510 vessels, of
rest.
806,397 tons, were entered, and 1,475, of 1,436,854
tons, cleared during 1893. Of the total tonnage, 55 ~
per cent. was British, 19 per cent. French, and 10
per cent. German. The Colombian merchant fleet
consists of 2 steamers, of 841 tons, and 5 sailing
COLOMBIA.
vessels, of 2.179 tons. An extensive trade in cattle
with Cuba that sprang up in 1876 has ceased,
Nevertheless the commerce of Colombia has grown
more and more important every year. Coffee has
been grown in the interior departments of San-
tandar, Cundinamarca, and Tolima, and the export
has steadily increased for fifteen years, notwith-
standing the difficulty of transporting the crop to
the coast or the navigable streams. Within three
or four years an important new coffee country has
been opened in the Sierra Nevada mountains, near
the port of Santa Marta, and large tracts of land
have been secured for plantations by Americans
and others.
Communications.—The length of railroads in
Colombia was 218 miles in 1892, when there were 3
completed lines and 5 in operation over a part of
their intended routes.
The post office during 1893 carried 302.410 do-
mestic letters and postal cards, 615,844 printed in-
closures and sam ne and 70,038 registered letters
and kets. and forwarded to foreign countries
342,440 letters and 206,171 papers and packets.
There were 6,835 miles of telegraphs in 1894.
From June 30, 1892, to March 31, 1894, the number
of telegrams dispatched was 317,507; received, 372,-
630; cable m sent, 2,509 ; received, 3,322.
The Panama Canal.——‘The company founded in
1881 by the late Ferdinand de Lesseps to construct
a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, 46 miles
in length, nearly parallel to the line of the existing
railroad, received up to June 30, 1886, 772,545,412
francs. It was found on the examination of engi-
neers that nearly as much more would be required
before the canal could be completed, and even then
only with locks, not at the sea level. An attempt
to raise a loan of 600,000,000 franes failed in 1888,
and the company went into liquidation. Operations
were suspended after March 15, 1889. An exten-
sion having been granted in March, 1893, a second
attempt to form a new company was made in 1894,
and work on the canal was partially resumed.
Steps are being taken to make a harbor in Panama
at the mouth of the canal, where vessels of all sizes
will be enabled to come alongside the wharves and
have their cargoes unloaded direct on the cars of the
Panama Railroad, instead of being discharged into
lighters 4 miles away from the railroad. This harbor,
which will be completed by the end of 1897, and
other improvements at Colon will greatly facilitate
the traffic of the railroad, which belongs to the
canal company. The business of this railroad is
now growing rapidly, owing to the revival of the
trans-Isthmian traffic and the development of some
of the richest agricultural lands in the world. Be-
_ sides these extensive dredging operations work is
being prosecuted on’ the canal at the Culebra cut
with laborers imported from the West Indies and
West Africa.
Politics and islation.—The administration
of President Caro has been unpopular because of
his dictatorial policy and arbitrary character. In
1896 there was widespread apprehension of a re-
newal of troubles such as distracted the country in
1895. The President dispatched troops to several
places where there was a probability of revolt, pre-
tending that there was danger of a foreign invasion.
A force was hastily despatched from Bogota to the
coast in January on the rumor that two vessels had
sailed from New York with arms for the revolu-
tionists. President Caro in March formally re-
signed his office into the hands of the Vice-Presi-
dent, Quintero Calderon, but soon he resumed office
and on April 11 appointed the following new Cab-
inet: Interior, Manuel Casabianca; War, Pedro A.
Molina; Foreign Affairs, Jorge Holguin; Finance,
Ruperto Ferreira; Treasury, Manuel Ponce de
COLORADO, 133
Leon; Education, Dr. Rafael Carrasquilla. The
army was mobilized shortly afterward. The force
on the peace footing is limited by act of Congress ~
to 5,500 men. In case of war the President can
raise its strength to whatever the circumstances
seein to require, every able-bodied Colombian being
liable to serve. Congress met on July 20. Heated
discussions took place over the repeal of the export
tax on coffee that was imposed during the civil war
of 1895. A bill was introduced to annul the ex-
traordinary powers that were conferred upon the
President, virtually making him a dictator.
Foreign Relations.—The Government agreed in
January, 1896, to refer the claims of English and
American contractors and the right of the Govern-
ment to cancel the railroad concessions granted to
them to commissions of arbitration. In the early
part of March the English minister, G. F. B. Jenner,
was notified that owing to his roughness in diplo-
matic correspondence he would no longer be recog-
nized as the representative of his Government.
Negotiations for the settlement of the boundary
dispute with Venezuela were reopened by the Co-
lombian envoy in Caracas in April. On March 31
a Colombian gunboat overhauled an American
schooner, the “ George Whitford,” which had left
Porto Bello and was more than 6 miles out at sea,
and eeepc’ the master, under threat of sinking
his vessel, to put back to Colon, where a guard was
placed on board, and was not removed till April 2,
after the American consul had notified the gov-
ernor that he would send for a United States man-
of-war unless the vessel was released. The Ameri-
can Government made an immediate demand for
an apology for this affront to the American flag,
and after an investigation the Colombian Govern-
ment disavowed the act and apologized. Three
jurists were appointed in August by the President
of the Swiss Federation to arbitrate the differences
between Great Britain and the United States of
Colombia arising out of the disputed railroad con-
cession. The Government ordered the Carthagena
and Magdalena Railroad, belonging to an American
company, to transport all freight by weight, and
when the manager refused offered to have this
quarrel adjusted by arbitration. A treaty was con-
cluded at Bogota in November by which Colombia
and Costa Rica agreed to have their long-standing
dispute regarding their territorial division line set-
tled by the adjudication of the President of the
French Republic. The controversy, which involves
a large ej valuable tract of the American isthmus,
was once before near a settlement through the
friendly intervention of the United States. On the
advice of Secretary Bayard it was referred to Spain
for delimitation when that monarchy was already
engaged in drawing the boundary line between Co-
lombia and Venezuela. The Spanish Government,
while acceding to the request, deferred taking up
the Costa Rican case until the other boundary was
delimited. During the delay Colombia made grants
to a New Jersey company, which undertook to build
a road from Bocas del Toro into the interior, and also
ceded over a million acres that were situated within
the disputed area to the Panama Canal Company.
On protests being raised. the Colombian Govern-
ment declared that the time within which Spain
should have acted on the boundary question had
expired, and in 1891 it withdrew from the treaty.
Secretary Gresham again offered the friendly offices
of the United States in 1894, and the outcome of
this intervention is the new treaty of arbitration.
COLORADO, a Western State, admitted to the
Union Aug. 1, 1876, and hence called the Centen-
nial State; area, 103,925 square miles. The popu-
lation was 194,327 according to the census of 1880;
in 1890 it was 412,198. Capital, Denver.
134
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, Albert W.
McIntyre; Lieutenant Governor, Jared L. Brush ;
Secretary of State, Albert B. McGaffey ; Treasurer,
Harry E. Mulnix; Auditor, C. C. Parks; Superin-
tendent of Education, Mrs. A. J. Peavey ; Attorney-
General, Byron L. Carr—all Republicans ; Super-
intendent of Insurance, C. C. Parks; Chief Justice
of the Supreme Court, Charles D. Hayt; Associate
Justices, Luther M. Goddard, John Campbell—Re-
publicans, except Goddard, who is a Democrat.
Education.—The seventeenth annual catalogue
of the State Agricultural College, issued in May,
shows a registry of 232, of whom 161 were young
men and 12 were in the graduating class. The
four-years’ course included botany and horticulture,
zodlogy and entomology, chemistry and geology,
civil, mechanical, and irrigation engineering, mathe-
matics, history, literature and German, English
and sociology. In the department of domestic
economy instruction is given in home hygiene,
cooking, sewing, nursing, and the chemistry of
foods. Military science is also taught. For stu-
dents who intend to follow a business career there
is a commercial course. Oratory, physical culture,
vocal music, and the modern languages form supple-
mentary studies.
Banks.—The condition of banks, as published in
January, was as follows: With one less bank in the
field and one bank just recovering from several
months’ suspension, the total clearings of Denver
banks for 1895 were $138,371,173.36, while for 1894
they were $138,347,784.27. Notwithstanding the
slight change in the clearings, the condition of the
individual banks, especially in regard to deposits,
specie, and reserve, shows a great improvement.
Indictments were found May 19 against bank
officials and others accused of conspiring to de-
fraud depositors in Denver banks that had closed
their doors within the preceding three years. Of-
ficers of the German National Bank were charged
with falsifying figures in the report to the Comp-
troller in May, 1893, 0. E. Miller, of Chicago, was
charged with embezzling $125,000 from the Com-
mercial National Bank, whose president, C. H. Dow,
was accused of conspiring with him.
Mining.—F rom estimates received by the direct-
or of the Mint it appears that the value of gold
produced in Colorado in 1895 was about $15,000,000,
and the quantity of silver was 22,000,000 fine ounces.
Estimates of other mineral products in 1895 were
as follow: Lead, 97,644,688 pounds; copper, 8,031,-
247 pounds ; coal, 3,570,518 tons, value $6,665,136 ;
iron, value $1,586,200; steel rails, value $1,348,500.
The State has an area of 127,305 acres of coal land
assessed.
Statistics of 1895 showed that 15 per cent. more
men were employed in the mines than in 1893 be-
fore the panic.
In an article on gold mining in the State, T. A.
Rickard, the State geologist, says there is no ground
for the impression that Colorado has but one min-
ing district, that of Cripple Creek, upon which at-
tention is now riveted for the reason that its output
rose from $3,900,000 in 1894 to $7,000,000 in 1895.
According to this geologist the gold deposits of
Colorado are distributed over a region 280 miles
long, from Hahn’s peak in the north to Mount
Hesperus in the south. The mining -industry is
now attacking the lodes whose degradation formed
the shallow alluvial beds.
An estimate of the money invested at Cripple
Creek, compared with its output shows as follows :
4,000 patented claims, costing an average of $500
each, $2,000,000; 5,000 unpatented locations, costing
an average of $100 each, $500,000; cost of the
claims,$2,500,000 ; work of lessee, $3,000,000 ; capi-
COLORADO.
tal invested in second purchase, $1,500,000; total,
$7,000,000. Against this the output of the camp
stands as follows: 1892, $600,000; 1893, $2,100,000 ;
1894, $8,000,000 ; 1895, $8,000,000 ; 1896, estimate,
$10,000,000 ; total, $23,700,000. The actual cash
value of the gold belt is placed at about $100,000,-
000
There is great activity also in San Juan County,
of which Silverton is the county seat, as also at
Telluride; and new workings are sper at Victor,
Leadville, Ouray, Gunnison, Boulder, Pinos Altos,
Aspen, Pine Creek, Clear Creek, Arkins, Cotton-
wood, Creede, and other points. West Creek, in
Douglas County, a new mining camp which grew to
a town of nearly 10,000 within ninety days, was in-
corporated in March.
Manufactures.—Hstimates of the value of manu-
factures in 1894 placed the total at $40,238,730;
the indications were that figures for 1895 would
show an increase of at least 5 per cent. At the
close of 1894 nearly 10,000 men were employed.
Several factories opening up in 1895 increased the
number of men employed to 1,200. The most ma-
terial increase in the factory business during the
year was in textile industries, where the number of
yards of cloth manufactured was 8,113,724, com-
pared with 6,698,122,in the preceding year. Sew-
ing manufacture and the making of men’s clothing
increased 25 per cent. The output of the tanneries
nearly doubled. The floral industry assumed new
importance, increasing its output for the year to
$140,000 and requiring the establishment -of new
and enlarged conservatories. All lines furnishing
building material experienced satisfactory improve-
ment.
Irrigation.—The report of F. H. Newell, spe-
cialist on irrigation of the Geological Survey, gives
an account of the present state of irrigation in
Colorado. “The arninaee flow of the streams is
utilized to its fullest capacity, and, especially on
the South Platte drainage, large numbers of reser-
voirs have been built in or near the foothills for
the purpose of holding flood waters. This method
of increasing the available supply can be utilized to
a greater extent, as there are still many localities
where water might be held at moderate expense.
The examinations have shown the existence of good
reservoir sites, especially in the basin of the Arkan-
sas, the most notable of these being that at Twin >
Lakes, By holding the greater part of the flood
waters, it will be possible to extend the area under
cultivation, but the amount of land which has
already passed into private ownership is so great
that there is little probability of sufficient supply —
being obtained for any considerable part of the
oublic lands of the eastern half of the State.” Mr.
ewell also says that the water supply from arte-
sian wells is an important feature, especially on the
great plains, where there are no surface streams,
but where it is possible to obtain an amount suf-
ficient for the irrigation of small patches of land,
besides water for cattle. “In the vicinity of Den-
ver, Pueblo, La Junta, Lamar, and in the San Luis
valley are areas where artesian conditions are —
known to exist, and where flowing wells are used
for domestic purposes and to a small extent in
agriculture.”
Of the land now vacant in the State, it is esti-
mated that 6,000,000 acres are forested or have
growing upon them trees (though often sparsely
located) of size sufficient to furnish merchantable
timber. Besides this there are probably 7,000,000
acres of woodland.
Strike at Leadville.—A long-continued and
serious strike began in Leadville, June 19. Silver
miners who had been working for $2.50 a day, had
been asking for $3, which was paid at some of the
COLORADO.
mines; the managers refused on the ground that
they could not afford it; and after months of fruit-
less efforts to come to an adjustment, these miners, to
the number of 800 or more, were ordered out by the
union. The strike extended to 10 or 12 properties.
On June 23, 5 mines, which had been paying $3
to their men, were closed by the managers for an
indefinite period, swelling the number of idle miners
to about 1,600, and ultimately as many as 3,000 were
involved. Some nonunion men were employed in
the course of the summer, but the strikers kept a
close watch to prevent any such from entering the
town. Sept. 21 the trouble culminated in a riot in
which the attacking miners used dynamite, and
hundreds of shots were fired. Six men were killed
and as many more were wounded, and the works at
the Coronado mine, which was working with non-
union men, were laid in ashes. More than 1,000 of
the State militia were in Leadville the next day,
and troops were kept there for months. Martial
law was proclaimed Rept. 23. There were frequent
skirmishes between the militia and the strikers, but
without serious results.
According to the muster roll, Nov. 22, the guard
consisted of 735 uniformed soldiers, including of-
ficers, and about 300 ununiformed emergency men.
The Cloud City Miners’ Union issued an address to
Goy. McIntyre and the people of Denver, in which
they said: “The miners of the union are anxious
for an amicable settlement of this trouble. They
opened the field of this immensely productive dis-
trict. The made it possible for millionaires to arise
from it. They have in it the interest of their day’s
pay, bread and meat, shelter and clothing for
themselves and their humble dependents. Others
' have in it the interest of rapidly accumulating for-
tunes. The miners are ready and willing to enter-
tain and consider any reasonable proposition look-
ing toward a settlement. They will meet the
operators in a spirit of fairness and justice. They
can not, of course, consent to the destruction of the
union, for that isthe bulwark of theirsafety. Neither
can they consent to perform their hard and ex-
haustive labor, undergo its constant hardships, and
face its manifold dangers for less wages than will
eS them with the necessities of life.”
isasters.—A terrible explosion of gas took
place Feb, 18 in the Vulcan coal mine, near New-
castle, probably the greatest mine disaster that has
ever occurred in the State. The number of lives
lost was about 50. The buildings and trestle at the
mouth of the slope were completely wrecked, a hole
100 feet square was carved out of the hillside at the
mouth of the incline, while timbers 2 feet square
were blown into the Grand river 100 feet away.
The mine was examined by the State inspector,
Feb. 8, and pronounced in better condition than it
had ever been before.
A wind storm swept over some parts of the State,
April 12, accompanied by snowfall. The damage
was especially severe at Cripple Creek, where many
buildings were blown down, trees broken, bent, and
earried long distances, and tents and loose lumber
carried away.
Cripple Creek was visited, April 25, by a dis-
astrous fire, which destroyed the main portion of
the business section—4 entire blocks, including
the post office, 2 banks, the stock exchange, the
opera house, 2 theaters, 2 hotels, the Gold Mining
xchange, and 2 churches. Estimates by insurance
adjusters place the loss at $950,000, with insurance
of about $250,000. On April 29 another fire de-
stroyed nearly all that was left from the first.
Three persons were killed by explosions of dyna-
mite used in the attempt to prevent the spread of
the fire, and nearly a score were injured. The loss
was greater than that by the first fire, being placed
135
at $1,320,000, but the buildings were more heavily
insured,
Great loss of life and property resulted from a~
cloudburst and floods in Bear Creek cafion, July 24.
Many cottagers and campers from Denver and
other places were spending the summer in the
valley. As many as 30 lives were lost; among
these were 3 families of children, who with their
mothers were spending the summer together at a
cottage on the bank of the creek near Morrison.
Decision.—The Supreme Court of the United
States, on April 27, gave a construction of the act
of June 8, 1872, relating to what is known as “ Chip-
pewa half-breed scrip,” confirming the policy of
the general land office, which construed the law to
permit the location of the scrip upon land either in
the limits of the reservation made to the Chippewas
or upon land within the public domain.
Political.—A convention of Democrats for the
purpose of choosing delegates to the national con-
vention was held in Denver, April 15. The resolu-
tions dealt only with the silver question, declaring
as follows:
“ Believing that the evils that now oppress the
people are the direct result of a departure from the
true principles of Democracy; that the policy in-
augurated by the Republican party for the contrac-
tion of the currency, and for many years continued
by it to the gradual and certain impoverishment
of the people, in the face of a steadfast opposition
from the Hamacratio party, but adopted and ap- °
proved by the political administration, has resulted
in the creation of an enormous bonded debt in a
period of profound peace, visiting a deadly blight
on every industry and carrying discouragement and
dismay into the household of every wealth producer
in the land; that there never can be a condition of
general welfare until the volume of a sound and
stable currency is equal to the demand of industrial
and commercial pursuits; that the first step in this
direction should be the immediate restoration of
silver to the place it occupied in the currency of the
world for centuries previous to 1873—
“ We therefore favor the immediate restoration of
the free and unlimited coinage of gold and silver at
the present legal ratio of 16 to 1, as such coinage
existed prior to 1873, without waiting for the aid or
consent of any other nation, such gold and silver to
be a full legal tender for all debts, public and
private.”
Delegates were chosen with the understanding
that they were to bolt the national convention
unless it should declare for free silver.
The convention for nomination of State officers
prepared the following ticket, Aug. 20: For Gov-
ernor, Alva Adams; Lieutenant Governor, James
M. Ellis; Secretary of State, C. H. S. Whipple;
Treasurer, Olney Newell; Auditor, W. W. Rowan:
Attorney-General, A. L. Moses; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Miss Grace E. Patton; Regents
-of the University, Oliver J. Pfeiffer and M. J.
Hogarty.
Early in the year it was proposed by Republic-
ans to delay the State convention until after the
national convention, allowing the State committee
to select the delegates to the national convention,
since it was felt that the State could not be held for
the party without a silver plank in the national
platform, and that the ticket would be defeated, as
it was in 1892, when the People’s party candidate
was elected by reason of the silver agitation ; while,
if the State convention should be delayed, it could
then declare for the nominees of the party favoring
free coinage, and thus leave the State ticket to go
on its own merits. A convention was, however,
held at Pueblo, May 14, though the State ticket was
not then nominated. A letter was received from
136 COLORADO.
Senator Wolcott, declining to permit his name to
be considered by the convention in selecting dele-
gates. The resolutions made Senator Teller leader
of the delegation, and the only instructions given
were to the delegation to follow his lead, with the
understanding that free silver was to be regarded
as the paramount issue. It was declared in the
resolutions that bimetallism and protection are
vital to the prosperity of the country; that Ori-
ental competition would render protection futile
with the gold standard. Democratic free trade and
the gold standard were declared to be the cause of
a destruction of values one half. Bond issues were
denounced, and the blame for financial conditions
was put upon the Democracy. The money plank
reads :
‘We therefore declare that the free coinage of
silver and gold at a ratio of 16 to 1 is, for the time
now being, of paramount and controlling impor-
tance, and the most pressing question connected
with our political duty and action.”
The Republican State Central Committee held a
stormy meeting July 29, in Denver. The majority
was in favor of the Republican national ticket: a
resolution commending it was followed by a bitter
debate, in which charges were made that money in-
fluence had been used with the majority and that
proxies had been bought. The minority also at-
tributed much of the McKinley sentiment to Sena-
tor Wolcott and National-Committeeman Ganders.
The resolution was carried by a vote of 48 to 38.
The chairman resigned, but said that he did not
take the step in view of the present difficulties, but
because he would be absent in Europe during the
campaign. The new chairman announced, on tak-
ing the chair, that members of the committee who
were in sympathy with the national Democratic
ticket and who proposed to work for it would bet-
ter resign, and that his rulings would be against
“them. The Bryan and Sewall men refused to leave,
and the committee adjourned in great confusion.
The Silver Republican Convention for the nomi-
nation of State officers met in Denver, Sept. 9. A
conference was held with committees from the
Democratic, People’s, and silver parties, with a
view to fusion. All were ready to unite on Bryan
electors, but no agreement on. State officers was
reached, ‘The silver Republicans named the fol-
lowing ticket Sept. 10: For Governor, Jared L.
Brush; Lieutenant Governor, Simon Guggenheim ;
Secretary of State, Harry E. Mulnix; Treasurer,
George W. Kephart; Auditor, John W. Lowell;
Attorney-General, Byron L. Carr; Superintendent
of Public Instruction, Mrs. Mayne Marble; Re-
pore of the State University, W. J. Orange and
. C. Lobengier.
A resolution was adopted requiring all the nomi-
nees to place their resignations in the hands of the
Committee on Fusion. The platform declared for
bimetallism and protection.
The McKinley Republicans held a State Conven-
tion in Colorado Springs, Sept. 30, with several
hundred delegates. The platform included the fol-
lowing resolution: “That our people, irrespective
of party affiliations, favor the free coinage of silver
and believe that our mints could be safely opened
to free coinage under an administration in which
the people of the country had confidence. We re-
gret that the national convention at St. Louis did
not view this question as we view it. We accept,
however, the assurance of the party that its efforts
will be devoted to the securing of an international
agreement for the unlimited coinage of silver as a
sacred pledge. We believe that the pledge will be
fulfilled, and we are firmly of the faith that the re-
monetization of silver, so essential to the welfare of
this and al! other civilized countries, will be accom-
CONFEDERATE VETERANS.
plished through the efforts and under the direction
of the Republican party and through no other.”
The ticket follows: For Governor, George W.
Allen; Lieutenant Governor, Hosea Townsend ;
Secretary of State, Edwin Price; Treasurer, James
H. Barlow; Auditor, George S. Adams; Attorney-
General, Alexander Gunnison; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Mrs. lone Hanna.
A State silver convention of delegates of all po-
litical parties was held at Denver, June 25, and
delegates were chosen to the national silver party
convention at St. Louis, July 22. The Committee
on Resolutions reported a platform arguing at length
in favor of free coinage, and attaching its oppo-
nents. This was rejected, and a shorter declaration
of principles was adopted, calling for the double
standard, and including a resolution recommending ~
Senator Teller as candidate for the presidency, but
promising to support any other silver candidate
who should be nominated.
A State convention of Prohibitionists held at
Pueblo, July 30, declared in favor of free coinage.
The “ Middle-of-the-road” Populists nominated
Davis H. Waite for Governor, and John McAndrew
for Attorney-General at their convention Sept. 8,
and appointed a conference committee empowered
to fill the remainder of the ticket.
Efforts were made, at a meeting held Sept. 12, to
unite all the silver forces of the State on one ticket,
but they were not successful. The Democrats and
silver Republicans united on a ticket chosen from
those of the two parties, as follows: For Governor,
Alva Adams, Democrat;Lieutenant Governor, Simon
Guggenheim, Republican; Secretary of State, C. H.
S. Whipple, Democrat; Treasurer, George W. Keph-
art, Republican; Auditor, John W. Lowell, Repub- —
lican; Attorney-General, Byron L. Carr, Repub-
lican; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Miss
G. E. Patton, Democrat ; Regents of the University,
ss J. Pfeiffer, Democrat, and W. J. Orange, Repu
ican.
Fusion was effected between the Populists and tfie
national silver party, by which the Populists were
to name the candidates for Governor, Attorney-Gen-
eral, State Treasurer, and Regents. The union ticket
was: For Governor, Morton 8. Bailey; Lieutenant
Governor, B. Clark Wheeler; Secretary, William 8S.
Lee; Treasurer, Horace G. Clark; Auditor, George
Seaver; Superintendent of Instruction, L. 8. Cor-
ning ; Attorney-General, N.C. Miller; Regents, Miss
E. Ada McElroy, John M. Cochrane.
The result of the election gave the Bryan electors
161,269; the McKinley electors 26,271; the Lever-
ing electors, 1,717; the Matchett. electors, 160.
The fusion silver Republican and Democratic
State ticket was successful throughout by large ma-
jorities. The vote for Governor was as follows:
Adams, Silver Republican-Democrat, 84,340; Bailey,
National Silver Populist, 61,683 ; Allen, Republican,
21,823; Waite, Populist, 3,004.
It appears from the election reports that the ma-
jority voted against the proposition to validate the
$1,200,000 of public debt incurred by legislative ap-
propriations in excess of the estimated revenues
made in violation of the Constitution.
CONFEDERATE VETERANS, ORGANIZA-
TION OF. The association entitled “ United Con-
federate Veterans” was organized at New Orleans,
La., June 10, 1889. Previous to this date there
had been no general organization of ex-Confederate
soldiers or sailors. Local associations, however, ~
had been formed in various localities. There were
also a few organizations composed of the survivors
of particular companies, regiments, or brigades,
while in two of the States progress had been made
in establishing State associations. In Tennessee, in
addition to several independent local societies, such
CONFEDERATE VETERANS.
as Forrest Camp at Chattanooga, a charter had
been obtained for a general association. On Dec.
3, 1887, R. G. Rothrock, John P. Hickman, George
F. Hager, E. R. Richardson, Frank Anderson, T. F.
Sevier, George B. Guild, Jesse Ely, W. J. McMur-
ray, John W. Morton, T. F. P. Allison, and F.S. Har-
ris were “constituted a body politic and corporate
by the name and style of the Association of Con-
federate Soldiers, Tennessee Division.” Under
this charter ten local associations were formed,
called “ bivouaes,” the first of which was Frank
Cheatham Bivouac, at Nashville. The several
bivouacs constituted the State division, and were
governed by the State association, composed of
representatives from the several bivouacs. The
plan of organization was somewhat similar to the
secret social orders, with grips, passwords, and
secret meetings.
_ In Louisiana there were three State associations:
The Louisiana Division of the Army of Northern
Virginia, the Louisiana Division of the Army of
Tennessee, and the Veteran Confederate States
Cavalry Association.
Tn 1889 the first step was taken for the union of
the various Confederate bodies into one general as-
sociation. This movement came from Louisiana.
_A circular was issued by a joint committee of the
three associations of Louisiana, inviting all Con-
federate organizations to send delegates to a con-
vention, to be held at New Orleans June 10, 1889,
to establish a general association of all surviv-
ing Confederate soldiers and sailors. This con-
vention adopted a constitution and organized a
tir association under the name of United Con-
ederate Veterans. The objects are succinctly stated
in the following extracts from the constitution :
“The objects and purposes of this organization
will be strictly social, literary, historical, and be-
nevolent. It will endeavor to unite in a general
federation all associations of Confederate veterans,
soldiers and sailors, now in existence or hereafter to
be formed ; to gather authentic data for an impar-
tial history of the war between the States; to pre-
serve relics or mementoes of the same; to cherish
the ties of friendship that should exist among men
who have shared common dangers, common suffer-
ings, and privations; to care for the disabled, and
extend a helping hand to the needy; to protect the
widows and the orphans; and to make and preserve
a record of the services of every member, and as far
as possible of those of our comrades who have pre-
ceded us in eternity. ...
“No discussion of political or religious subjects,
nor any political action, shall be permitted within
the organization of the United Confederate Vet-
erans; and any camp, bivouac, or association that
will have acted in violation of this article shall be
declared to have forfeited its membership in this
association.”
The association has discarded all secret meetings,
grips, and passwords. Its reunions and discussions
ure as open as day. Speaking as the exponents of
the Confederate soldiers, its utterances eee been
broad, liberal, and national.
The first constitution established a plan of or-
ganization and government, which, though some-
what amended, has never been materially changed.
Gen. John B. Gordon, of Atlanta, Ga., was elected
commander in chief at the New Orleans meeting in
1889, and has been re-elected by acclamation at
each subsequent annual reunion. He appointed
Gen. George Moorman as adjutant general, who
has continued in office to the present time. At
the first reunion, at Chattanooga, the organization
consisted of 33 camps. Since that time the associa-
tion has grown rapidly, and it now has a member-
ship of 865 camps, which have about 40,000 com-
137
rades enrolled. Nearly all of the Confederate asso-
ciations and societies in the South have surrendered
their separate organizations and have become united -
under the constitution of the United Confederate
Veterans, popularly called the “ U. C. V’s.”
As now organized, under the constitution adopted
at Houston, Texas, in 1895, the unit of the asso-
ciation is the “camp.” The camps are numbered
numerically in the order of their incorporation into
the association. The distribution of camps is shown
in the following list: Texas Division, 215; Alabama
Division, 88; South Carolina Division, 76; Missouri
Division, 71; Mississippi Division, 60; Arkansas
Division, 57; Georgia Division, 55; Louisiana Di-
vision, 51; Kentucky Division, 37; Florida Division,
30; Virginia Division, 30; Tennessee Division, 29;
North Carolina Division, 29; Indian Territory Di-
vision, 11; Maryland Division, 6; Oklahoma Divi-
sion,5; West Virginia Division,5; New Mexico Di-
vision, 3; Illinois Division, 2; Montana Division, 2;
Indiana Division, 1; District of Columbia Division,
1; California Division, 1; total, 865.. In addition
to this list about 200 camps are in process of forma-
tion. Each camp is composed of members, called
comrades, who have given satisfactory proof of hon-
orable service in the Confederate army or navy, and
honorable discharge or release therefrom. The
officer commanding a camp has the rank of captain.
The following article of the constitution explains
the organization :
“The camps shall be organized by departments,
divisions, and brigades.
“The federation shall have as its executive head
a general. There shall be three departments, to be
called Army of Northern Virginia Department,
Army of Tennessee Department. Trans- Mississippi
Department. The Army of Northern Virginia
Department shall include and be formed of the
States of Virginia, Maryland, North and South
Carolina, Kentucky, and all the camps and divi-
sions not enumerated as belonging to the Army of
Tennessee or Trans-Mississippi Departments. The
Army of Tennessee Department shall include and
be formed of the States of Georgia, Alabama, Ten-
nessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida. The
Trans-Mississippi Department shall include and be
formed of the States and Territories west of the
Mississippi, excepting Louisiana.
“Each and every State and Territory having
within its boundaries ten or more camps, regularly
organized and accepted, shall constitute a division,
and no State or Territory shall have more than one
division within its boundaries.
“Camps in States or Territories where there are
less than ten camps shall report directly to the
department commander, upon whose recommen-
dation such camps in contiguous States or Ter-
ritories may be formed into a division by the
commander in chief, until such States or Territo-
ries attain the required number of camps to entitle
them to become separate divisions.
“Divisions ipon recommendation of department
commanders may be subdivided into brigades, by
the commander in chief, provided each brigade
shall have at least five camps, and that a majority
of the camps of the division shall demand the sub-
division.”
Each of the three departments is commanded by
a lieutenant general;-each State or division by a
major general, and each brigade by a brigadier
general. These officers are elected for one year—
the general and the three lieutenant generals at the
annual reunions of the association, the major gen-
erals and brigadier generals at their respective
State or division reunions. Each general officer
appoints his own staff, with the appropriate rank,
as prescribed by the constitution.
138 CONFEDERATE VETERANS.
There are four standing committees, each consist-
ing of one delegate from each division, viz.: The
Historical Committee, the Relief Committee, the
Monumental Committee, and the Finance Com-
mittee. The association is supported by member-
ship fees, each camp by annual dues from its mem-
bers, the several divisions, departments, and general
association. by an annual per capita tax upon the
camps. ‘There is no general “charity fund,” yet
much has been done for the relief of comrades in
distress, and for other charitable purposes, by pri-
vate subscription. The association has taken an
active part in promoting the erection of monuments
to deceased comrades, and is now raising a subscrip-
tion to complete the establishment of the Confed-
erate Memorial Association on the plan suggested
by Charles Broadway Rouss, of New York, aided by
his munificent donation. The publications consist
of the official orders and addresses of the command-
ing general, the reports of the department and staff
officers, the reports of the several committees, the
proceedings of the annual reunions, and the con-
stitution and by-laws. Among the most important
of these reports are: The report of Surg.-Gen.
Joseph Jones, concerning the medical depart-
ment of the Confederate army and navy, giving
statistics of the number of troops and the losses of
the individual Southern States. during the civil
war; the report of Adjt.-Gen. Moorman, made at
the reunion at Richmond, Va., in 1896, showing
the growth and condition of the association, its
membership, the distribution of camps, etc.; the
three reports of the Committee on History, submit-
ted by the chairman, Lieut.-Gen. Stephen D. Lee,
at Birmingham in 1894, at Houston in 1895, and
at Richmond in 1896. These reports of the Com-
mittee on History, being unanimously adopted by
the association, may be regarded as expressing the
sentiments of the surviving Confederate soldiers,
which is concisely stated in the following extract
from the report made at Richmond in 1896, refer-
ring to the Confederate soldier: “He returned to
the Union as an equal, and he has remained in the
Union as a friend. With no humble apologies, no
unmanly servility, no petty spite, no sullen treach-
ery, he is a cheerful, frank citizen of the United
States, accepting the present, trusting the future,
and proud of the past.” In the language of Adjt.-
Gen. Moorman, “The U. C. V’s have adopted no
flag. Our halls and reunion wigwams are deco-
rated with our old tattered and worn battle flags,
retained simply as mementoes of a glorious history
and of all connected with the past, with the flag
of our country, and the shields of all the States.”
The regulation badge or button, adopted at Jack-
son, Miss., June 2, 1891, is a square of red, crossed
by two diagonal bands in blue, on which are thir-
teen white stars.
Connected with the United Confederate Veterans
are two auxiliary associations, known respectively
as “ Sons of Confederate Veterans ” and “ Daughters
of the Confederacy.” Each of these associations is
organized on a plan similar to the United Confed-
erate Veterans, and is permitted to wear the asso-
ciation badge. The general headquarters are per-
manently fixed at New Orleans, and the Memorial
Hall of that city is the depository of all records,
papers, and relies of the association. The annual
reunion is the feature that gives the association its
chief interest and influence. This is a great mass
meeting of old comrades, who, with their families
and friends, assemble annually for social inter-
course, and to renew old ties of friendship. The
general mass meeting is entertained by popular
adresses and exercises, and usually closes with a
parade. The reunion generally remains in session
about three days, a portion of the time being de-
CONGO.
voted to business meetings, in which only delegates
from the various camps and divisions participate.
These reunions have been held as follows: At Chat-
tanooga, Tenn., July 3, 1890; at Jackson, Miss.,
June 2, 1891; at New Orleans, La., April 8, 9, 1892;
at Birmingham, Ala., April 25, 26, 1894; at Hous-
ton, Texas, May 22, 23. 24, 1895; at Richmond, Va.,
June 30, July 1, 2, 1896. The next will be held at
Nashville, Tenn., in 1897 At the reunion at Rich-
mond, the association took part in laying the cor-
ner stone of the Jefferson Davis monument, July 2,
1896.
CONGO, INDEPENDENT STATE OF THE,
a sovereign monarchical state in Central Africa,
created with the consent of the European powers
and declared perpetually neutral in conformity
with the aca of the Congo, signed at Berlin
on Feb. 26, 1885. The International African Asso-
ciation, of which Leopold II, King of the Bel
was the head and patron, sent Henry M. Stanley to
the Congo in 1879 to establish a government, build
stations, and distribute his officers and men
throughout Central Africa in such manner as to
have the best effect upon the savage tribes who had
never been brought in contact with the whites,
Leopold II was named sovereign of the Congo Free
State when this was recognized as an independent
government. By his will, made on Aug. 2, 1889, he
ceded his sovereign rights to Belgium. By a con-
vention made on July 3, 1890, Belgium acquired the
right to annex the State after a period of ten
years. A codicil of the will, dated July 21, 1890,
declares the territories of the State to inalien-
able. The convention was ratified by the Belgian
Chambers on July 25, 1890. The Central Govern-
ment, with its seat at Brussels, is under the direc-
tion of a Secretary of State. This chief of the
Government is at present Edmond von Eetvelde.
The Governor General, who is the head of the local
government at Boma, is Theodore Wahis.
Area and Population.—Conventions made b
the International Association of the Congo wit
Germany, Great Britain, and the Netherlands in
1894, and with France and Portugal in 1885, defined —
the boundaries of the Free State, which were de-
scribed also in the declaration of neutrality made in
August of that year and precisely indicated in
treaties pdeatadedt by the Free State with Great
Britain on May 12, 1894, and France on Aug. 4,
1894, The area is estimated at 870,000 square
miles. Estimates of population vary between 14,-
000,000 and 30,000,000. There were 1,096 Euro-
eans in 1895, of whom 691 were Belgians, 75 Eng-
ishmen, 75 Portuguese, 75 Swedes and Norwegians,
50 Frenchmen, 28 Americans, 21 Italians, 14 Danes,
16 Dutchmen, 12 Germans, 4 Spaniards, and 1
Austrian.
Finaneces.—The revenue is derived from an an-
nual donation of 1,100,000 franes given by the King
of the Belgians, an advance of 2,000,000 francs a
year voted for ten years by the Belgian Chamber
in 1890, and duties, taxes, and the sale and leasing
of public lands. The revenue of 1896 was esti-
mated at 7,002,735 francs and the expenditure at
8,236,000 francs. In the budget of 1895 the local
receipts are estimated at 3,004,764 francs, of which
1,195,804 franes are derived from customs duties,
30,353 franes from sales and leases of land, 1,250,000
from domains, tribute, and taxes paid in kind, and
529,107 frances from various sources. The expendi-
tures for 1895 footed up 7,370,939 franes. The
chief item was 38,556,672 francs for the public
forces. The armed force of native Africans, di-
vided into 16 companies, with 4 camps of instruc-
tion, is commanded by 148 European commissioned
officers with 146 sergeants. The strength for 1895
was fixed at 6,120 men, of whom 4,000 are recruited
CONGO, INDEPENDENT STATE OF THE. 139
in the State. The strength for 1896 was increased
to 8,500 men, requiring an expenditure of 4,820,793
francs. The naval expenditure for 1895 was 397,-
273 francs. This is to maintain a flotilla of 7
steamers on the lower and 12 on the aa Congo,
besides sailing and row boats. The other expendi-
tures were 219,000 franes for the central adminis-
tration in Europe, 901,433 frances for the adminis-
tration in Africa, 547,136 francs for public works,
730,838 francs for caravans, and 1,018,588 franes
for divers expenses.
Commerce.—The general imports in 1894 were
valued at 11,854,021 francs and the exports at 11,-
031,704 frances. This commerce was divided among
the trading nations as follows:
COUNTRIES. Imports, Exports.
MER Poe eceee be
man had an opportunity to get the bill proposed —
by the gentleman from Maine, that measure was
brought in to the Committee on Ways and Means,
never having been introduced in the House at all,
never having been considered, was never read be-
fore the Committee on Ways and Means, and even
amended materially after it was brought there, and
in thirty short minutes we are asked to take and
swallow it whole, without even an opportunity for
amendment !
* When they get it into the House they propose
to impose $44,000,000 of taxes on more than 4,000
different articles in less than four hours, or $11,-
000,000 an hour.”
Mr. Turner said, in part :
“ Reference has been made here, Mr. Speaker, to
what took place at the heel of the last Congress.
Gentlemen who were members of that House un-
derstand fully the condition which then prevailed,
“The House had sent to the Senate a bill em-
bodying the view of my party. The Senate put
upon that bill a great number of amendments, and
with reference to their course upon it I dare not
offer my sentiments in stricture, I can not do that
CONGRESS. (Tue Drncuey BILL.)
without violating parliamentary proprieties. After
two or three months’ consideration of the bill in the
Senate it went to a committee of conference, and
was there considered for two months; and, as a last
resort, in order to get a measure in some form of
the nature we desired upon the statute books, it
went through the House in some such way as the
gentleman from Pennsylvania has stated. Then,
after the question of coal had been discussed
through weeks and months, incidentally, in both
houses, after the sugar question had been consid-
ered in both houses, and after the ore question had
been debated for a long and almost indefinite time
in both houses, then, in the closing hours of the
session, when there was no hope or opportunity for
consideration and deliberation, we passed those
measures to which the gentleman from Pennsyl-
yania has referred. Ours is not now that situation.
We are at the very beginning of the session, or at
the opening of a Congress of which the friends of
the gentleman have the majority. Why is it that
they do not give us an opportunity for the discus-
sion of this great question? If they are actuated
by any spirit of deference to the department of
Government which now holds our fortunes in its
hands, why do not they put some other measure in
front instead of seeking in this Christmas time to
tax the American people to the amount of $40,000,-
000 or $50,000,000—an imposition against which
the Treasury itself protests ¢”
Mr. Henderson said in the course of his reply:
“They talk of speed in behalf of the Treasury.
Do they forget the s with which Democratic
_ policies have emptied the Treasury? They have
emptied it, and we propose to put money there.
Since this Administration came into power it has
| kept this nation oscillating between chills and
fever. We propose to stop these diseases and let
the American regain a normal condition. We will
do our part of it.
“Talk about war; as one Democratic statesman
said, the President comes in here one day and
makes a declaration of war, and in three days after-
ward files his petition in bankruptcy. We are not
for war. The Republican party is against war. It
has made no declaration in this House for war. Let
the country take observation of that. True, the
President demanded money to carry out his consti-
tutional functions, and the Republican party said
it would supply him with the money; but we have
not declared for war.
“The statement is made that the Secretary of the
Treasury says there is plenty of revenue. Mr.
Speaker, that is not true. I join issue with that
statement, but will leave the discussion of it for the
roper time, after this rule shall have been adopted.
hen we will demonstrate that the Treasury has
not sufficient funds. Then we will demonstrate, by
proofs that can not be refuted, that this country is
suffering for want of revenue to pay its legitimate
expenses. Greenbacks and gold are being taken
out of the Treasury to pay current expenses; yet
the gentleman from Georgia last on his feet dares to
sustain the statement of the Treasury Department
that we have sufficient revenue.
“Gentlemen of the House of Representatives,
this is a business matter. The pending bill is nota
general tariff measure. It represents neither the
aggregate judgment of the Republican side nor of
the Democratic side on the tariff question, but the
President of the United States has laid before us
the condition of the Treasury and the business in-
terests of the country.
“The business interests of the country say that
financially we are in a crippled condition. Now,
we all know that if we were to go into a general re-
vision of the tariff every member would feel bound
171
to investigate details and to stand up for his local
interests. That has been done by both sides of the
chamber whenever there has been a general revision.
To enter upon such a course now would be to tie
our hands for months, and that would bring about
a crisis in this country compared with which the
Democratic crash of 1893 was a holiday entertain-
ment.”
Mr. Crisp said :
“This rule is brought in not only for the purpose
of preventing this side of the House from offering
amendments, but to prevent gentlemen on the Re-
publican side from voting for amendments. It is
not necessary that you should tie us up by this rule,
because, if you all agree to this bill, you have a
majority far more than sufficient to vote down every
amendment that we might offer. The purpose of
the rule, Mr. Speaker, is to prevent any gentleman
on your own side from voting for any amendment
which he might conceive to be in the interest of his
constituents.”
Mr. Henderson replied :
“The gentleman from Georgia wholly miscon-
strues my statement. It was upon the ground of
want of time alone that I called attention to the
fact that differences are dangerous in dealing with
this subject. As to Democratic amendments. of
course we would vote them down, for no Demo-
cratic tariff proposition would justify any patriot
in voting for it.’
The resolution was passed by a vote of 208 yeas
to 90 nays, 57 not voting.
The revenue bill was then read. It follows:
“ Be it enacted, etc., That from and after the pas-
sage of this act, and until Aug. 1, 1898, there shall
be levied, collected, and paid on all imported wools
of classes 1 and 2, as defined in the act hereinafter
cited, approved Oct. 1, 1890, and subject to all the
conditions and limitations thereof, and on all hair
of the camel, goat, alpaca, and other like animals,
except as hereinafter provided, and on all noils,
shoddy, garneted waste, top waste, slubbing waste,
roving waste, ring waste, yarn waste, and all other
wastes composed wholly or in part of wool, and on
woolen rags, mungo, and flocks, a duty equivalent
to 60 per cent. of the duty imposed on each of such
articles by an act entitled ‘An Act to reduce the
revenue and equalize duties on imports, and for
other purposes,’ approved Oct. 1, 1890, and sub-
ject to all the conditions and limitations of said
act; and on all wools and Russian camel's hair of
class 3, as defined in said act approved Oct. 1,
1890, and subject to all the conditions and limita-
tions thereof, there shall be levied, collected, and
paid the several duties provided by such act ap-
proved Oct. 1, 1890. And paragraph 279 of Sched-
ule K, and also paragraph 685 in the free list of an
act entitled ‘An Act to reduce taxation, to provide
revenue for the Government, and for other pur-
poses,’ which became a law Aug. 27, 1894, are here-
by suspended until Aug. 1, 1898.
“Sec. 2. That from and after the passage of this
act and until Aug. 1, 1898, there shall be levied,
collected, and paid on all imported articles made in
whole or in part of wool, worsted, or other mate-
rials described in section 1 of this act, except as
hereinafter provided, 60 per cent. of the specific
pound or square-yard duty imposed on each of such
articles by an act entitled ‘An Act to reduce the
revenue and equalize duties on imports and for
other purposes,’ approved Oct. 1, 1890, and subject
to all the conditions and limitations thereof, in ad-
dition to the ad valorem duty now imposed on each
of such articles by an act entitled ‘An Act to re-
duce taxation, to provide revenue for the Govern-
ment, and for other purposes,’ which became a law
Aug. 27, 1894; and on carpets, druggets, bockings,
172 CONGRESS.
mats, rugs, screens, covers, hassocks, bedsides, art
squares, and other portions of carpets or carpeting,
made in whole or in part of wool, the specific square-
yard duty imposed on each of such articles by said
act approved Oct. 1, 1890, and subject to all the
‘conditions and limitations thereof, in addition to
the ad valorem duty imposed on such articles by
said act which became a law Aug. 27, 1894. ;
“Sxo. 3. That from and after the passage of this
act and until Aug. 1, 1898, there shall be levied,
collected, and paid on all imported lumber and
other articles designated in paragraphs 674 to 683,
inclusive, of an act entitled ‘An Act to reduce
taxation, to provide revenue for the Government,
and for other purposes,’ which became a law Aug.
27, 1894, a duty equivalent to 60 per cent. of the
duty imposed on each of such articles by an act en-
titled ‘An Act to reduce the revenue and equalize
duties on imports, and for other purposes,’ approved
Oct. 1, 1890, and subject to all the conditions and
limitations of said last-named act; but pulp wood
shall be classed as round unmanufactured timber ex-
empt from duty: Provided, That in case any foreign
country shall impose an export duty upon pine,
spruce, elm, or other logs, or upon stave bolts,
shingle wood, pulp wood, or heading blocks ex-
ported to the United States from such country,
then the duty upon the lumber and other articles
mentioned in said paragraphs 674 to 683, inclusive,
when imported from such country, shall be the same
as fixed by the law in force prior to Oct. 1, 1890.
“Sec. 4. That on and after the passage of this act,
and until Aug. 1, 1898, there shall be levied, col-
lected, and paid on all the imported articles men-
tioned in Schedules A, B, C, D,; F, G, H, I, J, L, M,
and N, of an act entitled ‘An Act to reduce taxa-
tion, to provide revenue for the Government, and
for other purposes, which became a law Aug. 27,
1894, a duty equivalent to 15 per cent. of the duty
imposed on each of said articles by existing law in
addition to the duty provided by said act of Aug.
27, 1894: Provided, Phat the additional duties im-
posed by this section shall not in any case increase
the rate of duty on any article beyond the rate im-
posed thereon by the said act of Oct. 1, 1890, but in
such case the duty shall be the same as was imposed
by said act: And provided further, That where the
present rate of duty on any article is higher than
was fixed by said last-named act, the rate of duty
thereon shall not be further increased by this sec-
tion, but shall remain as provided by existing law.”
In the debate of three hours and a half which fol-
lowed the bill was supported by Mr. Dingley, of
Maine; Mr. Payne, of New York; Mr. Dalzell,. of
Pennsylvania; Mr. Hopkins, of Illinois; Mr. Grosve-
nor, of Ohio; Mr. Johnson, of Indiana; Mr. Ar-
nold, of Pennsylvania; Mr. Dovener, of West Vir-
ginia; Mr. Watson, of Ohio; Mr. Knox, of Massachu-
setts; Mr. Dolliver, of lowa; Mr. Wilson, of Ohio;
and Mr. Meiklejohn, of Nebraska. It was opposed by
Mr. Crisp, of Georgia; Mr. Dockery, of Missouri;
Mr. Wheeler, of Alabama; Mr. Turner, of Georgia;
Mr. MeMillin, of Tennessee; Mr. Underwood, of
Alabama; and Mr. Bell, of Colorado.
Mr. Dingley said in part:
“The Committee on Ways and Means immedi-
ately took up the subject and proceeded to con-
sider what measures of relief could be proposed.
The first thing that attracted the attention of the
committee—the first in order because the most im-
portant and lying in large measure at the very
foundation of the difficulties through which the
Treasury had passed—was the fact that for two
years and a half there has been a constant defi-
ciency of revenue—an insufficiency of current in-
come to meet the ordinary expenses of the Govern-
ment—until that condition has become chronic.
(THe Dinewry BILL.)
“Gentlemen have said in the debate upon the
rule which was presented that there is no demand
for more revenue, that the revenue is sufficient. I
remember that in the last House, almost a year
ago, when I presented upon this floor what seemed
to me the urgent demand for an increase of rey-
enue, it was replied by gentlemen on the other side
that ‘next week,’ ‘next month,’ there would be
revenue sufficient. And so we have gone on with
this cry of hope all through this year up to this
hour; and almost every month from the 1st day of
July, 1893, up to to-day there has been an insuffi-
ciency of revenue to meet the current expenditures
of the Government, amounting now to the enor-
mous sum of $132,000,000. And in the present
fiscal year, commencing on the Ist day of July last,
up to night before last, there was, as shown by the
official report in my hand, a deficiency of $18,500,-
000; and in this very month of December, as shown
in the same way, there has been a deficiency ap-
proximating $3,000,000.
“Now, gentlemen tell us that there is revenue
enough to meet the expenditures of the Government.
What do they mean? What does the Secretary of
the Treasury mean when he says that we need no
more revenue? What did he mean one year ago
when he communicated to one of the Houses of
Congress that there was no need of additional rey-
enue? His own reports presented from day to da
show that there has been a deficiency all throug
this fiscal year, and never larger than at this mo-
ment. He means simply this (and I ask the atten-
tion of the House to the manner in which this issue
is being avoided, for I wish to show the evil results
which flow from it)—he means that after he has
borrowed gold under the resumption act of 1875
for the purpose of redeeming United States legal-
tender notes as they are presented for redemption,
and after those notes have been thus redeemed by
the proceeds of bonds sold, he has taken the very
United States notes thus redeemed and immediate-
ly paid them out to meet a deficiency of revenue
from day to day, from month to month, and from
year to year. I ask, gentlemen, if so plain and
practical a matter as this is to be met in this man-
ner, what difference does it make if the Secretary
of the Treasury sells bonds and immediately uses
the proceeds to pay, a deficiency in the revenue, or,
having first ine the proceeds of the bonds to re-
deem greenbacks, then to turn around and use the
greenbacks to pay the necessary expenses of the
Government and meet the deficiencies of the rev-
enue? I ask gentlemen to point out the difference.
Is not this in effect practically selling bonds to pay
the deficiency ?
“ Now, Mr. Speaker, if this policy is to be pur-
sued, if we are to go on with insufficient revenues
to meet the expenses of the Government, and then
when bonds are sold for gold to redeem outstand-
ing legal-tender notes those notes are to be imme-
diately used to pay deficiencies of revenues, then I
say to you that the ‘endless chain’ of which the
Secretary of the Treasury complains is fully estab-
lished, and he may continue selling bonds without
limit to put gold into the Treasury, taking the
greenbacks to pay the deficiency in revenue, and
never stop the raids upon the Treasury gold. Is
there any doubt of this? Can it be questioned?
And yet gentlemen say to us that because we have
to-day $75,000,000 of cash above the redemption
fund in the Treasury—$25,000,000 being required
for a working balance, leaving $50,000,000 of free
United States notes—gentlemen tell us that we
may proceed to use those notes to meet a deficiency
in the Treasury, placing the notes so that they may
be presently presented for a second redemption in
gold, and still need no more revenue, Is there any
CONGRESS. (THe Dinciey BI.)
doubt that if we are to stop this run on the Treas-
ury, to stop the issue of bonds to be sold for gold
to maintain the redemption fund, that the first
thing in order, the first step, is to provide sufficient
revenue to meet the daily and age and Scie
expenses of the Government? It is admitted that
we do not have sufficient revenue for these pur-
and that the deficiency must be made up by
taking the redeemed notes and immediately paying
them out again. This is practically using the pro-
ceeds of the bonds to meet the deficiency of rev-
enues of the Government.
“ Now, how did it happen that from 1879 up to
1893 there was no serious run on the Treasury
gold? We had the greenbacks existing during
that period, and preferred everywhere to gold.
But why? Because, in the first place, the revenues
of the Ee calent were equal to or greater than
the expenditures; and there was no necessity for
creating an ‘endless chain,’ which must exist as
long as there is insufficient revenue; in the second
lace, because there was maintained a redemption
Find up to the minimum of $100,000,000, which
created confidence every day and every hour; and
third, because there was existing such a policy in
the country as put all the people at work, all the
spindles turning, and all the machinery moving,
while consumption was up to the highest point,
and prosperity existing in all directions. These
conditions have been set aside since 1893, and in-
sufficiency of revenue is a potent cause of existing
distrust.
“ As long as this condition exists I contend that
you may continue to sell bonds to maintain the re-
demption fund indefinitely, and yet, unless you
furnish sufficient revenue to carry on the Govern-
ment without a deficit at the end of each month
and each year, that you are making simply an end-
less chain which will sustain the run on the gold in
the Treasury—a run inaugurated by distrust.
“The first duty, then, that confronts the House
is to provide sufficient revenue to meet the expen-
ditures. How much revenue is required? Up to
Jan. 1, the close of the first half of this fiscal year,
the deficit will reach nearly $20,000,000, and, as-
suming that that condition will exist during the
next six months—for it is hardly reasonable to sup-
pose that there will not be a deficiency during that
period—it will bring the total up to at least $30,-
000,000, probably $35,000,000, and this may be
greatly increased in certain contingencies.
“Now, the majority of the Committee on Ways
and Means, in view of this situation, have felt it to
be their duty immediately—first in order because
first in importance, upon which everything else de-
pends—to provide about $40,000,000 of additional
revenue annually during this exigency. We do not
know how long this exigency may continue, but we
believe that it is safe in any event to provide $40,000,-
000 additional revenue annually for two years and a
half. Hence the measure which has been reported
by the committee is limited in its operation to two.
years and a half, the additional revenue to begin on
the passage of the bill which has been presented
and to terminate on the 1st day of August, 1898.
It is exigency legislation which we have presented.
It is legislation demanded by the special condition
of the Treasury, to which our attention has been
called by the President of the United States.
“The majority of the Committee on Ways and
Means, in ooking around to see where this revenue
could be obtained, have agreed that it should be
obtained from the customs side of our revenue sys-
tem for two reasons: First, on the excise side we
_ already raise over $150,000,000, which is all that
should come from internal taxes; second, it was
always the intention of the founders of this Goy-
173
ernment to raise revenue for the support of the Na-
tional Government from duties on imports.
“We have held, therefore, that it was our duty—
especially in view of the fact that the balance of
trade during this fiscal year has turned against us,
and, having turned against us, has created a de-
mand for gold for export—to raise additional rev-
enue by increasing duties at some points in order
that we might thereby increase the volume of goods
to be made in this country, incidentally, and at the
same time diminish the imports of that class of
goods, and thus turn the balance of trade in our
favor instead of against us. For it must be re-
membered that so long as the balance of trade is
against us gold must be exported to pay that bal-
ance, or else securities payable in gold, which are
precisely the same thing.
“Therefore it seemed to us that for these reasons
we should look to the import side for the purpose
of raising $40,000,000 additional revenue. Look-
ing in that direction, with the urgent demand upon
us for instant action, we have, of course, found it
impossible to revise the tariff, especially upon -our
ground; and looking at the fact of the great ne-
cessity, we have decided, by the simplest possible
measure, to raise $40,000,000 or thereabouts of ad-
ditional revenue, and to stop this deficit that is
causing such serious injury to the finances of the
country. In raising revenue in this way we have
been obliged to turn, in large part, to a horizontal
increase of duty.
“ Now, I admit that under other conditions, when
there was no urgency, this would be an improper
way to modify the tariff for the purpose of obtain-
ing more or less revenue. But there is no time to
go through the tariff and to examine the condition
of each industry and adapt legislation to the wants
of each and make a thorough revision of the tariff.
Whatever is done, if it is to accomplish any good,
must be done at the earliest possible moment. and
it must be done in a way which will not provoke
the aggressive hostility of others who differ with us
on the point of the tariff in order to bring it into
law. And for that reason we have proposed, as to
a large number of schedules—all the schedules ex-
cept the sugar and woolens schedules—simply to
increase the duty 15 per cent. during the next two
years and a half. It is estimated that from this in-
crease of duty, on the basis of the imports of last
year under the existing tariff, we shall secure an
additional revenue of $16,500,000 or thereabouts;
but assuming that even this slight rise of duty,
amounting really to an addition of only about 8
per cent. ad valorem, may cause—especially as to
those articles which this country can make for it-
self without any climatic disadvantage—somewhat
of a decline in imports, we reduce the estimate of
revenue from this part of the bill to $15,000,000.
“Now, turning to wool, the great revenue pro-
ducer: Wool was placed upon the free list by the
act of 1894, unjustly, as it has always seemed to
me, to the farmers of this country. We propose to
take wool from the free list by the bill which has
been presented, and to give clothing wool—that is,
wool of classes 1 and 2—a duty of 60 per cent. of
the duty given by the act of 1890, which is 66 cents
per pound as to most clothing wool. ;
“But as to carpet wools, we have retained the
same duty (32 per cent.) as provided by the act of
1890, simply for the fact that carpet wools are not
produced to any general extent in this country, and
therefore that the duty on carpet wools is essential-
ly a revenue duty.
“ Now, it is found by computation that should
there be an importation of wool during the next
fiscal year equal to the importation of the last year
we should obtain a revenue of $12,000,000 on wool
174 CONGRESS.
alone. We imported last year about 100,000,000
pounds of carpet wool. Carpet wool is valued on
the average at 9} cents a pound, which gives sub-
stantially a duty of 3 cents per pound, and 3 cents
per pound on 100,000,000 pounds gives us $3,000,000
revenue. We imported last year about 138,000,000
pounds of clothing wool. Now, if there should be
as much imported next year under this tariff, if it
should become law, there would be, as I have al-
ready said, an increased duty of about $9,000,000,
making about $12,000,000 revenue from wool.
“Tt is more than probable, therefore, that in each
of the next two fiscal years we shall be obliged to
import as much clothing wool as we imported in the
last fiscal year, and that being the case, we shall
obtain $12,000,000 additional revenue from this
source during that period. t F
“From woolen goods, on which is to be laid a
compensatory duty equivalent to the duty on wool,
there would be a further increase of revenue to the
extent of $16,000,000 if the importation should con-
tinue as large as it has been since the new tariff on
woolen goods went into operation last January; but
_I assume that when this duty shall be laid, being
specific, its effect will be to cut off, to some extent,
the importations of foreign manufactures of wool
coming into this market, which have already se-
riously injured that industry in this country. Nev-
ertheless, supposing such an effect should result -
from the passage of this bill, with a reduction even
to the extent of one third of our current imports of
woolen goods, we should get about $12,000,000 ad-
ditional revenue from this source. It must be re-
membered that in 1892 we imported only $36,000,-
000 of woolen goods, while in the present calendar
year the importations will exceed $60,000,000, and
that on an undervaluation, because the duty now is
exclusively ad valorem, which has unquestionably
resulted in the importation of goods that on a fair
basis of valuation would come nearer to $90,000,000.
Now, we shall get from the imposition of the pro-
posed duty on wool an increased revenue of $12,-
000,000, and we shall get at least $12,000,000 more
upon goods, making $24,000,000 increase of revenue
from these two sources; and if we obtain $15,000,-
000 from the horizontal increase on the other sched-
ules, that, added to the $24,000,000, will make $39,-
000,000. In addition to that, it is estimated that
there will come about $1,000,000 increase of revenue
in consequence of the transfer of certain lumber
from the free list to the protected list at a rate of
duty only 60 per cent. of that which was imposed
by the act of 1890.
“So, Mr. Speaker, it is well-nigh certain that this
measure, if enacted into law, would give us addi-
tional revenue of not far from $40,000,000 during
the year following its enactment, and it is just this
$40,000,000 that we need to make our revenue equal
to or slightly more than our expenditures, to re-
store confidence and to give to the business of the
country the moral influence of a government that
is solvent, that is paying its bills from its revenue,
and that has a credit second to that of no govern-
ment upon the face of the earth.”
Mr. Crisp said in part:
“Mr. Speaker, I shall occupy but little of the
time that has been assigned to this side for the dis-
cussion of this bill. I shall not attempt to follow
my friend from Maine along the devious path which
he has trodden, I shall not undertake to reply to
his first argument, that this is a bill purely for
revenue, and then to his last argument, that this is
a bill to protect the wool industry. Those incon-
sistencies answer each other. But, sir, I do desire
to call attention to certain facts which controvert
the position assumed by the gentleman. The gen-
tleman from Maine says that this extraordinary
(THe Dinetey BIL.)
spectacle, this extraordinary haste, this extraordi-
nary bill, is all caused and all justified by a message
of the President of the United States. I suggest,
Mr. Speaker, that in making that statement the
gentleman from Maine does not practice his habit-
ual candor. If this bill is intended to be respon-
sive to any suggestion from the President of the
United States, then the action per ought to
be in line with the suggestion made. ,The excuse
the gentleman from Maine gives for the hurried
manner in which this bill is presented and proposed
to be rushed through is that there is a deficiency of
revenue, and that therefore the Government can not
live without some such legislation. Now, the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, in his report made to the
House the other day, says:
“«The cash balance in the Treasury on the 1
day of December, 1895, was $177,406,386.62, being
$98,072,420.80 in excess of the actual gold reserve
on that day, and $77,406,886.62 in excess of any
sum that it would be necessary to use for replenish-
ing that fund in case the Secretary should at any
time be able to exchange currency for gold. There
is, therefore, no reason to doubt the ability of the
Government to discharge all its current obligations
during the present fiscal year and have a large cash
balance at its close without imposing additional
taxation in any form upon the people.’
“This great fiscal officer, charged with the duty
of making estimates and sbtking hotars us the con-
dition of the Treasury, says that there is absolutely
no necessity for imposing additional burdens in the
shape of taxation upon the people. But the gentle-
man from Maine cites what he calls a deficiency,
and claims that this demonstrates the necessity for
an immediate increase of revenue.
“Mr. Speaker, that gentleman knows—no man
knows better—that there is in the Treasury to-day
over and beyond the gold reserve largely more free
money by three times over than any deficiency that
can occur during the fiscal year. It is not a ques-
tion, Mr. Speaker, of borrowing money to meet ex-
penditures—the money is already borrowed; the
money is in the Treasury—but it is a question
whether you will use an asset which you now have,
or whether you will run posthaste to impose addi-
tional burdens upon the people in order to pile up
money in the Treasury of the United States,
“ Now, let us understand this matter. There has
been a deficiency. Why? What law caused it? I
listened in vain to the gentleman from Maine to
hear some confession that the deficiency and the
withdrawal of gold began under what is known as
the McKinley law. Not one breath did we hear in- ~
dicating there had been any financial disturbance
under that celebrated law. Yet, Mr. Speaker, the
receipts under the McKinley law had fallen until
during the four months next preceding March 1,
1893, the expenditures exceeded the receipts by
$4,094,021.30. That was before the inauguration
of the new Administration, and, of course, it was
years before the passage of what is known as the
Wilson tariff bill.
“The first deficiency, therefore, we find arose
under what is known as the McKinley law. That
law was then peculiarly the pet of the Republican
party. In that day there was none on that side to
criticise or arraign the supremacy of the gentleman
whose name had been given to that bill. It was
the typical Republican idea of imposing taxation—
that is, to reduce the receipts going into the Treas-
ury by increasing the receipts going into the pock-
ets of the protected manufacturer, to put at the
water’s edge of our country a tax collector with
rates so prohibitory that no goods could come in in
competition with goods made at home, thus redu-
cing the revenue coming into the Treasury and thus
increasing the profits of the domestic manufacturer
by putting a burden upon his competitor. That is
the Republican idea, and that was the idea em-
bodied in the McKinley bill. Under that bill, Mr.
Speaker, the revenues fell.
“My friend from Maine, so far as I could under-
stand him at this distance, stated that there were
no withdrawals of gold until after the advent of
the Democratic Administration. I will not say that
I apprehended his statement correctly, but that is
what I understood him to say—that the withdraw-
als of gold did not begin until-after the inaugura-
tion of the present President of the United States.
What is the fact? During the nine months next
preceding March, 1893—the date when the Demo-
eratic President was inaugurated—the withdrawals
of gold were $58.746,000. That was under the Mc-
Kinley law and under a Republican President. You
gentlemen recollect very well the apprehension that
existed in the Treasury Department as the time for
the inauguration of Mr. Cleveland approached—
the apprehension that there might be a necessity to
issue bonds before that event took place. You rec-
ollect the stories that went through the press—I do
not vouch for them—that already in the Bureau of
- Engraving and Printing they were preparing bonds
to be issued to build up the gold reserve.
“ Now, Mr. Speaker, there is no additional taxa-
tion needed. e have that information from the
Secretary of the Treasury. We ought to be candid
with each other. Suppose you passed this bill;
suppose it increases taxation $40,000,000, and that
000,000 gues into the Treasury each year. How
will that help the existing condition? The Presi-
dent’s message to which my friend from Maine has
referred does not appeal for more revenue. It ap-
peals for a particular kind of money. If you agree
with him that that particular kind of money ought
to be piled up in the Treasury, then you ought to
rovide some method by which it may be accumu-
The method now suggested, as stated by the
Secretary of the Treasury, will be wholly inade-
quate to prevent or remedy that condition of things
which alone prompts the President and the Secre-
tary of the Treasury to a to Congress for re-
lief. They ask for a particular kind of relief, and
you offer them a supposed measure of relief which
you know they do not want.”
Mr. Payne said: ‘
“The | cary from Georgia says that there
was a deficiency of revenue under the tariff act of
1890. Mr. Speaker, the tariff act of 1890 produced
sufficient revenue to meet the expenses of the Gov-
ernment down to the ist day of November, 1892.
_ Not only that, it put into the Treasury a surplus of
over $38,000,000. I can not stop to describe the
other benefits that are known and read of by all
men that followed from the tariff act of 1890 into
every nook and corner of the United States.
“In November, 1892, there was a deficiency in the
revenue. There was not quite enough to meet the
expenditures. But the gentleman from Georgia
seems to have forgotten what also occurred in 1892,
_ When the Democracy was placed in power in the
_ White House and in both ends of the Capitol, and
_ their destructive hand was cast like a shadow over
every industry in this broad land. It was that
_ shadow that brought a deficiency of revenue in
_ November, 1892. It was followed by their ac-
aR of power, on the inauguration of their
_ President in March, 1893, and by the events which
followed, until the Wilson-Gorman bill was written
_ upon the statute books; and from the very day and
hour that you placed that bill upon the statute
books there has been a deficiency in the revenue of
_ the Government. It is true, that for two months
the Treasury Department figured out a surplus;
CONGRESS. (Tue Dinciey BIL.)
175
but it is equally true that in each of the months
that followed there was an excess of expenditures
over the expenditures of the month preceding of
$7,000,000 to $10,000,000. Your deficit in the
revenue brought further distrust among the people.
“ When we assembled in the summer of 1893, the
President of the United States informed us that all
that was necessary to bring prosperity to this coun-
try was the repeal of the so-called Sherman silver
act. The Republican party united with a few of
you who voted for it on theother side and repealed
that silver act; but we told you then that if you
wanted to bring prosperity back to the country you
should follow it by the further declaration that you
would not have any tariff legislation; that you
would not interfere with the industries of this coun-
try. And we predicted to you then that if vou per-
sisted in your agitation, that if you persisted in
the passage of your bill, evils would come upon
the country; and they have come since that time
and have followed as surely as night follows the
day, We have had this run upon the Treasury.
Now, the gentleman from Georgia says that there
is $175,000,000 in the Treasury—$100,000,000 of
redemption fund and $75,000,000 more—and that
is true; but you have borrowed $181,000,000 since
you came into power; and if you had not borrowed
a dollar of that money the $175,000,600 would be
gone and the Treasury bankrupt by a sum of over
$6,000,000. Do you want to continue that state of
things? Do you want to deal with syndicates that
charged a premium of $10,000,000 upon a $60,000,-
000 loan ?
“We propose a business method. We propose
that the income shall equal the outgo. Now it
lacks nearly $40,000,000 or $50,000,000 per annum.
We offer it to you. We offer it to you in the shape
of your own tariff bill, with a horizontal increase of
15 per cent.
“ How can any of you refuse to vote for it? Why,
ou often ery that you favor a tariff for revenue with
incidental protection. This is your kind of a tariff.
We give it to you as a temporary measure. We
give it to you to increase the revenue. We give it to
your President and your Secretary of the Treasury
to help lift the business of the country and the
Treasury out of the bankrupt condition which
seems to be the result of every Democratic admin-
istration that ever had full control of the country
from the time of Monroe’s inauguration down to
the time of Grover Cleveland.”
Mr. Bell spoke in favor of the double standard of
rold and- silver as a remedial measure, and Mr.
eiklejohn said that if amendments had been per-
mitted to the bill, he would have proposed one on the
imposition of duties on sugar which were not
touched upon in the bill.
Mr. Dockery said in part:
“Mr. Speaker, the adverse business conditions
revailing in 1892, under the McKinley law, con-
ributed largely to the overwhelming defeat of Mr.
Harrison. Gentlemen will remember the cyclone
of disapproval which swept over this country from
Maine to California. Why, even the eminent
Speaker of this House, with his distinguished col-
leagues from Maine, only escaped the wreck made
by that cyclone because they ‘ got over the bridge’
before it went down in November, 1892; and the
bridge went down largely because of adverse trade
conditions. It was the paralysis prevailing in
business circles which compelled the Republican
party to extend $25,000,000 of maturing Govern-
ment bonds and take $54,000,000 of trust funds be-
longing to holders of national bank notes and cover
them into the general Treasury. All this occurred
long before the election of Mr. Cleveland.
“We find that the original outflow of gold from
176
the Treasury of the United States was the effect of
untoward trade conditions and of the passage of
the Sherman act, which, under the Treasury con-
struction, resulted in an issue of $150,000,000 of
gold obligations, with no gold in the Treasury to
redeem them.” ‘
In the course of his speech Mr. Grosvenor said :
“First, let me point out to the gentleman from
Georgia, who has attempted a comparison be-
tween the two administrations, that it is an un-
fortunate suggestion of his that we should now
institute a comparative statement between the
two administrations. During the administration
of Benjamin Harrison we paid off nearly $250,000,-
000 of the national debt and destroyed the bonds,
and put an end to the necessity to relieve the coun-
try of that burden. Under Mr. Cleveland’s admin-
istration we have already increased the national debt,
first, by $162,500,000 of bonds, bearing a high rate
of interest, added to an additional floating debt or
deficit, which present the sum total of about $200,-
(00,000, and within the next ten days it is safe to
predict that the sum will be increased by another
$100,000,000 of bonds. All these are the true ele-
ments of comparison which the gentleman from
Georgia has entirely omitted to refer to.”
Mr. Turner said in the course of his speech :
“We have more money in the Treasury than we
need; why, then, should we want to put more of
the same kind of money there? Ihave here a state-
ment from the Treasury showing the form in which
our customs duties have been paid during the last
few days. From this statement it appears that not
a cent of gold has been paid into the Treasury, not
a gold certificate has been paid into the Treasury,
not a cent of anything has been paid into the Treas-
ury under our customs laws but greenbacks and
Sherman notes. Why, I ask, should gentlemen seek
by another tax levy to pile up in the Treasury forty
millions more of this same kind of money, which
will no more relieve the situation than the money
of which we have already a surplus of over seventy
millions,
“But, sir, gentlemen to commend this bill claim
for it magnanimity on their part. They assume
that they are coming to the relief of this Adminis-
tration. The Administration declines it.
“Mr, Speaker, there lies behind this measure a
motive which is not apparent on its face or in the
avowals made by its friends and champions on the
other side. My friend from Tennessee adverted
briefly to the motive which directs this measure.
It is proposed by this measure to put the tariff
question behind for the session. What has come
over the ‘grand old party’ that its chieftains dare
not meet responsibilities on their own account?
What is it that has induced them to tent on our
abandoned camp grounds? This is a bill which
treats in a special way, with a sort of popgun policy,
one or two articles; and you ought to send by ex-
press an apology to William M. Springer, among
the savages in the Indian Territory. You de-
nounced that great Democratic statesman, William
R. Morrison, for a horizontal bill, as has been said
here; yet you have to-day simply adopted his pol-
icy, and you ought to send a resolution of thanks
to him for having instituted a policy which you
are copying here in a great emergency.
“ And, sir, as was also stated by my friend who
preceded me, this is a bill which is claimed by the
gentlemen advoeating it to be a bill ‘for revenue
only.’ In view of the history of this country since
1876, you ought to apologize to the Democratic
perky and the whole world. I again ask you what
as come over the spirit of the ‘grand old party’?
When I first came to Congress 1 heard one of the
gentlemen, now supported by his friends for the
CONGRESS. (THe Drxeiey BIL.)
highest office in the gift of the American people,
declare that he was for a tariff for protection with
incidental revenue. He afterward gave to the
tariff which was constructed strictly on that prin-
ciple the benefit of his name. You say you can not
afford to enter now on general legislation. Why
can you not follow hislead? He was once a doughty
champion in your cause.
“Tf, as the gentlemen from Pennsylvania has said,
the existing law is wicked and iniquitous, why did
you not in two or three sentences provide that the
existing law be repealed and the McKinley act re-
instated? It would have taken but a few words,
and it would have brought into the ranks all the —
followers of protection. But you do not do that,
You see fit not to adopt the policies of your own
distinguished men. You repudiate their leader-
ship. You go back on all your own traditions, and
ou misapply and pervert devices of ours that we
cae long since repudiated. If you did not see fit
to repeal the Wilson act and re-enact the McKinley
law, why did not my good friend from Maine, the
distinguished chairman of the Committee on Ways
and Means, offer here a bill to tax beer $1 a barrel
more—a proposition which he favored during the
last Congress? On this one item alone he could
have raised nearly all the money which he now ex-
pects to raise by a tax on the necessaries of the
American people; and it would not in any degree
have disturbed the business of the country.
“Why is it, Mr. Speaker, that after distinguished
Democrats have been by Republican orators here
and elsewhere accused of dreadful crimes and com-
binations in connection with the sugar-trust scheme
in the present law, the gentlemen on the other side
have simply passed over that so-called iniquitous —
feature without touching it up or touching it down?
They have simply followed their denunciation of
that scheme by letting it severely alone. Senators
were put under investigation on account of it, and
the President also came in for some share of abuse
in this connection ; but this bill stays its hand at -
the sugar schedule !
“ Why is it, if the Wilson tariff act is bad, that
this bill does not attempt to correct its wickedness?
Where is the courage of that great party? Even
during the last Congress, as during all my service
here, there sat on that side a man from whom a
stern look was like the frown of offended majesty.
There was on that side a courageous hand the mere —
motion of which could put down or put up every
member on that side. That same hypnotic hand,
once so potent in action, now silences associates
and represses their ardor while it wields the gavel .
of this House. I think it is wise in him. I think
he will rejoice still more at the end of two years
from now than he did at the end of the last four
years if he can congratulate himself on having sup-
pressed a reagitation of the tariff during his pri-
macy in this Congress. But the country will take
up this battle.”
Mr. Arnold said:
“But the gentlemen on the other side say there
is no deficiency and no need of revenues. I refer
them to the report of the Secretary of the Treasury,
page 52, wherein he states that the expenditures
exceed the receipts from July 1, 1893, to Dec. 1,
1895, over $130,000,000. How the gentleman from
Georgia can arrive at the conclusion that there
is no deficit it is difficult to understand, and
it ‘can only be explained by believing that he
calculates from the Treasury reports with the same —
peculiar system of mathematics which he applies to
the silver question—namely, that the one half of 100
cents is $1. For months and months and many
months the deficit has been millions per month,
and this is known to all people who read. Your
Wilson-Gorman bill of the Fifty-third Congress is
not one of ‘tariff for revenue only,’ but a tariff for
deficit only. So your revenue and financial meas-
ures are absolute failures, and you are continuing
in that pathway, which has all along been strewn
with the wrecks of your failures and with the evi-
dences of your incompetency. All this now being
history, you on the other side should thank and
_ support us when we propose to help you in your ex-
tremity of threatened bankruptcy.
_ And the financial methods of the Cleveland ad-
ministration are as discreditable as the revenue
- law it placed upon the statute books. Think of its
selling $62,000,000 of 4-per-cent. gold bonds at
$1.04 to a syndicate which made $10,000,000 paeee
in the transaction. Mr. Speaker, up in my State,
in Philadelphia, Mayor Warwick issued and sold to
his own people $1,250,000 of bonds at 3 per cent.
interest, at par, and no syndicate or other person got
one penny in commission. And the Pennsylvania
_ Railroad Company negotiated lately a large loan at
r cent. interest at par. All this was accom-
ished by competent business management, while
is great nation opel ed 4 per cent., and in ad-
dition give $10,000, to negotiate $62,000,000.
And with this fact in his possession the gentleman
from Tennessee a few moments ago compared
the present Secretary of the Treasury to Alexan-
der Hamilton, the most versatile genius our
country has ever produced. Shades of Hamilton,
what profanation! ‘Pygmies are pygmies still on
mountain tops, and pyramids are pyramids in
yales.’”
_ Mr. Dolliver said :
“T do not propose to enter into a controversy on
the subject of protection. Everybody must judge
that for himself; but I do say that my Democratic
friend from Georgia ought to be very careful
about attributing any very great amount of Amer-
ican prosperity to the operation of the law of
1894. If the American people can be persuaded of
that it will do more to popularize perfidy and dis-
honor than anything that has ever happened in
this world.
“My friend asks the Republican majority why we
do not bring in a general tariff law, and he refers to
the leadership of this House as wanting in courage ;
but the leadership of this House can always be re-
lied on not to ‘ fight as one that beateth the air.’ But
_ we know, and everybody knows, that a Republican
_ tariff law can not be enacted by this Congress. We
do not know that the President of the United
States would not sign the present bill. Does my
_ friend speak by some commission when he says that
the Administration declines this relief? We have
the best reason for knowing that this law will
lease the Chief Magistrate. We had a letter from
the President in the last session of Congress which
| contains evidence that he will sign this law, restor-
_ inga reasonable revenue duty upon wool; and if
_ my friend will listen to me I will read exactly what
he says. He says: ;
o “*Tn these circumstances it may well excite our
_ wonder that Democrats are willing to depart from
_ this most Democratic of all tariff principles and
_ that the inconsistent absurdity of such a proposed
| departure should be emphasized by the suggestion
_ that the wool of the farmer be put on the free list
and the protection of tariff taxation be placed
around the iron ore and coal of corporations and
_ capitalists. ’
“The present law leaves a duty upon iron ore
and coal substantially equivalent to 60 per cent. of
the law of 1890.
“With all his eloquence and all his ability the
gentleman from Georgia can not explain how this
great agricultural interest of the country was put
VOL, Xxxv1.—12 A
-— |
CONGRESS. (Tse Drineiey BIL.)
177
on the free list, while 60 per cent. of the McKinley
rate was retained upon iron ore and coal. So I say
that there is no man who knows the heart of the
President as it has been revealed to us in these deli-
cate communications we have had from the throne.
Who is authorized to say that he will put the signa-
ture of his executive disapproval upon this bill for
the relief of the Treasury ?
“To-day we come and offer to the uneasy Treas-
ury of the United States an increment of revenue
of $40,000,000 annually, and then we propose to
clothe the Secretary with discretion to make a
legal, salutary use of the national credit to protect
the solvency of the Government and to” maintain
the value and parity of all the outstanding currency
of the United States. There can be no permanent
disaster in a country like this. As my friend from
Towa has said, a country with assets and integrity
is always safe in the business world. There is one
thing that we ought all to be agreed upon, what-
ever else we are divided about, and that is that
the Treasury of the United States should no longer
be left at the mercy of the organized avarice of the
world without money to pay or power to borrow or
means for increasing the public revenue.”
The question was taken, 228 voting yea, 83 nay,
and 44 not voting.
The bill was read twice by its title in the Senate,
Dec. 27, and referred to the Committee on Finance.
It was reported back Feb. 4, 1896, with an amend-
ment to strike out all after the enacting clause and
insert:
“That from and after the passage of this act the
mints of the United States shall be open to the
coinage of silver, and there shall be coined dollars
of the weight of 412} grains troy, of standard sil-
ver, nine tenths fine, as provided by the act of Jan.
18, 1837, and upon the same terms and subject to
the limitations and provisions of law regulating the
coinage and legal-tender quality of gold; and when-
ever the said coins herein provided for shall be re-
ceived into the Treasury, certificates may be issued
therefor in the manner now provided by law.
“Sec. 2. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall
coin into standard silver dollars, as soon as prac-
ticable, according to the provisions of section 1 of
this act, from the silver bullion purchased under
authority of the act of July 14, 1890, entitled ‘ An
Act directing the purchase of silver bullion and the
issue of Treasury notes thereon, and for other pur-
poses,’ that portion of said silver bullion which rep-
resents the seigniorage or profit to the Government,
to wit, the difference between the cost of the silver
purchased under said act and its coined value ; and
said silver dollars so coined shall be used in the
payment of the current expenses of the Govern-
ment; and for the purpose of making the said seign-
iorage immediately available for use as money, the
Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and
directed to issue silver certificates against it, as if it
was already coined and in the Treasury.
“Sec. 3. That no national bank note shall be
hereafter issued of a denomination less than $10,
and all notes of such banks now outstanding of de-
nominations less than that sum shall be, as rapidly
as practicable, taken up, redeemed, and canceled,
ana nutes of $10 and larger denominations shall be
issued in their stead under the direction of the
Comptroller of the Currency.
“Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall
redeem the United States notes, commonly called
‘greenbacks,’ and also the Treasury notes issued
under the provisions of the act of July 14, 1890,
when presented for redemption, in standard silver
dollars or in gold coin, using for redemption of said
notes either gold or silver coins, or both, not at the
option of the holder, but exclusively at the option
178 CONGRESS.
of the Treasury Department, and said notes, com-
monly called * greenbacks,’ when so redeemed, shall
be reissued as provided by the act of May 31,
1878.”
It was also proposed to amend the title, making
it read: “ An Act to provide for the free coinage of
silver, and for other purposes.”
A motion by Senator Quay, of Pennsylvania, to
recommit the bill to the committee with instruc-
tions to report the original bill and the amendment
as separate propositions was objected to and brought
up again Feb, 6, when Senator Morgan, of Alabama,
offered an amendment adding the following to the
resolution : : :
“ And with the further instruction, that the com-
mittee report the following as an amendment to the
House bill No. 2749:
“*That there shall be deducted from the customs
duties that are or may be imposed by law upon ar-
ticles imported from other countries into the United
States for consumption 10 per cent. of such duties
when such imports are made in vessels of the United
States or in vessels of the country in which such
imported articles were produced: Provided, That
the country in which such articles are produced
shall by law provide so that silver bullion the prod-
uct of mines in the United States shall be admitted
to coinage in the mints thereof on equal terms with
gold bullion, and shall be received, without dis-
count or discrimination, in payment for all customs
dues on articles imported into such country, as full
legal-tender money.’ ”
Senator Stewart offered the following resolution :
“ Resolved, that the Secretary of the Treasury be,
and he hereby is, directed to furnish the Senate an
estimate of the probable increase of the revenue if
bill H. R. 2749, entitled ‘A bill to temporarily in-
crease revenue to meet the expenses of Government
and provide against a deficiency,’ should become a
law; and what would be the duty per pound in
United States money on the different grades of im-
ported wool according to the present market price ;
and is the proposed duty on wool provided for in
said bill sufficient to compensate for or corre-
spond with the increased duties proposed on woolen
oods.
On Feb. 18 Senator Morrill, of Vermont, moved
to take up the bill; but the motion was defeated
by a vote of 21 for to 29 against, 39 not voting.
Feb. 19 Senator Carter, of Montana, offered a
resolution to recommit the bill to the committee,
with the request that it be read for information and
lie on the table. Feb. 25 Senator Morrill again
moved to take up the bill for consideration, when
the motion was lost by a vote of 22 in favor to 33
opposed, 34 not voting.
After the announcement of the vote, Senator Mor-
rill said :
“Mr. President, permit me to say that when on
the 13th of this month I made the motion to take
up the tariff bill, and it was lost by a vote of 21 to
29, I then thought the bill was hopelessly defeated,
but I felt that it was my duty in so important a
matter to give an opportunity for any change of
mind on the part of the voters.
_“ Now, it is perfectly obvious that the Repub-
lican party is in a minority in this Senate. The
bill on Feb. 13 was defeated by 5 Populist and 4
silver Republican votes. I do not think there has
been any change so far as the vote now discloses
since that occasion. I think that the Republicans
on the Committee on Finance will be willing to
welcome any decent bill to add something to the
revenue of the Treasury Department, whether it is
in conformity to their views or not as to the princi-
le of tariff, and will be ready to support any such
ill which we have an opportunity to support before
(THe DineLey BILL.)
the session shall close. But so far as this bill is
concerned, I wish to say that I do not think that it
will become me to ask the Senate for any further
consumption of time.”
Senator Teller, of Colorado, replied, accusing Sen-
ator Morrill of attempting to read out of the party
those Republicans who voted against the considera-
tion of the bill, and the Republican metropolitan
press of reading out of the party those who yoted
for the free-coinage amendment to the bond bill;
and charging that the revenue bill was brought in,
not to be passed, but for the purpose of political
advantage.
Senator Sherman, of Ohio, said :
“ Mr. President, as a member of the Committee
on Finance I disclaim all partisan feeling in respect
to the bill which the Senator from Vermont moves
to bring before the Senate. That bill does not belong
to any party it is not the representative of any
party. The only merit in the bill is that it pro-
poses to furnish $40,000,000 of revenue for the sup-
port of the Government, enough to meet the cur-
rent expenses of the Government. I do not think
any one can claim that that bill is a Republican
measure, or that it is to be voted for by any one on
that ground, or that it has any merit whatever ex-
cept the fact that it would relieve the Treasury from
the deficiency now occurring and accruing and in-
creasing every day. It isa bill prepared for an occa-
sion, not a political one. The gentleman who pre-
pared that bill in the House of Representatives did
it in order to secure revenue for the support of the
Government. I say now, Mr. President, I shall vote
for any tax whatever which may be proposed by
anybody, whether Democrat, Populist, or Repub-
yooay, | 2 Pp
lican, which shall supply sufficient revenue for the
support of the Government.
“Jt is a disgrace to our civilization, it is a dis-
race to the country itself that we are now expend-
ing $30,000,000 a year more than the receipts of the
Government, and that Congress, now in session,
with both Houses fully armed with power to fur-
nish the revenue, is idle and refuses to act.
“Every man within the sound of my voice knows
that we need more revenue. Here is a statement
showing that since the 1st day of last July, and up
to the present month of February, 1896, there has
already been a deficiency in the current revenues of
$20,696,000, and that before the end of the fiscal
year at the same ratio the amount of the deficiency
will be $30,000,000.
“Tf such a condition should occur in Great Brit-
ain or in any other country where they have a par-
liamentary law, it would dethrone an
power, and an immediate effort would be made
either to increase the income tax or to provide some
other form of taxation to meet the current expenses, —
Yet now and every day and every hour since the
passage of the present law, and even before, in —
view of its passage, we have been running in debt
ra increasing our debts. There is no occasion
or it.
“ A tax on tea and coffee would be paid cheer-
fully by the people of the United States. Any tax
whatever, the most obnoxious that could be col-
lected, would be supported by the people of the
United States rather than to see the funded debt
increased. Already $263,000,000 of bonds have
been issued during the present Administration.
The issuance of the great body of those bonds was
made necessary by a deficiency of revenue, and as
for the remainder, it was caused by the doubt
whether, under this process of financiering, we
should be able to maintain the standard of our
money in this country.
“My honorable friend the Senator from Ver- |
mont has done all he could to pass the bill ~
party in
and rightfully so, an
_ But in the House of Representatives the people are
Je. eee a ta Wee
Secreta
CONGRESS.
He has reported it and called it up twice, and
now he has had a vote. 1 shall not analyze that
yote, or say anything about why Senators of any
party voted this way or that way. It is sufficient
for us to know that our duty is not yet performed,
and if the Senator from Vermont does not, I will,
at the proper time and under proper circumstances,
move to take up the bill and then see what the de-
fects are. .
“ Every Senator here appreciates the necessity for
increased revenue. Every Senator knows that the
_ hopes and expectations of the President and the
Secretary of the Treasury as made in their reports
have been erroneous, not from any willful design
on their part, but because they did not see the nat-
ural tendency of a course of measures which every
day left the Government more and more in debt,
and every month the necessity ——”
Senator Harris, of Tennessee, asked Senator
Sherman why he did not advise the Treasury De-
partment to coin the $55,000,000 of seigniorage and
the balance of the silver lying idle in the Treasury
and use it for the purposes of the Treasury, “as
they are in duty bound to do under the third sec-
tion of what is called the Sherman act.”
Senator Sherman replied:
© The Senator from ‘Tennessee wishes to divert me
to the question of the free coinage of silver. That
has been tried and tested, and if ever that question
met its final solution it was in the House of Repre-
sentatives, freshly elected by the people, where, by a
4 ty of almost 2 to 1, the judgment of the House
)
presentatives, the representatives of the people
_ from equal and exact districts throughout the coun-
try, pronounced their denunciation of the most fool-
ish and dangerous policy of departing from the now
lawful standards of money in the country.
“Sir, it is not enough for the Senator to say to me
that the Senate could provide a remedy by provid-
ing for the free coinage of silver, when the fact is
_ that 10 States whose 20 Senators voted for the free
coinage of silver contain a less population than two
thirds of that of the State of Ohio. The Senate does
not represent the people. It represents the States,
I do not complain about it.
represented according to their numbers in every
portion of the United States. Let me prophesy to
my honorable friend that his remedy will never be
so strong in the future as it has been in the past.
_ In my judgment the sober conviction of the people
of the United States will settle down in favor of
having the best standard that can be found, or that
is yet known as the standard of value, with ample
paper money always inaintained at par with gold,
to circulate in all parts of the country freely and
without danger of its breaking up.
“Mr. President, I have said a great deal more
than Lintended to say. I will merely add that I shall
not consider my duty in the Senate discharged dur-
ing the present session until some action is taken
according to the wishes of the President and the
of the Treasury, not their form of action,
but until we give them as the executive department
of the Government sufficient money, collected from
_ the people of the United States, to carry on the ex-
_penses of the Government.
If we go home to our
constituents without performing that duty, every
man who can be held responsible for that condition
wiil be severely dealt with, as I believe, by the peo-
‘ple of the United States.”
Senator Stewart, of Nevada, speaking against the
bill, said, in part :
“Mr. President, I can not afford to hold my peace
and allow the false pretense that this bill is designed
to produce revenue, or that there is any necessity
for a bill to produce revenue, to go unheeded. The
(Tue DincLey BIL.)
179
most oppressive and the most wicked part of the
bond sales is the impounding of the people’s money .
in the Treasury Department. Financial journals in
this country declare that that is one of the modes of
retiring greenbacks, and the favorite mode. There
will be in the Treasury when the last loan shall have
been paid in nearly $300,000,000 of cash balance. A
deficiency of $30,000,000 a year will not draw down
the cash balance in the Treasury to where it ought
to be in less than four years. It will take four years
for the people to get back into circulation the money
which has been unlawfully taken from them by these
bond sales. It will take four years to reduce this
unhealthy surplus in the Treasury, it matters not
how it has got there. It is a sham, a pretext. Any
one who ‘seeks to put more money there wants to
impound the greenbacks to a greater extent. Addi-
tional taxation, when there is about $300,000,000 in
the Treasury, when there is a cash balance which at
the present rate of deficiency can not be drawn
down to a reasonable limit in less than four years,
it seems to me, is outrageous, and I hope that Con-
gress will not adjourn until it takes some means
of relieving thé Treasury of the surplus that has
been taken away from the people.
“The gold standard and the policy of impound-
ing what little money is left has distressed the coun-
try, and when it is said that the country is anxious
for more taxation, that the country is rich and
abounding in money and anxious for further taxa-
tion, I deny it. I deny that in all the history of
this country there was ever such general distress as
prevails to-day after twenty-five years of peace and
abundant harvests. I deny that with the money
impounded as it is now, with contracting circulating
medium, the resources of this country can be made
available. The wealth of the United States is not
in its debts, but it consists in its productive power.
There has not been 33 per cent. of that productive
power made available for the last three years be-
cause of want of money. Falling prices paralyze
industry, and here we have a proposition to put
$40,000,000 a year more in the Treasury and con-
tract the currency that much more.
“This an emergency bill! This bill that is not
for legislation, but for agitation; a bill to keep the
tariff question open; a bill to run only two years;
a bill to disturb business interests; a bill to set the
country quarreling about the tariff for the purpose
of burying other issues upon which the prosperity
of the human race depends!
“T wonder if there is any truth in what we con-
stantly hear? It comes to me in letters every day
that there is an arrangement whereby this bill, if it
can go to the Executive without amendment, is to
be signed by the President. I have received hun-
dreds of letters saying, ‘Do not amend it; the
President is going to sign it as it is.’ I wonder if
the partnership between Cleveland Democracy and
bated Republicanism is perfected and satisfactory ?
Is this a scheme between the gold forces at both
ends of the Capitol to get a bill through to retire
the greenbacks ?
“Tt has been forty years since the Republican
arty came into existence. It has served its day.
t has betrayed its cause. It has become an enemy
of the people. It started as a friend of the people.
It started in favor of free labor; in favor of free
men. It has now become a party of slavery, a party
of bonded slavery, a party which if its principles
can succeed, according to the desire of the Sen-
ator from Vermont, will relegate the people
to the same condition of feudal slavery and
serfdom from which mankind emerged by the dis-
covery of gold and silver in Mexico and South
America. The same causes produce like effects,
and it is to be presumed that the Republican party
180 CONGRESS.
mean to enslave the people of the United States, be-
cause they are using the only means by which slav-
ery can be produced, the only means by which any
great nation was ever reduced to serfdom. They
are depriving the people of their money, and they
propose to do it. In this very bill they propose to
add to the grievance under the pretext of raising
revenue. Under the pretext of raising revenue and
increasing taxation they want to take from the peo-
ple more of the means by which they can pay taxes,
reducing them faster than the gold standard will do
it if legitimately operated. We tell you that the
people will not indorse the union of the Republican
and Democratic parties for the purpose of oppres-
sion and wrong. . They will not do it.” ;
A discussion upon the position of the Republican
party on the question of bimetallism followed be-
tween Senator Allen, of Nebraska, Senator Stewart,
of Nevada, and Senator Teller, of Colorado, on one
side, and Senator Aldrich, of Rhode Island, Senator
Platt, of Connecticut, and Senator Gallinger, of New
Hampshire, on the other.
Senator Frye, of Maine, said:
“ Mr. President, I have been instructing my con-
stituents, business men, for the last month and a
half that there was not the slightest possibility of
the House tariff bill becoming a law. I think I
have known for a month that it was dead. After
the two votes, one of a fortnight ago and the other
of to-day, there is not a Senator here who does not
know that it is as dead as Julius Cesar, and that
there is no resurrection whatever for it. The busi-
ness men of this country ought to know it now, and
they ought to conduct their business with a view to
the fact that it is dead. When the Democratic
ae of the Senate and the Populistic party of the
enate both announce that they by their votes will
not support this tariff bill, that they will not con-
sider it, it is utterly hopeless for any Republican to
undertake to obtain its consideration.
“Suppose, as the Senator from Ohio suggested, it
should be taken up and could be amended, there is
not a Senator here who does not know that more
than 600 amendments would be offered to it, and
Senators know perfectly well that more than three
months’ time would be consumed in its considera-
tion, and that the business of the country would be
held on the ragged edge for the whole of that
period. Business has had blows enough during the
last two or three years. Congress should not inflict
any more upon it.
“T trust, sir, this bill will not be heard from
again, and that no Republican Senator, no friend
of protection, will ask the Senate to give it any
further consideration. Let it be dead, and let the
responsibility lie where it belongs.”
On Feb. 26 Senator Allen, of Nebraska, intro-
duced an amendment to the bill, adding three sec-
tions providing for silver coinage, and making the
title read: “ A bill to promote the prosperity and
happiness of the people of the United States, and
for other purposes.” In introducing the amend-
ment he said, in part:
“I took occasion yesterday to ask the Senator
from Rhode Island and the Senator from Connec-
ticut, who are representative Republicans, if there
were any circumstances under which they would
agree to the free and unlimited coinage of silver
at the ratio of 16 to 1, and they both emphatically
said there were no circumstances under which they
would agree to that. I asked them if they were
willing to take this House bill 2749, providing for
a temporary increase of the revenues to meet the
expenses of the Government with a free-silver
amendment—taking the protective features of the
bill together with a free-coinage amendment—and
they said no, I asked them, at the suggestion of
(Tut Dinetey BIL.)
the Senator from Alabama, if they were willing to
take the McKinley bill, which now seems to be the
shibboleth of the Republican faith, with a free-coin-
age amendment attached to it, and they said no.
“Mr. President, I do not believe in this House
bill 2749, and I want to announce to the Senate and
to the country that I do not commit myself_to its
policy or to the rate of taxation it imposes. Buit to
show the venerable Senator from Vermont, the hon-
orable chairman of the Finance Committee, that he
has strength enough to carry this bill through here,
I want to say to him if he can unite the Republican
party upon this measure with a free-coinage’amend-
ment—not a free-coinage substitute, but a free-
coinage amendment—by which the tariff therein
provided shall become a Jaw and silver shall be
coined at the ratio of: 16 to 1, the Populist party
have votes enough to give you in this chamber to
make both those provisions a law.”
The amendment consisted of the four sections of-
fered by the Finance Committee, as given above,
which were added to the bill as passed by the
House. 1
Senator Baker, of Kansas, asked Senator Allen if
he would pledge himself and his party to vote for
the tariff bill with a proviso for the free coinage of
American silver only. Mr. Allen answered that he
would not so vote, but declined to answer for his
party, and asked if Mr. Baker would vote for the
ill as introduced by him with the free-coinage
amendment, to which Senator Baker replied that
he would not, “because it provides for the free
coinage of all the silver of the world at the ratio of
16 to 1, and would put us down as simply silver
monometallists.”
The amendment was ordered to lie on the table.
The same day the resolution of Senator Carter, of
Montana, to reeommit the bill to the Committee on
Finance was laid before the Senate. Before he
spoke on the resolution Senator Lindsay, of Ken-
tucky, offered an amendment, adding these words: —
“ And said Committee on Finance is instructed to
report an amendment to the said H. R. bill 2749, in
the way of an additional section, in substance as
follows:
“*Src. 5. That so much of section 1824 of Sched-
ule E of the act which became a law Aug. 27, 1894,
entitled “ An Act to reduce taxation and to provide
revenue for the Government, and for other pur-
poses,” which provides as follows: “ And upon all
sugars above No. 16, Dutch standard in color, and
upon all sugars which have been discolored, there
shall be levied, collected, and paid a duty of one
eighth of 1 cent per pound, in addition to the said —
duty of 40 per cent. ad valorem,” be, and the same
is hereby, repealed, and the collection of said addi-
tional duty, from and after the passage of this act,
is hereby discontinued.’ ”
Referring to-charges of party disloyalty made
against himself and 4 other Senators, Senator Car-
ter said in the course of his speech in support of
his resolution :
“Before the convening of Congress it was very
generally understood throughout the country that
the President would announce in his annual mes- —
sage an existing need for additional revenue to meet
a deficiency and to provide against its recurrence.
Republicans were generally united in a determina-
tion to meet this demand of the Executive by tariff
legislation along Republican lines. To the surprise
of every one the President did not make the antici-
pated demand in his annual message, but in va-
rious ways has directly and indirectly announced to
Congress that the executive department is not in
need of additional revenue to conduct the Govern- q
ment, and it has been steadily maintained by the
friends of the Administration, in and out of Con-
CONGRESS. (Tue Dinciey BIL.)
that additional revenue is wholly unnecessary.
otwithstanding this declaration, a tariff bill was
formulated wholly at variance with all past profes-
sions of the Republican party on the tariff ques-
tion. It is admitted everywhere that the House
bill is not and was not intended to be an expression
by the party of its views. It has been and is now
distinctly asserted that it is not a Republican meas-
ure. It is a measure to meet an alleged emergency
which the chief executive officer of the nation,
chosen by a majority of the people in 1892, stoutly
asserts does not exist at all. The’ party, then, is in
the attitude of forcing uncalled-for relief upon a
reluctant Democratic administration.
* Aside from this unenviable attitude and the
manifest embarrassment that must come to the
party in the future in consequence of it, the meth-
od employed is seriously objectionable. It builds
upon existing law as a foundation. The Wilson
tariff bill has been everywhere condemned by Re-
ublicans as notoriously inequitable and unjust.
t assumed to protect the manufacturers and cast
the producers of so-called raw material throughout
the country into open competition with cheap labor
everywhere. The pending bill now proposes to
make this injustice more glaring. The Wilson bill
was framed upon a theory favoring ad valorem in
_ preference to specific duties. On high authority it
is asserted that an ad valorem tariff has been repu-
diated by the principal commercial nations in their
tariff systems; by Austria, Denmark, England,
_France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Russia, Sweden,
and Spain, 10 nations which, with tariffs on 3,957
articles, have only 10 on the ad valorem basis and
the remainder specific. When and where did this
obsolete and discarded cloak for fraud and evasion
become sacred in Republican eyes? An ad valorem
tariff has been condemned so emphatically by the
Republican party on all occasions that it stands no
better with the spear than does the Wilson bill.
The pending bill makes a 15-per-cent. horizontal
raise on 12 schedules of the Wilson bill. When
and where did the ublican party become com-
_ mitted to the horizontal movement in tariff legisla-
tion?) The Wilson bill, the ad valorem tariff, and
the horizontal scheme have each in turn been em-
phatically condemned by Republican platforms,
orators, and papers, and never commended any-
where by Republican authority. How then, sir,
could it become treasonable for a Republican to
oe all three of these elements combined ?
ell-settled convictions, supported by practically
one half the electors of this country, should not be
lightly sacrificed on the altar of supposed expedi-
ency.
__ “But, assuming that the Administration requires
funds, which it avers it does not, and that in the
name of patriotism we must sacrifice ancient and
_ time-honored principles and convictions, let us en-
deavor while making the sacrifice to be reasonably
just. This bill is not understood by the country
correctly. I submit that the general belief obtains
that it provides a slight duty for wool and lumber,
_ and then increases the existing duties 15 per cent.,
except as to sugar. Even Senators and members
of the House generally accept this view of the bill.
_ I freely admit such was my general understanding
_ until brought to a critical analysis of its provisions
in regard to wool.
“Tt will be observed that while the first para-
graph allows 60 per cent. of the duty imposed on
first and second class, and restores the ad valorem
duty of from 32 to 50 per cent. on third-class wool
by the McKinley act, it expressly retains all the
limitations and conditions of that act. Experi-
ence has clearly demonstrated the fact that the con-
_ ditions and limitations thus expressly retained were
181
so faulty and unjust in practice that the protection
intended was reduced about one half; that where -
the McKinley act provided 12 cents per pound on
a given grade of wool the conditions and limitations
reduced the figure in actual practice to about 6
cents per pound.
“ The retained ‘ conditions and limitations’ would
reduce the proposed tariff to a trifle more than one
fourth of the nominal rate of duty fixed by the
McKinley act.
“Turn to section 2 of the bill and mark well the
manner in which the manufacturer of woolens is
taken care of. You will find no 15 per cent. hori-
zontal increase here. It must be borne in mind
that the woolen goods referred to in the first sub-
division of the section are subject to ad valorem
duties ranging from 25 to 50 per cent. and averag-
ing about 40 per cent. under existing law. To the
existing duty the bill proposes to add 60 per cent.
of the specific square-yard duty imposed on each
of the articles by the McKinley act. In the sec-
ond subdivision of the section it will be observed
that per centum is wholly omitted and the entire
specific square-yard duty imposed by the McKinley
act on carpets and other articles is added to the ad
valorem duty imposed by existing law.
“JT do not assert that these provisions will in-
crease the duties on manufactured woolens beyond
the rates fixed by the act of 1890, but I do assert
and call attention to the fact that the proviso in
section 4, intended to preclude such result under
the operations of that section, does not apply to the
section under consideration. Nor do I assert that
unreasonable or even adequate protection will be
afforded woolen manufacturers by the doubling up
of duties in the manner provided. I do, however,
emphatically maintain that the bill displays mani-
fest partiality for the manufacturer.
“ Entertaining these views, I can not vote for the
bill as presented. Amendment in the open Senate
would be wanting in that careful consideration for
the revenue-producing quality of the measure’ which
is the only possible justification for its existence.
The motion to recommit the bill to the Committee
on Finance without instructions will leave that
honorable body at liberty to prepare and present to
the Senate a fair and just bill which every Repub-
lican can conscientiously support. The veto mes-
sage of the President on a true Republican measure
would raise an issue; while his veto message on the
pending bill would raise a laugh at the expense of
the Republican party.”
Senator Carter then spoke upon bimetallism, with
a review of measures to show that its advocates had
been loyal to Republican principles.
“Tn the plain view of these facts, the drift of the
Republican party in this Eastern section of the
country toward Clevelandism and the gold stand-
ard is to me an appalling spectacle. In the name
of all the Republican party means to human civili-
zation, let Republicans in and out of Congress take
counsel of their own party platform and traditions
and cease blind devotion to the false god who deals
in mysterious phrases. Upon our own platform of
protection and bimetallism honestly and fairly car-
ried into law we may securely rest the present and
the future prosperity and greatness of this repub-
lic; under that platform honestly carried out the
clearing house of Christendom would be inside of a
decade transferred from London to New York ; in-
ternal activity would be so far stimulated and vi-
talized that our exports would exceed our imports,
giving unto us the power to proclaim a money sys-
tem of our own, based upon gold and silver as
money of final redemption. In conformity with
that platform, the departed greatness of our mer-
chant marine would be restored; our navy would
182 CONGRESS.
be increased to a strength second to no naval police
force in the world; the Nicaragua Canal would be
constructed; the trade of Central and South Amer-
ica, China, Japan, and India would be transferred
to our shores from the shores of the British Isles;
in short, all that the Republican party stands for
and means for good government and vigorous ad-
ministration can be secured under an honest con-
struction and a fair administration in accordance
with the the Republican platform of 1892.”
Senator Hoar of Massachusetts asked two ques-
tions: Whether Senator Carter would say that the
interpretation put upon that platform by Mr. Har-
rison was delusive, fraudulent, or misleading; and
whether he was to be understood as saying that “ if
he fail to convince the majority of the American
people, if he fail to convince the majority of his
Republican associates that they are wrong and he
is right, he proposes to say to them, ‘ You shall not
pass any protective tariff unless you surrender your
honest convictions, the opinions of the majority,
and come over to us.’ If a protective tariff bill be
hereafter presented, fair and just to the whole
country, based on Republican principles, providing
for the industries of the Northwest and the new
States, with a just tariff on wool, a just tariff on
lead, and the other products of those States, and a
just tariff on the fruits of California, do you mean
to say to us, ‘You shall not pass that tariff, if we
can help it, unless you surrender your honest con-
victions on what is true bimetallism ’?”
In the course of his remarks Mr. Hoar said:
“T desire to remind my honorable friend that this
protection upon wool has been supported by the
votes of New England against the votes of the
wool-growing States themselves. When Ohio halted
between two opinions, when California gave her
vote for free trade, when Texas sent her representa-
tives here to champion in this and the other House
the policy which struck down one of their own most
important industries, the manufacturing interests
of New England have stood firm and stanch in its
support. When the wool schedule was on its pas-
sage two years ago I rose in my place here and asked
the representatives from the wool-growing States if
they could suggest any one thing which the New
England Senators had failed to do which would
help to.save the tariff on wool, or which they could
then do to avert the destruction of that protection,
I asked that question of the then Senator from
Montana, the predecessor of my honorable friend,
and the other representatives of the wool-growing
States, and one after another, the Senator from
Montana, the Senator from Colorado, and one or
two other Senators, with a candor which became
them, replied that there was nothing of which they
complained of New England in that particular.
“I do not justify the views of the Eastern press
of my honorable friend and his companions, but I
think that if the Senator reads the papers in his
own section of the country he will find that they
are not far behindhand. I have myself had the
honor of being hanged in effigy in a bimetallist
State for advocating in secret session on a treaty
what I thought were the true principles of the
Constitution of the United States and the Declara-
tion of Independence. I have had my mail packed
with abusive and scurrilous articles against me, in-
significant and humble as I. am on this question
and on this floor, whose scurrilous vituperation
would have set Dean Swift crazy and made him
turn green with envy. I wonder how posterity will
think of the great, useful life of John Sherman if
they read the account of him in the Western press
as the thief, the trickster, the man who defrauded
the American people by stealth by getting silver
demonetized, and who was so anxious to keep it a
(Tue Dineiey BIL.)
secret that he only had the bill printed thirteen
times! That chorus comes up from the whole West
against the old and honored leaders of the Re-
publican party, the men who carried this country
through war and calamity. - It is a very trifling mat-
ter, after all. Nobody yet was ever hurt by a little
talk, a little abuse, a little printer’s ink.
“ But this is the one question about which the seri-
ous people of my part of the country are concerned,
. the question whether we are acting in good faith
and on an equality.
“‘ Now, I say to you, vote me down on this question
of free coinage of silver or any policy that seems to
you to be inconsistent with your opinions upon it,
and, sorry and mortified and Suir liated as I shall
be, I shall walk straight up in half an hour after-
ward and vote for any measure which the Senator
from Idaho or the Senator from Colorado or the Sen-
ator from Montana may show me is to the interest of
his State; and if out of revenge, out of anger, out of
a desire to force my miserable little notions against
the judgment of the majority of my associates, the
majority of the ge ag crt of the American
people, I did not do it, I should not dare to go
back to New England and face my constituents. I
should be hurled out of power, if I did that thing,
with an indignation and scorn and contempt whic
would make miserable the rest of my life and the
life of all my posterity for generations to come.
“Some persons have understood the gentlemen
who stand with my honorable friend from Nevada
to say something different from that, and say that,
‘unless you will surrender and swallow your con-
victions on this matter of bimetallism and under-
take to have the United States do this thing alone,
you shall not have, if we can help it, the protective
tariff or any other measure which will benefit you
more than it benefits us.’ ;
“T should like the further information whether
we are to understand the Senator from Montana as
occupying that attitude, or whether, if it’ shall turn
out that he fails to convince the majority of the
American people that he is right in this matter
of silver, he is going to say, ‘I shall destroy
every interest of the American people that I can
strike at.’”
In answer to the first question Mr. Carter said:
“The interpretation of the platform by President
Harrison, who proved by his action to be conscien-
tiously and honestly disposed to give full and free
expression to it and to the administration of the
law, coming from that source, was reasonably satis-
factory to our people as furnishing a beacon light
for hope.
“Tf, upon the other hand, the interpretation of
the platform is to be considered in the light of a
majority party action on this floor since then, I say
we could not accept the interpretation. They seem
to assume that the Minneapolis platform com-
manded them to wipe the last vestige of legislation
favorable to silver from the statutes. With that
construction of the platform we are at war now and
shall continue to be at war.”
In reply to the second question he said :
“Mr. President, the question is further pro-
pounded, if defeated in an honest effort made to
secure legislation in conformity with this particular
principle of the reat platform, shall gentlemen
from west of the Missouri river who affiliate with
the party now and contemplate doing so in the
future absolutely refuse then and there to further
co-operate with the party on its pronounced principle
of adherence to protection? In reply to that, I say
that the Republicans who believe in the platform
as construed in our portion of the country will be
the very last to desert the ship. If gentlemen elect
to accept the gold theories of Mr. Cleveland and
CONGRESS. (THe Drxevey Bx.)
walk away from our party, we will gaze upon them
in sorrow.”
Mr. Hoar said:
“If the Senator will allow me a word there, I
wish to say that, so far as I know, there is not a
Republican in either House of Congress from the
Fast, and there is not, so far as I know, in the State
of Massachusetts, or in the 6 New England States,
2 per cent. of the entire Republican party who hold
the theories of Grover Cleveland, as I understand
them. There are no gold monometallists there.
“ He thinks that a double standard of value, that
undertaking to have by est assent of anybody or
everybody two metals which may fluctuate some-
what in their reference to one another, is an
absurdity and an impossibility. The Republicans
of the Eastern States deny that proposition. They
believe that there can be a double standard of
value, just as when the astronomer wishes to get a
clock whose pendulum shall be so accurate in its
length and in its beat that the most delicate meas-
urements, upon which depend great astronomical
calculations, shall not be disturbed by atmospheric
influences, he puts rods of three metals which pass
through the disk of the pendulum and by which it
is suspended so that the fluctuation caused by the
atmospheric influences on one will be corrected by
the atmospheric influences on another.
“That is the doctrine of Alexander Hamilton; it
is the doctrine of the Constitution; it is the doc-
trine of every one of the fathers, without an ex-
_. ception; it is our doctrine, and the American doc-
trine to-day. There is where we all agree; where
the Senator from Colorado and I agree, I suppose,
if [ understand him, though I do not know that he
will consent to agree with me on any subject what-
ever. But where we differ is this: We believe that
to do that thing by one nation alone is impossible ;
that you drive out the more valuable metal and you
have monometallism not only of the cheaper metal,
in which all transactions will sooner or later-dis-
charge themselves, but you have a standard of value
that is a fluctuating, a disturbing, and a degenerat-
ing measure, so that no transaction expressed in
money is a record of what it is to be in the future.
Whether we are right or wrong, there is where our
difference comes in; and the Senator has no more
a to turn on me and say I agree with Grover
Cleveland, or Jam a monometallist, than I have to
turn on him and say he is a silver monometallist. I
take his statement of his opinions as he utters them,
not as I translate them, pat I demand of him, if he
does me the honor to allude to my opinions at all,
that he shall take my statements of opinions as I utter
them and translate them. There is where these two
parties differ in the Republican party as they do in
the Democratic party; and what I want to know is,
if any Senator says on either side of that difference,
‘If you do not come to my views, whether you be-
lieve them or not, and vote with me, whether you
like it or not, I will not do anything else that is for
the interest of the country in regard to which we
ee,””
Senator Teller, of Colorado, spoke in reference to
his share in drawing up the Minneapolis platform,
which had been brought up by Senator Gear, of Iowa,
and on the true meaning of bimetallism as follow:
“Bimetallism means the free access of both
metals to the mint on equal terms, and I now here
challenge the Senate, I challenge the country to find
that prior to 1892 any person had ever suggested
that any other definition could be given to bimetal-
lism. Dr. Giffen, the great statistician of England,
a gold man, equal in his adherence and devotion to
gold even to the Senator from Vermont or the Sena-
tor from Ohio, has declared over and over again that
there can be no bimetallism without the coinage of
183
both metals on equal terms; that that is what it
means.
“ Any man who asserts that it means anything ~
else is either ignorant or means to deceive. He
either has not studied the question and does not
know, or, having studied the question, he does not
mean to tell the truth. He who says that bimetal-
lism means maintaining silver as subsidiary coin
writes himself down in opposition to the entire
thought of the intelligent and educated world on
this subject.”
Senator Sherman said:
“ My idea of bimetallism is that both metals shall
be adopted and used in this country as far as possi-
ble and to the extent that they can be maintained
at a parity with each other. In order to bring
about that condition, as a matter of course the
silver dollars and the silver coins must be main-
tained at a parity with gold.
“ We maintain the parity of the two metals by
limiting the supply of the cheaper one. We buy
the bullion from the people of the United States or
in the markets of the world, and we coin it into
money upon the old basis of 16 to 1. But in order
that we may maintain the silver coins at a parity
with gold we limit the amount and only make it
an act of the Government which maintains those
coins, of less market value, at a parity with gold.
“1 know that the free coinage of silver is quite a
plausible idea, but the effect would be merely to
cheat the creditor of one half of his debt. The
United States of America has contracted debts upon
the basis of gold to the amount now, under the
present Administration, of $750,000,000. Suppose
we should have the free coinage of silver, and gold
were demonetized practically or excluded from cir-
culation, because none but the cheaper metal will
circulate, we would cheat the creditors of the Gov-
ernment out of one half of their investment.
“There is a narrow difference between those of
us who believe in what I call bimetallism and those
who believe in the free coinage of silver. If you
open the doors of your mints to all the silver that
may come to us from all parts of the world, now
estimated to amount to $3,800,000,000, how long
will it be before the silver of other countries will
flow in here and pass for more than it is worth
and I think revolutionize the whole monetary sys-
tem of our country? I believe, therefore, that if
we maintain the two metals as we ought to do, at
full use as money, it must be under such circum-
stances and conditions that there will be no dif-
erence in their value as money.”
Senator Teller said:
* The question here is, what did the Republican
platform mean by bimetallism? If it did not mean
that we should go to bimetallism to-day it meant at
least that we believe in bimetallism and that under
any construction which could be put on it we should
go there as speedily as we could. The question
now is whether we who believe in bimetallism as bi-
metallism is defined by the economic writers of the
age are recreant to Republican principles or whether
we can be driven out of our party because we do not
agree with this most astonishing, unheard-of, and
unusual bimetallic definition of the Senator from
Ohio, which it seems that the Republican party is
about to accept. That isthe question, Mr. President ;
it is not the question whether we can maintain free
coinage or not. If the Senator from Ohio and the
Senators who agree with him have got wiser than
the convention they had better wait until they go
to St. Louis, and change the platform. The ques-
tion is, did we not declare for bimetallism? Did
we not say we are in favor of it? Does not that
give us the right to insist upon having bimetallism
and still keep within the party ?”
184 CONGRESS.
Senator Sherman said:
“The convention to which the Senator refers al-
ways assumed‘the same kind of bimetallism that I
have alluded to. They always insisted as a condi-
tion that the money coined from silver should be
maintained by the Government at a parity with
gold. That has been declared over and over again,
and it is not necessary even to repeat it now.”
Senator. Teller replied :
“That is not a correct statement. That conven-
tion never suggested a bimetallism so ridiculous as
I have read to the Senate. I believe if that had
been suggested in the convention if would have
been laughed out of the convention. The Senator
can not put the Republican party on that kind of
bimetallism. Why did we want to say anything
about it if that was the kind of bimetallism? Every-
body knew that you could not get along without
subsidiary silver money, and that is all that the
Senator is now contending for; and he is contend-
ing that when you have subsidiary silver money
you have got bimetallism. Does he mean to say
that Great Britain has got bimetallism, does he
mean to say that Germany has got bimetallism be-
cause they use subsidiary silver money? Mr.
President, he knows better. Everybody knows
better. Bimetallism means, as I have stated, the
use of the two metals as legal-tender money upon
equal terms.
“When you make silver subordinate to gold it is
no more standard money than a national bank
note. A man must be ignorant of the philosophy
of money or unwilling to admit the truth and the
logic of his position when he claims that because
you use silver with gold and subordinate to gold
you have bimetallism. What we contend for is
silver as standard money; silver that shall measure
values as gold measures values; that the double
sum of silver and gold in the world shall determine
prices.”
‘March 18, Senator Palmer, of Illinois, submitted
the following resolution :
“ Resolved by the Senate, First. That it is the
ped of the United States to maintain the existing
egal and commercial standard of value.
“Second. That the unlimited coinage by the
United States of silver dollars of 4124 grains of
standard silver with forced legal-tender quality for
all debts, public and private, would subvert the ex-
isting legal and commercial standard of value by
establishing a standard of value based upon silver
coinage only.”
The House bill to increase revenue was laid be-
fore the Senate again the same day, and Senator
Cockrell, of Missouri, spoke, confining his remarks
to the free-coinage substitute reported by the Fi-
nance Committee. Reviewing the operations of
the Treasury, he said in part:
“Secretary Foster redeemed not one_ solitary
Treasury note in silver. Secretary Carlisle has re-
deemed more than $19,377,000 of the Treasury
notes with standard silver dollars, and has retired
and canceled them, and no harm has come. Had
every ounce of the silver bullion in the Treasury
been coined into standard silver dollars, and every
Treasury note redeemed and canceled, no harm
would have come. Secretary Foster redeemed in
gold from the 14th day of October, 1891, to the ex-
piration of his term, over $34,000,000 of the Treas-
ury notes, and Secretary Carlisle up to October
last had redeemed over $43,000,000. Over $41,000,-
000 of them were presented at Boston, New York,
and Philadelphia, It was simply a meek surrender
to the gold gamblers, as a convenience to them to
get gold upon which to speculate. There is no law
upoic the statute book requiring the Treasury to
maintain $100,000,000 gold reserve. Secretary
(THe DineLey BILL.)
Carlisle has so decided. All the funds in the Treas-
ury are deposited in the general cash.
* Now, let us look as to what has been done by
reason of this meek and unjust and improper sur-
render of the option of the Government to pay in
silver as well as in gold. To maintain this imagi-
nary gold reserve of $100,000,000, the executive ad-
ministration, January, 1894, sold $50,000,000 of 5-
per-cent, ten-year bonds for over $58,000,000 of
gold, and put the gold in the Treasury and pro-—
claimed its purpose to continue to redeem green-
backs and Treasury notes in gold whenever de-
manded, 4
“From January, 1894, to November, 1894, $103,-
000,000 of gold was taken out of the Treasury, and
in November, 1894, the Government issued and
sold $50,000,000 more of ten-year 5-per-cent. bonds
for more than $58,000,000 of gold, and put the
gold in the Treasury and used the Treasury notes
to pay current expenses. More raids were made.
It had only whetted the appetites of the bond
lovers and the gold-standard advocates to get mora
bonds and to fasten the gold standard by perma-
nent legislation, naming gold as the money of final
payment. Between the sale of bonds in November,
1894, and Jan. 28, 1895—only about two months
—$69,000,000 of gold was taken from the Treas-
ury. On Jan. 28, 1895, the President gave to
Congress the message I have quoted, reeommend-
ing the issue of $500,000,000 of bonds payable in
gold. In February, 1895, Congress having refused
to authorize the issue of any gold bonds, the ex- -
ecutive administration issued and sold more than
$62,000,000 of thirty-year 4-per-cent. bonds for a
little over $65,000,000 under the now famous, if
not otherwise, Rothschild-Belmont-Morgan syn-
dicate contract to guard our Treasury. Sixty-two
million dollars of United States thirty-year bonds
were sold at the rate of $104.50. They have since
sold in the open market at over $123. :
“A magnificent speculation called patriotism.
Think of it! Peans of praise sung to the Belmonts
and the Rothschilds and the Morgans for’their pa-
triotism in buying American bonds at $104.50 on
the $100, and then selling them for $122 for every
$100 of bonds. But the raids were renewed, and
only recently $100,000,000 more of thirty-year 4-
per-cent. bonds were sold for $111,000,000 and a
little over, as reported, a total increase of our
bonded interest-bearing debt of more than $262,-
000,000 in time of profound peace. To do what?
To maintain the gold reserve and to show our pa-
triotism.
“What is this proposed remedy, Mr. President ?
We have seen it. It is a miserable makeshift. It
simply substitutes for a noninterest-bearing debt,
for the full legal-tender greenbacks and ee
notes—mere demand obligations, whose debt qual-
ity has been absorbed in their money function, and
which are to-day money used by the people in the
daily transactions—an equal amount of interest-
bearing gold bonds. It contracts the legal-tender
currency of the country to that amount, reduces
the selling price of all the products of the soil, the
mine, and the factory, and is in violation of that
cardinal principle of every honest republican gov-
ernment that when in debt it should maintain in
circulation the largest possible amount of its in-
debtedness in the shape of noninterest-bearing obli-
gations that the people of the country will keep in
circulation without depreciation.
‘What is further proposed in the proposition of
the President? To surrender to the national banks
the absolute control of the paper circulation. It
proposes to give to the banks the right to deposit
bonds, draw interest upon the bonds thus deposited
in the Treasury, and then receive from the Treas-
CONGRESS. (THe Driyevey BIL.)
ury dollar for dollar of legal-tender money and
loan it to the people at interest—double interest
interest upon the nds paid by the Government
and interest upon the loans paid by the money
borrowers. The banks invest their capital and re-
ceive interest upon it, get an equal amount of
money, and then receive interest upon that from
the borrowers. In 1895 we paid to the national
banks over $8,000,000 in interest on their bonds,
and they were loaning to the people an amount
equal to 90 per cent. of those bonds and receiving
the highest rate of interest the people would pay.
_ “That is not all of this proposed remedy for our
financialills. It proposes to give the national banks
entire control of the paper currency. ait eg they
issue only $350,000, of notes and then loan them
to the people for fifty years, say, at only 5 per cent.
interest ; the money borrowers will pay in interest
$17,500,000 annually, $875,000,000 of interest in
the fifty years.
“Now, Mr. President, the ee arises, can
the national banks maintain gold redemption? If
the whole United States can not maintain a gold
reserve, can the national banks do it? It is a per-
tinent question. To retire the United States notes
is to transfer the whole of the demand for gold on
the banks, their notes then being redeemable only
in gold. Now, if they can maintain the gold re-
demption of their circulation, it will prove conclu-
sively, beyond a shadow of a doubt, that there has
existed and now exists a combine, to say the least
of it, to raid the gold reserve, force the issue of
bonds, vest in them the absolute control of our
currency, and then, when clothed with this abso-
lute power to manage and direct the currency of
the country, redeem it or not, just as they choose,
and just as they did in 1893, when they refused to
honor drafts in money to their customers and
country banks, and resorted to $38,000,000 of clear-
ing-house certificates in the city of New York.
“Mr. President, it is easy to criticise a policy,
but what should have been done instead of this dis-
astrous, costly policy, paralyzing to the business of
the country? The answer is plain. The executive
branch, in obedience to the legislative will and to
existing law, should have reserved the option to re-
deem in silver dollars as well as gold; should have
coined all the silver bullion in the Treasury into
standard silver dollars; should have redeemed and
canceled every one of the Treasury notes and re-
tired them, as the law required, when redeemed in
silver dollars; should have redeemed the green-
backs in silver dollars as well as gold, and to-day
we would not have one solitary dollar of Treasury
notes outstanding. Every one of them would have
been redeemed and canceled. In lieu of them, we
would have had outstanding an equal amount of
standard silver dollars and $53,000,000 of surplus
added to the balance in the Treasury, which would
have prevented the issue of any bonds to replete
the Treasury exhaustion, and not one dollar of the
$262,000,000 bonded indebtedness would be in exist-
ence to-day.”
Senator Cockrell cited the votes in Congress from
the Forty-fifth Congress down, and the declara-
tions of Democratic platforms to show that the
party had been in favor of free coinage. He dis-
cussed the prediction that the double standard
would drive all the gold from the country and con-
tract the currency, and the question of overproduc-
tion of silver. On this latter subject he said:
“These are the recorded facts and figures of history,
and they conclusively prove, first, that there is no
silver bullion in the world stored away; second,
that the annual production of silver is wholly con-
sumed year by year and more too; and third, that
as in the past so it will be in the future, the annual
185
roduct of silver will be consumed in the world.
t must be so. Why? No nation can do with gold
only. No nation can ever get along with gold as -
its only metallic money. You can not make your
dollars and half dollars out of it. You have to use
silver, and every gold nation on earth to-day is
using silver as a limited legal tender and as small
money. That silver must be annually added to.
It rapidly disappears. It is abraded and worn. It
is lost. It has to be supplied annually, and some
nations have a fixed law prescribing an annual in-
crease of silver coin in proportion to the population,
and the annual increased consumption is equal to
the annual product. Then the gold nations can
not do without silver, because silver is the money
of the world to-day, in which 90 per cent. of the
individual transactions are had. England can not
part with her silver; Germany can not; France
can not. None of the nations of the world can,
and they must add to their coinage every year.”
Senator Hoar asked: “What does the Senator
from Missouri understand to be the motive of all
those European nations, then, in limiting the coin-
age of silver?”
Mr. Cockrell: “Simply because their governments
are in the hands of the aristocratic, the wealthy
classes, and they want to increase the purchasing
power of the dollars named in their bonds and se-
curities and to depress the selling price of all the
products of the world that they have to buy.”
Mr. Hoar: “ But my question is not exactly an-
swered. If, as the Senator understands, opening
the mints to the free coinage of silver will not de-
crease the purchasing power of gold at all, but it
will remain the same m
Mr. Cockrell: “I do not say it will not decrease
the purchasing power of gold. I say it will. I did
not say it will not.”
Mr. Hoar: “I thought the Senator claimed that
the standard money of the country would remain
of equal value——”
Mr. Cockrell: “It would.”
Mr. Hoar: “If we opened the mints to the coin-
age of silver?”
Mr. Cockrell: “It would, by silver going up and
gold coming down.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Very well. Then those moneyed men
and aristocrats have not increased the purchasing
power of the dollar of the country or have not af-
fected it by closing their mints——”
Mr. Cockrell: “They would if they were to open
their mints to the coinage of silver. They did af-
fect it by stopping the coinage of silver. They
doubled the purchasing power of every dollar of
their securities by demonetizing silver, and they
want to hold to it. If you will read Mr. Roths-
child’s statement before the Berlin conference, at
which the distinguished Senator from Iowa was
present, you will see he says: ‘The low prices of
wheat and other products is not a curse; it is not
injurious to us.’ Certainly not.”
r. Hoar: “I understand the Senator to claim
that the quantity of silver used in different coun-
tries as money would not be changed, that none of
the silver of other countries would come here any
more than there is now, by opening our mints to
the free coinage of silver; that they would keep
their silver as they have it now, and we would keep
ours as we have it now; that there would be no
change. I do not see, if that doctrine be true, what
difference the limiting of the coinage of silver by
the great European nations has made to anybody.
That is my trouble.”
Mr. Cockrell: “The limiting of it is in the fact
that they have got it as a minor coin, a legal tender
for not exceeding $10, and the Rothschilds are
never bothered with silver. They do not have ten-
186 CONGRESS.
dollar transactions, as Mr. Alfred de Rothschild
said in the Berlin conference. He said: ‘Why, we
can not have full legal-tender silver. My house
transacts business amounting to several million dol-
lars at a time, and we could not have silver dollars.’
Oh, no, that kind of money must not be made for
that race and that class of bankers.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Perhaps that is very good sarcasm
on Baron Rothschild, if he be a baron, but it does
not quite answer my inquiry, I understand the
Senator to say that if we opened our mints to the
free coinage of silver there would be no temptation
whatever to bring the silver from any part of the
earth here; that it would remain as now perform-
ing its functions. To be sure, there is a limited
coinage there, but it would remain just where it is
now. The limited coinage of silver in all those
countries 1s the equal of gold at a ratio, as the Sen-
ator has just stated. I can not understand, if that
proposition be true, how it is that the limitation
of the coinage of silver in those countries or in
this country makes any difference to any mortal
man.”
Mr. Cockrell: “It makes all the difference in the
world, as I have said.”
Mr. Hoar: “The silver in this country now, un-
der our limited coinage of silver, our $500,000,000
or $600,000,000, is equal to gold.”
Mr. Cockrell: “Oh, no.”
Mr. Hoar: It is quite as good.”
Mr. Cockrell: “Oh, no.”
Mr. Hoar: “Certainly. It is true that in the
panic several years ago silver was 3 per cent. above
gold in value.”
Mr. Cockrell: “ Certainly it was, and Secretary
Carlisle refused to receive gold for it at that time.”
Mr. Hoar: “I understand. I am not talking
about the bullion values; I am talking about the
money values.”
Mr. Cockrell: “ That is it exactly.”
Mr. Hoar: “The silver in this country which we
have coined is equal in money value to gold to-day.
It is equal in the other countries in money value to
gold, where it is coined, the limited amount, and
the silver of the world exists, that in money and
that in the arts, with that value. Now, I am not
asking about whether the fact be so or not, but I
take the Senator’s statement. He says for us to
open our mints to silver would not change that.”
Mr. Cockrell: “It would not cause that silver to
come to our mints.”
Mr. Hoar: “It would. not cause it to come to this
country. Therefore it would leave the silver of the
world exactly where it is—unaffected. If that be
so, what earthly difference does it make whether
the existing condition shall continue or not?”
Mr. Cockrell: “There are two things. Silver is
a limited legal tender there, and in that capacity it
is not a measure of value.”
Mr. Hoar: “If the Senator will pardon me, the
coined silver is a full legal tender there as it is
re,’
Mr. Cockrell: “No; I beg pardon. There are
two kinds of coined silver.”
Mr. Hoar: “It is of full legal value.”
Mr. Cockrell: “ There is the limited legal tender,
$619,909,000. That is limited in legal tender, any-
where from $2 up to $10—40 shillings in England.
That does not pay any of the debts and obligations.
Silver is not the standard and measure of value.
The standard and measure of value in England is
gold. In Germany it is the gold standard. In
other nations it has been the gold standard. The
amount of gold is the measure of value of the prod-
ucts of the world, and silver is not estimated in it.
Therefore gold has doubled in its increased pur-
chasing power, and silver does not affect prices.
(THe Drnevey BILL.)
Gold does affect prices, and its scarcity decreases
rices,”
; Mr. Teller: “‘ Will the Senator from Missouri al-
low me to suggest to the Senator from Massachu-
setts that the silver in this country would perform
exactly the same function if it was paper that it
does now ?”
Mr. Hoar: “ Undoubtedly.”
Mr. Cockrell: “ Precisely. It is not treated as
money of final payment at all.”
Mr. Teller: “It would not measure value.”
Mr. Hoar: “That is transferring the question to
another thing. My question was to test the sound-
ness or correctness of the Senator’s argument, which
has been so very interesting and so very powerful
and clear. I will state ay, proposition. It does
not make any difference whether the gold is the
standard or not with reference to this proposition.
The Senator says there is in Germany and in
France and in England a certain amount of silver,
Being a limited amount—whether in terms it is a
legal tender in small sums or large—in fact, the
coined silver of those countries is equal in its ex-
isting value—not bullion value, but the value after
it is coined to gold.”
Mr. Gray: “ In exchangeable value.”
Mr. Hoar: “In exchangeable value. You can at
any time take silver dollars or their equivalent in
this country, in England, or elsewhere, and ex-
change them for corresponding Tey coin on equal
terms. So far that is agreed. e Senator says if
you were to open the mints of this country to the
unlimited coinage of silver, instead of limiting it to
the limited amount of circulation here, there would
not any more silver come to this country than there
is now; that the same amount of silver would re-
main over there, because there is no temptation to
bring it here. Then the silver of the world would
be in exactly the same condition.”
Mr. Teller: “ No; not in the same condition.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Abroad they would have it in the
same condition. The silver of the world would
maintain in those countries precisely the same rela-
tion to gold that it has now, and the silver here
would have the same relation to gold that it has
now.”
Mr. Cockrell: ‘ Oh, no.”
Mr. Hoar: “Now, what earthly advantage is
there in those countries to the gold men, to these
Rothschild demons, in maintaining their limited
coinage, if taking away the limit does not change
the relation between coined silver and coined gold
and does not make a flow of the silver of the world
to one country, to the country where the coinage |
is unlimited from the countries where it is limited?
What earthly difference does it make? That is my
proposition.”
r. Cockrell: “ Mr. President, I have explained
fully that the silver money of the world where it is
will remain there and will not come if we restore
the free and unlimited coinage. It is limited in
its power there. There are $679,909,000 of limited
legal-tender silver. It is coined at the ratio of
about 14} to 1. There is much less silver in it,
from 5 to 10 cents less silver, and it will not come
here. The amount of the silver as full legal tender
there is limited. There is no free coinage. It is
limited in amount. It is the full equal of gold
there; they are using it as such; they will not part
with it; they must have it in the character in which
it is used now, and they must add to it.”
Mr. Hoar: “Should we have any more silver
coined here than we have now?”
Mr. Cockrell: “I think we should have more
coined here.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Where would it come from?”
Mr. Cockrell: “I think perhaps not so much
CONGRESS. (THe Diyewey BIL.)
would go into the arts and manufactures, and there
would probably be a.stimulated production of sil-
ver in our own country. The silver product has
fallen off in the past few years, but it would not
come in an amount sufficient to flood the country
or be more than we could consume as we have done
in the last twenty years.”
Mr. Hoar: “ As I understood the Senator a little
while ago, he said that he did not think the amount
of silver in the arts would be diminished ?”
Mr. Cockrell: “I said that that which is already
used in the arts would not come to us.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Does the Senator suppose that some
would come from other countries to be used in the
arts?”
Mr. Cockrell: “1 suppose that there would but
little come.”
Mr. Hoar: “ Practically——”
Mr. Cockrell: “ Practically it would go back to
just what it was before.”
Mr. Hoar: “It would make no substantial differ-
ence.”
Mr. Cockrell: “ But just for the time being. I
say the mere fact of our opening our mints might
for a short time bring some silver to us that would
not otherwise come, but there would be no flood, no
deluge, no danger from it; no more would come
than we could assimilate and absorb as money of
pane payment and redemption and the equal of
Mr. Hoar: “ Does the Senator understand that
by baying the unlimited coinage of silver in this
country there would be an increased silver product
occasioned by the stimulus for the mining of silver
which would have an effect on the proportionate
value in its relation to gold?”
Mr. Cockrell: “No; Ido not think it would have
any effect on the value. There would be a little
increased product, but not an unlimited one, be-
cause it never has been and never could be pro-
duced in unlimited quantities.”
Mr. Hoar: “Then my original question is, what
earthly difference does it make whether we main-
tain or do not maintain free coinage ?”
Mr. Teller: “If the Senator from Missouri will
ardon me a moment, I should like to state to the
nator from Massachusetts the contention of the
bimetallists. It is that the standard money, which
is gold now everywhere (for silver in this country,
whatever may be its relation to gold, is a subordi-
nate money), determines the prices of products the
world over. I saw that recently disputed in the
“New York Tribune,” and I went to-day to look up
what old Blackstone said on the subject, and he
lays that down as early as his time as an unques-
tioned law of money. We say if that is true, when
you open the mints to silver and make silver and
gold equal in their money functions and money
“edags a you have done exactly what you would
ave done if you had transmuted by some process
all of that silver into gold. As I have heard the
Senator from Delaware say, it is the potentiality of
all the silver bullion in the world to perform the
functions of gold. That is what makes it.”
* the further course of his speech Mr. Cockrell
said:
“T want now, for the benefit of my good friend
from Massachusetts, to show how the English are
benefited by the single gold standard. I quote
from the “London Statist,” a gold-standard au-
thority, I understand, a reliable statistical paper.
It said in one of its recent issues:
“*The cash value of our imports in 1895 was
£416,687,000, but at the 1890 level of prices the
value would have been no less than £507,100,000.
The benefit to this country, therefore, from the fall
in prices of foreign and colonial produce in 1895
187
compared with 1890 thus amounted to the enor-
mous sum of £90,400,000.’
“ Four hundred and fifty million dollars of benefit -
by the decreased prices of commodities the English
people had to buy between 1890 and 1895, But the
paper goes on and says:
“*On the other hand, our exports in 1895 were
of the cash value of only £226,169,000, whereas at
the prices of 1890 the value would have been £267,-
600,000, thus entailing a loss of £41,500,000, due to
the fall in prices. On balance, therefore, the fall
in prices in 1895 compared with 1890 gave a profit
to this country amounting to about $49,000,000.’
* About $250,000,000 they made by the decreased
rice in the commodities they had to buy. Eng-
and thus in the last five years bagged $250,000,000
net of the substance of other nations (chiefly of the
American people) because of the decline of prices
during the past five years. It was able to do this,
first, because it is a creditor country, and, second,
because, while its exports were manufactures, the
stuff it bought in other lands was chiefly raw ma-
terial. The manufacturer can always, in a meas-
ure, protect himself from shrinkage, because if he
must sell cheap he can also buy his raw material
cheap. The loss falls heaviest upon the producer
of primary substances, like the farmer, who begins
the work of production and can not recoup his
losses by moving back upon any other producer.
England can not feed her people; but she has
compelled us to give them food below the real
value; she grows no cotton, but she has forced our
planters to supply her mills with the staple at half
price; she mines no silver, but she has bought for
use in her Eastern trade American silver after
driving down the price from $1.29 an ounce to 65
cents. How did she contrive thus to filch from our
peers their substance? By inducing us to adopt
er gold standard and enlisting in behalf of the
maintenance of that robber system the American
press, the American bankers, and a great body of
American citizens who do not perceive the true
character of the conspiracy.
“T quote from Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, a dele-
gate from England to the Brussels conference in
1892, to show the effect of law upon the price of the
metals. He said:
“Gentlemen, I need hardly remind you that the
stock of silver in the world is estimated at some
thousands of millions, and if this conference were
to break up without arriving at any definite result
there would be a depreciation in the value of that
commodity which it would be frightful to contem-
plate, and out of which a monetary panic would en-
sue the far-spreading effects of which it would be
impossible to foretell.’
“T want it recorded in the annals of our country
that one gold advocate has made one prediction
that has been fulfilled, and the only one that has
ever been fulfilled. He predicted in 1892 the crisis
which was then approaching if that conference
should adjourn without rehabilitating silver. It
did adjourn without rehabilitating silver, and the
results: have followed just as he said.”
March 16, Senator Pugh, of Alabama, asked that
the bill and amendment be laid before the Senate
in order to enable him to speak upon the amend-
ment. In the course of his address, which was fin-
ished March 17, he said :
“In this connection, I will call attention to a
most remarkable state of things. Three years ago
there was not a Democratic voter in Alabama or a
Democratic newspaper who would not have resented
any prediction that at any time in the future, under
any circumstances, they would be found opposing
the restoration of silver to free coinage and sup-
porting the single gold standard. There was uni-
188 CONGRESS.
versal agreement and the most perfect harmony
upon the question of finance Lwetirhes in the
Democratic party of Alabama and all the Southern
States. While this is conceded to be an undeniable
fact, it is claimed that those Democrats who now
oppose free coinage and advocate the gold standard
had the right to change, and it was their duty to
change their opinions when additional information
and additional reflection satisfied them that they
had been in error, and seeing they were wrong they
gave up silver and took to gold. This is all con-
ceded, but howlong will it be before they will make
another change? How old must their opinions be-
come before the authors of them can be accepted as
standard authority on finance? For fifteen or
twenty years, while the new Democratic converts to
the single gold standard were advocating and strug-
gling for free silver coinage in the Democratic
party, the Republicans in Congress and their pub-
lie speakers and newspapers in the country were
flooding the country with every one-of the identical
facts and arguments these new converts are now
parading and urging as the grounds for their con-
version to the gold standard in the last two years.
“The whole theory of bimetallism is founded ab-
solutely on the unrestricted right of free and un-
limited coinage and indiscriminate use of both
metals. Free and unlimited coinage into money of
both metals is an unalterable law of bimetallism,
What is the unquestioned cause of the wide differ-
ence in the bullion value of gold and silver? It is
that gold bullion can be now taken to the mints of
the United States by its owners and coined into
money. If any person owns 22°33 grains of pure
gold he can take it to any mint and have it coined
into a standard dollar with one tenth alloy, making
25°8 grains of standard gold worth 100 cents.
This right that the owners of gold bullion have to
take it to the mints and have it coined into money
free of expense makes the gold bullion as valuable
to its owners as it is when coined into money,
Stop the coinage of gold and take away the right
of its owners to have it coined into money free of
charge, and how much would gold bullion be worth
as mere merchandise with all the demand for it as
money taken away by law? Without the right to
be coined into money there would be no demand
for it except by jewelers and manufacturers for
use in the arts, but when gold bullion can be
coined into money as soon as it is turned out of the
mint the whole world joins in the scramble to get it.
“When at any time in the history of any country
in the world, where gold and silver had the same
equal right of free and unlimited coinage at a fixed
ratio, has silver bullion or silver money been worth
less than gold, or had less purchasing power than
gold in the markets of the world? And to-day in
gold-using countries where silver is excluded from
coinage over 2,000,000,000 of legal-tender silver
coins are in circulation side by side with gold, and
having less silver in the coins than in the silver
dollars of the United States; and, also, in the
face of the undeniable fact that silver was never
dropped out of the coinage laws of any country in
the world because silver bullion or silver money
was worth less than gold as bullion or money.
“Tf the conventions of the two national parties
refuse to pledge themselves to the restoration of
silver to free coinage, and declare in favor of con-
tinuing gold as the only standard of value and the
only redemption basis of currency, they will be
compelled to pledge themselves to repealing the
law requiring greenbacks to be reissued when re-
deemed, and leaving the national banks the sole
power of supplying the people a currency and
regulating thereby the prices of labor, property,
and productions in the United States. It is a sig-
(Tue Diyeiey BIL.)
nificant fact. that the same Democratic party that
elected Tilden President also elected the members
of the Congress that passed the Bland-Allison silver
law in 1878, and at the same session, within a few
days of each other, passed the act requiring green-
backs to be reissued when redeemed; and, most re-
markable to relate, a Democratic President asks
that same Democratic party to join him in repeal-
ing both these laws, to destroy both silver and
greenbacks, and thereby strangle its own offspring.
“Tf Congress can ever be induced to repeal the
law requiring the reissue of greenbacks when re- —
dooniet: and authority granted tothe President and _
Secretary to issue 3-per-cent. bonds payable in gold
without limit, in amount to sustain the gold stand-
ard, and retire and cancel the greenbacks and
Sherman coin notes, amounting to about $500,-
000,000, thereby contracting the currency over one
third of the entire amount in existence, and over
one half the present amount in circulation, such a
panic would follow as would drive this country into
revolution, and the only suggestion of any remedy ©
to mitigate the evils of such unprecedented contrac-
tion is to trust to the national banks to fill up the
vacuum created by the destruction of greenbacks
and Sherman notes with the bills of national banks,
to be issued at their will and pleasure to the amount
of $500,000,000, to be added to their present cireu-
lation of $207,000,000, making over $700,000,000 of
national bank bills.
“Who is reckless enough to express the belief
that the national banks can be trusted to issue such
an amount of their bills to fill up the vacuum
created by the destruction of the greenbacks and
Sherman notes? If the banks could be compelled
to issue their bills to the amount of $700,000,000,
how could the banks float that amount of currency
redeemable in gold? It would be impossible, and
the banks will take no such risk. The national
bank bills would instantly take the place of the
greenbacks and be absorbed by gold sharks and
gamblers to draw gold out of the banks just as they
now do so with greenbacks out of the Treasury.
No, Mr. President, the gold system of finance can ~
not be made to operate successfully in this country
without inevitable disaster and ruin. It is bound
to work its own destruction.”
Senator Carter’s resolution to recommit the bill —
to the Committee on Finance was again read April
9 at the request of Senator Mantle, of Montana, who
spoke at length upon it. A large part of his ad-
dress was devoted to the tariff provisions of the
Dingley bill. In’ reference to the silver States, he
said in part: ; E
“T have grown up from childhood among the
people of the West, in what are now known as the
silver States. I think I may therefore justly say —
that 1 know something of their character, something
of their lives, their hopes, and their ambitions.
And it is for this reason that I feel impelled to say
a few words in their defense and to repel the unjust
and indiscriminate charges of lawlessness, of selfish-
ness, and lack of patriotism which it seems to be
the fashion just now upon the part of the metro-
politan press of the East to bring against them, as
well as their representatives upon this floor—
charges which I deeply regret to note have recently
found expression to some extent through the Chief
Executive of the nation, and that, too, in a notable
Christian gathering, which, it would seem to me.
over and above all others, should have been found
exercising that rare virtue of charity which was the
distinguishing trait of Him in whose name and for
whose cause they were gathered together, rather
than to have made it the occasion for a wholesale,
uncharitable, and untruthful arraignment of a
great mass of their fellow-citizens who are bound
to them by every tie of kindred, of religion, and
of citizenship.
“But, Mr. President, these ill-natured charges
inst the Western States, and particularly against
E t are known as the silver States, are not true. I
believe I may truthfully say that they have their
origin in the fact that the representatives of those
States in this body hold financial opinions and have
seen fit to cast their votes in opposition to the views
and the wishes of the present Administration and
_ its Republican sympathizers and supporters. I as-
sert without fear of successful contradiction that
in every attribute of good citizenship, in industry
and sobriety, in respect for law and property, in
obedience to constituted authority, in reverence for
religious forms, and in point of public spirit the
citizens of the silver States will easily take rank
with those of any other State in this Union. -Fur-
ther than this, Mr. President, I assert that within a
radius of 5 miles of Carnegie Hall, in the city of
New York, where the Presbyterian Home Mission
Society recently held its meeting to beg funds
with which to convert the wicked ple of the
‘badly regulated municipalities’ and ‘undesirable
ooh of the West, there is aah 4 times more -
i verty, of pauperism, of ignorance, o
ane Sui carinsle. cae can be found in all the
silver-producing States of the West combined.”
The an followed with a comparison of sta-
tistics of illiteracy, pauperism, debt, and money ex-
yee on education, between five Eastern and five
estern States, much to the disadvantage of the
former; and, further, compared the population of
certain silver States with the smaller rn States,
and referred to the failure to elect Senators in
Delaware and Kentucky in connection with the fact
that “two years ago the States of Montana and
_ Wyoming were held up to public scorn and ridicule
Eastern press as being totally incapable of
self-government because their Legislatures had
failed to elect Senators.”
“There is probably no section of our country,” he
said, “ that derives so little direct benefit from the
protective system as the silver States. They are
_ producers solely of what are called ‘raw materials’
and purchasers of finished products. They are also
large and increasing producers of gold, and as gold
is constantly appreciating in purchasing power, it
may be openly questioned whether they would not
be the greatest gainers by a policy which would
rmit them to buy their manufactured commod-
ities in the open markets of the world, unrestricted
by tariff or other legislation. But up to this time
the Republicans of those States have not permitted
themselves to be swayed by selfish considerations
_in the discussion of the tariff question. They have
always taken the broad ground that the protective
system was correct in principle, and that it meant
the greatest good to the greatest number. But with
the policy of protection they have also united the
policy of bimetallism, believing that that, too, was a
_ ¢ardinal principle of Republican faith. Upon this
i platform of protection and bimetallism they have
_ won their political battles in the past and held their
_ States in the Republican column.”
The subject was again debated May 22. when the
_ Senate bill for the regulation of bond issues was
under discussion, and June 2 Senator Morrill spoke
_ upon the roriow j bill.
Bill authorizing Issue of Bonds.—Another
measure for the relief of the Treasury was reported
hy the House Committee on Ways and Means, enti-
tled “ A bill to maintain and protect the coin re-
Serve fund and to authorize the issue of certificates
of indebtedness to meet temporary deficiencies of
Tevenue.”
A resolution offered by Mi. Henderson, of Iowa,
CONGRESS. (Tue Briu avtHorizine Issue or Bonps.)
189
Dec. 27, that the vote on the bill should be taken
the following day at 8 o’clock without delay or
other motion, separate votes being taken on the
sections if demanded, was debated and passed by a
vote of 196 yeas to 102 nays, 57 not voting.
The bill was as follows:
“ A bill (H. R. 2904) to maintain and protect the
coin redemption fund, and to authorize the issue of
certificates of indebtedness to meet temporary defi-
ciencies of revenue.
* Be it enacted, etc., That in addition to the au-
thority given to the Secretary of the Treasury by
the act approved Jan. 14, 1875, entitled ‘An Act to
provide for the resumption of specie payments,’ he
is authorized from time to time, at his discretion,
to issue, sell, and dispose of, at not less than par in
coin, coupon, or registered bonds of the United
States, to an amount sufficient for the object stated
in this section, bearing not to exceed 3 per cent. in-
terest per annum, payable semiannually, and re-
deemable at the pleasure of the United States, in
coin, after five years from their date, and payable in
fifteen years after their date, with like qualities,
privileges, and exemptions provided in said act for
the bonds therein authorized.- And the Secretary
of the Treasury shall use the proceeds thereof for
the redemption of United States legal-tender notes,
and for no other purpose: Provided, That nothing
in this act shall he construed to repeal or modify
an act approved May 31, 1878, entitled ‘An Act
to forbid the further retirement of United States
legal-tender notes.’ Whenever the Secretary of the
Treasury shall offer any of the bonds authorized
for sale by this act or by the resumption act of
1875, he shall advertise the same and authorize sub-
scriptions therefor to be made at the Treasury De-
parment and at the subtreasuries and designated
depositories of the United States.
“Sec. 2. That to provide for any temporary de-
ficiency now existing, or which may hereafter occur,
the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized,
at his discretion, to issue certificates of indebtedness
of the United States, to an amount not exceeding
$50,000,000, payable in three years after their date
to the bearer in lawful money of the United States,
of the denomination of $20, or multiples thereof,
with annual coupons for interest at the rate of 3
per cent. per annum, and to sell and dispose of the
same for not less than an equal. amount of lawful
money of the United States at the Treasury De-
partment and at the subtreasuries and designated
depositories of the United States and at such post
offices as he may select. And such certificates shall
have the like qualities, privileges, and exemptions
provided in said resumption act for the bonds
therein authorized. And the proceeds thereof shall
be used for the purpose prescribed in this section
and for no other.” .
Mr. Dingley, of Maine, said in explanation of the
intent of the bill;
“ Mr. Speaker, the pending bill contains two sim-
ple propositions. Section 2 (reversing the order in
which the sections are placed in the bill) authorizes
the Secretary of the Treasury to issue certificates
of indebtedness to an amount not exceeding $50,-
000,000, to be paid within three years, bearing 3 per
cent, interest—to be used for one purpose and one
purpose only—to meet temporary deficiencies in
revenue—temporary deficiencies—deficiencies that
may occur not only now, but at any future time,
for this second section is to be permanent law.
“T have only to say in respect to that section
that it is in substance the exchequer-bill system
which prevails under many governments, and is in-
tended to be a form of loan for temporary purposes,
of a popular nature, that can be paid out even by
the Secretary of the Treasury for current objects of
190
expenditure. The committee have provided that
these certificates of indebtedness shall be used only
for that purpose, Our object in so limiting their
use is to separate as far as possible in the accounts
the cash in the Treasury available for current ex-
penses and the reserve that is retained for redemp-
tion purposes. ; ar
“One great difficulty we have had in maintain-
ing the redemption fund in the past, as I suggested
yesterday, arises from the fact that the reserve or
redemption fund has been used not exclusively for
the purpose for which it was established, but in
part to meet the deficiency in the revenue ; and
therefore it seemed to the Committee on Ways
and Means desirable that there should be two
forms of obligations—one temporary in the form
of certificates of indebtedness to meet merely tem-
orary deficiencies, and to be set aside and to be
lesoted to that purpose entirely; and another to
maintain the redemption fund, with a provision
that the proceeds of that obligation should be set
aside as a reser've and so maintained, in order that
if we are to continue to use circulating notes of the
Government as currency—as we have been doing
for thirty years—we may maintain the same finan-
cial condition that a bank does in permanently
maintaining its reserve and not allowing it to be
encroached upon for merely current expenditures.
“This section, as I have said, is intended to pre-
sent a remedy not simply for present exigencies, but
for any possible exigencies that may arise in the
future, and in the judgment of the Committee on
Ways and means it ought to be on the statute books
. without reference to the existing situation.
“ Passing now, Mr. Speaker, to section 1 of the
bill, it simply proposes to add another description
of bonds to those already authorized by existing
law for the maintenance of the redemption fund.
Under the resumption act of 1875 two descriptions
of bonds are authorized, namely, ten-year bonds
bearing 5 per cent. interest, and thirty-year bonds
bearing 4 per cent. interest. These are the only
two descriptions of bonds authorized and that have
been issued under the resumption act.
“Under that act the Secretary of the Treasury
during the past two years has issued one hundred
millions of 5-per-cent. ten-year bonds and sixty-two
and one third millions of 4-per-cent. thirty-year
‘bonds, realizing from the sale about $182,000,000
in gold. He has the authority to continue to issue
such bonds for the purpose of maintaining the re-
demption fund under the resumption act to-day.
He has been exercising that authority, and has in-
dicated in his report that if there is no further au-
thority given to him—no other description of bonds
authorized—if the exigency arises, which it will,
evidently, in a very short time, he will proceed to
issue, sell, and dispose of additional bonds bearing
interest at 4 per cent., with thirty years to run, or
bonds bearing interest at the rate of 5 per cent.,
with ten years torun. With that authority on the
statute books to-day, this bill simply provides for
the authorization of the issuance of another de-
scription of bonds for the same purpose, and that
is a 3-per-cent. bond, redeemable five years after
date and payable after fifteen years from date.
“The only practical question involved, then, in
this first section of the bill is simply this, shall we,
in the interest of the Treasury—in the interest of
economy—authorize the issuance of bonds bearing
a lower rate of interest, to wit, 3 per cent., when we
know that if we have no legislation the Secretary of
the Treasury will proceed to issue either a ten-year
5-per-cent. bond or a thirty-year 4-per-cent. bond ?
“ Now, it seems to me that in this situation, as
practical men representing the interests of the tax-
' payers of this country, when the simple question is
CONGRESS. (Tue Brut avrHorizine IssuE or Bonps.)
presented whether or not we will issue the lower-
rate bonds. in the face of the fact that the Secre-
tary of the Treasury has the right to issue a higher
rate of bonds, we ought to act as legislators here
precisely as we would act in our own business, and
to that extent defend and protect the interests of
the people, and authorize the lower-rate bond.
“There are two points of eenintten presented in
the first section of the bill that relate not only to
the proposed issuance of 38-per-cent. bonds, but
which also relate to any other issue that may be
made hereafter under the resumption act of 1875 of
either of the other descriptions of bonds that I have
referred to. The first provision is that whatever
bonds are sold, or offered for sale, whether they are
the bonds authorized under the resumption act of
1875 or those to be authorized by the bill now pend-
ing, they shall be first offered to the people of the
United States by advertisement, and that our own
people shall have an opportunity to purchase such
bonds if they so desire. It seems to me that some
such provision ought to accompany this legislation,
and not only that it should accompany this legisla-
tion, but it ought to also apply to the resumption
act of 1875. The loans, whether issued under the
resumption act or under this bill, should be of a
character; for I believe that when a 3-per-cent.
bond of this character shall be offered, as is pro-
poe by this bill, to the people of the United
tates, they will respond from the Atlantic to the
Pacific and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf.
“Second. There is another provision of legisla-
tion in this first section, and that is that the pro-
ceeds of the bonds thus sold under this act and
under the resumption act of 1875 shall be devoted,
as was intended when the act was passed, and as
ought to be made clear, exclusively to redemption
purposes.
“It was supposed that in using that se: it
would not be understood that it authorized in any
way the retirement and cancellation of the United
States legal-tender notes; but to make that clear,
to put it beyond dispute, carrying out precisely the
object that the committee had when they first
drafted this bill, the committee have placed in the
bill itself, immediately after this direction that the
proceeds shall be used for this one purpose, a pro-
viso that nothing in this act shall be construed to
repeal or to modify the act of May 31, 1878, which
forbids the further retirement and cancellation of
United States legal-tender notes. -
“Tf the second section of this bill should become
a law, then only the proceeds of the certificates of
indebtedness can be’used to meet deficiencies of
revenue, and the proceeds of bonds sold for the re-
demption fund can not be used to meet such
deficiencies. When there is no deficiency few
greenbacks will be presented for redemption, and
those that are so presented can be used, just as they
were from 1879 to 1893, to redeem and pay the in-
terest-bearing’ debt. The intention, of course, is
not to have any permanent deficiency of revenue.
The second section is intended to apply only to
temporary conditions which may arise and which
do arise in all governments; it is not intended to
apply to a permanent, chronic deficiency that shall
run two years and a half, as the present one has
done. The purpose is simply to do what other
governments do under like cireumstances.
intention is to avoid deficiencies by providing rev-
enue. That is the normal condition of every gov-
ernment. That is the policy which is contemplated
by the legislation which we have already inaugu-
rated in this House. But accidentally, through
some unforeseen condition, there may be for a short
time, when Congress is not in session, a deficiency
of revenue, and at such a time the Secretary of the
.
|
1
4]
i
{
The ©
CONGRESS. (Tue BILt autTHorizine Issue or Bonps.)
Treasury should have the means of laying hold
upon some form of obligation that he can issue for
the purpose of obtaining funds to meet that tem-
porary condition, That is the intention of the sec-
ond section.
“ Further, it is intended that obligations that are
issued for the purpose of meeting yee nga de-
ficiencies of revenue shall run for only a short
riod ; hence we limit the amount to $50,000,000.
t is expected that such obligations will be paid by
surplus revenue within a brief. period, for the sec-
tion provides that these certificates of indebtedness
must be paid within three years. It is oh ent
the same thing that is done, for example, by Great
Britain under certain conditions. She authorizes
the issue of exchequer bills, which are almost ex-
actly the same as what are here denominated cer-
tificates of indebtedness. Those bills are issued,
_ under the British system, not for permanent loans,
but to meet any temporary deficiency of revenue
- that may occur, and are paid in a comparatively
short time from surplus revenues which Parlia-
' ment is expected to provide.”
Mr. Cox, of Tennessee, asked why the certificates
of indebtedness were to be redeemed in “ lawful
_ money” and the bonds in “coin” ?
Mr. Dingley answered: .
“ Because we require a coin fund for redemption
purposes ; the law so provides. But current obli-
tions of the Treasury we can pay in any kind of
awful money that may exist at the time.
_ “There has been no bond issued by this Govern-
ment up to this hour but that provides that it shall
be paid, both principal and interest, in coin, and
we are simply meeting the conditions of pre-exist-
ing legislation. We have heretofore contracted
these obligations, and we propose to meet them as
an honorable people. But as to temporary defi-
ciencies of revenue, where there has been no such
: 2 ee obligation, they can always be paid in law-
ul money. How is the gentleman paid his salary
as a member of this House t In lawful money,
whatever that may be. But whenever you under-
take to make a loan, and especially to borrow coin,
you can not expect to obtain it unless you are ready
to pay in the same kind of money that you bor-
row. We have always borrowed gold, and hence
coin as used in our bonds means the same kind of
coin that we have borrowed. It is because we have
reserved good faith with our creditors that we have
nm able, up to within two years, to borrow on so
favorable terms.”
Mr. Lacey, of Iowa, asked if the gentleman
thought the bill guarded sufficiently against the
legal-tender notes, after they are redeemed accord-
ing to the provisions of the first section, being paid
out to meet current expenses.
Mr. Dingley said :
“Of course, if the Secretary of the Treasury de-
_ sires to so use them and finds that there is a necessity,
there is no absolute provision otherwise in this bill.
But the suggestion here, and it is a suggestion
which is exceedingly important, is that the Secre-
tary of the Treasury shall adopt the policy of sepa-
_ rating the two funds and shall use the greenbacks
or any other forms of currency precisely as they
_ were used from 1879 up to 1893. At one time dur-
_ ing President Cleveland’s first administration there
_ was in the Treasury of the United States $130,000,-
_ 000 of greenbacks. They were the result in large
co of deposits of United States legal-tender notes
”y banks retiring their circulation or going into
liquidation. Those were gradually drawn out, but
it took several years, and it was not until the act of
July 12, 1890, was passed that those funds were
turned into the Treasury. The same policy that
prevailed from 1879 to 1893, provided we can have
191
revenue sufficient to meet expenditures, will be re-
pee by the operations of the bill which is now
efore the House. ;
“The only question really for us now is whether,
in the interest of the people of this country, we
shall not authorize the issue of a lower-rate bond,
and thus have the lower-rate bond sold in prefer-
ence to the higher-rate bond, with the provision
that when sold it shall be first offered to the people
of this country, and the further provision that the
proceeds shall be separated from ordinary cash in
the Treasury and maintained as a reserve. That is
all there is in this bill.”
Mr. Marsh, of Illinois, asked :
“You have told us that it would be a great say-
ing of interest to the people if we could negotiate a
3-per-cent. bond instead of a 4-per-cent. bond. Now,
that argument is significant if true, but I ask the
gentleman from Maine if it is not true that when a
3-per-cent. bond can be sold at par, a 5- or a 4-per-
cent. bond will sell at a rate of premium that will
be less than 3 percent.? In other words, when a
bond runs for ten years, is it not worth more than
one that runs for five?” .
Mr. Dingley: ‘“‘Undoubtedly. What I say is
this, that when you offer a bond to the people of
the country—to the plain people, who do not stop
to make calculations as to premiums—you will find
that a large proportion of them would prefer to
purchase a 3-per-cent. bond at par rather than a 4-
per-cent. bond on which they will have to pay a
premium. People do not like to pay a premium on
their investments. But when they can get a 3-per-
cent. bond at its face, the plain people of this coun-
try will take that in preference to paying what
would be less than the equivalent for a 4- and 5-per-
cent. bond at a premium. That is the practical
bg of it.” c :
r. Turner, of Georgia, in speaking in opposition
to the bill, said : “y . 5 i
“T now venture to suggest to my friends on the
other side that either they have not been entirely
candid or they themselves do not understand this
measure. It is said that out of abundant caution a
proviso was added to the first section to prevent the
retirement of the legal-tender notes. Gentlemen
who are the friends of all these notes may find
themselves unwittingly entrapped. There is in the
first section of the bill a provision to this effect :
“* And the Treasury shall use the proceeds
thereof ’—that is, of these bond sales— for the re-
demption of United States legal-tender notes, and
for no other purpose.’
“And to that is added this morning a proviso,
which I will now read:
“* Provided, That nothing in this act shall be
construed to repeal or modify the act approved
May 31, 1878, entitled “An Act to forbid the
further retirement of United States legal-tender
notes.” ”
* Now, in the first place, Mr. Speaker, what is to
become of the United States legal-tender notes into
which this gold reserve may glide by the process of
redemption ?
“My friend from Maine in the outset of his re-
marks, which I failed to hear distinctly, seemed to
hold that by the operation of this bill the Treasury
will have to open two accounts and segregate the
proceeds of this redemption into a separate fund
and a separate account. I deny it. There is noth-
ing, absolutely nothing, in this bill which would
have this effect. It would in no way change the
Treasury policy in this respect. The proceeds of
these Baas, when they reach the Treasury in the
form of gold or coin and are converted into legal-
tender notes by redemption, will take their place
side by side with such legal-tender notes as are
192
already there for any lawful purposes to which the
Treasury can devote them. . This provision, there-
fore, is not even a suggestion to the Treasury, as
the gentleman has said. ‘The proceeds thereof’
are the gold procured on the bonds, and not the
notes that may be redeemed with the gold.
“But I take a step further. The proviso just
quoted, out of abundance of caution, to, save the
ower to reissue legal-tender notes thus accumu-
ated, takes care of that class of these notes which
are specified in the act of May 31, 1878, commonly
called United States notes, or greenbacks, Let me
read it again : ;
“¢ Provided, That nothing in this act shall be
construed to repeal or modify the act approved
May 31, 1878, entitled “An Act to forbid the
further retirement of United States legal-tender
notes.” ’
“What, then, becomes of the Sherman notes
under the act of 1890, the power to reissue which
depends not on the act of 1878, but on the provi-
sions of the Sherman act of 1890? There is no ref-
erence whatever to this latter act. Hence this bill
may be construed by the Secretary of the Treasury
in accordance with strict law to authorize the re-
tirement of the Sherman notes.
“ But first let me say to gentlemen on the other
side that, while they may claim that this‘measure is
a response to the demands of the Treasury and of
the Executive, they are sailing under false pre-
tenses.
“Tn the first place, the bill does not contain a sin-
gle provision or a single policy which the Adminis-
tration or the Treasury recommends. If gentlemen
mean to meet the emergency which the Adminis-
tration depicts in urgent messages, why do they not
at least allow some of us the poor privilege of offer-
ing such provisions as the Administration desires ?
Yet we are cut off from that opportunity.
“The Secretary of the Treasury and the President
of the United States believe—and there are some
of us who believe the same way—that there ought
to be provision made for the retirement of all our
paper money, so called. Gentlemen on the other
side, who have now the laboring oar, felt that way
at one time, but now they will not even allow us the
opportunity to offer such a provision in response to
the demand of a Democratic administration. It is
also a part of the policy recommended by the Ad-
ministration that these bonds which are to be offered
on the market shall be made payable in that sort of
coin which it receives for the protection of our legal-
tender money ; but we are not allowed to offer that
amendment.
‘Not a single one of these bonds, whether excheq-
uer certificates or 3-per-cent. bonds payable in coin,
can be sold at par in any market in this country or
anywhere else, in my opinion. Why, sir, on the 26th
of the present month United States fours maturing
in 1925 were bid for at 116, which, when ciphered
out, makes a rate of income of over 3 per cent.—
three and one tenth and a fraction. With the mar-
ket in that condition, with a bond already on the
market which is bid for at a rate which would pro-
duce a larger rate of interest than the bond you
offer, having a much longer time to run, do you sup-
pose you can hold up a 38-per-cent. bond at par
which is itself an addition to the supply of our
bonds? I believe that you can not dispose of these
obligations in a popular way, as this bill presup-
poses, in amounts of $20 and multiples thereof.
“In the next place, there is at this time a large
surplus in the Treasury available for the current
expenses of the Government. I regret to have to
say that that large surplus itself is a peril. Let us
suppose, if you please, that our friends on the other
side should, by some inscrutable providence, realize
CONGRESS. (Tue Britt auruorizine IssuE or Bonps.)
their hopes next year, and that they should come
into power with a large surplus in the Treasury and
an added revenue under the bill which they have
just passed. I ask (if we may judge by exper eney
would they not repeat the budget of the Fifty-first
Congress and so make exchequer bills necessary ?
The power to spend, coupled with the power to sup-
ply deficiencies with these certificates, would be —
dangerous in the hands of a party devoted to large
expenditures.”
r. Johnson, of California, said:
“ Mr. Speaker, I desire to state the reasons why I, —
as a Republican, oppose this bill. I went over my
district in California recently, and upon every stump
in that district I proclaimed the undying hostility
of the Republican party to the issuance of bonds in
the time of peace, I proclaimed the undying hostility
of the Republican party to the action of the Presi-
dent of the United States and the Secretary of the
Treasury in issuing bonds in time of profound peace
to defray deficiencies in the revenues, caused by
their own conduct in making contracts with a bond
syndicate that would not bear investigation by a
hostile Congress. And I regard this bill as giving
the lie to everything we said before the elections in
reference to the issuing of bonds; and foroneI can
never by any act or vote of mine condone what I
believe to be an error not merely of the heart, but
of the head; not merely of general policy, but an
error arising almost to the dignity of an offense
against the commonwealth, of allowing the bonds
of the United States Government to be taken and
controlled in the manner they were by the Treasury —
of the United States and a bond syndicate in a time
of profound peace.
“This bill, in my judgment, stamps the seal of
approval by the Republican party upon the action
of, these officers and upon the issuance of these —
bonds in the manner I have stated. It continues in
force the laws which now authorize the selling of —
bonds at 4 per cent. and at 5 per cent., and in addi- —
tion to that gives authority to the Treasury to issue
bonds at 3 per cent.
“T am opposed to it also because it does attempt —
to retire the greenbacks—because it does retire the
greenbacks, as I look at the law. I am one of those
who believe the greenbacks to be the best currency —
we have ever had in the United States. I am old
enough to remember the days before the war, and I
remember that then when you went out of yourown |
town, your own county, or your own State, into any —
other county or State in the nation, you were obliged
to take a Thompson’s ‘Bank Note Reporter’ with
you and change it every week in order to know —
whether you were getting good money or bad. a
“* Now, the greenback goes current in any State
of this American Union, and it ought to be protected
and not injured in the house of its friends, for we
Republicans originated it. I believe this bill will
retire the greenbacks because of the second section
of the bill, which provides that the Secretary of the
Treasury shall have the right to issue short-term —
certificates with which to pay the necessary expenses —
of the Government. If he issues those certificates
to defray the necessary expenses of the Govern-—
ment, and at the same time if he issues bonds and
redeems the greenbacks, as he has a right to do,
emphasized and almost demanded by this bill, what
is to become of the greenbacks? He will not need
them to defray the expenses of the Government, be- —
cause he will have these short-term certificates, and —
the greenbacks will remain locked up in the Treas-
ury vaults of the nation, and the currency will be
contracted to that extent and nothing given in lieu.
“ Now, to-day we are called upon to undo all the
work we did yesterday. To-day we are called upon —
to contradict everything that we said, everything
Sh EN RINE NEE S
CONGRESS. (Tue Birt auruorizine Issue or Bonps.)
that we did, and every vote that we cast yesterday.
We were told = by speeches upon the Re-
publican side that the tariff bill which we then
passed would give the necessary revenue to carry on
the Government, that it made $44,000,000 in addi-
tion to that which we now receive. We were told
by the distinguished gentlemen upon the Demo-
cratie side that we did not need the bill, that we
have $70,000,000 already in the Treasury to pay the
expenses of the Government. But we passed the
bil, and now we were either wrong yesterday, and
the Democrats were right, or we are wrong to-day
in attempting to pass this bill; for, after having
the tariff bill to give $44,000,000 more of
revenue, we now propose to pass a bond bill to give
them $50,000,000 of certificates, and God knows
how many hundred millions of dollars of short-time
bonds, to build up a Treasury that we said yester-
day—and voted also—a horizontal raise would fill
up inside of a few months.”
The debate was continued through the 27th and
until three o'clock on the 28th, long addresses be-
ing made by Mr. Grosvenor, of Ohio; Mr. Patter-
son, of Tennessee; Mr. Swanson, of Virginia; Mr.
Lacey, of Iowa; Mr. Johnson, of North Dakota;
Mr. Wheeler, of Alabama; Mr. Terry, of Arkansas;
Mr. Wellington, of Maryland ; Mr. Wilson, of Idaho;
Mr. Bowers, of California; Mr. Adams, of Pennsyl-
vania; Mr. Gibson, of Tennessee; Mr, De Armond,
of Missouri; Mr. Northway, of Ohio; Mr. Tarsney,
of Missouri; Mr. Shafroth, of Colorado; Mr. Bro-
sius, of Pennsylvania; Mr. McLaurin, of South
Carolina; Mr. Cannon, of Illinois; Mr. Bartlett, of
New York; Mr. Tawney, of Minnesota; Mr. Bailey,
of Texas; Mr. Payne, of New York; Mr. Russell,
of Connecticut; Mr. Crisp, of Georgia; Mr. McCall,
of Massachusetts; and Mr. Dalzell, of Pennsyl-
vania.
When the question was taken there were 171 yeas
and 136 nays, 48 not voting.
In the Senate the bill was referred to the Com-
mittee on Finance and reported back Jan. 7 with
an amendment and recommendation that it should
pass as amended. The report was to strike out all
after the enacting clause and insert:
“That from and after the passage of this act the
mints of the United States shall be open to the
coinage of silver, and there shall be coined dollars
of the weight of 4124 grains troy, of standard sil-
ver, nine tenths fine, as provided by the act of Jan.
18, 1837, and upon the same terms and subject to
the limitations and provisions of law regulating the
coinage and legal-tender quality of gold; and when-
ever the said coins herein provided for shall be re-
ceived into the Treasury, certificates may be issued
_therefor in the manner now provided by law.
“Sec. 2. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall
coin into standard silver dollars, as soon as practi-
cable, according to the provisions of section 1 of
this act, from the silver bullion purchased under the
authority of the act of July 14, 1890, entitled ‘ An
Act directing the purchase of silver bullion and the
__ issue of Treasury notes thereon, and for other pur-
_ poses,’ that portion of said silver bullion which rep-
resents the seigniorage or profit to the Government,
; _ to wit, the difference between the cost of the silver
purchased under said act and its coinage value,
and said silver dollars so coined shall be used in the
payment of the current expenses of the Govern-
ment; and for the purpose of making the said seign-
_ lorage immediately available for use as money, the
Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and
| directed to issue silver certificates against it, as if
it was already coined and in the Treasury.
“Sec. 3. That no national bank note shall be here-
after issued of a denomination less than $10, and
all notes of such banks now outstanding of denomi-
VOL. XXxvi.—13 A
=
193
nations less than that sum shall be, as rapidly as
practicable, taken up, redeemed, and canceled, and
notes of $10 and larger denominations shall be is- ~
sued in their stead under the direction of the Comp-
troller of the Currency.
“Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall
redeem the United States notes, commonly called
*greenbacks,’ and also the Treasury notes issued
under the provisions of thé act of July 14, 1890,
when presented for redemption, in standard silver
dollars or in gold coin, using for redemption of said
notes either gold or silver coins, or both, not at the
option of the holder, but exclusively at the option
of the Treasury Department, and said notes, com-
monly called ‘ greenbacks,’ when so redeemed, shall
be reissued as provided by the act of May 31, 1878.”
Senator Jones, of Arkansas, spoke upon the bill
Jan. 10. In regard to the issuance of bonds pro-
posed by the bill he said in part :
“Tt is claimed, I believe, that this bill was framed
and passed through the House in response to the
wishes of the President of the United States. It is
also said that the bill is entirely unsatisfactory to
the President and the Secretary of the Treasury,
from the fact that the bonds provided for are not
specifically payable in gold. Itseems that the Presi-
dent considers the Treasury in an unsatisfactory, if
not in a critical, condition. The majority of the
Finance Committee of this body believe that the
financial condition of the people generally is any-
thing but what it should be, and we regard it as
the first duty binding on the consciences of mem-
bers of Congress to undertake to provide a remedy
for the widespread distress now existing through
the country, especially if it is in any sense the re-
sult of congressional action. If a condition of rea-
sonable prosperity can be restored among the masses
of the people there will be no difficulty whatever
about the condition of the Treasury. The present
deficiency results, in our opinion, from the much
greater evil of the unsatisfactory condition of the
people. The bill amended as proposed by us will,
we firmly believe, bring this relief, and for that rea-
son we urgently urge its passage by the Senate.
“Tt would seem that the advocates of a single gold
standard regard the issue of bonds as a panacea for
every ill, that with them it is a remedy ready in every
emergency. No matter what financial difficulty is
to be met, an issue of bonds is at once and promptly
proposed. Those who think as I do, on the con-
trary, look upon them as an unmitigated evil, espe-
cially as they have been and are now about to be
issued. An issue of bonds is doubtless a boon to
that small class of persons who have large incomes,
which they have not the knowledge, industry, or
courage to use profitably. who long for investments
upon which they may draw interest without any
greater labor than clipping coupons; but to no other
class is an issue of bonds desirable.
“Tt is true that the Government is not collecting
as much revenue just at this time as is needed, and
some steps should be taken to provide for the de-
ficiency. The Secretary of the Treasury, however,
in his official report, shows that this deficiency will
be temporary and not continue beyond a few
months,
“The amendment proposed by the committee, if
enacted into law, will amply provide for this, for -
the issue of about 50,000,000 silver certificates against
the seigniorage now held in bars in the Treasury is
one of its features, while the deficiency estimated
by Mr. Carlisle is far below that sum. A sale of
bonds, as proposed by the House, could accomplish
no good result, and, in my opinion, would be pro-
ductive of much evil.
“The issue of bonds can not alter existing condi-
tions, and the causes which have brought about the
194 CONGRESS.
present situation will speedily bring about like re-
sults and another sale of bonds will soon be just as
necessary as this, and this “endless chain” of bond
sales might continue until a thousand millions had
been sold, and yet we would be no nearer a solution
of the difficulties which encompass us than we are
now. In fact, the President in his last annual mes-
sage to Congress says, after issuing 160,000,000
bonds, that, at that time (the beginning of this ses-
sion), to use his language, ‘ we are nearly where we
started’; and we will continue to be ‘ nearly where
we started’ under the system proposed by the House
of Representatives or the President.
“There was a time when, with a much smaller
population and much less wealth than we now have,
we had no difficulties in the Treasury—no deficiency
of revenue, and what was of much. more conse-
quence, no distress among the people, If the causes
which produce the present difficulties with the people
can be removed we certainly will return to the old con-
dition of prosperity and happiness. It would seem
that there should be no difficulty in finding out what
changes have occurred and in ascertaining beyond
question the cause of our present troubles. There
must be something radically wrong somewhere if
the richest and freest nation on the globe is in such
a condition of absolute helplessness and dependence
as the President of the United States seems to con- ~
sider us now.
“In this country the people are the source not
only of all power, but also of all wealth and pros-
perity. When they are prosperous, business will
flourish, all branches of commerce will be active,
and no financial difficulties will come to the Treas-
ury except as the result of insufficient revenue
laws; but no revenue system, no matter how wisely
or judiciously framed, can provide revenue unless
there is commerce and active business. A time of
industrial depression and commercial stagnation
must be and ought to be a time of embarrassment
for the Government.
“The laws we now have on the statute books will,
with the revival of business, provide ample revenue.
The change needed is not in the revenue laws, but
in the financial condition of the people at large.
Whatever embarrassments the Government may
now have to encounter are the result of the de-
pressed condition of all branches of business and
the unsatisfactory condition of the people generally.
If we can devise a means of relieving these, there
will be no difficulty about the condition of the Goy-
ernment or of the revenues,
“There is, however, one commodity which, when
affected in its value, necessarily affects all other
things in the world, in all countries, and among all
civilized peagple, to wit, money. Suppose money to
be doubled in value suddenly, it would take then
just one half as much of it to buy any given article as
it would have taken before the rise in its value; what
would before have cost $1 would then cost 50 cents,
because the 50 cents is worth as much as the dollar
was before. This rise in the value of money, then,
would find its expression, its visible manifestation, in
a fall of general prices to 50 per cent. of their former
scale, while money would remain nominally just as
it was before; and the superficial observer might
think, and a modern gold bug would be sure to
think, that this change in prices had resulted from
overproduction and improvements in methods of
production and transportation, and not in the
change in the value of money.
“Tt is often the case that there are two causes
operating at the same time and in opposite direc-
tions, and that these counteract each other to some
extent. For instance, suppose the value of money
doubled as already suggested; this would tend to
divide the price of cotton, for instance; but sup-
(Tue Brow avutHorizine Issue or Bonps.)
pose at the same time, as was the fact last year, that
there should be produced one half of an ordinary cro
of cotton. Under normal conditions this falling o
in the crop would tend to double the price, while
the increased value of money would tend to reduce
it 50 per cent. These two causes operating in dif-
ferent directions against each other would have a
tendency to keep cotton at its old value. It would
not fall by reason of the scarcity of money ; it would
not advance by reason of the shortness of crop, but
remain at the old price. But the two causes operat-
ing in directly opposite directions with exactly equal
force would paralyze each other, leaving the price
of cotton where it had been before. The two evils
of an increase in the value of money and a short
crop would both be borne by the community, though
the effects of both might be hidden. This was prac-
tically the condition during the fall of 1895,”
The remainder of the address was devoted to the
consideration of the proposed amendment—the snb-
ject of silver coinage.
The bill came up for further discussion Jan. 13,
when Senator Morgan, of Alabama, spoke in favor
of the amendment. He said in part:
“The Senator from Ohio says that the balances
of trade are against us and must be paid in gold. If
that is so, it is not because we produce or export
less in recent years than we did formerly. It is
because the gold policy in Europe, which is but the
licy of the feudal age repeated in different form,
as deprived those people of the ability to consume
our surplus productions except at pauper rates,
But, whatever is the cause, is it the business of this
Government to furnish gold to pay balances of
trade? When did that sort of paternalism become
a part of the creed or practice of the Democratic
arty? When England and France find that gold
is leaving them to pay, foreign balances of trade,
they raise the rate of interest and stop the outflow.
We tax the people to raise gold to facilitate the out-
flow and refuse to pay our debts in silver according
to the contract, because the foreign creditors of our
merchants demand gold of them.
‘ No man knows what is the approximate amount
of the stocks and bonds of our corporations that are
held abroad. We know that it includes every variet
of stocks and bonds created in this country, an
their name is legion.
‘We know that bonds of our corporations are
seldom sent abroad for hypothecation unless they —
are accompanied with equal amounts of the stocks
to be held as collateral. These stocks are voted in
the corporate proceedings and draw dividends if
any are declared.
“The foreign money that comes here under such
conditions comes as an investment, and if the in-
vestors came with it they would consent to collect
their dividends in the money earned by their com-
panies, Then we would have no trouble in paying
them. But they do not come here and use our
greenbacks, Sherman notes, and silver certificates
as the resident stockholders use them, and we are
required to repudiate our coin contracts to raise
gold to keep them in a good humor and to maintain
our respectability in their eyes and in the eyes of
the snobs at home who worship them and barter
their wealth for titles for their daughters which
the Constitution forbids their fathers to receive.
“It is these feudal princes, at home and abroad,
now united in the control of ‘the empire of gold
monopoly and owing their highest allegiance to the
Shylocks of Europe, that object to any plan for
breaking the endless chain that has become such a
terror to this Administration.
“Tf the wheel that carries this chain continues to
revolve, the Treasury crank by which it is kept in
motion will grind out an increase of our bonded
OO nt
i a a re
obligations that will amount to $1,000,000,000 in
the next three years, at the rate at which it has
P in the last two years. This, added to
the remaining war debt, including the greenbacks,
geregating more than $1,000,000,000, will throw
the country back to a worse condition than we were
in at the close of the civil war. Does this dreadful
prospect, this certain fate, alarm the bondholding
rinces of the houses of Rothschild and Belmont?
They rejoice, indeed, in the return of the old régime,
the new phase of the feudal power and the vassalage
of the le!
“The threats of the President that the wheel that
carries the endless chain shall continue to revolve
and the renewed diligence of the Secretary of the
- Treasury in grinding out bonds bring dismay to the
ple, who are ready to cry out, ‘ Tax us, tax us to
Sy gold to destroy the paper money on which our
Dalcetries depend. We will make bricks for you
without straw; but do not turn our children over
to the gold princes as feudatories, to become their
vassals and slaves when their fathers have passed
away.”
“The present condition of our country as to in-
debtedness, finance, and taxation is a state of pros-
tration, almost of despair, in which the will of the
people, the votes of the representatives in Congress,
and the injunctions and mandates of the Constitu-
tion are in turn silenced and nullified by the
will of asingle man. What one man has done to
shelter wealth from taxation by a judicial sentence
will never be forgot while a record remains of the
eloquent expressions of the Senator from Missouri.
“The President declares that our coin contracts
are only and exclusively gold contracts, and vetoed
a bill demanded by the people to coin the silver
bullion in the Treasury because his approval of such
a measure would be an admission that silver is a
money metal.
“He demands that Congress shall change all our
coin bonds and other contracts into gold contracts
by express statute so that when they mature our
Biiliren shall have no excuse for demanding from
the bondholding princes the right to pay them in
silver. We have that right, and the President de-
mands that’ we shall surrender it on pain of having
the wheel to run with increasing velocity that drags
_ the endless chain through the heart of the country.
One word—an honest, sincere, and just word, the
word of truth—uttered by the President would re-
lieve the country of these terrors. That word would
be, ‘ The rights of the people, as they are expressed
in their auietione, must and shall be preserved.’ ”
Consideration of the bill was again resumed Jan.
14, when Senator Butler, of North Carolina, sub-
mitted an amendment to the amendment, proposing
to strike out section 4 and to insert in lieu thereof:
“Sec. 4. That the issuance of interest-bearing
_ bonds of the United States for any purpose what-
_ €ver, without further authority of Congress, is here-
by prohibited ; and that the Secretary of the Treas-
__ury when redeeming United States notes, commonly
¢alled nbacks, and Treasury notes issued under
the provisions of the act of July 14, 1890, and when
_ liquidating either the interest or principal of any
_ of the Government’s coin obligations is hereby di-
_ rected to make such payment in gold coin whenever
_ the market value of 25°8 grains of standard gold is
less than the market value of 412} grains of stand-
ard silver, and to continue to pay in such gold coin
until the market value of 25°8 grains of standard
gold shall be equal to the market value of 412}
grains of standard silver; but when the market
_ Value of 25°8 grains of standard gold shall be greater
than the market value of 412} grains of standard
Silver, he shall pay the interest and the principal of
Said coin obligations as they become due in silver
CONGRESS. (THE Bitt autuorizine Issve or Bonps.)
195
coin, and continue to pay the same in silver coin
until the market value of 412} grains of standard -
silver shall be equal to the market value of 25°8
grains of standard gold, and said notes, commonly
called greenbacks, when so redeemed, shall be re-
issued, as provided by the act of May 31, 1878.”
In support of his amendment Senator Butler said :
* The provisions of this section are perfectly sim-
ple and plain. It simply directs the Secretary of
the Treasury, in express terms, with no option, to
do what everybody thought he or any patriot would
do in exercising the option of the (Accor in
paying our coin obligations. The law expressly de-
clares that he shall use this option to keep gold and
silver at a parity. If that law means anything it
means that whenever, for any cause, there is a
greater strain on gold—that is, a greater demand
for gold than for silver—that then he shall use the
Government's option to pay our coin obligations in
silver, and, on the other hand, whenever silver is
scarce, whenever there is a greater demand for sil-
ver and the price goes up, that then he shall equal-
ize the demand for the two metals by paying our
coin obligations in gold and continue the strain on
gold until the two metals come back to a parity.
“T will answer here a question asked me by a dis-
tinguished citizen a few days ago. He asked why
I insisted on putting this provision on the bond bill
along with a provision reported by the committee
providing for the free and unlimited coinage of sil-
ver. That gentleman, whose name I shall not call,
rather chided me and said: ‘ You and every other
advocate of free silver all over the world have been
claiming that the free and unlimited coinage of sil-
ver on equal terms with gold would bring silver to
a parity with gold—that is, have claimed that 4123
grains of silver would always practically be worth
as much as 25°8 grains of gold.” That is true, pro-
vided that there are no other laws or conditions
created by law to artificially disturb this parity.
“T will illustrate. We can coin gold and silver
on equal terms, but the Secretary of the Treasury
can send silver to a premium or gold to a premium,
just as he chooses, by an improper use of the option
which is vested in him by law of paying out gold
or silver on our coin obligations. This option was
vested in him so that he could keep the two metals
at a parity, but if he cares nothing for his oath of
office, or for the interests of the people, or the credit
of this Government, he can use this option to cause
a disparity between the two metals. So far he has
used his option for the profits of the gold trust,
against the interests of the American people, and
to the detriment of the credit of our Government.
“There is another reason, and I wish to call par-
ticular attention to it. In the Bland-Allison act
of 1878 there was inserted a clause, known as the
exception clause, making it lawful for a private in-
dividual, corporation, or company to take notes or
mortgages stipulating payment in gold only. This
was a very unwise and unjust provision. It was
slipped into that act in the interest of the monopo-
lists, the gold combine, and the creditor class, and
was done to depreciate silver and to appreciate
gold. Under this law—which, by the way, was in-
serted into a bill which claimed to restore silver as
money—there have been thousands and millions of
dollars of mortgages and notes taken in this coun-
try requiring payment in gold. There is practically
not a town or hamlet in the whole United States to
which the banks have not sent orders to the busi-
ness men calling upon them to take gold mortgages
and gold notes only.
“That is the case in the State of the Senator
from Mississippi; it is so in my State; it is so all
over the country. There are probably a thousand
million dollars to-day due under mortgages con-
196 CONGRESS.
taining this gold clause. Until every one of these
notes and mortgages are paid there will be a greater
strain all over the country on gold than on silver,
which, of course, will have the inevitable result of
artificially increasing the price of gold. Therefore
if we pass a free-coinage bill here to-day gold and
silver can not come to a parity until every one of
these gold obligations are paid, unless the strain
on gold is offset by a like and equal strain on sil-
ver, unless the Secretary of the Treasury and the
President will observe and carry out the letter and
spirit of the law.”
Mr. Butler said further: ,
“ Are not ninety-nine people out of a hundred in
this country to-day suffering from the present evil
conditions brought on us by bad legislation and
mismanagement of Government afiairs? Who
brought about these evil conditions? It is not
God’s fault that this country is in distress. He has
not visited us with plagues, famines, or pestilence,
but has he not blessed us with sunshine and show-
ers? Has he not blessed the American freeman
with health and strength to labor and to make two
blades of grass grow where one grew before ?
“Tt is not the fault of the people, for have they
not used in an extraordinary degree the opportuni-
ties that have been placed before them? Each
ye they have worked harder than the year before.
ach year they have created more wealth per head.
In fact they have created so much wealth that the
gold bugs and the monopolists have raised the ery
that the people are ruining the country by creating
too much wealth—by making an overproduction of
wealth. In short, Heaven has given us the oppor-
tunity to make ourselves rich and prosperous; we
have used that opportunity and created enough
wealth to make this country blossom like a rose
and to surround every man who will work with
comforts commensurate with his wants.
“Then what has brought this distress to the
country? What has thrown our laborers out of
employment and turned them into tramps on the
highways of the nation?) What has brought star-
vation and poverty to the door of every farmer in
the land? What has ruined millions of merchants
and business men? I stand here to-day and charge
—and defy contradiction—that it has been brought
upon us solely by infamous laws enacted in this
Capitol and by a still more infamous execution or
defiance of law by the administration at the other
end of Pennsylvania Avenue,
“The same thing has gone on whether the Re-
publican party was in charge or the Democratic
party in charge. The people are not to be blamed
except in one particular, and that is in allowing
themselves to be cajoled or fooled or aroused by
partisan prejudice into voting for and keeping in
power their faithless agents who have robbed them.
The great majority of voters in this country are
opening their eyes to this infamy and to this be-
trayal of trust. The great majority of the people
are throwing off their party yoke which they have
worn so faithfully and so disastrously. They are
anxious to get together under one banner and drive
from power these gold conspirators.
“The greatest hindrance to-day in the way of
this, the men who are to-day the most to blame for
keeping apart the people who would come together
and right their wrongs and re-establish the Govern-
ment of Lincoln, Jefferson, and Jackson, are some
of the men who claim to stand by the people and for
good government, the men who claim to oppose the
gold standard and the rule of monopoly, but yet who
sacrifice every principle of good government, who sac-
rifice the interests of the people for party success that
they may remain in power and continue to draw
their salaries. It is the duty of such men, placed
(THe Britt auTnorizine Issue or Bonps.)
in positions of trust by a confiding constituency, to
put patriotism above pay when the interest of the
nation is at stake, and to point out to their people
at home the sure way to relief. They ought to do
it even if their advice resulted in crushing their
own parties, for is not the country greater than
party? Is not the welfare of the people more im-
portant than the success of any party? It is crim-
inal for the people’s representatives to try to hide
the real issues and allow the people to be robbed in
order that a party may triumph, in order that a few
politicians may hold office.”
Jan. 15, Senator Pugh, of Alabama, introduced a
concurrent resolution, explaining that it was an ex-
act copy of what is known as the Stanley Matthews
resolution, which passed both houses of Congress
in 1878 by a two-thirds vote.
The resolution follows :
“ Whereas by the act entitled ‘ An Act to strength-
en the public credit,’ approved March 18, 1869, it
was provided and declared that the faith of the
United States was thereby solemnly pledged to the
perme in coin or its equivalent, of interest-
earing obligations of the United States, except in
cases where the law authorizing the issue of such
obligations had expressly provided that the same
might be paid in lawful money or other currency
than gold or silver; and
“Whereas all the bonds of the United States au-
thorized to be issued by the act entitled ‘An Act to
authorize the refunding of the national debt,’ ap-
roved July 14, 1870, by the terms of said act were
Acolabed to be redeemable in coin of the then pres-
ent standard of value, bearing interest payable semi-
annually in such coin; and
“Whereas all bonds of the United States author-
ized to be issued under the act entitled ‘An Act to
provide for the resumption of specie payments,’ ap-
proved Jan. 14, 1875, are required to be of the de-
scription of bonds of the United States deseribed
in the said act of Congress approved July 14, 1870,
entitled * An Act to authorize the refunding of the
national debt’; and
“ Whereas at the date of the passage of said act
of Congress last aforesaid, to wit, the 14th day of
July, 1870, the coin of the United States of stand-
ard value of that date included silver dollars of the
weight of 4124 grains each, declared by the act ap-
proved Jan. 18, 1837, entitled ‘An Act supple- —
mentary to the act entitled “An Act establishin
a mint and regulating the coins of the Uni
States,”’ to be a legal tender of payment, accord-
ing to the nominal value, for any sums whatever; —
Therefore,
“ Resolved by the Senate (the House of Repre-
sentatives concurring therein), That all the bonds”
of the United States issued, or authorized to be is-
sued, under the said acts of Congress hereinbefore
recited, are payable, principal and interest, at the
option of the Government of the United States, in
silver dollars of the coinage of the United States
containing 412} grains each of standard silver; and
that to restore to its coinage such silver coins as a
legal tender in payment of said bonds, princi
and interest, is not in violation of the public faith
nor in derogation of the rights of the public cred-_
itor.”
The amendment to the coin redemption bill was
further debated Jan, 16, by Senator Peffer, of Kan-
sas, and Jan. 22, by Senator Teller, of Colorado;
Senator Gorman, of Maryland; Senator Platt, of
Connecticut; Senator Sherman, of Ohio; Senator
Aldrich, of Rhode Island; Senator Lindsay, of
Kentucky, and others.
Senator Dubois, of Idaho, spoke on the subject
Jan, 23, and the following day Senator Baker, of
Kansas, spoke on an amendment which he had —
CONGRESS. (THe Bitz Avurnorizine Issue or Bonps.)
offered, the addition to section 1 of the bill the fol-
lowing proviso:
“ Provided, however, That this section shall apply
to the coinage of the silver mined in the United
States of America only.”
Senator Nelson, of Minnesota, and Senator Ba-
con, of Georgia, addressed the Senate on the sub-
ject Jan. 27, the following day Senator Clark, of
yoming, and Senator Gray, of Delaware, and
Jan. 29, Senator Tillman, of South Carolina. Sen-
ator Call, of Florida, spoke Jan. 29 and 30, followed
by Senator Mitchell, of Oregon, Senator Perkins,
of California, Senator Stewart, of Nevada, and
others. The debate was resumed Jan. 31, when
Senator Vilas, of Wisconsin, addressed the Senate.
He said in part :
“This bond bill as it came from the House was a
mere sham. It merits to be consigned to the heca-
tombs of folly’s progeny, where the financial deeds
of Congress for many years seem to belong. It is
with no lamentation for the destruction of the pri-
mal stem that I turn to the graft which the Finance
Committee has sprouted on it. It was a bad stock,
though it has been budded with a worse scion. The
best hope is that both will shrivel and die in the air
of the Senate.
“Mr. President, there are three classes of people
who urge this legislation, and it serves to develop
its undemocratic nature to consider them by way
of introduction to argument.
“Those of the first class are at least under no sort
of hallucination or delusion in respect to their pur-
They desire by this means to raise the price
of silver in the market, either because they are pro-
ducing it or might profitably work their lean or re-
fractory ore if the price were higher, or because
they are so connected in trade or community with
the mine owners they think their pecuniary inter-
ests will thus be subserved. Comparatively few in
number, yet this class is wonderfully potential.
With them the silver agitation had its inception
and has found its incessantly driving impulse. For
them this is a measure of so-called protection, like
a high tariff on home manufactures. Of course, ar-
gument avails nothing with them, no more than
with the money-gathering favorites of the tariff, or
with the daughters of the horse-leech. Their only
ite more, more.
he second class might deserve sympathy, if they
did not shock it. They are those who, owing heavy
debts, wish to secure their discharge by one half
the amount of them; or by whatever less the silver
dollar may be worth than the dollar they owe.
The number of these is vastly less than the number
of debtors. It might be thought there could be few
such, and doubtless few there are who plainly avow
it. The avowal is, however, not infrequently made,
sometimes accompanied with sophistries of argu-
ment in attempted self-exculpation. I have heard
persons privately maintain it, with brutal frank-
ness; rarely in public.
“For, Mr. President, let it be recorded to the
good name of our country, it is not from either of
these that this demand for free coinage derives its
dangerous and menacing strength. Its power
comes from the remaining class—the many—of
whom some are profoundly convinced, and some
have persuaded themselves into real belief, of the
excellence of “ bimetallism ” for mankind; that the
only road to it lies through free coinage, and that
its ultimate benefits will compensate the misery
and injustice through which it must be attained;
_or, perhaps, in some instances, that the injuries to
immediately ensue will not prove so serious as they
are represented. Enrolled among these are found
characters of the highest grade, who command ad-
miration and esteem, advocates of splendid powers
197
to charm an audience and win favor. They are
here, as we all know; and that they are constitutes _
with the people of this country the principal stay
of this menacing agitation. ‘There's the respect
that makes calamity of so long life.’ It is because
of them and their advocacy that the duty arises to.
enter upon the patient and thorough discussion,
with the hope that in the end error shall give way
to sound understanding.
“Let me now recall somewhat from the turmoil
of twenty years, which all must recognize.
“Until about the time of the civil war there had
never been any production of silver in the United
States worth mentioning for quantity nor any mines
‘of silver developed. Discoveries just made led,
however, to some development during the sixties,
but not to such extent as to affect the market. Sil-
ver, indeed, even after the act of 1873, was worth
more than the $1.29 per ounce which makes the
silver dollar equal in value to the gold. But in
1873, for purely public reasons, as seem to me
proved by the evidence beyond all doubt, that law
was enacted to revise our statutes relating to the
mints and coinage by which the silver dollar was
dropped from the system because its coinage and
use had long been practically abandoned.
“ There was at the time no body of silver produ-
cers such as has since arisen; there was no silver
interest which was conscious of any peril in that
law. No one seems to have foreseen the future fall
of silver in the market, or then to have dreamed
that the act of 1873 could have effect upon it.
Afterward, some years afterward, it became the
policy of the silver agitation to arraign that law as
the origin of the fall in price, and now to denounce
the ‘crime of 1873’ is as essential to the silver
faith as a hell to Calvinism.
“ For, sir, the contest for silver was not set on
foot until after increase of its production had be-
come vast in this country and its price had neces-
sarily begun to fall. Then it was, and not before,
that the act of 1873 came to be so upbraided. I
will not delay to inquire whether that act had any
influence, or whether increasing production and
the world’s action outside of us were more effective
of the decline, for it is now immaterial. But it has
been proved to reasonable satisfaction that there
was nothing unusual in its promotion or passage,
that its entirely public purposes were abundantly
declared in public debates and in public reports
while it was under consideration by Congress for
nearly three full years before adoption, and'no fact
or circumstance justifies the imputation of stealth
or fraud in the manner of its enactment, or of
wrong, in deed or purpose, to any one who recom-
mended or voted for it. The imaginary charge,
also, that sought to link with its enactment the de-
ceased bimetallist, Mr. Seyd, as a secret agent of a
foreign conspiracy, was so utterly exploded in the
debate of 1893 as to render that figment of disor-
dered suspicion henceforth ridiculous. Whatever
the effect of it, the act of 1873 can no more be de-
nominated ‘crime’ than the act of 18387 or any
other piece of legislation. It was not until 1876,
when the silver product of the United States had
arisen to $38,000,000 during the year, and silver
stood at nearly 18 to1 of gold in commercial rating,
that public interest came to be manifested in Con-
gress in behalf of silver.
“Then it was, sir, although the silver dollar of the
United States had never been a thing of common
use or necessity, although in all the preceding years
of our nation’s experience, with the privilege of free
coinage proffered to all. but 8,000,000 silver dollars
had been made, and these chiefly exported or melted
in the arts, then, when the mine owners of this
country discovered the lessening price of silver
198 CONGRESS.
while their produce of the metal was. rapidly in-
creasing, then it was that they sought partnership
in the booty of protection and went into the coun-
cils of the * confederacy of rapine,’ demanding help
to throw on the shoulders of the American people
the burden of making a market and holding up the
price for the produce of silver mining.
“T turn now to the consideration of the nature of
the claim for free coinage which actuates the second
class of promoters, debtors who hope thereby to dis-
charge their debts with dollars of far less value than
those they owe.
“Here, also, as throughout this argument, my
purpose is to point out how abhorrent to Demo-
cratic principles is every motive, every suggestion
of reason or basis for such a measure, while, at the
same time is shown its insupportability by every
just standard of public judgment, and, as well, its
futility to advance the ends proposed.
“Their postulate, plainly stated, is that the Gov-
ernment of this country shall debase the standard
of its coin, making it a legal tender for a double
value, simply that debtors may have the help of
Government to defraud their creditors of what their
promises and the law entitles them. Let ingenuity
and sophistry say what they may, such a proposal
can never enter into the judgment of the world, ex-
cept as a measure of wrong and outrage. It has
sometimes been the trick of kings to cheat their
subjects, but never without the execration of man-
kind, not more for its immorality than for its evil
consequences,
“ What does it mean, sir, in its best aspect? What
one thing but this: that by law there shall be taken
from one class to be given to another; that upon
them to whom debts are due there shall be laid an
enormous penalty, in hope that some of the gain of
it may help the debtors. The Congress of the United
States is invoked to enact a law that every man who
happens to have his property in credits shall yield
up one half or whatever the proportion of his sub-
stance. For what? For any end of government?
No; but that other men who happen to owe the
debts shall escape one half of their rightful obliga-
tions.
“No sophistry can sweeten this to my mind or
mitigate the horrors of its injustice. It means
nothing less than the use of public power in de-
struction of the very objects for which government
was instituted among men. If this may be done
avowedly there remains no rule but the will of a
temporary majority, unrestrained by law or justice.”
Senator Bate, of Tennessee, spoke at length in
favor of the silver-coinage amendment, as did also
Senator Pasco, of Florida.
Senator Palmer, of Illinois, offered an amendment
to the substitute reported by the Committee on Fi-
nance, as follows:
“Amend the .bill by adding after the words
‘seventy-eight,’ in line 11 of page 5 of the bill, the
following :
“¢ But it is the declared policy of the United States
to maintain the parity between the gold coinage of
25; of standard gold and the dollar of 412} grains
of standard silver, authorized to be coined by the
first section of this act, and to maintain the equal
power of the said silver dollars of 4124 grains of
standard silver and the gold dollar of 25,4 grains of
standard gold in the markets and in the payment
of debts. And the Secretary of the Treasury is di-
rected to exercise the discretion given to him by the
fourth section of this act, so as, in his judgment, to
best advance and promote the policy hereinbefore
declared,’ ”
Senator Caffery, of Louisiana, spoke in opposition
to the committee’s amendment, summing up his ar-
gument as follows:
(Tue Britt aurHorizine Issue oF Bonps.)
“ First, that value only originates from the esti-
mation that parties to an exchange of commodities
place upon the commodities offered in exchange.
* Second, that metallic money is a commodity and
is subject in every exchange to this estimate. .
“Third, that the estimate, being subjective and
mental, can not be made by governmental statute.
*“ Fourth, that when two metals are attempted to
be held by a legal tie, one or the other will become
underrated by the commercial ratio, which is the
estimate placed upon it by exchangers, and there-
fore will leave circulation.
“Fifth, that consequently bimetallism is really —
monometallism. ;
“Sixth, that in case the United States adopted 16
to 1, when the commercial ratio is 32 to 1, gold
would leave circulation, and we would be on a sil-
ver basis.
“Seventh, that no man can contemplate this re-
sult without a shudder at the fearful loss, ruin, and
disorder that would ensue.”
Senator White, of California, spoke in favor of
the committee’s substitute, and Feb. 1 Senator
Morrill, of Vermont, followed with an argument on
the other side, discussion following by Senators
Teller, Gray, Daniel, Lindsay, Butler, Jones, Allen,
Cockrell, Stewart, Dubois, Bacon, and others.
Senator Butler’s amendment to the amendment ~
was voted upon and rejected by a vote of 13 yeas to
60 nays, 16 not voting.
Senator Allen, of Nebraska, offered an amend-
ment proposing to add at the close of section 4 the
following:
“ Provided, That after the ce of this act the
Secretary of the Treasury shall be deprived of the
power to issue the bonds or other interest-bearin,
obligations of the Government unless Congress shal
first declare the necessity therefor, any act of Con-
gress now in force to the contrary notwithstand-
ing.”
This was rejected by a vote of 21 to 54—not vot-
ing, 14.
Senator Morrill offered the following amend-
ment:
“ Add at the end of the first section of the com-
mittee amendment the following proviso:
“ Provided, That the seigniorage upon all coinage
of silver under this act shall be retained by the
United States equal in amount to the difference be-
tween the coining value and the commercial value
of silver bullion when presented at the mint.”
Senator Squire, of Washington, spoke in favor of
the amendment. He said:
“T believe the expansion to be derived from the
adoption of the amendment of the honorable Sena-
tor from Vermont would give to the people addi-
tional money, and additional silver money. It will
simply preserve in the Treasury an amount of silver
that shall be equal to the difference between the
coin value and the bullion value, while the silver
coin representing the entire gold value of the full
amount of silver bullion received would be issued as ©
money, thus increasing the primary money of the
country. In other words, it would be conforming
somewhat to the amendments proposed some years
ago by the honorable Senator from Missouri and
others, increasing the ratio from 16 to 20 or 24,
or some other practicable ratio, without changing
the size and weight of the coin, as he proposed to
do. That is what it would amount to; and I be-
lieve we ought, if possible, to get such legislation as
will afford some measure of relief to the people of
the United States, and I do not think there will be
any injustice in it to the mine owners. I think they
would get an additional market for their product,
and the people of the United States, who create this
additional value, under present existing circum-
amendment re
CONGRESS. (Tue Brut avrHorizine Issue oF Bonps.)
stances, would have the benefit of the difference
and not the mine owners.”
Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts, said:
“Mr. President, I am in favor of this amendment,
but I do not rise for the purpose of discussing it at
this moment. As all debate is to end at 2 o’clock, I
desire to explain at this time an amendment which
I pro to offer to this bill when it comes out of
Committee of the Whole and into the Senate, an
amendment which has already been laid before the
Senate, and on which there been some slight
discussion. The bill that came from the House of
Representatives, as I said before, it is quite obvious
can not pass the Senate. The silver substitute re-
ported by the majority of the Finance Committee,
to which I am utterly opposed as a measure utterly
disastrous to business and leading directly to silver
monometallism, can not pass the House of Repre-
sentatives. We know that it is merely to go into
conference and end there. The amendment I in-
tend to offer does not bear on the question of gold
or silver or the redemption of greenbacks; and as
this free-silver substitute is an amendment to a bond
bill, it is attempted to make provision for a popular
loan, to be paid for in lawful money as needed for
the purpose of coast defenses.
= The Secretary of War has informed the country
that it would take twenty years, at the present rate
of progress, to supply the guns necessary for coast
= elec that it will take seventy years, at the
present rate of progress, to supply the positions to
put those guns on. The highest military authorities
say that with a eae Sree for a compre-
hensive plan we can have our coasts defended ade-
quately and as they ought to be inside of three
ears; and it should be done in a simple, economical,
intelligent method.
“The amendment which I propose to offer bears
oar on the creation of a popular loan in order to
put that money into the Treasury. No one would
undertake to raise $80,000,000 or $100,000,000,
_ which is needed for coast defenses, from revenue at
ig It can not be done. The only way is a
oan.
“I desire to offer the amendment at this time.
If the silver substitute is to perish in conference, as
we know, and the bond bill is to perish in confer-
ence, there seems to be no good reason why out of
the wreck we should not at least save a measure
which will provide for coast defenses to be estab-
lished by law hereafter under such acts as Congress
may see fit to ;
“I merely desire to give this explanation of the
amendment which I pro to offer, because I can
see that the debate will be cut off before the bill
reaches the Senate.”
Senator Gorman, of Maryland, moved to lay the
rted by the Committee on Finance
on the the table. The Senate refused by a vote of
34 yeas to 43 nays, 12 not voting. The question
then recurring to Senator Morrill’s amendment, it
was lost by a vote of 33 to 44—not voting, 12.
Action on other amendments having been cut off
by an agreement entered into the day before, that
the question should be put to vote at two o'clock,
the vote was taken upon the substitute reported by
the committee, and it passed—yeas, 43; nays, 34;
not voting, 12.
Following is the vote upon the bill as amended:
Yeas— Allen, Bacon, Bate, Berry, Blanchard,
Brown, Butler, Call, Cameron, Cannon, Carter,
Chilton, Clark, Cockrell, Daniel, George, Harris,
Irby, Jones of Arkansas. Jones of Nevada, Kyle,
Mantle, Mitchell of Oregon, Pasco, Peffer, Perkins,
Pettigrew, Pritchard, Pugh, Roach, Shoup, Squire,
Stewart, Teller, Tillman, Turpie, Vest, Voorhees,
Walthall, Warren, White, Wilson—42.
199
Nays—Allison, Baker, Burrows, Caffery, Chan-
dler, Davis, Elkins, Faulkner, Frye, Gallinger,
Gear, Gibson, Gorman, Gray, Hale, Hawley, Hill, °
Hoar, Lindsay, Lodge. McBride, McMillan, Martin.
Mills, Mitchell of Wisconsin, Morrill, Murphy,
Nelson, Palmer, Platt, Proctor, Sherman, Thurston,
Vilas, Wetmore—35.
Nor votinc—Aldrich, Blackburn, Brice, Cul-
lom, Dubois, Gordon, Hansbrough, Morgan, Quay,
Sewell, Smith, Wolcott—12.
So the bill was passed.
Its title was amended so as to read: “ toe. $515,759,820.49
* This sum is exclusive of $1,660,000 for second install-
ment on account of purchase of Cherokee Outlet, which
has been paid under ** anent annual appropriations,’
but is not included in the estimates thereunder for 1897. A
like sum was included in the Indian appropriation act
passed at the last session of the last Congress.
+ This does not include $3,000,000 estimated to be neces-
sary under indefinite appropriation made in river and har-
bor act of this session to purchase property of Monongahela
Na ion Company.
this sum eiwias $1,496,679.56 for objects that are in no
sense deficiencies ; $3,614,133.77 Bi a judgments of the
courts and audited accounts by the accounting
officers for 1893 and prior fiscal years ; in all, $5,110,813.33.
§ Estimated.
| This is the amount originally submitted to Congress by
the Secretary of the Treasury as estimated to be necessary
under permanent tig and permanent indefinite appro-
_ priations, ee 4g at to the amount thus submitted for
1891, $101,628,453, there are added expenditures under per-
manent appropriations made by the Fifty-first Con
subsequent to said estimate, as follows: Salaries diplomatic
and at eH $27,756.79 ; ie gan ae ae see
notes, ; expenses of Treasury notes, 8,-
362.60; coi of silver bullion, $210,893.14; rebate tobacco
tax, $770,082.39 ; and repayments to importers and for de-
bentures and drawbacks, customs service, $4,915,285.28 ; in
all, $29,695,678.70.
The river and harbor bill was vetoed in the fol-
lowing message :
To the House of Representatives:
I return herewith without approval House bill
No. 7977, entitled “ An Act making appropriations
for the construction, repair, and preservation of cer-
tain public works on rivers and harbors, and for
other pu ;
There are 417 items of appropriation contained
in this bill, and every part of the country is repre-
sented in the distribution of its favors.
It directly appropriates or provides for the imme-
diate expenditure of nearly $14,000,000 for river
and harbor work. This sum is in addition to ap-
propriations contained in another bill for similar
purposes amounting to a little more than $3,000,-
_ 000, which have already been favorably considered
at the present session of Congress.
The result is that the contemplated immediate
expenditures for the objects mentioned amount to
about $17,000,000.
A more startling feature of this bill is its author-
ization of contracts for river and harbor work
amounting to more than $62,000,000. Though the
payments on these contracts are in most cases so dis-
tributed that they are to be met by future appropria-
tions, more than $3,000,000 on their account are in-
cluded in thedirect appropriations above mentioned.
Of the remainder, nearly $20,000,000 will fall due
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, and
_ amounts somewhat less in the years immediately
_ sueceeding. A few contracts of a like character,
authorized under previous statutes, are still out-
Standing, and to meet payments on these more than
(APPROPRIATIONS.)
217
$4,000,000 must be appropriated in the immediate
future.
If, therefore, this bill becomes a law, the obliga-—
tions which will be imposed on the Government, to-
gether with the appropriations made for immediate
expenditure on account of rivers and harbors, will
amount to about $80,000,000. Nor is this all. The
bill directs numerous surveys and examinations
which contemplate new work and further contracts,
and which portend largely increased expenditures
and obligations.
There is no ground to hope that in the face of
persistent and growing demands the aggregate of
appropriations for the smaller schemes not covered
by contracts will be reduced or even remain sta-
tionary. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898,
such appropriations, together with the installments
on contracts which will fall due in that year, can
hardly be less than $30,000,000; and it may reason-
ably be apprehended that the prevalent tendency
toward increased expenditures of this sort and the
concealment which postponed payments afford for
extravagance will increase the burdens chargeable
to this account in succeeding years.
In view of the obligation imposed upon me by
the Constitution, it seems to me quite clear that I
only discharge a duty to our people when I inter-
pose my disapproval of the legislation proposed.
Many of the objects for which it appropriates
public money are not related to the public welfare,
and many of them are palpably for the benefit
of limited localities or in aid of individual in-
terests.
On the face of the bill it appears that not a few
of these alleged improvements have been so improv-
idently planned and prosecuted that after an un-
wise expenditure of millions of dollars new experi-
ments for their accomplishment have been entered
upon.
PWhile those intrusted with the management of
ps funds in the interest of all the people can
ardly justify questionable expenditures for public
work by pleading the opinions of engineers or
others as to the practibility of such work, it appears
that some of the projects for which appropriations
are proposed in this bill have been entered upon
without the approval or against the objections of
the examining engineers.
I learn from official sources that there are appro-
priations contained in the bill to pay for work
which private parties have actually agreed with
the Government to do in consideration of their oc-
cupancy of public property.
hatever items of doubtful propriety may have
escaped observation or may have been tolerated in
previous executive approvals of similar bills, I am
convinced that the bill now under consideration
opens the way to insidious and increasing abuses,
and is in itself so extravagant as to be especially
unsuited to these times of depressed business and
resulting disappointment in Government revenue.
This consideration is emphasized by the prospect
that the public Treasury will be confronted with
other appropriations made at the present session of
Congress amounting to more than $500,000,000.
Individual economy and careful expenditure are
sterling virtues which lead to thrift and comfort.
Economy and the exaction of clear justification for
the appropriation of public moneys by the servants
of the people are not only virtues but solemn obli-
gations. ;
To the extent that the appropriations contained
in this bill are instigated by private interests and
promote local or individual projects, their allowance
can not fail to stimulate a vicious paternalism and
encourage a sentiment among our people, already
too prevalent, that their attachment to our Govern-
218 CONGRESS.
ment may properly rest upon the hope and expec-
tation of direct and especial favors, and that the
extent to which they are realized may furnish an
estimate of the value of governmental care.
I believe no greater danger confronts us as a na-
tion than the unhappy decadence among our people
of genuine and trustworthy love and affection for
our Government as the embodiment of the highest
and best aspirations of humanity, and not as the
giver of gifts, and because its mission is the en-
forcement of exact justice and equality and not the
allowance of unfair favoritism.
I hope I may be permitted to suggest at a time ~
when the issue of Government bonds to maintain
the credit and financial standing of the country is
a subject of criticism that the contracts provided
for in this bill would create obligations of the
United States amounting to $62,000,000 no less
binding than its bonds for that sum.
GROVER CLEVELAND.
EXEcuTIvE Mansion, May 29, 1896.
The House Committee on Rivers and Harbors re-
ported the bill back, reeommending that it should
pass notwithstanding the disapproval of the Execu-
tive. The report took up and answered each objec-
tion to the bill which the message presented as fol-
lows:
“Your committee feel that they would be remiss
in their duty to the House of Representatives if they
should fail to make some statement regarding the
merits of said bill, and especially as the same may
be affected by the criticism thereof contained in the
message of the President. It may be well to state
at the outset that of the 417 items of appropriations
contained in the bill, all of them except 27 are for
projects contained in river and harbor bills hereto-
fore enacted into law, and which projects now and
for some years have been in process of construction
and completion by the Government. No new projects
were added to the river and harbor bill of 1894. It
will thus be seen that the principal work of the
Committee on Rivers and Harbors has been the in-
vestigation and examination of works of improve-
ment to which Congress has by repeated acts com-
mitted itself. The river and harbor bill of 1892 also
contained a very limited number of new projects,
The river and harbor bill of 1890 appropriated $25,-
136,295, and placed certain works under the contract
system, which involved the additional expenditure
of $15,282,980. It appears, therefore, from this
statement that by far the greater number of projects
appropriated for in this bill were also appropriated
for in the bill of 1890 and which are not yet com-
pleted. That bill was referred by President Har-
rison to Gen. Thomas L. Casey, then chief of en-
gineers, who was noted for his rugged honesty, his
great executive capacity, and his superb mastery of
all matters coming under his supervision, for his
opinion as to the merits of the several projects
therein contained. After an examination of the bill
he reported to President Harrison that only 8 items
in the bill, in his judgment, seemed to be of limited
or local benefit. The gross amount appropriated
for these items was $72,500. All other items in that
bill were considered by him to be in the interest of
commerce. From this it will be seen that by far
the larger part of the projects contained in the pres-
ent bill passed the serutiny and received the ap-
proval of Gen. Casey and have gone unchallenged
until now. The bills of 1890 and 1892 were ap-
proved by President Harrison, and the bill of 1894
was permitted by the present Executive to become
a law by limitation.
“The President in his message states:
“* Many of the objects for which it appropriates
public money are not related to the public welfare,
(APPROPRIATIONS.)
and many of them are palpably for the benefit of
limited localities or in aid of individual interests.’
* Your committee is not advised as to the objects
against which this criticism is directed. They can
only state that this bill was prepared after a most
careful examination of the reports of the engineers
and after giving hearings to delegations and others
interested in the various projects named in the bill,
and they respectfully submit that they were careful
to avoid making provision for any objects which
were not directly related to the public welfare and
in the interests of commerce.
“The President also states that—
“*On the face of the bill it appears that not a few
of these alleged improvements have been so improvi-
dently planned and prosecuted that after an unwise
expenditure of millions of dollars new experiments
for their accomplishment have been entered upon.’
“ Your committee, in the absence of any direct in-
formation ee this point, have concluded that this
criticism is based upon a misconception of the lan-
guage used with regard to quite a number of the
projects named in the bill. It has often occurred
that after a project had been adopted in accordance
with certain defined plans submitted by the en-
gineers the interests of commerce required that a
greater and more effective improvement than that
first contemplated should be made. In such cases
it has long been the custom of Congress, amply jus-
tified by results, to order from time to time new
surveys and estimates to be made with a view to en-
larging the scope of these proeees In making a
propriations for these enlarged projects the bill
often directs that the money appropriated shall be
expended in accordance with the modified or en- °
larged projects submitted by the engineers. It may
be that the President inferred from the language so
used that the original plans had been improvident
and ill-advised, and the money expended upon them
had been wasted, whereas the truth is that the
money expended upon the original plans was judi-
ciously expended and would have been expended
even if the modified or enlarged plans had been
originally adopted, the work under the original
lans being in all cases included in that embraced
in the modified plans. Instances of these so-called
modified or enlarged projects may be found in the
eases of Baltimore harbor; Portland harbor, Maine;
Newtown creek, which is a part of New York har-
bor; Wilmington, Del.; St. John’s river, Florida;
Savannah harbor, and many others.
“The President also states:
“*T Jearn from official sources that there are ap-
propriations contained in the bill to pay for work —
which private parties have actually agreed with this
Government to do in consideration of their oceu-
pancy of public property.’
“When this bill was originally reported your
committee were not aware that it contained such
appropriations as those described by the President.
Since the reception of his message they have re-
examined the bill and made diligent inquiry to as-
certain if in fact it does contain such appropriations,
and they feel justified in asserting and do assert
that the information upon which the President
bases this charge is wholly without foundation.
There is nothing in the reports of the engineers or
in any information laid before your committee from
any source whatsoever calculated to suggest even @
suspicion that any such appropriations as indicated
by the President are contained in the bill.
“The President states that this bill—
“* Directly appropriates or provides for the imme-
diate expenditure of nearly $14,000,000 for river —
and harbor work.’
“Tn so far as this statement is calculated to pro-
duce the impression that it is contemplated that the
.
CONGRESS. (ApproprRiIATIONS—COoNTESTED SEATS.) ,
whole amount of cash appropriated by this bill is to
be immediately expended it is an error. It is well
understood that only one river and harbor bill is
passed by each Congress. The cash appropriated
therefore by this bill is intended to cover the ex-
pense of the prosecution of works named in the bill,
except as to those placed under the contract system,
for the whole of the two fiscal years ending June 30,
1898. The actual cash appropriation carried by this
bill is $12,621,800, which includes the cash appro-
priation amounting to $2,525,500 for projects placed
under the continuous contracts in the bill.
“ After alluding to the $3,000,000 carried by the
sundry civil bill for works heretofore placed under
contract the President adds:
“©The result is that the contemplated immediate
expenditure for the objects mentioned amounts to
about $17,000,000.’
“ For the reason already given, it is obvious that
this statement isan error. As already stated, $12,-
621,800 is intended to be expended during the two
fiscal years ending June 30, 1898.
“The President is also mistaken in his statement
that this bill authorizes contracts for river and har-
bor work amounting to more than $62.000.000, The
true amount for which such contracts are authorized
is $59,616,404-91.
“The President also states in connection with his
discussion of these contract works:
“*Of the remainder, nearly $20,000,000 will fall
due during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, and
amounts somewhat less in the years immediately
» sueceeding.’
“This is also an error for the reason that if all
the contracts authorized by this bill are promptl
entered into by the Secretary of War for the full
amounts estimated for the completion of each by
the chief of engineers the maximum amount that
can be expended under the limitations of this bill
in any one fiscal year is $16,612,873.91.
“The President also says:
“There is no ground to hope that in the face of
persistent and growing demands the aggregate of
appropriations for the smaller schemes not covered
by contracts will be reduced or even remain sta-
tionary. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898,
such appropriations, together with the installments
on contracts which will fall due in that year, can
hardly be less than $30,000,000.’
“The President here falls into the error of as-
suming that there will be another appropriation for
the ‘smaller schemes’ not covered by contracts to
be expended during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1898. Asa matter of fact, the next river and har-
bor bill, should one be passed, will only cover the
cost of prosecuting these smaller works for the two
fiscal years ending June 30, 1900, and no additional
appropriations for the smaller works will be made
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898.
“The accusation of extravagance in’ this bill is
most effectually disproved by a comparison with
the appropriations for river and harbor improve-
ments already made for the six years ending June
30, 1896:
There has been appropriated, commencing
with the river and harbor bill of 1890, in-
eluding $3,000.000 carried in the pending
sundry civil bill...... cSt OE ESTEE eee OEE
Or an average per annum of.........-..-..--
The amount carried under contract in the
present bill, which will be distributed over
@ Period Of SIX FEATH, 18... 6. ccc eeessces--
Our experience with the contract system in
the past, together with positive statements
laid before your committee, ps, the ex-
pectation that these contract works will be
completed for at least 30 per cent. less than
$100,200,000 .00
16,700,000 .00
* 59,616,404 91
the amount stated, or in round figures, say 42,000,000.00
To this should be added necessary to com-
plete harbor works hitherto undertaken... 4,000,000 .00
219
And it is safe to assume that the river and
harbor bills which will probably be passed
in 1898 and 1900 will each carry not ex- ;
MOUS Sec aceegs adobe tr acad beL cess ennee 10,000,000 .00
Add to this cash appropriated in the present
LO Sate ARGS Seite mien ee Prte ee s 12,621,800 .00
And it may be estimated that during the en-
suing six years there will be expended for
river and harbor improvements in all..... 78,621,800 .00
This would involve the expenditure during
each of the next six years of............... 13,100,000 .00
RV ORRIDME corre Uiab ccs vo svekh cases ceedqacsed 16,700,000 .00
during each of the past six years. This does not
include the item for probable expenditure under
condemnation proceedings authorized for dams and
locks upon the Monongahela river. This amount
can not be definitely stated.
“Tt should be borne in mind that the sum of $59,-
000,000 and more embraced in these continuous
contracts provided for in this bill are the estimates
of the engineers upon the old plan of doing the
work by piecemeal, and that these estimates were
many of them made three, four, five, or more years
ago, when the cost of construction was much greater
than it is now; that in formulating this bill we
have limited in all cases the cost of any projects
put upon the continuous-contract plan to the esti-
mates of the engineers, and there is every reason to
believe that the experience of the past will be the
experience of the future in the saving upon these
contracts; and when we say that we believe these
contracts will all be completed for $42,000,000 we
think we are easily within the range of accurate
statement.”
To the report was added a comparison of amounts
appropriated, as below:
Amounts gi eta in river and harbor ap-
propriation acts, Forty-eighth to Fifty-third Con-
gresses :
Forty-eighth Congress, first session.. ... $13,949,200
Forty-ninth Congress, first session....... 14,473,900
Fiftieth Congress. first session........... 22,397.616
Fifty-first Congress, first session......... 25,136,295
Fifty-second Congress, first session...... 21,154,218
Fifty-third Congress, first session........ 11,643,180
Fifty-fourth Congress, pending bill...... $12,621,800
The bill was passed over the veto without debate
by the following vote: Yeas, 219; nays, 61; not
voting, 74. In the Senate it was debated and passed
by a vote of 56 yeas to 5 nays, 28 not voting. ;
Among the “riders” carried by the appropriation
bills, the most important was the Updegraff bill to
abolish the fee system as to United States district
attorneys and marshals, and to substitute salaries,
which was reported from the Committee on the Judi-
ciary of the House of Representatives and engrafted
upon the legislative, executive, and judicial appro-
priation bill. It is estimated that the direct result
of the legislation will be a saving of at least $1,000,-
000 a year, of which the Treasury will receive the
benefit of about $600,000.
Contested Seats.—The case of Mr. Du Pont’s
title to a seat in the Senate from Delaware (see
“Annual Cyclopedia,” 1895, pages 227, 228) was
debated at length and decided against him. In the
House there were no fewer than 32 cases of contest.
In 17 of these the committees unanimously decided
in favor of the sitting members, who were Demo-
crats; in 2 cases committees unanimously decided
in favor of contestants. who were Republicans; in
9 cases majorities of committees decided against
sitting members, who were Democrats (in one of
these cases declaring the seat vacant), and one case
was not disposed of by the committee which had
charge of it. The net result has been the seating
of 2 Populists and 8 Republicans in the place of 10
Democrats, the unseating of 2 Democrats, which
created vacancies, and the leaving of the titles of
other sitting members whose seats were contested
undetermined.
220
Bond Investigation.—Late in the session the
Senate adopted a resolution for an investigation by
a subcommittee of the Committee on Finance of
the bond transactions of the present Administra-
tion, and the inquiry was begun.
Other Measures.—Among the more important
acts passed were the following: ‘
Amending the land grant forfeiture acts “so
as to extend the time within which persons entitled
to purchase lands forfeited by said act shall be per-
mitted to purchase the same in the quantities and
upon the terms provided in said section, at any
time prior to Jan. 1, 1897: Provided, That actual
residence upon the lands by persons claiming the
right to purchase the same shall not be required
where such lands have been fenced, cultivated, or
otherwise improved by such claimants, and such
persons shall be permitted to purchase 2 or more
tracts of such lands by legal subdivisions, whether
contiguous or not, but not exceeding 320 acres in
’ the aggregate.” , ;
Requiring purchasers of forfeited railroad lands
who “have paid only a portion of the purchase
price to the company, which is less than the Gov-
ernment price of similar lands, before the delivery
of patent for their lands, to pay to the Government
a sum equal to the difference between the portion
of the purchase price so paid and the Government
price, and in such case the amount demanded from
the company shall be the amount paid to it by such
purchaser.”
To open forest reservations in Colorado for the
location of mining claims.
Providing that in considering claims filed under
the pension laws the death of an enlisted man or
officer shall be considered as sufficiently proved if
satisfactory evidence is produced establishing the
fact of the continued and unexplained absence of
such enlisted man or officer from his home and
family for a period of seven years, during which
per no intelligence of his existence shall have
en received.
Repealing the act which pee that no person
who held a commission in the army or navy of the
United States at the beginning of the war of the
rebellion and afterward served in any capacity in
the military, naval, or civil service of the so-called
Confederate States, or either of the insurrectionary
States, shall be appointed to any position in the
army or navy.
Appropriating $75,000 to carry out stipulations
of treaty for investigation and adjudication of
Bering Sea claims, and providing that the com-
mission when sitting at San Francisco shall have
power to compel the attendance of witnesses,
Appropriating $75,000 for the joint expense of
locating and marking the boundary line between
Alaska and British North America by an interna-
tional commission.
Amending section 3255 of the Revised Statutes
so as to provide that distillers of brandy exclusively
from fruits may be exempted from all provisions
of the internal-revenue law, except as to the tax
thereon, whenever the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, shall deem it expedient.
Authorizing and directing the Commissioner of
Labor to correspond and confer with the census
officers of other governments for the purpose of se-
curing conformity in the inquiries relating to the
people, to be used in future censuses, and to report
to Congress as soon as practicable a plan for a per-
manent census service.
_ To provide for the immediate destruction of all
Income-tax returns and all statements and records
relating to them.
Authorizing foreign exhibitors at the Tennessee
CONGRESS. (Boxp INVESTIGATION—-PaciFIc Raibway Funprxe BI.)
Centennial Exposition to bring in foreign laborers
to prepare and display their exhibits, and allowing
articles for such exhibits to be imported free.
Making it a felony for any person in Indian Ter-
ritory to shoot at or into, or throw any rock or
other missile at or into, any railway vehicle.
To provide for the safety of passengers on excur-
sion steamers.
To amend the act granting right of way upon
public lands of the United States for reservoir and
canal purposes,
To make one year’s residence in a Territory a
prerequisite for obtaining divorce there.
To regulate marriages in the District of Co-
lumbia.
Providing for the extension of the time within
which suits may be brought to vacate and annul
land patents.
Prohibiting prize fighting and pugilism in the
Territories and the District of Columbia,
To enable the Secretary of State to reconvene the
delegates from the United States to the Interna-
tional Marine Conference of 1889 in case Parliament
should propose amendments to the rules which the
conference reported.
Extending the time within which vessels in the
foreign trade may unload.
Abolishing days of grace on promissory notes,
drafts, ete., in the District of Columbia.
ee the national society of Daughters
of the Revolution.
Providing that the chaplain of the United States
Military Academy shall be appointed for a term of -
four years, shall be eligible to reappointment, and”
shall receive the same pay and allowance as a cap-
tain of cavalry.
To improve the merchant marine engineer serv-
ice and increase the efliciency of the naval reserve
by providing that American vessels shall employ
only United States citizens as engineers and assist-
ant engineers, regulating the terms of license, and
providing for drafting them into the naval service
in case of war.
Making advance freight charges and contribu-
tions in general average a lien in favor of the ocean
carrier upon goods imported.
Not signed by the President.—Among the
bills allowed by the President to become laws with-
out his signature was one authorizing the leasing
of school lands in Arizona and others relating to |
rights of way for railroad companies through the
Indian Territory and Indian reservations. He did
not sign the joint resolution directing the Secretary
of Agriculture to buy and distribute seeds, bulbs,
etc., as had been done in previous years, nor the
public acts making appropriations for the support
of the Department of Agriculture, which contained
a like provision.
Pacific Railway Funding Bill.— Bills to
amend the «acts of 1862, 1864, and 1878 in regard
to aid to Pacific railroads, and to provide for a set-
tlement of claims growing out of the issue of bonds
for that purpose, were introduced into the Senate
by Senators Frye, of Maine, and Thurston, of Ne-
braska. Mr. Allen, of Nebraska, introduced one
“directing the foreclosure of the Government lien
on the Pacific railroads and for other purposes.” —
The Committee on Pacific Railroads, to which these
were referred, reported a substitute, which Senator
Gear, of Iowa, who presented the report, described
briefly as follows:
“The original debt of the Pacific railroad com-
panies to the United States is paid and the money
is in the Treasury of the United States. This bill
simply deals with the interest. Whether the mat-
ter is dealt with in the best manner is for the Sen-
ate to decide. The bill provides for certain pay-
a i en A A a
CONGRESS.
ments, $1,000 a day for the first ten years, $1,500 a
day for the next ten years, and $2,000 a day there-
after until final payment. And also the payment
of some annual interest.”
This bill provided for refunding the debt of the
roads. A minority report adverse to the bill was
presented by Senator Morgan, of Alabama. The
matter was finally left over, the proposition to re-
fund the indebtedness having received the approval
of the majority of the committees on Pacific rail-
roads in both houses.
Passed the House only.—A bill to amend the
immigration laws by adding to the classes of aliens
excluded all male persons between sixteen and sixty
years of age unable to read and write the English
or some other language, passed the House only, as
did also the general pension bill, and one concern-
ing tonnage tax, proposing to do away with present
provisions by which foreign vessels are enabled to
escape the payment of $100,000 annually, while
United States vessels save by the same provision
only $3,000 or $4,000.
Bills offered.—The total number of bills and
joint resolutions offered in the House of Represen-
tatives was about 9,664, and in the Senate about
3.457, many of the Senate bills, however, being du-
Sie of House bills, and many of the House bills
uplicates of Senate bills. A large proportion of
these consisted of private bills, of which about the
usual proportion — and became laws. The
vetoes of individual pension bills were less numer-
ous than in any session of Congress in President
Cleveland’s first administration.
Work of Committees.—To the House Commit-
tee on Ways and:Means 178 bills and resolutions
were referred, of which 32 were reported to the
House, and of these 18 passed that body and 5
the Senate and became laws. In the consid-
eration of these measures about 80 hearings were
held and testimony was taken which made a volume
of about 1,000
The number of bills and resolutions referred to
the Committee on the Judiciary was 282, of which
42 were favorably re and 28 =
There were referred to the Committee on Naval
Affairs of the House 326 bills and resolutions, of
_ which 124 were favorably reported to the House.
The bill making appropriation for the naval estab-
lishment was formulated in committee, and in it
were included several subjects separately embodied
in bills, as the provisions for a model tank for naval
construction, for the increase of the enlisted force
of the navy, for the improvement of the naval re-
serve, and for certain local improvements at navy
yards and stations. The long contest between the
House and Senate in regard to the number of bat-
tle ships to be authorized resulted in a compromise,
by which the number was fixed at 3 instead of 4, as
ata by the House, and 2 as pro by the
nate. The Senate, however, rejected the comprt-
mise, and this matter is still undetermined.
An important measure recommended by the Navy
Department and agreed upon unanimously by the
- committee was the bill providing a retired list for
enlisted men and petty officers of the navy after
thirty years’ service.
ie a resolution to investigate the alleged abuses
of the civil-service law in the administration of
the Brooklyn Navy Yard, the Naval Committee had
hearings and examined voluminous documentary
evidence furnished by the Navy Department.
The Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries
reported some important bills, several of which
‘passed the House, and one of which was rejected
owing to the temporary absence of many members
when the vote was taken and a misunderstanding
among other members as to the scope of the meas-
(MIscELLANEOUS.)
221
ure. It was one to abolish compulsory pilotage as
to vessels engaged in the coastwise trade.
The Committee on Military Affairs reported a ~
bill to reorganize the line of the army.
Another important bill reported from the Mili-
tary Committee authorizes the duplicating of the
machinery at the Springfield Armory, where rifles
are manufactured, The bill appropriates $150,000.
The proposition, if adopted, will make it possible for
the armory to turn out annually twice as many
rifles as at present. Another measure favorably re-
ported by the committee is that establishing a mili-
tary park on the battlefield of Vicksburg.
To the Committee on Invalid Pensions were re-
orted 2,446 House bills and 233 Senate bills.
hey reported upon 614 claims and measures, and
about 225 were approved by the House. ;
Two important bills were reported from the Com-
mittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, one to
allow a submarine cable to Hawaii, Japan, and
China, and one in the Nicaragua Canal.
Bills on the Calendars.—Among the bills on
the Senate calendar at the date of adjournment
which had been favorably reported from commit-
tees were a number of considerable importance,
among which were the following: House bill to
revent the extermination of the Alaska fur-seal
erd; House bill to reduce the cases in which the
penalty of death may be inflicted; Senate bill to
provide for seacoast defenses; Senate bill for relief
of Indian citizens: Senate bill to amend the navi-
gation laws; Senate resolution to open to public
entry the Uncompahgre Indian Reservation in
Utah; Senate bills for admission of New Mexice
and Arizona as States; Senate bill for the appoint-
ment of a nonpartisan labor commission; Senate
resolution authorizing the appointment of a board
of naval officers to report upon the cost of estab-
lishing a coaling station on Navassa island; Senate
bill providing for the election of a Delegate in Con-
gress from Alaska; Senate bill to establish a uni-
form system of bankruptcy; a bill to reclassify
railway postal clerks and prescribe their salaries;
Senate bill to refund indebtedness of Pacific rail-
roads to United States (identical with -House bill
on same subject): Senate resolution to facilitate re-
organization of Northern Pacific Railroad Com-
pany; Senate bill for establishment of a bureau of
animal industry; Senate bill toamend laws relating
to American seamen; Senate bill to protect forest
reservations; Senate bill for laying a cable between
the United States and Hawaii and Japan; House
bill for protection of yacht owners and shipbuilders ;
Senate bill directing the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission to prepare a uniform freight classification.
Among the more important measures on the
House calendars were the following : To establish a
classification division in the Patent Office; to aid
the public-land States to establish and support
schools of mines; to codify the pension laws; to
amend the postal laws relating to second-class mat-
ter; to promote the efficiency of the revenue-cutter
service ; to reclassify railway postal clerks and pre-
scribe their salaries; to provide for final adjust-
ment of swamp-land grants; to increase the pay of
letter-carriers; to establish a bureau of animal in-
dustry; to fix the pay of superintendents and crews
of life-saving stations; to duplicate machinery at
Springfield Armory; to amend the civil-service
law; to classify the clerks in first-class and second-
class post offices; to create a special commission on
highways—the “Good Roads Commission”; to re-
fund the indebtedness of the Pacific railroads to
the United States; the Hawaii-Japan-China cable
bill; the Nicaragua Canal bill; to protect public
forest reservations; to amend the navigation laws;
to provide for a commission on the subject of the
222
alcoholic liquor traffic; to authorize the people of
Oklahoma to form a constitution and State govern-
ment; to grant per diem service pensions to honor-
ably discharged officers and soldiers of the war of the
rebellion; to prevent the purchase of or speculat-
ing in claims against the Government by United
States officers; to amend the copyright law; to
regulate mail matter of the fourth class; to in-
crease the circulation of national banks; to amend
and revise the patent laws; to protect the wages
of seamen; to protect free labor from convict com-
petition ; to prevent forest fires on the public do-
main; to provide for the election of a Delegate in
Congress from Alaska, and bills to provide for the
admission as States of Arizona and New Mexico,
CONNECTICUT, a New England State, one of
the original thirteen; ratified the national Consti-
tution Jan. 9, 1788; area, 4,900 square miles. The
population, according to each decennial census, was
237,946 in 1790; 251,002 in 1800; 261,942 in 1810;
275,148 in 1820; 297,675 in 1830; 309,978 in 1840;
370,792 in 1850; 460,147 in 1860; 537,454 in 1870;
622,700 in 1880; and 746,258 in 1890. Capital,
Hartford.
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, O. Vincent
Coffin, Republican; Lieutenant Governor, Lorrin
A. Cooke; Secretary of State, William C. Mowry;
Treasurer, George W. Hodge; Comptroller, Ben-
jamin P, Mead; Adjutant General, Charles P. Gra-
ham ; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Errors,
Charles B. Andrews; Associate Justices, David
Torrance, Augustus H. Fenn, Simeon E. Baldwin,
and William Hamersley ; Clerk, C. W. Johnson.
Finances.—The receipts of the State treasury
for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1896, were as
follow: Military commutation tax, $147,016.60 ; tax
on mutual insurance companies, $273,049.09; tax
on railroads, $862,439.25; tax on nonresident stock,
$102,640.87; tax on savings banks, $340,404.81;
avails of courts and forfeited bonds, $20,573.05 ;
national aid to soldiers’ homes, $33,972.86; Com-
missioner of Insurance, $68,334.79; collateral in-
heritance tax, $135,836.50; tax on investments,
$48,576.77; interest on deposits, $24,474.31; tax on
telegraph and telephone companies, $10,533.91 ; tax
on express companies, $9,722 50: sundry taxes and
receipts, $34,700.10; miscellaneous, $5,543.86 ; total
yearly receipts, $2,117,819.27. The funded debt of
the State, Sept. 30, 1896, less cash in the treasury to
credit of civil-list funds, was $2,949,466.15.
Banks.—According to the last published report
of the United States Comptroller of the Currency,
Connecticut had, on Sept. 28, 1895, 82 national
banks, with a combined capital of $22,391,070, and
total resources amounting to $77,912,968.69. The
last report of the Bank Commissioners, Oct. 1, 1895,
shows that in the 8 State banks the deposits dur-
ing the year increased $597,282, and the undivided
protte $37,238, a gain of $26,507. In the savings
anks the number of accounts opened during the
year was 53,534; the number of accounts closed,
41,313; the amount deposited (including interest
credited), $33,829,196; the amount withdrawn,
$26,973,732; the income of the year was $7,488,492,
of which $5,451,233 was paid to depositors for in-
terest; the number of depositors on Oct. 1 was
346,758, and the total of deposits $143,159,123. The
total of assets was increased during the year §$6,-
507,780, and the surplus $367,568. The 9 trust
companies have an aggregate capital of $1,135,000,
and their surplus and undivided profits have in-
creased $22,237, and their deposits $839.275. The
Commissioners report the banks of the State gen-
erally in a healthy condition, and recommend
a pecibee of changes in the banking laws of the
State.
CONNECTICUT.
Insurance.—The receipts of the’Connecticut in-
surance department for the fiscal year ending Sept.
30, 1896, amounted to $67,870.70, which amount
was paid to the State Treasurer. The expenditures
during the year were $33,781.12, an increase, com-
pared with 1895, of $7,594.94. The surplus was $34,-
089.58. The General Assembly of 1895 passed an act
placing secret or fraternal insurance societies under
the supervision of the Insurance Commissioner.
The act went into effect Aug. 1, 1895, and during
that year two of these societies received permits to
transact business in Connecticut. During the first
six months of 1896, 26 additional societies received
such permits.
Railroads.—The forty-third annual report of the
Railroad Commissioners, covering the operations of
the steam railroad companies for the year ending
June 30, 1895, and of the street railway companies
for the year ending Sept. 30, 1895, submitted to the
Governor in January, 1896, gives the total miles of
single track, excluding sidings and trackage rights,
as 3,059°17. The capital stock of companies report-
ing was $90,008,363.38; funded debt, $44,261,372.76;
current liabilities, $13,087,867.41; gross earnings,
$35,206,110.71; operating expenses, being 68°43 per
cent. of the gross earnings, $24,091,893.56 ; net earn-
ings, $11,114,217.15; dividends paid, $4,743,256;
taxes paid to the State, $731,070.15; total of taxes
paid, $1,807,710.35. During the year the New
York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Compan
acquired control of the New England Raslrond,
The casualties were many more than during the
preceding year.
The last General Assembly passed an act requir-
ing street railway companies to make annual returns
to the Railroad Commissioners. From these re-
turns it appears that the number of companies or-
ganized and reporting is 25, representing 299°55
miles of single track, or 817:22 miles including sid-
ings. The capital stock is $8,604,240; bonded
indebtedness, $7,966,000; floating indebtedness,
$1,123,457.79; total, $17,723,697.79. The gross
earnings were $2,232,201.87; operating expenses,
constituting 68°24 per cent. of the gross earnings,
$1,523,191.13 ; net earnings applicable to interest,
taxes, and dividends, $708,860.24; interest paid,
$278,136.26; taxes paid, $76,522.34; dividends,
$168,630. All but one of the street railway lines
are operated by electricity, and that one is now
being electrically equipped. An act of the last
Legislature provided that no electric, cable, or horse
railroad should thereafter be constructed at grade
across a steam railroad, nor a steam road across an
electric, cable, or horse railroad. , a
In November, 1895, the State Board of Equaliza-
tion fixed the valuation of the various steam rail-
roads, for State taxation, at $74.510,704.45, and the
valuation of street railways at $2,747,300.
Education.—The enumeration in 1895 of chil-
dren of school age gave their number as 174,529,
an increase over the preceding year of 3,940. For
each such child the several towns are entitled to
collect from the State $2.25; $1.50 to be paid
from the civil list and 75 cents from the school
fund. The civil-list dividend in 1896 amounted to
$261,793.50, and the school-fund dividend to $130,-
896.75, a total of $392,690.25.
At the Connecticut School for Boys, on Oct. 1,
there were 409 inmates. The superintendent says:
“It is asserted on good authority, by well-founded —
facts, that 75 per cent. of the boys who leave the —
school are reformed.”
State Prison.—The latest report covers the year
ending Sept. 80, 1895. On that date there were 395 —
prisoners; during the year 186 had been received and
172 discharged, the average nnmber for the year
being 403, an increase over 1894 of more than 50,
CONNECTICUT.
By an expenditure of $7,200 the prison has secured
a permanent and greatly improved system of heat-
ing and ventilation; a new and enlarged kitchen
has also been arranged, and three large wire cages,
in which incorrigible convicts may secure outdoor
exercise in suitable weather, have been erected in
the prison yard. The warden’s report says:
“The continued and persistent efforts toward im-
provement in heating and ventilation, the destruc-
tion of disease germs by disinfectants. and the
sterilizing by steam of all clothing, the greater
variety, better quality, and larger quantity of food
allowed, together with the compulsory outdoor ex-
ercise of the men, begin to show their beneficial
effects. With the improvement in the general
health there is shown also a marked improvement
in the.disposition of the inmates as a whole.”
During 1896 the Bertillon system for identifica-
tion of prisoners was applied at the State Prison.
In October a new department in the prison, for the
encouragement of prisoners to reform their con-
duct, was opened, and 21 prisoners were selected to
occupy it. According to their conduct, the prison-
ers are divided into three classes, and it is those of
the first grade who are eligible for this department.
These are given a uniform different from the other
prisoners, of cadet-blue cloth, with steel buttons;
their food, which is better than the others receive,
is served to them in crockery, and they are given
many privileges. The construction of this new de-
odie was authorized by the last Legislature.
here are 82 cells, and they are all made of bur-
glar-proof steel, each being 5 feet by 7 feet, and 8
feet in height. The interior of the cells is painted
a light buff. The cell is furnished with a bed that
hangs by strong chains from the side of the cell
and can be folded close to the steel wall when not
in use. The bed is furnished with fine-fiber mat-
tress and comfortable clothing for covering. The
floor is covered with ingrain carpet. There is a
__ sink in the cell and a faucet for running water.
The sanitary arrangements are excellent. A com-
fortable chair, a mirror, lamp and rack, and shelf
complete the furnishing of the cell. Each cell is
_ furnished with a radiator that enables the occupant
to regulate the heat.
_ _ State Institutions.—The State institutions are:
The Normal Training Schools, at New Britain,
Willimantic. and New Haven; Storrs Agricultural
College; Fitch’s Home for the Soldiers and Sol-
diers’ Hospital; Hospital for the Insane; State
Prison; School for Boys; and Industrial.School for
Girls. The last Legislature authorized the estab-
lishment of a reformatory for wayward men and
women, and a site in Hartford was purchased,
plans accepted, and work begun. But on Nov. 17
an injunction was served upon the board of direc-
tors, restraining them from continuing the work
until the city of Hartford has withdrawn its objec-
tions and given its consent to the erection of the
buildings in the place selected.
Highways.—In December, 1895, the new State
Highway Commission made the appropriation of
_ money to be paid at once to towns for work done
on roads during that year to the amount of $30,-
643.25. The balances due towns for work begun in
. 1895 but not completed, which must be finished
July 1, 1896, aggregated $44,280.39. The Commis-
sion also made allotments to towns that have taken
preliminary steps to improve their highways,
amounting in the aggregate to $74,923.64. The
maximum amount allotted to any town was $980.
Labor Bureau.—The report for 1895 of the
Bureau.of Labor Statistics says that on July 1.
1895, in the 1,000 manufacturing establishments
from which the figures were obtained, there were
112,002 employees on the pay rolls, a gain of 13,385,
223
or 13°57 per cent. over the number employed in
1894, and a decrease of 404 per cent. from the
number in 1892. Of the 167 establishments mak-
ing general changes in wage-rates, 33 increased
rates, 106 made partial or full restoration to former
wages, and 28 reduced wages. The number of em-
ployees affected by reduction in wages rates was
1,287, or 1:15 per cent. of the whole number re-
porting; the number affected by change in the
other direction being 22,814, or 20°37 per cent. of
the whole. The average weekly hours of labor in
the whole number of establishments reporting was
54:46. The report estimates the loss in wages to
those involved in “strikes” which have been ad-
justed during the year at $934,500, and the loss to
the employers at $92,800.
In the matter of town and State aid to the poor
it is stated that the number of persons assisted in
all institutions and outside of them at the expense
of the towns and State in 1894 was 17,729, at an
average cost per person of $56.10, or a total of
$994,615.18.
The State Board of Mediation and Arbitration
was organized Sept. 18, 1895.
Factory Inspection.—The report of the Factory
Inspector for the ten months ending Sept. 30, 1895,
shows that during the period there were inspected
1,091 factories, employing 93,467 persons. Of this
number of factories, 600 were found in good con-
dition, and in 491 changes were ordered, a total of
943 orders being given, of which 190 were intended
to protect the health of the operators and 753 to
insure greater security against accidents. There -
were 25 factories with insufficient means of egress.
The report states that Connecticut stands ninth
among the States of the Union in the value of its
manufactured products.
Local Option.—Out of the 168 towns in the
State, 97 voted in 1896 to have no license and 71 in
favor of license. There are in the State 51 towns
of more than 3,000 inhabitants, and of these only
11 are no-license towns. The license list includes
all the 18 cities; al] but 3 of the 20 borough towns,
and almost every factory town in the State. The
statistics indicate that notwithstanding the large
majority of no-license towns, with almost corre-
sponding strength in the Legislature. about four
fifths of the State have adopted the license system.
Militia.—The latest report of the Adjutant
General was for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30,
1895. The annual muster shows 192 commissioned
officers and 2,573 enlisted men. The expenses dur-
ing the year amounted to $150,878.99. In the dis-
bursements of the quartermaster general’s depart-
ment $45,857.86 was expended between Oct. 1,
1894, and Jan. 9, 1895; $40,660.93 from Jan. 9,
to Oct. 1, 1895. A six days’ encampment was held
from Aug. 12 to 17, inclusive.
Fisheries.—In October. 1895, 4,300,000 young
shad were turned from the State’s retaining ponds
into the Farmington and Connecticut rivers. The
shad fry were hatched in May and June preceding
in the State hatcheries, and all fish indigenous to
the waters were netted from the retaining ponds
before the shad fry were placed in them. In the
spring of 1896 several million smelt and pike-
perch fry were distributed, and 1,250,000 trout fry.
The engineer of the Fish Commission in 1896 re-
turned his report in the fresh-water area of the
State and the mileage of the rivers and steamers of
Connecticut. The total acreage of waters is 43,637 ;
the total mileage of rivers, 7,619.
The Shellfish Commission was more then self-
supporting last year. The receipts were $6,862,
and there was a balance of over $1,000. The num-
ber of oyster steamers is 144, and the oyster lands
held by private owners aggregate 69,610 acres, or
224
over 100 square miles. The catch from the three
natural beds during the year was over 1,000,000
bushels, and it gave employment to 200 boats and
600 men for three months.
Live Stock.—In July, 1896, the United States
Department of Agriculture estimated the number
a value of farm animals in the State as follow:
Horses, 43,913, value, $2,922,361; milch cows, 136,-
206, value, $4,072,559; other cattle, 69,890, value,
$1,745,494; sheep, 34,520, value, $91,892; and
swine, 53,737, value, $480,406 ; total value, $9,312,-
712; a decrease in valuation since January, 1895, of
$202,825. The decrease in number is in horned
cattle and sheep. " }
Monuments.—The Legislature of 1893 provided
for the erection of memorials on the battlefields of
the civil war, commemorating the service of the
Connecticut troops thereon engaged. The Twelfth
Regiment monument, at Winchester, in the Shenan-
doah valley, was dedicated Oct. 19, and the monu-
ment in honor of the Second Connecticut Heavy
Artillery, originally the Nineteenth Connecticut
Infantry, was unveiled in the National Cemetery at
Arlington, Oct. 21. The Eleventh Regiment monu-
ment, erected two years ago on the battlefield of
Antietam, was this year removed from its original
site to the position at Antietam bridge which was
gallantly held by the regiment during the battle.
Woman Suffrage.—At the town elections in
October women voted on school questions in only
45 of the 162 towns in which elections were held,
and the total vote was about one fourth the number
of women who registered, that number being 5,289.
The vote this year was 1,399; in 1895 it was 2,001,
and in 1894, 2,425.
Political.—The Republican State Convention,
held at New Haven on April 22, declared in favor
of protection with reciprocity, restriction of immi-
gration, and supplying the Government with the
men and munitions necessary to uphold the Monroe
doctrine. Other declarations were as follow:
“We are unalterably opposed to the issue of un-
secured paper currency, either by the Government
or the banks, or the free coinage of silver, at any
ratio, and favor a single standard of value, and that
standard gold. We believe that this policy, with a
sound and stable currency upon a gold basis, will
furnish sufficient revenue to meet all requirements
of the Government and properly support it.
“ We believe in such discriminating duties in fa-
vor of American bottoms as will again revive our
shipping interests, and extend our trade and com-
merce to every land.”
On June 10 the Democratic Convention was held
in Hartford. It approved the administration of
President Cleveland, expressed itself in favor of a
system of tariff taxation for revenue which should
provide a surplus for.the payment of the Federal
debt, and passed also the following resolutions:
“ As a necessary consequence, the honest payment
of public debts and the preservation of the public
faith and credit require that the gold standard of
money, as a measure of value, shall be maintained.
“While we favor the most liberal use of silver
consistent with the enforcement of a gold standard,
we are unalterably opposed to the free coinage of
silver, deeming it a device for the debasement of
our currency, and to the compulsory purchase of
silver by the Government. Under existing circum-
stances to pay public debts in silver coin is repudia-
tion; to pay private debts in the same coin is to
rob the wage earner; and to provide for the free
coinage of silver means the destruction of legitimate
pits and great suffering among the laboring
classes,
“We believe the safety of our national finances
requires a system of sound banking, by which a
CONNECTICUT.
bank-note currency ample to supply the needs of
the whole country shall be created, safely secured,
and always and everywhere redeemable in gold.”
On Sept. 1 the Republican State Convention,
held in Hartford, to nominate presidential electors +
and candidates for State officers adopted the fol-
lowing:
“We, the Republicans of Connecticut in con-
vention assembled, while reaffirming the principles
of the Republican party, as enunciated in the plat-
form adopted by the National Convention at St.
Louis, and in the masterly letter of acceptance of
our presidential nominee, William McKinley, and
in the admirable platform recently adopted by our
State convention, recognize in the crisis which has
been forced upon this country by the un-American
and revolutionary action of the so-called Demo-
cratic Convention, held at Chicago, that the ques-
tion of supreme importance at present is the pres-
ervation of the life, honor, and integrity of our
nation.
“We realize that this can only be accomplished
by the maintenance of our judicial system, which is
the bulwark of our liberties and the admiration of
the world, and by the continuance of a financial
policy which makes gold the standard of value
until a different policy is adopted by international
agreement.
“We favor a tariff which will provide revenue
sufficient to meet the ordinary necessary expenses
of the Government, and so adjusted as to place
American labor, without the sacrifice of our high
wage system, on at least equal terms in our own
market with the labor of other lands.
“We commend the wise and economical adminis-
tration of the affairs of this State by Governor
Coffin and his associates,”
On the first ballot Lorrin A. Cook was nominated
for Governor; James D. Dewell was the nominee ~
for Lieutenant Governor; Charles Phelps for Sec-
retary of State; Charles W. Grosvenor for Treas-
urer; and Benjamin P. Mead for Comptroller,
The Prohibition State Convention was held in
New Haven Sept. 8. The 3 declarations of its plat-
form favored the — of the manufacture
or sale of alcoholic beverages. A woman-suffrage
clause was excluded after a vigorous debate. The
nominations for State officers were: For Governor,
Edward Manchester; for Lieutenant Governor,
Charles E. Steele; for Secretary of State, Wilbur
L. Chamberlain; for Treasurer, George P. Fenner;
for Comptroller, Elijah C. Barton.
When the Democratic State Convention assem-
bled at New Haven on Sept. 16, one of the first pro-
ceedings was the resignation of 12 members of
the regular State Committee, and of its chairman
and its secretary. Two vacancies already existed
in the committee, whose original number was
24, and 2 members were not in attendance
at the convention. A proposition from the Peo-
ple’s party for a conference “for the selection of
candidates for presidential electors and also candi-
dates for State officers to be presented for the con-
sideration of the Democratic State Convention now
in session,” was received, and an adjournment of
an hour was taken for the conference. Among the
rules adopted on reassembling was one to the effect
that members of the State Central Committee take
office immediately upon election, instead of on Jan.
1, as formerly. The platform adopted included the
following:
“We indorse the platform adopted at Chicago
by the Democratic National Convention, and that
we pledge our earnest and faithful support to Wil-
liam J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall, the candidates
nominated by the Democratic party.
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COSTA RICA.
erty and idleness have been the ever-increasing result
of the demonetization of silver in 1873; we there-
fore invite the united support of the electors in the
effort to restore the coinage system which existed
‘during the years of our national prosperity, and
which is the coinage system recognized in our na-
tional Constitution. e denounce the recent bond
issues and the useless increase of the national debt
in time of peace.
“As labor is a great producing industry, we
recognize the certain result of depression in busi-
ness to be less money to be paid for the labor
roduct. and a limited market for its employment.
e therefore invite labor to unite to save itself
from the danger which threatens it if money shall
continue to increase in purchasing power, and all
else to decrease in exchangeable value in the mar-
kets of the world.”
The State ticket nominated was the following:
For Governor, James B. Sargent; for Lieutenant
Governor, S. Ashbel Crandall; for Secretary of
State, Homer S. Cummings; for Treasurer, A. M.
Ross ; for Comptroller, E. M. Ripley.
The State convention of the People’s party met
at New Haven, Oct. 3, fewer than 40 delegates be-
ing in attendance. No ticket was nominated, the
principal vote of the convention being one instruct-
ing members of the party to vote for all the candi-
dates of the Silver Democrats.
A call therefore having been issued in Septem-
ber, the Sound-money Democrats met in conven-
tion at Hartford on Oct. 8. The resolutions of their
latform were the same as those adopted at the
etanareac Convention in June. It was also re-
solved that the party title to be placed at the head
of the ballots containing the names of the candi-
dates of the National Democracy in Connecticut
should be “ National Democratic.” - Presidential
electors were nominated, as well as the following
State ticket: For Governor, Joel A. Sperry; for
Lieutenant Governor, William Waldo Hvde. for
Secretary of State, William Belcher; for Treasurer,
George H. Hoyt ; for Comptroller, H. W. Curtis.
At the election in November the Republican State
ticket was successful. Four Republican members
of Congress and 24 Republican State Senators were
elected. The vote for presidential electors was:
McKinley, 110,285; Bryan, 56,740; Palmer, 4,336 ;
Levering, 1,806 ; Social Labor and scattering, 1,227.
McKinley’s plurality was 53,545, the total vote cast -
being 174,394.
COREA. See Korea.
COSTA RICA, a republic of Central America.
_ The Congress is composed of a single Chamber
_ of 21 Representatives, elected for four years by
s chosen by all the respectable citi-
zens. Rafael Iglesias was elected President for the
term of four years ending May 8, 1898.
Area and Population.—With an estimated area
of 23,000 square miles, Costa Rica has about 275,000
inhabitants, including 3,500 aborigines. Immigra-
_ tion has been encouraged by granting concessions
_ ofland. There were 1,490 marriages in 1893, and
_ 10,567 births and 6,027 deaths. Education is free
and compulsory..
Finances.—The revenue for the year ending
June 30, 1895, was 6,021,615 pesos, and the expendi-
ture 6,824,243 pesos. The foreign debt was com-
ced in 1887 by giving new bonds for £2,000,-
sterling, bearing interest at 5 per cent., and for
the arrears of interest, amounting to £2,119,500,
stock in the Costa Rica Railroad for 224 per cent.
of the amount. In 1895 the Government defaulted
again, on account of the premium on gold, and
offered a new compromise. The Bank of Costa
Rica has the privilege of issuing notes, of which
8,107,000 pesos were in circulation in 1895, protected
VOL, Xxxvr.—15 A
CUBA, 995
by a specie reserve of 1,155,000 pesos. There were
about 1,000,000 pesos of silver in circulation. The -
Government in July, 1896, passed a law prohibiting
the importation of foreign silver coin and requiring
that in the possession of the people after thirty days
to be sent to the mint and exchanged for Costa
Rican currency.
Commerce and Communications.—The culti-
vation of coffee is rapidly extending and all ayail-
able land is being planted to this crop, which brings .
a high price in the European market. The number
of plantations is 8,595. . The coffee crop in 1895 was
15,160,868 kilogrammes, representing a value of
more than $9,000,000. The mining and agricultural
resources of the country will be expanded when the
railroads that are projected have been built. Of
the original Costa Rican Railroad 147 miles are in
operation on the Atlantic side and 14 on the Pacific
side, earning 2,449,893 pesos in 1895. An American
company with a capital of $1,500,000 has under-
taken to construct a line from San José, the capital,
to the Pacific coast.
Boundary Settlement.—Costa Rica and Nica-
ragua came to an agreement in April, 1896, through
the mediation of the President of Salvador, regard-
ing the demarcation of the boundary between the
two republics. There was a dispute as to the in-
terpretation of the boundary treaty of 1858, which
was referred to the President of the United States
for arbitration. After President Cleveland had
rendered his decision disputes arose as to the loca-
tion of certain points of the line. The new con-
vention provides for a joint commission of delimi-
tation, which shall be accompanied by an American
engineer selected by President Cleveland to act as
referee in any dispute that may arise.
CUBA, the largest of the West Indian islands.
_the last remaining American colony of Spain ex-
cepting the neighboring island of Puerto Rico.
The head of the civil and military administration
is a captain general appointed by the Spanish Gov-
ernment, as are also the members of his council. In
. the Spanish Cortes Cuba is represented by 30 Depu-
ties and 16 Senators.
Area and Population.—The island has an area
of 41,655 square miles. The population in 1894
was estimated to be 1,631.696. Slavery ceased in
1886. Havana, the capital, had 198,271 inhabitants
in 1887. The population of Santiago de Cuba in
1892 was 71,307; of Puerto Principe, 46,641; of
Holguin, 34.767; of Cienfuegos, 27,430; of Sancti
Spiritus, 32.608. Of the total population 65 per
cent. are white and the rest negroes and ‘mulattoes,
except about 50,000 Chinese laborers on the planta-
tions. The bulk of the plantation laborers, how-
ever, are negroes and mulattoes, numbering about
575,000. The white population is divided into the
Peninsulares, or immigrants from Spain, a smal! but
influential class, comprising officials and ex-officials,
wealthy planters and merchants, and professional
men, and the Insulares, or Cuban creoles, descended
from the original Spanish conquerors, numbering
nearly 1,000,000.
Finances.—The revenue for the fiscal year
1893-94 was $20.492,764, and the expenditure $26.-
230,176. The military expenditure was $8,541,200.
and the naval expenditure $1,097,385 ; the cost of the
civil administration, $3,663.909. The debt amount-
ed to $159.849,000, consisting of the Spanish debt
of $570,000 due to the United States. amortizable
bonds for $179,000, $114,410,000 of Cuban bonds at
6 per cent. issued in 1886, and $47,690,000 of 5-per-
cent. bonds of 1890. In 1895 the expenses of the
war added $122,500,000 to the debt, not counting
$10,000,000 of arrears of salaries and unpaid obli-
gations. In 1896 the war expenses were $10,000,000
or more every month. With the increased debt the
226
annual interest charge would amount to over $20,-
000,000 a year. The Government in 1895 and 1896,
owing to the civil war, could collect no taxes, and
the customs receipts at Havana fell off to one quar-
ter the normal amount. The destruction of sugar
estates and tobacco fields took from the people their
principal means of support and deprived the Gov-
ernment of its main sources of revenue for many
years to come. The sugar crop, which was 1,050,-
090 tons in 1894, was estimated at less than 200,000
tons in 1896, and the tobaceo crop at 50,000 bales
instead of the normal amount of 450,000 bales. The
total exports were valued at $60,000,000 still in 1895,
but in 1896 they were not expected to exceed $15,-
000,000. The Government estimates of expenditure
for 1896-97 were $92,000,000, and of revenue $30,-
000,000. The increase of revenue over that even of
1894 was expected to come from a higher tax on im-
ports, although the whole produce of the country
would hardly pay for the foreign breadstuffs needed
to feed the starving population huddled in the cities.
When merchants and bankers exported all their gold
to Spain and the United States, and thousands gave
up business and returned to i ig the Spanish Gov-
ernment authorized the Bank of Spain in Havana
to emit $12,000,000 of notes for the payment of cur-
rent obligations in Cuba, to be guaranteed by a re-
serve of $3,000,000 in silver coin deposited by the
Government and redeemed in gold. When the mer-
chants refused to take the new currency except at a
discount the Captain General issued a decree order-
ing all persons to accept the bills on a par with gold,
and endeavored to enforce it against the retailers
- until they began to close their shops, against the
wholesalers until they emigrated, against the stock
exchange, and against the bankers, including the
Bank of Spain, which refused to accept them in
payment for gold drafts on Spain, until the banks
closed their exchange departments.
Failure of Martinez Campos.— When the Span-
ish Government found that it had to deal with an
uprising in Cuba as general and as formidable as
the ten years’ rebellion of 1868-78, Marshal Campos
was placed in command of the great army that was
sent to reduce the new revolt because he was the
pacificator who had brought the former war to an
end, not by strategy and military organization
alone, though in these arts he stood pre-eminent in
the Spanish army, but by a conciliatory policy that
won the confidence of the Cuban people. When the
reforms that he promised and that were partially
carried out proved illusory the Cubans did not
blame him, but they lost all faith in the promises
of the Spanish Government. The crux of their
grievances was that the metropolis and Spanish
placeholders drained the island of between 40 and
and 50 per cent. of its annual income and steadily
diminished its wealth-producing capacity and im-
poverished the people. The Cubans did not respond
to the efforts of Campos to rally a strong party to
the support of the Government. The Integrists,
composed exclusively of European Spaniards, were
upholders of the existing colonial organization,
which conferred special privileges upon them,
though even they had a programme of reforms.
So were the Reformists, who proposed a decentral-
ized local administration, loyal to the Government,
and this party contained a small Cuban element.
The large Autonomist party, composed of native
Cubans, who aimed to establish a system of legisla-
tive, fiscal, and economical independence like that
of the self-governing English colonies, denounced
the revolution as vigorously in the beginning as did
either of the Spanish parties. Campos, while trying
not to give offense to the Spanish parties, encouraged
the Autonomist hopes of a peaceful and constitu-
tional solution of the Cuban troubles, The strength
CUBA.
of the revolutionary movement was much greater
than he anticipated. The Autonomist leaders in
Havana and some from the interior condemned
the revolution in a violent manifesto, but as Gomez
made his progress westward into the populous
provinces the party, which had listened in silence
to the voice of its leaders, began to melt away.
Some emigrated, but the majority went to swell
the ranks of the Cuban army or gave their hearts
and labor to the cause. The rebels, who numbered
about 20,000 fighting men in October, 1895, had been
organized by Gen. Maximo Gomez into groups
adapted for guerrilla warfare. Orders were then
issued that sugar-planters should make no crop
during the season of 1896, and to enforce this decree
the rebels decided to invade the provinces of Ma-
tanzas, Havana, and Pinar del Rio. This invasion
was successfully carried out in December and Jan- —
uary. The white Cubans joined the insurgents in~
such numbers that the rebellion distinctly assumed ~
the character of a war between the Cubans and the
Spaniards, fought on the principle of driving the
Spaniards out of Cuba by exhausting the resources
of Government revenue and Spanish wealth. As —
Gomez marched from the mountains of Santiago —
westward through the length of the island to Pinar —
del Rio, his approach gave the signal for the upris-
ing of five provinces in succession. The strategic
lines that Campos attempted to hold proved in-—
efficient, his garrisons were weak, and the constant —
shifting of his troops was fatiguing and demoraliz-
ing as well as useless. The Captain General was
forced, when nearly all his Cuban supporters disap-
peared, to rely on the political support of the two
Spanish parties. He endeavored to harmonize the
Conservatives and the Reformists by dividing his
favors between them, but failed to compose their
uarrels. Gomez was able to make effective his
dneeae forbidding the grinding of sugar cane, and
thus deprived the Government of its revenues and |
arrested all industry. The complete failure of all
the strategic plans of Campos and the losses and
stoppage of business and consequent distress pro- —
duced by the successes of the rebels made the Span-
iards more bitter and vindictive. The Captain
General could not satisfy the Conservatives except —
by adopting more rigorous methods, such as the
introduction of a reign of terror in the cities by the
imprisonment of all suspected sympathizers with —
the revolution and the shooting of prisoners of
war. The Spaniards in Havana, frightened at the
proximity of the Cuban forces, despairing at seeing
the large Spanish army unable to check the ad-
vance of the rebels or to protect the zones of culti-_
vation that Campos undertook to guard, finally
coalesced against him, and demanded his recal
At the opening of 1896 the whole interior of the —
island was in the hands of the rebels, while the
Spaniards held the towns. Ships had been bought
to blockade the coast, yet arms and ammunition
were continually being landed, and as yet no fili-
buster had been taken. The Spanish army was_
practically standing on the defensive, althous
Campos had received the re-enforcements that he
wanted. Except the towns, certain positions on
the coast, and the railroads that were kept in opera-
tion for short distances from the principal towns,
the island was practically Freé Cuba under the
military rule of the insurgent generals. The Span:
iards seldom ventured inland in any direction from
their base, and never with a force of less than 2,000
or 3,000 men. Even then the disorganization of
their commissariat and the hostility of the country
rendered it impossible for them to keep the field
longer than a few days at atime. Of the Cubans,
the rich and the poor, white and black, the intelli-
gent and the uneducated classes, even the children
_ infantry.
CUBA.
of Spanish parents, were against Spain. American
and English planters, too, and managers of mines
usually wished for the success of the patriots, and
aided them in many ways. The mild methods pro-
fessed by Marshal Campos were not practiced by
Lieut.-Gen. Pando and the other commanders in
the eastern part of the island, where persons were
continually arrested on suspicion and either shot or
deported to Africa. The Spaniards did not dare to
attack the Cubans in the mountains back of Santiago
and could not keep railroad communications per-
manently open for any distance in the eastern
province. The fighting there was left to guerrillas,
some of whom, especially the band of Lolo Benitez,
- committed atrocities. On Dec. 26, 1895, the guer-
rillas of Col. Tejeda attacked the rebel bands of
Cabreco and Pancho Sanchez in San Prudencio,
driving them from one position, but finally being
themselves put to flight by a machete charge in a
difficult position on the mountain.
In the central provinces the Cubans effectually
held the plains. The planters, who feared to grind
cane lest the rebels should burn their fields, were
threatened with court-martial by Lieut.-Gen. Pando
if they did not grind. José Maceo replied with an
order to destroy machinery if grinding was begun,
and when any attempted to grind cane their cane
fields were set on fire the same day.
The sugar estates in the eastern division of the
island were permitted to grind because at the be-
ginning of the war arrangements were made be-
tween the proprietors and the Cuban leaders
whereby the privilege of grinding under the pro-
tection of those leaders was obtained by the pay-
“ment of a war tax. In all other parts of the island
the Cuban leaders ace haes and prevented the
ee eneing of cane. In the beginning the Cubans
orbade the people to supply the towns with food,
but later they removed the interdict for the sake
of the families of patriots and noncombatants and
allowed food to enter on the payment of an import
duty to the revolutionary Government.
A decree of the Republican Junta imposed later
a tax of 2 per cent. on the valuation of sugar estates,
machinery, and buildings, in return for which the
_ insurgent forces undertook to protect the property
against molestation from any source, provided no
attempt was made to grind against orders. This
tax Gen. Gomez was unable to collect from the
planters.
A civil government was instituted, with the aged
Cisneros Betancourt, Marquis of Santa Lucia, as
President of the fesablia: but Maximo Gomez and
Antonio Maceo were the controlling spirits. The
insurgent forces were maintaining themselves in
the field without expense, while the Spanish army
was an ever-increasing burden upon the resources
of Spain, which was becoming almost unbearable.
Some of the rebel officers were black, but most of
them were white Cubans. In the east the rank and
file were black, but farther west they were almost
exclusively white. The insurgent troops were
trained when in camp, sometimes by Spanish drill
sergeants who had deserted on account of ill usage.
_ The cavalry were much better trained than the
They were well mounted, and were ac-
_ ¢customed to charge the Spanish infantry in square,
often with success. In the broken country of San-
tiago province the fighting was of a guerrilla char-
' acter, planned by the officers but executed by the
Men as units. The army was organized in five
army corps, of which two operated in the eastern
province, one in Camaguey, and two in Las Villas
and the western department. Maximo Gomez was
general-in-chief and Antonio Maceo lieutenant
general. Both infantry and cavalry carried the
machete as a side arm and were armed with rifles,
227
usually a Remington. Some carried the new small-
bore Mauser magazine rifle of the Spanish army, -
taken from dead or captured Spaniards. There
were about 80,000 Cuban rebels in the field, while
17,000 more were ‘employed as artificers in the
army shops, postmen, and farmers growing food
for the army-in the mountain plantations. This
force could at any time be doubled if there were
arms enough. The supply of ammunition was
often short, but fresh supplies of arms and ammuni-
tion were constantly being run into the country.
The Spanish Government had spent on the war
from Feb. 24, 1895, to Jan. 1, 1896, more than
$85,000,000.
Invasion of the Western Provinces.—When
the Spanish forces had been pushed back by the
advancing revolutionists from Cienfuegos to Colon,
and then from Colon to Jovellanos, and finally to
Coliseo, Gen. Campos, who was in personal com-
mand, determined to crush the enemy there on
Dec. 23, 1895. He held Gomez in check and his
line was pouring a deadly fire into the insurgents,
but his command to charge at the critical moment
was not given, the bugler having fallen. During the
delay Gomez received re-enforcements, and, renew-
ing the attack, broke the Spanish line. When Cam-
pos tried a flank movement the insurgents set fire to
the cane fields that the Spanish troops were cross-
ing. This demoralized the Spaniards, who fell
back. When Gomez’s advance columns, under
Lacret and Serafin Sanchez, first entered Havana
province and attacked the Spanish outposts at
Guines a panic ensued in Havana, for it was sup-
posed that the Spanish troops had driven back the
insurgents as far east as Santa Clara province.
The rebel forces, as they marched eastward, de-
stroyed bridges and tore up the railroad tracks.
The province of Pinar del Rio was already overrun
with small bands of Cuban guerrilleros, who de-
stroyed cane fields and burned tobacco in the
Vuelta Abajo. In Matanzas Gomez and Maceo had
captured 17 Spanish forts, releasing the garrisons.
The insurgent armies advanced in the direction of
Havana in 3 columns, under Maximo Gomez, An-
tonio Maceo, and Quintin Bandera, burning and
plundering plantations as they pushed onward.
On Jan. 5 the force commanded by Gomez made a
vigorous onslaught on the center of the Spanish
line of intrenchments, broke through after a fierce
fight, and marched onward into Pinar del Rio, cap-
turing isolated garrisons, destroying railroad bridges
and stations, and burning towns where resistance
was offered. Fresh troops were embarked in Spain
to re-enforce the Spanish army in Cuba, already
150,000 strong. farshal Campos planned to
strengthen his strategic line in order to pen Gomez
in the west and cut off re-enforcements and sup-
plies. Gen. Navarro, Gen. Luque, and Gen. Valdez
pursued the insurgents into Pinar del Rio and at-
tempted to bring on a battle, which the rebels
evaded by countermarching, losing 20 or 30 men
whenever the pursuing columns overtook them.
Gen. Gomez recrossed the dead line prepared by
Gen. Campos, and on Jan. 12 had a severe encoun-
ter with Suarez Valdez near Batabano, turning the
position and passing eastward along the southern
coast of Havana province. Maceo terrorized the
loyalists of Pinar del Rio and devastated their
lantations, though pursued by 5 Spanish columns,
The towns of Cayajabos and Quieba Pacha, on the
north coast, were burned by rebel raiders, and Ca-
banas was held by Perico Delgado until he was
shelled out by a Spanish gunboat. which completed
the destruction of the place. While Gov, San
Pedro, of Pinar de] Rio, was calling for new re-
enforcements to protect his province, the province
of Havana was at the mercy of the forces of Gomez
228
and Angel Guerra, who eluded the columns of sev-
eral Spanish generals, and yet were able to stop
and destroy railroad trains and ravage villages in
the center of the province. The town of Managuas,
only a few miles from the capital, was attacked on
Jan. 12, and many houses were destroyed before
relief came. The inhabitants of Havana could hear
the firing of the Spanish artillery. All railroad and
telegraph communications were cut by the rebels,
and the people of the capital felt that they were
practically besieged and feared lest the town might
actually fall if the rebel forees of José Maceo and
Rabi, which had appeared on the borders of Matan-
zas, should join Gomez. The volunteers of Havana
were in mutiny, refusing to fight unless Campos
changed his policy for one that would create alarm
and terror among the revolutionists or was relieved
by a general who would carry out the drastic
methods advocated by the Conservatives. A meet-
ing of business men and political leaders reiterated
this demand. While Campos remained firm, the
Madrid Government gave way. On his refusing to
resign, he was ordered to transfer the civil govern-
ment to Lieut.-Gen. Sabas Marin, which he did on
Jan. 17, giving as the explanation of his laying down
the command when the enemy was at the gates of
the capital under orders from Madrid: “ Popular
opinion believes that a mild policy should not be
continued with the enemy, while I believe that it *
should be; these are questions of conscience.”
The Revolutionary Government.—The revo-
lutionary Junta, which in the early part of the re-
bellion had its seat in the Sierra Maestra range, at
the eastern end of the island, and later near Las
Tunas, also in Santiago de Cuba, established itself’
permanently, after Gomez and Maceo, driving the
forces of Campos before them, carried the war into
the western provinces, on the mountain of Cubitas,
in Camaguey, 25 miles from Puerto Principe. This
impregnable position, which could not be reached by
Spanish artillery, was occupied by President Cisneros
with his band of 800 followers, despite the strenuous
efforts of Marshal Campos to prevent it, while the
Spanish forces were occupied by the raid of Gomez
into Santo Claraand Maceo’s movements on the bor-
der of Matanzas. Cubitas was made the chief store-
house and manufacturing establishment of the revo-
lutionists. There were compounded the dynamite
and giant powder which the Cubans employed for
destroying railroads and making mines to protect
the approaches to their strongholds. Mail service
was established late in 1895, which was not con-
fined to dispatches and reports, but was the only
postal system in operation over two thirds of the
island, replacing the Spanish post offices in the
greater part of Santiago de Cuba, Camaguey,
Santa Clara, and Matanzas. In these provinces,
and eventually in Havana and Pinar del Rio, Go-
mez and Maceo organized a system of local govern-
ment that was respected by the people generally.
Gomez districted each province, and while moving
about with no apparent object, except to keep out
of the way of the Spanish troops, he completed the
organization of the country. In each district he
appointed civil and military governors. The whole
island was divided into prefectures, and each pre-
fecto had a list of the adherents of the revolution
within his jurisdiction, and was able to collect taxes
regularly for the republican Government in four
of the six provinces, and to administer the law and
adjudicate disputes, filling the place formerly occu-
pied by the Spanish alcaldes, whom Gen. Weyler
replaced with military commanders. President
Cisneros boasted that peace reigned and civil laws
were administered in the provinces where the re-
public was supreme, and war was waged only in
the sections that Spain still attempted to control,
CUBA.
The local officials kept the rebel commanders ad-
vised of every movement of the Spanish troops.
The organization of the rebel Government in Pinar
del Rio was intrusted to Maceo.
Gen. Marin’s Campaign.—The Spanish forces
in Cuba had the nominal strength of 120,000 regu-
lars and 80,000 volunteers, the latter remaining in
the cities and towns for home defense, except a few
regiments that were sent into the field. Gen. Cam-
pos had drawn all the available troops from Santi-
ago, Santa Clara, and Puerto Principe, and massed
an army of 50,000 men in the narrow part of the
island formed by the provinces of Matanzas and
Havana, in the hope of shutting up the rebel forces
after Gomez had accomplished his boast that he
would invade the western provinces and stop the
grinding of cane, in order to cut off Spain’s main
revenue, Gomez avoided all the traps that were
laid for the purpose of surrounding and crushing
him, sometimes by a narrow escape. Repeated]
his vanguard or his rearguard was aharnte eae: 3
and once he found himself in the midst of a Spanish
camp, and escaped only by shooting down the
soldiers who surrounded his horse, After destroy-
ing about one third of the cane in the fields and
compelling most of the planters to stop grinding,
he issued a proclamation forbidding the further
burning of cane fields, but threatening to destroy
buildings and machinery on the sugar estates if the
planters resumed operations. Gen. Pando drafted
more troops from Santiago to Havana. ‘The opera-
tions against Maceo were continued with greater
vigor. In the numerous skirmishes the rebels lost
200 men. Gen. Marin threw a new strategic line
across the island between Havana and Batabano,
and prepared to mass there troops enough to pre-
vent Maceo’s return from Pinar del Rio. Gen.
Marin, hoping to strike a decisive blow, went to
take personal command of the operations against
Maceo, but was unable to draw the insurgents into
a battle. Perico Diaz, on Jan. 30, set a trap on
the strong line itself, not far from Artemisia, for a
large force under Gen. Canella that was sent out
from Guanajay to head off Maceo. After 400 rebel
infantry had thrown the Spanish ranks into con-
fusion by suddenly opening fire from behind a stone
wall, the rebel leader dashed down with 1,000 cav-
alry in a machete charge, killing nearly 200. Two
Spanish battalions which advanced from the trocha
through a blunder attacked each other, and before
they had recovered from their confusion Gen. Jil,
who had a force of rebels concealed, fell upon them.
While the Spaniards were thus engaged with Gen, —
Diaz and Gen. Jil, Maceo proceeded to the southern
end of the trocha and crossed with 600 men near
the coast. When the Spanish commander became
aware of that he concentrated his forces to prevent
Gomez from making a junction with Maceo, which
gave the opportunity to the bulk of Maceo’s army.
now almost bare of ammunition, to cross the trocha
without opposition. On Feb. 1 a rebel force of 400
captured a train carrying a large quantity of Mau-
ser rifles and cartridges on the strong line south of
San Felipe. Col. Seguro, leading the vanguard of
Gen. Canella’s column, was surrounded by rebels a
few days later, but was saved by the opportune
arrival of the cavalry of Col. Ruiz. Usually the
rebels vanished when the Spaniards appeared in
force. They were able to hold the field and harass
the Spanish, because all the common people were
their friends. Gomez had but 2,000 men under
his immediate command, and Maceo 6,000 or 8,000,
while the detached bands of Miro, Bermudez, Soto-
mayer, Delgado, and Zayas numbered fewer than
2,000 all told. The insurgents were short of ammu-
nition, and therefore could not meet the Spaniards
inan infantry battle witheven forces. But by evading
CUBA.
battle they could keep the Spanish army busy, for
they had complete intelligence of its movements.
At Paso Real, however, they formed in line of
battle and charged the Spanish regulars command-
ed by Gen. nies Afterward they besieged Can-
delaria until Gen. Canella came to its relief and
drove them out with artillery, his own infantry sus-
taining several severe machete charges, Gen. Ma-
rin was obliged to send detachments to the relief of
several other towns. While heavy fighting was
going on in the west, the eastern rebels, by order
of Gomez, remained on the defensive, saving their
ammunition in case it should be needed for the
western campaign. On Feb. 11, at the sugar estate
of Nueva Empresa, near Candelaria, where Maceo
had his headquarters, a severe battle was fought, in
which the Spanish commander, Gen. Cornell, was
killed. On Feb. 18 Maceo attacked the city of
Jaruco and captured the forts with 80 guns, but
retired after burning the place when Spanish troops
arrived by train. The next day he joined Gen.
Gomez, and together they inflicted a defeat on a
Spanish column near the sugar estate of Moralito,
and afterward attacked Catalina de Guines and put
‘the Spaniards to flight. A serious encounter oc-
cu near Elgato, where the Spaniards again
retired. After this they sed all the Spanish
lines and marched Aor ag
Gen. Weyler’s Policy.—The Government at
Madrid appointed to succeed Martinez Campos as
Captain General and commander-in-chief af the
forces Gen. Nicola Valeriano Weyler, the man most
desired by the vindictive Cuban Spaniards, who in
the former war had exasperated the Cubans by his
harsh and cruel acts, while the humane methods of
Campos brought the bitter struggle to an end.
Gen. Marin and Gen. Pando were continued in
pagh commands, while Gen. José Arderius and the
other coadjutors of Campos returned with him to
Spain. Autonomists who were mayors of towns or
officials under Gen. Campos resigned their posts.
Numbers of people left Havana on vessels, and a
great many “sigs 6 through the Spanish lines to
swell the ranks of the insurgents.
The new Captain General arrived on a Spanish
cruiser on Feb. 10. About 18,000 Spanish troops
sailed for Cuba a few days later. A large propor-
tion of the re-enforcements were cavalry, for whom
horses were procured in Cuba and the United States.
The Spaniards hitherto, although contending with
a foe consisting mainly of mounted infantrymen,
had no effective mounted troops. Their cavalry
was weak and worthless alike for scouting or action
in masses, sometimes even being placed for safety
in the center of the Spanish squares. On Feb, 11
Gen. Weyler published a series of proclamations
addressed to the army and the inhabitants of Cuba.
He said that the recent march of the principal lead-
ers of the revolution indicated indifference on the
part of the inhabitants and also fear and discour-
agement, and that all who were on the Spanish side
must demonstrate the fact with acts and sacrifices ;
towns must establish their own defenses and guides
must be provided for the army and intelligence of
the enemy’s movements prompt!y furnished so that
it should not again be the case that the insurgents
had better information than the Spanish command-
ers. The civil and military authorities were or-
dered to arrest all who show in any way help or
sympathy for the rebels. In his proclamation to
the people of Cuba he threatened that such persons
-would be punished with the utmost rigor. He de-
clared that he had no political mission, but he
would not oppose the Government if, after he had
re-established peace and order, it should be thought
convenient to give reforms to Cuba in the spirit of
love that actuates a mother who gives all things to
229
her children. One of Weyler’s first acts was to can-
cel a decree under which some political prisoners
from Santiago were being shipped to Ceuta,
Capt.-Gen. Weyler issued a decree on Feb. 16 de-
claring the following offenders to be liable to court-
martial and punishable with death or life impris-
onment: Those who invent or circulate news or in-
formation directly or indirectly favorable to the
rebellion ; those who destroy or damage or inter-
rupt the operation of railroads, telegraphs, or tele-
phones; persons guilty of arson: those who sell,
carry, or deliver arms and ammunition to the ene-
my, or fail to cause the seizure of such arms or
ammunition; telegraph operators delivering war
messages to other persons than the proper officials;
those who by word of mouth, through the medium
of the press, or in any other manner belittle the
prestige of Spain or the army, the volunteers, or
any other forces operating with the army; those
who by the same means praise the enemy; those
furnishing the enemy with horses or other resources
of warfare; those who act as spies; those who act
as guides for the enemy and fail to surrender them-
selves immediately and give proof of their loyalty
and report the strength of the enemy's forces:
those who adulterate the food of the army or alter
the prices of provisions; those using explosives
without authority; and those employing pigeons,
rockets, or signals to convey news to the enemy.
Another proclamation of the same date required all
the inhabitants of the provinces of Santiago and
Puerto Principe and the district of Sancti Spiritus
to present themselves at the military headquarters
and provide themselves with a document proving
their identity, and forbade any person’s going into
the country without obtaining a special pass from
the mayor or the military commander. It further
ordered all stores in the country districts to be va-
cated at once. The towns and plantations were
still deprived of their guards, Gen. Weyler requir-
ing the troops for operations in the field. Conse-
quently the rebels invaded the towns at their
pleasure and supplied themselves from the stores;
and they stopped all agricultural work, hanging
laborers who did not obey their decree. The ener-
getic campaign begun by Marin against Maceo was
carried on with still greater vigor after the arrival
of Gen. Weyler. In Santa Clara Col. Lopez at-
tacked near Palo Prieto the forces of Serafin San-
chez and Mirabel as they were escorting the Cuban
President and his Cabinet, and after several bayo-
net charges on the one side and machete charges on
the other the revolutionary forces retreated, having
lost more than 100 killed and wounded. The insur-
gents became more active in this part of Cuba, de-
stroying bridges and attacking towns. Quintin
Bandera and Rodriguez were repelled by the Span-
ish garrison at Guaracabulla: Stations on the Ma-
tanzas Railroad were burned by rebels. When it
was reported that 24 political prisoners were shot
on Feb. 12 in the Cabanas prison, Gen. Gomez gave
notice that if Cubans in the cities were shot he
would retaliate by shooting Spaniards in the inte-
rior. Gen. Weyler publicly announced that prison-
ers taken in action would be subject to summary
trial by court-martial, but required death sentences
to be submitted to him for ratification. Neverthe-
less from that time it was a common practice to
shoot prisoners captured by the Spaniards, and even
the wounded Cubans on the field of battle or in cap-
tured hospitals. Gen. Weyler endeavored to curb
the inhumanity of his subordinates. Gen. Canella
he deprived of his command for shooting 17 pris-
oners; but after he had appointed the ranking
military officers to fill the places of alcaldes whom
he distrusted, they applied military methods in
dealing with noncombatants and neutrals, think-
230
ing to please him by severe measures. When 18
citizens were reported to have been butchered in
the village of Guatao, Gen. Weyler promised to in-
vestigate, but no examination took place. The rebel
forces in Havana province were strengthened by
detachments from Maceo’s division, which crossed
the trocha south of Guanajay. =
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DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON.
DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMEL-
LA BUSSON, an English artist and author, born
in Paris, March 6, 1834; died in London, Oct. 8,
ere I = ~
eo. . ~s. B C
a
al
GEORGE DU MAURIER.
1896. His father was a French rentier, and his
mother an Englishwoman. They first lived in the
Champs Elysées, then removed to Belgium, later
to England, next back to France,
and when George was seventeen
ype old went again to London.
here he studied chemistry at
University College and in the
laboratory of King’s College, and
in 1854 had a laboratory of his
own. His father intended to
have him become an analytical
chemist, but one journey to De-
vonshire, where he was sent to
investigate a gold mine, was his
only effort in that profession.
He gave himself instead to the
study of art, and worked under
M. Gleyre in Paris, with Whis-
tler and Paynter among his fel-
low-students. Later he studied
in Antwerp and in Diisseldorf.
His eyes troubled him so much
that he feared blindness, and
was obliged to wear peculiar
glasses and draw objects on a
large scale. Mr. Du Maurier
was very poor at this time, and
when he had finished his educa-
tion his mother, now a widow,
gave him £10, with which he
went to London to establish
himself as an artist, taking with
him a letter of introduction to
Charles Reade. His earliest
drawings were published in the
“Leisure Hour,” “ London Society,” and “ Once a
Week.” Then his work appeared in “ Punch ” and
the “Cornhill Magazine.” In 1864 he became a
member of the staff of “ Punch,” and for thirty years
nearly every issue contained something from his
pencil. He composed the legends for these pictures,
249
and wrote a tale entitled “Jack Spratts.” He il-
lustrated Fox’s “ Book of Martyrs,” Thackeray’s
“Ballads,” “Henry Esmond,” “The Story of a
Feather,” and many other books. A collection of
his pictures in “Punch” was published in 1880
under the title “ English Society at Home,” and in
1885 the Fine Arts Society made an exhibition of
his drawings.
Mr. Du Maurier’s first novel, “ Peter Ibbetson ”
(1891) is by many critics considered his best. This
was followed by “Trilby ” (1894) and “The Mar-
tian” (1897). “Trilby” was written as the result
of a talk between the author and Mr. Henry James,
when the latter had complained of the dearth of
good plots,and Mr. Du Maurier, having told the
outline of “ Trilby,” was prevailed upon to write
the story. It had an immediate and phenomenal
success. Du Maurier’s artistic work has justly won
him a wide reputation. Ruskin and Millais have
praised him as one of the most truly artistic men
of his time. He was an associate of the Royal So-
ciety of Painters in Water Colors. The personages
in his illustrations are always of much the same
type, especially the women, which were often pic-
tures of his wife and his daughter. There is some-
times a slight suggestion of the grotesque in his
work, and generally an indescribable little touch of
humorousness pervading the whole scene.
Many pleasant anecdotes are told of Du Maurier,
all of which show him as an amiable man, with
keen sensibilities and genuine modesty. He saw
Thackeray but once, at the House of Mrs. Sartoris.
His hostess wanted to introduce him, but he re-
fused. “I was too diffident,” he told a friend. “I
was so little,and he was so great. But all that
evening I remained as close to him as possible,
greedily listening to his words. I remember that
during the evening an American came up to him
: = ——
DU MAURIER’S HOUSE, HAMPSTEAD HEATH, LONDON.
—rather a common sort of man—and claimed ac-
quaintance. Thackeray received him most cordially,
and invited himtodinner. I envied that American.
And my admiration for Thackeray increased when,
as it was getting late, he turned to his two daugh-
ters, Minnie and Annie, and said to them, ‘ Allons,
250
mesdemoiselles, il est temps de s’en aller,” with the
best French accent I have ever heard in an English-
man’s mouth.” When “ Trilby ” had its enormous
vogue Du Maurier had one regret. “This boom,”
he confessed, “rather distresses me when I reflect
that Thackeray never had a boom.” Not that Du
Maurier imagined that a “ boom” was any proof of
literary excellence, but it meant money. He is re-
orted to have said that the success of “ Trilby ”
illed him. That novel has been dramatized and
layed with great success, a son of the author being
in the cast. That son recalls some interesting remi-
niscences of his father. He says:
“Father never thought that ‘ Trilby’ would be a
success as a play when he was first told that it was
going to be dramatized. However, he said he didn’t
care what was done with it, so long as he was not
obliged to see it. He always hated the theater, any-
way, and never went unless he had to, for the sake
of some one else. But he rather changed his mind
later about ‘Trilby.’ That is, he thought it was
awfully clever to be able to make a play out of it at
all, and was quite pleased at the way in which sey-
eral of the scenes were reproduced. He went to the
dress rehearsal, and several times after that.
“As for the book ‘ Trilby, my father grew very
tired of the furore which that created. Everything
in the shops was ‘ Trilby’ for a time—gloves, boots,
shoe laces—it was ridiculous, and the very name
grew wearisome to him. Personally, I like ‘ Peter
Ibbetson’ much better than ‘Trilby,’ and I think
father also thought it was the better book of the
two. He was very much interested in the new book,
‘The Martian,’ and preferred it to the others.”
EAST AFRICA. In the last century the Imams
of Muscat expelled the Portuguese garrisons from
Zanzibar and the African mainland, and established
their dominion over the native tribes sufficiently to
protect the trade routes into the interior. In 1861
a dispute having arisen as to the succession between
the sons of the deceased Seyyid Said of Muscat,
Seyyid Majid set up a separate Government in Zan-
zibar, which, by the arbitration of the Governor
General of India, Lord Canning, was recognized as
independent. Seyyid Majid established custom-
houses in the ports along the coast from Warsheikh,
in 3° of north latitude, to Tunghi Bay, in 10° 42' of
south latitude, and maintained a considerable mili-
tary force for the protection of the caravan routes for
Europeans and East Indians, as well asfor Arabs. In
1884 agents of the German East African Association
concluded treaties with native chiefs back of the coast
opposite Zanzibar. The association was chartered
as the German East African Company, and received
a patent of imperial protection from the German
Government on March 3, 1885. In 1886 an agree-
ment was made between England, France, and Ger-
many, whereby the Sultan of Zanzibar was recog-
nized as holding sovereign rights over a strip of
coast only 10 miles wide, a German sphere of influ-
ence was recognized extending from the Portuguese
possession of Mozambique to and including the
Kilimanjaro mountains .and inland to the boundary
of the Congo Free State, and the region north of
the German sphere, from the Umba to the Tana
river, was recognized as England’s sphere of influ-
ence, save the sultanate of Vitu, with which Ger-
many had concluded a treaty of protection. The
German East Africa Company in May, 1888, leased
EAST AFRICA.
“He had not the slightest idea of fashion, or what
was the correct thing in dress, People supposed
that he noticed those things, of course, cea girls
used to come to call upon my mother and sisters
got up beautifully, and expecting that father would
want to put them into his drawings, or would at
least get some ideas from them. But, dear me, he
hadn’t the least notion of what they had on! My
sisters looked to it that he got the right things in
his pictures. He would come home sometimes and
sketch something which had attracted him in a
passer-by on the street. Often it would be some
impossibly queer arrangement, and my sisters would
protest: ‘Why, father, you mustn’t use that in
“ Punch.” Nobody wears those things now; they’re
dreadfully old-fashioned,’ and he would give in im-
mediately to what he recognized as their superior
judgment. —
“ He put himself into all his books; perhaps more
directly into ‘ Peter Ibbetson’ than the others. The
dislike of cruelty to dumb animals which he men-
tions in several places was a characteristic of his,
He never would shoot or hunt in any way when he
was a young man. He didn’t mind boxing, or any
sort of reasonable encounter between men, but the
idea of hurting helpless creatures lower in the scale
was very repulsive to him.
“People used to send him jokes from all over
Homack: but he didn’t use so very many of them.
At least three fourths of all those which appeared
were his own. It was a tax. Sometimes it worried
him not a little, and to see him walking up and
pai the room trying to think of a joke—oh, it was
awful!”
+
i
u
the customs of its coast line from the Sultan of
Zanzibar for fifty years for the sum of 4,000,000
marks. The Imperial British East Africa Compan
obtained by charter on Sept. 3, 1888, the right to ae
minister the British sphere, and acquired from the
ruler of Zanzibar a lease of the ports and the collec-
tion of customs and administration of the coast as far
north as Kipini. In 1889 it acquired the ports and
islands north of the Tana, including Lamu, Manda,
and Patta. In 1890, by agreements with Germany
and France, Great Britain acquired permission to
establish a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar,
and an extension of the British sphere of influence
northward to the Juba river. Germany at the same
time ceded Vitu to England. A British protectorate
was effectively established over Zanzibar in October,
1891, when the Government was reorganized, with
Sir L. Mathews at its head, and the British consul
general was placed in control of all expenditure
and new undertakings. Zanzibar was declared a
free port on Feb. 1, 1892. On Aug, 26 the Sultan
of Zanzibar, at the instance of the British Govern-
ment, ceded to Italy the Somali ports of Brava,
Merka, Mogadoscio, and Warsheikh, of which the
Italian Government took possession on Sept. 26,
1893. The British East Africa Company evacuated
the territory between the Tana and Juba rivers on
July 31, 1893, handing over the administration to
the Sultan of Zanzibar. On June 15, 1895, a British ~
protectorate was proclaimed over the whole terri-
tory of the British East Africa Company from the
coast to the boundaries of Uganda, and on June 30,
1895, that company evacuated the strip of coast
leased by the Sultan of Zanzibar, the administra-
tion of which was transferred to the British Im-
EAST AFRICA,
perial Government, and placed under the control
of the consul general at Zanzibar. On Aug. 31,
1896, a decree was published placing under a single
administration all the British territories in East
Africa except the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba,
and the Uganda protectorate. This East African
protectorate includes the territories bounded on the
north by the river Juba, on the east by the Indian
Ocean, on the south by the German sphere, and on
the west by the Uganda protectorate, and also all
adjacent islands between the mouths of the rivers
Juba and Umba.
Zanzibar.—The island of Zanzibar has an area
of 625 square miles, with about 150,000 inhabitants.
Pemba, where Arab proprietors cultivate cloves by
slave labor, has an area of 360 square miles and
50,000 inhabitants. In the town of Zanzibar are
about 50 Englishmen and 50 Germans engaged in
trading, and some American, French, Italian,
Greek, and Roumanian traders besides, but the bulk
of the trade of East Africa is conducted by the
Banian merchant caste of India, of which there are
about 7,000 representatives in Zanzibar. The
sultans of Zanzibar derived a considerable revenue
from customs duties and taxes on clover and other
products, Under the British protectorate all the
revenues are taken out of the hands of the Sultan
and his court officials, and he receives instead a
privy purse of about two lakhs of rupees. There is
a regular army of 1,000 men, including police, which
is commanded by Gen. G. P. Hatch. The commerce
of 1894 amounted to £1,197,681 for imports and
£1,096,240 for exports. Of the imports, £219,746
came from German East Africa, £177,171 from the
Sultan’s- dominions, £47,369 from British East
Africa, £31.183 from Benadir, and £722,212 from
foreign countries. The chief exports were: Ivory,
£152,181; cloves, £138,859 ; copra, £25,697 ; rubber,
£21,022; ms, £12,807; hides, £6,002: chillies,
£5,083. e imports in 1895 amounted to £1,293,-
646. The chief importing country is British India,
whence are brought piece goods, rice, and specie.
Among European countries Great Britain takes
the first place, but the imports from that country
show a decline, especially in piece goods and hard-
ware, owing to the competition of other countries.
The most important article of import into Zanzibar
is cotton cloth, of which all importing countries
showed an increased trade excepting England,
whose imports of piece goods declined 25 per cent.
The most important class of piece goods is the gray
cloth that in certain parts of Africa forms the only
currency. The best part of this trade is obtained
by the United States, whose goods were first in the
field, and are superior to any furnished by Man-
chester at the same price. being free from sizing,
unshrinkable, stouter than English cloth, and of
more uniform weight. Dutch and German prints,
Belgian iron goods, and French brass wire are su
planting the English products. During 1894 the
trading vessels calling at Zanzibar numbered 126,
of which 44, of 71,235 tons, were English, 46, of 66,-
862 tons, German, and 28, of 47,776 tons, French.
The Maria Theresa dollars coined in Zanzibar are
the standard currency. Indian rupees are current
at the rate of 47 cents for the rupee, and are the
common money,
Seyyid Hamed bin Thwain was placed on the
throne on the death of Seyyid Ali on March 5, 1893,
having been selected from among several claimants
as the one most amenable to British control. His
cousin Khalid, son of the Sultan Barghash, who
was the choice of the Arabs, after his claims had
been rejected by the English agent, Rennell Rodd,
planned to seize the throne in defiance of British
wishes, but his designs were frustrated. Seyyid
Hamid bin Thwain died suddenly on Aug. 25, 1896.
251
Seyyid Khalid bin Barghash proceeded at once to
the palace, and, disregarding the orders of Basil S,
Cave, the acting British agent, and Sir Lloyd
Mathews, took command of the deceased Sultan’s
bodyguard and other Arabs and retainers, who
flocked to his poppers all fully armed. Capt. Saleh,
commander of the palace guard, had the guns pre-
sented by the German Emperor and others so
planted as to command each entrance to the palace
square. Meanwhile the British commander called
together his askaris and summoned aid from the
British a of war “ Philomel” and “ Thrush,”
which landed 150 marines. The Arabs arrayed in
the palace square numbered 2,500, all ready armed,
and with field guns and Maxims loaded for action.
After they had buried the late Sultan, Seyyid Kha-
lid, in defiance of the messages of Mr. Cave, who
warned him that it would be an act of rebellion
against the protecting power, proclaimed himself
Sultan and raised his flag, while guns fired a royal
salute. The British war ships took their station
opposite the palace, while the acting diplomatic
agent waited for instructions fromm Lord Salisbury.
Other British war vessels arrived opportunely, in-
creasing the naval force and the troops landed for
the protection of the British in the city, which con-
sisted of 550 marines and sailors with guns, and 700
native troops.
On receiving a reply from London leaving the
authorities on the spot free to act according to
their own discretion, Admiral Rawson conferred
with emissaries of the usurping Sultan, and when
the latter refused to leave the palace, sent him an
ultimatum stating that if he did not haul down his
flag and evacuate the palace before nine o’clock the
next morning, Aug. 27, the palace would be bom-
barded. The ultimatum was renewed in the morn-
ing, and when Khalid still refused to capitulate the
“ Racoon,” “Thrush,” and “Sparrow” fired on the
palace. The Arabs made an ineffectual defense
with their guns in the palace and the old brass
guns of the “Glasgow” and two small steam
launches. The Arabs fought pluckily until the
alace was a heap of ruins. The bombardment
asted fifty minutes. Seyyid Khalid’s followers
even then contested the position from behind their
barricades, keeping up a steady fire on the British
marines and Indian soldiers till the position was
carried. Seyyid Khalid, when the British took
ion of the town, escaped from them by tak-
ing refuge in the German consulate. Many of the
leading Arabs fought on Khalid’s side. Of 3,000
ealarg who were in the palace when it was bom-
rded 500 were killed or wounded. During the
disturbance there was much looting of property,
and many Indians were murdered. The same after-
noon the British officials had Seyyid Hamud bin
Mahomed proclaimed Sultan. The Sultan’s guns
were taken away by the British cruiser “St. George,”
and the palace askaris were disbanded. Many of
Khalid’s adherents escaped to the mainland or neigh-
boring islands. The British consul general re-
quested the German consul to deliver over Khalid
and the leading Arabs who had sought an asylum
in the German consulate. As the consulate and
other German property in Zanzibar possess the at-
tribute of exterritoriality under the treaty made
by Germany with the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1885,
and as the extradition treaty between Germany and
Great Britain declares that offenses of a political
character are not extraditable, and that a fugitive
shall not be extradited if the real object of the de-
mand for his extradition is to prosecute or punish
him for a misdemeanor or crime of a political nature,
the German Government discussed with the Eng-
lish Foreign Office the question of handing over
Khalid on condition that he should be treated as a
252
rince, and not be prosecuted or in any way pun-
ished for his opposition to the British authorities.
While this matter was still the subject of diplomatic
correspondence, the refugee was taken on board the
German cruiser “Seeadler,” and conveyed to Ger-
man East Africa, a proceeding against which the
English consul in Zanzibar lodged a protest. The
estates of 12 wealthy Arabs were confiscated by the
British authorities in Zanzibar, in consequence of
their complicity in Khalid’s rebellion, This caused
many Arabs to remove their effects and take refuge
in the German possessions or elsewhere.
The Salisbury Cabinet shortly after assuming
office pledged itself to carry out the promise of the
Liberal ministers to abolish the legal status of
slavery in Zanzibar and Pemba at qs early a date
as possible. In the session of 1896 Mr. Curzon, on
being pressed by the representatives of the Anti-
slavery Society, renewed this pledge and said that
the Government would come to a decision as to the
final measures to be adopted with a view to their
being put into execution in the autumn. The
number of slaves on the islands working on the
plantations was said to have trebled within a dozen
years. It was estimated that there were from 144,-
000 to 266,000 of them, and of these 90 or 95 per
cent. were illegally held in slavery in defiance of
the Sultan’s decree of June 5, 1875, which made it
unlawful to introduce new slaves into the islands.
The Sultan’s proclamation of Aug. 1, 1890, prohib-
ited all traffic in slaves. The continuance of slavery
at Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Pemba makes it impos-
sible to suppress slave raiding in the interior and
the slave trade with Arabia which Great Britain
has endeavored for many years to stop by patrolling
the seas with a large and expensive naval force.
The movement of slaves in the mainland is always
toward the coast, now under a British protectorate.
Pemba, besides being one of the principal slave
countries in the world, using up a great number by
its hard and cruel plantation system, is, moreover,
the chief source of supply for the slave dhows that
carry on a secret and illicit trade with Arabia.
British East Afriea.—The British East Africa
Company had occupied the whole country as far as
Uganda, and that between Uganda and the river
Semliki and Lake Albert Edward, when it retired
from Uganda in March, 1898. On June 19, 1894, a
British protectorate was proclaimed over Uganda.
On June 15, 1894, a protectorate was proclaimed
over the country between the coast and Uganda, in-
cluding Vitu. The British sphere in East Africa is
assumed to include, besides Uganda, the native ter-
ritories of Unyoro, Usoga, Ankori, Mpororo, Koki,
ee of Ruanda, the former equatorial province of
gypt,.part of Kordofan and Darfur, and a large
part of Somaliland, embracing a total area of over
1,000,000 square miles. Ernest L. Berkeley is the
British commissioner for Uganda proper, under
Arthur H. Hardinge, the British agent and consul
general at Zanzibar, who has direct control of the
coast strip leased from the Sultan of Zanzibar,
while a subcommissioner under Mr. Berkeley has
charge of communications between the coast and
Uganda. The customs revenue for 1893 was 261,-
554 rupees, The value of the imports was 1,807,-
208 rupees, and of the exports 1,287,399 rupees.
The principal exports are sesame, ivory, rubber,
gums, copra, coir, orchilla weed, and hides.
It was decided before the Conservative Govern-
ment took office in England that the projected
Uganda railroad should be built by the British
Government. The estimated cost for a very
light railroad was £1,157,000. The Salisbury
Government proposed one of broader gauge and
heavier rails that will cost not less than £3,000,000,
and this plan was finally approved by Parliament
EAST AFRICA.
on Aug. 1, 1896. The distance from Mombasa to
the east corner of Victoria Nyanza is 657 miles.
The gauge is 3 feet 6 inches. The first rail was laid
on May 29, 1896. Native laborers and about 2,000
Indian coolies have been employed on the work.
In 1895 a rebellion broke out on the mainland
north of Zanzibar, which at the beginning of 1896
attained serious and grave dimensions. Two or
three important chiefs were drawn into the rebel-
lion, and the troops of the protectorate on the spot
were not capable of dealing with it satisfactorily.
The movement spread over a wider area, until it
was necessary to bring over « Sikh regiment from
India to cope with the difficulty. The trouble be-
gan when the British, in February, 1895, set up the
youth Rashid as successor to his father, Salim, the
late chief of Takaunga, a district halfway between
Mombasa and Malindi, rejecting the claims of Ma-
burak-bin-Rashid, whom the tribe desired and fol-
lowed. When the latter refused to abdicate the
forces of the protectorate destroyed his headquar-
ters at Gonjoro. He took refuge with the chief of
Gazi, who threw in his lot with the Takaunga rebels
at Mweli. On Aug. 17, 1895, this place was at-
tacked and captured. The rebellion spread until
Indian troops had to be imported in March, 1896.
In February the rebels attacked and set fire to Mo-
lindi. The operations were carried on until in
April Mubarak and his followers crossed over into
German territory. Negotiations were then entered
into with Major von Wissmann, the result of which
was that Mubarak agreed to lay down his arms, the
German Governor allotting him a tract of land at
‘Man, south of Tanga.
Operations carried on against Kabarega, King of
Unyoro, in the summer of 1895 had the result of
driving him across the Nile. The expedition, com-
manded by Capt. T. Ternan, consisted of 20,000
Waganda levies and a small column of Soudanese,
who defeated Kabarega’s army at Umruli, pursued
Kabarega over the Nile and for some distance into
the Wakeddi country, set free 2,000 captive women
and children, captured the Wanyoro queen, who
afterward induced many natives to return to their —
homes in the occupied region, seized a great num-
ber of cattle, and built a fort at Masindi, in the
heart of Kabarega’s country, over the whole of
which British rule was established.
The Waganda have made great progress under
British administration. Many of the chiefs have
built stone and brick houses and supplied them-
selves with European furniture and other conven-
iences of civilized life. The English Protestant and
the French Catholic missionaries pursue their work
in amicable rivalry, having abolished the former
division of territory between them. Mengo has an
efficient police force that patrols the town day and
night. The Nubian troops are trained in English
tactics. The native people are loyally co-operating
with the white men in repairing the ravages of
war with signal success. Banana gardens are re-
planted, bridges built, roads cleared, and swamps
drained. The English resident, George Wilson,
has made considerable plantations of coffee, tobacco,
and English fruit trees.
German East Africa.—The German sphere in
East Africa is estimated to embrace 380,000 square
miles, with a population of 2,900,000. ' The German
Government after suppressing the Arab revolt of
1889, assumed the political administration of the
territories, being represented by an imperial Goy-
ernor, Major von Wissmann. The Government
grants subsidies for railroads to the interior and
steamers on the lakes, and maintains a school at
Bagamoyo. The total expenditures for 1895-96
were estimated at 5,837,000 marks. The value of
the imports in 1894 was $2,913,317 in silver, and of
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, EAST AFRICA.
the exports $1,982,272. The chief exports were:
Ivory, $873,467 ; rubber, $247,470; sesame, $80,100 ;
cocoanuts, $44,140; copra, $24,862. A railroad is
rojected that will connect Bagamoyo and Dar-es-
Salaam with the lakes, and have a total length of
1,120 miles. A syndicate has undertaken to build
the first section of 182 miles, reaching to Mrogoro,
in Ukami, at a cost of 12,000,000 marks, and ex-
pects to have it done before the end of 1897. The
cost of the entire line to Lake Tanganyika and Vic-
toria Nyanza, by way of Tabera, is estimated at
from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 marks.
After the death of Stokes, who was hanged by
the Congo Free State authorities, Ruoma, a power-
ful chief in Bukoba, sent word to the neighboring
sultans, including the notorious Lukonge, to cease
paying tribute to the Germans and to join him in
paying it instead to the Belgians, who, having
shown their power by killing Stokes, would drive
the Germans out of the country. Lukonge imme-
diately attacked Ukerewe, Stokes’s chief station on
the ney Victoria Nyanza, which had been acquired
by the White Fathers, and this resulted in the mas-
sacre of a large number of Frerich native Christians
and the burning of the station. Two German ex-
peditions were consequently dispatched, one against
each sultan. In the end Lukonge was banished,
his country was given to another chief, and Ruoma
was killed. The killing of Stokes had a disturbing
effect throughout the country, for the natives never
had sup that one white man would kill an-
other. German punitive expedition had to be
sent early in 1896 against the powerful chief Kitan-
38 for stealing firearms. In the summer the
awemba tribe of slave raiders in British East
Africa, who were severely punished in 1893 by
Major von Wissmann, made a fresh incursion into
German territory near the northern end of Lake
Tanganyika. In September occurred a rising of
the Wahehe tribe that Co]. von Schele subdued
with great difficulty. Having repaired their for-
tress of Kwikuru, they expelled from their country
the detachment of German troops under Lieut.
Fugger. The acting Governor, Lieut. von Trotha,
sent an expedition of 200 soldiers to reduce them
in to submission.
The acts of Dr. Peters while administrator of the
Kilimanjaro district led to greater precautions be-
ing taken against the ill treatment of natives by
German officials and settlers in East Africa. This
famous explorer after he had been elected to suc-
ceed Prince Arenberg as President of the Berlin
branch of the German Colonial Association was
charged in the Reichstag with having caused his
black mistress and her negro paramour to be hanged
without any trial. In July the manager of the
German East African Plantation Company, Fried-
rich Schréder, was condemned to fifteen years’ im-
prisonment for extreme cruelty to natives.
Nyassaland.—Missionary stations of the Scottish
Presbyterians and trading posts of the African Lakes
Company have been maintained for many years in
the Shire highlands and on the shores of Lake
Nyassa. On the strength of their occupation of this
district the English Government compelled Portu-
to renounce its claims to all the region now
nown as British Central Africa, embracing an area
_of 500,000 square miles, with 3,000,000 inhabitants.
The whole region was declared a British protec-
torate on May 14, 1891, and the Barotse country
and other districts except Nyassaland were ceded to
the British South Africa Company. In Nyassaland
a separate administration was organized under Sir
Harry H. Johnston, for which the British South
Africa Company paid half the costs and the Im
rial Government half, the share of each being
£27,000 for 1893. The town of Blantyre has
253
a population of 6,000 natives and 100 Europeans,
Besides a native police a force of Indian Sikhs is
maintained, numbering 200 men. Coffee has been-
planted extensively by the British settlers, and con-
siderable quantities are exported already. . The
population of the protectorate is 844,995. There
are 289 European settlers and 263 East Indians, in-
elusive of the Sikhs who form the Indian con-
tingent of the armed force. Rice is produced
abundantly on lends drained by native labor. A hut
tax is collected from the natives. Telegraph con-
nection has been established between Zomba and
British South Africa. The value of the imports for
the year ending March 31, 1896, was £82,700, the
goods being chiefly provisions, textiles, hardware,
arms and ammunition, and alcohol. The exports,
valued at £19,668, were ivory, coffee, tobacco, cotton,
fiber plants, and rubber. The English victories
over the slave-raiders have attracted many thou-
sands of natives who had fled to the chilly and un-
productive highlands to the fertile low country,
where cultivation is consequently increasing at a
rapid rate. Banian traders have come in consider-
able numbers and are doing an active business with
the natives, who now seek to obtain and accumu-
late money instead of putting their savings in
cloth. Numerous substantial brick houses have
been built in Blantyre. The cedar forests still re-
maining on Mlanje mountain, in the southeastern
corner of the British territory, have been reserved
as Crown property. In the autumn of 1895 Major
Edwards vith 65 Sikhs and 256 negro soldiers
marched against the slave-trading chief Zarafi on
Mangoche mountain, which was captured, though
valiantly defended by the Yaos, and the chief’s cap-
ital and minor towns were destroyed on Oct. 29. In
subsequent expeditions for the capture of Zarafi and
his people, who refused to return and submit to dis-
armament, the stronghold of the chief Makandanji,
an old enemy of the British, wastaken. The strong-
hold of the Yao chiefs Makanjiri and Matapwiri
were destroyed also. In the beginning of December,
1895, an expedition was undertaken against the
Arabs at the north end of Lake Nyassa, and these
operations were entirely successful after three days’
fighting, the stockades being taken and destroyed
and the chief Mlozi captured, tried, and executed.
The Arabs lost 210 killed and many prisoners, and
569 slaves, who were released. Mpemba and Tam-
bala, whose stockaded towns were close to the west-
ern shore of Lake Nyassa, were defeated later. In
January, 1896, a successful expedition was carried
out against the Angoni chief Mwasi Kasunga, the
last of the slave-trading chiefs remaining in the
British Central Africa protectorate, whose 20.000
warriors were defeated by 150 regulars and 5,000
native allies, All these chiefs who defied the Eng-
lish and contested with them the supremacy over
the native tribes of Nyassaland were of alien origin,
either Arabs, Yaos, or Zulus. A successful expedi-
tion against an Angoni chief in the interior of the
Marimba district who had attempted to form a
league of the Angoni tribes against the British did
not remove all danger of attacks from the Angoni
Zulus on the west. The chiefs who were driven out
of the British protectorate took refuge in Portuguese
Yaoland, where they were still able to carry on their
slave-trading operations, as there were no Portu-
guese forces or officials in the country. The Portu-
guese authorities, however, soon took measures to
prevent their territory being made a refuge for Yao
chiefs or slave traders who had been expelled from
the British protectorate.
Portuguese East Africa.—The Portuguese pos-
sessions, which once extended far into the interior
and were supposed to embrace the whole basin of
the Zambesi and to reach from ocean to ocean, are
254
restricted by the Anglo-Portuguese agreement of
1891 to the coast region and the banks of the Zam-
besi as far as Zumbo. This territory, having an
area of 261,700 square miles, and an estimated pop-
ulation of 1,500,000, was organized by a decree of
Sept. 30, 1891, into the state of East Africa, divided
by the Zambesi river into the provinces of Mozam-
bique and Lourengo Marques. ‘The revenue of
Mozambique was estimated in 1895 at £296,857, and
ee os at £345,587. The imports in 1894 were
valued at £203,716, and exports at £155,380. The
chief articles of export are ivory, rubber, oil seeds,
earthnuts, and sugar.
ECUADOR, a republic in South America. The
executive power is vested in a President, elected for
four years, and the legislative power in a Congress
consisting of two houses. Senators are chosen by
the provinces for four years, two from each proy-
ince, one being replaced at every biennial election.
The Deputies, elected by adult male Roman Catho-
lics who can read and write, serve two years. Gen,
Eloy Alfaro was Provisional President of the re-
public in the beginning of 1896.
Area and Population.—The undefined state of
the boundaries between Ecuador and the republics
of Peru and Colombia render uncertain any caleu-
lation of the area, which is vaguely estimated at
120,000 square miles, containing a population of
about 100,000 whites, 300,000 of mixed blood, and
870,000 Indians. The official estimate of the popu-
lation of the 16 provinces is 1,191,861, and of the
territory of Oriente 80,000. Quito, the capital, has
about 80,000 inhabitants, and Guayaquil, the sea-
port and chief commercial city, 45,000. The Roman
Catholic has been the religion of the republic to
the exclusion of all others, and the income of the
Church, in substitution for tithes, is provided in
the annual estimates of the Government. Educa-
tion is gratuitous and obligatory.
Finances.—Customs duties provide 70 per cent.
of the revenue; taxes on cacao, land, rum, and to-
bacco, 15 per cent. ; salt and gunpowder monopolies,
6 per cent.; and excise duties, rents of state prop-
erty, and the post office, 9 per cent. The budget is
voted for biennial periods. In 1888~’89 the revenue
was 7,356,606 sucres; in 1890-91, 7,766,957 sucres ;
in 1892-93, 8,125,006 sucres. The customs receipts
for 1894 were 3,102,340 sucres.
The debt consists of the balance recognized by
Ecuador as its share of the debt of Colombia at the
time of the secession in 1830. Interest unpaid since
1867 amounted to £428,640 in 1892, when the British
bondholders accepted £750,000 of new obligations
in exchange for their bonds. The Government
agreed to pay 44 per cent. interest for five years,
4% per cent. for the next five years, and 5 per cent.
and a sinking fund of 1 per cent. thenceforward.
In 1895, the Government having withdrawn from
this arrangement, and refused to pay the coupons,
regarding the interest rate as too heavy, the bond-
holders agreed to reduce the interest to 4 per cent.,
with a sinking fund of 1 per cent. For the service
of the debt a surtax of 10 per cent. was added to
the import duties. The foreign bonds outstanding
in 1895 amounted to £708,160. The internal debt
was 1,333,000 sucres at the end of 1898. The Gov-
ernment maintains an army of the nominal strength
of 3,341 officers and men, and a naval force consist-
ing of a cruiser, a torpedo launch, two river gun-
boats, and a transport.
_ Commerce.—The principal exportable product
is cacao, which was exported in 1894 to the amount
of 7,783,884 sucres. The value of the coffee exports
was 1,158,336 sueres; of rubber exports, 164,520
sucres. The export of ivory nuts in 1893 was 636,-
528 sucres in value. Gold mines are operated by
American companies at Cachavi, Uimbi, and Playa
ECUADOR.
d’Oro. Placer mines are worked by domestic com-
panies. The country is rich in petroleum, silver,
copper, lead, iron, and coal. The total value of
imports in 1893 was 10,052,163 sucres; of exports,
14,052,514 sucres.
Communications.—A railroad connects Chimbo,
opposite Guayaquil, with Duran, 58 miles. Various
projects for continuing it to Riobamba having
failed, the Government decided to go on with the
work at its own expense. During all the disturb-
ances of the civil war in 1896 the construction was
proceeded with. The money is raised by special
taxes on freights and insurance.
The telegraphs of Ecuador have a total length of
1,242 miles.
Attempted Counter Revolution.—When Gen.
na Alfaro triumphed over the Government forces
in September, 1895, and installed himself as Pro-
visional President at Quito amid the joyous ac-
clamations of the ee he began to disband the
revolutionary army. Before the end of the month,
however, there were outbreaks of the Conservatives
against his authority, and combats took place at
several pane in the province of Imbambura, The
clergy showed an unappeasable antagonism to his
rule. An attempt on his life was made and a
widespread conspiracy to bring about his over-
throw was unearthed. Danger of war with Colom-
bia arose. He restored outward tranquillity for a
time by expelling from the country a large number
of his adversaries, including the Government com-
mander who had fought against him, and by en-
forcing vigorous measures for the maintenance of
his authority. In January, 1896, fresh plots against
Alfaro were scented, in consequence of which many
other malcontents were sent into exile. The ru-
mors of an intended rising created such serious ap-
prehensions in the mind of Alfaro that he issued a
decree providing that in the event of an outbreak
the property of the leaders concerned in it should at
once be seized as a means of meeting the expenses
of suppressing the revolt, such property to be dis-
osed of as he should dictate. Before March Gen.
lutarco Bowen raised the cry of revolt in a mani-
festo denouncing Alfaro as a man incapable of gov-
erning the country and as a robber of the public
treasury. Gen. Ventamilla was put forward by the
exiles in Peru as a revolutionary leader. Numerous
political arrests gave an additional stimulus to the
revolutionary movement. In April bands of hos-
tile guerrillas appeared in the north. A manifesto
predicting the speedy downfall of the usurper cre-
ated considerable agitation. In May fighting bodies
of the Conservative party, which was supposed to —
have been obliterated, appeared in the field and de-
fied the Alfarists. The President called out his
army again. Bodies of Clericals entered the coun-
try from Colombia. A serious conflict occurred at
Cuenca, where the rebels, headed by Col. Muiioz,
were beaten. There was more fighting in other
places, the election of Deputies having roused po-
litical passions anew. The election was an unquali-
fied triumph of the Liberal party. The revolt spread
from province to province until in June Alfaro was
compelled to organize a campaign and go to the
field, leaving one of his ministers, Dr. Homero
Morla, as acting executive. At the head of a force
of 3,000 men he proceeded to Cuenca, which had
fallen into the hands of the enemy. Alfaro met
the enemy in the mountains while on the march.
He defeated the force of Gen. Rivadeneira after
a hard fight, in which 80 rebels were killed or
wounded. They fled, leaving their fieldpieces,
arms, and ammunition, and Alfaro marched on the
enemy’s stronghold in the district of Cuenca, cap-
tured it, and dispersed its defenders after a hard
campaign. When Gen. Alfaro assembled his forces
ECUADOR.
at Riobamba he was confronted with a formidable
revolt in the central part of the country, led by
Gen. Vega, whose forces, numbering 600 at first,
were augmented by fresh accessions until he had
2,000 men under him. The insurgents held no im-
portant town, but they were constantly aided by
the Clericals in the south and joined by filibuster-
ing expeditions from Colombia. Gen. Bowen, who
had been pardoned by President Alfaro, was ar-
rested again at Buenaventura on the charge of at-
tempting to organize-a revolutionary force. Gen.
Vega’s forces were routed in the mountains near
Chimba, where their Gatling guns and stores were
captured, and retreated toward Cuenca. In the
southern province of Azuay the Clericals over-
turned the regular authorities. On July 24 the
Government troops met the rebel force led by Col.
Mufioz Vernada and fought a stiff battle, in which
the losses were heavy on both sides. They finally
won the day, compelling the insurgents to retreat
toward Cuenca. The country was freed from dis-
turbances by this victory, except the Cuenca district
and the south. A band that invaded the province
of Manabi was soon broken up by the Government
troops. On Aug. 24 the rebel stronghold in the
mountains of Cuenca was captured and the revolu-
tion was virtually at an end. President Alfaro re-
sumed his executive functions on Sept. 7 and pre-
pared to convoke the National Convention in Guaya-
quil. All those who took part in the insurrection
received amnesty. :
The main strength of the counter revolution was
the Church in Ecuador. From the time when Al-
faro placed himself at the head of the revolution he
encountered the determined opposition of the Church.
Some of the ecclesiastics, notably Bishop Schu-
macher, took up arms against him. He complained
that the religious orders spent millions of dollars
from their funds to compass his defeat. The great-
est difficulties of his campaign he ascribed to the
retense of the enemy that they were fighting in
behalt of religion. As soon as he had brought the
revolution:to a successful issue he begun to enforce
severe measures against his clerical enemies as a
precaution against a counter revolution. His threats
alarmed the priests so that a large number fled
from Ecuador and took refuge in Peru and Colom-
bia. Wholeconvents also escaped the dreaded re-
taliation by the flight of their inmates to other re-
publics, some of them to the United States. Land
and other property of the Church the revolutionary
chief confiscated by virtue of his dictatorial powers
on the plea that the legal owners had employed the
ap ay! against the revolution.
he National Convention.—The National Con-
vention met at Guayaquil at the appointed date,
Oct. 9, just after a conflagration had destroyed
three quarters of the city and caused great suffer-
ing among the Lah aeoreyon A new plot involving a
hostile invasion from Colombia, funds and ammu-
nition for which had been provided by priests and
a few members of the Conservative party, was dis-
covered at Quito and frustrated by the prompt ac-
tion of the sident, who announced that he would
be as severe in the future as he had been magnani-
mous in the past if any attempt was made to over-
throw the Government. The hostility of the Cler-
icals to the successful revolution was as active as
ever. Bands that had fled to Colombia and Peru
again made their appearance on the borders and
endeavored to stir up the people anew. President
Alfaro, on his part, manifested his antagonism to
the Church party in the National Convention in an
aggressive way. He induced the convention to
adopt provisions for limiting the power of the
Church, for diverting portions of the Church’s in-
come, and for putting restrictions upon the control
EGYPT. 255
of its property by the Church. He also secured the
adoption of constitutional provisions inimical to
the religious orders. The new Constitution granted
tolerance and freedom to other creeds besides the
Roman Catholic. The Government decreed - that
foreigners who have resided two years in the coun-
try may be elected to the municipal councils with-
out change of allegiance. The convention author-
ized the Government to provide free transportation
for sufferers by the great fire who desired to go to
other places, and to supply food and clothing to
destitute persons. A decree was issued prohibiting
any rise in the prices of necessaries of life. The
fire, which was supposed to be the work of incen-
diaries, caused losses amounting to over 80,000,000
sucres and left homeless and destitute more than
30,000 persons. A bill was passed by the conven-
tion to introduce a gold currency concurrently cir-
culating with the paper and silver, the premium
not to exceed 100 per cent. The silver currency,
which was coined in Chilian and Peruvian mints
and in Birmingham, England, amounted to about
2,500,000 sucres in 1892, of which the Bank of
Ecuador and the Banco Internacional had 1,488,900
sucres in their vaults. The notes of the Bank of
Ecuador in circulation in 1894 amounted to 2,832,-
000 sucres, and those of the other bank of issue
amounted to 1,233,141 sucres. The value of the
sucre in exchange has fluctuated with the price of
silver, sinking from 96°5 cents in 1874 to 49-1 cents”
in January, 1896
The National Convention ordered the restoration
of all property confiscated during the revolution.
In November, after Alfaro was elected constitu-
tional President and the National Convention was
dissolved, the Government ordered the Jesuit
fathers settled in the eastern part of the country to
leave the republic, on the ground that they had
been fomenting revolutionary movements. A treaty
of amity and commerce has been concluded be-
tween Ecuador and Venezuela.
EGYPT, a principality in northern Africa tribu-
tary to Turkey. The Government is an absolute
monarchy of the Mohammedan type, though the
throne passes by the European law of primogeniture,
and the Khedive or Viceroy is advised by a Council
of Ministers. The reigning Khedive is Abbas Hil-
mi, born July 14, 1874,ewho succeeded to the throne
on the death of his father, Mehemet Tewfik, Jan. 7,
1892. Since the intervention of Great Britain for
the suppression of the military revolt of 1882 the
country has been occupied by a British army, and
since Jan. 18, 1883, an English financial adviser,
who has a seat in the Cabinet, exercises the right to
veto any financial measure and a dominating influ-
ence in all important acts of government. Egypt
forms an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, in
virtue of treaties in which all the great powers took
part. The events that took place in 1881 and 1882
consequent upon the bankruptcy of the Egyptian
treasury and the abdication of the Khedive, Is-
mail Pasha, led to a conference of the powers in
Constantinople, where the principal powers signed
a protocol by which they bound themselves to seek
no territorial advantages and the concession of no
exclusive privilege. But England, owing to the
rogress of the insurrection in Egypt, intervened
by force of arms, and the conference then dissolved.
Since then successive Prime Ministers of Great
Britain have given assurances that England would
evacuate Egypt as soon as Egypt should be able to
maintain a firm and orderly government alone.
The Cabinet of the Khedive in the beginning of
1896 was composed of the following ministers:
President of the Council and Minister of the In-
terior, Mustapha Pasha Fehmi; Minister of War
and Marine, Mohammed Pasha Abani; Minister of
256
Public Works and Public Instruction, Hussein
Pasha Fakhry; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Bou-
tros Pasha Ghali; Minister of Finance, Ahmet
Pasha Mazloum; Minister of Justice, Ibrahim
Pasha Fouad.
Area and Population.—The territories under
the rule of the Khedive of Egypt prior to the British
occupation were estimated to embrace an area of
1,406,250 square miles, with a population of 16,952,-
000. The Soudanese and equatorial provinces were
evacuated after the rebellion in the Soudan in 1884,
though the sovereign rights of the Khedive were
not relinquished. At the instance of the English
counselors Wady Halfa was accepted provisionally
as the limit of Egyptian rule and jurisdiction.
Within this restricted boundary Egypt has an area
of about 385,000 square miles, of which only 12,976
square miles, embracing the valley and delta of the
Nile, are inhabited, the rest being desert. The
population is 6,817,265, or 638 to the square mile in
the settled area. The University and Mosque of
El Azhar, in Cairo, has been for a thousand years
one of the chief centers of Moslem learning. There
are about 800,000 Copts in Egypt who have followed
the Jacobite creed since the first century of the
Christian era, and have for their ecclesiastical head
the Alexandrian patriarch. The Coptic language
is taught in their schools, and more than 50 per
cent. of the community can read and write. There
were 8,913 schools in Egypt in 1894, with 12,505
teachers and 196,610 pupils. Of the teachers, 10,491
were Mussulmans, 1,948 Christians, and 71 Jews.
Finances.—The budget for 1896 makes the total
revenue £ E. 10,260,000 (1 Egyptian lira or pound =
$4.94), of which £ E. 4,870,000 are derived from
the land tax and taxes on date trees, etc., £ E. 130,-
000 from urban taxes, £ E. 1,670,000 from customs
and tobacco duties, £ E. 200,000 from octrois,
£ KE. 170,000 from salt and natron, £ E. 90,000 from
fisheries, £ E. 75,000 from navigation dues, £ E. 1,-
720,000 from railroads, £ E. 43,000 from. telegraphs,
£ EK. 120,000 from port dues of Alexandria, £ E. 105,-
000 from the post office, £ EK. 85,000 from postal
boats, £ EK. 70,000 from lighthouses, £ E. 380,000
from the Ministry of Justice, £ E. 95,000 from ex-
emptions from military duty, £ E. 90,000 from rents
of peeeronent property, £ E. 15,000 from the Sua-
kin district, £ E. 57,000 from the pension fund, and
£ E. 275,000 from various sources.
The expenditures are estimated in the budget at
£ E. 9,630,000, of which £ E. 3,802,683 are for the
public debt, £ E. 665,041 for the Turkish tribute,
£ E. 100,000 for the Khedive’s civil list, £ E. 97,927
for civil lists of the khedivial family, £ E. 55,934
for the Khedive’s private Cabinet, £ E. 737,789 for
the Ministry of Public Works, £ E. 387,726 for the
Ministry of Justice, £ EK. 328,026 for the administra-
tion of the provinces, £ E. 86,021 for the Ministry
of Finance, £ E. 105,180 for the Ministry of Public
Instruction, £ E. 84,322 for the Ministry of the In-
terior, £ KE. 23,358 for the Council of Ministers, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Legislative
Council, £ E. 155,810 for the customs administra-
tion, £ E. 34,504 for the administration of octrois,
£ KE. 44,726 for the salt and natron administration,
£E. 10,000 for the collection of fishery dues, £ E. 3,-
058 for navigation dues, £ E. 840,000 for railroad
administration, £ E, 41,000 for telegraphs, £ E. 28,-
000 for the port of Alexandria, £ EK. 97,525 for the
post office, £ E. 85,707 for postal boat administra-
tion, £ HE. 26,934 for lighthouses, £ EK. 481,313 for
public security, war, and the army of occupation,
£ E. 120,457 for Suakin, £ E. 430,000 for pensions,
£ E. 250,000 for suppression of the corvée, £ BE. 5,682
for sundry purposes, £ E. 131,339 for various serv-
ices of ministers, £ E.40,000 for the sanitation of
Cairo, and £ E, 30,000 for unforeseen expenses.
EGYPT.
‘The revenue collected in 1895 was £ E. 10,568,000,
and the expenditure was £ E. 9,480,000, an improve-
ment on the estimates of £ E.308,000 more of reve-
nue and £ E. 120,000 less of expenditure, leaving a
surplus of £ E. 1,088,000, the largest yet realized.
During the first four years of the British oceupa-
tion there was an annual deficit averaging £ E. 690,-
000; in the next three years the income and outgo
nearly balanced ; and since 1890 there has been a
large surplus each year, averaging £ E. 699,000.
An international commission drew up a project
in 1880 for the liquidation of the debts of the Egyp-
tian Government, including the loans secured on
the Daira Sanieh and Daira Khassa estates. The
capital of the debt was then £98,398,020 sterling.
The revenue from 1882 on was estimated at £ E.8,-
411,622. _ Revenues amounting to £3,513,734 were
assigned to the service of the debt, leaving £4,897,-
888 as the estimated balance available for all pur-
poses of government. Railroad and telegraph in-
come and the port dues of Alexandria were reserved
for the interest of the privileged debt and a sinking
fund that would extinguish it in 1941. The customs
revenue and the taxes of the four provinces were
similarly assigned to the service of the unified debt, .
the surplus to go if necessary to make up any de-
ficiency in the requirements of the unified debt. In
1884 Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy,
Russia, and Turkey guaranteed a new loan of £9,-
000,000 to take up £ E. 8,000,000 of floating debt,
pay the Alexandria indemnities, and improve the
irrigation works. This guaranteed loan bears 3 per
cent. interest, the unified debt 4 per cent. the
privileged debt originally paid 5 per cent. In 1888
a loan of £ E. 2,300,006 was issued to commute the
revenue of Ismail Pasha and other members of the
khedivial family from the domains, which loan was
paid off in 1890. In that year the privileged debt
was converted into a 34-per-cent. loan issued at 91,
the Daira Sanieh loan into a 4-per-cent. loan issued
at 85, and £1,333,533 was raised on privileged bonds
to be employed on irrigation works. In 1893 the
domains loan was converted into 4}-per-cent. bonds,
exchanged for the others at par. The capital of
the Egyptian debt on Dec. 31, 1895, amounted to
£104,636,900, of which £55,974,820 represented the
unified bonds still outstanding, £29,393,580 the
privileged debt, £8,699,300 the guaranteed loan,
£6,644,360 the Daira Sanieh loan, and £3,924,840
the domains loan, The internal debts of the Goy-
ernment were not funded with the foreign debts,
but for their partial repayment the Moukabalah
annuity of £154,000 was provided, which will cease
in 1930. The total debt charges for 1896 amount
to £4,220,000. The actual receipts of the Govern- .
ment in 1894 were £ E. 10,321,523, and the expendi-
ture £ E. 9,601,258, leaving a surplus of £ E, 720,265,
of which £ E. 256,947 went to the reserve fund of
the Caisse de la Dette, making its total amount £ E2,-
199,740; £H.118,848 went to the special reserve
fund of the Egyptian Government, bringing it up
to £E. 279,186; and £E.344,475 remained on de-
posit with the Caisse as economy from the conversion,
making this fund £ E. 1,408,161. The surplus of
1895 added £402,000 to the conversion economies,
increasing ‘the fund to £1,833,000, while the general
reserve fund was increased to £2,717,000, and the
special reserve fund at the disposal of the Egyptian
Government to £471,000; giving a total of £5,021,
000 in the reserve funds.
The Army.—After the army, which revolted
against the Khedive and European control in 1882,
was disbanded a new military force was organized
by Sir Evelyn Wood. This army, commanded by
76 English officers, with Sirdar Sir Herbert Kitche-
ner as commander-in-chief, had in 1896 a total
strength of 15,153 men. Egyptians are liable to con-
EGYPT.
scription at the age of nineteen, but are not usually
called up for service until they attain the age of
twenty-three, when they serve six years and are
then drafted into the police for five years of serv-
ice, or into the first reserve. Subsequently they
are inscribed in the second reserve, and serve four
years longer. , A
The British army of occupation had in the be-
inning of 1895 an effective strength of 5,066 of-
feewe and men.
Commerce and Production.—The total value
of merchandise imports in 1894 was £ E. 9,266,116,
and of exports £ E. 11,892,875. The imports of
_ specie were £ E. 1,995,676, and the exports £ E.
1,816,256. The commercial intercourse with differ-
ent countries in 1894 is shown in the following
table: J
COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports.
MEPS ERMGMEIL 5 Seana ccoces sce £ E.3,183,231 | £ E. 6,517,946
IRM 28 noe snot wa wy ess oF 1,812,837 342,391
PUG Seca dace whic mablee ues se 387,038 1,823,676
(EE SE Se as eter eee ae pega
Austria-Hungary .............. 747, 3,
MINT RRO NaeGaonins soWess tee es< > 337,967 587,145
Degenerate sare 230,942 257 852
British colonies in the East.... 493.939 53,070
SEINE ReaD SECS wad s'aens 22 375,201 113,365
IO Oe a reer 49,970 327.981
A Re Os Uke aks cee! OL | wekeses 248.485
British Mediterranean colonies 113.358 12,090
China and the far East ........ 87,949 17,060
mine ees Seo fore oe Fat. oS 58,998 7,725
French Mediterranean colonies 32,072 21,181
EN ot Pe ke on doe a aina cs 37.124 166
Sa ee eee 74,176 5 ek
Other countries..........0.500. 1,625 176,245
WOM sadness to tk eck 2k 02 dees £E. 9,266,116 |£ E. 11,892,875
The values of the leading imports in 1894 were:
Cotton manufactures, £ E. 1,484,665; silk, woolen,
linen, and other textile fabrics, £ E. 1,177,098;
timber, £ E. 507,763; tobacco, £ E. 498,883; coal,
£ E. 492,103; iron and steel goods, £ E. 462,941;
clothing and hosiery, £ E. 371,861; or and
oils, £ E. 289,960; machinery, £ E. 287,258; wine,
beer, and spirits, £ E. 283.232; coffee, £ E. 273,-
462; fresh and preserved fruit, £ E. 241,234; indi-
go, £ E. 200,959; live animals, £ E. 180,915; wheat
and flour, £ E. 178,195: rice, £ E. 102,697; sugar
£ E. 28,597. Nearly half the tobacco imported is
re-exported in the form of cigarettes. The coal im-
ports consist largely of steamer supplies put down
at Port Said and re-exported after paying 1 per
cent. duty.
The values of the principal exports in 1894 were:
Cotton, £ E. 8.181.170; cotton seed, £ E. 1,457,729;
beans, £ E. 681,046; sugar, £ E. 629,293; onions,
£ E. 160,668; wheat, £ E. 110.936; rice, £ E. 96,-
307; hides and skins, £ E. 82,526: maize, £ E. 66,-
046; wool, £ E. 47,845; lentils, £ E. 17,595; flour,
£ E. 8.244; gum arabic, £ E. 2,018. More of the
long-fibered Egyptian cotton is imported into the
United States each succeeding year, the amount
having increased from 3.815 bales in 1885 to an es-
timated quantity of 50,000 bales, valued at $3,750,-
000, in 1896. Of the crop of 1894, amounting to
639,582 bales, 276,294 bales went to Great Britain,
132,309 to Russia, 54.457 to Austria, 46,242 to
France, 44,554 to the United States, 43,803 to Italy,
19,007 to Spain, 7,600 to India, 7,477 to Germany,
and 7,839 to Belgium. Greece, Roumania, Turkey,
Japan, and Sweden. The quantity raised in Egypt
has increased from 406,000 bales of 750 pounds in
1886 to 691,333 bales, the estimated crop of 1896.
The staple of the cotton from the Nile delta, vary-
ing from 1 inch to 1} inch in length, is match-
less for fine threads in strength and lustrous finish.
_ Itis a good substitute for Sea Island cotton, and
usually brings 2 cents a pound more than good
VOL. XxxviI.—17 A
257
American upland cotton. The export of cotton in
1895 was £ E. 1,332,000 more in value than in 1894,
due to the rise in price. There was an increase in
the exports of maize, skins, and leather, and a de-
crease In cotton seed, beans, and sugar cane. The
total value of the imports in 1895, excluding tobac-
co, was £ E. 7,879,000, and of the exports £ E. 12,-
582,000. More than 60 per cent. of the exports
went to Great Britain, 5 per cent. more than in the
previous year.
The exports to Great Britain declined since 1892
from 58°8 per cent. of the total exports to 54:8 per
cent., while imports from Great Britain increased
from 33°7 per cent. to 344 per cent. Germany’s
share in the imports advanced from 2 to 2°5 per
cent., France’s from from 9°4 to 9°6 per cent., Italy’s
from 3 to 3°6 per cent., and Russia’s from 3°8 to 4
per cent., while that of British possessions in the
East declined from 6-7 to 53 per cent., of Turkey’s
from 20°9-to 19°6 per cent., of Austria-Hungary
from 8°6 to 8-1 per cent. The share of America in
the exports increased from 1°3 to 2-7 per cent., of
Russia from 13 to 15°3 per cent., of Italy from 4-6
to 49 per cent., and of Spain from 1°2 to 21 per
cent., while the proportion of France declined from
81 to 7-5 per cent., that of Turkey from 3°5 to 2°9
per cent., and that of Germany from 2°3 to 2°2 per
cent.
Communications.—The railroads belonging to
the Government had a total length in the begin-
ning of 1895 of 1,098 miles, besides which there
were 72 miles belonging to private corporations.
There were 809 miles in the delta and 361 miles in
Upper Egypt. In process of construction were 137
miles. The receipts in 1894 from 9,827,813 passen-
gers and 2,391,868 tons of freight were £ E. 1,007,-
070, while the working expenses were £ E. 776,753,
being 43 per cent. of the gross receipts. A private
company has agreed to build before June, 1897, a
new line from Keneh to Assouan, the Government
guaranteeing £ E, 17,600 interest annually for eighty
years, at the end of which the railroad will become
its absolute property, and during that period profits
in excess of £ E. 21,000 a year accrue to the Gov-
ernment, which will operate the line. The tele-
graphs belonging to the Government had on Jan. 1,
1895, a total length of 2,269 miles, with 7,164 miles
of wire. The number of dispatches in 1894 was
1,988,765.
The postal traffic in 1894 consisted of 10,060,000
internal and 4,106,500 foreign letters and post
cards, 4,490,000 internal and 2,413,500 foreign news-
papers and circulars, and 424,700 postal orders and
remittances of the total value of £ E. 14,200,000.
Navigation.— During 1894 the number of vessels
entered at Alexandria was 2.375, of 2,221,145 tons;
the number cleared was 2,397, of 2.201,885 tons.
Of the vessels arriving, 689, of 988,850 tons, were
British; 141, of 292,236 tons, French; 913, of 230,-
512 tons, Turkish; 137, of 220,275 tons, Italian ;
139, of 196,302 tons, Austrian ; 84, of 155,286 tons,
Russian ; 42, of 59.036 tons, Swedish and Norwe-
gian ; 23, of 33,475 tons, German; 153, of 32,314
tons, Greek ; and 45, of 11,959 tons, of other nations.
Suez Canal.—The number of vessels that passed
through the Suez Canal in 1894 was 3,552, having a
gross tonnage of 11,283,855 tons and paying £2,951,-
073 in dues. Of the vessels, 2.386, of 8,326,826 tons,
were British: 296, of 887,363 tons, German; 185,
of 710,990 tons, French; 191, of 484,570 tons, Dutch;
78, of 278.799 tons. Austrian; 63, of 181,149 tons,
Italian ; 35, of 119,363 tons, Russian: 28, of 118,233
tons, Spanish; 41, of 92,323 tons, Norwegian ; 33,
of 57,038 tons, Turkish ; 6, of 17,148 tons, Japanese ;
5, of 5,436 tons, American ; 2, of 3,175 tons, Egyp-
tian; and 2, of 1,202 tons, Portuguese. The num-
ber of passengers who passed through was 165,968.
258
The net profits in 1894 were 40,367,324 francs. The
gross receipts were 73,776,827 francs. The share
and loan capital on Jan. 1, 1895, amounted to
458,127,682 francs. During 1895 there passed
through the canal 3,434 vessels, of 11,883,637 gross
tons, paying in transit dues 78,103,717 franes. Of
the net tonnage in the latter year 71°8 per cent. was
British, 8:2 per cent. German, 8 per cent. French,
4-3 per cent. Dutch, 2 per cent. Austrian, 1°7 per
cent. Italian, 1°3 per cent. Norwegian, 1°2 per cent.
Spanish, and 1*1 per cent. Russian. Of the vessels,
2.532, of 6,104,989 net tons, were merchant ships ;
684, of 1,952,588 tons, mail steamers; and 106, of
128,081 tons, war ships and military transports.
The mean duration of the passage in 189) was
eighteen hours forty-four minutes for vessels
navigating both by night and by day, and nineteen
hours eighteen minutes for all vessels, including
168 that navigated by daylight only and took the
average time of thirty hours twelve minutes to pass
through. The number of passengers on the vessels
in 1895 was 216,936, of whom 118,635 were military,
74,876 civilians, and 23,423 pilgrims, emigrants, and
convicts. The special traffic due to the Chinese
war and the Madagascar and Abyssinian campaigns
swelled the passenger receipts and more than made
good the falling off in tonnage receipts.
Antislavery Laws.—In accordance with a new
convention for the suppression of slavery and the
slave trade that was made with Great Britain on
Nov. 23, 1895, the Egyptian Government, in 1896,
enacted stricter laws regarding the traffic in slaves
and the manumission of slaves, The jurisdiction in
the matter of crimes and offenses connected with
slavery was transferred from courts martial to the
judges of the native courts. The importation into
any part of Egypt and the transit across its territo-
ries of any white, negro, or Abyssinian slave des-
tined for sale is prohibited absolutely. No slaves
can be exported from Egypt unless they are pro-
vided with letters of enfranchisement stating that
they are free to dispose of their persons without re-
striction or reserve. Traffic in slaves was already
forbidden, but purchasers are now made equally
liable with the slave merchants, a point that was
left obscure in the convention of 1877. Every slave
on Egyptian soil is entitled to his complete freedom,
and may demand letters of enfranchisement when-
ever he desires to do so. In the convention the
Egyptian Government promised to use all the influ-
ence that it possesses among the tribes of Central
Africa with the view of preventing the wars that
they are in the habit of making upon one another
in order to procure and to sell slaves. British cruis-
ers may search and detain any Egyptian vessel in
the Indian Ocean that is suspected of carrying
slaves. The Egyptian department for the suppres-
sion of the slave trade will have a special force
to keep watch over roads leading from the desert,
as well as the shores of the Red Sea and all places
through which slaves enter Egyptian territory.
The Soudan.—The Soudan of the dervishes, ex-
tending about 1,000 miles from the Egyptian fron-
tier on the lower Nile along both branches of the
upper Nile and an equal distance from east to west,
and inhabited by several millions of people, has
changed greatly since the Mahdi proclaimed a jehad,
or holy war, and established his fanatical rule after
wiping out the Egyptian army of 10,000 men under
Hicks Pasha in 1883. Whole tribes have been ob-
literated by war, famine, and pestilence, and other
tribes have changed the habitations of their fathers,
their migrations being inspired by religious motives.
The Khalifa’s capital is Omdurman, a new city that
has sprung up on the Nile opposite the ruined site
of Khartoum. The Khalifa Abdullahi, whom the
Mahdi chose from among his four generals and pro-
EGYPT.
claimed as his successor, has been accustomed to
summon to Omdurman, where they would be under
his immediate control, any of the tribes who chafed
under his exactions. The capital was consequently
thronged with the cultivators of the oases, and the
date groves and millet fields were neglected, which
cause, in conjunction with the devastation of re-
bellious districts, led to scarcity of food that rose at
times to the famine point. The population of the
Soudan is supposed to be less than half, perhaps
only a quarter, as great as it was under Egyptian
rule. At the same time it has become more con-
centrated and so organized as to furnish the Khalifa
great armies of valiant men, who are bound to him
not less by interest than by religious fervor, for he
has loaded with rewards the strong military clans
of the desert who have shown devotion to him, the
Baggaras and the western tribes, especially his own
tribe, the Taaishas, whom he brought to Omdurman
from the southwest of Darfur. After crushing a
rebellion of the Ashrais, in which two of the Mahdi’s
sons were implicated, the Khalifa became harsher
and his tribesmen more oppressive. Suspected
tribes were dispatched on distant and dangerous
expeditions, and suspected individuals were con-
demned to death on false evidence by the Khalifa
or his subservient judges. Tribes openly hostile
were put to the sword and their women divided
among the emirs, while he has crushed every tribe
and city where disaffection culminated in overt re-
volt. The misery of the country, contrasting with
its former state, is the cause of constant disaffection
and of a great decline in the power of the Khalifa,
who has talents as a military leader, but none of
the qualities necessary for a political ruler to have.
The complete embargo on external trade and inter-
course, which the Egyptian Government on its side
has kept up as strictly as the Khalifa on his, has
operated not Jess than military tyranny and misrule
to produce a widespread desire for a change of gov-
ernment that would lead to the revival of the cara-
van traffic with Assouan, Kassala, and the Red Sea,
and restore the prosperity of the Arab merchants,
the caravan men, the boatmen, the cultivators of
grain, the gatherers of gum arabic, and others de-
pendent on the commerce that was interrupted sud-
denly after flourishing for ages. Areas that once
were flourishing and thickly peopled have been con-
verted into deserted wastes. The great plains over
which the Arabs of the west wandered are solitudes
devoid of human life. The old locations of the
dwellers on the Nile have been overrun by nomadic
tribes, their rightful owners having been driven
away or compelled to cultivate the land for their
new masters and reduced to a condition differing —
from slavery. only in name. The power of the —
Khalifa and the barbarous conquerors who uphold
him has been waning for some years, though the
most civilized of the communities of the Egyptian
Soudan are now the most downtrodden and least
able to throw off the yoke. The Mahdi’s emirs
have been deposed and men of the western tribes
put in their place, with the single exception of
Osman Digna. In the neighborhood of Suakin and
Tokar Egyptian influence is again becoming pre-
dominant. The Italians in Kassala have compelled
the Mahdists to maintain a strong line of defense
on the Atbara river. The inhabitants of the moun-
tain lands of Fazogi and the tribes on the banks of
the Blue Nile have regained their independence, —
and now refuse to pay tribute to the Khalifa. Eng-
lish and Belgian influence is making itself felt in
the far south. In the southwest the French ad-_
vance is beginning to affect the political conditions
of the country. In the northwest the authority of
the Khalifa has been threatened by the potentates
of the central Soudan. Slatin Pasha gave the fol- —
lowing estimate of the armed forces of the Khalifa:
$4,350 Jehadias, who are black soldiers armed with
rifles, two thirds of them with Remingtons in good
condition; 64,000 swordsmen and spearmen, of
whom 25 per cent. are too old or too young to be
effective ; and 6,600 cavalry. The Khalifa’s mula-
zamin or regular army in Omdurman consisted of
15,000 Jehadias, 3,500 cavalry, and 45,000 spearmen
and swordsmen. There were 49 guns in Omdur-
man, 14 in Berber, Abu Hamed, and El Obeid, and
12 in Dongola and Gadaref. Of these 75 guns 6
were Krupps of large caliber, for which there was
very little ammunition, 8 were machine guns of
_ various patterns, and 61 were brass muzzle-loaders
of many shapes and sizes, for which very inferior
ammunition was manufactured inOmdurman. Aft-
er the expedition of an English force to Wadelai,
which raised the British flag and then departed in
1894, and just before the visit of Major Cunningham
to Dufile a year later, Rejaf was reoccupied by the
dervishes as their advanced post in the south. The
same had been for some time occupied in 1893
by the forces of the Congo Free State. The der-
vishes ascended the river in the steamers taken
from the Egyptians, and forced the Belgians to
_ ing them into the basin of the Welle, where they
themselves suffered defeat in two engagements
fought in 1894. Later the dervishes were driven
out of Lado and Rejaf by the natives, and held no
posts south of Shambeh and Bor, which they main-
tained with the help of the steamers, their authority
_ being respected only along the banks of the river.
_In Bahr-el-Ghazal also the Dinkas and Shilluks suc-
ceeded in freeing their country from the oppressors,
who still held out only in Dom Zobeir. In Darfur
and Kordofan the Emir Mahmud was only able to
hold the provinces for the Khalifa by constant
fighting with the tribes in the Kebkebia and Kul-
kul districts. Baron Dhanis in March, 1895, assem-
_ bled a force of 3,000 troops on the upper Congo, and
in September was reported to have reoccupied Lado
for the Congo State. This part of the old Egyptian
_ province of Equatoria was leased to the Free State
in the Anglo-Congolese agreement of May, 1894,
and the Franco-Congolese agreement of the follow-
ing August, by which the sovereign of the Free
State debarred himself from extending his frontiers
_ into the Bahr-el-Ghazal, left him free to establish
_ posts there, on the left bank of the Nile. The re-
_ volt of whole provinces and the dwindling of his
__ power taught the Khalifa and his emirs to be more
reasonable and lenient in the districts where their
t empire was as yet undisputed. Mahdism declined
_ to the point of toleration, and encouragement was
_ given to the reoccupation of the land. In Dongola
_ taxes were made lighter and provisions were cheap
‘ and conditions so much improved that refugees in
J Beret were desirous of returning to their homes.
o e Dongola Expedition.—The dervishes in
_ the Wady Halfa district, with the exception of two
fs insignificant incursions, maintained a strictly de-
_ fensive attitude throughout the year 1895, though
i: they faced the Egyptian advanced posts in consid-
; erable strength. The wells of Murad, halfway to
} Abu Hamed, were occupied by the troops and con-
_ nected with Korosko by telegraph. In the latter
_ part of February, 1896, Lord Cromer transmitted
| tothe English Government intelligence that he had
received indicating unusual activity on the part of
the dervishes. The dervishes were reported to be
advancing in the Suakin district, after remaining
quiet for three years; the Murad wells were threat-
ened with attack; a force of dervishes was said to
be advancing on Kokreb; and another and a larger
force was on the march for Dongola. Later news
told of the dispatch of Osman Digna to Kassala.
S
EGYPT.
evacuate their posts on the Nile, afterward follow-°
259
The defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at
Adua seemed to have rekindled the embers of fanat-°
icism throughout the Soudan. When the dervishes
besieged the Italians in Kassala the English deter-
mined on an advance of the Egyptian troops,
supported by English, up the Nile. They were to
go to Akasheh and, if they encountered no serious
opposition, to proceed to Dongola, and occupy that
city and province so as to prevent it from being
made a base for a dervish attack upon Egypt. The
movement was intended not only to protect Egypt,
but to divert the attention of the peer aes from
the Italians. These were the reasons given by
English ministers for the unexpected movement
into the Soudan. Their political opponents, how-
ever, and the French and other foreigners saw no
signs of a projected attack upon Egypt, and they
could not understand how the beleaguered Italian
garrison in Kassala could be helped by delivering
a blow at dervishes six months’ march from there.
When it was known that the Italians were about to
evacuate Kassala, which they only held as fiduciaries
of Egypt and England, and that the Italian Govern-
ment changed its intention when apprised of the
British advance, the military grounds for the expe-
dition seemed still more obscure. It was surmised
therefore that the object was to reconquer the Sou-
dan and at the same time render impossible for an-
indefinite period the realization of the condition on
which England is pledged to evacuate Egypt, which
is that Egypt shall be able to govern itself unaided.
When the intention of the Italians to evacuate Kas-
sala and Adigrat became known the British ambas-
sador at Rome protested that the evacuation would
leave the dervishes free to attack the Egyptian
forces and to threaten the Suakin district. The
result was that Italy held on to Kassala and the
dervishes were driven off, but the advance up the
Nile was not on that account given up. The hold-
ing of Kassala, Italy took pains to explain, was for
political reasons, and the fictitious character of the
military assistance involved in the Dongola dem-
onstration was plainly intimated by the Italian
minister. In communicating to the European cab-
inets the grounds on which it had been decided to
make an advance up the valley of the Nile, the
English Foreign Minister pointed out that in order
to meet the expenses of the expedition a larger sum
might be needed than was at the absolute disposal
of the Egyptian Government. It was therefore
hoped that the Caisse de la Dette would give its
consent to the expenditure of £500,000, if it were
necessary, from the general reserve fund of £2,500,-
000 which had accumulated and which was held to be
applicable to extraordinary expenses. The Austrian,
German, and Italian governments signified their
assent at once. The British Government stated
that, as the operation was being undertaken in the
interests of Egypt, the cost would be entirely de-
frayed out of Egyptian funds. The representatives
of France and Russia demanded delay, and further-
more denied the competence of the Caisse to decide
a matter of the kind, and withdrew from the meet-
ing. When the representatives of England and the
members of the triple alliance voted nevertheless in
favor of granting the money, they were cited before
the mixed tribunal to answer for their conduct on
April 18. The citation was made in the name of
the French bondholders, who own 75 per cent. of
the total Egyptian debt. A similar citation and
tiga were served on the Egyptian Government.
hen the Sultan made inquiries as to the nature
and objects of the intended operations on the Nile,
the Khedive, in reply, stated that the British and
Egyptian governments had agreed that the moment
is opportune for endeavoring to bring back Dongola
under Egyptian administration. Although among
260
Egyptians the expedition was generally approved,
many distrusted the motives of the English Govern-
ment and feared that the reconquest of the Soudan
would be made an excuse for the indefinite pro-
longation of the British occupation of Egypt.
The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M.
Berthelot, asked the English ambassador for in-
formation on the causes and aim of the project and
called his attention to the gravity of its conse-
quences. The French and the Russian govern-
ments took the ground than the unanimous consent
of the six powers concerned was necessary to legal-
ize a diversion of any of the reserve fund.
The decision of the mixed tribunal, delivered on
June 8, was that the money advanced by the Caisse
should be refunded by the Egyptian Government.
The dervish force at Dongola was estimated at
10,000 cavalry, camel men, and spearmen, with a
body of Soudanese riflemen, while at Suarda, 100
miles from the Egyptian frontier, halfway between
Dongola and Wady Halfa, there was an advanced
guard of 2,000 or 3,009 picked men.
Gen. Kitchener depended more upon the excel-
lence of the equipment than upon the size of his
army, which consisted of about 15,000 infantry, 900
cavalry, and 1,000 fighting men in the camel corps.
There were also several thousand Arab allies, good
fighters and finely armed. About 2,000 more men
were in the transport service. All the important
officers were young Britons who had served in the
Egyptian army, for which they were carefully se-
lected. The whole force was composed of picked
men, Three fourths of the soldiers were fellahin
belonging to corps that had proved steady under
fire, and were admirably trained. The rest were
black Soudanese battalions, more active, eager, and
self-reliant in battle, and better marksmen than
the Egyptians, but less intelligent and amenable to
discipline and direction. The artillery consisted of
powerful Krupp field batteries and Maxim bat-
teries. The advance from Wady Halfa began on
March 19, and on the following day Major Collin-
son occupied Akasheh without opposition. The
Khalifa proclaimed a jehad against Egypt, and
called upon all dervishes capable of bearing arms
to enroll themselves under the green banner. The
Emir Osman Azrak advanced with re-enforcements
to Suarda. The vanguard of the Egyptian expedi-
tion consisted of 1,200 men, including a camel corps
of 500. The main force numbered 8,500 infantry
and 630 cavalry, commanded by 120 British officers,
with a Maxim battery served by British artillerists,
Of the infantry 4,000 were Soudanese. English
troops were dispatched at once to Egypt. Three
Bnitish battalions and 7,000 Bedouins were organ-
ized there to join the expedition, bringing its
strength up to 19,000 men. Native troops of India
were sent to Suakin to relieve the Egyptian garri-
_ son there, and enable it to take part in the opera-
tions in the field. The Imperial Government
agreed that the extraordinary expenses of this ex-
pedition should be borne by the Egyptian Govern-
ment, while the ordinary pay and cost of mainte-
nance of the troops would continue to be defrayed
out of Indian revenues. A fort. and intrenched
camp were built at Akasheh, beyond which point a
halt was made until transport camels and boats
could be obtained. In the Suakin district the
forces of Osman Digna moved toward Sinkat, and
fighting took place between the dervishes and
friendly Hadendowas and Amarar, who barred their
advance. An Egyptian force went out from Suakin
on April 15 to support the friendly Arabs, and
several sharp skirmishes took place near Khor Win-
tri, in which Osman Digna lost over 100 killed and
as many wounded, Not long afterward Osman
withdrew his entire force, having no provisions,
EGYPT.
On the Nile the campaign was opened on May 1 by
Major Burn-Murdoch, who with his cavalry dis-
persed a force of dervishes in the vicinity of
Akasheh. .
Many sheikhs of the Bisharin, Ababdeh, and Ka-
babish tribes who had formerly adhered to the
Khalifa were won over by the British, who organ-
ized a large force of Arab irregulars to patrol the
desert on both sides of the Nile, arming them with
Remingtons, while the Egyptians carried Martini-
Henry rifles. Contention and division, jealousy,
fear, and distrust paralyzed the central power at Om-
durman. The mulazamin of the Khalifa attacked
the bodyguard of Ali Wad Helu, and in the fight sev-
eral hundred men were slain on both sides before
peace was restored by the emirs. Ali Wad Helnu,
who was Khalifa Omar, one of the successors to Ab-
dullahi nominated by the Mahdi, persuaded the
Khalifa to lay aside his jealousy and suspicion, and
endeavor to harmonize all factions in the presence
of the enemy. Hence the Khalifa Sherif was re-
leased from prison and his followers brought back
from banishment.
On June 6, after all the expeditionary force had -
been brought up to Akasheh, the troops were led
out by the Sirdar to attack the dervishes in-
trenched at Ferkeh, 16 miles distant. The main
body, 7,000 strong, with field artillery and machine
guns, advanced along the river, while the camel
corps and cavalry, with horse artillery and 2 Max-
ims, 2,100 men in all, took the desert route to oc-
cupy the heights east of Ferkeh. The intention
was to surprise and entrap the 57 emirs there, who
had only 3,000 troops with about 1,000 rifles. The
black troops advanced rapidly to the attack at
dawn on June 7, opening a well-directed fire. The
dervishes were taken entirely by surprise. The
returned a heavy, though inaccurate fire, an
fought with desperate valor, but were steadily
driven from their positions, being unable to resist
the double attack, from the front and from the side
of the desert. The desert column, which had suc-
cessfully turned the position to cut off retreat, fell
upon the retreating dervishes after they were
driven out of the town, pursuing them beyond Su-
arda and capturing the camp there, with a great
quantity of supplies. At Ferkeh all their camels,
provisions, and ammunition fell into the hands of
the Egyptians. The dervishes, who were some of
the Khalifa’s picked troops, led by his best emirs, —
did their best to resist the attack. The Baggaras
among them refused to surrender when death was
the certain alternative. The Jaalin, a religious —
people, who were once faithful Mahdists but now
detest the Khalifa’s régime, and the blacks, who
fought for the Khalifa under constraint and after-
ward were eager to join the Egyptian army, consti-
tuted the bulk of the prisoners. Nearly 900 were
killed in the camp, including 50 emirs. The brave
commander, Hammuda, was ont of the slain. The
Egyptian troops, composed of the most stalwart
young men of the nation, finer in physique than
any army in Europe, better fed and cared for than
most European soldiers, and admirably trained and
disciplined, by their coolness and firmness in re-
pelling a charge of the dervish cavalry, and by the
dashing enthusiasm with which their cavalry
charged the enemy in position, dispelled all doubts
as to their morale and courage. About 500 pris-
oners were taken by the Egyptians, whose total loss”
was only 20 killed and 80 wounded. The pursuit
and the taking of Suarda brought the enemy's
losses up to 2,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners.
The Egyptian camp was established at Kosheh, |
close to Ferkeh. af
The Khalifa, after the Ferkeh defeat, preached @ |
holy war, and said he would send large re-enforce- |
¥
ee ee ee
EGYPT. 261
ments of 7,000 brave men to Dongola; but, surround-
ed by the disaffected, he dared not send many of his
own tribe north. He sought support from the Nile
opulation, whom the Baggaras had hitherto kept
in cruel subjection, releasing the imprisoned Don-
golese and Jaalin chiefs, and giving them com-
mands. The dervish garrisons retired from the
country between Suarda and Dongola, whence
thousands fiocked to the Egyptian camp, delighted
with the prospect of a change of rulers. Wad el
Bishara, Emir of Dongola, ordered a muster of all
the males in the province capable of bearing arms.
Determined as he was to defend his post to the last
extremity , he collected a great quantity of grain,
forcing the people to give it up as a contribution to
the yehad. In July the cholera, which had broken
out in a virulent form in lower Egypt, causing 90
communication with the enemy, began to treat the
Nile populations more cruelly than ever before.
A forward movement of the Egyptian forces be-
gan on Aug. 25 with the occupation of Absarat by
the Suarda garrison. The railroad was continued
to this point, and the troops advanced to Fereig,
the Staffordshire regiment which joined the force
from England being transported on the large river
gunboats, which were able to steam 14 miles an
hour and carried each a 12-pounder Maxim for-
ward, mounted in an armored citadel, a lighter
Maxim amidships, 2 quick-firing 6-pounder guns,
and 6 or 8 machine guns in a lofty tower, capable
of sweeping the river banks and fitted with an
electric search light. Some of the larger gunboats
carried in addition 24-pound Armstrongs for long-
range fire. At Fereig, skirmishing began with the
GETTING A BRITISH GUNBOAT THROUGH THE JURASH RAPID.
per cent. of deaths among the persons seized at
Cairo, attacked the British soldiers in camp at
Waidy Halfa and the Egyptians at Kosheh..where
there was a fatality of over 70 per cent. The epi-
demic ceased after raging about a month. By the
end of July the railway was completed as far as
Ferkeh. The advance on Dongola was delayed
until the Nile should rise sufficiently to enable the
stern-wheel steamers to ascend the second cataract
and the new gunboats, armed with 12-pounders and
6-pounders, to be put together. The Khalifa and
the Mahdists took courage, believing that God was
fighting on their side, when they saw the Egyptians
delay while cholera decimated their numbers and
storms destroyed a large section of their railroad.
The Baggaras, in exacting contributions for the
war and punishing the people suspected of holding
Egyptian cavalry and the Kabadish and Foggara
friendlies who ascended the west bank. The der-
vish transport service was crippled by the desertion
of the river boatmen to the Egyptians and the loss
of several boats. Kerman, which was abandoned
after Ferkeh, was reoccupied and fortified, and a
strong force of spearmen and_ riflemen was in-
trenched at Hafir. The main Egyptian force ad-
vanced to Kaibar, and thence marched, on Sept. 18,
against the dervish positions at Kerman and Hafir.
At their approach Wad el Bishara and Osman Azrak
evacuated Kerman, crossing the river to Hafir.
The English field and horse artillery and gunboats
opened fire on the strong fort at Hafir in the
morning of Sept. 19, and the dervishes replied with
their 4 guns and a well-directed musketry fire.
Their only gunboat, one built by Gordon Pasha
962 EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE,
during the siege of Khartoum, was sunk by a
Krupp shell, and bursting shells silenced the guns
in the fort and killed many of the defenders, while
the Maxims cleared the shore of riflemen. The
bombardment did not end till night, when the der-
vishes, supposing that the Egyptians intended to
march by on the opposite bank to attack Dongola,
retired to that town to oppose their crossing there.
But meanwhile the English gunboats had steamed
up the river and taken position in front of Dongola
to prevent the dervishes from removing their sup-
lies of grain. The Egyptians crossed the river at
Hafir and pursued the retreating dervishes, whose
two generals were severely wounded. The 5,000
dervishes were shelled out of Dongola on Sept. 22,
and attacked in their camps by the cavalry. Here
also the Baggaras fought till they were killed, but
all the other Arabs fled or surrendered, and the
blacks deserted and offered their services to the
Egyptians. On the following morning Dongola
was occupied by the Egyptians. After the capture
of El Debbeh, on Sept. 25, and subsequently of
Korti, both of which were undefended, the com-
mand of the whole province was in the hands of
the Egyptians, whose coming was generally wel-
comed by the natives. No further advance was
contemplated before another year.
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE. The Interna-
tional conference of the Evangelical Alliance was
begun in London, June 29. As it marked the
completion of the fiftieth year of the work of the
Alliance, it was styled the Jubilee Conference.
Previous to the opening of the conference a jubilee
celebration was held in Liverpool, June 25, when
special mention was made of the fact that the
Alliance had been practically instituted in that city
fifty-one years before, and a resolution of thankful-
ness at the success of its work throughout the
world was adopted. The conference in London was
opened by a jubilee meeting under the presidency
of Lord Polwarth. The principal resolution adopt-
ed expressed thankfulness for the work of the
Alliance in emphasizing for fifty years the oneness
of the Church of Christ, and embodied a prayer
for a continued blessing on its efforts to promote
brotherly love, to uphold the cardinal doctrines of
the Gospel, and to defend the persecuted. The
Bishop of Exeter denied that the prayer of Christ
for the oneness of his people had been unfulfilled.
It had been fulfilled by essential unity, though not
by ecclesiastical uniformity. The Rev. Dr. Pente-
cost, in seconding the resolution, said that Christian
fellowship was infinitely more essential than eccle-
siastical recognition, desirable as such recognition
was. The unity of the Church was more imperiled
by efforts to bring about external uniformity than
by anything else. The Rev. Dr. Rigg expressed
the opinion that uniformity would give a death-
blow to real unity. The general secretary, epitomiz-
ing the history of the Alliance—which had been
formed to promote brotherly love and union among
Christians in different countries, to advance evan-
gelical truths, and to counteract error and supersti-
tion—emphasized the services it had rendered for
religious liberty and in opposing persecution. Al-
most its first efforts had been in behalf of the
Lutherans in Russia and of the Armenians; and
almost every country in Europe and many lands
abroad had since witnessed the persistent but unos-
tentatious efforts of the Alliance in behalf of re-
ligious liberty. The subjects were considered, in
papers read, addresses, and general discussions, of
“ Religious Liberty,” with particular reference to
the Armenians in Turkey and the Stundists in
Russia; “The True Unity of the Church, which is
the Body of Christ in New Birth and Life”; “The
True Unity of the Church in Growth and Develop-
EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCHES.
ment”; “The Evangelical Alliance and Christian
Co-operation”; “ Natural Science as the Handmaid
of Revealed Religion,” by Sir William Dawson;
“Christianity’s Opportunity and Duty in the
Press”: ‘The Dangers of Romanism and Ritual-
ism”; “ Evangelical Religion on the Continent”;
“Christian Work among the Young”; The True
Unity of the Church as perfected in Glory”; and
reports on the state of the Churches in the several
countries represented in the meeting.
Two of the original founders of the Evangelical
Alliance were present at this meeting, viz., the Rev.
Dr. Angus and the Rev. Dr. Newman Hall.
EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. The follow-
ing is a summary of the statistics of this denomina-
tion for 1890: Number of members, 118,733, show-
ing an increase during the year of 3,688; of members
newly received, 11,487 ; of itinerant preachers, 1,011;
of local preachers, 434; of baptisms, 1,998 of adults
and 6,472 of infants; of Sunday schools, 2,133, with
22,568 officers and teachers and 135,284 pupils; of
catechetical classes, 801, with 9,495 catechumens; of
Young People’s Alliances, 888, with 30,407 mem-
bers; of organized societies, 2,058; of churches,
1,808, valued at $4,564,436; of parsonages, 676,
valued at $888,656; of other property, $121,276.
The receipts for the year of the missionary so-
ciety were $161,342—representing average contribu-
tions of $1.42 for each member of the Church. Ofthe
whole amount, $36,524 were received toward the pay-
ment of the debt. The increase of receipts over those
of the previous year was $25,804. From the mission
fields were returned—of home missions, of which 22
were new missions, 492 missions, 498 missionaries, 40,-
824 members, and 5,470 accessions during the year ;
in the foreign missions, 89 mission stations, of which
6 were new, 1382 missionaries, 12,573 members, and
1,655 accessions. An increase of 1,949 members
from the previous year was shown. Notwithstand-
ing the number of new missions and mission stations
added, the whole number remained the same as in
the previous year, 20 of the former missions having
become self-supporting, and others having been unit-
ed with other fields. The foreign missions were in
Germany, Switzerland, and Japan. The Woman’s
Missionary Society had contributed $3,788.
EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCHES, CON-
GRESS OF. The Fourth National Congress of
Evangelical Free Churches of England met at Not-
tingham, March 10, the Rev. Hugh Price Hughes
presiding. The president, in his opening address,
explained that the movement represented by the
congress was not political or philanthropic, but
evangelical. Its causes were the entire disappear- —
ance from the churches represented of their internal
differences, and the sad fact of a revival in the
country of extreme medieval clericalism, which
their fathers believed had forever disappeared from
England, the operation of which had forced them
all together in self-defense.’ Papers were read dur-
ing the meetings on “ The Church and the Press” ;
“ Preaching” (Dr. Joseph Parker); “Churches in
Towns”; “Churches in Villages” (the Rev. John
Smith, General Missionary Secretary of the Primi-
tive Methodist Church); “ Betting and Gambling ”;
“Purity”; and “Immediate Legislation affecting
our Churches.” Resolutions were passed denoun-
cing the treatment of the Armenians, favoring inter-
national arbitration, urging legislation for the Sun-
day closing of licensed saloons, and discountenane-
ing the further support of voluntary schools by the
State. The name of the organization was changed,
and instead of congress it will hereafter be known
as the National Council of the Evangelical Free
Churches. The constitution of this body, as pre-
sented to this meeting, declares the objects of the
Council to be: to facilitate fraternal intercourse and
EVENTS
co-operation among the evangelical free churches;
to assist in the organization of local councils; to
encourage devotional fellowship and mutual counsel
concerning the spiritual life and religious activities
of the churches; to advocate the New Testament
doctrine of the Church and defend the rights of the
associated churches; and to promote the application
of the law of Christ in every relation of human life.
The Federation of the Evangelical Free Churches
has grown up since 1890, though afew local councils
not entirely resembling the present bodies were al-
ready in existence at that time. It now comprises
209 councils, scattered over the whole of England
and Wales. The movement is at work in the rural
districts as well as the towns, the villages of a dis-
trict being grouped around the nearest town. The
eouncils have associated with them at least 7,500
churches, representing, in round numbers, a mem-
bership of chant 1,000,000. Counting all the Meth-
odist bodies as one, the federation includes nine
denominations. Under it, house-to-house visitation
has been undertaken in many towns; a noncon-
formist parochial system has been developed ; great
united missions have been held; interdenominational
missions have been established in villages where no
free-church cause existed; and in the towns ex-
change of pulpits, religious conferences, etc., are
bringing Christians of different denominations into
closer fellowship. The literature which has been
created under the auspices of the Federation is
mentioned as constituting one of the significant
features of its growth. A catechism is in prepara-
tion dealing with the history and principles of the
free churches, and a monthly organ and a series
of shilling handbooks on nonconformist principles
are ae
EVENTS OF 1896. Hardly within a genera-
tion has a year opened with such threatening con-
ditions. Within a few days came the news of the
President’s message regarding the Venezuelan
boundary dispute; of the attempted seizure of Jo-
_ hannesburg by a party of British raiders, and with
the connivance, as has since been ascertained, of
officials very near the Government. Close upon
this came the German Emperor's friendly message
to President Kriiger, and for a time, apparently, it
required but a trifle to precipitate a war that would
surely have involved the United States. The year
ended, however, with peace in Europe and an in-
ternational treaty for arbitration, ready for signa-
ture, by representatives of the two great English-
speaking nations.
Italy has been in effect forced by an able native
monarch to abandon her colonies in East Africa.
Spain appears to be making no sensible progress
toward suppressing the insurrection in Cuba, and,
aside from minor wars that England has on her hands
for the preservation of order in Africa, the world is
at prone
n the pages that follow, nearly all the events that
may be supposed to interest ten thousand or more
people are briefly recorded. Some of them may seem
trivial, as, for instance, the annual meetirfes of cer-
tain societies and associations ; but it is believed that
i every case the membership of the society in ques-
tion is large enough, or its importance is great
enough to justify its mention.
January 1. Washington: The President appoints
a commission to determine the true boundary of
Venezuela. England: Alfred Austin appointed
Poet Laureate by command of the Queen. Cincin-
nati, Ohio: An area of 12 square miles is annexed
to the city. South Africa: Dr. Jameson with about
500 raiders, mainly English, engages a force of 2,000
Boers near Krugersdorp, in the Transvaal. Pasa-
dena, Cal.: Annual “Tournament of Roses,” 10,000
Spectators. Leadville, Col.: Opening of ice palace.
OF 1896. 263
2. South Africa: Dr. Jameson and his men sur-
_render to the Boers.
3. Washington: L. M. P. Myers, of Richmond,
Va., appointed assistant general superintendent of
the railway mail service. Cuba: Martial law pro-
claimed in the provinces of Havana and Pina del
Rio. Germany: The Kaiser in a published dis-
patch congratulates President Kriiger on his victory
over Dr. Jameson’s raiders. Great war excitement
follows in England.
4, Washington: By proclamation of the Presi-
dent, Utah becomes a State. Canada: Seven Cabi-
net ministers resign, favoring Sir Charles Tupper
for Premier in place of Sir Mackenzie Bowell.
5. South Africa: Cecil Rhodes resigns the pre-
miership of Cape Colony; Sir J. Gordon Sprigg
succeeds him. Baltimore: The cardinal’s berretta
is conferred on Mgr. Satolli in the Roman Catholic
cathedral. Germany: Prof. Wilhelm Konrad Roent-
gen publishes his discovery of the “ X ray.”
6. Washington: Call issued for a Government
loan of $100,000,000. Utah: State officers inaugu-
rated. New York city: Opening of the new ap-
poe branch of the Supreme Court. Chicago:
trike of stone cutters.
7. Ohio: The State Senate adopts resolutions
recognizing the Cuban insurgents as belligerents.
The German Kaiser announces that he will not
recognize any claim of British suzerainty in the
Transvaal. Kentucky and Mississippi: Meeting of
the State Legislatures. Missouri: Lloyd Lownes
inaugurated Governor. Great .Britain and the
United States: The Evangelical Alliances of, order a
week of prayer for peace. New York city: Report
of the American Cup Committee on the Defender-
Valkyrie races made public.
8. London: A movement inaugurated favoring a
ermanent court of arbitration. Oklahoma: State-
ood convention breaks up in a fight about a loca-
tion for the capital.
9. England: Denial by the Colonial Office that
Venezuela has been trespassed upon, Germany:
Meeting of the Reichstag. .
10. England: Great activity in the navy yards
and excitement over the Transvaal question. South
Africa: Arrest of 22 persons in the Transvaal
charged with treason. :
11. Canada agrees to arbitration of the Bering
Sea seizure claims. England: Appointment of Sir
Claude MacDonald British minister to China. Cuba:
Insurgents capture San Christobal and Bahia Honda.
Italy: Adjournment of the Parliament.
12. Washington: The President recommends a
commission on the Venezuelan question and warns
that country against excesses toward Englishmen.
New York: A steamer chartered by the Central
Labor Union to carry 400 negroes to Liberia.
England: Mr. Gladstone reaffirms his opinion in
favor of arbitration between Great Britain and the
United States. Germany again insists on the
status quo in the Transvaal.
18. Ohio: Asa 8S. Bushnell inaugurated Governor.
Cuba: An insurgent force appears within sight of
Havana. Abyssinia: An attack of natives repulsed
by the Italians at Makalla. Turkey: Exclusion of
the Red Cross Society by a decree of the Sultan.
14, Chicago: The Board of Trade demands the
retirement of greenbacks and Treasury notes. Ger-
many: Prince Leopold resigns his commission in
the army as the result of a quarrel with the Kaiser.
Recall to England of Commissioner Booth of the
Salvation Army. South Africa: The Transvaal
Legislature authorizes an increase of the army. The
British representative at Cape Colony is directed to
look out for American prisoners. It is announced
that Dr. Jameson and his followers will be sent to
London for trial. England: The British flying
264 EVENTS
squadron is ordered into commission on five days’
notice. Brazil: A contract made for the importa-
tion of 100,000 Europeans.
15. Canada: Sir Charles Tupper becomes Secre-
tary of State; Cabinet ministers resume office.
Manitoba: General election; victory of the Green-
way party, the question at issue being whether
separate schools shall be allowed for Catholics.
New York: Opening of the building of the Clear-
ing House Association. North Carolina: Expul-
sion from the State University of 12 students for
hazing and conduct unbecoming gentlemen.
16. Iowa: F. M. Drake inaugurated Governor.
New York: Annual meeting of the American Pro-
tective Tariff League. Nebraska: Secretary-of-
Agriculture Morton is elected President of the Ne-
braska State Historical Society. London: United
StatesAmbassador Bayard tenders thanks for kind-
ness to Americans in the Transvaal. France:
Fimile Loubet elected President of the Senate.
‘Pittsburg: Employees of the Westinghouse Electric
Company strike against 25 per cent. reduction in
wages. New York: Commander and Mrs. Booth,
of the Salvation Army, announce their recall to
England.
17. Canada: In view of possible war, Canadian
lake captains offer their services to the Imperial
Government. Siam: Settlement of boundary dis-
pute between France and England. The Mecong
river is accepted as the dividing line. Maryland:
Deadlock in the Legislature over the election of
United States Senator. Cuba: Recall to Spain of
Capt.-Gen. Campos. Germany: Revision of the
civil code presented to the Reichstag by Chancellor
von Hohenlohe.
18. Detroit: President Angell of Michigan Uni-
versity elected President of the Deep Water Way
Commission. Germany: Celebration of the twenty-
fifth anniversary of the empire. Cuba: Appoint-
ment of Gen, Weyler to be captain general.
Virginia: The Legislature authorizes the State
University to issue $200,000 bonds to make good
losses by fire:
19. Africa: Submission of the King of the Ashan-
tees to British authority.
20. Europe: Adverse criticisms of the press on
the President’s promulgation of the Monroe Doc-
trine.
21. Mississippi: A. J. McLaurin inaugurated
Governor. New Jersey: John W. Griggs inaugu-
rated Governor. Missouri: The Anti-Sunday Bar-
ber law declared void. Memphis, Tenn.: Annual
convention of Southern cotton growers. Chicago:
Annual convention of National Association of Manu-
facturers. Rhode Island: Meeting of the State
Legislature. Utah: The election of Frank J. Car-
mon and Arthur Brown to be United States
Senators.
22. Maryland: Hon. George L. Wellington elected
United States Senator. Iowa: Re-election of Sen-
ator Allison. Washington: General conference of
free-silver men.
23. Washington : Ex-President Harrison appoint-
ed counsel before the United States Supreme Court.
Meeting of the National American Woman’s Suf-
frage Association. Abyssinia: The Italian garrison
of Makalla is permitted to evacuate the post.
24. Washington : First meeting of the Venezuelan
Commission. Mississippi: Election of the Hon. H.
D. Money as United States Senator. Florida:
Meeting of the National Editorial Association at
St. Augustine. Turkey: Conditional permission ac-
corded to Miss Clara Barton to relieve Armenians.
Washington: Annual meeting of the American
Forestry Association. The Secretary of Agricul-
ture is elected president. Ex-President Harrison
pays a visit of courtesy to President Cleveland.
OF 1896.
Coinage of standard silver dollars ordered at United
States mint.
25. Russia: The Czar authorizes increased naval
estimates for the coming seven years.
26. Washington: Great Britain officially accepts
a commission to settle the Bering Sea claim.
27. Kentucky: Deadlock in the Legislature on the
election of the United States Senator. Germany: The
Kaiser celebrates his thirty-seventh birthday. St.
Petersburg: Henry Lasker wins in the international
chess tournament. Alabama: Coal barges pass for
the first time down the Black Warrior river en route
to tide water at Mobile. Scotland: Work resumed
in the Clyde shipyards after a lockout of several
months, Canada: Official opening of the Quebec
winter carnival. ;
28. Washington: Meeting of the National Board
of Trade.
29. Iowa: Indictment of the mayor and alder-
men of Dubuque, because of the passage of an
ordinance increasing their own salaries. Wiscon-
sin: Sale of the street railway system of Milwaukee
for $5,000,000.
30. Indiana: Decision of the State Supreme
Court that the legislative appointments of 1893
and 1895 are invalid (both parties involved). Cali-
fornia: Decision by the State Supreme Court that
the election commission law of the Citizens’ Defense
Association is unconstitutional. Agreement of the
anthracite coal companies to limit production.
Philadelphia: Meeting of the American Jewish
Historical Society.
31. Forty-nine bishops of the Protestant Episco-
pal Church send a formal protest to the President
against the Armenian atrocities. Similar letters
are sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, to the
Czar, and to the Emperors of Austria and Germany.
Louisville, Ky.: George Todd, Republican, elected
mayor of the City Council in place of Henry H.
Tyler, deceased.
February 1. California: Organization of a Pa-
cific Coast Lumber Trust, representing $70,000,000
of capital.
4, Ecuador issues a call for a Pan-American Con-
gress. Washington: The President appoints As-
sistant-Secretary Uhl of the State Department to be
ambassador to Berlin. Annual meeting of the Na-
tional Farmers’ Alliance. England: Mr. Chamber-
lain, Colonial Secretary, invites President Kriiger
of the Transvaal Republic to visit England for con-
sultation touching existing complications, Presi-
dent Kriiger declines with thanks.
5. Washington: Opening of bond bid for $100,-
000,000. Italy: Tax riots in Piedmont, 6 killed, 30
hurt. Germany: Widespread labor agitation,
strikes of cloth workers; the Government asks em-
ployers to arbitrate. New York: The price of coal
advances 35 cents a ton by order of the trust.
6. New York: Both branches-of State Legislature _
pass bills to retaliate for the exclusion of American in-
surance companies from Germany. Ohio: The State
Senate raises the liquor tax to $500; local option de-
feated in the lower house. South Africa: Beginning
of the trial of the Uitlanders recently engaged in
rebellion. Manitoba: Opening of the new Legisla-
ture at Winnipeg,a majority opposed to separate
schools. Korea appoints a minister to the United
States. Denver, Col.: Dedication of a home for
consumptives.
7. Washington: The President signs a bill pro-
hibiting prize fights and bull fights in the Terri-
tories and in the District of Columbia. Africa:
Great Britain proclaims a protectorate over Ashan-
tee. Turkey: The Sultan replies to Queen Vic-
toria’s letter, assuring her that everything is quiet
in Armenia. Canada: The Press Association, in Ses-
sion at Toronto, passes a resolution of loyalty to the
j
i
7
i
i
0
yi
4
EVENTS OF 1896.
British Empire. Illinois: Decision of the Attorney-
General against the ee eee of the Chicago
Gas Trust. Nebraska: Ex-Congressman William
J. Bryan brings suit to restrain the issue of refund-
ing gold bonds by the city of Lincoln on the ground
that such action discriminates against silver and
other legal tender.
8. New York: Richard Croker withdraws from
the leadership of Tammany Hall: receives a public
dinner and a testimonial silver cup. John C. Shee-
han is his successor. Washington: Allotment of
bonds under the new loan completed at an average
of 111.
9. Chicago: Judge Groscup sentences Joseph R.
Dunlop, an editor, to two years in the penitentia
and $2,000 fine for sending obscene matter throug
the mails. Africa: Cecil Rhodes permitted to re-
turn to duty with the South Africa Company.
10. Baltimore : Meeting of the League of Ameri-
can Wheelmen and a Good Roads Congress; Ster-
ling Elliott chosen president. Cuba: Arrival of
Gen. Weyler.
11. Washington: The President nominates Wil-
liam W. Rockhill, of Maryland, to be First Assistant
Secretary of State. New York: Execution of “ Bat
Shea” for the murder of Robert Ross in an election
fight. England: Queen’s speech in Parliament. A
statue to John Bright is unveiled in the Houses of
Parliament. France: The Senate refuses a vote of
confidence in regard to southern railway scandals.
‘Korea: Revolt at Seoul, murder of the Prime Min-
ister and seven officers.
12. Nicaragua: Re-establishment of civil law.
Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and
Washington observe Lincoln’s birthday as a legal
grimy 2
14. Washington: The President consents to act
as arbitrator between Italy and Brazi]. New York:
Gov. Morton signs a bill granting jurisdiction over
the Hudson Palisades for a military national park.
15. Washington: Arrival of Pom-Kwang-Soh,
the new Korean minister resident.
16. China: Appointment of Li-Hung-Chang to
attend the coronation of the Czar.
17. Russia: Visit of the King of Korea to St.
Petersburg, seeking the protection of the Czar.
18. Washington: Annual congress of the Daugh-
ters of the American Revolution. England: John
Dillon is elected to succeed Justin McCarthy as
leader of the Irish National party.
19. Cuba: Several vessels arrive with arms and
ammunition for the insurgents. Bulgaria: Recogni-
tion of Prince Ferdinand by the European powers.
Spain: Four anarchist bombs explode in the garden
of the royal palace, Madrid; no one hurt.
20. France: President Faure pardons ex-United-
States-Consul Waller, convicted of treason in Mada-
gascar. London: Election of John Everett Millais
to be President of the Royal Academy. Germany:
End of the clothing trades’ strike; 34,000 men re-
turn to work at an advance of 124 per cent.
21. Washington: The Treasury gold reserve
reaches the legal minimum of $100,000,000 for the
first time since September, 1895. New York: Under
the retaliation law 3 Prussian insurance companies
are ruled out of the State. England: Appointment
of Lord Gray to act with Cecil Rhodes in the admin-
istration of the South Africa Company. New
York: The glass workers‘of the United States com-
bine for mutual defense ; membership 75,000. Com-
mander and Mrs. Ballington Booth announce their
withdrawal from the Salvation Army, and turn over
the property of the army to their successor.
22. Philadelphia: Meeting of the Universal Peace
Society. Virginia: Dedication of the Confederate
Museum at Richmond.
23. England: Arrival of Dr. Jameson and 240 of
265
his men ; they are received with great popular en-
thusiasm. :
24, New York: Eva Booth temporarily placed in
command of the Salvation Army in the United
States.
25. New York: Capture of a large Cuban expe-
dition by United States marshals. England: Dr.
Jameson and his officers are arraigned in Bow Street
Court and released in £2,000 bail each. Vene-
zuela: President Crespo in his message expresses
gratitude for the intervention of the United States.
Sale of the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio
Railway for $10,000,000.
26. New York: A considerable desertion is an-
nounced from the Salvation Army to a new associa-
tion organized by Mr. and Mrs. Booth. Spain: Dis-
solution of the Cortes. Texas: Two bank robbers .
lynched at Wachita Falls. Germany: Opening of
Christian Socialist Congress at Berlin.
27. Baltimore: Formidable strike of garment
workers. The New York Yacht Club drops Lord
Dunraven from its list of honorary members.
Canada: Manitoba protests against intervention in
school matters by the Dominion Government.
28. Philadelphia: Officers of the steamship Horsa
convicted of filibustering. England: Ambassador
Bayard receives a copy of the British case concern-
ing Venezuela. Wisconsin: A bill passes for new
= acerca of Senate and Assembly districts.
ashington: Resolutions passed by the United
States Senate favoring recognition of Cuban bellig-
erency.
29. The Senate resolutions in regard to Cuba ere-
ate great indignation in Spain. Turkey: Arrest
of 200 Armenians in Constantinople. Boston, Mass.:
Tax on dram selling and on new hotel licenses
raised by Board of Police Commissioners.
March 1. The North Atlantic Squadron, Admi-
ral Bunce commanding, held ready for service at
Hampton Roads. Active work ordered at the vari-
ous navy yards of the United States. Chicago: 582
indictments for bucket-shop swindling. Savannah,
Ga.: 311 negro colonists set sail for Liberia. Spain:
Riotous attack on the United States consulate at
Barcelona; the act is promptly disavowed by Spain.
Prussia: Issue of an edict excluding American in-
surance companies until concessions are made in
the United States. Abyssinia: Italian troops under
Gen. Baratieri are defeated by King Menelek, losing
5,000 men and much material of war.
2. Washington: Decision of the Supreme Court
in favor of the Leland Stanford estate in the suit
of the United States for $15,000,000. England:
Naval estimates call for 46 new war ships, 5,400 more
seamen, and an appropriation of about $110,000,000.
New Jersey: A bill passed for the preservation of
the Hudson river Palisades. Spain: Anti-American
riots in Madrid.
3. New York: President Cleveland acts as chair-
man at a mass meeting in aid of Presbyterian home
missions. France: President Faure meets Mr.
Gladstone at Cannes. London: Notable Anglo-
American meeting in favor of arbitration. Michi-
gan: Sale ordered of the Grand Rapids and Indiana
Railroads to satisfy claims amounting to $3,734,765,
England: Oxford refuses to grant women the de-
gree of B. A. (vote of the congregation, 215 to
140). Washington: Resolutions passed in the
House favoring belligerent rights for Cuba.
4, Spanish universities at Madrid closed by order
of the Government because of riotous demonstra-
tions against the United States. England: Pub-
lication of a blue book presenting the British side
of the Venezuelan claim.
5. Italy: Resignation of the Cabinet and great
excitement at the war news from Africa. Austra-
lia: The colonial premiers declare for federation.
266 EVENTS
Massachusetts: Lieut.-Gov. Wolcott becomes Gov-
ernor in place of Gov. Greenhalge, deceased. Spain:
United States consulate mobbed at Valencia.
6. South Carolina: The Legislature passes a new
dispensary law. Italy: Riots in Rome and other
cities; 2,000 Italian troops besieged by Abyssinians
at Adrige.
7. A rearrangement of stars in the national en-
sign made necessary through the admission of Utah
as a State. Canada: $3,000,000 asked for to im-
prove defenses. Iowa: Bill passed imposing a tax
of 75 of a mill for five years as a State University
Building fund. Spain: Students attack United
States consulate at Cadiz; dispersed by the police.
8. Chicago: Students of the Northwestern Uni-
versity hang the King of Spain in effigy and tear
down the Spanish flag. New York: Mr. and Mrs.
Ballington Booth hold an enthusiastic mass meet-
ing at Cooper Union, favoring the secession from
the Salvation Army. Spain: Continuation of anti-
American riots. Italy: Formation of a new minis-
try. England: The army estimate calls for nearly
£21,000,000.
9. Washington: Ground broken for the Ameri-
can University. Spain: Anti-American riots at
Balbao. United Slates consulate attacked, several
hurt on both sides. China: An agreement for a
loan of £16,000,000 signed between Chinese agents
and an Anglo-German syndicate. New England:
Many woolen and cotton mills reduce their running
time because of dull trade.
10. Washington: Venezuela’s case presented to
the Boundary Commission. New York: Passage of
the Raines bill by the State Senate (31 to 18). Lon-
don: Arraignment in court of Dr..Jameson and his
officers. Spain: Anti-American riots by students
of Salamanca. Ohio: Boiler makers strike at Cleve-
land, coal miners at Palmyra, and machinists in
Chicago, Ill.
11. New York: Passage of Greater New York
bill by the State Senate. California: Successful
sea trial of the United States monitor Monadnock
off San Francisco. Pittsburg, Pa.: Meeting of the
National Reform Conference.
12. New York: Passage of the Raines Liquor Tax
bill by the State Assembly. England:-The Vene-
zuelan blue book severely criticised by “ The Daily
Chronicle.” Chicago: Strike of 13,000 tailors and
cutters. England: Cambridge University, by a
vote of 186 to 171, refuses to consider the question
of conferring degrees upon women.
13. Abyssinia: Peace negotiations between King
Menelek and the Italians; 100,000 Abyssinians, well
armed and drilled, pass in review before the Italian
commissioner. Germany: In the Reichstag, Herr
Babel accuses Dr. Carl Peters of murder; an excit-
ing scene ensues. Canada: Knights of Labor with-
draw from the International association.
14. New York: “ God’s American Volunteers ” is
announced by Mr. and Mrs. Ballington Booth as the
name of the new religious order. Germany: A
strike of 12,500 joiners at Berlin has secured shorter
hours and better pay for the workmen.
15. Kentucky: Gov. Bradley orders a detachment
of State troops to Frankfort to preserve the peace
in the Legislature. New York: The steamer Ber-
muda sails, presumably with arms and men, for
Cuba; she could not be held under our laws.
16. Washington: A decision of the Supreme
Court in the case against the State of Texas gives
’ the ownership of Greer County to the United States,
It is officially announced here and in the English
House of Commons that negotiations have been
peed for a settlement of the Venezuelan dispute.
ngland: It is expressly declared in the House of
Commons that the advance up the Nile is intended
for protection agains! threatened invasion, and to
OF 1896.
create a diversion in favor of Italy. Russia: The
Czar confers the Grand Cross of St. George, a high |
military decoration, upon the victorious King Mene- -
lek of Abyssinia. Kentucky: Meeting of the Legis-
lature under military ree
17. Kentucky: cee of the Legislature
without electing a United States Senator. Italy:
Meeting of Parliament ; a war credit voted of 140,-
000,000 lire, and it is announced that the Abyssinian
war will be prosecuted either to success or honor-
able peace. France: The Minister of Foreign Af-
fairs calls the attention of the British Government
to the consequences of the Egyptian expedition ;
war excitement follows. Cuba: It is reported that
the insurgents have destroyed 1,125,000 tons of sugar
upon 1l5estates. England: The House of Commons
passes a resolution strongly favoring an interna-
tional agreement establishing a parity of exchange
between gold and silver.
18. Ohio: The Legislature passes an excise meas-
ure imposing a tax of 4 of 1 per cent. on the
earnings of many corporations. Philadelphia: The
Methodist Episcopal Conference votes to admit
women as lay delegates.
19. Washington: Conference of Western silver
Senators and Philadelphia manufacturers. Mexico:
American capitalists have purchased the street-rail-
way system of the city. ean declines to draw
upon the Egyptian reserve fund to aid the Nile ex-
pedition.
20. England: A discussion of the Nile expedition
in the House of Commons sustains the Government
by a vote of 288 to 145. Washington: By a vote of
180 to 71 the House censures Ambassador Bayard
for aspeech madein England. Monaco: The reign-
ing prince extends the charter of the casino for fifty
years at $400,000 a year. :
21. New York: Ballington Booth appoints officers
of the New American Volunteers. .Turkey: Mas-
rai resumed at Oorfa, several thousand reported
illed.
22. Washington: The President orders all mem-
bers of the Indian service below agents to be brought
within the civil-service rules.
23. Washington: After a long debate on Cuban
belligerency resolutions, they are unanimously re-
committed by the Senate. New York: Gov. Mor-
ton signs the Raines liquor bill.
24. Korea: The Japanese win a victory near
Fusan. Italy: The Bank of Italy takes the Gov-
ernment war loan at 97 per cent. The Emperor
and Empress of Germany arrive at Genoa, Ohio:
Passage of a bill by the House of Representatives
prohibiting big hats in theaters.
25. England: Publication of a parliamentary
paper entitled “Errata in the Venezuelan Blue
Book.” At the banquet of the Associated Cham-
bers of Commerce in London international arbitra-
tion was favorably considered. Italy: Baron Blane
declares that the Anglo-Italian alliance is an accom-
plished fact.
26. New York: Passage of the Greater New York
bill by the State Assembly; 91 to 57, The State
Bar Association takes steps to further the interests
of arbitration. Chicago: Gov. Altgeld and the
trustees of the State University indicted for not
flying the national ensign. Egypt: The debt com-
mission decide to draw upon the reserve fund for
the expenses of the Nile-expedition; French and —
Russian commissioners object and withdraw.
27. Cuba: The Bermuda safely lands her men
and war material. South Africa: Serious uprising
of Matabeles against the British. Sharp fighting
and alleged repulse of natives.
28. Philadelphia: Launch of the battle ship Iowa
from Cramp’s yard. England: Oxford wins the
annual boat race with Cambridge.
EVENTS
29. Washington: The Supreme Court rules that
the Interstate Commerce Commission may not fix
freight rates.
. Washington: The President nominates B. J.
Franklin to be Governor of Arizona in place of
Hughes, removed. New York: The Governor ap-
points Henry H. Lyman to be excise commissioner
under the Raines liquor law. ;
31. Washington: The President approves the
bill removing the disability of army and navy of-
ficers who served the Confederacy. England: Ad-
journment of the British Parliament to April 9.
: Active work ordered in the navy yards,
and the Mediterranean fleet strengthened. Ger-
many: Celebration of Bismarck’s eighty-first birth-
da’ .
x ril 1. South Africa: The Transvaal Govern-
ment offers to co-operate with England against the
Matabeles. Egypt: The dervishes are repulsed in
their attack against Kassala. Omaha, Neb.: Cur-
few ordinance over the mayor’s veto by the
City Council. Hayti: Election for ident: Tire-
sias Simon Sam chosen in place of Hyppolite, de-
2. Ohio: The anti-theater-hat bill passes both
Houses. Alaska: The rush of American gold seekers
threatens to complicate the boundary question.
China rg the postal union. Heidelberg, Ger-
many: The university confers the de of Ph. D.,
with honor, upon Miss B. T. Morrill, of New York,
a graduate of Vassar.
3. Washington: Under the act of Congress each
Senator and Representative will be allotted 15,000
packages of seed for public distribution. Iowa: By
a vote of 22 to 27 the State Senate defeats a bill
legalizing the manufacture of liquor.
4. Prominent Roman Catholic prelates, Cardi-
nals Gibbon, Vaughn, and Logue, tes signed an
appeal for a permanent arbitration tribunal. New
Vake Enforcement of the Raines liquor law be-
gins. Germany and Japan conclude a new com-
mercial treaty. Louisiana: State troops sent to St.
Laundry Parish to restrain “ lators.” South
Carolina: Registration books opened under the new
Constitution requiring an educational ema an gee
6-15. Athletic games of the 1776 Olympiad at
Athens, Americans win a large proportion of the
events. Ohio and Minnesota: Town elections show
Democratic gains. New York: Marriage in St.
Thomas's Protestant Episcopal Church of ex-Presi-
dent Benjamin Harrison and Mrs. Mary Scott Lord
Dimmock.
7. Chicago: Municipal elections, reformers make
large gains.
8. Washington State: Completion of the Govern-
ment dry docks at Port Orchard on Puget’s Sound.
Ohio: Bill passed making counties responsible for
money damages in case of lynching.
9. Ohio: Bill passed to prohibit treating to intox-
icating liquors. England: Parliament reassembles.
New York: Celebration by the King’s Daughters of
their tenth anniversary.
10. Spain: General elections. The Government
secured 309 against 131. Utah: The Legislature
adjourns. ‘
13. Iowa: A bill taxing bicycles passed by the
Legislature. New Jersey: Municipal elections show
Democratic gains. Washington: The President
nominates Gen. Fitz Hugh Lee, late of the Con-
federate service, to be consul general at Havana.
14. Ohio: Annual convention of mine workers at
Columbus. Cuba: A considerable engagement
near Lechuza, both sides claim the victory. Canada:
A deadlock continues in the Dominion Parliament
on the Remedial Schools bill. Austria: The Ger-
man Emperor and Empress visit Vienna.
15. New York: Passage by the Senate of the
OF 1896, 267
Greater New York bill, the mayors of Brooklyn and
New York protesting. The United States coast de-.
fense monitor Terror goes into commission at the
Brooklyn Navy Yard. Greece: The King delivers
the trophies to the victors in the Olympic games,
eleven won by Americans. Canada: Sir Charles
Tupper withdraws the Manitoba Remedial Schools
bill. Miss Eva Booth appointed commander of the
Salvation Army in Canada and Newfoundland.
16. Washington: Annual proclamation of the
President prohibiting the taking of seals in Alaskan
waters. anada: A notable emigration to the
United States is reported at various points along
the boundary. z
17. New York: Decision of the Appellate division
of the Supreme Court, that racing a horse for a
stake is not a lottery. London: Arrest of the prin-
cipals in the Burden diamond robbery, more than
$100,000 worth of jewels and precious stones found
in their possession.
18. England: Visit of the Dowager-Empress
Frederick to Victoria. Austria: The Municipal
Council of Vienna elects a burgomaster in defiance
of the Emperor’s wishes. Germany: The Reichstag
unanimously calls upon the Government to abolish
dueling. London: The building trades decide to
strike on May 1.
20. Louisville, Ky.: The trades and labor unions
refuse to support free silver. New York: Gov.
Morton signs the bill requiring railroads to carry
bicycles free. Washington: National Congress of
Religious Education, Gen. John Eaton, president.
Brussels : International Bimetallic Conference, dele-
gates present from the United States, Great Britain,
France, Russia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Hol-
land, and Roumania. Dutch East Indies: Govern-
ment troops lose 60 men killed and wounded in a
conflict with the natives.
21. Denver, Col.: A woman is accepted for jury
duty. Louisiana: Re-election of Gov. Poster (Demo-
crat).
22. Washington: Meeting of the International
Arbitration Conference.
23. Canada: Adjournment of Parliament. Eng-
land: An American memorial window dedicated in
the Shakespeare Memorial Church, Stratford-upon-
’ Avon.
24. Washington: Organization of the Southern
Historical Association.
25. Trial trip of the United States battle ship
Massachusetts, she makes 16,;/4; knots an hour.
27. South Africa: John Hayes Hammond, the
American civil engineer, pleads guilty of treason
before the Transvaal court. London: Mr. Cham-
berlain informs the House of Commons that the in-
vitation to President Kriiger will be withdrawn.
New York: Meeting of the Theosophists of
America. Canada: Sir Mackenzie Bowell tenders
his resignation.
28. South Africa: Hammond and his associates
are condemned to death at Pretoria.
29. South Africa: Death sentences of Hammond
and his associates commuted by the Government.
Cuba: Capture of the American schooner Com-
petitor by the Spaniards.
30. South Africa: Telegrams implicating South
African officials are made public at Pretoria.
Canada: Direct steamship traffic contracted for
between Canada, France, and Belgium. $50,000
subsidy. Richmond, Va.: Meeting of the National
Society of the Sons of the Revolution. New York:
Meeting of the Daughters of the Revolution.
May 1. Cleveland, Ohio, Quadrennial Conference
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Annual de-
bate between Harvard and Yale; Yale wins. As-
sassination of the Shah of Persia. Eight-hour
strikes begin in several States.
268 EVENTS
2. Nicaragua: The rebellion officially declared
suppressed. Hungary: Celebration of the national
millennium at Buda-Pesth. New York: Dedica-
tion of the new site of Columbia University.
3. Enthronement of the new Shah of Persia.
4, Milwaukee, Wis.: General strike of street rail-
way employees for higher wages and recognition of
union; all lines tied up.
5. St. Paul, Minn.: City election, Republicans
carry everything. The Transvaal: President
Kriiger opens the Volksraad. Newport News, Va.:
2,600 men go on strike in the Shipbuilding and Dry-
Dock company’s yard. New London, Conn., cele-
brates her two hundred and fiftieth anniversary.
6. Baltimore: Meeting of the National Municipal
League for good city government. Harrisburg, Pa.:
Meeting of the Scotch-Irish Society. Washington:
* The President extends the civil-service rule to in-
clude 30,000 more Government employees.
7. Philadelphia: Execution of H. H. Holmes, a
notorious murderer.
8. Italy: The Government announces its inten-
tion of holding Kassala in East Africa and of try-
ing Gen. Baratieri by court-martial. Arrest of
Americans by Spanish authorities; they are con-
demned to death, but execution is postponed at the
request of the United States. Bolivia: Col. Pano
elected President.
9. New York: Barnard College receives $100,000
as a building fund.
10. Hungary: Socialist riots in Buda-Pesth.
11. England: The British flying squadron is dis-
missed. Canada: Ministry reorganized under Sir
Charles Tupper.
12. Sweden: Four hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Gustavus Vasa.
13. The Transvaal: Gen. Joubert, commander of
the Boer army, is elected Vice-President of the
Republic.
14. Trial trip of the United States battle ship
Oregon; she makes 1643; knots.
15. Washington: The President appoints Com-
missioner Lochren, of the Pension Office, to be
United States judge in Minnesota, and promotes
Deputy Murphy to be Commissioner of Pensions,
Arrival of a Japanese commission to study electri-
cal appliances. Wellesley College: The heirs of the
late William S. Houghton give $100,000 for a me-
morial chapel.
16. Holland: 6,000 dock laborers go on strike at
Rotterdam.
18. Venezuela agrees to pay $8,000 indemnity to
Great Britain as personal damages, not to affect the
boundary claim.
19, East Africa: Withdrawal of Italian troops
from Adigrat. Asbury Park, N.J.: May 19-26,
Baptist Anniversary week.
-20. The Transvaal: Death sentences of the Eng-
lish and Americans convicted of treason are com-
muted to terms of imprisonment. Massachusetts :
Two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of Andover.
England: Celebration of the Queen’s seventy-sixth
birthday.
21. Saratoga, N. Y.: General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church. Russia: Official entry of the
Czar and Czarina into Moscow.
25. Boston, Mass.: Unitarian Anniversary week.
Crete: British, Russian, and French war ships sent
to protect Christians against Turks. Washington:
Decision by the Supreme Court that the steamship
Horsa violated the neutrality laws.
26. New York: Grand parade of the city street-
cleaning department under Col. Waring, 2,000 men,
750 horses and vehicles in line. Russia: Corona-
tion of Nicholas II, at Moseow. By proclamation
certain taxes are remitted and enlarged freedom
granted to exiles (see Disasters, May 30).
OF 1896.
27. Pittsburg, Pa.: The National Convention of
Prohibitionists nominates Joshua Levering, of Balti-
more, for President, and Hale Johnson, of Illinois,
for Vice-President; a bolt is organized for free
silver and woman’s suffrage under the name of A
National Party. Minneapolis: School children
purchase the first house built in the city, and have
it removed to a site prepared for it in Minnehaha
Park. Princeton, N. J.: By act of the trustees the
name College of New Jersey is changed to Princeton
University.
28. Austria: The Upper House of the Parliament
passes the Electoral Reform bill.
30. Yale wins the intercollegiate championshi
* ea athletics; Pennsylvania, second; Harvar
third.
June 1.—Tennessee : Celebration at Nashville of
the centennial of the admission of the State to the
Union.
2. Indiana: Meeting of the Travelers’ Protective
Association at Terre Haute. New Haven, Conn.:
Meeting of the Coneresepcnal Home Missionary
Society, Gen. O. O. Howard president. London:
Twentieth annual meeting of the British Women’s
Temperance Association.
3. Washington: Ratification of a treaty between
Great Britain and the United States for the settle-
ment of sealing claims. New York: Conference on
international arbitration at Lake Mohonk.
4. Michigan: National Conference of Charities
and Correction at Grand Rapids. Chicago: Gift of
$10,000 to the Civil Service Commission from the
Citizens’ Association for the Enforcement of Law.
5. Cleveland, Ohio: Conference of Secretaries of
the Young Men’s Christian Association. New
York: Sale of Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
Plant and franchise; sold to Morton, Bliss & Co.
for $4,000,000, ‘
8. Spain: Martial law proclaimed at Barcelona,
where a bomb was exploded by supposed anarchists,
11 persons killed. Hungary: Opening of the new
Houses of Parliament. Pittsburg, Pa.: Opening of
the National Singerfest.
9. New York: Gov. Morton appoints the Greater
New York Commission, with Seth Low as president.
11. Washington: Congressadjourns. Transvaal :
Release of the four leaders of the Reform Commit-
tee on payment of heavy fines ($125,000 each),
13. St. Louis: Preliminaries of the National Re-
et sy Convention; Charles W. Franklin, of
ndiana, temporary chairman. Washington: The
Government pays an indemnity to families of Ital-
ians killed in the Colorado riot, and to England for
outrages on British subjects in New Orleans and
Nebraska. United States and Mexico: A new
treaty permits troops of both nations to cross the
border in pursuit of marauding Indians.
16. St. Louis: Meeting of the National Repub-
lican Convention. Washington: The President an-
nounces his views on the silver question in a public
letter. Detroit, Mich.: Meeting of the American
Institute of Homeopathy.
18. St. Louis: William McKinley, of Ohio, nom-
inated for President on the first ballot by the Na-
tional Republican Convention, Garrett A. Hobart,
of New Jersey, for Vice-President, on a platform
declaring for a single gold standard ; 21 advocates
of free silver, led by Senators Keller, of Colorado,
and Cannon, of Utah, retire from the Convention.
19. St. Louis: Mark A. Hanna, of Ohio, chosen
chairman of the National Republican Campaign
Committee. The free-silver bolters from the Re-
publican Convention nominate Senator Teller’ for
President. New York: Incorporation of the New
York Telegraph Company under the Western Union
Telegraph.
20. Madagascar is formally declared a colony of
EVENTS
France. Leadville, Col.: Miners strike for higher
w and recognition of the union. Boston:
Bodication of a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly.
22. Opening of the railway between Quebec, St.
Johns, and Halifax. New England: Many cotton
mills agree to shut down for four weeks during the
summer.
23. Chicago: Democrats renominate Gov. Alt-
geld, and choose him to represent the cause at the
national convention. Victoria, British Columbia:
Opening of Parliament.
24. Spain: The Senate, by a vote of 88 to 44,
refuses to abrogate the protocol of 1877 with the
United States. East Africa: Portugal permits
Great Britain to land troops at Beira.
25. New York: First meeting of the Greater New
York Commission. Germany: Li-Hung-Chang vis-
its Prince Bismarck.
27. A committee of 5 appointed to draw a charter
for the Greater New York. France suggests to
Great Britain the termination of her occupation of
ti.
Spain: The Chamber of Deputies pledges
tobacco revenues for a loan of $100,000,000.
29. Atlanta, Ga: A reduction of 50 per cent. in
output agreed upon by the Southern Textile Manu-
facturing Companies. Baltimore: Cardinal Gib-
bons publishes the Pope’s encyclical letter on the
union of Christian churches.
30. Richmond, Va.: Sixth annual meeting of the
United Confederate Veterans.
July 1.—Alabama: An advance of 2} cents per
ton ted to Birmingham coal miners.
2. Cleveland, Ohio: Strike of Brown Hoisting
_ Company Works; the mayor is obliged to read the
riot act. Santa Fé, New Mexico: The jury in the
Peralta Land Grant case returned a verdict of
guilty. Richmond, Va.: Corner stone laid of a
monument to Jefferson Davis. Lieut. Peary starts
on an Arctic exploring expedition.
4. Cuba: Another American filibustering expe-
dition lands men and arms on the coast.
5. Crete: Formation of a revolutionary govern-
ment. England: Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor
of Cape Colony, raised to the peerage.
6. Chicago: Preliminaries of the Democratic Na-
tional Convention; Senator David B. Hill, of New
York, temporary chairman. England: It is decided
in the House of Commons by a vote of 252 to 106
that India must pay for the maintenance of her own
troops in the Soudan.
7. Chicago: The Democratic National Conven-
tion reject Senator Hill as temporary chairman
and elect Senator Daniel, of Virginia. London:
Arrival of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery
Company of Boston, U.S. A. The Yale boat crew
is defeated by the Leander crew at Henley.
8. Chicago: The Democratic Convention elect
Senator White, of California, permanent chairman.
A number of gold-standard delegates are ruled out.
Canada: Resignation of Sir Charles Tupper as
Premier because of the recent election. ilfred
Laurier asked to form a new Cabinet. London: The
Queen reviews the Ancient and Honorable Artillery
of Boston.
9. The Democratic Convention adopts a platform
favoring free coinage and condemning the use of
Federal troops for the preservation of order; vote,
626 to 303. A resolution is passed condemning Mr.
Cleveland’s administration; vote, 564 to 357. Lon-
don: A dinner given by the Ancient and Honor-
able Artillery Company of Boston at which the
es of Wales is present and makes a friendly
speech.
10. Chicago: The Democratic National Conven-
tion takes four ballots without a choice; on the
fifth ballot William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, is nom-
OF 1896. 269
inated by about 642 votes. England: Passage of
the Deceased Wife’s Sisters Bill by the House of
Lords.
11. Chicago: Arthur Sewall, of Maine, nomi-
nated for Vice-President on the fifth ballot, after
which the convention adjourns.
12. The nomination of Mr. Bryan indorsed by
the American Bimetallic League.
13. Mexico: Unanimous re-election of President
Diaz.
14. France: A lunatic shoots at President Faure.
15. New York: International challenge cup won
by the Canadian yacht Glencairn.
16. Milwaukee: Meeting of the Baptist Young
People’s Union. :
19. Cleveland, Ohio: Celebrates the foundation of
her first settlement.
20. Venezuela files her brief against Great Britain
in regard to the boundary question. New York
Clearing House banks pledge $15,000,000 to protect
the Treasury gold reserve. London: Trial begins
of Dr. Jameson and his men. Crete: More mas-
sacres of Christians reported.
21. Commercial treaty signed between China and
Japan. New York: General strike of tailors or-
dered. A monument to John’ Brown unveiled at
North Elba, N. Y.
22. St. Louis: Populist National Convention
meets. Great Britain: Publication of a second
blue book on the Venezuelan question. St. Louis:
Senator W. V. Allen, of Nebraska, chosen perma-
nent chairman of the Populist Convention.
24. St. Louis: Nomination of Bryan and Sewall
confirmed by the Silver Party Convention.
25. St. Louis: Populists nominate Mr. Bryan for
President and Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, for
Vice-President. South Africa: British troops meet
with a reverse near Buluwayo.
26. England: International peace demonstration
in Hyde Park.
28. Georgia: Receipt of the first bale of the sea-
son’s cotton crop at Savannah. England: Dr.
Jameson and his colleagues found guilty of making
war against a friendly power in the British High
’ Court of Justice ; they are sentenced to terms of im-
prisonment.
29. Maine: Speaker Read makes an important
political speech at Alfred. England: Passage of
the Irish Land bill by the House of Commons.
30. Washington: The President issues a procla-
mation warning Cuban sympathizers against violat-
ing the neutrality laws.
31. New York: Tammany Hall indorses the Chi-
cago nomination.
August 1. Michigan: Informal opening of the
new 800-foot lock in the Sault Ste. Marie Canal.
4, Chicago: The Stock Exchange closes in conse-
uence of the failure of the Diamond Match and
ew York Biscuit Company with liabilities of $8,-
5. Spain: Tax riot in Valencia. England:
lay hochagial to the land bill in the House of
rds.
6. A sound money National Democratic Conven-
tion called to meet at Indianapolis.
8. New Orleans: Refuses to accept the new char-
ter framed by the State Legislature.
12.. New York: Democratic ratification meeting
in Madison Square Garden, speeches by Messrs.
Bryan and Sewall. Persia: Execution of the Shah’s
assassin at Teheran.
13. England: The House of Lords passes the
Trish eat bill which becomes a law.
14. England: Adjournment of Parliament to
Oct. 21.
15. Death of the Sultan of Zanzibar ; Seyjd Kalid
proclaims himself Sultan in defiance of British op-
270 EVENTS
position (see Aug. 27). Germany: Resignation of
a plaaniaa of War, Gen. Bronsart von Schellen-
orf.
18. New York: Notable speech from Mr. Bourke
_ Cochran in reply and in opposition to Mr. Bryan.
19. Meeting of the American Bar Association at
Saratoga. Canada: Meeting of the Eighth Parlia-
ment at Ottawa, J. B. Edgar elected speaker.
22. Washington: Resignation of Hoke Smith, Sec-
retary of the Interior. Switzerland: Opening of
the International Copyright Congress at Bern.
24. Buffalo, N. Y.: Forty-fifth Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence.
25. Milwaukee: Meeting of the Republican
League Clubs of the United States, Gen. Edwin A.
MeAlpin, president. New York: Large importa-
tions of gold from Europe.
26. Constantinople: Sanguinary riots, several
hundred Armenians killed.
27. Zanzibar bombarded by the British fleet; the
new Sultan takes refuge in the German consulate ;
many public buildings damaged, the Sultan’s cor-
vette sunk; Hamond becomes Sultan. ‘Trial trip of
the United States steamer Brooklyn, 21°01 knots
an hour, premium earned, $350,000.
28. Japan: Resignation of the ministry ; the Em-
peror eppaln’s Count Kuroda Acting Premier. . Zan-
zibar: The British consul demands the surrender
of the Sultan, who sought refuge in the German
embassy. New York: Arrival of Li-Hung-Chang,
he is received with great ceremony.
29. New York: Presentation of Li-Hung-Chang
to the President.
30. Saratoga, N. Y.: Lord-Chief-Justice Russell,
of England, addresses the American Bar Associa-
tion on international arbitration.
31. The Philippine Islands: Formidable rebellion
breaks out against the Spanish Government. Tur-
key: Houses of Americans attacked and Armenian
servants murdered in Constantinople. Scotland:
Shipbuilders of the Clyde and Belfast concede an
advance of wages. Saratoga, N. Y.: Meeting of
the American Social Science Association.
September 1-4. Washington: General Confer-
ence of American Librarians. Vermont: Republi-
cans carry the State by largely increased vote.
England: International Convention of Representa-
tives of the Irish Race in London. ,
2. Indianapolis: Convention of National Democ-
racy, ex-Gov. Flower appointed temporary chair-
man, Senator Caffery, of Louisiana, permanent
chairman. Cuba: Capt.-Gen. Weyler decrees com-
pulsory circulation of bank notes at par with gold.
3. Indianapolis: The National Democracy nomi-
nates Senator John M. Palmer for President and
Gen. Simon B. Buckner for Vice-President on a
sound-money platform. Chili: The Congress pro-
ea Errazuriz President for five years, vote 62
to 60.
4, T, S. Clarkson elected Commander-in-chief of
the Grand Army of the Republic.
5. Germany: The Czar and Czarina guests of the
Emperor at Breslau.
7. Spain: Adjournment of the Cortez siné die.
Scotland : Meeting of Trades Union Congress at
Edinburgh. Arkansas: State election, Democrats
win,
9. Spain: 1,500 soldiers sail for the Philippine
Islands.
12. Senator Palmer and Gen. Buckner formally
notified of their nomination.
14. Alleged discovery of a widespread dynamite
plot in England and on the Continent, several
arrests made. Maine: State election, Republicans
win.
15. New York: United States steamship Ban-
OF 1896.
croft sails for Constantinople. Richmond, Va.:
Annual meeting of railroad conductors of the
United States and Canada. Netherlands: Open-
ing of the States General by the Queen Regent.
16. Mexico: Opening of Congress.
17. New York: United States steamship Cincin-
nati sails for the Bosporus. Egypt: The Anglo-
Egyptian expedition reaches Barja, near the prin-
cipal dervish encampment.
18. Washington: The building of three new bat-
tle ships is awarded to the Newport News Company,
the Cramps, and the Union Iron Works. Rome:
The Pope officially pronounces invalid all ordina-
tions under the Anglican rite, and warns Episcopal
clergyman to return to the Church of Rome. Lon-
don: Guards are doubled at the Houses of Parlia-
ment and other public buildings because of alleged
dynamite plot.
19. Germany: First International Women’s Con-
gress in session at Berlin. |
21. Canada: Opening of the Central Exposition
at Ottawa. Colorado: Strikers attack the mine
houses at Leadville; several killed. Philadelphia :
Cricket match with the visiting Australian team ;
the visitors win. he ay
23. Egypt: Capture of Dongola by the British
expedition. England: Victoria’s reign on this day
becomes the longest in the history of Great Britain.
Meetings to protest against Armenian atrocities
held throughout the United Kingdom. Colorado:
Strike leaders arrested, Leadville under martial
law. Pennsylvania: Property of the Reading Rail-
road and Coal and Iron Companies sold under fore-
closure.
24, England: Mr. Gladstone addresses a great
meeting in Liverpool on the Turkish question. Col.
Kitchener, commandant of the Egyptian army, is
promoted major general.
25. The English Government makes a demand
on France for the extradition of P. J. Tynan the
alleged dynamiter. France refuses. Chicago: At-
chison and Rock Island Railroads withdraw from
the Western Freight Association.
26. China: Foochow and Hang-Chow open as —
treaty ports in accordance with the treaty of
Shimoneseki. Cape Breton: Arrival of the Peary
expedition. Vienna: Meeting of the anti-Masonic
Congress.
27. Opening of the Iron Gates Danube Canal be-
tween Hungary and Servia. The Emperor of Aus-
tria and Kings of Roumania and Servia take part
in the opening ceremonies.
28. Declaration of the Porte that disturbances in
Constantinople are due to British supremacy. New
England: A large number of mills and factories
begin to work on full time. Canada: Strike of
train dispatchers on the Pacific Railroad. Ger-
many: Strike of dock laborers at Hamburg.
29. Rhode Island: Special session of the State
Legislature. :
30. St. Louis: Meeting of the National Associa-
tion of Democratic Clubs. France and Italy: A
commercial treaty signed at Paris. India: Agra-
rian riots occur in the northern and central prov-
inces.
October 1. Iowa: Celebrates the fiftieth anni-
versary of her admission to the Union as a State.
England : Strike of 1.500 cabmen in London,
2. Boston, Mass.: Strike of 1,500 garment work-
ers. Zanzibar: The deposed Sultan takes refuge
on board a German war ship. Vigorous protest on
the part of the British. Spain: Emigration of
young men liable to military service restricted. ~
3. New York: Arrival of the new papal repre-
sentative the Most Reverend Sebastian Martinelli.
4. Washington: Cardinal Satolli relinquishes the
office of papal ablegate to the United States. The
EVENTS
Right Rev. J. H. Keane announces his resignation
as rector of the Catholic University.
5. Canada: Adjournment of Parliament. Con-
necticut : Town elections show large Republican
gains. France: Arrival of the Czar and Czarina,
who are received by President Faure. Philadel-
phia: American cricket players win the third series
of matches against the Australians.
6. Georgia: State elections carried by the Demo-
erats, 40,000 oh Vermont: Meeting of the
State Legislature. The President and family leave
Gray Gables, their summer home, to return to Wash-
_ ington. Secretary Herbert awards contracts for
building torpedo boats. Paris: Arrival of the Czar
and Czarina: fétes in their honor lasting till Oct. 10.
7. Galesburg, Ind.: Celebration of the Lincoln-
Douglas debates of 1858; Chauncey M. Depew de-
livers the ortaion. England: Lord Rosebery re-
signs the Liberal leadership. Turkey declines to
mit the United States steamship Bancroft.
8. Washington: Secretary Olney holds a diplo-
matic reception. Zanzibar: British war ships or-
dered to concentrate because of German action in
regard to the late Sultan.
9. Washington: The President arrives at the
’ White House. Chicago: Twenty-fifth anniversary
of the great fire celebrated by a procession, more or
less of a political character. Marked rise in the
price of wheat, due to the failure of crops in Indi-
ana and in South America.
10-14. Pittsburg: Meeting of the Brotherhood
of St. Andrew—12,000 members. New Haven,
ha : Harvard wins the intercollegiate champion-
ship.
11. London: Great anti-Turkish demonstration
held in Hyde Park.
12. Washington: Reassembling of the Supreme
Court. The justices pay a visit of ceremony to the
President. Colorado Springs: Forty-third An-
nual session of the International Typographical
Union. Notable speech of Archbishop Ireland in
support of McKinley. Germany: Annual congress
of the Socialist party at Sieblichen.
13. Washington: First Cabinet meeting of the
season. Eleventh annual encampment of the Un-
ion Veteran Legion. Spain: Mutiny on board a
war ship at Ferrol, 40 men put in arms.
14, Wigtand : Cecil Rhodes announces that the
Matabelan trouble is over.
15. France: Release of P. J. Tynan, the alleged
dynamiter.
16. New York: Decision by the State Court of
Appeals affirming the right of the National Demo-
crats to use their name on official ballots, Mary-
land: Dedication of the Army Correspondent Monu-
ment at Gapland. -
17. New York: Goy. Altgeld of Illinois addresses
a great meeting at Madison Square Garden on the
litical issues of the day. Monsignor Satolli sails
or Rome. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador
announce a treaty whereby they become a con-
federacy.
18. Germany: 26 American women enter for the
new term at Berlin University.
19. Washington: Arrival of the new Turkish
minister, Mustapha Tahsin Dey. Germany: The
Kaiser visits the Russian Czar at Darmstadt.
20. Nashville, Tenn.: Meeting of the American
Institute of Architects. Princeton, N. J.: Cele-
bration of the sesquicentennial of Princeton Col-
lege. Vermont: Re-election of United States Sen-
ator Justin S. Morrell. St. Louis: Fifteenth
annual convention American Street Railway As-
sociation. New York: Convention of the House of
Bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
Washington : Fourth Annual Convention National
Spiritualists of the United States and Canada.
271
21. Capture off the coast of Florida of filibus-
tering steamers Dauntless and R. L. Mallory by
the United States cruiser Raleigh. Boston: The
American Missionary Association begins its jubilee
convention. London: Celebration of the anniver-
sary of the battle of Trafalgar. Venezuela secures
a German loan of $10,000,000.
22. England: Seizure at the Chinese embassy of
Sun-Yet-Zen for political reasons; his release is at
once demanded and enforced by Lord Salisbury.
23. Germany: Much popular indignation over the
arrogance of army officers toward civilians.
24. England: Appointment of the Right Rev.
Frederick Temple to be Archbishop of Canterbury
in place of Ayehbishon Benson (deceased).
26. China: Appointment of Li-Hung-Chang Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs.
27. Japan and Russia agree to co-operate with
the United States in protecting the fur seals.
28. Washington: Conclusion of the British case
before the Venezuela Boundary Commission. New
York : Fifty-third Annual Session of the Sons of
Temperance, 400 delegates present.
31. Flag Day, great sound-money demonstration
in many of the principal cities.
November 1. Gen. Fitz Hugh Lee, United States
consul in Cuba, sails for New York on leave of ab-
sence.
3. Presidential election: William McKinley and
Garrett A. Hobart chosen President and Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States by a popular vote of
7,113,103. Japanese contracts for armored cruisers
given to Cramp & Son,of Philadelphia. Delaware:
Appointment of the Rev. C. F. Thomas, Roman
Catholic Bishop of Wilmington.
4. The President issues his annual Thanksgiving
message, making marked reference to the result of
the election: in Wall Street stocks go up from 3 to
7 points. England: Edward R. Poynter elected _
President of the Royal Academy in place of Sir
John Millais, deceased.
5. New York: Many millions of hoarded gold re-
turned to the banks and subtreasuries. Chicago:
Reopening of the Stock Exchange, closed since
Aug. 3. General revival of business noted all over
the United States. Vienna: Marriage of Prince
Louis Philippe Robert, heir to the throne of France,
and the Archduchesse Marie Borthe Emilie.
6. Massacres of Armenians resumed.
7. Ohio: 3,500 miners of Jackson County strike
against the reduction of wages. Chili: Resignation
of the Cabinet because of a vote of censure in the
Chamber of Deputies. France presents a claim
against Spain for damages in Cuba.
8. Germany: Prince Bismarck astounds the em-
pire by revealing state secrets.
9. London: Lord Salisbury in a speech at the
Lord Mayor’s banquet refers to the Venezuelan
controversy as practically ended, recognizes the
Monroe doctrine, and congratulates the commer-
cial world on the victory of sound money in the
United States. Installment of Mr. A. Fendel Phil-
ips as Lord Mayor of London. Cuba: Capt.-Gen.
eyler takes the field in person. India: Bread
riots occur in the districts threatened with famine.
10. Rochester, N. Y.: Twentieth annual general
assembly of the Knights of Labor. Nashville,
Tenn.: Baptist Congress in session.
11. It is decided to establish a permanent head-
uarters of the National Republican Committee in
ashington. <é-
12. A formal organization of Italian socialists
announced for America under Signor Verro.
13. St. Louis: National Woman’s Christian Tem-
perance Convention; Frances E. Willard re-elected
resident. Continued advance in the price of wheat
in the markets of the world. China: Extensive
OF 1896.
279 EVENTS
railway construction undertaken by the Govern-
ment. Cuba: Contradictory accounts respecting
an engagement in the Rubi mountains. Costa Rica
and Colombia agree to arbitrate an ancient bound-
ary dispute.
14. London: The implied acceptance by Lord
Salisbury of the Monroe doctrine is widely com-
mented upon by the English press. Indiana: Re-
publican congressmen-elect agree to leave local
post-office appointments to the choice of the peo-
ple. Norfolk, Va.: A large force of men taken on
at the navy yard. Italy: A treaty of peace an-
nounced with King Menelek; complete independ-
ence of Ethiopia guaranteed; Italy pays the ex-
pense of maintaining prisoners.
15. New York: First annual convention Nation-
al Council of Jewish Women. It is announced
that the Pope approves of the settlement of the
Manitoba school question,
16. The President appoints W. S. Foreman, of
Illinois, Commissioner of Internal Revenue in place
of Joseph H. Miller, resigned. Washington: A de-
cision of the Supreme Court sustains the constitu-
tionality of California irrigation laws. Mexico:
Session of the Pan-American Medical Congress.
17. Spain negotiates a loan of 250,000,000 pesos,
more than twice that amount being offered. Geor-
gia: Alexander Stephens Clay chosen United States
Senator. Indianapolis: Annual congress of liberal
religious societies. Germany: Heated discussion
on military outrages in the Reichstag.
18. Norfolk, Va.: Congress of Protestant Episco-
pal Church in session, Trusts and monopolies dis-
cussed.
20. Washington: Appointment of the Rev. Dr.
Thomas J. Conaty rector of the Catholic University.
Germany: Opening of the Prussian Diet at Berlin.
21. Italy and Brazil sign a commercial treaty.
Philippine Islands: It is announced that the insur-
rection has become general. St. Louis: Session of
the International Order of King’s Daughters and
Sons. Boston: Collapse of the Wire Nail Trust.
22. London: It is decided by the Royal College
of Surgeons to grant diplomas to women. Cuba:
Capt.-Gen. Weyler returns to Havana, his troops
having been very severely handled if not routed by
the rebels under Gen. Maceo.
23. Washington: The President appoints Carl C.
Nott, of New York, to be Chief Justice of the Court
of Claims.
24. Washington: Wu-Ting-Fang appointed Chi-
nese minister resident. Alabama: Gen. E. W. Pet-
tus chosen United States Senator. Hamburg: The
dock laborers’ strike involves 10,000 men. Nica-
ragua: Amnesty granted to 500 persons engaged in
the late uprising.
25. Central America: It is officially announced
the new confederacy is to be known as the Greater
Republic of Central America.
27. It is announced that President Cleveland will
make his home in Princeton, N.J., after the expira-
tion of his term of office.
28. England: Queen Victoria summons Parlia-
ment to meet Jan. 19, a week earlier than usual.
Money wanted for the army. Russia: It is an-
nounced that the Czar will abolish ministerial offices
and be an absolute autocrat.
29. Great Britain assures France that a proposed
expedition of the River Niger Company will not
trespass upon French interests in Africa.
30. Georgia: Bills introduced into the Legisla-
ture prohibiting the game of football and the sale
of cigarettes and cigarette paper.
December 1. Conference of business men at In-
dianapolis to discuss plans for currency reform.
Mexico: Fifth inauguration of Gen. Porfirio Diaz
as President.
OF 1896.
2-3. Cuba: Many reported engagements between
Spanish troops and the insurgents,
3. Washington: The President announces a ton-
nage tax upon incoming German vessels in retalia-
tion for a similar tax imposed upon American ves-
sels in German ports.
+. Maceo, the most successful of the insurgent
esti is killed in an engagement with the Span-
iards.
5. Washington: A protest filed by Germany
comuiee the President’s action regarding tonnage
ues, :
6. London : Ambassador Bayard declines a Christ-
mas testimonial tendered by a leading daily news-
paper.
7. Washington: Meeting of Congress. Memo-
randum announced of a preliminary agreement be-
tween Secretary Olney and Sir Julian Pauncefote in
regard to the Venezuelan question. Russia and
Great Britain arrive at an understanding regarding
the Turkish question. It is definitely announced
that the Sultan will be coerced. .
8. Washington: “silver Senators” stay away
from the Republican caucus. Paris: Sir Edmund
John Monson pocentr his credentials as British
ambassador to France, in place of Lord Dufferin.
Scotland: Strike of firemen and seamen on the
Clyde.
9. Washington: Permanent quarters secured by
Chairman Hanna for the Republican National Com-
mittee. Colorado: Withdrawal of troops from Lead-.
ville. France: International bimetallism advocated
by Premier Meline in the Chamber of Deputies.
10. San Francisco: Arrival from Honolulu of ex-
Queen Liliuokalani.
11. Decision of the National Democratic party to
establish permanent headquarters in New York.
12. Idaho: Decision of the courts that woman
suffrage was adopted in the late election.
14. New York: Joseph H. Choate announces his
candidacy for United States Senator.
16. Germany: Violent outbreaks among the strik-
ing dock laborers at Hamburg.
17. Switzerland: Dr. Adolphe Deucher elected
President of the Confederation.
18. Cincinnati, Ohio: Samuel Gompers re-elected
President of the American Federation of Labor.
Italy: A disturbance and fight in the Chamber of
Deputies over the allowance of the Crown Prince.
19. Declaration of Secretary Olney that the power
to recognize Cuba rests with the President alone.
Georgetown, 8. C.: A public reception given to
President Cleveland.
20. New York: Return to Cuba of Consul-Gen-
eral Fitzhugh Lee. Popular demonstrations in
favor of the Cuban cause.
22. Army: Col. Charles G. Sawtelle promoted to
be quartermaster general, Chicago: Failure of the
National Bank of Illinois; runs on other banks.
St. Paul, Minn.: Bank of Minnesota closed by order
of the State examiner. London: Confirmation
of Bishop Temple to be Archbishop of Canterbury
and Primate of All England.
23. Washington: The President receives Sefior
Rodriguez, first minister of the “Greater Republic
of Central America.”
24. Germany: Arrest of several anarchists in Ber-
lin.
25. Boston: End of the street-car strikes, pend-
ing negotiations ; 800 strikers seeking re-engagement
were refused.
28. Washington: It is announced by the State
Department that the arbitration agreement is ac-
cepted by Venezuela.
31. New York: Gov. Morton removes Inspector-
General McLewee for criticising State military offi-
cials in his report.
——
FARMERS’ CONGRESS. The sixteenth an-
nual session of the Farmers’ National Congress of the
United States convened in the hall of the House of
_ Representatives at Indianapolis, Ind., Nov. 10, 1896.
_ Hon. Benjamin F. Clayton, of lowa, president of the
congress, presided, and Hon. J. M. Stahl, of Chi-
, Was secretary, assisted by Prof. C. A. Stock-
wall, of Rhode Island, and D. O. Lively, of Texas.
Hon. Claude Mathews, Governor of the State, in his
address of welcome, said :
“Indiana, while but thirty-third in area in the
_ list of States, has, through the great fertility of her
soil and the intelligent development of her wonder-
ful resources by her farmers, been placed in the
front ranks of the great grain-producing and live-
stock States of the Union. Indiana, recognizing
the great truth that the basis of wealth and po
rity of a ple more largely rests upon a farm
ie ever held out an encouraging hand to its agri-
- culture, and through this wise and just encoura
ment has our State rapidly and continuously in-
_ereased in wealth and in the happiness and content-
ment of our people. It has been eloquently said
that you might burn your cities to the ground and
soon a prosperous country would rebuild them ; but
destroy the prosperity of the farm, and grass would
or in the great commercial streets of our cities.
ut great as has been the encouragement which
Indiana and doubtless other States have given to
agriculttre through equitable laws, public senti-
ment, and moral aid, there is yet more need, and
through such meetings as this of yours may the
way be pointed out to secure these needs.”
esponding to the welcome of the Governor,
President Clayton then delivered his annual ad-
dress, in which he said:
“Our meeting follows in quick succession a de-
termined and closely contested national campaign.
In this campaign the interest of every farmer and
gpa has been involved. Laying aside the bit-
r personal attacks that usually characterize na-
tional politics, having as leaders men of the highest
personal integrity and character, a campaign of
education was inaugurated and 70,000,000 Ameri-
can people in the sacred right couched in the
silent ballot rendered their verdict on Noy. 3, and,
as a result of that campaign, no people so well un-
derstand the financial system of their government
as do ours. While it is quite natural for a large
and equally intelligent minority of our people to
feel disappointed at the results, yet it is fair to pre-
sume that they will join with the majority in the
hope that the verdict at the polls—the high and
supreme tribunal before which great issues must be
decided—will result in the restoration of life and
activity to our commercial centers, and give em-
ployment to both capital and labor.
__ “At the fourteenth annual meeting, at Parkers-
burg. W. Va., in 1894, this organization, by a practi-
lly unanimous vote, da resolution, declaring
that to whatever degree either great political party
Shall adopt the policy of protection, we, as repre-
_ sentatives of the farming interest, demand that an
_ equal protection be given to farm products. A
committee was appointed to confer with a congres-
sional committee as to the readjustment of tariff
Schedules on farm products. I regret that there
has been no report from that committee, but I have
been placed in possession of figures on farm prod-
ucts under the operation of the former and the
present revenue laws, both of which are protective;
VOL. Xxxv1.—18 A
FARMERS’ CONGRESS,
bo
~]
co
F
hence I shall give the facts without fear of party
criticism. During the last fiscal year of the opera-
tion of the former law the agricultural imports of
20 articles the like of which we produce North
and South amounted to $65,804,446; during the
first calendar year of the operation of the present
law the importation of the same articles amounted
to $134,068,860, or an increase over the former law
of $68,264,314. In the exportation of farm prod-
ucts we find the discrepancy still greater in 27
chief articles produced on the farm. During the
fiscal year 1894 we exported farm products to the
amount of $907,946,945, while during the calendar
year 1895 there were exports in the same product
to the amount of only $751,833,937, a decrease of
$156,113,008. Adding the gain in imports to the
loss in exports, the American farmer loses in one
vear $224.337,322. The discrepancy between the
last year of the former law and the fiscal year clos-
ing in 1896 discloses a loss of $496,000,000, or a loss
in two years under the late schedule of approxi-
mately 2721,000,000. It may be claimed with some
show of reason that other conditions aside from the
change in schedules produced this effect, as, for
instance, on the article of hides, on the free list
under both schedules, the increased importation
was $19,162,272, on wool the increase was $27,-
662,718, while our exports in cotton and bread;
stuffs receded $81,122,389.
“Tf these figures be true, a vigorous remonstrance
to these schedules should go up from this body, and
we should demand that the Agricultural Depart-
ment investigate each item. Should protection be
the policy of the Government, then it should be
applied to farm } pecsboeabe and the Agricultural
Department should recommend to the General Gov-
ernment such changes in the tariff schedule as will
furnish the same protection to the product of the
farm that is pean, we to other grain interests,
“Notwithstanding the antitrust laws found in
our statutes, combinations of the most gigantic pro-
portions have been formed, which bid defiance to
the courts of law and absolutely control the pur-
chase and selling price of live stock and its prod-
ucts. In my judgment, it is a dark day when these
combinations are permitted to invade any State.
Gradually they are extending their powers and fas-
tening their fangs upon the important trade centers
of the States with a rapacious greed that threatens
to sweep everything before it. Will any well-read
man deny the proposition that these combinations
can say to the farmer, ‘ You shall take your stock to
the market and sell it to us at our pairs, or to others
at prices dictated by us?’ These charges have often
been made, and they have never been publicly de-
nied by those combinations. They have invaded our
country with the foreign beef carcass; they have
come within the gates of our cities, have destroyed
the slaughter houses, and have driven the local
business man to the wall through the siren song of
cheap beef; and the time is not far distant when
they will as absolutely control the price to the con-
sumer. When you get behind the screen that con-
ceals the National Grain and Millers’ Associations,
you will find the same conditions. Unless checked
by State and national legislation, the Millers’ Asso-
ciation will soon dictate to the farmer the price of
his grain, and to the consumer the price of his
breadstuff, as absolutely as the Whisky Trust con-
trols the price of its goods. The meetings of these
organizations are clandestine. Some time since I
O74 FARMERS’
understood from reliable authority that there was a
national convention of oatmeal manufacturers at
Des Moines, Iowa, and their movement was so quiet
as to escape the sharp eye of the reportorial staff of
the Des Moines press. ;
gins between the price paid for grain and the price
charged for mill products, there is no man but will
agree with me that those engaged in the milling
‘business are not rendering reciprocal justice to the
producer of the cereal or to the consumer.
“ By legislation and by courts we have settled the
great principle that the public have a right to con-
trol these trusts, and corporations have accepted
that principle. What we now want is, that the
national and State executives lose no time in lay-
ing before Congress and the legislatures the evils
complained of, and suggest such remedies as will
check their further growth.”
On motion of Judge Lawrence, of Ohio, a com-
mittee was appointed to examine the president’s
address and prepare a memorial to Congress upon
the suggestions it contained. The committee con-
sisted of Hon. William Lawrence, of Ohio; Mrs,
O. S. Foley, of Illinois; Mrs. J. M. Strahn, of Lowa;
J. F. Branson, of Nebraska; John Stotze, of Ohio;
and J, A. Myers, of West Virginia.
The president then announced the following
standing committees :
On Finance: Will B. Powell, Pennsylvania; J.
C. Offutt, Indiana; J. G. Avery, Massachusetts; J.
Quirk, Minnesota; J. H. Baker, Maryland.
On Location: Mrs. Ada M. Ewing, Iowa; F. H.
Appleton, Massachusetts; Jason Sexton, Pennsyl-
vania; D, O. Lively, Texas; D. G. Purse, Georgia.
On Resolutions: William Lawrence, Ohio; H. D.
Land, Alabama; H. H. Harris, Illinois; Joshua
Strange, Indiana; J. H. Whetzel, Iowa; J. H. Baker,
Maryland; R. G. F. Candage, Massachusetts; W.
M. Hayes, Minnesota; Mrs. A. M. Edwards, Ne-
braska; G. A. Stockwell, Rhode Island; D. O. Live-
ly, Texas.
After a lively discussion the following memorial
was adopted :
“To the Congress of the United States: The
Farmers’ National Congress is composed of 2 dele-
gates at large from each State and 1 delegate from
each congressional district of the United States,
besides a large number of advisory delegates from
each State. Its object is to advance the agricul-
tural interests of the country. At the session of
this congress in Indianapolis, Nov. 10-13, 1896, the
Hon. Benjamin F. Clayton delivered his annual ad-
dress and the undersigned committee was directed
to consider it and prepare a memorial to the Con-
gress of the United States.
“The Farmers’ National Congress is not a polit-
ical organization, but it has political objects, among
which are to secure legislation, State and national,
in the interests of agriculture on nonpartisan lines
by the co-operation of men of all political parties.
Besides this, like the Patrons of Husbandry, or
Grange organization, this congress demands that the
general policy of a protective tariff shall be adopted
by the Government of the United States, and that
the products of agriculture shall share its benefits
equally with the most favored of other industries.
“The recent election for President and repre-
sentatives in Congress has for a time settled the
question that ‘the most ample protection’ shall be
extended to agricultural products in common with
those of other industries. This memorial, there-
fore, represents the requests of farmers of all polit-
ical parties. In view of the policy settled by the
recent election, the annual address of the distin-
guished and able President of the Farmers’ National
Congress discusses the effect of tariff legislation as
found in the tariff acts of Nov. 1, 1890, and Aug.
If you will figure the mar-
CONGRESS.
28,1894, In view of these considerations this me-
morial asks the Congress of the United States to
give the ‘most ample protection’ for farm products
of the classes mentioned—that is, protective duties
which will give the whole market to American
farmers. Among these productions may be named :
1, cotton; 2, hemp; 3, flax; 4, wheat; 5, corn; 6,
barley; 7, oats; 8, potatoes; 9, hops; 10, dairy
products; 11, garden vegetables; 12, poultry and
eggs; 13, live stock for use as food; 14, some kinds
of tobacco; 15, small fruits; 16, apples and other
orchard fruits; 17, hay,”
Hon, A. M. Soteldo, delegate from Venezuela, —
was introduced and spoke feelingly of the friendship
between the two republics.
After the report of the committee fixing upon St.
Paul, Minn., as the next place of meeting, ex-Presi-
dent Benjamin Harrison was introduced, and in
part said:
“T came here this morning simply to make ac-
knowledgment of the compliment you have shown
me by inviting me to appear before this convention.
I suppose that politics is barred and that this is
strictly an agricultural meeting. I am not learned
in agriculture, though I was born and reared upon
the farm, and whatever education I acquired was
pais for by the proceeds of corn and wheat and
ogs. It is very much the custom of the time—and
a very natural custom it is—that men of a particu-
lar vocation should associate themselves together
with a view of promoting their interests, and not
selfishly the interests of the few, but the interests of
the great class to which they belong, to study the
principles that underlie a successful prosecution of
a particular calling, and to cultivate fraternity and
acquaintance. The times are full of such asso- —
ciations, and I think they should be encouraged.
When men engaged in a particular calling from —
high motives associate themselves together and —
pursue those high motives in their association only —
goed can result. But we must not forget when we
orm a lawyers’ association, or a farmers’ associa-
tion, or an association of laboring men, that our
object and aim should not be wholly selfish, In-
deed, I think I may say that if we were absolutely
selfish in our purposes and thought only of our own
good, the anda of the class and of the individual of
the class, we should find that good most highly pro-
moted by taking a broad view of things and by ad-
mitting to our deliberations this thought: that it is
not possible for one class to be highly prosperous
while all other classes are suffering; that there is an —
interdependence in all our business and social rela-
tions, and that this is highly developed in a free.
government like ours. In other words, in a broad
sense, we prosper together and we suffer together;
we are interdependent. I think sometimes the con-_
ceit of the farmer has been unduly promoted when
it has been said that he is at the bottom of every-
thing and that he belongs to an independent class,
that cities are not of much account, and that farms
are God’s work and enduring. What would the
farm be without the town, and what would the town
be without the farm? The cities furnish the popu-
lation that consumes the product of the farm, and
the farm furnishes the subsistence of the city. As
I heard a friend say the other day, ‘It is the city
for the country, and the country for the city, and
all for the flag.’ We are all rejoicing with you just
now—eyven those who have to buy our breadstuff
and provisions—that you are getting a little better
price for wheat and corn than you have been get-
ting, and we think it is highly unselfish on our part
that we should be willing to pay a little more for
flour and meal and bacon that you should, haye a
better chance on the farm.
“My thought is, if you think there are wrongs
and grievances in the business conditions or in
legislations, hunt them out and specify them, hold
them up to public judgment, and have faith in
our fellow-man. For I say to you that the great
body of the people, an overwhelming majority, are
in favor always of justice and fairness, and if you
make that appeal to them they will respond. They
only want to be informed. They want to have you
specify. If you are going to have a fight, have
something to hit and hit it hard. Men will ap-
plaud the blow that you deliver.
“T have rejoiced in all that has tended to make
agriculture easier, to give leisure for thought and
_ reading, for the cultivation of the intellect. I re-
joice that the schoolhouse and the little church are
ound in every country neighborhood; I rejoice in
the belief that our people are patriotic, and that
never before in the history of our country was there
a deeper and more universal love of the starry ban-
_ ner and the Constitution for which it stands.”
After a discussion of the resolution asking for
the extension of free mail delivery in rural dis-
tricts, the amendment of antitrust laws, the con-
struction of ship canals from the Great Lakes to
the seaboard, and various measures affecting agri-
cultural products, the congress adjourned.
FARMS, ABAN DONED. The problem involved
in the abandonment of farms—a process that has
steadily gone on in the Northeastern States for the
t quarter of a century—is a curious one, and is
closely related to our general social and economic
interests. This movement has not been confined to
the rural districts of mountainous New England,
though its effects have been more patent there, but,
it is claimed, is also observable in New York, in
New Jersey, and even in Ohio. It is not probable,
however, that in the Jast-named States the tendency
has become so marked as to modify the sum total of
social interests in any material degree. This, how-
ever, can not be said of New England, and the
danger is that causes which have operated there,
added to other local agencies, may, unless neu-
tralized by other inftuences, work further mischief
like a contagion. It is asserted by statisticians that
the tendency to desert the country for the city, to
“speculate in futures,” to quit agriculture for other
pe ig is also a recently noticeable fact in
and, France, and Germany, and it has bred
__lessness which has been specially attributed to the
American character. The latest exact information
bearing on this subject is derived from the figures
of the semi-decennial census report of Massachusetts
for the five years ending with 1895—the only State
that is both prompt and thorough in furnishing this
important record. Massachusetts, too, furnishes a
better test than any other State. If its great man-
acturing interests, generally distributed over all
the State, offer a ready diversion from the farm to
the workshop, the large local demand for food prod-
ucts, creating a bigger home market, tends to off-
Set this drain on the agricultural classes by making
truck farming more profitable. If this farm aban-
“donment proceeds persistently in any ratio, it is
‘Safe to conclude that such ratio is considerably ex-
¢eeded in the other New England States.
On May 1, 1895, the 2,500,183 people in Massa-
‘chusets were divided into 547,385 families, giving
an average of 4°57 persons to each. Taking private
Beailics alone—that is, excluding the population of
hotels, public institutions, schools and colleges, and
camps of laborers—the ratio was 4-49 persons. Years
ago the families of farmers were large. The condi-
} tions of country life favored fertility and the health-
+} fulness of children, as against city life. The same
FARMS, ABANDONED.
275
facts of vital statistics would inhere in Nature to-
day, other things being equal. But the figures tell
another story. In Nantucket the family size is 3-07;
in Dukes County (Martha’s Vineyard and vicinity),
3°25 ; in Barnstable, 3°43. In these maritime regions
of course the soil is poor and sandy, yet fifty years
ago the average was fully equal to that of the rest
of the State. Of the 14 counties in the State, 7 fall
much below the average. Of the others, Essex
shows 446; Franklin, 417: Norfolk, 454; and
Plymouth, 4°09. Suffolk County, which includes
Boston and several of its suburban feeders, has an
average of 4°79. The lowest ratio is found in Ed-
garton, Dukes County, 2°98, and Wellfleet, Barnstable
County, 2°92. In some wards of the large cities the
average ranges betwcen 6 and 7 to the family, and
in many cases it rises above 5, while in many small
towns the average is below 3. Such figures teach a
very plain lesson. They show the dwindling of
population in the rural districts, especially of the
young and sturdy, either in their desertion of the
State or their movement from country to city. As
a logical consequence, the number of persons neces-
sary to keep land in effective tillage having greatly
decreased, many of the less fertile farms or those
more remote from a city market have been aban-
doned. With this, perhaps, has gone a direct fall-
ing off of fecundity in the rural population, follow-
ing that law of supply and demand which is inevi-
table in every turn of existence whether of Nature
or society.
While no very recent statistics are available as to
‘the status of other New England States as regards
the farming population, reports made a few years
ago to the Legislatures of Vermont and New
Hampshire bearing on the reapportionment of the
States into election districts are full of significance.
In many of the mountain townships (and these con-
stitute a large portion of Vermont territory) popu-
lation had so dwindled that in some cases thera
were scarcely more than half a dozen voters, and
yet these had as much voting power in the legisla-
tive body as cities of 50,000 people. The traveler
through such States as Vermont and New Hamp-
shire in particular finds deserted homesteads at
every turn, ruined and empty houses and their ram-
shackle barns, with open doors and windows look-
ing. like eye holes in a skull, and wide stretches
of young forest, where once grew corn and potatoes.
The inexorable forest comes down and claims its
own as soon as the hand of man intermits his pa-
tient toil. The United States census statistics of
1880 and 1890, as showing the changes of ten years,
shed some light on the course of farm abandonment
in New England. These are given for 4 States
where the action is more noticeable: Maine had in
1880 64,309 farms, with an average of improved or
tillable land of 3,484,908 acres: in 1890, 62.013
homesteads, with average of 3,044,666 acres. New
Hampshire in 1880 counted 32,181 farms, and an
acreage of 2,308,112; in 1890, 29,151 farms of
1,727,187 acres. In Vermont, for 1880, we find
35,522 farms. and acreage 3,286,461; in 1890, 32,-
573 farms, and 2,655,943 acreage. Massachusetts:
showed in 1880 38,406 farms, of 2,128,311 acres; in
1890 the census record was 34,374 farms and 1,657,-
024 acres. The ratios of agricultural shrinkage in
New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania are so
slight, as shown in the two last national censuses,
that they are far less significant. It is New Eng-
land, especially mountain New England, that is
pectin the region of abandoned farms, where
the phenomenon assumes a startling vividness.
So much has been written in newspapers and
periodicals on the subject of farm abandonment,
with special relation to its causes, that it is scarcely
needful to enter into that part of the subject, ex-
276
cept so far as the causes may suggest the partial
cure of the evil. The tremendous development of
Western railways, especially the building of the
transcontinental systems, immediately after the
civil war, opening vast fields of cereal and live-
stock production, and shifting the center of distri-
bution, was the original disturbing factor, Inci-
dental to the influence, involving loss of revenue
to the Eastern farmer, was the loss of the old in-
tensely thrifty, conservative spirit that made the
farmer’s family content with a parsimonious living.
The new spirit of the times opened unknown vistas
of pleasure and comfort in living, which the old
life could not gratify. These two main Causes as-
sisted by other minor influences, drained the agri-
cultural sections of the East of the more ambitious
growing generation, and still continues to do so.
A possible remedy may be suggested by the study
of these causes. The farmer cut off from profitable
production of the great staples, hay alone excepted,
must learn to mix brains with his farming, and
study the markets that are left to him, with a view
to their supply. Eggs, butter, cheese, milk, poultry,
winter roots and similar products, and general
market gardening, when sufficiently near to popu-
lous trade and manufacturing centers, offer annually
increasing outlets for remunerative toil. The
farmer in the East must change his methods and
become free of the old ruts. The social difficulty
may be largely decreased by good roads, convenient
alike for business and pleasure, and practically
bringing families near to each other for the pur-
poses of society and the producer near his shipping
station. The subject of good roads has been greatly
mooted of late years, and some steps have been
taken to secure them. Inareport to the New York
_ Legislature four years ago it was estimated, as a
conclusion based on careful study, that an adequate
system of macadamized roads would add 25 per
cent. to the value of agricultural property in the
State. A similar appreciation, if not so great a
one, would take place in all the agricultural sections.
The necessity of scientifically built roads must be
accepted as a prime factor in all schemes for the
regeneration of farming interests. That the older
agricultural regions, especially the more sterile
sections, can ever be restored to their former im-
portance in the general economic scheme is scarcely
possible. But very much may be done by intelli-
gent private and public effort to check the retro-
grade tendencies that have been operating power-
fully for many years.
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896. The presi-
dential campaign of this year was an important
disturbing factor, unsettling all financial, com-
mercial, and industrial enterprises for nearly three
months, and it was not until the election that there
was any recovery. ‘Then confidence was restored,
and there was a decided improvement in the gen-
eral situation, which continued to the end of the
year. There were indications in May that the
Democratic National Convention, which would as-
semble in Chicago, July 7, would be dominated by
delegations in favor of the free coinage of silver,
‘and some fears were entertained that the Repub-
lican National Convention, to be held at St. Louis,
June 16, would fail to take decided ground in favor
of the gold standard. All doubt regarding the at-
titude of the Republican party was dispelled by the
adoption of a sound money platform, and William
McKinley, of Ohio, and Garret A. Hobart, of New
. Jersey, were nominated for President and Vice-
President. But as the time approached for the
meeting of the Democratic Convention it became
evident that the free-silver-coinage element would
be largely in the ascendant. The conservative
members of the party sought to avert the catas-
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896.
trophe, but without avail, and the platform adopted
not only declared in favor of the free coinage of
silver, but it contained resolutions assailing the
courts for their interference by injunctions at the
time of the Debs insurrection in 1894; declaring
against life tenure in the public service; opposing
further issues of Government bonds for the purpose
of maintaining the gold reserve; and demanding
that holders of Government obligations should be
deprived of the option now enjoyed of choosing the
kind of money in which they chould receive pay-
ment. The platform was adopted by a vote of 628
to 307, and William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and
Arthur Sewall, of Maine, were placed in nomina-
tion for President and Vice-President. The Pop-
ulist party met in St. Louis, July 22, and nominated
W. J. Bryan and Thomas A. Watson, the latter of
Georgia, while the silver convention met later in
the month and nominated Bryan and Sewall, and
in September the sound-money Democrats met in
Indianapolis and nominated Palmer and Buckner,
Immediately after the action of the Democratic
Convention at Chicago a feeling of distrust begun
to grow; prices at the Stock Exchange were de-
pressed; gold was drawn from the Treasury for
shipment to Europe and to Canada; savings-bank
deposits were withdrawn, converted into gold, and —
the metal was hoarded; commercial failures in-
creased ; business and industrial enterprises were
paralyzed ; capital sought retirement; and the finan-
cial situation grew grave. There were periods of |
recovery from the depression as the canvass pro-
gressed, due to a more hopeful feeling regarding —
the result of the election, but during October fears
of the possibility of the success of the Democratic —
ticket stimulated further hoarding of gold; the —
demand for the metal caused an advance in the
premium of from 4 of 1 to 1 per cent. for spot, and —
from 1} to 14 sed cent. for options deliverable in No-
vember and December, which premium led to the
import of gold from Europe; sterling exchai
was largely bought for insurance against loss
case of the election of Bryan and Sewall ; mee
on call gradually grew stringent; loans for fixed
periods could not be obtained except at high rates;
contracts for goods were made conditional upon the
success of Mr. McKinley, and for at least ten days
before the election nearly all financial, commercial,
and industrial interests were in a state of partial
stagnation. The stock market was, however, com-—
paratively strong, owing to speculative manipula-
tion. The election resulted in the success of the
Republican national ticket, which received 271
electoral votes against 176 for Bryan and Sewall,
and there was an immediate restoration of con-
fidence. Money grew easy; the premium on gold
vanished; hoards of gold and of currency were
released; capital sought employment; business re-
vived; industrial enterprises were resumed ; the net
gold in the Treasury increased; the loans, cash,
and deposits of the banks were rapidly augmented ;
and prosperous conditions generally prevailed. The
significance of the victory for sound money was
shown by the fact that the: popular plurality of
725,448 was the largest given at any presidental
election since 1872, when Grant’s plurality was
762,991: and all the Eastern, the Middle, and Mid-
dle Western States, the most populous and the most
wealthy sections of the country, gave Mr. McKin.
ley decisive majorities. The victory resulted from
a phenomenal uprising of the people, regardless ol
party ties, who voted for the Republican candidat
because he represented the principle of sound money
and of good government as opposed to a debased
silver currency and revolutionary methods.
Among the important events in Europe more oF
less influencing the financial situation were the
x
litical tension in London, growing out of the raid
ee Dr. Jameson upon Johannesburg at the close of
1895. A telegram by the Emperor William of Ger-
many to President Rircager of the Transvaal Re-
public, congratulating him upon the defeat of the
raiders, was regarded in England as indicating that
Germany was in entire sympathy with the Govern-
ment of the republic, and that in the event of pos-
sible collision with England Germany would ac-
tively intervene. A feeling of resentment quickly
spread, and it was intensified by the action of the
English Government in placing in commission a
naval flying squadron and in recruiting for the
army. The excitement soon subsided, however,
after explanations had been made by the Emperor
William to the Queen, but the tone of the London
markets did not immediately recover. In February
it was reported that the English Government had
decided to submit the Venezuelan boundary ques-
tion to a commission, but this was not confirmed,
though until it was denied the London markets
were somewhat favorably influenced. On Noy. 10
arbitration was upon between England and
this country. The defeat of the Italians by the
Abyssinians at Adua, on March 1, caused great ex-
citement in Italy, leading to the downfall of the
ministry. Overtures were then made to the Abys-
sinian King for peace, and concurrently England
arranged an Anglo-Egyptian expedition in the Sou-
dan. This movement was opposed by France, but
later that Government yielded consent. On April
28 it was announced that 5 of the Johannesburg
committee, who were connected with the Jameson
raid, had been condemned to death, and this caused
great excitement in England. The Government
appealed to President Krueger to commute the sen-
tence, and he consented to banish the condemned
men, imposing heavy fines. The tension in Europe
regarding the situation in Turkey grew quite severe
in July and August, but the powers were not in ac-
cord, and therefore no action was taken. After
the visit of the Emperor of Russia to England in
September the French ambassador to the Porte
insisted upon reforms in Armenia, the demand
was complied with, and thereafter there was less
friction regarding Turkey. The Anglo-Eg
tian expedition up the Nile captured Dongola
toward the end of September, and on Oct. 26 a
ceeds of peace between Italy and Abyssinia was
The most important financial event at home was
the offering on Jan. 6 for popular subscription of
$100,000,000 United States 4-per-cent. bonds, this
course being taken instead of contracting with a
syndicate, because of the opposition in the Senate
to further private contracts for the sale of bonds.
The subscriptions amounted to $568,000,000 from
4.640 bidders, and the awards were $66,788,650 at
above 110°6877 and $33,211,350 at that price. The
bids were opened Feb. 5, and by the end of the
month $54,669.959.67 had been paid into the Sub-
treasury and $28,500,000 into specially designated
_ depository banks. The bond sale yielded $111,-
166,246, and if no gold had been withdrawn by in-
_ tending purchasers of bonds the net gold would
have been increased to $155,729.739. But gold was
‘
Bente, and the amount so taken from the New
ork Sub-treasury was $51,434,957.50. The sale
_ of bonds netted $84,150,207 gold, to the Treasury.
The bond issue was ordered for the purpose of re-
7 earning the Treasury net gold, which was $63,-
269 on Jan. 1, and reduced to $49,845,508 on Feb.
1. It fell to $44,563,494 by Feb. 10, some gold having
been withdrawn immediately prior to the opening
of the bids for the bonds. - By the end of February
the net gold was increased through payments for
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896.
Withdrawn at frequent intervals during the bond’ R@
277
the bonds to $124,631,141, and by the end of March,
when the bulk of the payments had been made, it -
was $128,713,700. Then followed a gradual de-
crease to $86,631,770 by July 23. Gold had been
steadily moving out of the Treasury since the mid-
dle of the month, and as the Senate just before ad-
journment had practically tied the hands of the
Administration ie assing a resolution opposing
the Government policy of issuing bonds for the
pur of restoring the Treasury reserve, it was
felt that a resort to another bond issue was imprac-
ticable. The leading bank officers of New York
had a consultation which resulted in an agreement
to turn over to the Treasury from $20,000,000 to
$25,000,000 gold in exchange for legal tenders. At
the same time a syndicate of foreign bankers
agreed to assist in checking the export of gold and
to control exchange so as eventually to bring about
gold imports. Over $17,000,000 gold was turned
into the Treasury by July 25, and exports of the
metal ceased. By Aug. 4 the net gold was $110,-
782,403, but withdrawals for hoarding and for trans-
fer to Canada reduced it to $100,957,562 by Sept.
2. Syndicate manipulation of the exchange mar-
ket resulted in imports of gold from Europe in Au-
gust. The esiig g thereafter came in increasing
amounts, and as it was very generally deposited in
the Treasury the net gold increased to $125,600,068 -
by Oct. 6. Then followed depletions through hoard-
ing, and the net fell to $114,957,109 on Nov. 5, re-
fiecting large withdrawals from the New York Sub-
treasury on the day previous to the election. After
that event there was a radical change. About $6.-
500,000 of assay-office checks, representing imported
gold bullion, which had been withheld from pres-
entation, and receipts for imported gold coin de-
posited at the Subtreasury for examination, were
either passed through the Clearing House as cur-
rency or cashed with legal tenders at the Treasury,
and $10,800,000 of gold deposited in the various
banks was sent to the Clearing-House vaults before
the end of November. Some deposits of gold were
made at interior Subtreasuries in exchange for
legal tenders, and whereas before the election there
seemed to be a general desire to get gold, as soon as
the result of the election was known holders of the
metal were anxious to exchange it for currency.
The net gold in the Treasury rose to $130,407.237
by Nov. 30, and at the end of the year it was $136,-
746,473.
The following tabular survey of the economical
conditions and results of 1896, contrasted with those
of the preceding year, is from the “Commercial and
Financial Chronicle” :
ECONOMICAL CONDITIONS =
AND RESULTS. 1895. 1896.
Coin and currency in the
United States, Dec. 31...... $1,783,409,410) $1,905,590,736
Bank clearings in the United
FUME ects ast stecmedvas $53,348,081.562| $51,183,004,950
Business failures............- $173,196,060 $226,096,834
Imports of merchandise
gn ee See ene eee $801,626,678 $680,556,233
of merchandise
ot eS eee eee $824,896,522) $1,005,878,417
Gross earnings 205 roads
(0 aE A eee $921,182,644| $924,359.561
ilroad construction, miles. 1,922) 1,750
Wheat raised, bushels .. ..... 467.102.947) 412,000,000
Corn raised, bushels ......... 2,151,138,580) 2,211,000,000
Cotton raised, bales.......... 6,500,000 8,500,000
Pig iron produced (tons of
240 pounds).............-- 9,446,308 8,623,127
Steel rails, Bessemer (tons of|
2,240 pounds)............... 1,159,000 1,100,000
Anthracite coal (tons of 2.240
MEU ng Scant esc cca ss : 46,845,761 43,177,485
Petroleum (runs) production,)
Oh ee Eee } 26,284,025 30,406,398
Immigration into the United)
States (fiscal year) ......... | 343,267 258,538
278
The price of bar silver in London fluctuated dur-
ing the year betweeen 31}4d. in March and 293d. in
October.
The prices of leading staples on or about Jan. 1,
1897, compared with prices at the same date in 1896
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896,
days, 3} to 4 per cent. for ninety days to four months,
and 4 for longer periods. Large amounts were
placed on long sterling at 3 to 34 per cent. for
sixty days, and later loans were made on such col-
lateral at 24 per cent.
and 1895, were as follow: The business in commercial paper was limited in
STAPLES, 1895. 1896. 1897.
Cotton, middling uplands, per pound...........seee-eeeeeeeees ai 85; ee
Standard sheetings, per ms beads VOID alien celts esteem Se son tales 6 5b
Wool, Ohio XX, per core SOAS RRS Cobareh ee hee aTe Dexa 17 to 18 18 to 19 16
Iron, American pig No. 1, per tom ........cscessceeveeceevecees $9 50 to $13 $12 to $14 50 3 to $13
Rteelinails at mills, Per tO syne kaka sews arlievaaaeew sone eanlorisier $22 75 $28 00 to
Wheat, No. 2 red winter, per bushel..............seeeeesegoves
Corn, Western mixed No. 2, per bushel..............2.000000: 51 344 294
Pork niess, Her barvel.isi ices hus cosh hap hea ce eeawea ceo ley $12 75 to $13 25 $8 75 to $Y 25 $8 25 to $8 75
Money.—-Money on call loaned at 1 and at 127
er cent. at the Stock Exchange during the year.
he market was only moderately active until
February, when there was a slight flurry, caused by
the fear that, influenced by bond payments, the
money rate might be disturbed; but a later modifi-
cation of the bond circular allayed apprehension,
and there was not the least derangement of the
market caused by the bond settlements. Normal
conditions prevailed until early in August, when
the failure of the Diamond Match deal in Chicago
‘and the panicky fall in stocks in the New York
market caused an advance in the rate to 15 per
cent.; but later there was a fall to 14, and money
was fairly active in September. The withdrawals
of currency from the banks gradually increased
during October, and toward the end of the month
there was little disposition to lend, owing to the
uncertainty regarding the result of the presidential
election. On the 30th there was an advance in the
rate to 127 per cent., and a syndicate of leading
banks was promptly formed for the purpose of
turning over to the Clearing House Loan Commit-
tee $10,000,000 to be loaned on the Stock Exchange
in order to meet the most urgent demands and to
avert a crisis. About $5,000,000 of this bank money
was loaned at from 6 to 25 per cent. per annum,
On the day previous to the election loans were made
at 96 per cent., but the day after election the rate
fell to 6, and gradually the market grew easier, the
rate falling to 1 per cent. by the last week in No-
vember, influenced by a large accumulation of capi-
tal at this center which was reflected by the bank
statements. The average rate in December to the
close of the year was about 2 per cent.
Time money was freely offered in January at 6 per
cent. for domestic for five to six months, and 5 to 54
for foreign for ninety days to four months. Late in
February rates were 4 per cent. for thirty to sixty
days, 44 for ninety days, 44 to 5 for four to five
months, and 5 for six to seven months on good stock
collateral. There was no change in this branch of
the market until after the middle of April, when
rates fell to 3 per cent. for thirty to ninety days, 34
for four to five, and 4 for six to seven months, and
these quotations ruled until the end of May, when,
in consequence of a light demand, there was a de-
cline to 24 per cent. for thirty to sixty days, 3 for
ninety days to four months, 34 for five to six, and
4 for seven to eight months. In June rates were 4
of 1 per cent. higher for these periods, but the in-
quiry was small. The offerings were light in July,
but the demand was good, and rates were 5 per
cent. for short and 53 to 6 for long periods. Early
in August the quotation was 6 per cent. bid for all
periods, but later a commission of from 1 to 2 per
cent. in addition to 6 per cent. interest was de-
manded for negotiating the loan, and these rates
remained unchanged until after the election in No-
vember, when the offerings grew more liberal, and
rates gradually fell to 3 per cent. for thirty to sixty
January to purchasers of four months’ names at 7
to 8 per cent., and the banks were not in the market
as buyers, anticipating a bond issue. In Februar
rates were 6 per cent. for the best indorsements an
for first-class single names until toward the end,
when the quotations were 5 to 54 per cent. for
sixty- to ninety-day bills receivable and 5} to 6
for four months’ acceptances and first-class four
to six months’ single names. More or less impor-
tant failures caused close scrutiny of names in
March, the banks refrained from buying, and rates
were unchanged until early in April, when the quo-
tation was 54 to 6 per cent. for indorsements and
6 for four months’ acceptances and for first-class
single names, but toward the close of that month
a better demand caused a fall to 44 to 5 per cent.
for indorsements, 4% to 5} for acceptances, 5 to 54
for prime and 53 to 6 for good four to six months’
single names. There was a good eee for paper
in May, and at the end of the month rates were 4
to 44 per cent. for indorsements, 44 to 4% for ac-
ceptances, and 43 to 5 for first-class single names,
and the offerings were moderate. In July the paper
market was almost stagnant, and after the middle
of the month rates were firm at 54 to 6 per cent. for
indorsements and 6 to 7 for other classes of the best
paper. In August the market became very firm,
and it so continued until after the election, with the
exception of a brief interval in September, and rates
generally ruled at 7 to 9 per cent. for indorsements
and 9 to 12 for choice single names. In November
there was a good demand, and rates fell to 4 to 44
per cent. for bills receivable, 43 to 5 for first-class
and 5 to 6 for good four to six months’ single names.
In December the market was dull, and quotations
were 3% to 4 per cent. for indorsements and 4 to 44
for first-class single names. ;
Bank conditions were more or less affected dur-
ing the early part of the year by the settlements for
the $100,000,000 bonds. Then followed some de-
rangement in July caused by the exchange of gold
for legal tenders at the Treasury, and during Sep-
tember and October there was disturbance due to
the withdrawals of gold and currency for hoarding,
and also in response to the demands for money for —
crop purposes. After the election all the items
largely increased by reason of the return of hoarded
capital, and during November there was a gain of
$21,638,500 in loans, $13,834,900 in specie, $16,740,- —
000 in legal tenders, $52,696,700 in deposits, and
$16,601,225 in surplus reserve.
The loans of the associated banks fell from $465,-_
580,700 at the beginning of the year to $447,142,700
by February. Then there was a gradual rise to
$479,540,900 by July 18, followed by a fall to $442,-
179,700, the lowest, Nov. 7, and at the end of the
year they were $487,673,300, the highest. Specie —
was $68,954,700 at the beginning of the year, and
at the highest—$77,500,900—Feb. 8, Then, in-
fluenced by payments for the Government bonds,
there was a fall to $58,515,300 by March 21, fol-
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896. 279
ITEMS. 1895 1896, 1897.
New York City Banks:
PTLEME CMIOEURIG Tasch iv) LibetauaessicodWetdweedas $493,390.000 $465,580,700 $491,375,900
ONAN ES Pe er Eee en een 75,867.000 68,954,700 76,342,300
PIGS es Oa ee vation tah Gisele aides Chet Scew aacdccs xvod 11,405,100 13,952,900 19,600,100
ES a Davin «1s Vulatelsa dg cscehe is ctascasas 552,847,800 491,614,900 +785,
PRE AIR res ao tae o a ey Hoek oe oraksRceuNety oF sc'ee 98,207,000 73,728,700 89,640,900
Required EVE aon nolce Dea avcatuelieae nev dathees dens 138,211,950 122,903,725 132,696,250
EWES EAMES dis wcities wale oi pa cele pach aleigég ae ses oe 5a 174,074,000 142,683,400 165.983,200
RSV RNENCREEN Oss Ac Ucsbak 26 no a onc ead sbop av twncness $35,862,050 $19,779,675 $33,286,950
Money, EXCHANGE, SILVER :
IMM Perea t cece beac aie osiscvescttehtsicustesses 1 to 1} 4to5 2
ES CMIRE GOGMUR foc cio yilaecats sabe hake sub oce wn oe 23 to3 6 3E to 4
Silver in London, per ounce .............--eseeceee ees: itd. 303
Prime sterling bills, 60 days..............2:.ceeeeeeee- $4 $4 88} to $4 89 $4 84 to $4 84}
Unitep States Bonps :
PUTIN ravers are dsteoseiasnteatiucabeny cds 108} bid 104 bid 102% bid
REE eis ee Nes Pb Sas See are tere 114} bid 109 bid 111 to 1114
* Extended 2 per cents.
lowed by a rise to $62,456,000 by May 29. The
lowest of the year was $46,254,700, Aug. 1, due to
the withdrawal of gold for the relief of the Treas-
ury, and thereafter, influenced in part by deposits
of imported gold, the movement was upward, and
the specie held at the end of the year was $76,768,-
000. Legal tenders at the beginning of the year
were $73,728,700, and the amount gradually in-
creased to $92,727,400 by Aug. 1. Then, influenced
by the demand from the interior for currency, there
was a reduction to $60,717,200, Nov. 7. At the end
of the year the amount held was $89,001,200. De-
its at the beginning of the year were $491,614,-
00, and they were $505,991.100, July 18. Gradually
they were drawn down to $438,437,600, the lowest,
Nov. 7, and at the end of the year they were at the
highest, $525,837,200. The surplus reserve was at
the highest—$40,182,425—Feb. 8, and at the low-
est—$8,228,550—Sept. 5. At the end of the year it
was $34,309,900. One fact worthy of note is that
the loans and deposits of the banks were lower in
November than they had been at any time since
1893, loans on Sept. 23 that year being $392,145,600,
and deposits, on Aug. 19, 1893, $370,302,400.
The condition of the New York Clearing House
banks, the rates of interest, exchange and silver,
and the prices of United States bonds on Jan. 2,
1897, compared with the same items for the pre-
ceding two years are given in the above table.
average condition of winter wheat, reported by the
Department of Agriculture on April 1, was only
7775 against 8174 last year, and this low average was
ascribed to the fact that the weather at seeding
time was dry, thus preventing the grain from ger-
minating and having a good start before the winter.
Influenced by the favorable weather the condition
improved, and at the beginning of May the per-
centage of fall-sown wheat was 82;’5. During that
month this crop made good progress, but planting
of spring wheat was delayed by excessive rains. In
June the weather was again favorable, and the
growth of the grain was rapid, indicating an enor-
mous crop. and consequently prices began to decline,
and by July wheat sold in the New York market at 62
cents, Then came news of damage to spring wheat,
of a short crop on the Continent, and of probably
urgent demands from India, where famine was
threatened, and the price reacted to $1.062 at the .
end of the year, while corn was also strong. The
price of this grain rose in New York from 343 cents
in January, to 41 in April, later declining because of
the enormous crop to 294 cents. September esti-
mates of the yield indicated a smaller crop of sprin
wheat than in 1895, and a total of 412,000,000
bushels, spring and winter, against 467,000,000 the
year before, while the corn crop was estimated at
2.200,000,000 bushels. The demand for wheat for
export was so great in September that the trans-
DATE. Loans. Specie. Circulation. Deposits. Legal tenders.
ORUAY UE ety seine sac sas ce adades sats $465.580,700 $68,954,700 $13.952,900 $491.614.900 $73,728,700
MOTI Eee SEG) ccnlcae cad cha cata. 224 59,251,600 14,254,500 481,795,700 78,203,300
WY Dc eCOONGL ma eee i clus ncocsavebece 476,199.300 61,866,300 14,556,900 499,046,900 83,223,700
ether Wie tuck thee ide dele ccistn'ss in ales ngs 166. 55,801,100 19.960,400 454,733,100 74,408,200
COTRORSIDES Se aaa sw nlasigs oe ath Ine hee 487,673,300 76.768,000 19,760,000 525,837,200 89,001,200
The preceding is the New York Clearing House
statement of totals at the beginning of each quar-
ter of 1896 end at the end of the year.
The Crops.—The weather was unfavorable dur-
ing February and March, and consequently grain-
a prospects were discouraging and speculators
took a:lvantage of the fact to advance the price of
wheat. But about the middle of April the weather
changed to mild springlike temperature, stimulat-
ing the development of the fall-sown grain. The
portation routes were taxed to their utmost capacity
and there was a scarcity of berth room for the grain
at the ontports. Wheat was shipped in large quan-
tities from the- Pacific coast to India and Australia,
and there was a decided increase in the exports of
corn to Europe. The rise in the price of wheat was
artially checked by stringent money late in Octo-
bee but the market was firmly held to the close of
the year. The cotton crop was large, and it began
to be marketed fully three weeks earlier than usual,
CROP oF 1895.
CROP OF 1896.
=— Price, J | Price, Jan
. , dan. " ice, «
Yield. 9, 1896. Value. Yield. 2, 1897 Value.
reat, ' bueielss 5 ee ee ks ote vx ck 467.102.947 | $0 662 | $309.455.702 39|| 427.684.347 | $0 904 $387,054.34 03
Reorn. Dushela:.; sharcsectens ss da chicsae > 2,151,138,580 34d 742,142,810 10|| 2,283.875.165 | 294 673,743.173 67
Woon: Dales i. cs52. bosses soe ieee 7,162,473 8f5 | 301,728,128 00 8,250,710 | ifs | 316,445,668 66
PROBA GRIOS aso Secs cok scek nay vials ¥'2a) bls Sahat’s eR OD ea eee TSE Ye) | rr ee eee $1,377,243,176 36
280
moving to Europe quite rapidly. Good prices were
maintained, and in September there was an advance
to 8} cents against 7} at the end of August, the
price later falling, by reason of favorable crop ad-
vices, to 64% cents in December. The statistician
of the Department of Agriculture reported average
farm prices on Dec. 1 as follow: Corn, 21;% cents
against 2645 last year; wheat, 72y%; against 50%;
oats, 408; against 44; and cotton, 6; against 77%.
Pursuant to the usual custom in this review, the
table given at the bottom of Bataan 3 page shows
the value of the crops on the basis of prices at New
York at the beginning of the year.
Stocks.—The stock market was active and gen-
erally better during the first four months of the
year, and unsettled and lower after May until the
election; but the rise following that event was only
temporary, and the tone was inclined to be heavy
thereafter. The market was more or less disturbed
at the beginning of the year by the tension in Lon-
don caused by the Johannesburg raid, and also by
the pending bond issue, the outcome of which was
felt to be somewhat uncertain, and, moreover, it was
feared that it would result in stringent money.
Gradually a more encouraging view prevailed, and
the market rose under the lead of the Grangers and
Sugar. After the middle of the month more favor-
able news from London, indicating a relaxation of
the political tension, and good buying of stocks by
the arbitrage houses and by local traders kept the
tone strong to the close of the month, and the great-
est improvement was in Sugar, Central New Jersey,
the other coal shares, Consolidated Gas, Electric,
Illinois Central, Lake Shore, the Grangers, Southern
preferred, and Union Pacific. The large popular
subscriptions for the Government bonds and a
modification of the terms of payment, so that there
was less probability of disturbance to the money
market, stimulated an improvement in stocks early
in February, but subsequently realizing sales by
local and arbitrage operators caused more or less
important declines. The payment of the first in-
stallment on the Government bonds was prompt,
and this fact, and also the large increase in the
Treasury net gold, encouraged rebuying to cover
short contracts after the middle of the month, and
the tone was strong until toward the close, when
disquieting rumors regarding the financial condi-
tion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the
action of Congress in the matter of the Cuban bel-
ligerents caused liberal selling, and the market
closed generally lower, though, compared with the
opening, there was an advance in Sugar, Consoli-
dated Gas, the Grangers, Louisville and Nashville,
and Chicago Gas. The appointment of receivers
for the Baltimore and Ohio, the beginning of a con- .
test between the American Tobacco Company and
the rival manufacturers, and reports. that there
were large stocks of corn in farmers’ hands com-
bined to make the market irregular and generally
heavy during the early part of March, but later
there was an improvement in the tone and gradually
prices advanced and, though irregular and at inter-
vals feverish, the market was generally better at the
close, with Tobacco showing the greatest improve-
ment on a report that the differences with the rival
manufacturers had been settled, and there was also
a sharp rise in General Electric, due to rumors of
negotiations with the Westinghouse. The Northern
Pacifics were unfavorably influenced by the an-
nouncement of the plan of reorganization, which
provided for heavy assessments on the stocks. The
tendency of the market was generally upward in
April, stimulated by good buying of railroad mort-
gages and of first-class investment properties for
domestic and foreign account, by encouraging crop
prospects, easy money, and by an improvement in
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896.
general trade. Toward the end of the month a
feverish fall in Tobacco and in General Electric
had a partially disturbing effect. The most impor-
tant advances during the month were in Sugar, the
Grangers, Louisville and Nashville, Missouri Pa-
cific, Lake Shore, and Manhattan. In May the
market began to be influenced by preparations for
the presidential campaign, and operators were dis-
posed to be cautious. The prominent features were
a rise in Bay State Gas on reports of consolidation
schemes, a fall in Rubber, due to dissensions in the
management, a drop in Tobacco, and a decline in
Manhattan, which was affected by competition of
surface railway lines, but later this stock recovered
on the decision of the Court of Appeals against the
constitutionality of the rapid-transit act. After the
middle of the month the feeling grew better on as-
surance that the Republican National Convention
would adopt a gold plank in the platform. The
trend of the market for the month was shown by
sharp declines, compared with the opening, in To-
bacco, the Grangers, Chicago Gas, Electric, Man-
hattan, Missouri Pacific, Reading, the Rubbers, and
Tennessee Coal and Iron. ‘In June the market
was generally heavy. The trading was small early
in the month, but after the second week there
was more activity and an improved tone on the
nomination of McKinley and Hobart at St. Louis.
This was followed by large realizing sales and by
some bearish pressure encouraged by reports that
the Democratic National Convention at Chicago
would advocate free silver coinage, and subse-
quently engagements of gold for shipment to Ger-
many had a disturbing effect. The market was
unsettled and weak at the close, and the most im-
portant declines for the month were in Sugar, the
other industrials, Bay State Gas, General Electric,
eee Tennessee Coal and Iron, and Western
nion, :
The dominating factor in the market in July was
the action of the Democratic National Convention
at Chicago in nominating William J. Bryan on a
platform advocating free silver coinage. Early in |
the month it was felt that the advocates of silver
would be in control, but it was then thought un-
likely that such radical resolutions would be advo-
cated as were subsequently embodied in the plat-
form. There was some arbitrage buying of stocks
during the early part of the month, and this en-
couraged local purchases, but free selling of Sugar
and of Tobacco later made the market irregular,
and after the middle of the month shipments of
gold to Europe on order, liquidation of speculative
accounts in stocks, and the serious illness of Mr. —
Cornelius Vanderbilt contributed to make the
market weak and at intervals panicky. 78 7 44%
Consolidated Gas ................- 1614 168 133
General Electric .................- 41 394 20
Louisville and Nashville .......... 664 555 874
Manhattan Elevated........... . «| 119% 113} 73h
Missouri Pacific..................- 42} 293 15
Mine cxtese as Ueda woods ess kns 46 49} 304
RNC TEN ss i oe ouic’s oe'e'cs oe ae 344 31 15}
ROPES 6d pacevogus Cie taccans sss 22% 31} * 2%
DP SOT 7 Sere is ae 843 74t 46
GEAR CONC cava Pdseesticvessdis 78r 80 595
Southern, preferred............... 444 33} 154
Tennessee Coal and Iron.......... 46% 843 13
Union Pacific. ........ Wie idee ses Go 174 12} 3h
United States Leather, preferred.| 973 693 41k
MMOMLGRT ENNIO i 55s ves\ecass ss 90} 724
* Before payment of assessments.
Foreign Exchange.—The exports of merchan-
dise for the year ending Dec. 31, 1896, were $181,-
018,281 above those for 1895. and the imports of
domestic and foreign merchandise were $121,113,114
less. The excess of merchandise exports over im-
ports for the year was $325,322,184, against $23,-
190,789 for 1895. The excess of exports over im-
ports of merchandise, coin, and bullion for 1896
was $311,332,971, against $123,599,538 in 1895. Gold
imports were $47,777,097 in excess of the exports in
1896, against $70.571,010 exports in excess' of im-
ports in 1895. The merchandise balance for the
year was in excess of that for any previous year in
the history of the country, and the merchandise
exports were the largest for any calendar year on
record.
The foreign exchange market opened strong at
$4.883 to $4.89 for sixty-day and $4.90 to $4.904
for sight, and the fluctuations during January were
within a narrow range with a downward tendency,
the rates closing at $4.88 to $4.88} for long and
$4.894 to $4.90 for short. Gold was imported
and exported almost simultaneously, the metal
being brought out in response to a premium of 1
to 14 per cent. paid by those who intended to sub-
scribe for the $100,000,000 Government bonds, and
it was shipped as an exchange operation, the
amount going forward from New York being
$8,600.000, and the first consignment of imported
gold was $1,030,000. The market opened in Feb-
ruary at $4.88 to $4.884 for sixty-day and $4.893 to
$4.90 for sight, and the tone was weak to the close,
when the rates were $4.87 to $4.87} for long and
282
$4.884 to $4.89 for short. The success of the Gov-
ernment loan led to some buying of securities for
European account, and comparatively high rates
for money kept the tone heavy. The premium on
gold was from 74; to $ of 1 per cent., and the im-
ports of the metal were $9,754,476, while the ex-
ports were $1,897,845. In March exchange opened
at $4.87 to $4.88 for sixty-day and $4.88} to $4.89
for sight, and there was no special change until
the 23d, when the tone grew firmer and it closed at
$4.884 to $4.89 for long and $4.89} to $4.90 for
short. These were the opening rates in April, and
there was no change until the 14th, when there was
a fall of half a cent followed by a prompt reaction,
and the market closed at the opening figures and
$2,200,000 gold was shipped to Germany on_order.
The market was remarkably steady during May at
$4.88} to $4.89 for long and $4.89} to $4.90 for
short. It was quite bare of commercial bills and
the supply of bankers’ drafts came almost wholly
from exports of gold. The shipments of the metal
were made generally on order, and they amounted
to $19,158,000. The market was — steady in
June, opening at $4.88 to $4.88} for long and $4.89
to $4.894 for short, and closing at $4.88 for the
former and $4.89 for the latter. The supply came
chiefly from blocks of securities placed in Europe.
Exports of gold were $6,350,000. The market was
weak early in July, rates falling from $4.88 for
long and $4.89 for short at the opening to $4,874
to $4.88 for the former and $4.88} to $4.89 for the
latter by the 6th, but on the 13th there was an up-
ward reaction and the tone was strong until the
Bankers’ syndicate, formed for the purpose of pre-
venting exports of gold, began operations on the
23d. Then there was a fall, followed by a slight
reaction, and the market closed at $4.88 to $4.884
for sixty-day and $4.89 to $4.894 for sight. The
exports of gold were $5,045,000, but none of the
metal went forward after the 23d. The market
was directly influenced in August by the operations
of the Bankers’ syndicate, which, in addition to tak-
ing effective measures to arrest the outflow of gold,
undertook so to manipulate the exchange market as
to take advantage of the movement of cotton and
breadstuffs later in the season. Bills were judi-
ciously sold early in the month at the ruling rates,
which were $4.884 for long and $4.894 for short,
and also at the subsequent advance to $4.88} to
$4.89 for the former and $4.894 to $4.90 for the
latter, but on the 10th the rates began to fall, influ-
enced by dear money, by an expected early move-
ment of cotton, bills against which were made
available, and by improved foreign trade condi-
tions, imports being light and exports, especially
of grain, large, and after the middle of the month
there was an unsettling decline in rates which kept
the market weak to the close, and then rates were
$4.824 to $4.84 for sixty-day and $4.844 to $4.854
for sight. Imports of gold were $2,235,344, and at
the end of the month it was estimated that there
were $17,500,000 in transit. The market was weak
during September, influenced by a large movement
of cotton and of breadstuffs, the latter in response
to an urgent European, Australian, and Indian de-
mand. The Bank of England rate of discount was
advanced from 2 to 3 per cent., thus widening the
difference between long and short bills. The mar-
ket opened at $4.824 to $4.84 for long and $4.85
to $4.85} for short, and there was no material
change until the 14th, when there came a fall to
$4.82 to $4.83 for the former and $4.84} to $4.85
for the latter, and these were the rates to the close.
Imports of gold were $33,136,694, and the amount
in transit at the end of the month was estimated at
$10,000,000. Early in October there was a premi-
um of +to}of 1 per cent. on gold, induced by a
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896.
desire to procure the metal for hoarding through
fear of the possible election of Mr. Bryan. Grad-
ually the premium rose, and then foreign bankers
imported gold for sale, in almost every instance
disposing of it to arrive, and the movement was not
checked by a rise in the Bank of England rate to
4 per cent. At the same time rates for exchange
were weak, influenced by offerings of commercial
bills against cotton, by loan drafts, and by active
money. The market opened at $4.83 to $4.834 for
long and $4.85 to $4.86 for short, and it gradually
fell to $4.804 to $4.82 for the former and $4.84 to
$4.844 for the latter, the lowest since August, 1893.
Subsequently there was a reaction due to a check
to the outward movement of wheat and cotton by
the high prices, and though money was very active
it had no effect upon the tone. The market closed
at $4.82 to $4.824 for sixty-day and $4.853 for sight
with a good demand for investment, and also to
insure against possible loss resulting from the elec-
tion of Mr..Bryan as the feature. Imports of gold
for the month were $29,807,150. In November the
market opened at $4.824 for long and $4.86 for
short. The day following the election there was a
sharp fall to $4.814 for the former and $4.84} for
the latter, due to the offerings of some of the bills
which had been bought for insurance against loss,
but before the close of the day there was a reaction,
and thereafter for the remainder of the month
there was a good demand for long sterling for in-
vestment to hold until it ran to short for the pur-
pe of making interest, rates for money being low —
e
re and discounts high in London. As the market
rose more of the bills which had been bought pre-
vious to the election were sold, but these were
promptly absorbed and early in the month there
was an inquiry to remit for securities sold for
European account, including $4,000,000 of Govern-
ment 4-per-cent. bonds. _The market closed at
$4.84 to $4.84 for sixty-day and $4.87 to $4.88 for
sight. Gold imports were $9,132,000, including
$4,310,000 at San Francisco from Sydney, New
South Wales, and from Australia. In December
the market opened at $4.84 to $4.844 for sixty-day
and $4.874 to $4.88 for sight, and the tone was
heavy until the 18th, when it grew firmer at $4.85
for long and $4.884 for short in consequence of a
demand for remittance and also for investment, and
there was some expectation that gold would be sent
to Germany via London, but soon after the tone be-
came easier and the market closed at $4.84 to $4.844
for long and $4.87 to $4.874 for short. The foreign
trade continued to show a large balance in favor of
this country, and the comparatively high rates for
exchange were chiefly due to dear discount rates
for money in London and low rates here.
Manufacturing Industries.—All branches of
manufacturing were more or less depressed during
the year, reflecting the check to business caused by
the agitation of the Cuban question in Congress in
the first quarter and the anxiety regarding the out-
come of the presidential election and the stability
of the monetary standard in the ensuing six months,
and it was not until the result of the election was
announced that there was any decided revival.
Then mills started up all over the country, manu-.
facturing establishments which had been employing
a limited number of people increased their working
force, and the era of prosperity which was promised
by the Republicans during the presidential cam-
paign seemed to be dawning. But the revival was
soon checked by speculation concerning the pro-
posed changes in the tariff, consumption did not
keep pace with production, and at the end of the
year the markets were glutted, and one feature
was an immense overproduction of print cloths at
Eastern mills, the stocks increasing from 200,000
“4
- 7
FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1896,
pieces in September to 2,198,000 at the close of the
year. The iron trade was also greatly depressed,
and the output declined to 180,532 tons per week
by July 1 and to 112,782 tons by Oct. 1, or at the
rate of about 5,000,000 tons per year. After the
election there was a little better feeling, and at the
end of the year the output was 163,576 tons per
week, though without any real improvement in the
trade. Toward the close of December the steel-rail
pool made a reduction of $3 per ton in the price,
unsettling pig and manufactured iron. The copper
trade was active during the year, and the situation
was quite encouraging at the close. Exports were
125,913 tons of fine copper; home consumption, 77,-
296; and the production was 203,209 tons. Exports
of manufactured goods were large during the year,
chiefly refined mineral oil, copper ingots, agricul-
FINE ARTS IN 1896. 283
September; and the St. Joseph and Grand Island
in December. The reorganization plan of the -
Northern Pacific was submitted in March. A rate
war broke out in July between the Southern and
the Seaboard Air Line Railways, which continued
until September, and in November the last-named
line passed under new control. In December a
Kansas State court appointed receivers for the
Atchison on the ground of a technical violation of
the alien land law, but later the receivership was
vacated. The foreclosure suit of the New York
and Northern was reopened by the Court of Ap-
als in October. The Southern Railway Company
eclared the first dividend on the preferred stock in
December.
The following shows gross and net earnings of
the trunk lines:
ROADS. 1890-"91. | 1891-92. | 189293. | 1893-94. | 189495. | 1895~96.
PENNSYLVANIA
Gross earnings...........0..+-+++- $67,426,841 | $68,841,845 | $66,375,224 | $58,704,284 | $64.627.177 | $62,096,577
Net earnings.....-..........c0--08 21,479,396 | 20,022,483 | 19,379,206 | 18,340,540 | 19,682,868 | ~ 18,203,568
New York CENTRAL:
earnings... ..<.000...5.55. 87,902,114 | 45,478,625 | 46,936.694 | 43,678.201 | 42,489,537 | 44,136,860
Net earnings. i. .65...c.c.c00 2050: 12,531,262 | 14,839,512 | 14,644,817 | 14,169,795 | 13,679,094 | 14,347,503
Gross earnings...............-..++ 27,503,633 | 28,633,740 | 27,340,626 | 22.929.560 | 29,207,044 | 31,099,569
Netiearringa.<.2<- 40. ..2--ccece-53 7,259,698 7,166,957 7,192,848 5,008,251 6,999,057 8,319,519
BALTIMORE AND OHIO:
a ee err 24,530,895 | 25,877,358 | 26,214,807 | 22.502,.662 | 22,817,182 | 23,944,782
Net earnings. ........0 2. ..cecccee 7,452,162 7,444,402 7,172,825 6,941,973 7,016,139 6,361,361
tural implements, colored and uncolored cotton
cloth, builders’ hardware, sewing machines, bicycles,
A etn machines, and manufactures of wood.
The collapse of the speculative deal in the Diamond
Match and New York Biscuit Companies in July
somewhat disturbed these industries during the
summer, and the former suffered by the competition
of the Continental Match Company. The American
Tobacco Company was engaged for the greater part
of the year in a contest with the Western manufac-
turers. In December it was announced that Ar-
buckle & Co. had decided to engage in the refining
of sugar, whereupon the American Sugar-Refining
ig bought a controlling interest in the Wool-
son Spice Packing Company, of Toledo, intending
to compete with Arbuckle & Co. in their coffee busi-
ness. A classification of the failures for the year
shows that there were 3,418 suspensions of manu-
facturing establishments, involving $98,463,851,
against 2,635 suspensions in 1895, involving $73,-
920,073; banking failures numbered 198, involving
$50,718,915, against 132 in 1895, involving $20,710,-
210. The total of all failures for the year was 15,088,
involving $226,096,834, against 13,197 in 1895, in-
volving $173,196,060.
Railroads.—Among the important railroad
events of the year was the dismissal in May, by
Judge Wheeler of the United States circuit court,
of the Government bill and the denial of the in-
junction asked for inst the roads forming the
oint Traffic Association, which organization, since
the beginning of the year. had been a powerful fac-
tor in the maintenance of rates. The principal re-
ceiverships during the year were the Baltimore and
Ohio at the close of February ; the Central Vermont
in March; the Detroit, Lansing and Northern in
April, and the Louisville, New Albany and Chicago
in August. The principal sales at foreclosure were
the Omaha and St. Louis in January; the New
York, Pennsylvania and Ohio in February; the
Louisville, St. Louis and Texas and the Green Bay,
Winona and St. Paul in May; the Cedar Falls and
Minnesota and the St. Louis and San Francisco in
June; the Northern Pacific and the Oregon Rail-
way and Navigation in July; the Norfolk and
Western and the Philadelphia and Reading in
FINE ARTS IN 1896. Under this title are
treated the principal art events of the year ending
with December, 1896, including especially the great
exhibitions in Europe and the United States, the
sales and acquisitions of works of art, and the erec-
tion of public statues and monuments._
Paris: Salon of the Champs Elysées.—The
exhibition of the Société des Artistes Francais, in
the Palais de l'Industrie (May 1 to June 30), com-
prised 4.879 numbers, classified as follow: Paint-
ings, 2,093; cartoons, water colors, pastels, minia-
tures. enamels, porcelain pictures, ete., 1,073;
sculptures, 756; engraving on medals and precious
stones, 58; decorative art, 168; architecture, 246;
engraving and lithography, 505.
onorary awards in 1896: Section of Painting:
The medal of honor was awarded to Benjamin-
Constant for his “ Portrait de mon fils André,”
bought by the Government. No first-class medal
was awarded. Second-class medals: Lionel Royer,
Charles Amable Lenoir, John Henry Lorimer, Jules
Boquet, Louis de Schryver, Charles Duvent, Thomas
Cooper Gotch, Jean Alfred Marioton, Gustave Pope-
lin, Henri Cain, Paul Chabas, Mme. Daniel Lesueur,
Henri Biva, Charles H. M. Franzini d’Issoncourt,
Marie Augustin Zwiller. Third-class medals: P.
Melton Fisher, Albert Gosselin, Mlle. Jenny Fon-
taine, Edmond Debon, G. Harcourt, Ernest Gaston
Marché, Evert Pieters, Maurice Levis, Leon Fauret,
Mme. Marthe Abram, Mlle. Madeleine Carpentier,
Frangois Charles Cachoud. Maurice Réalier-Dumas,
Louis Maurice Pierrey, Paul Albert ,Steck, Emile
Louis Thivier, Arthur S. Cope. Paul Edouard Mé-
rite, Henri Perrault, William Didier-Pouget, Henri
Guinier, Mlle. Noémie Schmitt, Edouard Paupion,
Georges Marie Julien Girardot, César Pattein, Numa
Gillet, Maurice Dainville, Mlle. Mattie Dubé, Mlle.
Laura le Roux. Henri J. F. Bellery-Desfontaines.
Section of Sculpture: Medal of honor awarded
to Gustave Michel for “ La Pensée ” (marble statue)
and “L’Aveugle et le Paralytique” (group in
stone). First-class medals: Paul Gasq, “ Héro et
Léandre ” (marble bas-relief) and “ Médée” (marble
statue); Jean Marie Mengue, “Cain et Abel”
(marble group). Second-class medals: Corneille
Henri Theunissen, “ La Défense de Saint-Quentin”
284
(bronze group); Hippolyte Lefebvre, “‘ Le Pardon”
(marble statue) and “ La Douleur ” (plaster relief) ;
Emmanuel Fontaine, “ Fascination” (marble group);
Jean Marie Boucher, “ Un Soir” (plaster group);
Henri Greber, “Le Coup de Grison” (marble
statue); Jules Dercheu, “ Daphné changée en Lau-
rier” (plaster statue). Third-class medals: Aimé
Jérémie Octobre, Victor Segoffin, Charles Louis
Picaud, Jean Baptiste Champeil, Sylvain Salieres,
Hippolyte P. H. Roussel, Luca Madrassi, Louis
Gaetan Veber, Mlle. Jeanne Itasse.
Section of architecture: Medal of honor awarded
to Scellier de Gisors for his plans for the “ Dépét
central du matériel des Postes et Telegraphes ” and
for “ Monument a l’Amiral Coligny.” No first-
class medal awarded. Second-class medals: Louis
Marie Henri Sortais, Boutron et Schoellkopf, Louis
Guillaume Delaunay, Louis Joseph Ypermann,
Paul Dusart, Paul Hippolyte, Boussaec, Dupont et
Guilbert. Third-class medals: Emile Bertone, Jules
Léon Chifflot, Adrien Rey, Eugéne Bourdon.
Section of engraving in medals and precious
stones: First-class medal: Alfred Borrel. Second-
class medals: Paul Charles Galbrunner, Charles
Philippe G. A. Pillet.
Section of engraving and lithography: Medal of
honor, Henri Lefort, “Le Miracle de Saint-Mare ”
(etching), after Tintoretto. First-class medal: An-
toine Dezarrois (steel). Second-class medals:
Georges Auguste Thévenin (wood), Albert L. P. E. A.
Duvivier (etching), Ludovic Alleaume (lithograph),
Jean Hmile Buland (steel). Third-class medals:
Henri Eugéne Bourmand (wood), Lucien Dautrey
(etching), Joseph Sourbier (lithograph), Arthur
Mayeur (steel), Camille Fonce (etching), Alfred
Jean Marie Broquelet (lithograph), Adolphe Crauk
(steel), Léon Saulles (etching), Georges Sauvage
(lithograph).
Section of decorative art: Second-class medals:
Réné Lalique, Auguste Ledru. Third-class medals :
Jean Louis Brémond, Gustave Guerchet, Robert
Carrier-Belleuse.
Among the canvases which attracted most atten-
tion was a superb allegorical composition by Fer-
nand Pelez, entitled “ L’Humanité,” representing
the depos of human history in the lottery of life.
In the middle are those who enjoy life, honestly or
otherwise, the two classes looking at each other
with mutual disdain, On the left are workmen
without work, old men without bread, and babes
without milk, and on the right is Revolt, wan and
somber and seeming to be meditating crime, while
in the background is seen Christ shrouded in mist
and stretching out his nail-pierced hands over all.
Rochegrosse exhibited a canvas entitled “ An-
goisse Humaine,” illustrative of a somewhat similar
idea, but far from making the same impression, A
throng of sufferers of all conditions, in coats and
blouses, gloved hands and naked hands, white
cravats and no cravats, raise their arms in despair
toward celestial figures in the upper part of the
picture.
Julian Story’s “ Le Laboratoire 4 Saint-Lazare ”
is a scene evidently painted in all its details from
life. The shiver which passes over the face and
figure of a young woman whom a doctor is inocu-
lating is cleverly and faithfully depicted. The
sickly daylight of morning which touches the walls
with a mysterious illumination produces a powerful
effect.
A large canyas illustrative of the horrors of war
is “ Les Bouches Inutiles” of Francois Tattegrain,
which, notwithstanding its loathsome details, at-
tracted much curiosity. The scene is at the siege
of Chateau-Gaillard by Philippe Auguste in 1203,
when the besieged expelled the old men, women,
and children, whose “useless mouths” were an in-
FINE ARTS IN 1896.
cumbrance without adding to the means of defense.
Driven back by the besiegers as a proper means of
bringing the town to reason, the poor wretches are
gathered, about a hundred of them, lame, halt, and
blind, in the fosse of the town, where they are forced
to dig out of the snow roots, dead dogs, and corpses,
to eke out their existence. It is a very realistic but
unpleasant picture.
“Un Brave,” by Henry Bacon, of Boston, repre-
sents a sailor with his arm in a sling, who has come
home with high reputation from an oversea fight.
He is seated in a pew in the church of his native
place, and causes an evident commotion among the
young women behind him.
There were more American exhibits this year
than.usual. From many offered, canvases were ac-
cepted from the following: Aaron Altmann, San
Francisco; Henry Bacon, Boston; William Baird,
Chicago; Ellen Kendall Baker, New York: Milton
Bancroft, Boston; Wilson Nesbitt Benson, Arkan-
sas; Henry S. Bisbing, Philadelphia; William
Blair Bruce, Hamilton, Canada; Ernest L. Blumen-
schein, Pittsburg: Frank M. Boggs, New York;
Dwight Frederic Boyden, Boston ; Frederic Arthur
Bridgman, Alabama; Thomas R. Congdon, New
York; Edwin D. Connell, New York; Louis Paul
Dessar, Indianapolis; M. T. Dickson, St. Louis;
Henry Patrick Dillon, California; William Left-
wich Dodge, Richmond; Mrs. Mattie Dubé, Cana-
da; Frank Vincent Du Mond, Rochester; Benja-
min Eggleston, New York; James Wall Finn, New
York; John H. Fry, United States ; Elizabeth Jane
Gardner, New Hampshire; Mary Shepherd Greene,
New York; Joseph Greenebaum, San Francisco ;
Anne Lawrence Gregory, New York; Peter Alfred:
Gross, Allentown; John McClure Hamilton, Phila-
delphia: Hermann Hartwich, New York; Miss
Daisy Haven, New York; Miss Eudora Hereford,
Covington; Howard Logan Hildebrand, United
States; George Inness, United States; Miss Anna
Elizabeth Klumpke, San Francisco; Daniel Ridg-
way Knight, Philadelphia; Henry L. Levy, New
York ; Louis Loeb, Cleveland ; William H. McEn-
tee, United States; Miss Bertha Menzler, Chicago ;
Humphrey Moore, New York; Mrs. Willie Betty
Newman, Cincinnati; William Norton, Boston; —
Ralph C. Ott, St. Louis; Jules Pagés, San Fran-
cisco; Charles Sprague Pearce, Boston; Charles
Hovey Pepper. New York; G. A. Reid, Toronto,
Canada; Frank Henry Richardson, Boston; Or-
ville Hoyt Root, United States; Miss Hannah
Rusk, Canada; Frank Edwin Scott, New York; J.
Henry Sharp, United States; John Smith-Lewis,
Philadelphia; Miss Elizabeth Stevens, Portland ;
William Wright Stewart, Philadelphia; Frederick
L. Stoddard, St. Louis; Julian Story, United
States; Miss Elsie Stuart-Dodge, Boston; Mrs.
Austa Sturdevant, Meadville; Henry O. Tanner,
United States; Charles Jacques Theriat, New
York; S. Seymour Thomas, United States; Henry
Stanley Todd, St. Louis; Ernest Percival Tudor-
Hart, Montreal; Simon Harmon Vedder, New
York; William Francis Warden, New York; Ed-
win Lord Weeks, Boston; Mrs. Cecilia E. Went-
worth, New York ; Charles Lennox Wright, Boston.
Paris: Salon of the Champ de Mars.—The
seventh annual exhibition of the Société Nationale
des Beaux Arts (April 25 to June 30) comprised
2.283 numbers, classified as follow: Paintings,
1,265; designs, ete., 392; sculpture, 151; engraving,
137; art objects, 277; architecture, 61.
The officers are: President, Puvis de Chavannes.
Vice-Presidents: Section of Painting. Carolus-Du-
ran; Sculpture, Rodin; Engraving, Waltner; Art
Objects, Cazin. Secretaries, René Billotte, Jean
Béraud, The society consists of : Honorary mem-
bers, 19; societaries, 205; associates, 170.
FINE ARTS IN 1896,
One of the strongest and most studied pictures of
the year, and the one which attracted most atten-
tion, is “La Céne” by Dagnan-Bouveret. The
artist has endeavored in this to free himself from
the customary treatment of the Last Supper, fol-
lowed by nearly all the painters from the twelfth
century, when the Monk Denis, of Mount Athos,
established the rules of its composition, down to the
fifteenth century, when Fra Angelico varied it by
representing the joys of the communion rather than
the dismay of the apostles at the approaching be-
trayal of their Master. Dagnan-Bouveret, in like
manner, has painted the mystic banquet, the insti-
tution of the eucharist. Christ, standing among
his disciples, raises in his right hand the cup of the
new covenant, in the transparent glass of which the
blood-red hue of the wine is enhanced by greenish
tones around it, and rests his left hand upon the
bread, which is not yet broken. John, his head
resting on his hands and his elbow placed on the
shoulder of the disciple next to him, gazes eagerly
and tenderly into the face of the Master. On the
left of Christ is seated Judas, the only one of the
company who does not dare to lift his eyes.
Though a work of undoubted merit, this picture
has too much of a stage effect. The disciples are
not the poor fishermen of Gennesaret, but poets
and philosophers, all posed as if they were conscious
of being looked at.
Puvis de Chavannes exhibited five additional
decorative panels belonging to the series painted by
him for the walls of the Boston Public Library. They
are entitled : * Virgile (poesie bucolique) ” ; “ Eschyle
(poesie dramatique: Eschyle et les Océanides)”;
“ Homére couronné par |’ ‘ Iliade’ et I’ ‘ Odyssée’” ;
“ L’ Histoire (L’ Histoire évoque le Passé)”; “ L’As-
tronomie (les bergers Chaldéens observent la marche
des Planétes).” Three others of this series were ex-
hibited later in the season at the galleries of Durand-
Ruel. They are entitled: “ La Philosophie,” * La
Chimie,” and “ L’Electricité.”
Carolus-Duran was represented by a dozen ex-
hibits, of which eight were portraits in his usual
style. A sketch entitled “Souvenir du Siége de
Paris,” showing a mass of dead bodies heaped to-
ther in confusion, attracted much attention for
its masterly details. Two Venetian sketches, “Un
Coin de Saint-Mare” and “ Crépuscule du Matin,”
were also noteworthy.
John S. Sargent, the pupil of Carolus-Duran, con-
tributed a portrait of W. Graham Robertson, which
was among the best, if not the best, of the exhibition,
Humphrey Johnston, another American, exhibited
four pictures, of which the “ Portrait de ma Mére ”
won high commendation.
Cecilia Beaux, of Philadelphia, an associate of:
our National Academy, was represented by six pic-
tures which fully justified her reputation at home,
No portrait by any other woman in the exhibition
could compare with her striking “ Portrait du Dr.
Grier.” Her other pictures were “ Ernesta,” “Une
Dame de Connecticut,” “ Sita et Sarita,” “ Réverie,”
-and “ Cynthia.”
Gervex exhibited a decorative landscape for the
Salle de Physique in the Sorbonne, representing a
large panorama of a valley, over which a sort of
portico opens, a masterly work with happy effects
of perspective.
Roll sent, among other exhibits, an unfinished
portrait of Alexandre Dumas, in a dressing-gown,
which represents the man as he was, but which,
report says, was displeasing to the author, who
refused to sit any longer, asserting that an acade-
mician should not be introduced to the public in
such deshabille. The “Femme qui dort,” by the
same artist, is a wonderful picture with flesh tints
marked by pearly reflections,
285
Paris: Miscellaneous.—A statue representing
Greece crowning Lord Byron, the work of the
French sculptors Chapu and Falguiére, was un- ~
veiled at Athens on March 1,in presence of the
King and royal family and a notable gathering.
The sale of the remaining pictures of the late
Alexandre Dumas (the best of his collection was
sold in 1892), in March, brought in the aggregate
384,860 francs. Among the best prices obtained
were the following: Corot, “ Solitude,” 11,000 franes ;
Fromentin, “Centaures et Centauresses,” 10,600;
Jules Lefebvre, “Femme nue,” 13,500; Troyon,
“Le Paturage,”’ 7,900: Vollon, “ Le Dessert,” 12,-
500; Meissonier, “L’ A ffaire Clemenceau” (aquarelle),
9,100. The remarkable volume “ L’Affaire Clem-
enceau,” illustrated on the margins with 160 water-
color and pen-and-ink designs and 16 full-page
illustrations, by the most celebrated contemporary
artists, was sold for 23,000 franes.
At a sale in Paris in May Delacroix’s “ Educa-
tion of Achilles” sold for 28,500 francs and Meis-
sonier’s “ Dragon de l’Armée d’Espagne ” for 20,000
frances. ;
The collection of the late M. Lefebvre, of Roubaix
sold in Paris May 4, realized 321,180 francs. Best
prices: Corot, “* Ronde de Nymphes,” 29,100 francs,
and “En Picardie,” 13,100; Delacroix, “ Fantasia
Arabe,” 10,100; Diaz, “ L’ Abandonnée,” 19,000, and
*Forét de Fontainebleau,” 10,000; Eugéne Isabey,
“Cour de Chateau,” 10,400: Théodore Rousseau,
“ Paysage en Picardie,” 17,000, and “ Marais dans
une Plaine Boisée,” 20,100.
At the sale of the collection of M. D, de G——,
in Paris in June, the pictures brought 367,260
francs. Among the highest prices were: Meis-
sonier, “ Le Liseur,” 31,000; Troyon, “ La Mare aux
Canards,” 25,000; Benjamin Vautier, “ Le Départ
des Mariés,” 29,900; Vibert, * Le Départ des Mariés
sors ne tan 20,000.
he statue of Jeanne d’Arc, by Paul Dubois, ex-
hibited at the Salon of 1895, was unveiled at Rheims
on July 15. M. Dubois has been made grand cross
of the Legion of Honor.
A noteworthy monument to Jules Ferry, by An-
tonin Mercié, was inaugurated at Saint-Dié (Vosges)
on July 26. A statue of M. Ferry, with his hands
clasped behind him, stands on a pedestal elevated
on several steps, at the base of which is Liberty,
with a flag in her hand, shielding two other figures.
The monument is peculiar in being wholly of bronze
—pedestal, steps, and figures.
An equestrian bronze statue of Gen. Faid-
herbe, by Antonin Mercié, was unveiled at Lille on
Oct. 25. The general, in full uniform, mounted
upon an Arab horse, is saluting with his sword.
At the foot of the pedestal of red granite are female
figures,on one side the city of Lille dictating to
History, on the other the North offering laurels.
London: Royal Academy.—The year was an
eventful one in the history of the Academy, having
been marked by the decease of two presidents and °
the election of a third one. Lord Leighton, who
was raised to the peerage when on his deathbed, was
succeeded in the presidency by Sir John Everett
Millais, who, elected on Feb. 20, died in the follow-
ing August. In November, Edward J. Poynter,
director of the National Gallery, was elected to suc-
ceed Millais, the other candidates being Briton-
Riviére, Dicksee, Orchardson, and Val Prinsep.
Elections of members: Solomon J. Solomon and
Edwin A. Abbey, Associates; Adolph Menzel and
Paul Dubois, Honorary Foreign Academicians;
George H. Boughton, Academician.
The twenty-seventh annual winter exhibition,
which closed on March 14, comprised, besides the
usual old masters, two novel sections, the first de-
voted to pictures by deceased French painters, the
286
second to objects of the goldsmith’s art. Corot
was represented by his “ Avignon,” ‘ Rome,” and
“Vue de Ville d’Avray”; Millet by “Les Scieurs
de Long” and “ Réverie”; Meissonier by “ Bravi”
and ‘“Polichinelle”; Daubigny by “Clair de
Lune”; and, among the older masters, Delacroix
by “Portrait de Paganini” and “Execution de
Marino Faliero”; and Watteau by “ Le Bal sous la
Colonnade.” The best of the British artists, Rey-
nolds, Lawrence, Gainsborough, etc., were well
represented.
The one hundred and twenty-eighth sammer ex-
hibition was scarcely up to the standard of some of
the late ones, as it contained few good subject pic-
tures and many crude portraits. By the Royal
Academy’s law that but one work by a deceased
member shall be admitted to the exhibition imme-
diately following his death, the late Lord Leighton
was represented only by his “ Clytie,” a work which
was left on his easel nearly finished. It represents
a life-size figure, in an olive-colored dress, kneeling
with outstretched arms before an altar raised upon
a lofty platform, her head thrown back in passion-
ate adoration, hailing the uprising of Phcebus
Apollo. Her auburn tresses have broken from
their fillet and roll in masses upon her shoulders.
The altar is laden with pomegranates, grapes, and
other fruit. The dawn fills the atmosphere and,
firing the east with golden pomp, rolls away masses
of white vapor that impart a striking character to
the scene.
“A Forerunner” is the title of the principal
contribution of Sir John E. Millais, Tan Leigh-
ton’s successor. It represents the tall, worn figure
of a young man of the earliest Christian epoch,
standing in a gloomy landscape before a stone altar
on which lies a knife, in the act of binding a cross-
piece near the head of a tall reed so as to form a
cross, on which he looks with passionate interest.
The sentiment is intensified by a lurid twilight,
which glows upon the horizon and lights by its re-
flections the attenuated figure.
Mr. Poynter, the new president, was represented
by only two small canvases, the more important one
illustrating the twelfth ode of the third book of
Horace. The fair Neobule sits in a chamber lined
with colored marbles, brooding in an angry mood,
her embroidery lying neglected at her feet, and
pouting because she is not allowed to go where He-
rus is to be seen swimming, riding, or running vic-
toriously. The second picture, “An Oread,” is a
‘ half-length, nearly half life-size figure running,
with the locks of her dark hair tossed about her
beautiful face, in a wild mountainous landscape,
while a storm gathers overhead,
Alma-Tadema’s “ The Coliseum ” represents three
classically draped maidens in a marble balcony of
the Baths of Titus watching the crowds pouring
out of the Coliseum below. One of the ladies is in
a warm white robe, another in pale grayish blue,
and all are exquisitely harmonized with the marble
and contrasted with the delicate rose of a child’s
dress in the center. The subject, a larger one than
the artist usually handles, is broadly treated and
yet with his customary skill in details.
J. W. Waterhouse’s “ Pandora” gives a nearly
life-size whole-length figure of the maiden who
i brought all evil into the world, kneeling before a
gray altarlike rock in a wood of ilexes and pines
before the golden casket. A still, green pool near
her feet is overflowing by a tiny cascade to a lower
rocky bed. Pandora has cautiously lifted the lid,
and the slowly curling smoke that issues from it
takes a dragon’s shape before it drifts away into
the shadows of the wood.
London: New Gallery.—The winter exhibition,
which closed on April 8, was devoted to a collection
FINE ARTS IN 1896.
illustrative of Spanish art, including, besides pic-
tures, tapestries, embroideries, laces, jewelry, fai-
ences, ete. About half the paintings shown were
attributed to Velasquez and Murillo, but there were
also good examples of Zurbaran, Ribera, and Alonso
Cano, and among the more modern ones Fortuny,
and Madrazo.
To the summer exhibition Sir Edward Burne-
Jones contributed two pictures: “ Aurora,” a single,
full-length, nearly life-size figure of a damsel clad
in a bronze-green robe, shot with red and tinged
with rosy light by the coming day, which reveals
her walking lightly across a bridge spanning a
stream in a village and clashing cymbals as she
goes. A larger picture is “ The Dream of Lancelot,”
representing the knight, who, exhausted by his long
uest for the Chapel of the San Grael, has sunk to
sleep before the entrance, a small half-ruined
shrine in the heart of a wood. It is somber and
melancholy in color and sentiment, but dramatic
in treatment.
G. F. Watts sent his “ Earth,” a ruddy, vigorous
figure, holding an armful of fruits, and “Time,
Death, and Judgment.” Alma-Tadema exhibited
a poe roup of himself, wife, sister-in-law, and
others, in half-length figures, gathered around an
easel, and Mrs. Alma-T'adema “The Ring,” showing
two lovers in a window seat.
London: Grafton Galleries.—The winter ex-
hibition was devoted to a loan collection of the
Dutch and the Barbizon schools, Of the former were
17 canvases by Joseph Israels, which were given a
room by themselves, and examples of James Maris,
Mauve, van Marcke, and others. The Barbizon
ictures included 67 by Corot, 40 by Millet, 33 by
aubigny,*30 by Diaz, and examples by Jules
Dupré, Troyon, Charles Jacque, Théodore Rous-
seau, Georges Michel, Courbet, and others. There
were also 200 original black-and-white drawings
mm Paul eyeelbas John Charlton, W. Small, and
orian.
London: Miscellaneous.—The most impor
picture sale of the year was that of the collection
of Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart., which realized in
all £67,342. Seventeen pictures brought more than ~
1,400 guineas each, a goodly proportion of the
twenty-eight canvases that reached that amount in
the sales of the year. The highest price attained
was 7,500 guineas for the well-known portrait of
“The Hon. Mary Moncton,” by Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds, the same price which it brought in 1894.
Other Reynolds portraits were: “ Barbara, Countess
of Coventry,” 3,800 guineas; “Charles Manners,
Fourth Duke of Rutland,” 1,400 guineas; and “ Mr.
Mathew,” 4,000 guineas. The last sold in the
Wynn-Ellis sale in 1876 for 900 guineas, and in
the Duchess of Montrose’s collection, 1894, for 4,400
guineas. Gainsborough pictures were: “ Dorothea
Lady Eden,” 5,000 guineas; “ Mr. and Mrs, Dehaney
and Daughter,” 2,100; “A Grand Landscape,”
3,100. Romney: “ Lady Urith Shore,” 2,000; “ Miss
Harriet Shore,” 2,750; “ Mrs, Oliver,” 3,100. Tur-
ner: “ Rockets and Blue Lights,” 3,700; “ Sea Piece,”
2,050. Sir W. Beechey, “Catherine Duchess of
York,” 1,400. Clarkson Stanfield, “A Guarda
Costa,” 3,200. Constable: “ Embarkation of George
IV at Whitehall on the Opening of Waterloo
Bridge,” sketch for the finished picture, 2,000. Sir
John Millais, “Little Speedwell’s Darling Blue,”
1,400. Alma-Tadema, “ Becpoctationa. 1,950.
The highest price paid for a single picture in
1896 was given by Mr. Charles Wertheimer for
Romney’s well-known “Caroline Viscountess Clif-
den and Lady Elizabeth Spencer,” which fell to
him, after a spirited competition, for 10,500
guineas. The same gentleman was the buyer also,
at private sale, for a similar large sum, of Rem-
ete aero
Te ct a § til ay te eg 10
FINE ARTS IN 1896,
brandt’s famous “Standard Bearer,” at Warwick
Castle.
At the sale of the pictures and effects of the late
Lord Leighton, in July, four fine Corots, ““ The Four
Seasons,” panels painted by the artist for the walls
of his friend Decamps’s dining room at Barbizon,
were sold for 6,000 guineas. Alma-Tadema’s “ Cor-
ner of the Studio” brought 1,800, and Sir J. E.
Millais’s “ Shelling Peas” 710 guineas. The prices
obtained for the late president’s own works were
disappointing.
At the Haskett-Smith sale “The Cherry Sellers,”
by Morland, brought 1,000 guineas. At the sale of
iscount Eversley’s pictures Hoppner’s “ Emma
Whitbread” fetched 1,800 guineas, and Gains-
borough’s “Samuel Whitbread” 1,750 guineas.
Among the Thomson-Bonar family pictures, Rom-
ney’s “Mrs. Anne Bonar” fetched 1,500 guineas.
In the Angerstein collection, Lawrence’s “ Mrs.
Amelia Angerstein ” sold for 2,150 and Reynolds’s
“Mrs. Angerstein” for 1,150 guineas. At the
Arthur Seymour sale Romney’s “ Maria and Cath-
erine Thurlow” sold at 2,550 guineas. As a con-
trast to these high prices, Fuseli’s “ Deluge,” a can-
vas 10 by 7 feet, was knocked down for one guinea.
New York: National Academy of Design.—
The officers of the year are: President, Thomas W.
Wood ; Vice-President, James H. Hart ; Correspond-
ing Secretary, E. Wood Perry ; Recording Secretary,
Geo. H. Smillie; Treasurer, James D. Smillie. The
Academy consists of 90 academicians and 51 asso-
ciates. Among the latter are 3 women, Miss Cecilia
Beaux, Miss Fidelia Bridges, and Mrs. Henry A.
p.
The seventy-first annual exhibition (March 30 to
May 16) contained 408 numbers. he annual
< were awarded as follows: The Thomas B.
larke prize for the best American figure composi-
tion ($300), to Henry Mosler’s “ Helping Grandpa,”
representing an old man and a boy mowing; the
Norman W. Dodge prize for the best ace ainted
by a woman ( ), to Miss Ida Waugh for her
“ Portrait of Dr. Paul Sartain”; first Julius Hall-
garten prize for the best picture in oils by a citizen
under thirty-five years of age ($300), to Mrs. Hazle-
ton, of Boston, for her “In a Studio”; second
Julius Hallgarten prize ($200), to J. H. Hatfield, of
Canton Junction, Mass., for his “ After the Bath”;
third Julius Hallgarten prize ($100) to Miss Louise
Cox for her “ Pomona.”
Among the noteworthy figure pieces in the exhi-
bition were Henry Mosler’s “A Ghost Story,” a
ap of Breton peasants gathered around an open
itchen fireplace listening to a narrator who om
epee just reached the thrilling part of his
e; Childe Hassam’s “Summer,” a large canvas
of young women enjoying themselves in a garden
nook surrounded by houses; F. S. Church’s “ St.
Cecilia”; F. D. Millet’s “An Overture”; Louis
Paul Dessar’s “ Louise”; and F. H. Lungren’s “ The
Snake Dance,” the last a remarkable life-size illus-
tration of .a strange religious rite of the Moqui
Indians of Arizona, Another large painting was
the late Thomas Hovenden’s unfinished “ Founders
of a State.” representing pioneers resting in a grassy
valley on their way to new homes in the West.
The fifteenth annual autumn exhibition (Nov. 23
to Dec. 19), though not a large one, was up to the
usual standard. Carroll Beckwith was represented
by an interesting portrait of Miss Polly Ogden, and
F. A. Bridgman by two Algerian studies. A good
picture of the civil war, by Hugh Witter Ditzler,
= aagieee soldiers playing cards on a drumhead
while a comrade revives the smoldering camp fire.
New York: Society of American Artists.—
The eighteenth annual exhibition (March 28 to
May 2) was held as usual in the Fine Arts Galleries.
287
The Shaw Fund prize ($1,500) was awarded to
Frank W. Benson for his “Summer,” a charming
damsel in thin fluttering draperies advancing in a’
bright-green meadow, and the Webb prize ($300)
to W. L. Metcalf for his “Gloucester Harbor”
seen from a height above the town. Among the
best figure pieces were Will H. Low’s “ Little God
Pan,” a nude boy piping by a still stream with the
sunlight falling through thick foliage; Childe
Hassam’s “ Girl in a Green Gown,” ensconced in a
sunny corner among rocks; Robert Reid’s “Au-
tumn,” a barefooted and bareheaded country girl,
laden with goldenrod and asters against a sunlit ©
background ; Robert Van Voorst Sewell’s large dec-
orative composition “The Groves of Persephone” ;
and Humphrey Johnston’s “ Le Domino Rose,” a
lady in a crimson gown with red ribbons in her
auburn hair, which won the Temple gold medal at
the exhibition of the Pennsylvania Academy of
Fine Arts. Noteworthy landscapes were Twacht-
man’s “Grand Cajion in Winter” and “ Water-
falls,’ E. M. Taber’s “ A Winter Evening,” Mar-
garet Wendell Huntington’s “From Hill to Sea
—Mount Desert,” Leonard Ochtman’s “ Frosty
Meadows at Sunrise,” and J. Evans’s “The Strand
Gate—Winchelsea.” JohnS. Sargent, Carroll Beck-
with, Lilla Cabot Perry, Mary Challoner O’Connor,
and Irving R. Wiles sent portraits, and McMonnies
contributed bronzes of “Shakespeare” and of
* Venus and Adonis,”
At the annual meeting of the society, April 11,
John La Farge was elected president to succeed
E. H. Blashfield, who declined a re-election.
New York: Metropolitan Museum.—The last
yearly report shows that the corporation is wholly
out of debt. The receipts during 1895 were $245,-
340.60 and the expenses $244,518.62, showing a
small] balance. The number of visitors during the
iad was 526,488, of whom 190,168 attended on
undays.
The thirtieth semiannual exhibition was marked
by the addition to the Wolfe collection of several
valuable works. A characteristic example of the
art of the late Lord Leighton, a tall canvas entitled
“Lachryme,” represents a draped female figure
leaning in an attitude of grief on a marble column.
Rousseau’s ** Edge of the Woods,” a powerful land-
scape, was bought at the Schaus sale. A Turner,
entitled “Hurrah for the Good Ship Erebus !—
another Fish,” represents a large whale which has
just been pierced with a harpoon overturning by a
lash of its tail a boat, with a large ship under full
sail in the background. This picture came from
the Sir Francis Seymour Haden collection. A new
wing in the sculpture gallery was opened, contain-
ing reproductions of some of the finest works of
sculpture in Europe, from medieval days down to
Michelangelo. In this, three sections are devoted
to medieval sculpture and sculpture of the Renais-
sance, especially early French and Italian works.
New York: Architectural League.—The elev-
enth annual exhibition held at the Fine Arts Gal-
leries (Feb. 15 to March 9) was thrown open to the
ee free, excepting on Tuesdays and Thursdays.
oteworthy among the exhibits were four of the
six competitive models for the proposed equestrian
statue of Gen. Sherman, by H. K. Bush-Brown,
C. H. Niehaus, J. Massey Rhind, and Loester &
Zimm. Herbert Adams exhibited a tympanum
with figures, and Philip Martini a corner of a cove
with figures, both intended for the new Library of
Congress. Messrs. Vedder and Cox also exhibited
decorations for the same building, and the Tiffany
Glass Company beautiful glass mosaic decorations
for the Chicago Public Library and window de-
signs for several churches. Competitive designs
for the decoration of the main hall of the new
988 FINE ARTS IN 1896.
Hotel Manhattan were submitted by C. Y. Turner,
who was the successful one, and Edward Simmons,
Frank Fowler, Herbert Denman, and Will H. Low.
Miscellaneous.—The collection of David H.
King, Jr., consisting of 161 pictures, sold in New
York, Feb. 18 and 19, brought in the aggregate
$279,780. Among the best prices obtained were:
Corot, “ Catching Crawfish,” $2,100; Diaz, “ Gypsies
in the Forest,” $4,350; Reynolds, “Countess Hyn-
ford,” $2,000; Romney, “ Master Pemberton,” $2,-
050; Lawrence, “ Hon. Mrs. Van Sittart,” $2,050;
Reynolds, “ Mrs. Arnold,” $4,900; Beechey, “ Por-
trait of a Lady,” $3,000; Detaille, “Champigny,”
$2,100; De Neuville, “Champigny,” $2,100; Bou-
guereau, “The Bather,” $3,500; Mauve, “Cattle in
Haarlem Meadows,” $6,675; Schreyer, “ Cheveaux
dans la Neige,” $5,100; Troyon, “ Driving Home
the Flock,” $17,250; Knaus, “ The Coquette,”
$3,200; Lerolle, “End of the Day,” $2,000; Law-
rence, “ Portrait: of a Lady,” $3,000; Copley, “ Miss
Hill,” $3,200; Rembrandt, “ Portrait of John As-
selyn,” $11,100; Corot, “Souvenir of Normandy,”
$6,700; Daubigny, “ Evening on the Oise,” $3,400 ;
Dupré, “ Rentre dans la Cabane,” $2,500; Mauve,
“ Crépuscle,” $5.900; Corot, “Chemin Borde de
Saules,” $4,300; Jacque, “Sheep Pasture,” $3,500;
Mauve, “Summer Day in Holland,” $5,200; Con-
stable, “Hampstead Heath,” $3,200; Turner,
“ Blois, on the Loire,” $9,800; Romney, “ Mrs. An-
gerstein,” $2,550; Reynolds, “ Mrs. Angelo,” $4,000 ;
Lawrence, “Countess Charlemont and her Son,”
$10,700; Hoppner, “ Mlle. Hillsberg,” $10,100;
Pourbus, “ Isabella of Austria,” $8,000.
Prizes for the best six plans for a new City Hall
for New York, siibiensised. to the New Municipal
Building Commission, were awarded as follow:
First prize, $7,000, to John R. Thomas, New York;
the other five, $2,000 each, to Ernest Flagg, New
York; Edward P. Casey, New York; Rankin &
Kellogg, Philadelphia; Gordon, Bragdon & Or-
chard, Rochester; and P. D. Weber, Chicago,
The Liberal Art League is the name of a new art
club, formed for the purpose of establishing a per-
manent art gallery in New York where artists can
offer their works for sale.
The private collection of the late William Schaus,
consisting of 31 pictures, sold at Chickering Hall,
New York, on Feb. 28, for $185,325. Among the
highest prices obtained were: Rembrandt, “ Por-
trait of an Aamiral,” $18,600; Troyon, “ Retour &
la Ferme,” $24,500, and “Cattle in Pasture,” $10,-
000; Rousseau, “Edge of the Woods,” $25,200,
and “ Landscape,” $9.030; Diaz, “ Sunset,” $18,900:
Corot, “ Landscape,” $8,000; Daubigny, “ Coucher
du Soleil,” $10,150.
An exhibition of bookplate designs, including
those submitted in competition for a prize offered
by Theodore Hoe Mead for a bookplate for the Au-
thor’s Club, New York, was held in the eclub’s
rooms, in Carnegie Building, in April. The prize
($100) was awarded to the design of George Whar-
ton Edwards.
The prizes for designs for the mural decorations
of the Chamber of the Common Council in the City
Hall, Philadelphia, were awarded as follows: First
prize, $3,000, to Joseph De Camp, of Philadelphia;
second prize, $1,000, to Charles Y. Turner, of New
York; third prize, $750, to Frank W. Benson, of
Boston.
The Jacob H. Lazarus scholarship of $1,000 per
_ year for three years, for the study of mural paint-
ing in Europe, was awarded to George W. Breck,
President of the Art Students’ League of New York.
Bryson Burroughs, who had just returned after five
years’ study in Europe as winner of the first Chanler
i prize, was elected to succeed him as presi-
ent,
FLORIDA.
An equestrian bronze statue of Gen. Grant, by
William Ordway Partridge, was unveiled on April
25 at Bedford Avenue and Dean Street, Brooklyn,
the gift to the city of the Union League Club, of
Brooklyn. It is of more than life size, and is
elevated on an oblong granite pedestal about 16
feet high. The statue was unveiled by Ulysses D,
Grant, son of Col. Frederick D, Grant, in the pres-
ence of Gov. Morton and staff, and a numerous
company.
A bronze statue of John C. Calhoun, by J. Mas-
sey Rhind, of New York, a present to the city of
Charleston by Southern women, has been erected in
one of the public squares of that city. The statue,
which is 12 feet 8 inches high, is on a granite ped-
estal 40 feet high, with bronze palmetto trees at
its corners.
The first annual exhibition in the art galleries
connected with the Carnegie Library, Pittsburg,
was a great success. The following prizes, given by
Mr. and Mrs. Carnegie, were awarded : First prize,
$5,000, for an American painting completed within
1896, and first exhibited in the Carnegie Galleries,
to Winslow Homer, for “The Wreck’; second
prize, $3,000, to Gari Melchers, for “The Ship-
builder”; gold medal, to John Lavery, Scotland,
for his “Lady in Brown”; silver medal, to J. F.
Raffaelli, Paris, for his “ Nétre Dame”: bronze
medal, to Miss Cecilia Beaux, Philadelphia, for her
“ Ernesta.”
The monument to John Boyle O’Reilly, the work
of Daniel C. French, of New York, was unveiled in
Boston in June. It is surmountéd by a bronze
group of 3 figures, larger than life, all seated. Hi-
bernia, in the middle, is making a laurel wreath;
at her right is Patriotism, a warrior in leather cui-
rass and sandals; and on her left, Poetry, a nude
youth with a lyre and laurel branches, of which he
offers one for the wreath. The statue of Mr.
O’Reilly, crowning the group, is 14 feet high.
At the International Exposition of the Fine Arts
at Berlin the great gold medal was awarded to
Julius L. Stewart, of Philadelphia, and smaller gold
medals to Walter Gay, of Boston, and George Hitch-
cock, of Providence. :
FLORIDA, a Southern State, admitted to the
Union March 3, 1845; area, 58,680 square miles;
population, according to each decennial census
since admission, 87,445 in 1850; 140,424 in 1860;
187,748 in 1870; 269,493 in 1880; and 391,422 in
1890. By the State census of 1895 it was 464,639.
Capital, Tallahassee.
overnment.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, Henry L. Mitch-
ell; Secretary of State, John L. Crawford; Comp-
troller, W. D. Bloxham: Treasurer, C. B. Collins;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, W. N. Sheats;
Commissioner of Agriculture, L. B. Wombwell;
Adjutant General, Patrick Houstoun; Attorney-
General, W. B. Lamar; Chief Justice of the Su-
preme Court, Benjamin S. Liddon; Associate Jus-
tices, R. Fenwick Taylor and Milton H. Mabry—all
Democrats.
The State Census.—The census of 1895 gives
the white population as 271,561, and the colored as
193,039 ; Indians, 39. Since 1890 the white popn-
lation has increased 48,580, decrease being reported
in 8 only of the 45 counties; the colored population
has increased 29,730, decrease being reported in
only 6 counties. The greatest increase was in Hills-
borough County, in which Tampa is situated.
Tampa had but 5,532 inhabitants in 1890, and
Jacksonville 17,201. Following is the present pop-
ulation of the larger places in the State: Jackson-
ville, 25,180: Key West, 16,502; Tampa, 15,634;
Pensacola, 14,084; Ocala, 4,597; St. Augustine,
4,151; Tallahassee, 3,931; Gainesville, 3,152; Appa-
lachicola, 3,061; Orlando, 2,993; West Tampa,
2.815; Palatka, 2,828; Fernandina, 2,502. he
four cities Jacksonville, Key West, Tampa, and
Pensacola in 1890 had an gate population of
52,523, and in 1895 of 71,350, a gain of nearly 36
per cent.
Finances.—The finances of the State are re-
rted in a greatly improved condition, so thata
ower tax rate was recommended by the Comptrol-
ler in January. A few years ago the rate was 4}
mills, and the State was running behind at the rate
of $50,000 a year. The rate in 1895 was 3} mills;
and according to the Comptroller’s advice, it was
reduced in 1896 to 24 mills, making a reduction of
about $75,000 on the State tax for the year.
Edueation.—The first semiannual apportion-
ment of the 1-mill school tax for 1896 distributed
$49,936.80 to a school population of 62,421, averag-
ing 80 cents toa pupil. The number of schools is
_ 2,404, of which 1,775 are for white and 629 for col-
ored pupils. The cost of these schools is $653,175.
_ The invested school fund amounts to $617,100.
The Tallahassee Summer Normal School was in
session seven weeks during the summer vacation,
with a good attendance of teachers in both the
white and colored departments.
The State Normal College for Colored Students
graduated 4 in June, and opened in the autumn
with the largest attendance in its history, 60 ap-
plicants taking the entrance examinations.
The State Agricultural College, at Lake City,
_ graduated a class of 14 in June.
The so-called Sheats law, making it a penal
offense for any person or persons, association or
corporation, to conduct a school of any grade,
public, private, or parochial, in which white per-
sons and negroes shall be instructed or boarded in
the same building or taught in the same class or
at the same time by the same teacher, came before
the courts and was decided against as regards the
title, “An Act to prohibit white and negro youth
from being taught in the same school,” which was
declared inadequate. No other point in the law
“Sea to have been touched upon.
roducts.—The cotton crop of the State was
' given in Hester’s annual report at 48,000 bales.
_ The shipments of lumber and timber from the
rt of Pensacola for 1895 amounted to 150,797,695
_ feet of lumber, 132,173,000 feet of sawed timber, and
856,493 cubic feet of hewed timber.
Water Ways.—Several memorials from the Leg-
islature asking appropriations for improvements
in the State water ways were presented to Congress,
and the following were included in the river and
harbor bill: For continuing the improvement of
Ap hicola Bay and river, $12,000; of Pensacola
harbor, $100,000; of Key West harbor, $80,000; of
_ Charlotte harbor and Peace river, $16,000; for im-
‘aged Carrabelle bar and harbor, making a 10-
_ foot channel from the mouth of the river to
i the channel in the bay, $10,000; improving Caloo-
, ‘ sahatchee ‘river, $1,000; completing improvement
_ of Chipola river, $5,000. Preliminary examinations
of the following waters were authorized: Anclote
river, Jupiter inlet, Hillsborough Bay, Crystal river,
and Cedar Keys. Surveysand estimates were directed
_ to be made at Appalachicola Bay, Tampa Bay,
| Withlacoochee river, and St. Lucia or Prospect in-
- let and river.
Disastrous Hurrieane.—A terrible storm, which
‘Swept over several States Sept: 29, was most de-
“structive in Florida. It struck at Cedar Keys on
the west coast and passed northward over about 20
towns and villages. The destruction was greatest
at Cedar Keys, where the water came up with the
wind in a great tidal wave, and rushed in a torrent
through the streets, carrying with it houses, boats,
VOL. Xxxvi.—19 A
d
FLORIDA.
289
and débris of every description. While the storm
was at its height, 2 hotels and a dwelling took fire-
and were burned down. The town was almost
completely destroyed, and 39 lives were lost. Early
reports from 76 towns showed that 67 persons were
killed and 62 injured; and the list was increased
by later reports, while it was believed that many
fishermen and spongers lost their lives on the coast
in addition to those found. The destruction of the
valuable timber, turpentine trees, farm crops, phos-
phate works, and buildings of every description was
very great. The State Agricultural College, at Lake
City, was badly damaged and many of the finest de-
Spe along thé lines of railroads were wrecked.
n many districts not a vestige was left of the
growing crops. It was estimated that $10,000,000
would not cover the loss, direct and indirect, in the
State. The people of Cedar Keys were obliged to
issue an appeal for aid.
Political—The election of State and county
officers was held Oct. 6. A Governor, Secretary,
Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney-General, Superin-
tendent of Instruction, Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, and justice of the Supreme Court were to be
chosen, together with all the members of the House
of Representatives and 16 of the Senate, half of
the Senators holding over. The Legislature will
pet a United States Senator to succeed Wilkinson
The State Democratic Convention met at Ocala.
June 16. The party in favor of free coinage of
silver elected their chairman and secretary, but in
the choice of delegates to the national convention
4 were given to the gold advocates and 4 to the
silver men. The antisilver men carried their point
in the adoption of the platform. a vote of 176 to
170 deciding in favor of the first resolution in
the majority report of the platform committee,
which was: ;
“ Whereas, Questions of coinage-and finance are
matters prescribed by the Constitution for national
legislation, and we recognize that it is the proper
function of the Democratic National Convention, to
assemble at Chicago at an early date, to prescribe
the policy of the party on such questions, as well as
all other national issues: Therefore be it resolved,
That all such questions are properly referred for
determination to the National Democratic Conven-
tion, and we pledge our support to the policy of
the party which may be so enunciated.”
After declaring in favor of a tariff for revenue
only, and congratulating the Democratic party on
its opposition to “all monopolies, syndicates, and
trusts, holding that the aggregation of capital in the
hands of a few is a menace to civil government and
a shadow of death to free-institutions,” the resolu-
tions commended the administration of Gov. Mitch-
ell, recommended laws for increasing the efficiency
of the militia, praised the work of the State Board
of Health, expressed sympathy with the Cubans,
urging the President to recognize them as belliger-
ents, and said further: “ And in this connection we
take pride in commending the courageous manner
in which the President has upheld the Monroe doc-
trine in Venezuelan affairs. which has given influ-
ence and dignity to the American name and com-
mands respect for its flag.”
The last resolution was as follows:
“ Whereas, The last Legislature of Florida passed
a statute prohibiting the teaching together of white
and negro children in the public schools of our
State; And whereas, The same statute has aroused
general discussion and caused the expression of
much doubt as to the position held by our people
on the question : Be it resolved, That the Democracy
of Florida, in convention assembled, declares its
hearty indorsement of such law, and expresses the
290 FLORIDA.
hope that it may never be expunged from the stat-
ute books of the State, nor the principle it em-
bodies be torn from the hearts of our people; that
the convention expresses the emphatic hope that
the State will never relax its efforts in the cause of
education till every child within its limits shall
have had opportunity to secure the rudiments of a
sound knowledge of the English language and the
principles of business, without distinction of race,
color, or previous condition, but always and at all
times in separate buildings, and with different
teachers.” ;
A proposition to refer all nominations of State
officers to primary elections was defeated by a vote
of 180 to 165. Following is the ticket : For Govern-
or, William D. Bloxham; Secretary of State, John
L. Crawford ; Attorney-General, William B. Lamar;
Comptroller, William H. Reynolds; Treasurer, Clar-
ence B. Collins; Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion, William N. Sheats; Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, Lucius B. Wombwell; Justice Supreme Court,
Milton H. Mabry.
The Republican State Convention for electing
delegates to the national convention was held at
Tallahassee in March. The so-called “ organized”
faction of the party outnumbered the so-called
“lily-whites,” and the latter left the convention
after the report of the Committee on Credentials
in reference to contesting delegations, and organized
in a separate convention. Both factions selected
delegates to the national convention, the former
being in favor of McKinley, the latter of Morton,
and both adopted resolutions expressing sympathy
with the Cubans. The convention of the so-called
“lily-whites” for nomination of State officers was
held at Ocala in May. The following ticket was
made: For Governor, E. R. Gunby; Secretary
of State, H. S. Chubb; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, I. E. Webster; Treasurer, Philip Wal-
ter; Judge of Supreme Court, George M. Robbins;
Commissioner of Agriculture, E. E. Skipper ; Comp-
troller, T. T. Munroe: Attorney-General, Stephen
E. Foster; for Congressman from First District, E.
K. Nichols; for Congressman from Second District,
H. G. Garrett.
At a convention in Ocala, July 8, the “ organ-
ized” faction nominated as follows: For Governor,
George W. Allen; Superintendent of Instruction,
Byron F. Marsh; Treasurer, W. A. Allen; Justice
of the Supreme Court, Thomas E, Wilson; Com-
missioner of Agriculture, James Harden; Comp-
troller, John McDougall; Attorney-General, William
B. Sheppard; Congress, Second District, J. N.
Stripling.
The ticket finally put in the field was made up
from these two, and was as follows: For Governor,
E. R. Gunby; Secretary of State, T. F. McGourin;
Attorney-General, William B. Sheppard ; Treasurer,
W. A. Allen; Comptroller, John McDougall; Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, Byron F. Marsh;
Commissioner of Agriculture, Henry S. Chubb;
Justice of the Supreme Court, Thomas E. Wilson.
The Populists, in their convention at Ocala in
August, chose the following candidates: For Gov-
ernor, William A, Weeks; Secretary of State, J. C.
Keller; Comptroller, P. W. Knapp: Treasurer, L.
H. Cohoon; Attorney-General, Frank Harris; Judge
of the Supreme Court, D. L. McKinnon; Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction, 0. N. Williams ; Com-
missioner of Agriculture, J. F. Richbourg.
Arthur C. Jackson was the candidate of the Pro-
hibitionists for Governor. They made no other
nominations,
The gold Democrats held a State convention at
Jacksonville in August. Seventeen counties were
represented. A State committee was selected. and
delegates chosen to the national convention, Reso-
FRANCE.
lutions were adopted approving the financial policy
of the Cleveland administration, ms bea gold as
a standard of values, condemning the attack of the
Chicago convention on the Supreme Court, and ex-
pressing sympathy with the Cubans,
The campaign was very spirited, the interest cen-
tering largely in the choice of State legislators,
Senator Call refused to recognize the State Executive
Committee, and stumped the State upon his own
account, denouncing corporations and advocating
free silver. In many places where the regular
Democratic nominees were against him, his friends
made independent nominations. The Democratic
candidate for Governor also made speeches through
the State in favor of free silver.
Nov. 2 the chairman of the State committee
issued an address to the Populists of Florida, in
which he denounced the silver Democrats, declared
for McKinley, and urged all Populists in the State
to follow his lead. He declared the silver Demo-—
crats had treated the Populists with the utmost dis-—
respect and would not mp! not adhere to the Chi-
cago platform, but would knife the Populist party —
as soon as the opportunity presented itself.
At the October election all the Democratic can-
didates were chosen. The vote for Governor stood:
W. D. Bloxham, Democrat, 27,172; E. R. Gunby, -
Republican, 8,290; W. A. Weeks, Populist, 5,270.
Xt the November election Bryan received 32,213
votes; McKinley, 11,889; Palmer, 1,778; Levering,
868
FRANCE, a ee in western Europe, pro-
claimed Sept. 4, 1870, upon the deposition of the
Emperor Napoleon III, and decla rmanent, in
the Constitution of June 16, 1878. The President
of the republic is elected for seven years by an ab-
solute majority of the National Assembly, consist-
ing of both chambers united in Congress. There
are 300 Senators elected for nine years, one third
retiring every third year. They are elected by
commissions In the several departments and colo-
nies, consisting of delegates chosen by the munici-
pal councils of the communes and the Deputies and
members of the council-general and district coun-
cils of the department. There are 584 Deputies, 1
to 70,000 of population, elected by serutin d’arron-
dissement, those arrondissements which have over
100,000 inhabitants returning two Deputies. The
President appoints a ministry from the Chamber,
the members of which are usually selected by the
leader, whom the President commissions to form a
Cabinet. The ministers are jointly responsible to
the chambers for the general policy of the Govern-
ment and individually for their personal acts.
The President of the Republic is Frangois Félix
Faure, born in 1841, who was elected on Jan. 17,
1895, President Casimir-Périer having resigned.
The Cabinet in the beginning of 1896 was composed
of the following ministers: President of the Coun-
cil and Minister of the Interior, Léon Bourgeois;
Minister of Finance, Paul Doumer; Minister of
Foreign Affairs, M. Berthelot; Minister of War,
Godefroy Cavaignac; Minister of Marine, M. Lock-
roy; Minister of Justice, M. Ricard; Minister of
Public Instruction and Worship, M. Combes; Min-
ister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs,
M. Mésureur; Minister of Public Works, M. Guyot-
Dessaigne; Minister of Agriculture, Albert Viger;
Minister of the Colonies, Pierre Paul Guieyesse.
Area and Population.—France has an area of
204,092 square miles. The population present at
the taking of the census of April 12, 1891, was 38,
095,170. Owing to a low birth rate, the popula-
tion of France increases more slowly than in other
countries of Europe, and between 1886 and 1891 was
almost stationary, the annual rate of increase being”
6°5 in 10,000 and the average number of births to ®
a.
Tints eer o jane &
ice in the army, an
torial reserve.
FRANCE.
marriage 2°1. In 1891 and 1892 there was an actual
decrease of population, in 1893 a slight increase, and
in 1894 a surplus of 39,768 births over deaths, the
total number of births being 855,388, and that of
deaths 815,620. There were 286,662 marriages in
that year, against 287,294 in 1893 and 290,319 in
1892. The average birth rate in 1894 was 22 to
1,000 inhabitants ; the death rate, 22; the excess of
births over deaths, 1 to 1,000. The number of di-
yorces in 1894 was 6,419, 83 in every 100,000 families.
The census of March, 1896, makes the total Sires
tion of France 38,228,989, an increase of 133,819 in
five years, or 26,500 per annum, showing a birth
rate of 1 to 1,500. The increase is largely confined
to the cities, and is balanced by a decrease in many
of the rural communes. The test increase has
been in the departments of the Seine, the Nord, the
Bouches-du-Rhéne, the Rhone, the Seine-et-Oise,
the Pas de Calais, the Meurthe-et-Moselle, the Var,
the Gironde, the Alpes Maritimes, and the Vosges.
In the departments of the Orne, the Manche, the
Lot, the Calvados, the Dordogne, and the Gers the
diminution was most marked.
The total emigration from 1857 to 1891 was 285,-
873, of which number 59,304 went to the United
States. The number of emigrants in 1892 was
5,528, and in 1893 it was 5,586. The preliminary
results of the census of 1896 make the population
of Paris 2,511,955. The increase of population in
none of the inland towns was important; it was
only 28,000 in Lyons, 15,000 in Lille, and in St.-
Etienne, Roubaix, Nancy, and Tourcoing it was
also small, while Rouen, Toulouse, Rennes, Bourges,
and other places show an actual decrease, indicating
that the migration to the towns from the villages
has greatly slackened. The ports on the channel
and the Bay of Biscay are also stationary or declin-
ing, Nantes having actually fallen off from 122,000
to 105,000, St.-Nazaire remaining about the same,
and Bordeaux having merely risen to 256,000 and
Havre from 116,000 to 117,000; while Brest has
fallen from 75,000 to 72,000, Calais shows a slight
decrease, Lorient also, and Boulogne, Dunkirk,
Cherbourg, and Rochefort are nearly stationary.
The Mediterranean por. on the contrary, show a
yemarkable growth, Marseilles having increased to
447,000 and Toulon from 77,000 to 94,000. The
urban population of France in 1891, embracing all
communes of more than 2,000 inhabitants, was 14,-
311,292, or 37-4 per cent. of the whole, while the
tural population was 24,031,900, or 62°6 per cent.
Frenchman is liable to serv-
may be called into the active
army or the reserves from the age of twenty to that
of forty-five, unless he is pronounced unfit. All
the young men of the country belong to the active
army from the age of twenty, unless exempted, and
serve three years, after which they form part of the
activearmy reserve for ten years, then of the terri-
torial army for six years, and finally of the terri-
Students in higher institutions of
learning and seminarists serve but one year with
The ide A mieie lal
‘the colors, and every soldier who has acquitted
himself well in military exercises and can read and
write, may be sent on indefinite furlough after a
_ year of active service. The number of men com-
posing the total war strength of France is estimated
- at 2,350,000 in the active army and its reserve, 900,-
_ 000 in the territorial army, and 1,100,000 in the
territorial reserve; total, 4,350,000, of whom 2,500,-
000 are counted on as available.
The e strength of the army is estimated in
the budget for 1896 to be 598,263 men, of whom 28,-
963 are officers, showing an increase of 22,036 over
the preceding year. The number of horses is 142,-
661. The strength and distribution of the various
arms and services were as follow:
291
DESCRIPTION OF
TROOPS. France. Algeria. ) Tunis. Total
General staff............) 4,113} 968 86 | 4.567
Military schools.......-.. UE ow ce GS Nh cin de hc 3,255
Unattached ............ ) 1,945 798 113 2.856
Gendarmerie............ 21,535 1,122 154 22,811
Garde Républicaine ..... i Oy) ns er eee 3,050
Army corps:
oO ORE Pee ree 315,988 .| 36,629 8,744 | 361.361
WEIR vi cccdenGeesess 7 482 7.866 1,853 77,201
BLADE CITA dap i aiee vans 78.512 2,533 854 $1,899
Engineers............. 12,016 801 325 | 13,142
Lo EE A ee 8,462 2,832 951 12,245
Administrative........ 11,844 3,583 494 15,876
Total army corps....| 494,304 | 54,199 | 13,221 | 561.7
FICIAL. Sco och Han 2dSde 33;2 528,202 | 56,487 | 13,574 | 598,263
Deducting the sick and absent, the effective of
the active army in 1896 was 528,147 officers and
men of the total 572,402.
The Navy.—France has, next to Great Britain,
the strongest navy in the world. There are 16
battle ships of the first class, 10 of the second class,
and 4 of the third class, 17 port-defense vessels, 14
first-class, 26 second-class, and 110 third-class
cruisers, and 100 first-class, 80 second-class, and 36
third-class torpedo craft. The vessels under con-
struction comprise 2 battle ships, 2 corsair cruisers
or commerce destroyers, 2 first-class cruisers, 2 sec-
ond-class cruisers, 3 third-class cruisers, a dispatch
vessel, a gunboat, a torpedo dispatch vessel, a tor-
pedo gunboat, 3 seagoing torpedo boats, 7 first-class
torpedo boats, and 5 aluminium boats. The navy
budget has grown from 121,484,000 franes in 187
to 278,000,000 francs in 1894. The navy is manned
partly by conscription and partly by enlistments.
he new commerce destroyers are designed to make
23 knots with 24,000 horse power and triple screws.
They will have 2-inch deck armor, with a splinter-
proof deck below. Their displacement is 8,500 tons.
They will carry an armament of 2 6°2-inch, 6 55-
inch, and a number of 1°85-inch guns. The iron-
clad “Gaulois,” launched in October, 1896, has a
displacement of 11,275 tons, and, with engines of
14,500 horse power, was built to make 18 knots and
carry an armament of 22 guns, besides 32 small
guns for repelling torpedo attacks.
Finances.—The budget for 1896 estimates the
total revenue at 3,448,317,093 franes, of which 522,-
101,183 frances are derived from direct taxes, 2,064,-
398,230 francs from indirect taxes, and 686,613,732
frances from monopolies, services, and domains,
making the total ordinary revenue 3,273,113,145
franes, which does not include 64,816,354 frances of
formal recettes d’ordre, 57,372,575 francs from vari-
ous extraordinary sources, and Algeria’s revenue of
53,015,019 franes. The direct taxesare the following :
Land tax, 118,607,919 francs; tax on buildings, 80.-
042,227 francs; personal-property tax, 90,470,476
franes; door and window tax, 58,425,474 francs:
trade licenses, 125,580,402 francs; tax on premiére
avertissement, 1,054,100 francs; taxes on servants
and carriages and horses, 47,920,585 francs. The
indirect taxes are: Customs, 469,270,230 francs;
registration, 555,689,500 francs ; stamps, 188,402,500
frances; 4-per-cent. tax on movables, 66,220,000
franes; sugar tax, 196,473,000 francs; other taxes,
588,343,000 francs. The revenues from monopolies
and state property were: Tobacco, 376,301,800
franes; matches and gunpowder, 39,959,300 franes ;
posts, telegraphs, and telephones. 215,014,350 franes ;
domains and forests, 45,019,420 francs; various, 10,-
318,862 francs.
The budget estimated for 1896 fixed the expendi-
tures for all purposes at 3,447,918,198 franes, divided
as follows: Public debt, 1,219.792,036 frances; Presi-
dent, Chamber, and Senate, 13,171,720 franes; Min-
292
istry of Finance, 19,471,260 francs; Ministry of
Justice, 35,320,233 francs; Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 15,984,800 francs ; Ministry of the Interior,
75,786,209 francs; Ministry of War, 609,145,480
francs for ordinary, and 42,029,340 francs for ex-
traordinary purposes; Ministry of Marine, 272,614,-
898 francs; Ministry of Public Instruction, 195,018,-
342 francs for education, 8,148,985 frances for fine
arts, and 44,125,953 frances for worship; Ministry of
Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs, 198,-
213,197 frances; Ministry of the Colonies, 79,018,500
franes: Ministry of Agriculture, 30,115,090 francs ;
Ministry of Public Works, 270,639,764 francs ; régie
and collection of taxes, 204,469,771 francs; repay-
ments, 40,842,000 frances; Algeria, 74,010,620 frances.
The expenses of the departmental and communal
administrations are paid by levying additional cen-
times in connection with the land and building
taxes, the personal and property tax, and the taxes
on doors and windows, trade licenses, and carriages,
horses, and bicycles. These additional centimes
amounted in 1896 to 375,684,784 francs.
The capital of the public debt on Jan. 1, 1894,
was 31,035,252,522 frances, of which 22,005,373,951
francs represented the consolidated debt, 248,788,-
253 francs the Morgan loan, 3,986,320,000 the re-
deemable debt, 3,347,428,776 francs the capitalized
value of annuities, 1,146,889,547 francs the floating
debt, and 805,451,995 frances the guarantee debts.
The expenses of the debt for 1896 were 693,761,924
francs for the consolidated debt, 298,813,194 francs
for interest and amortization of redeemable debt,
and 227,216,918 franes for the floating debt.
Commerce.—The general commerce in 1894 con-
sisted of 4,795,000,000 francs of imports and 4,125,-
000,000 francs of exports. The total value of the
special imports was 3,850,000,000 franes, of which
sum 1,198,000,000 francs represent articles of alimen-
tation, 2,104,000,000 francs raw materials and prod-
ucts, and 548,000,000 francs manufactured goods.
The special exports had a total value of 3,078,000,-
000 franes, of which 666,000,000 frances represent
articles of alimentation, 755,000,000 francs unmanu-
factured. products, and 1,657,000,000 frances manu-
factured goods. The values of the principal im-
ports in 1894 were: Cereals, 363,000,000 francs ;
wool, 317,000,000 frances; oil seeds, 199,000,000
franes ; raw silk, 183,000,000 franes; coal and coke,
172,000,000 franes; raw cotton, 169,000,000 frances ;
timber and wood, 148,000,000 franes; coffee, 147,-
000,000 francs; wine, 145,000,000 frances; cattle,
132,000,000 frances; hides and furs, 116,000,000
franes; ores, 53,000,000 frances; flax, 52,000,000
francs; sugar, 51,000,000 frances; woolen goods,
44,000,000 frances; silk goods, 42,000,000 francs ;
cotton gaods, 33,000,000 francs.
The special commerce with the leading com-
mercial countries had, in francs, the following
values in 1894:
COUNTRIES. Imports Exports.
|
-Great Britany oc 50655 x02-3 50 s000%% 480,000,000 | 913,000,000
Bolriunasy sos cee an en denserees eke to 72,000,000 | 478,000,000
Germany. cscs vccct cocks teuagnees 310,000,000 | 325,000,000
United States... sccssescclewens~s 327,000,000 | 186,000,000
Algeria 2.2 tcinsscnnes ss buadeieys 40 208,000,000 | 199,000,000
Spain « scvies clopeedia” for 1890, page 361.
t was announced in February that Dr. Nansen
had discovered the north pole and was on his way
back to Europe. The news came from Siberia and
was understood to have been sent by Peter Kouch-
nareff, who lives near the mouth of the Lena river
and had charge of the dog supplies for the expe-
dition. The correctness of the information was
doubted, though some of the explorers who were
interviewed saw nothing improbable in the story;
but there had been other reports (one published in
301
Paris in April, 1895) that Dr. Nansen had found
the north pole, that it was situated on a chain of
mountains, and that he had planted the Norwegian -
flag there. Another, received in September, 1895,
in London, from the trading station of Angmagsa-
FRIDTJOF NANSEN.
lik, on the east coast of Greenland. said that a ship,
supposed to be Dr. Nansen’s “ Fram,” had been
eee at the end of July, stuck fast in an ice
rift.
A conjecture that gained some credence was that
the explorer seen by the New Siberian islanders and
supposed to be Dr, Nansen might be John M. Ver-
hoeff, who was lost in Greenland from the Peary
party in 1892, and was believed by some of the
party to have been alive when they left Greenland
and to have had the design of living among the
Eskimos and making independent explorations.
But the most serious doubt arose from a story
that was published in regard to the supposed rel-
ics of the “Jeannette,” the finding of which at
Julianehaab, on the western coast of Greenland, led
Dr. Nansen to believe that they had been carried
from the ocean north of Siberia across the pole;
that therefore there must be a current taking that
course, and that a ship constructed so that it could
not be wedged in the ice might enter the current
and be carried over the same course that the relics
had traveled. After the report of his return it was
made public that the genuineness of these relics
was open to question. The story was as follows:
In 1883, the year before the discovery of the rel-
ics by the Danish governor of Julianehaab, the
United States steamer “ Yantic” went to Green-
land as part of the unfortunate Greely relief expe-
dition of that year. The “ Yantic” went as far
north as Littleton island, near which her consort,
the “ Proteus,” was crushed in the ice at the mouth
of Smith Sound. Under rigid examination by offi-
cers of the Smithsonian Institution, her sailors
united in the statement that some of the younger
officers of the ship, the midshipmen or ensigns, had
made up a lot of alleged relics and put them on an
ice floe near the ship to fool some of their superior
officers. It was simply intended as a naval-acad-
emy prank, a boyish joke. The floe drifted off, the
“Yantic’s” officers did not find the relics, but, as
subsequently appeared, they fell into the hands of
the Eskimos, and passed thence to the Danish gov-
ernor. After the joke had miscarried, its serious-
ness became apparent to the perpetrators, and for
their own safety and to avoid probable court-mar-
502
tial they pledged to secrecy all the sailors who
knew about the affair.
The Smithsonian communicated these facts to
the Danish Government, and this may account for
the disappearance of the relics after their exhibi-
tion at Amsterdam, but it seems the knowledge
never reached Dr. Nansen. It is certain that these
relics were the main support of his theory of a cur-
rent. He refused to entertain doubts of the verity
of these relics, and declared “that there should be
any mistake or deceit is certainly much more im-
probable than the drift of a floe from Siberia to
Greenland, which is certainly not at all improbable,
seeing that a great many objects known must have
drifted and constantly do drift the same way.” The
above-mentioned facts seem to speak for themselves
and need no further testimony.
The story did not receive credence everywhere,
and the Geographical Society of San Francisco ap-
pointed a committee to examine into the matter.
As the relics had been destroyed and no photo-
graphs or detailed descriptions of them were to be
found, it was impossible to reach absolute certainty ;
but the report of the committee, signed by Prof.
George Davidson and Henry Lund and published
in June, was in favor of the genuineness of the
relics, and expressed the belief that Nansen would
return successful.
In August dispatches were received that the ex-
plorer had arrived at Vardo, on the northern coast
of Norway, on board the steamer “ Windward,”
which went to Franz Josef Land to carry supplies
to the Jackson-Harmsworth party. .No very com-
plete report of the voyage has been published, but
brief accounts were given to the newspapers. Per-
haps the most important result is the discovery
/
BU
Foie
DR. NANSEN’S SKETCH SHOWING HIS ROUTE.
13 Quguch
that there is a great deep sea around the pole, in-
stead of the shallow ice-filled water heretofore sup-
posed, and that this sea is comparatively warm
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS. AND DISCOVERY,
beneath, being above the freezing point at a depth
exceeding 100 fathoms. Dr, Nansen reached a point
nearly 3 degrees nearer the pole than has been at-
tained by any other explorer, Lockwood and Brain-
erd having reached 83° 24’,
His account of his journey, as published in the
London “ Chronicle,” follows: ;
“The ‘Fram’ left Jugor strait Aug. 4, 1893. We
had to force our way through much ice along the
Siberian coast. We discovered an island in the
Kara Sea, and a great number of islands along the
coast to Cape Cheljuskin. In several places we
found evidence of a glacial epoch, during which
northern Siberia must have been covered by inland
ice to a great extent. .
“On Sept. 15 we were off the mouth of the Olenek
river, but we thought it was too late to go in there
to fetch our dogs, as we would not risk losing a
ear. We passed the New Siberian islands Sept. 22. -
e made fast to a floe in latitude 78° 50’ north, and
in longitude 133° 37’ east. We then allowed the
ship to be closed in by the ice.
“ As anticipated, we were gradually drifted north
and northwestward during the autumn and winter
from the constantly exposed and violent ice pres-
sures, but the ‘Fram’ surpassed our expectations,
being superior to any strain. The temperature fell
rapidly, and was constantly low, with little varia-
tion, for the whole winter. During weeks the mer-
cury was frozen. The lowest temperature was 62°
below zero, Every man on board was in perfect
health during the whole voyage. The electric light,
generated by a windmill, fulfilled our expectations.
The most friendly feeling existed, and the time
passed pleasantly. Every one made pleasure his
duty, and a better lot of men could hardly be
found.
“The sea was up to 90 fathoms deep south of 79°
north, where the depth suddenly increased, and was
from 1,600 to 1,900 fathoms north of that latitude.
This will necessarily upset all previous theories
based on a shallow polar basin. The sea bottom
- was remarkably devoid of organic matter. During
the whole drift I had good opportunity to take a.
series of scientific observations, meteorological,
magnetic, astronomical and biological, soundings,
deep-sea temperatures, extra means for the salinity
of the sea water, ete.
“Under the stratum of cold ice water covering
the surface of the polar basin I soon discovered
warmer and more saline water, due to the Gulf
Stream, with temperatures from 31° to 33°. We saw
no land and no open water, except narrow cracks,
in any direction. As anticipated, our drift north-
westward was more rapid during the winter and
spring, while the northerly winds stopped or drifted
us backward. On June 18, 1894, we were on 81° 52’
north, but we drifted southward only. On Oct. 21
we passed 82° north. On Christmas Eve, 1894, lati-
tude 83° north was reached, and a few days later
83° 24’, the farthest north latitude previously
reached.
“On Jan. 4 and 5 the ‘Fram’ was exposed to the
most violent ice pressure we experienced. She was
then firmly frozen in ice of more than 30 feet of
measured’ thickness. This floe was overriden by
great ice masses, which pressed against the port side
with irresistible force and threatened to bury, if not
to crush her. The necessary provisions, with the
canvas kayaks and other equipments, had been
placed in safety upon the yacht. Every man was
ready to leave the ship if necessary, and was pre-
pared to continue with the drift, living on the floe.
But the ‘ Fram’ proved even stronger than our faith
in her. The ice was piled up high above the bul-
warks, she was broken loose and slowly lifted out
of her bed in which she had been frozen, but not
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
the slightest sign of a epi was to be discovered
anywhere in her. After that experience, I consider
the ‘ Fram’ almost equal to anything in the way of
ice pressure. Afterward, we experienced nothing
more of the kind, but our drift was rapidly con-
tinued north and northwestward.
“As I now with certainty anticipated that the
‘Fram’ would soon reach her highest latitude north
of Franz Josef Land, and that she would not easily
fail to carry out the programme of the expedition,
viz., to cross the unknown polar basin, I decided to
leave the ship in order to explore the sea north of
her route. Lieut. Johansen volunteered to join me,
SoZ) Ae ti tea ae S
Qiao, is 7 s
Vag SE bt N per
AND "tee
ke
303
and I could not easily have found a better compan-
ion in every respect. The leadership of the expe-
dition on board the ‘Fram’ I left to Capt. Sver- -
drup. With my trust in his qualifications as a
leader, and his ability to overcome difficulties, I
have no fear but that he will bring all the men
=e
ACTUAL ROUTE SHOWN THUS: |
MAP SHOWING NANSEN’S ROUTES—PROJECTED AND ACTUAL.
safely back, even if the worst should happen and
the ‘ Fram’ be lost, which I consider improbable.
“On March 3 we reached 84° 4’ north. Johansen
and I left the ‘ Fram’ March 4, 1895. at 83° 59’ north
and 102° 27’ east. Our purpose was to explore the
sea to the north and reach the highest latitude pos-
sible, and then to go to the Spitzbergen via Franz
' 804
Josef Land, where we felt certain to finda ship. We
had 28 dogs, 2 sledges, and 2 kayaks for possible
open water. The dog food was calculated for thirty
days and our provisions for one hundred days.
“We found the ice in the beginning tolerably
good traveling, and so made good distances, and the
ice did not appear to be drifting much. On March
22 we were at 85° 10’ north. Although the dogs
were less enduring than we hoped, still they were
tolerably good. The ice now became rougher and
the drift contrary. On March 25 we had only
reached 85° 19’ north, and on March 29, 85° 30’.
“ We were now evidently drifting fast toward the
south, Our progress was very slow. It was fatiguing
to work our way and carry our sledges over the high
hummocks constantly being built up by the floes
grinding against each other. The ice was in strong
movement, and the ice pressure was hard in all di-
rections. On April 3 we were at 85° 50’ north, con-
stantly hoping to meet smoother ice.
“On April 4 we reached 86° 3’ north, but the ice
became rougher until on April 7 it got so bad that
I considered it unwise to continue our march in a
northerly direction. We were then at 86° 14’ north.
We then made an excursion on skis farther north-
ward in order to examine as to the possibility of a
further advance. But we could see nothing but
ice of the same description, hammock beyond hum-
mock, to the horizon, looking like a sea of frozen
breakers. We had had low temperature, and dur-
ing the early three weeks it was in the neighbor-
hood of 40° below zero. On April 1 it rose to 8°
below zero, but soon sank to 88°. When a wind
was blowing in this temperature, we did not feel
comfortable in our too thin woolen clothing. To
save weight, we had left our fur suits aboard ship.
The minimum temperature in March was — 49° and
the maximum was — 24°, In April the minimum was
— 38° and the maximum — 20°. We saw no signs
of land in any direction. In fact, the floe of ice
seemed to move so freely before the wind that there
could not have been anything in the way of land to
stop it for a long distance off. We were now drift-
ing rapidly northward.
*On April 8 we began our march toward Franz
Josef Land. On-.April 12 our watches ran down,
owing to the unusual length of the day’s march.
After that date we were uncertain as to our longi-
tude, but hoped that our dead reckoning was fairly
correct. . As we came south we met many cracks,
which greatly retarded our progress. The pro-
visions were rapidly decreasing. The dogs were
killed one after the other to feed the rest.
“In June the cracks became very bad, and the
snow began falling rapidly. The dogs and sledge
runners broke through the superficial crust and
sank deep in the wet snow. Only afew dogs were
now left and progress was next toimpossible. But,
unfortunately, we had no line of retreat. The
dogs’ rations, as well as our own, were reduced to a
minimum, and we made the best way we could
ahead. We expected daily to find land in sight,
but we looked in vain. On May 31 we were in 82°
21’ north, and on June 4 in 82° 18’ north, but on
June 15 we had been drifted to the northwest to
82° 26’ north. No land was to be seen, although,
according to Payer’s map, we had expected to meet
with Petermann Land at 83° north. ‘These dis-
crepancies became more and more puzzling.
“On June 22 we had a last shot at a bearded
seal, and as the snow became constantly worse I de-
termined to wait. "We now had a supply of seal
meat until it melted away. We also shot 3 bears.
We had only 2 dogs left, which were now well fed
upon meat. On July 22 we continued our journey
over tolerably good snow. On July 24, when about
82° north, we sighted unknown land at last, but the
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
ice was everywhere broken into small floes, the
water between being filled with crushed ice in
which the use of the kayaks was impossible. We
therefore had to make our way by balancing from
one ice piece to another, and we did not reach land
until Aug. 6, at 81° 38’ north and about 63° east
longitude.
“This proved to be entirely ice-capped islands.
In kayaks we made our way westward in open
water along these islands, and on Aug. 12 we “dis-
covered land extending from the southeast to the
northwest. I still could find no agreement with
Payer’s map. I thought we were in longitude east
of Austria Sound, but if this was correct, we were
now traveling straight across Wilczek Land and
Dover glacier without seeing any land near us.
“On Aug. 2 we reached a spot in 81° 13’ north
and 56° east, ey well suited to wintering,
and as it was now too late for the voyage to Spitz-
bergen I considered it wisest to stop and prepare
for winter. We shot bears and walruses and built
a hut of stones, earth, and moss, making the roof
of walrus hide, tied down with rope and covered
with snow. We used the blubber for cooking,
light, and heat. The bear meat and the blubber
were our only food for ten months. The bear skins
formed our beds and sleeping bags. The winter,
however, well, and we were both in perfect
health. Spring came with sunshine and with much
open water to the southwest. We hoped to have
an easy voyage to Spitzbergen over the floe of- ice
and the open water. We were obli to manufac-
ture new clothes from blankets and a new sleeping
bag of bear skin. Our provisions were raw bear
meat and blubber.
“On May 19 we were at last ready to start. We
came to open water on May 23 in 81° 5’ north, but
were retarded by storms until June 3. A little
south of 81° we found land extending westward
and open water, which reached to the northwest,
along the north coast. But we preferred to travel
outward over the ice through a broad sound.
“We came, on June 12, to the south side of the
island and found much open water trending west-
ward. We sailed and paddled in this direction in
order to cross to Spitzbergen from the most west-
ward cape, but Payer’s map was misleading.”
Explorer Jackson thus describes the meeting
with Nansen: “On June 17 I met Dr. Nansen 3
miles out on a floe, south-southeast of Cape Flora,
and under most extraordinary circumstances. He
had wintered in a rough hut within a mile or two
of our northern limit in 1895, and this spring we
unwittingly came within a few miles of his winter
quarters.”
The “ Fram ” reached Tromsoé Aug. 20, having
drifted from a point 85°95° north. It reached open
water: Aug. 18. and the next day called at Danes
island, where Prof. Andrée had been waiting for a
favorable wind before attempting his proposed
balloon trip across the arctic regions. The “ Fram”
still had provisions sufficient for three years. The
deepest sounding taken was 2,185 fathoms. In the
highest latitude reached birds were seen, but no
other organic life was visible. The lowest tempera-
ture was 62° below zero.
In regard to the results of Nansen’s expedition,
Dr. Supan says, in “ Petermann’s Mitteilungen”:
* Nansen himself calls it successful, and such it was
in the highest degree. That the mathematical pole
was not reached matters little; the task of bringing
to light a part of the arctic region hitherto wholly
unknown was fully performed. It has rectified the
notion heretofore entertained that the polar sea
was a shallow basin filled with islands. A few
islands were discovered in the southern part near
the coast; other parts appeared to be landless,
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. 305
While drifting northward Nansen took soundings
of 3,000 to 3,500 metres. The fact that there is a
sudden increase of depth north of the seventy-
ninth parallel above the Asiatic coast is evidence
of deep water at the pole.”
Great interest has been felt in the project of S. A.
Andrée to cross the polar sea in a balloon. The
Swedish Academy of Science and the Swedish So-
ciety of Anthropology and Geology recommended
‘ Prof. Andrée’s plan and promised to bear a share
of the expense. King Oscar of Sweden, Alfred
Nobel, and Oscar Dickson also subscribed for the
_ costs of the expedition, and the Foreign Ministry of
Sweden sent a notice to Russia, Denmark, Great
Britain, and the United States with reference to
the projected balloon voyage to the north pole,
asking the co-operation of the countries whose ter-
ritories have coasts on the polar seas; they also
asked these countries to distribute thousands of -
leaflets asking for information from any one who
might chance to secure it. of the time the balloon
was seen and the direction of the wind at the
time.
The balloon was made in Paris, and combines ex-
treme lightness with durability. It contains
4,500 cubic metres and has a diameter of 22°5 metres;
it is provided with a hor a8 3 covering. It was
taken to Spitzbergen and filled, but Prof. Andrée
was obliged to defer the expedition till another year,
having waited in vain this summer for favorable con-
ditions until it was too late to venture.
Discoveries in Franz Josef Land have been made
by the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, which went
_ there in 1894 under the lead of F.G. Jackson. The
story of their experiences in 189495 was told by
their London representative as follows:
“Tt appears, then, that on Sept. 7, 1894, the expe-
dition safely made the coast of Franz Josef Land,
in the locality of Cape Flora. On the 10th of that
month they began to discharge the ship’s valuable
and carefully selected cargo, and two days later the
_ ice closed round the *‘ Windward’ and she was frozen
in for the winter. By November the two large Rus-
sian log houses had been built, treble-walled houses,
which had been taken from England, erected, and
all the stores, instruments, equipments, dogs, and
ong safely landed and housed. Everything had
n done, as we had hoped would be done, and the
expedition was established in comfort and complete-
ness at it base on the coast of Franz Josef Land. The
crew, it seems, remained on the ship, but while sepa-
rated from the exploring party as to its domicile, it
shared in the fonts of the activity of Mr. Jackson
and his colleagues in procuring fresh meat for food.
No fewer than 60 polar bears were killed.
“On Feb. 23 the sun returned, and Mr. Jackson
and his small party started on their northern jour-
ney on March 10. They went forward with a quan-
tity of stores, and made their first depot, returning
‘to the base for more provisions on the 16th. Again
starting with all the sledges heavily loaded in April,
they once more returned for a final load in May.
Traveling had now become exceedingly heavy owing
to the softness of the snow, and when the ‘ Wind-
ward’ started on her southern journey the explorers
Were preparing to advance northward again, but on
this occasion they were going to utilize their boats.
__ The most northern depot which had been made was
in latitude 81° 20’, or about 100 miles from camp.
_A short time after Mr. Jackson first marched north
scurvy made its appearance among the crew. On
July 3 the ‘Windward’ began her southern jour-
ney, and at once entered on a series of adventures
of great peril. The ice pack proved to be about 300
miles wide and unusually formidable. The floes were
_ much heaped up, and exceedingly thick and heavy.
The efforts to break through them used up immense
VOL. XXxXv1.—20 A
uantities of coal and fuel, and, finally. nearly every-
thing on board that would burn was utilized to keep -
up steam. Even the ship herself was laid under
requisition, and all dohachable portions that could
be spared were broken up and burned. For sixty-
five days this struggle with the ice continued, and
then at last the ‘Windward’ broke out of the pack
and open water lay before her. The incessant labor,
and the lack of fresh food told severely on the men.
One after another they became victims of scurvy,
until 12 were invalided. But they appear to have
behaved nobly, and to have volunteered for and to
have actually performed most arduous tasks when
they were scarcely able to stand. On Sept.6they ,
broke out of the ice, but, having exhausted their
fuel and meeting with constant head winds, shaped
their course for Vardo, the nearest port, and arrived
there on Sept. 10.”
The work done in the summer of 1895 is described
briefly in one of Mr. Jackson’s letters:
“We have entirely altered the map and character
of a great portion of Franz Josef Land, and have
found a sea and islands where mainland was sup-
to exist. We have also carefully mapped
arkham: Sound, and, of course, laid down our
route to the farthest point we reached, 81° 20’
north. Markham Sound and the country farther
north are totally different from what Payer’s map
represents them to be, and the character of the small
portion of Zichy Land, which borders on Markham
Sound, is absolutely unlike the description published
in the narrative of the Austro-Hungarian expedi-
tion. Moreover, the mountains in that work can
not be observed even on the clearest day.”
In this journey north Mr. Jackson took with him
a sufficient quantity of stores to form three well-
equip depots, and deposited as far north as 81°
21’ 2 boats for use at the latter end of the summer.
In another letter he says of the summer of 1896:
“We went on a month’s expedition to the north-
west in a little boat, the ‘ Mary Harmsworth,’ and
discovered a large tract of land westward of hitherto
unknown limits, and a magnificent headland, com-
pased of ice from its summit to its foot and having
at its base a huge, unsightly rampart of ice. We
named it Harmsworth cape, and only approached
the base of the headland with the greatest difficulty,
owing to surging masses of heavy ice and furious
gales. We landed on the coast as often as possi-
ble and ascended the high peaks and made numer-
ous geologica] and botanical collections. Far up
Cambridge Bay we discovered an ice headland, and
named it Cape Fridtjof Nansen. There our boat
was nearly lost, owing to her sea anchor having been
carried away, and a huge block of ice which was
swerving around stove in several of her planks.
But we managed to bail her out, and then rigged
another anchor.
“This spring has been phenomenally mild. Al-
though we marched north a great distance, using
16 dogs and a pony, we met after a fortnight open
water reaching from the face of a huge glacier
east to the precipitous end of another huge glacier
west. Advance by sledges was thus cut off. We
then struck southeast, down Markham Sound, and
added greatly to our discoveries of 1895. But we
were again stopped by open water reaching entirely
across the sound, so we turned westward and ex-
plored the entire western shores. During April ter-
rible snowstorms, coupled with rises in the tempera-
ture, broke up the ice and prevented marching, but
we took valuable photographs.”
The great sea discovered was named Queen Vic-
toria Sea, and a channel passed through to reach it
from Markham Sound was called the British Chan-
nel. Mr. Jackson thinks the sea extends within
about 3 degrees of the pole. He regards it as the
306
most favorable route, and expects to take it in the
spring of 1897.
Referring to the criticisms upon Payer’s map,
Dr. Wichmann says in “Petermann’s Mitteilun-
gen”: “In these attacks upon Payer, Jackson has
overlooked the one important fact that Payer never
was in Markham Sound, and did not touch the
south coast of Zichy Land,bordering on that sound,
but only the east coast, bordering on Austria
Sound. His observations were taken from that
point, and the probable outlines of the land were
sketched into the map. Capt. Jackson’s position
in Markham Sound is about 100 kilometres from
Austria Sound; and observations made at such a
distance can have no topographical exactness.”
In regard to the possible routes to the pole, Lieut.
Peary says: “ Nansen’s drift of thirty-five months
through the Sibero-arctic segment without dis-
covering any signs of land or finding his trans-
polar current has definitely eliminated that region
from further consideration as a possible polar route.
There remain, then, the Franz Josef Land and.
Greenland routes, on neither of which has the land
limit been reached. On the former, Jackson is
working with dogged determination, but if he has
achieved no very considerable northing in two
seasons’ work, he is searcely likely to make an ex-
traordinary spurt in the third. There is left the
Greenland route. Lockwood, standing on his island,
in 83° 24’, saw the broken coast extending still
northward, not knowing it to be detached lands.
Standing on the cliffs overlooking Independence
Bay, in 81° 37’ and 81° 47’ in 1892 and 1895, I
saw the other side of those same detached land
masses extending northeastward until hidden be-
low the horizon. Here, then, is land, the most
northerly known, extending certainly to 84° or 85°,
and more than probably beyond this, to serve as a
point of departure. But how to reach this? With
an ample supply of provisions at Sherard.-Osborne
fiord (and the chances of forcing a ship there are
as good as to Discovery Harbor), a party of two
white men and the remainder of my faithful,
hardy, and loyal friends from Whale Sound could,
by the close of the season in which the ship reached
the fiord, have the shores of that archipelago
largely determined, and a station as high as 85° or
86° from which to start across the ice northward
or follow the islands, as the case might be, in the
spring. The relief ship need only come to Whale
Sound, for the retreat across the ice cap from the
head of Sherard Osborne fiord with light sledges
could be accomplished in two weeks or less.”
The Peary relief expedition returned with Lieut.
Peary and his companions in September, 1895. Of
his work during his sojourn in the north, Prof. R.
D. Salisbury, who was with the expedition, said:
“Lieut. Peary, besides accomplishing a large
amount of work of general scientific import, both
as to geography and geology, has authentically es-
tablished the northern limits of Greenland, made
an accurate chart of 1,000 miles of the west coast,
discovered 11 hitherto unknown islands, collected a
series of valuable meteorological records, and ob-
“tained more knowledge of the native inhabitants
than has ever been secured.”
Prof. Salisbury’s own work is thus described:
“The coast of Greenland was examined at close
enough range to study its geological features to
advantage from 64° to 78° 45’. Stops were made
at many points between 74° 45’ and 77° 45’. At
these points geographical and geological studies
were carried on. The gastern coast of America
was also seen between 78° and 78° 45’ continuously
from Ellesmere Land to Dexterity Harbor, in 71°
80’. Also much of Disco coast. Many glaciers be-
tween 74° 45’ and 77° 45’ were studied in detail, and
' GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
some determinations of importance concerning
glacier motion were made.. A considerable body of
evidence was gathered in reference to the former
extension of the Greenland ice cap. Determina-
tions were also made at several points regarding
recent land changes, some of which amounted to
500 feet. No evidence was found of any great ex-
tension of the Greenland ice cap toward America in
former ages. TheJacopshaven glacier wasexamined
in detail, and fossils were found at Atenikerdleukus.
Both the American and Greenland coasts are un-
beeen as fields for the study of glacial geology. —
The line of snow is found much lower and the ice —
comes much lower down on the American than on
the Greenland coast.”
Lieut. Peary made another expedition to the north
in the summer of 1896, intending to bring home the
40-ton meteorite. that he discovered at Cape York.
He was accompanied by Profs. Alfred Burton and
George H. Bartan, of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; G. H. Putnam, assistant in the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey; Prof. Ralph 8.
Tarr, of Cornell University; Prof. M. C. Gill; several
students of Cornell University, and others. Obser-
vations were taken and valuable and interestin
collections were brought back, but no seieearbinnl
discovery was made, with the exception, perhaps, of
a mountain, which the Cornell party named Mount
Schurman, in honor of their president. Of the great
meteorite Lieut. Peary says:
“Returning to Cape York on Aug. 23, the ice had
broken up enough to allow the ‘ Hope’ to penetrate
Melville Bay and reach the site of the great meteor-
ite. We were fortunate in effecting a landing, but —
2 hydraulic jacks were rendered useless in trying to
tear the iron monster from its frozen bed. A third
attempt a few days later succeeded in moving the —
meteorite, but before it could be embarked the
‘Hope’ was compelled by ice to retreat.”
The arctic expedition, led by Sir Martin Conway,
accomplished the first crossing of the mainland of
Spitzbergen from sea to sea, going from Advent
Bay to Agardh Bay on the eastern coast and back,
examined the glacial phenomena, and passed around ~
Spitzbergen to the Seven Islands and through Hin-
lopen strait to the vicinity of King Karl Land. The —
complete cireumnavigation of the island was pre-
vented by great masses of ice in the Stor fiord. —
Three of the party climbed the highest peak in the
island, Hornsund mount, 1,400 metres high..
Antarctic Regions.—C. E. Borchgrevink, the
Norwegian explorer, gives an account of his ant-
arctic experiences in an article illustrated by him-
self, in the “Century Magazine ” for January, 1896.
He describes the first landing on the antarctic con-
tinent as follows:
“We landed at Cape Adare that night (Jan. 28,
1895), being the first human creatures to put foot
on the mainland. A peculiar feeling of fascination
crept over each of us, even to the most prosaic na-
tures in our boat, as we gradually drew near to the
beach of this unknown land. Some few cakes of
ice were floating about, and looking over the side
of the boat I even discovered a jelly fish, apparently
of the common light-blue, transparent kind.
“T had painted a Norwegian flag on a large box,
which we fastened on a strong pole near the place
where we landed, and leaving the rest of the crew
to be entertained by the penguins I proceeded alone
to investigate the peninsula and to make collections.
I found seaweed on the beach. Our landing place
was a sort of peninsula gently sloping down from _
the steep rocks of Cape Adare until it ran into the —
bay as a long, flat beach covered with pebbles. The —
peninsula forms a breakwater for the inner bay.
“| believe that Cape Adare is the very place where
a future scientific expedition might stop safely even
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
during the winter months, From the spot where
we were several accessible spurs lead up to the top
of the cape, and there a gentle slope runs on to the
great plateau of Victoria Land. The presence of
the penguin colony, their undisturbed old nests, the
appearance of dead seals (which were preserved like
yptian mummies, and must have lain there for
years), the vegetation, and lastly the flat table of
the cape above, all indicated that here is a place
where the powers of the antarctic circle do not dis-
play the whole severity of their forces, Neither ice
nor volcanoes seemed to have raged on the penin-
sula at Cape Adare. On this particular spot there
is ample space for house, tents, and provisions.”
Commercially the expedition was a failure, as the
kind of whale valuable for bone was not found; but
the explorer discovered guano beds which he con-
siders of great commercial importance. The high-
est latitude reached was 74° 10’. Borchgrevink is
to lead another expedition to Antarctica, the ex-
pense of which will be borne by a commercial com-
pany in England formed for whaling and bringing
eargoes of guano to England.
America.—The work of the survey to establish
the eastern boundary of Alaska was carried on dur-
ing the summer of 1895. Gen. Duffield, chief of the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, was the commissioner
appointed for the United States, and D. F. King
served for Great Britain. The reports were made
in January. From these it appeared that the great-
est difference between the lines run by the surveyors
of the two governments is but 6 feet 7 inches, or
15 seconds of longitude. The lines drawn by the
Canadian engineer, Mr. Ogilvie, in 1893, in mark-
ing the course of the one hundred and forty-first
meridian, were verified by the United States survey-
ors. Forty-Mile creek falls east of the line. There
are, however, grounds for contention on some points.
One is on the construction of that clause in the treaty
of 1825 between Russia and Great Britain which
stipulates that at no point shall the line be more
_ than 10 marine leagues from the shore. The United
States Government interprets this to mean 10 leagues
from the coast of the mainland, while it may be in-
terpreted to mean 10 leagues from the shore line of
the islands.
But the portion of the frontier line that really
threatens a grave dispute is one that extends from
the southern point of Prince of Wales island up to
- Mount St. Elias, where it strikes that meridian, and
thence proceeds to the Frozen Ocean. That treaty of
1825 makes the starting point of the boundary line
_ the southernmost point of Prince of Wales island,
saying that the said line shall thence “ascend to
the north along the channel called Portland chan-
nel as far as the point of the continent where it
strikes the fifty-sixth degree of north latitude.” It
_is contended by some Dominion authorities that
what was called Portland channel in the treaty is
really the Behm Canal of to-day. This runs west of
Portland channel, and the result would be, were the
_ Dominion interpretation conceded, to take away a
large tract of United States territory, including two
_ Important islands, and a still larger portion of the
mainland. Mr. Ogilvie says that British Columbia
_ objects to taking Portland channel as the boundary,
_ because the treaty says that the line beginning at
the point already spoken of “shall ascend to the
north,” whereas “a northerly line from the south-
ernmost point of Prince of Wales island would
never reach Portland channel at all, but would go
up the channel known as Behm Canal.” A map pub-
lished recently by Commissioner Martin, of British
Columbia, marks Behm Canal as the boundary line.
In a report made by acommittee to the Seattle Cham-
ber of Commerce it is declared that the line through
Portland Canal was recognized by the whole world
307
from 1825 to about 1884, and by British Columbia
itself on its official maps as late as this last date. -
Again, when Alaska was bought of Russia United
States troops were stationed soon afterward at Fort
Tongass at the mouth of Portland channel, and
United States custom officials were maintained there
for more than twenty years without protest from
Canada or any other power. In the third place, it
is asserted that both Behm Canal and Portland
Canal were well known at the time of the conven-
tion of 1825, the latter having been named by Van-
couver as early as 1793. Here it may be noted that
Annette island, the smaller of the two cut off by
the British claim, was set apart by an act of Con-
gress, approved in 1891, as a reservation for the
Metlahkatlah Indians, who removed from British
territory to this island. The secretary of these In-
dians says that when they went to Annette island,
in 1887, they were regarded as foreigners by the
Canadian authorities, and a steamer that arrived to
take their goods to Annette island was treated as
coming from a foreign country, the British customs
officer at Port Simpson trying to detain it. They
also had to receive clearance papers at Port Simp-
son. Besides, the Canadian Indian agent gave up
all attempts to control them when they had gone
to Annette island. Other circumstances cited prove
that the territory between the two canals has been
in the possession of the United States with the con-
sent of Canadian authorities; and the claim, if made
by Cenada, must be based on alleged errors in the
maps of Canadian surveyors. The theory is based
on the fact that, starting from Cape Chacon, the
line, if carried through Portland channel, would
have to be carried east before running north. But
this eastern extension is very slight, and might well
have been omitted as being implied when Portland
channel was specifically prescribed as the boundary.
Another point of difference may be on the mean-
ing of the terms “ winding of the coast,” which under
a new interpretation might give Canada the owner-
ship of the ieaik of certain bays and inlets.
rof. Grove K. Gilbert, of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, has been making some calculations
as to the depth of Niagara river. He says: “For
about two miles below the Horseshoe Falls the cur-
rent is comparatively quiet, and soundings have
been made there, showing that the water is from
100 to 200 feet deep. But in the long stretch of
rapids above and below the whirlpool the current
is altogether too violent, and only indirect methods
are available. I have tried to obtain an approxi-
mate result by means of the speed, the width, and
the volume of the water. It is evident that, as all
water must pass each point of the channel, the rate
at which it passes will depend upon the width and
depth, or the cross section, and so if the volume of
water is known and the width and speed of the water
are measured, the depth can be inferred. Choosing
a stretch of the river 900 feet in length where the
sides are nearly parallel, I found the width to be 350
feet and the current in the middle of the stream to
be 23 miles an hour. The average volume of the
river is about 250,000 cubic feet per second, and
the combination of these figures, in accordance with
the ordinary engineering formule, gives the central
depth as about 40 feet.” Prof. Gilbert adds that the
maximum speed of the water in the whirlpool rapids
is 27 miles an hour.
An account of the discovery of a most beautiful
and hitherto unknown region in Montana was re-
rted in the summer of 1895. This region, rival-
ing for grandeur and unique beauty, it Is said, the
Yosemite valley and the Grand Cafion of the
Colorado, is north of Lake McDonald, near the
boundary between Flathead and Teton Counties,
and is surrounded by almost impenetrable forests,
/
308
The party of scientists who visited the lake were
guided by two frontiersmen, half-breeds, and for
many miles they were obliged to chop their way
through dense forests and tangled’ undergrowth,
where nothing but the trails of deer and footprints
of bear could be detected. vide
After two days they came upon a basin in the
shape of a horseshoe, about 2 miles long and a mile
or more wide, surrounded by walls of rock, rising
almost perpendicularly 3,000 or 4,000 feet. In the
floor of this basin is a beautiful deep lake a mile
and a half in length by half a mile in width. The
surrounding ledges are surmounted by numerous
peaks, rising to dizzy heights, their summits white
with snow. At the head of the basin are 2 streams
of icy water pouring in beautiful cascades over the
cliffs. The total height of these streams was esti-
mated to be at least 2,500 feet. Along a portion of
the southern wall a slope extends from a height
of 2,000 feet down nearly to the border of the lake.
The sinking of the bed of Lake Chapala, in the
State of Jalisco, Mexico, was reported by E. H. Cof-
fey, of San Diego, in January. This lake, which is
south of Guadalajara and northwest of the city of
Mexico, is 50 miles long and 10 miles wide. “On
the forenoon of Jan. 8 the residents of one of the
small settlements near the western end of the lake
were terrified to see a gigantic whirlpool far out
on the water, the cause of which was a mystery, and
a rumbling noise was heard. The whirlpool result-
ing, apparently, from this sinking of the lake’s
bottom, was of wide extent, and many pleasure
boats and fishing craft were sucked into the abyss,
The natives on shore could plainly see the boats,
none of which were near the center of the whirlpool
at first. But as the rush of waters continued the
irresistible force could not be overcome by the men
in the boats, and their efforts to escape the death
that reached out for them were awful to witness.
The whirlpool continued for nearly twenty minutes,
and the lake receded several feet from its former
shore line. Prof. Coffey explored much of this
lake’s coast line in 1888. At that time he found
petroleum and coal in quantities that proved the
existence of vast wealth in that region. Since the
strange occurrence just described petroleum has
been found running in small streams above the
surface on the southern shore. Lake Chapala is in
the center of a distinctly voleanic district, and it
is not far from the active volcano of Colima. It is
also very near Jorullo volcano, which rose in a night
from the level plain in 1789. After the sinking of
the lake no unusual activity was noticed in the yvol-
canos or in that region.”
A journey of exploration in the western part of
the Argentine Republic, under the lead of Dr. F.
. P. Moreno, director of the Museo de la Plata, seems
to have had important results. Joining a company
of 26 engineers, cartographers, geologists, and bot-
anists who had been at work for some time, Dy.
Moreno traveled from Mendoza to the neighbor-
hood of St. George’s Gulf, in latitude 47° south, ex-
amining closely the coasts and the higher lands,
and gathering data for correcting and filling out
the map. The La Plata lake, discovered about
three years ago to the west of Fontana lake, was
visited. At Fontana lake coal was found, and
near Senguerr river a great aérolite, 130 kilo-
grammes in weight, was discovered and taken away.
This expedition was the last of a series begun in
1894, in the course of which 25,000 miles have been
traveled over; the collections made are very exten-
sive, and 2,000 photographs were taken. The most
minute studies made were in the territories of
Neuquen, Rio Negro, and Chubut. The native
races were studied, and two hitherto unknown
tongues were discovered—those of the Guenna-
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
‘ing the past three summers.
quenes and of the northern Tehuelchen. Eight
new lakes were found north of Lake Nahuel Huapi.
and 15 south of it, some of them as much as 34
kilometres in length. The mysterious river Tete-
leufu was explored to its source, and in some
places it was found to be 8 metres deep. The
beauty and fertility of the region about Nahuel
Huapi were greatly praised. Dr. Moreno thinks
the Bariloche pass, heretofore unidentified, lies on
the Lago de Gutierrez. :
An examination of the islands on the western
coast of Patagonia by the Chilian navy seems to
have proved that the supposed large islands there
are really groups of numberless small islands, sepa- _
rated by narrow, fiordlike channels. As the Chonos
and Wellington islands were found to be archipela- —
goes,so now it appears that Queen Adelaide’s island —
is also an archipelago.
Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld led a small party from
Sweden in an examination of Tierra del Fuego, be- —
ginning in the autumn of 1895, intending also to —
visit the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras in south-
ern Patagonia if weather should permit. The party —
penetrated far into the interior from Sebastian Bay —
on the east and Admiralty Sound on the west, and —
visited Last Hope inlet on the western coast.
Europe.—A number of members of the Man-
chester Geographical Society, called the ‘* Victori-
ans,” have established a system of free lectures on
geographical subjects illustrated with lantern pic-—
tures. During the past five years they have given
over 300 lectures in Manchester and its vicinity, to
more than 90,000 hearers. The audiences consist —
principally of working people, but include also_
students and members of literary and _ scientific
clubs. Among the subjects of lectures that have
been given are the following: “ Polar Explora-
tions,” “ Uganda,” “ Across the Rocky Mountains,” —
“China, Korea, and Japan,” “ Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface by Water Action,” “Canada,”
“ India,” and “ Map Projection.”
Asia.—Much has been done in surveying and
mapping the northern coast of western Siberia dur-
The mouths of the.
Obi and Yenisei rivers, being of first commercial
importance, were examined first, together with the
coast between them. A new island was discovered
opposite the peninsula Matte-Sale. In the Gulf of
Obi it was found that the eastern side is wrongly
represented on the maps, not running in a straight
line, but curving often toward the south. The
difference between the real and supposed coastlines
is about 45 leagues. The Kara Sea was examined in
the summer of 1896. Capt. Wiggins, who began
his voyages to the Obi and Yenisei rivers twenty-
two years ago, has maintained that the route
through the Kara Sea was perfectly practicable. In
a paper read in London he gave a general survey
of the various expeditions (25 in number, beginning
from 1874, in which not fewer than 37 vessels have
taken part) eps een voyages to the mouths
of the Obi and the Yenisei, and also up these rivers.
He enumerated the voyages made under his com-
mand, and was firmly convinced that no wrecks
were caused by the influence of the ice, but those
that had occurred should be ascribed to fogs and
other causes, which might be met during nayiga-
tion in any other quarter of the globe.
The total number of trading vessels sailing on
the Kara Sea during the past twenty years was 200.
An immense timber trade, he said, was in store for
enterprising exporters. With regard to gold min-
ing, the greater part is conducted in a very primi-
tive manner. .
A book on the advisability of turning the waters |
of the Amu-daria into their old channel leading to
the Caspian Sea, and thus acquiring a water way
aaa b
_ lakes hitherto known only by name were measured
+
_ War with the lowlanders, are pure Malays.
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
from the frontiers of Afghanistan to the Caspian,
the Volga, and the Baltic, was published in 1893
by Gen. Glukhoosky. The scheme has been revived
lately in consequence of the destruction by the in-
habitants of the khanate of Khiva of a dam that
directed the river to the Aral Sea. The waters of
the Amu-daria began to flow partly into the Uzboi,
and they filled in part the Sari-Kamish depression
southwest of the Aral. The Ministers of War and
Communication have sent an expedition to examine
and report upon the feasibility of turning the river
into its old channel.
Several expeditions have been journeying in cen-
tral Asia this year, and some have returned. Mr.
and Mrs. Littledale were obliged to turn back after
reaching a point 65 kilometres from Lhassa—nearer
than their predecessors had gone.. The Pamir
Boundary Commission under Col. Holdich collected
a good deal of accurate topographical information.
Dr. Sven Hedin continued his explorations in
Turkestan. Prince Henry of Orleans crossed the
Indo-Chinese frontier and journeyed to the source
of the Irrawaddy. This was discovered at 28}°
north latitude and between 98° and 99° east longi-
tude. The principal stream forming the Irrawaddy
is the Towrorg. The prince found that the river
does not rise in Tibet, and that it is not identical
with the Lu-Kiang, as some travelers have supposed.
The journey was accomplished without any resist-
ance from the natives.
M. Bonin, French vice-resident in Tongking,
lately explored the region between the upper
Rader tue tang and its tributary the Yalung-Kiang.
The London “Geographical Journal” says he dis-
covered that below the ae angle made by the
Kin-Sha near the town of Li-Kiang the river makes a
wide sweep to the north, joining the Yalung in
about 28° north latitude, instead of 26° 35’, as
heretofore supposed. The stream that has been
_ considered the upper Yang-tse-Kiang turns ont to
be merely a tributary. The current delineation of
the river has been taken from D’Auville’s map, and
that was based upon vague reports only, as the
Jesuits were not able to visit the upper waters.
M. Bonin was the first European to visit the town
of Li-Kiang. Ascending the stream for several
days, he reached the plateau of Tsong-Tien by a
snow-covered pass 14,500 feet high, and by a rugged
and difficult path arrived at Yunning-Tu-Fu, about
- which very little has been known. - It is peopled by
a mixture of Chinese from Yunnan, Kutsongs,
Mosos, and Sifans. North of this town M. Bonin
traversed the Tibetan kingdom of Meli, into which
the Chinese even have never penetrated. It is en-
tirely in the hands of yellow lamas, to whom the
king himself belongs; on this account it is known
| to the Chinese as “ Huang-lama” (yellow lamas).
The lamasery (on the side of a mountain) was com-
posed of three-storied houses with white walls, bal-
_ conies, and verandas, recalling towns of southern
Europe.
The island of Celebes has been thoroughly ex-
two cousins, P. and F. Sarasin. Two
and mapped—Lake Townti, which is the largest lake
in Celebes, and Lake Matana. On the latter, which
is about 36 miles long and 9 miles broad, is a
settlement of people who busy themselves with
ttery and bronze work. Towuti lake is shal-
ower than the other, and hasin it a mountainous
island. The race of the Toradjas, who inhabit
the southeastern peninsula and who are aee -
e
Sarasins explored Lake Posso. The discovery of
this lake has been credited to a Dutch missionary,
Rey. A. C. Kruijt, in 1893, but Dr. Wichmann thinks
it proved that it was first visited by Jonkherr J. C.
309
W. D. A. van der Wijck, a Dutch official, in 1864,
although his map and reports have been lost. :
Africa.—Interest in Africa this year has been
centered on military and political movements, but
there had been some activity among explorers,
without great results, it is true, but tending to fill
up the topography of districts little known hitherto
and settle some doubtful points. Journeys have
been made in northern Africa by explorers Foureau
and Cowper. The Rev. C. H. Robinson traversed
the Soudan over an unusual route. Another expe-
dition in the Soudan giving especially good results
was that of French surveyors, who made accurate
maps of the series of lakes recently discovered in
the vicinity of Timbuctoo. Lake Faguibine, the
largest, is 68 miles long. An expedition by 2 offi-
cers of the Congo State, MM. Nilis and De la
Kéthulle, in 1894, was cut short by the presence of
bands of Mahdists, rendering it dangerous to pro-
ceed. Their.route was from the Welle to Darfur.
Further exploration in the same region has been
since made by Lieuts. Hanolet and Van Calster,
who traveled to the watershed between the Schari
and the Kotto, a tributary of the Ubangi, and
went as far as Alambengleben, not far east of El
Kouti, where Paul Crampel was murdered in 1891
when trying to open the way for communication
between the Congo and Lake Tchad. .
In consequence of the expedition of Clozel, which
crossed the watershed between the Sanghi and the
Schari and reached the Wom, the upper course of
the Logone, the administrator Yentil was intrusted
with the transportation of a steamer to this river
in the expectation that, according to the conditions
discovered, there would be no difficulty in reaching
Lake Tchad. He took the little steamer “ Leon
Blot” in sections from Loango to Brazzaville,
where he put it together and went up the Congo on
some alteration of the original plan. He has chosen
the Ubangi or one of its northern tributaries as the
int from which he will take the steamer to the
ana, which flows into the Gribingi, one of the up-
per tributaries of the Schari discovered by Maistre,
whence he will reach the main stream.
In eastern Africa noteworthy journeys have been
made in Somaliland and in the regions about Kili-
manjaro and the large lakes. Capt. V. Bottego is
on his second journey in southern Somaliland.
From Lugh, the most important Somali town on
the Juba, he wrote that the Bardua district is more
thickly peopled than the most densely settled por-
tions of the valley of the Po, apart from the large
cities. He founded a station on the upper Juba or
Ganana, at 3° 48’ 20” north and 42° 50’ 40” east.
Salt is found throughout the whole district beyond
Lugh and along the Dana in large deposits east of
the Web river, where there is a mine near the ruins
of an ancient city. He heard of a river Sagan
flowing into a lake, which he thinks not identical
with the Omo.
Other interesting researches in this region have
been made by an American traveler, Dr. Donaldson
Smith. He describes a series of beautiful caves
that have been excavated by the Web river, having
columns, arches, and formations like altars appar-
ently of white marble. He named them the Caves
of Wyndlawn. His intended explorations in the
upper valley of the river were interfered with
by a predatory excursion of Abyssinians into the
country of the Arusa-Galla. He turned to the
southeast and crossed the steppe to the Juba, reach-
ing it near the mouth of the Dana, and after fol-
lowing up the river in Bottego’s route for some dis-
tance, then turned westward to Lake Rudolph,
which he reached at the mouth of the Nianam after
turning aside to visit Lakes Abaya and Stephanie,
which are connected by the outlet of the former,
310
the Galana Amara. Following the Nianam up to
6° north, where he received information regarding
its upper course which raised the question whether
this stream is to be identified with the Omo. Pass-
ing south from the eastern shore of Lake Rudolph
to the Tana, he followed it down to the coast. The
topography of this part of Africa will be quite com-
plete when the questions regarding the Omo and the
watershed between the Nile and Lake Rudolph are
settled. Dr. Smith reports having discovered some
new tribes, among them a race of pygmies. “These
eople are of negro type and coal black and abso-
utely naked. Although of great physical beauty,
with well-formed limbs, they are barely removed
from animals, and their code of morality is very
lax. They are all between 4 and 5 feet high and
live in primitive wood huts. The only industries
are corn raising and the rearing of sheep and goats.
They are born hunters. . In warfare they use poi-
soned arrows, the wounds inflicted by which prove
fatal in an hour.” Dr. Smith brought home maps
and valuable natural-history collections.
Another route through this part of Africa was
taken by M. Versepuy and Baron de Romans.
Leaving Zanzibar in July, 1895, they went to the
Kilimanjaro country, where they were prevented
by the hostility of the Massai from going on to
Mount Kenia and Lake Rudolph. Turning west-
ward, they visited Victoria lake and Mengo, the
capital of Uganda, and went to Lake Albert Edward,
where they again fell into conflict with the natives,
Crossing over to the Congo between the routes of
Goetzen and Stanley, they reached the western
coast by way of that river.
Other journeys in the Kilimanjaro region have
been taken by Mr. P. Weatherly, Dr. M. Schdller,
and W.H. Nutt. The first-named,in going from
Lake Tanganyika to Lake Moero, took a more
southern route than any of his predecessors have
done, and Mr. Nutt reported reaching Lake Rikwa
by a route between Nyassa and the southern end of
Tanganyika. Mount Nakitumbe rises to a height
of 2,100 metres, and gives a view over the whole
Rikwa plain. This traveler confirms the opinion
of others that the lake is gradually drying up. In
‘the rainy season it covers the plain to the foot of
the mountains, but in the dry season its bed is coy-
ered with a stiff, hard crust. The territory about
Rikwa lake is the least known portion of German
Kast Africa.
Dr. Oscar Baumann describes Chakwati lake in
German East Africa, not newly discovered, but not
yet laid down upon the map. It lies back of Kif-
mangao, a village en the coast between Dar-es-Sa-
lam and the mouth of the Rufiyi. Dr. Baumann
says Kifmangao is a miserable village of scattered
clay huts inhabited by a mixed population ; in one
part is a dirty settlement of Mohammedan traders
who have had a station there for years. ° Much
cleaner are the huts of the negroes who are mostly
from the inland districts. The place has a popula-
tion of about 1,000, and, miserable as it appears, is
not: unimportant as the center of a trade in caout-
choue and copal. Between the coast and the lake
is first a sandy stretch with light bush vegetation,
and on the eastern side of the lake rise the Kibun-
puni hills, whence a fine view of the lake with the
island groups of Kwale and Koma is obtained.
The water is brownish yellow with a scarcely per-
ceptible salty flavor. It has no visible inlet or out-
let, though at the north end there is a swampy arm,
which in the rainy season may connect with the lit-
tle lake Kiputi, lying just to the west, and having
on its eastern shore the little village of Kiputi.
The people about both these lakes are Wadengereko,
speaking a different language from the dwellers on
the Rufiyi. They raise potatoes, leguminous plants,
*
GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.
sorghum, and manioca, the last-named especially
since the grasshopper plague appeared. The culti-
vation of this plant has greatly increased in East
Africa from the fact that the grasshoppers do not
touch it. There is no stone in the neighborhood;
what little they use is brought from the coast. The
people have a legend of the origin of Lake Chak-
wati, saying that a village formerly occupied the
site of it, which was suddenly flooded and the in-
habitants turned into fishes, and they say that there
are still fish there which are warm-blooded and
which they will not eat. They are shy and timid,
most of them running away at sight of strangers.
Another lake still smaller than Kiputi, called the
Lufute, is said to lie still farther inland.
The rapid development of Nyassaland in recent
years was described by Mr. H. H. Johnson, British
commissioner in British Central Africa, in an ad-
dress before the Royal Geographical Society. Some
of the details he gave were these: “ Agricultural
land four years ago was selling at from 1 cent to
6 cents an acre. To-day unimproved land ranges
in price from 25 cents to $1.50 an acre. Those
who have read Livingstone’s description of this
wilderness when he first made it known to the
world will be struck by the amazing contrast which
Blantyre and the other European settlements pre-
sent to-day. In these towns are clean, broad, level
roads, bordered by handsome avenues of trees and
comely red brick houses, with rose-covered veran-
das peeping out behind clumps of ornamental
shrubs, The natives who pass along are clothed in
white calico. A bell rings to call the children to
school. A planter gallops past on horseback, or a
missionary trots in on a white donkey from a visit
to an outlying station. Long rows of native car-
riers pass in Indian file, carrying loads of European
goods, or a smart-looking policeman in black fez,
black jacket and trousers marches off on some er-
rand. Native bricklayers and carpenters are build- —
ing houses in the European style. Through the
open doors of the printing office natives may be
seen setting type for the little newspaper that ap-
pears every week. The visitor will see a post office,
a court of justice, and, perhaps, a prison, whose oc-
cupants, however, during the working hours are out
repairing the roads under charge of a black police-
man. On the outskirts of the towns are brickyards,
where the natives turn out thousands of bricks as
well made as those used in our own building opera-
tions. ;
“The most interesting features in the neighbor-
hood of these settlements, however, is the coffee —
plantations, which are the chief cause and support
of the prosperity of Nyassaland. Sixteen years ago
a small coffee plant was sent from the Edinburgh
botanical gardens to Blantyre, and from this plant
the greater part of the 5,000,000 coffee trees now
growing are descended. The mother tree is still
alive in the mission grounds at Blantyre.”
The course of the Zambesi has been carefully ex-
amined by Capt. Gibbons, and several of its tribu-
taries explored. His route lay through one of the
least traveled parts of the Zambesi basin.
In the island of Fernando Po, on the western
coast, a Spanish missionary, P. Juanola, discovered
a small lake lying at a height of 1,350 miles. He
named it Lago Loreto.
By a treaty between the Congo State and France
concerning their possessions in the Welle region,
the sultanate Bangasso, on the right bank of the
Mbomu, was conceded to France, and the Belgian
officers who had been administering it for a short
time were withdrawn.
The English and French commission for estab-
lishing the line between Sierra Leone and the
French Soudan determined the source of the Niger,
GEORGIA. oll
finding it to be farther northwest than appeared
by the explorations of Zweifel and Moustier. in
1879. It was found to be at the village Tembi
Kundu, at 9° 5’ 20° north latitude and about 10°
50’ west longitude.
GEORGIA, a Southern State, one of the original
thirteen, ratified the Constitution Jan. 2, 1788;
area, 59,475 square miles. ‘The population, accord-
ing to each decennial census, was 82,548 in 1790;
162.686 in 1800; 252,433 in 1810; 340,985 in 1820;
516.823 in 1830; 691,392 in 1840; 906,185 in 1850;
1,057,286 in 1860; 1,184,109 in 1870; 1,542,180 in
1880 ; and 1,837,353 in 1890. Capital, Atlanta.
Government.—The following were the State offi-
cers during the year: Governor, William Y. Atkin-
son; Secretary of State, Allen D. Candler; Treas-
urer, Robert U. Hardeman, who retired and was
elected to the State Legislature, but died in Decem-
ber ; Comptroller General, William A. Wright ; At-
torney General, Joseph M. Terrell; Adjutant Gen-
eral, J. McIntosh Kell; Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, Robert T. Nesbitt ; Schoo] Commissioner, S. D.
Bradwell—all Democrats; Chief Justice of the Su-
preme Court, Thomas J. Simmons; Associate Jus-
tices, Samuel Lumpkin and Spencer R. Atkinson—
Democrats.
Finances.—Bonds were issued in the spring to
pay off the part of the public debt due July 1, $242,-
. The bonds will fall due in 1920.
A suit involving the question of the liability of
the Central Railroad for certain taxes along the
line of the road was decided by the Supreme Court
in favor of the State. The court decided that a
tax on the property was not a tax on the capital
stock of the company and upheld the constitution-
ality of the Georgia law.
enal Institutions.—The convicts in the State,
of whom there are over 2,000, are worked on the
lease system. Charges of mismanagement and ill-
treatment having been brought against some of the
lessces, an investigation was held before the Gov-
ernor at the Capitol, lasting more than a week.
As a result of the investigation. Gov. Atkinson
decided that the charges inst the camp lessees
had been substantiated, Sar he imposed fines on
the companies amounting to about $2,500. -
When it became evident to the Governor that the
Dade Company would not pay the fine, he decided
to remove the convicts-and abolish the lease. The
407 convicts who had worked in the mines of the
Dade Company were scattered among other camps.
Banks.—The volume of business done by the
banks in the Atlanta Clearing House Association
increased 18 per cent. in 1895 over the preceding
year. The total for 1894 was $56,589,228.04; for
1895 it was $65,318,254.91. The Merchants’ Bank
of Atlanta, after a successful career of nearly
twenty-four years, failed in October. The principal
reason given for the failure was the fact that the
assets-of the bank are composed principally of real
estate, on which the officers of the institution could
not realize sufficient ready money to meet the re-
quirements.
Railroads.—A report rendered in October says
that most of the Southern lines showed increased
earnings from July 1. On the Atlantic seaboard
the railroads failed to make a good showing during
July and August because of the rate war. The
losses, however, were in the freight department,
where the war raged. Passenger earnings have
steadily increased.
Up to Oct. 1 the passenger earnings of the roads
entering Atlanta were larger than for the corre-
sponding period of 1895, notwithstanding the fact
that they had the exposition travel last year.
_ From Jan. 1 to Oct. 1 the Georgia and Alabama
increased its earnings $248,000.
ov
The report of the South Carolina and Georgie
Railroad Company for the year ending June 30
shows gross earnings $1,077,146. a decrease of $77,- -
236; net earnings, $359,691, a decrease of $97,768;
and surplus, $38,396, a decrease of $11,729.
The Seaboard Air Line is to establish along its
line, at intervals of 10 miles, 100 experiment farms.
Industries.—By the report of Secretary Hester,
Sept. 1, it appears that the year’s cotton crop of
Georgia amounted to 1,079,000 bales, being second
only to that of Texas.
Energetic and systematic work is being done in
river mining in Georgia. Although ‘this is only
experimental work, yet it is on a practical scale,
and the firm Spereting the dredge find that their
expenses are about $18 a day, while the gross re-
turns have been from $40 to $120 a day. The na- _
ture of the bed rock, which is decomposed and soft,
makes it very favorable for dredging, not only in
this river, but in others of the State.
At the beginning of the year report was made of
the discovery, about 10 miles northwest of Canton,
on the eastern slope of the Oaky mountain, of a
large vein of slate and quartz, which is 5 miles
long and is more than 100 yards wide. Assays of
the ore showed an average of about $3.50 the ton.
The report says: “Ore here can be milled and
chlorinated for not exceeding one third the cost at
almost any of the Western mines now being so suc-
cessfully worked.”
Textile Manufacturers.—A Southern Textile
Manufacturers’ Association was organized at At-
lanta, May 13. In view of the facts that prices are
low and production is greatly in excess of demand
—some factories running half time, and some run-
ning full time and losing money—the following
resolution was adopted :
“That it is the sense of this association that pro-
duction be at once curtailed, and, in order to carry
out this idea, that the chair appoint a special com-
mittee of 9, whcse duty it shall be to at once cor-
respond with all Southern mills with that purpose
in view, and to call a meeting of all Southern mills
at‘as early a date as possible to consider and take
action. on the curtailment of the production.”
The manufacturers of colored goods met after
the adjournment of the association to discuss the
question of closing their mills. It was unani-
mously resolved that the colored-goods mills of the
South curtail production not less than one third
during June, July, and August, and a committee
was appointed to secure the enforcement of the
resolution.
The Exposition.—The number of visitors at
the Atlanta Exposition was 1.286.863. Of this
number, there were 817,028 paid admissions, in-
eluding adults and children. The total figures
include the admissions at the pass gates, paid-ad-
mission gates, and wagon gates. The Exposition
Company realized from the paid admissions $364,-
072.95. The percentage received through the con-
cession department is figured at $115,654.52. The
expenditures of the Woman’s Board amounted to
$17,913, the total receipts being $18,495.
Colonies.—At Fitzgerald, a Grand Army colony
in Irwin County, permanent building is getting
under way. Sites have been selected for hotels,
schools, and stores. All the shops and living places
now are temporary, although some comfortable
homes are in course of erection. There has been
very little sickness. ;
A Congregational colony is being organized, and
will come into Georgia as soon as the land can be
secured.
A Lutheran colony is being worked up in Brook-
lyn and New York city.
A German colony has bought the town Norman-
312
dale, 69 miles below Macon, and has changed its
name to Missler.
Fraithurst, Ala., and Tallapoosa, Ga., are two colo-
nies which are not exactly new, but they are mak-
ing a steady growth. Eight hundred farmers, me-
chanics, and capitalists are known to have gone
from Atlanta to Tallapoosa and Fruithurst since
the exposition opened.
Legislature.—The Legislature convened Oct. 28.
R. L. Berner was elected President of the Senate,
and H. A. Jenkins Speaker of the House. =
A United States Senator was to be chosen in place
of John B. Gordon, whose term will expire in 1897.
Among the names presented to the Democratic
caucus, Nov. 6, were those of Gov. Atkinson, Alex-
ander S. Clay, J. W. Robertson, and H. T. Lewis.
Much opposition was manifested to the candidacy
of the Governor, as that would involve another
election, in which it was feared the Democratic
party might be beaten by a combination of Repub-
licans and Populists.
H. G. Turner, L. F. Garrard, Evan P. Howell,
and Gen. Evans were also among the candidates,
The Populists voted for Gen. William Phillips. On
the twenty-fifth ballot, in Democratic caucus, Nov.
12, the vote stood: Clay,61; Howell, 57; Atkinson,
52; seattering,3. The twenty-sixth ballot resulted:
Clay, 74; Howell, 51; Atkinson, 47. At length the
Governor withdrew from the contest, and on Nov.
16 Alexander Stephens Clay was nominated, re-
ceiving 95 votes, and he was elected Nov. 17. The
number of votes cast was 198, of which 161 were
for Clay, 34 for Phillips, the candidate of the Popu-
lists, and 3 for Major J. F. Hanson, the Republican
candidate.
The General Assembly adjourned Dec. 19.
Among the bills passed was a so-called antitrust
bill, providing that “all arrangements, contracts,
agreements, trusts, or combinations between persons
or corporations made with a view to lessen, or which
tend to lessen, full and free competition in the im-
portation or sale of articles imported into this State,
or in the manufacture or sale of articles of domestic
growth or of domestic raw material, and all ar-
- rangements, contracts, agreements, trusts, or com-
binations between persons or corporations designed
or which tend to advance, reduce, or control the
price or the cost to the producer or to the consumer
of any such product or article, are hereby declared
to be against public policy, unlawful, and void.”
Any corporation, chartered under the laws of the
State, found violating the provisions of the act
shall forfeit its charter and franchise, and any for-
eign corporation so violating shall be prohibited
from doing business in the State. A penalty is
added of a fine from $100 to $500, and imprison-
ment one to ten years. It is provided that the pro-
visions of this act shall not apply to agricultural
products or live stock while in the possession of the
producer or raiser.
Both houses passed a bill authorizing the Gov-
ernor to advertise for sale the Northeastern Rail-
road, at a price to be not less than $287,000, the
purchaser to pay $50,000 cash and the remainder
In five years in equal annual payments, interest at
5} per cent. Each bidder is to be required to de-
posit $10,000 as a guarantee of good faith.
The following concurrent resolution was adopted :
“ That the Senate of Georgia, the House of Repre-
sentatives concurring, requests the Representatives
of this State to use their influence in Congress to
obtain belligerent rights for the Cubans.”
The office of Commissioner of Pensions was
created, and the Governor appointed Richard John-
son to the office,
For the support of common schools the Assembly
appropriated $600,000 for 1897 and $1,000,000 for
GEORGIA,
1898; for the School for the Deaf, $36,000 for 1897
and $25,000 for 1898 ; for the Lunatic Asylum, $280,-
000 for 1897 and $299,000 for 1898; to pay interest
maturing, $350,630 in 1897 and $346,130 in 1898,
The total appropriations for the two years amount
to $5,232,528. In addition tothe items given above,
about $545,000 will be set aside for the common-
school fund, which will be raised by rental of the
Western and Atlantic Railroad and other sources.
The funds necessary to meet the appropriations
are to be raised by taxation as follow: General tax
on each $1,000 worth of property, $3.45; special
tax for educational purposes on each $1,000 worth
of property, $2.50; special tax to create a sinking
fund, 0:26 mill on each $100 worth of property ; in
addition to the general and special taxes mentioned,
the State will raise revenue from special taxes on
the usual lines of business,
Political.—Political agitation began early in the
year with the contest in the Democratic party be-
tween the silver and the antisilver advocates. In
March Hon. Hoke Smith and Hon. Charles F.
Crisp began a series of debates on the question in
different parts of the State.
In March Hon. C. F. Crisp, who had announced
his candidacy for the office of United States Sena-
tor, requested the State Democratic Committee to
recommend that voters at the June primaries indi-
cate their choice for United States Senator, but
this the committee declined to do. Then Mr. Crisp
addressed a letter to the Democratic executive com-
mittees of all the counties, asking that they adopt
this plan. The refusal of the committee was un-
derstood to be inspired by opposition to the choice
of Judge Crisp, and in favor of Mr. Du Bignon,
whose candidacy was announced at about the same
time that the State committee’s chairman declared
in favor of holding the senatorial primaries on the
same day with the October election. About half
the counties acted upon the senatorial question
June 6, and Judge Crisp received the suffrages of
so many that his selection as the popular choice
was practically assured. The primaries at this
time showed that the Democratic party in the
State was overwhelmingly in favor of free coinage.
The State Central Committee decided to hold but
one convention, though there were strong protests
against such action. It was held at Macon, June
25. The ticket nominated was: For Governor,
W. Y. Atkinson (renominated) ; Secretary of State,
A. D. Candler; State Treasurer, W. G. Speer; At-
torney-General, J. M. Terrell; Comptroller, W. A.
Wright; Commissioner of Agriculture, Robert T.
Nesbitt. .
_ The delegates to the Chicago convention were
instructed to cast the vote of the State as a unit,
according to the decision of the majority of the
delegation. The platform commended Gov, Atkin-
son’s administration; favored a law to prevent
lynchings ; demanded the free and unlimited coin-
age of both gold and silver, independent of the ac-
tion of any other government, at the ratio of 16 to
1, and the making of both legal tender for the pay-
ment of all debts; condemned the issuing of bonds —
and the policy of retiring the greenbacks and Treas-
ury notes; favored payment of the public debt as
rapidly as possible, a tariff for revenue only, repeal
of the tax upon State bank issues, and a constitu-
tional amendment authorizing the collection of a
graduated income tax. A resolution commending
Treasurer Hardeman’s work was adopted.
The Republican State Convention met at Atlanta
April 29. There had been a lively contest for the
control of the convention between those that fa-
vored and those that opposed the nomination of .
McKinley, and this was continued in the conven-
tion. The delegates were left uninstructed.
GEORGIA.
No State ticket was put up by either the Repub-
licans or the Prohibitionists. The Republican Ex-
ecutive Committee advised the members of the party
in the State that they were at liberty to support
either the Democratic or the Populist State ticket,
as seemed to each individual to his own interest,
the committee having decided against putting out
a State ticket. The chairman issued a circular let-
ter to the Republicans of the State, urging them,
unofficially, to support the Populist ticket.
The People’s party, having selected its delegates
to the national convention in 1895 and instructed
them so far as the platform was concerned, held but
one State convention in 1896. They met, Aug. 6,
at Atlanta, and made the following ticket: For
Governor, Seaborn J. Wright; Secretary of State,
J. A. Parsons; Comptroller General, Seaborn J. Bell ;
Treasurer, William C. Sibley; Attorney-General,
Donald Clark; Commissioner of Agriculture, W.
D. Smith. The resolutions approved the platform
of the St. Louis convention of the People’s party,
favored the abolition of the convict lease system
and the employment of convicts on the public roads,
also the establishment of reformatories for juvenile
offenders ; declared in favor of extending the public-
school system, the furnishing of primary school books
by the State, and the payment of teachers monthly ;
condemned the practice of public officers in receiv-
ing free passes from railroad corporations and franks
from telegraph and express companies; condemned
lynching and called for rigid enforcement of the laws
arse it; demanded that all public officers be elect-
by the people, and denounced the present system
of electing judges and solicitor generals by the Legis-
lature; demanded the abandonment of the fee sys-
tem in payment of public officials; declared for a
free ballot and a fair count; and favored the con-
tinuance of pensions to needy and deserving Con-
federate soldiers and widows of Confederate sol-
diers. They also declared in favor of controlling
the sale of liquors.
After the October election the Populists pro
to fuse with the Democrats on the national ticket.
The State Executive Committee adopted resolutions
proposing to withdraw 7 of their electors in favor
of 7 Democrats, in consideration of the electoral
vote of the State being cast for Bryan and Watson.
The reply of the Democratic State Committee
follows: —
“ Resolved, That the Populist committee having
‘made a proposition which completely ignores fusion
by eliminating entirely the candidacy of the Demo-
cratic nominee for Vice-President, Mr. Sewall. and
has cut off the Democratic committee from further
consideration of the question by fixing an arbitrary
limit, which expires to-day, giving this committee
no opportunity for a consideration of a movement
for proper fusion; therefore. be it
“ Resolved, That the chairman of this committee
appoint a committee of 5, of which he shall be chair-
man, to properly present to the public the attitude
of this committee on the refusal to accept the un-
reasonable and unjust ultimatum of the Populist
committee, clothed as it is, in offensive and unbe-
coming language.”
After this the special committee appointed to act
for the Populists withdrew their ticket.
In the October election W. Y. Atkinson, the Demo-
cratic candidate for Governor. received 123,557 votes,
and Seaborn Wright, the Populist candidate, 84.971.
The other Democratic candidates for State offices
were elected by majorities from 55,525 to 56,323.
Two constitutional amendments were submitted
to vote, and both were carried by large majorities.
One was to provide that the State school commis-
sioner shall be elected by the people instead of be-
ing appointed by the Governor. The other was to
GERMANY. 313
increase the number of judges of the Supreme Court
from 3 to 6, with the provision that the judges be
elected by the people. The question of increasing
the number has been submitted before, but without
this provision. Under the act, an election for the
choice of the 3 additional judges took place Dec. 16.
The Democrats nominated W. A. Little, Andrew J.
Cobb, and W. H. Fish for the additional judges,
and Samuel Lumpkin, whose term had expired, was.
nominated to succeed himself. The Populists de-
cided to make no nominations.
The returns of the November election showed
60.190 votes for McKinley, 94,332 for Bryan, and
2,708 for Palmer. Eleven Democrats were elected
to Congress.
GERMANY, an empire in central Europe under
a federal Government. The King of Prussia as Ger-
man Emperor has supreme charge of political and
military affairs, with power to conclude treaties and
to declare war if the territory of the empire is at-
tacked, but for an offensive war he must have the
consent of the federated governments. The Jegis-
lative bodies are the Bundesrath and the Reichstag.
The acts upon which they agree become law on re-
ceiving the Emperor’s assent and being counter-
signed by the Chancellor of the Empire. The Fed-
eral Council, or Bundesrath, is composed of 58
members, appointed by the governments of the
federated states. The Reichstag contains 397 mem-
bers, 1 to 124,500 of population, elected by universal
manhood suffrage and by secret ballot for the term
of five years.
The German Emperor is Wilhelm II, born Jan.
27, 1859, eldest son of Friedrich IIT, of Prussia,
whom he succeeded on June 15, 1888, and grandson
of Wilhelm I, the first German Emperor. The
Chancellor of the Empire is Prince Hohenlohe-
Schillingsfirst, appointed Oct. 29, 1894, on the re-
tirement of Gen. Caprivi. The imperial ministers
in the beginning of 1896 were as follow: Minister
of Foreign Affairs, Freiherr A. Marschall von Bie-
berstein ; Minister of the Interior, Dr. Kar] Hein-
rich von Bétticher; Minister of Marine, Vice-Ad-
miral Hollmann; Minister of Justice, A. Nieberding;
Minister of the Treasury, Graf A. von Posadovsky-
Wehner. Dr. von Stephan was Director of the Im-
erial Post Office, Dr. Schulz of the Railroad Bureau,
err von Wolff of the Exchequer, Dr. Rising of the
Invalid Fund, Dr. Koch of the Imperial Bank, and
Herr Meinecke of the Debt Commission.
Area and Population.—The area of the states
of the German Empire and their population on Dec.
2, 1895, are given in the following table:
STATES. | eee Ee~ | Population.
SE eT 348 437 31,849,795
ek a SS ES Re Dae Pepa 75865 5.797.414
EM at Gh ta 6 5 ud ook cnt ba ros al 14,993 3.786.936
WyaEGEMNIET Occ ck co akiacwas- = 0s 19.517 2,080,898
ji) SEAS Abe 2 eee 15.084 1.725.270
a 7,682 1.039.388
Mecklenburg-Schwerin ...........- : 13,162 596.£83
2 SSS Se ee . 3.615 339.217
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.............- 2.929 101.513
ES Se ee ae 6,427 373.739
i ee a 3.672 434.213
Saxe-Meiningen.................-.. 2,468 234,005
Saxe-Altenturg......--........-.-. 1,324 180.813
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha................ 1,958 216,603
bow 9 ag eee 2,294 293.123
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ...... 862 78.074
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt..... cease 941 88.685
(0S Sop ae } 1,121 57.7
po RR ee ee 316 67.468
SS bon len
Schaumburg-Lippe...........--:---| Z ‘
Lippe... ee ae oe Ree 1.235 134.617
Te 208 83.258
eee or ; 256 195.510
Ree 415 681.432
Alsace-Lorraine ..........--------- 14.507 1,641,220
314
A census of trades and professions taken on July
14, 1895, shows that 349 persons in every 1,000 are
dependent on agriculture; 8°4 on forest industry
and fishing ; 35°7 on mining; 355°5 on industry—
specifically, 25°4 on the treatment of mineral sub-
stances, 41°6 on metallurgical industry, 20-1 on the
manufacture of machines and instruments, 5°6 on
chemical industry, 36°7 on textile industry, 5-9 on
paper manufacturing, 83 on the copper industry,
32°6 on wood manufactures and sculpture, 40°1 on
the manufacture of alimentary articles, 57:4 on the
clothing industry, 71°6 on the building industries,
4-9 on the printing industry, and 5:3 on various in-
dustries ; 115°2 per mille on commerce and trans-
portation—specifically, 56°38 on commerce, 38°7 on
transportation, 18°4 on the hotel business, and 13
on insurance; 171 per mille on domestie service
outside the house and hired labor; 40°6 per mille
are employees, clergy, and literary workers ; 14°2 per
mille are in the army and navy; and 643 per mille
have no trade or employment. Of 51,770,284 indi-
viduals enumerated 22,913,691 are directly engaged
in business or labor and 28,856,593 make up their
dependent families and domestics.
The following cities had more than 50,000 inhab-
itants on Dee. 2, 1895: Berlin, 1,677,135 ; Hamburg,
625,552 ; Munich, 407,174; Leipsic, 399,969; Bres-
lau, 373,140; Dresden, 336,440; Cologne, 321,548 ;
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 229,299: Magdeburg, 214,-
397: Hanover, 209,560; Diisseldorf, 176,024; Ké6-
nigsberg, 172,758 ; Nuremberg, 162,380; Chemnitz,
161,018 ; Stuttgart, 158,378 ; Altona, 148,944; Brem-
en, 141,133; Stettin, 140,731; Elberfeld, 139,168;
Strasburg, 135,608 ; Charlottenburg, 132,383 ; Bar-
men, 127,002; Dantzic, 125,639; Halle, 116,302;
Brunswick, 115,188; Dortmund, 111,235; Aachen,
110,489; Crefeld, 107,278; Essen, 96,163; Mann-
heim, 90,677; Kiel, 85,668 ; Carlsruhe, 84,004; Mul-
house, 82,986; Cassel, 81,738; Augsburg, 80,798 ;
Erfurt, 78,167; Mayence, 76,957; Wiesbaden, 74,-
122; Posen, 73,235; Luisburg, 70,287; Gérlitz, 70,-
172; Liibeck, 69,812; Wiirtzburg, 68,714; Darm-
stadt, 63,769; Metz, 59,794; Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
59,049; Potsdam, 58,452; Miinster, 57,018; Span-
dau, 55,813; Plauen, 55,197; Bochum, 53,788; Glad-
bach, 53,666; Freiburg, 53,081; Liegnitz, 51,519 ;
Zwickau, 50,391.
The number of marriages in the empire in 1893
was 401,234; of births, 1,928,270; of deaths, 1,310,-
756; excess of births, 617,514. During 1894 the
emigration was 40,964, against 87,677 in 1893, 116,-
339 In 1892, and 120,089 in 1891. Of the emigrants
35,902 sailed for the United States, 1,288 for Brazil,
2,638 for other parts of America, 760 for Africa, 225
for Australasia, and 151 for Asia. The total emi-
gration to the United States from 1820 to the end
of 1894 was about 5,150,000; from 1871 the number
was 2,333,460, and during the same period 47,000
went to Brazil.
Finances.—The budget estimates for the year
ending March 31, 1896, made the total imperial
revenue 1,224,773,500 marks, including 46,379 marks
of extraordinary receipts. Of the ordinary reve-
nue, amounting to 1,178,395,000 marks, 627,003,400
marks were derived from customs and excise duties,
54,629,000 marks from stamps, 29,778,900 marks from
posts and telegraphs, 1,474,200 marks from the im-
perial printing office, 23,173,000 marks from rail-
roads, 7,182,100 marks from the Imperial Bank, 11,-
950,500 marks from various departments, 26,893,700
marks from the invested Invalid fund, 10,000 marks
from other funds, 800,000 marks from various sources,
and 396,000,100 marks were the contributions from
the federated states, whose governments are assessed
in proportion to their population for the difference
between the imperial expenditures and the receipts
from customs, excise, posts, railroads, and telegraphs,
GERMANY.
The total expenditures for the financial year 1896
were estimated at 1,239,250,500 marks, including
133,166,200 marks of nonrecurring and extraordi-
nary expenditure. Of the ordinary expenditures,
amounting to 1,106,084,300 marks, 651,000 marks
were for the Reichstag, 153,800 marks for the Im-
perial chancellory, 10,556,500 marks for the Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs, 29,725,600 marks for the
Ministry of the Interior, 472,212,400 marks for the
army, 55,261,500 marks for the navy, 2.085.400 marks
for the Ministry of Justice, 378,910,000 marks for
the imperial Treasury Department, 346,900 marks
for the Railroad Bureau, 73,967,300 marks for the
service of the debt of the empire, 735,560 marks
for the auditor’s office, 55,034,800 marks for the Pen-
sion fund, 26,393,700 marks for the Invalid fund, and.
49,900 marks for the reform of the salary system.
Under the Franckenstein clause the imperial treas-
ury receives from the customs, the tobacco duties,
and certain other imposts the fixed sum of 130,000,-
000 marks a year. the surplus being divided among
the federal states according to their population.
The receipts from these sources have so increased
that of late years the sums distributed among the
states have considerably exceeded their matricular
contributions to the empire, which has reaped no
benefit from the increase in the revenue. Hence
Dr, Lieber, the leader of the Center party, proposed,
in March, 1896, to divide the surplus receipts over
and above the matricular contributions between the
states and the Imperial Government, and to devote
for two years the share of the latter to the creation
of a sinking fund for the extinction of debts of the
empire, for the redemption of which no provision
has as yet been made. Count Posadovsky, the Min-
ister of the Treasury, accepted this scheme, to which
the Bundesrath and the Reichstag gave assent. The
surplus to be thus applied in 1896 amounts to 13,-
000,000 marks. -
The following table gives, in marks, the budgets
and debts of the several German states for 1896, or
in the case of some of them for 1895:
STATES. Revenue, Expenditure. Debt.
Alsace-Lorraine....... 50,909,323} 50,909.303) 24,676,200
Aihialtteigs saw. tesa eet 22,487,000] 21,487,000] 1,088,592
BadGUNS vavadseoetey cee 77,011,066} 82,628.551| 333.279,447
Davaria us sate a 828,341,269} 328,341,269) 1,388,856,567
BromMenx.s sca saseneeds ce 17,123,182} 25,535,763) 114,811,900
Brunswick, ............ 13,190,000} 14,171,000} 28,396,288
Hawmibure-s 33 8240555 65,696.514| —72,166.926) 326,881,481
BLOGSE fos the sre asen ee 27,382.964| 27,563, 40,181,846 -
Lines sees ees 1,190.514) 1,190,514]............
TWDEGR ods vasnkesees 4,299,933 4,616,194; 19,597,621
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 4,138,000 4,138,000) 110,659,000
Mecklenburg-Strelitz: : |... ......00.]..2-0cercaee 6,000,000
Oldenburg............. 9,210,571) 10,445,551) 46,860,000
PYOSHGy Friston tea ee 1,899.473.497|1,899.473, 497 |6,353,866,318
Reuss-Greiz ........... 1,133,260 1,133,260 116,100
Reuss-Schleiz.......... 2,091,400 2,080,051 1,040,550
Saxe-Altenburg....... 3,847,110 3,847,110 887,450
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha... 2,012,182 2,647,190 3,107,298
Saxe-Meiningen....... 2,494,660 2,207,480) 11,309,256
Saxe-Weimar.......... 9,656,218 9,656,218 4,982,446
Sarony. ces ckese eee wae 99,401,689} 99,401.689| 669,521,350
Schaumburg-Lippe.... 881,958 881,958 360,000
Schwarzburg - Rudol -
Stat ev ass von bene 2,757,700 2,757,700 3,910,000 -
Schwarzburg-Sonders -
HAUSEM). <.usees vewlh ee 2,764,455 2.764.455 2.699.458
Waldeck. 3. possecv cvs 1,261,952 1,261,952 2,100,300
Wiirtemberg.......... 67,166,287} 69,129,462) 463,714,292
The main part, in some states the whole, of the
debts were incurred for railroads and other remu-
nerative works,
The funded debt of the empire on March 31, 1894,
stood at 1,915,714,500 marks, of which 450,000,000 —
marks paid 4 per cent., 775,714,500 marks 3} per
cent., and 690,000,000 marks 3 per cent. interest.
The treasury notes amounted to 120,000,000 marks.
The Invalid fund amounted on March 31, 18938, to
457,194,900 marks, The war treasure is a sum of
}
;
B |
|
7
E
GERMANY. 315
120,000,000 marks in gold set aside from the French
war indemnity and locked up in the fortress of Span-
dau. The total liabilities of the empire on March
31, 1895, amounted to 2,091,250,000 marks. During
the financial‘year 1895 they were increased by 120,-
300,000 marks. Of the total amount received from
loans, which was 129,233,550 marks less than the
nominal figure, 1,254,500,000 marks were spent on
the army, 278,750,000 marks on the navy, 262,000,-
000 marks on railroads and military defenses con-
nected with them, and 62,750,000 marks on the postal
service. The Baltic Canal cost 105,250,000 marks,
and 52,000,000 marks were expended in bringing
the free ports of Bremen and Hamburg into the
customs union. To offset the debts the Imperial
Government possesses valuable assets, such as land
and buildings acquired with the loans contracted
for the army, which are valued at 900,000,000 marks,
railroads and property relating thereto valued at
700,000,000 marks, an tal and telegraph offices
of the value of 300,000,000 marks, besides the war
treasure and unspent balances and credits amount-
ing together to 360,000,000 marks.
he Army.—Every German capable of bearing
arms is liable for military service between the ages
of twenty and forty. The period of service in the
active army is two years for the infantry and three
one in the cavalry and horse artillery. Out of
,000 young men who are physically fit and legally
liable to serve each year on the completion of their
twentieth year some 60,000 are drafted into the
army. In addition, about 8,000 who have passed
their examinations in the gymnasia are admitted as
volunteers, who have to serve one year only and
find themselves. All able-bodied men between the
ages of seventeen and forty-five who are not in the
seayens' army, the Landwehr, or the Ersatz reserve
are enrolled in the Landsturm. The pence strength
of the army was fixed by the army law of Aug. 3,
1893, at 479,229 men, exclusive of officers, for the
five years ending March 31, 1899. The actual
strength in 1896 was 22,618 officers and 562,116
men, with 97,280 horses. There were 11,774 officers
and 363,432 men in the 173 regiments of infantry,
410 officers and 12,027 men in 19 battalions of rifles,
734 officers and 5,413 men distributed in 290 dis-
trict commands, and 2,714 surgeons, instructors,
ete., making the total strength of the infantry
12.918 officers and 383,586 rank and file. The cav-
alry consisted of 93 regiments, containing 2,352
officers and 65,499 men, besides 828 on special serv-
ice. The field artillery of 43 regiments, containing
2,671 officers and 58,424 men, besides 809 on special
service. Of foot artillery there are 17 regiments
and an extra battalion, having 869 officers and
22,857 men, besides 132 on special service. The
pioneers, consisting of 23 battalions, 3 railroad regi-
ments, 1 balloon detachment, 1 railroad battalion,
and 3 railroad companies, numbered 729 officers
and 19,018 men, besides 124 on special service.
There are 21 battalions of train, containing 307
officers and 7,631 men, besides 69 on special service.
The special formations number 486 officers and
2.896 men. The army is organized in 20 corps
d@armée, of which Bavaria forms 2, Saxony 1, Wiir-
temberg1, and Prussia in common with the other
states 15, besides the corps of the guards. From 3
to 5 corps constitute an army inspection, of which
there are 5. Each corps d’armée consists ordinarily
of 2 divisions, composed of infantry and cavalry,
with 1 brigade of field artillery, to which is at-
tached a battalion of train, 1 regiment or 1 bat-
talion of foot artillery, and 1 battalion of pioneers.
Each division is composed of 2 brigades of infan-
try and 1 of cavalry, each brigade comprising 2 regi-
ments of 3 battalions. The strength of a battalion
in time of peace is 544 men, which is raised in war
to 1,002 men by calling in a part of the reserves,
The guards and the regiments garrisoning Alsace-.
Lorraine have a peace strength of 686 men. There
are 494 field batteries, of which 47 are mounted.
The war strength of the Germany army is estimated
at 3,000,000 men, who have been trained in military
duties. Those who escape conscription and are in-
scribed in the Ersatztruppen are expected to under-
go twenty weeks of drill, divided into three periods.
By the army bill of 1893, increasing the peace
strength of thearmy by about 70,000 men, in return
for which the Government granted the country the
reduction of the period of service to two years for
the infantry, there were created incomplete cadres
of fourth battalions, which were’ attached to each
regiment. These half battalions were expected to
relieve the three full battalions of extra work, to
train one-year volunteers, and to lighten the task of
mobilization. The difficulty of training these half
battalions in war manceuvres and other disadvan-
tages outweighed their positive value, and conse-
quently this system of organization was changed in
the army bill of 1896, whereby the 173 existing
fourth battalions were combined to form 86 battal-
ions proper, each 500 strong, and these were formed
into regiments of 2 battalions, every 2 regiments
making a new brigade. For the reorganization
10,500,000 marks were voted, and the annual in-
crease in expenses was reckoned at 500,000 marks.
The Navy.—The vessels of the German navy are
divided between the Baltic and the North Sea
squadrons. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal across
Schleswig-Holstein, connecting the naval ports of
Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, which was opened in
June, 1895, was built to enable the forces to be
safely and instantly concentrated in either sea.
The navy consists of 4 first-class battle ships, 5 of
the second class, and 4 of the third class, 12 ships
for port defense, 9 first-class cruisers, 11 of the sec-
ond class, and 23 of the third class, and 23 other
effective fighting ships, besides 128 first-class and 4
second-class torpedo boats. The Government sub-
sidizes 7 ocean steamers as auxiliary merchant
cruisers, The navy is manned by conscription of
the seafaring population, which is estimated at
80,000, of whom 48,000 are serving in the merchant
navy of Germany and 6,000 on foreign vessels.
The programme of naval construction which was
to have been executed before the end of 1895. pro-
vided for 4 first-class battle ships, 9 coast-defense
armor clads, 11 cruisers, 7 of them deck-protected,
2 dispatch vessels, and 2 torpedo division boats.
On April 1, 1888, the fleet numbered 79 vessels,
while on April 1, 1895, it numbered 91 vessels,
not including torpedo boats. The aggregate ton-
nage of the navy was 182,470 tons in 1888, and in
1895 it was 266,237 tons, while the aggregate horse
power was increased from 189,605 to 305,220, The
annual current expenditure for the navy has grown
from 37,000,000 to 55,000,000 marks. The total ex-
penditure for extraordinary purposes during the
eight years was 233,000,000 marks, and the value of
the fleet is estimated at 307,000,000 marks. The
programme still lacks much of being carried out in
its entirety. The 4 first-class ironclad battle ships
recommended in the programme have been built,
also the 9 armored vessels, but of 11 cruisers only 1
has been completed : 2 more first-class cruisers have
been begun, and plans have been approved for 2
second-class cruisers. In the estimates for 1896
more than 7,000,000 marks were set down for new
vessels. The Reichstag authorized the building of
a first-class battle ship to replace the antiquated
“Friedrich der Grosse.” and 1 third-class and 2
second-class cruisers, a torpedo division boat, and
additional torpedo boats. The gunboat “ IItis ” was
driven upon the rocks by a typhoon on July 23,
316
1896, in the China Sea and lost with 75 men. The
new battle ship “ Kaiser Friedrich III,” launched
on July 1, 1896, is designed to surpass in fighting
power any naval ship yet built.
Commerce.—The total value of the special com-
merce in 1894 was 4,285,533,000 marks for imports
and 3,051,480,000 marks for exports. The various
classes for merchandise imported and exported
were valued in marks as follows:
MERCHANDISE. : Imports, Exports.
PAVE QRINAISs 3 vos ceeccsnaeae aes 280,483.000 23,446,000
Animal products............... 123,936,000 27,875,000
Articles of consumption....... 1, 156,668,000 390,561,000
Seeds and plants............... 63,641,000 31,245,000
712) (Ay i ela Sapa rea Bee ors Re oe eed 94,163,000 142,924,000
WALSRUG OUS. geccnees hess hemene 247,025,000 31,707,000
Chemicals, drugs, etc.........: 271,484,000 304,619,000
Glass, stone, and clay goods... 62,126,000 115,815,000
Wood manufactures........... 508,756,000 426,936,000
Paper manufactures........... 17,010,000 89,768,000
Leather and Jeather goods.... 181,415,000 205,967,000
Textile manufactures.......... 931,051,000 796.367,000
Rubber and rubber goods...... 29.795,000 23,093,000
Machinery and instruments.... 61,116.000 159,977,000
Hardware. . 2.5 ;..¢522..0eern ees 21,995,000 77.912,000
Books and ebjects of art....... 82,371,000 100,985,000
Miscellaneous. : «... 345. esiee« 369,053 286,239
Hayti and San Domingo....... 81,072 337,979
PETS. =. c neva cemede cess oh eaten 206,918 323,215
SIP UEID So, tos ts Tee ceeelauseess- 126,102 215.721
French Indo-China....... ebwe- 234.799 193.164
Foreign East ae iene eae 30,738 400.471
WADARS ORCAY 5 35sec gaetepaan cect 137,592 121,889
CMMI J 2. Sheree <8 hee 2 Ce eA 115,186 78.245
All other countries............. 791,552 1,358,022
GUA cand. ce ark eocace ots £314,432,644 | £143,184,048
The domestic exports of live animals for food
during the year ending Dec. 31, 1895, were valued
at £790,812; of articles of food and drink, £11,051,-
209; of raw materials, £18.334.292; of textile
fabrics and yarns, £101,423,997; of metals and
AND IRELAND. 331
metal goods, £28,907,347; of machinery, £15,215,-
110; of apparel and articles of personal use, £9,319,--
939; of chemicals and sadicinad preparations,
£8,295,400; of all other manufactured or partly
manufactured articles, £31,493,137;. exported by
parcel post, $1,337,931; total exports of British
produce, £226,169,174; exports of foreign and
colonial produce, £59,970,763 ; total exports, £286,-
139,937. The exports of cotton manufactures were
valued at £63,772,054 in 1895, including yarn of
the value of £9,292,594. The exports of woolen
manufactures were £25,124,920 in value, of which
sum £5,374,883 represents woolen and worsted
yarn. The exports of manufactured linen were
£5,357,140 in value, and of linen yarn £965,467.
Those of jute manufactures were £2,232,427, and
of jute yarn £356,118. The exports of apparel and
haberdashery were £5,886,490. The total value of
the exports of iron and steel were £19,695,382, of
which £4,244,795 represents tin plates, £3,740,887
east and wrought iron, £3,352,874 hoop, sheet,
and plate iron, £2,570,682 wrought and unwrought
steel, £2.075,549 pig iron, £1,901,802 railroad
iron of all sorts, £849,050 bar, angle, bolt, and
rod iron, £711,070 wire, and £248,673 scrap iron.
The exports of hardware and cutlery amounted to
£1,862,958. Copper exports were £2,825,486 in value.
The value of the coal exported was £15,442,702.
In 1894 a royal commission was appointed to in-
vestigate the agricultural and industrial capabilities
of Ireland. The commission reported that Irish
crops and live stock, the product of which was
£115,000,000 in 1894, might be doubled by means
of improved methods; that the yield of potatoes,
for instance, which averages 2°6 tons per acre, could
be made to approach the 15 or 20 tons that are
raised on the Continent, and that Ireland could
supply a large part of England’s demand for butter,
bacon, and eggs by the use of better dairy machinery,
a rational method of feeding hogs, and the breeding
of improved races of poultry. These and the flax
industries have declined, owing to Continental com-
petition. To restore flax-growing the Irish farmers
should have technical instruction, such as has been
imparted by trained instructors to the farmers of
Holland and Belgium. Instead of shipping live
cattle to England, they should be slaughtered in
Ireland, by which course employment would be
found for much Irish labor and the Irish leather
industry would be restored.
Navigation.—The number of vessels engaged in
foreign commerce that were entered at the ports of
the United Kingdom during 1894 was 61,931, of
39,818,000 tons, of which 37.970, of 29,033,000 tons,
were British and 23,961, of 10,785.000 tons, were
foreign; the number cleared was 62,237, of 40,718,-
000 tons, of which 37,874, of 29,649,000 tons, were
British and 24,363, of 11,070,000 tons, were foreign.
The tonnage of vessels.entered with cargoes was
31,141,000, of which 22,727,000 tons were British
and 8,414,000 tons were foreign; the tonnage of
vessels cleared with cargoes was 35,778,000, of which
26,683,000 tons were British and 9,095,000 tons
foreign. Of a total foreign tonnage of 21,854,712
tons entered and cleared, Norway had 5,418,954;
Germany, 3,828,128; Holland, 2,278,387; Sweden,
2,089,130; Denmark, 2,000,127: France, 1,766,026 ;
Spain, 1,253,133: Belgium, 1,023,812; Russia, 648,-
868; the United States, 536.446; Italy, 452,516;
and Austria, 201,281 tons. The tonnage entered
and cleared at the port of London was 14,433,580;
at Liverpool, 10,489,578; at Cardiff, 10,478,391; at
Neweastle, 4.948.113: at Hull, 3,933,123; at North
and South Shields, 3,707,002 ; at Glasgow, 2,760,274 ;
at Newport, 2.383.651; at Southampton, 2,323,516 ;
at Sunderland, 2,084.519.
The number of British vessels engaged in the
3382
home and foreign trade in 1894 was 16,547, of 8,716.-
285 tons, employing 240,458 seamen, of whom 31,050
were foreigners. The total number of vessels reg-
istered as belonging to the United Kingdom was
21,206, of 8,956,181 tons, of which 12,948, of 2,987,-
161 tons, were sailing vessels and 8,263, of 5,969,020
tons, were steamers. The total shipping of the
British Empire comprised 36,181 vessels, of 10,512,-
272 tons. During 1894 there were 822 sailing ves-
sels, of 258,700 tons, and 521 steamers, of 434,091
tons, built and first registered in the United King-
dom. There were 7,920 sailing vessels, of 503,727
tons, and 2,597 steamers, of 404,684 tons, engaged
in the coasting trade; 246 sailing vessels, of 31,669
tons, and 338 steamers, of 222,462 tons, engaged
partly in the home trade and partly in the foreign
trade, and 1,845 sailing vessels. of 2,286,829 tons,
and 3,601 steamers, of 5,266,914 tons, engaged ex-
clusively in the foreign trade.
Communications.—The railroads in operation
at the beginning of 1895 had a total length of
20,908 miles, of which 14,536 miles were in England
and Wales, 3,828 miles in Scotland, and 3,044 miles
in Ireland. The share and loan capital amounted
to £985,387.355, There were 911,412,926 passengers
carried during the year, exclusive of holders of sea-
son tickets. The receipts from passengers amounted
to £36,495,488 and from goods traffic £43,379,078 ;
the total receipts from all sources were £84,310,831.
The working expenses amounted to £47,208,313,
which was 56 per cent. of the gross income. The
canals of the United Kingdom have a total length
of 3,813 miles, of which 1,204 miles belong to rail-
road companies. The total capital is £20,959,820.
The Manchester ship canal, completed in 1894, has
a length of 354 miles and is 26 feet deep. with a
width at the bottom of 120 feet. The capital of the
company is £15,412,000.
The number of letters delivered during 1895 was
1,502,000,000 in England and Wales, 156,000,000 in
Scotland, and 113,000,000 in Ireland; total, 1,771,-
000,000. The number of post cards, which have
partly taken the place of letters, owing to an exten-
sion of facilities, was 271,600,000 in England, 28,700,
000in Scotland, and 12,500,000 in Ireland ; total, 312,-
800,000, showing an increase of nearly 26 per cent.
over the previous year. The number of book packets
was 522,500,000 in England, 60,800,000 in Scotland,
and 31,300,000 in Ireland; total, 614,600,000. The
number of newspapers was 117,500,000 in England,
17,300,000 in Seotland, and 17,000,000 in Ireland;
total, 151,800,000. The number of parcels was 47,-
200,000 in England, 6,100,000 in Scotland, and 3,800,-
000 in Ireland; total, 57,100,000. The total num-
ber of money orders was 10,685,206, of the amount
of £28,923,127, of which 9,190,304, of the amount of
£24,953,532, were inland orders; the total number
of postal orders was 60,681,078, of the amount of
£22,759,282. The gross revenue of the post office,
exclusive of telegraphs, was £10,748,014 and work-
ing expenses £7,978,284, leaving a net revenue of
£2,769,730.
The telegraph lines of the British post office had
on March 31, 1895, a total length of 33,062 miles,
with 193,095 miles of wire, besides which there were
27,880 miles of private wire. The number of mes-
sages sent was 71,589,064, of which 60,216,708 were
sent in England and Wales, 7,334,094 in Scotland,
and 4,038,262 in Ireland. The gross revenue was
£2,598,985 and the working expenses £76,354 greater,
causing a total deficit for the year of £452,803, in-
cluding interest on the price paid for the telegraphs
when they were sold by the companies to the Goy-
ernment in February, 1870.
Currency.—When the United Kingdom provided
in the coinage act of 1816 for the resumption of
specie payments, which was effected three years
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
later, after having had an inconvertible paper cur-
rency since 1797, the single gold standard was
adopted. Previous to the French war silver was
the principal currency, The unit of value adopted
in the act of 1816 was the gold sovereign, contain-
ing 123°27447 grains of standard gold, 22 carats or
0:91666 fine, equal to 118 grains, or 73224 grammes
of gold, equivalent to a pound sterling or 20 shil-
lings of silver, whereas the guinea, which the sover-
eign superseded, was worth 21 shillings. The value
of the sovereign, or pound sterling, in United States
currency is $4.8665. The quantity of English gold
coin in actual circulation was estimated in July,
1896, at £62,500,000 ; the reserves in the banks at
£17,500,000, and the foreign coin and bullion reserve
of the Bank of England at £30,000,000 ; total, £120,-
000,000. Silver is legal tender up to 40 shillings.
The silver coin in circulation amounts to about
£25,000,000. The paper currency circulating at the
end of 1895 amounted to £41,400,000, of which £25,-
900,000 consisted of notes of the Bank of England,
£1,800,000 of issues of English joint-stock and pri-
vate banks, £7,300,000 of notes issued by chartered
and joint-stock banks in Scotland, £2,500,000 of
Bank of Ireland notes, and £3,900,000 of those of
Trish joint-stock banks. The Bank of England
notes are legal tender, but the bank is obliged to
redeem them on demand in gold, The bank is also
required by its charter to give its notes in exchange
for gold bullion at the rate of £3 17s. 9d. per ounce
of standard gold, the persons presenting the gold
having to bear the cost of assaying. The mint
price thus established by law is less than the value
of the gold when coined by 4d., which thus con-
stitutes the mint charge for coining an ounce of
old.
7 The Session of Parliament.—The parliamen-
tary session of 1896 was opened on Feb. 11. The
Queen’s speech, after mentioning the Venezuelan dis-
pute, the Armenian troubles, the Transvaal affair,
the Afghan boundary settlement, the Siamese
boundary arrangement with France, the subjuga-
tion of Ashanti, the conquest of Chitral, an
extension of naval defenses, enumerated twelve
principal measures as representing the legislative
policy of the Government. The list comprised bills
dealing with naval defense, relief of agriculture,
elementary education, employers’ liability, Irish
land, Scotch public health, trade conciliation, light
railways, alien immigration, metropolitan water
supply, an Irish Agricultural Department, and the
law of evidence in criminal cases. Measures for
mitigating the distress of classes engaged in the
agricultural industry were placed at the head of
the list, and the condition of agriculture was de-—
clared to be disastrous beyond recent experience.
The creation of voluntary schools, the regulation of
pauper immigration, and the construction of light
railways for the rural districts were mentioned next
in order, and then the employers’ liability bill, the
Trish land bill, and the formation of an Irish Board
of Agriculture.
less urgent of these subjects, were introduced, but
never came to discussion, and others, notably those
relating to the liability of employers and alien im-
migration, were not brought before Parliament at
all. Certain subjects, on the other hand, demanded
more than one measure, such as the English agri-
cultural rating bill, which involved equivalent legis-
lation for Scotland and Ireland, and the British
light railways bill, which was accompanied by a bill
for similar railways in Ireland. Ministerial meas-
ures were introduced that were not mentioned in
the Queen’s speech—twice as many as were men-
tioned—and several of these consumed much time in
their discussion, such as the cattle diseases bill, the
coal mines regulation bill, the London cabs bill, the
the —
Some of the bills, dealing with the —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
truck bill, the laborers bill for Ireland. and the
locomotives on highways bill, all of which became
law, together with the companies bill, the London
University bill, the Irish education bill, the reserve
forces bill, the military works bill, the military lands
bill, and the military manceuvres bill, which failed
of enactment. The introduction of complicated
and contentious bills that provoked angry contro-
versies, and the careless and easy management of
Arthur J. Balfour as leader of the House, resulted
in the failure of the Government, in spite of its
enormous majority, to bring about results that re-
sembled in any degree the programme. The lamen-
table fiasco of the chief Government measure, the
education bill, was a victory that the weak and
divided Opposition hardly dreamed of attaining.
Mr. Balfour was able, however, to carry an impor-
tant new rule of procedure that insures an allot-
ment of time for the consideration of supply by
which the more important classes of estimates can
be adequately discussed. In the discussion in March
of the eaetntis of Herbert Whiteley that the
Government should do everything in its power to
secure by international agreement a stable mone-
tary tween gold and silver, Sir Michael Hicks-
Beach declared that, while the Government was
willing to make an effort in the direction of an in-
ternational agreement, through a conference or
through negotiations with other powers, with the
object of establishing a stable monetary par of ex-
change between gold and silver, it would do so only
on the distinct understanding that it was not pre-
— to abandon the gold standard in the United
ingdom. He said that in this determination all
the members of the Cabinet were united, including
those who were confirmed and pronounced bimetal-
lists, and Mr. Balfour followed with an argument
for bimetallism that he concluded with an admis-
sion that it was absolutely impossible to force upon
the commercial community a currency which it mis-
trusted and was not willing to accept. The prin-
cipal Government measures were brought in with
promising and timely readiness. The Lord Chan-
cellor’s law of evidence bill. Lord James’s water bill,
the reserve forces bill, the Scotch public health bill,
and the companies bill were initiated in the upper
house. The Irish education bill, which was not
brought in till May 5, was withdrawn because the
Roman Catholics declined to accept the boon of 10s.
for each pupil in denominational schools without
the conscience clause, when the offer was accom-
pened with the condition that such schools would
ave to submit to inspection. The London Uni-
versity bill was introduced in the House of Lords
on July 6 and the Irish light railways bill in the
House of Commons on July 9. The Scotch and
Irish rating bills had to wait till the fate of the
English measure was decided. In redemption of
the Conservative promise to relieve local taxation
for the benefit of agricultural property, the Govern-
ment carried, against the strenuous opposition of
the Liberals, this agricultural land rating bill,
granting for five years a subvention from the im-
perial treasury to the local authorities, estimated
at from £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 a year, equal to
half the rates on agricultural land. the relief
amounting to about 1s. an acre on the average.
Houses and buildings continue to pay in full and
are separately assessed. To facilitate the passage
of the bill, which was assailed by urban Conserva-
tives as well as the Radicals, the Government agreed
to limit its operation to five years, and promised an
inquiry into the reform of the whole system of
local taxation. This measure affords only a tem-
porary relief to the tenant farmers, for after a few
years their rents will be raised in proportion. A
Scotch rating bill was passed giving an equivalent
9
303
grant to Scotch farmers, and the Irish equivalent
grant was dealt with by temporary legislation.
The State Live Stock Commission, in a report
covering the two years ending July 23, 1896, says
that during that period it has inspected and tagged
17,400 cattle; of these, 4,938 were held for post-
mortem examination, 3,494 of which were tanked
and rendered unfit for food, and the remaining
1,444 were sold at an average of $5.50 per hundred,
ILLINOIS.
dressed weight. By this = pa of inspection,
$335,000 was saved to the shipper and producer,
the price secured being increased, and the con-
sumer was protected.
Decisions.—The circuit court of Urbana, in
June, ruled the “ flag law ” unconstitutional.
The State Supreme Court, in November, declared
unconstitutional the Torrens land-title act.
The county court at Chicago, in November, ren-
dered a decision that the new inheritance-tax law is
unconstitutional because the act was not properly
drawn and because the classification attempted in
the act makes unjust discrimination between per-
sons and is arbitrary and is not based upon sound
principles of public policy.
Political—The State Convention of the Pro-
hibition party assembled at Springfield on April 8.
The platform contained a preamble asserting the
belief that “the prohibition of the liquor traffic is
the most important issue in American politics,” and
resolutions declaring against all toleration of liquor
for a beverage, and that its manufacture and sale
for other purposes should be controlled by the
State. It declared eke alien ownership of land,
and in favor of equal suffrage; the extension of the
civil-Service-reform system; the securing public-
school facilities; the protection of the Sabbath;
the election of United States Senators by vote of
the people; arbitration between employers and em-
ployees; the creation of “a tariff commission re
resenting all national political parties as nearly
equal as possible, whose duty it shall be to recom-
mend annually to Congress such changes in tariff
laws as may be necessary to adjust the revenues to
the needs of the Government and to enable our
workingmen to receive fair wages for their labor” ;
the suppression of “all combinations designed to
enrich the few at the expense of the many”; and
the control by Government of all means of trans-
portation and communication. The following was
the financial plank :
“We declare that money should consist of gold,
silver, and paper, and be issued by the Government
directly to the people, without the intervention of
na rivate individual or corporation, and to be a
1 legal tender for all debt, both public and pri-
vate; that the Government should not discriminate
in favor of gold as against silver, and that its mints
should be open upon equal terms to both at the
ratio now established by law. We oppose the issu-
ing of Government bonds in times of peace.”
legates to the national convention and candi-
dates for presidential electors were selected, and
the following State ticket was put in nomination:
For Governor, Hale Johnson; for Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, E. A. Windell; for Secretary of State, Alonzo
E. Wilson; for Auditor, Arthur J. Bassett; for
Treasurer, E. K. Hays; for Attorney-General, Rob-
ert H. Patton; for Trustees of the State University,
Mrs. Lucy Page Gaston, Mrs. Carrie L. Grout, Mrs.
Ella M. Orr. On July 25 George W. Gere was
nominated for Governor, in place of Hale Johnson,
the former candidate, who resigned, having re-
ceived the nomination for Vice-President, and H. B.
Kepley for Lieutenant Governor.
n April 28 the Woman’s Republican State Con-
vention, composed of delegates from all of the 22
districts, met at Springfield and nominated as trus-
tee of the State University Mrs. Mary Carriel.
The Republican State Convention was held at
Springfield on April 29. The platform, after de-
nouncing the Democratic administrations—national
and State—declared in favor of a tariff to produce
revenue and protect home labor, and of the unre-
stricted exchange of noncompetitive articles; in
favor of the Monroe doctrine and of strengthening
our coast defenses and enlarging our navy; ex-
d49
pressed sympathy with Cuba; recommended to the
penple that they vote for the proposed amendment
to the Constitution submitted to them by the act of
the Legislature of 1895, permitting three articles of
the Constitution to be amended at one time: fa-
vored submitting to the people an amendment pro-
viding that the Legislature shall enact suitable laws
to regulate contracts between employees and em-
pega recommended a revision of the revenue
aws and further provision for the creation of a
board of assessors; provision for an improved
method of levying and collecting special assess-
ments for public improvements; and the enacting
of a law dae for the care and treatment of all
adjudged insane persons in State asylums. It de-
clared also: “The Republicans of Illinois are now,
as we ever have been, unyielding and emphatic in
our demands for honest money. We are opposed to
any and every scheme that will give to this country
a currency in any way depreciated or debased or in
any respect inferior to the money of the most ad-
vanced and intelligent nations of the earth. We
favor the use of silver as currency, but to the ex-
tent only and under such restrictions that parity
with gold can be maintained.” Delegates to the
national convention and candidates for presiden-
tial electors were selected, and the following State
ticket was nominated: For Governor, John R. Tan-
ner; for Lieutenant Governor, William A. North-
ecott; for Secretary of State, James A. Rose; for
Auditor, James S. McCullough; for Treasurer, Henry
L. Hertz; for Attorney-General, Edward C. Akin;
for Trustees of the State University, F. M. McKay,
Mrs. M. T. Carriel, Thomas J. Smith.
In May, at Chicago, the Socialist-Labor party en-
tered the field of State politics for the first time,
adopted a platform which declares that the eco-
nomic evils from which the people suffer are not
caused by the gold standard and will not be reme-
died in any way by the free coinage of silver, but
that what is wanted is to destroy the money power
by establishing the co-operative commonwealth ;
and nominated presidential electors and a complete
State ticket, headed by Charles Bastain for Govern-
or. On Sept. 28 this ticket was filed by petition,
1,569 names being signed thereto.
The State convention of the Democratic party
met at Peoria, June 23, and the 1,065 delegates,
after selecting delegates to the national conven-
tion and candidates for presidential electors, voted
unanimously for a platform that demanded “the
immediate restoration of the free and unlimited
coinage of both gold and silver at the ratio of 16
ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold of equal fine-
ness, with full legal-tender power to each metal,
without waiting for or depending on any other
nation on earth.”
Other declarations denounced the McKinley tariff
law, favored a tariff for revenue only, and declared
that Government should collect “no more taxes
than are necessary to defray the expenses of the
Government honestly and economically adminis-
tered”; demanded the “abolition of government
by injunction”; approved the administration of
Goy. Altgeld; demanded such legislation as will
require all property not exempt, and all men to pay
their fair share of taxes, and favored a constitutional
amendment that will allow local taxation for local
purposes; condemned the last General Assembly
for crippling the industrial arbitration law, and de-
manded the abolition of child labor in factories;
demanded the repeal of the flag law ; favored legis-
lation to prevent competition between convict and
outside free labor; demanded legislation for the
rotection of miners; favored an income tax, legis-
fates: in behalf of good roads, and the constitu-
tional amendment permitting three articles of the
350) ILLINOIS.
Constitution to be amended at one time. John P.
Altgeld was renominated for Governor; for. Lieu-
tenant Governor Monroe ©, Crawford was selected,
and the ticket was completed as follows: For Secre-
tary of State, Finis E. Downing; for Auditor, W. F.
Beck ; for Treasurer, Edward C. Pace; for Attorney-
General, George A. Trude ; for University Trustees,
Julia Holmes Smith, R. P. Morgan, M. W. Graham.
On Sept. 15 (the People’s party having agreed to
support the Democratic ticket if allowed to nominate
the Auditor and three presidential electors on that
ticket) W. F. Beck and three electors who had been
selected by the Democrats in June resigned, and A.
L. Marshall was nominated by the Populists for
Auditor.
On Aug. 12, at Springfield, representatives of the
People’s party met and adopted a platform which
approved that adopted by the National Populist
Convention, demanded a more equitable system of
taxation, and favored local option in taxation to
that end; an amendment to the Constitution giv-
ing the Legislature power to enact laws regulating
contracts between corporations and their employees ;
the proposed amendment to the Constitution which
provides that the Legislature may submit three
amendments to be voted upon at a general elec-
tion; the prevention of competition between the
products of convict and free labor; the adoption of
asystem of direct legislation in dealing with State
and local affairs; and declared that the adminis-
tration of Gov. Altgeld deserved unstinted praise.
The Gold-standard Democrats met in State con-
vention at Chicago Aug. 25. The platform had but
little to say regarding silver, but was uncompromis-
ing in its declaration for the gold standard. It de-
manded “the retirement of the United States from
the banking business and the gradual redemption
and cancellation of the United States and Treasury
notes”; denounced the Republican convention at
St. Louis as being in the control of “ intriguing at-
torneys of favored interests ” ; declared the Chicago
convention to have been dominated by “ agitators,
sectionalists, and demagogues,” and denounced
“the shameful demand for a debased dollar” of the
latter convention; extolled President Cleveland ;
and declared in favor of the constitutional inde-
pendence of the United States Supreme Court. The
convention selected delegates to the Indianapolis con-
vention and chose presidential electors at large and
nominated the following ticket: For Governor,
John C. Black; for Lieutenant Governor, Chester
A. Babeock; for Secretary of State, Charles §.
Wiley; for Auditor, F. E. Brink; for Treasurer,
Edward Ridgeley ; for Attorney-General, William
8. Forman; for University Trustees, 8. H. Busey,
C. E. Babcock, August Niehaus. On Sept 9 Gen.
Black notified the committee that he could not ac-
cept the nomination for Governor, and William S.
Forman was nominated for that office, and the
nomination for Attorney-General, thus made va-
cant, was given to Daniel V. Samuels.
At Chicago, on Sept. 15, the Middle-of-the-Road
section of the People’s party met and adopted the
following resolution: “ We do most heartily in-
dorse the wisdom of the national convention in
the nomination of Thomas E. Watson for Vice-
President of the United States, and most emphat-
ically denounce any action which prevents the
Populists of any State from using the privilege of
casting their ballots for him.” Electors at large
were selected, and a State ticket, excepting the
Governor, was nominated. Following is the ticket:
For Lieutenant Governor, Henry D. Lloyd; for
Secretary of State, L. A. Quelmalz; for Auditor,
Grant Dunbar; for Treasurer, Joseph Schwerzen ;
for Attorney-General, EK. I. Burdick ; for University
Trustee, Mrs. Fanny Kavanaugh.
INDIA.
In October a nominating petition bearing 1,523
names was filed with the Secretary of State by the
National party. A full electoral and State ticket
was named, with Isaac W. Higgsfor Governor. The
National party represents the broad-gauge wing of
the original Prohibition party.
At the election in November there were 138 tickets.
on the ballot, as follows: Democrat, Republican,
Prohibition, Peoples’ party, Socialist Labor party,
National Garey, Middle-of-the-Road party, Inde-
pendent Gold-standard Democracy, Independent.
party, Independent Democratic party, Independent
Silver party, Independent Republican party, and
National Silver party.
At the election in November the Republican
ticket was successful. For Governor, Tanner re-
ceived 587,587 votes; Altgeld, 474,270; Gere, 14,-
582; Forman, 8,100; Bastain, 985. The vote for
aa electors was: Republican, 607,130;
emocratic, 464,523; Prohibition, 9,796; Gold
Democrat, 6,390; Social Labor, 1,147; Middle-of-
the-Road People’s, 1,090; National, 793. The con-
stitutional amendment was adopted by a vote of
163,057. The Legislature of 1897 will be divided
poeees as follows: Senate—Republicans 39,
emocrats 11, Populist 1; House—Republicans 87,
Democrats 64, Populists 2.
INDIA, an empire in southern Asia, subject to
Great Britain, and governed under general acts of
the British Parliament by a Governor General under
instructions from the Secretary of State for India,
a member of the British Cabinet. The Earl of
Elgin and Kincardine has been Governor General
since October, 1893. The ordinary members of the
Governor General’s Council in the beginning of
1896 were Sir A. E. Miller, Sir Charles B. Pritchard,
Lieut.-Gen. Sir H. Brackenbury, Sir James West-
land, Sir Charles H. T. Crossthwaite, and J. Wood-
burn. The ordinary members are nominated by
the Crown, The commander in chief of the forces
and the governor or lieutenant governor of the
province where the Council sits act as extraordi-
nary members. The ordinary members of the Coun-
cil are re-enforced by 10 to 16 additional mem-
bers nominated by the Governor General, 5 of
them on the recommendation of the provincial
councils and the Caleutta Chamber of Commerce,
to form the Legislative Council, which frames regu-
lations to be submitted to the Governor General and
drafts of law that he forwards to the Government in
London to lay before Parliament. The Secretary
of State for India in the Cabinet of Lord Salisbury
is Lord George Hamilton.
Area and Population.—The Indian Empire,
including the protected states and territories in
Asia and Africa placed under the control of the
Indian Government, has a total area of 1,987,427
square miles, with a population of 291,381,000. The
area directly administered by the Governor General
is 965,005 square miles, having a population in 1891
of 221,172,952, divided into 112,542,739 males and
108,630,213 females. The average density of popu-
lation in British India was 229 per square mile. The
Bengal Presidency, including Bengal, Behar, Chota
Nagpur, and Orissa, had 471 inhabitants to the square
mile, the total population being 71,346,987. In the
Northwest Provinces and Oudh, with a population
of 46,905,085, the density was 436 to the square mile ;
Bombay, with a total population of 15,985,270, had
07; Madras, with 35,630,440 inhabitauts, had 252;
the Punjab, with 20,866,847 population, had 189;
Assam, with 5,476,838, had 112; Berar, with 2,897,-
491, had 164; the Central Provinces, with 10,784,-
294, had 125; Sinde, with 2,871,774, had 60; and
Upper and Lower Burmah, with 7,605,560, had 44 to
the square mile. The Berars are only provisionally
placed under British administration. The native
INDIA.
states that are ruled by their own princes under the
supervision and control of the Indian Government
have an aggregate area of 595.167 square miles, with
a total population in 1891 of 66,050,479. The largest
is the Mohammedan state of Hyderabad, covering
82,698 square miles, and having 11,537,040 inhabit-
ants. Baroda has 2,415,396 inhabitants; Mysore,
4,943.604; Cashmere, 2,543,952; the states of Raj-
utana, 12,016,102; the Maratha states of Indore,
iewsh, Gwalior, and Bhopal, and other states in
Central India, 10,318,812; Travancore, in Madras,
2,557,736; Ben states, 3,296,379; Punjab states,
4,263,280. Of the total population of India, 85,670,-
000 speak Hindi, 41,340,000 Bengali, 19,880,000 Tel-
ugu, 18,890,000 Marathi, 17,720,000 Punjabi, 15,230,-
000 Tamil, 10,620,000 Gujarati, 9,750,000 Canarese,
9,010,000 Uriya, 5,930,000 Burmese, 5,480,000 Malay-
ulum, 3,670,000 Urdu, 2,590,000 Sindhi, 1,710,000
Santali, and smaller populations the Pahari, Santali,
Assamese, Gondi, Matenst, Pushtu, Karen, Tulu,
Kol, Kachhi, gypsy, Oraon, and Kond tongues.
' The English-speaking population numbered 238,-
499 in 1891; the number of British birth was 100,-
551. The total number born outside of India was
661,637, of whom 478,656 came from neighboring
countries, 60,519 from remote Asiatic countries.
10,095 from Continental Europe, America, and
Australia, and 11,816 from Africa. The emigra-
tion of coolies in 1894 was 17,932, against 12,636
in 1893 and 13,751 in 1892; of these, 1,029 went
to Mauritius, 3.429 to Natal, 3,896 to the British
West Indies, 7,277 to British Guiana, 1,082 to the
Fiji Islands, and 1.219 to Surinam. The average
death rate in British India was 25°52 per thousand
in 1893, whereas in 1880 it was only 20°98. The
largest Indian cities are Calcutta, with 861,764 in-
habitants; Bombay, with 821,764; Madras, with
452,518; Hyderabad, with 415,039; Lucknow, with
273,028; and Benares, with 219,467. Mandalay,
Cawnpur, Bangalore, Rangoon, Lahore, Allahabad,
Agra, Patna, Poonah, and Jaipur have over 150,000 ;
11 others have over 100,000, 37 more over 50,000,
40 between 35.000 and 50,000, and 109 smaller ones
have over 20,000.
Finances.—The final accounts for 1894—95 give
as the total ordinary gross revenue Rx 95,187,429,
of which the land tax produced Rx 25,408,272; the
opium duty, Rx 7,323,757; the salt monopoly, Rx
8,665,749 ; stamps, Rx 4,625,680; excise, Rx 5,527,-
676; provincial taxes, Rx 3,541,154; customs, Rx
3,854,955 ; licenses, Rx 1,808,060 ; forests, Rx 1,631,-
548; registration, Rx 418,200; tributes, Rx 780,-
070; interest. Rx 815,062; posts, telegraphs, and
mint, Rx 2,645,618; legislation and justice, Rx
679,360: police, Rx 406,222; marine. Rx 154,883 ;
public instruction, Rx 388,495; public works, Rx
24,275,452 ; the military department, Rx 1,010,197 ;
miscellaneous sources, Rx 1,227,019. The total ex-
penditures amounted to Rx 94,494,319, of which
the interest on the debt took Rx 5,124,017; repay-
ments, Rx 1,786,905: cost of collection, Rx 7,935,-
136; posts, telegraphs, and mint, Rx 2,466,175;
administration, Rx 2,086,903 ; legislation and jus-
tice, Rx 3,975,715; police, Rx 3.989.003 ; the navy,
Rx 672,642 ; foreign affairs, Rx 897,584; public in-
struction, Rx 2,012,611; ecclesiastical and medical
affairs, Rx 1,200,751: pensions and aid, Rx 5,098,-
693 ; printing office, etc., Rx 967,012; famine relief
and insurance, Rx 610,235: public works, Rx 31,-
917,830; the army, Rx 24,313.958 ; provincial defi-
cits, Rx 560,860.
The improvement in the revenue over the origi-
nal estimate was Rx 2,823,096. The rise in the
price of opium accounted for Rx 1,569,000. There
Was an increase of Rx 941,000 in customs, due
mainly to the taxation imposed at the beginning of
the year. The increase of expenditure was Rx
existing taxes.
1
or
2
vw
‘
1,828,000, which was more than accounted for by a
loss of Rx 2,121,468 in exchange. The average
value of the rupee was 13:1d. instead of 14d. as
estimated. The total expenditure was Rx 848,000
under the estimate; instead of the estimated de-
ficiency of Rx 301,900 there was a surplus of Rx
693,100. The total loss by exchange amounted to
Rx 14,615,300, being 26 per cent. of the total net
expenditure.
The budget for 1895-96 made the total receipts
Rx 96,924.300 and the total expenditure Rx 96,878,-
000. In the revised budget of 1895-96 the Gov-
ernment had to provide for the unexpected expe-
dition to Chitral, which cost Rx 1,600,000, besides
which the addition to the famine insurance fund
was Rx 530,000, the revision of the cotton duties
entailed a loss of Rx 260,000, and Rx 400.000 were
repaid to the provincial governments. Neverthe-
less the savin estimates showed a surplus of Rx
905,000 and the gross accounts one of Rx 1,604,000.
Revenue showed an increase of Rx 873,000, of which
Rx 532,000 was due to a further improvement in
opium. The remission of the cotton duties, on the
other hand, cost Rx 495,000. The saving in ex-
change was Rx 1,601,000, the price of the rupee,
estimated at 13°09d., having been 13°68d.
In framing the budget for the year ending March
31, 1897, Sir James Westland, the Indian Minister
of Finance, was able to arrive at a surplus of Rx
463,000 by reducing the famine grant from Rx
1,500,000 to Rx 1,000,000 a year and by estimating
the rate of exchange at a figure which, though
apparently justified by the course of the market,
was much higher than he would have ventured to
propose a year before. In the space of ten years
new taxation to the extent of Rx 6,000,000 or Rx
7,000,000 per annum has been laid upon the Indian
people, and during the same period an equal
amount has been added by the expansion of pre-
Of this, Rx 2,300,000 represents
the augmentations in the salt revenue, and Rx 4,-
600.000 more is levied on the land, both additional
burdens resting on the poorest classes. For the
extensive public works contemplated by the Gov-
ernment a loan of Rx 4,000,000 was authorized to
be raised at 3 per cent. The rise of the rupee and
the improvement in the finances, changing a defi-
cit of Rx 1,500,000 in 1894 to a surplus of Rx
1,600,000 in 1896, had a favorable infiuence on the
eredit of India in the London market; whereas a
4-per-cent. loan could only be floated below par in
1889, in 1896 the 3-per-cent. loan was covered sev-
eral times over and taken at 110. The consolidated
debt on March 31, 1895, amounted to Rx 218.379,-
566, of which Rx 104,373,740 were payable in India
and Rx 114,005.826 in England. The unfunded
debt was Rx 13,907,320, making the total liabilities
Rx 232,286,886.
The Army.—Under the act of Parliament passed
in 1893, which went into force on April 1, 1895, the
Indian troops are united into one army, the sepa-
rate commands of the Bombay and Madras presi-
dencies being done away with. There are now 4
corps, each under a lieutenant general, and the
whole army is directly commanded by the com-
mander-in-chief and controlled by the Government
of India. The Punjab command consists of 3 Brit-
ish and 15 native regiments of cavalry, 14 British
and 40 native battalions of infantry, 17 British and
5 native field batteries, and 5 batteries of British
and 1 of native fortress artillery, with 2 native
companies of engineers, the total strength for 1896
being 20,633 British and 40,895 native troops. The
Bengal command comprises 3 regiments of British
and 9 of native cavalry, 17 British and 25 native in-
fantry battalions, 18 British field and 9 British for-
tress batteries, 2 native mountain batteries, and 1
352
native engineer corps, having a total strength of
22,673 British and 28,625 native troops. The Ma-
dras command comprises 2 British and 3 native
cavalry regiments, 10 British and 30 native infantry
battalions, 11 British batteries of field and 4 of for-
tress artillery, and 9 companies of native engineers,
a total strength of 13,940 British and 16,422 native
troops. The Bombay command consists of 1 British
regiment of cavalry and 8 native regiments, 11
British and 25 native battalions, 15 field and 9 for-
tress batteries, 2 native mountain batteries, and 2
- corps of native engineers, the whole numbering 16,-
422 British and 29,175 native troops. The native
contingents of Hyderabad, Central India, and Raj-
putana and the imperial service troops in the other
native states number 29,320, making the total
strength of the active forces in 1896 under the con-
trol of the Indian Government 239,758 men, com-
prising 73,668 British soldiers and 166,090 natives.
The native reserves have been increased from 7,093
to 15,567 men in five years. The imperial service
troops in April, 1896, numbered 19,013. The Eu-
ropean volunteers numbered 30,000. The Indian
army has been rearmed with Lee-Metford magazine
rifles for the British infantry, Martini-Henry rifles
and carbines for the native troops, and 12-pounder
breechloading guns for the horse and field artillery.
The system of mixed battalions and regiments that
has been followed for the native troops since the
mutiny is being changed, and the men are being
redistributed into class regiments of Brahmins, Raj-
puts, Jats, and Mohammedans, Goorkhas, Sikhs,
and Punjabis. The pay of the native infantry has
been increased to 2 rupees.
The Navy.—The naval force of the Indian Goy-
ernment consists of 2 old ironclad turret ships, 2
dispatch vessels, 2 first-class torpedo gunboats, 7
first-class torpedo boats, 4 troop ships, and a sub-
marine mining flotilla.
Commerce.—The total imports for the year end-
ing March 31, 1895, were valued at Rx 83,110,200,
against Rx 95,482,688 in 1894; total exports, Rx
117,139,850, against Rx 110,603,561. The imports
of merchandise from Great Britain in 1895 amount-
ed to Rx 51,105,757; from British possessions, Rx
_ 6,721,417; from foreign countries, Rx 12,340,264;
imports of Government stores, Rx 3,361,555; im-
ports of precious metals, Rx 9,581,207. The exports
of Indian produce to Great Britain were Rx 32,795,-
828 ; to British possessions, Rx 20,645,366; to for-
eign countries, Rx 50,316,744; exports of Govern-
ment stores, Rx 98,779; exports of foreign mer-
chandise, Rx 5,057,561; exports of precious metals,
Rx 8,226,072. Of the merchandise imports 9:3 per
cent. in value consisted of articles of food and
drink, 8°3 per cent. of raw materials, and 82°4 per
cent. of manufactured products; of the exports, 40°6
per cent. consisted of articles of food and drink,
469 per cent. of raw materials, and 12°5 per cent.
of manufactured articles.
The imports of cotton cloth in 1895 were Rx 29,-
822,000 in value; machinery and rolling stock, Rx
4,039,000; iron and steel goods, Rx 4,021,000; sugar,
Rx 2,875,000; cotton yarns, Rx 2,851,000; petro-
leum, Rx 2,123,000; woolen cloth, Rx 1,542,000;
coal, Rx 1,474,000; apparel, etc., Rx 1,304.000 ; cop-
per manufactures, Rx 1,298,000; raw silk, Rx 1,-
277,000; salt, Rx 842,000; spices, Rx 777,000; spir-
its, Rx 730,000. Among the exports rice stood for
Rx 13,807,000; jute, Rx 10,576,000; opium, Rx
9,065,000; cotton, Rx 8,073,000; tea, Rx 7,556,000;
linseed, Rx 6,746,000; skins, Rx 6,560,000; cotton
yarns, Rx 5,672,000; indigo, Rx 4,746,000; jute
manufactures, Rx 4,211,000; cereals, Rx 3,250,000;
rapeseed, Rx 2,860,000; coffee, Rx 2,122,000; ses-
ame, Rx 1,881,000; cotton goods, Rx 1,477,000;
wool, Rx 1,377,000; peanuts, Rx 1,303,000.
INDIA.
The agitation raised in India in 1894 against the
exclusion of cotton yarns and fabrics from the im-
port tariff schedules resulted in a duty being im-
posed on them in December of that year, while to
deprive it of any protective character and to satisfy
the Lancashire manufacturers a countervailing in-
ternal tax was placed upon cotton yarns of all counts
above No. 20. The British manufacturers then be-
gan to agitate for the repeal of the cotton duties,
Early in 1896 the rate of duty on dyed yarns was
reduced to 4 of 1 per cent., and when this did not
appease the Lancashire mill-owners the Government
in February, 1896, reduced the import duty on all
cotton manufactures from 5 per cent. to 34 per
cent, and at the same time placed the same duty
of 34 per cent. ad valorem upon all cotton manu-
factures produced in Indian mills. This affected
severely not only the Indian consumers but the In-
dian manufactures, who had not suffered from the
duty on fine yarns, of which a comparatively small
quantity is spun in India.
For the year ending March 31, 1896, the total im- *
ports of merchandise were Rx 69,316,000 in value,
against Rx 70,167,000 in 1895. The imports of cot-
ton goods fell off ey Rx 7,000,000, the markets
having been oversupplied in anticipation of the
duty on cottons. Nearly all other articles, coal and
woolen goods being notable exceptions, showed an
increase.
The export trade in 189,496 showed large in-
creases in most articles of importance, especiall
cotton, but there was a decline in jute, opium, oil
seeds, and wool. The imports of gold were on a
scale unknown since 1891. The share of the trade
taken by Great Britain was not as great as in 1895
in consequence of the decline in cotton imports.
Trade with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bel-
gium continued to make great advances, a direct
export from India having followed upon a great
opening of the Indian market to their goods. The
pre any of the trade with Japan was still more
marked and rapid, the demand for Indian cotton
for the rapidly expanding Japanese cotton manu-
facture being succeeded by a constantly increasing
importation of Japanese products and manufac-
tures. The exportation of Indian cotton yarns to
Japan has decreased greatly since the Japanese
have been able to spin their own yarns, but the
new trade is enormously greater. The trade with
China has recovered from the shock it received con-
sequent upon the closure of the Indian mints. The
high price of opium in 1896 and the increased de-
mand in China for cotton yarns from Bombay
made the total value of the trade much greater than
in 1894, The trade with Asiatic Russia is expanding
rapidly in consequence of the development of the
Indian market for Russian petroleum, while the
trade with the United States is falling off propor-
tionately; the imports of Russian petroleum are
now 85 per cent. as great as those of American.
Navigation.—The number of vessels entered at
the ports during the year 189495 was 5,309, of
4,156,386 tons, against 5,030, of 3,797,911 tons, in
1893-94; the number cleared was 5,268, of 4,099,-
436 tons, against 4,965, of 3,867,975 tons, in the pre-
ceding year. The total arrivals comprised 2,209
British vessels, of 3,406,546 tons; 997 British In-
dian, of 145,711 tons; 618 foreign, of 525,233 tons ;
and 1,485 native, of 78,896 tons. The departures
comprised 2,208 British, of 3,378,303 tons; 996
British Indian, of 142,481 tons; 564 foreign, of 500,-
760 tons; and 1,500 native, of 77,892 tons. The
number arriving by way of the Suez Canal was 811,
of 1,834,009 tons, against 712, of 1,575,836 tons, in
1894; the number cleared for the Suez Canal route
was 903, of 1,980,900 tons, against 928, of 1,987,474
tons, in 1894.
INDIA. 35
Communications.—The railroads in operation
on March 31, 1895, had a, total length of 18.855
miles, of which 8,767 miles were state lines worked
by companies, 5,377 miles state lines worked by the
state, 2,588 miles lines worked by guaranteed com-
panies, 407 miles lines worked by assisted compa-
nies, 672 miles lines owned by native states and
worked by companies, 146 miles lines owned by na-
tive states and worked by thé state railroad agen-
cy, 839 miles lines owned and worked by the native
states, and 59 miles foreign lines. The capital cost
of the state railways was Rx 158,027,644; of state
lines leased to companies, Rx 31,185,523 ; of guar-
anteed railways, Rx 49,738,028; of subsidized lines,
Rx 208,044; of assisted railways, Rx 6,088,092; of
lines belonging to native states, Rx 10,537,806 ;
of foreign railways, Rx 1,688,136; of new sur-
veys. Rx 471,317: of coal mines, Rx 308,449; total,
Rx 255,253,039. The gross earnings of the rail-
roads in 1894 were Rx 25,508,856, against Rx 24,-
087,547 in 1893. The working expenses were Rx
11,983,920, or 46°98 per cent. of the receipts, in 1894,
compared with Rx 11,354,806, or 47:14 per cent.
The net earnings were Rx 13,524,986 in 1894, giv-
ing a mean profit of 569 per cent. on capital,
against Rx 12,732,741, giving an average return of
5°46 per cent. in 1893. For 1895 the gross earnings
were about Rx 26,000,000 and the net revenue Rx
14,000,000, giving a return of ‘5-78 per cent. on the
capital invested. The length of railroads under
construction and authorized before March 31, 1896,
was 4,573 miles, requiring an expenditure of Rx
35,000,000, nearly one third of which was to be ex-
nded by the state and by private companies dur-
ing the ensuing year. During 1895-’96 there were
822 miles of new railroads built. The total length
of railroads either built or sanctioned was 26,466
miles on March 31, 1896; the length open to traf-
fic, 19,677 miles.
During 1894 the number of letters, postal cards,
and money orders that passed through the post
office of British India was 335,617,159; of news-
papers, 26,363,793 ; of parcels, 2,339,416 ; of packets,
4,702,537. The receipts were Rx 1,557,597; ex-
penses, Rx 1,558,281.
__ The Government telegraph lines had on March
31, 1895, a length of 44,648 miles, with 138.256
miles of wire. The number of paid dispatches for-
warded during the year was 4,391,226; receipts,
Rx 978,699 ; expenses, Rx 807,881.
Curreney.—The fall in the price of silver in the
course of twenty years has added greatly to the
burden of taxation on the people of India and to
the difficulties of the financial administration of the
Indian Government, because fixed charges amount-
ing to £16,000,000 have to be paid in England an-
nually, consisting of interest on loans, salaries of
the higher officials, pensions, etc. When 10 rupees
uniformly exchanged fora pound sterling the sala-
ries of the British civil and military officers and
__ their pensions were reckoned indifferently in Indian
_ or British currency. As soon as a discrepancy in
the former parity of silver and gold began to ap-
pear the Government decreed that the salaries and
pensions of the covenanted civilians and army
officers should be paid in gold at the old rate of £1
for Rx 1, in order that they should be enabled to
maintain and educate their families in England on
the same scale as formerly and lay by as much
money. With the rupee worth only 1s. 4d. instead
of 2s. the Government has to raise Rx 24,000,000 to
_ meet. the fixed charges in England where formerly
Rx 16,000,000 was enough. The difference is called
the loss by exchange. In 1892, when the exchange
value of the rupee fell to 1s. 1d., the English Gov-
- ernment decided to attempt to establish the gold
_ Standard in India as a means of relieving the in-
VOL, XXxvVI.—23 A ;
‘were before the closure of the mints.
vv 3
creasing embarrassment of the Government finances
and the inconveniences and impediments caused to ~
trade by the fluctuations in the gold value of silver.
In accordance with the recommendations of a com-
mittee over which the English Lord Chancellor
bee ie the Governor General carried through the
egislative Council on June 26, 1893, a bill provid-
ing for the closure of the Indian mints to the coin-
age of silver for the public and establishing 1s. 4d.
for the rupee or 15 rupees to the sovereign as the
rate at which gold coin or bullion would be received
at the mints and English sovereigns of full weight
at the treasuries. Coinage on Government account
was still continued. Silver has been the legal
standard since 1835, and large amounts were coined
annually before the closure of the mints. Silver
also passes current by weight, and since 1893 the
native princes have coined silver rupees to such an
extent that the Indian Government concluded to
take measures to arrest the impertation of silver
bullion by the imposition of an import duty. Gold
is coined in small quantities by the Indian mints,
but it is not current as money and is-not legal
tender. The Calcutta and Bombay mints issued
Rx 13,163,474 rupees of silver coin, in 1892 the
coinage was Rx 5,553,974, and in 1893 it was Rx
12,691,526 ; in 1894 it was reduced to Rx 4,812,500,
and in 1895 to Rx 94,595. A Government paper
eurrency has been issued for limited districts, within
which it is legal tender, since 1861; the amount of
these notes in circulation on March 31, 1895, was
Rx 30,700,010. The value of the rupee is not de-
termined by the market price of silver since the
closure of the mints and the placing of an import
duty on silver, but the changes in the exchange rates
for the rupee have had an important influence on
the silver market, if indeed this has not been the
dominant factor. A wide,and apparently widening,
distance is established between the bullion and the
exchange values of the rupee, and their fluctuations
have not coincided. During 1896 the exchange
rates for the rupee remained steady, with an upward
tendency. While the Indian mints were opened
and the United States Treasury was a purchaser of
534,000,000 ounces of silver, India and the United
States were the only large consumers of silver in
the world, but when both these outlets were closed
India remained a large wholesale market for silver,
the only one still open. The imports of silver in
1896 were rather more than half as large as they
Before the
closure most of the silver imported went into the
mints, but it was only for the purpose of obtaining
material of ascertained purity for the manufacture
of ornaments, into wich a large proportion of the
rupees were commonly converted as soon as they were
eoined. The manufacture of ornaments goes on
unabated, but, rupees being now too dear, imported
bars and coin are used for the purpose. This de-
mand for silver in India for ornaments takes about
one sixth of the world’s annual production and
has hitherto been the only constant and uniform
demand since demonetization. Every material rise
in the sterling value of the rupee is followed by an
active demand for and fresh importations of silver
bars, and thus produces an approximately equivalent
rise in the price of silver. In February, 1896, A. J.
Balfour announced that the British Government
would be willing to consider in conjunction with
the Indian Government the reopening of the mints
of India if such a measure could be made part of a
satisfactory scheme of currency reform. In Decem-
ber, 1896, the Legislative Council voted to add 2
crores of rupees to the paper-currenecy reserve,
making it 10 instead of 8 crores, and thus releasing
Rx 2,000,000 of coin in order to relieve the existing
monetary stringency.
354
Boundary Delimitations.—The demarcation of
the boundary between Afghanistan and India, as
provided by the Durand treaty of 1893, was practi-
cally brought to a conclusion by the operations of
Col. T, H. Holdich and Capt. A. H. MacMahon,
who traced the line between Persia and Beluchistan
northward from Kuhak and the Afghan line west-
ward to the point where Afghanistan, Persia, and
Beluchistan meet. By a later agreement, concluded
with Salar Gholam Haidar Khan in December,
1895, the territory in the basin of the Chitral river,
called Bashgal or Arnawai, was withdrawn from
the British sphere and added to the possessions of
the Ameer. Daring 1895-96 Capt. MacMahon and
an Afghan commissioner traced the line from the
Khwaja Amran range past Shorawak and across
the desert to the Helmund valley and thence south-
ward to Persian Seistan. There remained about
100 miles of unfixed boundary between Asmar and
Lundi Kotal in the Khyber. The Ameer in his
agreement promised not to interfere in Swat,
Bajaur, or Chitral and to relinquish his claim to
the Waziri country, except Birmal, and to Chageh,
while he was allowed to retain Asmar and the valley
above it. In the pues of 1896 a body of Afghan
militia occupied the Mattai valley in Bajaur, the
clans of which country had been called upon to pay
taxes to the Ameer. To insure the obedience of
the conquered state of Kafiristan the Ameer made
a durable road from Jellalabad to Asmar,
Insurrection of the Moplahs.—Encouraged,
perhaps, by the insurrection of the natives against
the Portuguese authorities in Goa, which began
with a mutiny on Sept. 14, 1895, of the battalion
ordered to Mozambique, the Moplahs of the British
coast districts of southwestern India declared a
Jjehad against the Hindus, and committed many
fanatical outrages before they were reduced to sub-
jection by the Indian troops. The Moplahs are a
sect originally planted in Malabar by Arabian
settlers who converted low-caste Hindus to Islam,
and they now number about 1,000,000 of the most
ardent and fanatical Mussulmans in [ndia, many of
‘whom are dedicated to God by their parents before
birth, and hence regard the destruction or conver-
sion of the infidel as their chief duty. On March 1,
1896, an English regiment attacked a large body of
the fanatics and killed over 100. Other bands were
pursued by the soldiery and the police, and were
not reduced until nearly all were slain. The soldiers
mowed them down from a distance, beyond the range
of their old muskets. All offers of mercy they
scorned, and they deliberately presented themselves
as targets for the British bullets, believing that to
die thus for the faith was to render secure their
admission: to paradise. On one occasion 92 of them
who had taken up a position in a Hindu temple,
armed with matchlocks and swords, died fighting
to the last man, declaring, when implored to lay
down their arms, that death was the thing they most
wished for.
Famine and Plague.—Failure of the winter
rains in northern India caused early in 1896 great
distress among the population of the Northwest
Provinces and Oudh, the Central Provinces, and
Rajputana. The provincial governments gave em-
ployment on relief works to many thousands, and
the commencement of railroads that were contem-
plated was hastened in order to provide work. In
the summer there was complete drought in northern
and central India. All crops also failed, and the
prices of food rose to double the normal figures.
Grain riots occurred in several places, For a consid-
erable time the numbers employed on relief works ex-
ceeded 300,000. Wheat was shipped from California
to Calcuttain the autumn. The wheat-eating popu-
lation of the Northwest Provinces and the Punjab
INDIA.
suffered the most. The exports of wheat from In-
dia, which have decreased since 1887, when over
22,000,000 hundredweight was exported, except in
the exceptional year of 1892, when they were 30,-
000,000 hundredweight, have fallen below 10,000,000
hundredweight a year in the past three years. From
the beginning of 1896 very little was shipped abroad.
As the drought continued, the autumn crops were
seriously damaged in a large part of the Northwest-
ern Provinces, in most of Oudh, in southern and
central Punjab, in several districts in the Central
Provinces, in parts of Bombay, and in Upper Burmah,
The parts of India affected corresponded closely
with the famine area in 1877, but within these dis-
tricts the irrigated area has since then been increased
by many million acres, and the railroads open have
two and a half times the length, and carry freight
much cheaper. The Indian people feel sore against
the British for having diverted the famine insurance
fund of Rx 1,500,000 a year to military expenses,
Though agricultural operations have been extended,
and the population has increased by 50,000,000,
British administration has impoverished India by
destroying the old industries and draining a large
share of the profits of commerce and of the taxes
out of the country. The average annual earnin
in India are estimated at 28 rupees for each indi-
vidual, a twentieth as much as in England. The
salt tax in many districts has been increased five-
fold by the British, and the mass of people do not
obtain half enough of this necessary article, and
great numbers get but one scanty meal a day. Sir —
C. A. Elliott has estimated the number of half-
starved people at 70,000,000, and Sir W. W. Hunter
at 40,000,000. The deterioration of the physique of
the population is a matter of common observation
among officials, and is telling on the productive
capacity of the laborers, and also on the recruiting
of the Indian army, compelling the Government to
obtain her soldiers among the Goorkhas of Nepaul
and the Beluchis and other better-fed peoples of |
the native states. While there were 13 famines
and an estimated loss of 5,000,000 lives from 1802
to 1854, there were 16 famines with a loss of over
12,000,000 of lives from 1860 to 1879. The Govern-
ment in its scheme of famine insurance, which has
been several times interrupted for the sake of push-
ing the frontier defenses, has advanced the railroads
for the distribution of food in preference to irriga-
tion canals and reservoirs for extending its produe-
tion, on the presumption that the latter works tend
to encourage a local increase of population up to the
limits of the enlarged production. The larger pro-
tective canals irrigate at present an area of 8,500,000
acres, and petty works constructed out of local reve-
nues a further area of 5,000,000 acres, producing to-
gether crops valued at Rx 37,000,000, and earning
from 4 to 7 per cent. on the capital invested by the
state, except in Bengal and Bombay, where the
canals do not pay. The whole expenditure on the
main systems has not exceeded £30,000,000, and on
the minor works Rx 3,000,000. When the distress
first showed itself some of the local authorities de-
voted their relief funds to the digging of wells, and
these immediately helped the situation of the people,
enabling them to sow rabi and other crops. Actual
famine began to be felt in November, when the au-—
tumn crops failed to ripen and winter crops could not
be sown except where there were wells. Throughout
the whole length and breadth of India the rainfall was
deficient, except in a few localities. In the Allaha-
bad, Lucknow, Faizabad, and Agra divisions of the
Northwest Provinces there was a total failure of
crops over an area containing 13,000,000 inhabitants,
and a severe failure over an area containing 26,500,-
000.. In Oudh and in the neighborhood of Benares _
wells were sunk to relieve the distress, which had
| a
is
a ¥
i
INDIANA,
been felt from the beginning of the year. In the
lateau districts of the Central Provinces, in the
atna division and other parts of Bengal, in the
central part and the rice-growing coast districts of
Bombay, through Berar, in the Circars and Deccan
districts of Madras, in Upper Burmah, in a large
part of the Punjab and several districts of Rajpu-
tana, and in Hyderabad, Bhurtpur, Dholpur, Jais-
almere, Bikanir, Tonk, Gwalior, Bagkelkhand, and
Bundelkhand among the native states, the people
were immediately affected by the failure of their
crops; but owing to the improvements in railroad
communication actual starvation was averted in the ©
stricken districts ay spreading the distress over the
whole of India. hen grain merchants advanced
prices to four times the customary rates, serious
riots occurred at Sholapur, Kurai, and other places,
and the police were obliged to fire upon the mobs
that broke open and looted shops and granaries.
The population suffering from total drought was
36,000,000, while 18,000,000 were threatened with
famine unless rain came in time to sow the spring
crop, not counting 18,000,000 more in the native
states stricken or threatened with famine.
cember a good rainfall saved the crops in Madras
and Bombay, and improved the prospects in other
_ provinces, but it was generally very light. The
storm visited the Deccan, passed through the Cen-
tral Provinces, was felt in the Northwestern Prov-
inces, and reached the Patna division of Bengal.
_ An offer of wheat to be paid for by public subscrip-
tions in Russia was not favorably received by
the Indian Government. In London a generous
fund was raised by the Lord Mayor. The Hindu
landowners and merchants combined intelligently
the native religious duty of almsgiving on a great
scale with furnishing work for the idle vi and
importations of grain to be sold at low prices. Re-
lief so directed benefited the worthy and industrious,
and reached the zenanas, whose inmates in former
famines starved to death rather than demean them-
selves by coming forth to seek public charity. The
famine was complicated in its incipient stage by the
plague, in addition to the usual epidemics of fever
and typhus that follow in its train. In September
there was an outbreak of bubonic plague in Bom-
bay. The mortality increased till the end of the
year, when 50 deaths occurred daily. During De-
cember 250,000 people deserted the city. There
_ were 2,437 cases of plague and 1,735 deaths in Bom-
_ bay up to Dec. 31. The Europeans and the well-fed
classes generally escaped infection. Out of 10 Euro-
_ peans attacked 1 died. The disease was not as
malignant as in Canton and Hong-Kong, and far-
less so than the epidemics that formerly depopulated
European cities at intervals of about three hundred
oar The symptoms of the type that appeared in
_ Bombay and spread to neighboring towns are a
_ slight pain in the groins on the first day, on the
- second an enlargement of the glands, the fever rising
_ to 105°, and on the third day, or on the fourth at
_ the latest, death. It most commonly attacks persons
__ between the ages of five and thirty.
_ __ INDIANA, a Western State, admitted to the
Union Dec. 11, 1816; area, 36,350 square miles.
The population, according to each decennial census
since admission, was 147,178 in 1820; 343,031 in
1830; 685,866 in 1840; 988,416 in 1850: 1,350,428
in 1860; 1,680,637 in 1870; 1,978,301 in 1880; and
2,192,404 in 1890. Capital, Indianapolis.
Government.—The following were the State offi-
cers during the year: Governor, Claude Matthews,
Democrat; Lieutenant Governor, Mortimer Nye,
Democrat ; Secretary of State, William D. Owen,
Republican: Auditor, Americus C. Dailey, Re-
ublican; Treasurer, F. J. Scholz, Republican ;
perintendent of Education, David M. Greeting,
In De- -
855
Republican ; Attorney-General, William A. Ketchum,
Republican; Statistician, Simeon J. Thompson, Re-
publican ; Geologist, W. S. Blatchley, Republican ;
Adjutant General, Irvin Robbins, Democrat; Chief
Judge of the Appellate Court, George E. Ross;
Associate Judges, Theodore P. Davis, Orlando J.
Lotz, George L. Reinhard, and Frank E. Gavin, all
Democrats; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
Leonard J. Hackney, Democrat ; Associate Justices,
James H. Jordana and L. J. Monks, Republicans,
and Timothy E. Howard and James McCabe,
Democrats.
Finances.—The balance in the treasury Nov. 1,
1895, was $573,726.42; the receipts from all sources
during the year were $6,315,808.58; the disburse-
ments were $6,363,112.31, leaving a balance Oct. 31,
1896, of more than half a million. The disburse-
ments from the general fund were $2,087,160.09 ;
from the benevolent-institutions fund, $292,109.78 ;
Soldiers’ and Sailors’ monument fund, $26,000 ; edu-
cational institutions fund, $105,197.42; school-
revenue fund, $2,395,149.30; State University en-
dowment, $89,235, and interest on same, $24.577.23 ;
college fund, $12,234,41 ; interest on same, $9,854.23.
The expenses of the Governor’s office were $12,-
655.07 ; of the Secretary of State’s office, $11,607.46 ;
Auditor’s, $15,109.97; Treasurer’s, $8,460; Attor-
ney-General’s, $11,693.25; Superintendent of In-
struction’s, $9,224.73 ; State Library, $9,391.89: de-
ment of geology, $11,339,89; Supreme Court,
28,916.25: Appellate Court, $21,476.74; State Ju-
diciary, $205,756.07; custodian, $18,933.51. The
public printing cost $52,931.38; the State militia,
$44,213.55. The expenses of the Chickamauga com-
mission were $850.12, and of the same for infantry
.and cavalry $20,747.69, and for artillery $3,058.14.
The expense of election commissioners was $13,-
088.32. The Bureau of Statistics cost the State
$8,259.90; agricultural and horticultural societies,
$11,000; and the Board of Charities, $6,000.
The foreign indebtedness of the State in 1894
was $7,436,615.12, with annual interest of $233,525:
it is now $6,436,515.12, the annual interest of which
is $200,005. The domestic debt is represented by
$340,000 of Purdue University 5-per-cent. bonds,
and $143,000 of Indiana University 5-per-cent.
bonds, the interest of which is $24,200 annually.
The aggregate valuations amount to $1,286,050,-
531. The present tax levy is 9 cents on the $100
for general fund of the State treasury and 5 cents
on the $100 for the benevolent-institution fund.
The railroad assessments for 1896 were about $60,-
000 more than those for 1895, amounting to $156,-
259,260. The mileage was 6,279°88, an increase of
about 12 miles.
Insurance.—The report of the insurance depart-
ment of the Auditor's office shows that there are
authorized to do business in the State 50 life, acci-
dent, and surety companies, 103 fire and plate-glass
companies, and 88 assessment life and accident
companies, organized under the laws of other States
or nations. There are also operating in the State
40 assessment life and accident companies, 2 mu-
tual fire companies, and 1 stock fire insurance com-
pany. These companies have paid into the State
treasury as taxes and fees $156,220.86.
Edueation.—The school enumeration for the
year amounted to 734,474, a decrease from that of
1895, which was 799,077. The decrease is largely
in the cities, Indianapolis showing 8,878 fewer
school children than in 1895. Terre Haute 4,469
fewer, Fort Wayne 2.165, New Albany 1,819,
Lafayette 1,628, la Porte 1,523, and Logansport
1,287. This showing is due to the operation of a
law passed by the last Legislature designed to pre-
vent padding of the returns in order to increase
the proportion of moneys to be drawn from the
356
State funds. The amount apportioned in January
was $1,110,110.28, and in June $1,086,000.80. The
State Normal School received $15,000 at each ap-
portionment.
The State Normal School, at Terre Haute, opened
the year with an attendance of 500, the largest
number ever registered for the winter term with
one exception, and this notwithstanding the fact
that the standard of admission has been raised. A
class of 94 was graduated in June.
The building of the Ohio Valley Normal School,
at Corydon, was dedicated April 9. It was built by
popular subscription at a cost of $5,000. The
school began with 125 pupils.
In 1895 the Grand Army of the Republic of In-
diana appointed a committee to confer with the
State Board of Education concerning the United
States histories in use in the public schools. The
part devoted to the civil war they regarded as un-
fair to the national cause and army, untrue, and
misleading. As the term of the contract had
nearly expired, the time was favorable for secur-
ing changes in the text-books or replacing them by
others. The committee presented charges against
the books to the State board and the publishers re-
plied. The board then appointed 3 of its members
to consider the revision, and they recommended 14
very essential changes in the account of the war.
The publishers consented to most of them, but the
board insisted on complete revision of the objec-
tionable paragraphs.
At the seventy-sixth annual commencement of
the State University, at Bloomington, in June, a
class of 94 was graduated. At its fifty-seventh
commencement De Pauw University sent out a
class of about 56. The graduating class at Purdue
University numbered 82, degrees having been con-
ferred earlier in the year on 26 graduates in phar-
macy and 11 on pharmaceutical chemists. More
than 40 were graduated at Earlham College, and 22
at Hanover. Wabash College graduated 24.
Indianapolis has now a university which has been
formed by the union of institutions already existing
—Butler College and the schools of law, medicine,
and dentistry. The first class graduated under the
auspices of the university was that of the law school
ee pe year, consisting of 56 young men and 2 young
ies.
State Institutions.—From the figures furnished
to the State Board of Charities, the secretary com-
piled the following statement, published in March:
“Tn the last fiscal year the cost to the State of
caring for the insane in the hospitals was $609,-
889.66. In addition to this the counties expended
for clothing, transportation, inquests, and other
items of expense connected with declaring persons
insane and sending them to the hospitals, $76,364.66,
making a total for insane in the hospitals of $686,-
254.32. The cost of maintaining the other benevo-
lent institutions of the State during the same period
amounted to $307,035.63. To this add $25,000 (es-
timated), expended by counties in providing cloth-
ing, transportation, and other expenses of sending
persons to the institutions, and we have a total of
$332,035.63. The cost of conducting the reform
schools and prisons, with the added cost of prose-
cution of criminals, support of prisoners in the
county jails, maintenance of courts, etc., amounted
to $1,075,481.13.
“The cost of relief given to the poor by counties
for maintaining poor asylums and orphan asylums,
and $630,168.79 in the form of relief given by town-
ship trustees and pauper medical attendance, make
a total of $1,020,535.99.
“The total number of patients in the four insane
hospitals. of the State on Jan. 31, 1896, was 2,861.
- The number of children in the Soldiers’ and Sailors’
INDIANA.
Orphans’ Home was 632; in the Institution for the
Deaf, 304; in the Institute for the Blind, 126; in
the School for Feeble-Minded, 491; total in all the
State charitable institutions, 4,414. On the same
day the number of convicts in the Northern Prison
was 847; in the Southern Prison, 841; in the Wom-
an’s Prison, 37. The number of inmates in the Re-
form School for Girls was 181, and in the Reform >
School for Boys 517. Total in all the State correc-
tional institutions, 2,423. The whole number of
persons in the State charitable and correctional in-
stitutions on Jan. 31, therefore, was 6,837.
“The cost of a day’s board for each patient in the
insane hospitals during the quarter ending Jan. 31
1896, was 12:4 cents. At the Soldiers’ and Sailors’
Orphans’ Home each day’s board cost 14:5 cents;
the Institution for the Deaf, 11:7 cents; the Insti-
tute for the Blind, 11°3 cents; the School for Fee-
ble-Minded, 11°9 cents; the State Prison, North,
8-7 cents; the State Prison, South, 9°5 cents; the
Reform School for Girls and Woman’s Prison, 15°9
cents; the Reform School for Boys, 5:5 cents.”
On Aug. 1 3,174 patients were being cared for at
the 4 State institutions for the insane, an increase of
149 over last year. In the correctional institutions
2,519 were imprisoned.
The fifteenth annual report of the trustees of the —
Institute for the Blind, filed in November, shows
that the management has kept the expenses within
the appropriation of $27,000 for the maintenance
and has a Catone of $135.25.
The State Soldiers’ Home, 34 miles from Lafay-
ette, was dedicated July 4. The Legislature of 1895
appropriated $75,000 for the buildings and $126 a
year for the maintenance of each inmate. The
Government gives $100 a year for each inmate in
addition. The land for the home had already been
presented to the Grand Army of the Republic of —
the State by Tippecanoe County and citizens of
Lafayette. Tippecanoe County also gave $5,632.50
in cash. More than half of the inmates will be
cared for in cottages to be erected by Grand Army
posts, counties, and citizens. a
Only the main buildings were provided for by j
the State appropriation. In March there were 10.
regular inmates and 7 irregular, with 25 more ap-
plications approved.
Banks.—The changes made at the last session of
the Legislature in the State banking law have
made possible more effective supervision. The —
fixed fees for examinations have proved more satis-
factory to the banks than the old method. There
are 97 banks of discount and deposit, 5 savings
banks, and 4 trust companies under the supervision |
of the Auditor’s department. A comparison of the
business of the State banks for 1896 with that for
1895 shows a decrease of nearly $1,000,000, the re-
sources amounting to $14,711,472.25. The resources
of the 5 savings banks amount to $4,534,196.13.
A decision handed down by the Supreme Court
in May upholds the State law that makes it a crimi-
nal offense for an officer of a bank to receive de-
posits when he knows the bank is insolvent, and
makes the failure of the bank within thirty days
after the receipt of such deposit prima facie evi-
dence of such knowledge and intent to defraud.
Products.—Within the past three years the pro-
duction of crude petroleum has grown to large pro-
portions. The area in which the oil is found has
steadily increased, and comprises parts of Adams,
Wells, Huntington, Grant, Blackford, Jay, Ran-
dolph, Delaware, Pulaski, and Allen Counties. In
addition a few producing wells are in operation im
Terre Haute. The production of oil in the State |
has increased from 83,875 barrels, of 42 gallons, in
1889 to 3,688,666 in 1894, and 4,380,000 in 1895. — __
The average initial or rock pressure of natural
willing to give only 55 cents.
INDIANA,
gas decreased from 325 pounds in 1889 to 230
pounds in 1895. : -
From the coal fields 4,202,084 tons were mined in
1895.
Figures given in a crop bulletin of the Board of
Statistics were compiled from reports received from
574 thrashers, representing every county in the
State. The acreage for 1896 is 2,862,286, an in-
crease over last year of 144,047 acres. The total
number of bushels is 24,574,853. This takes no ac-
count of abandoned or uncut acreage.
Another bulletin gives statistics of 4 industries—
namely, iron, glass, farm, and flour machinery.
There are in 47 cities and towns 166 iron plants,
devoted to 46 different branches of production,
The number of people employed in these factories
is 16,073, of whom 13,951 are men. In the glass
industry 9,728 persons find employment, of whom
7,229 are men, 2,056 are boys, and 443 are girls. In
21 cities there are 36 establishments for the manu-
facture of farm implements and machinery. In
these factories 3,622 people are employed, of whom
3,228 are men. There are 4 plants in Indiana de-
voted to flour-mill machinery, in which are em-
ployed 526 people, of whom 470 are men.
There are bicycle factories in 9 cities of the State,
Indianapolis having 9. The entire investment is
placed at $640,107, with the cost of material for the
year at $1,072,275. The gross value of product is
$3,085,377, with wages paid amounting to $636,094.
For the manufacture of furniture there are 116
factories. The value of grounds, buildings, and
machinery is $2,734,985 ; the value of material used
the past year was $3,243,533; and the gross value
of the manufactured product was $6,600,818.
The bureau has reports from 14 woolen mills,
representing 13 localities. There is invested in
buildings, grounds, and machinery, $935,182; cost
of material used past year, $891,197; gross value of
pete Drones $1,415,298; amount paid in
Wages, $298,
_ Among the industries are 6 cotton mills located
in 5 cities, in which are manufactured yarn, warp,
sheeting, and batting. There is invested in these
6 plants $1,155,000. The cost of material used the
past year was $936,910; the gross value of the
manufactured goods was $1,392,980; the amount
id in w was $328,440.
The State Boundary.—The Indiana-Kentucky
Boundary Commission met at Evansville Feb. 3,
and decided on the dividing line between the two
States at Green River island. By a decision of the
United States Supreme Court the island was given
to Kentucky.
Miners’ Interests.—A strike began May 1
among the coal miners in parts of the State; they
demanded 60 cents a ton, while the operators were
Nov. 23, when the
strike was still unsettled, but many miners had
~ gone back to work, the president of the operators’
association furnished a statement showing that
miners at mines which have 580,000 tons of the
annual output of 1,700,000 tons in the State were
at work at 60 cents. Working at less than 60 cents
were the men at mines with 410,000 tons output,
leaving mines representing 710,000 tons idle, the
_ Operators insisting on the 55-cent price.
A case was brought before the Supreme Court,
involving the so-called miners’ screen law. The
decision given in February does not touch the con-
stitutionality of the law, but is against the miners
on account of ambiguous wording of the statute.
The Nicholson Law.—Statistics showing the re-
sults of the operation of this law for controlling the
liquor trade (see “ Annual Cyclopedia” for 1895,
366) for the first nine months after it went
into effect were given out in April. From reports
357
received from 63 of the 92 counties, it appears that
in June, 1895, there were 2,222 saloons, Pr § in April, .
1896, there. were 1,933. This did not include what
was done at the March term of the commissioners’
court. Out of the 684 townships reported, 267 now
have saloons and 417 have none. Many places re-
port fewer cases in police court; in some of them
the number is reduced one half, mainly due to the
removal of games from the saloons.
The Roby Races.—To avoid liability under the
law passed by the Legislature to break up the ra-
cing at Roby, three tracks were used in the vicinity,
so that after fifteen days at one, the racing could
be transferred to the second, and after fifteen days
there to the third for the same length of time. The
thirty days having then elapsed since the first had
been used, it pes be used again, and so on through
the season. The Governor, in order to stop the
continuous racing, had a suit filed for an injunc-
tion, alleging that the associations were practically
one and the same. The case was decided against
the Governor in the lower court, but the Supreme
Court declared the method of continuous racing by
means of the three tracks to be as unlawful as the
use of one alone would be.
The Apportionment Law.—In February the
Supreme Court declared the legislative apportion-
ment acts of 1893 and 1895 to be unconstitutional.
This made it necessary to fall back on the appor-
tionment of 1885, unless a special session of the
Legislature should be called and a new act passed ;
the acts of 1879 and 1891 had been previously pro-
nounced unconstitutional. As the law of 1885 was
not only rendered unfair by the changes of popula-
tion since its enactment, but was deemed by the
Republicans grossly unfair to them at the time, the
State committee presented a memorial to the Goy-
ernor, Feb. 24, asking him to call an extra session,
and setting forth that the act of 1885 was open to
the same objections that had caused the other acts
to be declared invalid. :
The Governor made a formal reply, refusing to
call a special session, on the grounds that it would
cause unnecessary expense ; that it did not seem to
be demanded by the people; that he could not as-
sume the law of 1885 to be invalid until it should
have been so declared by the Supreme Court; and
that there was no certainty that the Legislature, if
called in extra session, would do any better than it
had done in 1895.
After receiving the Governor’s answer, the Re-
publican committee filed a complaint and brought
suit to enjoin officers from conducting an election
under the law of 1885, on the ground that it was
unconstitutional according to the decisions against
the other laws. When the case reached the Su-
preme Court in May, the decision of the lower
court which had granted the injunction was re-
versed, and the act of 1885 was declared in force.
Political—The Prohibitionists met in State
convention Feb. 27, with 400. to 500 delegates.
The National or “ broad-gauge ” wing of the party
was in control. The platform demanded prohibi- .
tion of the manufacture and sale of intoxicants as
a beverage, and Government and State control, .
without profit, for other purposes; declared in fa-
vor of woman suffrage, and free coinage of silver
and gold in the ratio of 16 to 1 without reference
to the action of other nations ; favored Government
ownership of natural monopolies, restrictive immi-
gration laws, Sunday observance laws, arbitration
of domestic and foreign difficulties, election of
President, Vice-President, and Senators by direct
vote of the people, and liberal pensions; and de-
nounced “ the policy of the Government in issuing
bonds in time of peace for the purpose of maintain-
ing the gold standard whereby our national indebt-
358
edness is greatly increased at the dictation of Wall
Street aha the money lords of Europe.”
A resolution was adopted declaring that the mi-
nor parties should have representation on political
boards.
Following is the ticket as finally arranged: For
Governor, James G. Kingsbury; Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, Sampson J. North; Secretary of State, James
E. Ellsworth; Auditor, HansC. Hansen; ‘Treasurer,
' Sylvester Johnson; Attorney-General, Helen M.
Gougar; Reporter of the Supreme Court, Vincent P.
Kirk: Superintendent of Instruction, Cyrus Hodg-
en; Statistician, John E. Woodard.
There was afterward a division in the party, and
the “ Narrow-gauge ” Prohibitionists nominated
Leonard M. Christ for Governor, William Edgerton
for Lieutenant Governor, H. C. Pitts for Secretary,
S. M. Thompson for Auditor, Preston Ryder for
Treasurer, C. S. Dobbins for Attorney-General, W.
F. Lenfesty for Reporter of the Supreme Court,
Elwood Haines for Statistician, and C. M. Lemon for
Superintendent of Instruction.
The Republican State Convention met at Indian-
apolis May 7. Interest centered in the question
whether the delegates to the national convention
would be instructed. Many of the leaders who
were in favor of instructing for Mr. McKinley de-
clared that the delegation would support Harrison
if he at any time should appear to be a factor in
the convention, and that instructions for Mr. Mc-
Kinley would not be binding against Mr. Harrison.
The instruction to vote for Mr. McKinley was in-
corporated in the resolutions, which were voted
. upon as a whole and adopted. They commended
the administration of Mr. Harrison, made a strong
declaration in favor of protection and reciprocity,
declared in favor of restricted immigration, con-
demned the pension policy of the Administration,
and said: “ We favor the use of silver as currency,
but to the extent only and under such regulations
that its parity with gold can be maintained, and in
consequence are opposed to the free, unlimited,
and independent coinage of silver at a ratio of
16 to 1.”
Following is the resolution instructing :
“Believing as we do in a protective tariff, the
leading issue before the people, we favor the nomi-
ation as President of the United States a man who
perfectly represents a protective tariff and the car-
dinal principles of the Republican party; a man
who has devoted his life to the defense of his country
in war and in peace; one who at seventeen years of
age fought with Hayes and Crook and Sheridan at
Antietam and in the Shenandoah in defense of our
flag against foes within, and for fourteen years in
Congress contended against our country’s foes from
without, beating back British free trade and aggres-
sion, which finally, under the present Democratic
administration, obtained possession of our markets
and had almost destroyed our industries; a man
who with the resistless shibboleth ‘ Protection and
Prosperity’ has challenged the attention of the
commercial world and won the support of every
patriotic workingman of our country; whose life
and work, open as a book, are in themselves a plat-
form, whose very name is magic, that. loyal Amer-
ican citizen, soldier, statesman, and Christian gen-
tleman, William McKinley, of Ohio; and the dele-
gates to the Republican National Convention se-
lected by this body are directed to cast. their vote
for William McKinley, as frequently and continu-
ously as there is any hope of his nomination.”
The State ticket nominated was: For Governor,
James A. Mount; Lieutenant Governor, W. S.
Haggard ; Secretary of State, W. D. Owen; Auditor,
A. C. Dailey; Treasurer, F. J. Scholz: Attorney-
General, W. A, Ketcham; Reporter of the Supreme
INDIANA.
Court, Charles F. Reney; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, D. M. Geeting; Statistician. S. J,
Thompson ; Judges of the Appellate Court, Woodfin
I). Robinson, William J. Henley, James B. Black,
D. W. Comstock, and U. Z. Wiley.
The Democrats abandoned the old custom of
holding separate conventions for choosing delegates
to the national convention and for nominating
State officers, the free-coinage men desiring to
bring out a full vote at the primaries. The con-
vention was held at Indianapolis June 24. The
contests in the districts had resulted in a large ma-
jority in favor of free coinage, but as the minority
made determined opposition, the convention was
most exciting. The platform recommended Goy.
Matthews as the Democratic candidate for the
residency, and instructed the delegates to vote for
im. The two Senators were commended; it was
declared that belligerent rights should be accorded
to Cuba; that Senators should be elected by direct
vote of the people; subsidies and land grants to
corporations were opposed; pensions favored; a
policy favorable to organized labor and an act pro-
viding for jury trials in the Federal courts in
cases of contempt recommended; and protest en-
tered against “the increase of the public debt by
the issue of interest-bearing bonds or otherwise in
time of peace.”
On the tariff and the currency the following dec-
larations were made: :
“We reaffirm our adherence to and faith in the
Democratic doctrine of bimetallism, and therefore
we demand the immediate restoration of bimetal-
lism by the free and -unrestricted coinage of both
silver and gold as primary money at the ratio of
16 to 1, without waiting the co-operation of Great
Britain or any other foreign power, all such coinage
to be full legal tender in the payment of all debts,
public and private.
“ We believe the existing tariff laws will be fully
equal to all demands for needed revenue for the ex-
penses of government economically administered,
under the conditions which will arise from the res-_
toration of bimetallism.”
The ticket follows: For Governor, Benjamin F,
Shively; Lieutenant Governor, John C. Lawler;
Secretary of State, Samuel M. Ralston; Auditor,
Joseph T, Fanning; Treasurer, Morgan Chandler;
Attorney-General, John G. McNutt; Reporter of
Supreme Court, Henry Warrum; Superintendent of
Instruction, William B. Sinclair; Statistician, Omer
H. Downey; Judges of the Appellate Court, Edwin
Taylor, Frank E. Gavin, Theodore P. Davis, Orlando —
J. Lotz, and George E. Ross. 4
* The candidate for Governor, Mr. Shively, re-
ceived 1,643 votes against 104 in favor of G. W.
Cooper, the nominee of the gold Democrats.
The People’s party met in convention at Indian-
apolis July 28, with about 350 delegates in attend-
ance. The platform declared for free coinage.
Measures to effect fusion with the Democratic
party were defeated, but the Democratic candidates ©
for the offices of Auditor, Attorney-General, and
Reporter were afterward indorsed by the majority
of the party.
Following is the Populist ticket: For Governor,
Thomas Wadsworth; Lieutenant Governor, Adam —
P. Hanna; Secretary of State, Silas M. Holeombe ;
Auditor, Nathan M. Jennings; Treasurer, F. J. 5. —
Robinson ; Attorney-General, D. H. Fernandes; —
Reporter of the Supreme Court, Thomas W. Force;
Statistician, James S. McKibben; Judges of the
Appellate Court, Adam Stockinger and John R.
Thornburger.
The Socialist-Labor party nominated, Aug. 11,
Philip H. Moore for Governor, Harry ©. Shoop for
Lieutenant Governor, Fred. Adams for Secretary of
IOWA. 359
State, Frank Helbich for Treasurer, and Joseph
Brunner for Statistician.
The gold-standard Democrats nominated an elec-
toral ticket, but no State ticket. The silver Demo-
crats and Populists fused on presidential electors.
At the election the vote for President stood:
McKinley, 323,754; Bryan, 305.573; Levering,
8,056; Palmer, 2,145; Bentley, 2,268; Matchett,
329; McKinley’s plurality, 18,181.
The entire ublican State ticket was success-
ful. Following is the vote for Governor: James A.
Mount, Republican, 321,032; Benjamin F. Shively,
Democrat, 294,855; Leonard M. Christ, Prohibi-
tionist, 2,996; James G. Kingsbury, National Pro-
hibitionist, 2,500; Thomas Wadsworth, Populist,
8,525; Philip H. Moore, Socialist, 283; Mount’s
plurality, 26,177.
Of the 13 members of Congress elected 3 are
Democrats and 1 was elected on a fusion ticket,
the other 9 are Republicans. The Legislature
stands: Republicans—Senate 33, House 52; Dem-
ocrats—Senate 14, House 39; Populists—Senate 3,
House 9.
IOWA, a Western State, admitted to the Union
Dec. 28, 1846 ; area, 56,025 square miles. The popu-
lation, according to each decennial census since ad-
mission, was 192,214 in 1850 ; 674,913 in 1860; 1,194,-
020 in 1870 ; 1,624,615 in 1880; and 1,911,896 in 1890.
Capital, Des Moines.
overnment.—The following were the State offi-
cers during the year: Governor, Francis M. Drake;
Lieutenant Governor, Matt Parrott; Secretary of
State, William M. McFarland; Auditor, C. G.
McCarthy; Treasurer, John Herriott; Attorney-
General, Milton Remley; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, Henry Sabin—all Republicans; Adju-
tant General, H. H. Wright; Railroad Commission-
ers, George W. Perkins, C. L. Davidson, and Edward
A. Dawson; Labor Commissioner, W. E. O’Bleness;
Dairy Commissioner, W. K. Boardman; Fish Com-
missioner, George E. Delevan; Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, J. H. Rothrock ; Associate Justices,
L. G. Kinne, C. T. Granger, G. 8. Robinson, H. E.
Deemer, Josiah Given—all Republicans except Jus-
tice Kinne, who is a Democrat.
The Census of 1895.—The total population, ac-
cording to the census. is 2,058,069, of whom 1,065,-
130 are males and 1,068,062 are twenty-one years of
age and over. The colored population is 11,889;
the Indian, 394. Those born of native parents num-
ber 1,168,853. The number of dwellings is 435,007,
and of families 434,392.. The school population is
736,818, and the number of persons subject to mili-
tary duty 413,000. The urban population is 871,-
774 or 42°36 per cent.
The aggregate value of buildings owned by cities
and towns is placed at $1,736,142, and of parks so
owned $1,117,350. The value of buildings owned
by counties is $5,495,231. The value of church
property is estimated at $17,597,991, and the total
value of property not taxable at $46,803,739. The
value of public buildings owned by societies, not
including churches and parsonages, is $2,245,400.
The populations of some of the principal cities in
1895 were as follow: Des Moines, 56,359; Dubuque,
40,574: Davenport, 30,010; Sioux City, 27,371; Bur-
lington, 25,246; Clinton and Lyons, 23,377; Cedar
Rapids, 21,555 ; Council Bluffs, 20,189 ; Clinton, 17,-
375; Ottumwa, 16,761; Keokuk. 14,287; Musca-
tine, 12,287; Marshalltown, 10,049; Fort Madison,
10,022.
Finances.—The State finances are in a very un-
satisfactory condition. The report of the Treasurer,
made to the Legislature in February, said :
“ At the commencement of the last biennial period,
beginning July 1, 1893, there was a balance of $412,-
981.45 on hand. Up to July 1, 1895, there was re-
ceived from all sources $3,524,251.35 ; total, $3,937, -
232.80. State Auditor’s warrants redeemed during .
the period amounted to $3,624,378.39. The sum
paid out in excess of revenue received was $100,-
127.04. The balance in the treasury July 1, 1895,
was $312,854.41. The total revenue from all sources
received from that date u P to Jan. 4, 1896, was $845,-
823.58, which, added to the balance of July 1, 1895,
equaled $1,158,677.99. The disbursements for this
six months were $1,120,029.97. The available cash
on hand Jan. 4, 1896, was $38,648.03 of general reve-
nue. Withthisamount and the January collections,
$143,319.02, the State had to meet its regular pay
roll of $30,000, the dues of the several State insti-
tutions, reaching fully $250,000, and the additional
warrants necessitated by the meeting of the Legis-
lature and the payment of one half the salaries of
the members, aggregating $50,000, due Feb. 13.
During each of the past three biennial periods the
amount of back taxes has grown on an average of
$200,000 for each period. But the most potent
cause of the lack of revenue has been the decline
in the amount of taxable property in the State as
reported by the county auditors. Our taxing ma-
chinery needs to be remodeled throughout if we are
to see any marked improvement in the future. Prop-
erty should be assessed at its real value and the levy
made upon that valuation.”
In December the amount of unpaid warrants
was nearly $500,000.
The State has lost about $13,000 by the default-
ing of G. J. Spaulding, Secretary and Treasurer of
the State Board of Pharmacy Commissioners.
The Executive Council in August placed the State
tax levy at 2y’5 mills, an increase of #; over that of
1895, made necessary by the larger appropriations
as well as by lowered valuations. In an opinion
given by the Attorney General on the question of
county taxes he holds that 6 mills tax is the aggregate
amount that may be levied for both ordinary county
revenue and the support of the poor.
. Education.—At the State Convention of Teachers
in January it was the unanimous opinion that more
normal schools should be established, and that a
more efficient plan for determining the qualifica-
tions of applicants for places as teachers should be
found. A committee reported that Nature studies
should have a place in the grades below the high
school, and that one hour a week for eight years
should be given to such studies. The committee
on classification of colleges reported improvement
in many instances in preparatory work, and recom-
mended a minimum of six chairs in addition to the
teaching force of preparatory and special depart-
ments, as a condition of admission to the list of
colleges eligible to membership. On this basis and
that of the preparatory requirements already laid
down, the following colleges were recommended for
membership: Iowa Wesleyan, Parsons, Upper Iowa,
Grinnell, Drake, Luther, Coe, Penn, Tabor, Iowa,
Simpson, Des Moines, State University. In addition
the Agricultural College was recommended, “though
standing apart from the colleges and the university
in the amount of requirements for admission, and
differing largely in the character and scope of its
courses of study, yet possessing an exquisite equip-
ment and strong faculty, and doing its appointed
work with efficiency and general approval as a
State technical college.”
The first Danish University in the country was
dedicated in Des Moines, Sept. 27. The building
already erected is to be the east wing of the com-
pleted structure. . ae
The enrollment at the State University in Septem-
ber was 1,010. In June there were 106 graduates
from the law department. Drake University grad-
uated 124 in all departments,
360
State Institutions.—The main building of the
State Institute for Feeble-Minded Children, at Glen-
wood, was destroyed by fire Aug. 29. All the chil-
dren were taken out safely, and a large part of the
furnishingssaved. The building cost $85,000, and the
loss was total. It was finished in 1892. There were
510 children in the institution. About 70 teachers
and employees were on the grounds. ,
A new insane asylum is to be built at Cherokee.
The foundations are already done and the contract
let for the structural work, the bid being $295,175.
Two years are allowed for the buildings, this part
of which will accommodate 420 patients.
The members of the Visiting Committee of the
Legislature confirmed the report that Iowa’s institu-
tions are crowded beyond their capacity to care for
inmates.
Banks.—The report of the Auditor in July showed
that there were then 169 savings and 201 State
banks. The deposits amounted to $48,966,793.79,
an increase over the previous year of $139,657.54.
The increase in capital stock amounted to $250,100,
and in surplus to $116,751.22.
The Sioux City National Bank failed in August,
and two others in the same city (the First National
and the Sioux City Savings Bank) in November.
Railroads.—By the assessments in March the
valuation of railroad property was raised on the
total $4,951 over that of 1895. The mileage is
8,487,182.
The Railroad Commission reduced in August the
minimum weight for car loads in 84-foot cars from
20,000: pounds to 18,000. The commission is trying
to abolish grade crossings.
For several years there has been litigation over
the charges made by the Milwaukee road on goods
shipped from Sioux City to Akron, Hawarden, and
other Iowa points in the same neighborhood. On
the ground that the road passed a part of the way
through South Dakota, the company has insisted
that it had the right to make its charges under in-
terstate rules. The shippers maintained that, as
the shipments started in Iowa and ended in the
same State, the charges were subject to State regu-
lation, which would make them considerably lower.
This view having been sustained by the Supreme
Court in its decision in a similar case in Pennsyl-
vania, the road has settled the cases by paying back
all money claimed as overcharge.
The Omaha and St. Louis Railroad was sold at
_ Council Bluffs in January for $1,876,170. The prop-
erty is in four counties of lowa and four of Missouri,
a distance of 143 miles.
Farm Statistices.—Figures of the census of 1895
show that there are 204,385 farms in the State, com-
prising 31,297,813 acres. The average size is 153
acres. The number of acres is 25,870,189; unim-
proved, 5,427,624; cultivated, 16,099,951. The value
of farms is placed at $1,088,063,068. The number
managed by owners is 141,979. The total number
of horses was 1,383,302, and their value $41,564,546.
The number of cattle was 3,197,584, value $53,820,-
197; number of hogs, 5,044.577, value $23,596,962;
number of sheep, 492.875, value $1,160,535. The
value of products of the forest, not including wood
for fuel, was $141,496. The number of acres. of
planted timber was 141,863, and of natural timber
1,506,611. The value of the principal products was
estimated: Corn, $55,235,667; oats, $26.420,646 ;
barley, $3,301,735 ; spring wheat, $3,264,225 ; winter
wheat, $1,295,481; flaxseed, $1,549,688; timothy
seed, $1,119,710; Irish potatoes, $4,497,627; timothy
hay, $11,741,929; clover hay, $1,022,922; prairie
hay, $5,859,449; corn stalks, $9,262,534; apples,
$1,357,300; and grass in 3,104,230 acres of pasture,
$14,700,792. Of the farms, 83,552 are mortgaged,
the net indebtedness amounting to $138,585,720.
IOWA.
Manufactures.—The statistics of factories com-
piled for the State census show that, while several
great factories have left the State, the number of,
smaller institutions has been greatly increased. In
1890 the State census showed the aggregate of the
manufactured product to be $70,000,000. The sta-
tistics just compiled show the total of manufactured
product in 1895 to be $63,798,025. The beer and
malt product has decreased $1,000,000, lumber
$5,000,000, barb wire $2,000,000. This loss is made
up by the many smaller institutions which have
sprung into existence, and counting in the butter
and cheese product the $63,000,000 is raised to
$73,000,000. ;
The product of the greatest value in the classified
list is that of pork and beef, which is placed at
$18,422,630. The value of butter made on farms
and in creameries was $15,727,206.
Soldiers’ Monuments.—An equestrian statue
of Major-Gen. John M, Corse in bronze was un-
veiled July 4 at Crapo Park, Burlington. It was
designed originally for the State Soldiers’ Monu-
ment at Des Moines, and Burlington was to have a
duplicate; but as the monument commission was
not ready to receive it, Burlington secured the origi-
nal cast.
The Iowa Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument, which
has been a subject of discussion by four Legislatures
and of much criticism by the public, is not yet
completed. The question of drapery on the alle-
gorical figure of lowa was settled by the commis-
sion in April. It was decided to leave the upper
art of the body nude, as designed by the sculptor.
here were 32 medallions to be placed upon the
monument, portraits of certain soldiers and sailors
of the State; but these were so strongly objected
to on account of the invidious distinction they
made that the Legislature ordered that no medal-
lion portraits should be used, and directed the
monument commission to have inscribed upon the
monument the name of each regiment and organi-
zation, the number of men enlisted, and the date of
its muster and discharge.
The medallions will be turned over to the care
of the Secretary of State and placed in the memo-
rial hall which is to be built. The appropriations
so far made will not complete the monument.
Semicentennial Celebration.—The celebra-
tion of the fiftieth anniversary of the admission of
Iowa to the Union began at Burlington, Oct. 1, with
a parade and publie speeches during the day and at
night a banquet and a “river carnival” in which a
barge representing a fortress was attacked by a
fleet of 100 small boats using Roman candles and
bombs. It was estimated that 20,000 people watched
the display at the river front, and that 10,000 were
at the park in the afternoon.
The celebration continued through the week, one
day being set apart as “ Old Settlers’ Day ” and one
as “ Educational Day.”
Land Claims.—A tract of land forfeited by the
Sioux City and St. Paul Railroad, 22,000 acres in
extent, in O’Brien and Dickinson Counties, in the
northwestern part of the State, was thrown open
for settlement Feb. 27. Over 1,100 men and women
were in the line when the Federal land office opened,
waiting to file papers. Hundreds of them camped
in the alleys and streets around the building the
night before, and they formed a line at daybreak.
There is an average of 9 filings on each tract.
In the hearings on disputed cases, preference was
given to the settlers who bought the lands in good
faith from the railroad company when it was be-
lieved the company had the right to sell them.
The Anticigarette Law.—A_ decision was
given in July in the United States Court at St.
Paul. that the Iowa anticigarette law was uncon-
i
:
2 x ae
of cigarettes in the original pack
pen
IOWA.
stitutional so far as it has interfered with the sale
es in which they
are shipped into Iowa; but the decision does not
really aftect the sales in the State, because the ci-
garettes can not be shipped into the State in the
small packages in which they are sold. ;
Racisistive Session.—The twenty-sixth Gen-
eral Assembly of the Legislature opened Jan. 13 and
closed April 11. The session was important, as the
revised code was to come before the Assembly, and
also the question of resubmitting to the voters the
constitutional amendment to incorporate prohibi-
tion in the fundamental law of the State.
United States Senator William B. Allison was
elected to succeed himself for the term beginning
March 4, 1897. W. I. Babb was the Democratic
candidate. The resubmission question came up for
the first time Jan. 20 in the form of a resolution
in the Senate, which was referred to the Committee
on Constitutional Amendments. It was reported
from the committee Feb. 27, with the reeommenda-
tion that the resolution to resubmit be passed and
naming June 3 as the date for the special election.
It was defeated in both houses. The amendment
proposed was for the first time two years
ago, when the Legislature enacted the mulct liquor
law, which is now in force. :
A bill to allow the manufacture of liquor in the
State on terms similar to those required by the
mulct law for its sale—that is, providing that it
might be manufactured if consent were given by 55
per cent. of the voters in the city or county—was
defeated in both houses, in the lower by a vote of
46 to 43 against considering the bill, and in the
Senate by 22 to 2.
The Senate tabled a joint resolution to submit an
amendment to the Constitution permitting woman
suffrage.
‘A Mobis bill requiring the superintendent of the
new hospital for the insane at Cherokee to be a
homeeopathist was lost in the Senate.
A bill was giving the Commissioner of
Labor authority to visit, enter, and inspect facto-
ries, mines, and other places, public or private, for
the purpose of securing data relating to wages,
hours of labor, wages received, and the sanitary en-
vironments of laborers, etc.
A bill for governing building and loan associa-
tions was passed.
Among other bills passed were the following:
Changing the election law so that only five days’
notice is required for nominating papers.
Exempting towns of less than 3,500 from opera-
tion of the registration law.
Prohibiting combinations among fire insurance
companies or agents to keep up rates.
Providing a tax of 1 per cent. on the gross earn-
ings of express companies.
eclaring express companies common carriers
and subject to the control of the Railroad Commis-
sioners.
Giving city library trustees authority to levy a
tax of 1 mill on the dollar for library purposes and
to make appointments as they may see fit for run-
ning libraries.
Giving cities and towns power to regulate plumb-
ing and sewering.
Declaring bicycles vehicles.
Requiring thirty days’ notice to-work forfeiture
of contract for sale of real estate.
Making a chattel mortgage invalid unless signed
by both husband and wife.
Appropriating $5,000 to purchase books to be
sent from the State Library to other libraries or
societies in the State for temporary use upon re-
quest, transportation to be paid by local libra-
ries,
561
Authorizing kindergartens in independent dis-
tricts.
Adding civics and economics to the branches in’
which teachers must be examined.
Requiring levy of 75 mill for six years for build-
ings for State University.
Allowing school boards to supply text-books in
schools; election on the subject to be called by
petition.
Giving aliens right to inherit property in the
State and to own any amount of city property or
820 acres of country property.
Providing that in claims against the estates of
decedents the burden of proving the claim shall
not be placed on the claimant.
Providing for a tax of 5 per cent. on all property
devised to any person other than blood or adopted
relation, charitable, educational, or religious insti-
tution.
Forbidding sale of malt liquors by registered
pharmacists.
Allowing common earriers to sell unclaimed
goods after three months.
Ordering that the Russian thistle must be. de-
stroyed by occupier of land before Aug. 15; fifteen
oy later authorities must destroy and tax cost to
and.
Requiring persons in charge of newly born in- ©
fants to notify a practicing physician of any sore-
ness of eyes within twelve hours of such discov-
ery.
Placing secret society insurance under charge of
the State Auditor; requiring examinations and re-
ports, and giving the Auditor power to prohibit
their doing business if he thinks their insurance
feature is not safe in method or condition.
Authorizing the State to accept gifts, devises,
etc., absolutely or in trust.
Making Government currency taxable.
Granting to the United States consent to pur-
chase and have jurisdiction over 25 acres of land in
Delaware County and land in any part of the State
for the purpose of establishing fish hatcheries.
Providing for a commission to locate the posi-
tions of Iowa troops at Vicksburg, and appropriat-
sy Sa pp
aising the age of consent to fifteen years.
Requiring prisoners under eighteen to be kept
separate from those older.
Declaring to be nuisances houses used as opium
or hasheesh dens.
Prohibiting. the importing, printing, and dis-
tributing obscene literature and pictures: punish-
ment, $100 fine or a year’s imprisonment.
Prohibiting the manufacture and sale of cigar-
ettes and cigarette papers.
Following are the principal appropriations made :
General, for State expenses, $2,800,000; Memorial
Hall, $25,000; hospital for insane, Independence,
$19,300; hospital for insane, Cherokee, $212,140;
hospital for insane at Clarinda. $199,300; hospital
for insane at Mount Pleasant, $49,100; State Agri-
cultural College, $54,500; State Normal School,
Cedar Falls, $48,000; State University, $46,000;
Fort Madison Penitentiary, $13,200; Anamosa
Penitentiary, $66,198; Benedict Home, at Des
Moines, $9,200; Soldiers’ Home, at Marshalltown,
$51,800; Home for Blind, at Knoxville, $18,000;
Iowa Industrial School, at Eldora, $18,500; School
for the Deaf, at Council Bluffs, $17,000; Soldiers’
Orphans’ Home, at Davenport, $18,800; industrial
school, Mitchellville, $17,000; Institution for the
Feeble-Minded, Glenwood, $65,800 ; College for the
Blind, Vinton, $10,500; New Orleans Exhibition,
refund to those that advanced money, $12,000;
Semicentennial Celebration, Burlington, $10,000;
Fish Commission, $6,000; infantry uniforms, $2,500 ;
362
dam for Okoboji lake, $1,000; mileage of visiting
committees, $766; inauguration expenses, $277;
additional for National Guard, $5,200; repairs for
Capitol, $7,100; for a silver service for the battle-
ship “ Iowa,” $5,000; for an exhibit at the Trans-
Mississippi Exposition in 1898, contingent on appro-
priation of $250,000 by the Government and $9500,-
000 by Nebraska, $10,000.
The report of the Code Commission appointed by
the twenty-fifth General Assembly was made to the
twenty-sixth this year, and some work was done
upon it by committees ; but as the revision makes
material changes in the law relating to insurance,
building and loan, and other corporations, the
time of the regular session was insufficient to com-
plete its consideration in addition to the ordinary
work of the Legislature, and therefore a demand
was made early in the year for an extra session for
this special work. The Legislature passed a concur-
rent resolution asking the Governor to call the
extra session. This he did by proclamation Nov. 7,
naming as subjects to be acted upon the code re-
port and the provision for replacing the buildings
of State institutions that had been destroyed. The
extra session was to begin Jan. 19, 1897.
Political.—The results of the city elections,
March 2, were generally favorable to the Republic-
ans, though there were Democratic gains in some
places. Burlington, which has usually been Demo-
cratic by about 500, elected a Republican Mayor by
about 400.
The Republican State Convention for choosing
delegates to the national convention met at Des
Moines March 11.
cheese, 12,900,000 lire; poultry, 12,900,000 lire;
rice, 12,400,000 lire; butter, 10,700,000 lire. The
commercial intercourse with the different nations
in 1895 is shown in the following table, giving the
Pag a of the imports from and the exports to each
In lire: ;
COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports.
Wma sas at codtica wonswe cs 234,700,000 114,600,000 —
BPIGNCO sa sie wakes ease areas 162,000,000 136,400,000
GOPWINUNG sherds teases etucen es 144,100,000 170,200,000
Austria-Hungary .............. 133,000,000 114,400,000
Switzerland secs asa ves shoe ele 45,600,000 187,300,
TRUSSIB Ao ceca neaxasas asenens 103,800,000 12,700,
Bagi se cep sees reach ence 27,600,000 18,200,
Turkey in Europe.............. 18,800,000 18.900,
A ikaw alse. celibate 11,300,000 11,800,
Netherlands...
from a Violin” opened a love story, according to
Winifred Agnes Haldane, and “The Baritone’s
Parish,” by James M. Ludlow, appeared in the
series of “ Renaissance Booklets.” Historical novels
were “King Noanett: A Story of Old Virginia and
the Massachusetts Bay,” by Frederick Stimson
(J. S., of Dale), who also wrote “ Pirate Gold”;
“White Aprons,” a romance of Bacon’s rebellion,
Virginia, 1676; “The Regicides,” a tale of early
colonial times, by F. Hull Cogswell; “ The Goy-
ernor’s Garden” (the executive in question bein
“Thomas Hutchinson, sometime Captain-Genera
and Governor-in Chief of his aes ay Ny Province of
Massachusetts Bay”), by George R. R. Rivers; “A
Lady of the Olden Time,’ by Emily Malbone
Morgan; “Saxenhurst,” a story of the Old World
and New, in which Roger Williams is prominent,
by Daniel C, Eddy, D. D.; “ Massasoit,” by Anna
Holman Burton, a romantic story of the Indians of
New England ; “Sir Mark,” a tale of the first capital
of the country, by Anna Robeson Brown, who also
wrote “ The Black Lamb”; “John Littlejohn of J.,”
being in particular an account of his remarkable en-
tanglement with the king’s intrigues against Gen. —
Washington, by George Morgan; “ The Scarlet Coat,”
a tale of the siege of Yorktown, by Clinton Ross;
* Will o’ the Wasp,” a sea yarn of the War of 12, by
Robert Cameron Rogers. the author of “'The Wind
in the Clearing”; “ Ocean Rovers,” another story of
the same period, by William H. Thomes; “ His Per- -
petual Adoration: or, The Captain’s Old Diary,” by
Rey. Joseph F, Flint, a story of the civil war; and
“At the Sign of the Guillotine,” as its name be-
speaks, a story of the French revolution, by Harold —
Spender. A local flavor attaches to ‘ Uncle Scipio.”
a story of uncertain days in the South, by Mrs,
Jeannette R. H. Walworth; “The Peacemaker of
Bourbon,” a tale of the new South, by 8. J. Bum-
stead; “The Wonderful Wheel,” with its scene -
among the Creoles of Louisiana, by Mary Tracy
Earle; “ Betty of Wye.” by Amy E. Blanchard;
“ Stories of a Sanctified Town,” by Lucy S. Furman;
“ Princess Anne: A Story of the Dismal Swamp, and
Other Sketches,” by Albert R. Ledonx; “ My Young
Master,” “The Jucklins,” and “The Captain’s Ro-
mance,’ by Opie P. Read (The Arkansas Tray-
eler): “The Country of the Pointed Firs,” by Sarah
Orne Jewett. meaning, of course, the State of Maine;
“The Tin Kitchen,” by Rev. J. Hatton Weeks, and
“The End of the Beginning,” anonymous, both
with the scene laid in New England; “ The Victory
of Ezry Gardner,” an idyl of Nantucket, by Imo-
gen Clark; “Behind Manhattan Gables,” a story
of New Amsterdam, 1663-64, by Rev. Edward A.
Rand; “Green Gates: An Analysis of Foolishness,”
by Mrs. Katharine Mary Cheever Meredith (Johanna
Staats); “Stonepastures,” by Eleanor Stuart, the
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896.
story of a Pennsylvania mining and manufacturing
town; and “The Fur Traders of the West: or,
Adventures among the Redskins,” by Ernest R. Suf-
fling. “Yekl: A Tale of the New York Ghetto,”
by A. Cahan, awakened much favorable comment ;
Frank Pope Hum “ae described “An American
Dog Abroad”; “ Mr. illy Buttons,” by Walter
R. Lecky, proved a story of Canada; George de
Valiére gathered “Opals from a Mexican Mine”;
“ Little Daughter of the Sun,” by Julia P. Dabney,
had its plot worked out in the Canary Islands, and
Dunean Campbell Scott told short stories of what
took place “In the Village of Viger,” in France.
Novels which dealt with social problems were
“Jerry the Dreamer,” by Will Payne: “ White
Satin and Homespun,” by Katrina Trask (Mrs.
Spencer Trask); “A Silver Baron,” by Carlton
Waite; “The Social Crime,” by Minnie L. Arm-
strong and George N. Sceets ; “ A Daughter of Hu-
manity,” by Edgar Maurice Smith; and “Some
Modern Heretics,” by Cora Maynard. “ The Tower
of the Old Schloss ” was a pretty love story by Jean
Porter Rudd, and Mrs. Laura E. Richards wrote
for grown folks “Some Say” and “ Neighbors in
Cyrus,” both in one volume. Allen Upward, the
author of “ A Prince of Balkistan,” wrote “ A Crown
of Straw,” while Abner Thorp, M. D., made a study
of “ A Child of Nature.” “Trains that met in the
Blizzard ” was a composite romance by R. Pitcher
Woodward, which chronicled the adventures of
twelve men and one woman in the blizzard of March,
1888 ; and “ The Story of a Train of Cars” was told
by Wallace Peck. ‘ Your Money or Your Life”
was the title of an unusual romance by Edith Car-
pater, and George A. Woodward published “ The
jiary of a Peculiar Girl.” Elizabeth Phipps Train
ave us “The Autobiography of a Professional
eauty”; Emma Wolf, the author of “ Other
Things being Equal,” examined “ The Joy of Life” ;
while to the realm of the improbable belong “ The
Gold Fish of Gran Chimi,” by Charles F, Lummis,
and “ The Man who became a Savage,” by William
T. Hornaday. “ Master Ardick, Buccaneer” was by
F. H. Costello; John D. Barry was the author of
“The Intriguers” and Jeanie Drake of “ The Met-
ropolitans”’.; “ In Sight of the Goddess ” was a tale
of Washington life by Harriet Riddle Davis, and so-
ciety at the capital was described in “ Not all the
King’s Horses,” by Katherine Elwes Thomas. “The
Exhibits in an Attachment Suit” were set forth by
Charles Peale Didier ; and “ The Epistolary Flirt in
Four Exposures” came from Esmerie Armory. Lula
B. Davis wrote “A Modern Argonaut”; Celia E.
Gardner, “ Won under Protest”; James Barnes,
“A Princetonian”; Martha Caroly Davis, “ The
Refiner’s Fire”; Maurice Francis Egan, “ The Vo-
cation of Edward Conway ”; George Douglas Tall-
man described “ Tom’s Wife and How he Managed
her”; Alwyn M. Thurber told of “ Quaint Crippen,
Commercial Traveler”; “Ladies First,” by hie
Dominique F. Verdenal, recalls California in the
sixties; and the same State is the scene of “ The
perckennds of Pactolus,” by Horace Annesley Va-
chell. Frank H. Converse described the seatch for
“The Lost Gold Mine” ; “ Posie: or, From Reveille
to Retreat” was an army story, by Mrs. M. A. Coch-
ran; and “Out of the Woods” a romance of camp
life by George P. Fisher, Jr. “‘Dedora Heywood ”
was by Gertrude Smith; “ A Bad Penny,” by John
T. Wheelwright, and “The Romance of Guarda-
monte,” by Arline E. Davis; while from Julia McNair
Wright we had “ The Pooles’ Millions: The Story of
a Card House,” “ Cynthia’s Sons,” and “The House
on the Bluff: A Western Flood Story.” “A Mat-
ter of Temperament,” by Edward Irenzus Steven-
son (Janus), was musical in its theme; William
W.M. Cornish wrote “ Behind Plastered Walls” ;
VOL, XXXvVI.—25 A
* “The
385
sha Block, “ Property of Don Gilbar”; and Wil-
liam J. Locke, “Some Women and a Man.” Books
more or less religious in tone were “ The Quiet King:
A Story of Christ,” by Caroline Atwater Mason;
ero of the Ages: A Story of the Nazarene,”
by Catherine Robertson McCartney ; “ Asa of Beth-
lehem and his Household, B. c. 11—-a. p. XXX,” by
Mary Elizabeth Jennings ; “ My Brother,” by Vin-
cent Brown; “The Parson’s Proxy,” by Kate W.
Hamilton; “From Hollow to Hilltop,’ by Mary
Lowe Dickinson ; “ Strange Conditions,” by Fannie
E. Newberry ; “ Friends for Good,” by Mrs. Mary
E. Neely Bradley ; “ The Rainproof Invention,” by
Emily Weaver ; “ The Hathaways’ Sister,” by Mrs.
Annie Kendrick Benedict ; “A Jesuit of To-day,”
by Orange McNeill; “A Year at Dangerfield,” by
Kate Neely Festetits ; “ Only Susan,” by Mrs. Emma
Martin Marshall; “ As Queer as she could be,” by
Jessie E. Wright; “His Brother’s Keeper,” by
Charles M. Sheldon ; “ Ben Abbott,” a temperance
story, by Fanny Long; and * A Tower in the Des-
ert,” by Mrs. Virginia D. Young. Mrs. Nathaniel
Conklin (formerly Jennie M. Drinkwater) told of
“ Paul French’s Way” and “ Dolly French’s House-
hold.” “True to the End ” wasastory of the Swiss
Reformation by Henry S. Burrage, D. D.; Mrs. Har-
riet A. Cheever described the work of “ A Rescued
Madonna”; “Gold, Grace, and Glory ” was a story
of religious life among the wealthy classes of the
West and South; and W. B. Bohner prophesied
“The Time is Coming” for the second advent.
“The Log of the ‘ Lady Grey’” was a pleasing tale
by Louise Seymour Houghton, and Mrs. James
Carey Coale combined in one volume “ The Cottage
by the Sea” and its sequel “ The Egmont Brothers.”
To a more exciting class belong “ The Love Adven-
tures of Al-mansur,” by Archibald Clavering Gun-
ter, who published also “Her Senator”; H. G.
Wells pictured a horrible possibility in * The Island
of Doctor Moreau”; Richard Henry Savage wrote
alone “ Lost Countess Falka: A Story of the Orient ”
and in collaboration with Mrs. Archibald Claver-
ing Gunter “His Cuban Sweetheart.” “ Under
Three Flags ” was a story of mystery by B. L. Tay-
lor and A. T. Thoits, while Mrs. Gertrude Franklin
Atherton’s sole contribution was “A Whirl Asun-
der.” “The Third World,” a tale of love and
strange adventure, by Henry Clay Fairman, may be
classed with “ Beyond the Palwocrystic Sea,” by A.
S. Morton; and considerable imagination was also
required to conceive the adventure of “ The Cap-
tured Cunarder,” by W. H. Rideing. “The Crime
of the Century ” was one of the popular detective
stories by Rodrigues Ottolengui, and “ The Strange
Schemes of Randolph Mason” were set forth by
Melville Davisson Post. It is impossible to more
than enumerate “ The Juggernaut of the Moderns,”
by Rosa Hudspeth; “ Edgar Fairfax,” a story of
West Point, and “ The Twin Sisters,” both by Flor-
ence Nightingale Craddock ; “ That Girl from Bo-
gota,” by Clarice Irene Clingham; “A Daughter
of Cuba,” by Helen M. Bowen; “Checkers,” by
Henry M. Blossom, Jr.; “A House of Cards,” by
Alice S. Wolf; “ Robert Atterbury,” by Mrs. John
R. Jarboe; “ Deborah, the Advanced Woman,” by
Mary Ives Todd; “Mr. Mercer of New York,” by
Annie H. Wilson: “Dainty Iniquity,” by Mar-
garet Granville; “Paradise Wold,” by Alice V.
Carey; “Wheels: A Bicycle Romance,” by “A
Wheeler”: “The Woman with Good Intentions,”
by Meg Merriles; and “An Ambitious Man,” by
Mrs. Ella Wheeler Wilcox. Hypnotism is the
theme of “ Mark Heffron,” by Alice Ward Bailey,
and of “ Blind Leaders of the Blind,” the romance
of a blind lawyer, by James R. Cocke, M. D.; “ Kar-
ma,” by Paul Carus, went through a second edition,
printed and illustrated by Japanese artists in colors
386
on Japanese crépe paper; “Siegfried the Mystic”
was by Ida Warden Wheeler; * Out of the Past,”
by E. Anson More, Jr.; ‘ Birkwood,” by Mrs. Julia
A. B. Seiver; “ Vashti, Old and New,” by Marvel
Kayve; ‘“ Libra,” an astrological romance, by Mrs.
Ellen M. E. Ames (Eleanor Kirk); “ Whose Soul
have I now?” was asked by Mary Clay Knapp;
“Daybreak: A Romance of an Old World,” by
James Cowan, deals with life on the planet Mars;
“ Forty Years with the Damned,” by Charles Aikin,
describes life inside the earth; “ A Fearless Inves-
tigator” was anonymous; and “ A Triumph of Des-
tiny,” by Julia H. Twells, Jr., was directed against
marriage.
Among volumes of short stories are to be enumer-
ated “The Suburban Sage” and “ Love in Old
Cloathes,’ by Henry Cuyler Bunner; “ The Holy
Cross, and Other Tales” and a “Second Book of
Tales,” by Eugene Field; “Break o’ Day, and
Other Stories,” by George Wharton Edwards; “A
Guest at the Ludlow, and Other Stories,” by Edgar
Wilson Nye; “That First Affair, and Other
Sketches,” by John A. Mitchell; “ The Land o’ the
Leal,” by David Lyall; “ A Mountain Woman,” by
Elia W. Peattie; ‘Compound Interest, and Other
Stories,” by Mrs. O. W. Scott; “The Flower that
grew in the Sand, and Other Stories,” by Mrs. Ella
Higginson; “A Wonderful Christmas, and Other
Stories,” by Katherine E. Vernham, chiefly of waifs
and strays; “The Real Issue,” by William Allen
White, the scene of which is laid in Kansas; “A
Hypocritical Romance, and Other Stories,” by Caro-
line Ticknor; “ Hopkins’s Pond,and Other Sketches,”
by Robert T. Morris; “One Day’s Courtship” and
“The Herald’s of Fame,” in one volume, by Robert
Barr (Luke Sharp); “The Maker of Moons,” by
Robert W. Chambers; “The Story of the Innumer-
able Company, and Other Sketches,” by David Starr
Jordan; “The Cat and the Cherub, and Other
Stories,” mostly of the Chinese quarter of San Fran-
cisco, by Chester B. Fernald; “An Elephant’s
Track, and Other Stories,” by Mrs. Mollie E. M.
Davis; “ Uncle Jerry’s Platform, and Other Christ-
mas Stories,” by Gillie Cary; “* Meg McIntyre’s Raf-
fle, and Other Stories,” by Alvan F’. Sanborn; “ Pen-
hallow Tales,” by Edith Robinson; “ Mrs. Hallam’s
Companion, and the Spring Farm and Other Tales,”
by Mrs. Mary J. Holmes; “Six Stories and some
Verses,” by Robert Beverly Hale; “ My Fire Opal,
and Other Tales,” by Sarah Warner Brooks; “ A
Reluctant Evangelist, and Other Stories,” by Alice
Spinner; “Cinder-path Tales,” by William Lind-
sey; “A Round Table of the Representative Amer-
ican Catholic Novelists,” stories by Eleanor C. Don-
nelly, Anna Hanson Dorsey, Ella Loraine Dorsey,
and others; “ The Ebbing of the Tide: South Sea
Stories,” by Louis Becke; “ Tales of Languedoe,”
by Samuel Jacques Brun, with an introduction by
Harriet W. Preston and illustrated by Ernest C.
Peixotto; “ Old Dorset,” chronicles of a New York
countryside, by Robert Cameron Rogers; “The
Fatal Gift of Beauty, and Other Stories,” by C. E.
Raimond ; “The Lucky Number,” a collection of
slum stories, by I. K. Friedman; “ Artie,” a story
of the streets and town, by George Ade, illustrated
by John T. MeCutcheon ; “ Fables for the Times,”
by H. W. Phillips; “A Chance Child,” “ Comrades,”
“Hendrex and Margotte,” and “ Persephone,” four
tales by Marah Ellis Ryan, in one volume; a com-
pilation of “ Fireside Stories Old and New,” in three
volumes, by Henry T. Coates; and “ Stories from the
Chap-Book,” by many celebrated writers. A new
uniform library edition of Mark Twain’s works was
entered upon;
Fine Arts.—Prominent among works of this class
is Russell Sturgis’s historical study of “ European
Architecture,” embellished with 10 full-page plates
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896,
and 250 illustrations in the text; and from Prof. A.
D. F. Hamlin we have “ A Text-book of the History
of Architecture,” while “The Story of Architec-
ture” was told by Charles T. Mathews, giving an
outline of the styles in all countries. “A History
of Greek Art” was written by F. B. Tarbell for the
“Chautauqua Reading Circle Literature Series,” and
contained an introductory chapter on art in Egypt
and Mesopotamia. ‘“ Architectural Masterpieces of
Belgium, Holland, ete.,” were collected into an ex-
pensive volume, A “'T'ext-book of the History of
Sculpture” for use in schools and colleges was
written by Allan Marquand and Arthur L. Froth-
ingham, Jr. “ Modern French Painters,” a series of
biographical and critical reviews by American art-
ists, edited by John C. Van Dyke, with 37 wood
engravings and 28 half-tone illustrations, was a
superb volume, and “The Florentine Painters of
the Renaissance,” by Bernhard Berenson, formed
Vol. IL of his work upon “ The Italian Painters of
the Renaissance.” “ How to listen to Music,” by
Henry E. Krehbiel, offered hints and suggestions
to untaught lovers of the art. Anton Seidl, assisted
by Fanny Morris Smith, Mr. Krehbiel, and others,
ited * The Music of the Modern World,” explained
and illustrated for American readers in 25 parts, of
which 6 were published during the year. “Shakes-
pews Heroes on the Stage,” by Charles E. L.
ingate, was a companion yolume to his “ Shakes-
peare’s Heroines”; William H. Birkmire wrote on
“The Planning and Construction of American
Theaters”; while “ Audiences,” by Florence P.
Holden, contained a few suggestions to those who
look and listen. George C. Seilhamer’s completed
“ History of the American Theater, 1749-1797,” filled
three volumes, An exceedingly costly work was that
entitled “ Oriental Ceramic Art illustrated by Ex-
amples from the Collection of W. T. Walters,” with
115 plates in colors and over 400 reproductions in
black and white, the text and notes of which were
by S. W. Bushell, M. D., the whole being complete
in 10 sections, and the edition limited to 500 cop-
ies. W. P. Jervis, in “ Rough Notes on Pottery,”
claimed to give a complete history of
ancient and modern; Mrs. L. Vance Phillips con-
tributed the “ Book of the China Painter” to
the “ Art Amateur Handbooks”; and Mrs. N,
di R. Monachesi prepared “ A Manual for China
Painters.”
were the subject of a volume by Theodore v. Kra-
mer and W. Behrens; and “ A Collection of Seale
Drawings, Details, and Sketches of what is com-
monly known as Colonial Furniture” were meas-
ured and drawn from antique examples by Alvan
Crocker Nye, architect.
George B. Hynson, and John H. Bechtel were the
joint authors of an * Advanced Elocution.” Among
illustrated gift books are to be mentioned “ Venice
of To-day,” by F. Hopkinson Smith, in 20 parts, il-
lustrated with 40 plates, half in color, and 126 typo-
gravures ; “ The Eternal City: Rome,” by Mrs. Clara
Erskine Clement Waters, in two volumes; “ Pictorial
Wagner,” by Ferdinand Leeke, with an introduction
by Henry T. Finck; “ Pictures of the People,” by
Charles Dana Gibson; “ Captive Memories,” com--
memorative verses interwoven with California flow--
ers, by James Terry White, illustrated by J. S.
Daniel]. M. I. Morrison, and others; “‘ Friar Jerome’s
Beautiful Book,” by Thomas Bailey Aldrich, with
decorations in old missal style, by W. 8. Haddaway ;
drawings by Albert B. Wenzell entitled “In Van-
ity Fair”; a new illustrated edition of Hermann
Grimm’s “ Life of Michel Angelo”; the Surrey edi-
tion of Irving’s “ Bracebridge Hall”; “The Alham-
bra,” of the same author, illustrated with drawings:
of the places mentioned, by Joseph Pennell ; Tho-
reau’s “ Cape Cod,” with 100 sketches in colors by
pottery,
“ Ornamental Fragments, Scrolls, ete.”
Mrs..J. W. Shoemaker, —
ES ES Set pcre Sgr se ete ee
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896. 387
Amelia M. Watson; and two illustrated editions
of the “Constantinople ” of Edmondo de Amicis,
“Posters in Miniature” had an introduction by
Edward Penfield. “ Mural Painting in the Boston
Public Library ” was the subject of a pamphlet by
Ernest F. Fenollossa.
General Science.—Beginning with our planet,
we have “ The Earth and its Story,” a first book of
logy, by Angelo Heilprin, and “ The Geological
Story briefly told,” by James D. Dana, while both
the “ Manual of Geology” of the Jast author and
the “Elements of Geology” of Prof. Joseph Le
Conte went through a fourth edition during the
ar, the former being wholly rewritten and the
t revised and enlarged, and accompanied with
new plates and illustrations. Ten monographs on
“The Physiography of the United States,” by Major
John W. Powell, Profs. N. S. Shaler, Israel Clark
Russell, and others, were collected into a volume,
and “ The Story of a Piece of Coal” was told by Ed-
ward A, Martin in the “ Library of Useful Stories.”
Gen. A. W. Greely published a “* Handbook of Arc-
tic Discoveries” in the “ Columbian Knowledge Se-
ries,” and G. F. Wright, D. D., and Warren Upham
illustrated from original photossephe their exhaus-
tive study of “Greenland Ice Fields and Life in
the North Atlantic,” which contained a new discus-
sion of the causes of -the ice age. “The Method of
Darwin” was considered by Frank Cramer in.a
study in scientific method ; Edward Drinker Cope
marshaled “ The Primary Factors of Organic Evo-
lution”; while Prof. John M. Tyler delivered the
Morse Lectures of 1895 upon “The Whence and
Whither of Man,” giving a brief history of his
origin and development through conformity to
environment. ‘“ The Biological Lectures delivered
at the Marine Biological Laboratory of Wood’s
Holl, in the Summer of 1895,” by various authori-
ties, were collected into a volume; “ The Cell in
Development and Inheritance ” was the theme of
Edmund B. Wilson in the “ Columbia University
Biological Series”; David Starr Jordan and others
opened with “ The Fishes of Sinaloa ” the “ Leland
Stanford, Jr., University Contributions to Biology,”
other issues of which were “ The Fishes of Puget
Sound,” by the same author and Edmund Chapin,
and “ New Mallophaga,” by Vernon L. Kellogg;
and “ The Survival of the Unlike” was the title of
a collection of evolution essays suggested by the
study of domestic plants, by Liberty Hyde Bailey.
John A. Mandel prepared a “ Handbook for the
Biochemical Laboratory.” ‘Queen Moo and the
Egyptian Sphinx,” by Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon,
contends for the earlier civilization of the Western
Continent than the Eastern, in contradiction of the
usually accepted hypothesis, and a new third edi-
tion was issued of Dr. Daniel Garrison Brinton’s
treatise on “ The Myths of the New World.” “The
Pith of Astronomy,” by Samuel G. Bayne, contained
the latest facts and figures as developed by the
giant telescopes, without mathematics, and Herbert
A. Howe made “ A Study of the Sky” for Chautau-
uans. A new revised edition of ** The Sun,” by C.
. Young, appeared in the “ International Scientific
Series,” and Ernest W. Brown wrote “ An Intro-
_ ductory Treatise on the Lunar Theory.” The first
volume of “An Illustrated Flora,” covering the
northern United States and the British possessions,
by N. L. Britton and Edison Brown, covered “ Ferns
to Carpet Weed,” and will be followed by two more.
Ferdinand Schuyler Mathews described “ Familiar
Trees and their Leaves,” illustrating them with
200 original drawings, L. H. Bailey contributing an
introduction to the work; Mrs. William Starr
Dana’s “ Plants and their Children ” was illustrated
by Alice Josephine Smith; Caroline E. Hilliard
proffered “Lessons in Botany”; and Vol. II ap-
peared of William J. Beal’s “ Grasses of North
America.” Parts XIII and XIV were issued of the
second volume of H. Nehrling’s “ North American
Birds”; “ A Popular Handbook of the Ornithology
of Eastern North America,” by Thomas Nuttall,
went through a new enlarged edition, revised and
annotated by M. Chamberlain ; “ Every Bird” was
a guide to the identification of the birds of wood-
land, beach, and ocean, by Reginald H. Howe, Jr. ;
C. J. Maynard wrote “* A Handbook of the Sparrows,
Finches, ete., of New England”; Florence A. Mer-
riam went “A-Birding on a Bronco” through
southern California; Ernest D. Wintle described
“The Birds of Montreal”; and “ Papers presented
to the World’s Congress on Ornithology,” held at
the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, were
edited by Mrs. E. I, Rood, under the direction of
Prof. Elliott Coues. Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller, the
author of “ Bird Ways,” was equally successful in
her treatment of “ Four-Handed Folk,” and Rush
C. Hawkins pronounced on animal friends, also the
subjects of personal observation, as “ Better than
Men.” Edward Knobel wrote briefly of “ The Tur-
tles, Snakes, Frogs, and Other Reptiles and Am-
Soy nee of New England and the North.” John
. Comstock and Vernon L. Kellog prepared an °
outline of “ The Elements of Insect Anatomy ” for
the use of students in the entomological laboratories
of Cornell and Leland Stanford, Jr., Universities.
E. Dana Pierce offered “ Problems in Elementary
Physics”; Preston Smith, “ Easy Experiments in
Physics”; and R. P. Williams, ‘“ Chemical Experi-
ments, General and Analytical,” for use with any
text-book of chemistry or without a text-book.
“ Chemical Notes on Equations,” inorganic and or-
ganic, were made by G. H. Gemmell; “ A Manual
of Quantitative Chemical Analysis,” by F. A. Cairns,
was issued in a third edition, revised and enlarged
by Elwyn Waller; Frank Hall Thorp wrote on
“ Inorganic Chemical Preparations”; and Arthur
Messinger Comey prepared “ A Dictionary of Chem-
ical Solubilities (Inorganic).” “ What is Electric-
ity?” was asked by John Trowbridge for the pur-
pose of elucidation in the “ International Scientific
Series,” and “ The Story of Electricity ” was told by
John Munro in the “ Library of Useful Stories.” Vol.
II of a “ Text-book on Electro-magnetism and the
Construction of Dynamos,” by Dougald C. and John
Price Jackson, was given to “ Alternating Currents
and Alternating-Current Machinery”; Frederick
Bedell laid down “The Principles of the Trans-
former” ; F'. C. Allsop’s “ Induction Coils and Coil-
making” went through a second revised and en-
larged edition; Silvanus P. Thompson wrote on
“Polvphase Electric Currents and Alternate-Cur-
rent Motors”; Vol. I of Francis B. Crocker’s “ Elec-
tric Lighting” appeared, being devoted to “ The
Generating Plant” ; Edwin J. Houston and Arthur
E. ae contributed six volumes to the “ Ele-
mentary Electro-Technical Series,” upon “ Electric
Incandescent Lighting,” “ Electric Are Lighting,”
“The Electric Motor,” “ Electric Telegraphy,”
“Electric Telephone,” and “ Electric Street Rail-
ways.” Edward P. Thompson wrote at length of
the “ Roentgen Rays and Phenomena of the Anode
and Cathode”; “ The X Ray,” by William J. Mor-
ton, M. D., and Edwin W. Hammer, went through a
fifth edition, which contained appendices by Prof.
Réntgen, Thomas A. Edison, and Dr. Oliver Lodge;
and William H. Meadowcroft set forth “ The ABC
of the X Ray,” in addition to publishing the
“Scholar’s A BC of Electricity.” “ Parakites”
was a treatise on the making and flying of tailless
kites for scientific purposes and for recreation, by
Gilbert Totten Woglom. Mansfield Merriman and
Robert S. Woodward edited “ Higher Mathematics
for Classical and Engineering Colleges”; “ Ele-
388
ments of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,” to-
gether with which were included “ Logarithmic and
Trigonometric Tables Five Decimal Places,” were
prepared by C. W. Crockett; Andrew W. Phillips
and Irving Fisher collaborated upon “ Elements of
Geometry ” ; Charles A. Hobbs set forth ‘* The Ele-
ments of Plane Geometry”; as did A. R. Hornbook
“Concrete Geometry for Beginners”; and “ Plane
and Solid Geometry” was the work of Wooster W.
Beman and David Eugene Smith. Vol. I was issued
of a new edition of William M. Gillespie’s “ Treat-
ise on Surveying,” revised and enlarged by Cady
Staley, and W. G. Raymond published “A Text-
book of Plane Surveying.” The contributions to
intellectual philosophy were not numerous. They
included “ The Power of Thought,” by John Doug-
las Sterrett, to which Prof. J. Mark Baldwin fur-
nished an introduction ; “ The Truth of Thought,”
by William Poland, termed in the subtitle “ Mate-
rial Logic”; F. Ryland’s “ Logic,” an introductory
manual for the use of university students; and two
works on “ Inductive Logic,” the same title having
been selected by John Grier Hibben and William
G. Ballantine. Bulletins of the Department of Ge-
ology of the University of California published dur-
ing the year included “ The Geology of Point Sal,”
by Harold W. Fairbanks; “ On Malignite,” by An-
drew O. Lawson; and “ The Great Valley of Cali-
fornia: A Criticism of the Theory of Isostasy,” by
F. Leslie Ransome; and in the “ Bulletins of the
University of Wisconsin ” appeared “ Electrical En-
gineering in Modern Central Stations,” by Louis A.
Ferguson ; “A Complete Test of Modern American
Transformers of Moderate Capacities,” by Arthur
Hillyer Ford; and “The Problem of Economical
Heat, Light, and Power Supply for Building
Blocks, Schoolhouses, ete.,” by G. A. Gerdtzen.
The “ Fifteenth and Sixteenth Annual Reports
of the United States Geological Survey” were is-
sued, and a new enlarged edition of the “ Science
Sketches” of Prof. David Starr Jordan may be as
well mentioned here as anywhere.
History.—Quite a number of books of history
were published during the year, many of excep-
tional value. George Park Fisher, D. D., gave “A
Brief History of the Nations and of their Progress
in Civilization,” and George Shelley Hughs re-
viewed “ Ancient Civilizations.” Vol. II appeared
of George Ticknor Curtis’s “ Constitutional History
of the United States,” edited by Joseph Culbertson
Clayton, completing that valuable work; Edward
Channing and Albert Bushnell Hart were the joint
authors of a “Guide to the Study of American
History”; Edward Eggleston in “ The Beginnings
of a Nation” traced the history of the source and
rise of the earliest English settlements in America,
with special reference to the life and character of
the people; two volumes contained “The History
of the Last Quarter Century in the United States,
1870-1895,” by Prof. E. B. Andrews; John Bach
MeMaster’s “With the Fathers” consisted of
studies in the history of the United Staies; while
James Schouler presented “ Historical Briefs,” in-
cluding a biography. “Beneath Old Roof-trees,”
by Abram English Brown, in the series of “ Foot-
prints of the Patriots,” gave a view of the opening
of the Revolution; the first of five volumes which
will contain “The People’s Standard History of
the United States, from the Landing of the Norse-~
men to the Present Time,” by Edward S. Ellis, was
issued, and from the same author we had “Stories
from American History” and “ Epochs in Ameri-
can History,” both in the “American History Se-
ries.” Arthur Middleton Reeves edited “The
Finding of Wineland the Good,” the history of the
Icelandic discovery of America, translated from
the earliest records; “ The Evolution of an Empire,”
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896.
by Mrs. Mary P. Parmele, in the “Evolution of
Empire Series” gave a brief historical sketch of
the United States; William A. and Arthur May
Mowry wrote “ A History of the United States for
Schools”; and Thomas Hunter “ A Narrative His-
tory of the United States” for the same purpose.
The first of about 60 volumes destined to contain
“The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents” was
edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, and covered
“ Acadia: 1610-1613,” and S. M. Hamilton per-
formed a similar service for “The Hamilton Fac.
similes of Manuscripts in the National Archives
relating to American History,” Part I of which
was given to the “ The Monroe Doctrine: Its Origi
and Intent,” and appeared in the series of “The
Study of History from Original Sources.” William
Hayden English wrote an extensive work upon the -
“Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River
Ohio, 1778-1783,” including a life of Gen. George
Rogers Clark, which filled two volumes. Dr. Ezra
Hoyt Byington made a study of “The Puritan in
England and New England”; William Bradford’s
“History of the Plimoth Plantation” was repro- .
duced in facsimile by photography of the original
manuscript, and published with an introduction b
John A, Doyle; three volumes of “ Old South Leaf-
lets,” published by the Directors of the Old South
Work, Old South Meeting House, 1896, were issued ;
and Edward Field gave an historical account of
“ Revolutionary Defenses in Rhode Island.” The
“History of the Transition from Provincial to Com-
monwealth Government in Massachusetts” was writ-
ten by Harry A. Cushing in the * Columbia College
Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law”;
and “The Bay Colony” was a civil, religious, and
social history of the Massachusetts colony and its
settlements from the landing at Cape Ann in 1624
to the death of Gov. Winthrop in 1650, by William
Dummer Northend. Sydney G. Fisher told of
“The Making of Pennsylvania” ; and two novelists
appeared in a new réle, Frank R. Stockton telling
“Stories of New Jersey” and Joel Chandler Harris
(Uncle Remus) “Stories of Georgia” in serious
vein. ‘ Miscellanies of Georgia,” historical, bio-
graphical, descriptive, etc., came from Absalom H.
Chappell. Two volumes contained the “ Economic
History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,”
by Philip Alexander Bruce; and the “ Proceedings
of the Virginia State Society of the Cincinnati from
the 6th of October, 1783, to the Disbanding of the
Society, Oct. 18, 1824” were put in print. In the
“Johns Hopkins University Studies” appeared
“Causes of the Maryland Revolution of 1689,” by
Francis Edgar Sparks; and “A Study of Slavery
in New Jersey,” by Henry Schofield Cooley ; “ Naval
Actions of the War of 1812” were chronicled by
James Barnes “The Story of Canada” was written
by John G. Bourinot for the “Story of the Nations
Series”; while “The Province of Quebee and the
Early American Revolution” was a study.in Eng-
lish-American colonial history, by Victor Coffin,
published in the “Bulletins of the University of
Wisconsin.” “One Hundred Years of American
Commerce, 1795-1895,” in two superb volumes, was
edited by Chauncey M. Depew, being a history of
the first century of American commerce by 100
Americans. In the series of ‘‘ Harvard Historical
Studies” we had “The Contest over the Ratifica-
tion of the Federal Constitution in the State of
Massachusetts,” by Samuel Bannister Harding; “* A
Critical Study of Nullification in South Carolina,”
by David Franklin Houston; and “The Suppres-
sion of the African Slave Trade to the United States
of America, 1638-1870,” by W. E. B. Du Bois, —
“Modern Battles of Trenton” was a history of New
Jersey’s politics and legislation from 1868 to 1894,
by William Edgar Sacketts; “A Bibliography of
the State of Maine,” from the earliest period to
1891, by Joseph Williamson, filled two volumes;
“Soldiers in King Philip’s War” were the theme
of George Madison Bodge; Elizabeth Shelby Kin-
kead wrote “ A History of Kentucky.” Vol. IV of
“The Winning of the West.” by Theodore Roose-
_ velt, covered *‘ Louisiana and the Northwest. 1791-
1807”; “In Unnamed Wisconsin” was a collection
of studies in the history of the region between Lake
Michigan and the Mississippi river, by J. N. David-
son; and “Exploration of Lake Superior: The
ages of Hatnon and Groselliers,” by Henry
Campbell, formed No. 2 of the “Parkman
Club Publications,” No. 1 being “ Nicholas Perrot,”
by Gardner P. Stickney. Vol. I was issued of
“Pacific History Stories,” arranged and retold for
use in the public schools by H. Wagner. Books
relative to the late war include “From Manassas
to Appomatox: Memoirs of the Civil War in
America,” by Gen. James Longstreet ; “ Was Gen-
eral Thomas Slow at Nashville?” by Gen. Henry V.
Boynton, with a description of the greatest cavalry
movement of the war, and Gen. James H. Wilson’s
cavalry operations in Tennessee, Alabama, and
Georgia; “ The Trent Affair,” by Thomas L. Harris,
including a review of the English and American
relations at the beginning of the civil war, to
which James A. Woodburn contributed an intro-
duction; Vol. IV of “Sketches of War History,
1861-1865,” pocinted by the Society of the Army
of the Cumberland after: its twenty-fifth annual
reunion, 1895, and edited by W. H. Chamberlin;
Vol. X of “Critical Sketches of some Federal and
Confederate Commanders,” edited by Theodore F.
Dwight for the Massachpsetts Military Historical
Society; “The Fifth Army Corps (Army of the
Potomac): A Record of Operations during the Civil
War in the United States of America, 1861-1865,”
by William H. Powell; a “History of the Inde-
ndent Loudon Virginia Rangers, U.S. Vol. Cav.
FSconts), 1862-65,” by Briscoe Goodhart; and
“Mosby’s Rangers,” a record of the operations of
the Forty-third Battalion Virginia Cavalry, from
its organization to the surrender, by James J.
Williamson. George W. Wingate wrote a “ His-
tory of the 22d Regiment N. G. N. Y. 1861-1895.”
A “History of the Im hment of Andrew John-
son, President of the United States, by the House
of Representatives, and his Trial by the Senate for
High Crimes and Misdemeanors in Office, 1868 ”
was written by Edmund G. Ross, and “ Lincoln’s
Campaign: or, The Political Revolution of 1860”
was contributed by Osborn H. Oldroyd to the “ Pas-
time Series.” James Albert Woodburn re-edited
Alexander Johnston’s “ American Orations: Studies
in American Political History,” the revised work
being made to include political oratory only, and
lengthened to four volumes, of which the first
appeared during the year. “ Nicaragua,” by Daniel
B. Lucas, told of the war of the filibusters, and
“The Story of Cuba” was written by Murat Hal-
stead. “ Muh-He-Ka-Ne-Ok” was the title of a
history of the Stockbridge nation, by J. N. David-
son. “Europe in the Middle Ages” was the theme
of Oliver J. Thatcher and Ferdinand Schwill, and
Charles McLean Andrews traced “The Historical
Development of Modern Europe, from the Congress
of Vienna to the Present Time.” in two volumes, of
which the first covered 1815-50. “A Short History
of Italy, from 476 4. p. to 1878 a. p.” was written
by Elizabeth Stansbury Kirkland, while “Italy in
the Nineteenth Century, and the Making of Austro-
Hungary and Germany” were exhaustively treated
by Elizabeth Wormeley Latimer. Poultney Bige-
low devoted two volumes to a “ History of the Ger-
man age for Liberty,” illustrated with draw-
ings by Caton Woodville: Herbert B. Adams
Vo
Coli
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896. 389
v
contributed a biographical sketch to Prof. Herbert
Tuttle's “ History of Prussia under Frederic the
Great, 1756-1757 ” ; while George Burton Adams not
only outlined “The Growth of the French Nation”
for Chautauquans, but gave the reasons “ Why
Americans dislike England” in the “ Belles-Lettres
Series.” B. O. Flower reviewed “The Century of
Sir Thomas More.” Alexander W. Hidden followed
the fortunes of “The -Ottoman Dynasty,” and
“ Armenia and her People” contained the story of
Armenia told by an Armenian scholar, Rev. George
H. Filian. “The Story of Greece” was furnished
to “Eclectic School Readings” by H. A. Guerber,
and Earle Wilbur Dow drew up Course 2 of “ Brief
Outlines in European History” for students of the
University of Michigan. “A Cycle of Cathay: or,
China South and North,” with personal reminis-
cences, came from William Alexander Parsons
Martin, D. D., and a “Young People’s History of
the Chinese” was written by W. G. E. Cunnyngham.
A brief “Constitutional History of Hawaii” was
added by Henry E. Chambers to the “Johns Hop-
kins University Studies.” To compilations of local
history belong a “ History of the Town of Plymouth,
Ct.,” by Francis Atwater, containing an account
of the Centennial Celebration, May 4. 1895, and
also a sketch of Plymouth, Ohio, settled by local
families; and “Tax Lists of the Town of Provi-
dence during the Administration of Sir Edmund
Andros and his Council, 1686-1689,” in an edition
limited to 250 copies, by Edward Field; Martha
Bockée Flint made a colonial study of “ Early Long
Island”; a new revised enlarged edition was made
of Mrs. Martha J. Lamb’s “ History of the City of
New York,” the twenty-first chapter of the second
volume of which was published separately by Mrs.
Burton Harrison as a “ History of the City of New
York: Externals of Modern New York.” “The
History of Yonkers,” by Rev. Charles Elmer Alli-
son, was issued under the auspices of the Board of
Trade of that city; and John F. Edgar described
“Pioneer Life in Dayton and Vicinity, 1796-1840.”
Miss Mary E. Perkins published “Old Houses of
the Antient Town of Norwich. 1660-1800.” with
maps, illustrative portraits, and genealogies, and
Norman M. Isham and Albert F. Brown made an
historical and architectural study of “ Early Rhode
Island Houses.” A handsome holiday edition of
John Fiske’s “ American Revolution” was issued,
and Charles Morris added two new volumes to his
“ Historical Tales,” being respectively “ Greek ” and
“Roman.” Bill Nye’s “ History of England” may
be inserted here, for want of a better place—al-
though strictly a work of humor.
Jurisprudence.—W orks of this class were nu-
merous. William P. Fishback prepared “ A Manual
of Elementary Law,” in which he summarized the
well-settled principles of American law, and Walter
Denton Smith contributed a work bearing the same
title to the “Hornbook Series.”” W. A. Keener com-
piled “Selections on the Elements of Jurispru-
dence”; Eli F. Ritter defined “ Moral Law and
Civil Law Parts of the Same Thing”; Henry
Campbell Black added to the “ Hornbook Series” a
“ Handbook on the Construction and Interpreta-
tion of the Laws,” with a chapter on the interpreta-
tion of judicial decisions and the doctrine of pre-
cedents; “You Should Not,” by Samuel H. Wan-
dell, was a book for lawyers, old and young, con-
taining the elements of legal ethics; Roswell Shinn
filled two volumes with “ A Treatise on the Plead-
ings and Practice in the Courts of Record of Illinois,
at Common Law in Civil Causes.” Wilber A. Owen
roffered “ Questions and Answers on Common Law
Pleading.” a fourth edition was issued of “ Puter-
baugh’s Chancery Pleading and Practice,” and a
sixth edition of Samuel Maxwell’s “ Treatise on
390
Pleading, Practice, Procedure, and Precedents in
Actions at Law and Suits in Equity.” “ A Practical
Treatise on Criminal Procedure,” by the last author,
also went through a second revised and enlarged
edition. Vol. I was also issued of a revised edition
of William Lansing’s “ Forms of Civil Procedure” ;
Vol. IV of an “ Encyclopedia of Pleading and
Practice,” compiled under the editorial supervision
of William M. McKinney, covered ‘“ Certiorari to
Contracts”; Part I of “ A Preliminary Treatise on
Evidence of the Common Law,” by James Bradley
Thayer, was devoted to “ Development of Trial by
Jury”; three volumes upon “ The Law of Evidence
in Civil Cases,” by Burr W. Jones, appeared; “The —
Code of Evidence both Civil and Criminal” of the
State of Ohio was by W. H. Whittaker; H. L. Wil-
gus compiled “Cases on the Law of Evidence”;
and a work similar in title was also sent out by T.
W. Hughes. “A Treatise on the Law of Circum-
stantial Evidence,” by Arthur P. Will, was illus-
trated by numerous cases; William B. Hale con-
tributed a “ Handbook on the Law of Torts” to the
** Hornbook Series”; W.C. Sprague ue “* Lead-
‘ing Cases upon the Law of Torts”; James Paige,
“Tilustrative Cases in Torts,” with analysis and
citations; and§. B, Fisher, “ Problems and Quiz on
the Law of Torts.” John G, Hawley and Malcolm
McGregor expounded “ The Criminal Law”; Vol.
II of the fourth edition of Joel Prentiss Bishop’s
“ New Criminal Procedure,” a new work based on
former editions, covered “Specific Offenses and
their Incidents”; H. W. Chaplin’s “Cases on
Criminal Law” went through a second edition, re-
vised and enlarged by Carleton Hunneman; and a
similar service was performed by William Draper
Lewis for the tenth edition of Francis Wharton’s
“Treatise on Criminal Law.” “Cases on Equity
Jurisprudence” were selected chiefly from Fetter’s
and Pattee’s Cases; Henry Budd contributed the
notes upon “ American and English Decisions in
Equity,” of which the first annual volume (first
series) appeared during the year. William C.
Sprague published “Illustrative Cases on Equity
Jurisprudence,” in addition to “Illustrative Cases
on Personal Property” and “Selected Cases on
Criminal Law,” and W. S. Pattee’s “ Illustrative
Cases in Equity” went through a third edition.
Leonard rene wrote “A Treatise on the Law of
Real Property” in two volumes, and Chapman W.
Maupin was the author of “ Marketable Title to Real
Estate.” George W. Warvelle drew up “ Principles
of the Law of Real Property” for the use of stu-
dents, and Earl P. Hopkins added a “ Handbook on
the Law of Real Property” to the “ Hornbook Series.”
The three parts of W. S. Pattee’s “Illustrative
Cases in Realty ” were entitled respectively “ Land,”
“ Hstates,” and “Titles,” and James W. Gerard’s “ Di-
gestive Treatise and Compendium of Law applicable
to Titles to Real Estate in the State of New York”
went through the fourth revised and enlarged
edition. James Schouler’s “ Treatise on the Law of
Personal Property” went through a second edition,
in two volumes; John D, Lawson published * Select
Cases in the Law of Personal Property”; Philip T.
Van Zile, “ Illustrative Cases on Personalty”; and
“Cases on Personal Property” were compiled by
Prof. Levi T. Griffin and Walter Denton Smith.
Frederick H. Comstock was the author of “ An
Index to Wills, Deeds, and Other Instruments, and
to Litigations affecting the Title to Real Property
which have been judicially considered in the Courts
of the State of New York”; a third edition was
published of “Intestate Succession in the State of
New York,” by Daniel S. Remsen; also a second
edition of Benjamin F. Dos Passos’s work upon “The
Law of Collateral and Direct Inheritance, Legacy,
and Succession Taxes.” “The Law of Charitable
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896,
Uses, Trusts, and Donations in New York” was set
forth by Robert Ludlow Fowler, and “The Poor,
Insanity, and State Charities Laws” of the same
State, by Robert C. Cumming and Frank B. Gilbert.
“Combination, Consolidation, and Succession of
Corporations,” by Andrew J. Hirsche; Vol. VI of
“Commentaries on the Law of Private Corpora-
tions,” by Seymour D, Thompson, completing the
work; Vol. 1V of the American Corporation Legal
Manual,” edited by Charles J. Borgmeyer; the two
parts of “ A Selection of Cases in Private Corpora-
tions,’ by Jeremiah Smith; together with “ Illus-
trative Cases on the Law of Corporations,” compiled
by Walter Denton Smith; “ A Treatise on the Law
of Municipal Bonds of the Municipal Corporations
of the United States,” including bonds issued to aid
railroads, by Thomas C. Simonton; and a second
edition of “ White on Corporations,” represent all
that was published upon this fruitful subject, ex-
cepting, tie a work by Robert C. Cumming
and Frank B. Gilbert upon “ Membership and Re-
ligious Corporations.” Edward Avery Harriman
wrote for the “Student’s Series” on the * Elements of
the Law of Contracts”; Randolph Sailer prepared
for the press ** A Treatise on the Law of Contracts,”
by Samuel S. Hollingsworth; Charles Fisk Beach, Jr.,
gave two volumes to “ A Treatise on the Modern
Law of Contracts,” and Earl P. Hopkins arran
“Selected Cases on the Law of Contracts” with refer-
ence to Clark’s “ Handbook of Contracts.” A second
edition of Charles B. Eltiott’s “ Outline on the Law
of Insurance,” with illustrative cases, was the onl
work upon insurance. Amos M. Thayer prepare
especially for the St. Lonis Law School his compila-
tion upon “Jurisdiction of the Federal Courts”;
Albert H. Walker’s “ Text-book of the Patent Laws
of the Unjted States ” went through a third edition,
and a second revised edition of George Haven Put- .
nam’s discussion of “ The Question of Copyright,”
with additions, had the record of legislation brought
down to March, 1896. “Cases on the Law of
Admiralty ” were printed at the request of Hon.
H. B. Brown, Justice of the United State Supreme
Court, for use in connection with his lectures at the
Georgetown (D. C.) University Law School; John
Day Smith compiled “ Illustrative Cases on Consti-
tutional Law”; and a simple statement of the prin-
ciples of “ International Law” was made by Herbert
Wolcott Bowen. Floyd R. Mechem explained the
“Elements of the Law of Partnership”; Conrad
Reno touched upon “ Employers’ Liability Acts” ;
Frederic Jessup Stimson (J. S. of Dale) was the
author of a‘ Handbook to the Labor Law of the
United States”; Walter C. Tiffany, of a “ Hand-
book on the Law of Persons and Domestic Rela-
tions” in the “ Hornbook Series”; and Ernest W.
Huffcut edited “Cases on the Law of Agency.”
Eugene Wambaugh prepared “ A Selection of Cases
on Agency”; Albert S. Bolles was the author of
“The Elements of Commercial Law”; Reuben M.
Benjamin, of “ The General Principles of the Amer- —
ican Law of the Sale of Goods,” in the form of rules
with comments and illustrations, and containing
also the English “sale of goods act”; and S. B.
Fisher proposed “ Problems and Quiz on the Law
of Sales.” Roswell Shinn gave two volumes to “A.
Treatise on the American Law of Attachment and
Garnishment”; John D. Lawson’s “ Principles of the
American Law of Bailments” was intended as a
companion tothe author’s work on contracts; C. W.
Sams wrote “ A Treatise on the Law of Attachment
and Bail in Virginia and West Virginia”; and
Orlando F. Bump’s “Treatise upon Conveyances
made by Debtors to defraud Creditors” went
through a fourth edition revised and enlarged with
reference to all American and English cases by
James MclIlvane Gray. Elias F. Johnson selected
LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1896. 391
and annotated “Illustrative Cases upon the Law of
Bills and Notes.” “The Elements of the Law of
Bailments and Common Carriers” were set forth
by Irving Browne, and the “ Hornbook Series” was
supplied with a “ Handbook on the Law of Bail-
ments and Carriers” and “A Handbook on the
Law of Damages,” by William B. Hale. “The Law
of Passenger and Freight Elevators” was made
clear by James Avery Webb, and a second edition
was made of Emlin McClain’s “Selection of Cases
on the Law of Carriers of Goods and of Passen-
rs.” Vols. IV and V appeared of “A Digest of
Railway Decisions,” by Stewart Rapalje and
William Mack. Simeon E. Baldwin compiled
“Tilustrative Cases on Railway Law.” Vols. IV
and V were published of “ American Electrical
-Cases,” edited by William W. Morrill, as well as
‘Vols. II, III, and 1V of “American Negligence
Cases,” prepared and edited by T. F. Hamilton.
“The Law of Negligence: Rules, Decisions, Opin-
ions,” formed the adie of Edward B. Thomas.
Sidney Perley wrote on “ Mortuary Law,” and Vols.
III and IV completed “Medical Jurisprudence,
Forensic Medicine, and Toxicology,’ by R. A.
Witthaus, M. D., Tracy C. Becker, and others. A
second revised edition was also made of “ A Manual
of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology,” by
Henry C. Chapman, M.D. Vols. XXIX, XXX,
and XXXI appeared of the “ American and English
angie janes of Law ” (the last two volumes being
an “Index Digest” of the same) as well as two
volumes of a second edition of the same work,
edited by D. S. Garland and Lucius P. McGhee,
under the supervision of James Cockroft. A new
series was also inaugurated of “ American and Eng-
lish Corporation Cases,” edited by F.C. Smith, of
which the first volume was issued. Books XX to
. XXVIL, inclusive, of United States “‘ Federal Cases’
were sent out, as were Vols. XLVI, XLVII, XLVIII,
XLIX, and L of “ American State Reports,” selected,
reported, and annotated by A. C. Freeman; and
the “ Digest of the Decisions of the Courts of Last
Resort of the Several States, from the year 1892 to
the year 1896,” covering Vols. XXV to XLVIII, in-
elusive, of the same; Vol. VIII of “‘ American Pro-
bate Reports,” with notes and references by A. A.
Greenhoot; Vol. V of “Interstate Commerce Com-
mission Reports;” Vol. XII of “American Rail-
road and Corporation Reports,’ edited and an-
notated by J. fone ; Vol. 1X of “ American Crimi-
nal Reports,” by John Gibbons; Vols. XV, XVI,
XVII, XVIIT, and XIX of “Reports of United
States Circuit Court of Appeals”; Vols. XXI to
XXXV, inclusive, of “Reports of United States
Courts of Appeals”; and Vols. LXIX to LXXIV of
the “ United States Federal Reporter” (permanent
edition). Vols. CLIX to CLXIII, inclusive, of
“ United States Supreme Court Reports ” came from
J. C. B. Davis, and the annual “ American Digest,
1896” saw the light. Among law books having
special value in the various States are to be men-
tioned a “History of the Court of Common Pleas
of the City and County of New York,” by James
Wilton Brooks, with full report of all important
proceedings ; a third edition of “ The Rules of Prac-
tice in the Civil Courts of Record of the State of
Texas,” by John Sayles ; “‘ Probate Practice” in the
State of Illinois, by Henry Binmore; “ Maine
Probate Law,” by George A. Wilson; “ Tennessee
Constitutional Law,” compiled by Douglas Ander-
son; “ The Laws relating to Statutory Liens” in
Indiana, in two volumes. by B. F. Watson; and “The
Drainage Laws of Ohio,” by Florien Giauque; while
a second edition was issued of ‘“ The Justice’s Man-
ual,” by Charles S. Bundy. “Story’s Legal Digest
and Directory of Lawyers” went through its
eleventh annual issue during the year; and other
volumes of the same class were “Sharp and Alle-
man’s Lawyers’ and Bankers’ Directory for 1896” ;
J. B. Martindale’s “American Law Directory,”
which completed its twenty-eighth year of annual
issue; “ Boyer’s Legal Directory”; the “ American
Law Digest and Legal Directory,” edited by William
F. Wernse; the “National Legal Bureau Directory”;
and Vol. VI of the “ Attorneys’ and Agencies’ As-
sociation Legal Directory,” revised to March 20,
1896. The record of several “ Extraordinary Cases ”
was given to the public in a volume of much in-
terest by Henry Lauren Clinton.
Juvenile.—Still books continue to be written for
young people and read by older ones. Among
them none were more heartily welcomed than
““Marm Liza,” by Kate Douglas Wiggin (Mrs.
George C. Riggs), and Marguerite Bouvet told the
charming story of “ Pierrette.” Hezekiah Butter-
worth’s “Wampum Belt” was a tale of Penn’s
treaty with the Indians. Molly Elliot Seawell in
“A Virginia Cavalier” gave the history of Wash-
ington’s boyhood and early youth; “In the Days of
Washington” was a story of the Revolution, by
William Murray Graydon; and “ The Green Moun-
tain Boys” were the heroes of Eliza F. Pollard.
“For King or Country,” by James Barnes, and
“Three Young Continentals,” by Everett T. Tom-
linson, belong to the same period, the last in the
“ War of the Revolution Series.” The same author
contributed “'Tecumseh’s Young Braves” to the
“ War of 1812 Series”; and James Barnes published
“Midshipman Farragut.” Favorite authors were
well represented. John Townsend Trowbridge pub-
lished “* The Prize Cup”; Horatio Alger, Jr., “ Frank
Hunter’s Peril ” and “ The Young Salesman”; Kirk
Munroe, “Rick Dale,” a story of the Northwest
coast, and ‘“ eng Swamp and Glade,” a tale
of the Seminole War; Harry Castlemon (Charles
Austin Fosdick), “The Mystery of Lost River Can-
yon,” “The House-Boat Boys,” and “The Young
Game Warden”; and William Osborn Stoddard,
“The Windfall” and “The Swordmaker’s Son,”
the last astory of the year 30 a.p. Charles Ledyard
Norton contributed “ A Medal of Honor Man: or,
Cruising among Blockade-Runners” to the “ Fight-
ing for the Flag Series” ; William T. Adams (Oliver
Optic), “ On the Staff” to “The Blue and the Gray
Series.” “ Under the Liberty Tree,” by James Otis
Kaler (James Otis), continued the “ Stories of Amer-
ican History Series,” being a story of the Boston
Massacre, and from the same prolific author we
had also “ With Lafayette at Yorktown,” “ The Boy
Captain,” “ A’ Short Cruise,” “‘On Schedule Time,”
““Wrecked on Spider Island,” and “ Teddy and Car-
rots, Two Merchants of Newspaper Row.” Albert
Stearns’s “Sinbad, Smith & Co.” was illustrated
by Reginald B. Birch; Edward 8. Ellis’s addition
to the “ Boone and Kenton Series” was “Shod with
Silence” and its sequel, “The Phantom of the
River,” and he also wrote “ Uncrowning a King,” a
tale of King Philip’s War, “Four Boys,” in the
“Through on Time Series” and three volumes for the
“River and Wilderness Series,” entitled ““ The River
“Fugitive,” “ The Wilderness Fugitives,” and * Lena-
Wingo, the Mohawk.” Willis Boyd Allen showed
the spirit of our fathers exemplified in “ A Son of
Liberty”; “ Under the Tamaracks,” by Elbridge S.
Brooks; described a summer with Gen. Grant at the
Thousand Islands; W. Drysdale wrote “The Fast
Mail,” the story of a train boy, for the “ Brain and
Brawn Series”; “ Not without Honor,” by William
D. Moffat, was the story of an odd boy; and “ Wal-
ter Gibbs the Young Boss, and Other Stories ” was
the title of a book for boys by Edward W. Thom-
son. “Boys of the Central” was a high-school
story, by I. T. Thurston, and from Mrs. I. T. Thurs-
ton we had “Don Malcolm.” “The Gingham Bag,”
392
by Mrs. Harriet M. Lothrop, beloved of children as
Mceecret Sidney, told the tale of an heirloom; “Isla
Heron,” by Mrs. Laura E. Richards, a companion
volume to her “ Nautilus,” was illustrated by Frank
T. Merrill; Sarah E. Morrison described “ Chil-
howee Boys at College”; Elizabeth Westyn Tim-
low told of “Cricket at the Seashore”; Amy E.
Blanchard wrote “Taking a Stand”; Alida W.
‘Graves, “A Little Maiden’s Victory”; Mary A.
Denison, “ An Everyday Heroine ” ; and Mrs. Myra
S. Hamlin, “Nan at Camp Chicopee: or, Nan’s
Summer with the Boys.” “Christine’s Career”
was a story for girls, by Pauline King; “ Malvern,”
a neighborhood story, by.Ellen Douglas Deland ;
“Bushy,” a romance founded on fact, by Cynthia
M. Westover (now Mrs. John Alden), while from
Eliza Orne White we had “A Little Girl of Long
Ago”; from Joel Chandler Harris (Uncle Re-
mus), “ The Story of Aaron (so named) the Son of Ben
Ali”; from A. G. Plympton, * The Black Dog, and
Other Stories”; from Mrs. Evelyn H. Raymond,
“A Cape May Diamond”; from Amanda M. Dou-
glas, “ A Little Girl in Old New York” and “ The
Mistress of Sherburne,” the last for grown-up folks ;
from Edith Robinson, “ A Loyal Little Maid”; from
Nora Perry, “ Three Little Daughters of the Revolu-
tion”; and from Barbara Yechton (Lydia F’. Krause)
“We Ten.” “One of the Sweet Old Chapters” was
a fragment by Rose Porter, in the series of “ Re-
naissance Booklets.” Mrs. Jeanie Gould Lincoln
pictured “A Genuine Girl”; Mrs. Clarke Johnson
told of “ Her College Days”; “ Above the Range ”
was a story for girls by Theodora R. Jenness;
“The Boys of Clovernook,” by Mary Barnes Beal,
told the story of five boys on a farm; and Mrs.
Mary H. Henry (Howe Benning) made “ Grandpa’s
Desk” interesting. Mary M. Mears published
“Hmma Lou: Her Book”; Mrs. Kate Tannatt
Woods, “Mopsy: Her Tangles and Triumphs”;
Anna Chapin Ray, “Dick: A Story for Boys and
Girls”; Marshall Saunders, “Charles and his
Lamb” and “ For the Other Boy’s Sake, and Other
Stories”; Lily F. Wesselhoeft, “Jerry the Blun-
derer”; Mrs. M. A. H. Fisher, “ Max and Zan and
Nicodemus”; Rev. Charles S. Wood, “ Alice and
her Two Friends”; Winifred Johnes, “ Memoirs of
a Little Girl”; Mrs. Lucey C. W. Lillie, “ Elinor
Belden: or, The Stepbrothers”; Mrs. Alicia < 33,67 256,414
SOuOLas Tie vesuee sy eae ee Cas oe 76,900 191,281
TADASCO See seeder een e Eos NS Ges eX 10,072 134,794
Tamaulipas is icvcsse eee ve tene ves. 32,128 +206
MaxCalacs, ots ss as es eee ero e'4 1,595 166.803
Vera Greg Ait is ite aur e hee ba oree 29.201 855,975
Yueatani Ger secehrate meee canine 35.203 297,507
ZACOLGCONEs., nas vee eee inna dm ass 24.757 452,720
Lower Oahtornigs inc sce ese cuie ss 58,328 42,287
© TEpnie’. 2.5 ocean aeons ee 11,275 144,308
Wlands.s%.) iesticacs Seracme tebe e eee TAR | eae
TOA cdes sodnitn etal eee ans 767,005 12,570,195
MEXICO,
Mexico, the capital city, had 339,935 inhabitants
on Oct. 20, 1895; Puebla, 91,917; Guadalajara. 83,-
870; San Luis Potosi, 69,676; Monterey, 56,855;
Pachuca, 52,189. It is estimated that 19 per cent.
of the inhabitants of the country are of European
descent or origin, 38 per cent. are of Indian extrac-
tion, and 43 per cent. of mixed blood.
_ Finanees.—The budget for the year ending June
30, 1897, makes the total revenue of the Federal
Government $47,220,000 in. Mexican currency, de-
rived from the following sources: Customs, $21,-
000,000; Federal contribution from octrots, $1,680,-
- 000; direct taxes, $1,500,000; posts and telegraphs,
~ $1,700,000; mint, $2,540,000; stamps, $15,800,000;
tax on salaries, $700,000; miscellaneous receipts,
$2,300,000. The total expenditure is estimated at
$47,554,926, apportioned among the departments as
follows: Teghlation, $1,011,644; executive, $60,-
972; Supreme Court, $435,197; foreign affairs,
$519,476; interior, $3,361,849; justice and public
instruction, $2,031,907 ; Fomento, $660,587 ; finance,
185; communications and public works, $4,-
635,089 ; army and navy, $10,297,020. The budget
for 1897-98 makes the revenue $49,962,000 and ex-
nditure $20,000 less. The actual receipts in 1895-—
were $50,521,470 and the expenditures $45,070,-
123, leaving a balance of nearly $5,500,000. The
budgets of the 27 States amounted in 1895 to $18,-
000,000. —
The debts of the Federal Government outstand-
- ing on June 30, 1895, were $51,450,700 of the 6-per-
cent. loan of 1888, $29,700,700 of the 6-per-cent.
loan of 1890, $13,500,000 of obligations of the Te-
huantepec Railroad, paying 5 per cent., $14,944,600
raised in 1893, $74,888,275 of internal interest-bear-
ing debt, and $5,422,701 paying no interest; total,
$189,906,976. The annual interest charge amounts
to $9,402,385. The internal debt was converted in
1896 into consolidated 3-per-cent. bonds. ;
The Army and Navy.—The Mexican milita
forces consist of an active army and its reserve an
the general ayy: There are 4 infantry divisions of
2 brigades each, the brigade consisting of 3 regi-
ments of variable stren The infantry is armed
with Remington rifles and the artillery with Bange
cannon of a caliber of 79 centimetres. The peace
strength of the army in 1895 was as follows: 1,110
officers and 19,380 men forming 30 battalions of
infantry, and 60 officers and 944 men forming 30
cadres, with 3 auxiliary battalions containing 79
officers and 1,253 men: 1 battalion of pioneers, con-
sisting of 35 officers and 731 men; and 1 invalid
battalion numbering 9 officers and 129 men, making
the total infantry 1,293 officers and 22,437 men; 4
battalions of artillery, each with 6 batteries, num-
bering 148 officers and 1,688 men; 1 battalion of
fortress artillery, numbering 25 officers and 1,688
men, and 1 squadron of train numbering 11 officers
and 101 men, making the artillery consist of a total
of 184 officers and 2,120 men; 481 officers and 6,359
men forming 13 regiments of cavalry; 1 corps of
gendarmerie, consisting of 21 officers and 229 men;
6 auxiliary troops, numbering 126 officers and 1,488
men; and 9 corps of rural guards, numbering 165
officers and 2,200 men, making the total for the
cavalry 793 officers and 10,276 men, and the total
for all arms and services 2,270 officers and 34,833
men.
The naval force consists of 2 dispatch vessels, 2
_ gunboats built in 1874, and 1 school ship, having
_ together a total armament of 18 guns. ere were
5 torpedo boats of the first class building in 1896,
_ and in contemplation 1 armor clad, 1 cruiser, 4 gun-
_ boats, and 2 transports. The personnel of the navy
was 84 officers and 3,450 men in 1895.
Commerce.—The value of the imports in 1895
was $34,080,440 in Mexican currency, and of the
VOL. XXxvi1.—31 A
481 >
exports $90,854,953. The exports of precious metals
have increased from $36,256,372 in 1891 to $52,535,-
854 in 1895, and the exports of merchandise from -
$27,020,023 to $38,319,099. The values of the prin-
cipal articles of export in 1895, besides silver and
gold, were: Coffee, $12,671,000; henequen, $7,724,-
000 ; timber, $2,689,000; hides and skins, $2,350,000;
copper, $2,148,000; lead, $1,807,000; animals, $1,-
744,000; tebaeco, $1,460,000. The trade with dif-
ora countries in 1895 was as follows, in Mexican
ollars:
COUNTRIES. Imports, EE
United States SS Re PL EE $15,130,000 | $67,323,000
RPG PUM fins Coss css ese s 6,668,000 | 15,261,000
MPBNOO Ses eckadss dens s TOOT EPS 5,577,000 2,130,000
RR IING rn oe Fea yon bcc oe ote sin ce 3,362,000 | 3.113.000
SRE ES ey ee 1.919,000 | "914.000
SMPRUNE aie ae aT oe og k Yves ee kne ox 000 380,000
Other countries: 5 2.02. ces ecco ee 1,024,000 1,734,000
RMR S oe aa Cabanas: +0600 5 ses co $34,000,000 | $90,855,000
Navigation.—During the year ending June 30,
1895, there were 9,575 vessels, of 3,428,973 tons, en-
tered and 9,557, of 3,359,684 tons, cleared at Mexi-
can ports. The steamers numbered 4,078, of 3,083,-
050 tons, entered and 3,547, of 2,540,043 tons, cleared.
The Mexican merchant fleet comprises 274 vessels,
of which 52 are steamers.
Communications.—The railroads in operation
had a total length of 7,122 miles in 1896. Of 6,506
miles completed in 1894 Mexican capital built 889 and
foreign capital 5,617 miles. British investments in
Mexican railroads up to 1891 amounted to £14,601,-
380 and American investments to $245,126,249 in
United States currency. The Tehuantepec inter-
oceanic railroad from Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz
is the property of the Government. A New York
company, acquiring the Guray concession of 1841,
undertook to build the railroad under the direction
of Gen. J. G. Barnard. This project came to noth-
ing, as did another started in 1857 and the plan of
a ship railway devised by Captain Eads. 1870
another company was formed in New York which,
after being reorganized in 1879, built 22 miles of
railroad. Then, its charter having lapsed, it se-
cured a large payment for what it had accomplished.
and the Federal Government undertook to com-
plete the road itself. Sanchez, a Mexican con-
tractor, constructed 60 miles in an imperfect man-
ner, and afterward contracts were made with
Edward McMurdo, of London, in 1888, and Stan-
hope and associates in 1892. When the line was
finally completed in 1896, the Government leased it to
Pierson & Son, of London, for fifty years, agreeing
to contribute $150,000 a month for three years for
the improvement of the road and the construction
of harbors at both termini, after which time the
receipts are to be divided between the Government
and the lessees.
The Federal Government had 28,000 miles of
telegraph wires and the individual States 13,000
miles on June 30, 1896.
The post office in 1895-96 handled 23,533,939 let-
ters sis postal cards in the internal and 6,933,290
in the international service. The receipts were
$1,105,990 and expenses $1,471,571.
Political Affairs.—In the message to Congress
on April 1, 1896, President Diaz, after stating that
friendly relations existed between Mexico and
all foreign powers, expressed his approval of the
declaration of President Cleveland in his message
to the United States Congress asserting the Monroe
doctrine as a part of the public law of America.
This doctrine President Diaz regarded as a guaran-
tee of the independence of the American republics
against European encroachments, but he thought
+489 MEXICO.
that the United States ought not to be left alone in
the réle of protector and that all the American re-
publics should proclaim principles similar to those
of the Monroe doctrine and should protect each
other whenever necessary. A Pan-American Con-
gress was to meet at the suggestion of Ecuador in
the city of Mexico during the summer, and the prin-
cipal feature of the agenda, besides the discussion
of the means of promoting progress and the devel-
opment of industrial enterprise and commerce by
enacting measures conducive to their extension,
was the enactment of a public law of America,
which, while respecting all legitimate rights, should
give to the American Monroe doctrine all desirable
extent and all the guarantee necessary to enforce
its being respected. Gen. Felip Berriozabal, who
was appointed Secretary of War on March 19, on
the resignation of Gen. Pedro Hinojosa, unfolded in
the autumn a scheme for the reorganization of the
Mexican army in connection with the introduction
of compulsory service. The adoption of the Euro-
pean system was approved by the higher officers of
the army, because the present method of conscrip-
tion brings in undesirable elements. The reorgani-
zation contemplated will give 20 battalions, or 10
regiments of 1,000 men each. When drought caused
a scarcity of food in some of the central States
President Diaz in May issued a decree removing
the duty on corn at the port of Vera Cruz. Charles
W. Rowe, a fugitive from justice whom the Mexi-
can Government refused to extradite because he
had become a naturalized Mexican citizen, was con-
victed under Mexican law for the embezzlement of
county funds in Iowa, and was sentenced to twelve
years’ imprisonment. The improvement in import
duties, stamps, and other sources of revenue proving
not only sufficient to restore the equilibrium, but to
leave a large surplus, Minister Limantour, in Decem-
ber, proposed a decrease of certain taxes and the
abolition of others, especially the tax on the salaries of
Governmentemployees. Theconstitutional reform of
the abolition of the alcabalas, or octrot duties, has
been put into force throughout the republic, and
the laws issued by the Government to substitute
other taxes in the place of these duties have not
met with the difficulties that were feared.
Re-election of Diaz.—In the presidential elec-
tion of 1896 Porfirio Diaz was the only candidate.
His nomination was demanded by the whole native
Indian population, of whose blood he is on his
mother’s side and to which by his education and
sympathies he belongs. There was practically no
opposition, although there is an anti-Diaz party, the
Clerical Conservatives, who resent the confiscation
of lands given. to the Church by the Spanish kings
and the secularist policy pursued under ‘Diaz, as it
had been under Juarez and under the empire of
Maximilian as well. But this party is too weak in
the country to re-establish the dominion of the
Church. en. Bernard Reyes, the popular and
progressive Governor of the State of Nueva Leon,
who had announced himself as a candidate, with-
drew when he saw that the demand for the renom-
ination of Diaz was irresistible, supported by the
signatures of 531,000 citizens. When the election
took place on July 18 the votes of all the electors
were given to Gen Diaz, the first and only Presi-
dent who had been able to conserve the peace and
good order, the credit, and the progress of Mexico.
Having been a political and military leader from
his youth, he shared with Juarez, the first Indian
President, the glory of redeeming his country from
the French, and when Juarez in his old age became
the tool of railroad speculators and grasping cor-
porations, Diaz headed the opposition against his
early. friend and benefactor and against Lesdo, the
latter’s successor, and in 1876 as chief of the suc-
MICHIGAN.
cessful revolution assumed the supreme power. He
was elected President in a constitutional manner in
the following year, but had to retire in 1880 be-
cause the Constitution prohibited a second term.
As minister he was the actual ruler when Gonzalez
was President; in 1884 he was elected and in 1888,
the Constitution having been altered to allow him
to succeed himself, he was re-elected and again in
1892, and now for the fourth successive term, the
fifth in all, in 1896. He was inaugurated amid
general rejoicing on Dee. 1.
Yaqui Disturbances.—The half-civilized Yaqui
tribe, a branch of the ancient Aztecs that was never
conquered by the Spaniards, have often risen
against the State authorities of Oaxaca and defied
the Federal Government on account of some real
or fancied grievance. Of late they have been stirred
up to fanatical outbreaks by a pretended saint
among them, one Teresa Urrea, who fell into a
cataleptic trance in consequence of a disappoint-
ment in love and when she awoke said that she had
seen paradise and was gifted with the power to
heal the sick. Thousands of Yaquis came to Ca-
bora, where her father’s ranch was situated, to be
cured by Santa Teresa, and Mexicans made pil-
grimages from Sonora and Chihuahua. Finally
her followers were instigated to purchase arms
and ammunition and attempt a revolution against
the Government. A large detachment of Govern-
ment troops was sent to quell the impending ris-
ing and arrest the girl who was its cause. hen
they attempted to carry out their orders the people
gathered from far and near to defend her, and
bloodshed was only averted by the timely arrival
of an overwhelming force of soldiers. A large
company of her followers afterward banded to-
gether to deliver her and her father from prison,
whereupon the Mexican authorities conveyed the
Yaqui saint, who was called the witch of Sonora by
unbelievers, across the United States frontier to
Nogales. The armed body of fanatics followed her
thither, and shortly afterward she led a column of
rebellious Indians whom the Mexican troops nearly
annihilated at Tomochic, Chihuahua, killing more
than 200. She was again taken prisoner, and was
sent once more across the border into the United
States, with a strict injunction never to return to
Mexico, After living quietly for several months in
a small place near El Paso, she set out to visit
other towns and exhibit her wonderful powers.
Soon she collected a band of several hundred Mexi-
cans, with whom she crossed the Rio Grande and
proclaimed another revolution against the Mexican
Government. The soldiers at the frontier posts at-
tempted to disperse the mob of fanatics, and a
number of sharp skirmishes occurred, in all of
which Santa Teresa was victorious until a large
force was dispatched from Chihuahna, which
routed the revolutionists. The woman leader fled
across the river and lived at El Paso until she
again disappeared and placed herself at the head of
another army of fanatics who believed her to be a
saint appointed from heaven to lead them to vic-
tory in a war against the Mexican Government.
On Aug. 12 about 60 Yaquis attacked the Sonora
part of the town of Nogales, killing the guards and
breaking into the customhouse. Citizens of the
American town came to the assistance of the Mexi-
can authorities, and finally the Indians were driven
out, crossing over into United States territory. A
month later they attacked the customhouse at
Juarez, opposite El] Paso.
MICHIGAN, a Western State, admitted to the
Union Jan. 26, 1837; area, 58,915 square miles.
The population, according to each decennial census
since admission, was 212,267 in 1840; 397,654 in
1850; 749,113 in 1860; 1,184,059 in 1870; 1,636,937
920, an increase of 21°13
MICHIGAN,
in 1880; and 2,093,889 in 1890. By the State cen- —
sus of 1894 it was 2,241,641. Capital, Lansing.
Government.—The following were the State offi-
cers during the year: Governor, John T. Rich;
Lieutenant Governor, J. R. McLaughten (acting) ;
: _ Secretary of State, Washington Gardner ; Treasurer,
James M. Wilkinson; Auditor, Stanley W. Turner;
Attorney-General, Frederick A. Maynard ; Adjutant
General, Charles M. Green; Superintendent of Pub-
lic Instruction, Henry R. Pattengill—all Republi-
eans; Bank Commissioner, T. C. Sherwood, resigned
in November, succeeded by D. B. Ainger; Insurance
Commissioner, T. R. Giddings; Oil Inspector, Neil
MeMillan; Land Commissioner, W. A. French;
Railroad Commissioner, 8. R. Billings ; Food Com-
missioner, C. E. Storrs; Labor Commissioner, C. H.
Morse; Fish and Game Commissioner, H. W. Davis;
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Charles D.
Long; Associate Justices, Claudius B. Grant, Rob-
ert M. Montgomery, Frank H. Hooker, Joseph B.
Moore—all Republicans.
Finances.—The treasury receipts during the year
were $5,256,059.37, and the disbursements $4,634,-
054.73; the cash balance at the close of the year
was $912,422.43. In 1895, at the close of the fis-
cal year, the general fund was overdrawn about
$128,000, but in 1896 there was a balance in the
fund of $450,537.21. The total receipts to the gen-
eral fund were $4,220,143.58, and the disbursements
$3,769,606.37. During the year the railroads oper-
ating in the State ai in specific taxes $735,040.74 ;
fire insurance companies, $127,143.45; life insur-
ance companies, $80,823.90; guarantee insurance
companies, $3,661.07; plate-glass insurance com-
panies, $290.05 ; steam-boiler insurance companies,
$576.23; telephone companies, $23,459.36; tele-
raph companies, $19,036.75; express companies,
2,742.34. A total of $960,364.77 was paid to the
different funds from the specific taxes collected;
55 co-operative insurance associations doing busi-
ness in the State paid fees amounting to $1,190.
The rate of taxation in 1895 was 2°6 mills; in 1896
it was 1°6 mill.
The State’s bonded debt is $10,992.83, and the
balance of the trust fund debt is $5,766,702.72.
Following are some of the larger items in the
phe a ste bills: University of Michigan, $194,-
333.32 ; Industrial School for Boys, $66,750; State
House of Correction, $18,000 ; State Normal School,
$64,062.50 ; Michigan Mining School, $40,000; Agri-
eultural College, $19,800; Industrial School” for
Girls, $53,416.40; military account, $111,665.64 ; Sol-
diers’ Home, $84,000; School for the Deaf and Dumb,
$70,771; School for the Blind, $22,000; Home for
Feeble-minded, $39,500 ; five asylums, including the
Asylum for the Criminal Insane at Ionia, $125.-
327.63. Outside of the regular appropriations the
State paid for the support of the insane in the sev-
eral asylums $492,420.04.
Valuations.—The Auditor’s tabulation of the
assessed and equalized valuations of the counties
shows the following items: Real estate, valua-
tion as assessed, $775,046,084; personal property,
$138.944,544.25; total valuation as assessed, $924,-
994,237.25 ; valuation as equalized, real estate, $654,-
439,656.30; personal property, $112,155,493.70; to-
tal valuation as equalized, $814,536 .028.
Statistics of VYoters.—According to the last
State census, the total number of voters was 651,-
per cent. in ten years. Of
this number, 393,225 are native and 258,695 foreign
born. The percentage of the foreign born is greater
in the north; in the southern four tiers of counties
it is 30°82; in the central, 44°50; in the northern
counties of the lower peninsula, 48°44; and in the
upper peninsula, 74:71. In the incorporated cities
the males of voting age number 280,786, of whom
483
113,335 are foreign born. Outside the cities are
421,134, of whom 145,360 are foreign born. There
are 34,545 males of voting age, or 5°30 per cent. of ©
the total, unable to read or write. Of these, 10,877
are native and 23,668 foreign born.
Charities.—The number of inmates at the Sol-
diers’ Home in March was 609, with 45 in the wom-
en’s building. The running expenses for the year
aggregated about $82,000. The State gave $8,000
for the women’s building.
The Kalamazoo Asylum for the Insane had under
treatment in the spring 1,197, with a normal capa-
city of only 1,000.
Prisons.—The biennial report from the Jackson
State Prison shows the following statistics: Num-
ber of inmates July 1, 1894, 856; received since,
494 ; total, 1,350; remaining in custody July 1, 1896,
824. The total earnings for the two years were
$226,103.27; total expense, $246,058.11; or a net
expense to the State of $19,954.84. The expense of
the prisoners per capita per day for two years has
been 43°3 cents ; the earnings per capita per day for
two years have been 38°4 cents. The daily expense
for food per capita has been 8'6 cents; for clothing,
2°7 cents.
The number under contract during the past two
years was 418, representing 260,8204 days, for which
the State received a trifle over 50 cents a day a man.
The new parole law has thus far worked very
successfully.
The report of the Marquette Prison shows the
daily average of prisoners in 1895 to have been 148,
and in 1896 it was 210. The per capita cost to the
State in 1895 was $148.64, and in 1896 $147.62.
Owing to the great business depression, it has been
impossible to secure any contracts for the employ-
ment of inmates, and the warden has put aside all
labor-saving machinery, in order to give employ-
ment to as many men as possible. Military drill
has been introduced.
Education.—The report of the President of the
University of Michigan, rendered in October, shows
the Eitimcbaateo to have been 3,019, which is larger
than that in any preceding year. Degrees to the
number of 757 were conferred. The proportion of
women to men in the university was 20°5 per cent.
The last Legislature directed the regents of the
university to establish a homceopathie medical col-
lege as a branch of the University of Detroit, and
discontinue the existing homeopathic college main-
tained at Ann Arbor. The regents declined to com-
ply with the act, and a mandamus was applied for
to compel the regents to comply. The ground for
refusal was that it was not, in their judgment, for
the best interests of the university, and that the
Legislature has no constitutional right to interfere
with its management. These contentions ‘are both
held good in the opinion of the court, which con-
cludes that the regents have the sole control of the
university.
The State has always paid 7 per cent. upon the
university funds as on the primary-school funds;
but the present Auditor held that the Legislature,
having in 1887 made legal interest 6 per cent., the
university is entitled to only that amount; and the
regents appealed to the Supreme Court. The deci-
sion was in favor of the university, because it is a
general rule of construction that where an act is
passed for a particular purpose it is not abrogated
by general legislation, sufficiently broad to include
it, unless the intent to abrogate it is clear.
The annual report of the public schools shows
the total enrollment in ungraded schools to be 212,-
055, and that in graded schools to be 264,626. The
total number of schoolhouses is 7,835, and their
value $16,766,822. The average monthly wages of
male teachers was $46.17, and of female teachers
484
$35.09. The amount received from the State Treas- ©
urer for institutes was $1,810.36 ; amount received
from county treasurers for institutes, $10,762.16 ;
total amount of primary-school money apportioned,
-$1,000,312.06 ; rate per capita for the year, $1.44.
The enrollment at the Agricultural College in the
spring term was 208. The long vacation has been
changed from winter to summer, and a course for
women was introduced at the fall term,
Health Statistics.—The State Board of Health
estimates that, through compliance with the recom-
mendations of the board during the five years 1890-
94, there were probably saved to the people of
Michigan about 112,848 cases of sickness and about
5,261 deaths from diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid
fever, and measles, At a very low estimate, the
money value thereby saved the State during these
five years is $5,097,800. The basis on which this
estimate was made is as follows: For medical at-
tendance in each case of sickness, $20; for each fu-
neral prevented, $40; value of each life saved, $500,
Banks.—There are more than 170 State banks
and 3 trust companies in the State. with liabilities
to depositors amounting to $95,000,000, From the
time the State Banking Department went into ac-
tive operation, Jan. 1, 1889, to Nov. 1, 1896, 110
State banks were organized; while during the
same time there was a decrease of 25 in the num-
ber of national banks. During these years 6 State
banks and 6 national banks have failed. By the
report showing the condition of the State banks,
Oct. 6, it appears that the savings deposits were
$41,915,262, a falling off of about $1,000,000 from
the amount in July.
_ Insuranece.—The annual report on insurance,
rendered in July, shows that the whole number of
regular or level-premium life companies transact-
ing business in the State during the year was 40,
being one more than for the previous year. The
total business transacted by these companies was
as follows: Amount of policies issued, $24,502,848 ;
policies in force, Dec. 31, $127,850,365; premiums
received, $4,356,715; losses incurred, $1,584,765.
The amount of insurance issued shows a decrease
from the previous year of about $7,000,000, but there
was a slight increase both in premiums and in losses,
The total assets of the 40 regular companies were
$1,173,094,778.82, an increase for the year of $93,-
331,952.73. The total liabilities were $1,002,884,-
431.63, an increase of $76,972,732.61.
The number of stock casualty insurance com-
panies at the close of the year was 17. There were
6 fidelity guarantee companies and 32 co-operative
or assessment life companies. Four assessment or
co-operative accident companies ceased to transact
business in the State during the year, leaving 15 in
operation. Since the beginning of 1896 one com-
pany has been authorized to do a life business on
the assessment plan.
Products.—The crop report gives the estimate
of wheat production as 11°48 bushels to the acre,
and the total yield, 17,109,991 bushels. Oats are
estimated to yield 28°43 bushels an acre; barley,
26:50 bushels; and corn, 70 bushels of ears. Pota-
toes on high ground and on the lighter soils were a
full average crop, but on low ground and clay soils
were badly damaged by the rains.
The report of the State salt inspector shows that
183,130 barrels were inspected in December.
The State lumber product in 1895 was 2,731,029,-
535 feet of lumber and 1,360,535,500 shingles. The
total output of lumber was only a little over 1,000,-
000 feet more than the product of the State in 1894.
A gold mine has been in operation near Ishpem-
ing for about fifteen years. During this time the
output has been $750,000, but the mine has never
paid a dividend.
MICHIGAN.
Industrial Interests.—The thirteenth annual
report of the Commissioner of Labor shows that
during 1895 3,187 factories were inspected, of which
2,836 were running, and 2,561 of these were on full
time.. There were found 140 children under the
age of fourteen years working. They were em- |
loyed in 64 factories, and were all discharged, the
aw being rigid in this respect.
Statistics are given of the vehicle industry, which
is one of the most important in the State. On a
canvass of 126 establishments, it was found that 46
of them are incorporated firms, 39 are copartner-
ships, and 41 are a an- individual business,
The incorporated firms have an authorized eapital
stock of $3,201,700, divided into 196,520 shares,
The invested capital of the 126 firms canvassed is
$4,626,553. They employ 289 salaried officers and
clerks, 178 traveling salesmen, and 5,776 persons in
the shops. The reports show an average of about
50 oe employed in each establishment.
The value oF material used in 1895 was $3,674,717,
while the product of the business was estimated at
$8,044,222,
From a personal canvass of 4,650 employees, it
was found that less than 9 per cent. belong to labor
organizations. About one third belong to fra-
ternal societies, most of which have life insurance
attached.
The Labor Bureau canvassed 237 unions, cover-
ing a membership of 19,494 persons. In 23 of these
unions there were 302 female members. There were
initiated in 165 of these unions during the year
2,203 members, and during the same time 1,256
members were suspended from 118 of the unions.
The annual dues for members range from $1 to $33
each, the average being $7.81.
The Pingree Potato Commission in Detroit made
a report of its operations in 1896. , It shows that
the commission began in the spring with about 475
acres, which were apportioned among 1,700 heads
of families, representing 5,973 children, or 7,673
persons in all. From this land had been produced,
with an outlay of less than $2,300 for seed and
other expenses, upward of 45,000 bushels of pota-
toes, besides a quantity of beets, cabbages, corn,
pumpkins, beans, etc.
In August the last of the Rockefeller mines was
shut down at Bessemer, only enough men being re-
tained to keep the mines free from water—about
1,000 being employed where at one time were 8,000.
About 1,500 men were forced into idleness by the
closing of mines at Ironwood in July.
On the other hand. a dispatch from Houghton,
Nov. 14, says: “ Evidences of the return .of pros-.
perity in this part of the State are being made
manifest every day, and in a very substantial man-
ner. The mining companies are preparing for a
season of work that will eclipse anything for sey-
eral years, and thousands of men will be given em-
loyment at once.”
Public Lands.—The annual report of the Land
Commissioner shows that the number of acres of
State land sold during the year was 14,988; the
number of acres of swamp land licensed, 6,207; the
number of acres entered as homestead land, 40.-
125°49; number forfeited as only part paid, 836;
swamp homestead land forfeited, 5,116; deeded to —
the State under certain laws, 213,036; total held
June 30, 1896, 642,778°59. The lands sold amounted
to $53,208.
High License.—The Auditor General gave out
in May statistics furnishing a comparison of the
receipts for retail liquor licenses for the years 1894, —
the last year under the old system, and 1895, the
first year under the uniform tax. For the year
ending May 1, 1894, there were 3,011 dealers in
spirituous liquors, and the total tax paid was
MICHIGAN, ; 485
$1,410,804.87. The number of dealers in 1895 was
. 8,928, and the tax amounted to $1,886,966.24. In
1894 there were 1,524 dealers in malt, brewed, or
fermented liquors, and they paid a total tax of
$415,193.50. The number of dealers in malt liquors
in 1895 was but 120, and the total tax receipts re-
ceived from them $12,786.28.
Sault Ste. Marie.—The great lock at this place,
said to be the largest in the world, was officially
opened Aug. 3. It was begun in 1889; it is 800 feet
long between the gates, 1,100 feet in length over
all, 43 feet high, 100 feet wide, and will accommo-
date boats drawing 21 feet of water.
Ontonagon.—The village of Ontonagon, which
was destroyed by a forest fire Aug. 25, less than 20
buildings having been left standing and 373 being
burned, has been partly rebuilt, and the people are
looking about for new industries to take the place
of the great mills of the Diamond Match Company,
which may not be rebuilt, as but a few years’ more
cut of the pine timber they use remains on the On-
tonagon and its branches.
- Politieal_—At the city and township elections,
April 6, Democratic mayors were elected in Manis-
tee, Flint, Grand Haven, Stanton, St. Ignace,
Marshall, Traverse City, Coldwater, Charlotte, and
Adrian. A factional fight among Republicans in
Saginaw gave the election of city officers to the
Democrats. The Republicans elected mayors in
Kalamazoo, Benton Harbor, Muskegon, Owosso,
Grand Rapids, Battle Creek, and Eaton Rapids. In
Ishpeming the labor candidate was elected over the
citizens’.
The Australian ballot caucus law passed by the
Legislature of 1895 was put into operation. It ap-
plies to cities having population from 15,000 to
150,000.
The Attorney General decided that the so-called
“antifusion” law applies to village, city, and
township elections, no candidate being allowed to
have his name upon two tickets.
Jan. 16, a nonpartisan bimetallic conference was
held at Lansing. The object was not to form anew
party, but to unite bimetallists in influencing the
action of the old parties. Resolutions were adopted
to the effect that, in case neither the Democratic
nor the Republican party should adopt a platform
and nominate candidates in favor of treating “ gold
and silver on an absolute equality as to coinage at
the ratio now provided by law, we then recommend
that all friends of free silver in all parties join in
the organization of an independent party.”
A “ Free-silver Democratic party” was organized
at a conference held at Lansing, March 12. The
address declared that three fourths of the Michigan
Democrats favored free silver and that there was a
conspiracy to send a gold-standard delegation to
the national convention, which would rob the free-
silverites of an opportunity to give an expression of
their views where it would have the greatest effect.
But the Democratic State Convention, held at
Detroit, April 29, was controlled by the gold-stand-
ard men. It approved the foreign and financial
policy of the Maininiseeations: denounced the Amer-
ican Protective Association, and chose 4 gold-stand-
ard delegates at large and sent 24 district delegates
to the Chicago convention, of whom 13 were counted
gold monometallists and 11 silver bimetallists.
At a conference in Lansing, June 15, a call was
-extended “to.all persons, irrespective of past party
affiliation, who favor the free and unlimited coin-
age of silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to 1 by the
United States, without waiting for the consent of
any other nation, to meet in mass convention in the
city of Lansing, July 16, for the purpose of electing
34 delegates and alternates to the St. Louis silver
convention, to be held July 22.”
The Democratic convention for nominating State
officers was held at Bay City, Aug. 25. At the same
time and in the same city, the State convention of ~
Populists and the State silver convention were
held, and a conference from the 3 reached an agree-
ment to unite upon a ticket on which the Populists
and silver men together should have equal repre-
sentation with the Democrats. A platform approv-
ing the Chicago convention’s action was adopted.
Following is the fusion ticket: For Governor, Charles
R. Sligh ; Lieutenant Governor, Justice R. Whiting ;
Secretary of State, Almon G. Bruce; Treasurer,
Otto E. Karste; Auditor, Arthur E. Cole; Attorney
General, Alfred J. Murphy; Commissioner of the
Land Office, Martin G. Loennecker; Superintendent
of Instruction, David E. Haskins; Member of the
State Board of Education, Frank S. Dewey. The
organization was named the Democratic People’s
Silver Party.
The National Democrats also had a ticket in the
field. The provisional committee of Gold-standard
Democrats met in conference at Lansing and
called a mass convention to meet in the same place,
Aug. 26, to elect delegates to the Indianapolis con-
vention and nominate presidential electors and
State officers. At that convention resolutions were
adopted condemning the Chicago convention as
revolutionary and Populistic, approving the na-
tional administration and declaring a belief that
free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 would
ruin industries, rob savings-bank depositors and
pensioners of their due, and cut workingmen’s
wages in half. The following ticket was nomi-
nated : For Governor, Rufus F. Sprague; Lieutenant
Governor, A. B. Eldredge; Secretary of State, S. L.
Boyce; State Treasurer, Wilder D. Stevens; Audi-
ter General, Irving W. Conkey; State Land Com-
missioner, A. M. Tinker; Attorney-General, Cyrus
E. Lothrop; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
William Heap; Member State Board of Education,
John 8. Taggart. Later Theodore A. Felch was
made the candidate for Lieutenant Governor and
Howard Edwards for Member of the State Board
of Education.
The Prohibition State Convention for the election
of delegates to the national convention, at Lansing,
April 16, was controlled by the “ Broad-gauge”
wing of the party. The platform stood for pro-
hibition, free silver, election of the United States
Senators by the people, woman suffrage, liberal
pensions, Government issue of all money, and Gov-
ernment control of railroads and telegraph lines.
In July the two wings of the party held separate
conventions, and each nominated a ticket. That of
the “ Narrow-gauge” was: For Governor, R. C.
Safford; Lieutenant Governor, Henry Andrus;
Secretary of State, George Roelofs; Treasurer, W.
C. Edsell; Auditor, W. A. Heartt; Attorney-Gen-
eral, Noah W. Cheever; Land Commissioner, Wm.
Parmenter; Superintendent of Instruction, R. S.
Avann: Member of the State Board of Education,
Elmer Houser. Robert King was later the candi-
date for Treasurer.
The candidates of the National or “Broad-
gauge” Prohibition party were: For Governor,
John Giberson; Lieutenant Governor, Harvey B.
Hatch; Secretary of State, Salem A. Dean; State
Treasurer, Isaac N. Shepherd; Auditor General,
Abram G. Jackson; Attorney-General, John
Evans; Land Commissioner, Rodolph R. Atkins ;
Member State Board of Education, Joseph B.
Steere; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mrs.
Lucy S. Morehouse. There was doubt as to the
legality of the nomination of Mrs. Morehouse, and
the Attorney-General held that she could not hold
office; as women are not eligible to offices created
by the Constitution, they can hold no offices for
436
which they can not vote. The name of Charles C.
Willett was substituted. Charles K. Perrine was
later the candidate for Attorney-General.
The first Republican convention met in Detroit,
May 7. There was a contest over the question of
the currency plank in the platform, which was
compromised by an agreement to adopt the expres-
sion on the subject of the Minneapolis convention
of 1892. The other resolutions were in favor of
protective duties and reciprocity, and of the nomi-
nation of William McKinley: and the delegates
were instructed to support him.
The second State Republican convention of the
year was held at Grand Rapids, Aug. 5. The reso-
lutions approved the national platform and ticket.
The nominations were: For Governor, Hazen S$.
Pingree; Lieutenant Governor, Thomas B. Dun-
stan; Secretary of State, Washington Gardner ;
Treasurer, George A. Steel; Auditor General, Ros-
coe D. Dix; Attorney-General, Fred. A. Maynard ;
Commissioner State Land Office, William A. French;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jason E.
Hammond; Member of State Board of Education,
James W. Simmons.
In October the Supreme Court granted a manda-
mus against the Board of Election Commissioners
of Wayne County, compelling the board to give the
Prohibitionists second place on the ballot, which
was claimed for the fusion ticket. The opinion
said that that ticket could not be treated as the
ticket of the organization known as the Democratic
party two years ago, and said further: “ The ticket
results from a combination with two other political
parties. The evident purpose was to unite the
forces of these organizations for the present cam-
paign, and the result was the formation of a new
party for the time being, under a new name.”
The canvass of the returns of the November
election gave McKinley 293,582, Bryan 236,714,
Palmer 6,879, Levering 5,025, Bentley 1,995, and
Matchett 297. The State officers elected were all
Republicans. Following is the vote for Governor:
Pingree, Republican, 304,481; Sligh, Democrat-
Populist, 221,022; Safford, Prohibitionist, 5,499;
Sprague, National Democrat, 9,788; Giberson, Na-
tional Prohibitionist, 1,944. The votes for the other
Republican candidates ranged from 292,785 to 294,-
525. Ten of the 12 representatives in Congress
will be Republicans, and on joint ballot the Legis-
lature will stand 108 Republicans to 24 Democrat-
Populists.
MILLAIS, Sir JOHN EVERETT, P. R. A., Eng-
lish painter, born in Southampton, June 8, 1829; died
in London, Aug. 13, 1896. He was the most con-
spicuous figure in the English art of his day, and,
judged by popular standards, the most successful
of English painters of the century, with the possible
exception of Landseer. His career was rendered
remarkable not only by the facility and evenness of
his work, his sympathy with popular sentiments,
and his early and almost uninterrupted popular
success, but also from a historical point of view by
his youthful association with the pre-Raphaclite
Brotherhood and the eulogies of Mr. Ruskin. For
over forty years his pictures were centers of at-
traction at the London exhibitions, and few paint-
ers of any time have known so brilliant a career.
John Everett Millais came of an old Jersey fam-
ily, and his parents were residing only temporarily
in Portland Place, Southampton, when he was
born. In 1835 his family went to live in- Dinant,
Brittany, where his precocious talent for drawing
showed itself as vividly as the infantile genius of
Mozart. Recognizing this strong predilection, his
parents took him to London and submitted him to
the judgment of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P. R. A.,
whose first offhand advice, “Rather make him a
/
-MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT.
chimney-sweep than an artist,” was changed to en-
thusiastic admiration by an inspection of young
Millais’s drawings. The boy was therefore entered
in the best art school of that day—Mr. Sass’s acad-
emy, in Bloomsbury—where in 1888 he won the sil-
ver medal of the Society of Arts with a drawing
from the antique. In 1840 he became a student at
the Royal Academy, winning the silver medal in
SIR JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS.
1843 and, indeed, every prize for which he com-
peted in his six years at the academy. In 1846,
when in his seventeenth year, he exhibited his first
painting in the Royal Academy, “ Pizarro seizin
the Inca of Peru.” The judgment of a Frenc
critic that this was one of the two best historical
works of the year received a confirmation the next
year when the British Institution’s gold medal was
awarded to Millais’s “Tribe of Benjamin seizing
the Daughters of Shiloh.” In 1847 also he sent a
large cartoon, * The Widow’s Mite,” to the West-
minster competition,
In spite of these early successes, Millais knew
something of the time of struggle and neglect
which so few artists escape, and there are tales of
drawings made for a few shillings and portraits
painted for two or three pounds. This was the
see to the formation of the pre-Raphaelite
rotherhood by D. G. Rossetti, Holman Hunt,
Woolner, Millais, and three others—a brotherhood
of which Ruskin, its foremost champion, said that
the principles were neither Pre- nor Post-Raphaelite,
but everlasting. There is a familiarstory that Lasi-
nio’s engravings of the frescoes in the Campo Santo
at Pisa inspired these young artists to a movement
toward freedom from academic trammels and a direct.
and sincere delineation of all the facts and details of
Nature as they aetually exist. The literal imita-
tion of Nature was the watchword of this group,
whose unquestioned sincerity has furnished one of
the memorable episodes of the century’s art history.
But the name was erroneous, since imitation of
other paintings and mannerisms existed before
the Renaissance in Italy and before Raphael, as
Leonardo observed in the case of the school of
Giotto. Their principle was an impossible shib-
boleth which enthroned analysis and left syn-
thesis no place, to go no further into its misconcep-
tions. Their prophet, while one of the most elo-
quent of writers upon art, was for young men one
of the most dangerous and misleading. On the
other hand, the earnestness and sincerity of the
movement were ennobling and stimulating, and the
arduous and exact training of hand and eye which
was involved was not without its advantages. The
first important picture painted by Millais under the
influence of the new cult was his “ Lorenzo and Isa-
MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT.
bella,” exhibited in 1849, containing portraits of
Mrs. Hodgkinson, the Rossettis, William Bell Scott,
and others of the pre-Raphaelite circle. The ridi-
cule bestowed upon the primitive treatment and
naive detail of this picture was doubled the next
year when he showed the “Christ in the House of
his Parents,” which the “Times” denounced as an
example of “a morbid infatuation which sacrifices
truth, beauty, and feeling to mere eccentricity.”
Only a few comprehended the attitude of the
brotherhood or attempted to understand their re-
ligious symbolism, yet a movement for the union of
art, truth, and morality was quite in keeping with
' that time of moral exercitation over the Oxford
movement and the later Gothic revival, a time
when Ruskin, writing as an art critic, proclaimed
his fear lest some of the brother-
of historical, biblical, and
487
tained that the possibilities and promise of these
early years ever reached their highest development.
One point should be emphasized in entering upon .
the second period of Millais’s art—that Nature never
equipped him for the career of a great imaginative
artist. While his enormous facility and the stimu-
lus of his companions enabled him to hold his own
and more for a time in the symbolic painting of
the pre-Raphaelites, it may be questioned whether
his heart was fully in his work, for by nature he
was a painter of the present—of the actuelle. From
1860 to 1871 came an almost unbroken succession
tical subjects, genres,
and portraits. After 1871 he painted few historical
and romantic subjects, and devoted himself, with
the exception of some landscape work, to portraits
hood should be “touched by
Tractarian heresies.”
Although it is obvious that in-
dividualities like those of Millais,
Hunt, and Rossetti could not re-
main long so closely united, it
was not until 1858 that Millais
may be said to have adopted a
more elastic and eclectic art in
his “ Black Brunswicker.” Be-
fore this, however, he had painted
pictures of enduring popularity,
notably “A Huguenot” (1851),
while his “ Mariana,” “ Autumn
Leaves,” “ Order of Release,” and
rticularly his “ Ophelia,” have
eld their own as distinguished
examples of hisart. But by 1857
Ruskin, whose praise had been
unbounded, was beginning his
equally strenuous lamentations
over Millais’s fall. This period
can not be dismissed without an
acknowledgment that in devel-
oping some of these earlier ideas
illais showed himself truer to
high artistic ideals than amid the
later brilliant successes of his life.
This early influence was shown
not only in the “ Autumn Leaves”
of 1856, but alsoin“The Valeof | __-£4
Rest’ of 1859 and the “ Eve of ss
St. Agnes” of 1862. It has been
said, and disputed, that in these
pictures Millais reached hishigh- ©
est artistic expression. From
1862 onward, while his career
offers an unbroken series of suc-
cesses, there is too much which
‘shows a change from the ear-
nestness and high endeavor of
those earlier years to a greater
or less content with an external effectiveness
sometimes realized by loose and perfunctory means.
The popular opinion of Millais, as of most success-
ful artists, has been that his career represented
a steady growth and a culmination of triumphs,
and this opinion has found expression again and
again in the criticisms or rather eulogies of Eng-
lish writers who hailed almost every new picture
as the impeccable work of a great master and
unhesitatingly placed his name beside those of
Gainsborough and Reynolds. It is true that the
technical facility and assured self-command shown
in work like the “ Isabella,” which recalled the lov-
ing care of Van Eyck, in the “ Autumn Leaves,” and
in his trilogy of love scenes—* The Huguenot,”
“The Proscribed Royalist,” and “The Order of Re-
lease “—indiéated a talent broad as well as fine; but
-in reviewing his carecr it can not be safely main-
ih
Ii
RESIDENCE OF SIR JOHN MILLAIS, PALACE GATE, LONDON.
ye
and genres. His success was constant, his rewards
were great. From the long list of pictures painted
between 1860 and 1871 we may single out “The
Boyhood of Raleigh” and “The Widow’s Mite”
as examples of sympathetic expression, and from
his later works “Effie Deans” and “ The Princes in
the Tower” as illustrations of his effective story-
telling. In 1872 he broke new ground with his
“Chill October,” still regarded by many as the
finest of his landscapes, which was followed by
“ Flowing to the Sea,” The Fringe of the Moor,”
and many others. His abundant sympathy with
children showed itself at every stage of his career,
especially after 1870, when, as subjects, they began
to assume a more real and important character.
In some of these studies it. may be said that he
showed a certain indebtedness to Reynolds, but
this did hirh no discredit. Like some of the pic-
488 MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT.
tures which we have mentioned, many of these
child pictures—* Little Miss Muffett,” “ Pomona,”
and others—were reproduced everywhere in black
and white or colors. In portraiture, no artist
probably of this century has had so long a list of
distinguished sitters. The roll bears the names of
Gladstone (painted in 1879, and again in 1885),
John Bright, Carlyle, Tennyson, Beaconsfield, Sir
James Paget, Sir Henry Thompson, the Marquis of
Salisbury, Cardinal Newman, and Sir Henry
Irving, with others whose names are familiar at
least to readers of the “ Peerage.” From a material
point of view, no artist could hope for a more suc-
cessful career.
The popular prestige of Millais’s examples of
sentimental anecdotage and of child life over-
shadowed some early and excellent work in-black
and white. In his pre-Raphaelite days he made an
etching for the never-published fifth number of
“The Germ.” yee ohne ee3
Other countries... ............ 43,400,000 13,500,000
ORAL: wens aksoe ees dns saan 1,443,800,000 | 1,178,000,000
Communications.—There were 1,632 miles of
railroads in operation on Jan, 1, 1896. The state
telegraphs had a total length of 3,497 miles, with
12,511 miles of wire. The number of messages sent
in 1895 was 4,673,224, of which 2,380,336 were in-
ternal and 2,252,921 international paid messages
and 39,967 were official ; the receipts were 3,106,766
francs and expenses 4,142,934 franes, excluding 382,-
121 franes of extraordinary expenditure. The post
office in 1895 forwarded 64,695,000 internal and 23,-
225,000 foreign letters, 34,871,000 internal and
6,056,000 foreign postal cards, 113,487,000 internal
and 13,640,000 foreign printed inelosures, and
3,194,000 internal money orders and letters of the
value of 309,027,000 franes and 528,000 foreign ones
of the value of 101,246,000 francs. The postal re-
ceipts were 15,958,718 francs and expenses 13,016,-
598 francs.
Legislation.—The Minister of the Interior’s elec-
toral reform bill was passed by both houses, although
it was entirely acceptable to no party. The Second
Chamber adopted it by the small majority of 56 to
43, and the First Chamber ratified it on Sept. 6 by
the votes of 30 Liberals and 4 Roman Catholics
against 12 Anti-Revolutionaries and Catholics. The
franchise is conferred upon every male citizen who
has reached the age of twenty-five years and pays a
direct tax of a little more than a guilder, or has
lived in a hired room or apartment for six months,
or draws a pension from some public institution or
has 100 guilders in a savings bank, or has passed an
examination qualifying him to be a professor, an
engineer, a surgeon, or the like. No one is dis-
qualified who can support himself and his family,
nor does the fact of receiving gratuitous medical
aid constitute a bar. All officers are electors, and
also noncommissioned officers not in barracks. The
new law goes into force on May 15, 1897.
Candidates for the Second Chamber must be pro-
posed in advance by at least 40 electors. When
only one candidate is thus presented, the seat is
given to him without the formality of an election.
When there are several candidates, the burgomas-
ter sends the list to every voter, with a notification
of the day of election, which must not be a Sunday
or holiday. Members are elected in single districts
and not by serutin de liste.
The elections for a renewal of a third of the
members of the First Chamber took place in July.
The Liberals lost seats in Zeeland and Gelderland,
but still had a majority of 31 in the First Chamber
over 13 Catholics, 4 Anti-Revolutionaries or Ex-
treme Protestants, and 2 Conservatives. At the
opening of the new session on Sept. 15 bills were
announced providing for the compulsory insurance
NETHERLANDS.
of workingmen against accidents and for reforms
in the system of communal finance.
The city of Amsterdam is proceeding to munici-
palize the water, gas, telephone, and street-car sery-
ices. The water company has been compelled un-
der the terms of its charter to sell its plant to the
city at about one third of the capital aaa value.
There was a long contest over this, and a similar
contest took place over the gas franchise which re-
sulted in notice being given of its termination in
1897. The telephone company succeeded in mak-
ing an arrangement more acceptable to the share-
holders. A majority of the municipal council fa-
vors the acquisition of the street railroads also and
all public services with the aim, on the one hand,
of furnishing cheaper gas, water, telephonic com-
munication, transport, etc., to the citizens and, on
the other, of improving the financial position of
the city by profits from the undertakings.
The Dutch East Indies.—The Dutch possessions
in Asia comprise the colony of Java and Madura
and the outposts, which include Sumatra, Borneo,
Dutch New Guinea, the Riau-Lingga Archipelago,
Banca, Billiton, Celebes, the Molucca Archipelago,
and the minor Sunda islands. The territories are
divided as to their political status into directly ad-
ministrated, vassal, and confederated lands, Java,
including Madura, is divided into 22 provinces, each
governed by a resident and his staff through the
medium of a large force of native officials, who re-
ceive sometimes fixed stipends and sometimes a
percentage of the taxes that they collect. The sys-
tem of government is quite despotic, the Governor
General having power to make any laws and regu-
lations that are not in conflict with the statutes,
The Government owns the land, and under the cul-
ture system compelled the natives to produce the
exportable products, such as sugar, indigo, tobacco,
pepper, tea, ete., but forced labor is now required
only on coffee plantations. The system has been
extended also to the coffee lands in western Suma-
tra and Celebes, The Governor General is Jonk-
heer C, H. A. van der Wyck, appointed in 1893.
Java, with Madura, has an area of 50,554 square
miles, and in 1894 had 25,067,471 inhabitants, of
whom 24,746,368 were native Malays, 50,393 Euro-
peans, 251,325 Chinese, 16,319 Arabs, and 3,066 Hin-
dus and others. The total area of the outposts is
685,846 square miles, and the population 9,206,090.
The estimated revenue of the East Indies for
1896 was 131,823,666 guilders, and the expenditure
140,362,581 guilders. Of the revenue 22,618,588
guilders were the proceeds of sales of coffee, 114,840
guilders of cinchona, 5,083,085 guilders of tin, 17,-
167,000 guilders of the opium monopoly, 15,115,000
guilders of customs, 17,273,000 guilders of the land
tax or tithes, 8,556,600 guilders of the salt duty,
1,875,800 guilders of posts and telegraphs, 10,219,-
000 guilders of railroads, and 33,800,753 guilders of
various other revenues. The railroads in operation
in Java had in 1894 a length of 1,095 miles, and 412
miles more were building. In Sumatra there were
197 miles completed and 20 miles building. The
telegraph lines had a total length of 5,190 miles,
with 7,607 miles of wire. The number of internal
dispatches in 1894 was 427,447; of international
dispatches, 160,055. The post office forwarded
12,951,772 internal and 8,221,676 foreign letters;
receipts, 2,251,000 guilders; expenses, 3,729,000
guilders.
The merchandise imports of private persons into
Java in 1894 were 112,115,000 guilders; into the
outposts, 46,443,000 guilders; imports of the Goy-
ernment, 6,712,000 guilders; total merchandise
imports, 165,270,000 guilders, The merchandise ex-
ports of private individuals from Java were 137,062,-
000 guilders ; from the outposts, 45,122,000 guilders ;
exports of the Government, 17,022,000 guilders ;
tal exports of merchandise, 199,206,000 guilders.
The imports of specie were 9,946,000 guilders ;
exports, 879,090 guilders. -
The shipping arriving in 1894 comprised 3,284
steam Renee of 3,435,000 cubic metres, and 1,471
sailing vessels, of 568,000 cubic metres.
The army of the Dutch East Indies on Jan. 1,
1896, had a total strength of 1,360 officers and 38,-
611 men, comprising 380 staff officers and 3,608 men
attached to the general staff, 684 infantry officers
and 30,150 soldiers, 34 officers and 881 men in the
cavalry, 121 officers and 3,308 men in the artillery,
and 61 officers and 664 men in the engineers. The
army consisted of 16,357 Europeans, 56 Africans,
and 22,198 natives.
The fleet consists of the protected corvette
“Sumatra,” of 1,720 tons, the ironclad “ Koning
der Nederlanden,” 12 gunboats, 3 steamers, and a
torpedo boat.
ar in Acheen.—The Dutch have maintained
their sway over the larger external islands since
_ these were restored to their possession by the peace
of 1814 with but little friction or opposition on the
part of the peaceably dis inhabitants, mixed
populations of Malay, Hindu, Arabic, Mongolian,
and Papuan blood, except over the fierce Moham-
medan Malays of northern Sumatra, descendants of
pirates who subjugated the indigenous race in former
centuries. These people are a small fraction of the
population of the island, yet they have successfully
resisted Dutch rule since they were deprived of
their autonomy in 1874, and the warfare that they
have since waged to maintain their independence
has crippled the finances of Netherlands India and
drained the national treasury of its gold and the
country of itsstalwart youth. The Sultan of Acheen
was stripped of his possessions on the other islands
by the Dutch in the last century, and in 1824 Great
Britain, which for political and commercial reasons
» had ee the independence of Acheen, acquiesced
in a Dutch protectorate, in conseq
uence of which
the Netherlands assumed full responsibility for the
security of trade and navigation on these coasts.
In 1871 the treaty with England was modified so as
to enable the Dutch to establish their authority
over Acheen. The Sultan sent a secret embassy to
the American diplomatic agent at Singapore to
ries for the military aid of the United States at
the same time that he dispatched commissioners to
treat with the Netherlands Government. Encour-
aged by the hope of support from the United States
and England, the merchants of which countries
actually supplied him later with weapons and am-
munition, the Sultan rejected the terms proposed
by the Government of Netherlands India. His con-
tumacious and treacherous conduct led to the send-
ing of an expedition in April, 1873, to bring him to
terms and establish Dutch rule in Acheen. This
expedition met with disaster, but a second one suc-
ceeded in capturing the capital, Kotaradja. in Jan-
uary, 1874, but not in subjugating the Acheenese,
against whom a desultory warfare has been waged
ever since. Gen. Karl van der Heyden, who was
born and grew up in the East Indies and rose from
the ranks to be commander-in-chief, understood the
treachery, hypocrisy, and vindictive cruelty of the
Malays, whose blood he had in his veins, and he
succeeded in imposing an iron rule over them, but
after he retired, in 1881, the revolt broke out afresh.
Since then the Dutch have held only a small tri-
angular district with a coast line from the port of
Oleh Leh to the fortified post of Kota Pohama and
a military dead line drawn in the interior, marked
by an embankment surmounted by a railroad. inside
of which a Malay rebel is shot on sight. Outside of
this line no Dutch force can march without danger
NETHERLANDS.
509
of being caught in an ambush and annihilated, for
every native is a rebel, and all are provided with
repeating rifles, which they keep in concealment. -
These weapons are brought in from Singapore by
the swift native praus that take out cargoes of pep-
a) in spite of the vigilant blockade of the coast.
he most formidable military leader of the rebels
is Toekoe Oemar, who has repeatedly made terms
with the Dutch and treacherously attacked them
later when opportunity occurred. After making
peace with the authorities, he massacred the crew
of a boat that was conveying him to his country,
and followed up this deed by murdering the crew
of a Danish merchant ship. The Dutch proclaimed
him a pirate and an outlaw, but when he placed
himself in 1893 at the head of the Holoebalangs or
peace pes among the Acheenese and made war
upon the Moslemin, who under the preaching of
the mollahs declared a holy war of extermination
against the Europeans, he delivered up to‘the Dutch
the posts that he captured from the fanatical fac-
tion and consummated an alliance with them in
Soar of which he thoroughly subdued. the
oslemin and formally acknowledged the rule of
the Dutch. Thus peace was secured in the early
part of 1894, and the Dutch authorities rested for
two years in the fancied security that the exhaust-
ing and costly struggle was finally over. When,
therefore, a Dutch detachment was attacked and
badly beaten at Anak Bate in March, 1896, the
colonial authorities were taken by surprise. They
quickly awoke to the impending danger, and when
it became clear that another general movement was
being planned by the Acheenese immediate steps
were taken to meet the emergency. They sent for
their ally Toekoe Oemar, now a powerful and
wealthy ruler under Dutch supremacy, and with
him they drew up a plan of campaign against the
rebellious chieftains on both sides of the Atjeh
river. His share in the operations was to consist in
a flanking march to the south of Lamkrak through
the center of the rebel Toekoe Baid’s district. After
he had executed this movement and broken down
whatever resistance he encountered, he was to join
the Dutch forces at Anakgaloeng. To enable him
to equip and maintain his native troops, he received
1,000 rifles of different patterns, with an ample
supply of ammunition and a cash payment of $18,-
000, By the end of March everything stood in
readiness for the campaign. The military head-
quarters were transferred from Kotaradja to Lam-
baroe, at the apex of the cordon and close to the
seat of the rebellion. Just as orders were about to
be issued for the general advance, Gen. Deykerhoff
received indisputable proof of the intended treason
of Toekoe Oemar. He intended to attempt the ex-
termination of the Dutch by seizing Kotaradja and”
the port of Oleh Leh when the colonial forces were
concentrated in the interior, and, when all com-
munications were thus cut off. falling upon them
in conjunction with the revolted chiefs. His favor-
ite wife had persuaded him that the moment had
arrived when he could achieve the independence of
his country by one decisive blow. A personal mo-
tive led her to exert all her influence over her hus-
band to this end, for the mol/ahs had prophesied
that her child, yet unborn, would be sultan over
Acheen.
As soon as he knew of this fresh danger the
Dutch general called in his advance posts and sent
strong detachments to Lamdjamoe and Lampernoet
to guard against an attack on his rear. Almost
simultaneously a concerted movement was ob-
served in the ranks of the enemy, and fighting
took place along the whole line. In a hotly con-
tested engagement on March 30 at the Atjeh river,
between Senelop and Lambirih, the Dutch lost
510
heavily. Oleh Leh was fortified, and large re-en-
forecements were brought from Padang. Lieut.-
Gen. J. A. Vetter, the victor of Lombok, took com-
mand of the Dutch forces. Toekoe Oemar, when
he saw that his plans were discovered, took the
field and raised an army among the tribes which he
had subdued for the Dutch. He carried on a cruel
and savage war, putting to death every wounded
man and prisoner who fell into his hands. He
showed all his old skill in entrapping and deceiv-
ing his enemies, and employed his art with desper-
ate energy, having staked everything on the chance
of victory. Large numbers of friendly Acheenese
joined the rebellion from the Dutch part of Acheen
with arms and ammunition furnished by the au-
thorities. Gen. Vetter’s plan was to attack Toekoe
Oemar from the front and drive him by degrees to
the west coast, where the Dutch war ships could
aid in the final battle. The Dutch army crossed
the cordon on May 23, in four columns, two of
which marched upon the enemy’s headquarters at
Lampisang and Boekit Seboen, while the other exe-
cuted a flank manceuvre farther south. The Ma-
lays resisted their advance with great courage. In
the attack upon Lampisang many of the Dutch
efficers were killed, but the position was finally cap-
tured, Toekoe Oemar’s kampong was destroyed, and
a large number of rebels were slain, On May 24
the Dutch took Boekit Seboen, commanding the
Beradin pass, after a severe combat. The combined
columns proceeded from there directly to the coast
and joined forces with the troops landed by the
flotilla at Kroeng Raba. The enemy was dis-
persed, but not yet conquered. Toekoe Oemar with
the remnant of his army escaped into the fastnesses
of the mountains. The troops devastated the pos-
sessions of the rebel chiefs and then returned: to
Kotaradja. Negotiations were entered into with
Toekoe Oemar, who acceded to any conditions that
were offered, but took care not to place himself in
the power of the Dutch, and let no opportunity pass
to strike a blow at them. Gen. Vetter resigned his
special command to resume his post as commander
in chief of the forces in Batavia, and Gen. Moulin
went to Acheen as civil and military governor.
Flying columns attacked any bodies of insurgents
that showed themselves in the accessible parts of the
country. Sometimes Dutch patrols were taken by
surprise, bands of rebels who were tilling the field
when they passed forming suddenly and attacking
them in the rear. Col. Stemfoort temporarily suc-
ceeded Gen. Moulin, who died of sunstroke on July
11, The campaign was pushed with greater vigor.
The troops attacked the rebels on the mountains as
well as in the lowlands, and chased Toekoe Oemar
and the other chiefs from their places of refuge.
Toekoe Baid surrendered after suffering a series of
reverses. Gen. Swart, a veteran colonial officer,
was appointed to the command of the forces in
August. Toekoe Oemar, chased from Lelong, fled
to Lambesoi, on the coast. When the plan of burn-
ing and devastating the places where rebellion
showed its face was found insufficient, the new com-
mander reverted to Gen. van der Heiden’s system
of occupying strategie positions as permanent posts
was carried out with the object of completing the
subjugation of Acheen.
NEVADA, a Pacific coast State, admitted to the
Union Oct. 31, 1864; area, 110,700 square miles.
The population, according to each decennial census
since admission, was 42,491 in 1870; 62,266 in 1880;
and 45,761 in 1890. Capital, Carson City.
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, John E. Jones,
until his death, April 10, when Lieut.-Gov. Rein-
hold Sadler became Governor; Secretary of State,
Eugene Howell; Treasurer, W. J. Westerfield;
NEVADA.
Comptroller, C. A. La Grave; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, H. C. Cutting; Attorney-Gen-
eral, Robert M. Beatty, who died Dec. 10; Ad-
jutant General, C. H. Galusha; Chief Justice of
the sey pore Court, R. R. Bigelow; Associate Jus-
tices, Charles H. Belknap, M. S. Bloom field—all
Silver party except the Chief Justice and the Adju-
tant General, who are Republicans.
Finances.—The Comptroller reported that the
deficiency on State expenditures for the past two
years amounted to $5,084.42.
The appropriation for the State Prison was $63,-
000, and of this $57,779.22 has been expended,
The asylum cost the State $68,663.38, the weather
service $1,200, and the Board of Health $1,000.
The States owes the military companies $10,462.-
50 for rent-of armories, and a railroad company
$531 for transporting militia for escort duty at the
funeral of the late Governor.
Education.—The school population numbers
9,089. At the last semiannual apportionment of
school funds $77,088.25 was distributed, giving
over $8 per capita. The general school fund
amounts to $1,240,208.33.
At the teachers’ institute in April, the following
resolutions were adopted:
“ Resolved, That we earnestly request the Legis-
lature to provide a modern industrial school, which
shall be a home, a school, a farm and a workshop in
the best sense of all the terms,
“ Resolved, That itis the wish of this institute that
all consistent effort be exerted by the several mem-
bers of this body, looking to the establishment of
county high schools in all the counties of the State
where the same can manifestly be maintained.”
The State University, at Reno, has nearly 300 stu-
dents, An artillery company was organized among
the students in January, and 2 pieces of ordnance
were procured for its use.
Railroads.—In February articles of incorpora-
tion of the California Eastern Railway Company
were filed at San Bernardino. The object of the
corporation is to repurchase the Nevada Southern
Railway and continue it through to Goode Springs, —
Nev., making a total length of 75 miles.
There has been a lively demand for land on Vir-
gin river in Lincoln County, made on the expecta-
tion that the proposed railroad from Los Angeles
to Salt Lake City will traverse that region.
The suit of the Central Pacific Railway Company
vs. the State of Nevada, involving the right of the
State to tax the lands of the company, went to the
United States Supreme Court on a writ of error
sued out by the company. The State courts held
that the State was entitled to levy taxes upon pat-
ented lands, and also for lands which had not been
. patented, but which had been surveyed, and on
which the cost of surveying had not been paid.
The opinion of Justice Brown of the United States
Supreme Court affirmed this decision. “If,” he
said, “the railroad had a possessory claim to the
lands, they are taxable under the statute of Ne-
vada.” Remarking upon the plea that the land
could not be taxed where the Government reserved
mineral lands from the grant, he said: “ If the road
has no possessory claim because the lands are min-
eral it certainly can not be injured by a sale of the
lands to pay the tax.” Justice Field dissented on the
ground that the reservation of mineral lands from
the grant made it impossible to determine what
lands could be properly taxed against the company.
The Virginia and Truckee Railroad Company was
assessed $6,353.50 on its property in Storey County.
The company offered to pay $3,724.35. The county
sued for the full amount and for a separate judg-
ment against the real estate and other property of —
the company for $6,353.50; for 10 per cent. dam-
or ree ey mee ET
NEVADA.
: for a penalty of 25 per cent. and for all costs
of the case. Pthe ict was in favor of the county
sued for save the 25 per cent. penal-
ty. A stay of proceedings was granted and similar
suit against the same company was brought in
Washoe County. ;
Mining.—An article published in January said:
“The existence of a new gold-mining district, said
to be phenomenally rich, is brought to the at-
for earning
tention of the general public by the quarrels of
some of those interested in it. The district is in
Nevada, close to the California and Arizona lines.
The El Dorado district, as it is called, is reached
either from The Needles, in San Bernardino Coun-
ty, Cal., or from Kingman, in Arizona. The dis-
tance to the last-named point by rail from The
Needles is 120 miles, but thence a stage runs occa-
sionally to the camp. From The Needles up the
Colorado river it is only 80 miles, but so swift is
the stream’s current that Indians have to be em-
ployed to tow the boats by hand.”
“The new mining district of State Line, near De
Lamar,” says a Nevada journal, “on the boundary
between Nevada and Utah, embraces an area 6 or 7
miles wide by about 12 long. It is about 15 miles
from Milford, the nearest railway point, with a
wagon road from that station. There are about
100 men in the district prospecting and working
claims. The mineral-bearing zone consists of a
silver vein lying in porphyry. Some of it carries
from 500 to 600 ounces of silver. The gold is found
in hard quartz and is a free-milling ore. It runs
from $10 to $12 per ton. The district has an eleva-
tion of 7,000 to 8,000 feet, and there is frost every
month of the year.”
Another new location is on the north end of the
Brunswick lode, which includes a full claim of
1.500 feet in length by 600 in width. The vein is
traceable for 3,000 feet on the surface by the oni-
croppings and shows a width of 40 feet.just west of
the point where a shaft is being sunk. The foot
wall is clay and porphyry backed by syenite. As-
says taken across the whole face of the vein, just
below the surface, show an average of $2 to $5 a
ton in gold, while picked samples from the 40-foot
vein show free old and give assay value of several
hundred dollars a ton.
A new deposit of ore was recently opened in the
new Chollar and Norcross south drift on the 300
level of the Brunswick lode, apparently a down-
ward extension of one opened on the 200 level.
The Hale and Norcross was closed about March
17, the miners having gone out because they were
dissatisfied with a new superintendent. The super-
intendent, through his attorney, appealed to the
Governor to know if he would be protected in case
he should insist upon his lawful right to continue
his business as superintendent; and whether, if it
were impossible for the State to afford such protec-
tion, the Governor would aid in making the proper
representations to secure help from the Federal
Government. The Governor replied that the sheriff
of Storey County had assured him that he would
extend all the protection in his power to the Hale
and Norcross Company, or to any person connected
with it, and that the executive department had re-
ceived no official notice of any insurrection, riot, or
resistance to the execution of the laws of the State,
or any request from any proper source for assist-
ance in the execution of those laws. A few days
after the closing of the mine an armed mob took
the superintendent from a barber shop, put him into
a carriage, and took him some distance away from
town, where they left him, having warned him
never to return to Virginia City. The sheriff was
appealed to to interfere while this was going on,
but said he was unable to prevent it without assist-
511
ance.” After being closed about a month, the mine
was reopened under new management. It does not
appear that spiecfic charges were made against the su-
perintendent, but he was accused of having,on for-
mer occasions, before his appointment, “ infringed on
the laws of the Virginia City Miners’ Union, and
otherwise made himself obnoxious to a large por-
tion of the community by underhanded dealings.”
Political.—The Republicans held a convention,
May 9, at Virginia City, to elect delegates to the
national convention. The platform congratulated
the people of the State and country on the prospect
of a Republican presidential victory ; favored the
restoration of the currency as it stood prior to 1873
and the free and unlimited coinage of silver at a
ratio of 16 to 1; recommended the displacement of .
Nevada’s Senators and Representative as nonresi-
dents; favored tariff protection and protection for
American labor; opposed interference with non-
sectarian schools, and aid to sectarian schools,
It favored national legislation to control the im-
migration of paupers and people holding views op-
posed to the American form of government ; favored
a change in the naturalization laws, requiring, as a
qualification of citizenship, seven years’ residence
on the part of foreigners and the ability to read the
Constitution of the United States. It favored the
leaving of the delegates to the National Republican
Convention unpledged except to use all honorable
efforts to secure the nomination of a man favorable
to silver.
The convention for nominating the State and
electoral tickets was held at Carson City, Sept. 10.
The platform was substantially the same as that of
the May convention, with added demands for equal
suffrage, settlement of labor strikes by arbitration,
enforcement of the purity of elections laws, and
representation of the State in Congress by residents
of the State, The State ticket follows: For Lieu-
tenant Governor, Col. Moore; Judge of the Supreme
Court, M. A. Murphy; Regent (long term), J. M.
Fulton; Regent (short term), Prof. McDiarmid;
Congress, M. J. Davis.
A Democratic mass convention met at Reno, June
15. The platform commended the national admin-
istration, except for its financial policy, which was
condemned ; demanded free and unlimited coinage
of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1; denounced all socie-
ties, secret or otherwise, which proscribe citizens on
account of their religious belief, and demanded the
ealling of a constitutional convention to make rad-
ical changes for the better in the Constitution of
the State.
On the State ticket the Democrats united with
the Silver party. Both these parties pledged the
electoral vote of the State to Thomas E. Watson
should it appear that the contest for the vice-presi-
dency is between him and Garret A. Hobart, the
Republican nominee.
he following resolution was adopted by the State
Central Committee, Aug. 29:
“Owing to the local political conditions at the
present time, we deem it inexpedient and unwise to
nominate any except an electoral ticket. The plac-
ing of the latter upon the official ballots is necessary
to preserve the legal status of the Democratic party in
Nevada, and we ask for it such support ofall friends
of the silver cause as we will cheerfully give to the
candidates representing the opposition to the gold
plutocracy party of the nation and State.”
The State Central Committee of the Silver party
met at Reno, June 20, chose delegates to the
national bimetallic convention at St. Louis, fixed
the date Sept. 8 for a State convention, and resolved
that the following test be required of voters at the
primary election: “1 am in favor of the free and
unlimited coinage of gold and silver at the ratio of
512
16 to 1, independendent of any other nation, and
will support the nominees of the Silver party.”
The following resolutions were adopted : * Where-
as, The Silver party of the State of Nevada and the
People’s party of the State of Nevada have for their
paramount object the restoration of silver as a mon-
etary coin of the republic and the free and un-
limited coinage thereof; therefore be it
“ Resolved, By the Silver Party State Central
Committee that a hearty and earnest invitation be
extended to the People’s party of Nevada, and all
parties and factions and individuals in favor of a
free and unlimited coinage at a ratio of 16 to 1,
to meet us in joint convention at Elko, Nev., on
the 8th day of September, 1896, to then and there
nominate a State ticket for the consummation of
our common object.”
At the State convention at Elko, Sept. 8, the fol-
lowing ticket was named: For Lieutenant Goy-
ernor, C. H. E. Hardin; Judge of the Supreme
Court, W. A. Massey; Regent (long term), J. N.
Evans; Regent (short term), H. 5. Starrett; Mem-
ber of Congress, Francis G. Newlands.
The People’s party convention, Sept. 5, declared
for free coinage of silver and adopted the following
resolution :
“That we are in favor of inviting all parties in
the State of Nevada pledged and supporting that
- issue to unite in a fusion with the People’s party
on presidential electors and invite all parties in
favor of the election of W. J. Bryan for President
of the United States to appoint a committee to con-
fer with a like committee from this convention,
effect a fusion on presidental electors if possible
and pledge our nominees for presidental electors to
abide by the action of the committee appointed by
that body.”
An electoral ticket was named, and the following
State ticket: For Member of Congress, J. C. Dough-
erty; Judge of the Supreme Court, B. F. Curler;
Regent (long term), Rev. T. Magill. An execu-
tive committee was appointed with power to fill
vacancies on the ticket.
At the November election the total vote of the
State was 10,315. The Bryan and Sewall electors
received 7,802; Bryan and Watson, 575; McKinley
and Hobart, 1,938. The State ticket of the Silver
party was chosen. The vote for Representative in
Congress stood : Newlands, Silver Democrat, 6,529;
Davis, Republican, 1,319; Dougherty, Populist,
1,948.
In proclaiming the election of candidates. the
Governor omitted that of C. H. E. Hardin for Lieu-
tenant Governor “because of a legal opinion de-
livered on Nov. 13 by the late Gen. Beatty, in which
he declared that under proper construction of Sec-
tion 17 and 18 of Article V of the Constitution of
Nevada, upon the death of the Governor the powers
and duties of the office devolved upon the Lieuten-
ant Governor, and that no vacancy in the office of
Lieutenant Governor exists.”
The Legislature for 1897 will stand: Senate—9
Free-silver party, 4 Republicans, 1 Democrat, 1 In-
dependent; House—26 Free-silver party, 2 Repub-
licans, 1 Democrat, 1 Independent.
NEW BRUNSWICK, PROVINCE OF. Goy-
ernment and Legislature.—On July 17 the Hon.
A. G. Blair, having accepted a portfolio in the new
Liberal Cabinet at Ottawa, James Mitchell became
Premier, with the following ministry: Attorney-
General, James Mitchell; Provincial Secretary, L.
J. Tweedie; Commissioner of Public Works, H. R.
Emmerson; Surveyor General, A. T. Dunn; So-
licitor-General, A. S. White; without office, C. H.
Labillois, L. S. Fallis.
The Legislature had meanwhile been opened for
the first time since the provincial elections by
NEW BRUNSWICK, PROVINCE OF.
Lieut.-Gov. Fraser on Feb. 138, who said in his>
“speech from the throne”:
“ Owing to a recent act readjusting the represen-
tation in the Assembly, I am happy to be. now ena-
bled to meet a Legislature more truly representative
of the various sections of the province than any
which has hitherto assembled. “The year just
closed has been a period of contentment and aver-
age prosperity.
“'The threatened disturbance of the friendly rela-
tions which have existed without any serious breach
during living memory between the Government of
Great Britain and the United States is to us a mat-
ter of profound concern. In common with Cana-.
diaus of all classes and parties, I sincerely trust
that this menace to civilization and the world’s
progress may be averted, and that we may ever re-
main upon terms of amity with our kinsmen and
neighbors of the great republic. If, unhappily,
trouble should arise, I believe there is no portion of
the empire which would more heartily and loyally
than this province maintain and defend connection
with the mother land.
“The policy of my Government in encouraging
in every possible way the growth of the dairying
industry continues to meet with marked success,
Advanced methods of agriculture, a growing appre-
ciation of the benefits arising from improvement in
stock, and an awakened eagerness and aptitude on
the part of our farmers to meet and avail them-
selves of the changing conditions of successful ag-
riculture promise hopefully to those engaged in
this important pursuit. The several importations
of thariagtiveed | stock heretofore made by my Goy-
ernment have proved of such permanent benefit
that you will be invited to consider the advisability
of making a grant for a further importation.
“The mineral development of New Brunswick
under the healthy stimulus of recent legislation has
been prosecuted with much energy-by private skill
and enterprise, but it is a question whether individ-
ual effort in this direction should not be further
supplemented by public assistance if we are to be
well and accurately informed as to the true extent
and value of our mineral resources.”
Adjournment took place on March 19, after the
passage of the following, among other bills:
Relating to the education of the blind.
To amend chap. xliv of the Consolidated Stat-
utes of absconding, concealed, or absent debtors,
For the ci iran of the Evangelical Church
Society of New Brunswick.
To amend the liquor license act of 1887.
To authorize a loan for the importation of stock,
sheep, and swine.
Amending the acts providing for the payment
of succession duties.
In amendment of chap. cxv regarding sewers
and marsh lands.
To further amend the New Brunswick dental
act of 1890.
To exempt butter and cheese factories from
taxation.
To amend 58th Victoria, chap. vi, respecting
assignments and preferences by insolvent per-
sons.
To amend the act imposing taxes on certain life
insurance companies.
To incorporate the Barnesville and Norton Rail-
way.
Consolidating acts relating to arrest and im-
prisonment of debtors.
Amending the joint stock companies act.
Amending the game law.
Incorporating the Aroostook Junction and Limes
stone Railway Company.
To aid the St. John Exhibition.
NEW BRUNSWICK, PROVINCE OF.
To consolidate and amend the law respecting
the sale of intoxicating liquors.
Relating to age len } of lumber.
Temperance Legislation.—During the session
a distinct advance was made by the passage of a
bill consolidating the existing laws regarding li-
censes and still further restricting the sale of liquor.
The measure increases the amount of the license
fee, limits the number of hotels and taverns in a
given district, declares that in wards or parishes
where no licenses had been granted none should be
given in future, and makes it necessary for half of
the voters of a division or section to be upon the
tition for the renewal of a license. Meanwhile, a
Prohibition meeting in St. John declared that issue
to be the supreme question before the people. Since
then a decision of the imperial Privy Council has
established the principle that the provinces have
the power to regulate, but not to prohibit the traf-
fic, so that this part of the agitation is turned into
Dominion politics.
Finanees.—Mr. Mitchell, as Provincial Treas-
urer, made his budget speech on Feb. 20. During
the year, he said, the farmers had reaped good har-
vests, the lumber business had been fairly active,
and business men were able to meet their obliga-
tions. ‘The bonded indebtedness of the province
stood at $2,709,000—an increase of $84,000, caused
by special expenditures upon the Woodstock and
sundry international bridges and the Nelson Rail-
way. The receipts for the year were $687,437, and
the expenditure under warrant $684,634. Under
this latter head were included $14,385 spent upon
the administration of justice, $22,370 upon agricul-
ture, $189,795 upon pa it $210,469-upon pub-
lic works, roads, bridges, etc., $10,475 upon the
islative and other buildings.
griculture.—During the year there were 53
cheese factories in operation, with a production of
1,263,266 pounds. The average price was 8} cents,
and the total value $104,229. The increase in the
output was 369,000 peunds.
in operation, and produced 113,890 pounds of but-
_ ter at an average price of 18} cents. The total
value of cheese alt butter exported was $125,289,
compared with $110,739 in 1894. In his budget
speech Mr. Mitchell referred to the “ peculiar flavor
and richness of New Brunswick cheese,” the excel-
lence of the dairy products shown at the St. John
Exhibition, and the very fine horticultural display
at the same place. In this latter connection a
small bonused school has been established, similar
to one in Wolfville, Nova Scotia. Cattle, sheep,
and swine have been imported to improve the home
stock, and other efforts made to improve the farm-
er’s opportunities.
Miscellaneous.—The registered tonnage of New
Brunswick in 1896 was 1,140,172, divided between
390,608 coming inward and 749,564 going outward.
There was a total decrease of 27,000 tons. On Sept.
29 the Boards of Trade of the provinces of New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island
met at St. John, New Brunswick, and passed reso-
lutions in favor of encouraging immigration, re-
duction of freight from the coal mines to inland
towns, criticising certain freight rates of the Inter-
colonial Railway, recommending cable communica-
tion with the West Indies entirely under British
control, favoring a fast Atlantic line to Liverpool,
a cold-storage freight system, and telegraphic com-
munication with Prince Edward Island. During
the year Chief-Justice Sir John Allen resigned, and
was succeeded by Judge Tuck, who, in turn, was
replaced by Mr. E. McLeod, ex-M. P. The death
of Hon. J. J. Fraser left the governorship vacant,
and to this office the Dominion Government ap-
pointed Senator McLellan.
VOL. Xxxvi.—33 A
Nine creameries were ‘it must be accompanied by the owner.
NEWFOUNDLAND. 513
NEWFOUNDLAND, an island, forming a Brit-
ish colony, at the entrance of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence ; area, 42,200 square miles; population in 1891, .
202,145.
Legislative Session.—The following were the
principal acts passed during the session of 1896:
To amend the Crown lands act of 1884 as to
survey, ete.
Respecting the payment of royalty on timber.
It abolishes royalties on timber cut but provides
for a ground rent of $2 per square mile in addition
to the bonus.
Granting $70,000 for constructing and repairing
roads, streets, and bridges and other works.
For the conversion of certain debentures of the
colony.
For granting to her Majesty certain duties on
goods, wares, and merchandise imported into the
colony; continuing the revenue act previously in
force, and amending it by adding to the free list;
mining machinery and dynamite when imported by
persons engaged in mining; agricultural imple-
ments and machinery when imported by persons
engaged in agriculture; oil cake, cotton seed, meal,
and preparations for cattle feed. Duty is increased
on fruit cake to 7 cents per pound; fancy biscuit to
40 per cent.; brooms and whisks to 50 per cent.
Goods made by prison labor are prohibited.
To amend the education grant of 1895, making
an annual appropriation for all educational pur-
poses of $153,585.
Respecting the preservation of deer, providing a
ten years’ close season for elk or moose, a breach of
provisions rendering offenders liable to a fine of $200
or imprisonment for three months. Caribou can
not be killed from Feb, 1 to July 15, and from Oct.
7 to Nov. 10; and no person not domiciled in the
colony, except officers of her Majesty’s ships sta-
tioned there, shall hunt or kill without a license,
paying therefor $100. Not more than one carcass
of caribou can be exported by any one person, and
Not more
than 3 stags and 2 does shall be killed by any one
hunter; and, in parties of 3 or more, 2 stags and 1
doe for each member of the party, exclusive of
guides. Snares or traps for caribou are prohibited,
also hunting with dogs and the use of hatchets,
spears. etc. Violations of the provisions of this act
make liable to a penalty of $400 or six months’ im-
prisonment.
Constituting a medical board, holding office dur-
ing good behavior, but removable by the Govern-
or on petition of 5 members of the board. It pro-
vides that no person shall enter upon the study
of medicine in the colony without first passing a
matriculation examination.
To authorize the raising of a sum of money for
the redemption of certain debentures of the colony.
To amend an act for the maintenance and opera-
tion of the line of railway from Whitbourne to Port-
au-Basques, providing that grants of land issued
under the amended act shall convey all mines, ores,
and precious metals of every kind on or under the
land granted.
Railways.—The whole line from St. John’s to
Port-au-Basques will be 550 miles in length, and
only 30 miles of it remain to be built. The con-
tractor is building a steamer to ply between Port-
au-Basques and Sydney, Cape Breton island. New-
foundland will soon almost cease to be an island,
and will obtain a daily mail service.
Fisheries.—The bank fishery in 1895 employed
785 men and 58 vessels, the catch being 54,544
quintals of cod; the average catch per man, 69
quintals. The steamers engaged in the seal fishery
of 1896 numbered 20; their crews, 4,486; and the
number of seals taken, 187,517, being much below
514 NEWFOUNDLAND.
an average. In 1895 the export of dried codfish
was 1,312,608 quintals: value, $3,876,964. The
total value of fishery products in 1895-96 was
$5,853,132. The value of the imports in 1895-96
was $5,986,571; of the exports, $6,638,187. A com-
pany with a capital of $100,000 has been formed to
prosecute the whale fishery around the shores of
the island. The whales met with here are not the
right or Greenland whale, now becoming extinct,
but the humpback, sulphur bottom or blue whale,
and the finback. These are in myriads around the
shores in summer. In Norway a similar fishery
has been prosecuted for years with profitable re-
sults.
Events.—The year 1896 was one of steady prog-
ress, industrially and financially, and was unmarked
by any very striking events. The wonderful recu-
perative energy of the country after the great fire
of 1892, and the far more serious financial crash of
December, 1894, has been displayed continuously,
so. that at the close of 1896 the colony was in a
sounder economic condition than before these dis-
asters occurred. The credit system has been great-
ly curtailed. The result has been a marked im-
provement in the mode of conducting the fisheries,
a better cure of fish, and greater energy in prose-
cuting the work, while the feeling of confidence has
been completely restored.
The revenue is derived almost entirely from du-
ties on imported goods, so that an increase of rev-
enue indicates increased purchasing power on the
part of the people, and consequently an improve-
ment in the returns derived from their industries,
The fiscal year has been changed, and now termi-
nates on June 30. The revenue for the year ending
June 30, 1896, amounted to $1,564,303, an advance
of $206,493 on the revenue of the preceding year.
The total expenditure for the year ending June 30,
1896, was $1,357,810, so that the surplus for the year
was $206,493. This prosperous condition of the rev-
enue continued till the close of 1896, the amount
of revenue collected during those six months bein
$800,000—a sum considerably over the estimates and
also over the anticipated expenditure.
There is now placed at interest to the credit of
the colony $360,000, being the unexpended balance
of the late loan, and also $200,000, being surplus
revenue—in all $560,000 at 3 per cent. to meet any
emergency.
On Sept. 30, 1896, the savings-banks deposits
amounted to $1,291,686, the increase during the year
being $51,839.
On Dec. 31, 1896, the public debt was about
$14,659,715. The interest on this is over $570,000.
As a set-off, there is the saving effected by the re-
trenchment policy of the Government, amounting
to $564,000; so that the interest on the public debt
has been almost covered by this saving. This
economy was accomplished by the reduction of
official salaries, and of the grants to the public
services, without impairing the efficiency of either.
Very striking developments in mining industries
have been made during the year. A new outcrop
of coal, the largest seam yet found, was discovered
in Codroy valley, late in the autumn. It is on the
new line of railway. Borings for petroleum have
been successful on the west coast, north of Cow
Head. Two companies have been operating here,
and both have struck oil. The Canada Petroleum
Company, at a depth of 1,030 feet, have reached a
large well, the supply being abundant and the
quality excellent. The other found oil in abun-
dance at a less depth.
Besides the immense deposit of iron ore on Belle
Isle, Conception Bay, which has been vigorously
worked during the year, several other deposits of
the same kind of ore (red hematite) are reported to
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
have been discovered on the north shore of the
same bay. A new and extensive deposit of lead
and silver ore has been found on Placentia Bay,
not far from Silver Cliff Mine.
A few months ago a still more important dis-
covery was made at Cape Broyle, 40 miles south of
St. John’s. Here operations were begun on a large
quartz reef, and samples were found to contain
three ounces of gold to the ton. As soon as the
news was poe a gold fever was developed,
and in a short time 45 square miles were covered
with mining licenses. Preparations are being made
to work these reefs.
From the iron pyrites mine, Pilley’s island, Ex-
ploits Bay, 36,496 tons were exported during the
year; value, $182,480. The value of copper ore
exported in ingots, regulus, and green ore was
$483,814, Asbestos has been found over a large
area.
The new coal field near Grand lake, close to the
railway, is of great extent.
NEW HAMPSHIRE, a New England State, one
of the original thirteen, ratified the Constitution
June 21, 1788; area, 9,305 square miles. The popu-
lation, according to each decennial census, was 141,-
885 in 1790; 183,858 in 1800; 214,460 in 1810; 244,-
022 in 1820; 269.328 in 1830; 284,574 in 1840;
317,916 in 1850; 326,073 in 1860; 318,300 in 1870;
346,991 in 1880; and 376,530 in 1890. Capital,
Concord.
Government.—The following were the State of-
ficers during the year: Governor, Charles A. Bu-
siel; Secretary of State, Ezra S, Stearns; Treas-
urer, Solon A. Carter; Attorney-General, Edwin J.
Eastman; Adjutant General, Augustus D. Ayling
—all Republicans; Insurance Commissioner, John
C. Linehan; Bank Commissioners, Alpheus W.
Baker, K. P. Hatch, John Hatch, Thomas J. Walk-
er; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frederic
Gowing; Labor Commissioner, John W. Bourlet,.
succeeded by Julian F. Trask; Bank Examiner, F.
E. Timberlake; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
Charles Doe, who died March 9, and was succeeded
by Alonzo P. Carpenter, Republican; Associate
Justices, William M. Chase, Democrat, Frank N.
Parsons and R. M. Wallace, Republicans, and Isaac
N. Blodgett and Lewis W. Clark, Democrats, and
Robert G. Pike, Republican, succeeding A. P. Car-
penter.
Finances.—The annual statement of the Treas-
urer for the year ending May 31 gave the following
summaries: Cash on hand June 1, 1895, $143,192.-
81; receipts during the year, $1,528,863.36; total
$1,672,056.17; disbursements, $1,460,547.80 ; cash on
hand June 1, 1896, $211,508.87; net debt June 1, 1896,
$1,827.741.387; reduction of debt during the year,
$198,559.28. The principal sources of revenue were:
State tax, $500,000; railroad tax, $127,822.12; in-
surance tax, $22,526.36; telegraph tax, $3,000 40;
telephone tax, $2,699.53; income from the Benja-
min Thompson estate, $13,694.22; fees, insurance
department, $8,127.40; license fees, $2,075.
The valuation by counties for 1896 is $200,957.-
600. The taxable savings deposits amount to $56,-
884,200, the insurance capital is $1,275,000, and the
valuation of railroads is $21,222,500. From this
deduction is made of all sums assessed in towns
and paid by the companies upon property not re-
quired for general use in operating the roads,
Upon the remainder the tax is the same as the
average taxation of property—$1.60 upon the $100.
Education.—Dartmouth College graduated a
class of 538 in June. The class of 1900 numbers
160, the largest ever entered. The enrollment in
the academic department in September was about
450, and in all the departments about 600, An
Alumni Memorial Hall is to be built on a lot north
GO a ae
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
of the campus which was bought by Gov. Morton
for the college. 1
There were in April only about 35 towns without
free public libraries, 15 having lately taken steps to
ize under the law of 1895.
4q State Institutions.—The State Board of Chari-
ties and Corrections made its first report in Decem-
ber. It was established for the 2 ela of provid-
_ ing homes for dependent children found at the
_ county farms. At some of these there are no sepa-
rate buildings for children, and they were obliged
to associate with criminals. The law of 1895 made
it the duty of the overseers of the poor of towns
and cities and of county commissioners to have
such minors supported at some orphan asylum or
_ home or with some private family of good repute,
_ and the State Board of Charities was given super-
_ vision of the contracts made by overseers of the
_ poor and county commissioners for the support of
such minors. e number of children supported by
the towns and counties is 420.
The Orphans’ Home, at Franklin, is shown by the
annual report to have had 145 children in its care
during the year, of whom 14 were placed in homes,
29 returned to friends, and 5 died. The treasurer’s
report showed receipts of $22,508.27, and expendi-
tures of $22,304.65. Of this latter sum $13,223.08
was new investments.
The number of patients in the Asylum for the
Insane has been largely increased by the transfer
from county almhouses and other places of deten-
tion of persons fpund to be insane. The buildings
are sufficient for the comfortable accommodation of
350 patients, while the number is 426, all but 7 or 8
of whom are residents of the State.
The number of inmates of the State Industrial
School at the end of the year was 147.
The Penitentiary has been more than self-sustain-
ing the past two years, having paid into the State
treasury nearly $12,000.
veo pas eget aig from 235 towns for the six
months ending July 1 show that 128 had no fires.
The entire fire loss in all (8 were not reported) was
$499,931, and the amount of insurance on the prop-
was $968,400.
summary of reports of business done by fire
companies in 1895 was: New Hampshire companies—
risks, $39,686,016.34; premiums, $512,730.89; losses,
$225,330.88. Foreign companies—risks, $41.782,-
575.28; premiums, $565,431.14; losses, $221,701.52.
The percentage of losses to premiums in 1894 was
544 In 1895 it was 40°19. The percentage of
losses to oping of the town mutual companies
is not included.
a There are 32 life companies doing business in the
tate.
Banks and Savings Institutions.—A large
number of these institutions have failed within the
two years just past, with heavy liabilities. The
most notorious case is that of the Granite State
Provident Association, of Manchester. Its business
extended into 29 States. The association was di-
rected in January to discontinue taking new busi-
ness. It was investigated by the Bank Examiner,
who asked for a receiver in March. The Bank Com-
missioners reported that they found a deficit of
$261,918; and if to this were added $548,672, the
amount of dues taken for expenses and fines, $810,-
590 is found to be the amount the association must
earn in order to pay back to the members what
they have paidin. The total liabilities were figured
at $3,132,161, and the assets at $2,870,243. From
the peculiar nature of its methods, the association
could not be declared insolvent, but it was put into
the hands of a receiver.
In May W. F. Putnam was sentenced to imprison-
ment for five years on the charge of converting the
515
funds of the Granite State National Bank of Exeter
to his own use, and on other charges of violation of
the national bank laws, the United States Supreme
Court affirming the decision of a district court.
Another disastrous failure was that of the Sulli-
van County Institution for Savings, at Claremont.
The funds of the bank and trust funds which were
in the pan of the president had been largely in-
vested in Western mortgages, and though there was
an apparent excess of assets over liabilities to the
amount of $58,000, the shrinkage in the securities
created a large deficit.
The former President of the Lake National Bank,
of Wolfboro, who was appointed to wind up its
affairs, has been indicted for embezzling as agent
and president $38,691. The Cheshire Provident
Institution of Keene was enjoined in August from
receiving or paying out money.
The trials of Dr. Joseph C. Moore, charged with
assisting Cashier Lane, of the Merchants’ National
Bank of Manchester, in embezzling funds of that
institution, have taken up much of the time of the
courts within the past three years (see “Annual
Cyclopedia,” for 1893, page 512). On a trial this
year for knowingly and fraudulently overissuing
the stock of the Union Publishing Company, of
which he was for fifteen years treasurer and princi-
pal owner, he was convicted in April; exceptions
were filed, another trial was granted, and he was
again convicted a month later. In December his
counsel were arguing to secure still another trial.
On a trial in 1894 on account of the bank transac-
tion he was acquitted because the indictment had
“of” where “at” should have been used.
Railroads.—The burning question in reference
to railroad affairs this year was whether the pro-
Manchester and Milford road should be built.
en the act allowing consolidation of competing
lines was , it was provided that no new rail-
road should be built until the Supreme Court had
decided that the public good required it. This de-
cision was to be arrived at through a board of com-
missioners, or of referees appointed by the court.
When the law was revised, a change was made
which seems to make it the business of the court to
make the decision as to public utility after the com-
missioners or referees have reported on facts bearing
on the question. On the interpretation of this law
the difficulty has been made. The promoters of the
scheme petitioned the court for a charter, and the
court appointed referees who reported on the facts,
but refused to say whether the interests of the pub-
lie would be promoted by the building of the road.
The court recommitted the report with directions
to the referees to add this to it, and the referees
then resigned.
In November the Governor nominated Henry
Robinson for Railroad Commissioner, but his coun-
cil refused to confirm. After sending in the same
name twice again and having it rejected, the Gov-
ernor named insuccession 12 other candidates, all
of whom were rejected.
Manchester.—A celebration was held at Man-
chester, beginning Sept. 7, in honor of the fiftieth
anniversary of its incorporation asa city. The ex-
ercises included a sermon on Sunday evening by
the President of Dartmouth College, a parade on
Monday, gymnastic exercises, band concerts, an
athletic exhibition, a Grand Army of the Republic
camp fire, an oration, and the reading of a poem.
The first white settlement within the present limits
of the city was made in 1722. The town of Derry-
field was incorporated in 1751. The canal around
the falls was finished in 1807. In 1846 the town,
which had changed its name from Derryfield to
Manchester, became a city. The population was
then 10,125; it is now about 55,000. The valuation
516
in 1846 was $3,187,726; in 1896 it was $29,361,418.
The first cotton mill was built in 1809.
Legislative Reunion.—The first reunion of the
past and present members of the Legislature was
held in Concord, in June, with more than 1,000
present. Three members of the Legislature of 1840
were among them. With a view to holding similar
reunions hereafter at fixed intervals, a permanent
organization was formed, with the Hon. Samuel B.
Page as president, and the Hon. J. O, Lyford as
secretary.
Political—The State Republican Convention
for choosing delegates to the national convention
met in Concord, March 31, with 679 delegates pres-
ent. United States Senator William E. Chandler,
who presided, said in his address: “ In 1894 there
was a Republican uprising, which gave greater ma-
jorities against the Democracy than ever had been
known since the organization of the Republican
party, and to-day there is a settled determination
in the minds of the American people to restore, in
November of this year, the Republican party to
more complete power in State and nation than it
ever yet possessed ; all this we hope and trust to be
accomplished under the banner of our energetic,
strong, positive, and magnificent New England
leader, Thomas B. Reed.” The mention of Mr.
Reed’s name aroused great enthusiasm ; neverthe-
less the convention adopted the platform submitted
by the Committee on Resolutions, which declared
equally for Reed and McKinley. After congratu-
lating the country upon the prospect of release from
Democratic misrule, it continues :
“We demand of the national convention, soon
to assemble at St. Louis, the nomination of candi-
dates whose election will mean the speedy repeal of
the infamous and ruinous Democratic tariff and
the substitution therefor of one based upon the
principles of the McKinley act; the enactment of
currency laws that will. provide a circulating medi-
um in gold, silver, and paper, which will always be
interchangeable at its face value because each and
every dollar of it is of the same purchasing power
as a gold dollar; liberal appropriations for an
adequate navy and harbor defenses, and internal
improvement; fair and generous treatment of
Union veterans; a foreign policy characterized by
sturdy Americanism, including the assertion of the
Monroe doctrine and the moral and material bee
port of the Cuban patriots if they have not already
achieved their independence, and an immediate re-
turn to all policies in which the Republican party
has so successfully illustrated the soundness of its
principles, and to the methods by which it has dem-
onstrated its ability to apply those principles in the
adininistration of the Government.
** We recognize as most conspicuous among such
candidates New England’s noble and illustrious son,
the Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, and that pure
and able statesman and champion of protection, the
Hon. William McKinley, of Ohio.
“We will give the electoral vote of New Hamp-
shire to any nominee who worthily represents the
party, but we prefer one of these, because either is
in himself a platform.”
At the State convention, Sept. 3, George A. Rams-
dell was nominated for Governor. The platform
declared adherence to the position of the party on
national issues.
The Democratic State Convention for choosing
delegates to the national convention was held May
20, in Concord. Hon. Harry Bingham. presided.
In his address he said: “The enemies of the Democ-
racy are tauntingly proclaiming to the world that
we shall be compelled, in the National Democratic
Convention, to adopt a platform favoring the free
coinage of silver at a ratio of 16 to1. The paraly-
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
sis of all business, the ruin and bankruptcy that in-’
evitably would follow the enactment of such a prop-
osition into law, are so palpable that all sane men
who consider would instinctively oppose it.”
The resolutions were :
“We declare, first, that under present conditions
there can be but one standard of value, and that
every kind of currency should rest upon a gold basis
so long as gold is the standard recognized by the
great commercial nations of the world; and we
heartily commend the action of President Cleve-
land in so firmly maintaining our public credit and
faith in the face of formidable opposition,
“ We favor a system of tariff taxation so adjusted
as to produce the necessary revenues to meet the
resent expenses of an honest government with the
east possible burden upon the people, and afford
such incidental protection as will meet the require-
ments of American capital and labor,
“The Monroe doctrine embodies our idea of na-
tional self-defense and should be vigorously main-
tained,
“The civil and religious rights of all our people
as guaranteed them under the Constitution should
be sedulously guarded, and no proscriptions on ac-
count of religious opinions should be countenanced
or tolerated.”
At the convention for naming candidates for
Governor and electors held in Concord, Sept. 2, the
platform, besides condemning the prohibitory law
and calling for a license law, condemned the State
legislation of the Republican party, especially the
districting of the State and of cities, and the sub-
stitution of police commissioners for home rule in
cities ; and contained the following :
“ We, the Democracy of New Hampshire, in dele-
gate convention assembled, recognizing the action
of the national convention held in Chicago on the
7th day of July last as authority for party action
on all political subjects therein stated, hereby adopt
the platform of said convention and pledge our-
selves to the earnest support of William J. Bryan
and Arthur Sewall, the candidates for President and
Vice-President.”
The convention rejected a substitute for this, of-
padi from the side of the gold Democrats, as fol-
ows:
“ Whereas, The Democratic party is divided upon
the question of the acceptance of the platform and
ticket of the Chicago convention; and Whereas, It
is desirable that no breach should be created that
will prevent the future united action of the party;
therefore,
“ Resolved, That we recognize the right of every
Democrat of New Hampshire to act and vote on
the national ticket as his judgment may dictate
without affecting his standing in the party, and
that the nominations by the convention of presi-
dential electors is binding upon him only so far as
he may approve the same.”
Only 67 delegates voted for this amendment; and
one approving the national administration received
only 91 affirmative votes, while the following was
adopted :
“ Resolved, That we have observed with gratifica-
tion the triumphant tour of our national standard
bearer, Hon. William Jennings Bryan, his masterly
exposition of Democratic principle, and his valiant
struggle for the rights of the people.”
The gold men then withdrew after protesting
against the resolution approving the Chicago plat-
form and announcing that they would take no
further action in any political affairs based upon
that platform.
Henry O. Kent was nominated as candidate for
Governor.
The Gold-standard Democrats held a convention
NEW JERSEY.
in Concord, Sept. 10, approved the administration
and the Indianapolis platform, appointed a State
committee, and chose an electoral ticket. They
made no nomination for the office of Governor.
Delegates to the national convention of Prohibi-
tionists were chosen by the State committee, March
31. At a meeting on July 3, the chairman and
other members resigned, having decided to join the
“ Broad-gauge” wing of the Prohibitionists—the
new National party. That party was organized for
the State at a convention held in Concord, Aug. 4,
when a State committee was appointed, presidential
electors named, and George W. Barnard nominated
for Governor.
The Prohibition party (Narrow-gauge) met in
convention in Concord, Aug. 5. The State commit-
tee was reorganized, electors named, and John C.
Berry chosen as candidate for Governor. The reso-
lutions made no reference to the currency, but de-
clared for Prohibition, woman suffrage, nonsec-
tarian schools, restricted immigration, and stringent
naturalization laws.
Delegates to the national convention of the Peo-
ple’s party were appointed by the State committee.
At the State convention in Manchester, Sept. 9, G.
J. Greenleaf was nominated for Governor.
The Socialist-Labor party held a convention in
Manchester, July 19. The platform declared for
the gold standard. Electors were nominated, and
Harry H. Acton was the chosen candidate for
Governor.
The election returns showed the following vote
for electors: Republican, 57,444; Democratic, 21,-
271; National Democratic, 3,520; Prohibition, 779;
National Prohibition, 49; People’s, 379; Socialist-
Labor, 228.
The vote for Governor stood: Ramsdell, Repub-
lican, 48,387 ; Kent, Democrat, 28,333; Berry, Pro-
hibitionist, 1,052; Greenleaf, Populist, 286; Bar-
nard, National Prohibitionist, 229; Acton, Socialist-
Labor, 483.
Both the Representatives in Congress chosen are
Republicans.
he Legislature stands : Senate—22 Republicans
and 2 Democrats ; House—291 Republicans and 66
Democrats.
After the use of the Australian ballot law at 3
elections, the general opinion seems to be that the
process pipe ase for this State should be simpli-
fied. The Governor says, in his message, that it was
estimated that at least 5 per cent. of the ballots cast
at the November election were rejected by reason of
imperfect or erroneous marking.
NEW JERSEY, a Middle Atlantic State, one of
the original thirteen, ratified the Constitution Dec.
18, 1787. Area, 7,815 square miles. The popula-
tion, according to each decennial census, was 184,-
1389 in 1790 ; 211,149 in 1800; 245,562 in 1810; 277,-
426 in 1820; 320,823 in 1830; 373.306 in 1840;
489,555 in 1850; 672,035 in 1860; 906,096 in 1870;
1,131,116 in 1880; and 1,444,933 in 1890; by the
State census of 1895, 1,672,942. Capital, Trenton.
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, John W. Griggs,
Republican; Secretary of State, Henry C. Kelsey;
Treasurer, George B. Swain; Comptroller, William
S. Hancock; Commissioner of Banking and Insur-
ance, George S. Duryee, who died in November,
Attorney-General, John P. Stockton; Adjutant
General, William S. Stryker; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Addison B. Poland, until March,
and C. J. Baxter; Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, Mercer Beasley; Associate Justices, Bennet
Van Syckel, David A. Depue, Jonathan Dixon,
William J. Magie, Job H. Lippincott, Charles G.
Garrison, William S. Gummere, and George C. Lud-
low; Clerk of the Supreme Court, Benjamin F.
517
Lee; Chancellor, Alexander T, McGill; Vice-Chan-
cellors, Henry C. Pitney, John R. Emery, Alfred
Reed, John T. Bird until April 7, Frederic W.-
Stevens from April 27,and Martin P. Grey from
May 19.
Finances.—The balance to the credit of the
State fund Nov. 1, 1895, was $893,747.88; the re-
ceipts during the year were $2,138,532.88, made up
in part as follows: From tax on railroad corpora-
tions, $1,079,687.84; tax on miscellaneous corpora-
tions, $707,951.45; official fees, $145,321.24; collat-
eral inheritance tax, $82,247.47; State Prison
receipts, $45,016.83 ; judicial fees, $31,098.70; sink-
ing fund account, $20,000; dividends, $18,870.
The disbursements during the year amounted to
$2,072,651.78, leaving a balance in bank, Oct. 30,
1896, $959,628.98. The following extraordinary
disbursements are included in the above-named
amount: For State Prison Building Commission,
$100,000; State Reformatory, $100,000: improve-
ment at Morris Plains Hospital, $49,544.12 ; Camden
Armory, $44.996.40; revision of statutes, $18,000 ;
Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission, $10,000;
Trenton battle monument, $6,600; political and
legislative history of New Jersey, $4,500. An
amount of $107,658.82 heretofore paid from the in-
come of the school fund was this year paid from
the State fund. The receipts were $37,398.95 less
than in 1895, and there was a decrease in expendi-
ture of $196,388.08. The estimated resources for
the year 1897 are $3,046,498.98 ; the estimated dis-
bursements, $2,273,371.32.
The condition of the school fund is shown to be:
Total amount of securities Oct. 31, $3,589,274.71 ;
total amount of securities on same date last year,
$3,498,490.77; increase in school fund securities,
$90,783.94. The cash balance Nov. 1, 1895, was
$165,619.63; gross receipts during the year, $495,-
061.27; total, $660,680.90; gross disbursements,
$605,677.21; balance Oct. 31, 1896, $55,003.69, out
of which sum there must be reinvested in school-
fund securities $26,529.32, leaving for amount of
appropriation of $200,000 for free public schools
$28,474.37.
The assets of the sinking fund Oct. 31 amounted
to $398,739.92.
The war debt was reduced by a payment of $67,-
000, leaving a balance Oct. 31 of $573,400. A cer-
tificate of the State for $31,600 was issued during
the year to the Agricultural College, which sum
and the war debt still unpaid makes the total in-
debtedness of the State Oct. 31,.1896, $605,000.
Valuation and Taxation.—The value of the
property in the State, as returned in 1896 for taxa-
tion in 1897 for school and local purposes, was
$840,767,779, divided as follows: Real estate, $702,-
368,090; personal property, $138,399,689. The valua-
tion of taxable property was $794,428,048, an in-
crease of $7,429,978.
The valuation of railroad property in 1896 was
$221,757,969, an increase of $1,052,147. The total
railroad tax of the year was $1,521,495.92, divided
as follows: Tax for State uses, $1,108,789.84; for
local uses, $412,706.08. This is an increase of $7,-
084.68.
Banks.—On Feb. 28 the individual deposits in
the national banks of the State amounted to $52,-
502,094; the loans and discounts were $51,866,778 ;
the gold-coin reserve was $1,658,148.
Legislative Session.—The Legislature met Jan.
14, and continued in session until March 26. The
elective judiciary act of 1895, which the Supreme
Court had declared to be unconstitutional, was re-
pealed, and a constitutional amendment was passed
remodeling the judiciary. It provides for a Su-
preme Court of not fewer than 15 members, though
the Legislature may increase the number. This
518
court shall have all the jurisdiction and powers now
possessed by the Court of Errors and Appeals, the
present Supreme Court, the Chancellor, the Court of
Chancery, and the Prerogative Court, which jurisdic-
tion and powers shall be exercised in three divisions
—viz., a law division, an equity divjsion, and an ap-
pellate division. Cireuit court shall be held in every
county by one or more judges of the law division.
Other constitutional amendments, providing for
biennial sessions of the Legislature and granting
suffrage at school elections outside of the cities to
women, were passed, and also the anti-race-track
resolution, prohibiting pool selling, bookmaking,
and all kinds of gambling, which was passed at the
last session, but must be passed again before it is
voted upon by the people as a constitutional amend-
ment. A measure abolishing the office of lay judge
in the Court of Common Pleas in the various coun-
ties was enacted; changes in the election law were
made, stringent provisions requiring registration by
streets and houses in the larger cities; another pro-
vision makes it a misdemeanor to solicit from a
candidate money or other property, or to urge him
to purchase any ticket to a ball or other entertain-
ment, with a proviso that this shall not apply to a
request for a contribution from an authorized rep-
resentative of the party that nominates him. Cor-
porations engaged in manufacturing, mining, quar-
rying, and lumbering are required to pay their
employees at least once in two weeks, each payment
to be of all wages due up to a date within twelve
days. Provision was made, on terms liberal to the
railroad corporations, for the abolition in certain
cities of crossings of a highway and a railroad at
grade. Many laws in the interest of traction com-
panies were passed, and also a law prohibiting trol-
ley cars from carrying freight, except when specific-
ally authorized to do so. Bya strict party vote the
boundary line between the townships of West Amwell
and Delaware in Hunterdon County was changed.
Provision was made for a teachers’ retirement
fund; the borough laws of 1888, 1890, and 1891
were repealed, as was also the charter of the West
Jersey Game Association.
The report of the commission created by the last
Legislature to investigate the usefulness of the epi-
leptic institutions of several States suggested the
establishment of a colony of the 2,000 epileptics in
the State. The commission appointed in 1895 to
consider the advisability of accepting a gift of over
180 acres with buildings at Englishtown as the site
of a blind asylum reported in favor of its accept-
ance. The Senate investigating committee was
authorized to continue its inquiry, the commission
to investigate the penal laws was continued, and the
Governor was authorized to reappoint a commission
to determine whether it is advisable to erect a home
for disabled soldiers and their wives. He also was
directed to appoint a commission of five to investi-
gate the subject of assessment and taxation of the
property of the State and report to the next Leg-
islature, and a commission of three to consider the
subject of the pollution of the Passaic river and of
a general system of sewerage disposal for the relief
of the valley of the Passaic.
Among other important measures adopted were
the following:
Requiring all nonresidents of the State to obtain a
license before hunting for rabbit, quail, pheasant,
deer, dove, squirrel, plover, or fishing for brook
trout in any county of the State.
Allowing fishing and gunning upon any of the
lands or meadows over which the tide ebbs and
flows.
Declaring that the meaning of “a majority of
legal voters” shall be those voters who actually
vote upon the question.
NEW JERSEY.
Prohibiting any person who has not been for
six months an actual resident of the State from
raking or gathering clams, oysters, or shellfish.
Giving property of an illegitimate child dying
intestate to his wife.
Authorizing cities by ordinance to raise money
for free public libraries.
Giving municipalities power to
ie, femespe the use of bicycles.
mposing fines on any one throwing in streets
broken glass, bottles, metal, loose stones, earthen-
ware, or other substance likely to cause injury to
travelers, carriages, or bicycles.
Authorizing township committees to build bieyele
and foot paths at the expense of the township.
Authorizing voters of towns to direct a tax for
the construction of hard roads.
Securing creditors an equal division of estates
of debtors who convey for the benefit of creditors.
Allowing women to be appointed masters in
chancery.
Permitting a man who has been separated seven
years from his wife, or who has received a final
decree, to transfer property.
Fixing 7 per cent. as the rate of interest on ar-
rears of taxes and assessments in cities.
Providing that no person shall give or sell
cigarettes to any person under the age of sixteen
years; penalty, $20 for each offense.
Edueation.—The school tax distributed in 1896
amounted to $2,196,240; the State appropriation
was $200,000; the number of school children, ac-
cording to the school census of 1895, was 424,959.
The total amount disbursed for free schools by
the State was $5,337,597.30, made up in part as
follows: For the Normal School, $31,988.07; for
manual training, $49,800.63; for the Farnum Pre-
paratory School, $1,200; for the Deaf-mute School,
$38,076; for school libraries, $9,060; for teachers’
libraries, $200; for text-books and apparatus, $280,-
918.58; for teachers’ salaries, $3,029,777.91. The
average cost per pupil for the year, calculated on
the enrolled attendance, was $14.40. The school tax
levied in 1896 amounted to $2,124,795, a decreaee
of $71,445. During the year 1,257 teachers’ certifi-
cates were granted.
The enrollment of the Normal School was 594; of
the Model School, 591; and of the Farnum, 132, The
number of graduates from the Normal School was
149, and from the Model School 39.
The disbursements for the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station were $15,998.72, of which $1,000 was
for expenses incurred for an investigation of the
San José scale and its natural enemies.
This census, completed in December, shows the
number of children in the State between the ages of
five and eighteen years to be 438,969, an increase
of 14,010. Of this number, 45,021 attend private
schools, 89,210 do not attend any school, and there
are 1,581 children over ten years old who can not
read, and 5,650 children under fifteen years of age
at work in mines, stores, and factories.
12,689 colored children in the State and 195 chil-
dren who are deaf-mutes.
The certificate of the Colored Industrial School
of New Jersey was filed in July. In 1894 the Legis-
lature passed an enabling act designating this school
as the school provided for by the act of Congress of
Aug. 30, 1890, and appropriating to it the portion
of money that it would be entitled to receive under
the provisions of said act; also giving it the benefit
of all the industrial school laws of the State.
The disbursements at the two institutions at Vine-
land for the feeble-minded were: For 94 women, 33
of whom are epileptics, $19,490.82 ; for 202 children,
$51,328.02. New Jersey paid to other States for the
maintenance of 44 feeble-minded pupils, $10,315.78,
pass ordinances
There are ©
NEW JERSEY.
and for the instruction and maintenance of the 48
blind wards of the State $12,943.22.
Hospitals.—The number of patients admitted to
the State Hospital for the Insane at Trenton was
251; the number under treatment Oct.31 was 1,252,
of whom 880 were county patients. The disburse-
ments amounted to $241,380.25, of which sum $154,-
321.387 was paid by the counties. An extension to
the main building is in process of construction, and
also a dwelling for the medical director. The num-
ber of patients admitted to the hospital for the in-
sane at Morris Plains was 280, of whom 215 were
ublic patients; the number under treatment Oct.
1 was 1,088. The disbursements were $281,507.72.
An addition to cost $69,000 has been begun. At
the end of the year the various county hospitals were
caring for a total of 1,499 insane patients.
Soldiers’ Home.—The State paid to this institu-
tion during the year $15,166.66, and the United
States paid $43,732.05. The average age of the
beneficiaries was 63°67 years.
Penal Institutions.—The expenditures for the
State Prison were $175,221.49, the cost of maintain-
ing the daily average of 1,000 prisoners being $74,-
835.92. The number of convicts Oct. 31 was 1,023,
an increase of 46 since the report of 1895. Under
the parole law of 1891, 212 prisoners were released,
of whom 5 were returned before and 4 after the ex-
piration of their parole. The new wing and hospital
are finished.
There were 125 commitments to the Reform School
for boys, and 381 boys remaining in confinement
Oct. 31. The disbursements for maintenance were
$69,277.76. One hundred and twenty boys received
ey in sloyd at a cost to the State of $2,-
At the Industrial School for Girls on Oct. 31
there were 118 girls, and 47 were out at service,
under indentures. The expenses for maintenance
and general repairs were $24,127.82 ; for permanent
improvements, $6,935.63. A laundry building was
completed early in the year.
The plan adopted for the new Reformatory at
Rahway will require an additional outlay of $670,-
000. One wing, with 228 cells, has been finished.
Road-building.—The Road Commissioner re-
ports, as work done under the commission, that 56,5;
niles of highway have been completed, that 703 miles
to be completed next year have been approved, and
that many applications must lie over for lack of ap-
propriations. The materials used in construction
are stone, gravel, bog ore, and shells.
Fish and Game.—During the year ending Nov.
1, 1896, the State planted 43,475,524 trout, shad,
pike perch, and smelts of various ages. The de-
struction of all the carp in the Passaic river was
begun, the intention being to stock the river with
pike, perch, channel catfish, and bass.
By changes in the game law made by the last
Legislature the open season is made as follows:
Rabbits and quail, from Nov. 10 to Jan. 1; wood-
cock, July, and from Oct. 1 to Dec. 10; snipe,
March, April, and September; ruffed grouse and
all kinds of partridges, Oct. 1 to Dec. 10; reed and
rail birds, September; squirrels, September, and
from Nov. 10 to Dee. 10; plover and dove, August
and September.
State Flag.—Feb. 28, 1780, the Continental Con-
gress directed that New Jersey and all States should
have a State flag as well as the national flag. A
joint resolution of the last Legislature provided for
a State flag, of buff color, having in the center the
ecat of arms of New Jersey, and directed that the
State flag shall be the headquarters flag for the
Governor on State occasions.
Industries.—Of the 700 manufacturers to whom
blanks were sent by the Bureau of Labor and In-
519
dustries, 309 returned reports, from which it is
learned that the amount of capital invested by
them was $37,664,201; the value of stock or mate--
rial used was $26,527,427; the value of goods made
or work done, $49,139,345. The aggregate average
number of persons employed was 37,591, the largest
number employed during the year being 41,214;
the amount paid in wages was $14,305,972; and
the average yearly earnings, $379.70.
The building and loan associations numbered
322, whose total assets were $41,059,215.68; total
receipts, $17,913,791.54; total disbursements, $17,-
775,374.53 ; number of shares, 750,486°75; number
of shareholders, 89,150.
Miscellaneous.—In September the Supreme
Court declared constitutional the law legislating
out of office on April 1 the lay judges of the Com-
mon Pleas Court.
Bernard J. Ford, formerly Superintendent of the
State Capitol, withdrew his plea of not guilty to the
five indictments against him, and entered the plea
of non vult, and in March he was sentenced to pay
a fine of $1,000.
A three days’ celebration of the one hundred and
fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Princeton
College was begun Oct. 20.
Political.—The Republican Convention met in
Trenton, April 16. Delegates to the national con-
vention were chosen, and a platform was adopted
which contained the following:
“ We believe that the Monroe doctrine should be
inflexibly maintained.
“In our diplomacy there should be more of the
virile force and emphasis which command respect.
Our navy should be enlarged so that it may be
made an effective factor in any controversies which
may arise, and our harbors and seacoasts should be
protected by an adequate system of defenses.
“The practical sympathy of this nation should
be spiedon to all peoples who have been driven by
oppression and wrong to take up arms in behalf of
the right of self-government.
“The standard of value in this country and in
the other principal commercial nations of the
world is gold. ages and prices have been made
and fixed in accordance with this standard, and
the welfare of the people demands that it should
be maintained.
“Such a tariff should be imposed upon imports
as will afford adequate income for the expenses of
the Government.
“The reciprocity policy adopted by a Republican
administration and destroyed by the Democrats
should be restored.
“Immigration laws should be amended so as to
more effectually prevent the admission of criminals,
paupers, anarchists, and other persons whose pres-
ence here endangers the social order and disastrous-
‘ly affects the interests of our workingmen.
“We approve the policy of national protection to
our shipowners and the shipbuilding interests.”
The hope was expressed “that redeemed New
Jersey may be represented on the national ticket
in the person of her able and distinguished citizen
the Hon. Garret A. Hobart.”
On Aug. 27 the Republican Convention again
met in Trenton, selected candidates for presidential
electors, and on the prominent issues of the cam-
paign made the following declarations:
“We believe that the debasement of the currency
by the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 tol
would work irreparable injury to every class of our
citizens,
“We are unalterably opposed to the proposition
to destroy the protection we enjoy under the Su-
preme Court of the United States.”
The Prohibition State Convention was held in
520 NEW JERSEY.
Trenton, May 6, when candidates for presidential
electors and delegates to the national convention
were chosen. The platform declared the traffic in
intoxicating drink to be the crying evil of the day,
and demanded its total suppression; expressed con-
fidence in the stability and progress of the Prohibi-
tion party; declared for equal suffrage; for the
extension of civil service; for the establishment of
courts of arbitration to settle disputes between na-
tions as well as those between capital and labor;
and for the restraint of monopolies. ‘Those who
vote in favor of any party which recognizes, advo-
cates, or upholds the license system are jointly re-
per for the results of the liquor traffic with
those who are directly engaged in the business.”
The Democrats met in State convention in Tren-
ton, May 7, and selected delegates to the national
convention. They adopted a platform containing
the following declarations:
“We are in favor of a firm, unvarying mainte-
nance of the present gold standard. We are op-
posed to the free coinage of silver at any ratio, and
to the compulsory purchase of silver bullion by the
Government.
“ We believe that the Federal Government should
be divorced from the business of banking; we
therefore demand the repeal of all laws authorizing
the issue or reissue of legal tender or Treasury notes
by the Government.
“We are opposed to any effort to alter materially
the present just and conservative tariff.”
The platform favored liberal expenditures for
coast defense and for the navy, approved of Presi-
dent Cleveland and his stand on the Monroe doc-
trine, and advocated recognizing the Cubans as
belligerents.
On Sept. 9 the convention again met in Trenton
and selected candidates for presidential electors,
and adopted a platform approving the candidates
and the platform adopted by the Free-silver Demo-
cratic National Convention in Chicago, insisting
that the latter was “thoroughly Democratic and
purely American, and with its enforcement we
firmly believe that relief will come to the toiling
masses and will advance the general prosperity of
our country.”
The State convention of the People’s party met
in Trenton, May 30, and selected delegates to the
national convention. The platform urged the na-
tional convention to insert a plank in its platform
favoring the initiative and referendum, and reaf-
firmed the national platform of 1892.
At asecond meeting of the convention in Newark,
Aug. 14, a State committee was chosen, which was
instructed to name 10 candidates for presidential
electors at its first meeting. Resolutions were re-
ported which approved the platform and nominees
of the People’s Party National Convention ; opposed
the proposed amendment of the State Constitution
to lengthen the terms of office of Senators and As-
semblymen ; favored woman suffrage; and opposed
the control of the State’s watershed by private cor-
porations. In September the State committee sent
out this circular :
“Tn order to prevent confusion and to save the
labor and expense of separate tickets, the People’s
Party State Committee recommends all Populists to
vote the electoral ticket printed for the Democracy,
as it will contain the same names which have been
chosen by this committee.”
July 6 the State convention of the National Sil-
ver party was held in Trenton, when delegates to
the national convention were chosen and a declara-
tion of principles was adopted, containing the fol-
lowing:
“That this convention demands the free and un-
limited coinage of gold and silver at a ratio of 16
NEW MEXICO.
to 1, without the concerted action of other coun-
tries.
“That we denounce the attempt to retire the
greenback and Treasury note, together with that of
silver, and in their place to substitute interest-bear-
ing bonds to the amount of over $800,000,000, upon
which to base a national-bank currency, as class
legislation of the most infamous nature.”
The Socialist-Labor party held its State conven-
tion, Aug. 1, choosing candidates for presidential
electors and making congressional nominations in
the Second, Third, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Dis-
tricts. The platform concluded with these words:
“The Socialist-Labor party repudiates and warns
the toilers of New Jersey against the damnable
snares set by the Democratic, Republican, and Pop-
ulist parties in the shape of protection, free trade,
free silver, and gold standard, to catch the produ-
cers of all wealth and to further exploit and rob
them of what they produce, and urges the toilers to
turn a deaf ear to their cries and rally around the
standard of the only party that stands for the
emancipation of labor from the competitive system
of wage slavery that is crushing humanity to-day.”
The Sound-money Democrats met in Trenton,
Aug. 26, appointed delegates to the national con-
vention at Tridtanapolit authorized the State com-
mittee to name candidates for presidential electors,
and adopted a platform containing the following:
“We are in favor of a firm, betes 3 mainte-
nance of the present gold standard. e are op-
posed to the free coinage of silver at any ratio, and
to the compulsory purchase of silver bullion by the
Government.
“We believe that the Federal Government should
be divorced from the business of banking.
“We condemn the assault upon and the threat-
ened degradation of the Supreme Court of the
United States.
“We condemn the approval of mob violence con-
tained in the censure of a Democratic administra-
tion for suppressing mob violence.”
“The principles announced by the Chicago con-
vention and advocated by the candidates that con-
vention nominated are not the principles of the
Democratic party. Such principles, carried into
effect, would dishonor and revolutionize the Gov-
ernment. We refuse to support either the platform
or nominees of that convention.”
At the election the electoral tickets received votes
as follows: Republican, 221,367; Democratic and
People’s, 133,675; National Democratic, 6,373 ; Pro-
hibition, 5,614; Socialist-Labor, 3,985. The Repub-
lican plurality was 87,692, and the whole vote cast
was 371,014. Neither the National Democrats, the
Prohibitionists, nor the Socialist-Labor party re-
ceived the necessary number of votes to enable them
under the law to nominate their next State ticket
by convention.
For Congress, the present 8 Republican members
were all re-elected, the Republican plurality on the
congressional ticket being 87,153.
The composition of the Legislature of 1897 is:
Senate—Republicans 18, Democrats 3; Assembly—
Republicans 56, Democrats 4.
NEW MEXICO, a Territory of the United
States, organized Sept. 9, 1850; area, 122,580 square
miles. The population, according to each decennial ~
census, was 61,547 in 1850; 93,516 in 1860; 91,874
in 1870; 119,565 in 1880; and 153,593 in 1890.
Capital, Santa Fé.
Government.—The following were the Terri-
torial officers during the year: Governor, William
T. Thornton, Democrat ; Secretary of State, Lorion
Miller; Auditor, Marcelino Garcia; Treasurer, S.
Eldodt; Adjutant General, G. W. Knaebel ; Solici-
tor General, J. P. Victory; Superintendent of Pub-
NEW MEXICO.
lic Instruction, Amado Chavez; Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court, Thomas Smith; Associate Jus-
tices, N. C. Collier, N. B. Laughlin, G. D, Bantz, H.
B. Hamilton; Clerk, George L. Wyllys.
Finances.—The following statement, taken from
the report of the Governor, dated Sept. 22, 1896,
shows the collections and expenditures from Sept.
2, 1895, to Aug. 29, 1896: Cash on hand Sept. 2,
1895, $105,971.03 ; received from taxes, $194,778.63 ;
from fees paid by district clerks, $8,043.53 ; from
eattle sanitary board, $14,000; from interest on
deposits, $2,023.39 ; from Penitentiary, $6,079.99;
from insurance licenses. $1,147.50; from Pullman
Palace Car Company, $93.65; from district attor-
ney, $1,880.25; total receipts, $334,017.97. The
warrants and coupons paid amounted to $265,195.15,
making the cash on hand Aug. 29, 1896, $68,822.82.
On Jan. 1, 1895, the bonded debt of the Territory
amounted to $909,500. The Legislature of 1895
provided for issuing bonds to the Territorial insti-
tutions to the amount of $80,000, and for the issue
of $75,000 of bonds to rebuild the Capitol; but
these bonds have not been delivered except to the
normal schools to complete.their buildings, for the
reason that the Territory had reached its limit of
indebtedness.
Appropriations.—The appropriations made by
Congress for the Territorial Government of New
Mexico for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897, in-
clude $20,400 for the executive and judiciary and
$26,000 for legislative expenses. An appropriation
of $2,000 was made “ for repairs of the adobe pal-
ace at Santa Fe.” It was provided that hereafter
the Legislature shall meet on the third Monday in
January of every odd-numbered year, and the num-
ber of officers of each house was limited to 7, in-
cluding a translator and an interpreter. In addition
to these, the last Legislature employed 23 minor
officers in the Council and 30 in the House.
Valuation and Taxation.—The total assessed
valuation of the real and personal property for
1895 was $43,178,280.17. an increase during the
year of $2,049,659.22. The exemptions amounted
to $2,660,232.50, and upon the remaining $40,518,-
047.67 the tax of 7°75 mills on the dollar produced
$314,014.87. The tax of half a mill on the assessed
valuation of cattle produced $2,305.68.
Immigration.—The extension during the year
of the Pecos Valley Railway 75 miles, to the head
of the valley, has resulted in the settlement of the
town of Hagerman, which, although not a year old,
has several business houses, a good school building,
a newspaper, and settlers on many thousands of
acres, the average size of each holding supporting a
family being 40 acres.
Court of Private Claims.—In this court only 4
cases were tried and determined during the year,
and 163 are still pending. In January the United
States grand jury returned 5 indictments against
James Addison Peralta-Reavis, who fraudulently
claimed over 12,000,000 acres in Arizona and New
Mexico; his conviction of conspiracy to defraud
the Government followed, and in July he was sen-
tenced to two years in the Penitentiary and to pay
a fine of $5.000 Seven tenths of New Mexico is still
public land.
Education.—During the school year ending Oct.
1, 1895, the number of district and city schools
open in the Territory was 499, with 594 teachers, an
enrollment of 24,220, and an average attendance of
15,964. The number of children of school age was
48,733. For teachers’ salaries, $128,781.83 was paid;
for rent, fuel, etc., $24.496.13 ; for schoolhouses and
grounds, $20,642.23. The average cost for each pu-
pil in the district schools during the four months
they were open was $9.22; in the city schools, which
were open eight months, the cost was $24.42. The
-balance to t
521
actual receipts for school purposes were $219,876.39,
to which must be added the balance on hand Dee.
1, 1894, $48,107.02; the total expenditures were’
$225,022.85, of which amount $54,076.70 was dis-
bursed on account of the 5 Territorial institutions
of learning.
The university enrolled 93 students; the College
of Agriculture, 161; the Normal School, at Silver
City, 73. The Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb, and
Blind had under instruction during the year 11
deaf and 5 blind pupils. On July 2 the Ramona
Indian School, at Santa Fé, was consolidated with
the Government Indian School, whose pupils num-
bered 200.
Charities.—The crowded condition of the In-
sane Asylum remains unchanged, as the proposed
issue of $35,000 of bonds to erect additional build-
ings has not ig been approved by Congress. The
e credit of this institution Sept. 2,
1895, was $7,534.31; the expenditures amounted to
$14,426.10; and the balance Aug. 29, 1896, was
$3,324.56. The aid granted to the other hospitals
is sufficient. St. Vincent Sanitarium was destroyed
by fire on June 14, but it is being rebuilt.
Penitentiary.—There were in the Penitentiary
June 30, 1895, 191 prisoners, 108 were received dur-
ing the year, and there remained in prison June
30, 1896, 207, being an increase of 16 prisoners
over the number confined on the same: day last
year. The daily cost of maintenance averaged 39°56
cents each, an increase of 0°72 of acent. A large
and efficient electric-light plant has been established
in the prison and is operated entirely by convict
labor.
Militia.—To the effective militia of the Terri-
tory, which at the beginning of the year consisted
of 5 companies of infantry and 3 troops of cavalry,
2 strong troops of cavalry and 1 Gatling-gun com-
pany have been added.
Coal Output.—During the fiscal year 1,430 men
were employed in mining 666,619 tons of coal, the
estimated value of which was $1,046,400.
Farm Animals.—The United States Depart-.
ment of Agriculture gives as the number and value
of farm animals in New Mexico in 1896: Horses,
83,862, valued at $1,398,569; mules, 3,747, value
$129,850; milch cows, 18,383, value $422,809; oxen
and other cattle, 793,506, value $8,056,069; sheep,
2,738,030, value $2,732,554; swine, 31,787, value
$178,898; total value $12,918,749.
Political.—The first Territorial convention was
held by the Republicans at Las Vegas early in
June, when delegates to the national convention
were selected. On Sept. 26 they met again in the
same place and renominated Thomas B. Catron for
Delegate to Congress. A platform was adopted
which wanted artesian wells sunk at Government
expense; declared that the Republican party stands
for the nationality of the American Government;
demanded New Mexico’s admission as a State; and
commended Delegate Catron “for his able efforts in
behalf of the admission of New Mexico as a State,
and other interests beneficial to the people of our
Territory.” It also declared: “We are in favor of
international bimetallism as a final and desirable
settlement of the money question. We believe it
to be the duty of the United States to coin free of
charge the product of its gold and silver mines so
long as the equality of the dollars coined can be
preserved.”
On June 15, at Las Vegas, the Democrats met in
convention, selected delegates to the national con-
vention, and adopted resolutions declaring in favor
of an income tax; in favor of a tariff for revenue;
“in favor of taxing those articles that will be in
the interest of the masses of the people without
danger of fostering monopolies”; approving Rich-
522
ard P. Bland as candidate for President; con-
demning Thomas B. Catron, Delegate to Con-
gress, ‘for the reason that by his actions as such
Delegate he has held up the people of this Territory
to the scorn and ridicule of the nation, and espe-
cially do we denounce him for his failure to do more
as Delegate from the Territory than to provide sine-
cures for his own family”; denouncing the Terri-
torial Republican party because in convention it
had made no declaration “on the silver question
and other vital issues before the people”; and
declaring in favor of personal liberty and religious
freedom and denouncing the A. P. A. The follow-
ing was the coinage resolution: “We are in favor
of the free and unlimited coinage of silver and
gold, independent of the action of foreign nations,
at a ratio of 16 to 1.”
On Sept. 29 a second Democratic convention was
held at Santa Fé, when Harvey B. Fergusson was
nominated for Delegate to Congress, and a platform
was adopted which approved “every sentence of
the Chicago platform” and declared “ we believe it
to be the best expression of Democratic faith ever
emanating from an assembly of Democrats.”
The Populists held their Territorial convention
at Las Vegas on Sept. 23, and nominated L. Brad-
ford Prince as their Delegate to Congress, selecting
him “not as a Populist, but as a silver Republican.”
On Oct. 6, as Mr. Prince had not severed his con-
nection with his own: party, his nomination was re-
scinded, and the Democratic candidate for Delegate
was put in nomination by the Populists.
The Gold-standard Democrats met in convention
in Albuquerque on Oct. 19, and nominated W. E.
Dame for Delegate to Congress.
At the November election the Democratic candi-
date for delegate was elected. The vote was: Fer-
gusson, 18,947; Catron,17,017; Dame, 66. The Ter-
ritorial Legislature is tied between Republicans and
Democrats in each branch.
NEW YORK, a Middle State, one of the original
thirteen, ratified the Constitution July 26, 1788;
area, 49,170 square miles. The population, accord-
ing to each decennial census, was 340,120 in 1790;
589,051 in 1800; 959,049 in 1810; 1,872,111 in
1820; 1,918,608 in 1830; 2,428,921 in 1840; 3,097,-
394 in 1850; 3,880,735 in 1860; 4,882,759 in 1870;
5,082,871 in 1880; and 5,997,853 in 1890. Accord-
ing to a State census taken in 1892, the population
was 6,513,344. Capital, Albany.
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, Levi P. Morton,
Republican; Lieutenant Governor, Charles T. Sax-
ton; Secretary of State, John Palmer; Comptroller,
James A. Roberts; Treasurer, Addison B. Colvin;
Attorney-General, Theodore E. Hancock; State
Engineer and Surveyor, Campbell W. Adams; Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, Charles R.
Skinner; Superintendent of Insurance, James F,
Pierce; Superintendent of Banking Department,
Charles M. Preston, who was succeeded on Jan. 24,
by Frederick D. Kilburn; Superintendent of the
State Prisons, Austin Lathrop; Superintendent of
Public Works, George W. Aldridge; Commissioner
of Labor Statistics, Thomas J. Dowling, who was
succeeded on March 30 by John T. McDonough;
Railroad Commissioners, Samuel A. Beardsley, who
was succeeded on Dec. 29 by Ashley W. Cole, Al-
fred C. Chapin, and Michael Rickard. On Dec. 17
Frank M. Baker was appointed to the vacancy
caused by the death of Mr. Rickard; Chief Judge
of the Court of Appeals, Charles Andrews;
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN,
could identify the stream later with the comet of
1866. In 1864 he published a memoir on sporadic
meteors, and of 56 recorded publications of his up
to 1893, 29 relate to this or allied subjects. He su-
pervised the issue by the Connecticut Academy of
Arts and Sciences of a map of the heavens on
which observers could mark the apparent paths of
meteors, and thus a very large number of observa-
tions was obtained. Besides this—the chief labor
of his life—Prof. Newton was the author of papers
on life insurance and statistics on the metric sys-
tem, which at his suggestion was first embodied in
American arithmetics in 1864, and on transcenden-
tal curves, of the articles on meteors in the “ Ency-
clopedia Britannica ” and “ Johnson’s Cyclopedia,”
and of the definitions in astronomy and mathemat-
ics in the “ International Dictionary.” He was for
many years an editor of “The American Journal of
Science.” Prof. Newton was active in the forma-
tion of the National Academy of Science, of which
he remained a member till his death, and he served
both the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences
and the American Association for the Advancement
of Science as president. He received from the Na-
tional Academy the Smith gold medal for his re-
searches and discoveries regarding meteors. Per-
‘sonally, he was unassuming and genial, and those
with whom he came in contact in the classroom
could not help being impressed with his mathemat-
ical ability. His peculiar smile of triumph as he
turned to his class after a long and intricate dem-
onstration on the blackboard was traditional at
Yale. He took much interest in the new develop-
ment of the material side of the university that be-
gan about 1875, and many of the present features
of the college quadrangle are due to his suggestions.
Besides all this, he took a deep interest in the civic
affairs of New Haven.
Nicholson, Eliza Jane, author and journalist,
born on a plantation on Pearl river, Miss., in 1849;
died in New Orleans, La., Feb. 15, 1896. She was
the daughter of Capt. J. W. Poitevant, who was
descended from an old Huguenot family. Under
the pen name of Pearl Rivers she began writing
songs and verse at an early age, her first efforts ap-
aring in the “Home Journal,” and her last, the
beginning of a too series of biblical lyrics, in
the “ Cosmopolitan.” Her early compositions at-
tracted the attention of Col. A. M. Holbrook, then
the proprietor of the New Orleans “ Picayune,”
who offered her a place on the staff of the paper,
and soon afterward married her. She made a thor-
ough study of the details of journalism, and, on her
husband’s death, assumed the management of the ~
paper, paid off a debt of $80,000, built new quarters,
and brought the property to a successful condition.
In this task she was aided by George Nicholson,
for a long time the business manager, whom she
married in 1878. She took sole control of the edi-
torial department, and he of the financial. Mr. and
Mrs. Nicholson died within a week of each other.
Nye, Edgar Wilson, author, born in Shirley, Me.,
Aug. 25, 1850; died near Asheville, N. C., Feb. 22,
1896. In youth he accompanied his parents to Wis-
-consin, where he was brought up on a farm, subse-
uently attending school and studying law at River
alls. He removed to Wyoming, and was admitted
to the bar in 1876, but found little opportunity for
ractice. Turning to the newspaper press for a
ivelihood, he began writing humorous articles, un-
der the pen name of Bill Nye for “ The Cheyenne
Sun.” Soon afterward he became a reporter on the
“Tribune,” of Denver, Col., and thenee went to
Laramie, Wyo., where he established “The Boom-
erang.” While editing the last-named paper he
-also acted as justice of the peace, superintendent of
schools, postmaster, and United States commission-
VOL. XXXVL—37 A
(NicHOLSON—PARROTT.) HY
er. His articles in “The Boomerang” were exten-
sively copied, but the paper did not succeed finan-
cially. te then went to Hudson, Wis., where he
engaged in writing weekly letters to various news-
papers; afterward removed to New York city, con-
tinued his humorous writing, and became a popular
lecturer; and during the last three years made his
home in North Carolina. He published “ Bill Nye
and the Boomerang” (Chicago, 1881); “The Forty
Liars” (1883); “ Baled Hay” (1884); “ Bill Nye’s
Blossom Rock” (1885); ‘‘ Remarks” (1886); a series
of articles which he named his “ Autobiographies”
(“The Century,” 1892); “A Comic History of the
United States”: and, posthumously, “A Comic
History of England ” (1896).
Paige, Lucius Robinson, clergyman, born in
Hardwick, Mass., March 8, 1802; died in Cam-
bridge, Mass., Sept. 2, 1896. He was educated at
Hopkins Academy, Hadley, Mass., and was ordained
as a Universalist minister in 1825. He filled suc-
cessive pastorates in Massachusetts at Springfield,
Gloucester, and Cambridge till 1839, when he re-
signed all pastoral care, though continuing to preach
for thirty years longer. During his long residence
in Cambridge he held many local offices, and was a
member of the State Legislature in 1878-79. Be-
sides single sermons and addresses, he published
“Selections from Eminent Commentators” (1833) ;
“Questions on Select Portions of the Gospels”
(1838); ‘‘Commentary on the New Testament,” in
5 volumes (184467); “History of Cambridge”
(1877); “History of Hardwick, with Genealogical
Register ” (1883).
Park, John Duane, jurist, born in Preston,
Conn., in 1819; died in Norwich, Conn., Aug. 4,
1896. He was graduated at Wilbraham (Mass.)
Academy; was admitted to the bar in 1847; was
elected judge of the New London county court in
1854, and to the State Legislature in 1855; subse-
quently became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
of Connecticut; and at the time of his death was
State referee.
Parker, Isaae Charles. jurist. born in Belmont
County, Ohio, Oct. 15, 1838; died in Fort Smith,
Ark., Nov. 17, 1896. In 1859 he removed to St.
Joseph, Mo., where he became circuit attorney, pro-
vost marshal, circuit judge, Attorney-General of
the State,and member of Congress. He was ap-
Eo judge of the United States Court for the
estern District of Arkansas in 1875, and held the
office till his death. His enforcement of the laws
made his name a terror to the hordes of outlaws
and fugitives from justice from other States who
overran the Indian Territory and the adjoining
States. The records show that up to March, 1896,
13,490 criminal cases were docketed in his court,
and of this number 9,454 resulted in conviction.
It is believed that Judge Parker had sentenced
more men to be hanged than any other judge in
the country, and he was probably the only subordi-
nate judge that ever overruled a decision of the
Supreme Court of the United States, which he did
in November, 1894. In the official jurisdiction of
Judge Parker, during his term, about 75 deputy
marshals were killed in the discharge of their duty.
Parrott, Peter Pearse, manufacturer, born in
Portsmouth, N. H., June 18, 1811; died in Arden,
N. Y., July 30, 1896. He was the youngest son of
John F. Parrott, a former United States Senator
from New seanepeliiro, and a brother of Capt. Rob-
ert P. Parrott, U.S. A., the inventor of the rifled
cannon bearing his name. On attaining manhood,
Peter associated himself with his brother in the
manufacture of iron in Orange County, New York.
Their furnaces at the Greenwood Iron Works, now
known as Arden, made most of the iron from which
the Parrott guns and other ordnance were made at the
578
West Point foundry, of which Robert was appointed
superintendent on his resignation from the army.
Peter was one of the three largest landed proprietors
in the eastern part of the State, and his property
was noted for its iron wealth long before the Revo-
lution. He took charge of it in 1837, enlarged it
till it comprised over 10,000 acres, and established
on it a settlement of his employees and their fami-
lies, numbering over 1,500 persons. In conjunction
with his brother he erected on the property a stone
church, which the brothers presented to the diocese
of New York. Mr. Parrott was a liberal supporter
of schools, churches, and all charitable work.
Payne, Henry B., capitalist, born in Hamilton,
N. Y., Nov. 30, 1810; died in Cleveland, Ohio, Sept.
9, 1896. He was graduated at Hamilton College in
1832; studied law; and removed to Cleveland and
_ was admitted to the bar in 1834, After practicing
in that city till 1846, he abandoned his profession
because of failing health, and entered business and
political life. He was elected a State Senator in
1849, and was defeated for the United States Sen-
ate by Benjamin F, Wade, the Free-soil candidate,
after a memorable canvass in the State Legislature
in 1851. In 1856 he was a delegate to the conven-
tion that nominated James Buchanan: in the fol-
lowing year was defeated for Governor of Ohio by
Salmon P. Chase by a majority of 1,530; and in
1860 he headed the Ohio delegation to the Charles-
ton convention, was selected by Senator Douglas to
reply there to attacks made on him by Messrs. Yan-
cey and Toombs, and reported the minority resolu-
tions that were adopted. In this convention he
warned the Southern members of the ills that would
follow secession, and pleaded with them not to
bring calamity on the country. During the civil
war he remained a Democrat, but was a strong
Union man. He opposed the doctrine of State
rights, and encouraged enlistments for the National
army. In 1872 he was chairman of the Ohio dele-
gation to the Democratic National Convention in
Baltimore, which nominated Horace Greeley, in
whose behalf he made a stirring canvass, and in
1874 was elected to Congress from the 20th Ohio
District. In Congress he was appointed chairman of
the Committee on Banking and Currency; reported
a bill for the gradual resumption of specie pay-
ments; was chairman of the conference committee
on the silver bill; chairman of the committee on
the electoral bill; chairman of the conference com-
mittee on the counting of the electoral votes for
President and Vice-President ; and a member of the
Electoral Commission. He was a candidate for the
Democratic presidential nomination in 1880 and
1884, and in the last year was elected United States
Senator. Soon after Senator Payne’s retirement
from law practice he became connected with sev-
eral railroad corporations, and subsequently was a
heavy investor in Lake Superior mining, and local
industrial stocks, through which he acquired a large
fortune.
Peabody, Oliver White, banker, born in Spring-
field, Mass., May 9, 1834; died in Milton, Mass.,
Oct. 23, 1896. He was brought up with his brother
Francis in the banking house of John E. Taylor &
Brother, where he remained till September, 1862,
when he enlisted in the National army, became
lieutenant colonel of the 46th Massachusetts Infan-
try, and served through the war. In 1865, with
Henry P. Kidder and his brother Francis, he formed
the banking house of Kidder, Peabody & Co. He
ave $85,000 toward the erection of All Saints
rotestant Episcopal Church in Ashmont, and also
presented to the city a tract of 7,000 square feet in
front of the church for a public park. For more
than thirty years Dr. A. K. Teele acted as his al-
moner, and dispensed Mr. Peabody’s benefactions,
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.
‘after personal investigations.
(PayNE—PIERCE.)
Mr. Peabody was
President of the Children’s Hospital in Boston, and
an active prone of church and charitable enter-
prises, and he bequeathed to the hospital $10,000.
Perkins, Elmira Johnson, missionary, born in
Winthrop, Me., in 1814; died in Malden, Mass.,
Feb. 26, 1896. In 1839 she married the Rev. Henry
K. W. Perkins, and removed to Oregon, where dur-
ing the most exciting Indian troubles she worked
as a missionary, often at much personal peril. She
was an intimate friend of Dr. Whitman, who was
murdered by the Indians, and through her efforts
the lives of many white settlers and their families
were saved. After spending ten years in this work,
she removed to Boston, where both she and her
husband engaged in missionary service and literary
work. She had mastered several languages, includ-
ing Hebrew, and besides other works published a
volume of poems “Harp of the Willows.” Her
husband died in 1886.
Perry, Nora, author, born in Dudley, Mass., in
1841; died there May 13, 1896. Her early life was
passed in Providence, R. I. When eight years old
she wrote her first story, ‘The Shipwreck,” which
never was published. Her first published work
appeared in a religious magazine, and her first suc-
cessful poem, “Tying her Bonnet under her Chin,”
was rejected by the “ Atlantic Monthly” and sub-
sequently brought out in a Washington, D. C.,
newspaper. This was followed by “After the
Ball,” which was published in the “ Atlantic ” and
became very popular. In 1859-’60 her first serial
story, “Rosalind Newcomb,’ was published in
“Harper’s Magazine.” For several years she was.
the Boston correspondent of the Chicago “ Tribune ”
and the Providence “Journal.” In late years she
had confined herself to writing stories for girls,
Her publications include: “ After the Ball and
Other Poems” (Boston, 1874): “The Tragedy of
the Unexpected and Other Stories ” (1880); “ k
of Love Stories ” (1881); “For a Woman” (1885);
“New Songs and Ballads” (1886); “A Flock of
Girls ” (1887); “ Lyrics and Legends ” (1890) ; “ Hope
Benham” (1894); “The Youngest Miss Lorton ”;
and, posthumously. “ Three Little Daughters of the
Revolution ” (1896).
Pierce, Francis Edwin, military officer, born
in New York, July 6, 1833; died in San Francisco,
Cal., Nov. 5,1896. His great-grandfather was in the
Revolutionary War, his grandfather in that of 1812,
and his father served in the civil war. He was gradu-
ated at the University of Rochester in 1859, and en-
tered the volunteer army as captain in the 108th New
York Infantry on Aug. 18,1862. He was promoted
major on Sept. 17 following; lieutenant colonel,
March 2, 1863; mustered out May 28, 1865, and
commissioned colonel of the 8th United States vet-
eran infantry June 15 following; again mustered
out March 22, 1866 ; commissioned 2d lieutenant 1st
United States Infantry, May 8, 1866; and was pro-
moted 1st lieutenant Sept. 9, 1867, and captain Jan.
8, 1880. During the civil war he served in the field
with the Army of the Potomac from the campaign
in Maryland till the surrender of Gen. Lee; took
part in 8 battles and numerous minor operations ;
and was wounded at Chancellorsville, Gettysburg,
Morton’s Ford, and the Wilderness. On March 13,.
1865, he was brevetted brigadier general of volun-
teers for gallant and meritorious services during the
war. After the war he served with his regiment at
Trenton, N. J., Hart’s island, N. Y., Washington,
D.C., Buffalo, N. Y., Detroit, Mich., Yankton, Dak.,
New Orleans, La., San Francisco, Cal., and else-
where. For four years he acted as Indian agent at
San Carlos, Arizona.
Pierce, Henry Lillie, manufacturer, born in
Stoughton, Mass, Aug. 23, 1825; died in Boston,
ss. Dec. 17. 1896. He was educated in the pub-
‘Jie schools and the Normal School at Bridgewater :
removed to Dorchester in 1849; became connected
x. in the following
_ year, and took entire charge of the establishment
ea ieee te wen ty active svar tieped ye took
in organization of t il party in
Ma setts; was first elected to the Tecidatare
_ in 1860; was Mayor of Boston in 1872; and was
‘elected to Congress as a Republican in 1873 and
_ 1875, declining a reelection in 1877, and accept-
ing a re jon as mayor the same year. Since
1 he had ‘ogre the Denousts. a Mr. Riess
acquired a o) and hi uests to re
tives, friends, and charitable institutions were very
_ Jarge. Among the latter were Harvard University,
Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts In-
, Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
omeopathic Hospital, $50,000
each; the town of Stoughton for books for a free
’ . $25,000: the Massachusetts Charitable Eye
. Children’s Hospital,
ology, and the Homeo-
He also provided
‘the transfer of his valuable farm adjoining the
Blue Hills reservation to the Boston Commis-
sion, to be added to the
Pomeroy, Marens journal
Elmira, N. Y.. Dec. 25, 1833: died in Brookl
N. Y., May 30, 1896. He was apprenticed to the
printer’s trade in the office of the Corning (N. Y.)
“Journal.” and three years afterward established
the Corning “San,” which he sold to good advan-
tage in a a arg then established the “ Athens
Gazette.” last venture was unsuccessful. In
* 1857 he removed to Horicon, Wis... established the
“ Argus ~ there, and ene eer United States
marshal for Wisconsin. in Horicon he
wrote for his ra series of sketches of well-
known men of Wisconsin, which he named “* Brick-
dust Sketches,” whence he came to be best known
as “ Brick ” Pomeroy. his strong support
of Stephen A. he lost his Government
office. Soon afterward he abandoned the “ Argus”;
then went to Milwaukee and became city editor of
the “Daily News™: and subsequently secured an
interest in the La Crosse * Union and Democrat.”
On the last paper he was associated with George
Swinford, a strong Breckinridge Democrat. Mr.
Pomeroy’s devotion to Douglas became more in-
tensified than ever, and bitter dissensions arose
between the two editors. Mr. Swinford controlled
the inside pages of the paper and Mr. Pomeroy the
outside ones, and week after week the rival parti-
sans expressed their opinions and severely criticised
each other in their respective pages of the sam
issue of the r. Mr. Pomeroy succeeded in
gaining entire control of the paper, and in 1868 he
was one of the taxpayers in the county and
his paper had a circulation of 100,000 copies. In
the early part of the civil war he was a strong
Union man, aided in fitting out several companies
4
*
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Powzxov—Pratt.) ett)
wic
of volunteers, and went to the front to observe the
military operations. Suddenly he began denoun-
cing the commanders of the National armies, charz-
ing that they paid more attention to the business of
cotton brok than to their military duties, and
for these publications he was ordered out of the
lines and returned home. During the remainder of
the war he continually denounced the policy of the
Federal Government. For a long time the office
of the was kept in readiness to repel invasions
by indignant citizens, and Mr. Pomeroy hid in the
woods 40 miles away, sending his manuscript to the
office by messengers. After the war he removed to
New York and founded the ~ Daily Democrat,”
which in time was succeeded by a weekly, ~ Pom-
eroys Democrat.” Within a short time his La
Crosse and New York papers failed. In 1876 he be-
gan sa elit gusenBank arma in Chicago. He wrote
much on greenback currency and personally organ-
ized 8,000 greenback clubs thro t the country.
His last scheme was to tunnel the Rocky mountains.
He formed a company with a capital of $7,000,000,
cut nearly a mile on each side of the mountains,
and then, through failure to secure aid from the
Government, abandoned the project.
Porter. Joseph Henri, military officer. born in
Dublin, Irel in 1841; died in New York city,
Jan. 27, 1896. He came to the United States in
youth and settled in Virginia. At the beginning of
the civil war he enlisted in a New York infantry
regiment, though his father and friends clung to
the Confederacy, and at the close he held the rank
of colonel of volunteers and was badly shattered in
health from wounds and disease. Subsequently he
was a general in the army of Venezuela for two
years, and in the Egyptian army for five years. On
his return to the United States he opened a law
office in New York. He was a keen sportsman and
owned the yacht “ Ventura No. 1.”
Pratt. Calvin Edward. jurist, born in Prince-
ton. Mass.. Jan. 23, 1828: died in Rochester, Mass.
Aug. 3, 1896. He was educated at Wilbraham
Academy; taught at Uxbridge, Sutton, and Worces-
ter; and studied law, and was admitted to the bar
at Worcester in 1852. In the early part of his prac-
tice he made a study of medicine and anatomy in
their relation to jurisprudence, and became an ex-
a in those branches. He was a member of the
mocratic State Central Committee. In 1859 he re-
moved to Brooklyn, N. Y. While living in Worces-
ter he had been interested in military matters, held
offices in the Worcester Light Infantry. and became
major of the 10th Massachusetts Infantry. In 1861
he organized the 3ist New York Volunteers at his
own expense and went with it to the front as its colo-
nel. For his gallantry at Bull Run he was recom-
mended for promotion ; at the battle of Mechanics-
ville, Jan. 29, 1862, he was severely wounded in the
face; and on Sept. 10 following he was commis-
sioned a brigadier general of volunteers. He after-
ward served at Antietam, Fredericksburg. and Chan-
eellorsville. and resigned his commission April 1,
1863. In 1865 he was appointed collector of inter-
nal revenue in Brooklyn ; in 1869 was elected judge
of the Supreme Court of the 2d District of New
York on the nomination of both political parties:
and in 1877 was re-elected as the candidate of both
parties for the term of fourteen years. Om the
creation of the appellate division of the Supreme
Court in 1895, he was appointed an associate justice,
and he held the office till his death.
Pratt, Enoch. philanthropist. born in North
Middleboro, Mass. Sept. 10. 1808; died in Tivoli,
Md_, Sept. 17,1896. His education was acquired in
the public schools and the Bridgewater Academy.
He worked in a commercial house in Boston for six
years, and in 1831 established himself in the com-
580
mission business in Baltimore. Subsequently he
founded the wholesale iron house of Pratt & Keith
and the house of Enoch Pratt & Brother. He also
became President of the Farmers’ and Planters’
Bank and an official in several steamboat and rail-
road companies. His business enterprises yielded
him large returns, and enabled him to acquire a
fortune estimated from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000.
Throughout his long life he took a deep interest in
educational enterprises, and was noted for his dis-
criminating benefactions. He founded the House
of Reformation and Instruction for Colored Chil-
dren at Cheltenham, Md., to which he gave 750
acres of his farm as a site; established the Mary-
land School for the Deaf and Dumb at Frederick;
endowed an academy in his native town with $30,-
000; presented the Academy of Sciences of Balti-
more a new building; and made other liberal gifts
to public institutions and to churches. His great-
est gift was the free public library in Baltimore.
On Jan. 21, 1882, he gave notice to the city govern-
ment that he would establish such an institution
under conditions that the city accepted. He offered
to give the land and the principal building, valued
at $250,000; $50,000 for four branch libraries ; and
$833,333.83 in cash, the last to be invested and al-
lowed to accumulate till the income amounted to
$50,000 per annum, providing the city would create
an annuity of $50,000 forever for the support of
the institution. The five buildings were completed
and conveyed to the city July 2, 1883, and all were
formally opened Jan. 4, 1886. At the time of his
death the endowment amounted to $1,174,100. Mr.
Pratt bequeathed the statues the “Shepherd Boy ”
and “ Campaspe ” to the Peabody Institute; the re-
version of $100,000 to Meadville (Pa.) Theological
School; $5,000 to the Congregational church at
North Middleboro, Mass.; $10,000 for the endow-
ment of the public library in that town; $10,000 to
the Boys’ Home in Baltimore; and the residue of
his estate to the Sheppard Asylum, Baltimore, on
conditions that the name of the institution be
changed to the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospi-
tal, that the income of the fund be used to com-
plete the present buildings and grounds and erecta
new building, and that the remaining fund be used
for the care of indigent insane free of cost.
Pratt, Nathaniel William, engineer, born in
Baltimore, Md., in 1852; died in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
March 10, 1896. The first successful dynamite gun
was constructed from his designs and patents, and
he became consulting engineer of the Dynamite
Gun Company. He was President of the Babcock
and Wilcox Company.
Prentiss, Albert Nelson, educator, born in Caze-
novia, N. Y., May 22, 1836; died in Ithaca, N, Y.,
Aug. 14, 1896. He was graduated at Michigan
Agricultural College in 1861, was appointed Profess-
or of Botany there in 1865, and on the opening of
Cornell University, in 1868, was called to the chair
of Botany, Horticulture, and Arboriculture, which
he occupied till his death. In 1870 he conducted the
Cornell expedition to Brazil, and in 1872 studied in
the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, England, and
in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. Prof. Prentiss
was known throughout the scientific world as one
of the foremost botanists, and in 1872 received the
Walker prize of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory for his essay on the mode of the natural distri-
bution of plants.
Pulford, John, military officer, born in New
York city, July 4, 1837; died in Detroit, Mich., July
11, 1896. When thirteen years old he removed
with his parents to Detroit, where he was educated
and admitted to the bar. He entered the National
army as Ist lieutenant, 5th Michigan Infantry, Aug.
28, 1861; was promoted captain. May 15, 1862;
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN,
(PRatt—RANDOLPH.)
major, Jan. 1, 1863; lieutenant colonel, May 3 fol-
lowing; and colonel, July 12, 1864; and was mus-
tered out of the volunteer service July 5, 1865. In.
the regular army he was commissioned both 2d and
1st lieutenant, 19th Infantry, Feb. 23, 1866; was
transferred to the 87th Infantry Sept. 21 following;
and was retired with the rank of colonel Dee. 15,
1870. On March 13, 1865, he was brevetted briga- .
dier general of volunteers for “ good conduct and
meritorious services during the war.” Gen. Pul-
ford viewed received and survived more serious
wounds than any other officer during the war. At
Malvern Hill a cannon ball fractured his temporal
bone and broke his lower jaw and collar bone; at
Chancellorsville he received a wound across the ab-
domen, but would not leave the field nor his com-
mand ; at Gettysburg he was wounded in the right
hand and thigh; in the battles in the Wilderness
his back was broken and both arms were partial]
disabled from an injury to the brachial plexus an
loss of part of the first and second dorsal vertebre ;
and at Boydton plank road, Oct. 27, 1864, he was
severely wounded in the right knee. He is men-
tioned thirteen times in the “ War of the Rebellion .
Records” in connection with important move-
ments. His entire service during the war was
with the Army of the Potomac, excepting a few
days in New York city and Troy, N. Y., during the
draft excitement in 1863. After the war and his
appointment to the regular army, he was enga,
in Gen. Hancock’s expedition against hostile In-
dians, and with the troops assigned to guard the
United States mail route from Fort Aubrey to Fort
Lyon, Kansas, against the Indians in 1867, and
thence till his retirement was on reconstruction and
recruiting duty. His retirement was on a record of
six wounds received in action.
Quint, Alonzo Hall, clergyman, born in Barn-
stead, N. H., March 22, 1828; died in Boston, Mass.,
Nov. 4, 1896. He was graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1846; studied medicine; and afterward
took a course in theology at Andover. In 1853 he
was ordained pastor of the Central Congregational
Church at Jamaica Plain, Mass.; in 1861 became
chaplain of the 2d Massachusetts Volunteers; in
1864 went to the North Congregational Church in
New Bedford, in 1881 to Somerville, Mass., and in
1886 became pastor of Alston Congregational
Church. He received the degree of D. D. from
Dartmouth College in 1866. Dr. Quint was editor
and proprietor of the “ Congregational Quarterly ”
in 1859-76 ; secretary of the Massachusetts General
Association of Congregational Churches for twenty-
five years; was foremost in organizing the National
Council of the Congregational Churches of the
United States, of which he was secretary from 1871 ;
and was for many years editor of “The Congrega-
tional Yearbook.” He was widely known as a
genealogist and church statistician.
Randolph, Anson Davies Fitz, publisher, born
in Woodbridge, N. J., Oct. 18, 1820; died in West
Hampton, Long Island, N. Y., July 6, 1896. When
ten years old he went to New York city, where he
became an errand boy in the depository of the
American Sunday-school Union, and remained
there in various capacities for twenty-one years.
In 1851 he established himself as a bookseller and
publisher, and personally sold books from house to
house in the country, carrying his stock on a canal
boat, and made local deliveries with a wheelbarrow.
From the first he made a specialty of religious pub-
lications, much against the judgment of his friends.
One of his early ventures was the republication of
a small book entitled *‘ Hints to Christians ” (origi-
nally published in Philadelphia about 1826), This
book is still in print and commands a good sale.
During the civil war Mr. Randolph did a large
‘OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Rankine—Retynart.)
business in the publication of sermons. addresses,
and phlets bearing on that struggle, and also
brought out Prince de Joinville’s report on the op-
erations of the Army of the Potomac. His busi-
ness prospered and frequently necessitated removal
to larger quarters. Early in 1896 he sold out his
retail business to the Baptist Publication Society,
retaining the wholesale part. In June he organized
the A. D. F. Randolph Company, and the greatest
trial of his business career came a few days after-
ward when the company was compelled to make an
ent. The creditors testified to their faith
in the integrity of Mr. Randolph by voluntarily
offering to wait one year or ten years, as might suit
his convenience, for their money. He published
several volumes of original poems.
e, James, educator, born in Ayrshire,
Scotland, Noy. 5, 1827; died in Geneva, N. ¥.. Dec
16, 1896. He removed with his family to Canan-
daigua, N. Y.; was graduated at Union College in
1846; became Assistant Professor of Mathematics
at Trinity College, Hartford ; and subsequently was
rector of St. Paul’s Church, Oswego, N. Y., Presi-
dent of Hobart College, and rector of the Divinity
School at Geneva for thirty years.
Read, John Meredith, diplomat, born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Feb. 21, 1837; died in Paris, France,
Dec. 27, 1896. He was ason of Judge John Mere-
dith Read, a former Solicitor-General of the United
States, and was graduated at the Albany Law
School in 1859. After a period of international
law study in Europe, he was admitted to the bar in
Philadelphia and settled in Albany, N. Y. In 1860-
66 he was Adjutant General of the State of New
York, and for his promptness and ability in organ-
izing and forwarding troops received the thanks of
the War Department. In 1869-73 he was United
States consul for France and Algeria, and during
the Franco-German War was also acting consul
general for the German Government. For his pro-
tection of German subjects and interests during the
two sieges of Paris he was officially commended by
the President of the United States, and received
the thanks of the French and German governments
and the official and personal thanks of Prince Bis-
marck. In 1873 he was appointed United States
minister to Greece, where he remained to Septem-
ber, 1879, defraying the expenses of the legation
rsonally for some time before his resignation, ow-
ing to the refusal of Con to make the necessary
appropriation. During tenure of this office he
received the thanks of his Government for the man-
ner in which he had protected the persons and in-
terests of Americans during the crisis of February,
1878. He had secured the revocation by the Greek
Government of an order prohibiting the circulation
and sale of the Bible in Greece, and also the release
of the American ship “ Armenia, and rendered an
important service to his country in discovering and
reporting to the Government that only one port in
Russia was open during the Russo-Turkish War,
and urging the Se arri that would result to the
commerce of the Uni States from the dispatch
of a aoe fleet from New York to that port. In
1881 he was created by the King of Greece a Knight
Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, the
highest degree in the gift of that Goverpment. Af-
ter his resignation he devoted much of his time and
means to promoting the interests of the Greek Gov-
ernment and to saving it from bankruptcy. He
was a frequent contributor to current literature,
and was the outhor of an “ Historical Inquiry con-
cerning Henry Hudson.” Much of his time in re-
cent years was given to archzxological, historical,
and art studies, and his library and study in Paris
contained many rare books, manuscripts, and art
specimens.
581
Reilly, William Moffat, military officer, born
in Philadelphia, Pa., March 13, 1822: died there
Feb. 29, 1896. When fifteen years old he joined
the Lafayette Light Infantry as a flag marker, and
on the organization of the Wayne Artillery he was
elected sergeant. During the riots of 1844 he dis-
tinguished himself, and from that time he rose in
the State service. At the beginning of the civil
war he was commander of the 3d Brigade of Penn-
sylvania militia, and made a prompt tender of his
brigade to Goy. Curtin. Under the provisions of
law Gen. Cadwallader was given the command, but
subsequently, at the solicitation of the latter, Gen.
Reilly was placed in command of the 1st Division
of Pennsylvania Volunteers. He served through
the war, and at its close declined President John-
son’s offer of a commission as major general of
volunteers. Since 1874 he had been an inspector
of the county prison. Gen Reilly bequeathed suffi-
cient money for the erection in front of Independ-
ence Hall, Philadelphia, of bronze statues of Lafay-
ette, Montgomery, Pulaski, and Steuben; for statues
in Independence Square of Gens. Wayne, Greene,
Sumter, and Morgan and Capt. Paul Jones; and for
the endowment of a free eye and ear hospital.
Reinhart, Charles Stanley, artist, born in Pitts-
burg, Pa.. in 1844; died at the Players’ Club, New
York city, Aug. 30, 1896. Mr. Reinhart began his
serious study of art comparatively late. As a youth
he went to the front in the civil war, and although
his services mainly were those of a telegraph opera-
tor and not of a combatant, they were none the less
valuable, and they brought him into immediate
contact with actual war. It was not until 1868,
after three years in a steel manufactory in Pitts-
burg, that Mr. Reinhart was enabled to go abroad
and devote himself to the study of art. He went
first to Paris, and later to Munich, where he entered
the Royal Academy, studying drawing under Prof.
Streyhiiber and painting and etching under Prof.
Otto. His professional life was divided between
New York and Paris, where he had a studio from
1882 to 1886. For the last years of his life his
home was in New York. Mr. Reinhart was one
of the “ young artists,” so called, between 1870 and
1880 whose return from Paris and Munich opened
a new period in American art. The foundation of
“ Scribner’s,” now the “ Century Magazine,” and the
‘Vpeirag hinged of drawings upon the wood-engraver’s
lock in place of actual drawing upon the block
attracted the home-coming artists, and a new
school of illustrators began to be developed. Mr.
Reinhart’s work soon made itself felt. For sev-
eral years he was closely identified with the pub-
lications of Messrs. Harper & Brothers. He illus-
trated several important serials, and his black-
and-white studies of contemporary life showed a
talent and spirit which gave him a high rank
among American illustrators. This work he con-
tinued to the last. His drawings were reproduced
in his later years for other magazines and the books
of other firms, but his drawings for the Harper
publications are those of which the public has had
the widest knowledge. In the last months of his
life he was engaged upon a series of war scenes, sev-
eral of which, like his graphic study of ration-shar-
ing after the surrender at Appomattox, were re-
roduced as double-page illustrations of “ Harper's
eekly.” It was Mr. Reinhart’s ambition to con-
tinue in this line, and had there been sufficient en-
couragement he would doubtless have produced
some notable paintings of the war. Although the
demands of illustration encroached upon his work
in oil, he painted many pictures of importance and
sound merit. “Clearing Up ” (1875), “ Reconnoiter-
ing ” (1876), and “ Repulse” (1877) were among his
earlier paintings. He found several subjects on the
582
French coast, in Normandy and elsewhere, and his
* Cast Ashore,” a body on the beach surrounded by
French officials and fishermen, received a second-
class medal at the Salon, where Mr. Reinhart fre-
quently exhibited. This was one of several of his
pictures shown at the Columbian Exposition. In
water color also Mr. Reinhart did much excellent
and effective work. While he was not a writer, his
singular vividness as a story-teller so impressed his
literary friends that he was induced to write one or
two favorite stories, which were received by readers
with a marked esteem that was quite independent
of the influence of the author’s strong personal
popularity. He was a member of the National
Academy of Design and of the Salmagundi Club,
and also of the Century and Players’ Clubs,
Richardson, William Adams, jurist, born in
Tyngsboro, Mass., Nov. 2, 1821; died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Oct. 19,1896. He was graduated at Har-
vard in 1843, and at its law school in 1846, and in
the last year was admitted to the bar and appointed
judge advocate of the Massachusetts militia. In
1853-’54 he was President of the Common Council
of. Lowell; in 1859 was elected President of the
Wamesit Bank, and afterward was President of the
Middlesex Mechanics’ Association. He spent 1855-
59 in revising the General Statutes of the Com-
monwealth, in conjunction with Joel Parker and
A. A. Richmond, In 1856 he was appointed judge
of probate for Middlesex County, me in 1868, when
the offices of judge of eee and judge of insol-
vency were consolidated, he was appointed to the
new place, and held it till April, 1872. On the
completion of the revision of the General Statutes,
Judges Richardson and Sanger were appointed by
the Legislature editors of the annual supplement to
that work, and Judge Richardson discharged this
duty for twenty-two years. In 1869 he was ap-
pointed Assistant Secretary of the Treasury. Two
years afterward he was sent abroad by the Govern-
ment as special financial agent, and negotiated the
first contracts entered into in Europe for the sale
of United States 4-per-cent. bonds. On March 17,
1873, Judge Richardson was appointed Secretary of
the Treasury, to succeed George S. Boutwell, elected
to the United States Senate. He held this office
till June, 1874, and during its tenure made the not-
able transfer of the Geneva award money ($10,500,-
000) from London to Washington. In June, 1874,
he resigned from the Treasury Department to ac-
cept a seat on the bench of the United States Court
of Claims, and from 1885 till his death he was chief
pene of that court. He was a professor in the
aw departments of Georgetown (D. C.) College and
Columbian University for many years, and received
the degree of LL. D. from the last in 1873. Judge
Richardson was the author of numerous publica-
tions dealing chiefly with financial subjects. These
included : “The Banking Laws of Massachusetts ”
(Lowell, 1855); “ Practical Information concerning
the Debt of the United States” (Washington, 1872) ;
“ National Banking Laws” (1872); and a “ History
of the Court of Claims” (1882-’85). Besides the
“Supplements” to the General Statutes of the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts (Boston, 1860-
’82), he prepared a “Supplement to the Revised
Statutes of the United States” (1881).
Ripley, Philip, journalist, born in Hartford,
Conn., in 1828; died in New York city, Jan. 25,
1896. He was educated at Trinity College, Hart-
ford, and shortly after graduation engaged in jour-
. nalism in Washington, D.C. During the civil war
he was the correspondent in New Orleans of several
newspapers. Several years after the war he re-
moved to New York city, where he lived till his
death, working at different times on the principal
newspapers, writing editorials for “The Tribune,”
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (RicHARpson—Ropksr.)
lecturing on war experiences, and contributing
short stories to periodical literature and articles to
cyclopedias,
Robinson, George Dexter, lawyer, born in Lex-
ington, Mass., Jan. 20, 1834; died in Chicopee,
Mass., Feb. 22, 1896. He was graduated at Harvard
in 1856; taught in Chicopee for nine years; and
was admitted to the bar in 1866. In 1873 he was
elected to the lower house of the Legislature, and in
1875 to the State Senate. The following year he
was elected to Congress as a Republican. He was
re-elected for two successive terms, and after the
reapportionment was elected from the new 12th
District. Before taking his seat for this last term |
he was elected Governor of the State by a plurality
of 9,864 votes over Gen. Butler. His most impor-
tant service in Congress was in the Committee on
the Judiciary. In 1884 he was re-elected Governor
by 47,510 plurality, defeating William C. Endicott,
and in 1865 was again re-elected, defeating Fred-
erick O. Prince with a plurality of 21,897.
Robinson, John Mitchell, jurist, born in Caro-
line County, Maryland, in 1828; died in Annapolis,
Md., Jan. 14, 1896. He was graduated at Dickin-
son College in 1847, and was admitted to the bar in
1849. In January, 1851, he was appointed deputy
attorney-general for Queen Anne County, and in
November following was elected State attorney.
He was elected judge of the Circuit Court in 1864,
and judge of the Court of Appeals in 1867. Dur-
ing the thirty years he was on the appellate bench
he delivered upward of 400 opinions. In 1893, he
was appointed chief judge of the Court of Appeals,
and he held this place at the time of his deci
Robinson, Theodore, artist, born in Irasburg,
Vt., in 1852; died in New York city, April 2, 1896.
He studied painting with Carolus-Duran and Gé-
rome in Paris, and with Claude Monet, the impres-
sionist, and after opening a studio in New York
city, confined himself to figure and landscape work.
In 1890 he took the Webb prize of $300 for his
“Winter Landscape ” and the Shaw prize of $1,000
for the best single-figure composition in oil by an
American artist for a peasant-girl study entitled
“In the Sun.” In the 1896 spring exhibition of the
Society of American artists he exhibited “ Washing
Day,” “The Little Mill—Autumn,” * West River
Valley—Vermont,” “Vermont Hillside—October
Afternoon,” and “ Correspondence.”
Roper, S. H., mechanical engineer, born in New
Hampshire, in 1823; died in Cambridge, Mass.,
June 1, 1896. He was brought up on a farm, from
which he went to a inachine shop and made a
thorough study of mechanics. His inventive skill
was first shown in connection with fine guns and
sewing machines, and it was said that it was his
invention on which Elias Howe obtained his sewing-
machine patent. Other of his inventions were the
first practical knitting machine used in Massachu-
setts, hot-air furnaces and ranges, and, in co-opera-
tion with his son, the machines in the Hopedale
Serew Works. In 1869 he applied steam power to
an old-fashioned velocipede, but did not obtain the
speed anticipated. Nevertheless he continued ex-
perimenting, and on the introduction of the modern
bicycle applied himself almost wholly to the perfec-
tion of a steam cycle. On the day of his death he
took his invention to the new Charles river bicycle
track at Cambridge for a public trial. He arranged
with expert wheelmen in training there to race with
him, and the one chosen for the first run had all he
could do to keep up with the steam bicycle. The
inventor became excited over his victory, and set
out to spin around the track alone to make a record.
After making seven circuits and when within a few
yards of the grand stand he fell dead. He had
been going at the rate of a mile in two minutes.
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Rowe—Rvssett.) 583
Rowe. Nicholas, editor, born March 10, 1842;
died in Chicago, Ill., March 10,1896. He was noted
in the United States and in Europe as an expert on
dogs and their breeding; was a pioneer in import-
ing the best English setters; and probably did
more than any other man to raise field trial dogs in
the United States to their present high standard.
For many years he wrote kennel news for several
riodicals under the pen name of Mohawk. In 1876
Sn settled in Chicago and became editor and man-
ager of the “ American Field.” He inaugurated a
system of correct kennel registration in 1876, and
compiled and published “The National American
Kennel Stud Book.”
Rublee, Horace, journalist, born in Berkshire,
Franklin County, Vt., Aug. 19, 1829; died in Mil-
waukee, Wis., Oct. 19, 1896. He accompanied his
nts to Sheboygan, Wis., in 1840; became a
legislative reporter for the Madison “ Argus” in
1852, and editor of the Madison “Journal” in the
following year; and was State Librarian in 1856-
58, and chairman of the Republican State Com-
mittee in 1859-69. In 1868 he was a delegate at
large to the National Republican Convention and a
member of the Committee on Platform. He was ap-
inted minister to Switzerland in 1869, and im
Rates: 1876, he resigned and returned to Madison.
Since 1882 he had been editor in chief of the “ Mil-
waukee Sentinel.”
Runyon, Theodore, diplomatist, born in Somer-
ville, N. J., Oct. 25, 1822; died in Berlin, Germany,
Jan. 27, 1896. He was graduated at Yale in 1842,
and was admitted to the bar in Newark, N. J., in
- 1846. He soon acquired a wide reputation as a
skillful advocate in cases involving business princi-
' ples and practices,
and his successful
handling of the
Meeker will case is
remembered as one
of the historical
events in legal
rocedure in New
ersey. In 1853 he
became city attor-
ney of Newark, and
in 1856 city coun-
selor. In 1856 Gov.
Price appointed
him a commis-
sioner to revise and
codify the militia
laws of the State.
The following year
he was appointed
brigadier general
of militia; soon afterward he became brigadier gen-
eral of the State Rifle Corps; and subsequently major
general of the National Guard of New Jersey. At
the outbreak of the civil war he was given command
of the 1st Brigade of New Jersey Volunteers, which
left for the front on April 27, 1861. He reached
Washington with 3,000 men on May 6, when the
national capital was in a state of great alarm be-
cause of an expected invasion. On the following
day he marched his brigade through the city and
put the men through a drill exercise. As the city
was then wholly unprotected by defensive works,
the presence of the brigade quickly restored confi-
dence. On May 10a portion of the brigade went
into camp on Meridian Hill, north of the city, and
another portion was detailed to guard the railroad.
On the 24th, in consequence of demonstrations by
the enemy on the opposite side of the Potomac,
Gen. Runyon was ordered to occupy and fortify the
approaches to the city, especially the roads converg-
ing at the Long Bridge. Accordingly, he crossed
o
the bridge. and with daily details of 1,500 men
constructed extensive works at the junction of the
principal roads. The largest work inclosed about
10 acres in the southeast angle, a smaller one was
thrown up on the northwest, a stockade was con-
structed across an intervening marsh nearly to the
river, and a redoubt was built east of the main
road. These were the first fortifications erected for
the defense of the national capital, and to them the
War Department gave the name of “ Fort Runyon.”
When Gen. McDowell advanced his army toward
Manassas, he left Gen. Runyon as acting major
general in command of the 4th Division of the
Army of Northeastern Virginia, which included all
the troops not sent to the front. These troops,
which numbered about 13,500, were stationed in
and around Alexandria. While hastening re-en-
forcements to the front Gen. Runyon was informed
on the 2ist that the national army had been de-
feated and was fleeing panic-stricken toward Wash-
ington, with the Confederates in hot pursuit: : Un-
der orders from the War Department he closed all
the approaches to the city by the Long and Chain
Bridges, planted cannon on them, and assigned
advantageous positions to various vessels at Alex-
andria. The enemy became informed of these
preparations and abandoned the plan for marching
on the city. On the 22d Thomas A. Scott, Assistant
Secretary of War, informed Gen. Runyon that Mc-
Dowell’s army was returning to the Potomac, and
suggested that he should man all the forts and pre-
vent the retreating troops from passing over to the
city, where their arrival would produce a panic.
Gen. Runyon immediately telegraphed back, * Take
the draw off the Long Bridge,” a suggestion which
was at once acted on. By these measures Gen.
Runyon checked the retreat of the army, held it
beyond the city till it was reorganized, and saved
Washington from a panic. For these services Gen.
Runyon received the thanks of President Lincoln
and his Cabinet, and a joint resolution of congratu-
lation from the New Jersey Legislature. Believing
that he was restricted by superior officers, he re-
tired from the army soon afterward and resumed
the practice of law. In 1863 he was elected Mayor
of Newark; in 1865 was defeated as Democratic
candidate for Governor; and in 1873-87 was Chan-
cellor of the State. In March, 1893, he was ap-
pointed United States minister to Germany, and in
September following was raised to the rank of am-
bassador. His death occurred from heart failure.
Gen. Runyon received the degree of LL. D. from
Wesleyan University 1867, Rutgers College 1875,
and Yale College 1882.
Russell, William Channing, educator, born in
Boston, Mass., Feb. 23, 1814; died in Yonkers,
N. Y., Feb. 24, 1896. He was a great-grandson of
William Ellery, one of the sigaers of the Declara-
tion of Independence, and a nephew of the Rev.
William Ellery Channing. In 1832 he was gradu-
ated at Columbia College, and in 1836, after study-
ing at Harvard Law School. he was admitted to the
bar in New York city. He was engaged in law
practice in 1864, when the death in the army of a
favorite son led him to abandon it. In 1865 he was
elected Professor of History in Antioch College,
and in 1868 he was called to the chair of South
European Languages and also to the associate pro-
fessorship of history in Cornell University. Sub-
sequently he became vice-president of the univer-
sity, remaining so till his retirement, in 1881, and
acting as president for three years. During 1881-
*83 he occupied the chair of History at Brown Uni-
versity. Prof. Russell’s work lay in the field of
Roman and medieval history, and he was among
the first educators in the United States to adopt
the seminary method of historical instruction.
584 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.
Russell, William Eustis, lawyer, born in Cam-
bridge, Mass., Jan. 6, 1857; died in a fishing camp
at Little Pabos, Quebec, Canada, July 15-16, 1896.
He was as well as usual when he retired to his tent
on the 15th, but was found dead early the next
morning. He was graduated at Harvard in 1877,
entered the Boston
University Law
School, and was
admitted to the
Suffolk County bar
in 1880. While at
the law school he
won the William
Beach Lawrence
prize for the best
essay on “ Foreign
Judgments: Their
Extra - Territorial
Force and Effect.”
He began _prac-
ticing as amember
of his father’s law
firm and at the
same time became
active in politics.
In 1881 he was
elected to the Common Council of Cambridge as a
Democrat ; in 1883 and 1884 was elected alderman ;
and in 1885, 1886, and 1887 was elected mayor, de-
clining a fourth term in 1888. He had shown him-
self an effective political speaker in the presidential
campaign of 1884, and in 1888 he was nominated by
‘the Democrats for Governor. He made 55 speeches
on the tariff issue, and was defeated by Oliver Ames
by a majority of 28,069. In 1889 he was renominated
and was defeated by John A. A. Brackett by a major-
ity of 6,775. On a third nomination, in 1890, he was
successful, defeating Gov. Brackett by a majority
of 8,953, after one of the warmest campaigns ever
known in the State. In 1891 and 1892 he was re-
elected, defeating Charles H. Allen by 6,467, and
William H. Haile by 2,534 votes respectively. His
personal popularity was attested by the fact that he
ran ahead of the Democratic ticket to such an ex-
tent that the other State officers elected in 1890
(with one exception), 1891, and 1892 were Repub-
licans, At the close of his third term he resumed
law practice, making a specialty of corporation
law. In November, 1894, he was appointed a mem-
ber of the Board of Indian Commissioners.
Ryan, Stephen Vincent, clergyman, born in
Almonte, Ontario, Canada, Jan. 1, 1825; died in
Buffalo, N. Y., April 10, 1896. He accompanied
his parents to Pottsville, Pa., where he remained
till 1840, when he was sent to St. Charles’s Semi-
nary, in Philadelphia. In 1844 he entered the or-
der of the Lazarist Fathers at Cape Girardeau, Mo.,
and completed his studies for the Roman Catholic
priesthood at St. Mary’s of the Barrens. He was
ordained in St. Louis, June 24, 1849, and from 1851
till 1857 was professor and prefect at St. Mary’s,
professor at Cape Girardeau, and president of St.
Vincent’s College. In the last year he was ap-
pointed visitor of the congregation of the Mission,
or Vincentian Community, in the United States.
He made his headquarters in St. Louis till the
mother house of the community was removed to
Philadelphia, and then lived in that city till his con-
secration as second bishop of the diocese of Buffalo,
N. Y., in November, 1868. Bishop Ryan bequeathed
all his property to the Church.
Samson, George Whitefield, educator, born in
Havard, Mass., Sept. 29, 1819; died in New York
city, Aug. 8, 1896. He was graduated at Brown
University in 1839, and at Newton Theological Sem-
inary in 1843. The same year he was ordained a
(RussELL—ScHAEFFER.)
clergyman at the E Street Baptist Church, Wash-
ington, D. C., of which church he was the organizer
and pastor for sixteen years. In September, 1859,
he was chosen President of Columbian University,
Washington, D. C., and he carried the institution
successfully through many vicissitudes incident to
the civil war. During his administration the law
department was established and the medical school
was reorganized, In 1870 he retired from Columbian _
University and became President of Rutgers Fe-
male College, New York city, from which office he
retired in 1886. Since that time he had resided in
New York. Among his publications are the “ Di-
vine Law as to Wines,” “ Guide to Bible Interpre-
tation,” “The Classic Test,’ “The Atonement,”
and “ Art Criticism,” the latter book being largely
used as a text-book in colleges. He was a leader in
the Baptist denomination, and was favorably known
to men of other denominations as a scholar and
clergyman. He was a life director of the American
Colonization Society and a member of the Evangel-
ical Alliance.
Sarony, Napoleon, artist, born in Quebec, Can-
ada, in 1821; died in New York city, Nov. 9, 1896.
His father had been an officer of the Black Hussars
in the Austrian army, and after the battle of Water-
loo removed to Quebec and became a lithographer.
The son removed to New York city about 1833, and
found employment in a lithographic house, where
he began experimenting with a view to improving
the art. In 1842 he formed a partnership with a
young friend named Major, and opened a litho-
graphic establishment under the firm name of Sa-
rony & Major. In 1852 the firm was changed to
Sarony, Major & Knapp, and in 1858 the success of
the business enabled ea Sarony to retire from the
firm. He then spent six years studying art in Eu-
rope, and on his return opened his first photograph
gallery. He made a study of lights mae ses, and
the effects he obtained attracted to his gallery many
famous persons. His successive galleries were filled
with art curios, comprising presents received from
distinguished people from various parts of the world,
and a collection of over 40,000 photographs of
actors and actresses. Besides the close personal at-
tention he gave to his photographic work, Mr. Sa-
rony made himself widely known as a black-and-
white artist. He was a regular exhibitor at the
National cfc aap | of Design. as well as in the Lon-
don art galleries, his charcoal drawings and draw-
ings of the nude being particularly commended.
He was the author of “ Famous People whom I
have photographed,” and also of a series of photo-
engravings in book form.
Schaeffer, Charles William, educator, born at
Hagerstown, Md., May 5, 1813; died in Philadel-
phia, Pa., March 15,1896. He belonged to a family
of Lutheran clergymen, and was graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1832, and at Gettys-
burg Theological Seminary in 1835, and was or-
dained to the office of the ministry in 1886. He
took charge of a parish in Montgomery County,
Pennsylvania, which he served until 1841. He was
pastor at Harrisburg, Pa., 1841-49, and at German-
town, Pa., 1849-75, when he retired from active
duty, and was elected pastor emeritus.
when the Theological Seminary was established in
Philadelphia. he was elected Professor of Ecclesi-
astical History, which chair he held to the end of
his life—thirty-two years. In 1880 he became
chairman of the faculty. Dr. Schaeffer took an
active part in the establishment of the Theological
Seminary at Philadelphia in 1864, and in the organ-
ization of the General Council in 1866 and 1867.
He held many posts of honor and trust in the
Church and its various boards and institutions, and
was a member of the Board of Trustees of the Uni-
In 1864,
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (ScnuyLer—Suermpay.)
versity of Pennsylvania from 1859 until his death.
He received from this institution in 1879 the hon-
orary de of D. D.. and that of LL.D. from
Thiel College, Greenville, Pa., in 1887. He was one
of the leaders of the conservative and confessional
party in the Church. He was an authority on
American Lutheran history, and was a frequent
contributor to the Church papers and theological
reviews. He was for several years co-editor of the
“Lutheran Home Journal” and the “ Lutheran
and Missionary,” Philadelphia; editor in chief of
“The Foreign Missionary” from 1879 until his
death; and one of the editors of the “ Lutheran
Church Review,” 1886-96. He published “ Mann’s
Explanation of Luther’s Small Catechism,” trans-
lated from the German (Philadelphia, 1855) ; “ Early
History of the Lutheran Church in America ” (Phil-
adelphia, 1857); “Golden Treasury for the Children
of God,” translated from the German (1860); “ Fam-
ily Prayer for Morning and Evening and the Festi-
vals of the Church Year”; “ Halle Reports,” trans-
lated from the German (Reading, 1882); and
“Church Book for the Use of Evangelical Luther-
an Congregations ” (Philadelphia, 1891). He trans-
lated numerous hymns, and wrote several original
ones.
Schuyler, Montgomery, clergyman. born in
New York city, Jan. 9, 1814; died in St. Louis,
Mo., March 19, 1896. He was graduated at Union
College in 1834, and began studying law. This he
soon gave up for mercantile business, and after
spending four years in that line he entered the
ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church. In
184144 he was rector of Trinity Church, Marshall,
Mich.; in 1845-54, of St. John’s Church, Buffalo,
N. Y.; and since 1854 had been at Christ Church,
St. Louis, Mo., first as rector and, after it was made
the cathedral, as dean. He received the degree of
D. D. from Hobart College in 1856. Dr. Schuyler
was President of the Standing Committee of the
Diocese of Missouri from 1858, president of the
conventions that elected the second and third bishops
of Missouri, and a frequent delegate to the General
Conventions of his Church. In 1891 the jubilee of
his ordination was celebrated by the Episcopalians
of St. Louis, and the Schuyler Memorial House, an
adjunct of the cathedral,{was founded. Among his
ublications are: “The Church: Its Ministry and
orship ” (Buffalo, 1853); “ The Pioneer Church ”
(Boston, 1867); and “ Historical Discourse of Christ
Church, St. Louis” (St. Louis, 1870).
Scott, John, lawyer, born in Alexandria, Hunting-
don County, Pa., July 14,1824; died in Philadelphia,
Pa., Nov. 29, 1896. He received a common-school
education ; was admitted to the bar in 1846; was
prosecuting attorney of the county in 1846-49;
was elected to the State Legislature in 1862; and
was elected to the United States Senate as a Repub-
lican, serving from March 4, 1869, till March 4,
1875. Early in his legal career he became resident
counsel of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, in
Cambria County, Pennsylvania, and having won a
most important case for the company he was en-
gaged as special counsel for a much wider district.
In 1877 he took charge of the legal department of
the company, and from that time till his resigna-
tion, about a year before his death, he was its gen-
eral solicitor.
Sexton, Samuel, otologist, born in Xenia, Ohio,
in 1833: died in New York city, July 11,1896. He
was graduated in medicine at the University of
Louisville (Ky.) in 1856: served as a surgeon in the
National army in the first year of the civil war;
removed to New York city in 1869; and won repu-
tation as an authority on diseases of the ear. In
1877 he became chief surgeon of the West Side Eye
and Ear Infirmary, and subsequently was lecturer
585
at the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. During
his long practice he made careful clinical notes of.
over 60,000 cases which he had examined or treated,
and these formed the basis of his numerous publi-
cations. At the annual meeting of the American
Society of Otologists, of which he was then vice-
president, in 1886, he called attention to his opera-
tion for the permanent cure of catarrh by excision
of the drumhead and ossicles. This operation and
.Teport attracted wide attention, and because of it
he was invited to read a paper on the operation be-
fore the International Medical Congress at Berlin in
1890, and to perform the operation before a body of
English specialists in London in 1892. Dr. Sexton
devised special instruments for his operations, and
invented the electric lantern for observations of
the ear. His principal publication was “The Ear
and its Diseases” (New York, 1888). A paper on
“Causes of Deafness among Public-school Chil-
dren” (1882) was widely circulated by the United
States Bureau of Education, and an article in the
“Medical Record” (Feb. 19, 1887), on “Injury to
the Ear caused by the Blast of a Bursting Shell,”
was exceptionally interesting.
Seymour, Edward Coe, educator, born in New
Hartford. N. Y., May 4, 1828; died in Brooklyn,
N. Y., Sept. 17, 1896. He was graduated at the
State Normal School in 1849, and subsequently was
gl of Hobart Hall Academy, Oneida County,
. Y., and of a grammar school in Brooklyn. In
1855, on the organization of the Polytechnic In-
stitute, of Brooklyn, he was appointed principal of
the academic department, and he held the place till
his death. He received the degree of Ph. D. in
1891.
Shaw, Elijah, manufacturer, born in Wales,
Hampden County, Mass., May 29,1819; died there
Jan. 28, 1896. He received a limited education,
and when a mere lad began to work in his father’s
blacksmith shop. Subsequently he engaged in the
manufacture of shoes till 1848, when he and a
brother bought a controlling interest in a small
woolen mill in Wales. His success led him to buy
another mill, and during his life he built and re-
built five mills in that town. He remained in the
woolen industry till his death. After the close of
the civil war he was instrumental in founding Shaw
University in Raleigh, N. C_—now one of the fore-
most institutions for the education of the colored
race in the United States. In 1874 he built the
Wales Baptist Church at a cost of $20,000, and pre-
sented it to the congregation. Mr. Shaw was in
other ways a liberal promoter of religious and edu-
cational interests.
Shellabarger, Samuel, lawyer, born in Clark
County, Ohio, Dec. 10, 1817; died in Washington,
D. C., Aug. 6, 1896. He was graduated at Miami
University in 1842; was admitted to the bar in
1847; was a member of the first Legislature of
Ohio under the present Constitution; and was
elected to Congress as a Republican in 1860, 1864,
1866, and 1870. While a member of Congress he.
attended the special session called by President
Lincoln on July 4, 1861, and served on the Com-
mittees on Commerce, Civil Service, and several
special ones. Between his third and fourth terms
he was United States minister to Portugal, and
after his last term he was appointed a ‘civil-service
commissioner. He had since practiced law.
Sheridan, George A., politician, born in Mill-
bury, Mass., Feb. 22, 1840; died in Hampton, Va.,
Oct. 8, 1896. He received a public-school educa-
tion, and was about to enter Yale College when the
civil war broke out, and while visiting in Chicago
he enlisted in the 88th Illinois Infantry as a pri-
vate. On the organization of the regiment he was
elected a captain. He passed unharmed through
586
several battles, but was severely wounded at Chicka-
mauga and was not in active service afterward.
Soon after the war he went to Louisiana, where he
identified himself with the leaders of the Repub-
lican party, became active in the reconstruction
movement, and was appointed Adjutant General of
the State. In 1872 he was elected to Congress as
representative at large; but ex-Gov. Pinckback
contested the election, and the seat was not awarded
to Gen. Sheridan till the closing hours of the last
day of the last session. He was wont to declare
that his fame as a congressman was immortal in
one respect—that he received more money for less
actual service than any other man who had ever
served his country in the same capacity, receiving
in all about $14,000 for a few minutes’ actual serv-
ice. For many years Gen. Sheridan was a noted
political speaker as well as a brilliant orator. He
served a term as recorder of deeds of the District
of Columbia, but for several years passed the greater
part of his time at the National Soldiers’ Home,
where he died. He was not related to Gen, Philip
H. Sheridan.
Sherwood, Sarah Lounsbury, philanthropist,
born in Ridgefield, Conn., in 1831; died in Ocean
Grove, N. J., Oct. 1, 1896. She was a sister of ex-
Gov. Phineas Lounsbury, of Connecticut; was left
a widow soon after her marriage, and had since ap-
plied her income to works of charity in New York
city. After working among the poor colored peo-
le of the Third Ward for five years, she volunteered
Fee services to the Jerry McAuley Mission on Wa-
ter Street in 1888. In this field she wrought many
changes for the better in the lives and dwellings of
the poor, aided released prisoners who had nowhere
to go after leaving jail, and watched over the wel-
fare’of destitute women and children. She contin-
ued this work till within two months of her death.
Shoup, Francis Asbury, clergyman, born in
Laurel, Ind.; died at Columbia, Tenn., Sept. 1,
1896. He was graduated at the United States Mili-
tary Academy at West Point in 1852, and served
for seven years in the artillery. At the outbreak
of the civil war he entered the Confederate service.
He rose to the rank of brigadier general, and served
under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in the Georgia
campaign. After the war he became Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Mississippi, and
was called thence to a similar chair in the Chita
sity of the South. He then took orders in the
Protestant Episcopal Church, and from 1875 to
1883 held rectorships successively in Waterford,
N. Y., Nashville, Jackson, Miss., and New Or-
leans. In the latter year he returned to the Uni-
versity of the South, at Sewannee, Tenn., as Pro-
fessor of Metaphysics, and occupied that chair at
the time of his death. His writings include * In-
fantry Tactics” (Little Rock, 1862); “ Artillery Di-
vision Drill” (Atlanta, 1864); ‘Elements of Alge-
bra” (New York, 1874); “ Mechanism and Person-
ality ” (Boston, 1889).
Shurtleff. William Steele, jurist, born in New-
bury, Vt., Feb. 17, 1830; died in Longmeadow,
Mass., Jan. 14, 1896. He studied two years in Yale
College, then studied at the Harvard Law School,
and was admitted to the bar in 1856. In 1862 he
was commissioned lieutenant colonel of the 46th
Massachusetts Volunteers; on Feb. 8, 1863, was
promoted colonel; and in July following was mus-
tered out with his regiment. Almost immediately
on his return Gov. Andrew appointed him judge of
the Court of Probate and Insolvency, which office
he held till his death.
Siegfreid, Joshua K., military officer, born in
Orwigsburg, Pa., in 1832; died in Pottsville, Pa.,
July 19, 1896. He entered the National army in
1861 as captain in the 6th Pennsylvania Volunteers ;
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN,
(SHERWOOD—SKERRETT.)
was soon afterward commissioned major and colonel
of the 48th Pennsylvania Infantry; and distinguished
himself at Cedar Mountain, South Mountain, Antie-
tam, and Fredericksburg. At the battle of Camp-
bell’s Station he commanded a brigade, and in 1864
he took part in the charge after the explosion of
the mine at Petersburg. After the war he was com-
missioned a major general in the National Guard
of Pennsylvania. —
Silliman, Justus Mitchell, educator, born in
New Canaan, Conn., Jan. 25, 1842; died in Easton,
Pa., April 15, 1896. He received his early educa-
tion at the New Canaan Academy; served three
years in the National army, and was wounded at
Gettysburg; and was graduated at the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1870. Within a few weeks
he was appointed Professor of Mining Engineering °
and Graphics in Lafayette College, where he re-
mained until his death. His special work’ included
various investigations, of which his examination of
the Bessemer flame with colored glasses and the
spectroscope is the best known.
Sims, Clifford Stanley, jurist, born near Harris-
burg, Pa., in 1839; died in Trenton, N. J., March 8,
1896. He was admitted to the bar in 1860; removed
to Arkansas to practice ; served in the United States
navy in 1862-64: and was afterward commissioned
lieutenant colonel of the 4th Arkansas Infantry,
United States Volunteers. In 1867—68 he was a
member of the Arkansas Constitutional Conven-
tion; in 1868, of the Legislature; and in the last
year he was appointed Judge Advocate General of
the State. From 1869 till 1878 he was United
States consul at Ottawa, Canada, and was then en-
gaged in corporation practice till 1894, when he
was appointed a judge of the New Jersey Court of
Errors and Appeals. He was author of “ The
Origin and Signification of Scottish Surnames”
(1862); “The Institution of the Society of the Cin-
cinnati in the State of New Jersey” (1866); and
“ Noye’s Maxims of the Laws of England ” (1870).
Skerrett, Joseph Salathiel, naval officer, born
in Chillicothe, Ohio, Jan. 18, 1833; died in Wash-
ington, D.C., Dec. 31, 1896. He was appointed a
midshipman in the United States navy Oct. 12, 1848;
became passed midshipman June 15, 1854; master,
Sept. 15, 1855; lieutenant on the following day;
lieutenant commander, July 16, 1862 ; commander,
Jan. 9, 1867; captain, June 5, 1878; commodore,
Aug. 4, 1889; and rear admiral, April 16, 1894; and
was retired July 9, 1894. During his naval career
he was on sea service for twenty-two years and four
months, and on shore or other duty twenty years and
eleven months. When the civil war broke out he was
on duty on the coast of Africa, engaged in the exter-
mination of the slave trade, and was on the United
States sloop “Saratoga” when she aided in the cap-
ture of the “Nightingale,” one of the last of the
American slavers, with over 1,000 slaves on board.
His principal service during the civil war was on
June 27, 1864, when, as commander of the gunboat
“ Aroostook,” of the Western Gulf squadron, he
successfully attacked the Confederate fortifications
at the mouth of Brazos river, Texas. In 1867-
68 he commanded the apprentice ship “ Ports-
mouth,” and was efficient in building up the a
prentice system in the navy. During 1868-72 he
was on duty atthe Naval Academy, and commanded
the “ Macedonian” and the “Saratoga” on prac-
tice cruises. He commanded the “ Portsmouth” in
1872~75, and made an extensive surveying trip in
the Pacific. On this trip he made his entrance in
the harbor of Honolulu without the aid of a trained
pilot, which surprised other naval officers because
of its difficulty. As the result of the presence of
the “ Portsmouth” when the revolution of 1878
was threatening, peace was maintained and the late
-
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN, (Smrru.) 587
King Kalakaua was placed on the throne. While
commanding the “ Richmond,” the flagship of the
Asiatic station in 1881-84, he visited Apia, Samoa,
to settle some trouble there in which the United
States consul had become involved, and to nego-
tiate for a coaling station at Pago-pago. In Octo-
ber, 1883, he succeeded to the command of the
squadron on the Asiatic station ; in 1884—86 was at
the naval asylum in Philadelphia; in 1889-’90 was
commandant of the navy yard at Portsmouth,
N. H.; in 1892 became commander of the Pacific
_ Station; and from November, 1893, till his retire-
ment, was in command of the Asiatic station.
Smith, Alfred Baker, lawyer, born in Massena,
N. Y., Nov. 17, 1825; died in Poughkeepsie, N. Y.,
Jan. 28, 1896. He was graduated at Union College
in 1851; was admitted to the bar in Poughkeepsie,
soon afterward was elected county judge; and with
eleven other men formed the first Republican or-
ization in Dutchess County, New York, the mem-
of which were nicknamed “ the twelve apostles,”
in 1864. In 1862 he organized the 15th Dutchess
County Regiment, and accompanied it to the front
as major. He fought in every engagement from
Gettysburg to Bentonville, was with Sherman’s
army in the march to the sea; was commissioned
colonel of the 150th New York Infantry; and at
the close of the war was brevetted brigadier general
of volunteers. Subsequently he was appointed col-
lector and postmaster at Poughkeepsie.
Smith, Gustavus Woodson, military officer,
born in Scott County, Kentucky, Jan. 1, 1822; died in
New York city, June 23, 1896. He was graduated
at the United States Military Academy, and com-
missioned a brevet 2d lieutenant in the Corps of
Engineers in 1842; spent two years on the construc-
tion of fortifications in the harbor of New London,
Conn., and the two following years at the Military
Academy as Assistant Professor of Engineering.
On Sept. 24, 1846, he was assigned to duty under
Gen. Scott in Mexico as commander of the sappers,
miners, and pontonniers, and for his services during
that war, especially at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and
Contreras, he was brevetted ist lieutenant and cap-
tain. He was recalled to the Military Academy as
Assistant Professor of Engineering in 1849, and re-
mained there till his resignation from the army, in
1854. In 1855 he was appointed superintendent of
the extension of the United States Treasury build-
ing, and afterward was en in engineering
work in connection with the Branch Mint and the
Marine Hospital at New Orleans, and with the
Trenton Ironworks. He was appointed street com-
missioner of New York city in 1858, and a member
of the board to revise the programme of instruction
at the United States Military Academy in 1860;
and in 1861 returned to Kentucky, and was com-
missioned a major general in the Confederate army.
On May 31, 1862, Gen. Johnston having been se-
Ss wounded in the battle of Fair Oaks, Gen.
Smith was appointed commander of the Army of
Northern Virginia, but he held the post only one
day, as on June 2d he reported himself sick. - He
was subsequently in command at Richmond. In
1863, just before the Gettysburg campaign, he re-
signed from the army and took charge of a Confed-
erate gun foundry. He commanded the State troops
of Georgia in 186465, and surrendered at Macon,
April 20, 1865. In 1866-70 he was superintendent
of the Southwest Iron Works, at Chattanooga, Tenn. ;
in 1870-76 was Insurance Commissioner of Ken-
tucky; and he had been in business in New York
city since 1876. He published “ Notes on Life In-
surance” and “Confederate War Papers.”
Smith, Joseph Edward Adams, author, born in
Portsmouth, N. H., Feb. 4, 1822; died in Pittsfield,
Mass., Oct. 29, 1896. He was educated at Gorham
Seminary and Bowdoin College, and for many years
was engaged in journalism, having connections
with the “New Englander” and the Berkshire
County Eagle.” He was employed for ten years in
compiling a history of Pittsfield. He also prepared
three other histories of the town, memoirs of the
first Zenas Crane and Gov. George N. Briggs, a his-
tory of Pontoosue lake, and other works.
Smith, Justin Almerin, clergyman, born in
Ticonderoga, N. Y., Dec. 29,1819; died in Chicago,
Ill, Feb. 4, 1896. He was graduated at Union Col-
lege in 1843; was pastor of the Baptist church at
North Bennington, Vt., in 184549, and of the First
Church in Rochester, N. Y., in 1849-53: and was
editor of the Baptist periodical, first “The Chris-
tian Times,” now “The Standard,” from 1853 till
his death. In 1858 he received the degree of D. D.
from Shurtleff College. Among his numerous pub-
lications are two books for children, * The Martyr
of Vilvorde,” a sketch of William Tyndale (New
York, 1856), and “ Uncle John upon his Travels ”
(1871). His other principal works are : * The Spirit
of the Word ” (1868); “ Patmos: or, The Kingdom
and the Patience” (1874); “Commentary on the
Revelation” (Philadelphia, 1884); and “ Modern
Church History ” (New Haven, 1887).
Smith, Russell, scenic artist, born in Glasgow,
Seotland, in 1812; died in Glendale, Pa., Nov. 7,
1896. When seven years old he removed with his
ents to Indiana County, Pennsylvania, where he
Sesane so impressed with the beauties of the scen-
ery that he begged for an opportunity to study
pointing. Soon afterward the family removed to
ittsburg, where young Smith began his work as
an artist, his first pieces being life-size portraits of
Gens. Jackson and Lafayette, produced with house
painter’s paints and a worn-out brush. This led to
an order for some scene painting for the old Thes-
pian Society, with which he had played small parts.
He also studied with James R. Lambdin, a portrait
painter. In 1833, when Edwin Forrest was engaged
to play “Metamora ” in Pittsburg, a tent scene was
wanted, and in the emergency young Smith was
engaged to paint it. This work so pleased the great
tragedian that he remained a friend of the artist
till his death. The incident decided Mr. Smith’s
career, and for fully forty years he was one of the
* best known scenic artists in the United States. He
painted almost the entire scenery when the Acad-
emy of Philadelphia was erected, and his drop cur-
tains in the old Chestnut and Walnut Street Thea-
ters were remarkable productions for their day.
Mr. Smith spent 1850-57 in Europe, and on his re-
turn produced a diorama of the Holy Land, a pano-
rama of Mexico and California, and some notable
operatic scenery. In recent years he painted the
stock scenery for operatic presentations.
Smith, Walter Denton, educator, born in Jack-
son, Mich., in 1870; died in Ann Arbor, Mich.,
Sept. 20, 1896. He learned telegraphy, typeset-
ting, stenography, and typewriting, and while work-
ing in the office of a law firm he was encouraged
to study for the bar. He spent one year each in
Kalamazoo College and the law department of the
University of Michigan; was admitted to the bar
in Detroit in 1891; was one of the organizers and
the first secretary of the Detroit College of Law,
and founded the “Critical Review,” and was its
editor till 1894. While in Detroit he also estab-
lished and conducted “ The Writ,” a legal period-
ical published under the auspices of the College of
Law. In 1894 he was appointed an instructor in
the law department of the University of Michigan,
where he remained until his death. He prepared
for the press a selection of “ Cases on Corporations,”
and he also published a text-book on “ Elemen-
tary Law.”
588
Smith, William Henry, journalist, born in Aus-
terlitz, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1883; died in Lake Forest,
llL, July 27, 1896. When he was two years old his
parents removed to Homer, Ohio, where he was edu-
cated and began teaching, and subsequently he was
a tutor in a Western college. In 1854 he became a
reporter on the “Cincinnati Times,” of which he
was afterward managing editor, in the meantime
editing the monthly * Casket and Review.” From
the “ Times” he went to the “ Gazette ” as an edi-
torial writer at the beginning of the civil war, and
during that period he rendered the Union cause ef-
fective service with his pen and was active in pro-
moting enlistments and means of relief for the sol-
diers in the field. In 1864 and 1866 he was elected
Secretary of State of Ohio on the Union ticket, and
shortly before the expiration of his second term he
resigned and became one of the founders and the
editor of the “Cincinnati Chronicle.” Failing
health soon compelled him to retire from all active
work. In 1870 he was appointed general manager
of the Western Associated Press, with headquar-
ters in Chicago. In 1883 he negotiated a union of
the New York and the Western Associated Presses,
and became general manager of the consolidated as-
sociation, and in 1893 he rétired from the office.
While managing the Western Associated Press he
introduced the use of the typewriter in telegraph
work, developed the leased-wire system of news dis-
tribution, improved its methods of gathering and
distributing news, and placed it on a sound finan-
cial basis. In 1877 he became collector of customs
at Chicago. He was the author of historical works
relating to Ohio and Western history and a fre-
ee contributor to periodicals. He discovered in
the British Museum many unpublished letters of
Washington to Col. Henry Bouquet ; demonstrated
that the Washington letters published by Jared
Sparks were not given correctly ; and published
“The St. Clair Papers ” (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1882) ;
a biography of Charles Hammond ; and a“ Political
History of the United States.” At the time of his
death he had nearly completed a work on the “ Life
and Administration of President Rutherford B.
Hayes,” as the Jiterary executor of that President.
Spaulding, John P., philanthropist, born in
Madison, Me., July 10, 1832; died in Boston, Mass.,
Jan. 11, 1896. He removed to Boston in 1857; be-
came a partner in the firm of Israel Nash & Co. in
the following year; and since 1867 had been en-
gaged in the manufacture of sugar under the firm
name of Nash, Spaulding & Co. He was one of the
principal organizers of the Sugar Trust, and the
second largest holder of its stock. For nearly forty
years he had lived in the United States Hotel in
Boston, and one of his holiday diversions was to fill
his pockets with $5 gold pieces, and go around dis-
tributing them among the employees who had done
him kindnesses. On Christmas day, 1893, he gave
to each of 8 young women employed in the hotel a
certificate of stock in his sugar refinery valued at
$5,000 par. He also provided means for the educa-
tion and support of Helen Keller, the remarkable
deaf, dumb, and blind girl. His acts of benevo-
lence were performed quietly, and with the injunc-
tion that nothing should be said about them.
Stearns, Ozora Pierson, jurist, born in De Kalb,
N. Y.. Jan. 15, 1831; died in San Diego, Cal., June
3, 1896. He was graduated at Michigan University
in 1858, and at its law school in 1860; began prac-
ticing in Rochester, Minn. ; and became prosecut-
ing attorney for Clinton County. In 1862 he re-
cruited a company for the 9th Minnesota Infantry,
of which he was commissioned ist lieutenant, and
in April, 1864, was commissioned colonel of the 39th
United States Colored Infantry. With this regi-
ment he took part in the operations before Peters-
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Smirp—Srerson.)
burg in July, in the expeditions against Fort Fisher
under Gens. Butler and Terry, and in the last cam-
paign in North Carolina. After the war he served
again as county attorney, and was appointed a reg-
ister in bankruptcy. In 1871 he became a United
States Senator; in 1872 removed to Duluth; and
since 1874 had been judge of the 11th Judicial Dis-
trict of Minnesota.
Steers, James Rich, shipbuilder, born in Plym-
outh, England, Oct. 15, 1808; died in New York
city, April 17,1896. Hewas a son of Henry Steers,
who removed his family to New York city in 1817.
James learned the shipbuilding trade with his fa-
ther; aided him in building the United States.
sloop of war “ Peacock” in 1829; and became su-
perintendent for the firm of Smith & Dimon in the.»
following year. He built the yacht “ Edwin For-
rest” in 1841, and the “ Martin Van Buren,” the:
fastest boat of her size at the time, in 1842. After-
ward he applied himself almost wholly to yacht.
building, and among other boats turned out the
“Three Brothers,” the “ Miller’s Damsel,” and the
“ Hussar,” all noted in their day. In 1850, with his
brother, he formed the firm of George & James R.
Steers, and the same year entered into a contract to
build the famous yacht “ America.” The brothers.
personally sailed the yacht on her victorious con-
test around the Isle of Wight, England, in August,
1851. Mr. Steers had been retired from business
since 1857.
Steinway, William, manufacturer, born in See-
sen, Brunswick, Germany, March 5, 1836; died in
New York city, Nov. 30, 1896. He was the fourth
son of Henry Engelhard Steinway, a manufacturer
of pianos in Brunswick. In his youth, besides the
usual elementary branches common in Germany,
he was taught French, English, and music. In
1850 the father and three of his sons removed to
New York city. William, who had shown unusual
proficiency in musie¢ as a hoy, decided to follow his
father’s trade, and spent two years as an me ST
in a piano ere! In 1853 the father and
the brothers, Charles, Henry, and William founded
the house of Steinway & Sons. William became
the head of the firm in 1889. While he, with the .
other members of the firm, gave close attention to
their manufacturing interests and met with such
success that an English syndicate offered $4,000,000:
for their business, William became one of the
most conspicuous German citizens of New York by
promoting important measures for the benefit of the
city. He took a great personal interest in music,
erected Steinway Hall as a center for the exposition
of the highest musical culture, and was prompt and
generous in efforts to foster musical education. In
public life Mr. Steinway was best known by reason
of his connection with the movement for providing
rapid transit in the metropolis. On the creation of
the original Rapid Transit Commission, in 1890, he
was appointed one of its members, and with Com-
missioner John H. Starin was officially connected
with the movement through the various changes in
the composition of the commission. His benefac-
tions in the cause of education and charity were
large but unostentatious. In the line of philan-
thropic effort he will be remembered long for his
creation of the industrial settlement named after
him at Astoria, Long Island. He not only erected
large factories, foundries, and mills for the manu-
facture of various parts of pianos, but practically
built up an entire town, providing it with complete
educational, religious, and other public establish-
ments, and a railroad connecting the town with
Long Island city.
Stetson, John, theatrical manager, born in Bos-
ton, Mass., about 1834; died there April 17, 1896.
In early life he sold newspapers at the Statehouse;
4
- OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Srevens—THompson.)
subsequently was noted as an athlete and runner;
and in 1866 became connected with a circus company.
His first experience as a manager was at the Olym-
pic Theater, Boston, whence he went to the Adelphi
and, in 1870, to the Howard Atheneum, where he
remained till 1880. While managing the Howard
he also took at various times the Waverley, Booth’s,
and the Fifth Avenue Theaters in New York city.
He also managed traveling companies, including
those of Salvini and Modjeska. At the time of his
death he was proprietor of the new Savoy Hotel and
the Park Theater, in Boston.
Stevens, Thomas Holdup, naval officer, born in
Middletown, Conn., May 27, 1819; died in Rockville,
Md., May 15, 1896. He was appointed a midship-
man in the United States navy Dec. 14, 1836; was
romoted passed midshipman July 1, 1842; master,
aaly 25, 1848; lieutenant, May 10, 1849; com-
mander, July 16,
1862; captain, July
25, 1866; commo-
dore, Noy. 25, 1872;
and rear-admiral,
Oct. 27, 1879; and
was retired May
27, 1881. In 1842
he served as aid to
President Tyler;
in 1843-44 was
on the steamer
* Michigan ” on the
\\: Great Lakes; and
» in 1845-’48 was na-
val storekeeper at
Honolulu. While
returhing with his
wife and_ eldest
child from the last duty he was shipwrecked, and
the family remained for three months on a desert
island. He was again on duty on the lakes in
1849-51; was engaged in surveying the California
and Oregon coasts in 1852-55; and was assigned to
the command of the steam gunboat “ Ottawa” at
the beginning of the civil war. In November,
1861, he took part in the action against the Con-
federate fleet at Port Royal and the engagement
with Forts Beauregard and Walker. In January
following he was in the battle of Port Royal Ferry.
He had an engagement with Tatnall’s fleet in Feb-
uary; took part in the capture of Fort Clinch, the
towns of Fernandina and St. Mary’s, and the
steamer “ Darlington” in March; and during March
and April commanded the first expedition up the
St. John’s, which captured Forts Steele and Finne-
gan, the towns of 7 sae Jacksonville, Magnolia,
and Pulaski, and the yacht “ America.” In May,
1862, he was given command of the steamer “ Mara-
tanza,” of the North Atlantic blockading squadron,
and was present at the battle of West Point. He
then commanded the expedition to support Gen.
McClellan’s advance. After capturing the Confed-
erate gunboat “Teazer,” he was transferred to the
command of the ironclad “ Monitor,” with which
he covered the flank of the army on the James
river and the rear on its withdrawal from the
Peninsula. During the latter part of 1862 and the
first part of 1863, as commander of the “ Sonoma,”
of the West India squadron, he captured the
schooner “Clyde,” steamer “ Victoria,” brigantine
“ Atlantic,” bark “Springbok,” and steamer “ Vir-
ginia,” and chased the privateer “ Florida” for
thirty-six hours. In August, 1863, he took part in
the defenses of Charleston harbor, and from Sept. 1
till Nov. 5 in the operations against Fort Sumter
and the Sullivan island batteries and the capture of
Forts Wagner and Gregg. From July 1 till Aug.
3, 1864, he was active in the operations before Mo-
589
bile, and he participated in the battle of Mobile
Bay. He was frequently commended by his supe-
rior officers for the skill and daring with which he
discharged his duty in these several operations.
After the war he was a lighthouse inspector, com-
mander of the frigate “Guerriere” of the Euro-
ean squadron, and commandant of the Norfolk
avy Yard.
Stone, Andros B., manufacturer, born in Charl-
ton, Mass., June 18, 1826; died in New York city,
Dec. 15, 1896. He received a limited education,
became a clerk for a bridge-building firm, learned
the details of the business, and when twenty-six
ears old was the head of the firm of Stone &
oomer, who built the first bridge across the Mis-
sissippi, a bridge across the Illinvis with the long-
est draw at that time known, and the span of the
Union passenger depot in Chicago, at that time un-
equaled in size. In 1858 he became a manufac-
turer of Ciron in leveland, and an officer in several
rolling-mill, sheet-iron, and boiler-plate companies.
His interest in iron and steel work led him to
make two trips to Europe to study the process of
making Bessemer steel, and on his return he intro-
duced the process into the United States, and at
his mills in Cleveland made the first steel rails of
American ore. In 1871 Mr. Stone removed to New
York city and became interested in several railroad
and construction companies. He was particularly
liberal in his benefactions for destitute children.
The spacious summer home for children at Bath,
Long Island, was one of his gifts to the Children’s
Aid Society.
Talecot, Daniel Smith (originally Daniel Tal-
eott Smith), theologian, born in Newburyport, Mass.,
March 7, 1813; died in Bangor, Me., Jan. 19, 1896.
He was graduated at Amherst College in 1831, and
at Andover Theological Seminary in 1834; was ap-
pointed an instructor of Hebrew at Andover in
1833; became a pastor at Sherborn, Mass., in 1836 ;
and was Professor of Sacred Literature in the Ban-
gor Theological Seminary from 1839 till 1881, when
he was retired. He received the degree of D. D.
from Waterville College in 1853 and Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1858. Dr. Talcott contributed many arti-
cles to the American edition of Smith’s “ Diction-
os the Bible,” and “gear theological works.
appen, Abraham B., jurist, born in New Ham-
burg, Dutchess County, N. Y., in 1824; died in
Fordham, N. Y., June 1, 1896. He received a pub-
lic-school education; was admitted to the bar; and
entered political life in 1848, when he took part in
the struggle between George Lalor and Horace
Greeley for Congress. In 1858 he was elected to
the Legislature, and in 1861 was the successful
Union war candidate for inspector of State prisons.
He was a member of the State Constitutional Con-
vention in 1867; was elected judge in the New
York Supreme Court for the 2d Judicial Dis-
trict in 1868, and served without interruption till
1882. Mayor Grant appointed him a park commis-
sioner in 1891, and he was elected president of the
board in 1893, but with the other Tammany com-
missioners was removed by Mayor Strong in 1895.
Thompson, Wordsworth, historical and genre
inter, born in Baltimore, Md., May 26, 1840; died
in Summit, N. J., Aug. 28, 1896. In 1861 he took
up the study of art in Paris, and in the following
year he became a pupil of Charles Gleyre, studying
later under Lambinet and Passini. The first picture
he exhibited was “ Moorlands of Au-Fargi,” at the
Salon of 1865. In 1868 he settled in New York,
which became his home. In 1873 he sent to the Na-
tional Academy a picture called “ Desolation,” which
secured his election as an associate, and he was made
an academician in 1875. In 1878 he became 2
member of the Society of American Artists, sending
590
to the first exhibition a picture called “The Road
to the Sawmill.” Mr. Thompson found his subjects
in Spain, Algiers, and Morocco, as well as in this
country. While his Oriental scenes are of interest,
however, he will probably be best remembered as a
ainter of American historical themes. He painted
Reeclutionsey subjects like “ Annapolis in 1776”
and “ A Review at Philadelphia in 1777,” and he
also chose several themes from colonial times. The
sympathy, knowledge, and merit of his historical
genres gave them a lasting interest. He was a con-
stant exhibitor at the National Academy through-
out his professional life, and his pictures were
agreeable features of many private collections.
Toner, Joseph Meredith, scientist, born in
Pittsburg, Pa., April 30, 1825; died in Washington,
D. C., Aug. 1, 1896. He studied at Western Penn-
sylvania University and Mount St. Mary’s College ;
was graduated at Jefferson Medical College in
1853, and settled in Washington, D. C., to practice,
in 1855. In the early part of his career as a phy-
sician he devised a scheme for collecting and pre-
serving the early medical literature of the United
States, which resulted in the establishment of the
remarkable library of the American Medical Asso-
ciation, which was placed in the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. He was the founder of the Providence
Hospital and of St. Ann’s Infant Asylum in Wash-
ington, and in 1871, by a gift of $3,000, founded
the Toner course of lectures, designed to bring out
new facts in medical science. A few years after-
ward he gave medals to Jefferson Medical College
to be awarded annually for four years for the best
thesis embodying the results of original investiga-
tion, and for several years he gave a similar medal
to the University of Georgetown. Dr. Toner de-
vised the system of symbols of geographical locali-
ties which was adopted by the United States Post-
office Department for its official publications, com-
prising a small square indicating a central location
and the same with small lines projected from the
square to indicate the main and intermediate points
of the compass. He published a large number of
works relating to the medical profession. Probably
his most enduring work was’ his research into early
American medical literature and its results. He
collected over 1,000 treatises published prior to
1800, and probably more than 4,000 sketches for an
original “Biographical Dictionary of Deceased
American Physicians.” In 1882 he presented to
Congress his collection, which comprised 26,000
books and 18,000 pamphlets. Dr. Toner had also
spent many years in making a collection of copies
of every original letter and paper written by George
Washington, whether preserved in the United
States or elsewhere, and it is believed that this col-
lection forms the largest assemblage of Washington
papers ever got together.
Trumbull, Lyman, jurist, born in Colchester,
Conn., Oct. 12, 1813;-died in Chicago, Ill., June 25,
1896. He was a grandson of the Rev. Benjamin
Trumbull, D. D., theologian and historian, and was
educated at Bacon Academy. While teaching in
Georgia he studied law and was admitted to the
bar in 1837. Soon afterward he removed to Belle-
ville, Ill., to practice. In 1840 he was elected to
the Legislature, where he had Abraham Lincoln
for an associate; in 1841 was appointed Secretary
of State; and in 1848 was elected one of the three
justices of the Illinois Supreme Court. He was
elected to Congress as an anti-Nebraska Democrat
in 1854, but before the time arrived for him to take
his seat the Legislature elected him United States
Senator, his opponents being Abraham Lincoln,
candidate of the Whigs, and Gen. James Shields,
Democratic nominee for re-election. After several
_ ballots had been taken, Mr. Lincoln withdrew and
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN,
e
(ToNER— VANDERBILT.)
asked his friends to vote for Judge Trumbull. In
1861 and 1867 he was re-elected, and he served con-
tinuously in that body for eighteen years. In the
Senate he early opposed his party on the slavery
question and his colleague, Stephen A. Douglas,
on the popular sovereignty doctrine. His antag-
onism to the plans for the
extension of slavery led him
first to denounce and then
to abandon his party and
to ally himself with the anti-
slavery workers. Through
the whole period of the civil
war he was a conspicuously
stanch Union man. He
urged timely and adequate
measures for the prosecution
of the war, supported the
emancipation proclamation,
defended the suspension of
the habeas corpus, intro-
duced a bill prohibiting
the return of slaves to
their owners and confiscating the property of all
persons in rebellion, and drafted the thirteenth
amendment to, the Constitution, which abolished
slavery forever in the United States. For many
years he was chairman of the Committee on the
udiciary. His vote against the impeachment of
President Johnson was condemned by many of his
arty associates, and he afterward acted with the
emocratic party, and was its candidate for Gov-
ernor of Illinois in 1880. He supported Horace
Greeley for President in 1872, and joined the Popu-
lists in 1894, In the last year he defended the offi-
cers of the American Railway Union in the pro-
ceedings against them growing out of the great
railway strike.
Tuckerman, Charles Keating, author, born in
Boston, Mass., March 11, 1821; died in Florence,
Italy, Feb. 26, 1896. He was a brother of Henry T.
Tuckerman, and was appointed the first United
States minister resident in Greece in 1868, serving
till 1872. He edited Rangabe’s “ Greece : Her Prog-
ress and Present Position” (New York, 1867); and
was author of “The Greeks of To-day” (1878);
“ Poems” (London, 1885); and “Personal Recol-
lections of Notable People,” (New York, 1895). For
his services in behalf of the Greeks, King George
conferred on him the decoration of the Order of the
Saviour.
Tuttle, Isaac Henry, clergyman, born in New
Haven, Conn., Feb. 5, 1811; died in New York city,
Nov. 20, 1896. He was graduated at Trinity Col-
lege, Hartford, in 1836; studied at the General
Theological Seminary and was ordained a deacon
in 1839 and a priest in the following year. In 1850
he accepted a call to St. Luke’s Church in New
York city, of which he remained the active rector
till 1891, when he became rector emeritus. He
founded St. Luke’s Home for Indigent Christian
Females and the Home for Old Men and Aged
Couples, aided in the founding of the Protestant
Episcopal Orphan Asylum and the Church of the
Beloved Disciple, and secured the removal of his
church from Hudson Street and the erection of a
new edifice on Lexington avenue at a cost of over
$250,000. He was among the first of the Episcopal
clergy in New York city to encourage the forma-
tion of sisterhoods. He bequeathed $4,000 to St.
Luke’s Home for Indigent Females; $5,000 to
Trinity College, Hartford: and $10,000 to the
Church he had served so long.
Vanderbilt, Maria Louisa, benefactor, born in
Coeymans, near Albany, N. Y., in 1821; died in
Scarboro, N. Y., Nov. 6, 1896. She was a daughter
of the Rev. Samuel Kissam, and widow of William
H. Vanderbilt, whom she married in 1841. She
was noted for the simplicity of her home life and
her quiet methods of disposing charity. For
many years prior to her death she had been par-
ticularly interested in the work of St. Bartholo-
mew’s Church and its mission in New York city.
She erected the new parish house as a joint gift
from herself and her son Cornelius, and the greater
part of the large amount of money‘she annually
gave in charity passed through the hands of the
Rev. Dr. David H. Greer, the rector. She be-
queathed to St. Bartholomew’s Church, $250,000.
Wales, George W., art collector and benefactor,
born in Randolph, Mass., in June, 1815; died in
Newport, R. L, July 7, 1896. He accumulated a
large fortune in mercantile business in Boston, and
after his retirement spent money liberally in charity
‘and the gratification of a taste for literature and
art. He was the principal benefactor of the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts and of the Channing Memo-
rial Church in Newport. About thirty years ago,
while visiting Florence, Italy, he became interested
in collecting rare specimens of pottery and porce-
lain. This taste he continued to gratify till his
death, when he had made two collections, at an ex-
- penditure of several hundred thousand dollars, that
are now almost priceless. One collection he placed
on exhibition in the Museum of Fine Arts, and pre-
sented it to the institution with sundry other arti-
cles, numbering in all over 700 pieces, in 1895.
The other collection he retained in his Boston resi-
dence. Mr. Wales provided in his will that after the
death of his widow the Museum of Fine Arts should
receive $30,000; the collection of pottery and glass
in his residence; his books on pottery, engraving,
glass making, lace, pee, architecture, and fine
arts in general; and 12 paintings, including works
of Marinari, Siliverti, Calvert, and Page.
Walke, Henry, naval officer, born near Ports-
mouth, Va., Dec. 24, 1808; died in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
8, 1896. He was 4 ee a midshipman in
the United States navy Feb. 1, 1827; was promoted
midshipman, June 10, 1833; lieutenant, Feb.
1839 ; commander, Sept. 14, 1855; captain, July
16, 1862; com-
modore, July 25,
1866; and rear
admiral, July 13,
1870; and was
retired April 26,
1881. His first
important — ser-
vice was ren-
dered during the
Mexican War
as executive offi-
cer of the bomb
brig * Vesuvius,”
when he took
rt in the ca
ede VeraCas
and the success-
ful operations
against Tabas-
co, Tuspan, and Alvarado. Immediately prior to
the beginning of the civil war he was on duty at
the Pensacola Navy Yard, where he adopted meas-
ures that prevented the occupation of Fort Pickens
by the Confederates. He also on his own responsi-
bility, and contrary to the orders of his superior offi-
cers and the Secretary of the Navy, secured the
safety of all loyal officers, sailors, marines, and Gov-
ernment employees at that station and removed
them to New York on the seizure of the navy yard.
For this disobedience of orders he was court-mar-
tialed and publicly reprimanded by Secretary Welles,
though unofficially his action was commended. On
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (WaLes—Warver.) 591.
Sept. 6, 1868, he was ordered to duty with the Mis-
sissippi flotilla and was given command of the gun-
boat * Taylor.” At the battle of Belmont he com-
manded the squadron that co-operated with Gen.
Grant and prevented the Confederates from cutting
off a part of the National army on its retreat to the
transports, a service for which he was officially com-
plimented by Gen. Grant. He was then given com-
mand of the gunboat “Carondelet,” carrying 13
guns and partially ironclad. In this vessel he took
a conspicuous part in the battle of Fort Henry, the
first decisive National victory in Western waters.
for which he received the thanks of the Secretary of
the Navy, of Congress, and of the State of Ohio,
On Feb. 13, 1862, he opened alone the battle of
Fort Donelson, and on the 14th he was the last to
retire from the front line of battle. With the same
vessel he took part in the bombardment of Island
No. 10 on March 17, and on April 4 voluntarily ran
the gantlet of the Confederate batteries and princi-
pally captured the batteries below the island on the
6th and 7th. For this feat, the first that had been
attempted on the Mississippi, he was commended
by Flag-Officer Foote and the Secretary of the
ary: At the battle of Fort Pillow he led the fleet
and rescued the gunboat “ Cincinnati,” and at Mem-
phis, June 6, he was second in the line of battle and
his gunboat was the principal one that engaged the
ram “ Arkansas.” On July 16 he was given com-
mand of the partly protected ram “ Lafayette,” in
which he passed the Vicksburg batteries on April
16. At the battle of Grand Gulf, April 29, 1863, he
led the second division of the fleet, and unaided si-
lenced the main fort on Point of Rocks. Subse-
uently he dispersed the Confederates under Gen.
Taylor at Simmesport, La.; blockaded the mouth
of Red river; commanded the “Sacramento” in
search of the “ Alabama”; blockaded the Confed-
erate steamer “Rappahannock” at Calais, France,
till the close of the war; and intercepted her when
she escaped into British waters under the British
flag. He retired voluntarily to hasten the promo-
tion of junior officers.
Wallace, William A.. lawyer, born in Clearfield.
Pa., Novy. 28, 1827; died in New York city, May 22,
1896. He was admitted to the bar in 1847, and be-
gan his political career in 1862, when he was elected
to the State Senate. By re-elections he served there
till 1875, and was presiding officer in 1871. In 1874
he was a member of the commission to propose
amendments to the State Constitution, and the same
year was elected United States Senator to succeed
John Scott, Republican. While in the Senate he
served on the Committees on Finance, Appropria-
tions, and Foreign Relations. In 1882 he was again
elected to the State Senate, and in this term intro-
duced the present arbitration statute and several
amendments to the railroad laws of the State. He
was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for
Governor of Pennsylvania in 1890, but withdrew in
favor of Robert E. Pattison.
Warner, Olin Levi, N. A., sculptor, born in Suf-
field, Conn., April 9, 1844: died in New York city,
Aug. 14,1896. On his father’s side Mr. Warner was
descended from the brother of Col. Seth Warner, who
fought at Bennington and Hubbardston with Ethan
Allen. His father, for a time an itinerant Metho-
dist minister, was a man of great mechanical inge-
nuity, and one of his father’s brothers possessed a
certain uncultivated artistic feeling, but aside from
this, students of heredity could find little to account
for the very high order of artistic temperament
which Mr. Warner displayed. In his early years
his father removed to Amsterdam, Montgomery
County, N. Y., to take charge of his grandfather's
affairs, and this was young Warner’s home until he
was fifteen. He attended the district school, spent
592
one summer at work in a glove manufactory, and
at fifteen entered the Seward Institute, in Orange
County, a school kept by his uncle. His facility in
drawing caricatures had already attracted his
schoolmates. It is related that he once carved a
head of Lincoln out of chalk, but the admiration of
the bystanders did
not prevent him
from destroying it
because he knew
he could do better.
At the breaking
out of the war
he was restrained
with difficulty
from entering the
service as a drum-
mer boy, but he
finally remained
with his parents,
then living in
Pittsford, Vt., and
he attended school
in Brandon until
he was nineteen.
His natural and
constant desire for
artistic expression was, of course, uncultivated.
He had never seen a statue and he knew sculp-
ture only through tthe engravings in his “ Hor-
ace.” He determined to test his capabilities ac-
cording to his best knowledge, and, ignorant
as he was, he applied himself to carving a bust
of his father out of a block of plaster of Paris.
The bust was pronounced a likeness. This trial,
the young novice thought, justified him in adopt-
ing sculpture. With the same concentration of
purpose he reasoned that art was a very serious
thing, that the only instruction worth having was
the best, and that there was no suitable training to
be had in this country. Therefore he determined
to put all thoughts of art behind him until he could
earn enough money to enable him to study abroad.
He learned telegraphing and was employed as an
operator in Albion and Rochester, N. v. and later,
from 1866 to 1869, was under Gov. Bullock in the
Southern Express Company’s office at Atlanta, Ga.
He managed to save $1,500 and sailed for Paris,
going first of all to the Louvre. An English artist
whom he met by chance directed him to a sculptor’s
studio, where he studied for nine months, until,
with the aid of Minister Washburne, he obtained a
place at the Beaux Arts, where Jouffroy was then a
conspicuous figure. He secured admission to Car-
peaux’s studio as a workman, where his modeling
attracted the attention of the master and brought
him an invitation—the first extended to an Ameri-
can—to remain in ‘the atelier as a student. Mr.
Warner was in Paris through the Franco-Prussian
War and enlisted in the Foreign Legion. He re-
mained also throughout the perilous days of the
siege and the reign of the Commune, which brought
him several narrow escapes. Returning to America
in 1872, he opened a studio in New York, and
speedily learned by bitter experience the difference
in the estimates placed upon art in France and in
this country at that time. There was little real
interest in sculpture and commissions were often
awarded through political or personal influence.
Mr. Warner’s modesty and his very seriousness of
purpose told against him. After four years of pri-
vation he was forced to apply to the Southern Ex-
press Company for a place like that which he for-
merly held, but the president, Mr. Plant, encour-
aged him with a commission for a bust, which at-
tracted favorable attention and led to another
order. In 1877 he met Mr. Daniel Cottier, one of
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN,
(WARNER.)
the few art dealers who could be classed as genuine
amateurs and art lovers, and, with a keen apprecia-
tion of Warner’s quality, Mr. Cottier invited him
to exhibit his work in his rooms. Mr. Clarence
Cook and other critics gave the artist almost his
first public recognition, although before this the
chairman of the Republican Central Committee
sent him to Columbus to model a bust of R. B.
Hayes. This and a colossal alto-relief of Edwin
Forrest, shown at the Centennial Exposition, were
received with favor. Incidentally, about this time
Mr. Warner wrote a lecture on communism, which
was delivered in New York. In 1877-78 he mod-
eled a small statue of “Twilight” for Mr. J. L.
Williams. He became one of the five original mem-
bers of the Society of American Artists, founded as
a protest against the ultra-conservatism of the
Academy. ith this society he exhibited in 1878
a bust of his father and some medallions; in 1879
the “ Twilight”; in 1880 his virile bust of J. Alden
Weir, which afterward excited profound admiration
at the Paris Salon; in 1881 a small statue of “ The
Dancing Nymph” and his singularly beautiful
bust of Miss Maud Morgan, a cast of which was
purchased for the Boston Art Museum ; and in 1882
a delightfully modeled alto-relief, “Cupid and
Psyche.” Busts of Mr. Cottier and his two young
daughters, of Mrs. Cook, Mr. W. C. Brownell, an
A. A. Low, and some remarkable busts of his wife
and little daughter were among his notable work in
ortraiture. iis decorative work included colossal
eads for the building of the Long Island Historical
Society in Brooklyn and the Pennsylvania Railroad
station in Philadelphia. He modeled three heroic
statues—a seated figure of Gov. Buckingham, which
is in the Capitol at Hartford, Conn.; the statue of
William Lloyd Garrison on Commonwealth Avenue,
Boston; and a standing figure of Gen. Devens, of
Massachusetts. He designed a fountain which is in
Union Square, New York, some beautiful and dig-
nified caryatids for a fountain, which it is the
good fortune of Portland, Ore., to possess. In the
course of his visits to Oregon Mr. Warner was
attracted by the noble types presented by the Nez
Pereé and other Indians, and he modeled reliefs
of Chief Joseph and other chiefs which represent
the highest order of Indian sculpture that we have
had. In the last year of his life he was engaged
upon reliefs for the doors of the new Congressional
Library. One of these doors was left unfinished, to
be completed by another hand, but the other door
and the noble reliefs of the spandrels which show
one of the few American motifs seen in the decora-
tion of the library, form an enduring memorial of the
sculptor. His untimely death, due to an accident,
was a most serious loss not only to the National
Academy of Design and the Society of American
Artists, but to all those who saw in his development
the fruition of the purest and strongest talent which
has found expression in our sculpture. Though this
may seem high praise to those who were debarred
by Warner’s extreme modesty from an intimate ac-
quaintance with his character and work, it is none
the less deserved. He held a most serious, fairly
reverential view of art. In all that he did he was
absolutely sincere. His method of expression was
entirely sculpturesque. He held to sculpture as an
art primarily monumental rather than pictorial.
His view of his subject was always a large one. He
grasped the essential features, the necessities of
construction, the relations of planes, the demands
of truthfulness and balance. In modeling he
showed a delicacy of touch, a caressing quality, and
a subtility of discrimination which became the more
wonderful from its union with the almost classical
severity of his general attitude. Of this charming
Jinesse his * Cupid and Psyche” and his busts of
Sea ern
‘OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.- (Weexs—Wurryey.)
children are perhaps the best examples. His bust
of Cottier has been likened to a Greek Bacchus and
it might well be accepted as an antique. His sense
of beauty was as pure asa Greek’s. His work was
never superficially decorative, nor conventional, nor
tricky. His sincerity, his mastery .of materials, his
feeling for construction, his profound sensitiveness
to the beautiful, and his rare tact in modeling im-
rted to all his work a rare and serious character.
is death in his prime meant the loss of a great
artist, whose work yet unfinished bears, neverthe-
theless, the stamp of a rare and precious genius.
Articles upon Mr. Warner were published by Wil-
liam C. Brownell in “Scribner’s Magazine ” for Oc-
tober, 1896, by “ Henry Eckford ” in the “Century
ine” for January, 1889, and Ripley Hitchcock
in the “ Art Review” for March, 1887. A memorial
address was delivered by Mr. Brownell before the
National Sculpture Society a few months after Mr.
Warner’s death, and was printed privately.
Weeks, Joseph D., statistician, born in Massa-
ehusetts, in 1841; died in Pittsburg, Pa., Dec. 26,
1896. Prior to the civil war he was engaged for
some time as a minister and missionary of the
Methodist Episcopal Church in the South, and dur-
‘ing the war was connected with the United States
Sanitary Commission, and was also a hospital chap-
lain. After the war he was associated with the
iron and steel industries of the country. He be-
came a Government statistician and was employed
in the compilation of the census reports of 1880
and 1890, having charge particularly of the returns
on coke, glass, manganese, petroleum, and natural
gs: About 1886 he became connected with the
nited States Geological Survey, and prepared the
reports on coke, petroleum, natural gas, and_man-
ganese for the “ Mineral Resources of the United
States.” In 1895 he went to Europe as agent of
the United States Government, to investigate the
process of coke making on the by-product system ;
and he also made a visit to Europe at the instance
of Gov. Hartranft to study the practical results of
conciliation and arbitration as means of settling
labor disputes. At the. time of his death he was
editor of “ The American Manufacturer.”
Weidemeyer, John William, author, born in
Fredericksburg, Va., April 26, 1819: died in Amity-
ville, Long Island, Jan. 19, 1896. His father was an
officer in the life guards of Jerome Bonaparte, King
of Westphalia, with whom at an early age he came
to New Fork city. Among the son’s first teachers
was Alexander T. Stewart, and he completed his
education at the Columbia College Grammar School.
For several years he taught at various seminaries
in Ohio, but subsequently settled in New York cit
and entered upon business as a music dealer an
ey He made collections of lepidoptera, and
iscovered several important species, among which
was Limenitis Weidemeyerii, of- the Adirondack
mountains. His large collection was purchased by
the museum in Ratisbon, Germany. In connection
with the study of entomology he published a
“ Catalogue of North American Butterflies ” (Phila-
delphia, 1864). He contributed to the “Christian
Inquirer” and the “ Atlantic Monthly,” and pre-
pared political articles for various journals. In
1841 he wrote a play entitled “The Vagabonds,”
which was produced at the Franklin Theater, in New
York city, and the Arch Street Theater, in Phila-
delphia, and nearly half a century later he wrote
“Cesar and Cleopatra,” an acting drama, Mr.
Weidemeyer also published “Real and Ideal: A
Collection of Metrical Compositions, by John W.
Montclair” (Philadelphia, 1865); “ Themes and
Translations” (New York, 1867); “American Fish,
and how to catch them ” (1885); and “ From Alpha
to Omega ” (1889).
VOL. XXxv1.—38 A
593
Wentworth, William Pitt, architect, born in
Bellows Falls, Vt., in 1839; died in Newton, Mass.,
April 12, 1896. He was educated in New York city,
and removed to Boston about 1866. Among the
buildings erected after his plans are churches in
Norfolk, Va., in Jamestown, N. Y., and in several
New England cities and towns, and hospitals in
Newton, Lynn, and Boston. The great insane hos-
pital now being erected by the State of Massachu-
setts at Medfield was planned by him.
Westervelt, Daniel D., shipbuildersborn in New
York city, in 1828; died’ near Belmar, N. J., June
4,1896. He was a son of Jacob A. Westervelt, ship-
builder and Mayor of New York city, and, on com-
pleting his education, entered his father’s shipyard
and served successively in each department. Many
of the most famous California clippers, pilot boats,
and steamers built before the civil war were de-
signed by him and built under his supervision. He
was the principal designer and one of the builders
of the United States war ship “ Brooklyn,” and de-
signed and built vessels for the Spanish navy, for
which he received the decoration of the Order of
Isabella Catolica. During the civil war he was a
special agent of the Federal Government at New
ork to procure from private owners vessels suit-
able for war ships, and he selected several hundred
vessels of various kinds. His efforts in this line
won the commendation of President Lincoln and
Secretary Welles.
Wheeler, Crosby Howard, missionary, born in
Hampden, Penobscot County, Me., Sept. 8, 1823;
died in Auburndale, Mass., Oct. 11, 1896. He was
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1847, and at Ban-
gor Theological Seminary in 1851; was ordained in
Warren, Me., in 1852, and after serving as pastor
there for four years, went with his wife to Smyrna,
to work in the North Armenian mission. The cou-
ple reached Harpoot on July 31, 1857, and labored
there for thirty-nine years. In 1878 Dr. Wheeler
raised funds in the United States for the buildings
and the partial endowment of Euphrates College, in
Harpoot, and from the organization of the institu-
tion till 1873 he was its president. On May 11,
1896, his home and all his household goods were
destroyed in the great massacre of Armenians at
Harpoot, and Dr. Wheeler and his wife were com-
pelled to leave the city. They returned by slow
stages to Auburndale, where Dr. Wheeler survived
the effects of the terrible ordeal through which he
had irre only about three months.
Whitney, Josiah Dwight, geologist, born in
Northampton, Mass., Noy. 23, 1819; died at Lake
Sunapee, N. H., Aug. 18, 1896. He was the eldest
son of Josiah D. Whitney, a merchant in North-
ampton. He was graduated at Yale in 1839, and
entered the chemical laboratory of Prof. Robert
Hare, of Philadelphia, and in 1840 became asso-
ciated with Charles T. Jackson as assistant in a
geological survey of New Hampshire. After two
years of this work he went to Europe, where he
studied under Elie de Beaumont, Rammelsberg,
Liebig, and other masters. In 1847 he returned to
the United States, and was employed in the Geolog-
ical Survey of the Lake Superior region. For a
time he worked with John W. Foster, under the
direction of Charles T. Jackson, but later the work
was intrusted to Foster and Whitney alone, and
they published “Synopsis of the Explorations of
the Geological Corps in the Lake Superior Land
District in the Northern Peninsula” (Washington,
1849) and “ Report on the Geology and Topography
of a Portion of the Lake Superior Land District in
the State of Michigan ” (Part I, Copper Lands, 1850 ;
Part II, The Iron Region, 1851). On the comple-
tion of this work, Mr. Whitney traveled for two
years through the States east of the Mississippi,
594
collecting information concerning mining interests,
and the results of his studies were published under
title of ‘‘ The Metallic Wealth of the United States,
described and compared with that of other Coun-
tries” (Philadelphia, 1854). In 1855 he was ap-
pointed to the Geological Survey of Iowa, being
also State chemist
and a member of
the faculty of the
State University.
The results of his
work were published
as “ Reports on the
Geological Survey
of Iowa” (2 vols.,
Albany, 1858-59).
In 1858-59 he was
engaged in a geo-
logical survey of the
upper Missouri, in
connection with the
official surveys of
Wisconsin and Il-
linois, publishing
with James Hall a
“Report on the
Geological Survey
of Wisconsin” (Albany, 1862). The most impor-
tant work of his life was in connection with the
State of California, where from 1860 to 1874, as
State geologist, he conducted an elaborate topo-
graphical, geological, and natural-history survey
of that, State. This survey was one of the most
valuable enterprises ever undertaken by a State,
but, as often happens, its real value was not appre-
ciated by the politicians, as the results were not
immediately apparent, and the appropriation was
discontinued in 1874. The fruits of his labors ap-
peared in 6 volumes, which were published at Cam-
bridge between 1864 and 1870. In 1865 he was
appointed Professor of Geology in Harvard Uni-
versity, with charge of its School of Mining and
Practical Geology. This appointment he held un-
til his death, when his name headed by seniority
the long list of instructors in that institution. In
company with William H. Brewer, an associate on
the Geological Survey of California, and a number
of students, he spent the summer of 1869 in Colo-
rado, where he made the first accurate measure-
ments of the chief peaks of the Rocky mountains,
giving the names of Harvard and Yale to two of
them. The highest peak in the United States,
14,900 feet, in Inyo County, California, is named
Mount Whitney in his honor. The degree of LL. D.
was conferred upon him by Yale, in 1870. He was
one of the original members of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. In addi-
tion to contributing to periodicals and translating
Berzelius’s “Use of the Blowpipe” (Boston, 1845),
he was the author of “The Yosemite Guidebook ”
(San Francisco, 1869); “ Barometric Hypsometry ”
(Boston, 1874); “ Contributions to American Geol-
ogy” (Vol. I, 1880); and ‘Studies in Geographical
and Topographical Nomenclature” (Cambridge,
1888).
Wiard, Norman, inventor, born in the present
Normandale, Ontario, Canada, in 1826; died in
Reading, Pa., Sept. 11, 1896. He showed a marked
fondness for mechanics in early youth and became
an apprentice in a foundry at Branford, Ontario.
After working in the machine department for six
months, he became foreman of the establishment,
and began the experiments in ordnance that after-
ward gave him a world-wide distinction. During
the civil war he was employed by the United States
Government in the manufacture of ordnance and
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.
lead region of the .
(WrARD—WILLEY.)
projectiles, and was frequently called into consulta-
tion by President Lincoln and Secretary Stanton.
After the war he applied his time principally to
inventions and experiments in his special lines, and
a few years ago he conducted a series of experi-
ments in gunnery near Boston, which attracted the
attention of artillery experts the world over. He
patented a device for preventing the explosion of
steam boilers, which the United States Government
placed on each of its war vessels, and also sold the
same patent to the Japanese Government. He
spent two years in Japan in the employment of its
Government, especially in the navy department,
and was for some time a military engineer in that
country. As a fabricator of iron, he ranked very
high. Mr. Wiard was author of “The Solution of
the Ordnance Problem,” and at the time of his
death was superintending the manufacture of guns
at the Scott focniie !
Wigglesworth, Eaward, dermatologist, born in
Boston, Mass., in 1841; died there Jan. 23,1896. He
was graduated at Harvard,in 1861, and at its medi-
cal school in 1865. In June, 1862, he became a
medical assistant in the United States Sanitary
Commission before Richmond; on Sept. 26 follow-
ing he enlisted as a private in the 45th Massachu-
setts Volunteers, and was soon made hospital stew-
ard; in 1863 was mustered out of the service; and
in June, 1864, became a volunteer surgeon in the
Army of the Potomac. After receiving his medical
degree he was engaged in the practice of his profes-
sion and of his specialty till his death. He served
for many years on the staff of the Boston City Hos-
ital; was instructor in dermatology in Harvard
Medical School; aided in founding the medical
library there; and was author of many valuable
papers on his specialty. For many years he gave
away annually in professional services more than
the amount he received in fees.
Wilbour, Charles Edwin, Egyptologist, born
in Little Compton, R. I., March 17, 1833; died in
Paris, France, Dec. 17, 1896. He took a partial
course in Brown University, where he was noted
for proficiency in Greek, became a reporter on the
* New York Tribune ” in 1854, and was admitted to
the bar in 1859. An absorbing interest in the
study of Egyptian antiquities led him to abandon
the profession of law and to make a thorough study
of Egyptology. After visiting the principal libra-
ries of the United States and Canada, and familiar-
izing himself with their treasures on this subject, he
went to Europe in 1874 and studied the archxolog-
ical collections in the British and the Continental
museums. Subsequently he became associated with
the late Heinrich Karl Brugsch and with Gaston
Maspero in their explorations in Egypt, and for
sixteen years he had spent his winters on the Nile.
He discovered and published the famous “seven-
years’-famine s¢i/e,” and made a large collection of
Egyptian antiquities and of books relating to Egyp-
tology, which will ultimately be presented to some
American college or museum. He published trans-
lations of Leon Beauvallet’s “Rachel in the New
World,” of Renan’s “ Life of Christ,” and of Hugo’s
“Les Miserables.”
Willey, Austin, clergyman, born in Campton,
N. H., June 24, 1806; died in Northfield, Minn.,
March 28, 1896. He was graduated at Bangor
Theological Seminary in 1837, and soon afterward
became active in the antislavery movement. In
1839 the Maine abolitionists established at Bangor
the first. pronounced antislavery organ, the “ Ad-
vocate of Freedom,” to the editorship of which they
called Mr. Willey, and he continued in this relation
till 1858. Removing to Northfield, Minn., he be-
caine editorially connected with the St. Paul ‘“ Pio-
neer Press.” He was author of a “ Family Memo-
OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. (Wisos—Woovwarp.) 595
rial” (San Francisco, 1865) and “ A History of the
Antislavery Cause in State and Nation” (Portland,
1886), which is in use as a text-book in the public
schools of Maine.
Wilson, Anne Read, philanthropist, born in
Belvidere, N. J.; died in Newark, N. J., Nov. 4,
1896. In early life she married the Rev. Dr. James
P. Wilson, and removed to New York city in 1850,
when her husband left the presidency of Delaware
College to become Professor of Systematic Theology
in Union Seminary. She at once entered into all
the charitable and ay ita movements of
the day, and during her three years’ residence in
the city her work was ably seconded by the late
Charles L. Brace. One of the most enduring me-
morials of her beneficent work in New York is the
Wilson Industrial School for Girls, an institution
planned by her. In 1853 Dr. Wilson was called to
the South Park Presbyterian Church, Newark, N. J.,
where he labored till his death, in 1889. During
this long period Mrs. Wilson continued her benevo-
lent activities, and the Newark Home for Aged
Women, the Newark Branch of the McAll Mission,
the Woman’s Work for Women, the Woman’s Ex-
change, and other institutions owe their foundation
and success to her zeal. For twenty-five years she
was president of the Woman’s Board of Foreign
Missions of the Presbytery of Newark.
Wilson, Theodore Delevan, naval constructor,
born in Brooklyn, N. Y., May 11, 1840; died in the
navy yard, Boston, Mass., June 29,1896. He served
a full term of apprenticeship as a shipwright in the
Brooklyn Navy Yard, under Naval-constructor B. F.
Delano, and in the National army as a noncom-
missioned officer of the 13th Regiment, New York
State militia, during the first three months of the
civil war. On Aug. 3, 1861, he entered the con-
struction department of the navy with the rating of
carpenter, and till May 17, 1866, served on the
steamer “ Cambridge,” of the North Atlantic block-
ading squadron, and with Rear-Admiral Francis H.
Gregory, superintendent during the war of the con-
struction of all vessels of war built outside of navy
yards. On the last-named date he was commis-
sioned an assistant naval constructor. He was pro-
moted to the rank of naval constructor July 11,
1873: was appointed chief of the Bureau of Con-
struction and Repair in 1882, 1886, and 1891; re-
signed because of failing health and was granted
two years’ leave of absence in 1893; and on report-
ing for duty was assigned to the Boston Navy Yard
July 2, 1895. He was suddenly stricken while su-
perintending the undocking of the monitor “ Pas-
saic,” and died within a few minutes. Constructor
Wilson was on duty at the Pensacola Navy Yard in
1866-67 and at Philadelphia in 186769, and dur-
ing 1869-73 was instructor in naval architecture
and shipbuilding at the United States Naval Acad-
emy. ring his tenure of the office of chief of
construction he designed the second-class battle
ship “Maine,” the partially protected cruisers
SSS
“Chicago,” “ Boston,” and “ Atlanta,” the protected
cruisers “‘ Newark” and “San Francisco,” and the
gunboats “ Bennington,” “Concord,” “ Yorktown,”
and “ Petrel,” and patented a bolt extractor, which
is now in general use. He was the first American
member of the Institute of Naval Architects of
England, and was author of “Shipbuilding, Theo-
retical and Practical” (New York, 1873).
Winlock, William Crawford, scientist, born in
Cambridge, Mass., March 27, 1859; died in Bay
Head, N. J., Sept. 20, 1896. He was a son of Prof.
Joseph Winlock, the astronomer, and was gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1879. Soon after graduation he
was eee to the scientific staff of the United
States Naval Observatory, and later he became as-
sistant in charge of the office, which gave him con-
trol of the vast correspondence of the institution.
Subsequently he was also appointed curator of
tea Gs hr in the United States National
useum. hile discharging these duties he con-
tinued his interest in astronomy, and prepared the
annual reports on “ Progress of Astronomy” from
1885 till 1892, contributed popular articles on as-
ksotoe?f to other petidieala; and wrote the astro-
nomical article in the “ Annual Cyclopedia” for
1889. He also several times represented the secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution at important
scientific gatherings, and with him inspected the
London, Leipsic, Pari. and other European ex-
change agencies of the institution in 1896.
Winser, Henry Jacob, journalist, born on the
island of Bermuda, Nov. 23, 1833; died in Newark,
N. J.. Aug. 23, 1896. He removed to New York
city in 1851; became a proof reader in a printing
house; and for some time prior to the civil war was
a reporter on “The New York Times.” At the be-
ginning of the war he went to the front as military
secretary of Col. Ephraim E. Ellsworth, and was
with that officer when he was killed. He then be-
came a war correspondent of the “ Times,” and ac-
companied the Army of the Potomac. After the
war he served as city editor, night editor, and day
manager of the editorial department of the “ Times,”
which he represented at the Paris Exposition in
1867. In 1869 President Grant appointed him con-
sul at Sonneberg, Germany, where he remained
twelve years, and on his return he became chief of
the bureau of information of the Northern Pacific
Railway Company. Subsequently he was assistant
editor of the New York “ Commercial Advertiser ”
and managing editor of the Newark “ Advertiser.”
His last literary work was a brochure on “ Newark:
The Seat of a Thousand Industries” (1896), and a
sketch of Trinity Episcopal Church, Newark.
Woodson. Silas, jurist, born in Knox County,
Kentucky, May 18, 1819; died in St. Joseph, Mo.
Oct. 9, 1896. He was brought up on a farm, and be-
came a clerk in a country store. While clerking he
studied law, and in 1839 was admitted to the bar. In
1842 he was elected to the Legislature; in 1843-48
was circuit attorney; and in 1849 was a member of
the Kentucky Constitutional Convention. He was
again elected to the Legislature in 1853, but re-
moved to St. Joseph, Mo., in the ‘following year.
In 1860 he was elected judge of the circuit court
of the 12th Judicial District. On the expiration of
his term he engaged in private practice till 1872,
when he was the successful Democratic candidate
for Governor of Missouri. In 1882 he was appointed
to the circuit-court bench to fill a vacancy, and
from 1885 till 1895 was judge of the criminal court
of Buchanan County.
Woodward, John B., banker, born in Brooklyn,
N. Y., May 31, 1835; died there Feb. 6,1896. He
received a public-school] education ; became a clerk
in a leather house in New York; and afterward
was engaged till his death in the importation of
hides and wool. For several years he was President
of the Third National Bank in New York. Gen.
Woodward began his military career in 1854, and
rose to the command of the 13th Regiment of the
596 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.
old State Militia. He served with his regiment in
the civil war; was appointed major general of the
2nd Division N. G.S. N. Y., in 1868; inspector gen-
eral in 1875; adjutant general in 1879; and retired
from the service in 1880. In 1875 he became Presi-
dent of the Brooklyn Board of City Works; in
1888, President of the Board of Park Commission-
ers ; in 1889 was legislated out of office ; and short-
ly afterward was reappointed a park commissioner.
He was defeated as candidate of the Independent
Democrats and Republicans for mayor of Brooklyn
in 1885, For several years prior to the autumn of
1895 Gen. Woodward was President of the Board
of Trustees of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences. He was largely instrumental in chang-
ing the old Brooklyn Institute into the new institu-
tion, and in securing in 1895 the appropriation of
$300,000, with which work on the new museum on
Prospect Hill was begun.
Wright, George Groves, jurist, born in Bloom-
ington, Ind., March 24, 1820; died in Des Moines,
Towa, Jan. 11, 1896. He was graduated at the State
University in 1839; was admitted to the bar, and
removed to Keosaqua, Iowa, to practice the follow-
ing year ; served as prosecuting attorney in 1847-48;
and was a State Senator in 1849-54. In 1855 he
was elected Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme
Court by the Legislature, and in 1860 and 1865 was
returned to that court by popular vote, under a
change in the State Constitution. During his last
term he was also a professor in the law department
of the State University. In 1868 he was elected
United States Senator as a Republican. He served
in the Senate on the Committees on Finance, Claims,
and the Judiciary. Judge Wright was the founder
of the first law school west of the Mississippi.
Yerkes, Stephen, theologian, born in Bucks
County, Bensiey eanke June 27, 1827; died in Dan-
ville, Ky., March 28, 1896. He was graduated at Yale
in 1837; studied theology in Baltimore, Md., where
he also taught for nearly fifteen years; and held
Presbyterian pastorates at Long Green and Bethel,
Md. In 1852 he became Professor of Ancient Lan-
guages in Transylvania University, Lexington, Ky.,
and pastor of a local church, and in May, 1857, was
elected by the Old School General Assembly of the
Church, Professor of Biblical and Oriental Litera-
ture in Danville Theological Seminary. He resigned
this chair in May, 1866, and was acting Professor
of Greek in Center College, Danville, during the
next three years, though resuming his former chair
in the seminary in May, 1867. Dr. Yerkes was also
president of the faculty.
Young, Pierce Manning Butler, military of-
ficer, born in Spartansburg, 8S. C., Nov. 15, 18389;
died in New York city, July 6. 1896. When he was
a year old the family removed to Georgia, where he
was educated at the State Military Institute, and
began studying law. He entered the United States
' Military Academy in 1857, but resigned before
graduation to enter the Confederate army. At the
bombardment of Fort Sumter he was a 2d lieuten-
ant of artillery at Charleston, S.C. His next sery-
ice was in Florida as aid to Gen. Wheeler. He
obtained the post of adjutant of Cobb’s Legion,
then being organized from the Georgia troops, and
of this body he subsequently became colonel. He
took part in the invasion of Maryland and was
wounded in the battle of Boonesborough; con-
ducted many raids; and in 1864 captured Gen.
Grant’s corral of 2,500 head of cattle that had been
brought together on the Chickahominy. He was
promoted brigadier general in November, 1863,
and major general, Dec. 12, 1864; and was the
youngest officer of that rank in the Confederate
service. After the war he settled in Cartersville,
Ga. On July 25, 1868, he took his seat in Congress
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN,
as the first Democrat elected after the restoration
of representation to the Southern States. He served
through the three ensuing terms, and was appointed
one of the United States commissioners to the Paris
Exposition in 1877, consul general at St. Petersburg
in 1885, and minister to Guatemala and Honduras
in 1893.
Young, William Crittenden, educator, born in
Danville, Ky., April 28, 1842; died there Sept. 16,
1896. He was a son of the Rey. Dr. John C,
Young, for many years President of Center College
in Danville, and his mother was a daughter of John
J. Crittenden. He was graduated at Center College
in 1859, and at Danville Theological Seminary in
1866; was licensed to preach, and held pastorates
at Covington, Ky., Madison, Ind., Chicago, IIl., and
Louisville, Ky. He was elected President of Cen-
ter College in 1888, and retained the office till his
death. He was Moderator of the General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church in 1892, and was also
chairman of the committee having special charge
of the relations between the seminaries and the
Assembly.
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. Aitchison, Sir
Charles, a British Indian administrator, born in
Edinburgh in 1832; died in Oxford, Feb. 18, 1896,
He was educated at Edinburgh University, and re-
turned from his studies in Germany to take advan-
tage of the competitive examination for the Indian
civil service introduced in 1855 through the efforts
of Macaulay. After acquiring Hindi, Hindustani,
and Persian, and studying Indian law and history
at Calcutta, he went to his post as assistant magis-
trate in a desert district of the northwest that was
afterward incorporated in the Punjab. During
the mutiny he served under John Lawrence at La-
hore as an assistant judicial commissioner, and
there prepared a “ Manual of the Criminal Law of
the Punjab ” and contributed articles to the * Cal-
cutta Review.” As the ablest of the competition
wallahs, he was called to Caleutta by Lord Canning
in November, 1859, to take the coveted post of
foreign under secretary. He was permitted to re-
organize the Foreign Office on the system still main-
tained, and accompanied the Viceroy on his prog-
resses through northern, western, and central India,
and was the judge of the application in each case
of the sanad of adoption and of the rewards and
rebukes to be administered to the feudatory sover-
eigns for their actions during the mutiny. The
status of the vassal states was exactly defined in
his “ Treaties, Engagements, and Sanads relating to
Indian and the Neighboring States.” He was Com-
missioner of Lahore and secretary to the Punjab
Government after Lord Canning left till Sir John
Lawrence called him back to Calcutta to be his for-
eign secretary, in which office he was retained by
Lord Mayo and Lord Northbrook to aid them in
earrying out Lord Lawrence’s policy toward the
native states and especially toward Afghanistan
while Shere Ali was Ameer. When Lord Lytton
began to reverse that policy Aitchison was on fur-
lough. In March, 1878, he was appointed Chief
Commissioner of British Burmah. Hee escree
he served as Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab,
where his knowledge of the people and their natu-
ral rulers and his sympathetic regard for native
rights rendered his administration one of the most
beneficent in the annals of British rule in India.
He founded the Punjab University to win the
Brahman, Pundit, and Maulvi to loyalty and re-
spect for the English rule through a knowledge of
Western science, literature, and institutions com-
municated through the Oriental languages. He
worked out with skill the principle of local self-
government for the Punjab according to the re-
form policy of Lord Ripon. He left as memorials
-with the “ Tribune” and “ Gil Blas.”
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
of his solicitude for the Indian peoples and their
welfare the Aitchison College for the sons of chiefs
and the Lady Aitchison Hospital forwomen. After
resigning from the civil service he went back to In-
dia at the solicitation of Lord Dufferin to serve asa
member of the Viceroy’s Council till 1888, when he
retired to live in Oxford. He published in 1892
“Lord Lawrence,” a biography, forming one of the
series of “ Rulers of India,”
Auréne, Paul, a French journalist, novelist, and
dramatist, born in Sisteron, Basses Alpes, June 26,
1843; died in Antibes, Dec. 16, 1896. hile still a
student at the Lyceum of Vanves, he wrote a play
in verse, called “ Pierrot Héritier,” that achieved a
success at the Odéon in 1865. He gave lessons for
a living and contributed to literary reviews till his
novel “Jean des Figues” established his literary
reputation in 1870. He collaborated with Valéry
Vernier in the successful drama “ Commédiens Er-
rants,” wrote the successful ‘“* Duel aux Lanternes,”
and produced in collaboration with Charles Monselet
“L’llote” in1875. With his friend Alphonse Dau-
det he collaborated in the earlier “ Lettres de mon
Moulin” and wrote the libretto of the opera “ Char,”
roduced in 1878. He published in that year “ La
logue sans le Savior,” a one-act drama,” in 1879
“La vraie Tentation de St. Antoine,” “ Paris in-
ae ” in 1882,and “ Vingt ans en Tunisie ” in 1884.
e was a constant writer of graceful literary and
critical articles for the newspapers. being connect-
ed, at various times with the “LKelar,” “ Figaro,”
“Evenement,” and other Paris journals, latterly
He was also
a prominent member of the Provengal School and
author of two volumes of sketches and tales in the
Provengal tongue, one of them, “ Au bon Soleil,” a
famous work, published in 1881.
Bamberger, Isaac, a German rabbi, born in An-
rod, Hesse, Nov. 5, 1834; died at ee
t. 30, 1896. He was appointed rabbi of Koénigs-
berg in 1865, and was active in educational, reli-
gious, and benevolent movements. He originated
the frontiers committees when the first Russian
exodus occurred in the early eighties, which saved
thousands from suffering and death.
Barnby, Sir Joseph, an English musician, born
in York, Aug. 12,1838; died Jan. 28, 1896. He be-
came ehorister ip York Cathedral in 1846, continu-
ing there until 1852. He was astudent at the Royal
Academy of Music from 1854 to 1857, and was suc-
cessively organist of St. Andrew’s, Well Street, 1863-
i's Be es of St. Anne’s, Soho, 1871-86. In 1865
he began conducting the oratorio concerts at St.
James’s and Exeter Halls, and in 1872 succeeded
Gounod as conductor of the Royal Albert Hall Choral
Society. From 1875 to 1892 he was precentor and
musical director at Eton College, becoming princi-
pal of the Guildhall School of Music in the latter
year, in which year also he was knighted. Besides
hundreds of services, anthems, chants, part songs,
and other music, his compositions include the mo-
tet “ King all Glorious ” (1868); the cantata “ Re-
bekah ” (1870); “ The Lord is King,” a setting of the
Ninety-seventh Psalm (1883). The last-named com-
position is a brilliant piece of work, but has not
often been heard in the United States. His hymns
are very widely known. and the service he rendered
to Church music in freeing the hymn tune from
conservatism has been generally recognized. In
these compositions Barnby substituted modern for
ancient notation, and discarded intermediate double
bars. As a conductor he stood in the first rank,
and not the least of his services to music was his
enterprise in bringing forth at the Royal Albert
Hall works new or unknown to the English public,
becoming thus a powerful influence in the educa-
tion of the national taste.
(AURRNE—BENSON,) 597
Battenberg, Prince Henry Maurice of, born
Oct. 5, 1858; died at sea, Jan. 20, 1896. He wasa
son of Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Hesse
and the Rhine, and of Princess Julia, born Countess
von Hauck, daughter of a former Polish Minister
of War, who was raised to the princely dignity
after her morganatic marriage with Prince Alex-
ander. Prince Henry, whose brother Alexander
was elected and reigned as Prince of Bulgaria, mar-
ried, on July 23, 1885, Queen Victoria’s ninth and
youngest child, Beatrice, Princess of Great Britain
and Ireland, and had since lived in England, reeeiv-
ing the rank of royal highness and the appoint-
ment of Governor of the Isle of Wight. In Novem-
ber, 1895, he joined the Ashanti expedition as mili-
tary secretary to Sir Francis Scott, the commander
in chief, and at Myisa was attacked with swam
fever, of which he died while being brought back
to Sierra Leone.
Barre, Jean Auguste, a French sculptor. born
in Paris, Sept. 25, 1811; died Feb. 6, 1896. He was
descended from a family famous for the fine en-
graving of coins and seals, his father being chief
engraver for the French mint from 1842 till 1855,
and his brother Désire from the father’s death till
1878. His own work as a medalist was admirable,
but his greatest achievements were in sculpture.
It was he who designed the portrait bust of Louis
Napoleon that was used on all the coins of the sec-
ond empire. His first artistic success was an alle-
gorical group representing “ Liberty Triumphant,”
which he exhibited at the Salon in 1831. “Ulysses
recognized by his Dog,” in marble. and “ David
preparing to fight Goliath” followed, and next
“The Angel and the Child.” After obtaining a
medal in 1840 for a statue of Francis of Lorraine,
Duc de Guise, he was commissioned by the Govern-
ment to execute a statue of Achille de Harlay for
the Luxembourg in 1848, and one of Mathiu Molé
in 1845; also a marble statue of the Duchess of
Penthiévre. He designed a statue of Laplace in
1847 for the town of Caen, one of Mgr, Affre for
the town of Rodez in 1864, and one of Admiral
Protet for Shanghai in 1869. A marble bas-relief
of “ Liberty ” was executed in 1850 at the order of
the Ministry of the Interior, and a marble statue of
“ Bacchia, daughter of Bacchus” was ordered by
the Government in 1855. He was very successful
in portrait busts, which he made of Leopold, King
of the Belgians, in 1836, Alexandre Duval in 1845,
Pius IX and Mlie. Mars in 1848, Napoleon III in
1853, Prince Napoleon in 1855, and the Empress
Eugénie, Princess Clotilde, and Geoffroy St.-Huaire
in 1861. He executed a statue of Mlle. Rachel in
ivory, one of the Empress Eugénie in marble, and
a bronze medallion of Mme. Jane Hading.
Benson. Edward White, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, born in Birmingham, July 14, 1829; died in
Hawarden, Wales, Oct. 10, 1896 His father was
the manager of lead works at Birmingham, where
the son attended the grammar school of King Ed-
ward VI, whence he went to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, of which he was a scholar and subsequently
a fellow, taking his degree with honors in mathe-
matics and classics in 1852. From 1853 till 1859
he was assistant master at Rugby, then head master
of Wellington College till 1872, when Bishop Words-
worth, to whom he was examining chaplain, made
him a residentiary canon and chancellor of Lincoln
Cathedral. In 1877, on the nomination of the Earl
of Beaconsfield, he became bishop of the newly
created see of Truro, and on the death of Arch-
bishop Tait, in December, 1882, he was appointed,
on the recommendation of Mr. Gladstone, to suc-
ceed to the primacy of England as Archbishop of
Canterbury. Mr. Benson’s first reputation was
gained as master of Wellington College, which was
598
originally intended as a semi-military charitable
school for the sons of poor officers, but which he
built up into a fully equipped public school of high
standard. While chancellor of Lincoln Cathedral
he established a training college for the clergy with
the idea of giving them the theological and profes-
sional education that the universities no longer sup-
tie As bishop of the revived Cornish see of
ruro, he built the first new cathedral, save St.
Paul’s, that has been erected in England since the
Reformation. His genius for organization was di-
rected there to the revival of Christian activity in
many directions. He became Primate of All England
when the Church was torn asunder and not a little
debased by the dissensions between the Ritualists
and the preponderant Low Church party. He was
acceptable to all parties, sympathizing with the his-
torical and ecclesiastical High-Church attitude, im-
bued at the same time with the evangelical spirit
of personal piety, and liberal enough in his theology
to suit the Broad Church. Hence he was more
successful as a peacemaker than Archbishop Tait
had been. The controversy, after a brief truce,
broke out again when Dr. King, the newly ap-
pointed Bishop of Lincoln, showed himself an ex-
treme Ritualist. Moved by urgent petitions, the
archbishop, having been assured of his jurisdiction
in the case, cited the Bishop of Lincoln to answer
allegations of offenses against the ecclesiastical law.
The trial took place in 1890, and the conclusions
reached by Dr. Benson, in which on almost every
point the whole bench of assessors concurred, settled
definitely the main questions of the Ritualistic con-
troversy. The effect of the judgment was to legal-
ize several practices that had been held to be un-
lawful, such as the mixed chalice, if the mixing of
the wine was not made a part of the service, the
cleansing of the sacramental vessels in a reverent
way, and the singing of the “Agnus Dei” in the
communion office. The court did not find ground
for pronouncing it to be unlawful to place two
lighted candles upon the table during service, but
held that there was no justification for making the
sign of the cross in giving the final benediction.
Archbishop Benson resisted with energy every
movement for curtailing the rights and powers of
the Established Church, especially the proposition
to disestablish the Church in Wales, and was a con-
stant attendant in the House of Lords. He in-
augurated a mission to the Assyrian Christians, and
contended earnestly against the propagandism of
Roman Catholicism in England—the * Italian mis-
sion,” as he termed it. Archbishop Benson died
suddenly while visiting Mr. Gladstone. His pub-
lished works include: * Boy Life” (1874); “ Single-
heart ” (1877); “ Living Theology ” (1878): “The
Cathedral: Its Necessary Place in the Work and
Life of the Church” (1879); “The Seven Gifts ”
(1885); “ Christ and his Time” (1889); and “ Fish-
ers of Men” (1893). (See portrait in the “ Annual
Cyclopedia ” for 1883, page 58.)
Blackburn, Colin, Lord, a British jurist, born in
Killearn, Stirling, Seotland, in 1813; died in Allo-
way, Ayrshire, Jan. 8, 1896. He was educated at
Eton and Cambridge, and was called to the bar in
1838. He made a reputation for legal learning by
the publication in 1845 of a book on “ Sales,” and was
engaged in reporting cases till he was appointed a
puisne judge of the Queen’s Bench in 1859 by Lord
Campbell, whose act in selecting a fellow-country-
man little known at the bar was the subject of
severe criticisms, But his judgment was borne out
by the judicial career of Judge Blackburn, who was
made one of the judges of appeals when the appel-
late division was established in 1876. He presided
at the Queen’s Bench over several important crim-
inal trials, the most famous of which was that of
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN,
(BLACKBURN—BROOME.)
Allen, Larkin, Gould, Maguire, and Shore, known
afterward among the Irish as “the Manchester
martyrs,” whom he sentenced to death on the charge
of murdering Sergeant James Brett in an attempt
to rescue Col. Kelly and Capt. Deasy on Sept. 18,
1867. In 1868 he decided that an indictment would
lie against Gov. Eyre for his acts of cruelty and
oppression in Jamaica, especially the execution of
rioters after summary military trials, but by his
extenuating charge to the grand jury prevented an
indictment. In the libel suit of Rigby Wason, a
member of Parliament, against the “Times,” and
his action against Lord Russell and other political
magnates for conspiracy, Justice Blackburn ruled
that newspapers are privileged to comment in good
faith on matters of public concern, and that mem-
bers of Parliament are not liable civilly or criminally
for any statements made in Parliament. In the
case of Dawkins against Lord Rokeby, he decided
that statements made before a military court of in-
quiry are privileged equally with those made before
an ordinary tribunal. He became a life peer when
created a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary under the act
of 1876, and in his new capacity he took part in
many important cases, both in the House of Lords
and in the Privy Council. He retired in 1886.
Blind, Mathilde, an English poet, born in Mann-
heim, Germany, March 21,1847; died in London,
Nov. 26, 1896. Her stepfather, Karl Blind, having
been involved in the Baden revolt of 1849, she went
with her parents to England, and as a girl was
much influenced by Mazzini, whom she knew well,
and whose enthusiasm she shared. Her earliest
writing of note was a critical article on Shelley in
the “ Westminster Review” in 1870, though ‘she
had published a volume of “ Poems” in 1867, under
the pseudonym of “ Claude Lake.” Her subsequent
works include a notably good translation of Strauss’s
“The Old Faith and the New,” with a life of the
author (London, 1878); “ The Prophecy of St. Oran
and Other Poems” (1881); “ Life of George Eliot”
(1883); “Tarentella,” a brilliant romance (1884);
“ Madame Roland” (1886); “The Heather on Fire:
A Tale of the Highland Clearances” (1886); “ The
Ascent of Man,” verse (1889); * Dramas in Minia-
ture ” (1892); and “ Songs and Sonnets,” a selection
from her lyrics (1893).
Boyer, Jean Pierre, a French prelate, born in
Paray-le-Monial. July 27, 1829; died in Bourges
Dec. 16, 1896. He became in 1878 Coadjutor Bishop
of Clermont, was made Archbishop of Bourges in
1893, and on Noy. 29, 1895, was created a cardinal.
Broome, Sir Frederick Napier, a British ad-
ministrator, born in Canada, Nov. 18, 1842; died in
London, Nov. 26, 1896. He was the son of an Eng-
lish clergyman, and was educated in England till
1857, when he went to New Zealand. There he be-
came a pastoralist, and took in 1865 to his station
in the Southern island as his wife the widow of Sir
George Barker, known as an author already, and
afterward as a writer on New Zealand life. He also
published * Poems from New Zealand ” and “ Stran-
ger of Seriphos,” and in 1869 he went to London to
embark in literary and journalistic occupations.
He served also on several public commissions as
secretary, and contributed largely to the “Times,”
which sent him out on several important occasions
as special correspondent. In 1875 he entered the
public service as Colonial Secretary to Natal, was
transferred to Mauritius, and in 1880 was made Lieu-
tenant Governor of that colony. In 1882 he was
appointed Governor of Western Australia. He pro-
moted railroads, telegraphs, and other public under-
takings, and became an ardent champion of the ,
claims of the colony forself-government. Hereceived
the order of St. Michael and St. George in 1884.
Through his exertions the restrictions as to the dis-
eS
— — +
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Bruckner—CaaLLemMeL—Lacour.) 599
1 of Crown lands were removed from the draft
ill, and the coveted Constitution was conferred on
Western Australia in 1890. Subsequently he was
acting Governor of Barbadoes and Governor of
Trinidad.
Bruckner, Anton, an Austrian musical com-
r, born in Ausfelden, upper Austria, Sept. 4,
1824; died in Vienna, Oct. 14, 1896. His father, a
teacher, gave him lessons in music, and he pursued
his musical studies when he became himself a village
schoolmaster and violinist for country féfes, till in
1851 he became organist at Kalksburg. He pub-
lished a symphony in 1864, and in 1867 was appointed
Professor of the Organ, Harmony, and Counterpoint
in the Vienna Conservatorium. In the following
year he succeeded Sechter as court organist. He
ve organ recitals in France in 1869, and took part
in the musical ceremonies of the London Inter-
national Exhibition in 1871. He was appointed
chief instructor in musical theory in the University
of Vienna in 1875. He wrote a mass in F minor,
some chamber music, and eight symphonies. His
most remarkable work is the “ Eighth Symphony”
in C minor, and it is one of the longest ever written,
2 oe a whole evening for its performance.
uckley, Sir Patrick Alphonsus, a New Zea-
land jurist, born in County Cork, Ireland, in 1841;
died May 18, 1896. He studied in the Universities
of Paris and Louvain, emigrated to Queensland,
was admitted to the bar, settled subsequently in
Wellington, New Zealand, entered the Provincial
Council and was Provincial Solicitor, became a
member of the Legislative Council of New Zealand
in 1878, and_in 1884 was appointed Colonial Secre-
tary in the Stout-Vogel Cabinet, with which he re-
tired in 1887. In 1891 he entered the Cabinet of
Mr. Ballance as Attorney-General, and resumed the
leadership of the Legislative Council. He was Co-
lonial Secretary in 1892, and held both offices in the
Seddon ministry, resigning in December, 1895, to
accept a judgeship in the Supreme Court.
Camphausen, Otto von, a Prussian statesman,
born Oct. 21, 1812; died in Berlin, May 17, 1896.
He studied law and political economy at Bonn,
Heidelberg, Munich, and Berlin, was appointed as-
sessor in 1837, and in 1845 became a counselor in
the Ministry of Finance at Berlin. In 1849 he en-
tered the Prussian Diet as a Moderate Liberal, and
was recognized as an authority on financial ques-
tions. In 1869 he became Prussian Minister of
Finance, and this post he held nine years. He was
confronted with a deficit on.taking office, but this
he wiped out, and afterward by means of the French
war indemnity he was enabled to redeem a large
part of the public debt of Prussia, and to remit
some of the more burdensome taxes. His free-trade
policy aroused later the opposition of both the agri-
cultural and the manufacturing classes, which ac-
quired influence over Prince Bismarck and the
governing authorities, and dictated a new economic
policy. Camphausen’s opposition to the new Pro-
tectionist tendency, and especially to the Govern-
ment monopoly of tobacco, led to his retirement in
1878. For a time he continued in the Prussian
upper house to defend Liberal ideas and criticise
the Chancellor’s financial policy. The invective of
Bismarck finally drove him to renounce all part in
public affairs, and for over fifteen years he has lived
in retirement.
Cernuschi, Henri, a French financier and po-
litical economist, born in Milan, Italy, in 1821;
died in Mentone, May 12, 1896. His father was a
man of wealth, who sent his son to the University
of Pavia to study law, in which he was graduated
in 1842, As an ardent Italian patriot, he took part
in the rising in Milan in 1848, and in February,
1849, he was elected at Rome a member of the
“* Revue des deux Mondes,” and the “ Temps’
Constituent Assembly that proclaimed a republic.
After the capitulation of Rome to the French he
was tried by a French court-martial, which ac-
quitted him. Settling in Paris, he began business
as a banker, and soon acquired a large fortune. He
was a large stockholder in the “Siécle,” the chief
anti-Bonapartist newspaper, to which he was a fre-
quent contributor. In 1870 he was expelled from
France for giving 100,000 francs to distribute nega-
tive ballots in the plébiscite. After the fall of the
empire he returned and endeavored to mediate be-
tween the Commune and Thiers. When the repub-
lic was established he became a naturalized French
citizen. He was an active advocate and organizer
of the bimetallic agitation and a strong polemical
writer in favor of international bimetallism.
Among his numerous financial treatises are “ Bi-
metallic Money,” “M. Michel Chevallier et le
Bimétallisme,” “Silver Vindicated,” ‘‘ Nomisma: or,
Legal Tender,” “The Bland Bill,” “ Monetary Di-
plomacy,” “ Bimetallism in England and Abroad,”
“ Bimetallism at 154 a Necessity,” and “ The Mone-
tary Conference.” His work entitled “The Great
Metallic Powers” was addressed to the Congress
and people of the United States. Cernuschi was a
stanch Opportunist under the republic, the friend
of Ferry and Gambetta, and he might have had a
life senatorship, but the currency interested him
more than politics. He. testified before the United
States Monetary Commission in 1877, and in 1878
began the publication of his lively pamphlets in
support of the bimetallic theory. He had the finest
existing collection of Japanese bronzes, acquired in
Japan after the revolution in that country, and this
he bequeathed, with the house that he built to re-
ceive them, to the municipality of Paris.
Challemel-Lacour, Paul Armand, a French
statesman, born in Avranches, May 19, 1827; died
in Paris, Oct. 26, 1896. He passed from the lyceum
of St. Louis into the Ecole Normale in 1846, was
graduated first in philosophy in 1849, and was pro-
fessor in the lyceums of Pau and Limoges. He was
an ardent Republican before the revolution of 1848,
and after the coup d'état he took up arms against
Napoleon, and for this was arrested and thrown
into prison, to be banished later. He lived first in
Belgium and later in Switzerland, where he became
Professor of French Literature in the Pantechnicon
of Zurich, until he was allowed to return to France
in 1859. His writings on literature, art, and phi-
losophy, published in the “ Revue Nationale,” the
newspaper and other journals, attracted much at-
tention. As a sufferer from imperial proscription
and a champion of republicanism he was marked
out for political leadership and responsibility when
the second empire fell. Under the Provisional
Government he was prefect of the Rhéne, but re-
signed because he was unable to cope successfully
with disturbances at Lyons. He entered the Cham-
ber, and by reason of his knowledge and eloquence
and his earnest republicanism, based on a profound
acquaintance with ancient and modern history, he
became the guide and leader of the Radicals, who
most aggressively opposed the monarchical, aristo-
eratic, and clerical reaction. He was elected a
Senator in 1876, and in 1879, on the demand of
Gambetta, M. Waddington made him minister to
Bern. In the following year he succeeded Léon
Say as ambassador in London. His unbending at-
titude in defense of French views and interests
caused considerable friction between the two gov-
ernments. In 1883 he resigned in order to take the
ortfolio of Foreign Affairs in the Cabinet of Jules
erry, and in this position showed the same uncom-
promising and defiant temper. On quitting office
and returning to the free discussion of general poli-
600
tics he took a stand in the Senate against ‘the so-
cialistic and democratic principles of the new radi-
calism that caused his former associates to denounce
him as a turncoat and his old Conservative oppo-
nents to welcome him as an ally. On questions of
foreign policy he exercised great influence. As an
advocate of moderate liberal ideas and _ political
tolerance he was elected to succeed Jules Ferry as
president of the Senate. In that capacity he dis-
played great firmness in resisting the assaults of
the Radicals of the Chamber on the rights and
privileges of the upper house. Challemel-Lacour
was one of the most powerful and polished of
French orators and the profoundest scholar and
philosopher in public life. He was without wife or
family, and lived like an ascetic recluse among his
books, which included the whole classic literature
of Greece, for he was one of the most learned of
French Hellenists. He was elected, while presi-
dent of the Senate, a member of the French
Academy.
Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley, an English
statesman, born in York in 1827; died in London,
Jan. 29, 1896. He was the son of a clergyman, and
after being graduated with mathematical honors at
Cambridge in 1850, he went with his newly wedded
wife to Australia, where he entered at once upon a
olitical career. He was elected member for Port-
and of the first Legislative Assembly of Victoria,
and was appointed Commissioner of Trade and
Customs in the Government. In 1857 he resigned
this office to return to England as agent general of
the colony. Two years later he offered himself as
candidate for Parliament for the borough of Ponte-
fract, and in 1860 the seat was awarded to him, his
opponent who took it first having been disqualified
by corrupt practices. He represented Pontefract
in the Liberal interest till 1885, when he met with
defeat. In 1864 he was appointed a Civil Lord of
the Admiralty, and in the year following became
Financial Secretary of the Treasury. Subsequently
he filled the posts of First Lord of the Admiralty,
Secretary of State for War, and Chancellor of the
Exchequer, and for a short period was Home Secre-
tary. He was also chairman of the select committee
on transportation in 1861, a member of the commis-
sion on penal servitude in 1863, a commissioner to
examine into the constitution of the law courts in
1867, and at the time of his death was chairman of
a commission to inquire into the financial relations
between Ireland and Great Britain. His practical
ability and sterling qualities led Mr, Gladstone to
bestow upon him an important place when forming
his first Cabinet in 1868, and in this administration
Mr. Childers was included during its long life of
five years. He reduced the naval estimates in 1869,
and effected important changes both in the economy
and the efficiency of the naval administration. Some
of the innovations that he introduced in the Admi-
ralty were discarded by his successors. After an
illness of two years, he returned to the Government
in 1872 as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster,
retiring in 1873 when the Cabinet was remodeled.
When Mr. Gladstone assumed the premiership in
1880 Mr. Childers took the office of Secretary of
State for War, and during his brief term he not
only had direction of the arrangements for the
Egyptian campaign of 1882, but put into practice
the scheme for reorganizing the British army on a
territorial basis. At the end of 1882 he succeeded
Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer. A
large surplus in 1883 enabled him to give cheap
telegrams and reduce the income tax to 5d. Two
years later the Government fell when he was obliged
to cover a vote of credit of £11.000,000 and an ordi-
nary deficit of £3,692,0006 by raising the income tax
to 8d., increasing the beer and spirit duties, altering
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
(CHILDERS—F'LOQUET.)
the death duties, and suspending the sinking fund.
His attempt to convert the 3-per-cent. consols into
23 per cents. proved a failure, but it paved the way
for Mr. Goschen’s conversion of the debt in 1888.
During Mr. Gladstone’s short-lived ministry of
1886 Mr. Childers was Secretary of State for Home
Affairs. His parliamentary career ended in 1892.
Crowe, Sir Joseph Archer, an English diplo-
matist and art writer, born in London, Oct. 20,
1825; died in Wiirzburg, Bavaria, Sept. 7, 1896.
He began his career as a reporter for the “ Morning
Chronicle,” and was subsequently foreign editor of
the “ Daily News” in Paris. During the Crimean
War he was the war correspondent of the “ Illus-
trated London News,” and he acted in the same
capacity for the “Times” during the Indian Mu-
tiny, and again during the Franco-Austrian War.
While in India he was a director of the Bombay
School of Art, 1857-59. In 1860 he was appointed
British consul general at Leipsic and consul gen-
eral at Diisseldorf in 1878, going thence to Vienna
as commercial attaché to the embassies at Berlin
and Vienna. In 1882 he was made commercial af-
taché for Europe with residence at Paris, his abili-
ties as a diplomatist of the first rank being fre-
y pepe recognized by successive appointments as
elegate to various diplomatic commissions. In
conjunction with Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle he
wrote several works on the history of art which
take rank among the best of their kind, their accu-
racy being unquestioned and their criticism en-
lightened and discriminating. They include : * The
Early Flemish Painters” (London, 1857); “ A New
History of Painting in Italy ” (186466); “A His-
tory of Painting in North Italy ” (1871); “ Titian:
His Life and Times” (1877); “ Raphael: His Life
and Works” (1883-85). Sir Joseph wasalso the editor
and reviser of Burckhardt’s “ Cicerone” (1873-79)
and of Kugler’s “ Handbook of Painting” (1874).
Deus, Joao de, a Portuguese poet, born in 1830;
died in Lisbon, Jan. 12, 1896. e studied law at
the University of Coimbra, and while there at-
tracted notice by his poetry. He edited a newspa-
per in 1862, and was afterward elected a member
of the Chamber of Deputies. His poems, each one
a short ode remarkable for finish and delicacy of
expression and elevation and purity of style, are
contained in a few small volumes. He invented an
ingenious method of teaching the illiterate, which
is embodied in two books entitled “ Cartilha Mater-
nal” and “ Cartilh Maternal e o Apostolado.”
Drobisch, M. W.. a German logician, born in
1802; died in Leipsic, Oct. 10, 1896. He became
Extraordinary Professor of Philosophy and Ordi-
nary Professor of Mathematics in Leipsic Univer-
sity at the age of twenty-four, and at forty be-
came also Ordinary Professor of Philosophy. As.
a technical logician and profound mathematician
he enjoyed a very high reputation. His principal
work was “Neue Darstellung der Logik,” which
went through five editions.
Floquet, Charles Thomas, a French statesman,
born in St. Jean de Luz in 1828; died in Paris,
Jan. 18, 1896. He began life as a lawyer in Paris,
where in the days of the empire he defended Re-
publican journalists who were prosecuted for their
writings. His ery of “ Vive la Pologne, monsieur,”
addressed to the Czar Alexander II in the Palace of
Justice in 1867, made him a political celebrity. On
the fall of the empire he was appointed one of the
deputy mayors of Paris, but was forced to resign
on aceount of his complaisance toward the Red Re-
publicans. He was arrested later at Biarritz for
complicity in the acts of the Commune, and was
held several months and then discharged. He was
elected to the Paris Municipal Council in 1872, and
in 1876 became one of the Deputies for Paris. He
DD TS
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN,
sat in the Chamber, first as a Gambettist and then
as one of the seceding Extreme Left, until in Jan-
uary, 1882, Gambetta silenced his opposition by ap-
inting him Prefect of the Seine, in which capacity
is took the side of the municipality in the struggle
for autonomous government. Resigning in the fall
of 1882, he re-entered the Chamber, was the earliest
one to pro the banishment of pretenders to the
throne, and was one of the sharpest assailants of
Jules Ferry, though related tohim by marriage. In
1885 he was elected president of the Chamber,
which post he resigned in April, 1888, to become
Prime Minister. It was the remonstrance of the
Russian ambassador that impelled M. Grévy to re-
call the commission he had given to M. Floquet to
form a ministry once before, but he was now eli-
ible, having with the aid of the Russian ambassa-
or, Baron Mohrenheim, persuaded the Russian
Government to waive its objections to the man who
had insulted the Czar. Floquet goaded Gen. Bou-
langer, who was aiming at a dictatorship, into such
a passion by his sarcastic taunts that the popular
hero challenged him to a duel. To the amusement
of France, the man of arms was wounded by the
civilian. In 1889 Floquet was elected president of
the Chamber again. He made an excellent presid-
ing officer, and aspired to the presidency of the re-
public, for which he was the ical candidate in
1887. But his career was suddenly cut short by
the Panama disclosures. He admitted having ex-
erted influence over the newspaper subsidies of the
canal company, and was charged with accepting
money from the company for political pu
The result was that he lost his seat in the elections
of 1893. In the following January M. Goblet left
the Senate, to accept a mandate for the lower
house, and M. Floquet was elected a Senator from
Paris. As a member of the Radical minority in
that body and with the pall still unlifted from his
rivate reputation, he cut no great figure there.
hough one of the most active and combative of
the Radical Republicans, a keen and rind debater.
with gifts of wit and eloquence, and delightful and
affable in social intercourse, Floquet left no lasting
impress or marked achievement in French politics.
ournier. Telesphore, a Canadian jurist, born
in 1824; died May 10, 1896. He was called to the
bar of Lower Canada in 1846, attained the dignity
of Queen’s counsel in 1863, sat in the House of
Commons and in the Quebec Assembly for many
years, was made a member of the Privy Council in
1873, and during that year and till Saly 8, 1874,
was Minister of Inland Revenue, in the Mackenzie
Cabinet, then Minister of Justice till May 19, 1875,
and after that Postmaster-General till October of
the same year, when he was appointed a puisne
judge in the Supreme Court of the Dominion, which
was created by the act he had carried as Minister
of Justice, as also the insolvency act of 1875.
Frére-Orban, M., a Belgian statesman, born in
Liége in 1812; died in Brussels, Jan. 2, 1896. He
was educated in his native town and studied in
Paris, was admitted to the bar, and practiced in
Liége, where he took a prominent part in the con-
troversy against the Catholic ministry, which led
to his being elected by the Liberals to the Second
Chamber in 1847, and to his being appointed Minis-
ter of Public Works. In the following year he be-
came Minister of Finance, which post he resigned
in 1852 on account of a difference with his col-
leagues. His controversial work “ La” Mainmorte
et la Charité” was the signal for a contest with the
Catholic Church for the secularization of public
charities, which was made the issue of a political
conflict in 1857 that resulted in the return of the
Liberals to power. Frére-Orban again took the Fi-
nance portfolio, and he gained a high reputation
‘National Bank and the Caisse a’
(FourNIER—GEFFCKEN.) 601
by bringing about a balance between revenue and
expenditure, and organizing the finances on a sound
basis notwithstanding the reduction made inthe tariff
and the increase in expenditure. He was also able
to carry out important public works and to build
fortifications at Antwerp. When the French Gov-
ernment in 1869 attempted through a private com-
any to gain control of the Luxemburg railroads,
rére-Orban took a firm stand and displayed great
diplomatic talent in safeguarding the interests of
his country. He was the leading spirit in the Lib-
eral Cabinet and in the nation till the election of
1870 brought back the Ultramontanes to power.
When the Liberals had their turn again in 1878, he
became Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
The secularization of the national schools was car-
ried out with a firm and resolute spirit, and all dif-
ficulties thrown in the way were overcome by his
skill and energy. When the conflict with the hier-
archy over the school laws was at its height in 1879
he broke off diplomatic relations with the Vatican
because the Pope declined to rebuke the recalci-
trant and seditious attitude of the bishops. The
Roman Catholics triumphed and the Liberal régime
identified with Frére-Orban came to an end in 1884.
He led the Opposition until he lost his seat in the
elections of October, 1894. Among the achieve-
ments of his various administrations were the re-
al of the salt tax, the abolition of octrois, many
aws for the regulation of labor and the promoting
of the welfare of workingmen, the creation of the
rgne, and the
military defenses and armament of Belgium.
Galimberti, Luigi, an Italiin prelate, born in
Rome, April 25, 1836; died at Suchstein, near Diis-
seldorf, May 7, 1896. He was for many years Pro-
fessor of Ecclesiastical History and of Theology in
the College of the Propaganda and the Roman uni-
versity. He founded and edited the “ Moniteur de
Rome” as the political organ of the Vatican.
Pope Leo XIII appointed him Secretary of the
Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Af-
fairs. When Prince Bismarck submitted the dispute
with Spain over the possession of the Caroline Is-
lands to the arbitration of the Pope Mgr. Galimberti
drafted the award in favor of Spain. He afterward
played an important part in the negotiations be-
tween Prussia and the Vatican for the termination
of the Culturkampf. As nuncio in Vienna he dis-
played the same genius for conciliation, and labored
to promote good relations with Germany as well
as with the Austrian court. The appointment of
Cardinal Stablewsky, a Polish prelate, to the see of
Posen in 1891 was attributed to his exertions. He
was created a cardinal on Jan. 16, 1893, and was
one of the most influential in the college, and
a prominent candidate for the succession to the
pacy, the one on whom were chiefly centered the
ones for a reconciliation between the Vatican and
the Quirinal.
Geffcken, Friedrich H., a German diplomatist
and jurist, born in Hamburg, Dec. 9, 1830: died in
Munich, April 30,1896. He studied law and history
at Bonn and Gottingen, and in 1854 was appointed
secretary to the legation of the Free Towns in
Paris. In 1856 he was chargé d'affaires for Ham-
burg at Berlin, and in 1859 was raised to the rank
of minister. He was Hanseatic minister in London
after the formation of the North German Confed-
eration. Returning to Hamburg in 1868, he was
elected a member of the Senate. In 1872 he ac-
cepted the professorship of International Law and
Political Economy at Strasburg. He retired and re-
turned to Hamburg in 1881, and in 1889 removed
to Munich. This migration was the result of a con- .
flict with Prince Bismarck, who caused Prof. Geffcken
to be arrested on the charge of treason for having
602
published in the “ Deutsche Rundschau” extracts
from the diary of the Crown-Prince Friedrich writ-
ten during the Franco-Prussian War. The object
was to prove that the Emperor Friedrich was the
real author and founder of German unity, but that
Bismarck had thwarted his aims to make the em-
pire liberal and democratic, while utilizing his ideas
and labors. Prof. Geffeken wasintimate with Fried-
rich before he succeeded to the throne, and is be-
lieved to have drawn up the rescripts to the nation
and to Prince Bismarck that were published in
1888. He was a frequent writer on controversial
political subjects, and a bitter opponent of Bis-
marck’s ideas and policy.
*“ France, Russia. and the Triple Alliance” (1893).
Goncourt, Edmond Huot de. a French author,
born in Nancy, May 28, 1822; died in Paris, July
16, 1896. The brothers Jules and Edmond de Gon-
court, grandsons of a member of the National As-
sembly of 1789, devoted themselves to literary pur-
suits and made a special study of the life and
society of the eighteenth century. Their first essay
was a vaudeville play, which was refused by the di-
rector of the Palais Royal, who stole the plot and
had it more skillfully worked out by a practiced
dramatist. Their first book, “In 18—,” published
in 1851, was a failure. They joined the staff of
“L’Eclair,” started by a cousin, and when it ex-
pired they all went over to the new literary review
“Paris.” The two brothers were arrested for re-
printing a shocking poem by an old French poet,
and this adventure first brought them into public
notice. Their first literary success they won in
1860 with “ Les Hommes des Lettres,” republished
in 1869 under the title of “Charles Demailly.” It
was the first of their novels of observation, the pro-
totypes of the realistic school, and was followed in
1861 by “Sceur Philoméne,” a lugubrious picture
of hospital life. In ‘‘ Renée Mauperin ” (1862) they
gave a description of the young bowrgeoisie, and in
“Germinie Lacerteux ” (1865) they recount the sad
life story of a servant who was deartothem. In
1865 they published a book about artists entitled
“ Manette Salomon.” Their “ Henriette Maréchal”
was in that year hissed at the Comédie Francaise
for the reason that the Princess Mathilde had used
her influence to have it accepted. The story told
in “ Madame Gervaisais” (1869) of a free-thinking
woman who was converted into a religious bigot
through the influence of her environment, was con-
ceived during a trip that the brothers took to
Rome. “Le Pays en Danger” was rejected at the
Comédie Frangaise in 1869. After the death of
Jules in 1870 Edmond worked out the notes aceu-
mulated from the studies and observations of the
brothers with the same finished style and artistic
expression that distinguishes the joint work of the
two. He published “ La Fille Elisa” (1878); “ Les
Fréres Zemganno” (1882); “La Faustin” (1882);
“ Chérie” (1884); “Gavarni”; and “ Pages Retrou-
vées.” From the romances previously written by
him and his brother he made three plays, entitled
“Renée Mauperin,” in which he had the assistance
of Henri Céard ; ‘‘Germinie Lacerteux,” an undra-
matic series of tableaux ; and ‘‘ Manette Salomon.”
The brothers noted down their judgments and ob-
servations and often the confidences of fellow-
writers and others, and these memoranda Edmond
published under the title of the “Journal Gon-
court.” The brothers aspired to be artists and
made sketches in Algeria before they settled in
Paris. Their water colors, made in Algeria, Italy,
and Flanders, possess individual artistic qualities,
and still more so their etchings. Their work on
Watteau was illustrated by engravings in the style
of that master. They published numerous studies
on the minor French painters of the eighteenth
His latest work was.
‘otic Arab element, when
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Goncourtr—Harris.)
century, some of whom they first brought again
into notice. Their writings on the society and
court life of that period are voluminous. In the
house that they built at Auteuil they gathered a
great store of artistic curiosities, especially of the
eighteenth century. To this Edmond added a pre-
cious collection of Japanese objects of art. He left
the bulk of his fortune, estimated at 2,000,000
franes, to found an Académie des Goncourt, con-
sisting of 10 persons, who .shall award each year a
prize of 5,000 franes for the best prose work, and
each of them receive a pension of 6,000 francs.
Eight of them he named in the will, with directions
that they elect the other two. When one of them
dies, the survivors are to choose a successor,
Grove, Sir William Robert, a British physicist,
born in Swansea, Wales, July 11, 1811; died in
London, Aug. 2, 1896. He gave his attention early
to the study of electricity and experimental physics,
and in 1839 invented the powerful voltaic battery
that bears his name. He devised also the gas bat-.
tery. From 1840 to 1847 he was Professor of Ex-
perimental Philosophy in the London Institution.
As a member of the Council of the Royal Society,
he had a large share in its reorganization. Devoting
himself later to the profession of the law, he became
Queen’s counsel in 1853. He was a member of the
Metropolitan Commission on Sewers and of the
royal commissions on patent law and on Oxford
University. He was elevated to the bench as a jus-
tice of common pleas in November, 1871, was
knighted Feb. 21, 1872, and in November, 1875,
through the operation of the judicature act, became
a judge of the High Court of Justice. On his re-
tirement from the bench, in 1887, he was made a
member of the Privy Council. Sir William Grove
made several important discoveries in electricity
and optics. In a lecture before the London Insti-
tution in 1842 he first advanced the theory of the
interconvertibility of the forces of heat, light, elec-
tricity, and mechanical energy, calling all of them
modes of motion or forms of persistent force.
This doctrine he developed in the essay on “The
Correlation of Physical Forces.” He received the
medal of the Royal Society in 1847 for lectures on
“ Voltaic Ignition” and “ Decomposition of Water
into its Constituent Gases by Heat.” He contrib-
uted many papers to “ Transactions of the Royal
Society ” and to the “ Philosophical Magazine.”
Hamid bin Thwain bin Said, Seyyid, Sultan of
Zanzibar, born in 1856; died Aug. 25, 1896. He
was a nephew of the Sultan Ali Bin Said, and be-
fore he came to the throne was dependent on the
produce of a small clove plantation and was always
in debt. The English recognized him as the heir
to the throne, and defended his rights against his
cousin Said Khalid, the representative of the patri-
is uncle died, on March
6, 1893. Although Hamid was the subservient
creature of the British rulers, he was a devout
Mussulman, learned in the Koran and strict in
ceremonial observances.
Harris, Sir Augustus, an English theatrical
manager, born in Paris in 1852; died in Folkestone,
Jan. 22, 1896. His father was a manager of Lon-
don theaters, but he was trained for commercial
business till he went upon the stage in 1873 and
played light comedy parts till Mapleson made him
assistant stage manager of the Italian Opera Com-
pany and afterward left the management entirely in
his hands. He went to Paris in 1876 and brought
over the Odéon Company to play “ Les Danischefft”
at St. James’s Theater. He next composed a panto-
mime for the Crystal Palace, introducing novel
stage effects. In 1879 he undertook the manage-
ment of Drury Lane Theater, in which previous
lessees had sunk fortunes. By studying the popu-
- OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
lar taste and catering to the demands of the multi-
tudes, and by his thorough business methods, he
made it successful. He was the originator of the
magnificent modern staging of melodramas and
ntomimes. In 1888 he acquired, in addition,
vent Garden, where he conducted opera with
success, anticipating and meeting the fash-
ionable demand now for Wagner, now for a revival
of Italian opera, now for the latest productions of
M i, Leoncavallo, and Massenet. He was the
author of the “Sporting Duchess” and other spec-
tacular plays, and of the most striking pantomimes.
In 1891 s was a sheriff of London and was knighted.
Heine, Cécile Charlotte Furtado, a French
ge a oy born in Paris in 1821; died there
. 10, 1896. She was of distinguished Hebrew
extraction. She married Charles Heine, nephew of
Heinrich Heine and son of the Hamburg banker
Solomon Heine. When she was left a widow with-
out children, she followed the ea of her hus-
band and her father by devoting her wealth to
charitable objects. She founded at Croisic a hos-
ital for children suffering from rickets and a chil-
ren’s dispensary in Paris, and was a constant and
liberal donor to established charities. Her ambu-
lance work and liberality to French prisoners in
Germany during during the war of 1870 secured
her the cross of the Legion of Honor. During the
M expedition she gave her villa at Nice
and 60,000 francs a year for the benefit of invalid
officers, and afterward she increased this sam. She
made a large donation to the fund of the Pasteur
Institute. She also founded charitable institutions
at Bayonne, and recently she established a eréche in
a at quarter of Paris.
ip ibe? Louis Mondestin Florvil, Presi-
dent o ~ born in Cape Haytien in 1827; died
in Port au Prince, March 24,1896. He was the son
of one of the ministers of the Emperor Faustin I
of Hayti. Although his mother was a French-
woman, his complexion was quite black. His
father, who was an extensive traveler and master
of many languages, educated his son in France for
a military career. After he returned to Hayti he
joined the army and proved himself a valiant sol-
ier and a man of force and resolution. He distin-
guished himself especially in the defense of the for-
tress of Bellair in 1865. In 1889 he headed the
insurrection that overthrew President Légitime, and
in October of that year assumed the chief power.
He was elected Constitutional President and entered
upon the regular term of seven years in May, 1890.
Hirsch de Gereuth, Baron Maurice de, an
Austrian financier, born in Munich, Bavaria, Dec.
9, 1831; died near Pressburg, Hungary, April 20,
1896. His father was a cattle dealer, who became
court banker at Munich, was ennobled in 1869, and
at*his death left his son a large fortune. Maurice
de Gereuth at the age of eighteen entered the
banking house of Bischoffsheim & Goldschmidt,
in Brussels, rose to a confidential place, and mar-
ried a daughter of the senior partner, who was a
Belgian Senator. On the failure, in 1866, of the
firm of Langrand Dumonceau, Hirsch acquired the
assets, which included a concession from the Turk-
ish Government for building railroads. He entered
on the work of building railroads with the thor-
oughness and attention to details and with the sin-
gle purpose of turning every accident to his pecun-
lary advantage that characterized all his business
dealings and explained his success in gaining
wealth. He drew lots with two others for the
three sections that were to be built, and, though
the most difficult one fell to him, by employing the
best German engineering talent, by exercising a
strict control over every minute expenditure, by
fighting the Turkish officials pertinaciously or buy-
(Het~we—Hirtrovo.) 603
ing their favor when expedient, and seizing every
legal advantage, he made $4,000,000 out of this
contract, while his colleagues lost money on the
other sections, His subsequent dealings with the
Turkish Govern-
ment and his other
undertakings were
not less profitable,
and his father’s
fortune and his
wife’s dowry of
$20,000,000 aug-
mented his capi-
tal and means
of money-making.
When he had ac-
quired a fortune
estimated at $200,-
000,000, and had
an income of $15,-
000,000 or $20,000,-
000 a year, he ar-
ranged his affairs
so that he could
devote his whole
mind to the expen-
diture of this in-
come for the benefit of his fellowmen, for he believed
that such was the only honorable way of spending
money on a large scale. He had sought social dis-
tinction, but was shunned by the Austrian and
French aristocrats, though he counted among his
friends the Prince of Wales, to whom he was re-
puted to have loaned large sums, and other royal
personages who had to thank him for similar fa-
vors. He was successful on the English turf, and
gave his winnings to the London hospitals.- He
was fond of shooting also, and maintained some of
the choicest preserves in Europe. The death of
his only son, in 1888, impelled him to devote him-
self more and more to charitable projects. His
greatest scheme was the Jewish Colonization So-
ciety, to which he gave $10,000,000. Its object is
to transplant Jews who formed indigent com-
munities in Europe and Asia, especially those who
suffered under political or social disabilities, as in
Russia, Roumania, and Austria, to some new coun-
try where they can develop into independent farm-
ers. The colonies established with this fund in the
Argentine Republic and the United States have °
hot fulfilled his expectations. He gave vast sums
also to establish mechanical training schools for
young Hebrews in all the great cities of Europe
and in the United States, Turkey in Asia, and
Egypt. He gave $2,500,000 to form a fund in New
York for educating and Americanizing Russian and
Roumanian Jews. He gave $3,000,000 to the Jews
of Galicia for educational purposes. When the
Russian Government declined to accept $10,000,000
for iene education on condition that Jews
should not be shut out from the advantages, he
sent $200,000 to be distributed in charity by the
Emperor. His gifts aggregated $50,000,000, and
those of his wife, who devoted her life to charitable
works before he began his benefactions, were as
great in proportion. Since his death, his wife has
continued his benefactions.
Hitrovo, M., a Russian diplomatist, born about
1835; died in St. Petersburg, July 13, 1896. He
began his career in the consular service, and was
too indolent, careless, and pleasure loving to gain
promotion till he manifested diplomatic talent
when connected with the army staff at San Stefano
during the negotiation of the treaty of peace with
Turkey in 1878. He watched the subsequent de-
velopment of events in the Balkans as consul gen-
eral at Salonica, and became an actor in them as
604 OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
soon as he was appointed consul general and diplo-
matic agent at Sofia. He supported Alexander of
Battenberg, under instructions from his Govern-
ment, and when the coup d’état that resulted in
the temporary suspension of the Constitution of the
principality had been made successful through
Russian influence he exacted the submission of
Prince Alexander to Russian policy to such a de-
gree that friction and estrangement followed.
Though M. Hitrovo had been transferred to Bu-
charest when Alexander was kidnaped and after-
ward forced to abdicate, he was credited with di-
recting and controlling all the agitations and in-
trigues that disturbed the tranquillity of Bulgaria.
When the Russian Government changed its attitude
toward Bulgaria he was transferred to Lisbon, and
subsequently he was Russian minister to Japan.
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst, Prince Gustaf
Adolf, a German prelate, born in Rotenburg, Feb.
26, 1823; died in Rome, Oct. 30,1896. \ His an-
cestors were counts and later princes till 1806 of
Hohenlohe, now incorporated partly in Bavaria
and partly in Wiirtemberg. He attended the gym-
nasia of Ansbach and Erfurt, studied law at Bonn
and theology at Breslau and Munich, went to Rome
in 1846 to complete his studies in the Academia
Ecclesiastica, took refuge with the papal court at
Gaeta during the revolution of 1849, and was there
ordained priest by Pius IX, who, after his return
to Rome, appointed him chamberlain and subse-
quently almoner and Bishop of Edessa in partibus.
He was created a cardinal on June 22, 1866, but
encountered the hostility of the Jesuits, and, after
the Vatican Council, although he did not openly
oppose its decrees, he retired to Germany. He re-
turned to Rome in 1876, and was made Bishop of
Albano in 1879, but resigned in 1884, and contented
himself with the post of archpriest of Santa Maria
Maggiore.
Houssaye, Arséne, a French author, born in
Bruyéres, March 28, 1815; died in Paris, Feb. 26,
1896. He enlisted at the age of sixteen and fought
in the Antwerp campaign, ran away from home
with a troupe of singers to seek his fortune in Paris,
and made his living at first by writing street bal-
lads. Falling in with Théophile Gautier and Gérard
de Nerval, he acquired his literary style from asso-
ciation with them and their companions. He wrote
with great ease and rapidity in a florid manner and
sentimental vein a great number of novels and his-
torical biographies. His history of Flemish and
Dutch painting won for him the ribbon*of the Le-
gion of Honor. In 1848 he purchased a magazine,
“T/ Artiste,” and had Gautier, Murger, and Champ-
fleury for contributors. He was an active Repub-
lican in the revolution of 1848, and after the coup
d@élat composed a famous song, “ L’Empire e’est la
Paix.” As administrator of the Comédie Frangaise
from 1849 till 1856 he did good service by bringing
out Hugo’s plays. He made much money by specu-
lation, entertained lavishly, and held the sinecure
office of inspector of provincial museums, writing
copiously at the same time for the reviews and pro-
ducing new novels in rapid succession. He founded
the “ Gazette de Paris” in 1871, but it was unsuc-
cessful, In 1875 he accepted the directorship of
the Théatre National Lyrique, which he soon re-
signed on account of the difficulties that he en-
countered. He was himself an unsuccessful ap-
plicant for election to the Academy in 1876, and
subsequently his son was elected to a chair. His
most valuable contribution to literature is his “ Con-
fessions,” containing his recollections of the period
from 1830 to 1880. In his “ Fauteuil de l’Academie
Francaise (1855) he satirized the Academie for ex-
cluding the most eminent Frenchmen from mem-
bership. Among his multitudinous works are
(Ho#EenLoHE-ScuHi_uinesrirst—HucGusrs.)
“ Philosophes et Comédiennes,” “ Les Filles d’Eve,”
“Sous la Régence et sous la Terreur,” “ Blanche et
Marguérite,” “ Nos Grandes Dames,” ‘Le Roi Vol-
taire,” and “ Histoire de l’Art Frangaise.”
Hughes, Thomas, an English lawyer and author,
born in Uffington, Berkshire, England, Oct, 23,
1823; died in Brighton, England, March 22, 1896.
His grandfather, Thomas Wilkinson, had been vi-
car of the parish in which he was born. At the
age of seven he was sent to Rugby, where he
studied under Dr.
Arnold. In 1841
he entered Oriel
College, Oxford,
and in 1845 took
his degree of A. B.
there. 'T'wo years
after leaving col-
lege he married
Miss Anne Fran-
cis Ford, daughter
of James Ford,
prebendary of Ex-
eter. One year
later, in 1848, he ©
was called to the
bar at Lincoln’s
Inn, and he was
made a member of
the bar of Chan-
cery. He was a member of Parliament for Lambeth
from 1865 to 1868. In 1868 he was sent as repre-
sentative from the borough of Frome, and he con-
tinued to hold the office for six years. He was
nominated a candidate for Marylebone, and 294
votes were cast for him, but he had withdrawn on the
day previous to the election. In 1869 Mr. Hughes
was appointed a Queen’s counsel, and in 1870 he
traveled through the United States and assisted in
founding a colony in Tennessee. In 1882 he was
made judge of the county court circuit. Mr.
Hughes took a special interest in the combina-
tions of trades unions and legislation in regard
to master and servant, and was prominent during
his political life in debates upon these subjects.
Even in his college days he was much absorbed with
political problems, and held very advanced liberal
views. He was associated with Kingsley and Mau-
rice in their work among the poor of London, and,
though zealous for the good of the workingman, he
strongly censured the extreme views and measures
of certain among the trades-union members. His
writings are: “Tom Brown’s School Days, by an
Old Boy” (1857); “The Scouring of the White
House ” (1858) ; “ Tom Brown at Oxford” and “* Re-
ligio Laici” (1861) ; ‘‘ The Cause of Freedom: Which
is its Champion in America, the North or the
South ?” (1863) ; “ Alfred the Great ” (1869) ; “* Mem-
oir of a Brother” (1873); “ Prefatory Memoir to
Charles Kingsley’s ‘Alton Locke’” (1876); “The
Old Church: What shall we do with it ?” (1878) ; and
“ A Memoir of Daniel Macmillan” (1882). He edited
James Russell Lowell’s “ Biglow Papers” in 1859 ;
“The Trade Unions of England,” by the Comte
de Paris, in 1869; and F. D. Maurice’s treatise on
“The Friendship of Books” in 1874. His remain-
ing books are: “ Rugby, Tennessee ” (1881); “ Gone
to Texas: Letters from Our Boys” (1885); “ Life of
Bishop Fraser” (1887); and “ Livingstone” (1889).
He wrote also a preface for “ Whitmore’s Poems.”
Mr. Hughes’s first book has had several editions,
and M. Levoisin translated it into French, and it
was published in Paris in 1875. ‘ Religio Laici ”
first appeared as one of a series called “ Tracts for
Priests and People,” and was issued later under the
title “ A Layman’s Faith.” In his volume upon the
Church he opposes its disestablishment.
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Huisr—Ko.pakovsky.)
Hulst, Maurice d’,a French prelate and poli-
tician, born in Paris in 1841; died Nov. 6, 1896.
His father, Comte d’Hautcroche, afterward styled
Comte d’Hulst, was Deputy for Hérault from 1820
till 1827. Maurice d’Hulst was a playmate in his
childhood of the Comte de Paris. He was ordained
in 1865, was a parish priest in Paris till the Franco-
German War, when he served as chaplain to the
ress ambulance, escaped from Sedan, and was in
aris during the siege. He was appointed vicar
general of the diocese of Paris in 1875 and rector
of the-Catholice Institute when it was established in
1876. In 1890 he became special preacher at Notre
Dame, aid in 1892 he succeeded to Bishop Freppel’s
seat in the French Chamber. He defended Catho-
lic principles with as much ardor and cultivated
eloquence as his predecessor, and rather more em-
phatically and dogmatically. Mgr. d’Hulst was the
author of numerous religious works.
- Hunt, Alfred William, an English artist, born
in Liverpool in 1830; died in London, May 3, 1896.
He was the son of Andrew Hunt, a Liverpool artist,
and was educated at Liverpool Collegiate School
and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, taking his de-
gree in 1852. He had been a pupil in drawing and
painting of his father, and in 1854 he sent his first
icture to the Royal Academy, “Styehead Pass,
amnterkend.” “Llyn Idwal,” exhibited at the
same place in 1856, was much admired by Mr. Rus-
kin, as were also his next year’s pictures. About
this time he became a member of the Hogarth Club,
a preraphaelite association. In 1860 he exhibited
~ Fast before Sunset,” “ Mist rising after Heavy
Rain,” and the well-known “ Track of an Old World
Glacier,” works which made much impression and
influenced his election in 1862 as an associate of
the Society of Painters in Water Colors and a full
member two years later. For some seven years he
worked only in water colors, but in 1870 he again
exhibited at the Academy, and after that date worked
both in oil and water colors. He was never elected
a member of the Academy, a neglect which was -
deeply felt by the artist, whose abilities richly de-
served such acknowledgment. That he was gen-
‘erally looked upon as a water colorist simply,
although he sent some 40 oils to the Academy,
only partially explains the action of the acade-
micians. Among his best-known pictures are:
“Whitby Churchyard,” “Whitby: Morning and
Evening,” “Goring Lock,” and “Summer Days for
me.” In 1884 a large collection of his work in oils
and water colors was shown at the Fine Art Society’s
rooms. Hunt was one of the most distinguished
followers of Turner, but was not a mere copyist of
the style of his great model. A recent critic has
said of him: “ No painter of our epoch had a truer
sense of the gradations of light as it penetrates
more or less transparent veils of vapor, taking, or as
the case may be, creating lovely hues in its passage
through them; no man measured the distance with
greater art, immortalized more faithfully the fleet-
ing beauty of English landscape, nor translated
with more conspicuous skill into permanent forms
the poetry of Nature.”
Karl, Ludwig, Archduke, heir presumptive of
the Austrian throne, born in Schénbrunn, July 30,
1833; died in Vienna, May 19, 1896. At the age of
twenty he went to Galicia to be initiated into the
administration of a province, and two years later
he was made Governor of the Tyrol. He resigned
when the Constitution of 1861 was granted, and
after that took no interest in political affairs, but
was an earnest and indefatigable promoter of works
of feos and public utility, interested espe-
cially in the development of technical education, a
generous patron of struggling artists, and a dis-
penser of magnificent hospitalities. His first wife,
605
the Princess Margarethe, daughter of King Johann of
Saxony, died within two years. In 1862 he married
Princess Annonciade of Bourbon-Sicily, by whom
he had four children, the Archdukes Franz Ferdi-—
nand of Este, Otto, and Ferdinand Karl, and the
Archduchess Margarethe, married to the Duke of
Wiirtemberg. In 1871 he lost his second wife, and
two years later heespoused the young Princess Maria
Theresa of Braganza. After the tragic death of the
Archduke Rudolph, the succession passed to him
and his male heirs. He resigned it in favor of the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Este, who is not
likely to survive him long, and is unmarried. The
Archduke Otto is next in succession.
Kekule, Friedrich August, a German chemist,
born in 1829; died in Bonn, July 14, 1896. He de-
voted his life entirely to chemical investigations,
was professor at Ghent from 1858 to 1865, and had
since held a chair in the University of Bonn. Or-
ganic chemistry especially has been greatly advanced
by his indefatigable experiments and discoveries,
the most important of which was his demonstration
of the quadruple character of the atoms of carbon.
Knight-Bruce, George Wyndham, an English
missionary, born in 1853; died in Newton Abbot,
Dec. 16, 1896. He was a grandson of Justice Knight-
Bruce, and was educated at Eton and Oxford, took
his bachelor’s degree in 1876, and went into holy
orders. He served as a missionary curate in Liver-
pool and the East End of London till 1886, when he
was appointed Bishop of Bloemfontein. In South
Africa Dr. Knight-Bruce, like all the earnest and
energetic Christian missionaries, came into conflict
continually with the secular pioneers of British
civilization. He penetrated into Matabeleland and
Mashonaland, and obtained permission from Loben-
gula for the establishment of missions before the
charter of the South African Company was granted.
In 1891 he became the first Bishop of Mashonaland,
and succeeded in a remarkable degree in establishing
the infiuence of the English Church among the na-
tives. He condemned the Matabele war, as he did
most of the operations of Cecil Rhodes, but when
the war began he joined the expedition, refusing,
however, to take the post and pay of chaplain,
because he held that the Matabele no less than the
company’s troops were members of his diocese.
Broken in health from constant trial and exposure,
he resigned the bishopric in 1894, and returned to
England, where he was nominated to a Crown living
in Devon, and was afterward made Assistant Bishop
of Exeter.
Kolpakovsky, Gen., a Russian soldier, born in
Kherson in 1819; died in St. Petersburg, May 5,
1896. He was the son of an inferior officer, and
joined the army as a private at the age of sixteen,
winning a commission after six years by his gallantry
in the Caucasus, and afterward taking part in the
operations in Transylvania, when Russia interfered
in the Hungarian civil war. After commanding
the penal settlement of Berezof, in Siberia, he was
appointed in 1858 commandant of the fort of Uzun
Agatch, near Lake Issik Kul, which the Khan of
Khokand attacked with 30,000 followers. Collect-
ing his force in haste, he pursued and routed the
Khan’s army, for which he was rewarded with the
post of Governor General of Semiretchia. When he
befriended the Chinese of the Solon tribe, who were
driven out of Kuldja by the Mohammedan rebels,
he was made a mandarin of the first class by the
Emperor of China. In 1871 he received permission
to carry out his suggestion of a temporary occupa-
tion of Kuldja province in trust for China. After
serving as Governor General of Turkestan and of
Western Siberia he was called to St. Petersburg in
1889, and appointed a member of the Council of
ar.
606 OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
Larsson, Olaf, a Swedish politician, born in 1838;
died in Falum, Sept. 12, 1896. He was for many
years the leader of the great. Agrarian party, and at
the time of his death was a member of the First
Chamber of the Riksdag.
Laugée, Désirée, a French painter, born in 1823 ;
died in Paris, Feb. 3, 1896. He was a pupil of
Picot, and first exhibited in 1845. Some of his his-
torical paintings are: “ Mort de Guillaume la Con-
quérant,” “ Mort de Zurbaran,” “ Les Maraudeurs,”
and “ Louis IX et ses Intimes.” His “ La Cierge a
la Madonne,” painted in 1877, is in the Luxembourg.
He was a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. _
Leighton, Frederick, Lord, an English painter,
born in Scarborough, in December, 1880; died in
London, Jan. 25, 1896. He was a grandson of Sir
James B. Leighton, who was chief of the medical
department of the Russian navy and physician to
the Empress of Russia, His father also was a phy-
sician, but abandoned practice and traveled on the
Continent on account of his wife’s health. Fred-
erick Leighton showed early his talent for drawing,
which was developed by art lessons from George
Lance in Paris in 1889, Filippo Meli in Rome, and
other instructors in Dresden and Berlin, and in
Frankfort, where he attended school. At his son’s
solicitation and by the advice of Hiram Powers, the
father gave his consent, when in Florence in 1846,
to his son’s embracing the profession of art. After
further and thorough training in Paris and Brussels,
he attempted a serious picture, taking for his sub-
ject “ Cimabue finding Giotto drawing in the Fields.”
He spent several years at Frankfort under the tui-
tion of E. Steimle, producing several paintings, one
of which is “The Death of Brunellesco.” Next he
painted during three winters at Rome, and there
produced his first great work, “Cimabue and his
Friends and Scholars at Florence accompanying his
Picture of the Madonna to the Church of Santa
Maria Novella,” which was exhibited at the Royal
Academy in 1855, and was purchased by the Queen.
He exhibited at the Academy from that time for-
ward, and had an unbroken series of successes. In
the course of the next four years, spent mostly at
Paris, he painted “The Triumph of Music,” “The
Fisherman and the Siren,’ “Romeo and Juliet,”
and other works. When visiting Capri in 1859 he
painted his “Capri—Sunrise.” “Paoli and Fran-
cesca” and “The Star of Bethlehem” were painted
before 1864, when he was elected an associate mem-
ber of the Academy. He made a long tour in Spain,
(LArsson—LosBaNnorr—RostTorsk1.)
and then settled permanently in London, His ver-
satile talents soon made him known, and the special
gift that he had cultivated of treating classical sub-
jects with the selective regard for line and form,
the classic purity and vigor of a Greek artist,
brought distinction upon British art as well upon
the first artist who had attained so noble a style.
“ Venus Unrobing,” “ Daedalus and Icarus,” “ Elec-
tra,” and “Clytemnestra” are some of his earlier
classical paintings. The most forceful and statuesque
is his “Eastern Slinger.” He was made a full
academician in 1868. ‘Hercules wrestling with
Death for the Body of Alcestis” was one of the pic-
tures of the year in 1871. The completest. and
grandest example of his style is the large canvas of
“Daphnephora,” showing a long and admirably
grouped procession of youths and maidens before
the temple of Apollo in Thebes, painted in 1876.
His Biblical paintings of “ Elisha raising the Son
of the Shunamite” and “ Elijah in the Wilderness”
were drawn on a large scale. In subsequent years
he painted “The Light of the Harem,” “ Phryne
at. Eleusis,” “ Antigone,” “Cymon and Iphigenia,” ”
“The Last Watch of Hero,” “The Captive Androm-
ache,” “Greek Girls playing at Ball,” “The Ves-
tal,” “ Whispers,” “The Music Lesson,” “ The Bath
of Psyche,” “The Return of Persephone,” “ Perseus
and Andromeda,” “ Hit,’ “Rizpah,” and “The
Spirit of the Summit.” “And the Sea gave up its
Dead” is an important work, painted in 1892. In
1895 he exhibited “Lachryme” and “Flaming
June” at the monery & In the Grosvenor Gallery
he exhibited some of his smaller pictures, sketches.
of Damascus taken during an tern tour, and
some of his portraits. The pee that he painted
were not numerous. A full-face of himself was
made for the collection in the Uffizzi Gallery. He
painted one of Capt. Richard F. Burton in 1876,
and other fine ones of Prof. Costa, Sir E. Ryan, the
Countess Brownlow, and Lady Sybil Primrose. He
was elected President of the Academy in 1879, to
succeed Sir Francis Grant, the portrait painter, was
knighted in consequence, received a baronetcy in
1886, and on Jan. 1, 1896, was raised to the peer-
age. Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh made
him D.C. L., in France he was a chevalier of the
Legion of Honor, and in 1878 he was President of
the International Jury of Painting at the Paris Ex-
position. He gave his attention to fresco painting,
sculpture, and other departments of art outside of
his proper field. ‘“ Romola” was the only book that
he ever illustrated. His best-known frescoes are
two large lunettes in the Kensington Museum, rep-
resenting the “ Arts of War” and “ Arts of Peace.”
His “ Wise and Foolish Virgins,” in Lyndhurst .
church, was painted in a single day. His “ Athlete
struggling with a Python ” (1876).and “Sluggard”
(1886) are sculptures of a superior order. He took
a keen interest in politics and social life, was a
ready writer, an effective public speaker, and,
though Italian and Greek in his art conceptions
and sensibilities, was so thorough an Englishman
that he gave some of his time and energy to pro-
moting the volunteer movement, and was colonel of
a rifle corps of artists.
Lobanoff-Rostofski, Prince Alexis Borisovich,
a Russian statesman, born Dec. 30, 1824; died near
Kieff, Aug. 30, 1896. After passing through the
Alexandrofski lyceum, he entered the public service
in 1848 in the economic department of the Foreign
Office. Attracting the attention of his superiors
by his readiness and ability, he was made second
secretary in a few months, and in 1847 first secre-
tary to Count Nesselrode. In 1850 he was attached
to the Berlin embassy, where he remained during
the Crimean War, at the close of which he was ap-
pointed counsel to the legation at Constantinople.
a
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Maceo—Macmiiiay.) 607
Three years later he was promoted to be minister
pleni tentiary at the Porte. In 1863 his erate
Ing Giplomaiie eareer was checked suddenly by a
misdeed that he committed. After three years of
retirement he was permitted to re-enter the public
service in the Department of the Interior, and served
for ten years as adlatus to the minister after some
months of preliminary experience as Governor of
Orel. At the conclusion of the Turkish War his
knowledge of the Eastern question and his training
in the deliberate and cautious, but pertinacious and
effective methods of Nesselrode were called into
requisition. Hence he was accredited in 1878 as
am to the Sultan, succeeding the Count
Ignatief. Lobanoff defended as tenaciously as his
brilliant and enterprising predecessor the interests
of his country, but he contrived to remain in cordial
relations with the Turkish officials and with his
European colleagues. Toward the end of 1879 he
was appointed ambassador to London. When the
relations with Austria grew strained and required
firm yet conciliatory handling, he was transferred
to Vienna, where he was ambassador from 1882 till
1895. He expected to direct the foreign policy of
Russia after M. de Giers died, but the Czar chose to
make M. de Staal Foreign Minister and transferred
Prince Lobanoff to Berlin. M. de Staal was, how-
ever, unwilling to accept the responsibilities of the
post of Minister of Foreign Affairs, and it was con-
sequently offered to Prince Lobanoff and gratefully
accepted. From the moment that he assumed office
he displayed an amount of activity that surprised
his friends, and with definite ideas of Russia’s posi-
tion and interests and of the entire critical and
a situation of international] politics he ac-
complished results that surprised the world. Ser-
via, Montenegro, and finally Bulgaria he drew again
into the orbit of Russian influence. He isolated
Japan, attracted Germany to co-operate with Russia
and France, protected the integrity of the Chinese
Empire, made Russian influence predominant at
Pekin and paramount at Seoul, effected a recon-
ciliation with the Prince and people of Bulgaria on
his own terms, strengthened the friendship with
France, and secured full freedom of action and
reponderant influence at Constantinople. Prince
Pobanoft had a very high conception of the power
and dignity of Russia, and he considered that his
peered had often humiliated his country by
is conciliatory and sometimes apologetic attitude
toward England and the members of the triple
alliance. He asserted the position and historical
mission in a way to satisfy the most ardent Russian
patriots without ruffling more than was necessary
the sensibilities of Russia’s rivals. This consum-
mate diplomatist, even when filling the most responsi-
ble positions and dealing with the weightiest trans-
actions, gave more of his time to historical research
than to his official duties.
Maceo, Antonio, a Cuban patriot, born in Santi-
ago de Cuba, July 14, 1848; died near Mariel, Dec.
2, 1896. His parents were highly respected mulat-
toes, all of whose sons fought bravely in the earlier
Cuban war for independence, in which Antonio
reached the rank of general and José that of colo-
nel. Antonio was wounded 23 times by the Span-
ish troops, and his chest was pierced through. He
was a farm hand when the war broke out, and
joined the ranks as a private soldier, but his in-
trepid daring, his natural leadership among the
colored people, and his strategic ability brought
him to the front. After Gomez he was the most
important leader in the ten years’ war. At De-
majagua and at La Galleta he defeated Gen. Mar-
tinez Campos. His campaign at Baracoa was bril-
liant, and in 1878, at San Ulpiano, he routed the
column of San Quintin, commanded by Fidel San-
tocildes, who met Maceo again in 1895 and was
killed at Paralejo. When the peace of Zanjon was
arranged in 1878, Maceo was the only general that
refused to lay down his arms. He issued a protest
and continued fighting two months, but finally de-
sisted when he found he could not rekindle the
revolutionary spirit among his disheartened coun-
trymen. He did not sign the peace, but went to
Jamaica, then to the United States, where he lived
some time, and afterward to South America, and
finally to Costa Rica, always preaching the cause of
Cuban independence and conspiring against Spain,
In 1890 he tried in vain to start a fresh revolution
in Cuba. In 1894, as he was leaving a theater in
Costa Rica, he was set. upon by a party of Span-
iards, one of whom he killed after receiving a severe
wound himself. He was active in preparing the
rebellion of 1895, and in March of that year he
landed again in Cuba, followed some days after by
Marti and Gomez. The blacks of Santiago, many
of whom had fought under his lead in the former
war, now flocked to his standard. His two in-
vasions of Pinar del Rio, his campaigns in that
province against picked troops led by the ablest of
the Spanish generals, and his actions at Paralejo,
Jobito, Mal Tiempo, Sao del Indio, and Candelaria
are the most brilliant feats of arms in the Cuban
war. He crossed the trocha between Mariel and
Majana once again to join Gomez and pilot him in
a new invasion of the western provinces. Having
only his staff with him, he was surprised and sur-
rounded by a large Spanish force and fell fighting, be-
trayed to his death, many believed, through the venal
treachery of Dr. Zertucha, his chief medical officer.
Gen. Weyler returned to Havana to celebrate with
public rejoicing the death of the most brilliant and
magnetic Cuban general.
aceo, José, a Cuban patriot, born in Santiago
de Cuba in 1846; died at La Lama del Gato, July
5, 1896. His father came from Central America
when its independence of the Spanish Crown was
declared, and when the Cuban insurrection of 1868
broke out he advised his sons to remain neutral ;
but the murder of one of them by a Spanish officer
so exasperated him that he burned the buildings on
his plantation and went over to the patriot ranks
with his family. Antonio and José soon rendered
themselves conspicuous. They fought through the
war, and José signed his brother’s protest of Bara-
gua, in which they refused to join in the surrender
of the patriot force. He planned to surprise and
capture Gen. Martinez Campos, but gave up the
project when he heard that Antonio had opened
negotiations with the captain general. José did
not follow his brother into exile, but remained in
Santiago de Cuba, and was one of the leading spirits
of the new insurrection of 1879. He was taken
prisoner and deported to Spain, attempted to es-
cape to Gibraltar, was recaptured by the police and
sent to the fortress of La Mola, at Mahon, in the
Balearic Isles, and finally made his escape from
there on a passing schooner, which took him to
Algiers. In 1885 he went to Costa Rica, where he
lived till the rebellion broke out in Cuba. He im-
mediately set out for Cuba, arriving on March 31,
1895. In a very short time he raised a large force,
with which he defeated the Spaniards at Jobito in
May, and in September won a signal victory over Col.
Canellas at Sao del Indio. He was killed in a fierce
engagement in which the Spaniards were finally
compelled to retreat.
Maemillan, Alexander, an English publisher,
born in Irvine, Ayrshire, Oct. 3, 1818; died in Lon-
don, Jan. 25, 1896. He was the son of a poor farm-
er, and was brought up to be a schoolmaster.
Through his brother Daniel he got employment in
1839 in the bookselling house of Seeley in London.
608
In 1848 the two established a business of their own,
and soon afterward they acquired another in Cam-
bridge and removed thither. After his brother’s
death, in 1857, Alexander returned with the grow-
ing business of Macmillan & Co. to London. His
publications grew from 44 in 1858 to 102 in 1863,
and after that in an increasing ratio, both in
the direction of general literature and in that of
educational works. An important branch was
opened in New York, which was reorganized on an
independent basis in 1890 under George Platt Brett
as American partner. Alexander Macmillan’s
strong intellectual interest in literature, especially
in philosophy and poetry, created an unwonted bond
between the publisher and his particular group of
authors, which included Archdeacon Hare, Thomas
Hughes, Kingsley, Maurice, and later John Richard
Green.
Macpherson, Sir David Lewis, a Canadian
statesman, born in Inverness, Scotland, in 1818;
died Aug. 16, 1896. He was educated at Inverness
Academy, emigrated to Canada in 1835, engaged in
railroad contracting, and became a director in the
bank of John Molson, his- father-in-law. He be-
came President of the Interoceanic Railroad Com-
any that undertook to build a railroad through to
ritish Columbia. He was a member of the Legis-
lative Council of Canada from 1864 till 1867, when
he was called into the Dominion Senate. He was
Speaker of this body and a member of the Cabinet
without portfolio from February, 1880, till October,
1883, when he resigned the speakership to accept
the appointment of Minister of the Interior. He
was knighted in 1884. When the Cabinet of Sir
John Macdonald was reorganized in 1887 Sir David
Macpherson retired. He remained a member of the
Senate till his death.
_ Meignan, Guillaume René, a French prelate,
born in Denaze, April 11,1817; died in Tours, Jan.
20, 1896. He was for a considerable period Arch-
bishop of Tours, and was created a cardinal on Jan.
16, 1893. ;
Monaco la Valetta, Raffaele, an Italian prel-
ate, born in Aquila, Feb. 23, 1827; died in Gerola,
near Naples, July 14, 1896. He was the dean of the
Sacred College, having been made a cardinal by Pius
IX on March 13, 1868, and was at one time cardinal
vicar. Becoming in later years incapacitated for
strenuous labors by failing health, he was appointed
Bishop of Ostia and Velletri in 1889. He was also
eaton of the Congregation of Ceremonial, Grand
enitentiary, prior in Rome of the Sovereign Order
of St. John of Jerusalem, and archpriest of the Lat-
eran basilica.
Mores, Antoine Manca de Vallombrosa, Mar-
quis de, a French explorer, born in Paris, June 14,
1858; died in Tripoli, June 8, 1896. He was a son
of the Due de Vallombrosa. He was graduated at
St. Cyr in 1878 and commissioned a lieutenant of
cuirassiers. In 1881 he married Miss Hoffmann,
daughter of a New York banker, and, resigning
from the army, purchased a tract of 15,000 acres in
the Bad Lands of Dakota, on which hesettled. The
land proved valuable for stock raising, and he un-
dertook to establish a slaughtering business in con-
nection with it and agencies for distributing the meat
at low prices directly to consumers in the principal
cities. He was greatly annoyed by cattle thieves in
Dakota, who made many attempts to assassinate
him, one of whieh resulted in his killing one of his
assailants, for which he was arrested, but was
promptly acquitted. He abandoned in 1886 his
ranch and the town that he planted there and
named Medorah after his wife, his combination of
business with philanthropy having resulted in losses,
After visiting Tonquin, which he proposed to con-
nect with China by a railroad, he returned in 1888
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
(MacpHerson—NASREDDIN.)
to France and threw himself into the Boulangist
movement. Later he became a rabid anti-Semite,
and in 1891 he underwent three months of imprison-
ment for articles and pamphlets attacking the Jews.
This campaign involved him in four duels, in one of
which he killed his adversary, Capt. Mayer. He
took part also in socialist demonstrations. He con-
ceived a scheme of gaining for France the friend-
ship of the Tuaregs and other Mohammedan races
of Africa, and through an alliance with them cir-
cumventing the expansion of English influence and
making the continued British occupation of Egypt
impossible. With this idea he went to Tunis and
organized an expedition to the Tuareg country from
Tripoli. Near Ghadames his Tuareg escort, tempted
by the rich booty of the caravan, murdered him
and some of his companions who took his part.
Mueller, Baron Sir Ferdinand yon, an Austral- ©
ian botanist, born in Rostock, Germany, in June,
1825; died in Victoria, Oct. 9,1896. He was trained
as a pharmacist, devoting his leisure time to the study
of botany and chemistry. He investigated thor-
oughly the botany of Schleswig-Holstein, studied at
the University of Kiel, and obtained a doctor’s de-
gree in philosophy in 1847. Emigrating then to
Australia in order to escape hereditary phthisis, he
at once entered upon his life’s labor of Australian
exploration and researches into the resources and
sibilities of the different parts of the continent.
n four years he carried his botanical explorations
over 4,000 miles. He was appointed in 1852 Gov-
ernment botanist to the colony of Victoria. In the
Gregory expedition through northern and central
Rostealia he was one of the four who reached Lake
Termination in 1856, and he collected specimens of
vegetation over a route of 6,000 miles through pre-
viously unexplored country. He was appointed di-
rector of the Melbourne Botanical Garden on his
return. In this office he rendered services of eco-
nomical and scientific value to Australia and to the
world. He was the first to cultivate the Victoria
regia. He was the means of introducing many
useful plants into Australia, and of sending in ex-
change to other countries a large number of plants
native to Australia. He suggested and took active
steps to bring about the introduction of the eucalyp-
tus into Algeria and other countries. His great
knowledge as a botanist was directed wherever pos-
sible to furthering useful practical ends. Not a
few Australian industries received their first inspira-
tion from his suggestions. It was partly at his in-
stance that the camel was introduced into Australia
and first used in exploration in 1860. In recent
years he took a great interest in antarctic explora-
tion. He was made a hereditary baron by the King
of Wiirtemberg in 1871. Baron von Mueller was a
voluminous writer on botanical subjects and printed.
over a hundred memoirs in scientific magazines.
Most of his writings are strictly scientific in form.
There are about a dozen volumes of his “ Phyto-
graphia Australie.” With Bentham he compiled
“Flora Australiensis.”. He published a work on
the “ Plants of Victoria” and books on the eucalyp-
tus and other special botanical subjects.
Nasreddin, Shah of Persia, born April 4, 1829;
died April 30, 1896. He was the son of Mohammed
Shah by a queen of the Kajar family, whose infin-
ence and ability, as well as her royal birth, prevailed
with the Shah, and finally induced him to proclaim
her son Valiahd, or heir apparent, in preference to
the older princes. He was accordingly appointed
Governor of Azerbaijan, and when his father died
he was proclaimed Shah in Shah, or King of Kings,
Sept. 10, 1848. He was residing in Tabriz, and his
accession to the throne was seriously disputed, espe-
cially by the followers of the reformer El] Bab, upon
whom he took a terrible vengeance when he finally
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
prevailed by force of arms. He proved the strong-
est and ablest ruler that Persia had had for a long
riod. From the moment he ascended the throne
e studied the art of war, learned French and the
Western sciences, and gave his whole attention to
methods of government and administration. He
had to subdue a revolt in every province, and in
this he had the aid of his Grand Vizier, a states-
man of genius; but this Grand Vizier he dismissed
when he became master of the country, and after
putting a stop to all intrigues of the harem he sur-
rounded himself with ministers who were content
to be his executive officers. He was so good a
financier that he controlled in detail all the ex-
penditures of the Government, revising the accounts
and authorizing every payment. He was as abso-
lute a despot as any in the world, delegating none
of his powers to others, and able to master and
confound all the Oriental intrigues with which he
was surrounded. In 1873 he made a prolonged stay
in Europe as the guest of different courts, in 1878
he visited Russia, and in 1889 he made a second
tour in Europe. Nasreddin was an artist, a poet,
and a voluminous writer. He possessed the largest
and most valuable collection of jewels in the world,
estimated to be worth from $75,000,000 to three
times that sum, and including the peacock throne
that was carried away from Delhi by Nadir Shah
and a globe of jewels made for the Shah at a cost
of $5,000,000. He had a considerable understand-
ing and appreciation of Western civilization, but
governed his own turbulent and fanatical people by
urely Asiatic methods. After defeating number-
ess conspiracies and revolts, he was at length as-
sassinated while entering a shrine by a fanatic of
the Babi sect. He was disposed to lean upon Russia
when he first ascended the throne, and, relying upon
Russian support, he repeated his father’s attempt to
re-establish Persian dominion over Herat. An Eng-
lish army landed in the Persian Gulf and defeated
his troops. From that time he adopted a more
friendly attitude toward England, but after the
Russians had annexed the khanates on his eastern
borders and extended their possessions in Armenia,
he shaped his policy under Russian influences once
more.
Negri, Cristoforo, an Italian economist, born
in Milan in 1809; died in Florence, Feb. 17, 1896.
He studied jurisprudence at. Pavia, Gratz, and Vi-
enna, and became Professor of Constitutional Law at
Padua in 1841. In consequence of his participation
in the revolutionary movement of 1848 he lost his
chair and was compelled to remove to Turin, where
he became rector of the university, and subsequently
head of the consular department of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. In connection with this office he
traveled in Germany, England, and Russia, and
completely reorganized the consular service. He
wrote much on matters of international trade, and
endeavored to awaken commercial patriotism and
enterprise among his compatriots. He founded the
Italian Geographical Society at Florence, and for
the first five years was its president. He lived a
year at Hamburg, and after that devoted his atten-
tion to promoting explorations in Central Africa
and the polar regions. He wrote a history of ant-
arctic expeditions. :
Nemours, Louis Charles Philippe Raphael
d°Orleans, Duc de, second son of Louis Philippe,
King of the French, born in Paris, Oct. 25, 1814;
died in Versailles, June 25, 1896. He received his
education in the college of Henri IV, was appointed
a colonel by Charles X when only a child, and rode
into Paris at the head of his regiment on Aug. 30,
1830. He was elected in February, 1831, King of
the Belgians, but his father declined on his behalf
this offer of the National Congress, as he did also a
VOL. XXxvI.—39 A
(Necri—Nortu.) 609
similar offer of the throne of Greece at a later
period. The Duc de Nemours served gallantly in
Algeria, and was promoted lieutenant general in
1837. In 1840 he married the Princess Victoria of
Saxe-Coburg. In 1841 he again served in Africa.
On the death of the Duc d’Orleans, Louis Philippe
submitted a bill appointing the Duc de Nemours
Regent in case the throne devolved upon his broth-
er’s infant heir, and this was carried against the
opposition of the Liberals, who objected to his cler-
ical and absolutist leanings. Owing to this law
the Duchesse d’Orleans, whom the Liberals had
favored, could not be proclaimed as Regent in 1848,
and thus the Due de Nemours was a contributory
cause of the revolution of February. He left France
and joined the other members of the exiled family
at Claremont. He was the first of the Orleanist
princes to recognize the Comte de Chambord as the
rightful King of France. In 1857 he was left a
widower with two sons and two daughters. The
elder son, the Comte d’Eu, married the only child
of the Emperor of Brazil. The younger son is the
Due d’Alencon. One daughter married Prince
Czartoryski, and died in 1893, and the other, Prin-
cess Blanche d’Orleans, is unmarried. The Duce de
Nemours returned to France in 1870, and lived
quietly in Paris or Versailles, taking no part in
olitics. In 1886, when pretenders were banished,
is name was struck off the army list.
Nobel, Alfred, a Swedish inventor, died in San
Remo, Dec. 10, 1895. When nitroglycerin was al-
most abandoned as a practical explosive on account
of the frequent accidents that attended its use, he
conceived, in 1866, the idea of. mixing it with sili-
ceous earth to moderate its force. To this com-
pound he gave the name of dynamite, and it
quickly took the place of other explosive sub-
stances for mining, engineering, and warlike pur-
poses throughout the world. M. Nobel left his
immense fortune as a fund for the furtherance of
scientific investigation and experimentation.
North, John Thomas, an English capitalist, born
near Leeds, Jan. 30, 1842; died in London, May 5,
1896. He was apprenticed, after receiving a meager
elementary education, to a firm of millwrights in
Leeds, and after eight years obtained a responsi-
ble place with the firm of Fowler in the same
town. He embraced an opportunity to go out to
Peru with his young wife to set up some machin-
ery, and remained in South America‘to make his
fortune by his mechanical knowledge and specu-
lative business faculties. He made money by con-
densing sea water for domestic use in a rainless
Chilian town, and by various other ingenious en-
terprises, notably by working large guano deposits.
He was one of the first to see the commercial
value of the nitrate fields of Tarapaca, and for
twenty years he kept purchasing nitrate deposits.
He mastered every detail of the nitrate business,
erected works, built railroads, and became the
largest exporter of nitrate of soda. Before the
Chilian war he had returned to England. He
went back to look after his interests, and, foresee-
ing the results of the war, managed to preserve his
rights by raising the British flag over his property
and by speculative purchases in a time of depre-
ciated values multiplied his property many times.
Returning to England, he multiplied his fortune
again by starting and controlling the speculation
in the shares of nitrate works and nitrate rail-
roads. Col. North was carelessly liberal with his
money, and thus became a well-known and popu-
lar character in English society. He took great
pleasure in horse racing and maintained a large
stable. He took an interest in coursing also, and
bred some famous dogs. In 1895 he presented him-
self as a Conservative candidate for Parliament in
610
West Leeds, and, after a novel and lively campaign,
almost won this naturally Liberal seat from Herbert
Gladstone.
Palmieri, Luigi, an Italian astronomer and
meteorologist, born in Benevento, April 22, 1807;
died in Naples, Sept. 9, 1896. He studied natural
science and philosophy at Naples, opened a school
of physical science, and was subsequently Professor
of Mathematics in the lyceums of Salerno, Campo-
basso, and Avellino successively. In 1845 he was
made Professor of Physics in the royal naval school
at Naples, and in 1847 was appointed professor at
the Naples University. In 1854 the meteorological
observatory on Vesuvius was placed under his direc-
tion. He devoted much attention to the study of
electricity and terrestrial magnetism, and invented
several instruments for the observation of natural
phenomena, especially an electrical seismograph
that has been used in Japan as well as in his ob-
servatory, an electrometer for ascertaining the
amount and the kind of electricity in the atmos-
phere, and a new rain gauge. For several years he
has predicted every fresh eruption of Vesuvius.
Parkes, Sir Henry, an Australian statesman,
born in Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, in 1815; died in
Sydney, New South Wales, April 27, 1896. He was
a son of a farm laborer, and was bound out to a
trade in Birmingham. After serving his appren-
ticeship, he married, and in 1839 emigrated to New
South Wales. He could scarcely earn enough to
feed his little family, and struggled on for years
in humble occupations—indeed was oppressed with
poverty all his life—but very soon his penetrating
grasp of public needs and political action impressed
his fellows. Taking part in publie discussions as
an advocate of free labor in opposition to the de-
mands of the pastoralists to revive transportation
and the system of assigning convicts to them, he
established the “Empire” newspaper in 1848, and
was soon recognized as one of the foremost publi-
cists and orators in Australia, and was honored as
a champion of popular rights who had helped to
save the liberties of the colony. In the new and
democratic Australia that sprang up on the discov-
ery of gold he advanced to the front. After taking
a prominent part in the agitation for a new consti-
tution, he was elected a representative of Sydney in
the Legislative Council, fought the proposition to
ereate a hereditary peerage and titles of nobility,
and when the first true Parliament of New South
Wales was constituted in 1856, secured a seat in the
Legislative Assembly, which he held, with the ex-
ception of some brief intervals, up to the time of
his death. He took a prominent part in all debates
and was recognized and feared as a most consum-
mate parliamentarian and formidable antagonist,
but it was not till 1866 that he accepted office. He
took the post of Colonial Secretary in the Cabinet
of Sir James Martin, and in. that year he carried
the public-schools act. In 1872 he formed his first
administration, which lasted till 1875. In 1877 he
again’ became Premier, and in 1878 for the third
time. In 1887 he formed a fourth Cabinet, and in
1889 a fifth, holding the position altogether about
twelve years. Sir Henry Parkes received his title
in 1877, and in 1888 the grand cross of the Colonial
order. He was imbued with the principles of Eng-
lish liberalism of the old school, that of Cobden
and Bright, but was much of an opportunist in his
politics, seldom an initiator of legislation, but quick
to adopt the new measures of other colonies and
countries that were likely to prove popular in New
South Wales. To him the colony owes its system
of national education freed from all ecclesiastical
control, efficient in its standards, and ingeniously
. adapted to sparsely populated districts. He was
accustomed to boast that there were few great
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN,
(PALMIERI—PATMORE.)
measures on the statute book that did not owe their
presence there to him. His public career came to
an end toward the close of 1891, when his ministry
resigned office rather than submit to the demands
of the Labor party. He was an earnest advocate of
Australian federation, and hoped to be called to
the head of the Government again on this issue, but
he had refused to lead the party in Opposition and
other questions dominated the situation when he
was passed by and Mr, Reid was made Premier,
Patmore, Coventry Kearsey Deighton, an
English poet, born in Woodford, Essex, July 23,
1823; died in Lymington, Sussex, Nov. 26, 1896,
He was the son of Peter George Patmore, a writer
of some note in his day, who died in 1855. He
wrote and printed early his first volume of poems.
appearing in 1844
and not escaping a
good deal of ad-
verse _—_ criticism.
The first number
of the famous pre-
oe journal,
“The Germ,” con-
tained some of his
work. In 1846 he
became an assist-
ant librarian in the
British Museum,
holding his place
until his retire-
ment, in 1868. In
1847 he married
Miss Emily An-
drews, daughter of
a Congregational
minister. She died in 1862, having borne six chil-
dren, four of whom survive. During this portion of
his life Mr. Patmore lived in North London, well
known in literary circles, and counting among his
friends Monckton Milnes, Tennyson, Millais, Rus-
kin, Rossetti, and other famous men. It was in
this period likewise that he published the work by
which he is most widely known, “ The Angel in the
House,” the first part of which (* The Betrothal ”)
appeared in 1854, and the second (“ The Espousal ”)
in 1856. His wife was the heroine of the poem
It was widely popular, and in externals lent itself
only too easily to parody. The meter was com-
fortably easy, the rhymes no less so, the scenery
that of a deanery, and the people Church men and
women of intense respectability. But it is more
than probable that the larger number of Mr. Pat-
more’s readers failed to perceive the mystical mean-
ing of the whole. Human love here typified the
heavenly love; the eternal bridegroom was symbol-
ized by the earthly one; the birth of every child
showing forth the Incarnation—all this the poet
had in mind from the beginning, and these are the
motives of his work as poet throughout his career.
His next work, “ Faithful forever,” was east in a
similar mold, and was likewise popular. In “ The
Victories of Love” he still continued “to dwell on
the borderland of insipidity,” as some one has said
of him, though it must be added that the insipidity
refers rather to the form than to the substance.
The serenity of Patmore’s nature was too genuine
to permit of annoyance when he saw his work bur-
lesqued by Swinburne and others: but his later
writings, and especially his odes, not even the most
irreverent nature would parody. After many years
of neglect “The Angel in the House” again finds
appreciative readers, and its surpassing merits in
some directions are generally recognized; while .
“The Victories of Love,” not so well known to the
present generation, must, in the possession of cer-
tain qualities, be placed even higher. At his best,
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
‘Patmore is surpassed by very few poets of his gen-
eration—a judgment with which not many persons
who are familiar with such tender bits of verse of
his as “It was not like your Great and Gracious
Ways” and “Toys” will be disposed to
Not far from the time of his leaving the British
Museum Patmore became a Roman Catholic, and
he married the ward of Cardinal Manning in 1865.
He was now wealthy, and, retiring with his wife to
an estate in Sussex, passed the remainder of his life
in quietness, though still writing both in verse and
rose. After the death of the second Mrs. Patmore
e married for the third time, leaving one son by
this latest marriage. He was a fearless critic in
art matters, and the quality of his thought both in
philosophy and in art is shown in his able prose
volumes “ Principles in Art,” “ Religio Poete,” and
“Rod, Root, and Flower.” His volumes of verse
in the order of publication include “* Poems” (1844);
“Tamerton Church Tower” (1853); “The Angel in
the House: The Betrothal” (1854); “ The Angel in
the House: The Espousal” (1856); “ Faithful For-
ever” (1860); “The Victories of Love” (1862);
“The Children’s Garland from the Best Poets”
(1863); “The Unknown Eros and Other Odes”
a * Amelia, Tamerton Church Tower, with an
say on Metrical Lore” (1878); “ Florilegium
Aurantis,” a selection edited by Richard Garnett
(1879); “ Poems: Second Collective Edition ” (1880).
Pender, Sir John, a British merchant and pro-
moter, born in Dumbartonshire in 1815; died in
Kent, July 7, 1895. He was educated in the Glas-
gow High School, entered a countinghouse in that
city, and built up one of the largest textile manu-
facturing businesses in Glasgow and Manchester.
The firm of J. Penders& Co. were for thirty years
the largest exporters of Scotch and Lancashire
fabrics to China and India, North and South Amer-
ica, and the British colonies. After he had ac-
quired a great fortune he joined Cyrus W. Field, in
1856, in the enterprise of laying a submarine Atlan-
tic cable. He risked his all in this venture, and
after several failures victory was finally secured in
1866. As soon as the Atlantic cables were in suc-
cessful operation he organized companies to lay
down in suecession the Mediterranean, Eastern,
Australian, South African, and direct African
cables, and in 1882 there were 66,000 miles of
ocean telegraphs, of which the chief share was
owned in Great Britain. The Eastern Extension,
Brazilian, West African, direct United States,
Spanish, Azores, and Pacific and European cables
were put down later. Sir John Pender, who was
knighted in 1888, was chairman of these com-
panies and of the Metropolitan Electric Supply
Company. He was elected to Parliament as a
Liberal in 1862, and sat till 1866, re-entered Parlia-
ment again in 1872, and held this seat till 1885.
In 1892 and 1895 he was elected..as a Liberal
Unionist.
Prestwich, Sir Joseph, an English geologist,
born in Clapham, March 12, 1812: died in Shore-
ham, June 23, 1896. He received his early educa-
tion partly in London and partly in Paris, and
finally in University College, where he studied
chemistry and natural philosophy. He continued
his geological studies while carrying on till 1872
the business of a wine merchant in London, and
from the age of twenty he contributed papers to
the “Transactions of the Geological Society.”
His fame rests on a rearrangement and reclassifi-
cation of the Tertiary deposits. He was one of the
first to become convinced of the great antiquity of
man upon the planet. His studies of the distribu-
tion of underground waters were directed to the
practical question of their utilization in the water
supply of towns. In 1874 Prestwich succeeded Phil-
uarrel, '
(PENDER—RICHARDS.) 611
lips in the chair of Geology at Oxford. He deduced
from the records of deep-sea observations important
facts relating to the flow of the Tower currents and
the position of isotherms and their bearing on geo-
logical phenomena. He was knighted in 1885. His
rincipal published work is “Geology ” (1886-’88).
n 1895 he published a volume of “ Collected Papers
on Some Controverted Questions in Geology.”
Reinkens, Joseph Hubert, a German theolo-
gian, born in Burtsehied, near Aix-la-Chapelle,
March 1, 1821; died Jan. 5, 1896. He studied
theology in Bonn, was ordained priest in the Ro-
man Catholic Church from the Seminary of Co-
logne in 1847, finished his theological studies in’
Munich in 1849, became a tutor, and subsequently
a preacher in the cathedral, Extraordinary Profess-
or in 1853, in 1857 Ordinary Professor of Church
History, and in 1865 rector of the University of
Breslau. As one of the professors who at Nurem-
berg in 1870 protested against the Vatican decrees,
he was suspended from his clerical functions, and
in 1872 he was excommunicated by Bishop Forster,
of Breslau. Dr. Reinkens became one of the lead-
ers of the Old Catholic movement. and was elected
bishop of the new sect at Cologne on June 4, 1873,
and consecrated by the Dutch Bishop Heycamp at
Deventer on Aug. 11,1873. He published many
books bearing on the controversy. _
Reynolds, Sir John Russell, an English physi-
cian, born in Romsey, Hampshire, May 22, 1828;
died in London, May 29, 1896. After studying
medicine at University College he began practice
at Leeds, but soon removed to London, where in
1859 he became a fellow of the College of Physi-
cians. In the same year he was appointed assistant
physician to University College Hospital, an office
which he held until his death. He had an exten-
sive practice, his counsel being especially valued in
nervous diseases by other physicians. He was ap-
pe physician in ordinary to the Queen’s house-
old in 1878, and in 1893, on the death of Sir An-
drew Clark, succeeded to the office of President of
the College of Physicians and Surgeons. On Jan.
1, 1895, he was knighted. His writings include:
“Essays on Vertigo” (1854); “Diagnosis of Dis-
eases of the Brain” (1855); “ Epilepsy: Its Symp-
toms, Treatment,” etc. (1861); “Lectures on the
Clinical Uses of Electricity ” (1871); “The Scien-
tific Value of the Legal Tests of Insanity ” (1872);
and edited *‘ A System of Medicine” (1866-79).
Richards, Sir George Henry, a British naval
officer, born in 1820; died in Bath, Nov. 14, 1896.
He was ason of Capt. G. S. Richards, of the royal
navy. He entered the navy when a boy of twelve
years, served two years in the West Indies, and
then for two as a midshipman in a voyage of ex-
ploration in the Pacific on the “Sulphur,” which
for five more years was employed in surveying the
western coasts of North and South America.and the
South Sea islands under the command of Sir Had-
ward Belcher. As senior executive officer of the
“Starling,” he took part in the taking of Canton
and other actions of the first China war. As lieu-
tenant, he was engaged in a survey of the Falkland
Tslands, in 1842 on board the “ Philomel,” which was
ordered to the Plate, where Lieut. Richards took
pe in the operations of 1845 and 1846 against
resident Rosas, of Buenos Ayres. For his gallan-
try in storming the forts of Obligado he was pro-
moted commander. For the next four years he was
employed on a survey of the New Zealand coasts.
Returning home in 1852, he volunteered in the new
Franklin search expedition, commanded the “ As-
sistance,” and conducted sledging expeditions over
the frozen sea more than 2,000 miles. He was pro-
moted captain in 1854, and was appointed in 1856
to the command of the “ Plumper,” detailed to sur-
612
vey Vancouver island and the coasts of British
Columbia. He was nominated at the same time on
a commission, with Capt. Prevost, for the settle-
ment of the Oregon boundary question between
Great Britain and the United States. He continued
the surveys of these coasts on the “ Plumper” and
afterward on the “ Hecate” till 1863, returning to
Kngland by way of the western Pacific and Torres
Straits, making surveys and carrying chronometric
distances on the voyage, which completed his third
cireumnavigation of the globe. On his arrival he
was appointed hydrographer of the navy, in which
post he continued for more than ten years. He
was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1870,
retired in 1874, and advanced to the grade of vice-
admiral in 1877 and admiral in 1884. He was
knighted in 1888.
Richmond, George, an English portrait painter,
born in Brompton, March 28, 1809; died in Lon-
don. March 19, 1896. He was a son of Thomas
Richmond, a miniature painter, from whom he re-
ceived his first lessons in art, becoming at fifteen a
student at the Royal Academy. The next year he
came under the influence of William Blake, the ar-
tist poet, and all his earlier work gives evidence of
that influence. In 1828 he went to Paris to study
art and anatomy, and on his return to England
sent two pictures and three portraits to the Royal
Academy in 1830. He married the next year, and
definitely took up the profession of portrait paint-
ing. He was always fortunate in his friendships,
adding Ruskin in 1840 to his already wide circle.
Up to 1846 he had worked in water color and crayon
almost entirely, but after that date he painted much
in oil. Many of the eminent people of his genera-
tion sat to him for their portraits. A few among
his many portraits are those of Newman, Liddon,
Sir Gilbert Scott, Cardinal Manning, Gladstone,
Mrs. Stowe, Darwin, and Tyndall. His latest por-
trait was that of Lord Salisbury, in 1887. He was
not without skill as a sculptor, as the bust of Pusey,
at Pusey Home, Oxford, and the recumbent statue
of Bishop Blomfield, in St. Paul’s Cathedral, afford
evidence. He was very successful as a portrait
painter, being surpassed by few in his ability to
catch the best expression of his various sitters. In
1857 he was elected an associate of the Royal Acad-
emy, becoming a royal academician in 1866. His
death occurred at his house, in York Street, Putnam
Square, where he had lived more than fifty years.
Rohlfs, Gerhard, a German explorer, born near
Bremen in 1831; died in Goderberg, Rhenish Prus-
sia, June 3, 1896. After he had received a medical
education, he went to Algeria, and there enlisted in
the foreign legion. He learned Arabic thoroughly,
and in 1860 went to Morocco, adopted Moorish at-
tire, passed for a Moslem, and was thus enabled to
live for some time in Fez, and to travel freely about
the country. He revealed the oasis of Tafilet to
the world in 1862, explored in 1863 the eastern part
of the Greater Atlas,and penetrated into the desert
to Tuat. In 1865 he set out from Tripoli, crossed
the Sahara to Lake Chad, traversed Bornu and So-
koto, and reached the Benue and descended to the
mouth of the Niger. He accompanied the British
expedition against Abyssinia in 1867. Ih 1868 he
journeyed across the northern part of the great Lib-
yan desert, discovering the depressions below sea
level south of the coast plateau. In 1873 and 1874
he made further explorations in the Libyan desert
at the expense of the Khedive. In 1880 he visited
the court of the Negus Johannes, bearing a letter
from the German Emperor. He was appointed
consul general of Germany at Zanzibar in 1885, but
soon resigned and returned to Germany, where he
took up his residence at Weimar. He published
many books descriptive of his adventures.
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
(RicumMonD—Sassoon.)
Roquette, Otto, a German poet, born in the
province of Posen in 1824; died in Darmstadt in
April, 1896. He taught for several years in Dres-
den and Berlin, wrote critical essays, and was ap-
pointed Professor of German Literature and His-
tory at the Polytechnicum of Darmstadt, where he
remained till his death, His bright and cheerful
poem of “ Waldmeisters Brautfahrt,” published in
1851, had an immense and lasting popularity. He
was the author of novels and dramatic poems and
of a “Geschichte der deutschen Literatur.”
Rossi, Ernesto, an Italian actor, born in Leg-
horn in 1829; died in Rome, June 4, 1896. e
studied law in the University of Pisa, but decided
to go upon the stage, for which he prepared himself
in the dramatic academy founded by Gustavo Mo-
dena. Affer playing in Milan, Turin, and other
Italian cities, he went to Paris with Ristori in 1858
and was much admired for his masterly rendering
of Goldoni and other Italian dramatists. In Vienna
he was equally well received. On returning to Italy,
he gathered a company, of which he was manager.
He played an Italian version of the “Cid” at Cor-
neille’s anniversary in Paris in 1866, and next vis-
ited Spain and Portugal. After giving a remark-
able series of Shakespearean impersonations in Paris
in 1875, he went to London, where he was much
appreciated. He retired from the stage in 1889,
but appeared occasionally later, and at the time of
his death had just returned from a tour in Russia.
He was the author of plays and of a volume of rem-
iniscences of his artistic life during forty years.
Rousseau, Armand, a French administrator,
born in Treflez, Finisterre, in 1835; died in Hanoi,
Tonquin, Dec. 10, 1896. He was educated at the
Polytechnic School in Paris, and began life as a
Government engineer at Brest. In 1871 he was
elected a Republican Deputy from his native de-
partment. In 1876 he was appointed to a post in
the Ministry of Public Works. He was Under Sec-
retary of Public Works in the Freycinet Cabinet of
1882 and Under Secretary of Marine in the Brisson
Cabinet in 1885. Losing his seat, he was appointed
a member of the Council of State in 1886, and
shortly afterward was sent to Panama to report on
the canal, on which the Government wanted infor-
mation before sanctioning a new lottery loan. His
report set forth that a canal at the sea level would
be far too costly, and that locks must be adopted,
to which change of plan M. de Lesseps reluctantly
agreed. When M. Lanessan was dismissed at the
end of 1894, M. Rousseau was appointed to succeed
him as Governor of French Indo-China. While
still in Tonquin—where eventually he fell a victim
to the climate—he was elected a Senator for Finis-
terre in October, 1895.
Ruggiero,*Gaetano, an Italian prelate, born in
Naples, Jan. 12, 1816; died in Rome, Oct. 9, 1896.
He was a distinguished writer and exponent of the
views in favor at the Vatican, and held the office of
secretary of the Department of Apostolic Briefs and
the Grand Chancellerie of Orders. He was created
a cardinal on May 8, 1889.
Sassoon, Sir Albert Abdallah David, an In-
dian merchant and philanthropist ,born in Bagdad,
July 25, 1818; died in Brighton, England, Oct. 24,
1896. His father, who was a merchant and state
treasurer of Bagdad and chief of the Mesopotamian
Jews, known by the title of Nassi or Prince of the
Captivity, left Bagdad in 1832 to settle in Bombay,
where he became one of the richest of Indian mer-
chants, leaving to his sons a fortune of £2,000,000.
Albert, the eldest, who received a European educa-
tion, succeeded his father as head of the banking
and mercantile firm of David Sassoon & Co., and
extended its reputation and operations. He sug-
gested and contributed liberally to the Elphinstone
~ ae
.
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Say—Scorr-Srippons.)
High School, and founded or endowed other benevo-
lent institutions in India, including the Mechanic’s
Institute and a hospitalin Bombay. The firm built
at Bombay the first wet dock in western India.
Their silk and cotton mills employ a large amount
of native labor, and in their estates in Bengal 15,-
000 ryots are employed. Albert Sassoon became a
member of the Legislative Council of Bombay in
1868, was knighted in 1872, was the first Anglo-In-
dian to receive the freedom of the city of London
in 1873, and was created a baronet in 1890.
Say, Jean Baptiste Léon, a French statesman,
born in Paris, June 6, 1826; died there April 21,
1896. As a grandson of Jean Baptiste Say he was
drawn by tradition and natural bent to the study
of political economy and to the doctrines of com-
mercial freedom inculcated by the classical school
of economists. His father, Horan mile Say, at
one time a resident of the United States, was also
an expositor of the orthodox economy and the
principles of individual liberty and noninterfer-
ence. Léon became a frequent contributor, after
receiving a university education, to the “Journal
des Economistes” and the “ Annuaire de I’Econo-
mie Politique,” assisted his father in an inquiry
into the industries of Paris undertaken at the in-
stance of the Chamber of Commerce, developed into
a political journalist, writing for the “ Journal des
Deébats,” became a part owner of that paper after
marrying the daughter of Edouard Bertin, the direc-
tor and manager, and in time came to be the chief
owner and managing editor. In politics he was
known as a member of the Opposition to the em-
pire when he presented himself as a candidate fora
seat in the Corps Législatif in 1869. In 1871 he
was elected to the National Assembly, and in the
same year M. Thiers appointed him prefect of the
Seine. He introduced reforms in the administra-
tion of Paris such as his father when President of
the Chamber of Commerce had endeavored to bring
about. Notwithstanding Léon Say’s free-trade
doctrines, Thiers, on Dec. 7, 1872, called him into
his Cabinet as Minister of Finance. Under his ad-
mirable management the five milliards of war in-
demnity were paid off with remarkable rapidity
without any serious derangement of business, and
thus he earned the lasting gratitude of the nation
by helping to rid France of the presence of the con-
querors. He quitted office with Thiers and the rest
of the Cabinet on May 24, 1873, but resumed the
rtfolio of Finance in the Buffet ministry, formed
in March, 1875. He retained this portfolio in the
Dufaure Cabinet, formed on May 10, 1876, and
when Jules Simon formed a Cabinet on Dee. 13,
1876, but retired with the latter on May 17, 1877.
When M. Dufaure formed another ministry in De-
eember, 1877, he called on M. Say again to take
charge of the Ministry of Finance. In August,
1878, he presided over the International Monetary
Conference held in Paris. When President Grévy
eame in, and M. Waddington formed a Cabinet, the
Finance portfolio was left in M. Say’s hands. He
finally retired with that Premier on Dec. 17, 1879,
and resumed his place among the members of the
Left Center. He labored in office and in Opposi-
tion to check extravagant expenditures. His ten-
ure of office was each time the signal of fiscal pros-
perity, and the principles that he enunciated have
guided the administration of those of his successors
who have accomplished the best results. In April,
1880, M. Say was appointed ambassador at London
with the special object of conducting negotiations
for the renewal of the treaty of commerce. The
Negeeaae at issue were connected chiefly with the
nglish duty on French wines and the French duty
on woolens. He soon despaired of being able to
reach an acceptable arrangement, and resigned after
613
a few weeks, in order to become a candidate for the
presidency of the Senate, to which he was elected
on May 25. He was re-elected president of the-
Senate on Jan. 20, 1881, but resigned to take the
portfolio of Finance in the Cabinet formed by M.
de Freycinet on Jan. 30,1882. This Cabinet passed
out of office in a few months, and with it Léon
Say’s official career and political power came to an
end. He had been a firm, though not enthusiastic
supporter of.the republic, rejecting the overtures
made by some of his old friends in its early days
to aid in bringing back a monarchical system.
When the center of gravity shifted over to the
Radical side he contended as vigorously and ear-
nestly as ever for the principles that were no longer
dominant. He was elected president of the reunion
of the Left Center in the Senate in 1883 and was
one of the founders of the Liberal Republican Un-
ion. In 1889 he was an active and influential op-
ponent of Boulangism, and in order to fight it he
resigned his seat in the Senate and secured an elec-
tion to the Chamber of Deputies from Pau. In
his newspaper and in his published works he con-
tended against state socialism in a]] its forms. He
published “Théorie des Changes Etrangers,” “ Les
Finances de France: Une année de discussion”
(1882) ; “Le Socialisme d’Etat ” (1884) ; “ Les Solu-
tions démocratiques de la question des Impéts”
(1886); and “Turgot” (1887). He was elected to
the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in
1874 and to a chair in the French Academy in 1886
as successor to Edmond About.
Schumann, Clara, a German musician, born in
Leipsic, Sept. 13, 1819; died in Frankfort-on-the-
Main, May 20, 1896. She was taught by her father,
Friedrich Wieck, began to play in public at the age
of nine, and rapidly made her mark as a pianist of
the first rank. After creating a sensation in her
father’s Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic when only
twelve years old, she traveled over Eurcpe, and was
a favorite of Berlin, Vienna, and Paris audiences,
confining herself to the interpretation of Bee-
thoven. Robert Schumann’s romantic attachment
to her inspired some of his loveliest and most char-
acteristic compositions. After surmounting serious
and violet opposition, they were married in 1840,
and her husband developed her style and extended
her ay eae to Chopin and the newer schools.
After his tragic death, in 1856, she devoted herself
mainly to securing recognition for his creations.
She taught in the conservatory of Frankfort and
played in the principal European cities. In the ex-
pression of deep emotion and in dignity of style and
breadth and variety of tone she was peerless. Her
own compositions, extending only to Opus 23, are
admirable in form and marked by poetic feeling
and insight.
Scott-Siddons, Mrs. Mary Frances, an English
actress, born in India in 1844; died in Paris, Nov.
19, 1896. Her father,a grandson of Sarah Siddons,
was a captain in the military service of the East
India Company. After his death her mother, who
resided in Somersetshire, encouraged her daughter’s
genius for the stage. She married Lieut. Canter of
the navy, who changed his name to Scott-Siddons
because his father objected to the use of the family
name on the stage. After a struggle Mrs. Scott-
Siddons secured an engagement and made her pro-
fessional début at Nottingham, in 1866, as Portia
in the “ Merchant of Venice.” She was well re-
ceived there and in Edinburgh, and in the follow-
ing year attained a great success as a Shake-
spearean reader in London, where in 1868 she
played the part of Rosalind in “ As You Like It”
at the Haymarket, and afterward appeared as
Juliet, drawing immense audiences. Her beauty
and grace of person contributed more to her suc-
614
cess than her histrionic talent, and though a spirited
and thoroughly natural actress, she lacked the
technical training and necessary vigor. In her
readings she was more successful. She played in
New York in 1868, and was not well received, nor
were her subsequent appearances in London suc-
cessful. In 1872 she starred in the United States
and Australia with mediocre success. Her read-
ings, however, marked by intelligence and clearness
of interpretation, were always well Hked. Since
1881 she has lived in retirement.
Sée, Germain, a French physician, born in Ri-
beauville, Alsace, in 1818; died in Paris, May 12,
1896. He studied first in Metz and then in Paris,
obtained his doctor’s degree in 1846, gained a
reputation in the hospitals, and after 1852 became
widely known through his brilliant lectures on pa-
thology. In 1866 the Empress Eugénie urged his
candidacy for the chair of Therapeutics, and he
was elected in spite of the jealousy of the mem-
bers of the profession aroused by the interference
of the Empress. The students, however, refused
to listen to him until by his display of pluck and
physical prowess in fighting for his place he won
their admiration and respect, after which they
made just as violent demonstrations in his favor as
they had made against him when he was the object
of an attack in the Senate based upon his supposed
materialistic tendencies. The diagnosis of calculus
in the case of Napoleon III in July, 1870, in which
eminent consultants joined, but which he alone
signed, was kept from the Empress, presumably by
the influence of politicians desiring war. Prof.
Sée introduced in France the use of salicylate of
soda, antipyrine, and others new drugs.
Simon, Jules Francois, a French statesman
and philosopher, born in Lorient, Morbihan, Brit-
tany, Dec. 27, 1814; died in Paris, June 8, 1896.
His family name was Suisse, but he dropped it at
the solicitation of Victor Cousin, whose favorite
disciple he was, his coadjutor and successor in the
exposition of the eclectic philosophy. He studied
in his native town and in Vannes, became assistant
teacher in the normal school at Rennes, and on
being received as fellow of philosophy taught that
science at Caen and Versailles. He had written
admirable books on political economy and social
questions when M. Cousin called him to Paris and
got him a place in the normal school. where he was
supplementary lecturer on philosophy for a year,
and after that chief lecturer. When about twenty-
five years of age he succeeded Cousin in the chair
of Philosophy at the Sorbonne, and for the next
twelve years was recognized as one of the leading
minds in France in the department of philosophy.
He was made a knight of the Legion of Honor in
1845. In the following year he was a candidate of
the Constitutional Left for the Assembly, but was
defeated. After the revolution of 1848, he was
elected from the Cétes-du-Nord, taking a seat with
the Moderate Left. In March, 1849, he was elected
a member of the Council of State, and resigned his
seat as Deputy in April. When the Council was re-
constituted by the Legislative Assembly on June
29, 1849, his name was not included, and he re-
turned to private life, devoting himself to his lec-
tures and to the editing of a politico-philosophical
review, called “ La Liberté de Penser,” that he had
founded in 1847. After the coup d’état his lectures
at the Sorbonne were discontinued, as he refused to
take the oath of allegiance to the empire. He had
‘already made a name in literature by his editions
of Descartes and Bossuet and by his remarkable
“ Histoire de l’Ecole d’Alexandrie,” and for the
next twelve years he continued with great industry
and facility to write and publish books. His arti-
clés on philosophical subjects were the mainstay of
OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
(SEE—SPULLER.)
the “ Revue des Deux Mondes ” in that department.
He also gave lectures in Belgium. In 1863 he se-
cured a seat in the Corps Législatif, which he held
till the fall of the empire. He ranked among the
first orators and the most eminent of the Repub-
lican leaders. In 1869 he was proposed in several
constituencies, sharing with Thiers the distinction
of a leader of the Liberals. He spoke strongly in
favor of free trade and against capital punishment.
After the plébiscite he denounced the manipulation
of the vote by the Government agents. hen the
Chamber was wrought up toa frenzy of war feel-
ing, he and Thiers raised their voices in eloquent
protest against the mad resolve of July, 1876. Then
caine the fall of the empire, and Thiers, Simon, and
Gambetta were placed at the head of the Provi-
sional Government, which became the Government
of National Defense. While Thiers went abroad to
win the protection and support of Europe and
Gambetta tried to rouse the exhausted and crippled
nation to the suicidal madness of resuming hostili-
ties, Simon remained in Paris with Gen. Trochu’s
troops at his back and calmly administered the
Government during the siege; and when the armis-
tice was signed and the gates of the city were re-
opened, he went to Bopiones and his resolute
courage and strength of will at last succeeded in
curbing the mad impetuosity of Gambetta and sav-
ing France from the supreme folly of inviting the
deathblow by renewing /a guerre a outrance rather
than surrendering an inch of French territory or a
stone of French fortresses. Jules Simon was promi-
nent in the Assembly at Bordeaux and at Versailles
from the conclusion of peace in 1871 till the fall of
Thiers. He resigned his position as Minister of
Public Instruction in the Cabinet of reconciliation
just before the crisis of May 24, 1873, and became
chief of the Left in the Assembly, from the turbu-
lent conflicts of which he took leave in December,
1875, when he was elected a life Senator. When
Marshal MacMahon was forced to choose a Liberal
ministry a year later, he gave the conduct of it, on
Dee. 16, 1876, to Jules Simon, as being the Liberal
whom the Clericals could best tolerate. The clergy
forced a conflict upon the apostle of moderation
and the juste miliew when they engaged in the col-
portage of circulars appealing to the French people
to rally to the support of the Pope in his demand
for the restoration of the temporal power. The
minister forbade the colportage. and in consequence
President MacMahon wrote him a letter, on May
16, 1877, amounting to a dismissal. Jules Simon
braved the taunts of his enemies and the bitter re-
proaches of his friends by yielding when he had a
majority of 361 to 121 in the Chamber, and perhaps
thereby saved the republic from overthrow. By
that act he ended his own political career. In 1890
he was sent as the senior representative of France
to the Labor Congress of Berlin convoked by the
Emperor Wilhelm II. He wrote much afterward
on political questions. He was elected permanent
secretary in 1882 to the Academy of Moral and Po-
litical Sciences. From 1875 he was a member of
the French Academy. }
Spuller, Engéne, a French statesman, born in
Seurre, Céte d’Or, Dee. 1, 1835; died in Somberon,
July 23, 1896. His father was a native of Baden.
He was admitted to the Paris bar in 1862, and be-
came intimate with Gambetta and a member of the
party of Young Republicans. He helped to secure
the election of Emile Ollivier in 1863, and in 1868
he joined Gambetta in establishing the “ Revue Poli-
tique.” At the time of the plébiscite he published
as a political docuinent a history of the empire that
was widely read. Escaping from Paris in a balloon
with Gambetta, he served under him till the end of
hostilities. Im November, 1871, he became editor of
OLITUARIES, FOREIGN. (Tcnerevin—TRIKOUPIs.)
the “République Francaise.” He was elected from
Paris to the Chamber in 1876, and interested him-
self especially in educational and religious questions.
When Gambetta formed his short-lived ministry in
November, 1881, he appointed M. Spuller his assist-
ant in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. M. Spuller
was afterward a prominent member of the Budget
Committee, then a member for a constituency of
Céte d’Or, having been defeated in Paris by an Ex-
treme Radical in 1885, and was called in 1887 into
the Cabinet of M. Tirard as Minister of Education.
In 1889 he became Minister of Foreign Affairs un-
der Tirard, and was one of the keenest antagonists
of Boulangism. He was elected a Senator for the
Cote d’Or in 1892, and in 1894 became Minister of
Edueation in the Cabinet of Casimir-Périer. He
expounded the “new a agi * of Moderate Repub-
licans toward the Church, the abandonment of the
attitude expressed in Gambetta’s formula, “ Le Cléri-
calisme, cest Tenemt.” In 1893 he was commis-
sioned by President Carnot to form a Cabinet, but
he renounced the honor in favor of M. Casimir-
Périer. M. Spuller was an able literary critic and
the author of studies of Lamennais, Michelet, Loy-
ola, and other subjects.
Techerevin, Gen., a Russian soldier, born in
Kostroma; died in St. Petersburg, March 2, 1896.
He distinguished himself in the Polish campaign,
commanded the Czar’s Cossack bodyguard in the
latter part of the Turkish war of 1877, having pre-
viously performed gallant services in the field, and
from 1878 to 1880 was assistant chief of gendarmes
and head of the third section of the Czar’s Cabinet,
or the secret political police. Alexander III gave
him satiated authority in all matters connected
with his personal safety. When once attacked bya
Nihilist, Gen. Tcherevin gave his assailant a horse-
whipping. He became subsequently Assistant Min-
ister of the Interior, and still retained charge of all
the special guards and detective agents employed to
secure the safety of the Czar.
Thomas, Charles Louis Ambroise, a French
composer, born in Metz, Aug. 5, 1811; died Feb.
12, 1896. He was the son of a well-known Professor
of Music, and gained numerous prizes in the Paris
Conservatorium, which he entered in 1828, taking
finally the Roman prize in 1832. After his return
he lived in Paris, and soon became known as a pro-
lific and versatile composer of operas and other
music. He was elegant and correct and also popu-
lar and pleasing in his style. His first great suc-
cess was attained with “ Le Caid,” in 1848. He was
elected successor of Spontini in the Academy of
Fine Arts in 1851, was appointed an officer of pub-
lic instruction in December, 1869, and in 1871 suc-
eeeded Auber as director of the Conservatorium.
He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor
in 1868, and a grand officer in 1881. Ambroise
Thomas’s musical compositions include :“ La Double
Echelle” (1837); “Le Perrnquier de la Régence”
(1838); “Le Panier Fleuri” (1839): “La Gipsy”
(1839); “ Carline * (1840) ; “* Le Guerrillero ” (1842) ;
“Le Songe d’une Nuit d’Eté” (1850); “ Raymond ”
(1851); “La Cour de Céliméne” (1855): “ Psyche”
(1856); “Le Carnaval de Venise ” (1857); “ Le Ro-
man d’Elvire” (1860): “ Mignon” (1866): “ Ham-
let” (1868); “Gilles et Gilletin”; and “ Francoise
de Rimini.” He composed rondos, fantasies, and
nocturnes, also a requiem mass.
Tilley, Sir Leonard B., a Canadian statesman,
born in Gagetown, New Brunswick, May 8, 1818;
died in St. John. June 25, 1896. He was active in
Dominion politics from the beginning, and became
Minister of Customs in 1867. In 1868 and 1869 he
was Acting Minister of Public Works. From 1873
till 1878 he was Lieutenant Governor of New Bruns-
wick. From 1878 till 1885 he was Minister of Fi-
615
nance in the Cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. When
he retired he was again appointed Lieutenant Gov-
ernor of New Brunswick, and he held this post till
1893. While he was Minister of Finance there was
a scandal concerning his advance of $300,000 to a
disabled bank, which he justified on the ground that
it averted a bank crisis.
Trikoupis, Charilaos, a Greek statesman, born
in Nauplia in 1832; died in Cannes, April 11, 1896.
He studied law and letters in Paris and Athens, en- ,
tered the diplomatic service as an attaché of the
Greek legation at London in 1850, and in 1863 be-
came chargé d'affaires. He was ambitious to takea
direct part in po-
litical affairs, and
was elected in 1865
a representative in
the Boule of Mis-
solonghi. In the
Chamber he soon
attracted notice by
his wide informa-
tion and argumen-
tative powers. In
1866 he was made
Minister of For-
eign Affairs. As
he had not attached
himself to the fol-
lowing of any one
of the _ political
leaders, he was se-
lected to form a
provisional Cabi-
net in 1875, when
the forces of the
four recognized leaders were so evenly balanced
that none of them could command a majority. He
was compelled to resign after a few months, and then
he resumed his independent position in the Cham-
ber. In 1877, when the Eastern question was opened
by the Russo-Turkish War and the partition of the
Ottoman Empire seemed likely, Trikoupis, as the
best acquainted with diplomacy and European poli-
ties, was called upon to take the portfolio of For-
eign Affairs in the nonpartisan, patriotic Canaris
ministry. The Greeks were sadly disappointed when
the powers, to which they looked for support, se-
cured for them no adequate compensation in the
changes that were wrought in the Turkish Empire.
They began to prepare for independent action, but
before they were ready the war was over. The
Canaris ministry went out,and Delyannis succeeded
Trikoupis, and Coumoundouros, in 1880, attempted
to reorganize the army and navy, but the Boule
would not vote the necessary money. Trikoupis
then succeeded Coumoundouros, but had to retire
after four months because the Western powers
failed to induce Turkey to cede territories to Greece.
Two years later the powers intervened and gave
Thessaly to Greece, but this failed to satisfy the
Hellenes, who drove Coumoundouros from office.
Trikoupis then came in again, and remained long
enough to develop his policy for the realization of
Greek aspirations. He knew that if Greece was to
play a great part in southeastern Europe and com-
mand the support of the powers it was necessary to
develop the financial resources of the country and
augment the army and navy. He therefore made
preparations for the construction of roads, rail-
roads, and harbors and the building up of com-
merce, steamship companies, and all the require-
ments of a civilized power. He was defeated on a
minor question before he had accomplished much,
and though he resumed office at the request of the
King, his place was insecure, and in April, 1885, he
was beaten at the general election. In 1886 he re-
616 OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.
turned to office with a majority behind him, and
again brought forward his schemes for the economic
and financial regeneration of Greece, which were
interrupted by the Bulgarian annexation of East-
ern Roumelia, for which the Greeks demanded com-
pensation. ‘The Government prepared to act, and
yielded only to the menaces of the Western powers,
whose naval forces blockaded the Pireus. The
military preparations had greatly increased the
public debt and added to the financial difficulties
that stood in the way of his projects, but Trikoupis,
nevertheless, built roads 7 railroads, and, by in-
curring new risks and obligations on a large scale,
hoped to rescue Greece from financial embarrass-
ment by increasing the economic resources of the
kingdom. All his calculations depended upon the
value of the paper money rising to par. This as-
sumption was not realized, and when the Govern-
ment was unable longer to meet its obligations on
a metallic basis he attempted to effect a compromise
withthe bondholders. He failed to make terms, and
in the general election of 1895 met with a crushing
defeat, even losing his own seat that he had held for
thirty years. While on his deathbed he was re-
turned in a by-election for the neighboring dis-
trict of Valtos.
Treitschke, Heinrich von, a German historian,
born in Dresden, Sept. 15, 1834; died in Berlin,
April 28, 1896. He was the son of a lieutenant
general in the Saxon army, and studied in Bonn,
Leipsic, Tiibingen, and Heidelberg. He identified
himself early with the national party, looking to
the unification of Germany under the Prussian
headship, and in 1856 published a collection of
patriotic lyrics entitled “ Vaterlandslieder.” Pur-
suing historical studies for his profession, he de-
livered to the students of Leipsic a course of lectures
that gained for him in 1863 the chair of History at
Freiburg. This he resigned in 1866, because Baden
sided with Austria in the war with Prussia. Pro-
ceeding to Berlin, Treitschke undertook the editor-
ship of the “ Preussische Jahrbiicher.” He accepted
the chair of History at Heidelberg in 1867, where he
remained till he was invited to the same chair in
Berlin in 1874, On the death of Leopold von Ranke
he was appointed in addition historiographer to the
Prussian state. From the first Reichstag in 1871
till 1888 he had a seat from Kreuznach, and acted
with the National Liberal party. His chief work is
the “ History of Germany in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury,” which was not finished. In this and in
his minor works, such as “Ten Years of German
Struggles,” “Socialism and its Patrons,” and “ Two
Emperors,” he glorified in brilliant style the achieve-
ments of German imperialism, and defended Bis-
marck’s policy with trenchant dialecties.
Trochu, Louis Jules, a French soldier, born
near Bellisle, March 12, 1815; died Oct. 7, 1896.
He was educated for the army at St. Cyr, served
with distinction in Algeria under Gen. Bugeaud,
and during the Crimean War was aid-de-camp to
Marshal St. Arnaud, and afterward commander of
a brigade, having been made brigadier general in
1854. In the Italian campaign of 1859 he fought
with distinction as a general of division. When
the war with Prussia broke out he was called from
retirement to organize and take command of the
12th Corps, formed at Chalons. On Aug. 17, 1870
the Emperor Napoleon appointed him Governor of
Paris and commandant of the forces for the defense
of the capital. He announced in his letter of ac-
ceptance that he would preserve order in Paris by
moral force only. He ordered the expulsion of all
Germans domiciled in Paris, and in consequence of
this decree Gambetta proposed in the Assembly
that all power be concentrated in the hands of the
general. Thus constituted dictator, he signed a de-
_shot.
(TREITSCHKE—VERLAINE.)
cree declaring the Assembly dissolved and the Sen-
ate abolished, and henceforth till the surrender of
the city to the Germans the principal decrees for
the defense of the city emanated from him. In
1871 Gen. Trochu was elected to the Chamber by
seven constituencies. He took his seat from Morbi-
han, and voted with Gambetta. He resigned his
seat in 1872, and in 1875 retired from the army.
Tuke, James Hack, an English philanthropist,
born in York in 1820; died Jan. 13, 1896. He came
from a family identified with commerce, members
of the Society of Friends, and founders of the York
Retreat for the humane treatment of the insane.
He first interested himself in the relief of sufferers
from the Irish famine of 1846—47. In 1871 he went
to Paris to distribute food among the people fam-
ished during the siege just terminated. After the
failure of the crops in the west of Ireland in 1880
he applied himself to the work of relieving the tem-
porary distress, after which he studied the question
of permanently improving the condition of the
peasantry of the congested districts. After visiting
America for the purpose of examining the pros-
pects of assisted emigration, he established in 1882
the Tuke fund, by means of which nearly 10,000
Irish were transported in three years and settled in
America by families, for which purpose £24,000 was
raised by private subscription and £44,000 was
added by the Government. After distributing seed
se ee in Mayo and the Island of Achill in 1886,
e suggested the promotion of fisheries and local
industries, and the building of light railways, for
which the Government brought in bills.
Verlaine, Paul, a French poet, born in Paris in
1844; died there Jan. 8, 1896. His father was a cap-
tain of engineers. He obtained his bachelor degree
at the Sorbonne, and entered the municipal service
of Paris as a copyist. He had published in 1865
a volume of verse entitled “ Poémes Saturniens,”
singular in conception and highly finished in
form, showing in a marked manner the influence of
Gautier and Baudelaire. He married the daughter
of a musical friend, M. de Sivry, courting her in
the verses collected under the title “La Bonne
Chanson.” Verlaine served with noble courage as
a national guard in 1870 during the siege of Paris,
and under the Commune he was chief of the press
bureau. He left his wife, who afterward obtained
a divorce on account of his unfaithfulness, and he
was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment in Bel-
gium for wounding the companion of his wander-
ings, a young poet named Rimbaud, with a pistol
While serving his sentence in Mons he was
converted to the Catholic faith, and under the in-
fluence of religious emotion he wrote poetical mas-
terpieces. When he returned from prison to Paris
he found himself without a family and deserted by
his former friends, except some sympathetic poets,
who gave him money whenever he was in extremity.
He lapsed into an absinthe drunkard, pauper, vaga-
oond, and occasional criminal, and finally beeame. a
partial paralytic, spending his life between the hos-
pital and the café, and oscillated between licentious
self-indulgence and remorse, between criminal im-
pulse and religious ecstasy. All his moods were
reflected in his poetry, which is variable in substance
and in the quality of its inspiration, but in point of
artistic form is distinguished for flexibility and per-
fection of expression and for its melodious versifica-
tion. “Sagesse,” containing religious poems written
in a monastic retreat, was published in 1881. It
marked him out as the leader of the symbolist
school of poetry, and a model for the decadents.
His experience in penitentiaries he described in a
book called “Mes Prisons,” and his hospital days
in “ Mes Hépitaux.” In his later volumes of verse
he sacrificed the force and clearness of the idea too
OHIO.
often to the melodic rhythm of the verse and inge-
nuity of phrase. These are: “ Dédicaces,” “ Jadis
et ére.” “ Parallellement,” “ Odes en son Hon-
neur,” “* Elégies,” * Dans le Limbes,” and “ Chan-
sons pour Elle.”
Wilde, Jane Francesea Elgee, Lady, an Irish
author, born in Wexford in 1826; died in Chelsea,
Feb. 3, 1896. She was the daughter of an Episco-
palian clergyman, but was an ardent adherent of
the Young Ireland party, and in 1845 wrote patri-
otic poems and prose articles for the * Nation,”
signing them John Fenshawe Ellis, and later “Spe-
ranza.” When Gavan Duffy, the editor, was put on
trial for an inflammatory article, she proclaimed
herself its author. In 1851 she married William
Wilde, afterward knighted, a celebrated Dublin
oculist and the author of historical and antiquarian
books about Ireland. After his death, in 1876, she
took up her residence in London. Among her pub-
lished works are “ Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms,
and Superstitions of Ireland,” “Notes on Men,
Women, and Books,” “ Social Studies,” “ Ugo
Bassi” (1857); “The First Temptation” (1863);
* Poems” (1864); “The Glacier Land,” “ The Wan-
derer and his Home,” “Pictures from the First
French Revolution,” and “ Driftwood from Scan-
dinavia” (1884). Her pamphlet on “The Irish in
America” attracted much attention. The erratic
poet Osear Wilde is her son.
Wolff, Emil von, a German agricultural econo-
mist, born in Flensburg in 1818; died in Stutigart,
Dec. 5, 1896. He took his doctor’s degree at the
University of Berlin in 1843, was appointed assistant
in the chemical laboratory at Halle, and in 1847 be-
came instructor of chemistry in the agricultural in-
stitute at Brisa. Subsequently he passed several
years in the pioneer agricultural experiment sta-
tion at Méckern, near Leipsic, and in 1854 was
called to the chair of Chemistry in the Wiirtemberg
Agricultural College, at Hohenheim, where he re-
mained during the rest of his life. In 1868 he pub-
lished a notable book on the different systems of
manuring. In 1874 appeared the work that made
him known throughout the world, his “ Landwirth-
schaftliche Fiitterungslehre,” on whose conclusions
in regard to animal nutrition and the value of dif-
ferent foods, developed by investigations of his stu-
dents and followers, are based all the methods of
the rational feeding of live stock.
Yrarrazayal, Manuel José, a Chilian statesman,
born in 1836; died in New York, Feb. 14,1896. He
was educated in the University of Chili, in George-
town University, and in European institutions. In
1860 he was recalled from his travels on the death
of his father to assume charge of the immense es-
tates, covering 150,000 acres, originally granted to
his ancestor by Philip Il. Six years later he was
elected Governor of Santiago, and afterward he en-
tered the Chilian Senate. He was a leader of the
Congressional party and Minister of the Interior
in the Provisional Government that overthrew Bal-
maceda in 1891. ;
OHIO, a Central Western State, admitted to the
Union in 1803; population, according to last cen-
sus (1890), 3,666,719, it being the fourth in rank of
the States; area, according to the United States
Geological Survey, 41.060 square miles, of which
40,760 is land surface and 300 water surface. Capi-
tal, Columbus.
Government,—The State officers during 1896
were: Governor, Asa S. Bushnell, Republican ;
Lieutenant Governor, Asahel W. Jones, Republic-
an; Secretary of State, Samuel M. Taylor, Repub-
lican ; Auditor of State, Ebenezer W. Poe, Repub-
lican; Treasurer of State, Samuel B. Campbell,
Republican ; Attorney-General, Frank S. Monett,
Republican; Board of Public Works, Frank J.
617
McColloch, Charles E. Groce, Edwin L. Lybarger,
Republicans; Commissioner of Common Schools,
Oscar T. Corson, Republican; Judges of the Su--
pets Court, Marshall J. Williams, Jacob F. Bur-
et, William T. Spear, Joseph P. Bradbury, John
A. Shauck, Thaddeus A. Minshall, Republicans ;
Clerk of Supreme Court, Josiah B. Allen, Republic-
an; Dairy and Food Commissioner, Frederick B.
McNeal, Republican. ;
Finances.—The receipts for the fiscal year 1896,
including balances from 1894, were: General reve-
nue fund, $4,387.763.34 ; sinking fund, $793,607.26 ;
common-school fund, $1,837,738.17; Ohio State
University fund, $107,276.68: total, $7,126,385.45.
The total disbursements were $6,601,260.36, leaving
balance on hand $525,125.09.
The public funded debt of the State, Nov. 15,
1895, was $1,791,665. During the year $750,000 was
paid and two new loans added by refunding. one
of $250,000, payable July 1, 1901, and one of $25,-
000, payable July 1, 1897. At the close of the fiscal
year 1896 the public funded debt was $1,541,665, at
3 per cent. interest.
Valuation.—The property values returned for
taxation by the assessors were: Lands, $591,192,018;
real estate in citieS and villages, $635,796,648 ; per-
sonal property, $514,039,771; total, $1,741,028,437.
Animals.—The assessors return the number and
value of animals owned as follow: Horses, 759,482,
$27,051,938: cattle. 1,175,475, $18.820,880; mules,
16,398. $534,147 ; sheep, 2,293,686, $3,898,448 ; hogs,
1,407,758, $4,713,661.
Agricultural Statisties——The returns of crops
show the following: Wheat, 28,759,647 bushels;
rye, 671,807 bushels; buckwheat, 258,024 bushels;
oats, 34,013,739 bushels; barley, 676,383 bushels;
corn, 102,447,445 bushels ; grapes, 19,667.283 pounds;
sorghum, 1,597 pounds of sugar, 357,977 gallons of
sirup; maple, 1,055,766 pounds of sugar, 1,351,276
gallons of sirup; potatoes, 12,557,717 bushels; ap-
les, 17.706,748 bushels; tobacco, 24,601,327 pounds;
utter, 5?.678,077 pounds ; cheese, 13,666,334 pounds;
wool, 14,671,104 pounds; acres of land cultivated,
10,412,356; acres in pasture, 5,799,831; acres of
woodland, 3,178,638; acres lying waste, 458,026 ;
total acres owned, 19,848,851.
Criminal Statisties—The prisoners in jails
numbered: Native born, 9,593; foreign born and
unknown, 1,299; the prosecutions for crimes
against the person numbered 909; convictions,
858; prosecutions for crimes against property,
3,083 ; convictions, 1,526; for crimes against pub-
lic peace, etc., 2,831; convictions, 950.
Divorces.—The total number of divorce suits
begun in the year was 4,069; number of divorces
granted, 2,973; number refused, 1,021; suits pend-
ing at the close of the year, 3,163.
New Structures.—The total number of new
structures in the State reported by the assessors
was 25,362, with a returned value of $17,020,146.
Benevolent and Penal Institutions.—The
State maintains 7 hospitals, 2 institutions for
juvenile delinguents, 1 for soldiers and sailors, 4
educational institutions (the latter including the
deaf and dumb, blind, feeble-minded youth, and
Soldiers and Sailors’ Orphans’ Home) and 2 penal
institutions (the Ohio Penitentiary and the Mans-
field Reformatory)—16 in all. The Working Home
for the Blind was closed early in the year. The
whole amount of money expended during the year
for the support of these institutions, including per-
manent improvements, was $2,520,046.12—$1,829,-
973.62 was for current expenses, $274,746.20 for
salaries and expenses of trustees, and $215,326.30
for repairs and improvements. Additional expendi-
tures, not included in the above, were made as fol-
low: For new buildings at the Hospital for Epi-
618
leptics at Gallipolis, $41,172.78; for construction at
the State Reformatory at Mansfield, $89,488.71
for construction at the new State Hospital at Mas-
sillon, $19,799.90. There are 8 workhouses in Ohio
with a population at the close of the year of 1,164.
There are 46 children’s homes, in which 1,521 chil-
dren were received during the year. These, with
the 2,036 on hand at the beginning of the year, give
a total for the year of 3,557 children, of whom 2,187
were on hand at the close of the year.
Canals.—The report of the Board of Public
Works on the financial condition of canals shows
that the income derived from the Miami and Erie
Canal and the Ohio Canal during the year was:
From rents, $71,315.06; from tolls, $26,360.57;
from lands sold, $25,262.73: total, $122,918.36,
The total expenditures for the canals and their
management was $190,965.88. The deficiency was
made good by appropriations from the general
fund. There are in the State 600 miles of canals,
32,800 acres of reservoirs, and 14 miles of artificial
feeders, besides natural streams utilized.
Military.—At the close of the fiscal year the
Ohio National Guard consisted of 8 regiments of
infantry, 3 unattached companies of infantry, 1
regiment of light artillery, and 1 troop of cavalry,
aggregating 431 officers and 5,688 enlisted men.
Portions of the military forces of the State were
called out for service three times within the year:
1 company and a battery of artillery, at Akron,
March 30 and 31, to guard against a threatened
lynching of a prisoner in the jail; 2 companies at
the Berea stone quarries, July 1 to 29, on account
of labor disturbances ; 5 companies in whole or in
part at Cleveland, from July 2 to Aug. 11, in conse-
quence of labor troubles at the Brown hoisting and
conveying works.
Legislative.—The seventy-second General As-
sembly opened Monday, Jan. 6, with a Senate com-
posed of 80 Republicans, 6 Democrats, and 1 Popu-
list, the House having 87 Republicans and 25
Democrats. On the 14th Joseph B. Foraker was
elected to the United States Senate for the term
beginning March 4, 1897, as successor to Calvin S.
Brice. The session closed Monday, April 27, with
an adjournment without day, this being the third
time in the history of the State that the constitu-
tional provision for biennial sessions only has been
observed. During the session the General Assem-
bly passed 316 general laws, 387 local laws, and 75
joint resolutions. Among the more important gen-
eral laws were the following:
Increasing the yearly tax upon traffic in intoxi-
eating liquors from $250 to $350.
Making changes in the congressional apportion-
ment of the State.
Regulating the practice of medicine, and creating
a State board of medical registration and qualifica-
tion.
To prevent fraud in the manufacture and sale of
imitations of cheese or substitutes for cheese, and
to regulate the branding of cheese.
Providing for an excise tax on electric-light, gas,
natural-gas, pipe-line, waterworks, street-railroad,
railroad, and messenger or signal companies.
Providing for taxation of freight-line and equip-
ment companies.
For the establishment and government of a State
naval militia,
Amending the game laws.
To prohibit obstructing the view of persons in
theaters, halls, or opera houses where theatrical
verformances are given by wearing view-obstruct-
ing headgear.
To prevent corrupt practices at elections, and
Relating the permissible expenditures of candi-
ates.
OHIO.
For suppression of mob violence.
Amending the supervisors of elections, board of
elections, and ballot acts,
Amending the school laws so as to regulate the
tenure of office of teachers, and providing for a
teachers’ pension fund in Cincinnati.
To provide for electrocution in execution of
death sentences.
Amending the primary election law.
To prevent the spread of certain diseases among
fruit trees, and to provide for their eradication.
Making Saturday afternoon a legal holiday in all
cities or municipalities containing 50,000 or more
inhabitants.
To provide for registration of land titles in Ohio,
and to simplify and facilitate the transfer of real
estate (Torrens system of land titles).
Requiring examination and licensing of plumb-
ers, and regulating plumbing and sewerage.
To provide for supplying the schools of Ohio
with good and sufficient schoolbooks at the lowest
possible prices.
Amending the act providing for a State board of
arbitration.
= anette the fishing law.
For regulation of the manufacture of flour and
meal-food products.
To compel equipment of passenger trains with
fire extinguishers.
To provide for regulation of ship-canal com-
panies.
To prevent adulteration of and deception in the
sale of flaxseed or linseed oil.
Court Decisions.—The Supreme Court. in two
decisions delivered Feb. 25, upheld the pure-food
law. In one case it held that the State does not
have to prove that the seller knew he was selling
adulterated food; also that it does not have to
prove that the food was bought for human food
and not for the purpose of making tests by the
Dairy and Food Commissioner. In the other case it
was decided that it is not a good defense that the
Ohio vender was selling goods manufactured out-
side of the State. A decision made April 28, in a
road-improvement case, held that, though passed as
a general law, the act authorizing the improvement
was in reality special, and therefore unconstitu-
tional. The court held that the constitutionality of
an act is determined by the nature of its subject-
matter and its operation and effect, and not alone
by its form. The decision affects by implication a
large number of laws that are special in their nature
although general in form. Another decision in-
validating important legislation was delivered Dec.
7. The court held that the act of April 13, 1894,
known as the material men’s lien law, in so far as it
gives alien on the property of the owner to sub-
contractors, laborers, and those who furnish ma-
chinery, material, or tile to the contractor, is uncon-
stitutional. All to whom the contractor becomes
indebted in the performance of his contract are
bound by the terms of the contract between him
and the owner.
Political.—The Republican State Convention
was held in Columbus, March 10 and 11. The plat-
form congratulated the people of the country on
the growth of Republican sentiment ; denounced
the Democratic administration as the most destrue-
tive and disastrous the history of the country has
ever known; affirmed adherence to the principles
of the Republican party as defined by the national
convention in 1892; and followed with these, among
other, declarations :
“We are faithfully wedded to the great principle
of protection by every tie of party fealty and affec-
tion, and it is dearer to us now than ever before.
It has more devoted supporters among the great
a
2S
OHIO.
masses of the American people, irrespective of
rty, than at any previous period in our national
istory. It is everywhere recognized and indorsed
as the great, masterful, triumphant American prin-
ciple—the key to our prosperity in business, the
safest prop to the Treasury of the United States,
and the bulwark of our national independence and
financial honor.
“ We denounce the present tariff law as the sub-
limest product of Democratic ignorance and incom-
tency, bringing, as it has, to a prosperous and
* py people, a period of is agen ae adversity
Sha distress from which nothing but a return to
the policy of protection can relieve it.
“4 We denounce the free-wool provision of the pres-
ent tariff law as an unjust discrimination against
an important industry and against a large part of
our people, and demand such protection for sheep
ecg ry as will secure fair prices for American
wool. -
“The Republican paney stands for a reciprocity
that reciprocates, and which does not yield up to
another country a single day’s labor that belongs to
the American workingman. It stands for interna-
tional agreements which get as much as they give,
upon terms of mutual advantage.
“Tt stands for a fiscal policy opposed to debts
and deficits in time of peace and favors the return
of the Government to a debt-paying policy and op-
poses the continuance of the debt-making policy.
“We contend for honest money; for a currency
of gold, silver, and paper with which to measure our
exchanges that shall be as sound as the Govern-
ment and as untarnished as its honor; and to that
end we favor bimetallism and demand the use of
both gold and silver as standard money, either in
accordance with a ratio to be fixed by an interna-
tional agreement, if that can be obtained, or under
such restrictions and such provisions, to be deter-
mined by legislation, as will secure the maintenance
of the parities of values of the two metals, so that
the purchasing and debt-paying power of the dollar,
whether of silver, gold, or paper, shal] be at all times
ual.
we We denounce the present administration of the
Pension Bureau for its betrayal of the interests of
the Union soldiers, and we pledge anew to the vet-
erans of the republic a watchful care and recog-
nition of their just claims upon a grateful people.”
For Secretary of State Charles Kinney was nom-
inated, for Judge of the Supreme Court Marshall J.
Williams was renominated, Joseph E, Blackburn
was nominated for Dairy and Food Commissioner,
and Frank A. Huffman for member of Board of
Public Works.
The Democratic State Convention was held in
Columbus, June 23 and 24. The interest centered
in the attitude to be taken on the money question,
there having been sharp contests in the election of
delegates in the several counties. Majority and
minority reports were presented by the Committee
Sse Resolutions. The majority report was as fol-
ows:
“We, the Democrats of Ohio, in convention as-
sembled, hold that the money question is the vital
and paramount issue now before the people of this
country, and that its early and correct settlement
is necessary to the revival of business and the return
of prosperity ; therefore
“ Resolved, That we are unalterably opposed to the
single gold standard, and demand an immediate re-
turn to the constitutional money of gold and silver
by the restoration by this Government, independ-
ent of other nations, of the unrestricted coinage ot
both silver and gold into standard money at the
ratio of 16 to 1, and upon the terms of exact
equality existing prior to 1873; such silver coin to
619
be a full legal tender, equally with gold coin, for all
debts and dues, public and private.
“Resolved, That the delegates at large, this day-
chosen by this convention, and the delegates to the
national convention from the several congressional
districts be and they are hereby instructed to use
all honorable means to secure the adoption of the
principles contained in the foregoing resolution by
the National Democratic Convention, to be held at
Chicago, July 7, and to vote only for candidates for
President and Vice-President who are known to be
in full accord therewith ; and to accomplish these
ends to cast the votes from the State of Ohio asa
unit as a majority may determine.”
This report was signed by 16 members of the
committee. The minority report, signed by 4 mem-
bers, was much longer, covering the Monroe doc-
trine, election of Senators by the people, the Cuban
question, tariff reform, personal liberty, and all the
usual declarations of Democratic conventions, in-
cluding the reaffirmation of the national platform
of 1892. The Republican Legislature and Rate ad-
ministration were strongly denounced. No refer-
ence to the financial question was made, the mem-
ber who presented the report explaining that it
was omitted in the interests of harmony. The
minority report was promptly defeated, as was a
motion to strike out the unit-rule resolution of the
majority report. The majority report was then
adopted as the platform by a vote of 542 to 128.
The State ticket nominated was: For Secretary
of State, Chilton A. White; E. J. Blandin for Judge
of the Supreme Court; Patrick McKeown for Dairy
and Food Commissioner; William Beaumont for
Member of Board of Public Works.
Negotiations were subsequently had with the
People’s Party State Committee for a fusion on
presidential and State tickets, resulting in the ac-
ceptance by the People’s party of the Democratic
tickets, after the withdrawal of E. J. Blandin as
candidate for Judge of the Supreme Court and the
substitution of Everett D. Stark, and the substitu-
tion of Thomas J. Creager for Patrick McKeown as
candidate for Dairy and Food Commissioner.
The Prohibition party put a full ticket in nomina-
tion, the candidates for State offices being: For
Secretary of State, Samuel H. Rockhill; for Judge
of the Supreme Court, Gideon T. Stewart ; for mem-
ber of Board of Public Works, Charles E. Iliff; for
Dairy and Food Commissioner, Arza Alderman.
The National party had a State ticket: For Sec-
retary of State, Wesley C. Bates; for Judge of the
Supreme Court, Marcus B. Chase; for Member of
Board of Public Works, Winfield S. Maynard ; for
Dairy and Food Commissioner, Enos H. Brosius.
The Socialist-Labor party nominated a partial
ticket: For Secretary of State, Daniel W. Wallace;
for Member of Board of Public Works, John Schuch;
for Dairy and Food Commissioner, James Rugg.
The National Democratic ticket (Gold Democrats)
had a full list of presidential electors, but only two
nominations for State offices: For Judge of the
Supreme Court, Thomas Beer; for Dairy and Food
Commissioner, Samuel D. Poland.
The official declaration of the result on_presi-
dential electors is as follows: McKinley, Repub-
lican, 525,991; Bryan, Democrat, 474,882; Lever-
ing, Prohibitionist, 5.068; Bently, National, 2,716 ;
Matchett, Socialist-Labor, 1,167; Palmer, National
Democrat. 1,857.
The vote on Secretary of State was: Charles
Kinney, Republican, 525,020; Chilton A. White,
Democrat, 473.471; Samuel H. Rockhill, Prohibi-
tionist, 5,469; W. C. Bates, National, 3,882; D. W.
Wallace, Socialist-Labor, 1.254.
The congressional elections resulted in the elec-
tion of 15 Republicans and 6 Democrats.
620
OKLAHOMA, a Territory of the United States,
organized in 1890. Population, according to the
Auditor’s census, Feb. 1, 1894, 212,635 ; according to
the Governor’s report, June 30, 1896, 275,587.
Government.—The following were the Territo-
rial officers for the year: Governor, William C.
Renfrow, Democrat; Secretary, Thomas J. Lowe,
Democrat; Treasurer, Martin L. Turner; Attorney-
General, C. A. Galbraith, Democrat; Auditor and
Superintendent of Education, E. D, Cameron, who
resigned in December and was succeeded by A. O.
Nichols; Adjutant General, J. C. Jamison; Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, Francis Dale; Asso-
ciate Justices, A. G. C. Bierer, John L. McAtee, J.
H. Burford, succeeded in June by J. C. Tarsney
and H. W. Scott, sueceeded in+ October by J. Kk.
Keaton. All are Democrats except Burford, whose
term expired in March. Charges were made against
Justice Scott, and an investigation by Special-Agent
Sheibley was followed by his resignation.
Finances.—The valuation of property in the
Territory for taxation, which was $39,275,189 in
1895, was in 1896 only $23,361,281.76, including
$2,552,450.21 of railroad and telegraph property.
The explanation of this fall in valuation is as fol-
lows: The Board of Equalization in 1895 raised the
valuation returns from the counties to bring them
nearer the actual cash value, as required by law.
The railroad and telegraph valuations remained as
before and the Territorial tax levy was retained at
the legal limit, but the tax levies in counties were
correspondingly lowered. Complaints were made
and suits were brought by taxpayers to.restrain
the collection. The decision was against them. It
was contended that there was no power given the
board by the statute by which it could raise the as-
sessment on all the property in the counties. It was
argued that this was not equalization. By the opin-
ion the action of the Board of Equalization was sus-
tained in every particular, the court holding that it
had ample power to raise or lower the assessment of
any or all counties. The township and school-dis-
trict taxes were increased by the higher valuation,
the levies having been made before the final equali-
zation. In 1896 the board, in view of the complaints
made in 1895, let the valuations stand as they came
from the counties, and these are claimed to be only
about one fourth of the actual values.
The railroad valuations were raised on an average
about 33 per cent. in 1896. Suit was brought by
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé to compel a re-
assessment. Evidence was adduced to show how
far the assessments of other property fell below its
actual value; that in many instances throughout
the various counties of the Territory the assessors
themselves had returned two sets of valuations cov-
ering the same property, one of which was for the
census and the other the assessment of the property;
and that the average valuation placed upon im-
provements upon undeeded lands in the census re-
turns of the assessors exceeded a thousand dollars
per quarter section, and that the same property was
assessed at an average of $40 per quarter section.
Likewise, in real-estate valuations, comparisons
from numerous localities in the Territory where the
assessors had returned two sets of values showed
that the assessment was only about 30 per cent. of
the value of the same property as given in the cen-
sus returns.
The court held that the Territorial Board of Rail-
way Assessors could not arbitrarily fix any value to
the property they saw fit, but must assess the prop-
erty according to the evidence before them, and
found that the board had assessed the property of
the railroads of the Territory beyond its true value;
and the case was remanded to the Territorial Board
of Railway Assessors with the direction to reassess
OKLAHOMA.
the property and to hear evidence and to correct the
errors of the previous assessment.
A compromise was agreed to by the companies and
the assessors, by which the valuations were reduced.
The rate for the general Territorial tax is 3 mills
on the dollar; in addition 4 mill is levied for the
Normal School and 4 mill for the Territorial Uni-
versity.
The receipts and expenditures from the Territo-
rial general fund for the year were very nearly
equal. There were general-fund warrants outstand-
ing June 30, 1896, to the amount of $163,240. The
only other charge upon the Territory is $48,000 in
thirty-year 6-per-cent. bonds, outstanding, the pro-
ceeds of which are to be used in erecting the Terri-
torial college buildings.
Charities.—The insane of the Territory are pro-
' vided for under contract with the Oklahoma Sani-
tarium Company, at Norman, the Territory paying
$25 a month and cost of transportation. The
amount paid to the company during the year was
$30,253.24. Seventy-seven patients were received
from the Jacksonville asylum and 108 from the vari-
ous counties, a total of 185 during the year—116
men and 69 women. Of this number 37 were dis-
charged, 3 escaped, and 19 died.
Convicts.—There is no penitentiary in Oklahoma,
and the 128 convicts are confined in the Kansas
Penitentiary, at Lansing, at a cost of 25 cents a day
for each.
Edueation.—The Territory has 88,093 school
children. The Normal School, at Edmond, which
has about 100 students, is in a flourishing condition,
as is also the Territorial University, at Norman,
which enrolls nearly 200. The Agricultural and
Mechanical College, at Stillwater, Fes 11 teachers
and more than 100 students,
The corner stone of a building for the Congrega-
tional College at Kingfisher was laid in May. The
college was opened in September, 1895, in temporary
quarters, and has about 70 students.
An account of the Pawnee reservation school re-
ports that it is doing good work, and is more will-
ingly patronized by the Indians than formerly. It
has 126 pupils and 20 employees.
Banks.—By the report of the condition of na-
tional banks at the close of business, July 14, it is
shown that the five in Oklahoma had an average re-
serve of 26:53 per cent., against 27°30 per cent. on
May 7; loans and discounts increased from $6,430,-
314 to $6,732,435; stocks and securities decreased
from $1,184,226 to $1,144.113; gold coin increased
from $433,326 to $436,077; total specie increased
from $742,824 to $772,019; lawful money reserve
increased from $1,023,728 to $1,024,399; individual
deposits decreased from $6,307,459 to $5,839,084.
An important decision was given in the probate
court of Kay County in March. It was to the effect
that the directors of a bank in this Territory are
liable for the payment of the bank’s debts.
Railroads.—No new railroads were built in 1896.
A charter was taken out in October for the Gulf
Railroad Company. The road is to pass through 11
counties of the Territory, and also through the Choc-
taw and Chickasaw nations and Cherokee, Creek, and
Graham Counties, Texas. It will run to Dennison,
Texas.
In November a contract was signed for building
the St. Louis, Oklahoma and Southern Railway, to
run from Claremore, Indian Territory, to Shawnee,
in Oklahoma.
The four lines in operation in the Territory have
been prosperous; the increase of south-bound freight
has been very marked.
Products.—The most profitable farming pe
ucts of the Territory are cotton, castor beans, Kaffir
corn, and broom corn; but Indian corn, oats, bar-
OKLAHOMA,
ley, saccharine, sorghum, and the great forage
plants, alfalfa, clover, and timothy in the eastern
and central portions of the Territory are profitably
cultivated. The estimate of Indian corn for 1896
was 50,000,000 bushels.
Oklahoma has furnished one third of the product
that it takes to run the castor-oil mills of the
United States. Fruit culture is a paying industry ;
1,500,000 fruit trees have been planted and small
fruits and melons are exported. One small station
alone shipped 100 carloads of watermelons. Dis-
coveries of gold, silver, and copper were reported in
1896. Oil ns been found and a large territory
leased to the Pheenix Oil Company.
No-Man’s Land.—This district, bordering Okla-
homa on the west, and once the refuge of criminals
in the Southwest because none of the surrounding
State or Territorial courts had jurisdiction over it,
has been changed into a rich agricultural and
stock country. The change “is due to 40 young
women who are now in charge of the 38 public
schools of Beaver County. Seven of them met in
Beaver City and organized the Pan Handle Cattle
Company. the intention being to invest their sur-
plus earnings in the cattle business. Over 30 of
the women have taken claims of 160 acres each on
Beaver river, and will till the soil in summer and
teach in winter. They receive $30 a month for a
six months’ term. The teachers have pledged each
other not to marry within five years.”
Greer County.—On March 16 the United States
Supreme Court decided the case of the United
States vs. the State of Texas, involving the owner-
ship of Greer County, in favor of the plaintiff.
After the decision was announced the President
issued a proclamation reserving Grecr County from
settlement until a decision shall be reached as to
the merits of the Choctaws’ claim. Greer County
became disputed territory because a geographer
named Melish, who made a map eighty years ago,
did not clearly indicate whether the boundary be-
tween the United States and Spanish possessions
ran up the North Fork or the South Fork of Red
river. Melish further confused the situation by lo-
cating the one hundredth meridian about 100 miles
too far east. So, when half a century had gone by,
Texas set up the claim that the North Fork was the
boundary and all south of it was in her domain.
The United States did not accept this conclusion.
Texas cattlemen moved across the South Fork of
Red river into the disputed territory and named it
Greer County. Texas settlers drifted in, formed a
county government under the Texas laws, sent a
representative to the Legislature, and were recog-
nized by the State as a part of it.
It was rapidly establishing its Texas connection
by common consent when a member of Congress
from that State, being anxious to hasten the con-
clusion and settle title for all time to come, intro-
duced a bill under which the question was taken to
the Supreme Court and was settled as above stated,
March 16.
In the decision, Justice Harlan said the case de-
pended upon the construction of the treaty between
this country and Spain made in 1819, which de-
fined the northern and eastern lines of the Spanish
possessions. The court held that the fact that
commissioners and surveyors were provided for in
the treaty was evidence that it was not intended
that the lines as laid down in the map should be
considered binding.
The people of Greer County will live under
United States laws, so far as conduct and protec-
tion are concerned, but they will have no land ti-
tles. At the time of the decision the Oklahoma
Homestead bill was before the House of Represent-
atives, and an amendment was offered and accepted
621
in view of the decision of the court to prevent
squatters from rushing into Greer County and en-
tering lands under regular land laws, to the injury
of bona fide residents who had purchased their
lands on the supposition that they belonged to the
State of Texas.
An item in the report of the Conference Commit-
tee on the general Indian bill, which was accepted
by both houses, extended for one year all payments
on claims in Oklahoma in order to give time for the
homestead bill to be acted upon.
Politieal.—The Republicans held a Territorial
convention in Oklahoma City, March 28, to elect
delegates to the national convention, and one at
Kingfisher, March 30, to choose a candidate for
Representative in Congress. Dennis T. Flynn was
nominated to sueceed himself. The resolutions de-
clared Republican principles and condemned the
national administration ; favored bimetallism under
restrictions insuring the maintenance of parity in
value and “the prohibition of foreign silver modi-
fied by financial reciprocity”; declared that the
political patronage of the Territory should be con-
fined to Oklahomans; favored the passage of the
“Flynn Statehood bill”; condemned the board of
equalization “for placing a raised and fictitious
valuation on all property in 1895 except railroad
property”; denounced the action of the majority
of the Supreme Court in annulling the act of the
Legislature limiting the fees of district courts,
which, it was declared, “ takes from the people $40,-
000 a year of direct taxes for Territorial criminal
fees, and $40,000 more of civil fees paid by litigants
which, under the Territorial law, were to be con-
verted into the treasuries of the counties”; con-
demned the district judges “for their arbitrary
ruling prohibiting any person unable to give a cost
bond to file a petition as provided for by law, and
demanding a cash deposit in all civil cases; and
condemned the judges for requiring defendants in
civil cases to make a cash deposit before filing any
answer or other plea.” Other resolutions of the
latform were: “ We commend the sound financial
aws passed by the late Legislature, which lifted the
counties of Oklahoma from degradation to solven-
cy. We demand the prompt opening of all Indian
reservations where treaty stipulations have been
agreed oe We denounce the Honorable Secre-
tary of the Interior, Hoke Smith, for his refusal to
open the Wichita reservation under the provisions
already provided by Congress, instead of keeping
this and other reservations for cattlemen under a
contract represented by Seth Cobb, a cousin from
Georgia, the cattlemen paying a royalty to the firm
of Cobb & Smith to prevent thousands of homeless
families from securing homes on these reservations;
and we demand that all future openings be without
that farce called a ‘ booth certificate.’ ”
Hon. Dennis T. Flynn was highly commended
for his services to the Territory in Congress.
The Territorial Democratic Convention for nom-
inating delegates to the national convention met in
Oklahoma City, May 26. A resolution instructing
the delegates for Richard P. Bland was carried by a
vote of 125 to 124. A free-coinage 16-to-1 resolu-
tion was included in the platform, and also the fol-
lowing: “ We favor the enactment of legislation by
Congress at the earliest moment possible which
gives to all the settlers upon public lands in this
Territory the same rights to free homes that were
accorded to the settlers of original Oklahoma. We
favor more liberality and privileges in reference to
Indians holding allotments in Oklahoma, and de-
mand such legislation as will permit the Indians to
conduct their business without interference on the
part of the Indian Department or its agents, and
that the Indians having one half or more white
622 OLD CATHOLIC CHURCH.
blood be permitted to sell or dispose of their lands
without interference by law.”
At the second Democratic convention in Septem-
ber the nominee of the People’s party for Delegate
in Congress, Rev. J. Y. Callahan, was accepted, and
a plan of fusion was made for State legislative can-
didates.
The convention of the People’s party met in
Guthrie, Aug. 4 and 5. A platform was adopted
declaring for free coinage of silver; for liberal pen-
sions, with no discrimination in favor of officers:
for free homes for a free people; for reform in the
school land department; for revision of revenue
and school laws of the Territory; the fixing of offi-
cial salaries in keeping with the prices of labor, and
for immediate Statehood, with the addition of the
lands of Indian Territory as soon as allotted. It
denounced the Territorial Legislatures for the re-
peal of the usury laws, the infamous gerrymander
of the Territory, and the passage of nefarious elec-
tion laws, and condemned the national administra-
tion for its treatment of homestead settlers and
leasers of Indian lands.
The Rey. J. Y. Callahan was made the candidate
for Delegate in Congress. J.J. Merick and Harris
B. Hainer were also candidates for Delegate in Con-
gress. By the official canvass in November, Calla-
han. was declared elected by a majority of 1,168.
The Territorial Legislature will stand: Council—
Fusion 10, Democrats 3; House—Fusion 20, Demo-
crats 38, Republicans 3.
OLD CATHOLIC CHURCH, A summary of
the progress of the Old Catholic movement on the
European Continent published in the “* Report of
the Anglo-Continental Society,” shows that in Aus-
tria, while the Church is still without a bishop and,
the assent of the Government being still wanting,
no meeting of the synod has yet been called for
the purpose of electing one, its adherents continue
to increase in numbers, and are as steadfast and
hopeful as ever. In Germany the Church has
passed through a great crisis in connection with
the death of Bishop Reinkens, which involves im-
portant questions as to the future relations of his
successor to the state. Bishop Weber, who had been
consecrated coadjutor bishop in August, 1895, was
elected bishop March 4, 1896, and afterward re-
ceived the congratulations of the German Emperor,
The fact that 128 electors took part in this election
—43 clergy and 85 lay representatives—is quoted in
evidence of the great progress made by the German
Old Catholic Church during the episcopate of
Bishop Reinkens, who had been elected in 1873 by
21 clergy and 56 lay representatives—in all, 77 elect-
ors. In Switzerland, the Old Catholics are mak-
ing great progress. Many signs of activity are
noted among the Dutch Old Catholics, and the
French Congregation in Paris, which is under the
jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Utrecht. is slowly
and steadily gaining. In Italy the work is carried
on in seven places, and a new congregation has
been formed at San Vito, while an organization is
asked for at a ninth place, but no great progress
has been made in the collection of funds for an
Italian bishop. In Spain Bishop Cabrera has held
one visitation, and purposes to make his visitations
annual, while two new centers of work have been
opened. The community in Portugal comprises
5 clergy, 1 lay reader, 1 licensed preacher, 7 con-
gregations, 12 schools, 4 schoolmasters, 10 school-
mistresses, and 700 school children.
ONTARIO, a province of the Dominion of Can-
ada; area, about 222,000 square miles; population
in 1891, 2,214,321.
Government.—After twenty-four years of serv-
ice as Prime Minister, Sir Oliver Mowat retired in
July, 1896, and accepted the office of Minister of
ONTARIO,
Justice in the Canadian Liberal Cabinet at Ottawa.
His successor at Toronto was the Hon. A. S. Hardy,
for many years Commissioner of Crown Lands in
the province. On July 14 the new ministry was
announced as follows: Premier and Attorney-Gen-
eral, A. 8S. Hardy; Commissioner of Crown Lands,
J. M. Gibson; Provincial Secretary, W. D. Balfour;
Provincial Treasurer, R. Harcourt; Minister of
Agriculture, John Dryden; Minister of Education,
G. W. Ross; Minister of Public Works, W. Harty ;
minister without office, E. H. Bronson.
Mr. Balfour has since died and been succeeded
by Hon, E. J. Davis. Meanwhile a change had
taken place in the leadership of the Conservative
Opposition. Mr. G. F. Marter—who about a year -
before had replaced the present Chief Justice, Sir
W. R. Meredith as leader—resigned and was suc-
ceeded by J. P. Whitney.
Finances.—Mr. Harcourt presented his budget
on Feb. 19, 1896. He stated that from Crown
lands the revenue had been $123,000 larger than
was expected, or a total of $947,947; that the suc-
cession duties had brought in $298,825, compared
with $758 in 1892, when first imposed; that $272,-
883 had been received from liquor licenses; that
$171,520 had been obtained from the sale of an-
nuities; and that the total receipts for 1895 would
be $3,364,955, compared with an estimate of $3449,-
372. In dealing with expenditures, he pointed
out that $418,476 had been spent upon the admin-
istration of justice, an increase of $35,000, while
more than usual had been expended upon agricul-
ture, education, and mining. Public institutions
cost within a trifle of $800,000. He said the total
expenditure had, however, decreased. In 1891 it
was $4,158,459 ; in 1893, $3,907,145; in 1895, $3,-
758,595.
The Opposition complaint against the Govern-
ment in this connection is, and has been, that the
revenue and expenditure do not meet. There was
an apparent deficit, even in 1895, of $400,000, and
the charge is made that through manipulation of
$5,000,000 held since confederation as the assets of
the province—largely in trust by the Dominion
Government—the people are made to believe that
there is a continual surplus, while in reality the
capital of the province is being drawn upon to meet
current payments. Immense timber limits are be-
ing sold for the same purpose, and money is being
borrowed yearly upon annuities, and the provincial
credit consequently pledged for years ahead.
Legislative Session.—The Legislative Assem-
bly was opened by Lieut.-Gov. G. A. Kirkpatrick,
on Feb. 11, 1896, with a “speech from the throne,”
of which the following were the significant pas-
sages: ,
“T am glad to notice that the action of the Gov-
ernment of the United States with respect to the
territorial rights of Great Britain in South Amer-
ica'which caused so much anxiety a few months
ago is not likely to lead to a rupture of the peace-
ful relations which have so long existed between
the two nations, and with so much advantage in
every way to both. It is gratifying to know that
in ease of any trouble affecting the interests of the
mother country, no sacrifice which the cireum-
stances might demand would be considered too
great by the people of Ontario should they be
called upon to repel invasion or to defend the in-
tegrity of the British Empire. —
“Tam pleased to observe that, notwithstanding
the depression from which the farmers of Ontario
are suffering. they exhibit a growing interest and
enthusiasm in every department of agriculture.
The number attending meetings during the past
year for the discussion of agricultural matters has
greatly increased, and all the associations aided by
ONTARIO.
this Legislature which specially depend for success
Oe the support of the farming classes are flour-
“The pioneer farm established in western Algo-
ma promises to prove highly successful. The new
dairy schools established in eastern and western
Ontario have greatly improved the 4 honraene of
the province for dairy instruction. Experiments
in fruit ing and orchard spraying have been
successfully conducted during the past year.
“The northwestern part of the province con-
tinues to receive the attention of prospectors and
miners, and gold-bearing ores have been discovered
in that region over an area of 2,000 square miles.
Several stamp mills have been erected in the dis-
tricts of the Lake of the Woods, Rainy Lake, and
Seine river.
« There has been no marked improvement during
the year in the condition of the lumber trade.
While the sales and prices in the English markets
have been fairly satisfactory, the market for sawed
lumber in the United States has been in a depressed
condition.
“ For several years the brewers and distillers of
the province have disputed the right of the pro-
vincial Legislature to charge them with license
fees. To settle the question of authority. a test
case was at their instance submitted to the Court of
Appeal, and judgment has been given in favor of
the province. The brewers and distillers have ap-
pealed from this judgment to the Privy Council.”
The House adjourned on April 7, after consider-
able legislation dealing with county and civil gov-
ernment, county courts, and the w of work-
ingmen, public charities, the construction of elec-
tric and other railways, the protection of game, and
the improvement of education and agriculture.
The bills included the following:
To make further provision for the payment of
succession duties in certain cases.
To amend the public lands act. :
To authorize the Commissioners of the Queen
Victoria Niagara Falls Park to grant certain lands
to the Clifton Suspension Bridge Company.
To make further provision respecting mines and
mining.
Revising and consolidating the acts respecting
the registration of births, marriages, and deaths.
Respecting the estates of insolvent deceased per-
sons.
Respecting the quieting of titles.
As to certain proceedings under the act respect-
ing assignments and preferences by insolvent per-
sons.
Respecting bills of sale and chattel mortgages.
Respecting liens of mechanics, wage earners, and
others.
To extend the woodman’s lien for wages act.
For better protection of certain classes of work-
men.
To consolidate the acts respecting solemnization
of marriage.
Relating to dower in certain cases.
To amend the act to facilitate the conveyance of
real estate by married women.
Relating to the law of insurance.
Respecting building societies.
Relating to the Sault Ste. Marie and Hudson Bay
Railway.
To amend certain acts relating to the Georgian
Bay Ship Canal and Power Aqueduct Company.
: Respecting tax sales in the unorganized dis-
Ficts..).*
To improve the laws respecting public libraries.
Revising and consolidating the acts to encourage
the planting and growing of trees.
Respecting the inspection of fruit trees.
623
To amend the act to prevent the profanation of
the Lord’s Day.
To provide for the inspection of meat and milk.
supplies of cities and towns.
o make further provisions for the protection of
me.
Consolidating and revising the laws respecting
the Education Department.
Revising certain matters in the separate-schools
act.
During the session several important resolutions
were passed. One dealing with the Manitoba
school question, moved by Sir Oliver Mowat, de-
clared that, as education under the act of federa-
tion was given into the control of the provinces,
and that as the Judicial Committee of the Imperial
Privy Council had declared the abolition of the
separate schools to be within the jurisdiction of
Manitoba, no remedial legislation in behalf of the
Manitoba Catholics should be attempted by the
Dominion Parliament until after the most thorough
investigation. At the same time, it was admitted
in the resolution that as the Judicial Committee
had declared that the Manitoba Catholics really had
ground for complaint, it might be ultimately the
duty of the Federal power to take action. The dis-
cussion in the Legislature turned on the fact that
this school question had already been examined
and re-examined during five years of controversy,
and that, as the Opposition claimed, it was now
time for the Dominion to take action. The resolu-
tion passed by the usual party majority. Another
motion, moved by Sir O. Mowat and seconded by
Mr. Marter, who was then the Opposition leader,
was carried unanimously by a standing vote, and
amid the singing of ‘God Save the Queen.” It
wasthis: .
“ To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty: Most
gracious sovereign, we, your Majesty’s dutiful and
loyal subjects, the Legislative Assembly of the
Province of Ontario, in Parliament assembled, de-
sire, in view of the recent events in relation to the
territorial rights of Great Britain in South America
and elsewhere, to assure your Majesty of the un-
alterable loyalty and devotion of the people of On-
tario to your Majesty’s person and crown, and to
the empire over which your Majesty presides;
and that in case of any trouble affecting the inter-
ests of the empire, no sacrifice which the circum-
stances might demand would be considered too
great for the people of this province should they be
called upon to repel invasion or to defend the in-
tegrity of the British Empire.”
A resolution proposed by Mr. Bronson and car-
ried was as follows:
“ That this House would view with approval, and
as worthy of encouragement, any movement toward
the organization of voluntary societies in the larger
cities of the province, having for their object the
giving of such assistance to the unemployed as
would contribute toward making them self-support-
ing, by settling them upon the unoccupied lands of
the province or other lands within the province.”
Agriculture.—According to official reports, the
crops of Ontario in 1896 were satisfactory. The
production of spring wheat showed a decline in
quantity, while apples formed a phenomenal crop,
and the yield of honey was unusually great. There
was a surplus of farm laborers, and wages were
lower as a result of the farmers trying to do with-
out help and relying upon improved machinery.
Harvest hands received from 75 cents to $1 a day,
and from $13 to $20 a month. The following are
the figures of crop production in 1896: Fall wheat,
14,516,088 bushels; spring wheat, 3,677,757 bushels ;
barley, 12,303,091 bushels; oats, 84,974,508 bushels ;
rye, 2,353,091 bushels; peas, 18,591,932 bushels;
624 ONTARIO.
beans, 1,292,098 bushels; hay and clover, 2,280,240
tons. :
The live stock on the farms, July 1, 1896, included
624,749 horses, a decrease of over 20.000. There
were 2,181,958 cattle and 1,849,349 sheep. The
hogs numbered 1,269,631. The yield of fall wheat
per acre was 17 bushels, and that of spring wheat
13 bushels. Barley gave 27 bushels to the acre,
oats 34, rye 15, peas 21, and beans 17. During the
year ending June 30, 1896, there was a membership
in the Ontario farmers’ institutes of 12,384, against
10,819 in the preceding year. The Government
grant to these institutes varied from $50 to $75.
There is a Dairy Commissioner, and in 1895 a dairy
school was erected in Kingston as a branch of the
loval School of Mining and Agriculture. Ontario
still makes the bulk of the $15,000,000 worth of
cheese sent to England. Three years ago only
about $600,000 worth went from the whole Dominion.
Mining.—During 1896 Ontario as well as Brit-
ish Columbia rejoiced in wide discoveries and a con-
siderable development of gold. At the end of 1895
there were 8 gold mines in operation, with 237 men
employed, a total production valued at $50,281, and
wages paid amounting to $56,234, Other minerals
showed a much larger value and product. Building
stone was valued at $438,000, cement at $159,477,
lime at $280,000, drain tiles and brick at $862,000,
sewer pipe at $133,159, poultry at $108,000, salt at
$188,101, nickel at $404,861, copper at $160,913, nat-
ural gas at $282,986, and petroleum in various forms
at $2,177,324. There was a total mineral product
valued at $5,170.138, employing 5,383 laborers and
paying $1,571,651 in wages. The gold fields exist
in the County of Hastings in eastern Ontario; in
Algoma and not far from the great Huronian belt
of copper and nickel; on the north shore of Lake
Superior and throughout a vast stretch of territory
along the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake on
the Minnesota boundary, to the far Keewatin bound-
ary—a tract of at least 2,000 square miles. Into
this latter section prospectors and speculators and
miners are crowding. Iron is found in large quan-
tities in northern Ontario, platinum has lately been
discovered on the north shore of Lake Huron, and
corundum in Hastings County.
Education.—The Ontario school system is under
the control of a Minister of Education, instead of
the superintendents, who have the nonpartisan
management of other provincial systems. “The
ublic schools are undenominational, but separate
oman Catholic schools are allowed by.Jaw and are
given acertain proportion of the taxes. In 1894 there
were 5,977 public schools and 328 separate schools,
with an average attendance of 268,364 pupils in the
one case and of 23,828 in the other. There were
2,795 male teachers and 6,029 female in the public
schools, and 133 males and 581 females in the sepa-
rate schools. The former had receipts amounting
to $4,972,507 and expenditures of $4,248,131, and
the latter receipts of $392,393 and expenses amount-
ing to $337,507.
Toronto University, which is at the head of the
higher educational system of the province, shows
an estimated revenue for 189596 of $120,452, which
will leave a deficit in meeting the estimated ex-
penditure of $125,000. During the year a careful
revision was made in the legislation connected with
the schools, and changes made in various details
connected with the high and public schools. One
provision defines more explicitly the moral super-
vision and duties of teachers. They are required
to “inculcate, by precept and example, respect for
religion and the principles of Christian morality,
and the highest regard for truth, justice, love of
country, humanity, benevolence, sobriety, industry,
frugality, purity, temperance, and all other virtues.”
OREGON.
Miscellaneous.—During the year, 2,735 yearly
tavern licenses were issued, against 2,841 in 1894,
and the total of all licenses was 3,205, against 3,317
the year before. The revenue was $10,000 less,
while the total collection for fines as well as licenses
was $623.717, against $649,173 in the previous year,
The private subscriptions for asylums, orphans’
homes, ete., exceeded those of 1894 by $24,000.
There were 4,484 inmates, against 3,639 in the pre-
ceding year.
The area of Crown lands sold during 1895 was
35,209 acres, valued at $37,213. Mineral lands were
leased to the extent of 13,969 acres, and a total of
$26,106 was collected therefrom.
The Society for the Protection of Neglected and
Dependent Children did good work during the
year, and was mainly supported by the local gov-
ernment, 115 such children being placed in homes
under the action of this society.
OREGON, a Pacific coast State, admitted to the
Union Feb. 14, 1859; area, 96,030 square miles.
The population was 13,294 in 1850; 52,465 in 1860;
90,923 in 1870; 174,768 in 1880; 313,767 in 1890,
By the State census of 1895 it was 362,762. Capital,
Salem. :
Government.—The following were the State offi-
cers in 1896: Governor, William P. Lord; Secretary
of State, Harrison R. Kincaid; Treasurer, Philip
Metschau; Attorney-General, C. M. Idleman: Ad-
jutant-General, B. B. Tuttle; Superintendent of
nstruction, George M. Irwin—all Republicans;
Fish and Game Protector, H. D. McGuire; Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, Robert S. Bean; As-
sociate Justices, Frank A. Moore, Charles E. Wol-
verton—all Republicans.
Finaneces.—The total valuation in 1896, upon
which the levy for 1897 is based, was $142,449,821,
as returned by the county boards, The State board -
raised it to $152,033,666. When the exemptions
were deducted the net total of taxable property
was estimated to be $143,845,967. Many of the
county valuations were largely increased. In Marion
County, personal property was raised 30 per cent.,
including money, notes, and accounts. The ques-
tion was raised whether the board had power to
raise the valuation of money. This was explained
by the fact that the county assessors made no sepa-
rate classification ; hence the only thing to do was
to raise all personal property together. Notice has
been given that the county will not pay the levy on
the increased valuation except by mandate of court.
Edueation.—The biennial report of the State
Superintendent shows the following summaries for
the two years:
ITEMS. 1895. 1896
Number Of QistriCtsnnic os senie> cise eocads 1,953 1,891
School population.................0.0.6 126,926 | 129,623
Pnrollment.eraw ea ee bas concn sc hee 83.895 87,212
"TORQGHORS. 75 5 cies gk see hale os obine sees 3,230 3.317
Tenchers ABIATICN,.. facsiso ak win nieve a2 $787,176 | $784,967
Private SChOOIS syiccn xeon Pescatee aes 189 125
The value of school property is $2,988,312. In
1896 $123,428 was paid for schoolhouses. The
amount of State funds apportioned in August was
$136,104, making a per capita of $1.05.
The appropriations for the Weston Normal School
by the last Legislature were $1,200 for maintenance
and $4,000 for improvements; at the end of the
year a deficiency of $1,754 was reported.
The Monmouth Normal School graduated a class
of 44 in June. The appropriation for this school
was $18,000, and the deficit from the preceding bi-
ennium $8,526.
There were about 16 graduates of the normal
school at Ellensburg in June, besides about 20 in
a short teacher’s course.
eS es ee
PE a
OREGON.
_ The Ashland Normal School graduated 23 in the
course and 7 in special courses.
he class at Drain Normal School numbered 16.
The Agricultural College, at Corvallis, had an en-
rollment of 397, reaching the limit of its capacity.
The total amount received during the year, includ-
ing the amount on hand July 1, 1895. was $46,984.42.
The estimated funds available for the ensuing year
amount to $45,500.
The enrollment at the State University, at Eugene,
for the year ending June 18, was 503, of which 190
men aaa 143 women were in the school of letters.
83 men and 3 women in the school of law, and 65
men and 19 women in the school of medicine.
The degree of bachelor of arts was conferred on
20 students, of bachelor of laws on 41, doctor of
medicine on 22.
The receipts for the year, including balances of
$6,871, were $59,250, and the balance left was $2,-
955. The land fund amounts to $99,396.
Willamette University had 2 uates in the
course of liberal arts, 6 in the law department, 4 in
the school of expression, and 18 in the preparatory
department.
The attendance at the Chautauqua Assembly at
Gladstone Park at the opening in July was esti-
mated at 3.500.
State Institutions.—The maintenance of State
institutions absorbs a large proportion of the State
income. The appropriations on account of penal
and eleemosynary institutions two years ago, ex-
clusive of appropriations for homes throughout the
State, were $631.946.87. This means an annual ex-
penditure of $315,973.43.
The Solders’ Home, at Roseburg, has been im-
Liye by the addition of a new building for a hos-
i
There were 365 prisoners in the Penitentiary, at
Salem, in December. It has 27 officers and em-
Li Si
he Reform School, at Salem, had 126 inmates in
April.
The Supreme Court handed down its third opinion
in the branch asylum case, Nov. 9 (see “ Annual
Cyclopedia” for 1895, page 631). It affirmed the
judgment of the lower court in restraining the State
Treasurer from honoring the $25,000 warrant issued
in payment of a site purchased for the location of
the proposed asylum building in eastern Oregon.
The decision says: “The expenditure of public
money at a place prohibited by the Constitution is
a misapplication thereof, for the simple and very
satisfactory reason that it is against the declared
will of the people, and the location of a public in-
stitution, within the meaning of the term as used
in the Constitution, is not in any sense a legislative
question, but has been determined by the people
themselves.”
The present asylum at Salem is crowded. Its in-
mates include, besides the insane, inebriates, mor-
phine patients, idiots and feeble-minded, and those
overtaken by poverty and physical debility. The
number in the asylum in Seovemmsk was 1,108, and
the population is constantly increasing. The month-
ly per capita expense was $8.58.
ilitia.—The persons liable to
the State numbered 57,928 in 1895.
telegram in January, asking the strength of the
Oregon National Guard, and how soon the militia
forces could be mobilized, the Governor said that
about 1,600 men, including two batteries, could be
rendezvoused in Portland within forty-eight hours.
The expense to the State of ordering out the mi-
litia to suppress the disturbance caused by striking
fishermen on the Columbia, was about $8,000. The
strikers themselves aided materially in minimizing
the expense by supplying fish; it is reported that
VOL, Xxxvi.—40 A
military duty in
In answer toa
625
the soldiers had all the salmon they wished furnished
as a voluntary contribution.
The troops were called to Roseburg in June .
to prevent the threatened lynching of a prisoner
charged with murder,
Railroads.—The report of the Railroad Com-
mission says that not a road in the State has paid
a dividend to a stockholder in four years, or been
able to pay the agreed rate of interest on its bonds.
During that time four of the roads have been in
the hands of receivers, namely, the Northern Pacific,
the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, the
Washington and Columbia River, and the Oregon
Pacific, now the Oregon Central and Eastern. Of
these, the first two have recently been sold under
the hammer, the result of foreclosure suits, and re-
organized, and are now being operated by the
owners instead of under the direction of the courts.
The Washington and Columbia River succeeded in
getting out of the hands of a receiver after short
experience. The Oregon Pacific was sold at sher-
iff’s sale in December, 1894, reorganized as the
Oregon Central and Eastern, and .is now being
operated by the purchasers. The properties of the
Oregon and California are operated by the Southern
Pacific Company, undera thirty-four-year lease from
1893. Its interest under taxes amount to about $1,-
000,000 a year, but its earnings, over and above
operating expenses, were less than $400,000 in 1895,
and less than $300,000 in 1896.
The aggregate earnings of all the railroads within
the State amount to about $5,000,000 annually. Of
this sum, about $4,000,000 is returned to the people
for labor, material, taxes, etc., leaving generally less
than $1,000.000 to pay interest on an invested cap-
ital of $70,000,000.
On Aug. 18, 1896, the Oregon Railway and Navi-
gation Company was reorganized, with E. McNeill,
formerly receiver, as president and manager, under
the name of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation
Company. The reorganization was effected by fore-
closure of the collateral trust mortgage, the conver-
sion of back interest waived, and 50 per cent. of the
rincipal on the collateral trust mortgage waived
into preferred stock, and the reduction of the 5-
per-cent. mortgage bonds to 4 per cents. :
Telegraphs and Telephones.—In 1895 there
were 2.20735 miles of telegraph and telephone lines
assessed in Oregon. The aggregate valuation, as
equalized by the State board, was $150,374.
The Cascade Locks.—This great work was fin-
ished and formally opened Novy. 5. The canal and
locks are intended to enable boats to pass the cas-
cades of the Columbia. The first obstruction to
navigation in that river, the Cascades, includes a
reach of about 44 miles, where the river rushes
through a narrow gorge in the Cascade mountains
at a point 150 miles from the mouth. The fall be-
tween the upper Cascades and the lower Cascades
is about 45 feet at high water, and 36 feet at low
water. A canal, 3,000 feet long and 70 feet wide.
has been cut across a low projecting spur around
which the river is forced at the entrance to the
gorge, with 3 locks. The upper gates are claimed
by engineers to be the largest lock gates in the world.
All the gates are operated by hydraulic machinery,
the water coming from a spring on the mountain
side. The work was begun eighteen years ago. The
canal opens the river to The Dalles, 50 miles above.
There is another obstruction, which it is proposed
to overcome by a boat railway. The cost of the
locks and canal to the Government was over $2,-
500.000.
Other Water-Ways.—Congress made appropria-
tions for Oregon waters as follow: Boat railway at
The Dalles, $100,000, and authorizing contract for
$2,064,000 ; Coquille river, $20,000; upper Coquille,
626
$12,000 ; Umpqua river, $6,000; Coos river, $5,000;
Alsea river, $3,000; Nestucca river, $6,000; Willa-
mette and Yamhill, $40,000, also authorizing contract
aggregating $200,000 for improvement of Willa-
mette and construction of locks in the Yamhill; Si-
uslaw, $27,000 ; entrance Coos Bay, $95,000 ; harbor,
Coos Bay, $14,390; Yaquina Bay, $25,000, also au-
thorizing contract for $1,000,000 additional; Tilla-
mook Bay and bar, $17,000; upper Columbia, $5,000;
total for Oregon, including amounts authorized to
be contracted for and the appropriations for the
Cascades, over $4,000,000.
The Fisheries.—The report of the State Fish
and Game Protector for 1895-96 says that the great
fish industry in the past thirty years has provided
the people of Oregon with $70,000,000, and declares
that during the past year, notwithstanding the
strike, it proved Oregon’s second greatest resource,
providing the people of the State with $2,534,240,
exclusive of the north shore of the Columbia. The
future prosperity of the salmon fishery of the Co-
lumbia depends largely upon artificial propagation,
and in this work Oregon is largely behind Cali-
fornia and Washington. The number of cases of
salmon packed on the Columbia in 1896 was 463,-
77, and the value $2,261,826; and 87,760 cases,
worth $268,380, were packed from the coast streams
and bays. The number of persons employed in the
salmon fisheries and allied industries on the Oregon
side of Columbia river for 1896 was 4,323, and the
amount earned $895,476. On the coast streams and
bays 1,012 employees earned $96,335. The appa-
ratus used on the Oregon side of the Columbia ‘is
valued at $679,035, and that on the coast streams
and bays at $62,980. The lands, buildings, and
machinery employed in all these are valued at
$1,184,750, and the cash capital employed at $1,-
429,500.
Shad and oysters have been successfully trans-
planted to the waters of the State.
The almost total extinction of the sturgeon fish-
eries of the Columbia within the past five years is
presented as an illustration of the need of protective
laws. Nine years ago this fishery produced nearly
$40,000 annually.
The commissioner shows the need of concurrent
laws in Oregon and Washington for protection of
fish in the Columbia. By a recent decision of the
United States court for the district of Oregon, the
officials of neither State have jurisdiction for the
enforcement of its fish laws beyond the middle of
the channel, except when the laws are concurrent.
Mining.—A great mining canal, said to be larger
than any yet made, is in course of construction in
southern Oregon. Ground was broken for it in
May, about 3 miles south of Gold Hill. It is for
developing the gravel mines along Rogue river.
There are many mines there, but the surface of the
gravel bars and banks has just been touched, for
the reason that water could not be secured to work
the hydraulic plants to advantage. The mines, so
far as they have been developed, have been supplied
with water from the tributaries of the river, and, at
times of high water, from the river itself.
A thorough exploration of the country along the
course of Rogue river has disclosed not only the
fact that it is rich in minerals, but that a wholesale
mining project might be extended to include the
supply of water for irrigating as well as its sale to
other miners. The plan was divided into three
parts, so as to include the construction of three
canals—one known as the high-line canal, the sec-
ond as the middle canal, and the third as the lower
canal. If this project is successful, it means the
general development not only of the company’s
properties, but of adjacent mines.
The mint officers estimate the production of gold
OREGON.
in 1896 in Oregon at $1,300,000, an increase of
$410,000 over that of 1895. The product of silver
was estimated at 75,000 ounces, an increase of 238,-
000 ounces,
The coal product in 1895 was 73,685 short tons,
the largest, except that of 1888, in the history of
the State. The value at the mines was $247,901.
The increased output was due in part to the open-
ing of two new mines on Coquille river. This in-
dustry employed 414 men an average of sixty-nine
days. The Coos Bay field is the most important in
the State. The greatest hindrance to the develop-
ment of the Oregon coal fields is in the way of
transportation. All the navigable rivers and bays
of t®e Oregon coast are obstructed by bars.
Farm Products.—The sugar-beet industry has
received a considerable impetus in the last year from
the efforts of Richard Kuehne, a German-American
expert, who has a ranch near Tigardville, on which
he has raised sugar beets of a high quality. He
says it will cost a farmer $35 an acre to raise his
crop, and, if he succeeds in raising the percentage
of sugar and purity in his crop, he can safely figure
on about $40 profit to an acre, provided there are
factories to use the product.
Oregon has 2,486,247 sheep, from which were se-
cured in 1896 19,889,976 pounds of washed and un-
washed wool, with 69 per cent. of shrink The
scoured wool amounted to 6,165,892 pounds.
Immigration.—The Pacific Northwestern Im-
migration Board, an association for advertising
Oregon throughout the East and turning the tide
of desirable immigration in this direction, has been
organized by business men of Portland. It will
continue the work of the old Oregon Immigra-
tion Board, but on a more extensive scale.
land can be obtained in the Willamette valley and
elsewhere for $15 to $25 an acre, and immigrants
can be suitably located. When the old board was
in operation farm lands in western Oregon were
held as high as $200 an acre.
The citizens of Portland began the fund for the
new board with $30,000. In March a small party
of tradesmen and mechanics, the advance guard of
50 families from Columbus, Ohio, who intend to
live in Oregon, passed through Portland on their
way to Roseburg, to take possession of the Tipton
tract, comprising 2,200 acres, bought by the Colum-
bus colonists, intending to clear the land and put
in a general crop, and in the autumn to set a great
art of it with fruit trees. The colony was formed
by a few residents of Columbus, and other members
were added by election, only families of skilled me-
chanics being admitted. This tract will be sub-
divided ; half will be turned into 50 small farms of
22 acres each, which will be made over to each
family. The other 1,100 acres will be used for the
joint benefit of the colony as regards pasturage and
timber.
Trouble among Fishermen.—A controversy
between fishermen on the lower Columbia and a
strike for higher prices caused some rioting and the
calling out of State troops in the spring. The con-
troversy.was between trapmen and gill-net fisher-
men, between whom trouble has existed in former
years. It is thus explained on the side of the gill-
net fishermen :
“Year after year the trapmen have been en-
croaching farther and farther upon the drifting
grounds of the gill-netters, each advance being in-
evitably followed by a shoaling of the water at the
trap locations. The gill-netter condemns the trap
on account of its real or fancied wholesale destruc-
tion of young salmon, but no trap that did not ob-
struct navigation or endanger life was ever inter-
fered with. The present objection of the fishermen
to the construction of traps near the scene of the
:
|
:
co OREGON. 627
_ wreck of the ‘Great Republic’ is due to the fact
that hundreds of lives would be endangered if
traps were placed in that vicinity. As the water
' shoaled east of Peacock spit, the channel steadily
until now it runs through Great Republic
spit, farther east. Meanwhile. the trappers con-
tinued patting in new aes until now there is only
a narrow channel, called ‘Cut-off’ channel, be-
tween Peacock spit and Sand island. This is north
*Great Republic’ wreck, and
it the fishermen sail when caught in a sud-
With Cut-off channel closed by t
fishermen would find no shelter, as it ciuirbs
impossible for boats to sail round the south
i Sand island and reach Baker's Bay. It is
uncommon occurrence during the fishing
600 to 800 boats near Peacock spit,
when storms arise the men let their nets go
make for Cut-off channel. Another objection
establishment of traps at this point is the
impossibility of fishermen reaching shore
are u
other hand the Board of Trade and
of Commerce of Ilwaco, Wash., have
if
ze
BS
PofPtLE
Ha 7
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;
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h
;
:
We
5
3
ti
Rw
ief engineer to prohibit such risk to human life
ashington troops were sent to Sand island, but
were ordered away by the national authorities, as
LE
Pp
Reservations.—A law went into effect in Apel
viding for settlement by homestead of the Fort
hay reserve. The reserve contains about
10,000 acres of fine hay land. nearly all of which was
located within three days. The fort reserve, 1 mile
square, is withheld from settlement. Settlers are
limited to 80 acres. The reservation contains about
from the Indians and throw open to settlement.
Semicentennial.—The ieth anniv
the date when Oregon passed under the dominion
of the United States was celebrated at Portland in
June by the veterans of the Indian wars and the
Association of Pioneers. The earliest pioneers
present were two of 1837. The ial exercises in-
cluded a ion of the school children of Port-
land, followed by the pioneers and their grandchil-
dren an children; addresses by John
d
F. Caples, George H. Williams, ex-Gov. Pennoyer,
and Mrs. W. J. Plymale; and a poem by Joaquin
Miller. Steps were taken toward the organization
of an association of the native sons and daughters
of the State.
Important Decisions.—Women were nominat-
ed in 15 counties for county superintendents of
schools: but, by a decision in a suit b t to test
the eligibility of one already in office. decision was
rendered in May that they were ineligible on ac-
count of that provision of the Constitution which
says that only electors may be elected or appointed
to county offices, an elector being defined in an-
other place as a male citizen.
A decision was given in July involving the ques-
tion of the marriage of a divorced person before
the expiration of six months from the grant of the
decree. The court held that marriage within six
y submitted majority and minority -..
onstration was --22==3
that the rays : Goose
observed out- ~ -
side the tube
were probably
not transmitted
from within Fig. 3.—LONARD’s EXPERIMENT: Pas-
/ SAGE OF CATHODE RAYS THROUGH AN
but were a ALUMINUM WINDOW.
new phenome-
non, generated in open air at the outside surface
of the “window.” The rays certainly had differ-
ent properties without aa within the tube, but
that there was no fresh generation of rays was
shown, as claimed by Lenard, by using a tube with
two compartments, in one of which the rays are
generated, while they are observed in the other.
The rays passed through the metal partition into
the observing tube when the vacuum in the latter
was too high to admit of their generation. Lenard
also showed that there seemed to be several kinds
of cathode rays, having different properties. For
instance, rays generated at high pressures are dif-
fused more easily than those that arise at low pres-
sures. This is analogous to the fact that light of
short wave-length is diffused more easily in certain
turbid media. He also proved that charged bodies
are discharged by cathode rays, as they are by ultra-
violet light. These experiments, while confirming
the German physicists in their opinion that the rays
are propagated by a disturbance in the ether, and
are similar to light. if not identical with it, have
not converted the English physicists, and the two
opposed oa pi are still held by the rival parties,
and have had a marked effect on the interest that
is taken in experimentation on this subject and the
closely related one of Réntgen rays.
In January, 1896, Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Rént-
gen (see R6nTGEN), of the University of Wiirzburg,
Austria, announced at a meeting of the local scien-
tific society that he had discovered a new form of
radiation. The discovery was accidental, and was
made by observing that a highly fluorescent sub-
stance with which he was experimenting gave out
light whenever a neighboring Crookes tube was ex-
cited, though this tube was covered with an opaque
cloth, The effect was not due to cathode rays, be-
cause cathode rays can not pass through the glass
walls of the tube, but the rays that caused the
fluorescence Shpeared to take their rise at the point
where the cathode rays impinged against these
walls. Further investigation showed that the new
rays, like cathode rays, passed easily through many
substances that are opaque to light, and appeared
to be capable neither of reflection nor of refraction,
but that they could not be deflected by a magnet,
and that they passed easily through the atmosphere
at the ordinary pressure. This similarity to the
cathode rays in action on a sensitive plate and in
transmission through opaque substances made it
possible to repeat on a large scale in open air pho-
tographic experiments that could before have been
possible only within the exhausted tube. In par-
ticular it was found that when the human hand
was interposed between the tube and a photo-
graphic plate the difference in opacity of the flesh
and bones to the new rays caused a marked shadow
peeve of the skeleton to appear on the plate.
othing but a shadow picture was possible, owing
to the fact that the rays are not reflected; and the
692
use of lenses was not possible, for the rays were not
refrangible, so that in all cases the object to be
photographed was necessarily held as close as pos-
sible to the sensitive plate, and the resulting picture
was exactly of the same size as the original. To
this application of the new discovery it undoubtedly
owed the extraordinary and widespread interest
that it at once aroused throughout the civilized
world. Important as it was as a link in the long
chain of experiments on cathode phenomena that
had been diligently prosecuted for years, especially
in Germany and England, this purely scientific
interest was completely overshadowed in the pub-
lic mind by the sensational features of the an-
nouncement that a means of “seeing through” the
human body had been devised, Misstatements and
exaggerations were inevitable, but experimenters
in all countries at once verified Prof. Réntgen’s
own announcement. His statement still remains
accurate, except that the rays have been found
capable of reflection in a very slight degree. They
are incapable of polarization (Mayer, “ Science,”
March 27), discharge electrified bodies, and electrify
neutral bodies (Righi, “ Comptes Rendus,” Feb. 17),
some positively and others negatively (Minchin,
“Hlectrician,’ London, March 27) Negative
charges are dissipated faster than positive, the rate
depending on absorption (Benoist and Hermuzescu,
“Comptes Rendus,” Feb. 8, March 17, and April
27). Many more substances are opalescent to X
rays than to light, owing to internal diffusion
(Pupin, “Science,” April 10; Thomson, “ Electrical
World,” April 25), hence the shadow pictures taken
with the rays are never absolutely clear cut.
The precise source of the rays was at first a sub-
ject of some controversy. Réntgen, as stated
above, announced that they arise from the part of
of the glass wall of the vacuum tube on which the
cathode rays impinge. Elihu Thomson showed
that the rays did not proceed directly from the
anode or the cathode. Rice (* Electrical Engineer-
ing,” April 22) confirmed the opinion of Réntgen,
and others have been able to show that they arise
at a spot directly opposite the cathode. When the
cathode is in the center of the tube (“ Electrical
World,” March 14) there are two such spots.
‘Stine (¢bid., April 11) obtained similar results, and
also showed that effects that might be supposed to
indicate diffraction of the rays were really due to
penumbral shadows. Scribner and M’Berty (“ Elec-
trical Engineering,” April 8) proved that the source
of the rays was on the inner surface of the glass.
On the other hand, De Heen (“ Comptes Rendus,”
Feb. 17) believed the anode to be the source of the
rays, but possibly the anode in his experiment was
struck by the cathode rays. Lodge (“ Electrician,”
April 10) showed that it emits the rays powerfully
when so struck, and he concluded that X rays
“start from a surface on which the cathode rays
strike, whether it be an actual anode or only an
anticathodic surface.” In the cases first observed the
glass was such a surface. Lodge believes that the
glass emits X rays just as a red-hot surface emits
light, each point radiating them independently of
the others, and he showed that glass that became
“ fatigued ” in its power to emit luminous phospho-
rescence did not become fatigued in emission of X
rays, these remaining of the same power, while the
phosphorescent spot from which they proceeded grew
dimmer. Rowland (“ Electricity,’ April 22) be-
lieves that the spot from which the rays arise on
the glass is “an induced anode,” and that the neces-
sary condition for the production of X rays is the
bombardment of an anode by the cathode discharge.
Salvioni and others found that the phosphorescent
spot could be shifted by a conductor brought near
it outside. Roiti ( Atti dei Lincei,”’ July) finds
RONTGEN RAYS.
that cathode rays do not give rise to X rays when
they impinge on gases, Piltchikoff (* Comptes
Rendus,” Feb, 24) showed that a tube containing an
easily fluorescent substance emits a larger quantity
of X rays than the common tube. Edison showed
that the penetrating power of the rays is increased
by reduction of temperature. Tesla succeeded in
obtaining evidence of the rays at a distance of 60
feet from the source,
The question of reflection was taken up by sev-
eral experimenters, and it soon appeared that the
rays could be reflected, although very slightly.
Rood (“ Science,” March 27) concluded that the per-
centage of reflected rays was about 0°005. The re-
flection was generally thought to be irregular or dif-
fusive, but Mayer (¢bid., May 8) is of opinion that
there is a slight regular or specular reflection.
Tesla arranged a device by which sciagraphs were
taken with reflected as well as transmitted rays,
and the results were compared. This shows rough-
ly that the best reflectors of the rays are zine, lead,
tin, and mica, which reflect about 3 per cent. of the
incident rays.
From the fact that the rays discharge both
negatively and positively charged bodies, as stated
above, it was inferred by some that the conductiv-
ity of the bodies is increased by X rays. Tesla,
however (“ Electrical Review,” June 2d), believes
that he has proved the contrary. Murray (London
Royal Society, March 19) showed that the rays
lower the contact potential of metals.
From the first it was surmised that the rays
might have some peculiar effect on living bodies,
but none has been directly proved. Exposure to
the rays in certain instances has, it is true, resulted
in the loss of hair and in painful symptoms re-
sembling those of powerful sunburn, but it is be-
lieved by many that these are due not to the X
rays, but to ultra-violet light that accompanies
Fig. 4.—TYPICAL FOCUS TUBE.
them. Tesla reports an anesthetic effect, but it has
been noticed by no one else. Experiments to de-
termine their action on micro-organisms have been
conflicting. and in most cases negative.
No mechanical action of the rays similar to that
exerted by the cathode rays within the tube has
been noticed, although experimenters have looked
for it. Gossart (“Comptes Rendus,” Feb, 10)
thought that the radiations caused radiometer vanes
to cease their rotation, but the action was shown
later by Fontana (cbid., April 18) to be electro-
static. Porter (“ Nature,” June 18) found the radi-
ometer entirely inert to Réntgen rays.
Diligent search has also been made for X rays in
other radiations, but they have been obtained no-
where except from discharge tubes, reports to the
contrary being generally discredited by scientific
men. Special efforts have been made to discover
the rays in sunlight, but with negative results,
Applications and Apparatus.—Applications of
the Réntgen rays in science and the arts have so
far depended entirely on their property of passing
through objects that are opaque to ordinary light,
together with the fact that different substances in-
RONTGEN RAYS.
tercept them in different degrees and with their
roperty of affecting a photographic plate like
fight and of causing certain salts to fluoresce bril-
liantly. To obtain a permanent shadow picture by
their means the same method as that used by the
discoverer is still employed, although it has been
somewhat perfected. The object to be examined
is placed as close as possible to a sensitive plate,
covered to shut out
ordinary light, and
both are exposed to
a discharge tube.
The “focus tube”
used by Réntgen in -
his later experi-
ments, and also at
King’s _ College,
London, is shown
in the illustration
(Fig. 4). The ca-
thode (K) is con-
cave and the anode
(A) is formed of
platinum and is
lain. The anode
is inclined at such
an angle that the
X rays generated
on its surface by
impact of the ca-
thode rays are
thrown out through
the side walls of
. the bulb. The X rays emanate nearly from a
int and the shadow pictures are therefore clearer.
he apparatus employed by Shallenberger (“ Elec-
trical World,” March 7) is shown in another illus-
tration (Fig. 5). A later tube, first proposed by
Elihu Thomson, with double anode and two cath-
odes, is also shown (Fig. 6). Tesla also used a
tube with a single internal electrode. The tube
was of very thick glass except just opposite the
electrode, which was an aluminium disk having
nearly the diameter of the tube. An electric screen
was provided, consisting of bronze paint applied
to the glass between the electrode and the neck.
This form of tube produced the same effect on
a sensitive plate in about one quarter the time re-
quired by a spherical one. He also immersed
his tube in oil to overcome difficulties connected
with sparking and with breaking of the tube. To
excite his tube Réntgen and his immediate fol-
lowers used the induction coil. The Holtz and
Wimshurst machines were probably first used in-
dependently by Prof. Pupin and Dr. Morton, both
of New York (“ Electricity.” Feb. 19). In the
apparatus used by E. W. Rice (“Electrical En-
gineering,” April 22) the cathode is flat and the
source of the X rays is the opposite glass, in front
of which a pierced lead diaphragm is used as a
“stop.” Successful operators have employed ap-
paratus of the following description and dimen-
sions: Edison used the usual incandescent lamp
continuous current at 110 to 120 volts, and a coil
having an interrupter operated by an electric mo-
tor and making 400 interruptions a second. Pupin
(“ Science,” April 10) finds a powerful coil indis-
pensable, and regards the ordinary vibrating inter-
rupter as too slow. He uses a rotary one, operated
by an electric motor and giving 60 breaks a sec-
ond. Tesla (* Electrical Review,’ March 11 and
18, April 1 and 8) has obtained noteworthy re-
sults by using his well-known system for producing
high potential and frequency, the primary gen-
erator being either for direct or alternating cur-
rents. Shallenberger (“ Electrical World,” March
17) employed the Tesla system, the current being
693
taken from an alternator of a frequency of 133 per
second and passed through the primary coil of a
transformer for raising the voltage from 100 to -
16,000 or even 25,000. The secondary current was
then passed through condensers and a double cas-
cade of brass cylinders. Being thus changed into
an oscillatory high-frequency current, it was then
passed through a second coil, and thus a current of
Fic. 5.—SHALLENBERGER’S APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF RONTGEN RAYS.
250,000 volts was obtained, which was used to ener-
gize the discharged tubes. The time of exposure
is dependent upon the distance from the source.
Edison states that “roughly the duration of ex-
posure may be reckoned as proportional to the square
of the distance.” Frost (“Science,” March 27)
found that the most rapid plate for light did not
give the deepest image for X rays, and that the
mean rapid plate is preferable. Georges Meslins
(“Comptes Rendus,” March 23-30) reduced the
time of exposure by magnetically deflecting the
cathode rays, thus condensing the active fluores-
cent spot on the tube and increasing the intensity
of the rays. The time may be lessened by the use
of fluorescent salts on the sensitive film, which
Salvioni in Italy, Swinton in England, and Pupin
in this country were among the first to use. Swin-
Fic. 6.—X-RAY TUBE WITH TWO CATHODES AND DOUBLE ANODE,
ton was able in this way to obtain a sciagraph of
the bones in less than ten seconds, whereas without
the fluorescent material two minutes were required.
The salt used was calcic tungstate. Henry and
others preferred phosphor-sulphide of zine; others
used barium platinocyanide; and Gifford (* Na-
ture,” May 21), after a series of experiments with
694
various substances, concluded that
inocyanide was the best.
The first attempt to make the shadow picture visi-
ble by using a screen covered with fluorescent mate-
rial without impressing it permanently upon a sensi-
tive plate was that of Prof. Salvioni, of Perugia, Italy,
who was followed by others, notably by Edison in
the United States, who calls his device the fluoro-
scope. All the devices replace the photographic
plate by a screen covered with one of the fluorescent
substances mentioned above, and provided on the op-
posite side from the source of X rays with an arrange-
ment for keeping side light from the observer's eye.
When used on a large scale, however, the screen
has been placed in a darkened room so that this
lastrmay be dispensed with and the shadow picture
may be viewed by a large number of persons at
once, Arrangements of the kind were tried also
edgier’ about the same time as by Salvioni
by Prof. A. W. Wright, of Yale, Mr. E. P, Thomp-
son, of New York, and Prof. Magie, of Prince-
ton. By experiment substances were found that
respond so quickly to the radiation that shadow
pictures of moving objects can be seen, and the
effect is practically that of an actual shadow cast
by light that has the property of penetrating opaque
bodies, though in reality, of course, the light is
generated at the surface of the screen, which is a
source, not a reflector, of the visible radiation. In-
stead of causing the rays to impress the sensitive
plate directly, a combination of fluoroscope and
camera has also been used, probably first by Dr. I.
Mount Bleyer, of Naples, Italy (“ Electrical Engi-
neering,” July 1). In such an arrangement the
photograph is taken not by X rays, but by ordinary
light generated at the fluoroscope.
The shadow pictures, whether permanent or tem-
porary, have been used for a great variety of pur-
poses. They have largely served merely to gratify
curiosity, as by enabling coins to be seen within a
purse, etc., but they have also been put to a practi-
cal use, especially in the domain of surgery, in which
malformation of bones has been made visible and
foreign objects located in the flesh or viscera. To
mention a few examples: As early as March 28
a needle was located and removed from a girl’s
finger in Nottingham, England, when other means
of location had failed, and on April 4 Drs. Ren-
ton and Somerville, in London, discovered- with
the rays an unsuspected case of unreduced disloca-
tion of the phalanx. On March 21 bullets were
clearly located in the hands of two men by Prof. D.
C. Miller, of Cleveland, Ohio, who has also examined
many hands that had been injured in accidents, and
determined in each case the exact nature of the in-
juries. Dr. W. I. Morton, of New York, has dem-
onstrated the use of the rays in dental surgery,
showing with them “errant fangs,” making teeth
visible before their eruption, revealing exostosis,
necrosis, or tuberculosis, and showing clearly the
extent, area, and location of metallic fillings. The
rays have also been used to guide the operator in
removing foreign bodies from the throat, the posi-
tion of the body and of the forceps used to ex-
tract it being clearly visible, and the operator
hence enabled to grasp the body at once. The rays
also detect calcareous infiltrations in the arte-
ries, ete.
In demonstrative anatomy the position of the
bones is shown, and with the fluoroscope their
movements as well as the successive stages of ossi-
fication in a growing infant.
Elihu Thomson (* Electrical World,” Oct. 10) has
given considerable attention to taking stereoscopic
radiographs of the human bones, and is of opin-
ion that this method will prove of great value in
allowing the parts to be seen in their proper rela-
potassium plat-
RONTGEN RAYS.
tions. When viewed by means of a stereoscope,
the bones in such a picture stand out in high relief,
while appearing semitransparent.
Among other actual or proposed applications of the
rays are the detection of false from true gems (Fig.
11) and of adulterations generally, and their use for
illuminating purposes, the rays causing an extended
surface covered with a fluorescent salt to give light.
Experiments have also been, made with a view to
discovering whether the rays can be perceived by
the human eye, and it has been satisfactorily shown
that they do stimulate the retina in some cases, in-
cluding a few where the subject was unable to see
objects by ordinary light, owing to cataract or some
similar obstruction. These experiments were re-
garded by some as showing that blind persons might
some day be made to see by means of the rays, but
so far there have been no grounds for such an ex-
etation. The rays have also been utilized in
rance for the study of fossils, which, it has been
found, they assist by giving clear indications of in-
terior structure, thus enabling the paleontologistrto
tell at once, for instance, whether a given bone is
that of a bird, a reptile, or a mammal, and affording
him an opportunity of studying the cerebral cavity
of an intact skull.
It has been suggested also that the rays be used
to examine the contents of a suspicious package
which it is feared may contain an infernal machine,
and experiments with packages made up for the
purpose indicate that a machine of this Ki
be very casily detected.
Nomenclature.—A very large number of names
have been proposed for the rays, for the various
phenomena connected with them, and for the me-
chanical devices for producing and recording them.
Of these none are yet used exclusively, although
many have found no favor at all. The rays them-
selves are known indifferently as X rays or Réntgen
rays. If there is any distinction in use, the former
may be described as the popular, the latter as the
scientific name. The permanent pictures produced
by the rays on a sensitive plate have been most fre-
quently called sciagraphs or skiagraphs (Greek extn,
shadow), radiographs, and sometimes shadowgraphs,
and the fluorescent screen with its attachments for
direct observation has been called the fluoroscope,
the sciascope or skiascope, and the radioscope. All
of these names have been objected to, save perhaps
that of Réntgen rays. The use of the element skia
might refer to any shadow picture, that of radio
implies that the rays are typical of all radiation,
whereas they are only a special and almost abnor-
mal ease, and fluoroscope is more properly applied
to a device for detecting fluorescence.
Theory of the Rays.—Thus far the theories of
Réntgen rays have been of two types: first, that
which regards them as an undulatory phenomenon
of the ether, and, second, that which looks on them
as streams of particles or fluid. Of the first type
there are two divisions, one of which supposes the
rays to be simply ultra-violet light of wave length
far shorter than any that has been observed hither-
to, and that which supposes them to differ from
ordinary light in the direction of their vibration,
which, instead of being transverse to the ray, is lon-
gitudinal, as in the case of sound.
This last-named theory was from the first very
attractive to physicists. Unless the luminiferous
ether were differently constituted from any known
elastic body, a vibratory disturbance in it should
consist in part of longitudinal vibrations, and yet
no evidence of such vibrations had ever been ob-
tained. The theory that the rays were simply light
of very small wave length appealed to those who laid
special stress on the likenesses between the Réntgen
rays and ultra-violet light. The emanation the-
nd may
RONTGEN RAYS.
ory has been held by few, but it is maintained by
Nikola Tesla, who regards his own experiments as
upholding it. It can not be said that any one the-
ory is yet generally accepted by scientific men, but
ibly that which regards the waves as ultra-vio-
fet light comes nearest to general acceptance. The
objections to it are many, and depend chiefly on the
Bitterences of behavior between the Réntgen rays
and hitherto observed radiant energy, even that
which is invisible. The rays are reflected with dif-
ficulty, they are not refracted at all, and they can
not be polarized. It was for some time thought that
they could not be caused to interfere—the crucial
test of a vibratory phenomenon—but Calmette and
Huillier (* Electrical Engineering,” July 22) an-
nounce that they have obtained evidence of diffrac-
tion and interference. These results are confirmed
by those of Dr. Fomm, who has measured the wave
lengths of the rays by interference methods, and finds
it 0000014 millimetre, about y+; of the smallest wave
of ultra-violet light yet recorded. Rowland had
already announced his belief (* Electrical World,”
April 25) that it did not exceed 0-00007 millimetre,
and Sagnac had announced that it was not greater
than 0:0004. It is thought by many experimenters
that the rays are nonhomogeneous, and that they
area mixture of several different kinds of rays,
and this evidently complicates the matter, making
any attempt at measuring their wave length espe-
cially difficult.
Lodge (“ Electrician,” London, July 17) thinks
that the rays may be due to electrical vibration of
the atom, while ordinary light is due to its mechan-
ical vibrations. The absence of refraction may be
explained by supposing the wave length to be very
small compared to the molecular structure of the
transmitting substances. The absence of polariza-
tion points to transverse vibrations, but it is diffi-
cult to show why these should be limited to very
short waves. These difficulties have made some
take refuge with Mr. Tesla in a theory of emitted
particles “in some primary state” of matter, but
this has peculiar difficulties of its own, and the
question must still be regarded as unsettled.
It is believed by T. C. Porter (“ Nature”; see also
“Electrical World,” Dee. 5) that he has demon-
strated the lack of homogeneity of the rays by pro-
ducing three modifications of them, which he calls,
respectively, X;.X2,Xsrays. The first readily pene-
trate flesh, but bone is opaque to them; the second
penetrate wood, but not flesh; and the third pene-
trate bone and flesh with almost equal ease. These
three stages may be obtained by varying the fre-
quency of oscillation by inserting a variable resist-
ance in the discharge circuit. The Tesla coil, with
its very high frequency, thus furnishes rays with a
great penetrative power. C. L. Leonard (ibid.) has
obtained similar results, separating what he regards
as the true Réntgen rays from the outside cathode
rays discovered by Lenard—a separation that he
believes to be essential for obtaining the best X-ray
effects.
Light may be thrown on the subject by the dis-
covery of Becquerel and others (see Puysics, under
Taght) of phosphorescent radiations that are similar
to X rays in many respects, including their ability
to traverse some substances that are opaque to ordi-
nary light.
See “Réntgen Rays and Phenomena of the
Anode and Cathode,” by Edward P. Thompson
(New York, 1896); “Something about X Rays for
Everybody,” by E. Trevert (I:ynn, Mass., 1896);
“ What is Electricity ?” by John Trowbridge (New
York, 1896); and “The X Ray, or Photography of
the Invisible and its Value in Surgery,” by Dr.
1890). - Morton and E. W. Hammer (New York,
ROUMANIA. 695
ROUMANIA, a monarchy in eastern Europe.
The legislative power is vested in a Senate, contain-
ing 120 members, elected for eight years by prop--
erty-holders divided into two classes, and a Cham-
ber of Deputies, numbering 183 members, elected
for four years by the people, divided into three elec-
toral colleges. The reigning sovereign is Carol I, a
prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was elect-
ed Domn of Roumania on April 20, 1866, and pro-
claimed King on March 26,1881. The Cabinet in
the beginning of 1896 was made up as follows:
President of the Council and Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Demeter Sturdza; Minister of Justice, E.
Statesco; Minister of Instruction and Worship, P.
Poni; Minister of War, Gen. C. Budisteano; Min-
ister of Finance, G. C. Cantacuzeno; Minister of
Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, and Domains, G.
D. Pallade; Minister of Public Works, C. J. Stoi-
cesco.
Area and Population.—The area of the king-
dom is 48,307 square miles. The population is esti-
mated to be 5,038,342. The number of marriages
in 1895 was 43 237; of births, 238,920; of deaths,
156,791; excess of births, 82,129. The population
of Bucharest, the capital, in 1892 was 196,372.
Finances.—The revenue for the financial year
1895 was 196,620,405 lei, or francs, and the expen-
diture 209,985,905 lei. The budget for 1896-97
makes the revenue 209,928,000 lei, of which direct
taxes produce 32,710,000 lei, indirect taxes 50,350,-
000 lei, state monopolies 48,350,000 lei, domains
25,000,000 lei, public works 15,300,000 lei, and the
rest comes from the other departments and miscel-
laneous sources. The total expenditures are esti-
mated likewise at 209,928,000 lei, of which 74,477,-
137 lei are required for the public debt, 42,409,-
100 lei for the army, 26,522,111 lei for publie in-
struction, 24,493,049 lei for financial administra-
tion, 18,474,567 lei for the interior, 6,027,084 lei
for the domains, 5,630,376 lei for public works,
6,904,556 lei for justice, 1,621,741 lei for foreign
affairs, 66,500 lei for the Council of Ministers, and
1,301,725 lei as a fund for supplementary credits
and extraordinary expenses.
The public debt on April 1, 1896, amounted to
1,164,531,036 lei. The charge for 1897 is 68,926.922
lei. A new loan of 90,000,000 lei was raised in
Germany in April, 1896, on the same terms as the
4-per-cent. loan of 1894, for the construction of rail-
roads and other public works.
Commerce.—The importations in-1895 amounted
to 304,574,517 lei, and exportations to 265,048,-
411 lei. The exports of cereals were 194,900,000
lei; of fruits and vegetables, 34,500,000 lei; of ani-
mals and animal food products, 12.700,000 lei.
The commerce was divided between the different
foreign nations as follows:
COUNTRIES. Imports Exports
Great Britain... 3..--.<....- 58,984.000 75,363,000
Austria-Hungary. .......-- 86,298,000 42,066,000
oe De A 80,812,000 26,154,000
EROS ir Ue = ain Fs act ss = . 25,509,000 5,682,000
Turkey and Bulgaria ...... 14,671,000 14,168,000
oS See 2 an 9,505,000 9,245,000
Bele es. ois. cokes 14,720,000 75,579,000
Sinkyo tien. oe secs c=. 6,089,000 10,631,000
SROs cae ah ds sacs so. 1,846,000 507,000
Switzerland .......:.... --. 4,788,000 844,000
Other countries... -1 211... | 1,262,000 4,809,000
HO AUN ey eee : 304,574,000 265,048,000
During 1895 the number of vessels entered at the
Roumanian ports on the Danube was 32,421, of
8,917,219 tons, and the number cleared was 32,219,
of 8,978,219 tons. The merchant marine in 1896
comprised 28 steamers, of 1,054 tons, and 271 sail-
ing vessels, of 60,024 tons.
696 ROUMANIA.
Communications.—The railroads, all of which
are state property, had in 1896 « length of 1,830
miles, not including 164 under construction, besides
which surveys were made for 614 miles,
The telegraph lines of the state in 1895 had a
length of 4,242 miles, with 10,067 miles of wire.
There were sent during that year 1,710,524 inter-
nal, 485,124 foreign, 4,416 official, and 81,535 trans-
it messages; total, 2,281,599. The receipts were
8,081,224 lei. The expenses of the telegraph and
postal services together were 8,090,383 lei. The
receipts from the post office were 5,544,903 lei.
The number of letters carried was 12,169,815; of
ostal cards, 7,744,215; of newspapers and circu-
ars, 23,438,805.
European Commission of the Danube.—
Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Italy, Roumania, Russia, and Turkey are repre-
sented on an International Commission exercising
police and other sovereign rights on the Danube
river below Braila and authorized to collect tolls
from vessels to meet its expenses. It was created
by the Treaty of Paris, signed March 30, 1856, and
endowed with fuller powers by the Treaty of Berlin
in 1878. The receipts in 1895 amounted to 3,083,-
121 francs, and expenses to 2,271,578 frances. The
reserve funds at the close of that year amounted to
2,448,389 francs. The number of vessels that en-
tered the Sulina mouth during 1895 was 1,619, of
1,554,698 tons, including 1,152 steamers, of 1,460,983
tons, and 467 sailing vessels, of 93,715 tons. Of the
total number, 604, of 906,043 tons, were English
vessels ; 280, of 258,693 tons, were Greek : 377, of 93,-
885 tons, were Turkish ; 83, of 91,009 tons, were Aus-
trian ; 55, of 56,146 tons, were Italian; 121, of 51,933
tons, were Russian ; 26, of 30,561 tons, were French;
22, of 26,820 tons, were German; 14, of 16,376 tons,
were Norwegian; 26, of 8,005 tons, were Roumanian ;
3, of 6,041 tons, were Belgian; 3, of 4,704 tons, were
Spanish; and 5, of 4,982 tons, were of other na-
tionalities. The export of wheat in 1895 was 5,686,-
000 quarters; of rye, 1,388,000 quarters; of maize,
1,613,000 quarters; of barley, 1,529,000 quarters.
The international character of the Danube was
first recognized by Austria and Bavaria in 1852,
and afterward by Wiirtemberg, and confirmed by
the Treaty of Paris. The Berlin Treaty extended
the jurisdiction of the International Commission as
far as Galatz. By the decision of a conference held
in London in 1871 the execution of projected works
for the removal of obstructions at the Iron Gates
was intrusted to Austria-Hungary. The powers of
the European commission were further extended
and confirmed by a subsequent act signed in May,
1881, which prolonged its rights till 1904. The
Iron Gates were opened on Sept. 27, 1896, render-
ing the whole river navigable for vessels of 2,000
tons burden up to the town of Passau, on the Aus-
tro-Hungarian frontier.
Political Affairs.—In April the Senate passed
a bill suppressing two judgeships of the Court of
Cassation, an act that the Opposition regarded as
an infringement of the Constitution. Strong feel-
ings were evoked by the deposition on June 1 of
the Roumanian Metropolitan by the Holy Synod,
and his condemnation was ascribed to political
pressure. Diplomatic relations with Greece, broken
off in 1892 because the Roumanian Government
raised a claim to a legacy of 5,000,000 lei that the
merchant Zappa bequeathed to the Greek nation,
were resumed in July, 1896, the Roumanian courts
having disallowed the claims of both governments
and recognized the rights of Zappa’s next of kin to
the inheritance. The Roumanian Chamber met on
Nov. 27. On Dec. 3 a new Cabinet was constituted
as follows: Premier and Minister of Lands, M.
Aurelian; Minister of the Interior, M. Lascar;
RUSSIA.
Minister of Justice, M. Pheudre; Minister of Pub-
lie works, M. Porumbaro; Minister of Publie In-
struction and Worship, M. Mazereco; Minister of
Finance, M. Cantacuzene; Minister of Foreign
Affairs, M. Stoicesco. The ministerial crisis was
brought about by popular dissatisfaction aroused
by the manner in which the Government had dealt
with Mgr. Gennadius, the metropolitan primate,
who, after his condemnation by the Holy Synod on
charges of grave infraction of the prescriptions of
the Orthodox Church and of financial irregularities,
was confined in a monastery. The people believed
the charges to be fictitious or exaggerated. The
Cabinet was forced to retire by popular indigna-
tion, but the change involved no change of policy
or system, for the new ministers belonged to the
same party as M. Sturdza and his colleagues. In
accordance with an agreement concluded between
the leaders of the Liberal and Conservative parties,
the Holy Synod, on Dec. 17, annulled the sentence
passed upon Mgr. Gennadius, who thereupon re-
signed his office, according to the arrangement.
RUSSIA, an empire in northern Europe and
Asia. The throne is hereditary in the order of
primogeniture in the dynasty of Romanoff-Holstein-
Gottorp. The Emperor, otherwise called the Czar,
is assisted by a Cabinet of ministers, each having
charge of an executive department ; by a Council of
State that examines and passes upon projects of law
submitted by the ministers; by a Ruling Senate
that watches over the general administration and
superintends the judiciary ; and by a Holy Synod
that directs religious affairs. The Czar is the head
of the Russian national Church, which follows the
Orthodox Greek Catholic rite and maintains the
relations of a sister Church with the Patriarchates
of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexan-
dria. The Government of Russia is an absolute
monarchy, in which the legislative, judicial, and
executive Sabb are united in the Emperor, The
reigning Emperor of All the Russias is Nicholas II,
born May 18, 1868, who succeeded his father, Alex-
ander III,on Nov. 1, 1894. The Committee of Min-
isters in the beginning of 1896 was as follows:
Minister of the Imperial House and of the Imperial
Domains, Count
Foreign Affairs, Prince Lobanoff-Rostovsky ; Min-
ister of War,
Marine, Admiral Tchikhatcheff; Minister of the In-
terior, J. L. Goremykin; Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, Count J. D. Delianoff; Minister of Finance,
S. J. Witte; Minister of Justice, N. V. Muravieff;
Minister of Agriculture and State Domain, A. 8.
Yermoloff; Minister of Public Works and Rail-
roads, Prince Hilkoff; Minister and Secretary of
State for Finland,'Gen. von Daehn; Controller
General, T. J. Filipoff; Procurator General of the
Holy Synod, K. P. Pobedonostseff. After the death
of Prince Lobanoff Secretary N. J. Stoyanovsky
acted as Minister of Foreign Affairs until Count
Muravieff was appointed in January, 1897.
Area and Population.—The area of European
Russia is 1,902,092 square miles, and the population
was estimated at 91,212,888 in the beginning of
1893; Poland, with an area of 49,157 square miles,
had 8,982,253 inhabitants; the Grand Duchy of
Finland, area 144,255 square miles, had 2,431,953 ;
Northern Caucasia, comprising the provinces of
Kuban, Stavropol, and Terek, with an area of 89,497
square miles, had 3,081,762; Transcaucasia, area
91,346 square miles, had 5,074,614; the Caucasus,
area 180,843 square miles, had 8,156,376; the Kirghiz
Steppe, comprising Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tur-
gai, and Uralsk, area 755,793 square miles, had
2,059,535; Russian Turkestan, comprising Samar-
eand, Ferganah, Semirechensk, and Syr Daria, area
409,414 square miles, had 3,777,866; the Transcas-
orontzoft-Dashkoff; Minister of .
Gen. P. S. Vannovsky; Minister of -
q
RUSSIA.
ian territory, area 214,237 square miles, had 337,-
29, making the total population of the central
Asian dominions, with an area of 1,548,825 square
miles, including 169,381 covered by the Caspian
Sea, 6,175,030; Western Siberia, comprising the
provinces of Tomsk and Tobolsk, area 870,818
square miles, had 2,884,456; Eastern Siberia, com-
prising Irkutsk, Transbaikalia, Yakutsk, and Yene-
seisk, area 3,044,512 square miles, had 1,832,707;
the Amur province and Primorskaya, area 888,830
square miles, had 209,528; Saghalien, area 29,336
square miles, had 26,590, making the total for Si-
beria 4,903,281 on an area of 4,833,496 square miles
and the total for Russia in Asia, with an area of
6,564,778 square miles, 19,234,687; total population
of the Russian Empire, with an area of 8,660,282
square miles, 121,861,781.
There were 4,365,542 births and 3,825,281 deaths
in European Russia and Poland during 1892, show-
ing an excess of 540,261 births; 78,537 births and
59,590 deaths in Finland, excess of births 18,947;
307,007 births and 309,999 deaths in the Caucasus,
showing an excess of 2,992 deaths; 225,852 births
and 209,128 deaths in Siberia, excess of births 16,-
724; and 77,985 births and 59,493 deaths in central
Asia, an excess of 18,492 births. For the whole
empire the births numbered 5,054,932 and the
deaths 4,463,491, giving an excess of 591,432 births.
The population of the largest cities in 1893 was:
St. Petersburg, 1,035,939 ; Moscow, 826,444: War-
saw, 490,417; Odessa, 328,014; Kharkof, 197,210;
Kieff, 187,245; Riga, 183,071.
Finances.—The budget estimate of ordinary re-
ceipts for 1896 was 1,239,471.695 rubles, and of the
total receipts, inclusive of 2,200,000 rubles from
extraordinary sources and 119,876,299 rubles from
the loan of 1891, was 1,361,547,994 rubles. (The
exchange value of the ruble on April 1, 1896, was
364 cents.) Of the ordinary receipts, 48,023,965
rubles came from land and personal taxes, 43,352,-
800 rubles from trade licenses, and 13,159,000 rubles
from a tax of 5 per cent. on incomes from capital,
making the total receipts from direct taxation 104,-
535,765 rubles; 153,876,000 rubles came from cus-
toms, 284,252,000 rubles from the tax on drink, 32,-
461,000 rubles from the tobacco tax, 19,059,800 rubles
from naphtha oils, 42,295,000 rubles from beet-root
sugar, 7,518,000 rubles from matches, 28,919,232
rubles from stamps, 15,411,000 rubles from registra-
tion, 3,500,000 rubles from passports, 8,000,000 ru-
bles from the tax on railroad and express passen-
gers, 2,250,000 rubles from a tax on fire insurance,
and 7,194,690 rubles from various duties, making the
total receipts from indirect taxation 604,736,722
rubles; 3,828,761 rubles came from the mines, 953,-
750 rubles from the mint, 25,546,700 rubles from the
post office, and 14,450,000 rubles from the telegraphs,
making the total from state monopolies 44,779,211
rubles; the receipts from rent of domains were 14,-
073,131 rubles, from sales of domain lands $21,704
rubles, from the produce of state movable property
8,021.408 rubles, from forests 27,570,539 rubles, from
mines, factories, technical institutions, and stores of
the state 41,703,108 rubles, from state railroads 232,-
828,461 rubles, and from the Government share in
private railroads 1,631,000 rubles, making the total
from state domains and property 326,149,351 rubles;
the payments for the redemption of land by peasants
amounted to 89,000,000 rubles, and various receipts
to 70,270,646 rubles, including 27,984,791 rubles
from the recovery of loans, 14,822,014 rubles repaid
by railroad companies, 17,951,527 rubles of interest
on various funds, and 3,137,943 rubles of war in-
demnity. Of the total expenditures, amounting to
1,361,547,994 rubles, 1,231,088,414 rubles were ordi-
nary disbursements and 130,459,580 rubles extraor-
dinary outlay for the construction of railroads. Of
697
the ordinary expenditures, 269,228,063 rubles were
for the debt, 2,434,087 rubles for the superior Gov-
ernment bodies, 17,487,903 rubles for the Holy Synod,
12,964,653 rubles for the Ministry of theCzar’s House-
hold, 4,693,280 rubles for the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 288,521,969 rubles for the Ministry of War,
57,966,000 rubles for the Ministry of Marine, 186,-
811,134 rubles for the Ministry of Finance, 32,180,-
197 rubles for the Ministry of Domains, 90,024,643
rubles for the Ministry of the Interior, 24,863,061
rubles for the Ministry of Public Instruction, 196,-
411,583 rubles for the Ministry of Roads and Com-
munications, 28,009,858 rubles for the Ministry of
Justice, 5,956,395 rubles for the Controller General’s
office, 1,535,588 rubles for the imperial stud, and
12,000,000 rubles for unforeseen expenses.
The public debt on Jan. 1, 1896, amounted to
2,038,284,210 rubles of gold obligations (1 gold ruble
= 772 cents) and 2,820,069,317 rubles payable in
currency, making the total, reduced to credit rubles,
6,081,324,053 rubles. A new 3-per-cent. gold loan
of 100,000,000 rubles was taken by German and
French bankers in July, 1896, at 898. In July the
Government established a spirit monopoly for south
Russia, taking over the sale of all liquors, partly with
a fiscal object and partly in the interest of public
health and morals.
The Army.—Military service is obligatory, be-
ginning at the age of twenty-one and lasting in
European Russia five years in the active army. in
Russian Turkestan and the Amur and Pacific coast
regions seven years, and in the Kouban and Terek
provinces and the Transcaspian territory three
years. The men who are not recruited in the perma-
nent army and those who have served their time in
the army and reserve make up the first ban of the
territorial army. The field army on the war footing
numbers 18,367 infantry officers and 1,053,349 men,
3,476 cavalry officers and 102,153 men, 2,608 artil-
lery officers and 89,726 men, and 828 engineer
officers and: 39,850 men; total, 25,279 officers and
1,284,578 men. The reserve troops number 11,200
infantry officers and 673.480 men, 2,250 cavalry
officers and 85,224 men, 810 artillery officers and
24,348 men, and 187 engineer officers and 8,970
men ; total, 14,447 officers and 792,022 men. The
fortress troops number 2,460 infantry officers and
167,348 men, 1,334 artillery officers and 77,554 men,
and 260 engineer officers and 8,544 men; total,
4,054 officers and 253,446 men. The troops of re-
placement number 3,896 infantry officers,and 228,082
men, 794 cavalry officers and 38,920 men, 542 artil-
lery officers and 29,414 men, and 112 engineer
officers and 6,174 men; total, 5,344 officers and
302,590 men. - The troops of national defense num-
ber 9,184 infantry officers and 627,792 men, 330
cavalry officers and 12,400 men, 420 artillery officers
and 27,000 men, and 100 engineer officers and 4,740
men ; total, 10,034 officers and 671,932 men. The
frontier guards number 884 officers and 30,000
men. The army of Finland numbers 236 officers
and 6,020 men on the peace footing. The army
stationed in the far East, which was raised in 1895
to upward of 90,000 men, was further re-enforced
in the spring of 1896 by the transport of troops
from Russia to Vladivostok.
The Navy.—The Baltic fleet in 1896 comprised
9 armored battle ships, 3 modern armored coast
guards, 4 of older construction, 3 ironclad floating
batteries, 12 monitors, 1% cruisers of the first class,
10 of the second class, 5 torpedo cruisers, 4 armored
gunboats, 10 coast-defense gunboats, 3 school ships,
6 steam yachts, 30 first-class torpedo boats, 82 tor-
pedo boats of the second class, and 7 transports;
total, 202 vessels, of 288,272 tons displacement and
330,874 indicated horse power, carrying 1,571 guns
and 317 torpedo-launching tubes.
698
The fleet in the North Sea numbered 7 armor-clad
battle ships, 3 circular monitors, 1 cruiser, 6 gun-
boats, 3 torpedo cruisers, 20 first-class and 8 second-
class torpedo boats, 3 school ships, 3 unarmored
steamers and 8 transports; total, 61 vessels, of 118,-
351 tons displacement and 138,426 indicated horse
power, carrying 480 guns and 118 torpedo tubes.
The Siberian flotilla consisted of 1 first-class
cruiser, 4 gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers, 7 first-class
and 8 second-class torpedo boats, 2 steamers, and 4
transports; total, 28 vessels, of 13,044 tons dis-
placement and 29,555 indicated horse power, carry-
ing an aggregate armament of 129 guns and 380
torpedo tubes.
he naval force on the Caspian Sea consisted of
2 gunboats and 5 steamers, carrying 20 guns in all.
The personnel of the navy in 1896 comprised 1,250
navy officers, 100 naval architects, 298 mechani-
cians, 230 surgeons, 45 officers of maritime engineers,
422 officers and 560 employees in the central admin-
istration, and 34,500 under officers and sailors.
The Czar has approved estimates prepared by the
Minister of Marine for seven years in advance.
The total sum to be expended up to 1902 is 403,-
000,000 rubles, beginning with 57,500,000 for 1896,
and increasing by 500,000 rubles annually till in
1902 it reaches 60,500,000 rubles. These annual sums
are to be expended largely in the construction of
new vessels, and will depend upon the development
of the war fleets of foreign countries. - The Russian
war ships in foreign waters in 1896 were divided
into two squadrons, a Pacific and a Mediterranean
squadron. In the Pacific were stationed 1 ar-
mored battle ship, 6 first-class and 2 second-class
cruisers, 2 torpedo cruisers, and 5 first-class gun-
boats: in the Mediterranean, 1 armored battle
ship, and 2 first-class gunboats. The new war ships
“ Russia” and “ Apraxin” were launched on May
12, 1896, on the Neva. The cruiser “ Russia” is
the largest ship in the navy and more powerful
than the “ Rurik,” having a displacement of 12,195
tons, with engines of 17,000 horse power, expected
to give a speed of 19 knots, The armor plates
and belt are Harveyized steel made in Pittsburg,
Pa. The armament will consist of 8-inch, 6-inch,
75-millimetre, 47-millimetre, and 37-millimetre
guns, besides torpedo apparatus. This vessel will
be followed by one of 14,000 tons that is intended
to be the most powerful cruiser in the world. The
“ Apraxin” has a displacement of 4,126 tons, with
armor plates 10 inches thick, and will carry an
armament of 4 9-inch guns in revolving turrets
and 22 rapid-fire guns, besides torpedoes, for which
there are 4 dischargers.
Commerce.—The total value of the imports of
merchandise in 1894 was 559,500,000 rubles, against
463,500,000 rubles in 1893 and 403,900,000 rubles in
1892; the total value of the exports was 684,500,-
000 rubles, against 613,700,000 rubles in 1893 and
489,400,000 rubles in 1892. Of the imports in 1894
COUNTRIES. Imports Exports.
GQerManyss s<.os.0a7, sadeaaves 142,976,000 147,867,000
Great Britain... ......::..0.. 132,759,000 175,294,000
PTANCE 0c cee epee ence wea 28,124,000 56,161,000
Austria-Hungary .......... 27,043,000 39,801,000
Belgium 3 is isc seaee as ee 17,017,000 26,763,000
Netherlands..... ......... 5,935,000 53,011,000
Pur key s.r e de caesey een 7,186,000 16,089,000
Rtaly: . 5 'sc..ss bagi ee 14,490.000 26,906,000
Sweden and Norway....... 8,819,000 8,924,000
Denmark... 2c... cuedeneueont 1,603,000 12,347,000
aSTOGCe’. =...) Faeeveeseeeee 2,411,000 4,687,000
PLOUIMATIA .<.2.\.. 0 chow scene 1,934,000 7,727,000
United States .............. 45,709,000 1,673,000
BRON 6524 sss” Geach cokes 38,504,000 4,488,000
SA ER ye ot 11,272,000 12,088,000
Other countries............ 73,790,000 90,649,000
TROURE ow .clecick sees ie oeatate 559,572,000 684,475,000
RUSSIA.
and of the exports 488,400,000 and 596,100,000
rubles respectively passed the European frontiers,
18,900,000 and 15,800,000 rubles represented the
trade with Finland, and 52,200,000 and 73,100,000
rubles the dealings by way of the Asiatic frontiers,
The trade with the different foreign countries in
1894, exclusive of the movement of precious metals,
was, in rubles, as in the preceding table:
The imports of Russia in Europe in 1895, com-
prising all that passed the European frontiers, in-
cluding those of Finland and the Caucasus and
Black Sea, amounted to 489,401,000 rubles, of
which 67,652,000 rubles represent articles of ali-
mentation, 2,883,000 rubles live animals, 282,373,000
rubles raw.or partly manufactured materials, and
136,493,000 rubles manufactured articles; the ex-
ports amounted to 691,030,000 rubles, of which
385,647,000 rubles represent alimentary products,
15,138,000 rubles live animals, 260,044,000 rubles
raw and partly manufactured materials, and 30,-
201,000 rubles manufactured products. The prin-
cipal articles of importation were: Cotton, 59,439,-
000 rubles; machinery and agricultural implements,
58,632,000 rubles; iron, 38,422,000 rubles; wool, 31,-
825,000 rubles; tea, 19,163,000 rubles; colors, 16,-
133,000 rubles; coal, 15,553,000 rubles; chemicals
and drugs, 12,480,000 rubles; fish, 12,177,000
rubles; iron manufactures, 10,908,000 rubles ;
skins, 10,005,000 rubles; fruits, 9,069,000 rubles;
wine, 7,027,000 rubles; oils, 6,909,000 rubles; writ-
ing materials, 6,804,000 rubles; raw silk, 6,804,000
rubles; aluminium bronze, 6,275,000 rubles; watches,
5,710,000 rubles; coffee, 5,604,000 rubles; sheet
metal, 5,484,000 rubles; indigo, 5,110,000 rubles;
woolens, 4,625,000 rubles; lead, 4,551,000 rubles.
The principal exports from European Russia to
Europe in 1895 were: Cereals, 323,177,000 rubles;
flax, 72,364,000 rubles; seeds, 41,627,000 rubles;
timber, 37,660,000 rubles: petroleum, 26,740,000
rubles; eggs, 19,775,000 rubles; hemp, 19,212,000
rubles; animals, 15,138,000 rubles; sugar, 11,850,-
000 rubles; legumes, 11,172,000 rubles; skins,
8,295,000 rubles; hair and bristles, 8,132,000 rubles.
The goods imported into Russia from European
countries in 1894 exceeded by 92,000,000 rubles the
similar imports of 1893, and of this increase 45 per
cent. was due to the extension of German trade,
which now has the leading position formerly occu-
pied by British imports. The imports into Ger-
many from Russia increased at the same time 11
per cent. The exports of breadstuffs from Euro-
pean Russia in 1895 were less in quantity than in
the previous year, 184,000,000 hundredweight
against 205,000,000 hundredweight, due to a decline
in the exports of barley, oats, and corn.
The total trade in 1895 was less in value than
that of 1894, but the decrease is due to the cessation
of the heavy importations by the Government in
1894 of gold and silver bullion. The merchandise
trade exceeded that of the former year. The satis-
factory results are attributed in great measure to
the fixity of the value of the ruble, which the Min-
ister of Finance has maintained at considerable
cost to the country at large.
Navigation.—There were 282 Russian vessels,
of 31,000 tons, and 401 foreign vessels, of 234,000
tons, entered in the ports of the White Sea in 1894;
734 Russian vessels, of 255,000 tons, and 4,844 for-
eign vessels, of 3,088,000 tons, entered at Baltic
ports; and 410 Russian vessels, of 405,000 tons, and
5,361 foreign vessels, of 5,830,000 tons, entered in
the ports of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof;
total in all the ports, 12,032 vessels, of 9,848,000
tons. The total clearances were 11,926, of 9,789,000
tons. The merchant marine in 1895 comprised 322
steamers, of 153,923 tons, and 1,733 sailing vessels,
of 359,740 tons,
RUSSIA.
Railroads.—During 1894 and 1895 the Russian
Government acquired the principal railroads from
the companies. There were in operation on Sept.
1, 1895, in Russia, Siberia, and Caucasia 13,506
miles of state railroads and 7,427 miles of private
lines; in Finland, 1,397 miles; in the Transcas-
pian territory and Turkestan, 890 miles; making a
total of 23,220 miles. There were under construc-
tion 7,844 miles in Russia, Siberia, and the Caucasus,
166 miles in Finland, and 96 in Turkestan; total,
8,106 miles. The Trans-Siberian railway is expected
to be completed before 1905, a length of 4,950 miles,
costing 150,000,000 rubles. Thesection of 493 miles
from Chelyabinsk to Omsk was completed before the
end of 1895, the section of 384 miles from Omsk to
the Ob river was nearly ready, on the section of 476
miles from the Ob to Krasnoyarsk the rails were
down, and work was proceeding on the next section
of 672 miles to Irkutsk and the one from Mysovaya
to the head of navigation on the Amur river, which
was 701 miles. The section from Vladivostok, the
terminus on the Pacific coast, to Grafskaya, on the
Usuri, 250 miles, was also nearly completed, and the
next one of 225 miles to Khalarovsk, on the Amur,
was partly built. The parts completed hada length
of 1,086 miles. There were 24,080 miles altogether
in operation in the empire on Jan. 1, 1896. During
1896 there were 918 miles of rail laid on the Trans-
Siberian Railroad, making a total length of 1,728
miles completed by Dec. 31, 1896, including the
branch of 150 miles from Chelyabinsk to Ekate-
rinburg. The section between the Ob and the Yen-
isei was in operation and more than one third of
the total distance of 4,547 miles from Chelyabinsk
to Vladivostok was laid down, more than half the
distance in direct Trans-Siberian communication,
and direct communication was established by the
completion of the Ekaterinburg branch between St.
-Petersburg and the Yenisei.
A line 619 miles long is projected to be built from
Perm to Kotlas, on the Dvina, at a cost of 35,000,000
rubles, A new railroad in Caucasia will connect Kars
with Tiflis, a distance of 188 miles. In central
Asia a line will run from Samarcand to Andijan, in
Ferganah, 342 miles, including a branch to Tash-
kend, the estimated cost being 27,000,000 rubles.
Posts and Telegraphs.—The postal traffic in
1894 was 207,441,000 internal and 26,977,000 foreign
letters, 36,629,000 internal and 5,053,000 foreign
postal cards, 52,026,000 internal and 19,300,000
newspapers and pamphlets, and 15,785,000 internal
money letters and 544 foreign ones, transmitting
20,273,179,000 and 481,497,000 frances. The receipts
of the post office were 151,490,312 frances. The ex-
penses of the postal and telegraph services were
110,123,836 francs.
The state telegraphs in 1894 had a total length of
76,623 miles, with 152,540 miles of wire. The length
of the Anglo-Indian line in Russian territory is
2,256 miles, with 5,829 miles of wire. There were
385 miles of private telegraphs, with 470 miles of
wire. The number of internal dispatches sent in
1894 was 11,132,794; the number of foreign dis-
patches received 908,505, and sent 931,234; of trans-
it dispatches, 173.278; of official dispatches, 825,-
746 ; total, 13,971,647; receipts, 50,524,572 francs.
Currency.—The legal monetary unit is the silver
ruble, containing in the new coinage 19-9957
grammes of silver 0-900 fine, or 17°994 grammes of
fine silver. The money in circulation has been
paper for a long period. The value of the paper
ruble fluctuated formerly, not only in relation to
gold, but in relation to the silver ruble. In 1890
the rate adopted in the budget was 1°60 of paper to
1 silver ruble. By placing in circulation new silver
currency, coined in France, withdrawing a large
part of the paper notes issued by the Bank of Rus-
699
sia on account of the Government, requiring the
bank to strengthen its coin reserve for the protec-
tion of its own notes, and accumulating an immense’
gold reserve, the Government has succeeded in rais-
ing the exchange value of the paper ruble, making
it identical with the silver ruble, and in raising that
of the silver ruble also in the foreign exchange mar-
kets. There were 1,046,281,684 paper rubles in cir-
culation in December, 1895, covered by a metallic
reserve of 375,000,000 gold rubles, besides 75,000,000
rubles of temporary emissions that were fully cov-
ered. The gold coins of Russia are the imperial
and half imperial, the latter containing 5-9987
grammes of fine gold. The imperial, or 10-ruble
piece, of the new coinage, contains 11°6118 grammes
of fine gold. The Ministry of Finance fixed the
value of the gold imperial for 1896 at 15 paper ru-
bles, thus establishing a ratio of 1°50 to 1 between
the gold ruble and the paper and silver rubles.
The gold ruble is worth 772 cents. The bullion
value of the silver ruble on Oct. 1, 1896, was 39-2
cents. In 1891 the silver ruble was taken by the
Government at 60 per cent. premium above the
ajar ruble, but since 1894 they have stood at par.
he addition of 75,000,000 gold rubles to the ex-
change fund in March, 1896, brought the metallic
reserve up to 500,000,000 gold rubles. The debt
contracted by the Government through the issue of
eredit rubles amounted at that date to one third of
the entire paper circulation. A further redemption
of credit rubles was proposed, and a complete re-
form of the currency was contemplated. M. Witte’s
plan was to issue a new gold currency, in which
the coins would correspond to the silver and paper
ruble in value. The new pieces would thus contain
two thirds as much gold as the existing gold coins
of the same denominations, which until their with-
drawal and recoinage would still continue to circu-
late at the fixed legal premium of 50 per cent.
Having begun by the compulsory circulation of the
silver ruble at a par with its paper equivalent and
of the old gold pieces of 5 and 10 rubles at a pre-
mium fixed by him for twelve months in advance,
the minister expected to complete the restoration
of a metallic currency by coining and issuing the
gold fund accumulated in the Imperial Bank, which
was large enough to give 750,000,000 rubles of the
proposed new gold coins, with which 1,000,000,000
rubles of paper could be kept in concurrent circu-
lation. The credit rubles of the Government would
all be called in and the Bank of Russia would be
compelled to hold a metallic reserve to cover 50 per
cent. of its emissions up to 1,000,000,000 rubles and
to cover fully all issues over and above that amount.
M. Witte compelled the bankers to accept gold cer-
tificates by threats of retaliation through the state
bank. The new silver currency was greatly aug-
mented in 1896 and a new copper coinage was struck
at the mint in Birmingham. All Russian officials
were paid partly in gold and partly in silver, and
the public, which in some remote districts refused
to take the new currency, was compelled to accept
the metal.
Coronation of the Emperor.—The Emperor
Nicholas Il and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna,
who was Princess Alix of Hesse, went through the
ceremony of coronation in the Grand Kremlin at
Moscow on May 26, 1896. The ceremonial and the
accompanying festivities, which lasted nearly three
weeks, were of unexampled splendor. Besides rep-
resentatives of all the reigning houses of Europe,
the chief dignitaries of the Russian Empire were
present and several of the potentates of Asia who
acknowledged the sovereignty of the Czar. The
Czar made his formal entry into the ancient. capital
of the empire from the adjacent Petrofsky palace
on May 21, on May 26 he placed upon his head the
700 SALVADOR.
imperial crown and was anointed with the holy oil,
att on May 30 took place the great popular cele-
bration, when the dwellers in Moscow and in the
surrounding country, many of whom came hundreds
of miles on foot, were feasted on the Khodinsky
plain, and each one received as a memento an in-
scribed and decorated mug. This feature of the
rolonged pageant was marred by a terrible disaster.
The barriers that were placed to regulate the flow
of the crowds that had begun to assemble upon the
spot the day before proved to be too weak. The
people pressed forward until the barriers gave way,
and the throng could no longer be checked. The
result was that above 2,000 persons were crushed to
death and a great number seriously injured. The
disaster caused general sorrow in Moscow and
throughout Russia. The Czar issued a proclama-
tion on the day of the coronation remitting all ar-
rears of taxation in European Russia and Poland ;
remitting or reducing all fines; lowering the land
tax one half forthe period of ten years; canceling
sentences for crimes, except robbery, embezzlement,
misappropriation, usury, extortion, fraudulent bank-
ruptey, and offenses against honor; directing that
all exiles to Siberia and Saghalien shall, after serv-
SALVADOR, a republic in Central America.
The legislative body is a single Chamber of 42
members, elected for each annual session by direct
universal male suffrage. The President, who is
elected by the vote of the nation for four years, is
Gen. Rafael Antonio Gutierrez, inaugurated on
March 1, 1895. The Vice-President is Dr. Pruden-
cio Alfaro, who is also Minister of the Interior.
Dr. Jacinto Castellanos is Minister of Foreign Af-
fairs, Dr. Cornelio Lemus Minister of Finance and
Public Works, and Estanislao Perez Minister of
War and Marine. |
The area of Salvador is 8,100 square miles. The
population was 803,354 at the end of 1894. The
revenue is derived mainly from customs and excise
duties. Nearly half the revenue is required for
financial administration and the debt, which
amounts to over $13,500,000, and more than a third
for the army, numbering 4,000 men. A railroad con-
nects the port of Acajutla with Santa Anna, and
one runs between San Tecla and Ateos, the total
length being 62 miles. Others are being built.
Political Affairs.—The diet of the new confed-
eration called the Greater Republic of Central
America was installed in San Salvador on Sept. 15,
1896. Though outwardly quiet, Salvador was dis-
turbed throughout the year by fears of new at-
tempts of the Ezetas to overthrow the Government
of President Gutierrez, possibly with the aid of
President Barrios of Guatemala, who was jealous of
the newly constituted Greater Republic of Central
America, which was an obstacle to the assertion by
Guatemala of predominance over the lesser Central
American states. There was a revolutionary out-
break at Santa Anna in November, which was sup-
pressed without serious consequences, the plans of
the conspirators having been discovered and their
purposes foiled by the watchfulness of the Govern-
ment.
SANTO DOMINGO, a republic in the West In-
dies, occupying the eastern part of the island of
Hayti. The Congress is a single Chamber of 24
members elected by indirect suffrage for four years.
The President is Gen. Ulisses Heureaux, first elect-
ed in 1885 and re-elected for the second time on
SANTO DOMINGO.
ing ten or twelve years of their sentences, have the
privilege of selecting their place of residence, and
remitting one third of the sentences of criminals
imprisoned in Siberia; authorizing the Minister of
the Interior, in conjunction with the Minister of
Justice, to grant further remissions and to restore
their civil rights to political offenders; and grant-
ing full amnesty to refugees who took part in the
Polish rebellion, with exemption from police super-
vision, as well as immunity to other political offend-
ers whose offenses are more than fifteen years old.
From Moscow the Czar and his court proceeded to
Nijni Novgorod, where, on June 9,an Exhibition of
All the Russias was opened. This great. Pan-Rus-
sian exhibition of industry and art was directed to
be held at this time by the Emperor Alexander III,
on July 4, 1893, and the work of organization was
intrusted to M. Witte, the Minister of Finance, who
made it his aim to collect such objects as would best
show to Russia and to the world at large the moral
and economic growth of the country and the strides
that had been made since the last exhibition at Mos-
cow in nearly all branches of trade and industry,
in engineering and mechanics, in national sanita-
tion and education, and in art and taste.
S
Feb. 27, 1893. The Vice-President is Gen. Wen-
ceslao Figuereo, The area of the republic is esti-
mated at 18,045 square miles, and the population
has been officially estimated at 610,000. The peo-
ple are a mixed race of Spanish, Indian, and negro
extraction, speaking mostly Spanish. There are 117
miles of railroad and 266 of telegraphs. The re-
ceipts of the Government in 1895 were $1,882,704,
of which $1,829,522 came from customs. The pub-
lic debt on Jan. 1, 1895, was £1,905,035 sterling, be-
sides $2,058,415 in gold, and $4,790,520 in cur-
rency. The value of the imports in 1895 was $1,-
731,669, and of the exports $1,764,064 in gold.
The chief exports are logwood, mahogany, coffee,
fustic, ram, tobacco, cacao, and honey. The heavy
customs duties impede the expansion of the foreign
trade. During 1893 there were 192 vessels, of 102,532
tons, entered at the port of Santo Domingo, and
129, of 147,347 tons, at Puerto Plata in 1892.
Political Affairs.—President Heureaux had to
deal with a fresh conspiracy against his power in
the spring of 1896. This he nipped in the bud by
the vigorous and relentless methods that he is ac-
customed to apply to his enemies. Gen. Ramon
Castillo, the Minister of War, had asked him some
months before for 1,000 rifles and ammunition to
suppress, as he said, an outbreak against the Presi-
dent that was planned in the province of San Pe-
dro Macori. He received the arms and was author-
ized to go to that province and assume command of
the Government forces. The President heard no
more of the revolutionary movement that his min-
ister had described, but he heard later that Gen.
Castillo had distributed the rifles among disloyal
persons in the province of Macori, and that the
minister was himself conspiring against him with
the aim of asserting by means of arms his own can-
didature for the presidency of the republic. Imme-
diately after this intelligence reached the capital,
orders were sent to Gen. José Estay, Governor of
Macori, to kill Gen. Castillo before he could make
any attempt to raise a rebellion. The son of Goy.
Estay attempted to execute this order, but the shot
that he fired at Gen. Castillo missed him and killed
his son, who was walking by his side.
—" _—
Suspecting
on > eee — —
ss Sea %
SERVIA. 01
that the attempt on his life was made by the Presi-
dent’s orders, he refused to return to the capital
when a summons came shortly afterward ordering
him to come at once to take charge of important
affairs in the War Department, replying rankly
that he was mindful of the fate of a former Minister
of War and of the Governor of San Pedro Macori,
whom he had himself shot in 1893, obeying secret
orders of the President. President Heureaux, see-
ing that Castillo was strong enough to resist an at-
tack of Government troops, is supposed to have dis-
armed suspicion by intimating in his reply that
Gov. Estay was the sole author of the attempt on
the life of the minister. He directed Castillo to
arrest Estay and bring him to the capital to be
tried for the crime. The minister was caught in
the trap that was laid for him. As soon as he ar-
rived with his prisoner, the latter was set free, and
he was himself placed under arrest, deprived of his
office two days later by the Congress, and taken
on a war ship back to San Pedro Macori by the
President, who ordered that he be shot as soon as
they landed at La Caleta, and immediately after-
ward had Gen. José Estay also shot for failing to have
Castillo killed as directed. At the general election,
held on Nov. 1, Gen. Ulisses Heureaux was re-elected
to serve his fourth term as President.
SERYIA, a monarchy in southeastern Europe.
The legislative body is the Skupshtina, a single
Chamber of 134 members, elected by the direct
suffrage of male adult citizens who pay 15 dinars,
or francs, in direct taxes. The King, Alexander I,
born Aug. 14, 1876, suspended the Constitution in
1894 and revived the earlier one of 1869 pending
the adoption of a new Constitution, to be drawn u
by a commission of the leading members of
litical parties. The Prime Minister in 1896 was
er ovakovich; Minister of the Interior, D.
Marinkovich; Minister of Justice, A. Nintshich ;
Minister of War, Gen. D. Franassovich: Minister
of Finance, H. Popovich; Minister of Public In-
struction and Worship, L. Kovachevich; Minister
of Commerce, Agriculture, and Industry, W. Stoy-
anovich. Capital, Belgrade. —
Area und Population —The area of the kingdon
is 19,050 square miles. The population present at
the census of Dec. 31, 1895, was 2,314,153, divided
into 1,188,909 males and 1,125,244 females. The
number of marriages in 1895 was 20,599 ; of births,
101,676; of deaths, 62,184; excess of births, 39,492.
The city of Belgrade has 58,992 inhabitants.
Finances.—The budget for 1896 makes the total
revenue 63,659,720 dinars, of which 20,803,720 dinars
come from direct taxes, 5,000,000 dinars from cus-
toms, 2,927,000 dinars from excise, 2,500,000 dinars
from courts of law, 17,159,000 dinars from monopo-
lies, 3,428,000 dinars from domains, posts, etc.,
5,700,000 dinars from railroads, 852,000 dinars from
educational and sanitary funds, and 5,290,000 di-
nars from various sources. The total expenses are
estimated at 63,355,607 dinars, of which 1,200,000
dinars are for the civil list, 360.000 dinars for allow-
ance to ex-King Milan, 28,640 dinars for court
officials, 17,747,506 dinars for service of the debt,
120,000 dinars for the Skupshtina, 156.310 dinars for
the Council of State, 234,000 dinars for general ex-
penses, 2,251,858 dinars for pensions and subventions,
1,616,128 dinars for the Ministry of Justice, 4,822,-
180 dinars for the Ministry of Education and Wor-
ship, 1,231,985 dinars for the Ministry of Foreign Af-
airs, 2.765,765 dinars for the Ministry of the Interior,
8,202,475 dinars for the Ministry of Finance, 14,115,-
393 dinars for the Ministry of War, 3,948,633 dinars
for the Ministry of Public Works, 3,001,229 dinars
for the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce,
348,453 dinars for miscellaneous expenses, and
1,205,052 dinars for the Board of Control. The
debt on Jan. 1, 1896, amounted to 413,607,500
dinars, of which 355,692,000 dinars represent the 4-
per-cent. conversion loan. !
The Army.—By virtue of the law of Nov. 13,
1886, and the supplementary law of Jan. 6, 1896,
military service is obligatory, beginning at the age
of twenty-one and lasting ten years in the active
army, two with the colors and eight in the reserve,
ten years longer in the first ban, and ten in the
second ban of the national militia. The budgetary
effective of the army in 1896 was 600 officers and
14,000 men in the infantry, 80 officers and 1,400
men in the cavalry, 220 officers and 4,000 men in
the artillery, 50 officers and 1,000 men in the engi-
neers, 10 officers and 300 men in the train, and 10
officers and 500 men in the sanitary troops; total,
970 officers, exclusive of staff and superior authori-
ties, and 21,200 men with 4,846 horses and 184 guns.
The war strength of the regular army is 148,022;
of the first ban, 125,516; and of the second ban, 63,-
785 ; total, 337,323 men.
Commerce.—The total value of the imports in
1895 was 28,240,000 dinars, of which 16,624,000
dinars came from Austria-Hungary, 2,435,000 dinars
from Great Britain, 2,087,000 dinars from Turkey,
1,929,000 dinars from Germany, 1,341,000 dinars
from Russia, 1,213 dinars from Roumania, and
1,163,000 dinars from America. The total value of
the exports was 43,390,000 dinars, of which 38,746,-
000 dinars went to Austria-Hungary, 1,617,000
dinars to Germany, and 1,421,000 dinars to Turkey.
Of the exports 16,046,000 dinars represented horti-
cultural and agricultural products, mostly dried
prunes, and 18,984,000 dinars animals and animal
products, mostly hogs.
Communications.—There are 335 miles of rail-
road. The telegraphs have a length of 1,971 miles,
with 4,128 miles of wire. The number of dispatches
in 1895 was 900,692, of which 770,956 were internal,
119,112, international, and 10,624 transit dispatches.
The post office in 1894 carried 10,316,000 internal
and 7,356,000 international letters and newspapers.
The receipts of the postal and telegraph services
were 1,009,564 and expenses 1,269,480 dinars.
Political Affairs.—The Radicals announced in
January their intention to resume political activity.
On Aug. 9 a mass meeting was held outside Belgrade
at which 20,000 Radicals demanded the restoration
of a constitutional régime and petitioned the King
to put an end to the present intolerable situation.
King Alexander received the deputation of the
Radicals, and informed them that he was occupying
himself with the constitutional question, and that a
solution would be reached at the beginning of next
year. The Radicals asserted that the coup d’état
of 1894 had thrown the country into confusion and -
disorder, raised a barrier between the King and his
people, and lowered the prestige of Servia abroad.
he question of chief political interest in 1896 was the
treatment of Servian swine by the Austro-Hungarian
customs officials, which has been the ground of a
standing feud and has contributed as much as any-
thing else to the estrangement between Servia and
its former protector and ally and the rapprochement
with Russia. The Servians accuse the Hungarians
of infringing the existing treaty of commerce by
riodically prohibiting the importation of Servian
ogs on alleged sanitary grounds, whereas their
hogs are free from disease and the real object of
the sanitary regulations isto protect the Hungarian
hog-raising industry. The Servians refused to be
officially represented at the millennial celebration
in Buda-Pesth, on the ground that the old Servian
flag would figure there among the trophies of Hun-
garian victories. On May 2 a party of students
burned a Hungarian flag in one of the public
squares of Belgrade, and in the evening an angry
702
mob carrying Servian, Russian, and French flags
made a demonstration in front of the King’s palace,
and was only prevented by a strong force of gen-
darmes from attacking the Hungarian industrial
museum. ‘This alarmed the Servian Government,
which made many arrests, and afterward dismissed
the prefect of Belgrade and the commandant of the
gendarmerie. Explanations were made to the
Austrian legation that were accepted as satis-
factory. The experiment of granting large remis-
sions of taxes and other privieges and bounties to
a company that undertook to slaughter from 10,000
to 30,000 Servian hogs for export to other countries
besides Austria-Hungary was not successful. A
solution of the difference respecting the admission
of Servian hogs into Hungary was agreed to in
principle at Vienna on July 15.
SIAM, an absolute monarchy in southeastern
Asia. The reigning King is Khulalongkorn, born
Sept. 21, 1853, who succeeded his father, Maha
Mongkut, on Oct. 1, 1868. The boundaries of the
kingdom never have been well defined, as the bor-
der lands are occupied by tribes more or less inde-
pendent, which have at times acknowledged alle-
giance to the King of Siam and at other times to
Burmah, China, Cambodia, or Annam. The states
of Kedah, Patani, Kelantan, and Tringganu, in the
Malay peninsula, and Chiengmai, Lakon, Lampoon-
chi, Nan, Pree, and other Laos states acknowledge
the sovereignty of Siam and send tribute to Bang-
kok. The Shan States, in the north, were claimed
and conquered by Great Britain after the annexa-
tion of upper Burmah to British India, and in 1891
the frontier between Burmah and Siam was de-
limited by a commission, which gave these territo-
ries to Burmah as far as the Mekong river. Other
territories on the east bank of the Mekong were also
claimed as Burmese by historical right, and of these
Great Britain conceded Kiang-Kheng to Siam and
ceded Kiang-Hung in the north to China in 1894,
The object was to create a buffer territory between
the French and British possessions. To all these
territories east of the Mekong the French republic
asserted a claim as successor to the rights of the
King of Annam. Between the Mekong and the An-
nam hills Siam formerly claimed a large territory
that is now acknowledged to belong to France. On
Oct. 3, 1893, at the conclusion of hostilities between
France and Sian, a treaty was made constituting the
river Mekong the boundary between Siam and the
French possessions, but granting to France a sphere
of interest, within which the French have the right
to erect stations, comprising a strip 25 kilometres
broad on the west bank of Mekong river through
the whole length of the Kingdom of Siam. The
territory formerly claimed by Siam over which the
French established claims of sovereignty between
1893 and 1896 has an area of 110,000 square miles.
The territory remaining to Siam after the appro-
priations of France and Great Britain has an ex-
tent of about 300,000 square miles. The population
was formerly estimated at 8,000,000, comprising
2,500,000 Siamese, 2,000,000 Laotians, 1,000,000
Chinese, 1,000,000 Malays, and 1,500,000 Burmese,
Indian, and Cambodian immigrants. The people
are mostly Buddhists. Their economical condition
is very low, owing to the state of serfdom in which
they are kept by the official class, who exact forced
labor from one to four months in the year, taking
the laborers from the rice fields often when they need
the most attention. Domestic slavery is disappear-
ing, but slavery for debt is common. The main
art of the work in the mines and mills of the south
is done by Chinese coolies, In the teak forests of
the north Burmese and Karens are employed.
Besides rice, of which 485,255 tons were exported
from the short crop of 1894, the chief products for
SIAM.
export are pepper, salt and dried fish, and sesame.
The teak-cutting industry is in British hands.
Mining for sapphires and rubies is carried on in
some of the eastern districts. In the Malay penin-
sula are valuable tin mines. French and English
companies are engaged in gold mining. The trade
with other countries is in the hands of foreigners,
and Chinese are acquiring an increasing share of it,
The trade is mainly with Singapore and Hong-
Kong. The total value of the imports in 1894 was
£1,708,345, and of the exports £2,466,895. The
chief imports are cotton cloth, opium, silks, sugar,
kerosene, hardware, and jewelry. The values of the
leading exports in 1894 were: Rice, £1,689,527;
fish, £180,969 ; teak, £140,020; other woods, £35,-
681; birds’ nests, £44,340; cattle, £46,539; pepper,
£31,552 ; hides, £18,974; lac, £14,890. Telegraphs
have been built for a length of 1,780 miles, but
since the dismissal of foreign employees the wires
are seldom in working order. A railroad from
Bangkok to Paknam, a distance of 14 miles, was
opened in April, 1898. The survey of a line to
Chiengmai and the northern and eastern parts of
Siam was begun in 1888, and one has been sanc-
tioned from Bangkok to Banmai, on the Petriou
river. A concession has been granted for a line
across the Malay peninsula, from Singora to Kota
Star, and thence to Kulim, a total distance of 185
miles. These enterprises have been proposed by
Englishmen, a company of whom has undertaken
pes begun the construction of a line, 165 miles in
length, from Bangkok to the rice-growing district
of Korat. In July, 1896, the Siamese Government
proceeded to take possession of the works because
the contract was not being executed with the stipu-
lated celerity. The King of Siam has a revenue of
about £2,000,000 a year, derived from land taxes, a
tax on fruit trees, customs, tin mines, edible birds’
nests, fisheries, and licenses for gambling-houses
and the sale of opium. He maintains an army of
the nominal strength of 12,000 men, of whom 5,000
are kept under arms and are partly instructed by
European officers. There are 80,000 modern rifles
and numerous cannon in the royal arsenals, The
naval force consists of 11 armed vessels of over 500
tons and 11 smaller ones. During the warlike opera-
tions of 1893 France took possession of the port of
Chantabun, which the French have since occupied.
In 1895 the Chinese Government made a treaty
conceding the French right to the territories on the
upper Mekong that Great Britain had transferred
to China. Subsequently the English Government
abandoned the idea of preserving buffer states be-
tween the French nit British possessions, over
which question the relations between the two gov-
ernments had been strained and came to an amica-
ble agreement conceding these territories to France.
On Jan. 15, 1896, the English Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Lord Salisbury, and the French ambassa-
dor to England, Baron de Courcel, signed a declara-
tion mutually guaranteeing the neutrality and in-
violability of the basin of the Menam and the coast
streams and recognizing the French claims to the
Mongsin district of Keng-Cheng, on the east bank
of the upper Mekong. The district into which
France and Great Britain agreed not to advance
their armed forces without the consent of the other
party, and within which they engaged not to acquire
any special privilege or advantage that shall not be
enjoyed in common and be equally open to both
Great Britain and France and their nationals and
dependents. was defined as comprised in the basins
of the Pechaburi, Mekong, Menam, and Bangpa-
kong, or Petriou, rivers and their tributaries, to-
gether with the extent of coast from Muong-Bang-
Tapan to Muong-Pase, the basins of the rivers on
which those two places are situated, and the basins
.
of the other rivers the estuaries of which are in-
cluded in that coast, and-including also the terri-
tory lying to the north of the basin of the Menam
situated between the Anglo-Siamese frontier, the
Mekong river, and the eastern watershed of the Me-
Ing. The two powers engaged not to enter into
any separate agreement permitting a third power
to take any action from which they were bound by
their declaration to abstain. From the mouth of
the Nam-Huok northward as far as the Chinese
frontier the thalweg of the Mekong was declared to
form the limit of the ssions or spheres of in-
fluence of France and Great Britain, The two gov-
ernments agreed further that all commercial and
other privileges and advantages conceded in the
Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Szechuen either
to Great Britain or France, in virtue of their re-
spective conventions of March 1, 1894, and June 20,
1895, as well as all privileges and advantages of any
nature that may in future be conceded in those two
provinces, shall, as far as rests with them, be ex-
tended and made common to both powers and to
their nationals and dependents, and Bier engaged
to use their influence and good offices with the Chi-
nese Government for this purpose.
The disputed area conceded to France in this
agreement covers 1,292 square miles and has a popu-
lation estimated at 4,000 Shans and 5,000 hillmen.
Mongsin, which had been occupied by the British,
was evacuated on May 11. The French on taking
sate reinstated the Myosa or chief whom the
nglish had deposed. The part of Siam of which
the two powers guaranteed the integrity is less in
extent than the Mekong watershed, which is left
out of the agreement, but is the most populous and
roductive part of the kingdom, having 5,000,000
inhabitants and producing the bulk of the rice crop
and containing the most valuable teak forests. An
area in the southwest, bordering on Burmah, is ex-
cluded from the guarantee, as well as the eastern
parts of Siam. In the southeast the French include
in their zone of influence and protection the prov-
inces of Battambang and Angkor, over which they
claim rights of sovereignty by a title derived from
the kings of Cambodia, but this right is not ac-
knowledged by Siam or by Great Britain.
SOUTH CAROLINA, a Southern State, one of the
original thirteen, ratified the Constitution May 29,
1788 ; area, 3,750 square miles. The population. ac-
cording to each decennial census, was 249,073 in
1790 ; 345,591 in 1800; 415,115 in 1810; 502,741 in
1820; 581,185 in 1830: 594,398 in 1840; 668,507
in 1850; 703,708 in 1860,; 705,606 in 1870; 995,-
577 in 1880; and 1,151,149 in 1890. Capital, Co-
lumbia.
Government.—The State officers in 1896 were:
Governor, J. Gary Evans; Lieutenant Governor,
W. H. Timmerman; Secretary of State, D. H.
Tompkins; Treasurer, W. T. C. Bates: Attorney-
General, William A. Barber; Comptroller, James
Norton ; Superintendent of Education, W. D. May-
field ; Adjutant General, J. Gary Watts; Railroad
Commissioners, W. D. Evans, J. C. Wilborn, H. R.
Thomas; Dispensary Commissioner, F. M. Mixson
—all Reform Democrats; Chief Justice of the Su-
reme Court, Henry McIver; Associate Justices,
ugene B. Gary, Ira B. Jones, and Y. J. Pope—
Democrats.
Finances.—The Governor says in his message
that the State finances have never before been in as
good condition as now. The State debt is smaller,
having decreased from $11 per capita to $4. The
following figures are given for 1896: Acres of land
returned, 18,105,122; value of real estate, $100,976,-
705 ; of personal property, $45,838,607 ; of railroad
property, $23,940,162 ; total taxable property, $170,-
755,474; number of polls assessed, 158,824; total
SOUTH CAROLINA.
703
taxes, $2,317,889. The dispensary has paid into the
State treasury $100,000, and to towns and counties
$122,000. The interest on the public debt has been
decreased $78,500.
Education.—The enrollment in the public schools
in 1896 was 232,337, of whom 109,159 were white
and 123,178 colored. The increase this year con-
sists of 3,886 colored and 5,480 whites. The value
of school buildings is $821,829, an increase of nearly
100 per cent. since 1890. The amount available for
school purposes in 1890 was $527,846; in 1896 it
was more than $800,000. This includes the 1-mill
tax imposed by the Constitution, which also provides
for the collection of a supplementary tax by the
Comptroller General and for the application of es-
cheated estates and the dispensary profits to this
fund. The length of the school term has been grad-
ually increased.
The total enrollment at the Military Academy was
127, fewer by 19 than in 1895. Of these 67 are bene-
ficiaries. The estimate of maintenance for a year is
$20,000.
The Institute for the Deaf and Dumb and the
Blind requires $19,000 for a year’s support and $13,-
520 for improvements.
During the two years it has been in operation the
Winthrop Normal and Industrial College has given
instruction to 335 college students and 72 children
in the practice school. The normal department
graduated 22 this year, and certificates of proficiency
were given to 11 in stenography and typewriting
and to 3 in dressmaking. The estimate for main-
tenance one year is $33,303. To finish the new dor-
mitory $29,613 is required.
The Colored Normal and Industrial College was
opened in October and 960 students were enrolled.
he accommodations are hardly sufficient for 600.
The buildings have cost about $11,000. The faculty
consists entirely of colored teachers, with Thomas
E. Miller as president.
The number at the South Carolina College en-
rolled in 1896 was 161, of whom 157 were from 29
counties in the State, 2 from Virginia, and 2 from
North Carolina. There were 17 special students and
14 law students. The number of young women en-
rolled as students was 14; last year there were 13.
At Clemson Agricultural College 350 students
were enrolled, a smaller number than in 1895. The
total amount received from the privilege tax this
year is $49,872.37. The expense charged against
this department is $4,533.82, leaving for the college
from net proceeds of the privilege tax $45,340.55.
The other revenues are: Interest from Land Scrip
fund, $5,754; interest from Clemson bequest, $3,-
512.36; from incidentals, $554.95 : total, $55,161.86.
The fund received from the Government is de-
voted to the use of the experiment station.
State Institutions.—At the Hospital for the In-
sane the number of patients under treatment dur-
ing the year was 1,247; the daily average was 853,
and 856 remained at the close of the year. The
Legislature authorized the purchase of about 110
acres adjoining the hospital property, on which
were 4 dwellings, at a cost of $27,000. Some smaller
urchases also were made; to meet the expense $20,-
of bonds were sold and a part of the purchase
money was drawn from the maintenance fund. The
total expenses of the institution were $157,100.07,
which exceeds the income by $1,058.23.
The cost per capita was $107.80, lower than at any
other time Miioe the past seven years; the highest,
in 1891, was $133.42. The managers ask $10,000
for a building for colored insane men and $100,000
for maintenance.
Prisoners.—There were in the State Penitentiary
at the close of 1896 818 convicts, 172 fewer than at
the beginning of the year. The financial statement
704
for the year was: Receipts, $62,125.17; cash value
of crop on hand, $52,925.46 ; due for convict hire,
ete., $5,108.46 ; disbursements, $63,570.83 ; account
overdrawn, $1,445.66 ; leaving, $56,578.26.
The county chain gangs are employed in road-
making, but the law allows only those to be so em-
loyed whose terms do not exceed two years. In
Richland County alone over 50 miles of road have
been made.
Militia.—There are in the State the following
commands: Cavalry, 31 companies; light infantry,
2; infantry, 61; naval reserve, 3; reserve militia, 6
companies; making a total of 103. The reserves are
not counted in the aggregates. The number of
men in the 3 arms of the service is: Privates in the
cavalry, 748; battery, 47; infantry, 1,479. Com-
missioned officers in the cavalry, 154; in the light
infantry, 12; in the infantry, 316. Noncommissioned
officers in the cavalry, 310; in the light infantry, 18;
in the infantry, 603. Making the totals for the State:
General and staff officers, 47; cavalry, 1,212; light
infantry, 77; infantry, 2,898; total 3,734.
The Adjutant General reports that there are 20,-
000 men unorganized, who may be counted upon for.
the militia service.
The troops were ordered out once during the year
to suppress a threatened uprising of negroes near
St. Matthews, in Orangeburg County; quiet was re-
stored in a few hours.
Railroads.—The railroads pay annually more
than $300,000 in taxes. The total income of the
roads for the year ending June 30 was $8,303,487.57 ;
total expenses, $5,952,770.58 ; income, less expenses,
$2,307,758.52. Only 2 roads show deficits—the
Florida Central and Peninsular and the Cheraw and
Chester. The deficit of the latter was only $1,316.-
89, and that of the former road $27,724.64. What
is reported by the Florida Central and Peninsular
road to be a deficit, as far as their line in South
Carolina is concerned, is to be considered in the
light of heavy improvements that have been made
along the line. Over $200,000 expended on im-
provements is charged against the earnings. This
road has 103 miles of track in the State. All the
roads are now in the hands of their owners and man-
agers, with one exception. The passenger earnings
in 1896 were $2,756,321.70, against $2,393,674.24 in
1895, an increase of $362,647.46. The tonnage for
1896 was 4,729,537; for 1895 it was 4,155,957, an in-
crease of 573,580 tons.
The Railroad Commission was divided on the sub-
ject of reducing the rates on fertilizers, and a lively
war was carried on between Commissioner Thomas
and the other two. Mr. Thomas charged that the
proposed rates were grossly unfair to Charleston.
The majority were in favor of reducing the rates,
and this was done. Passenger rates also were low-
ered,
Lawlessness.—Several cases of lynching occurred
during the year. Four men were tried for a horri-
ble crime committed in November, 1895, and on the
second trial, in October, 1896, were acquitted. The
crime and trial are described briefly: “ Three ne-
groes, against whom there was a suspicion of hav-
ing entered a country church in Barnwell County
and stolen a Bible, were taken from their homes at
midnight by a body of armed white men. They
were stripped naked and beaten with buggy. traces.
Two of the unfortunates died—a man and an old
woman. The third victim escaped. She was the
seventeen-year-old wife of the man and the mother
of a child a few months old. The bodies of the
negroes who were beaten to death were found after
the tragedy, and the young colored woman who sur-
vived told the fearful story. The press and people
cried out against this crime, and the Governor
promptly took steps to ferret out its authors. Sev-
SOUTH CAROLINA,
‘
eral men well connected and most respected before
this were accused, and at the February term in
Colleton County four were charged with causing
the death of Hannah Walker. The trial lasted six
days. The surviving vietim of the brutal affair
swore to the identity of one or more of the defend-
ants. A dozen witnesses testified as to the taking
of the negroes from their homes and seeing them
dragged toward Broxton Bridge. The defense did
not attempt to prove an alibi, gave no account of
the doings of the accused on the night of the kill-
ing, and tried to bring doubt upon the State’s wit-
nesses. Their arguments were merely appeals for
sympathy and attempts to arouse bacon for the
State officers who had done their duty. The jury
brought in a verdict of ‘ Not guilty.’ ”
Banks.—The aggregate banking capital of the
State is $5,368,201, with a surplus of $4,845,730,
making a total of $10,213,931. This is distributed
among 91 banks.
Industries.—The annual statement of the Secre-
tary of State shows that the following charters were
issued: Twelve cotton mills, capital stock $1,050,-
000; 6 cotton-oil mills, $97,000; general charters,
$4,746,710 ; total, $5,893,710.
The cotton crop, according to the statements
furnished to the Department of Agriculture by the
peirsce eee companies, mills, ete., for the five
months ending Feb. 1, 1896, shows the number of
bales moved to have been 494,562; the purchases
by the State mills, 214,270 bales; and the number
left on the plantations, 80,133 bales ; total crop,
788,965 bales.
The corn crop of 1895 amounted to 19,860,908
bushels, showing a considerable increase over that
of 1894, which was 18,723,819, and a large advance
from that of 1893, which was 12,501,036.
The phosphate-mining industry, which has been
a great source of wealth and has paid large amounts
to the State, has still further declined, The royalty
for the year ending Aug. 31, 1896, was $60,853.76,
while that for 1895 was $87,200.18. Of the rock
shipped or sent to market, there has been shipped
to foreign ports 93,527 tons; coastwise (outside of
the State), 11,257 tons; taken at Charleston, 5.0174
tons; taken at Beaufort or Port Royal, 11,801 tons;
total shipment, 121,602} tons. The cause of the
decline is the competition of Algerian, Florida, and
Tennessee rock which has entered the market. The
royalty has been reduced from time to time, until
it is about 50 cents a ton.
The Dispensary.—The Governor gives the fol-
lowing statement of the operations of the dispen-
sary: ‘“ The net profit that has accrued to the State
for the past year is, in round numbers, $200,000,
The net amount accrued to the towns and counties
for the same period is $122,000, making the total ac-
crued profit to the State, towns, and counties $322,-
000; adding $57,652.65, unearned profits on goods
in the hands of local dispensers due Jan. 1, 1897,
swells the total of earned and unearned profits to
the State and towns and counties for the preceding
year to $379,652.65. The net profit accruing to the
past administration for eighteen months was $110,-
348.80. Net profits for 1895, $133,467.79. Net
profits for 1896, $200,000, making a total net ac-
erued profit to the State to date, $443,816.57. Add
to this net accrued profit the outstanding unearned
profit, $57,652.65, makes a total earned and un-
earned profit to date of $501,469.22. If to this sum
we add the amount of the net accrued profits to the
towns and counties for 1895 and 1896 of $223,-
131.28, we have a grand total of earned and un-
earned profits to State, towns, and counties to date
of $729,600.50.”
Seven constables are in jail for being implicated
in killing men while seizing contraband liquors.
o oi a —— SS = il i: ———
SOUTH CAROLINA. “05
Legislative Session.—The new Constitution
changed the time of the opening of the legislative
session to the second Tuesday in Jan . The
time limit of forty days does not apply to the first
four sessions. Accordingly, the General Assembly
was in session from Jan. 14 to March 7. The or-
ization from the former session held over, with
ira B. Jones as Speaker of the House. After the
election of Mr. Jones as Associate Justice of the
Supreme Court, Frank B. Gary was chosen to suc-
ceed him as Speaker.
About 250 bills were passed. The new Constitu-
tion, which went into effect Jan. 1, provides that
the Supreme Court shall consist of a chief justice
and three associates instead of two. When the
court met, on Jan. 2, the question was raised
whether its action would be legally binding, since
it could not be constituted according to the new
order until the Legislature should have elected a
fourth member. The court held that it could le-
gally hold over until its successor should be duly
qualified. The reorganization of the court was one
of the first subjects that came before the General
Assembly, and a bill was passed providing for the
election of the third Associate Justice of the Su-
preme Court, whose term of office will expire on
Aug. 1, 1902; that the successor of Associate-Jus-
tice Pope shall be elected by the General Assembly,
whose term of office begins on Aug. 1, 1896, and
continues for eight years; that the successor of
Chief-Justice Mclver shall be elected by the Gen-
eral Assembly at its session in 1899 for eight years,
and the successor of Associate-Justice Gary shall
be elected by the General Assembly in 1900 for
eight years. Jan. 30 Associate-Justice Pope was
re-elected for eight years, and Ira B. Jones, Speaker
of the House, was chosen third Associate Justice.
A registration law was enacted adapted to the
uirements of the Constitution. Certificates are
ras granted to voters able to read the Constitu-
tion and to those unable to read it who are -yet
able to understand it when it is read tothem. The
provision as to appeals gives to the voter who is
denied a certificate two hearings, one before any cir-
cuit judge, and the other before the Supreme Court.
No costs are to be charged to the applicant ae
such appeals. The election law, as regards ballot-
ing, shows some changes from the old law; com-
missioners and managers are not now removable at
will; the ballot box must be placed in sight of the
i se outside the polls; and frauds by refusal to
old polls are made impossible, since voters can
hold a poll without the managers. A bill for the
introduction of the Australian ballot failed, and
the old eight-box system is retained. It is made a
crime to issue election certificates at any other time
than that required by law or to receive certificates
so issued.
A law was made providing for examination of
banking and fiscal corporations, and the office of
bunk examiner was created.
General laws were made for the incorporation of
cities and towns, and a general law for the forma-
tion of corporations, defining their powers.
An act was passed providing for the appointment
of a commissioner to codify the laws, and another
act to regulate the formation of new counties; also
one providing for a uniform assessment of property
for municipal and State taxation.
The en for pensions was double the
amount heretofore devoted to that purpose, and the
benefits were extended to classes not previously in-
eluded.
A valued-policy law was made for the regulation
of insurance.
In the laws governing the dispensary few mate-
rial changes were made except those required by
VOL. XXxxv1.—45 A
the Constitution, but the whole management was
taken out of the hands of the Governor and given
to a State board of control, and the State Treasurer
is made the receiving and disbursing officer of all
moneys received and expended through the local
dispensers.
he State tax levy was placed at 44 mills, exclu-
sive of the school tax.
The sum of $25,000 was appropriated to South
Carolina College, and $21,000 to the Citadel, the
military school.
A joint resolution authorized the Governor to
extend an invitation to the other Southern States
to unite in erecting a monument to the late George
Peabody, and to appropriate funds therefor. An-
other required the printing and distribution of the
Confederate rolls.
Other acts were the following:
For arbitration in civil cases.
For the establishment of waterworks and electric-
light systems by cities and towns.
Permitting towns and cities to issue bonds to take
up their past indebtedness.
To establish local boards of health.
Providing for the working of chain gangs by
cities, towns, and counties.
ee Converse College.
Establishing Saluda County.
Regulating the care of infants suffering with dis-
eases of the eye.
To prevent lynching: providing that in all cases
of lynching where death ensues the county where
the lynching takes place shall be liable in exemplary
damages in a sum not less than $2,000.
Limiting the amount of land that aliens may hold
in the State.
Making May 10, the anniversary of Gen. Thomas
J. Jackson’s death, a legal holiday, to be known as
Memorial Day.
Limiting the time during which coupon bonds of
the State payable to bearer, and their coupons, may
be consolidated, converted, funded, or paid.
Requiring contractors for the erection, alteration,
or repairing of buildings to pay laborers, subcon-
tractors, and merchants for their services and ma-
terial furnished.
Relating to the severance of Claflin College from
Claflin University, and the establishment of a nor-
mal, industrial, agricultural, and mechanical college
for the colored race.
Imposing penalties for the adulteration of candy
and the sale of impure milk, butter. and cheese.
Amending the law relating to prize fighting.
Amending the game laws.
Politieal.—There are two factions in the Repub-
lican party in the State. Both held State conven-
tions—one April 7 and the other Apri] 14. At the
first, a resolution was adopted instructing the dele-
tesfor McKinley. The platform called for the en-
orcement of the law against lynching, and on the
currency said :
“We stand with our party in the reiteration of
its demand for both gold and silver as standard
money. We believe that legislation should secure
and maintain the parity of values of the two metals
to the end that the purchasing and debt-paying
power of the American dollar—silver, gold, and pa-
per—shall be the same any and everywhere.”
At the convention of the Independent or “ Lily
White,” or “ Reorganized ” Republicans, April 14,
a resolution favoring McKinley was overwhelmingly
defeated, but resolutions were adopted saying that
either McKinley, Allison, Morton, Reed, or Quay
would be acceptable. The financial plank was as
follows:
“We are in favor of maintaining the present
monetary standard until some satisfactory ratio
706 SOUTH CAROLINA.
between the hard-money metals shall have been
reached by international agreement, such an agree-
ment with the leading commercial nations as will
keep it so.”
In reference to the new Constitution and other
State matters, the resolutions said :
* We are in favor of a government service based
on merit and character and capacity, and not on
the corrupt and debasing Jacksonian system of ‘to
the victors belong the spoils’; but while as Repub-
licans, we heartily indorse the above principles as
highly important from a national point of view,
what is of vastly more importance to us, and to all
good citizens here in South Carolina, is to secure
fair and honest elections, and to get rid of our pres-
ent arbitrary and despotic factional State gorern-
ment with all its accompanying evils. We there-
fore reaffirm our purpose to use every proper and
legitimate means to have our new Constitution set
aside as in conflict with the Constitution and laws
of the United States. We admit that it has certain
good points in it, notably its improved educational
facilities. But it is tainted with fraud in its origin;
it is fraudulent in its character, and fraudulent in
that it was foisted upon the State without ratifica-
tion by a popular vote. We therefore hold that
neither Congress nor the Federal courts ought to
recognize its validity. We also declare our most
emphatic opposition to the entire brood of iniquities
imposed on the State by the dominant element, and
pledge the Republican party to remove them as
rapidly as possible if put in a position to do so.”
oth wings of the party held conventions for
nominating State officers at Columbia, Sept. 17.
Both adopted platforms and nominated candidates.
The first, or “old-line” wing, which was the one
recognized at the national convention, put forward
the following ticket: For Governor, R. M. Wallace;
Lieutenant Governor, J. P. Latimer; Secretary of
State, B.O. Duncan; Treasurer, George I, Cunning-
ham; Comptroller General, E. F. Cochran; Attor-
ney-General, L. D. Melton; Adjutant General, E.
Brooks Sligh; Superintendent of Education, E. B.
Burroughs.
The other ticket was: For Governor, Sampson
Pope; Lieutenant Governor, W. W. Russell; Sec-
retary of State, B. R. King; Comptroller General,
V. P. Clayton; Attorney-General, L. D. Melton;
Treasurer, D. J. Knotts; Superintendent of Educa-
tion, M. A. Dawson; Adjutant General, A. T. Jen-
nings.
The Democratic convention met in Columbia, May
20. Resolutions presenting Senator Tillman as a
presidential candidate were adopted with but 4 dis-
senting votes. Delegates were instructed to vote
as a unit. The platform was prepared by a com-
mnittee, of which Senator Tillman was chairman.
It denounced the administration of President Cleve-
land as un-Democratic and tyrannical; repudiated
the construction placed on the financial plank of
the last Democratic National Convention by the
President and Secretary Carlisle; denounced the
issue of the bonds; expressed the belief that “the
power and usurpations of the Federal courts as now
organized are dangerous to the public; demanded
the calling of a constitutional convention to form
an organic law suitable to the changed conditions
and the growth of the country; called for a more
economical administration of national affairs; de-
manded the free and unlimited coinage of silver at
the ratio of 16 to 1, regardless of the action of any
and all other nations, and the enlargement of the
powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
A minority report signed by two members was
presented, asking the elimination of the condemna-
tion of President Cleveland, and demanding a pledge
to abide by the action of the national convention.
reported by him was then
SOUTH DAKOTA.
Senator Irby supported the antibolting declaration,
charging that Tillman’s ambition to be President,
which could not be gratified in the Democracy, was
at the bottom of the bolting proposition, Senator
Tillman replied in a bitter speech, and the platform
opted.
A new Constitution was adopted for the party in
the State, of which the following were the main
points: Candidates for United States Senator still -
to be chosen by primary: chairmen of county ex-
ecutive committees to be chosen by the county con-
ventions; each club to have a separate voting place
in primaries; each candidate to pledge himself be-
fore the first campaign meeting ; a majority required
to elect; State executive committee to have final
decision of all contests, ;
W. H. Ellerbe received an overwhelming major-
ity of the votes for the gubernatorial nomination
at the primaries. Following is the Democratic
ticket: For Governor, W. H. Ellerbe; Lieutenant
Governor, M. B. McSweeney; Secretary of State, D.
H. Tompkins; Treasurer, W. H. Timmerman; Com
troller, James Norton; Attorney-General, W. A.
Barber; Adjutant General, J. G. Watts; Superin-
tendent of Education, W. D. Mayfield.
The vote taken at the primaries for United States
Senator to succeed Senator Irby, showed Joseph H.
Earle to be the choice of the people. He received
42,915 out of a total vote of 82,482, Gov. Evans re-
ceiving 39,567.
The vote for President. stood: Bryan, 58,798;
McKinley, 9,281; Palmer, 828. For Governor, Eller-
be, Democrat, received 59,424; Wallace, Regular
Republican, 2,780; Pope, Reorganized Republican,
4,432. The other Democratic candidates were elected
by similar majorities. All the members of Congress
elected are Democrats, There are no Republicans
in the State Senate, and there is but one in the
House.
SOUTH DAKOTA, a Western State, admitted
to .the Union Noy. 3, 1889; area, 77,650 square
miles; population, according to the census of 1890,
328,808. Capital, Pierre.
Government.—The following were the State
officers during the year: Governor, Charles H.
Sheldon, Republican; Lieutenant Governor, Charles
N. Herried ; Secretary of State, Thomas Thorson ;
Treasurer, Kirk G. Phillips; Auditor, J. E. Hipple;
Attorney-General, Coe I. Crawford; Adjutant Gen-
eral, George A. Silsby: Superintendent of Public
Instruction, Frank Crane; Commissioner of Labor
Statistics, S. A. Wheeler; Commissioner of School
and Public Lands, John L. Lockhart; Railroad
Commissioners, John R. Brennan, George A. John-
ston, E. F. Conklin; Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, Dighton Corson; Associate Justices, Al-
phonso G. Kellam, who resigned Jan. 30, after
which Dick Haney was appointed, and Howard G.
Fuller; Clerk of the Supreme Court, Ivan W.
Goodner.
Finances.—The balance in the treasury July 1,
1895, was $320,489.91; the receipts during the fiscal
year were $1,352,333.49; the disbursements, $940,-
173.50; and the balance remaining July 1, 1896,
was $412,159.99.
The expenditures from the general fund amount-
ed to $352,820.98. The collections (aside from cash
on hand July 1, 1895, $180,011.07, sale of revenue
warrants $150,000, and transfer of funds received
from W. W. Taylor, $115,400.57) amounted to
$380,891.94, being $28,070.96 in excess of warrants
issued on the general fund. The warrants issued
during the preceding year were $126,118.30 in ex-
cess of the collections.
In August the State Board of Equalization made
provision for reducing the bonded indebtedness,
$106,000, by a levy of 1°8 mill bond and interest
SOUTH DAKOTA.
tax. This will reduce the interest indebtedness
$6,146 per annum. The outstanding revenue war-
rants will all be taken up by April, 1897.
The assessment of the 2,762 miles of railroad
_ property in 1896, as equalized by the State board,
was $9,133,583; of sleeping-cars companies, $11,-
000; of telegraphs, $127,202; of telephones, $39,-
376; of express companies, $54,500. The assess-
ment of lands as equalized was $73,684,037: of
town lots, $15,906,621; of personal property, $20,-
434,837; the total valuation being $119,391,156,
which is $2,359,995 less than in 1895. —
The amount of tax paid by railroads in 1895 was
.430.06. The tax extensions for 1896 amounted
to $570.231.20, and the amount of delinquencies, on
June 30, was $446,754.80, of which amount it was
expected that over $200,000 would be paid before
1897. The Auditor urges the necessity of a consti-
tutional revenue law. The receipts for the next fis-
cal year are estimated at $586,000, and the expen-
ditures at $643,000. The sale for $57,666 of realt
taken upon execution from the bondsmen of W.
W. ‘Taylor brings the total credit upon his shortage
to $270,000.
Insurance.—Statistics to Jan. 1, 1896, show that
during the preceding year the risks written by for-
eign companies amounted to $132,502,623.82; pre-
miums, $2,701,157.21; losses paid, $1,227,424.66.
The foreign life insurance companies show risks
written $47,304,725.07 ; premiums received, $2,150,-
409,16; losses incurred, $641,367.50; losses paid,
$661,119.12. The amount turned into the treasury
funds from the insurance department in 1896 was
$24,692.86, a slight increase over last year.
Banks.—The: abstract of the condition of the 31
-national banks on July 14 shows total resources of
$7,238,497; loans and discounts, $3,360,477; value
of stock securities, etc., $1,261,110; reserve, $1,417,-
607, of which $313,567 was gold. Principal liabil-
ities: Capital stock, $1,935,000; surplus funds and
undivided profits, $478,811; deposits, $4,064,025.
The average reserve held was 35°71 per cent. Dur-
ing the year 7 State banks were organized, 5 banks
reduced their stock, 3 increased it, and 1 was dis-
solved.
Edueation.—The number of children of school
age Jan. 1, 1896, was 104,029: the number of
schoolhouses provided for them was 3,633. The
total permanent schoo] fund bearing interest
amounted to $2,044,833.49, though $1,388,902 are
deferred payments. From the interest and income
fund $140,439.15 was collected during the fiscal
year and apportioned to the common schools; $1,-
753.28 was paid for endowment, and $2,041.50 was
paid into the general fund.
The Springfield Normal-school building has been
put up, and the school was opened in the fall. The
enrollment at the Madison Normal School was 353,
of whom 153 were in the model school.
The capacity of the Reform School was taxed to
the utmost during 1896, the number of inmates
being 88.
For various State institutions the amounts paid
out were as follow: For the Agricultural College,
$6,952.94: School of Mines, $9,960.96: Madison
Normal, $12,500; Spearfish Normal, $13,932.26.
For the maintenance and tuition of the blind $1,-
296 was expended; for deaf-mutes, $12,250; for
the insane, $81,600. The Reform School cost the
State $17,475, and the Penitentiary expenses were
$32,750.
Soldiers’ Home.—The number of inmates of the
home on April 4 was 145, and 20 members were
on furlough. Of the present membership, 140 re-
ceive pensions amounting to $17,085 a year. The
State paid to the home during the year $26,801.-
41, of which $17,100 was for maintenance.
707
Corporations.—Thé number of corporations or-
ganized was 263 for profit and 72 for religious,
charitable, or benevolent purposes. The foreign
corporations authorized to transact business in the
State numbered 311.
Immigration.—An Immigration Congress, held
in January, formed a permanent association and
arranged for issuing a pamphlet setting forth the
advantages of the four districts of the State—the
irrigation, the natural rainfall, the grazing, and the
mineral,
Corn.—In 1896 South Dakota led in the produc-
tion of Indian corn, the amount being 38,557,000
bushels. ,
Live Stock.—The assessment of horses showed
their number to be 311,615, valued at $4,697,799;
of milch cows, 234,499, value $2,657,061; of oxen
and other cattle, 280,020, value $2.388,158 ; of mules
and asses, 4.758, value $69,959; of sheep, 340,751,
value $374,495; and of swine; 212,572, valued at
$1 each.
Political.—aA Republican State convention met
in Huron, March 25, selected delegates to the na-
tional convention, and adopted resolutions declar-
ing for protection, instructing the delegates for
McKinley, and, until the national convention
should provide another, adopting the platform of
the national convention of 1892.
A second Republican State convention met in
Aberdeen, July 8, when representatives to Congress
and a full State ticket, headed by Amund O. Rings-
rud for Governor, was nominated. Candidates for
presidential electors were nominated, and a plat-
form was adopted’ which heartily accepted the Re-
publican national platform adopted at St. Louis,
and commended the present administration of the
affairs of the State, and demanded “ the passage of
an act providing adequate punishment for defalca-
tion committed by public officers” ; favored the set-
tlement of all questions of dispute arising between
capital and labor by legally constituted arbitration ;
opposed harsh or unjust legislation concerning rail-
roads, but demanded “such legislation as will clothe
the Board of Railroad Commissioners with full
power and authority to prevent unjust discrimina-
tion, and to provide by legislative enactment a rea-
sonable maximum tariff of passenger and freight
rates”; and recommended that each county con-
vention take such action as will require all legisla-
tive candidates to commit themselves to carry out
the meaning and purpose of this resolution: pledged
the party to the destruction of trusts and com-
bines; and favored investigation of the manage-
ment of the grain elevators. r
As soon as this platform was adopted 21 dele-
gates who favored free silver left the convention,
and, with other silver Republicans, prepared an
address urging the Republicans of the State to aid
“in the restoration of silver to its position as stand-
ard money.” Committees on ticket and on platform
were appointed to co-operate with the People’s State
Convention, which recommended to that convenffon
the adoption of the nomination of Bryan for Presi-
dent. On July 15 the bimetallists chose delegates to
the national bimetallic convention.
The Democratic State Convention that met in
Aberdeen, May 20, chose delegates to the national
convention at Chicago, and on the money question
declared as follows: “The Democratic party of
South Dakota is in favor of the present standard
of value in our money system and the use of full
legal-tender silver, coins, and paper, convertible
into coin on demand, in such quantities as can be
maintained without impairing or endangering the
credit of the Government or diminishing the pur-
chasing or debt-paying power of the money in the
hands of the people; and it is not in favor of the
708
oo Sud unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of
16 to 17
Later a convention was called to: meet in Dead-
wood, Aug. 27, to nominate a State and an electoral
ticket ; but on Aug. 18 the State Central Commit-
tee directed that no convention should be held, and
adopted the State and electoral ticket nominated
by the Populists. It also passed this resolution :
“We hereby assert our unfailing allegiance to the
nominees of the Democratic National Convention,
held at Chicago; and we hereby ratify each and
every plank-in the platform there adopted; and
we hereby pledge to the nominees of that conven-
tion our hearty and cordial support.”
The State Prohibition Convention was held in
Huron, July 18, when candidates for presidential
electors and Congressmen were named, and John F,
Hanson was nominated for Governor.
On July 14 the Populists met in State conven-
tion, in Huron, and coutinued two days in session,
many Democrats being in attendance trying to se-
cure united action on the tickets. Concessions were
made on both sides, and the platform that was
adopted instructed delegates to unite with free-
silverites; declared for the prohibition of private
monopoly of public necessities ; that all land owned
by railroads not in actual use should be reclaimed
by the Government and sold to actual settlers; fa-
vored Government ownership of sufficient railroad
mileage to control transportation ; declared for free-
silver coinage at 16 to 1, postal savings banks, di-
rect legislation, and the election of Senators by
direct vote ; for more money to increase prices, and
legislation to maintain them; and that prohibition
should be voted upon regardless of party affilia-
tions. Andrew E. Lee was nominated for Gov-
ernor.
At the election in November the Populist candi-
dates for Governor and Attorney-General, three
Railroad Commissioners, and two representatives in
Congress were elected, all the other successful can-
didates being Republicans. The vote for Governor
was: Lee, 41,187: Ringsrud, 40,868; Hanson, 722.
The vote for presidential electors was: Bryan, 41,-
225; McKinley, 41,042; Levering, 683. The com-
position of the next Legislature is: Fusionists—
Senate 26, House 46; Republicans—Senate 18,
House 38.
At the election four amendments to the Constitu-
tion were voted upon, all receiving large affirmative
majorities ; but through official mistake in the print-
ing of the ballots these votes were made null. One
of these amendments repealed the prohibitory clause
of the Constitution, and the friends of prohibition
claimed that the steps taken by the Legislature of
1895 in submitting the amendment were not in ac-
cordance with law, and applied to the Supreme
Court for an order directing the Secretary of State
to omit it from the ballot. This was denied, the
decision being rendered on the theory that the
court has no authority to interfere until the full
act of legislation has been completed by the action
of the people at the polls; that the Legislature has
power to submit any question to the people, whether
it is a constitutional question or not, and the peo-
ple have the right to pass upon the question thus
submitted.
SPAIN, a constitutional monarchy in southwest-
ern Kurope. The legislative power is vested in the
Cortes, consisting of two Chambers. The Senate
has 360 members, of whom 123 are appointed for
life, 53 are hereditary or official members, and 180
elected by corporations and the highest taxpayers.
The Congress consists of 4382 members, elected
by indirect suffrage for five years. The reigning
King is Alfonso XIII, born May 17, 1886, who suc-
ceeded to his father, Alfonso XII. The King’s
SPAIN.
mother, Maria Christina, an archduchess of the
Hapsburg family, acts as Regent during his mi-
nority.
constituted on March 24, 1895, was composed as
follows: President of the Council, A. Canovas;
Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Duke of Tetuan;
Minister of Justice, F. Romero Robledo; Minister
of Finance, J. Navarro Reverter; Minister.of War,
Gen. Azcarraga; Minister of Marine, Admiral J.
Beranger ; Minister of the Interior, F. Cos Gayon ;
Minister of Public Works, Agriculture, and Com-
merce, A. Bosch; Minister of the Colonies, T, Cas-
tellano.
Area and Population.—The area of Spain is
197,670 square miles. The population was estimated
in 1892 at 17,974,823. There were 151,416 marriages,
647,808 births, and 554,274 deaths in 1892; excess
of births, 93,534, The population of Madrid in
1890 was 499,270. Barcelona at the census of 1887
had 272,481, Valencia 170,763, Sevilla 143,182, and
Malaga 134,016 inhabitants.
Finances.—The budget estimate of revenue for
the year 1896-97 was 773,766,261 tas, or francs,
of which 295,940,810 pesetas come from direct taxes,
302,135,000 pesetas from indirect internal taxes,
136,105,000 pesetas from customs, 22,000,000 pesetas
from stamps and monopolies, 22,385,451 pesetas
from national property, and 17,200,000 pesetas from
the public treasury. The expenditures are esti-
mated at 757,765,658 pesetas, of which 9,500,000
pesetas are for the civil list, 1,638,085 pesetas for
the legislative bodies, 314,991,533 pesetas for the
public debt, 1,463,859 pesetas for judicial expenses,
56,214,730 pesetas for indemnities and pensions,
964,300 pesetas for the presidency of the Council,
4,714,512 pesetas for foreign affairs, 53,858,240
pesetas for justice, 140,225,381 pesetas for the
army, 23,433,941 pesetas for the navy, 27,249,868
pesetas for the interior, 77,960,225 pesetas for
ublic works and education, 16,187,418 pesetas
or financial administration, 28,708,566 pesetas for
collection of revenue, and 655,000 pesetas for Fer-
nando Po. The revenue in 1895-96 was 766,231,751
pesetas, and the disbursements were 788,200,758 pe-
setas, leaving a deficit of 21,969,007 pesetas. The
deficit in the year previous was 25,249,340 pesetas.
In six years ending in 1896 there have been paid
out 236,344,883 pesetas of extraordinary receipts,
44,920,966 pesetas for repayments, 58,000,000 pesetas
for the army, 71,175,678 pesetas for the navy, and
62,248,239 pesetas for railroads. The public debt
in 1896 amounted to 5,941,459,300 pesetas, of which
1,971,151,000 pesetas were included in foreign loans,
1,619,500,000 pesetas were extinguishable internal
loans, and 2,350,803,300 pesetas were the permanent
internal debt.
The Army.—By virtue of the law of July 1,
1885, military service is obligatory in Spain from
the age of nineteen, and lasts twelve years, of which
three are spent in the active army, three in the first
reserve, and six in the second reserve. Exemption
may be purchased for 1,500 pesetas, and substitu-
tion is allowed between brothers. The annual re-
cruit, which was before 49,000 men, was increased
by the law of Dec. 16, 1891, to 80,000 men. The
continental army of Spain is divided into 8 corps,
comprising 15 divisions of infantry, 1 division of
artillery, and 4 brigades of cavalry. The peace
effective for 1896 was as follows: General officers,
240; general staff, 232 officers; infantry, 6,088 offi-
cers and 45,679 men; cavalry, 1,360 officers and
13,139 men ; artillery, 963 officers and 8,386 men ;
engineers, 425 officers and 3,399 men; telegraph
brigade, 7 officers and 226 men; total, 9,315 officers
and 70,829 noncommissioned officers and men, with
14.655 horses and mules and 396 field guns. The
budget of 1896 fixed the strength of the active army
The ministry in the beginning of 1896, .
at 82,000 men in Spain, 14,000 in Cuba, 13,291 in
the Philippine Islands, and 3,091 in Puerto Rico,
exclusive of 15,412 gendarmes and 14,156 front-
ier According to the budget of 1897,
the second battalions of the 56 regiments in garri-
son in Spain, ali the first battalions of which are in
Cuba, are increased from 652 to 804 men, the 20
battalions of ‘rifles from 652 to 964, the 20 second
battalions from 350 to 964, the same as the 10 bat-
talions that are in garrison in Cuba, the line regi-
ments of cavalry are angmented to 450 horse, the 6
regiments forming an independent division to 510,
and the 4 artillery regiments armed with cannon of
9 centimetres caliber are augmented by 48 gunners
and the others by 44. The fortress artillery is also
increased by 80 or 100 men to each battalion, the 4
regiments of sappers by 163 men each, the ponton-
nier regiment by 116, the railroad battalion by 103,
and the telegraph battalion by 152. The total effect-
ive is thus increased to about 100,000 men.
The Navy.—The Spanish armor-clad navy in 1896
consisted of 1 turret ship (the “ Pelayo”), of 9,900
tons and 8,000 horse power, armed with 35 guns and
7 torpedo tubes ; 3 armored cruisers of modern type
‘(* Almirante Oquendo,” “Infanta Maria Teresa,”
and * Viscaya”), of 7,000 tons each, protected by
12-inch belts, of 13,000 horse power, giving a speed
of 20 knots, and armed with 2 11-inch guns in bar-
bettes and 5 54-inch guns on each broadside; 1 belt-
ed cruiser, of 9,235 tons, with engines of 15,000 horse
wer (the “Emperador Carlos V”), carrying a
eae light armament than the others; 2 frigates
(* Numancia” and “ Victoria”); and 1 monitor
(* Puigeerda”). There were building 2 armored
battle ships (* Cristoforo Colomb” and “ Pedro
d’Arragon ”) of 6,840 tons and 18,000 horse power;
and 3 armored cruisers (“ Cardenal Cisneros,” “ Cata-
lufia,” and “ Princesa de Asturias”), each of 6,648
tons and 15,000 horse power, carrying 22 cannon
and 18 torpedo tubes. English shipbuilders were
commissioned in 1886 to construct a battle ship of
10,500 tons, a cruiser of 6,500 tons, 1 of 1,500 tons,
and 2 torpedo catchers. Two new deck-protected
cruisers (* Alfonso XIII” and “* Lepanto ”), of 4,800
tons, are designed to steam 20 knots and have a
strong and effectively arranged armament. The
unarmored vessels include 19 cruisers, 10 torpedo
gunboats, 3 first-class gunboats, and 52 third-class
cruisers. Spain has 14 first-class and 2 second-class
torpedo boats. The navy is manned by 528 officers,
400 mechanicians and other Bo Aeon 9,000 ma-
rines, and 7,715 sailors. The “ Princesa de Astu-
rias” was launched in October, 1896, after several
unsuccessful attempts. The “Cardenal Cisneros”
was launched later. In the summer and autumn
extraordinary activity was displayed in all the
Spanish shipyards. Three gunboats of 600 tons
were hurried to completion at Ferrol, where the
“Alfonso XIIL” was rapidly got ready for sea.
Abandoning the policy of constructing all war ves-
sels at home, the Government, as if to prepare for
imminent war with a great power, sought all over
the world for cruisers ready built, or builders who
would provide large war ships quickly. Proposals
were made for the purchase of 2 cruisers in Genoa,
and for 1 in Trieste, which the Austrian Govern-
ment refused to sell. Orders were placed in Scot-
land for the construction of an ironclad of 10,500
tons. to cost $3,750,000; a cruiser of 6,500 tons, to
cost $1,575,000 ; and 2 torpedo-boat destroyers. An-
rests cruiser, of 1,500 tons, was ordered in Eng-
and.
The naval power of Spain was insignificant when
the programme of 1887 was adopted, according to
which the Government was to expend in the course
of nine years the sum of 225,000,000 pesetas in pro-
viding a modern fleet, to consist of 11 cruisers, 10
i
torpedo vessels, 140 torpedo boats, 20 gunboats, and
20 harbor gunboats. Oe plan of paeapisatinn for
the defense of Spanish ports and the protection of
the colonies involved the construction of very fast
cruisers with great coal endurance. The fleet was
to be organized in 3 divisions, with headquarters at
Cadiz, Ferrol, and Cartagena, each division to con-
sist of 1 battle ship, 2 armored cruisers, 1 protected
cruiser, 2 third-class cruisers, 2 torpedo vessels, and
3 torpedo boats. Instead of the 8 cruisers in the
original programme, 6 belted cruisers of the “ Maria
Teresa ” type were decided upon. Of these, 3 have
been completed, which, like all the new Spanish
ships, have won the admiration of naval experts.
The torpedo vessels are designed to serve as ordi-
nary gunboats as well as fast torpedo boats. The
same plans have been followed in the improved
type of 800 tons as in the earlier ones of 570 tons.
The submarine boat “ Peral,” shaped like a White-
head torpedo, proved a failure. About 20 of the
steamers of the Compania Transatlantica are fitted
to be used as armed cruisers in time of war. This
company is under contract to transport all official
passengers, troops, and stores.
Commerce.—The total value of imporis in 1894
was 804,791,000 pesetas, and of exports 672,887,000
pesetas. The imports of cotton were 81,830,000
pesetas; of grain, 67,972,000 pesetas; of coal, 49,-
700,000 pesetas; of timber, 40,686,000 pesetas; of
tobacco, 37,944,000 pesetas: of machinery, 24,816,-
000 P nar ri of codfish, 23,690,000 pesetas ; of sugar,
21,487,000 pesetas; of chemicals, 20,859,000 pesetas ;
of iron, 18,722,000 pesetas; of skins, 17,585,000 pe-
setas; of woolens, 15,607,000 pesetas; of animals.
15,267,000 pesetas; of cacao, 15,162,000 pesetas; of
coffee, 14,420,000 pesetas; of wool, 13,975,000 pese-
tas; of silks, 11,604,000 pesetas; of linen thread,
11,229,000 pesetas; of ships, 8,867,000 pesetas; of
cotton goods, 8,235,000 pesetas. The exports of
wine were 83,887,000 tas; of cotton manufac-
tures, 47,027,000 pesetas ; of lead, 44,791,000 pesetas;
of iron, 44,782,000 pesetas; of copper, 43,743,000
setas; of oranges, 25,665,000 pesetas; of shoes,
5,289,000 pesetas: of cork, 21,516,000 pesetas; of
raisins, 19,455,000 pesetas; of animals. 14,797,000
pesetas: of olive oil, 14,380,000 pesetas; of grapes,
9,882,000 pesetas; of almonds, 8,907,000 pesetas ; of
wool, 8,389,000 pesetas; of paper, 8,237,000 pesetas ;
of skins, 7,688,000 pesetas. e value of the com-
merce with different countries and colonies is shown
in the following table, giving the imports and ex-
ports for 1894 in pesetas:
COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports.
Cahiis the eenh ewb ware 206,300,000 174,700,000
Great Britain <2... 222.2205. 158, 200.000 183,100,000
wl eg a ee 22,200,000 8,600,000
MWAUORD cvs cde ee ec eee ets 30,200,000 29,200,000
Sweden and Norway....... 26,000,000 1,400,000
UNS? Dee ers pee ee 4Z.000.000, | ken caaes
pic aa ee ee ae JO. 5OO-G0D! FS ataees
BE eee eee 16,900,000 7,400,000
ERMAN MODY ciclo coe cows sees tess su 6,000,000 1. — ix see
Netherlands. ...........-..- 6,400,000 14,500,000
United States .. .......... 93,100,000 13,400,000
Cuba and Puerto Rico ..... 59,200,000 145,700,000
Argentine Republic........ 18,000,000 7,900,000
Philippine Islands........-.| 18.000,000 28,600,000
1 Oh Es ee ee | 12,700.000 800,000
Other countries..... .....- 45,100,000 43,500,000
0 ES ee eee er eee | 804,800,000 672,900,000
Navigation.—During 1894 there were 8,989
Spanish vessels. of 6,095,350 tons, entered and 8,565,
of 6,238,336 tons, cleared, and 8,687 foreign vessels,
of 6,632,872 tons, entered and 8,703 of 6,725,464
tons, cleared at Spanish ports. The merchant navy
in 1895 numbered 1,041 sailing vessels, of 172,729
tons, and 427 steamers, of 313,178 tons.
710
Communications.—The railroads in operation
at the beginning of 1895 had a total length of 7,543
miles. The post office forwarded in 1894: In the
interior service, 81,322,000 letters, 668,000 pust cards,
47,400,000 journals, circulars, and parcels, and 117,-
000 money letters of the declared value of 137,277,-
000 francs; in the exterior service, 19,244,000 let-
ters, besides 184,000 in transit, 408,000 post cards,
19,637,000 journals, circulars, and parcels, besides
48,000 in transit, and 39,000 letters of the declared
value of 31,825,000 francs. The receipts were 23,-
979,681, and expenses 11,656,873 francs. The Gov-
ernment telegraph lines in 1893 had a length of 18.-
248 miles, with 41,141 miles of wire. The number
of dispatches was 2,886,800 in the internal and
1,279,459 in the international service; receipts were
7,671,092 and expenses 5,613,033 pesetas.
Political Affairs.— Politics and _ legislation
hinged in 1896 on the military and financial ques-
tions involved in the subjugation of the Cuban peo-
le, complicated later by the insurrection in the
Philippine Islands. When Gen. Martinez Campos
returned at the beginning of February he was
hooted by the populace for his failure to put down
the rebellion, and his view that the granting of re-
forms, even autonomy, was the only way of ending
the Cuban troubles found little support. On send-
ing out Gen. Weyler to carry on a vigorous cam-
paign against the rebels the Government cast about
for means to carry on the war. The Cuban bonds
in the possession of the treasury found a sale in
Paris and other places only at a continually falling
price, and this resource was nearly exhausted. It
was resolved to amend the tariff so as to produce
more revenue. The municipal scandals in Madrid,
where 21 councilors were criminally indicted for
corrupt malpractices, contributed to the difficulties
of the Canovas Government. On Feb. 19 a bomb
was exploded by anarchists in the garden of the
royal palace. On Feb. 26 the ministry decided, in
view of the grave political and military situation
and the feverish state of public feeling, to dissolve
the Cortes. The election of Deputies was appointed
for April 12 and for Senators a fortnight later, and
May 11 was the date fixed for the new Cortes to
meet. The resolution of the United States Senate
in favor of recognizing the belligerent rights of
the Cuban revolutionists caused an outburst of
popular passion and war feeling against the United
States in the principal cities of Spain. In Madrid
20,000 men attempted a street demonstration, but
the troops and police prevented the crowd from
congregating and guarded the American legation,
In Barcelona a mob of 10,000 men on March 1 tore
American flags to shreds and stoned the United
States consulate in spite of the efforts of the police
and soldiers to protect it. The Republicans, who
had favored Cuban autonomy, took a prominent
part in the anti-American demonstrations. The
Government answered the resolution of the United
States Senate by ordering the preparation of 6 war
ships for dispatch to the West Indies and the fitting
out of 50 merchant steamers with armaments. The
War Department made preparations to send to
Cuba 20,000 additional infantry and 5,000 cavalry.
The Spanish Government promptly expressed regret
for the insults offered by the Barcelona mob to the
United States consulate. Further riotous demon-
strations of students, with burning of American
flags, led to the closing of the universities. There
were fresh demonstrations in Valencia, Barcelona,
and other towns against the United States. The
one in Valencia, which was organized by Republic-
ans, necessitated the proclamation of martial law.
At Bilboa a mob attacked the American consulate.
Sefior Elduayen resigned as Minister of Foreign
Affairs in order that the Duke of Tetuan, who had
SPAIN,
begun the negotiations with the United States,
might return to complete them. '
The elections to the Cortes resulted in an in-
creased Conservative majority. The manipulation
of the returns in Madrid caused a general protest,
and led to the suspension and prosecution of the
election officers. The composition of the new Cham-
ber was as follows: Conservatives, 301; Liberals,
102; Carlists, 10; Independents, 8; Dissentient Con-
servatives,8; Republicans, 3. The speech from the
throne read by the Queen Regent on the assembling
of the Cortes declared that the reforms embodied in
the law of March 15, 1895, would not be applied in
Cuba orin Puerto Rico until the rebellion wasentirely
suppressed and peace restored, after which it would.
be necessary to give to both islands an economical and
administrative personality of an exclusively local
character. The correct conduct of the American
republic in the presence of the Cuban insurrection
was alluded to as a proof of the loyal friendship
that has existed unbroken between the two countries
during the whole national existence of the United
States.
June 7 a bomb explosion that killed 15 persons
and severely injured 50 in a religious procession at
Barcelona drew attention once more to the anarch-
ists, who on the same day exploded dynamite car-
tridges outside of a priest’s house in Madrid, On
June 10 a man was arrested with a bomb in his
hands. In conrfection with the Barcelona outrage
47 arrests were made. The judicial investigation
brought out the fact that the crime had been de-
cided upon at a meeting of 60 anarchists. The
actual perpetrator was a native of Marseilles, a
well-educated man. A very stringent bill for the
better prevention and repression of anarchist out-
rages was immediately introduced into the Cortes
and eventually became law. The bill provides that
such crimes shall be tried by court-martial and that
guilty persons, including accomplices, shall be pun-
ished with death. The Barcelona anarchists were
tried by court-martial and eight of them were sen-
tenced to be shot.
The Senate rejected the proposition of Prof.
Comas to abrogate the protocol of 1877 with the
United States. The Cortes granted without debate
the request of the Colonial Minister for permission
to raise money as needed on Cuban credit for the
prosecution of the war. The Cuban bonds of 1890,
which the Government had sold to raise funds thus
far, at prices ranging from 90 down to 55, are guar-
anteed by the Spanish nation according to the royal
decree of September, 1890. French investors had
bought a large number in order to protect them-
selves as holders both of Cuban and Spanish securi-
ties. Cuban certificates had been taken as collateral
for advances of the Bank of Spain, the Bank of
Paris, the Transatlantic Company, and other houses,
to the amount of 675,000,000 pesetas. To raise the
money for sending 40,000 or 50,000 additional troops
and carrying on another winter’s campaign in Cuba,
Minister Castellano proposed to pledge the Spanish
tobacco monopoly. The cost of the Cuban war, al-
ready $7,500,000 a month, with the proposed increase
in the army would amount to $10,000,000. The
Cuban treasury was empty, and the troops remained
unpaid. Spanish production was curtailed through
the drafting of reserves to take the place in the
Peninsular army of the 125,000 men who had al-
ready been sent out to Cuba. About 40,000 young
men fled to France to escape conscription. The
Minister of Finance, in his budget presented on June
20, estimated the deficit for 1895 at 25,000,000 pese-
tas, and for 1896 at 22,000,000 pesetas. The extraor-
dinary estimates amounted to 236,000,000 pesetas,
to be raised partly on the tobacco monopoly and by a
navigation tax and partly borrowed from an English
New York. D, Appleton & Co
Hired Gone,
SPAIN,
bank. English, as well as French, Dutch, and Bel-
gian bankers, refused to lend. A salt monopoly and
a reform of the octrot were among the expedients
ro for raising ‘money without . borrowing.
his latter, it was feared, would lead to disturb-
ances. The imposition of new municipal taxes led
to serious riots in Alicante in the beginning of July,
and the collection of the taxes was suspended.
The tariff war that had been waged with Germany
for two years came to an end when a modus vivendi
was arranged between the two governments and
went into operation on July 25. When the old
treaty of commerce terminated in 1894, after vari-
ous attempts to bring about a new understanding,
Spain imposed upon German imports an exception-
ally high scale of duties, whereupon Germany in-
creased by 50 per cent. the tariff on Spanish goods.
Spain was the henyien loser by the tariff war, which
closed a large market to Spanish wines and fruits.
By the modus vivendi, which was preliminary to
the arrangement of a new commercial treaty, the
extra 50- nt. duty hie ier goods was re-
voked and they were admi on the same terms as
those of other countries ing no special agree-
ment, in return for which Spain conceded the most-
favored-nation treatment to es nag
The imposition of the new octrot duties gave rise
to rioting in Valencia, where a band of men armed
with rifles, led by Bernard Alvarez, a retired colonel,
on Aug. 4 attempted to shoot the octrot officials.
Similar disturbances took place in othertowns. Dr.
Toledo, a Cuban, was another leader. Violent dem-
onstrations were made against the departure of fresh
re-enforcements to Cuba. Radical Republicans
joined inthe movement. Several Republican ex-De
uties were in Barcelona and imprisoned in
afortress. Anarchistic circulars were spread abroad
in great numbers urging the soldiers rot to fight.
The Liberals resisted the pre of the Minister
of Finance to lease the Almaden quicksilver mines
to the Rothschilds and to prolong till 1980 the priv-
ileges of the railroad companies without any appar-
ent equivalent consideration, and also the revival
of the tobacco monopoly. On receiving assurances
that the concessions were based on promises of loans
from the French companies receiving them for the
speedy termination of the Cuban war the Liberals
withdrew their opposition except to insist on a pro-
viso that the renewal of the railroad subsidies should
be made conditional on obtaining at par a loan of
1,000,000,000 tas bearing 4 per cent. interest.
The Carlist members of the Senate and Congress
withdrew on Sept. 7 as a mark of their disapproval
of the railroad subvention bill. The efforts to raise
the loan in France finally failed,.and the arrange-
ment with the Rothschilds and the railroad com-
panies fell through. The Government then pro-
posed to raise an internal loan of 400,000,000 pese--
tas, specially guaranteed by the customs revenue,
for 250,000,000 pesetas of which, bearing 6 per cent.
interest, subscriptions were invited at the price of
93. Motives of patriotism were appealed to rather
than commercial self-interest, with the result that
the loan was largely oversubscribed when offered
to the public on Nov. 16. On Dec. 31 the Queen
Regent signed a decree by which it was ordered
that the administrative reforms be carried out in
Puerto Rico, and was promised similar reforms
should begin in Cuba as soon as the insurgents
should return to their allegiance.
Colonies.—The colonial possessions of Spain have
a total area of 405,338 square miles, with 9,695,567
inhabitants: 45.205 square miles and 2,488,395 pop-
ulation in the West Indies, 116,256 square miles and
7,121,172 population in Asia, and 243,877 square
miles and 136,000 estimated population in Africa.
(See Cupa and Pumippine ISLANDs.)
SPENCER, HERBERT. 711
SPENCER, HERBERT, an English philosopher,
born in Derby, April 27, 1820. In a famous passage
in his autobiography, Edward Gibbon has told us of
the mingled emotions with which, on a memorable
night in June, 1787, he penned the last lines of the
last page of his “History,” and thus closed the un-
dertaking of many laborious years. In a somewhat
similar, though at once more dignified and more
touching strain, Mr. Spencer, in the preface to his
recently published third volume of the “ Principles
of Sociology,” has set on record his feelings on re-
viewing his finished life-work. ‘ Doubtless in ear-
lier years some exultation would have resulted,” he
says, “but as age crceps on feelings weaken, and
now my chief pleasure is in my emancipation. Still,
there is satisfaction in the consciousness that losses,
discouragements, and shattered health have not
Pips me from fulfilling the purpose of my
e.” 5
When Mr. Spenger entered upon his work, he
estimated that it would require at least twenty
years of regular and persistent toil, allowing two
years to cach of the ten stout volumes called for by
his plan. Reckoning from the publication of the
initial installment of “ First Principles” in Octo-
ber, 1860, it has occupied thirty-six years. Begun
with little enccuragement from the cultured world,
and even against the more cautious judgment of
immediate advisers, at a time when its author was
already broken down in health, with an uncertain
financial outlook and narrowly limited working
powers, it has been pushed slowly and painfully
toward completion. Fora time the practical sup-
port yielded him by the reading public was so slight
that he seriously contemplated the abandonment of
his labors. After this, interruptions occurred with
increasing frequency in various unexpected ways.
He was forced to pause in the methodical unfolding
of his plan, to explain, restate, clear up misconcep-
tions, and reply to criticisms. On several occasions
his energies were drawn off into other, though in
most cases directly subsidiary, lines of work. The
supervision of the compilation of the * Descriptive
Sociology,” the writing for the “ International Sci-
entific Series ” of his * Study of Sociology,” the pub-
lication of timely essays rendered necessary, as he
felt, by the conditions and tendencies of public af-
fairs—all delayed the prosecution of the larger de-
sign. And, worse than all, his physical powers, in
spite of temporary improvements, continued, on the
whole, to decline. He had reckoned on a regular
working day of three hours; but this calculation,
moderate as it appeared to be, was presently proved
extravagant. Absolute inaction has often been
forced upon him as the sole means of recuperating
his strength, while through many a long period of
sleeplessness and prostration the dictation of a para-
graph or two each morning has represented his pro-
ductive capacity.
Of the importance of this finished work in the in-
tellectual annals of the nineteenth century much
might be said. That it is in itself the largest, most
comprehensive, and most ambitious plan conceived
and wrought out by any single thinker of our time,
is obvious; nor will it be less obvious to those who
concern themselves in any way with the progress of
thought that, measured alike by the constructive
genius manifested in it and its far-reaching influ-
ence, the “ Synthetic Philosophy ” towers above all
other philosophic achievements of the age. There
is no field of mental activity that Mr. Spencer has
not to some extent made his own ; no line of inquiry
in which his power has not been felt.. Even those
who differ the most radically from him are at the
same time compelled to define their positions in re-
lation to his arguments and conclusions, while his
speculations constitute a common point of departure
712 SPENCER,
for the most curiously divergent developments of
thought.
Herbert Spencer was born in Derby, England,
April 27, 1820. He came of a stock in which intel-
‘lectual integrity, fearlessness, and independence
were strongly pronounced characteristics. His
father was a teacher, whose views of the aims and
methods of education were greatly in advance of
the average scholastic theories of his'time. He had
a dread of overtaxing the immature mind by the
ordinary forcing system, and accordingly young
Spencer was kept at home till he was fourteen years
old, thus reaping the advantage of his father’s per-
sonal training and attention, and breathing an in-
tellectual atmosphere unusually clear and stimulat-
ing. He was then placed in charge of his unele,
the Rev. Thomas Spencer, at that time perpetual
curate of the parish of Hinton Charterhouse, near
Bath. With this relative, who was a vigorous
thinker and an energetic social reformer, he spent
three years, manifesting extraordinary originality
in mathematical and mechanical studies. The de-
sign of sending him to Cambridge was gradually
relinquished as impracticable, and on leaving Hin-
ton the boy returned to his father’s house, where he
spent apparently an idle and profitless year. Then,
after a brief experiment in teaching, he made his
real start in life as a civil engineer. This was in
the autumn of 1837, in the early days of the rail-
road excitement. But presently the tide of activity
ebbed away, and after eight or ten years of inter-
mittent work Spencer finally abandoned a calling
in which he now saw little chance of success.
Meanwhile, the expansion of his thought had al-
ready begun. At the age of twenty, while engaged
on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, he
had read Lyell’s “ Principles of Geology,” and had
espoused what was then known as the Development
Hypothesis; accepting the Lamarckian view (com-
bated by Lyell) so far as to believe in the evolution
of species, but rejecting all the great Frenchman’s
theories save that of the adaptation of the organism
to its environment by the inheritance of acquired
characters. In 1842 he had contributed to a paper
called “The Nonconformist”’ a series of letters,
subsequently revised and reissued in pamphlet
form, on “The Proper Sphere of Government.”
In this early discussion of a question on which he
was to have so much to say by and by, Spencer
vigorously insisted on “ the limitation of state ac-
tion to the maintenance of equitable relations
among citizens.”
Spencer presently removed to London, where he
secured an appointment on * The Examiner ” news-
paper, of which in 1848 he became subeditor. This
place he held till 1853. Meantime, in the intervals
of comparative leisure afforded by the routine of his
office work, he had written his first important book,
“Social Statics” (1850). Shortly after this began
his connection with the “ Westminster Review,” to
the pages of which, during the next few years, he
contributed essays, valuable in themselves, and now
particularly interesting as marking the develop-
ment and consolidation of many of the fundamen-
tal elements of his later thought. In 1855 appeared
a large volume on “ The Principles of Psychology ”
(afterward incorporated into his more extended
treatise on the same subject in the regular system) ;
and in this book (four years before the publication
of “ The Origin of Species”) the problems of mind
were throughout approached and discussed from
the evolutionary point of view.
Almost simultaneously with the publication of
this volume, and mainly as the direct result of over-
exertion in the writing of it, Mr. Spencer had a
serious nervous breakdown, which for eighteen
months incapacitated him for work, and left him in
HERBERT.
a condition of semi-invalidism. When, on partial
restoration to health, he returned to his dropped
undertakings, his first concern was to finish the es-
say on “ Progress,” in which he expounded in detail
that conception of evolution as a universal process
which he had already reached in the “Psychology.”
A year later (1858), he published a long defense of
the Nebular Hypothesis; and during the prepara-
tion of this article the scheme of the “Synthetic
Philosophy ” took shape in his mind. Hitherto, he
had dealt with the phenomena of life and society in
a fragmentary manner; now he realized the possi-
bility of taking the doctrine of evolution as the
basis of a system of thought, and of thus unifying
knowledge by the affiliation of its various branches
upon the ultimate laws underlying them all. The
prospectus of the proposed enterprise was drawn
up in 1859, and distributed in the March of the fol-
lowing year.
The history of the man from this time is almost
entirely merged in the history of his work; the
dates of is Aedayc for the outside world being
those marked by the publication of the various por-
tions and volumes of the promised series. Of Mr.
Spencer himself, through all this long period dur-
ing which the rare qualities of his genius have
been more fully recognized, and the power of his
thought has shown a steady growth, the public at
large has known less perhaps than of any of his’
notable contemporaries. He has lived, rather b
necessity than by choice, a very quiet and amisiciaet
life, saving all his available strength for the task
he had set himself, while he has not only never
courted notoriety, but has firmly resisted frequent
attempts to thrust notoriety upon him. Himself a
delightful conversationalist and capital story-teller,
fond of his joke, and with a ready laugh for the
good sayings of others, he certainly does not remind
those who are privileged to know him well of the
dry, abstracted, unemotional philosopher of vulgar
tradition, though doubtless a stranger would pro-
nounce him cold and reserved. Before his nervous
trouble assumed its more serious form a few years
since, he took much pleasure in fishing, quoits, and
especially billiards, and was a regular habitué of
the Atheneum Club. But for a long time past
these and similar amusements have been out of the
question, and, being a rather impatient reader of
general literature, he has derived his greatest solace
from music, of which he has always been passion-
ately fond. His standard of individual conduct is
extremely high, and, unlike many theorists, he ap-
lies it to his own life as severely as he does to the
ives of other people.
It is important, in the first place, to make clear
the meaning that Mr. Spencer attaches to the word
philosophy. By philosophy he does not mean an
effort to solve the ultimate problem of the universe.
He recognizes two categories—the Unknowable and
the Knowable; and to the former of these, the
proper domain of religion, he relegates all those
final questions concerning Absolute Being, and the
why and wherefore of the cosmos, which have
largely absorbed the attention of the metaphysi-
cians—questions that are forever beyond the scope
of human intelligence. The true subject-matter of
philosophy, therefore, is not the problem of abso-
lute cause and end, but of secondary causes and
ends. What, then, do we demand from philoso-
phy? Not an explanation of the universe in terms
of Being as distinguished from Appearance; but a
complete co-ordination or systematic organization
of those cosmical laws by which we symbolize the
processes of the universe, and the interrelations of
the various phenomena of which the universe, as
revealed to us, is actually composed. The old an-
tithesis between common knowledge and what we
SPENCER,
call science, on the one hand, and philosophy on
the other, forthwith disappears. They are not es-
sentially unlike; their differences are differences of
degree in generality and unification. “As each
day he neralization of science comprehends and
consolidates the narrower generalizations of its
own division, so the generalizations of philosophy
comprehend and consolidate the widest gencraliza-
tions of science.” Philosophy is thus presented as
“the final product of that process which begins with
a mere Selligation of crude observations, goes on
establishing propositions that are broader and more
separated from particular cases, and ends in uni-
versal propositions. Or, to bring the definition to
its simplest and clearest form: knowledge of the
lowest kind is ununified knowledge; science is
partially unified knowledge ; philosophy is com-
pletely unified knowledge.’ . ‘9
If philosophy is to undertake this complete unifi-
cation of knowledge, it must establish some ulti-
mate proposition which includes and consolidates
all the results of experience. Assuming, as we
must ever continue to assume, that in the mani-
festations of the Unknowable in and through the
phenomenal universe, congruities and incongruities
exist and are cognizable by us, Mr. Spencer shows
that in the last analysis all classes of likeness and
unlikeness merge in one great difference—the dif-
ference between object and subject. His postu-
lates, therefore, are “‘an Unknowable Power; the
existence of knowable likenesses and differences
among the manifestations of that Power; and a
resulting segregation of those manifestations into
those of subject and object.” From these postu-
lates philosophy has to proceed to the achievement
of its purpose as above set forth.
Pushing the argument through a consideration
of s , time, matter, motion, force, the indestruc-
tibility of matter, and the continuity of force, Mr.
Spencer at length reaches his ultimate dictum—the
kereeripcine of force; a dictum that s the
ighest kind of axiomatic certitude for two rea-
sons: it constitutes the required foundation for all
other general truths, and it remains stable and un-
resolvable—the one inexpugnable yet inexplicable
element of consciousness. Force is thus, for Mr.
Spencer, the ultimate conception, and the persist-
ence of force furnishes the universal criterion of
his system of thought. Of such persistence of
force under the forms of matter and motion, all
phenomena are necessary results. Eliminate this
conception, and consciousness collapses. ‘The
sole truth which transcends experience by under-
lying it is thus the Persistence of Force. This,
being the basis of experience, must be the basis of
any scientific organization of experiences. To this
an ultimate analysis brings us down, and on this a
rational synthesis must build up.”
The first deduction drawn from this ultimate
universal truth is that of the persistence of rela-
tions among forces—otherwise, the uniformity of
law; whence we pass to the necessary corollaries,
the doctrines of the transformation and equiva-
lence of forces, and of the rhythm of motion. Both
these principles are shown to hold good throughout
the whole range of phenomena, from the physical
and chemical to the psychical and social. These
truths, then, have the character of universality
which constitutes them parts of philosophy. prop-
erly so called. “They are truths which unify con-
crete phenomena belonging to all divisions of Na-
ture, and so must be components of that complete
coherent conception of things which Philosophy
seeks, . . . Having seen that matter is indestruct-
ible, motion continuous, and force persistent—
having seen that forces are everywhere under-
going transformation, and that motion, always
HERBERT. 713
following the line of least resistance, is invariably
rhythmic, it remains to discover the similarly in-
variable formula expressing the combined conse-
quences of the actions thus separately formulated.”
From this point Mr. Spencer proceeds to reduce
to systematic and comprehensive expression the
laws of that continuous redistribution of matter
and motion which is going on throughout the uni-
verse in general and in detail. All sensible exist-
ences, and the aggregates which they compose, have
their history, and this history covers the entire
period between their emergence from the imper-
ceptible and their final disappearance again into
the imperceptible. The redistribution of matter
and motion which brings about this passage from
the imperceptible, through the various stages of
the perceptible, and back to the imperceptible,
comprises two antagonistic processes: one charac-
terized by the integration of matter and the dissi-
pation of motion; the other by the absorption of
motion and the disintegration of matter. The
former produces consolidation and definiteness;
the latter, diffusion and incoherence. These two
universal antagonistic processes are evolution and
dissolution. The entire universe is in a state of
continual change, and in terms of these processes
all changes, small or great, inorganic, organic,
physical, vital, psychical, social, have to be inter-
preted. To deprive the law of evolution, hereupon
formulated, of any merely empirical character, Mr.
Spencer shows at length that there are all-pervad-
ing principles underlying the all-pervading process.
Evolution means always an integration of matter
and concomitant dissipation of motion, or, in other
words, increasing coherence to definiteness; but it
commonly implies much more than this, and we
must recognize the secondary changes by which
this primary change is habitually complicated be-
fore the formula of evolution can be set down as
complete. These secondary changes are indeed the
most conspicuous characteristics of the evolutionary
process; and it is not surprising, therefore, that it
was from these that Mr. Spencer started, that it
was with these that he remained for a long time
preoccupied, that it was these which he first defined
in philosophic terminology. He found himself con-
fronted at the outset by the special fact of the de-
velopment of man individually and in society—that
is, the fact of progress. What, then, is progress?
This was the specific question to which, for a num-
ber of years, he was slowly feeling his way to an
answer. In his earliest publication, the “ Letters
on the Proper Sphere of Government,” was implied
the belief that societies are not manufactured, but
grow; and from the side of natural law, therefore,
this question of progress was approached. In the
pages of “Social Statics” he elaborated his first
reply. There, borrowing from Coleridge the theory
that Coleridge in turn had derived from German
speculation—that life is “a tendency toward indi-
viduation ”—he undertook to show that it is in the
fulfillment of this tendency that all progress will
be found to consist. But this tendency resolves
itself into two closely related processes: one making
for more and more sharply defined separateness;
the other for increasing unity of organization.
Taking the principle of differentiation by itself
he attempted in “ Progress: Its Law and Cause,” to
expand it into a complete theory of universal evo-
lution. In this he was helped by von Baer’s law,
“that the series of changes gone through during
the development of a seed into a tree, or an ovum
into an animal, constitute an advance from homo-
geneity of structure to heterogeneity of structure.”
Overlooking the principle of integration, Mr. Spen-
cer announces this generalization as his text. ‘“ We
propose,” he writes, in the early part of his essay,
714 SPENCER,
“to show that this law of organic progress is the
law of all progress.”
Satisfied that he had now reached not only a law
of evolution, but also the law of evolution, Mr.
Spencer, when he began work on the “Synthetic
Philosophy,” proceeded to elaborate his thesis in
“ First Principles.” Further thought convinced him
that he had fallen into error—that the transfor-
mation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous
does not sum up the whole of evolution, but only the
most conspicuous part of the secondary redistribu-
tion of matter and motion constituting it. When,
then, does increase in complexity mean evolution ?
The answer to this question is, when increase of
complexity is accompanied by more and more com-
plete interdependence among the specialized parts
—by increase in organic unification. Evolution,
therefore, in Mr. Spencer’s world-famous formula, is
“an integration of matter and concomitant dissipa-
tion of motion; during which the matter passes from
an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite
coherent heterogeneity, and during which the re-
tained motion undergoes a parallel transformation.”
While the Spencerian system presents us with a
history of the knowable universe in empirical gen-
eralizations, it also affiliates these all-earbnacton
generalizations upon ultimate principles, derives
them from its final dictum, ik thus furnishes a
rational history of the knowable universe as well.
Undertaking, therefore, the task of presenting the
phenomena of evolution in synthetic order, Mr.
Spencer arrives at the law of the instability of any
finite homogeneous aggregate owing to the unequal
exposure of its parts to incident forces.
he simple nucleus of his philosophic system first
made its appearance in “Social Statics,” where, in
the chapter entitled “General Considerations,”
mention is made of the biological truth that low
types of animals are composed of many like parts
not mutually dependent, while higher animals are
composed of parts that are unlike and are mutually
dependent. ‘The essays that followed “Social Stat-
ies” were marked by the establishment of various
separate inductions in which other groups of phe-
nomena were brought under this large principle,
while in the first edition of the “ Psychology ” not
only was this same principle shown to comprehend
mental phenomena, but there was also recognized the
primary law of evolution—integration and increase
ofdefiniteness. What followed may best be given in
Mr. Spencer’s own words: “Then it was that there
suddenly arose in me the conception that the law
which I had separately recognized in various groups
of phenomena was.a universal law applying to the
whole Cosmos: the many small inductions were
merged in the large inductions. And only after this
largest induction had been formed did there arise the
question—Why? Only then did I see that the uni-
versal cause for the universal transformations was the
multiplication of effects, and that they might be de-
duced from the law of the multiplication of effects.
The same thing happened at later stages. The gen-
eralization which immediately preceded the publica-
tion of the essay on ‘ Progress: Its Law and Cause’
—the instability of the homogeneous—was also an
induction. So was the direction of motion and the
rhythm of motion. Then having arrived at these
derivative causes of the universal transformation, it
presently dawned upon me (in consequence of the
recent promulgation of the doctrine of conservation
of force) that all these derivative causes were se-
quences from that universal cause. The question
had, I believe, arisen, Why these several derivative
laws? and that came as the answer. Only then did
there arise the idea of developing the whole of the
universal transformation from the persistence of
force. The process began by being inductive, and
HERBERT,
ended by being deductive ; and this is the peculiar-
ity of the method followed.
‘To the exposition and elaboration in their broad-
est aspects of the truths above epitomized. Mr.
Spencer devotes the initial volume of his series—
“ First Principles.” Such a presentation of argu-
ments and results constitutes what he defines as
“General Philosophy.” The nine following volumes
of the system are devoted to “Special Philosophy ”
—that is, to the task of carrying these universal
truths into the particular phenomena which form
the subject-matter of biology, psychology, sociology,
and ethics, and of interpreting such particular phe-
nomena by them.
The application of the fundamental principles
already established should first of all be made to
inorganic Nature. But this great division is passed
over entirely, “ partly because, even without it, the
scheme is too extensive ; and partly because the in-
terpretation of organic Nature after the proposed
method is of more immediate importance.” We
thus enter at once, in ‘The Principles of Biology,’
the field of organic life; the purpose of the two vol-
umes composing this work Deki, as stated in the
preface, “to set forth the general truths of biology
as illustrative of and as interpreted by the laws of
evolution.”
From the historical point of view no part of this
masterly work is of greater interest than the clos-
ing division of the first volume, in which Mr, Spen-
cer, after dismissing the special-creation theory of
things as untenable, displays at length the a priori
and a posteriori evidences of organic evolution. To
appreciate the full significance of his arguments, it
is necessary to remember that at the time when the
chapters containing them were written, the doc-
trine of development was currently regarded, even
by the large body of naturalists, as’ a fantastic hy-
othesis. While thus presenting the case for evo-
ution in its inductive and deductive aspects, Mr.
Spencer showed that the processes observable in the
world of organic life are but phases of the universal
cosmical processes formulated in “ First Princi-
les” ; an that thus the deepest laws of morpho-
ogical and brseieee development are, deduc-
tively viewed, necessary corollaries from the doc-
trines already established. Even the Darwinian
principle of natural selection (or, as Mr. Spencer
called it, the survival of the fittest in the struggle
for existence) is exhibited as falling into its place
as a single manifestation of a far wider law—the
law of equilibration.
Life is defined by Mr. Spencer as “the continu-
ous adjustment of internal relations to external
relations”; and he shows that the degree of life
varies as the correspondence varies between organ-
ism and environment; the highest point being
reached where the correspondence exhibits a maxi-
mum of complexity, rapidity, and length.
In * The Principles of Psychology,” the massive
superstructure is reared on the general foundations
already laid. Life at large is the genus; what we
distinguish as bodily life and mental life respec-
tively are species; and though if, after the ordinary
fashion, we ‘insist on contemplating only the ex-
treme forms of the two, it would appear that the
hardest line of demarcation is to be drawn between
them, such line necessarily vanishes the moment the
evolutionary point of view is assumed.
As in the “Principles of Biology” the general
truths of life were interpreted through the funda-
mental laws of evolution so in the * Principles of
Psychology” the general facts and problems of
mind are elucidated in the same way. The “ Prin-
ciples of Sociology” as actually completed exhibit
the only important departure of the author from
the prospectus issued thirty-six years ago; for the
SPENCER, HERBERT.
yolume in which linguistic, intellectual, moral, and
esthetic progress was to have been traced out, is
left unwritten. Sundry of the more momentous
questions connected with these phases of human de-
velopment, however, are touched upon in other
parts of the system, and the hiatus is, therefore, by
no means serious. On the other hand, the remain-
ing divisions of the work have, in the writing, un-
dergone unlooked-for expansion. : ;
One large aspect of universal evolution remains
to be considered, before the organization of knowl-
edge demanded by philosophy can be taken as com-
lete ; and this aspect—of such importance as to
ead Mr. Spencer to describe all other parts of his
work as subsidiary to its interpretation—we reach
in the concluding two volumes of the series, com-
prising the “ Principles of Ethics.” In his work of
reconstructing ethical theory in harmony with the
fundamental doctrines of his philosophy, Mr. Spen-
cer takes a most important step in advance of the
results reached by the various schools of scientific
moralists in the past. His system is, of course, hed-
onistic or utilitarian—that is, the final criterion
and ultimate end of conduct is for him happiness,
pleasure, or well-being. He has sought to convert
the laws of conduct from truths of the empirical
into truths of the rational order. As he wrote to
Mill: “I conceive it to be the business of moral
science to deduce from the laws of life and the con-
ditions of existence what kinds of action necessarily
tend to produce happiness, and what kinds to pro-
duce unhappiness. Having done this, its deduc-
tions are to be recognized as laws of conduct, and
are to be conformed to, irrespective of a direct esti-
mation of happiness or misery.”
If it is asked toward what general conclusions re-
garding the moral prospects of the race the Spen-
cerian ethics may be said to point, the broadest an-
swer will be found in the statement of the universal
law, already so at referred to—the law of
equilibration, e bring with us into life instincts
and impulses which we derive from our long line of
animal and barbarous ancestry; our natures are
very imperfectly adjusted to the demands of social
life. But the influences of advancing civilization
have throughout human evolution been gradually
molding character into more complete harmony
with the sum total of the conditions under which
we live. Hence we may anticipate a time, far dis-
tant though it must needs be, when the internal
forces which we know as feelings will be in fairly
perfect balance with the external forces they en-
counter; when, in other words, the nature of man
will have become fully adapted to the associated
state. Mr. Spencer has, indeed, within recent years
nae less optimistically about this consummation
than he did when, in “Social Statics.” he asserted
the evanescence of evil. But he still looks forward
to an “approximately complete adjustment” of
constitution to conditions as the goal of moral evo-
lution, toward which we are actually, if slowly,
moving.
What are the bearings of the Spencerian phi-
losophy upon the ultimate questions of religion?
Briefly thus. The chemist can not explain the ulti-
mate nature of matter, nor the physicist the ulti-
mate nature of motion, nor the psychologist the
ultimate nature of mind. Matter, motion, mind
are but symbols, expressing for us the manifesta-
tions of an unknown power, and, pushed to the ut-
most limits of simplification, the symbols remain
symbols still. The question at issue between spirit-
nalists and materialists, therefore, viewed from the
Spencerian standpoint, resolves itself into a question
of these symbols, and any answer that can conceiy-
ably be given leaves us as completely outside the
reality as we were at first. Spirit and matter must
STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER. 715
thus be regarded simply as signs of the ultimate ex-
istence that underlies both. The absolute and un-
conditioned existence that transcends human intel-
ligence. in which the subject, object, spirit, matter
of our finite consciousness merge and are united,
is not for Mr. Spencer mere zero—a negation of
thought. It is a positive fact of the profoundest
certitude ; or rather it is the final fact sustaining
all others—the fact which science finds at the back
of its widest generalizations and beneath its deep-
est truths. And this final fact of science, this ulti-
mate datum of consciousness, upon which all knowl-
edge depends, this cause of all causes in the universe
as it is revealed to us, is the permanent foundation
of all religion as well. Here the ancient foes meet
in complete reconciliation. Science must necessarily
end in the mystery with which religion begins.
“That which persists unchanging in quantity but
ever changing in form,” under the sensible appear-
ances “which the universe presents to us,” is an
“unknown and unknowable power which we are
obliged to recognize as without limit in space and
without beginning or end in time,” and this nou-
menal power of philosophy, of which all phenomena
are but manifestations, is the God of religion—* the
infinite and eternal energy from which all things
proceed.”
STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER, author, born
in Litchfield, Conn., June 14, 1811; died in Hart-
ford, Conn., July 1, 1896. Her father, the Rev.
Lyman Beecher, was pastor of a Congregational
ehureh in Litchfield. Her mother, Roxana Foote
Beecher, a woman of strong character, died when -
Harriet was but four years old, and the daughter
afterward wrote: “Although my mother’s bodily
ore disappeared from our circle, I think that
er memory and example had more influence in
molding her family than the living presence of
many mothers.” Catherine, her sister, was eleven
years old when their mother died, and from that
time much of the care of Harriet devolved upon
her. Mrs. Stowe was educated at Litchfield Acade-
my, under the charge of Sarah Pierce and John
Brace. Of the latter she wrote: “Mr. Brace ex-
ceeded all teachers I ever knew in the faculty of
teaching composition. Much of the inspiration
and training of my early days consisted not in
the things I was supposed to be studying, but in
the hearing, while seated unnoticed at my desk, the
conversation of Mr. Brace with the older classes.”
But the strongest and most lasting educational in-
fluences of her early life were found in the homes
in which she lived. In the family of an aunt in
Guilford, Conn., she was introduced to Walter
Scott’s novels and poems, to Burns, to the “ Ara-
bian Nights,” and toa host of charming and whole-
some books in which her imagination reveled so
eagerly that it was her delight to repeat great num-
bers of poems, hymns, and prose extracts. In her
father’s library she found literature that gave to
the inherited trend of her mind the deeply enthu-
siastic religious power that pervaded so much of her
writing, notably the story of Uncle Tom. Cotton
Mather’s “ Magnolia Christi Americana” and simi-
lar works vied with the “ Arabian Nights” in hold-
ing her interest, and when she was twelve years old
she wrote an essay entitled “Can the Immortality
of the Soul be proved by the Light of Nature?”
She took the ground that it can not. Mr. Brace,
her teacher, read the essay in her father’s presence
without telling him its origin, and at its close Dr.
Beecher asked with emphasis ‘* Who wrote that?”
Mrs. Stowe, in recording the incident, says: “ It
was the proudest moment of my life. There was
no mistaking my father’s face when he was pleased,
and to have interested him was past all juvenile
triumphs.”
716
The death of Lord Byron, in 1824, was felt by
this sensitive child as a personal loss. She knew
his finest poem by heart, and mourned over his de-
parture from moral rectitude with intense sorrow.
Although she was brought up amid the furnace heat
of theological discussion that marked the Unitarian
movement in the Congregational churches where
Lyman Beecher was set as a beacon of the ancient
faith, there were sweet and steadying influences in
her life that served her well in the stormy periods
of trial. She gives an account of her religious ex-
perience. At the close of one of his sermons set-
ting forth the love of Christ, her father said : “ Come
ye and trust your souls to this faithful friend.” Har-
riet, who was thoughtfully listening, says that a feel-
ing of perfect trust came into her mind, and she adds:
“My whole soul was illumined with joy, and on
leaving the church to walk home it seemed as if Na-
ture herself were hushing her breath to hear the
music of heaven. As soon as father came home and
was seated in his study, I went up to him and fell
in his arms, saying, ‘ Father, I have given myself to
Jesus, and he has taken me.’ ‘Is it so?’ he said,
folding her in his arms, while the tears fell hot on
her forehead. ‘Then has a new flower blossomed
in the kingdom this day.’” The religious impulse
gained in that hour of consecration was the motive
power of Mrs. Stowe’s life and work.
She was placed in school at Hartford, where her
sister Catherine was teacher. She began the study
of Latin by herself, and at the end of the first year
made a metrical translation from Ovid. It was her
ambition to be a poet, and she began a drama en-
titled “Cleon.” ‘The scene is laid in the court of
Nero, and Cleon, who is a noble in the emperor’s
suite, becomes a Christian after long study and
much tribulation. She was so absorbed in this
work that her sister Catherine expostulated with
her, and gave her a class in Butler’s “ Analogy”
to turn her mind into a different channel and dis-
cipline her exuberant fancy. “I instructed girls as
old as myself,” writes Mrs. Stowe, “and was com-
elled to master each chapter just ahead of the class
was teaching.” She read Baxter’s “ Saints’ Rest ”
at this time, and she says: “ As I walked the pave-
ments I used to wish that they might sink beneath
me if only I might find myself in heaven.”
Harriet Beecher had few companions of her
own age. There were two girls, older than her-
self—Catherine Cogswell and Georgiana May—
with whom she formed an intimacy, but her posi-
tion in the school was early that of pupil teacher,
which shut her off from the wholesome and natu-
ral interchange of girlish feeling. The evil effect of
this Harriet realized later. When she was twenty-
one years old she made an effort to rid herself of
the habit of introspection that had become second
nature. She wrote to Georgiana May at this time:
“ As this inner world of mine has become worn out
and untenable, I have at last concluded to come out
of it and live in the external one, and, as F. S——
once advised me, give up the pernicious habit of
meditation. . . . Instead of shrinking into a corner
to notice how other people behave, I am holding
out my hand to the right and to the left, and form-
ing casual or incidental acquaintances with all who
will be acquainted with me. When I used to meet
persons the first inquiry was, ‘ Have they such and
such a character, or have they anything that might
possibly be of use or harm to me?’ The greater
part that I see can not move me deeply. But those
that I Jove—oh, how much that word means! They
may change, they must die, they are separated from
me, and I ask myself why I should wish to love with
all the pains and penalties of such conditions? I
check myself when expressing feelings like this, so
much has been said of it by the sentimental, who
STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER.
talk what they could not have felt. But it is so
deeply, sincerely so in me, that sometimes it will
overflow. Well, there is a heaven, a heaven, a
world of love; and love, after all, is the life blood,
the existence, the all in all of mind.”
In 1826 Dr. Beecher became pastor of a church
in Boston, where he remained for six years, when
he became President of Lane Theological Seminary,
at Cincinnati. Catherine Beecher, with Harriet as
assistant, established a school, which they dreamed
might one day become a college for women. At this
time Harriet made her first literary venture, a school
geography, which was published in Cincinnati. In
the winter of 1833 she won a $50 prize that was
offered by a Western magazine for the best story.
Her story was entitled “ Uncle Lot.” She became
a member of a literary society, and wrote for its
meetings, but most of her time was absorbed by the
extensive scheme that the sisters formed for a system
of schools in Cincinnati. In 1836 Harriet married
Calvin E. Stowe, professor in Lane Seminary.
The gabe rs that arose from the cramped
financial condition of a struggling seminary and
school taxed the willing strength and ingenuity
of Mrs. Stowe to the utmost. During the twelve
years from 1836 to 1848 she gave birth to six chil-
dren. Amid the cares and anxieties of their up-
bringing she prosecuted her literary work, both
for the delight it gave her and for the addition to
the slender pps! purse. Her husband was very
proud of her work in that direction, and had great
faith in her ability. At one time he wrote to her,
“You must make all your calculations to spend the
rest of your life with your pen.” Happily, leisure
and rest and physical strength seem never to have
been necessary to the production of the best litera-
ture. The absorbing power of concentration,
which is one of the compensations of woman’s
nervous organization, was given in full measure to
Mrs. Stowe. When this is associated with rich
spiritual endowments and insight the conditions
are present in which a trained mind may find last-
ing expression in literature. Mrs. Stowe was not
the author of a single book. While “ Uncle Tom’s
Cabin” was the first fruit of her perfected powers,
“Dred” was in some respects its superior in the
same field. This field was opened to Mrs. Stowe
during her residence in Cincinnati. Only the Ohio
river, which played so dramatic a part in the set-
ting of the novel of Uncle Tom, rolled between
her home and homes that were built upon the
slave system. In 1832, when Dr. Beecher removed
to Cincinnati, the border States were beginning to
feel the pressure of conflicting sentiment that had
been gaining in volume since the time when free-
dom and slavery stood face to face in the minds’
and circumstances that produced the Declaration
of Independence. The Beechers were always
ardent antislavery advocates, although not be-
longing to any party or faction of avowed aboli-
tionists. Mrs. Stowe was about eight years old
when the agitation over the question of admitting
Missouri to the Union took place, with the conten-
tion Shall it be free or slave territory? She records
that one of the deepest impressions ever made upon
her mind was produced at that time by the prayers
and sermons of her father and his anguish for the
slave. She says: “I remember his preaching draw-
ing tears down the hardest faces of the old farmers
in his congregation. I well remember his prayers
morning and evening in the family for poor, op-
pressed bleeding Africa, that the time of her deliv-
erance might come: prayers offered with strong
crying and tears, and which indelibly impressed
my heart, and made me what I am from my very
soul—the enemy of all slavery.” She further says:
“Every brother I have has been, in his sphere, a
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STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER.
leading antislavery man. As for myself and hus-
band, we have for the last seventeen years lived on
the border of a slave State, and we have never
shrunk from the fugitives, and we have helped
them with all we had to give. I have received the
children of liberated slaves into a family school,
and taught them with my own children, and it has
been the influence that we found in the Church and
by the altar that has made us do all this.” During
these years some of the incidents which she related
in “Uncle Tom” took place under her own eye.
Uncle Tom himself had his prototype in a slave
who was known to Sat meth 9 Henson—who was
permitted to come and ge freely from Kentucky to
Ohio on his master’s business, but who refused to
avail himself of his extraordinary opportunities for
escape because his word was pledged against such
attempt. The master’s word was also pledged to
give him his freedom in due time; but this pledge
was not kept, and when death overtook him the
faithful servant was sold “ down river.”
The Hon. James G. Birney was a representative
of that fine class of men who, born and reared in
slave States, had yet always abhorred the institu-
tion of slavery, and had looked with hopeful long-
ing for its overthrow by constitutional means. Mr.
Birney in 1835 removed to Cincin-
nati, and there opened the printing
office for an antislavery publication
which he had not been able to es-
tablish in Kentucky. Mrs. Stowe
immediately became his friend and
helper in various ways. His journal
was entitled “The Philanthropist,”
and the associate editor was Dr.
Gamaliel Bailey, who afterward re-
moved to Washington and estab-
lished an antislavery journal in which
Mrs. Stowe’s great story first ap-
Se During the riots in which
fr. Birney’s press was destroyed Lane
Seminary was threatened. Many of
its students were from the South, and
the debates between them and the
distinctly antislavery element at-
tracted by Dr. Beecher’s natural
clientele, beeame so angry and con-
tinuous that little work could be done -<
in regular study. The Board of Trus-
tees, in the absence of Dr. Beecher, -¢-2«-+-*"%
forbade all discussion of the subject
of slavery, and the antislavery stu-
dents immediately withdrew in a
body. This broke up the seminary
organization for the time, although it revived some-
what in the following seventeen years, during
which Dr. Beecher and Prof. Stowe labored for
it. These were years of great privation to their
families. In 1849 Mrs. Stowe lost a child from
cholera.
In 1850 Prof. Stowe accepted the professorship
of Natural and Revealed Religion in Bowdoin
College, Brunswick, Me. He remained at Lane
Seminary until a successor could be obtained, while
Mrs. Stowe, with the family, went to Brunswick to
prepare the new home. Of this experience she
wrote to her sister: “From the time that I left
Cincinnati with my children to come forth to a
country that I knew not of, almost to the present
time it has seemed as if I could scarcely breathe, I
was so pressed with care. My head dizzy with the
whirl of railroads and steamboats, then ten days’
sojourn in Boston, and a constant toil and hurry in
buying my furniture and equipments, and then
landing in Brunswick in the midst. of a drizzly, in-
exorable northeast’ storm, and beginning the work
of getting in order a deserted, dreary, damp old
THE HOUSE IN WHICH “‘ UNCLE TOM’S CABIN ** WAS WRITTEN, BRUNSWICK,
717
home. Then came Mr. Stowe; and then came
July 8 and my little Charlie. During this time
I have employed my leisure hours in making
up engagements with newspaper editors. I have
written more than anybody or I myself would have
thought. I have taught an hour a day in our
school, and I have read two hours every evening to
the children.”
In this year, 1850, the compromise measures that
included the fugitive-slave law and the admission
of California as a free State were passed by Congress
and signed by President Fillmore. The compro-
mises really satisfied nobody. The fugitive-slave
law stirred the Northern mind to its depths. Espe-
cially in Boston were people wrought to the highest
pitch of excitement, and colored residents fled to
Canada. Up to this time Mrs. Stowe had written
nothing on the subject of slavery. She said there
“was a sort of general impression upon her mind
that the subject was so dark and painful, so involved
in difficulty and obscurity, so utterly beyond human
hope or help, that it was of no use to read, or think,
or distress one’s self about it.” Slavery seemed to
be advancing from a tolerated institution to a pro-
tected one. All Mrs, Stowe’s memories of what she
had seen and known rose to haunt her mind, and at
MAINE.
this time she received a letter from a sister-in-law
which contained this passage: “If I could use the
pen as you can I would write something that would
make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing
sluvery is.” She read the letter aloud to the family,
and when she came to the passage just quoted she
exclaimed in a tone that her children never forgot:
“T will write something. I will if I live.” From
this moment the purpose burned in her soul and
blended itself with her devotions. She was one day
reading an account of the crossing of the Ohio river
on an ice floe by a slave woman and her child, when
the “something” that was to be written began to
take the form of a novel. The first portion written
was the scene in which Uncle Tom died. She was
attending communion service when the incidents
rose so vividly to her imagination that she was com-
pelled to leave the church lest her sobbing should
attract attention. She sat down at once and wrote
with a torrent of feeling and expression. As her
husband was away from home, when she had finished
she called her two little sons and read the manuscript
tothem. They cried as if their hearts would break,
718
and one of them said: “O mamma, slavery is the
most cursed thing in the world!” From that time
the book seemed to take its own way in her mind
and heart. Scene after scene, incident after inci-
dent, seemed ready for her pen. The writing was
done during the morning, at a little desk in the
dining room of the Brunswick house. No distrac-
tions—and they were serious and constant—were
powerful enough to call her mind away from her
creation. At evening the day’s installment was
read to the family, and the intense feeling it called
forth proved to be a precursor of the fortune that
awaited the most dramatic and fervent presentation
that ever has been made of a great moral cause and
urpose. When the first chapters were written
rs. Stowe wrote to Dr. Bailey, and offered it to
him asa serial for “ The National Era.” He at once
accepted it, and for nine months it ran in the paper,
rousing but little interest beyond the small circle
of the journal’s subscribers. Before it was con-
eluded John P. Jewett, of Boston, a young and un-
known publisher (who was a member of the Anti-
slavery Society and had written newspaper articles
on the subject), applied for the opportunity to pro-
duce it in book form. The request was complied
with; but as the story ran on he became alarmed
at its length, and wrote to Mrs. Stowe that it should
be shaped to proper proportions for a one-volume
novel. She replied that she was not making the
story, it was making itself, and she seemed to have
no power to curtail or enlarge. Mr. Jewett hesi-
tated, but he gave the manuscript toa man in whom
he had great confidence, and on his report that he
had sat up all night because he was unable to lay
the book aside, he concluded to risk the length.
Mrs. Stowe had written much with a view to eking
out the slender family income, but of “ Uncle Tom”
as a business venture she had not thought at all.
It was her contribution to the moral and religious
life and progress of her beloved land and its inhab-
itants. It was a “strong crying” to the God of
nations to release a race from bondage. When it
was ended the reaction and revulsion of feeling
was in proportion to the height and strain of the
achievement. She sank into a despondent mood, in
which she believed herself to have failed of her pur-
ose, and fancied that nothing could stay the tide.
ndeed, this feeling overtook her when the essential
moral work was done, and the closing scenes of the
novel bear witness to the mental fatigue in which
the perfunctory work of “ winding up ” the tale was
done. The story of Uncle Tom was to have its
real completion in seas of the blood of her own
countrymen and friends.
Great surprises awaited her. The first was in the
immediate and tremendous success of the novel in
book form. It was published on March 20, 1852,
and 3,000 copies were sold the first day. Within a
few days 10,000 had been called for, and on April la
second edition went to press. From that time eight
presses, running day and night, could not keep pace
with the demand. Within a year, 300,000 copies
had been sold. The friends of the slave system im-
mediately recognized its danger, and there was
bitter denunciation of the book. Mrs, Stowe had
pictured the slaveholder as capable of the highest
virtue and loveliness of character, as the victim of
circumstances that long preceded his birth; she had
shown the pleasant side of slavery, and also that it
had another and terrible side. The second great
surprise for Mrs, Stowe was in the matter of money.
Four months after the appearance of the book Prof.
Stowe went into the publisher's office. “ How much
does Mrs. Stowe expect?” asked Mr. Jewett. ‘She
hopes for enough to buy a new silk dress,” was
the answer. He was given a check for $10,000.
The success of the book in England was as great
STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER.
as in the United States. In the first week of its ~
appearance there, in April, 7,000 copies were sold.
By July it was being called for at the rate of
1,000 a week, and at the end of August the demand
was so great that 400 people were busy prepar-
ing it, 17 printing machines, besides hand presses,
being in use. Within a year 18 different London
houses were publishing it, at all manner of prices.
From April to December, 1852, 12 different editions
—not reissues—were published. Mr.Sampson Low,
the London publisher, said : “I am able pretty con-
fidently to say that the aggregate number of copies
circulated in Great Britain and the colonies exceeds
1,500,000.”
Mrs. Stowe sent copies, accompanied by personal
letters that pleaded the slave’s cause, to caulay,
Dickens, the Earl of Carlisle, Prince Albert, Charles
Kingsley, and the Earl of Shaftesbury. Macaulay’s
brief letter of acknowledgment suggests what had
been shown before, that the great writer who knew
English history so well had no interest in American
affairs. He said: “I sincerely thank you for the
volumes which you have done me the honor to send
me. I have read them—I can not say with pleas-
ure, but with high respect for the talents and for
the benevolence of the writer.” Dickens wrote:
“T have read your book with the deepest interest
and sympathy, and admire, more than I can ex-
press to you both the generous feeling which inspired
it and the admirable power with which it is exe-
euted. If I might suggest a fault in what has so
charmed me, it: would be that you go too far and
seek to prove too much. The wrongs and atrocities
of slavery are, God knows! case enough. I doubt
there being any warrant for making out the Afri-
can race to be a great race, or for supposing the fu-
ture destinies of the world to lie in that direction ;
and I think this extreme championship likely to
repel some useful sympathy a 8 support.” Lord
Carlisle wrote: “ I have allowed some time to
elapse before I thanked you for the great honor
and kindness you did me in sending to me from
yourself a copy of ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin.’ I thought
it due to the subject of which I perceived that it
treated not to send a mere acknowledgment. It is
not in the stiff and conventional form of compli-
ment, still less in the technical language of criti-
cism, that I am about to speak of your work. I re-
turn my deep and solemn thanks to Almighty God,
who has led and enabled you to write such a book.
I do feel, indeed. the most thorough assurance that,
in his good providence. such a book can not have
been written in vain. I have long felt that slavery
is by far the topping question of the world and age
we live in, including all that is most thrilling in
heroism and most touching in distress—in short,
the real epic of the universe. The self-interest of
the parties most nearly concerned on the one hand,
the apathy and ignorance of unconcerned observers
on the other, have left these august pretensions to
drop very much out of sight, and hence my rejoic-
ing that a writer has appeared who will be read
and must be felt, and that, happen what may to
the transactions of slavery, they will no longer be
suppressed, No one can know so well as you how
much the external appearance of the negro detracts
from the romance and sentiment which undoubted-
ly might attach to his position and to his wrongs;
and on this account it does seem to me proportion-
ately important that you should have brought to
your portraiture great grace of style, great power of
language, a play of humor which relieves and light-
ens even the dark depth of the background which
you were called upon to reveal, a force of pathos
which, to give it the highest praise, does not lag be-
hind all the dread reality, and, above all, a variety,
a discrimination, and a truth in the delineation of
a STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER. 719
character which, even to my own scanty and lim-
ited experience of the society you describe, ac-
credits itself instantaneously and _ irresistibly.”
Charles Kingsley wrote: “I can not tell you how
pleased I am to see coming from across the Atlantic
a really healthy indigenous growth— autochthones,’
free from all second- and third-hand Germanisms
and Italianisms, and all other unrealisms. I pay
you a compliment in saying that I have actually
not read it through. It is too painful. I can not
bear the sight of misery and wrong that I can do
nothing to alleviate. 1 can not resist transcribing
_a few lines which I received this morning from an
excellent critic: ‘To my mind, it is the greatest
novel ever written, and though it will seem strange,
it reminded me in a lower sphere more of Shakes-
re than anything modern I have ever read; not
in the style, nor in the humor, nor in the pathos,
though itva set me crying worse than Cordelia did
at sixteen, but in the many-sidedness, and, above
all, in that marvelous clearness of insight and out-
sight which makes it seemingly impossible for her
to see any one of her characters without showing
him or her at once as a distinct man or woman dif-
ferent from all others.’” Lord Shaftesbury wrote :
“It would be out of place here to enumerate the
various beauties, singular, original, and lasting,
which shine throughout the work. One conviction,
however, isconstantly present to my mind the convic-
tion that the Gospel alone can elevate the intellect
even, to the highest point. None but a Christian
believer could have produced such a book as yours,
which has absolutely startled the whole world.”
This exposition of vital religion through a pic-
ture of its power to influence the life in the deepest
sorrow and humiliation is the truest source of its
immortality. Among the multitude of testimonies
to the book’s religious effect is the following ex-
tract from the writings of Heinrich Heine: “ As-
tonishing! that after I have whirled about all my life
over all the dance floors of philosophy, and yielded
myself to all the orgies of the intellect, and paid
my addresses to all possible systems without satis-
faction, I now find myself on the same standpoint
where poor Uncle Tom stands, on that of the Bible.
I kneel down by my black brother in the same
prayer! What a humiliation! With all my sci-
ence, I have come no farther than the poor, igno-
rant negro, who has scarce learned to spell. Poor
Tom, indeed, seems to have seen deeper things in
the holy book than I.” It is a result-producing
volume. The evidences are many that it was a
mighty lever in the pressure of events that culmi-
nated in the emancipation proclamation. Presi-
dent Lincoln, who had an inborn hatred of slavery,
‘was yet as anxious as Henry Clay to put nothing
before the preservation of the Union. Mrs. Stowe
was present when, in delivering his second inaug-
ural address, he uttered the memorable words:
Eine F do we hope, fervently do os pray, that
this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away.
Yet if God wills that it continue until all the wealth
piled by the bondman’s two hundred and fifty years
of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every
drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by
another drawn with the sword, as was said three
thousand years ago, so still it must be said ‘the
judgments of the Lord are true and righteous alto-
gether.’ ”
The bibliography of “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin ” is re-
markable. In the British Museum may be fourd
all the English editions, including their abridg-
ments, extracts, and adaptations either poetical or
dramatic, and all the translations into 19 languages
—namely, Armenian, Bohemian, Danish, Dutch, Fin-
nish, Flemish, French, German, Hungarian or Mag-
yar, Illyrian, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Romaic or
‘
modern Greek, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Walla-
chian, and Welsh—with their abridgments, extracts,
and adaptations. There is also an appendix to the
Uncle Tom Library there, which contains critical
notices that appeared separately or in reviews,
magazines, and newspapers.
Of the original two-volume edition (Boston, 1852)
110,000 copies were issued in 1852. Twenty-one
English editions appeared in 1852 and 15 English
and Seotch editions in 1853. There was no inter-
national copyright, and anybody that pleased could
print and sell the book in Great Britain. Many of
these editions were illustrated, and a few were
abridgments or adaptations. Two editions were
published in Paris in 1852 and six in 1853, besides
a dramatization. An edition and a drama were
issued in Paris in 1859. There was one German
edition in 1852, six in 1853, one in-1854, and one in
1856, besides dramas and abridgments. Most of
the editions in the other countries mentioned in the
British Museum list appeared within one year of
the original appearance of the book. The first
Russian edition was issued in 1858, and a second in
1865. The Greek edition appeared in 1860, the Swed-
ish in 1868. The book was translated into dialects as
well as languages, some of the latter being Oriental.
When it appeared in Siamese a noble lady freed
her 125 slaves after reading it.
The furore caused by the appearance of “Uncle
Tom’s Cabin” naturally caused adverse as well as
favorable criticism. Mrs. Stowe was called upon
by friends and foes to substantiate her story. If
the book was not true to real life it was a mockery ;
and if it was, the grounds for such a picture must
be set forth. This demand set her pen at work
again, and the “Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin” was
published in about a year.
In the meantime great changes had come to the
domestic life of the family. Prof. Stowe accepted
a call to the chair of Sacred Literature in Andover
Theological Seminary, and Mrs. Stowe took posses-
sion of the new home under more favorable aus-
pices than formerly. She had become possessed of
comparative wealth, so that the strain of poverty
was gone, She had an enormous correspondence, a
large portion of which consisted of appeals from
emancipation societies for pecuniary and moral
help. The new home in Andover was an old stone
building which had served as a workshop and a
mnasium, and Mrs. Stowe found great pleasure
in turning it into a cheerful home. She wrote to
her husband: “It seems almost too good to be true
that we are going to have such a house in sucha
beautiful place, and to live here among all these
agreeable people, where everybody seems to love
you so much and think so much of you. I am
almost afraid to accept it, and should not if I did
not see the Hand that gives it all, and know that it
is both firm and true. He knows if it is best for
us, and his blessing addeth no sorrow therewith.
I can not describe the constant undercurrent of
love and joy and peace ever flowing through my
soul. I am so happy—so blessed!” While working
upon the * Key,” she wrote: “I am now [February,
1853] writing a work which will contain, perhaps,
an equal amount of matter with ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin.’
It will contain all the facts and documents on which
that story was founded, and an immense body of
facts, reports and trials, legal documents, and testi-
mony of people now living South, which will more
than confirm every statement of ‘Uncle Tom’s
Cabin.’”
When this book was completed, in the spring,
Mrs. Stowe took a greatly needed rest, accompanied
by her husband and her brother Charles. She vis-
ited Europe, where she made multitudes of friends.
The years 1855-56 were devoted largely to the
490 STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER.
writing of her novel “ Dred: A Tale of the Great
Dismal Swamp.” It is a powerful story, and, like
its predecessor, was aimed at the slave system. It
is a more artistic novel than “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin,”
and as its scenes are not so excruciating in the por-
trayal of misery, it is in some respects more effect-
ive. Its special object was to reveal the social de-
tericration produced by slavery. When the book
was finished Mrs. Stowe sought change and rest
again in Europe, this time being accompanied by
her husband, her two eldest daughters, her son
Henry, and her sister Mary (Mrs. Thomas Perkins,
of Hartford), Prof. Stowe and Henry returned
home, the daughters were placed at school in Paris,
and Mrs. Stowe and her sister spent the winter in
Italy. They returned to Andover in June, 1857.
Mrs. Stowe came back laden with honors and happy
in the continued evidence of the good results of her
work. But a terrible shock awaited her, produced
by the drowning of her son Henry, a blow from
which she was long in recovering. The “ Atlantic
Monthly ” was established in 1857, and its editor,
James Russell Lowell, asked Mrs, Stowe for a serial.
The result was “The Minister’s Wooing,” which
began in December, 1858. It was published in book
form a year later, and gave testimony to the versa-
tility of its author’s genius. In 1859 the family
again went to England. This and the previous
journey were partly planned for the sake of secur-
ing copyright abroad in the only way it could then
be secured—that of actual residence. The -winter
was again passed in Italy, and “ Agnes of Sorrento”
bore evidence to the interest and value of the visits.
This tale was published serially. and as a book in
1862. “The Pearl of Orr’s Island: A Story of the
Coast of Maine,” was published the same year. In
1863 Prof. Stowe resigned his professorship, and
the family removed to Hartford, Conn., where Mrs.
Stowe had associations of girlhood, and where two
of her sisters were then living. Her ‘“ House-and-
Home Papers” appeared in the “Atlantic” in
1864, and “ Old-Town Folks” in 1869.
Frederick Beecher Stowe, her son, had been so
seriously wounded during his service in the civil
war that it was deemed advisable that he should
spend the winters in a warmer climate. The Stowes
accordingly purchased an orange plantation in Man-
darin, F'la., and thenceforth spent their winters on it.
When the “Christian Union” was founded by
her brother, Henry Ward Beecher, Mrs. Stowe be-
came a frequent contributor to it. Prof. Stowe was
an invalid for several years before his death, in Au-
gust, 1886, and his wife was his constant companion,
After he was taken from her she continued to live
in the seclusion that had been necessary for him,
and that soon became equally necessary to her own
waning powers. She had a gentle failing, long
continued after active interest in the life that had
found in her an intense and eager lover had almost
ceased. She passed away quietly in her Hartford
home, full of years and honors. Her life is not
_only indissolubly connected with the greatest crisis
this land has ever known, but that crisis was prob-
ably hastened and was given something of its defi-
niteness and purpose by her wonderful ability to
feel and to portray her feeling. The list of her
books, omitting those already mentioned, is as fol-
lows: “Geography for my Children ” (Boston, 1855);
“Our Charley, and what to do with him” (1858);
“Reply in Behalf of the Women of America to the
Christian Address of many Thousand Women of
Great Britain ” (1863); “The Ravages of a Carpet ”
(1864); “ Religious Poems” (1865) ; “Stories about
our Dogs” (1865); “ Little Foxes” (1865); “ Queer
Little People” (1867); “ Daisy’s First Winter, and
Other Stories ” (1867): ‘“The Chimney Corner, by
Christopher Crowfield” (1868) ; ‘Men of our Times”
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(Hartford, 1868) ; “The American Woman’s Home,”
with her sister Catherine (Philadelphia, 1869);
“Little Pussy Willow ” (Boston, 1870); “ Pink and
White Tyranny” (1871); “Sam Lawson’s Fireside
Stories” (1871); “My Wife and I” (1872); * Pal-
metto Leaves” (1873); “ Betty’s Bright Idea, and
Other Tales” (1875); “We and Our Neighbors”
(1875); “ Footsteps of the Master” (1876); “ Bible
Heroines” (1878); ‘“‘ Poganue People” (1878); and
“A Dog’s Mission ” (1881).
SUNDAY-SCHOOL CONVENTION, INTER-
NATIONAL. The thirteenth National and eighth
International Sunday-school Convention met in
Boston, Mass, June 23, The Hon, S. B. Capen pre-
sided. The statistical report of Sunday schools of
all denominations in the United States showed a
gain during the past three years of 10,171 Sunday
schools, 98,634 teachers, and 1,239,334 pupils, the
whole number being now 142,089 Sunday schools
and 11,556,806 pupils. Including the United States,
Canada, Newfoundland, and Salvador, the whole
number of members of Sunday schools was 13,033,-
175. The Executive Committee reported concern-
ing the results of the four meetings which it had
held during the past three years, among the re-
sults of which were the adoption of the home-
class department as a department of International
Sunday-school work; a recommendation to States,
etc., to increase the amount pledged by them toa
total sum of nearly $12,000 a year; the appoint-
ment of a special finance committee, of a field su-
perintendent for work among colored people, and
of a committee to superintend the work; and the
adoption of a resolution expressing preference for
one lesson only for the whole Sunday school, with
a suggestion to the lesson committee concerning
an optional course for primary classes, if the com-
mittee should conclude to try that plan. The
work of organization might now be considered ~
thorough in 15 States. Two States and 2 Territo-
ries were unorganized. Field workers, missionaries,
and secretaries were employed in 23 States. The
primary department of the Sunday schools had the
first place in consideration. In 6 States.and 1
province qualified primary teachers were employed
as State workers, and primary unions were forming
in the cities and larger towns. Increased interest
was reported in the training of teachers and in nor-
mal classes. The report of the Lesson Committee
referred to the criticism which had been made con-
cerning the systems of selections for biblical study
which it had adopted. and added: “Unless there
had been great vitality in the system, it would have
collapsed under the assaults, but it still survives.
A few hundred have left us, but what are these
compared with the millions that remain? The
‘Sunday-school Journal’ says that the uniform In-
ternational Lessons are taught under the Methodist
Episcopal Church in nearly 20 languages through-
out the world, while the American Baptist Publi-
cation Society has announced that the circulation
of the lesson helps has increased 192,000 copies dur-
ing the current quarter. It does not seem necessary
to enter more into a discussion of our work. Scarce-
ly an objection has been raised which was not an-
ticipated and answered when the system was
adopted in 1872.” The convention directed the
present system of International Lessons to be con-
tinued, stipulating that one temperance lesson
should be given every quarter. A Lesson Com-
mittee was appointed for the ensuing three years.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two kingdoms in
northern Europe, united, in accordance with the
treaty of Kiel, made Jan. 14, 1814, in the person of
the sovereign. The throne in both monarchies de-
scends to the heirs of the house of Bernadotte. Af-
fairs common to the two monarchies are referred to
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
a mixed Council of State. The reigning King is
Osear II, born Jan. 21, 1829, who succeeded Carl
XV, his brother, Sept. 18, 1872. :
Sweden.—The legislative power is vested in the
iksdag, consisting of two houses. The First
Chamber has 150 members, elected by the pro-
vincial and municipal bodies for nine years. The
Second Chamber has 230 members, of whom 80 are
elected for three years in the towns and 130 in the
rural districts by natives of Sweden possessing or
' farming land of a certain value or paying an in-
come tax on 800 kronor a year. The qualified elect-
ors constitute only 6-2 per cent. of the population,
and fewer than half of them voted in 1893. The
_ Council of State in the beginning of 1896 was com-
of the following members: Minister of State,
Gustaf Bostrém ; Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Count L. Douglas; Minister of Justice, August
tergren ; Minister of the Interior, Victor Lennart
Groll; Minister of Finance, C. R. Wersill ; Minis-
ter of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Gustaf
Fredrik Gilljam; Minister of War, Baron A. E.
Rappe; Minister of Marine, Jarl Casimir Eugéne
Christerson; Councilors of State, Baron Albert Lars
Evert Akerhielm and Sven Herman Wikblad.
Area and Population.—Sweden has an area of
172,876 square miles. The population on Dec. 31,
1895, was estimated at 4,919,260, of whom 2,389,260
are males and 2,530,000 females. The number of
marriages in 1894 was 27,851; of births, 134,866 ;
of deaths, 82.901; excess of births, 51,965. The
number of emigrants in 1894 was 13,358, against 40,-
869 in 1893, 45,504 in 1892, 42,776 in 1891, and 34,-
212 in 1890. Stockholm, the capital, had 271,638
inhabitants at the end of 1895.
Finances.—The revenue is estimated in the
budget for 1897 at 111,731,000 kronor (1 krona =
26°8 cents), of which 20,655,000 kronor are ordinary
receipts, 8,296,000 kronor are carried over from the
receding budget, 2,700,000 kronor are profits made
br the state bank in 1895, and 80,080,000 kronor
are called extraordinary receipts. Of the ordinary
receipts 2,155,000 kronor are proceeds of the land
tax, 1,400,000 tonnage dues, 2,300,000 rent of do-
mains, 665,000 poll tax, 8,500,000 net receipts of
railroads, 1,410,000 telegraph receipts, 3,000,000
produce of forests, and 1,225,000 miscellaneous
receipts. Of the extraordinary receipts 37,000,-
000 nor come from customs, 8,580,000 from
the office, 5,000,000 from stamped paper,
15,000,000 from the tax on
spirits, 8,500,000 from
the duty on sugar made from beets, 5,200,000
from the tax on incomes, and 800,000 from miscel-
laneous sources. The total expenditures balance
the estimated receipts. Of the ordinary expendi-
ture, estimated at 79,214,710 kronor, 1,320,000 kro-
nor are for the King’s household, 3.815.250 for jus-
tice, 606,750 for foreign affairs, 25,987,920 for the
army, 7,046,300 for the navy, 5,700,560 for the in-
terior, 13,500,440 for education and worship, 3,286,-
090 for pensions, and 17,951,400 for financial ad-
ministration. Of this last sum 2,628,000 kronor are
the cost of collecting customs duties, 450,000 are
for the control of the excise, 8,310,000 the cost of
the postal service, 1,410,000 expenses of telegraphs,
1,143,200 the expense of the forests, and 4,010,200
other expenses. The extraordinary expenditures
are 18,871.190 kronor, of which 10,205,840 are for
the mie ee navy and 8,665,350 for various pur-
poses. e interest and amortization of the debt
require 11,445,100 kronor, the reserve for the insur-
ance of workmen against disability is 1,400,000
kronor, and 800,100 kronor are carried over.
The public debt on Jan. 1, 1896, amounted to
287,505,967 -kronor, of which 250,192,467 kronor
represent foreign loans raised at various periods be-
tween 1880 and 1894 at 34 and 3 per cent. and 37,-
VOL, Xxxvi.—46 A
721
313,500 kronor are the outstanding portion of an
internal loan raised in 1887 3°6 per cent. The loans
were expended almost exclusively for the construc-’
tion of railroads.
The Army and Navy.—The principal part of
the active army is formed of the indelta or can-
toned troops and the vdrfvade or enlisted troops.
The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars, artillery, and
engineers are enlisted for two years or more, up to
eight years. The organization was modified on
Dec. 2, 1892, by putting into operation the law of
1885 introducing universal liability to serve eight
— in the bewdring and eight in the landstorm.
n time of peace the length of service with the col-
ors is ninety days. The bewdring troops are dis-
tributed among the vérfvade and the indelta. In
the new organization the infantry is formed into 26
regiments and 2 battalions. The line is armed with
Remingtons of 8°8 millimetres caliber. There are 8
regiments of cavalry and 6 regiments and 6 batter-
ies of field artillery, or 40 batteries in all, with 240
guns. The effective of the active army in 1896 was
1,953 officers, 571 employees, 1,779 noncommissioned
officers, 1,641 musicians, and 38,802 men, with 6,852
horses. The war effective is 272,994 men, besides
180,000 in the Jandstorm.
The navy comprises 4 turret ships, with 10-inch
armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and 4 59-inch
guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450
tons, 4 armor-clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3
corvettes, 9 first-class and 5 second-class gunboats,
2 to 0 cruisers, 7 first-class and 9 second-class
torpedo boats, 5 torpedo launches, and 1 school ship.
The navy is manned by 267 officers and 2,624 sailors,
besides 1,957 sailors of the indelta.
Commerce.— The total value of the imports in
1894, inclusive of specie, was 351,173,000 kronor,
and of exports 298,625,000 kronor. The principal
imports and their values were: Coal, 33,969,000
kronor; rye and wheat, 31,354,000 kronor ; coffee,
26,999,000 kronor; woolen goods, 17,558,000 kronor;
machinery, 10,962,000 kronor; iron goods, 9,690,000
kronor; hides and skins, 8,396,000 kronor; woolen
yarns, 7,338,000 kronor; tobacco, 7,246,000 kronor ;
cotton goods, 7,009,000 kronor: fish, 6.882,000 kro-
nor; petroleum, 6,255,000 kronor; sugar, 5,535,000
kronor; vegetable oils, 5,447,000 kronor; wood
manufactures, 4,890,000 kronor; wool, 4,747,000
kronor; pork products, 4,455,000 kronor; paper,
3,599,000 kronor. The principal exports were:
Timber, 113,962,000 kronor; butter, 40,122,000
kronor; iron, 31,313,000 kronor; oats, 12,584,000
kronor; wood pulp. 9,309,000 kronor; fish, 8.846,-
000 kronor; matches, 7,352,000 kronor; paper,
6,011,000 kronor; machinery, 4,507,000 kronor;
iron manufactures, 4,458,000 kronor; glass, 4,507,-
000 kronor; animals, 4,046,000 kronor; cotton
goods, 2,909,000 kronor. Of late years Sweden has
been compelled to import cereals, and the imports
of wheat and rye now exceed in value the grain ex-
ports, which are mostly oats. The change has arisen
from the increased demand for improved breadstuffs
for home use and the increased use of grain in feed-
ing cattle. The exports of oats, chiefly to England,
have fallen off one half, and now amount to about
10,000,000 bushels per annum. Of the 7,000,000
bushels of wheat consumed annually half is import-
ed from Germany, Denmark, and Russia. About
6,000,000 bushels of rye are imported from Russia
and, in the form of flour, from Germany. The dairy
interest of Sweden is steadily expanding. Owing
to the use of improved methods and appliances,
dairy produce, chiefly butter, now ranks second in
the export trade. American pork used to meet
with a free sale in Sweden, but the demand has de-
clined since the duty was increased, and since
Swedish farmers have begun to raise pigs on a large
722
scale Sweden is becoming a competitor of the
United States. The chief source of national in-
come is the lumber export trade. The forest area
in 1894 was 46,663,404 acres, of which 14,800,000
‘acres, valued at about $1 an acre, belong to the
Crown and yield a net income of about $335.000 a
year. The Crown preserves are managed with scru-
pulous care on the principle that the increase alone
may be cut and that the forest shall stand forever
on all Crown lands unsuitable for cultivation. The
Government has, moreover, entered upon an exten-
sive and practical system of planting forests upon
desolate and uncultivated areas. These measures
have influenced the owners of private forests, es-
pecially the large proprietors, to manage their tim-
ber lands also as permanent sources of income. It
is probable, therefore, that the vast forests of Swe-
den, on which considerable inroads have been made
heretofore, will be henceforth preserved and main-
tained substantially as they stand to-day.
The commerce with the different countries in
1894 is shown in the following table, giving the
values in kronor:
COUNTRIES. Imports Exports.
NOYVWAY.< 8,491,000 6.715.000
ROUPMIINGS 5 0000 tas oe vn awe de 8,999,000 4,739,000
SRR Se chee cane ee 767,000 12,900,000
SOUREUERD Orcs oc cae otek 511,000 1,091,000
MUG ce dacdcae ys Geass saeseus 1,311,000 3,796,000
United States 2.2... 22.2... 7,798,000 699,000
Other countries............ 3,035,000 4,466,000
EWM se eb aleshas oo ackees 222,310,000 137,280,000
Political A ffairs.—The Odelsthing on March 13
by a vote of 44 to 40 a bill for the recogni-
tion of a separate Norwegian flag after rejecting an
amendment made by the Premier with the object
of postponing the discussion. The whole Left
voted for the proposition, while the minority con-
sisted of the members of the Right and the Moder-
ates. Alterations in the customs tariff were adopted
on June 30, and a commission was appointed to
draft a complete revision of the tariff in the direc-
tion of the protection of native industries.
SWITZERLAND. a federal republic in central
Europe, consisting of 27 cantons and independent
half cantons. The Federal Assembly is composed
of the Nationalrath, containing 147 members, elect-
ed by direct universal adult male suffrage for three
years, and the Stinderath, containing 2 members
from each canton or half canton. The executive
authority is vested in the Bundesrath, consisting of
7 members chosen by the Federal Assembly, one of
whom is elected annually in December to serve as
President of the Federation for the coming year, and
another to serve as Vice-President. The Federal
Council in 1896 was composed as follows: Presi-
dent and Chief of the Political Department, Adrien
Lachenal, of Geneva; Vice-President and Chief of
the Department of Industry and Agriculture,
Adolphe Deucher, of Thurgau; Chief of the De-
bors car of Military Affairs, Emil Frey, of Basel-
and ; Chief of the Department of Justice and Po-
lice, Lieut.-Col. A. von Wattenswyl, of Bern; Chief
of the Department of Finance and Customs, W.
Hauser, of Zurich; Chief of the Department of
Posts and Railroads, J. Zemp, of Lucerne. On Dec.
17, 1894, the Federal Assembly elected Adolphe
Deucher President and M. Ruffy, of Lausanne, Vice-
President for 1897. The Assembly also re-elected
the members of the Federal Council for a new tri-
ennial term.
Area and Population.—Switzerland hasan area
of 15,976 square miles. The estimated population
in 1894 was 2,986,848. The number of marriages in
1895 was 22,681; of births, 88,184; of deaths, 62.-
958 ; excess of births, 25.226. The number of emi-
grants over the sea in 1895 was 4,266, of whom 3,708
724
went to the United States. In 1894 the emigration
was 3,849; in 1893, 6,177; in 1892, 7,885; in 1891,
7,516. The population of Zurich in 1896 was 149,-
081; of Basel, 88,853; of Geneva, 80,782; of Bern,
the seat of Government, 48,678. Popular education
in Switzerland is encouraged and developed in a re-
markable degree. There were in 1893 679 infant
schools, with 816 teachers and 29,482 pupils; 8,891
primary schools, with 9,478 teachers and 469,820
pupils ; 485 secondary schools, with 1,465 teachers
and 31,871 pupils ; 30 preparatory schools, with 717
teachers and 8,531 pupils ; 38 normal schools, with
362 teachers and 7,049 pupils. Food and clothing
are provided gratuitously for children in elemen-
tary schools who live at adistance. In cantons where
the population is mixed Protestant and Roman
Catholic, religious instruction is given at stated
hours, and children whose parents desire them to
receive only a secular education may absent them-
selves. In Protestant cantons Roman Catholic chil-
dren receive instruction in the elements of Christi-
anity with their Protestant schoolmates until they
reach the age when their own pastors prepare them
for confirmation. The professional and industrial
schools number 174, with 7,049 students, and in the
7 universities there were 431 professors and 3,108
students in 1895, exclusive of 634 attendants at lec-
tures who are not candidates for degrees. These
latter are for the most part women, Of the regular
students 1,334 were foreigners.
Finances.—The Federal revenue for 1895 was
81,005,586 frances, of which 48,279,276 francs came
from customs, 25,791,435 francs from posts, 6,093,-
447 francs from telegraphs and telephones, 429,035
francs from railroads, 185,834 francs from bank
notes, 175,202 frances from industry and agriculture,
2,338,178 frances from military arsenals, 6,834 francs
from justice and police, 367,542 francs from the po-
litical department, 51,881 francs from the general
administration, 519,261 francs from real property,
and 1,712,219 francs from invested capital. The to-
tal expenditures were 76,402,631 francs, of which
4,276,596 francs were for interest and sinking fund
of the debt, 1,071,080 francs for general administra-
tion, 1,003,900 francs for the political department,
9,372,716 franes for the interior, 183,140 franes for
justice and police, 23,012,361 francs for military
affairs, 4,008,962 francs for finance and customs,
3,228,358 francs for industry and agriculture, 30,-
210,161 frances for posts and railroads, and 35,357
for unforeseen expenses. The Federal debt on Jan.
1, 1896, amounted to 80,963,467 francs and the pro-
ductive capital of the Government to 164,852,906
francs, including 20,052,722 francs of.special funds.
Commerce.—The imports of merchandise in 1895
were valued at 915,856,000 francs, and exports at
663,260,000 francs. The imports of specie were 64,-
264,000 franes; exports, 41,068,000 frances. The
principal imports were: Silk, 130,600,000 francs ;
cereals and flour, 88,900,000 francs; animals, 76,-
300,000 frances; woolens, 44,600,000 frances: coal, .
41,300,000 frances ; wine, 32,500,000 francs ; cotton,
32,400,000 francs ; chemicals, 30,300,000 francs ; cot-
ton goods, 29,300,000 franes; iron, 26,200,000 francs;
machines and carriages, 23,800,000 francs ; timber,
17,800,000 frances; iron goods, 17.600,000 francs ;
sugar, 17,000,000 franes ; coffee, 16,900,000 franes ;
leather, 18,500,000 frances; barley, malt, and hops,
13,100,000 franes ; wool, 11,300,000 francs; books,
9,600,000 franes ; silks, 9,100,000francs. The values
of the chief exports were: Silks, 135,100,000 franes ;
cottons, 111,800,000 franes; watches, 90,000,000
francs; raw silk, 40,300,000 franes ; cheese, 3'7,700,-
000 franes ; silk yarn, 34,900,000 franes ; machinery
and carriages, 26,200,000 francs; chemical products,
22,100,000 franes; milk, 18,900,000 franes ; cotton
yarn, 18,200,000 francs ; animals, 14,400,000 francs ;
SWITZERLAND.
straw goods, 10,600,000 francs ; woolen yarn, 9,700,-
000 franes ; hides, 8,500,000 frances.
Articles of food and drink constituted 22°8 per
cent. of the imports and 9°7 per cent. of the exports
in 1895; animals, 10°3 per cent. of the imports and
2-4 per cent. of the exports; raw materials, 40°2 per
cent. of the imports and 9°6 per cent. of the exports;
manufactured products, 26-7 per cent. of the imports
and 783 per cent. of the exports.
The commerce in 1895 is shown in the following
table, giving the values in franes :
COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports.
Germany.cscacivcee veniees teen 273,891,000 164,411,000
Branco. 4 irs iseseaevseaters 38,459,000 524,
Italy sos dso euvarwsmpaemenetee 157,559,000 39,210,000
Austria-Hungary .............. 67,816,000 225,
Great. Brifaigi..s concen anes 85,597,000 23,815,000
ALPMGGS 2 astacte Manet ese oe Ese 15,464,000 5,217,000
Australasia: i2cz tess beara 4,964,000 1,900,000
Other counties .4 hia seccanestie | eee ome 3,328,000
Total merchandise......... 915,856,000 663,260,000
Communications.—The railroads on Jan. 1,
1895, had a length of 2,218 miles. The pos
in 1895 carried 83,351,000 internal and 35,603,000
international letters, 21,352,000 internal and 9,745,-
000 international postal cards, 26,744,000 internal
and 19,914,000 international newspapers and circu-
lars, and 4,169,000 internal and 847,000 international
money orders of the values of 457,501,000 and 38,-
311,000 franes. The length of the Government
ert aps o lines in 1895 was 4,442 miles, with 12,502
miles of wire. The number of dispatches was 3,949,-
904, of which 1,810,338 were internal, 1,442,117 in-
ternational, 554,957 in transit, and 140,492 official.
Public Affairs——A National Exhibition illus-
trating all branches of Swiss trade and industry was
opened at Geneva on May 1 and remained open till
Oct. 15. In connection with it a number of con-
gresses were held, and there was a series of interna-
tional games. Toward the end of July riotous la-
bor disturbances directed against the employment
of Italians occurred at Zurich, in consequence of
which several thousand Italian workmen were con-
strained to return to Italy. The eighteenth Inter-
national Congress on Literary and Artistic Copy-
right was opened in Bern on Aug. 22, in the same
building where the first Congress was convened on
the initiative of the Swiss Federal Council. The
congress resolved to take steps to secure the speedy
ratification of the results of the Paris conference of
1896 and obtain in the different states, particularly
in Germany and Great Britain, a reform of the ex-
isting copyright laws. The congress adopted a
resolution in favor of giving the same protection to
newspaper articles as to other literature. In the
Swiss National Council irritation was manifested in
a debate held in June in regard to the treatment
the Swiss Confederation had received from the
United States Government in the matter of the Swiss
proposal that the two governments should enter
into a covenant to refer to arbitration all disputes
arising between them. The United States Govern-
ment when the proposal was first made, in 1882, had
received it with expressions of satisfaction, but in
the course of the years that had since elapsed the
Federal Council has endeavored without result to
induce the Washington Government to move in the
matter and Swiss ministers have repeatedly urged the
United States authorities to enter into negotiations
for an arbitration treaty, with no better success.
TEMPLE,
TEMPLE, FREDERICK, D.D., ninety-fifth
Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England
and Metropolitan, born Noy. 30, 1821. He was
educated at Blundell’s School, in Tiverton, Devon-
FREDERICK, 725
T
nominated Dr. Temple to the Exeter bishopric,
and Dr. Tait, then Archbishop of Canterbury, ear-
nestly besought the chapter to elect the so-called
heretic. In time opposition to Bishop Temple
subsided, and in 1873 he was select preacher at
shire, and Balliol College, Oxford. He distin-
guished himself as a scholar during his course at
the university, and after taking his degree was
made fellow and tutor
at Balliol. He subse-
quently became princi-
pal of the Training Col-
lege at Kneller Hall,
Twickenham, and in
1858 was made head
master of Rugby, which
place he held until
1869. His administra-
tion of affairs at Rugby
was as able as it was
successful, and his ser-
mons in the college
chapel give him a place
among the foremost
of English preachers.
During the greater part
of the period of his
headmastership, how-
ever, he was considered
a heretic by the mass
of Churchmen, and was
made the target for
unlimited theological
rancor, the immediate
cause of which was the
publication, in 1860, of
“ Essays and Reviews,”
the authors of which
were Anglican clergy-
men and heads of col-
leges. Dr. Temple’s
contribution to the vol-
ume was an essay en-
titled “The Education
of the World,” in which
it would puzzle most
Churchmen of the pres-
ent day to find any-
thing heretical. It is
a speculation based
upon history and the
process of spiritual
growth, and embodies
the substance of world-
wide philosophy, its
tone being at once rev-
erent and scientific. In
the minds of many peo-
ple Dr. Temple, al-
though the author of but a single essay, was held
in a certain sense responsible for the whole vol-
ume, and he was more than once declared to be
guilty of “complicity in disseminating infidel
opinions.” In 1864 the Synod of Canterbury con-
demned the book, and two of its authors were
summoned before the Court of Arches. When,
in 1869, Dr. Temple was nominated to the see of
Exeter violent opposition to him broke forth. In-
dignation meetings were held all over the United
Kingdom, and among the many clerical protests
against his confirmation were those of eight bish-
ops. Mr. Gladstone, then Prime Minister, had
lec-
Oxford, and in 1884 was chosen Bampton
In the opinion of competent critics, these
turer.
FREDERICK TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY.
“Bampton Lectures are the greatest of all the lec-
ture delivered at Oxford within the past half cen-
tury.” Their motive, briefly stated, “is to help the
scientific man to find religion in science, and the
religious man to find science in God.” In 1886
Bishop Temple was translated from Exeter to Lon-
don, and his advancement aroused some echoes of
the old-time opposition to his name. But they
were comparatively faint, and when he was ad-
vanced by Lord Salisbury to the Canterbury arch-
bishopric, at the close of 1896, the opposition was
confined to a few persons, one of whom publicly
protested against the consecration during the prog-
726
ress of the ceremony at St. Paul’s Cathedral, Dec.
22, and another made a similar ineffective protest
on the occasion of the enthronement of the new
archbishop at Canterbury, Jan. 9, 1897.
Regarding the fitness of Dr. Temple for the high
office that he now holds, there have not been many
dissenting voices. He is eminently fair-minded,
and during his long a career he never has
strenuously opposed High Churchmen nor snubbed
the evangelicals. An untiring worker, a rigid tee-
totaler active in the temperance movement, and
deeply interested in the success of foreign missions
as well, he seems destined to be astrong force in Eng-
lish life for the remainder of his career, while on
the necessity for immediate Church reforms in cer-
tain directions, he has more than once expressed
himself strongly. In private life his tastes are
simple, and his hatred of insincerity and pretense
occasionally imparts a brusqueness to his manners
that may prevent his winning so general an esteem
as did the late Archbishop Benson, who was by
nature more tolerant of human imperfections. But
asa scholar and a thinker, Dr. Temple has been
surpassed by very few of his predecessors in the
chair of St. Augustine.
TENNESSEE, a Southern State, admitted to the
Union June 1,1796; area, 42,050 square miles. The
population, according to each decennial census since
admission, was 105,602 in 1800; 261,727 in 1810;
422.771 in 1820; 681,904 in 1830; 829,210 in 1840;
1,002,717 in 1850; 1,109,801 in 1860; 1,258,520 in
1870; 1,542,869 in 1880; and 1,767,518 in 1890.
Capital, Nashville.
Government.—The State officers in 1896 were:
Governor, Peter Turney, Democrat; Secretary of
State, William S. Morgan; Treasurer, Edward B.
Craig; Comptroller, James A. Harris; Attorney-
General, G. W. Pickle; Adjutant General, Charles
Sykes; Superintendent of Instruction, 8S. G. Gil-
breath; Commissioner of Agriculture, Statistics, and
Mines, T. F. P. Allison; Commissioner of Labor,
F. P. Clute; Land Register, Richard Harwood:
State Assessors, George C. Porter, John C. New, and
W. C. Fulcher; Superintendent of Prisons, John
H. Trice; Prison Commissioners, 8. R. Simpson,
W. M. Nixon, and D. O. Thomas; Oil Inspector,
John H. Reeves; State Geologist, J. M. Safford ;
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, D. L. Snod-
grass; Associate Justices, W. C. Caldwell, John §.
Wilkes, W. K. McAllister, and W. D. Beard; Jus-
tices of the Court of Chancery Appeals, M. M. Neil,
S. F. Wilson, R. M. Barton, Jr.—all Democrats.
Finances.—The statement of the Treasurer for
the two years ending Dec. 19 has the following
items: Balance in treasury Dec. 19, 1894, $753,-
217.61; receipts from Dec. 20, 1894, to Dec. 19, 1896,
$3,214,863.97; total, $3,968,081.61; disbursements
from Dec. 20, 1894, to Dec. 19, 1896, inclusive,
$3,696,830.07; balance in treasury Dec. 19, 1896,
$271,251.54. This includes the balances and dis-
bursements from the United States direct-tax ac-
count and the new Penitentiary account. Dealing
alone with the funds that can be used for the pur-
pose of defraying the expenses of the State govern-
ment, the account stands: Balance on hand Dec.
19, 1894, $306,079.05; receipts from Dec. 20, 1894,
to Dee. 19, 1896, inclusive, $3,214,603.97 ; total,
$3,520,683.02; disbursements from Dec. 20, 1894, to
Dec. 19, 1896, inclusive, $3,331,864.02; net balance
for general purposes Dec. 19, 1896, $188,819.
The disbursements were divided among the five
principal accounts as follow: Interest payments,
$1,365,854.09; charities and educational, $733,-
688.33 ; court costs, $658,189.86; legislative, $163,-
216.31; maintenance of convicts, $101,862.21; total
net disbursements, $3,332,124.02; all other expenses,
$309,313.22.
TENNESSEE.
The Treasurer received from the prison commis-
sioners from Jan. 1, 1896, to Dec. 20, 1896, the sum
of $92,184.21; and the amount disbursed on ac-
count of maintaining the convicts was $101,862.21.
Adding to this $34,682, the cost of maintaining
convicts at Brushy mountain mines, which the
commissioners charged to the new Penitentiary ac-
count, the whole cost of maintenance was $136,-
494.21, leaving the net cost $44,310.
The tax collected from insurance companies for
the fiscal year ending Dec. 19, 1895, was $92,033.40,
and for the fiscal year ending Dec. 19, 1896, $98,-
671.22, making the total collections from this source
for the two years $190,704.62. ;
The State tax collected from building and loan
associations for the year ending Dec. 19, 1895, was
$8,285, and for the year ending Dec. 19, 1896,
$8,360.
The cperieves in the revenue is explained by an
inadequate tax levy and unexpectedly small returns
from the back-tax collectors. The Legislature of
1895 lowered the tax rate and created the Board of
Equalization.
Convicts and Criminal Prosecutions.—The
total] number of convicts in the Penitentiary and at
the branch prisons Dec. 1, 1896, was 1,492. The
cost of maintaining the Penitentiary is given under
“ Finances,” in this article. A large number of the
prisoners are employed in the State’s coal mines,
others on the building of the new Penitentiary, and
others on the prison farm, while some are leased to
contractors. ‘The Governor says in his message:
“The most considerable obstacle to the succe
of the mines is that set forth in the report of the
manager, to wit: The combined opposition of (coal)
operators in this and adjacent States and their in-
fluence in inducing railroads to refuse to the State
fair and equitable rates of freights, and confining
our trade to a few competitive points, like Chatta-
nooga, Atlanta, etc. The mine owners and oper-
ators of Tennessee and Kentucky have for a long
time been making plans to defeat the State in its
efforts to employ its convicts in coal mining. An-
other point of objection is the great bargain the
State made in the purchase of mines; they affirm
that ‘the money paid: for farm and mines was at
low prices then prevailing by reason of the finan-
cial troubles then existing all over the country.’
The gravamen of the complaint of these mine
owners and operators is that the State, by its for-
tunate purchase, is in condition to prevent a mo-
nopoly by this combine of millionaires at home and
abroad.”
The Superintendent of Prisons says in his report
that a great evil is the “ sentencing of so many men
to the Penitentiary for minor offenses. Out of
1,590 criminals received within the past two years,
571, or over one third, were sentenced for one year
only for some trivial offense.” Another evil is the
lack of a reformatory for young offenders. Within
the past two years 50 boys under sixteen years of
age have been received in the Penitentiary, 48 of
whom were colored and .2 white. The majority of
these were convicted of trivial offenses.
In reference to the cost of eriminal proceedings,
the Comptroller says: “ Much has been said and
written of late about the grievous burden laid upon
the treasuries of the State and the counties by the
large and yearly increasing expenditures for crimi-
nal prosecutions. Public sentiment has been
aroused, and there is now a well-nigh universal
demand for reforms that will effect a very large
reduction in expenditures on that account.” After
giving figures and estimates showing that in 1893
and 1894 the total cost of such prosecutions to the
State and the counties was something like $2,250,000,
he says, further: “ A comparison of the expense of
TENNESSEE,
prosecuting crime under our law with the expense
in other States of the Union reveals the fact that
Tennessee is the only State in the Union that ex-
pends a large proportion of her revenues for that
Alabama in 1894 paid $32,087 on account
of criminal prosecutions, and Georgia, for the same
id about $10,000. Tennessee paid for 1894
Chief-Justice D. L. Snodgrass was indicted in
January on the charge of assault with a pistol, with
intent to commit murder in the first degree. The
bill also charged pistol carrying. This action was
the result of the shooting of Co]. John R. Beasley
by the Chief Justice on Dec.16. The case was tried
in May. The defendant said on the stand that
- Beasley was the author of an article printed in the
“Morning Times” reflecting on his integrity as a
judge; that he had decided to go to the * Times”
office to ask for a correction, and, as a number of
men were connected with the jon Bag and he did not
know but they might “pitch him out a window,”
he had armed himself; that he called at Spurlock’s
office (the “ Times’s” attorney) to confer with him;
that in Spurlock’s office he accidentally met Beas-
ley ; that he denounced him as a liar and a slan-
derer; and that Beasley made demonstration as
though to draw his pistol, and he shot him. The
jury returned a verdict of “ Not guilty.”
Several cases of lynching occurred during the
year. Jan. 8 two negroes, charged with criminal
assault, were taken to Lexington for trial; they
were met at the train by a mob of 400 men, hanged
to a railroad trestle, and shot by several hundred
of the mob. One confessed guilt, the other main-
tained his innocence.
At Huntsville, March 22,a man awaiting trial for
a murder committed at Pioneer was taken from the
jail and hanged ay a mob of about 25 armed men.
A meeting was held to give expression to the indig-
nation felt in Scott County, strong resolutions were
adopted, and committees were formed bound to use
every effort to effect the capture and conviction of
the lynchers.
In April a man of bad character who was sus-
ae of firing a barn belonging to his brother was
ound hanging to a tree on Lone mountain.
Two men who were awaiting their third trial on
a charge of murdering an old man forthe purpose
of robbery were taken from jail at McMinnville in
April and hanged. Their first trial resulted in a
hung jury, the second in conviction and a sentence
of death. The Supreme Court reversed the decision
on a technicality, and remanded the case.
Loan Associations.—The Treasurer’s report
says: “The business of building and loan associa-
tions shows a decline in volume during the year.
There is a feeling that the premium and interest
charged for borrowed money is excessive. The as-
sociations are, as a whole, in fairly good condition.”
Militia.—The National Guard numbers 1,850 en-
listed men. They are still armed with the old reg-
ulation 45-70 caliber Springfield rifles, but in other
respects are on an even footing with the regular
army. The equipments are furnished by the Gov-
ernment.
$8,000 a year to the militia. The number of men
in the State subject to military duty is estimated at
180,000.
Industries and Products.—The report of the
Commissioner of Agriculture gives the number of
families coming into the State to make their homes
as 3.962, and the number of individuals 17,880. The
amount of capital invested is estimated at $3,257,-
200, of which about $500,000 was for mineral, tim-
ber, and oil lands. A large number have bought
and paid for farms, while many have rented land.
Those making homes in eastern Tennessee are
The last General Assembly appropriated.
727
mainly from Virginia, North Carolina, and Ken-
tucky, with some from the Western States. Of those
settling in middle and western Tennessee, the ma-°
jority came from Ohio, Indiana, Illinbis, Michigan,
owa, and the far Northwestern States.
The Commissioner of Labor gives statistics of the
phosphate industry. The production during 1896
was 42,911 tons, compared with 45,078 in 1895. The
decline is due principally to the change in the base
of operations from the Blue Rock region, in Hick-
man yt to the Mount Pleasant region, in Maury
County. The discovery of rich deposits in the Mount
Pleasant district last summer started the develop-
ment in a rush, causing for the time a demoraliza-
tion and desertion from the Blue Rock region. The
rush was due to the richness of the rock and the
low cost of production at Mount Pleasant. There -
has been a reaction in the former field, in which two
large companies are operating.
Much of the six months in which operations were
conducted in the Mount Pleasant district was spent in
erecting equipments for larger, more permanent, and
economical operations, though much rock was mined
and handled by improvised and expensive methods.
The wheat yield of the State is given at 6,238,552
bushels; the crop of tobacco in 1895 was 43,220,000
pounds; that of cotton, 172,500 bales.
The report of the Commissioner of Labor shows
that 200,635 cubic feet of marble were quarried
in 1896. This is the largest production in the
history of the industry, with the exception of that
of 1894, when 241,956 cubic feet were produced.
Formerly the entire product came from Hawkins
County and was of the dark variegated variety. Now
the rival centers of the industry are Blount and
Knox Counties. The stone is almost entirely of the
lighter tints.
The Centennial.—The stockholders of the Ten-
nessee Centennial Exposition Company met in Feb-
ruary and by unanimous vote agreed to celebrate
the Centennial June 1, 1896, hold the inaugural ex-
ercises of the Exposition, and then adjourn to May
1, 1897, when the Exposition will be opened.
The exercises at Nashville, June 1, were marred
by inclement weather. The procession ended at the
auditorium, where George Washington’s proclama-
tion admitting Tennessee into the Union was read.
The orator of the day was John Dickinson, Assist-
ant Attorney-General of the United States, who
read an elaborate historical address. A prize cen-
tennial ode by Mrs. Virginia Frazier Boyle, of Mem-
phis, was 5
The construction of the main buildings of the
Exposition began in January, 1896. Those that
were under roof and finished in December were the
Parthenon, for the fine arts; the Commerce Build-
ing, 560 x 315 feet ; the Minerals and Forestry Build-
ing, 400x125 feet; the Transportation Building,
400 x 120 feet; the Agricultural Building, 525 x 175
feet; the Auditorium, seating capacity 6,000; the
Woman’s Building, 160 x 85 feet, and the Adminis-
tration Building, where are the executive offices.
All these buildings are white, the exterior finish be-
ing staff, and the construction heavy frame, except
in the case of the Parthenon, the walls of which are
brick, and the roof of glass and steel.
Court Decisions.—In a case involving the gen-
eral assignment law of 1895, which was before the
Supreme Court in November, that law was declared
unconstitutional, partly on account of its defective
title, which was found to be not broad enough to
cover its purposes; moreover, because the act em-
braces more than one subject, contrary to the con-
stitutional provision.
The Supreme Court, in March, passed upon the
ll-tax requirement of the election laws of the
State, and held that the law requiring voters to pre-
728
sent their poll-tax receipts before being allowed to
vote, or satisfactory evidence as required by the law
that they had paid their poll tax, is constitutional.
The State brought action to recover from David-
son County certain fines, taxes, and costs. The de-
murrer filed by the county was sustained and the
State prayed an appeal. One Gillem was indicted
for a felonious assault and convicted and sentenced
to six months in the county workhouse. The costs
in the case amounted to $31.65, and were paid by
the State. The county received from the labor of
Gillem largely more than the amount of the cost in
the cause and the State demanded repayment of the
costs. The decision of the Supreme Court said:
“Tt is not claimed that any money was collected by
the county from Gillem, but the claim is based upon
the theory that the county, having received the ben-
efit of his labor, must refund the cost which the
State was required to pay. We can not coneur in
this contention. The prisoner having been con-
victed of a felony and being insolvent, the State
became liable for the cost, and this liability is not
affected by his being committed to a workhouse
sentence.”
Legislative Session.—The Governor called an
extraordinary session of the Legislature, to begin
Sept. 7, for the purpose of providing against the
threatened treasury deficit.
In his message the Governor reviewed the history
of the treasury from the time of the controversy
over the “railroad debt.” The rate of taxation
from 1883 to 1887 was 40 cents on the $100. In the
latter year it was raised to 45, of which 30 cents was
for State and 15 for school purposes. This rate was
maintained till 1894. In June, 1895, a revenue bill
was enacted (see ‘“ Annual Cyclopedia” for 1895,
page 717), which reduced the rate of levy, abolished
many privilege taxes, and while it increased some
reduced many others. It was believed that the in-
come would be sufficient, especially as it was ex-
pected that the new assessment law would add to
the valuations of property. But this expectation
was disappointed ; the total valuation for 1896 was
less by some millions of dollars.
The Treasurer and the Comptroller, being called
upon for statements as to the probable condition the
finances would be in by Jan. 1, 1897, differed wide-
ly in their estimates, the Treasurer seeing a pros-
pect of a deficit of $269,000 unless the Tennessee
Coal and Iron Company should pay, in which case
it would be $214,000, while the Comptroller made a
written statement, April 3, showing a probable sur-
plus on Jan. 1, 1897, of $110,008.71; and on Aug.
11, 1896, he made a statement showing a probable
surplus on Jan. 1, 1897, of $73,371, making a differ-
ence in his estimates in a period of four months and
eight days of $36,637.71.
The Legislature was in session till Sept. 26. Sey-
eral bills looking to increase of revenues were intro-
duced ; but the majority appears to have decided
that the danger of deficit was not so great as had
been feared; at any rate, they failed to make any
important changes in the revenue laws. The only
revenue-producing measure was a bill taxing mer-
~ chandise brokers and cigarette dealers, special-priv-
ilege taxes being imposed. In order, however, to
rovide for the interest on the bonded debt, the
unding Board was authorized to borrow money.
An act was passed providing for submitting to
the people the question of calling a constitutional
convention. The date fixed for the vote was the
first Thursday in April, 1897.
Political.—The State Democratic Executive
Committee issued in March a call for two conven-
tions: the first to meet in Nashville, May 6, for the
purpose of nominating 3 candidates for the Court
of Chancery Appeals, to be voted for at the election
TENNESSEE.
on the first Thursday in August; the second to meet
at the same place, May 7, for the purpose of select-
ing delegates to the national convention, to appoint
candidates for presidential electors, and to nomi-
nate a candidate for Governor, the same delegates
to compose both conventions, On May 6 the 3
judges of the Court of Appeals—R. M. Barton, S.
F. Wilson, and M. M. Neil—were renominated.
At the second convention there was some friction
between administration and free-coinage delegates;
but the great majority were in favor of free coin-
age, and the following was among the resolutions:
“We demand a restoration of the money of the
Constitution by a law providing for the free and
unlimited coinage of both gold and silver as full
legal-tender money at the ratio of 16 to 1, regard--
less of the action of any other nation.”
The platform also demanded laws, State and na-
tional, making gold and silver legal tender for all
debts and prohibiting contracts discriminating
against either, the repeal of the 10-per-cent. tax on
issues of State banks, tariff for revenue only, and
an income tax.
The delegates were instructed to vote as a unit.
Ex-Gov. Robert L. Taylor was made the candi-
date for the governorship.
The Republicans held two State conventions. At
Nashville, April 22, they instructed delegates to the
national convention to support William McKinley
as candidate for the presidency, and H. Clay Evans
for the vice-presidency. The resolutions op
free coinage, condemned the national administra-
tion, favored a tariff to meet the requirements of
the Government and protect American industries ;
declared also in favor of reciprocity, the control of
the Nicaragua Canal by the Government and its
speedy completion, and favored such action toward
Cuba as would bring the war to an end as soon as
possible. The seating of Peter Turney as Governor
was condemned in severe terms, the Centennial Ex-
position was favored, and an appropriation from
Congress was recommended.
For judges of the Court of Appeals W. R. Turner,
P. C. Smithson, and W. F. Poston were named.
At the second Republican convention, Aug. 12,in
Nashville, George N. Tillman was chosen candidate
for the governorship, and resolutions were adopted
approving the action of the national convention,
condemning the Chicago platform, favoring honest
and rigid economy in the conduct of State affairs
and the abolition of the fee system, denouncing the
election laws enacted by Democratic Legislatures,
condemning the gubernatorial outrage of two years
ago, and opposing the bringing of convict labor into
competition with free labor.
The People’s party met in State convention in
Nashville, July 28, with about 150 delegates. A. L.
Mims was nominated for Governor on a platform
condemning Democrats for seating Turney over H.
Clay Evans.
The action of the national convention was a
proved, though there was a determined effort on the
part of a small minority against accepting a Demo-
cratic nominee for President. A full electoral ticket
was named with the understanding that if the
Democrats would agree to withdraw 3 Democratic
electors 3 Populist electors would be withdrawn,
and a committee was appointed to confer with one
of Democrats. The movement for fusion finally
failed in October, the People’s party demanding 4
electors and also demanding that the Democratic
nominee for Governor should meet the Populist
nominee in joint debate. In reply the Democrats
stated their willingness to unite with the Populists
on the one great question of finance, and fuse on
electors. They offered to give 4 electors as de-
manded, the only condition being that they should
TEXAS,
all vote for Bryan, each voting as he pleased for
Watson or Sewall, but they refused to permit Tay-
lor to meet Mims in joint debate. In some districts
Republicans and Populists united on candidates for
the Legislature.
About 100 delegates attended the Prohibition
convention in Nashville, April 29. The resolutions
declared against the liquor power, for national or-
ganization of Prohibitionists, for woman suffrage,
more money for schools, a graduated income tax,
local option for cities, and a State constitutional
convention. Josephus Hopwood was nominated for
Governor.
At the August election the Democratic candidates
for judges of the Court of Appeals were elected.
The highest Democratic vote was 141,328 ; the high-
est Republican vote, 115,056.
At the November election the vote for President
stood: Bryan, 166,268, of which about 4,525 were
for Watson electors; McKinley, 148,773; Palmer,
1,951; Levering, 3,098. For Governor it was: Tay-
lor, Democrat, 156,228; Tillman, Republican, 149,-
874; Mims. Populist, 11,976; Hopwood, Prohibi-
tionist, 2,831. e vote was the largest ever polled
in this State by 19,000.
Of the 10 Representatives in Congress elected, 2
are Republicans and 8 Democrats.
The Legislature will stand on joint ballot: 88
Democrats, 40 Republicans, and 4 Populists.
The Republicans denied that Mr. Taylor had been
fairly elected, claiming that Mr. Tillman was elect-
ed by more than 5,000 majority, and that he had
been counted out by extensive frauds. Soon after
the assembling of the Legislature in January Mr.
Tillman filed a notice of contest. Thereupon a bill
to require a contestant for the office of Governor to
give a bond of $25,000 for the costs of the con-
test tis * most
Mr. Tillman, in an address to the public, spoke
of the bond bill after his notice of contest
was filed. The bond is conditioned upon the faith-
ful, bona and su prosecution of the
contest. The $25,000 is to be paid as a penalty
should the joint assembly determine the contest un-
warranted, or not in faith, or malicious, or
made for political effect, or without reasonable
cause. Mr. Tillman said he had determined not
to assume so large a liability as a bond for the
amount named, enforceable at the will of the joint
assembly of the Legislature; that the heavy ex-
penses and the labor involved in such a contest,
“and the probability, in the case of a Republican
contestant in this State, of a decision adverse to
him, would seem to be sufficient discouragement to
a man of even more than ordinary public spirit and
of moderate fortune, and when the Legislature in
addition threatens him with a penalty of $25,000
for presuming to make the contest, the discourage-
ment reaches a point amounting almost to a pro-
hibition.”
TEXAS, a Southern State, admitted to the
Union Dec. 29, 1845; area, 265,780 square miles.
The population, according to each decennial census
since admission, was 212,592 in 1850; 604,215 in
1860; 818,759 in 1870; 1,591,749 in 1880; and
2,235,523 in 1890. Capital, Austin.
Government.—The State officers in 1896 were:
Governor, Charles A. Culberson; Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, George T. Jester; Secretary of State, Allison
ig ; Treasurer, W. B. Wortham ; Comptroller,
R. W. Finley; Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion, James M. Carlisle; Commissioner of the Land
Office, A. J. Baker; Commissioner of Agriculture,
Insurance, Statistics, and History, A. J. Rose;
Attorney-General, Martin M. Crane; Adjutant
General, W. H. Mabry; Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, Reuben R. Gaines; Associate Jus-
729
tices, Leroy G. Denman and Thomas J.
All the State officers are Democrats. ;
Finances.—The Comptroller’s report for the two
years ending Aug. 31, 1896, gives the following
summary: On Aug. 31, 1894, there was a balance
to the credit of the general account amounting to
$38,443.85; receipts during the year ending Aug.
31, 1895, $2,086,578.20; total, $2,125,022.05: dis-
bursed during the same period, $2,021,606.56: trans-
fers adjusting accounts, $75,342.78: balance on hand
Aug. 31, 1895, $28,072.71. At the beginning of the
fiscal year Sept. 1, 1895, there was a cash balance
in the treasury to the credit of general revenue of
$28,072.71; receipts of general revenue during the
year ending Aug. 31, 1896, $3,023,725.98; total,
$3,051,798.69 ; disbursements during the same pe-
riod, $2,884,700.03; transfers adjusting accounts,
$57,345.14; total credit, $2,942,045.17; balance to
the credit of general revenue Aug. 31, 1896, $109,-
753.52; warrants drawn against this account aggre-
gating $69,637.94 had not at that time been pre-
sented for payment.
The receipts and disbursements of available
school fund for the year ending Aug. 31, 1896, were
as follow: Balance on hand Aug. 31, 1895, $133.-
479.38; receipts during the year, $2,843,433.86;
total, $2,976,913.24; disbursements, $2,901,982.89 ;
transfers and amount refunded, $1,870; balance Aug.
31, 1896, $73,060.35. On Sept. 1, 1895, there was
unpaid $547,690.52 of the school fund apportioned
for the scholastic year of 1894~"95. The Board of
Education apportioned $2,519,271.50 for the scho-
lastic year of 1895-96. The receipts and disburse-
ments of the permanent school fund during the
year, and the amount of securities held by the State
in trust for that fund were: Cash on hand Aug. 31,
1895, $173,938.05 ; received during the year ending
Aug. 31, 1896, $759,207.40; total, $933,145.45; dis-
bursements, $555,399.48; transferred to available
school fund, $160,902.42; balance Aug. 31, 1896,
$216,843.55; bonds on hand Aug. 31, 1895, $7,579,-
144.52; bonds purchased, $526,164; total, $8,105,-
308.52; bonds redeemed, $529,023; balance Aug.
31, 1896, $7,576,235.52.
The amount of occupation taxes collected in the
counties for the two years ending April 30 was
$1,631,686.94, while the amounts payable to the
Comptroller by law were: Collected from nonresi-
dents in organized counties, $110,652.95; from
nonresidents in unorganized counties, $59,268.18;
railroad, stagecoach, steamboat, passenger tax, etc.,
$56,257.63; total, $226,176.76. The assessed value
of all property in the State for 1896 is $850,309,-
246, against $860,910,567 for 1895. The cost of
State educational, charitable, and penal institutions
for 1893 and 1894 was $1,403.472.12; for 1895 and
1896 it was $1,399,441.79. The average number in
all these institutions in the former period was
7,712; in the latter, 8,864.
The total value of State property, including the
Capitol and educational and charitable institutions,
is $10,917,879.
The total bonded debt of the counties, as nearly
as can be obtained from reports and records on file
Aug. 31, 1896, was $10,845,206.
Edueation.—During the biennium the scho-
lastic population increased from 693,752 in 1894 to
751,335 in 1896, yet the schools were conducted
for four and a half months on an apportionment
of $3.50 per capita, the same as the preceding year,
and an apportionment of $4 per capita has been
declared for 1897. Under an act of the Legislature
of 1856 part of the school fund was loaned, prior
to the war, to the Houston and Texas Central Rail-
way Company and the Galveston, Harrisburg and
San Antonio Railway Company. For many years
a controversy has existed between these companies
3rown.
730
and the State as to the amount due on these loans,
the State claiming an indebtedness of more than
$1,000,000, and the companies insisting that it has
been fully satisfied by payment in State warrants
issued during the war. Final default in payment
was made by the companies in 1894, and in Decem-
ber of that year suits were begun which resulted in
judgment in favor of the State in the district
court for $1,200,000, from which appeals have
been taken. The attendance at the university and
the medical branch has increased. Of the educa-
tional institutions, only the Prairie View Normal
School shows a decrease in the number of students.
The expenditures for the university during the two
years amounted to $130.617.20; for the Sam Hous-
ton Normal Institute, $53,717.27; for the Prairie
View Normal Institute, $26,753.87; and for the
Agricultural and Mechanical College, $58,254.06,
The State University opened in September with 126
students. It has recently received a gift of $30,000
from G. W. Brackenridge, of San Antonio. At the
nineteenth annual commencement of the Agricul-
tural and Mechanical College, in June, 4 were
graduated in the agricultural course, 9 in the civil
enzineering, 3 in horticulture, and 6 in mechanical
engineering. The State School of Methods opened
its third annual session at the university in June
with an attendance of 150.
Charities.—Following are the amounts expended
for charitable institutions for the two years: State
Lunatic Asylum, $244,969.92; North Texas Luna-
tic Asylum, $272,547.30; Southwest Texas Lunatic
Asylum, $104,603.45; Blind Asylum, $88,872.69;
Deaf and Dumb Asylum, 97,641.19; Colored Deaf
and Dumb Asylum, $33,505.73; Orphans’ Home,
$44,908.44; Confederate Soldiers’ Home, $50,835.38,
At the Veterans’ Home during the year ending
Dec. 1 50 were admitted, 25 died, 1 deserted, 6
were out on furlough, 16 were honorably dis-
charged, of whom 4 were readmitted, and there
were at the close of the year, 175 inmates, Im-
pea oe have been made, the principal one_
eing a hospital building.
At the Asylum for the Blind 153 were enrolled
during the session and 112 were in attendance in
November.
At the State Lunatic Asylum there were 696
patients.
Prisons.—There was an increase in prison popu-
lation during the past two years, as follows; Noy. 1,
1894, convicts on hand, 4,125; Oct. 31, 1896, convicts
on hand, 4,421. The greatest number ever on hand
at one time was on July 18 and 19, 1896—4,523.
There were 339 pardons, 217 deaths, and 164 escaped.
Crimes were classified as follow: Against lives and
persons of individuals, 2,007; against property, in-
eluding forgery and counterfeiting, 2,026; against
morality and public justice, 388; total, 4,421. The
men were in 39 different camps, prisons, farms, and
railroad gangs; 317 were employed on railroads and
2,463 on farms. The earnings of the force amounted
to $1,540,825.40, and the expenses to $1,445,524.16.
Permanent improvements cost $157,674.81. Peni-
tentiary property of all descriptions is valued at
$2,440,088.90. Cost of maintaining convict popula-
tion averages $9.80 a month. The net profits of
contract farms for the two years was $249,255.05,
or about $81.75 per capita per annum. The prisons
proper were largely supported by the contract, share,
and State farms, and the railroad gangs.
The number of persons in the House of Correc-
tion and Reformatory, which is for offenders under
sixteen years of age, was reduced one half in 1896,
The cost for the two years was $69,569.42.
Railroads.— During the past two vears the Rail-
road Commission has established or amended tariffs
on almost every species of freight except lumber.
TEXAS.
The general merchandise tariff was put into opera-
tion Aug. 6, 1895. Railway bonds on completed
road aggregating $1,609,000 were examined and
registered under the act to prevent fraudulent and
fictitious issues. More than 3,000 miles of railroad
have been inspected and valued as a basis for the
issue of bonds. The total amount saved to the
people for the two years by the reduction of rates,
as estimated by the commission, is $2,231.000.
The amount of assessed value of rolling stock of
railroads in the State, as given by the Comptroller,
is $7,962,905. The Texas Western renders no roll-
ing stock, and the International and Great North-
ern only that portion subject to taxation and not
belonging to the exempt line.
Banks.—In 1896 12 banks in the State went
into liquidation or failed, and 21 new banks were
organized,
Insuranece.—In a paragraph on insurance, in his
message to the Legislature, the Governor says;
“Life insurance companies principally chartered
by and domiciled in the State of New York have
for years done a large business in this State. The
excess of premiums over losses paid these companies
by the people of Texas for the year 1895 was $2,471,-
192. The premiums which our people paid 3 New
York companies for the past ten years amounted
to $18,644,124.85, and the policies which they paid
aggregated only $4,947,569.51. The excess in
premiums, the sum taken out of the State in that
time, was $13,696,555.34, less inappreciable com-
missions paid the agents.” The receipts in fees of
the State Insurance Department for 1895 were
$12,310.
Industries and Produets.—The cotton crop of
1895 was reported at 1.905.837 bales, larger than
that of any other State, but. much smaller than that
of the preceding year. The corn crop amounted to
107,906,000 bushels, and the wheat crop to 2,082,000
bushels,
The elevator service of Galveston was found to be
inadequate for handling the grain sent to the port
after the harvest. Over 3,500 cars were reported
Sept. 13 to be on the railroads awaiting the raising
of the grain blockade at the port. This was at-
tributed in part to the lack of ocean tonnage.
The recent deflection of trade to the Gulf ports
and the ability of Galveston, owing to her now ac-
quired deep water, to take advantage of this change
in methods resulted during the year in an immense
increase in the export business.
The principal exports in British vessels from Gal-
veston during 1896 were: Cotton, bales, 987,589 ;
cotton-seed meal, sacks, 1,964,010; cotton-seed-oil
cake, sacks, 186,962; wheat, bushels, 2,886,159 ; corn,
bushels, 4,897,472; cotton-seed oil, gallons, 1,097.-
983; walnut lumber, pieces, 29,370; walnut logs,
484; spelter, plates, 2,097,386; borax, sacks, 25,364 ;
copper matte, sacks, 28,261; lead, bars, 35,987:
lumber, feet, 203,621; lumber, pieces, 188,972 ; cedar
logs, 2,602; staves, 101,015.
The improvement of the Sabine pass has stimu-
lated the trade in lumber from southeastern Texas.
The coastwise shipments for the year amounted to
8.368,072 feet, of which 5,331,296 feet went to New
York. The total amount shipped to foreign ports
was $23,185,656, and its value $262,911. This was
sent to Mexican, South American, and West Indian
ports, to Port Natal, to London, and to Greenock.
The channel of Galveston harbor has been deep-
ened. At the end of the year the depth at mean
low tide was 254 feet. Ultimately a depth of 30 feet
is to be reached.
The Rangers.—The Adjutant-General said in his
report in December: “In every train robbery which
has occurred in Texas, the robbers have been cap-
tured or killed wherever it was possible to carry
TEXAS.
the rangers to the scene so that they could take the
trail. By the annual report of the rangers for 1895
it is shown that in that year they traveled 107,000
miles, and arrested 417 criminals, who were turned
over to the civil authorities, and pursued 120 more
who made their escape into Mexico. They recov-
ered 486 head of horses and cattle that were stolen
from Texas ranches, and assisted the civil authori-
ties eighty-eight times during the year in guarding
jails and prisoners and keeping down mob law.
is statement does not include the services ren-
dered by 71 “special” rangers, who are enlisted
mostly in frontier and border counties on the rec-
ommendation, usually, of sheriffs and district offi-
cers, but are not paid by the State.
Recent Laws.—In reviewing the history of the
State in 1895 and 1896 the Governor says: “Among
the laws enacted during the past two years which
have substantially benefited the public, the statute
of limitations was made applicable to married
women and land titles quieted; contested elections
were regulated ; the laws were revised and codified ;
oveupation taxes were made uniform ; primary elec-
tions were legalized and regulated; the colored
people were given control of their schools; ad
valorem taxation was equalized ; railway land titles
were validated; connecting lines of common car-
riers were made responsible for freight losses; the
Confederate Home was made a permanent State
institution, supported by taxation; the strongest
antitrust law in the Union was passed; the inter-
ests of labor were guarded by an arbitration act;
and extravagant and unconscionable fees of office
_ were largely reduced. ey Ss the act appears to
need amendment in order to be more effectually en-
forced, the protective features of the fish and oys-
ter law have proved a decided benefit along the en-
tire coast. Oysters have been more abundant and
there have been more fish in the bays since Oct. 1,
when the reserved bays were opened, than at any
time for two years. The act regulating the collec-
tion of delinquent taxes has done much toward cor-
recting existing injustice. In 1894 the total State and
school delinquent tax collected was $29,475.27, while
in 1895 and 1896, under this act, it was $45,433.59
and $78,966.46, respectively. The delinquent coun-
ty taxes collected have increased in the same pro-
portion.
The change in the school law reducing the price
of school lands to $1 per acre, leases to 3 cents per
acre, and interest to 3 per cent., is fully justified by
the operation of the present law. Previous to this
purchasers and lessees of public lands were forfeit-
ing their claims and defaulting in the payment of
interest in unprecedented numbers, while since
then forfeitures and defaults have lessened and
both sales and leases have rapidly multiplied. For
the year ending Aug. 1, 1895, the sale of school
lands amounted to 209,948 acres and leases to 1,712,-
301 acres. For the year ending Aug. 1, 1896, with
the new law in force, the sales amounted to 1,179,647
acres and the leases to 5,126,967 acres.
Political.—The Democratic State Committee
decided in February to hold two State conventions
with only one primary, the conventions to be June
23 and Aug. 18, and the primaries June 6, at which
time voters should have the opportunity of express-
ing their preference for or against free coinage:
and the majority should determine the action of
the State convention and the kind of delegation to’
be sent to the national convention. This decision
was understood to settle the question in favor of
free coinage; and the leaders on that side issued an
address to the people saying: “It is conceded that
an overwhelming majority of the Democrats of
Texas earnestly favor a return to the currency sys-
tem adopted by the framers of the Government and
731
the restoration of silver to its former position of
equality with gold at the public mints at the pres- _
ent coinage ratio of 16 to 1. We appeal to every
member of the party and to every citizen who is
willing to accept the liberal invitation of the Na-
tional and State Democratic Executive Committees
in joining to make the verdict of the Democracy in
Texas in favor of bimetallism so complete and em-
phatic that the advancing cause of financial reform
may receive an impetus that will further its gen-
eral success.”
The Gold-standard Democrats held a conference,
Feb. 15, in Galveston, with about 175 in attendance.
A division in the party seemed imminent; but it
was decided not to repudiate the action of the State
Committee, and to make the struggle in the prima-
ries. In May ex-Goy. Roberts announced himself
as a candidate for the office of Governor, charging
that the present Governor and other silver leaders
were trying to lead the Democratic party of the
State into the National Silver party at its meeting
at St. Louis in July. The ballots used at the pri-
maries were marked “For bimetallism” and
“ Against bimetallism and for the single gold stand-
ard,” and the vote was overwhelmingly in favor of
bimetallism, meaning free coinage.
The “Sound-money Democrats met in Dallas, April
21. The resolutions adopted proposed to reorganize
the party, call a nominating convention to place a
straight ticket in the field for State offices, and
name Sound-money candidates for Congress. Ac-
cordingly, they held a separate convention in June
at the time and place named in the call of the State
Committee. Therefore two conventions were in
session in Austin, June 23.
The Gold-standard wing numbered 300 to 400 in
their convention. They declared their intention of
reorganizing the party on sound Democratic prin-
ciples, chose a delegation to the national conven-
tion, and adopted a platform commending the ad-
ministration, opposing free coinage, and demand-
ing “the immediate retirement of this Government
-from the bankitig business, and that the law author-
izing the issuance of the Treasury note should be
repealed and such promises be retired and canceled,
and favoring the “establishment of a safe system
of banking under rigid governmental supervision
in order that the people may have at all times a
safe, sound, and elastic currency, amply sufficient
for the transaction of their business.”
In reference to the action of the silver wing of
the party, the resolutions said :
“ Having heretofore formally repudiated the
methods and actions of the fraudulently consti-
tuted so-called Democratic Executive Committee,
we hereby reaffirm such denunciation and announce
our purpose not te vote for or in any manner give
political countenance to any candidate for political
office who either approves such action or who pro-
poses in any manner to profit thereby. The action
of this so-called committee was deliberately con-
ceived and executed for the purpose of effecting
a complete disfranchisement of brother Demo-
crats, and it has resulted in the destruction of
Democratic methods and procedure, consecrated
by party use for more than half a century, the pres-
ervation of which are essential to the purity of
action and the stability of party ascendency. This
destructive action has necessitated the reorganiza-
tion of the Democratic party in Texas, and we an-
nounce that our separation from those who would
destroy the party for the sake of gaining a tempo-
rary advantage for their peculiar financial heresy is
final and irreconcilable until they return to the ad-
vocacy of true Democratic principles.”
A convention was called to meet at Waco, on
August 25.
732
The regular Democratic convention, in session at
the same time in another hall, with about 1,000
delegates, also elected a delegation to the national
convention. The resolutions were strongly in favor
of free coinage, a strict construction of the Consti-
tution, the political equality of citizens, freedom of
conscience, separation of Church and state, freedom
of the press, and tariff for revenue only, “ sufficient,
with other taxation, to meet the expenses of the
Government economically administered, so as to
render it unnecessary to increase the public debt in
any form whatever”; they condemned the extraor-
dinary expenditure by Congress of over $515,000,-
000 and the alleged unnecessary employment of
Federal officers and employees; demanded the “sub-
mission of constitutional amendments to the sev-
eral States which will authorize Congress to pass an
income-tax law (unless such course should become
unnecessary by the overruling of the decision of
the Supreme Court of the United States), to the end
that the wealth of the nation may be compelled to
bear its just share of the expenses of the Govern-
ment”; opposed monopolies and trusts and all class
legislation, demanding equal rights to all and ex-
clusive privileges to none; opposed the issuing of
interest-bearing bonds in time of peace, national
bank issues, and excessive pensions; and demanded
that the national debt be paid.
Delegates to the national convention were in-
structed to favor the nomination of Richard P.
Bland.
The second regular Democratic convention met
in Fort Worth, Aug. 18, with comparatively a small
representation. The resolutions approved the ac-
tion of the national convention, and on State affairs
approved the existing administration, promised
economy in State Government, demanded reap-
portionment of judicial districts, a law requiring
express companies to maintain general officers
within the State, a new lien law, reform of criminal
laws, and especially revision of jury laws; favored
reforms in the fee system, aohied lanl to the “ fel-
low-servant” law, and sale of public-school lands ;-
opposed the leasing of convicts to corporations, and
promised equal rights to all. The nominations
were: For Governor, Charles A. Culberson; Lieu-
tenant Governor, George T. Jester; Attorney-Gen-
eral, Martin M. Crane; Treasurer, William B.
Wortham; Comptroller, R. Wat Finley; Commis-
sioner of General Land Office, James M. Carlisle;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Andrew J.
Baker; Chairman Railway Commission, John H.
Reagan; Railway Commissioners, Allison Mayfield
and L, J. Story; Justices, W. L. Davidson and Le-
roy G. Denman. A proposition from the People’s
party for a division of sisctons was rejected.
At the convention of the Gold-standard Dem-
ocrats in Waco, Aug. 25, resolutions were adopted
condemning the action of the national convention,
and repudiating the national and State nominations.
Of the action of the State convention, they said:
“We condemn the methods adopted by those who
have been interested with the management of the
affairs of the Democratic party in Texas, they hav-
ing used the same solely for the purpose of retain-
ing the present administration in this State, by
which the Democracy of this State was in a manner
disfranchised at the primaries, and therefore the
so-called Democratic nominations at Fort Worth
have no binding force upon any true Democrat in
this State.”
Delegates to the Indianapolis convention, candi-
dates for presidential electors, and a State Execu-
tive Committee were chosen. No State ticket was
formed.
The first Republican State Convention met in
Austin, March 24. There was a contest between
TEXAS.
the partisans of McKinley on the one side and
those of Reed and Allison on the other. A chair-
man in favor of Allison was chosen by a vote of
407 to 205. The Committee on Credentials did not
report until the 26th, when a platform was adopted
which said, in relation to the currency:
“We reaffirm the historic adherence of the Re-
publican party to sound finance. We demand an
honest dollar of greatest purchasing power for every
class alike, the largest issue of gold, silver, and paper
compatible with security and the requirements of
trade, all of equal value, interchangeable one for
the other, every dollar resting on gold coin as the
only money of final redemption. The Republicans
of Texas declare this to be in their deliberate judg-
ment the only basis for a large and liberal circula-
tion of money and for the maintenance of universal
confidence.”
The delegates selected for the national conven-
tion were all for Reed or Allison; and therefore
after the adjournment, the McKinley wing organ-
ized with a large number of delegates and hiss
representatives for the national convention, in-
git oe to support him.
The Reform Republicans, the so-called “ Lily
Whites,” held a State convention at Houston,
April 20. Delegates favorable to McKinley were
chosen for the national convention, but no in-
structions were given. Following are the main
features of the platform :
“We favor bimetallism, the use of gold and silver
coin as money of ultimate redemption. We favor
the immediate calling of an international monetary
and reciprocity conference for the adoption of an
international agreement. We believe in a protec-
tive tariff that will renew a market for American
wages for American workmen.”
his made 8 delegations to claim seats in the
national convention. The McKinley delegation,
chosen March 24, headed by Dr. John Grant, was
seated. At the Republican convention, held in
Fort Worth, Sept. 9, no State ticket was named.
The Chairman of the State Executive Committee,
E. H. R. Green, was authorized to appoint a com-
mittee with full power to direct the campaign. It
was understood that the special purpose of this com-
mittee was to effect fusion with the Populists and
“Sound-money” Democrats. Thenational platform
and candidates were approved with great enthusi-
asm. In reference to State affairs the resolutions
said:
“We unqualifiedly condemn the present admin-
istration of affairs in the State government of Texas
through its various agencies, and unite in calling
unto all good citizens of the State, irrespective of
party, to join together in a determined effort to
drive the present so-called Democratic party from
power in our beloved State, and give to our people
a wise, honest, economical, and pure government.
“We recommend the enactment of appropriate
laws for the development of a system of irrigation
in the semi-arid regions of the State.
“We insist that laws should be speedily enacted
extending to our colored youths the opportunities
of university education.
“We favor a vigorous enforcement of the crimi-
nal laws of this State, irrespective of persons, and
demand that the procedure governing appeals in such
cases be reformed with a view to the speedy determi-
nation of the correctness of convictions without re-
gard to technicalities, and in this connection we
denounce in unmeasured terms the resort to mob
violence against persons charged with, but not con-
victed of crimes.”
The delegates to the national convention of the
People’s party held a caucus July 18 with the party
leaders, and agreed to support for President Paul
TEXAS.
Vanderwort, of Nebraska, and for Vice-President
Frank Burkett, of Mississippi.
The People’s party met in convention, Aug. 5, in
Galveston, with about 1,000 delegates. The “middle-
of-the-road ” sentiment was strong, but the conven-
tion seems not to have committed itself to any ac-
tion that would hamper plans for fusion that might
thereafter be made. The following ticket was named:
For Governor, Jerome C. Kearby; for Lieutenant
Governor, H. S. P. Ashby; for Attorney-General,
W. M. Walton; for Comptroller, E. O. Meitzen ;
for Land Commissioner, S. C. Granbury ; for Treas-
urer, S. O. Dawes; for ao pr geopeae of Eduea-
tion, A. B. Francisco; for Railroad Commissioners,
W. W. Nelms, Evan Jones, E. P. Alsbury; for Jus-
tice Supreme Court, T. J. M’Minn; for Justice
Criminal Court, R. V. Bell.
‘On State issues the resolutions said, in part:
“ We demand a change of administration in Texas,
for the reasons that during the twenty-three years
in which the te pt ed has had control of
this State it has squandered our magnificent public
domain in donations to corporations and sales at
nominal prices to syndicates and land grabbers, and
has thrown every impediment in the way of the actual
settler. It has multiplied officers, wasted the public
revenues, increased our State debts, and raised our
increased the expenses of the State government from
$1,000,000 per annum to more than $4,000,000 per
annum. By its maladministration of the ablie-
school funds it has in open violation of the Consti-
tution reduced our public free schools from six to
three months’ session per annum, and at the same
time it has invaded our permanent school fund so
that the same will be ultimately extinguished, in-
stead of remaining as a perpetual benefit to pos-
ger as designed by our fathers.
“Though needlessly multiplying courts, it has
failed to enforce the laws by refusing to repeal
senseless technicalities in our criminal procedure;
it has rendered necessary reversals of the judgments
_ of convictions against notorious criminals to such
an extent that our courts of final resort have been
subjected to gross abuse and the administration of
our laws has been brought into such contempt as to
incite mobs to deeds of violence to the shame and
disgrace of our State.
“We denounce the present administration in this
State as being purely | pelgorr: and dominated by
ring rule, as is evidenced by such acts as the payment
of extravagant and unnecessary fees to its henchmen
and its refusal to buy bonds except through favorite
brokers. This administration, like its predecessor,
claims the right of being its own successor, and, like
them, will claim the right to pass the office of Gov-
ernor to “the next in line,” unless the citizens of
Texas show by their votes that the office of Gov-
ernor belongs to the people, and not to the official
family. A long lease of power tends to corruption
and is subversive of economy and efficient govern-
ment, and we believe that the best interests of Texas
demand a change of administration and an inspec-
tion of the books.”
W. M. Walton, candidate for Attorney-General,
withdrew from the ticket, and W. O. Hutchison
was nominated in his stead.
The Prohibitionists convened at Dallas, July 29,
chose presidential electors, ratified the proceedings
of the national convention, and named the follow-
ing State ticket: For Governor, Randolph Clark;
Lieutenant Governor, Rev. H. Bradford; Attorney-
General, James B. Goff; Comptroller, W. T. Clay-
ton; Treasurer, Jerome W. Henderson; Land Com-
missioner, W. Manning; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, Dr. R. C. Burleson.
The declaration of principles denounced the liquor
taxes to the point approaching confiscation. It has °
TURKEY, 733
traffic, favored Government control of railroads.regu-
lation of immigration, prohibition of speculation in
futures and of using public money for sectarian .-
schools, and favored direct vote for President and
the initiative and referendum.
The official returns of the election showed the fol-
lowing vote: Bryan and Sewall, 290,862; Bryan and
Watson, 79,572; McKinley, 167,520; Palmer, 5,046;
Levering, 1,786.
All the Democratic candidates for State offices
were elected.
Of the 13 representatives in Congress all are
Democrats except 1, who is a Republican.
The Legislature has a large majority of Demo-
crats in both houses.
An amendment to the Constitution making the
requirement that aliens shall declare their inten-
tion to become citizens of the United States at least
six months before any election at which they may
offer to vote was submitted at this election, and
seems to have been carried, though the total figures
are not at hand. By the article sought to be amend-
ed aliens might declare their intention to become
citizens up to the very hour they offered to vote
and became legal voters at that election.
TURKEY, an empire in eastern Europe and
western Asia. The Sultan, who rules absolutely
under the moral limitations contained in the Mo-
hammedan sacred books, is the eldest prince of the
house of Osman. Abdul Hamid II, the thirty-
fourth sovereign of the line, born Sept. 21, 1842,
succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed
on the ground of lunacy on Aug. 31, 1876. The
Sultan is recognized as Khalif, or spiritual head of ~
Islam, not only within the bounds of the Ottoman
Empire, but by most of the Sunnite Mohammedans
everywhere, being guided in his ecclesiastical policy
by the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the Ulema, a body of
eminent doctors of the law. In temporal matters
the Sadrazzam, or Grand Vizier, is the chief execu-
tive officer under the Sultan. These two functiona-
ries, together with ministers of departments, form
the Privy Council or Cabinet of the Sultan, which
was Sa in the beginning of 1896 as follows:
Grand Vizier, Halil Rifat Pasha; Sheikh-ul-Islam,
Mehmed Djemal Eddin Pasha; Minister of War,
Riza Pasha; Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, Abdurrahman Pasha; Minister of Marine,
Hassan Pasha; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tevfik
Effendi; Minister of the Interior, Mahmud Jella-
leddin Pasha; Minister without portfolio, Aarifi
Pasha; Grand Master of Artillery, Zeki Pasha;
Minister of Finance, Sabri Bey; Intendant of
Evkafs, Galib Pasha; Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, Zuhdi Pasha; Minister of Commerce and Pub-
lic Works, Mahmoud Pasha ; President of the Coun-
cil of State, Said Pasha.
Area and Population.—The area of the imme-
diate possessions of Turkey and their population
according to the still incomplete census of 1885 are
shown in the following table:
GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. Square miles. | Population.
Turkey in Europe.........-..------ 65.909 4.786.545
A EME og om die minx vino s's'eis soe aes 204,618 9,123,432
Armenia and Kurdistan ..........- anon Palen
Mesopotamia. ...........+--+- +--+: iY 350,
SE see ah au bins Fs eae net eee 115,144 2.676.943
0 BE SORE eer en ner ee 173,700 6,000,000
Tripoli and Benghazi............... 398,738 1,300,000
OS gk a ge a ea Ie on 1,147,578 27,694.600
The following territories are nominally subject to
Turkey, but are now under autonomous or foreign
administration: Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novi Ba-
zar, occupied and administered by Austria-Hun-
gary; Bulgaria and the autonomous province of
734
Eastern Roumelia, now united and in possession of
full autonomy ; the tributary principality of Samos;
and Egypt, now occupied by Great Britain. Their
aggregate area is 461,662 square miles, and their
population is 11,524,131, mgking the total area of
the Ottoman Empire 1,609,240 square miles and the
total population 39,212,131. In European Turkey
the Turks, the Greeks, and the Albanians are about
equal in numbers and make up the bulk of the
population ;. Bulgars and Serbs are numerous, and
there is a considerable sprinkling of Wallachians,
Armenians, Magyars, gypsies, Jews, and Circassians.
The population is almost equally divided between
Mohammedans and Christians. In Constantinople
the census classified the total population of 873,565
into 884,910 Mohammedans, 152,741 Greeks, 149,590
Armenians, 6,442 native Roman Catholics, 4,377
Bulgarians, 1,082 Greek Latins, 819 native Protes-
tants, 44,361 Jews, and 129,243 foreigners. In Asia
the Turks are the predominant element in many
districts, and there are about 4,000,000 Arabs. The
population is everywhere mixed, and the variety of
races is extraordinary. The Greek element is large.
In some districts Kurds predominate, in some Arme-
nians, and in some Syrians form the main element.
Circassians have their separate communities, and
are scattered among the population elsewhere. Jews
are numerous in many fh Bh The Lebanon, where
four fifths of the 49,800 inhabitants are Christians,
has a Christian mutessarif and special institutions.
In Crete there are 88,487 Mohammedans, 205,059
Christians, and 646 Jews and foreigners. In the
archipelago 91 per cent. of the people are Chris-
tians. Except in these vilayets the Mohammedans
preponderate everywhere. In Asia Minor a recent
estimate gives 7,179,900 Mohammedans, 576,200
Armenians, 972,300 other Christians, and 184,600
Israelites and foreigners; in Armenia, 1,795,800
Mohammedans, 480,700 Armenians, 165,200 other
Christians, and 30,700 Israelites and foreigners; in
the vilayet of Aleppo, 792,500 Mohammedans, 49,-
000 Armenians, 184,300 other Christians, and 20,000
Israelites and foreigners; in the vilayet of Beirut,
230,200 Mohammedans, 6,100 Armenians, 160,400
other Christians, and 49,800 Israelites and other
foreigners,
Finances.—The chief revenues of the Govern-
ment from duties and tributes are sequestered for the
payment of the debt, and since 1881 the Council of
Administration of the foreign bondholders has col-
lected and disbursed the Eastern Roumelian and
Cyprus tributes, the duties on liquors, salt, stamped
paper, fisheries, and silk, the tobacco régie and to-
bacco tithes, and the import duties on Persian to-
bacco. The net receipts in the year 1894—95, after
deducting £91,790 of expenses, was £1,976.687 ster-
ling. Of the conversion loan of 1881 the sum of
£ T. 90,533,968 was outstanding on Aug. 13, 1895;
of the lottery bonds, £ T. 14,789,690; of the priority
obligations of 1890, £ T. 8,139,164. Other loans
bring the total up to £T. 128,901,509 (1 Turkish
lira or pound = $4.40). Of the Turkish securities
about 70 per cent. are held in France, 14 per cent.
in England, 13 per cent. in Germany, and 3 per
cent. in Austria.
Disorganization of the civil and military admin-
istration in various parts of the empire was aggra-
vated by the financial straits of the Government.
The payment of the troops and of the civil officials
fell far in arrears, and only at long intervals were
small partial payments made out of loans and ad-
vances obtained with difficulty. At one time the
troops in Constantinople received no meat because
the contractors were not paid. The Porte treated
for a loan of 30,000,000 franes secured on the light-
house receipts, and extended the concession of the
lighthouse company, a French corporation, from
TURKEY.
1899 to 1924, on condition that the Government’s
share of the gross receipts should be increased from ~
33 to 50 per cent. To this arrangement the British
Government objected, with the view of obtaining a
reduction of the lighthouse dues for the benefit of —
British shipping. Negotiations for a loan with
German bankers having failed, the Porte obtained
£ T. 1,000,000 from the Ottoman Bank by mortgag-
ing the sheep tax and tithes in certain provinces
and the receipts of the European railroads.
On Oct. 21 an trade was issued ordaining an in-
crease of 4 of 1 per cent. in the tithes, 1 per cent. in
the sheep tax, and the imposition of a poll tax on
Mohammedans to meet the cost of military defense.
Retrenchments in the expenditures of the public
departments were ordered to meet the deficit in the
budget, amounting to £T. 3,000,000. A proposal
of the French Government to turn the debt com-
mission into an international control was not only
repugnant to the Turkish Government, but was
condemned by Russia. The plan was to raise a
loan of £ T. 10,000,000 or £ 'T’. 12,000,000 to relieve
the Turkish Government of all its immediate em-
barrassments, pay up the arrears of pay in the army
and civil establishments, and provide means for the
carrying out of the promised reforms in Armenia,
Syria, and European Turkey. Russia would receive
“the whole of the promised war contribution of 3,000,-
000 rubles yearly, instead of 2,000,000 rubles, and
would appoint a representative on the commission
of the Ottoman debt. The Russian Government,
however, has not recognized this commission as pos-
pesca, any political authority, and is opposed to
every form of European interference in the internal
affairs of Turkey.
The Army and Navy.—The military forces un-
der arms in the beginning of 1896 comprised the
regular peace effective of 220,000 men, 15,000 re-
serves called out for exercises, 50,000 conscripts of
the year 1894, and 116 battalions of Redif number-
ing 75,000 men ; total, 360,000 men. The war effect-
ive exceeds 800,000 men. All Mussulmans come
under the recruiting law at the age of pie and
remain in the service until forty years old. Nomad
Kurds and Arabs, however, are not recruited in the
regular army, but may form part of the Hamidieh,
or irregular cavalry. Christians ace military tax
in lieu of service. About 140,000 Mussulmans be-
come liable to service annually, and of these about
50,000 pass into the Nizam, or regular army, and
serve four years with the colors, then remain in the
reserve two years, at the end of which they are en-
rolled in the Redif, or Landwehr, eight years, and
in the Mustahfiz, or Landsturm, six years. In May,
1896, a decree was issued reducing the term of serv-
ice with the colors to three years. The infantry
are armed with Mauser rifles of 0°3012-inch bore.
The artillery has been reorganized, and has 900
new Krupp guns and 500 older Krupps and Whit-
worths. The effective fleet in 1896 consisted of 3
casemated ironclads, 2 turret ships, 2 barbette iron-
clads, 1 ironclad monitor, 1 armored gunboat, 2
coast guards, 1 torpedo cruiser, 15 torpedo boats of
the first class, 7 of the second class, and 1 torpedo-
boat destroyer. :
Communiecations.—The railroads in operation
in September, 1896, had a total length of 2,683
miles, of which 1,237 miles were in European Tur-
key, 1,182 miles in Asia Minor, and 214 miles in
Syria.
“The telegraphs have a total length of 20,380 miles,
with 31,890 miles of wire. There were 1,824,662 in-
ternal, 422,186 international, 44,769 transit, and
219,416 official messages in 1891. The receipts were
13,102,154 frances ; expenses, 5,664,292 francs.
The post office in 1891 carried 7,999,000 internal,
2,821,000 foreign, and 1,713,000 transit letters, 170,-
TURKEY.
000 cards, and 2,134,000 internal, 1,202,000
foreign, and 1,276,000 transit journals, etc.
Commerce.—The trade with different countries
in 1893 is shown in the following table, values be-
ing given in piasters (1 piaster = 4-4 cents):
Imports. Exports,
78,151,000). 701,939,000
296,291,000) 380,036,000
66,790,000 3,882,000
12,283,000} 42,943,000
27,978,000, 31,677,000
920,000) 151,180,000
58,005,000) 78,447,000
37,280,000) 41,371,000
124,484,000! 42,965,000
7,051,000 4,763,000
57,703,000) 23,625,000
128,935,000) 32,176,000
55,864,000 2,025,000
66,426,000; ......
6,172,000 72,000
877,000} 16,368,000
12,289,000 053,000
e poucipel imports were cotton cloths for 206,-
Th
500,
146,900,000, woolen and cotton dress
000,000, cotton yarn for 112,600,000, drugs and dyes
for 96,500,000, rice for 95,400,000, coffee for 85,000,-
000, cereals for 81,200,000, hides, skins, and leather
for 79,700,000, animals for 62,400,000, madapolam
for 60,500,000, iron for 48,100,000, broadcloth for
47,400,000, iron wares for 42,000,000, cassimeres for
40,500,000, timber for 34,700,000, paper for 30,100,-
000, clothing for 26,700,000, coal for 25,300,000, and
silks for 25,000,000. The principal exports were
raisins for eco s yer raw silk for 202.000,-
000, cereals for 183,600,000, cotton for 82,500,000,
mohair for 73,300,000, opium for 69,800,000, coffee
for 61,000,000, valonia for 57,500,000, wool for 48,-
900,000, figs for 48,300,000. skins and leather for
41,000,000, olive oil for 40,300,000, minerals for 38,-
000,000, a and colors for 32,600,000, legumes
for 31,700,000, dates for 26,400,000, animals for 26,-
300,000, seeds for 21,600,000, carpets for 21,500,000,
nuts for 18,900,000, millet for 29,900,000.
Navigation.—The number of vessels entered and
cleared at Turkish pore during 1894 was 190,274, of
34,137,321 tons. There were 151,377 sailing vessels
and 38,897 steamers. The merchant eal’ | in 1895
comprised 78 steamers, of 37,843 tons, and 786 sail-
ing vessels, of 189,643 tons.
Armenia.—On Sept. 23, 1895, Lord Salisbury
proposed that the powers take coercive measures to
enforce their proposals for Armenian reforms stipu-
lated in the Treaty of Berlin, and that, in the event
of unwillingness on the part of any power to as-
sume its share in the coercive action, that power
should not oppose the action of any other. Austria
gave assent to the proposition without any qualifi-
cation. Later Germany assented with the proviso
that any coercive action of the powers against
Turkey must be unanimous and that the integrity
of the Ottoman Empire must be maintained. Italy
gave absolute assent to the proposal. Russia ob-
jected to any scheme that involved coercion, which,
. Shishkin declared, was repugnant to the Czar.
In reply, Lord Salisbury expostulated with the
Russian minister, saying that it would be useless
for the powers to make further concerted repre-
sentations to the Porte in regard to reforms unless
they were prepared to enforce their proposals. On
Nov. 24 M. Shishkin wrote to Lord Salisbury, say-
ing that the Czar to consider the question
of coercion if the Sultan should prove recalcitrant
and the other powers were unanimously in favor of
resorting to coercion. Toward the end of Decem-
ber, 1895, France gave a similar assent to measures
7) =
(ov
of coercion, and the governments of Austria, Russia,
and Italy reaffirmed their adhesion to that plan of
action. The renewal of disturbances in Asia Minor -
seemed to the Sultan a reason for not promulgating
the reforms. The ravages of the Kurds continued
unchecked, and, while the perpetrators of the mas-
sacres remained unpunished, innocent Armenians
were committed to prison on frivolous charges. The
Redifs who had been called out were undisciplined,
and as the treasury was unable to provide means
for their pay, they were likely to swell the ranks of
robbers who preyed upon the unfortunate popula-
tion. The massacre at Orfah, where, on Dec. 28,
1895, the Gregorian archpriest and four other clergy
were slain in front of the altar of their church and
thousands of Armenians were butchered, impelled
the Marquis of Salisbury to renew his suggestion of
joint action in a note dated Jan. 7, 1896. Sir Philip
Currie, the British ambassador at the Porte, ex-
pressed the conviction that the disorder and discon-
tent that reigned in all parts of the empire and in
all departments of the Ottoman administration
must, unless some remedy be found, lead inevitably
before long to a general breakdown of the machinery
of government, all the more that the Sultan ap-
peared to be powerless to bring about any improve-
ment, and that the men who surrounded him were
“too corrupt and incapable to contribute to the task.
Prince Lobanoff, who regarded it as a hopeless and
impossible task to try to impose a new system of
government on Turkey or establish parliamentary
or representative government and responsibility of
ministers in Constantinople, saw nothing in the
situation to destroy his confidence in the good will
of the Sultan, who was, he felt assured, doing his
best. In acommunication to Prince Lobanoff the
British minister at St. Petersburg on Jan. 15 con-
veyed the see of Salisbury’s opinion of the
ve responsibilities incurred by the powers if they
id not make some effort to amend the calamitous
state of things prevailing in the Ottoman Empire,
-under which circumstances he considered it of the
highest importance that the ambassadors of all the
treaty powers at Constantinople should consult
together, not only as regards the protection of
foreigners in Turkey, to which their discussion in
concert had hitherto been limited, but also as re-
gards the general state of the empire, with a view
of devising some remedy, to be submitted to the
consideration of their governments, for the evils
which undoubtedly existed, and which, if unchecked
might possibly become a source of common danger
to Europe. Prince Lobanoff in his reply said that
an exchange of views between the representatives
of the powers at Constantinople was possible with-
out special instructions, but that Lord Salisbury’s
idea evidently went further, proposing apparently
a direct interference in the internal affairs of Turkey,
an interference that was distinctly forbidden by
the Treaty of Paris and forbidden by implication in
the Treaty of Berlin. The practical results of such
an infringement of European public law would be
that the conferences of the ambassadors would be
looked upon as evidence of the imposition of a kind
of guardianship on the Sultan, and would certainly
lead to fresh disturbances and prepare the way for
a series of surprises, each succeeding one more dan-
gerous than the others. In the view of the Russian
minister it was desirable to assist the Sultan in the
arduous task of introducing the reforms obtained
from him by the powers, which could only be done by
giving him the necessary time and by increasing his
authority and prestige in the eyes of the different
rival populations that are subject to his rule. Lord
Salisbury, recognizing that Russia did not stand alone
in refusing to sanction a course of conduct that
would lead to European interference in the internal
736
affairs of Turkey and in trusting in the good will of
the Sultan to bring about an amelioration in the
condition of his subjects and preferring to exercise
no pressure beyond addressing friendly and well-
meaning advice to the Sultan, decided to proceed
no further, although hoping little from the negative
and expectant attitude on which the Russian Gov-
ernment relied, being convinced that the evils that
would result from the interruption of the harmoni-
ous relations of the powers would outweigh any ad-
vantage that could possibly be expected from iso-
lated action. Facts collected and tabulated by
delegates of the six embassies in Constantinople
showed that the total loss of lives in the massacres in
Armenia and Asia Minor respecting which accurate
information was obtainable was about 25,000, not
including estimates concerning massacres of which
there were no official or accurate details, as was the
case of the villages in Van, Kharput, and Diarbekir,
respecting whose fate it was only known that the
whole country in which they were situated had been
devastated. The starving inhabitants of the devas-
tated Armenian districts embraced Islam in great
numbers to escape further persecution and obtain a
share of the succor extended by the authorities.
The Sultan refused permission to representatives of
the Red Cross Society to enter his dominions and
distribute aid contributed in the United States.
The consular representatives of the powers made an
arrangement with the rebellious Armenian town of
Zeitun, whose inhabitants gave up their arms, retain-
ing their hunting weapons. The town was crowded
with 8,000 refugees from the villages, who, though
perishing from hunger, cold, and smallpox, refused
to return to their fields for fear of their Moslem
neighbors, notwithstanding these were disarmed by
the Turkish soldiery. The spread of the anti-
Christian disturbances to Orfah, Biredjik, and the
neighboring districts was followed by wholesale
conversions to Islam. When the Armenian Protes-
tants at Abbastan were reported to have embraced
Islam in a body, the Armenian Patriarch raised a
protest against the enforced conversion of Arme-
nians. The Grand Vizier had already sent orders
forbidding the use of force or intimidation in pro-
curing conversions, and when the converted Protest-
ants were reported to be unwilling to return to their
former faith, he had instructed the Turkish authori-
ties in Asia Minor to repel all Armenians desiring
to embrace Mohammedanism. The British minister
complained about the forcible conversion of Ar-
menians, to the Sultan, who declared that he had
documentary evidence that the Armenians had
adopted the Moslem religion of their own free will,
and said that it was difficult for him to discour-
age persons sincerely desirous of embracing his
faith. He proposed to inquire into the matter, and
suggested that Sir Philip Currie nominate some
trustworthy person to act with his commissioners.
The investigation showed that about 6,000 persons
had embraced Islam, not because the Mussulmans
actually invited them to choose between the Koran
and the sword, but yet under fear and danger of
massacre. At Biredjik the Christian quarter was
pillaged on Jan. 1 and 150 Christians were slain.
Those who escaped took refuge with friendly Mus-
sulmans, whose house was assaulted by the mob
until finally a woman mounted to the roof witha
white flag and announced that all within had joined
the faith of Islam. The local authorities refused to
recognize conversions, following instructions from
Constantinople, and this exasperated the Mussulman
fanatics and prompted them to more murderous
deeds. The Moslems of Asia Minor believed that
the whole Armenian nation desired to set up a
Christian government in which they would change
places with their Mussulman lords, and that they
TURKEY.
were intriguing with the Christian powers to secure
this political autonomy by their aid and had actually
risen in insurrection and attempted to storm the
Porte at Constantinople. As the Sheri law, which
the Sultan had done his utmost to uphold and in-
culcate, declares that the lives and property of
Christian rayahs who attempt to enlarge their
privileges are forfeited to their Mussulman lords,
the Turkish masses, believing that the Armenians
had committed this offense, considered it their re-
ligious duty and a righteous thing to destroy the
lives and seize the property of such dangerous
traitors. The local authorities often connived at
the massacres, and it was an exceptional thing when
the Mussulman notables, as at Behensi, took a firm
stand to save the Armenian Christians from injury
and wrong. The massacres all occurred posterior
to the granting of the scheme of reforms suggested
by Great Britain, and the system and organization
evident in their direction pointed to political and
official inspiration. In only comparatively few
cases were the Armenians the aggressors. The
massacres occurred almost simultaneously in widely
scattered parts of Asia Minor, begun in most cases
by the Turks, openly icipated in by Turkish
soldiers, and ended only when the survivors em-
braced Mohammedanism. The number of Turks
killed was insignificant, and the Armenians were
almost the only Christians who were molested.
With one exception, the massacres were confined
within the limits of the districts in which the
promised reforms were to be put in operation, as
though the Mussulman element sought to reduce or ~
annihilate the Christian population in order that
there might be no Armenians in the local executive
when the reforms were carried out and Christians
and Mussulmans represented in the local govern-
ment in proportion to their numbers.
In February fresh massacres were reported from
Sivas and Harput and from Marsovan, where the
Mohammedan mob were said to have forced the
Armenians to change their faith, killing all who re-
fused. ¥ vauies sees cine tee Pence coer 137,611
Bologna sausages 80,887
Bolling: cloths 6.5705 acre om co seen *
CHIMP APGUIC. cos Soratt he cs eecae rds vomes dee aine
Crude camphor ........ Ieislerg vias
Gambier or terra japonica ....
THUG var semantic dese taco ares Sau ena «ne oh's
TACOTICR FOOE Kis Jeng ntt cere se eenebeed opcinaie ec
Lime: GhHIOnigs:Ol es, ecco cteak dees 4en csseeees
Mineral waters, not artificial.................
Opiunt Oranges 2. cave anwn es ctice ah cipces ea w's
Opin, DYSPAPEG sete sees aries cana ee eae, Ime
Potash, chlorate of...
Potash, muriate of...
Potash. nitPate mes vance ur cee char oe tees teehee
WOtaAsh, Olly Ohier a. vo shee viene ate dew as.c0% whe
Quinte. ais 410,249
Cig la ie ates oes Fine sh 84,793,124
Fe 5 Se eee $0,
Shes SSCS 498,384
Seen eanotecnieey Oh eres aaae taal 337,862
Ya LC OERTC REE CELT > Ht yan$
Pigs, ingots, old, etc.........-.--++++-+++0--s .123,
Manufactures. ... ......cccccccncccescceee-ns 72,231
Cork wood, or bark, unmanufactured........... 1,209,450
Corks, and manufactures of cork on aati 409,
Cotton, unmanufactured.............---+-+-+-+-- 6.578.212
aed deaaee eaten CSS CR Er. pe eee 205,01
Cotten, manufactures of:
10 weary vty dyed, or printed....... ; pipet
Cloths, b' ; or printed.......-... 921,
ing, and other articles......-.......-. 2,683,315
goods........ Ree Sosa tees cuaew en geen 6,190,672
Laces, embroideries, trimmings, etc......... 878,954
Yarn and warps....... Risa teaw eke Sekar ate 872,
PU OMIGRs <8 ci weeacaciwee Sanches denser woeNs 6,712,072
Diamond dust or tS RU eee aE Se eae 5 108,
n, stone, and china ware:
and crockery, not decorated......... 1 425
China and crockery, decorated..........- .. 8,314,996
RIN GMM ore cg ca Suchet tak qaswe nauk tote o 486.4
wert
aes and ‘ground or refined ..
Feathers and millinery ornaments:
Feathers and downs, crude................-.
Feathers, downs, and birds, finished .......
Feathers, flowers, etc., artificial......
Feit, adhesive..... aeneerete Peeceidd
UHIBND 3 clade nnaresaiet ian a> ator
Phosphates, crude......... 467
All cal TAA Pa eee 390
Fibers, vegetable an te grasses:
Flax, and tow of, aie bette anaes 1.171.663
Flax, hackled........... Se 632,765
Hemp, and tow of, free..... 8,356
Hemp, hackled .............-- 1,046,656
Istle or Tampico fiber..... ..... 717,585
Jute and jute butts, free........ 2,001,206
TABS Se wes ce crat eyes “Bares 52,1
— SPOGs. Seo sexe Bake Ans EE ae Aae 3,412,760
Fibers, Ye vegetable and textile grasses, manufac-
Bags Ley tes grain, made of burlaps............. 1,551,855
Bagging and gunny cloth for cotton bales... 67,859
PGTIOE ce casts pide oe ove xine Bivee ee eedar den 6,446,616
Cables, cordage, and twine.................- 33,506
QO FART cons acedarsecienas stun ade Whins ccs 104,805
Twine, amine ss < cS.) came ahan de eae on 333 109,160
Yarns or iiresha, Guilinbhe.s geass te sre 5 5s 492.590
AJL QQRERE. oo cata nanscat aranuee@im ert. tek cee 18,313,249
BrGal BAGON: 3. ccce cov evanecesant thekne dads 160,660
Other fresh fish, free................0005--. Z 975,484
Other fresh fish, pen er Panta aaa as en bns 6 178,329
Anchovies and pia SNES Pie oe oe a 70,347
Dried, smoked, or salted cod, —- etc.. 467,059
Herring, dried or smoked... .....6..+......+. 74,460
Herring, salted or pickled ..................- 1,138,693
Lobsters, canned or preserved.............-. 788,638
Mackerel, pickled or salted.................. 1,063,476
rye Pickled OF RANOE ira Soa oes Cow's «¥.55'¢ 63,851
BW OCerS oss 5 cos cand ered arcade be cere 442.302
Fish bladders MC) TIGH BONNIAS 2s sods cscs ores 42,927
Fruits and nuts:
Bavanas:<--> se deee 0 aac eben coh tae e cae a sane So eee 2,516,410
Umbrellas and: PAarasole ye .scesctews se eee Pelee as. 18,502
UGRP IRIS TIOS «0. in'dine hate ab crea poe Roree teeta alaaee ¢ 40,614
Vegetables:
BEANS And ‘peasis ..ysge ares cos show paes seule. 658.320
. Cabbages....... 2535 TRON L cals eu dos Sess oes ons 55,644
BOUAIOGR: 5. «ss ubgib 263 Ox ieee Miilee Par NEES 11,389
SRREIEME cee 2. 2s. sc as easscadeebeun anenheeen 471,803
Band, hoop, and scroll iron.................. 9,675
DUNN CLS, To ac ot cewke gus trans dann 175,099
IE PTURONE « ciccc ds on on v¥ eau senueapeutaeeeheen 104,215
Castings, not elsewhere specified............. 794,314
a ee ee 188.466
OT ee Peererrer. er ce tom 770,52
Ingots, bars, and rods of steel................ 125,151
754
DOMESTIC EXPORTS.
Tron and steel, and manufactures of : Value.
ks, hinges, and builders’ hardware....... $3,311,738
Machinery, not elsewhere specified.......... 14,853,221
VU TL G <5a ce Sure sei Poip paler anaes a0 s'e'e'r'cleleis 28,630
Wire, wrought, and other nails and tacks.. 821,055
Tron plates and Sheets... 6... cee se cee eeeeses 043
Steel plates and sheets..............eeseeesee 53,291
Printing PreSSeS.........seeeeee cree eee eeeees 205
Railroad rails and bars, iron.
Railroad rails and bars, steel...
PAWS ANG TODS ieee vn sates cc secs swmerees
Scales and balances...........seseeseerereece
Sewing machines.............sceeeeveecvornes
PAPO ON ZINES 5 hss oc kel soe sds v eves scsyeave
Locomotive engines.........+eeeeeeeeeeeeeees
Stationary engines............eeeeeeeeeeeeees 6,99
Boilers and parts of engineS..........+6+0+05 534,001
Stoves and ranges......-..eeeseeercverceeeees 320,659
PWV ARs its alccin. vist e aiv oe sin. 0G levine seme RRS 1,506,885
All other manufactures...........+--+eeeeeee 7,648,893
MOWEIY ocavi dar tccescecestvecevesnuveserskv urges 800,
Lamps, chandeliers, CtC.......66.:ceeeeeenseeees 719,173
Lead, pig, bar, and O1d........cccccessereccensens 215,719
Lead manufactures. .........0csecseeeeeeseeeeees 157,222
sali = lits, and polished 8,903,863
uff, grain, splits, and polished upper.,..... 903,
Patent or enameled.........seesceeeeeeceeees 369,452
7) Ore re Mr re my rte 7,474,021
Harness and saddles
All OthGr, co isdiantasictace dum iat Gee eeusicenpeeeem
Lime and cement....
MGI. csc csassaanaraoe
Malt HQVOMa, 5 icsadcsscndoateciares Gian tent seein wen
Marble and stone, and manufactures of :
Marble and stone, unmanufactured.......... 74.878
Roofing slate? scsnisincasetasovcnovanaes cts 266,385
All other manufactures. ............0..se0008 ~
MBLC. 3 footie vacuous ix dev.ceraneecddgsnise Raa NT 90,315
Musical instruments :
OP RARE Ase psa ncedua che decanys ber aedg shade 729,903
PinntloLortes. cc « valsivs. cobs ward Navies eee ae 246,083
AW ObHORSS fis. ocscseaatinees bac tess panne s 295,675
Naval stores :
RAE POMPEY ROE SSE D NY rien cei 4.9: 4,151,748
SLE oa 55-8 Sd pacers dake Ea NG FS RAS Ama RET ER ae 34.046
Turpentine and Pitch, i. 510.55 k vee ve aslawacre 43,959
Spirits of turpentine. «5.0535... 52sactenes cele 4,613,811
Nickel, oxide and matte.............ccccccssneeee 442,795
ORIN Si, £5 Fuicaais dak sins faeces se GAs Sea pe Ewe 1,625
Oil cake and meal
Cottonseed
PANSCOG). 5 socGbe rae scéne cascada biaee ceuneye
Oils:
Lard oil
Whale oil
Minh OU>. 54. ess
Oiher animal Ollss... <5: 0s ewe beens va 839
Mineral, crude.. 6,121,836
WRADHOMOE:Y coset bss. f san ase te oa apn 1 059,542
Mineral, illuminating... ..........0.sesccerees 48,630,920
Mineral, lubricating, and heavy paraffin..... 6,556,775
TAP ONG TOSIGUUIM ¢ 05 5 vo. sods seectev cabana ee 14,
ROD VONSOR a Co aic ccaikcae. cleisls culosrepb hid acta 5,476,510
Solera SETA Bey a + HAS WP Reng metry ics for as 5 33.260
ave eatin va mile nls a ainibin avai nla s'p's 4'5 4 SNe SOR ES 174,810
er volatile or essential.................... 102,487
ait other vegetable Oils... ........ccseccnevees 309,955
PAINTS ANG GOIOTR 55584045525 os las so eeee ee eae 880.841
Paper, and manufactures of :
PRPOU BANOS yaa st has tooo sateen ara eata ORE 84,857
Writing-paper and envelopes ................ 108.117
DIVOUNBE.< cgaeceeseea + 133,735
Plated ware <2 c2c)5c seers kacds «bees Dae eRe eaaadst 408,314
Platinum, and manufactures of...............65+ ve
Provisions, comprising meat and dairy products:
BOGE; CANBOR, 0'.'5/sj03 aic'e s Ree ees Whe «ple wouin'en'e 5,636,953
Beek, Pro 5 556 o6.5 iiss REGIE rele eas ie te 18,974,107
Beef, salted or picklod: .2 pts 22,142,487} 19,143,606
MOMMOINNGS era cing cbs ete aes 13,295,767| 39,022,899
oo ie CE ae a ee ae 2,255,731 3,156,991
NOMEN eh ea tee IoU host ce spines! . .cccyecen 47,305
Ne eS Oe a Pe ee ee 3,626,934 7,496,650
GEES Lee Sits Ns ky aan wiv eess 28.730 34,983
ee eh thee os oss o's-0's 4,131,184] 11,492,428
Sweden and Norway............... 3,320,321 5,031,002
CA 7 CO Dea Sa eee | 14,080,033 32,954
Sacha BROS iste eS haha Svein y.c' > | 2,665,127 34,905
United Kingdom................... 169,963,434) 405,741,339
Total WUCOPe.,...- <> ocvesesere> | $418,639,121) $673.043,753
British Honduras.......... .....-. ) $200,212 $571,615
British North America............. | 41,212,000) 61,086,046
Lob Ee ee 0 ee eee | 3,835,187 1,198,612
OO Dos OR RAE 352 ees a 2,080,027 3,158,059
PIOUOUTAS econ 6 6c sacs ose secss. 776,644 610,621
REMUMPAU NTR, ca wciscucusececeeces 1,268,922 1,269,015
SSP INGR STE Ta a cis ap viv v0.2 xs asia o's : 1,166,970 1,608.57:
MU et a delete ads’ Se%.css.4s oa. -| 17,456,177| 19,450,256
Miquelon and St. Pierre............ 164,366 145,447
British West Indies ................ 11,323,292 9,658,200
Danish West Indies................ 310,339 537 37
Dutch West Indies................- 163,134 622,761
French West Indies................ 12.7 1,530,326
Hayti..... Brea. b= 5,2 Sake eiemitan Fe 1.697.618 4,423,502
Panto Domingo..........-- 0.2. c.0% | 2.895.069 1,064,116
OREN ATE s 5 '<'s'xials sho w:die'alu vie Oe -| 40,017,730 7.530.880
ETRE SEMIS 2545.05. < Sidvv.s ve Soagdunesos 2,296,653 2,102,094
Total North America.......... | $126.877,126 |$116,567 496
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
756
COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports.
VAT OUATIAGS init (ois Shee bw bce saw ee eae $9,318,385) $5,979,046
TSVIR eas coils ca cces i ecomvceveaas ttl! aan teee Ks 21,
RaLaART iat ERGs. cu og Sc a eiaipe mama em 71,070,046; 14,258,187
RO ees onc ce apne cess nae ese 4,709,017 3,431,808
CBIGTIDIBG Ss no cp os cantons seen rs x 4,970,092 3,382,.
MOOWAOOM sco backs reek hae eee e see 63, 689,416
Waliclatid Talands..o. icse-se ess 6| 2 oy
Georgia... « aaceaes 23) 3 a
Idaho....... Senate? 6 2
MOONS: oS vee os cote oa ie ¥
TMMANA Ts os cas ss caress 80] .. x
NOG Sant ck basn ete 26 6
pt es eee 16) 4 oy
Kentucky........... 26 5
Louisiana..........- 16 =
EMIS cela y Jp vs 3 12
Maryland........... 16 “e
Massachusetts...... 30 6
SOPOT oil oceva ons 1 6
Minnesota .......... 18 3] 3
Mississippi.........- 18 1 5} 1
Ds PPS 33 | 1 || Indian Territory... 6| ..
Montana............ ad 6 || Dist. of Columbia... 2
Nebraska..........- 16) 1 0.0 ATSB acne tessa
GVM 55s Oss ees oe 6 -_——
New Hampshire....| 8 | .. ON er 8183/1052
New Jersey.......-- 20] ..
In response to a call from Senator Dubois, of
Idaho, a separate roll call was taken on the finan-
cial plank of the platform. This produced the fol-
lowing result : Gold, 8124; silver, 1104.
As soon as the vote was made known, Senator
Cannon, of Utah, read a formal declaration of with-
drawal from the Convention of the delegates from
the Silver States. In the course of his remarks he
said that “ while the minority must bow to the will
of the majority, it must not be asked to abandon
its principles.” This part of the proceedings in-
cluded a formal written protest from the silver
delegations, signed by Senators Teller, Dubois, and
Cannon, and Representative Hartman, of Montana.
“When Senator Cannon had ceased talking,”
wrote an interested spectator of the proceedings,
“Teller and Cannon shook hands with the chair-
man and walked down the main aisle. Teller was
weeping. Tears stood in Cannon’s eyes. One by
one Dubois, Pettigrew, Hartman, and the other
bolters joined the procession, which was led by the
Colorado Senator.” The silver delegates who re-
tired from the hall were:
Congressman Hartman, of Montana.
Senator Cannon, Congressman Allen, and Dele-
gate Thomas Kearns, of Utah.
762
Senator Pettigrew, of South Dakota.
Delegates Cleveland and Strother, of Nevada.
Senator Dubois, and the entire delegation from
Utah.
Senator Teller, and the entire delegation from
Colorado.
They carried with them the standard marking
their position in the hall, The total number of
those who retired from the Convention was 21, in-
cluding 4 Senators and 2 Representatives. As they
marched out the band played “Columbia,” and the
remaining delegates sang, all standing, spectators
joining in.
After order had been restored, Senator Mantle,
a nonbolting delegate from Montana, spoke from
his place in the hall. He announced that although
he and his delegation intended to remain, they, in
the name of the Republicans of Montana, must pro-
test against the financial plank adopted, which they
could not accept, indorse, or support, and the dele-
gation would reserve the right to accept or reject
the platform and the candidates. Senator Brown,
of Utah, 3 of whose delegates had withdrawn, ex-
plained their reasons for withdrawal and secured
permission to seat 3 alternates. His speech also
contained a protest against the adopted financial
plank, but added a declaration that if he could not
support the platform on the “sound money ” issue,
he could at any rate aid in securing protection for
home industries.
STATES AND TERRITORIES. atin Quay. | Morton. | Allison.
BIBDAINGS 5 occetee sas Sene8 1 2 SA" %
BY RERSAGS cic wlccew asin et 16 = ee .%
California, 2 i scai unc coaees 18 3 oe “Fe
WOlGTEAGs Ss 4 vals cea tena wentes oy ie Se >
Connecticut. 5 * = ie
Delaware... s = ae 33
Florida..... os 2 wa
Georgia..... 2 2 ee én
TEBNOS Cs dsiciveo'ce sopeaaet ad Me
TIRDOU. >. ceulavdverenareece 2 ‘ie
AndiANA 2): conbscceuiwanns a
TGWoiics vw ouaan ds deva ie eee 26
FRATISAS Wu hiccwabicapeteenwant os
IKONGUCK Ys 3.00 cvsescuatyer
EOuisianas. cs... 200 aaa eee 4 +
Mate niis.o ty asubew eve cureens oe 12
Maryland...... Reith tees. 15 1
Massachusetts. 1 29
Michigan ... 28 f
Minnesota .. 18
Mississippi. . oe aco ee
MESSOUPD o:0)sns's < aracadinls Sistine 34
Montana G.....6.6.0ceceees
Nebraska. o6 se. asespauadee 16
NOVEHGB «Si dann ceetovermce ee 3 te
New Hampshire........... és 8
NOW Jerseys... ¢.065¥s\0555 ache 19 1 ar va oe
NOW /WOrk vies vecatuuteseunn 17 a= oa 55 Re
North Carolina ..........3 19} 24 5 Pal
North Dakota ............. 6 ae “2
Ohi 46 we
Oregon 8
Pennsylvania 6 ia 58
Rhode Island ............+. Rs 8
South Carolina............ 18 ts
South Dakota..............
Tennessee iccacsvassveexe 24
CRBS Fos sinctes CaN Une 21 5 3
TtBDE 5 Cun wads cearentcdinccd 3 3
WMermiont. ci2ye. scasekeaeae 8 aa
WATQINIA icseucn reede sens 23 1
Washington ............... 8 :
West Virginia 12
Wisconsin ...... 24
Wyoming.....
IATIZODG. 2d ss 6 ; atl .
New Mexico.. Seta 5 “5 as re 1
Oklahoma. >... kseseesae 4 1 = ie 1
Indian Territory........... 6 se aS te se
District of Columbia ...... at 1 AS af 1
DERMIS co's 0's ss Gooaack ee alate 4
OT Divs ssc tsvnicevede 6614 | 844 604 58 854
a One vote for J. D. Cameron. b 24 delegates absent.
ime vote of the convention, 922; necessary to a choice,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Then came the nominations of presidential can-
didates, John L. Baldwin, of Council Bluffs, Ia.,
named William B. Allison. Senator Henry Cabot
Lodge, of Massachusetts, placed Thomas B. Reed,
of Maine, in nomination. Chauncey M. Depew, of
‘ New York, named Gov. Levi P. Morton, of that
State. Ex-Gov. Foraker, of Ohio, named William
McKinley, of Ohio, and Chairman Thurston see-
onded the nomination.
Gov. Hastings, of Pennsylvania, named Senator
Quay, of that State. The voting on the nomination
for President was as in the preceding table.
The motion to proceed with the nomination of
Vice-President was made by Senator Lodge. Gar-
ret Augustus Hobart, of New Jersey, received 5334
votes ; H. Clay Evans, of Tennessee, 2774; Morgan
G. Bulkeley, of Connecticut, 39; James A. Walker,
of Virginia, 24; Gov. Lippitts, of Rhode Island, 8;
Chauncey M. Depew, of New York, 3; Thomas B.
Reed, of Maine, 3; Senator Thurston, of Nebraska,
2; Frederick D. Grant, of New York, 2; Levi P.
Morton, of New York, 1.
Democratic Convention.—The Democratic Na-
tional Convention was held at Chicago, Ill., on July
7, 8,9, and 10. The proceedings were opened by
Chairman Harrity, of the Democratic National Com-
mittee. Prayer was offered by Rev. E. M. Stires, of
Grace Episcopal Church. The Chairman announced
Senator David B. Hill, of New York, as the selection
of the National Committee for temporary chairman.
Committeeman Clayton, of Alabama, promptly Po
sented a minority report from the advocates of sil-
ver, naming J. W. Daniel, of Virginia, for the t
of temporary chairman. On the vote of States, Dan-
iel was accorded the chair, thus placing the conven-
tion under the control of the Silver and Populist
delegates. Carrying out their programme, Senator
White, of California, was made permanent chair-
man. The platform, containing a silver plank, was
read by Senator J. K. Jones, of Arkansas. It was
as follows :
We, the Democrats of the United States in National
Convention assembled, do reaftirm our allegiance to those
great essential principles of justice and liberty upon
which our institutions are founded, and which the Demo-
cratic party has advocated from Jefferson’s time to our
own—freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom
of conscience, the preservation of personal rights, the
equality of all citizens before the law, and the faithful
observance of constitutional limitations.
During all these years the Democratic party has re-
sisted the tendency of selfish interests to the centraliza-
tion of governmental-power, and steadfastly maintained
the integrity of the dual scheme of government estab-
lished by the founders of this republic of republics. Un-
der its guidance and teachings the great principle ot
local self govetninientt has found its best expression in the
maintenance of the rights of the States, and in its asser-
tion of the necessity of confining the General Govern-
ment to the exercise of powers granted by the Constitu-
tion of the United States.
The Constitution of the United States guarantees to
every citizen the rights of civil and religious liberty.
The Democratic party has always been the exponent of
political liberty and religious freedom, and it renews its
obligations and reaffirms its devotion to these funda-
mental principles of the Constitution.
Finance.—Recognizing that the money question is para-
mount to all others at this time, we invite attention to the
fact that the Constitution names silver and gold together
as the money metals of the United States, and that the
first coinage law passed by Congress under the Constitu-
tion made the silver dollar the money unit of value, and
admitted gold to free coinage at a ratio based upon the
silver-dollar unit.
We declare that the act of 1878 demonetizing silver
without the knowledge or approval of the American
people has resulted in the appreciation of gold, and a cor-
responding full in the prices of commodities produced by
the people; a heavy increase in the burden of taxation
and of all debts public and private; the enrichment of
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
the money-lending class at home and abroad ; the pros-
tration of industry and impoverishment of the people.
We are unalterably opposed to monometallism, which
has locked fast the prosperity of an industrial ple in
the ysis of hard times. Gold monometallism is a
British policy, and its adoption has brought other nations
into financial servitude to London. It is not only un-
Ameri but anti- American, and it can be fastened on
the United States only by the stifling of that indomitable
spirit and love of liberty which proclaimed our political
independence in 1776, and won it in the Revolution.
e demand the free and unlimited coinage of both
silver and gold at the present legal ratio, of 16 to 1, with-
out waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation.
We demand that the standard siiver dollar shall be a full
legal tender equally with gold for all debts, public and
rivate, and we favor such. legislation as will prevent for
e future the demonetization of any kind of legal tender
money by private contract.
We are o to the policy and practice of surren-
dering to the holders of the obligations of the United
States the option reserved by law to the Government of re -
ing such obligations in either silver coin or gold coin.
We are op to the sip of interest-bearing bonds
of the United States in time of peace, and condemn the
trafficking with banking syndicates which, in exch
for bonds and at an enormous os to themselves, supply
the Federal Treasury with gold to maintain the policy
of gold monometallism.
ongress alone has the power to coin and issue money,
and President Jackson declared that this power could not
be delegated to corporations or individuals. We there-
fore denounce the issuance of notes intended to circulate
as money by National banks as in derogation of the
Constitution, and we demand that all paper which is
made a legal tender for public and private debts, or
which is receivable for duties to the United States, shall
be issued by the Government of the United States, and
shall be redeemable in coin.
Tarif—We hold that tariff duties should be levied
for purposes of revenue, such duties to be so adjusted as
to operate equally throughout the country and not dis-
criminate een class or section, and that taxation
should be limited by the needs ot the Government, hon-
estly and economically administered. We denounce as
disturbing to business the Republican threat to restore
the McKinley law, which has twice been condemned by
le in National elections, and which, enacted
e false plea of protection to home industry,
proved a prolific breeder of trusts and monopolies, en-
riched the few at the expense of the many, restricted
trade, and deprived the producers of the great American
staples of access to their natural markets.
income Tax.—Until the money question is settled we
are op to any agitation for further changes in our
tarift laws, except such as are necessary to meet the
deficit in revenue caused by the adverse decision of the
Supreme Court on the income tax. But for this decision
by the Supreme Court, there would be no deficit in the
revenue under the law passed by a Democratic Congress
in strict pursuance of the uniform decisions of that court
for nearly one hundred years, that court having in that
decision sustained Constitutional objections to its enact-
ment which had previously been overruled by the ablest
judges who have ever sat on that bench. We declare that
it is the duty of Co to use all the Constitutional
power which remains after that decision, or which may
come from its reversal by the court as it may hereafter
be constituted. so that the burdens of taxation may be
equally and impartially laid, to the end that wealth may
bear its due proportion of the expenses of the Govern-
ment.
Immigration —We hold that the most efficient way ot
protecting American labor is to prevent the importation
of foreign Sere labor to compete with it in the home
market, and that the value of the home market to our
American farmers and artisans is greatly reduced by a
vicious monetary system which ch ioe the prices of
their products below the cost of production, and thus de-
prives them of the means of purchasing. the products of
our home manufactories ; and as labor creates the wealth
of the country, we demand the passage of such laws as
may be necessary to protect it in all its rights.
abor Arbitration.—We are in favor of the arbitration
of difterences between employers engaged in interstate
commerce and their employees, and recommend such
legislation as is necessary to carry out this principle.
led
763
Trusts.—The absorption of wealth by the few, the con-
solidation of our leading railroad systems, and the for-
mation of trusts and pools, require a stricter control by .
the Federal Government of those arteries of commerce.
We demand the enlargement of the powers of the Inter-
State Commerce Commission, and such restrictions and
guarantees in the control of railroads as will protect the
people from eheaps and oppression.
Expenditures.—We denounce the profligate waste of
money wrung from the people by oppressive taxation
and the lavish appropriations of recent Republican Con-
gresses, which have kept taxes high, while the labor that
pays them is unemployed and the products of the peo-
ple’s toil are depressed in price till they no longer repay
the cost of production. We demand a return to that sim-
plicity and economy which befit a democratic govern-
ment, and a reduction in the number of useless offices,
the salaries of which drain the substance of the people.
State Rights—We denounce arbitrary interference by
Federal authorities in local affairs as a violation of the
Constitution of the United States and a crime against
free institutions ; and we i Puget object to government
by injunction as a new and highly dangerous form ot
oppression, by which Federal judges, in contempt of the
laws of the States and rights of citizens, become at once
legislators, judges, and executioners; and we approve the
bill passed at the last session of the United States Senate,
and now pending in the House of Representatives, relative
to contempts in Federal courts and providing for trials by
jury in certain cases of contempt.
cifie Railroad.—No discrimination should be. in-
dulged by the Government of the United States in favor
of any of its debtors. We spurs of the refusal of the
Fifty-third Congress to pass the Pacific Railroad funding
bill, and denounce the efforts of the present Republican
Congress to enact a similar measure.
Pensions.—Recognizing the just claims of deserving
Union soldiers, we heartily indorse the rule of the pres-
ent Commissioner of Pensions that no names shall be ar-
bitrarily dropped from the pension roll; and the fact of
enlistment and service should be deemed conclusive
evidence? against disease and disability before enlist-
ment.
Territories.—W e favor the admission of the Territories
of New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Arizona into the Union
as States, and we favor the early admission of all the Ter-
ritories having the necessary population and resources to
entitle them to statehood ; and, while they remain Terri-
tories, we hold that the officials appointed to administer
the government of any Territory, together with the Dis-
trict of Columbia and Alaska, should be bona jide resi-
dents of the Territory or District in which the duties are
to be performed. he Democratic party believes in
home rule, and that all public lands of the United States
should be appropriated to the establishment of free homes
for American citizens. :
We recommend that the Territory of Alaska be granted
a delegate in Congress, and that the general land and
timber laws of the United States be extended to said
Territory.
Monroe Doctrine—The Monroe Doctrine, as originally
declared and as interpreted by succeeding Presidents, is
a permanent part of the foreign policy of the United
States, and must at all times be maintained.
Cuba.—We extend our sympathy to the people of
Cuba in their heroic struggle for liberty and independ-
ence.
Civil Service—We are opposed to life tenure in the
ublic service. We favor appointments based upon mer-
it, fixed terms of office, and such an administration of the
civil-service laws as will afford equal opportunities to all
citizens of ascertained fitness.
Third Term.—We declare it to be the unwritten law
of this republic, established a) custom and usage of one
hundred years and sanctioned by the examples of the
greatest and wisest of those who founded and have main-
tained our Government, that no man should be eligible
for a third term of the presidential office.
Waterways—The Federal Government should care for
and improve the Mississippi river and other great water-
ways of. the republic, so as to secure for the interior States
easy and cheap transportation to tidewater. When any
waterway of the republic is of sufficient importunce to
demand aid of the Governieaak, such aid should be ex-
tended upon a definite plan of continuous work until per-
manent improvement is secured.
Confiding in the justice of our cause and the necessity
7164
of its success at the polls, we submit the foregoing decla-
rations of pee bet and purposes to the considerate judg-
ment of the American people. We invite the support ot
all citizens who approve them.and who desire to have
them made effective through legislation for the relief of
the people and the restoration of the country’s prosperity.
Following the reading of the platform, speeches
were made by Senators Tillman, of North Carolina,
Hill, of New York, and Vilas, of Wisconsin, also
ex-Gov. Russell, of Massachusetts, and W.J. Bryan,
of Nebraska. The peroration of the last-named
speaker’s address contained this sentence: “ We
shall answer their demand for the gold standard by
saying to them,‘ You shall not press down upon
the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You shall
not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.’” The
silver delegates expressed their entire approbation
of the sentiments therein expressed.
The importance of the issues involved, and also
the bearing of the report on the subsequent pro-
ceedings of the convention, render it necessary to
publish the minority report in full:
To the Democratic National Convention.—Sixteen
delegates, constituting the minority of the Committee on
Resolutions, find many declarations in the report of the
majority to which they can not give their assent. Some
of these are wholly unnecessary ; some are ill-considered
and ambiguously phrased; while others are extreme, and
revolutionary of the well-recognized principles of the
party. The minority content themselves with this gen-
eral expression of their dissent, without going into a spe-
cific statement of these objectionable features of the re-
port of the majority.
But upon the financial question, which engages at this
time the chief share of public attention, the views of the
majority differ so fundamentally from what the minority
regard as vital Democratic doctrine as to demand a dis-
tinct statement of what they hold to as the only just and
true expression of Democratic faith upon this important
issue, as follows, which is offered as a substitute for the
financial report of the majority :
“ We dnclare our belief that the experiment on the part
of the United States alone of free-silver coinage and a
change in the existing standard of value independently
of the action of other great nations would not only im-
peril our finances, but would retard or entirely prevent
the establishment of international bimetallism, to which
the efforts of the Government should be steadily directed.
It would place this country at once upon a silver basis,
impair contracts, disturb business, diminish the purchas-
ing power of the wages of labor, and inflict irreparable
evils upon our nation’s commerce and industry.
* Until international co-operation among teas nations
for the coinage of silver can be secured, we axa the
rigid maintenance of the existing gold standard as essen-
tial to the preservation of our national credit, the redemp-
tion of our public pledges, and the keeping inviolate ot
our country’s honor. We insist that all our paper cur-
rency shall be kept at a parity with gold. The Demo-
cratic party is the party of hard money, and is opposed to
legal-tender paper money as a part of our permanent
financial system, and we therefore favor the gradual re-
tirement and cancellation of all United States notes and
‘Treasury notes, under such legislative provisions as will
prevent undue contraction. Wedemand that the national
credit shall be resolutely maintained at all times and
under all circumstances.”
The minority also feel that the report of the majority
is defective in failing to make any recognition of the
honesty, economy, courage, and fidelity of the present
Democratic Administration, and they therefore offer the
following declaration as an amendment to the majority
report:
“We commend the, honesty, economy, courage, and
fidelity of the present Democratic National Administra-
tion.
The signers were: David B. Hill, New York;
William F. Vilas, Wisconsin; George Gray, Dela-
ware; J. P. Poe, Maryland; I. W. Drew, New
Hampshire; P. J. Farrell, Vermont; Lynde Har-
rison, Connecticut; D, S. Baker, Rhode Island;
C. O. Holman, Maine; T. A. C. Weadock, Michi-
gan; J. E. O’Brien, Minnesota; J. E. Russell, Massa-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
chusetts ; R. E. Wright, Pennsylvania; W. R. Steele,
South Dakota; A. i McDermott, New Jersey ; and
C. D. Rogers, Alaska, ‘
The question of accepting the minority report
was put to the vote, with this result : Yeas, 301; nays,
628. The statement, as below, shows the vote in
support of the majority or “ Free-Silver” platform :
STATES £ STATES j 2
AND TERRITORIES % || AND TERRITORIES. | = | 3
Alabama ..........- 72
ATEKADSAS . (5 cen tone
California ........::
§
~
16
18
8
1
5
26
6
48 | ..
30] ..
26
20
16
4
3
28
6
18
6
16
i0
12
27
ii || Arizona...........: 6
.. || Dist. of Columbia..| 6
.. || New Mexico....... 6] as
Oklahoma......... 6
.. || Indian Territory...) 6] .
‘8 Wibbat?2 ook 628 (301
20
Absent, 1.
On the minority resolution indorsing the Admin-
istration, the vote demanded by Senator Hill was:
Yeas, 357; nays, 564; not voting, 9.
On the evening of July 10 the roll of States was
called for nomination of presidential and vice-
presidential candidates. Senator Vest, of Missouri,
named Richard P. Bland, of Arkansas. H.T. Lew-
is, of Georgia, named William Jennings Bryan, of
Nebraska. This was seconded by George Fred.
Williams, of Massachusetts. Senator Turpie, of In-
diana, presented the name of Gov. Claude Williams
of that State. Mr. Fred. White, of Iowa, urged
the nomination of ex-Gov. Horace Boies. J. S.
Rhea, of Kentucky, named Senator J. C. S. Black-
burn. Mr. A. W. Patrick, of Ohio, spoke in behalf
of John R. McLean, of Cincinnati.’
When voting for the candidates was in progress
on the first ballot, ten Michigan delegates refused
to vote. New Jersey declined to take any further
art in the proceedings. For New York, ex-Gov.
lower said: “In view of the platform adopted by
this convention, I am instructed, as a delegate from
the State of New York, to say that the delegates
have agreed not to participate in the selection of
candidates for President and Vice-President, and
therefore they decline to vote.” Gen. Bragg an-
nounced that Wisconsin declined to Vote. is as-
sertion caused a dispute in the delegation, ending
in 4 out of 24 voting.
The first ballot showed the following result:
Bland, 235; Bryan, 119; Boies, 85; Blackburn, 838;
McLean, 54; Matthews, 37: Campbell, 1; Pattison,
95; Pennoyer, 8; Russell, 2; Stevenson, 2; Tillman,
17; Teller, 8; Hill, 1; absent and not voting, 178.
On the second ballot, Bland stood 283; Boies, 41;
Matthews, 33; McLean, 53; Blackburn, 41; Patti-
son, 100; Bryan, 190; Pennoyer, 8; Stevenson, 10;
Hill, 1; Teller, 8; not voting, 162. On the third
ballot Bland had 291 and Bryan 219. The num-
ber not voting was still 162. The fourth ballot
found Bryan with 280 and -Bland with 241, 162
delegates not voting. The total number of votes
cast on the fourth ballot, 768; necessary to a
choice, 512. The chairman then declared the two-
aw “we
ure f
a Ee ne
eg
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
third rule in operation. The fifth ballot gave the
following result:
STATES AND Mat- Patti- | Steven-| Not
TERRITORIES. | B/*4-| Boies. | shows. | B78") son. | son. | Voting.
Alabama..... - 22 yr
Arkansas..... 16 a6 ae
California ae 18 *
Colorado...... 8 as
Connecticut ¥. 2 10
ware..... 1 3 2
Florida....... 1 va hy
Georgia....... Kies 26
1 ORs zs 6
Illinois. ....... a 48
Indiana....... 30 a
Li, Saar 26 YY 2 .
sty cee - 20 :
Kentucky... 26 fe
Louisiana... 16 sa se
eres Seals he ‘ . ‘
a gta ? 3 18
Minnesota ict 11 5
Mississippi. S: 18 es
Missouri...... 34 ae
Montana...... 6
Nebraska. .... 16 oa
Nevada....... 6 ae
N. Ham de 1 ‘= A
New Jersey. Fe 2 ie 18
New York .. £5 % ste 72
lina 22 sy ne
North Dakota. 4 2 be
essere Fe 46 > a
Oss tasee 8 ar
Pennsylvania a 64 =
ode d : a" 6 2
8S. Carolina...) .. 18 os
South Dakota.) .. 8 ad
aes os 30 oh *
Se teats y 3 3 ie
Vermont...... es Pe oa 4
Washington...) 4 4 ra
West Virginia. 7 2 2 A
Wisconsin....) .. 5 a 19
Wyoming..:.. + 6 ste
Arizona..... os 6
Dist. of Col 6
New Mexico “ 6
Oklahoma 6
Indian Ter 7 6
Total...... 106 26 31 500 95 8 162
Ohio changed from McLean to Bryan during the ballot.
Oklahoma changed from Bland to Bryan. Hill received 1
vote from Massachusetts, and Turpie 1 vote from Wiscon-
sin. Changes were made after the ballot was announced,
giving Bryan more than the 512 mew A votes.
There were 5 ballots for a candidate for Vice-President.
On the fourth ballot McLean, Ohio, received 296:
Maine, 262; Daniel, Virginia, 54; Clark, North Carolina, 46;
Williams, Massachusetts, 19; Harrity, Pennsylvania, 11;
Pattison, Pennsylvania, 1; not voting, 252. No record was
kept of the fifth ballot, but the nomination was made unani-
mous.
From the table it may be noted that the States
not voting esti Asse in part) were: Connecticut,
Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minne-
sota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,
Rhode Island, Vermont, Wisconsin. Of these, New
York was the only State retaining a solid delega-
tion against platform and candidates.
William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem,
Marion County, Ill., March 19, 1860. His father
was Silas L. Bryan, a lawyer of high standing, who
had served eight years in the Illinois Senate and
was afterward a circuit judge. The family came
originally from Virginia. The son spent his early
life on his father’s farm, on the outskirts of Salem,
went to the public schools, prepared for college in
the Whipple Academy, at Jacksonville, Ill., and at
the age of seventeen entered Illinois College, in that
town. He was a good student, and graduated with
honors in 1881, appearing at commencement as the
orator of his class, a position that he had earned by
gaining the second prize in an intercollegiate ora-
Sewall, ©
765
torical contest held at Galesburg while he was a
senior. He immediately began the study of the
law, entering Judge Lyman Trumbull’s office in -
Chicago, and at the same time pursuing the course
of the Union Law College. He began his profes-
sional career in Jacksonville, and a year later mar-
ried Mary E. Baird, the only daughter of a pros-
perous merchant of Perry, Ill. The marriage was
the result of an attachment that had sprung up
when he was a student in college and the young
woman a student also in the seminary at Jackson-
ville. In 1887 the young couple removed to Lincoln,
Neb., where he formed a partnership with a lawyer
named Talbot and opened a law office in the autumn
of that year. Mrs. Bryan took up the study of the
law after the birth of the first of her three children,
was admitted to the bar, and gave efficient aid to
her husband in his law practice. In May, 1888,
Bryan was elected a delegate to the Democratic
State Convention that met at Omaha to elect dele-
gates for the national convention at St. Louis. Be-
ing invited to make a speech at the convention, he
electrified his colleagues with a brilliant exposition
of the doctrine of tariff for revenue only, gaining
thereby a reputation throughout the State for ora- ~
torical ability and political knowledge. In the fol-
lowing year the Democratic leaders of the State
offered to the young and hitherto unknown lawyer
the nomination for Lieutenant Governor, which he
declined. He took an active part, however, in the
campaign, making speeches in all parts of Nebraska.
A year later, in 1890, the younger element of the
Democrats of his district, which had elected a
Democratic candidate by 7,000 majority in 1886,
and in 1888 had suffered a severe reverse, J. Ster-
ling Morton being defeated by his Republican oppo-
nent by a majority of 3,000, made Bryan the party
candidate for Congress. Mr. Bryan accepted the
nomination, and though ridiculed as an inexperi-
enced boy by the Democrats of the rival city of
Omaha and neglected by the party managers, who
took no interest in the contest, regarding it as hope-
less, and supplied no funds, he made a vigorous
766
campaign on the issue of the McKinley tariff, and
was elected by 32,376 votes to 25,663 for his Repub-
lican opponent, the actual Republican Representa-
tive Connell. Mr. Bryan took his seat in December,
1891, and after laboring hard in support of the can-
didacy of William M. Springer for the speakership,
was placed on the Committee of Ways and Means,
of which Springer was chairman. His speeches in
Congress in support of the Democratic views of the
tariff were so eloquent and effective that he was re-
tained as a member of the Ways and Means Com-
mittee when it was reconstituted in the Forty-third
Congress, to which he was elected in 1892 by a plu-
rality of only 140. In this Congress he was the
most conspicuous advocate of the free coinage of
silver after Richard P. Bland, whom he aided in
the manceuvres in behalf of silver with all his skill
and readiness in debate and mastery of parliamen-
tary tactics. In opposing the repeal of the silver-
purchase law he held the attention for three hours
of the House with a brilliant speech. When his
second term drew to a close Bryan declined to be
renominated, pleading the necessity of looking after
his private affairs, He accepted the editorship of
the Omaha “ World-Herald” for the purpose of
romoting the silver cause, bees his duties on
Bopt 1, 1894. He was a candidate for the United
States Senate, but was defeated by the Republican
John M. Thurston. He retired from the editorship
and resumed his law practice, but continued to take
an active part in the party management, and was
the principal author of the fusion of the Democrats
and the People’s party in Nebraska. In the Chicago
convention Bryan was not a prominent candidate
for the presidential nomination. He was not thought
of, indeed, by the leaders and the party at large un-
til he captivated the convention by an impassioned
speech in reply to Senator David B. Hill and other
advocates of the gold standard, ending with the
apostrophe: “ You shall not press down upon the
brow of labor this crown of thorns! You shall not
crucify mankind upon a cross of gold !”
Socialist Labor Convention.—The national con-
pay was held in
he platform was
vention of the Socialist Labor
New York city on July 9, 1896.
as follows:
The Socialist Labor party of the United States, in con-
vention assembled, reasserts the inalienable right of all
men to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
With the founders of the American republic, we hold
_ that the purpose of government is tosecure every citizen
in the enjoyment of this right; but in the light of our
social conditions, we hold, furthermore, that no such
right can be exercised under a system of economic in-
equality, essentially destructive of life, of liberty, and of
happiness.
ith the founders of this republic, we hold that the
true theory of politics is that the machinery of govern-
ment must be owned and controlled by the whole peo-
ple; but in the light of our industrial development we
hold, furthermore, that the true theory of economies is that
the machinery of production must likewise belong to the
people in common.
o the obvious fact that our despotic system of econom-
ics is the direct opposite of our democratic system of
olitics, can plainly be traced the existence of a privi-
eged class, the corruption of government by that class,
the alienation of oubtic property. ublie franchises, and
public functions to that class, and the abject dependence
of the mightiest nations upon that class.
Again, through the perversion of democracy to the
ends of plutocracy, labor is robbed of the wealth which
it alone produces, is denied the means of self-employ-
ment, and, by compulsory idleness in wage slavery, is
even deprived of the necessaries of life.
Human power and natural forces are thus wasted that
the plutocracy may rule. ’
Ignorance and misery, with all their concomitant evils,
are perpetuated, that the people may be kept in bondage.
Science and invention are diverted from their humane
purpose to the enslavement of women and children.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Against such a system the Socialist Labor party once
more enters its protest. Once more it reiterates its fun-
damental declaration, that private property in the natural
sources of production and in the instruments of labor is
the obvious cause of all economic servitude and political
dependence.
‘he time is fast coming when, in the natural course of
social evolution, this system, through the destructive ac-
tion of its failures and crises on the one hand, and the
constructive tendencies of its trusts and other capitalistic
combinations on the other hand, shall have worked out
its own downfall.
We therefore call upon the wage workers of the
United States, and upon all other honest citizens, to or-
ganize under the banner of the Socialist Labor party into
a class-conscious body, aware of its rights and deter-
mined to conquer them ae taking possession of the pub-
lic. powers; so that, held together by an indomitable
tee of solidarity under the most trying conditions of
the present class struggle, we may put a summary end to
that barbarous struggle | the abolition of classes, the
restoration of the jand, and of all the means of produc-
tion, transportation, and distribution, to the ple as a
collective , and the substitution of the Co-operative.
Commonwealth for the present state of planless produc-
tion, industrial war, and social disorder; a common-
wealth in which every worker shail have the free cxer-
cise and full benefit of his faculties, multiplied by all the.
modern factors of civilization.
With a view to immediate improvement in the condi-
tion of labor we present the following demands:
1. Reduction of the hours of labor in proportion to the
progress of production.
2. The United States to obtain possession of the mines,
railroads, canals, telegraphs, telephones, and all other
means of public transportation and communication ; the
employees to operate the same co-operatively under con-
trol of the Federal Government and to elect their own
Fe officers, but no employee shall be discharged for
political reasons.
3. The municipalities to obtain possession of the local
railroads, ferries, waterworks, gas works, electric plants,
and all industries requiring municipal franchises; the
oe to operate the same co-operatively under con-
trol of the municipal administration and to elect their
own superior officers, but no employee shall be dis-
ing for eo pe reasons.
4. The public lands to be declared inalienable. Revo-
cation of all land grants to corporations or individuals, —
the conditions of which have not been complied with.
5. The United States to have the exclusive right to.
issue money.
6. Congressional legislation providing for the scientitfie
management of forests and waterways, and prohibiting
the waste of the natural resources of the country.
7. Inventions to be free to all; the inventors to be
remunerated by the nation.
8. Progressive income tax and tax on inheritances; the
smaller incomes to be exempt.
9. School education of all children under fourteen years.
of age to be compulsory, gratuitous, and accessible to all
by public assistance in meals, clothing, books, ete., where
necessary. :
10. Repeal of all pauper, tramp, conspiracy, and sump-
tuary laws. Unabridged right of combination.
11. Prohibition of the employment of children of
school age, and the employment of female labor in occu-
pations detrimental to health or morality. Abolition of
the convict labor contract system. : .
12. Employment of the unemployed by the public au-
thorities (county, city, State, and nation). ;
13. All wages to be paid in lawful money of the United
States. Equalization of woman’s wages with those of men
where equal service is performed.
14. Laws for the protection of life and limb in all oc-
cupations, and an efficient employers’ liability law.
15. The people to have the right to propose laws and
to vote upon all measures of iniportance, according to the
referendum principle. i
16. Abolition of the veto power of the Executive (Na-
tional, State, and Municipal) wherever it exists.
17. Abolition of the United States Senate and all upper
legislative chambers.
18. Municipal self-government. :
19. Direct vote and secret ballots in all elections. Uni-
versal and equal right of suffrage without regard to color,
creed, or sex. * Election days to be legal holidays. The
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
principle of proportional representation to be intro-
u
20, All public officers to be subject to recall by their
Tes ive constituencies.
91. Uniform civil and criminal law throughout the
United States. Administration of justice to free of
charge. Abolition of capital punishment.
Charles H. Matchett, of New York, was nomi-
nated for President, and Matthew Maguire, of New
Jersey, for Vice-President.
Populist Convention.—The Populist Convention
was feld at St. Louis, Mo., on July 22, 23, and 24,
1896. It was called to order by Mr. Taubeneck,
Chairman of the Populist National Committee.
Gov. W. J. Stone, of Missouri, delivered an address
of welcome. Senator Marion Butler, of North Car-
olina, was made temporary chairman. Senator Al-
len, of Nebraska, was chosen as permanent chairman,
after a vote had been taken on the adoption of a
minority i ode recommending James A. Spee ry
of Maine. e vote yielded 758 for Allen and 564
for Campion. This was a victory for those who ap-
proved of W. J. Bryan as head of the ticket. The
platform was as follows:
The People’s party, assembled in national convention,
its allegiance to the principles declared by the
founders of the republic, and also to the fundamental
inciples of just government as enunciated in the plat-
‘orm of the In 1892.
We recognize that through the connivance of the pres-
ent and ing administrations the country has reached
a crisis in its national life, as predicted in our declara-
vernment, which functions have been ly surren-
dered by our public servants to corporate monopolies. The
le. Executive power and — e have been used
a pte our eeuslatures and efeat the will of the peo-
ple, and plutocracy has thereby been enthroned upon the
ruins of ocracy. Torestore the government intended
by the fathers, and for the welfare and prosperity of this
and future generations, we demand the establishment of
an economic and financial system which shall make us
masters of our own affairs and independent of Euro
control, by the adoption of the following declaration of
principles:
Finance —1\. We demand a national money, safe and
sound, issued by the General Government only, without
the intervention of banks of issue, to be a full a ten-
der for all debts, public and private ; a just, equitable, and
efficient means of distribution, direct to the people, and
through the lawful disbursements of the Government.
2. We demand the free and unrestricted coinage of sil-
ver and gold at the present 1 ratio of 16 to 1, without
Mee or the consent of foreign nations.
3. We demand that the volume of circulating medium
be speedily increased to an amount sufficient to meet the
demands of the business and population, and to restore
the just level of prices of labor and production.
4. We denounce the sale of bonds and the increase of
the public interest-bearing debt made by the present
Administration as unnecessary and without authority ot
law, and demand that no more bonds be issued except by
specific act of Congress.
5. We demand such legislation as will prevent the de-
monetization of the lawful money of the United States
by private contract.
6. We demand that the Government, in payment of its
obligations, shall use its option as to the kind of lawful
money in which they are to be paid, and we denounce
the present and preceding administrations for surrender-
ing this option to the holders of Government obligations.
7. We demand a uated income tax, to the end that
aggregated wealth shall bear its just proportion of taxa-
tion, and we regard the recent decision of the Supreme
Court relative to the income-tax law as a misinterpreta-
tion of the Constitution and an invasion of the rightful
powers of Congress over the subject of taxation.
767
8. Wedemand that postal] savings banks be established
by the Government for the safe deposit of the savings of
the people and to facilitate exchange.
Government Control of Railroads and Telegraphs.—
1. Transportation being a means of exchange and a pub-
lic necessity, the Government should own and operate the
railroads in the interest of the people and on a nonpar-
tisan basis, to the end that all may be accorded the same
treatment in transportation, and that the tyranny and
political power now exercised by the great railroad cor-
porations, which result in the impairment, if not the de-
struction, of the onan rights and personal liberties of
the citizen, may be destroyed. Such ownership is to be
accomplished gradually, in a manner consistent with
sound public policy.
2. The interest of the United States in the public high-
ways built with public moneys, and the proceeds of grants
of land to the Pacific railroads, should never be alienated,
mortgaged, or sold, but guarded and protected for the
general welfare, as provided by the laws organizing such
railroads. The foreclosure ot existing liens of the United
States on these roads should at once follow default in the
Porcent thereof by the debtor companies; and at the
oreclosure sales of said roads the Government shall pur-
chase the same, if it becomes necessary to protect its in-
terests therein, or if they can be purchased at a reasona-
ble price; and the Government shall operate said railroads
as ; gaa highways for the benefit of the whole ple,
and not in the interest of the few, under suitable pro-
visions for protection of life and property, giving to all
transportation interests equal privileges and equal rates
for fares and freights.
3. We denounce the present infamous schemes for re-
funding these debts, and demand that the laws now ap-
plicable thereto be executed and administered according
to their intent and spirit.
4. The eg a pe ike the post-office system, being a
necessity for the transmission of news, should be owned
and operated by the Government in the interest of the
people.
Public Lands.—1. True policy demands that the na-
tional and State legislation shall be such as will ulti-
mately enable every prudent and industrious citizen to
secure . oe and scptene a the land should not be
monopoliz or speculative purposes. All lands no
held fy railroads and other corporations in excess of their
actual needs should by lawful means be reclaimed by
the Government and held for actual settlers only, and
agit land monopoly, as well as alien ownership, should
prohibited.
2. We condemn the land-grant frauds by which the
Pacific railroad companies have, through the connivance
of the Interior Department, robbed multitudes of bona
Jide settlers of their homes and miners of their claims,
and we demand legislation by Congress which will en-
force the exception of mineral Jand from such grants
after as well as before the patent.
3. We demand that bona jide settlers on all public
lands be granted free homes, as provided in the National
Homestead Law, and that no exception be made in
the case of Indian reservations when opened for settle-
ment, and that all lands not now patented come under
this demand.
Referendum.—We favor a system of direct legislation
through the initiative and referendum, under proper con-
stitutional safeguards.
Election of President and Senators—We demand the
election of ident, Vice-President, and United States
Senators by a direct vote of the people.
Cuba.—We tender to the —_ people of Cuba our
deepest sympathy in their heroic struggle for political
freedom and independence, and we believe the time has
come when the United States, the great republic of the
world, should recognize that Cuba is, and of right ought
to be, a free and independent state.
Territories —W e favor home rule in the Territories and
the District of Columbia, and the early admission of the
Territories as States.
Oficial Salaries——All public salaries should be made
to correspond to the price of labor and its products.
Paternalism.—In times of great industrial depression
idle labor should be employed on public works as far as
practicable. 4
Judicial Action.—The arbitrary course of the courts in
assuming to imprison citizens for indirect contempt and
ars by injunction should be prevented by proper legis-
ation.
768
Pensions.—We favor just pensions for our disabled
Union soldiers,
The Ballot.—Believing that the elective franchise and
untrammeled ballot are essential to a government of, for,
and by the people, the People’s party condemn the whole-
sale system of disfranchisement adopted in some States
as unrepublican and undemocratic, and we declare it to
be the duty of the several State legislatures to take such
action as will secure a full, free, and fair ballot and an
honest count.
Finance.—W hile the foregoing propositions constitute
the platform. upon which our party stands, and for the
vindication of which its organization will be maintained,
we recognize that the great and pressing issue of the
pending campaign, upon which the present election will
turn, is the financial question, and upon this great and
specific issue between the parties we cordially invite the
aid and co-operation of all organizations and citizens
agreeing with us upon this vital question.
A minority submitted a substitute platform de-
nouncing “the methods and policies of the Demo-
cratic and Republican parties” for their “mutual
co-operation with the money power”; also their
policies of tariff and the issuance of interest-bear-
ing United States bonds in time of peace; demanded
anational currency; the free and unlimited coinage
of silver and gold at a ratio of 16 to 1; that the cir-
culating medium shall consist of gold, silver, and
paper currency; a graduated income tax; economy
in Federal administration; Government ownership
of the telegraph and telephone; the prohibition of
alien ownership of land and gee immigration,
and legislation by means of the initiative and ref-
erendum. The minority platform was defeated by
a large majority.
By a vote of 785 to 615 it was resolved to nomi-
nate the candidate for Vice-President first.
The names presented were Congressman Harry
Skinner, of North Carolina; Thomas E. Watson, of
Georgia; Frank Burkitt, of Mississippi; A. L.
Mimms, of Tennessee; Mann Page, of Virginia; and
Arthur Sewall, of Maine. The balloting began after
midnight, July 24, and the result of the first ballot
gave Watson 4692; Sewall, 2578, and the others
ranging lower. A motion to declare Watson the
nominee was carried.
On the following day William J. Bryan, nominee
of the Democratic Convention, was made the head
of the Populist ticket. He had telegraphed to Sen-
ator Jones to withdraw his name if Sewall, Demo-
cratic nominee for Vice-President, was not indorsed
for Vice-President, but it was allowed to stand.
James B. Weaver nominated Mr. Bryan; Henry W.
‘Call nominated S$. F. Norton, of Chicago; Mr. Liy-
ingston nominated J. S. Coxey, but withdrew the
name later. The ballot showed the following result:
Bryan, 1,042; Norton, 321; Eugene V. Debs, 8; Ig-
natius Donnelly, 3; J. S. Coxey, 1.
Silver Party Convention.—The convention of
the National Silver party was also held at St. Louis,
on July 22, 1896. It was called to order by Dr. J. J.
Mott, of North Carolina. Representative F. G.
Newlands, of Nevada, was made temporary chair-
man. William P. St. John, of New York, was
selected as permanent chairman. The platform was
as follows:
First, the paramount issue at this time in the United
States is indisputably the money question. It is between
the British gold standard, gold bonds, and bank currency
on the one side, and the bimetallic standard, no bonds,
Ssieteam tae currency (and an American policy), on the
other.
. Silver—On this issue we declare ourselves to be in
favor of a distinctively American financial system. We
are unalterably opposed to the single gold standard, and
demand the pe Bs 2 return to the constitutional stand-
ard of gold and silver, by the restoration by this Govern-
ment, independently of any foreign power, of the unre-
stricted coinage of both gold and silver into standard
money at the ratio of 16 to 1, and upon terms of exact
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
equality, as they existed prior to 1878; the silver coin to
be of full legal tender, equally with gold, for all debts and
dues, public and private; and we demand such legisla~
tion as will prevent for the future the destruction of the
legal-tender quality of any kind of money by private
contract.
We hold that the power to control and regulate a
paper currency is inseparable from the power to coin
money, and hence that all currency intended to cireulate
as money should be issued and its volume controlled by
the General Government only, and should be a legal
tender. .
Bond Issues.—W e are unalterably opposed to the-issue
4 the United States of interest-bearing bonds in time
of peace; and we denounce as a blunder, worse than a
crime, the pire Treasury policy, concurred in by a
Republican House, of plunging the country into debt by
hundreds of millions in the vain attempt to maintain the
gold standard by borrowing gold; and we demand the
payment of all coin obligations of the United States, as
provided by existing laws, in either gold or silver coin
at the option of the Government and not at the option of
the ereditor.
Production.—The advocates of the gold standard per-
sistently claim that the real cause of our distress is over-
production—that we have produced so much that it
made us poor; which implies that the true remedy is to
close the factory, abandon the farm, and throw a multi- .
tude of people out of employment—a doctrine that leaves
us unnerved and disheartened, and absolutely without
hope for the future. We affirm it to be unquestioned that
there can be no such economic paradox as overproduc-
tion and at the same time tens of thousands of our fellow-
citizens remaining half clothed and half fed, and who
“ piteously clamoring for the common necessities of
ife.
Bimetallism.—Over and above all other questions ot
licy we are in favor of restoring to the people of the
nited States the time-honored money of the Constitu-
tion—gold and silver, not one, but both—the money of
Washington and Hamilton, and Jefferson and Monroe,
and Jackaon and Lincoln, to the end that the American
people may receive honest pay for an honest product ;
that the American debtor may pay his just obligations
in an honest standard, and not in a dishonest and un-
sound standard, appreciated 100 per cent. in purchasing
power and no appreciation in debt-paying power, and to
the end, further, that silver-standard countries may be
deprived of the unjust advantage they now enjoy in the
difference in exchange between gold and silver—an ad-
vantage which tariff legislation can not overcome.
Candidates.—Inasmuch as the patriotic majority of the
Chicago convention embodied in the financial plank of
its platform the principles enunciated in the platform of
the American bimetallic party, promulgated at Wash- ©
ington, D. C., Jan. 22, 1896, and herein reiterated, which
is not only the paramount but the only real issue in the
pending campaign, therefore, recognizing that their
nominees embody these patriotic principles, we recom-
mend that this convention nominate William J. Bryan,
of Nebraska, for President, and Arthur Sewall, of Maine,
for Vice-President,
The nominees recommended in the platform were
indorsed by acclamation.
National Democratic Convention.—The con-
vention of the National Democratic party was held
at Indianapolis on Sept. 2 and 3, 1896, It was opened
by Senator Palmer, chairman of the National Com-
mittee. Prayer was offered by Bishop Hagen
White, of Indiana. Forty-one States, with 888
delegates, responded to the first roll call. Alaska,
Arizona, and New Mexico were represented in the
above total. Ex-Gov. Roswell P. Flower, of New
York, was chosen as temporary chairman; Senator
Donelson Caffery, of Louisiana, was selected as per-
manent chairman. The platform was as follows:
This convention has assembled to uphold the princi-
ples upon which depend the honor and welfare of the
American people, in order that Democrats throughout the
Union may unite their patriotic efforts to avert disaster
from their country and ruin from their party.
Democratic Principles.—The Democratic party is
pledged to equal and exact justice to all men of every
ereed and condition; to the largest freedom of the indi-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
vidual consistent with government; to the preser-
vation of the Federal Government in its constitutional
vigor, and to the support of the States in all their just
rights; to economy in the public expenditures; to the
maintenance of the public faith and sound money ;, and
it is opposed to paternalism and all class legislation.
Chicago Convention.—The declarations of the Chicago
convention attack individual freedom, the right of pri-
vate contract, the independence of the judiciary, and the
authority of the President to enforce Federal laws. They
advocate a reckless attempt to increase the price of silver
by legislation to the debasement of our monetary stand-
ard, and threaten unlimited issues of paper money by the
Government. They abandon for Republican allies the
Democratic cause of tariff reform to court the favor of
protectionists to their fiscal heresy.
In view of these and other grave departures from Dem-=
ocratic principles we can not support the candidates of
that convention nor be bound by its acts. The Demo-
cratic party has survived many defeats, but could not
survive a victory won in behalf of the doctrine and pol-
icy it proclaimed in its name at Chicago.
blican Paurty—The conditions, however,
which make possible such utterances from a national
convention are the direct result of class legislation by the
Republican Lege 2 It still proclaims, as it has for years,
the power and duty of Government to raise and main-
tain prices by law, and it proposes no remedy for exist-
ing evils except oppressive and unjust taxation.
ariff —The National Democracy here convened there-
fore renews its declaration of faith in Democratic princi-
ples, especially as applicable to the conditions of the times.
axation, tariff, excise or direct, is rightfully imposed
only for public purposes and not for private gain. Its
amount is justly measured by public expenditures, which
should be limited by scrupulous economy. Thesum de-
rived by the Treasury from tariff and excise levies is
atfected by the state of trade and volume of consumption.
The amount required by the Treasury is determined by
the appropriations made by Congress.
The demand of the Republican party for an increase in
tariff taxation has its pretext in the deficiency of revenue,
which has its causes in the stagnation of trade and re-
duced consumption, due entirely to the loss of contidence
that has followed the Populist threat of free coinage and
depreciation of our money and the Republican practice
of extravagant appropriations beyond the needs of good
government. e arraign and condemn the Populistic
conventions of Chicago and St. Louis for their co-opera-
tion with the Republican party in creating these condi-
tions which are pleaded in justitication of a heavy in-
crease of the publins of the people by a further resort to
protection. é
Protection.—We therefore denounce protection and its
ally, free coinage of silver. as schemes for the personal
profit of a few at the expense of the masses, and oppose
the two parties which stand for these schemes as hostile
to the apie of the republic, whose food and shelter,
comfort and prosperity, are attacked by higher taxes and
depreciated money; in fine, we reaffirm the historic
Democratic doctrine of tariff for revenue only.
Shipping.—We demand that henceforth modern and
liberal policies toward American shipping shal] take the
place of our imitation of the restricted statutes of the
eighteenth century, which have been abandoned by every
maritime power but the United States, and which, to the
nation’s humiliation, have driven American capital and
enterprise to the use of alien flags and alien crews, have
made the stars and stripes an almost unknown emblem
in foreign ports, and have virtually extinguished the
race of American seamen.
We oppose the pretense that discriminating duties will
promote shipping. That scheme is an invitation to com-
mercial warfare upon the United States, un-American in
the light of our great commercial treaties, offering no
gain whatever to American shipping, while greatly in-
creasing ocean freights on our agricultural and manufac-
tured products.
Currency.—The experience of mankind has shown that,
by reason of their natural qualities, gold is the necessary
money of the large affairs of commerce and business,
while silver is conveniently adapted to minor transac-
tions, and the most beneficial use of both together can be
insured on it by the adoption of the former as a standard
of monetary measure, and the maintenance of silver at a
parity with gold by its limited coinage under suitable
safeguards of law.
VOL. XXxv1.—49 A
769
Thus the largest possible enjoyment of both metals is
gained with a value universally accepted throughout the
world, which constitutes the only practicable bimetallic
currency, assuring the most stable standard, und espe-
cially the best and safest money for all who earn their
livelihood by labor or the produce of husbandry. ‘They
can not suffer when paid in the best money known to
man, but are the peculiar and most defenseless victims of a
debased and fluctuating currency, which offers continual
profits to the money changer at their cost.
Realizing the truths demonstrated by long and public
inconvenience and loss, the Democratic party, in the in-
terests of the masses and of equal justice to all, practical-
ly established by the legislation of 1834 and 1853 the
gold standard of monetary measurement, and likewise
entirely divorced the Government from banking and
currency issues.
Gold.—To this long-established Democratic policy we
adhere, and insist upon the maintenance of the gold
standard and of the parity therewith of every dollar is-
sued by the Government, and are firmly opposed to the
free and unlimited coinage of silver and to the compul-
sory purchase of silver bullion.
‘anking.—But we denounce also the further mainte-
nance of the present patchwork system of national eo
ie Ha td as a constant source of injury and peril. e
assert the necessity of such intelligent currency reform
as will confine the Government to its legitimate functions,
completely separated from the banking business, and
afford to all sections of our country a uniform, safe, and
elastic bank oe under governmental supervision,
measured in volume by the needs of business.
The Administration—The fidelity, patriotism, and
courage with which President Cleveland has fulfilled
his great public trust, the high character of his Admin-
istration, its wisdom and energy in the maintenance of
civil order and the enforcement of the laws, its equal re-
gard for the rights of every class and every section, its
rm and dignified conduct of foreign affairs, and its
sturdy persistence in upholding the credit and honor of
the nation, are fully recognized by the Democratic party,
and will secure to him a place in history beside the
fathers of the republic.
Civil Service Reform—We also commend the Admin-
istration for the great progress made in the reform of the
public service, and we indorse its effort to extend the
merit system still further. We demand that no back-
ward step be taken, but that the reform be supported
and advanced until the undemocratic spoils system of
appointments shall be eradicated.
apenditures—We demand strict economy in the ap-
propriations and in the administration of the Govern-
ment.
Arbitration —We favor arbitration for the settlement
of international disputes.
Pensions.—W e favor a liberal policy of ipeneione to de-
serving soldiers and sailors of the United States.
Supreme Court.—The Supreme Court of the United
States was wisely established by the framers of our Con-
stitution as one of the three co-ordinate branches of the
Government. Its independence and authority to inter-
pret the law of the land without fear or favor must be
maintained.
We condemn all efforts to degrade that tribunal or im-
esi the confidence and respect which it has deservedly
e
Public Order.—The Democratic party ever has main-
tained, and ever will maintain, the supremacy of law,
the independence of its judicial administration, the in-
violability of contract, and the obligations of all good
citizens to resist every illegal trust, combination, or at-
tempt —— the just rights of property and the good
order of society, in which are bound up the peace and
happiness of our people.
Believi these principles to be essential to the well-
being of the Serab ie; we submit them to the considera-
tion of the American people.
Mr. Lemuel L. Kilburn, of Michigan, presented
the name of Gen. John M. Palmer, of Illinois, as
presidential nominee. Mr. Barr W. Jones named
Gen. Edward S. Bragg, of Wisconsin. The official
vote announced 7694 for Palmer, 118} for Bragg.
On motion of the latter the vote for Palmer was
made unanimous. Gen. Buckner, of Kentucky,
was enthusiastically nominated for second place.
770
Election Results. Popular Vote—The popu-
lar vote, by parties, for each State, will be found
under the heading “ Political” in each of the
State articles in this volume. According to the
latest revised returns, the total vote for President,
1896, was 13,926,757. The Republican vote reached
7,104,244, That of the Democrats, including Popu-
lists and Silver party, each having Bryan at the
head of its ticket, was 6,506,835. The National
Democratic vote is recorded as 134,652. The ticket
of this party was headed by Palmer, and repre-
sented “sound money.” ‘The vote of the two Pro-
hibition parties aggregated 144,606. The Socialist-
Labor candidate polled 36,416. That portion of
the Democratic vote supported by Populists, and
having Watson substituted for Sewall as vice-presi-
dential candidate, contributed, in round numbers,
217,000 toward the Democratic total given above.
This number was cast in 17 States. That pe
of the Prohibition vote supported by the Bentley
candidates amounted to nearly 14,000. In 28
States a Democratic-Populist fusion for division of
electors was consummated, as below:
rel ag AEE
[~j es
STATES. : =| Be STATES. 3 £¢
4 cy as z 2 aso
Arkansas....... 5 3 Missouri ....... 13 4
California ...... 5 4 Montana....... 1 2
Colorado........ 2 1 Nebraska...... 4 4
Connecticut .... 5 1 New Jersey.... 9 1
Tan ys esate «te 2 1 North Carolina.| 5 6
HINGIS: ees sc5 t0 20 4 North Dakota..| .. 3t
Indiana......... 10 5 ORIGH co vteeae 18 5
LOWGS ceaesec idee 10 3 Oregon ........ 2t 2
LCS CUT eee OE ss Pennsylvania..| 28 4
Kentucky....... 11 2 Utes sos Petnue 1 2
Louisiana....... 4 4 Washington... 2 2
Massachusetts..| 13 2 West Virginia. . 4 2
Michigan ....... 9 4 Wisconsin ..... 9 3
Minnesota ...... 4 5 Wyoming...... 2 1
* The Democratic ticket was indorsed by the Populists,
the electors to vote as they please for Vice-President.
+ Populists indorsed the Democratic electors in return for
State officers.
$ One Silver Republican elector.
Pluralities.—T wenty-three States gave an aggre-
gate of Republican pluralities amounting to 1,565,-
903. Twenty-two States showed a Democratic ag-
gregated plurality of 968,494. The actual Repub-
lican plurality was therefore 597,409.
Electoral College-—The following exhibit shows
the distribution of electoral votes, 1896:
Elec. Vote. Elec. Vote,
STATES, STATES,
R| D R|D
Alabama........... 11 || Nevada,...%....... aaa fea
Arkansas........... ee 8 || New Hampshire...| 4] ..
California .......... 8 | 1.|| New Jersey........ 10
COMTARAOs. exe costs 4 || New York......... ey ee
Connecticut......... 6 North Carolina....| .. | 11
Delaware ........... 3 North Dakota..... Sy) 3%
BIGda so.c0s txsioee 44 SODIO“: 535% takaaeen al 3.
GlOODRIA 2639-200 pene 13. || Oregon. sccxestess oh
TGANG Fe cyine saba wees Pennsylvania...... =
FING see Sands 24 Rhode Island...... 7 oe
InGiangs>.. seca sass: 15 South Carolina....| .. 9
LOW Rosie Sea ek pone 13 South Dakota...... 4
HANSA. i. elisa sw.c's -- | 10-|) Tennessee ......... 12
Kentucky...i.5..... 12:'|) SEPARA... Da die's « 15
Louisiana........... SO Gis 0 ee ee 3
MAING: i. o5s Se elena ee 6 Vermont........... his.
Maryland........... 8 Virginia ........... 12
Massachusetts...... 15 Washington ....... Ae 4
Michigan .........:. 14 West Virginia..... Gulia
Minnesota .......... 9} .. || Wisconsin......... 185) a
Mississippi.......... =e 9 || Wyoming.......... ae 3
MMGSOUN) 25 5510's va eae Ppl te 4 —
Montana............ ie 3 COUN EW <> cies 271 |176
Nebraska........... 8
Analysis of Election Results by States.
Rank of States in Total and Party Vote and in
Pluralities.—The five States casting the largest
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
total vote at the last presidential election were
New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Mis-
souri. Of these, the first four named also cast the
highest Republican vote, Indiana being fifth. New
York, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Missouri
stand at the head of the Democratic column in the
matter of total vote. The National Democratic or
sound-money party proved to be strongest in New
York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and
Illinois. The Prohibitionists made the best show-
ing for their party, in actual numbers, in Pennsyl-
vania, New York, Llinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio.
The Socialist-Labor party, as such, was numerically
superior to other States in New York, New Jersey,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and California. In
the matter of pluralities, the greatest pluralities for
McKinley were given in Pennsylvania, New York,
Massachusetts, Illinois, and Wisconsin; the great-
est for Bryan were given in Texas, Colorado, Ala-
bama, Arkansas, and Missouri.
The rank of States in percentages of party votes
to total vote of State, taking the twenty highest of
each leading party—Republican and Demeccratice—
was as follows:
REPUBLICAN VOTE, 1896. | 1892. | 1888.
Per cent, | Per cent. | Per cent,
68 71
69 52 53
69 51 50
68 54 58
68 51 54
63 47 48
61 51 53
60 46 48
60 46 50
58 45 49
57 46 54
57 48 ay
56 46 50
55 50 52
55 43 48
MICHISBI os ic-cnicak nw ners cob a seine 54 48 50
DOIGWELOs.< 6c sins vey sera cay acesan 53 49 44
OUIGS tit held Sees sas vale cer en sake 52 48 50
Weat Vitginiay..iivieccdskesoodesdte: 52 47 49
Dicieniein.$ ne nceserskemeeeee 51 46 49
From the figures immediately preceding, it will
readily be noted that in each of the 20 States giv-
ing the highest Republican percentages in 1896
there is a remarkable increase over the Republican
percentages of 1892 and 1888. In 4 States the in-
crease is over 15 per cent., in 9 States it is 10 to
15 per cent. more than in 1892, and in 5 other
States the increase is between 5 and 10 per cent.
Considering for a moment the 25 States not given
in the preceding list, it may be mentioned that
of these the increase in the Republican vote of
1896 over that of 1892 was 10 per cent. or more in 6
instances, and between 5 and 10 per cent. in 5 in-
stances. Briefly, 29 States had an increase of 5
per cent. or more in the Republican vote, and the
increase in 19 States was 10 per cent. or over.
The following list of 20 States giving the highest
percentages of Democratic vote to total State vote,
with comparisons, 1892 and 1888, shows that out of
the States given the decrease below that of 1892
was 10 per cent. or over in 5 States, and a decrease
less than 10 per cent. in 7 States. In the 25 States
not mentioned, 11 had a decreased percentage of 10
per cent. or over, and 9 showed a decrease of be-
tween 5 and 10 per cent. Summarized, the re-
sults for the 45 States show that, compared with
the last preceding presidential election, 16 States
had a decreased Democratic percentage of 10 per
cent. or over, and 20 showed a decrease below 10
per cent. The number of States showing a de-
creased Democratic percentage is therefore 36.
Of the remaining 9,5 are silver-producing to the
extent of 1,000,000 ounces or more (1898).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
DEMOCRATIC VOTE. 1896. 1892." 1888.
Per cent. | Per Ss Per .
PMMRMONIDE tay on = a Folge’ 6 48 oic'n's 3 90 7
Geiorade . SEER R ane cua ye vuren bene ee > 57 41
DUEL A ARONTOND ho ora Kas occunesevdae 85 81 83
MEUMIIME nse Fda canes ac kvehane soe tas $1 56 53
OT ASR RSS y ee PP aren Te 81 73 42
MR taka: opin asivssucaksues soe 738 54 ~
RMEMINIIINCL cite G's b.45 0 4 4%.c cn as come ooh 76 77 73
MN SS Seah dade neveakeemelbes 74 68 55
NNT 7s Ay ceed fads cecuaxd p fag and Iberville, Plaquemines, Grant,
and Winn parishes, with R records, voted D in
in 1896. The Sound-money-D plurality, 1896, with
Palmer vote, exceeded 1,000. The aggregated plu-
rality of parishes voting R in 1892 and 1896 was
over 1,700.
Maine.—lIncreased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
2,000. The D-P vote, 1896, was 16,000 less than the
added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote, 17,000
more. No counties changed sides in 1896. The ag-
gregated pluralities of counties voting R in 1892
and 1896 exceeded 45.000.
Maryland.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
37,000. The D-P vote, 1896, was 10,000 less than
the added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote, 44,-
000 more. Of 18 counties changing sides in 1896,
12 changed from D to R. Baltimore city and Bal-
timore County, Carroll, Cecil, Harford, Howard,
Kent, and Prince George’s, voting D for twenty
years or more, voted R in 1896. Anne Arundel,
Caroline, Frederick, and Washington voted D in
1892, but R in 1896. Somerset County, R since
1880, voted D in 1896. The Sound-money-D plu-
rality, 1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 30,000. The
aggregated pluralities of counties voting R in 1892
and 1896 exceeded 4,800.
Massachusetts.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 10,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 73,000 less
than the added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote,
76,000 more. One county changed sides in 1896—
Suffolk County, D since 1876, voted R in 1896. The
Sound-money-D plurality, 1886, with Palmer vote,
exceeded 25,000. The aggregated pluralities of
il voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded 151,-
Michigan.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
84,000. Increase in R vote, 1896 over 1892, 70,000.
Of 26 counties changing sides in 1896, 16 changed
from Dto R. Mackinac, Macomb, and Washtenaw,
with D records of twenty years or over, voted R in
1896. Alpena, Emmet, Huron, Manistee, Montmo-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
rency, Oakland, and Wayne, D since 1884, voted R-
in 1896. Baraga, Ontonagon, and Presque Isle, D
in 1888 and 1892, voted Rin 1896. Otsego, Roscom-
mon, and Schoolcraft, voting for Cleveland four
ears ago, gave pluralities for McKinley in Novem-
er. The counties with previous R records voting
for Bryan in 1896 were Branch, Eaton, Isabella, St.
Joseph, Calhoun, Livingston, Gratiot, lonia, Jack--
son, and Ingham. The Sound-money-D plurality,
1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 16,000. The ag-
gregated pluralities of counties voting R in 1892
and 1896 exceeded 47,000.
Minnesota.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
74,000. Increase in R vote, 1896 over 1892, 70,000,
Of 18 counties changing sides in 1896, 9 changed
from D to R. Le Sueur and Morrison and Sibley,
voting D from 1872 or 1876 to 1892, voted R at the
last election. Brown, Carver, Wabash and Wino-
na, Itasca, and Ramsey had shorter D records. The
counties having previous R records but voting for
Bryan in 1896 were Clay, Otter Tail and Wilkin,
Kittson, Marshall, Pipestone and Traverse, Beltrami,
and Cook, The Sound-money-D plurality, 1896,
with Palmer vote, exceeded 9,000. The aggregated
pluralities of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 50,000.
Mississippi.—increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
17,000. Increase in R vote, 1896 over 1892, 3,500.
The D-P vote, 1896, was 1,000 less than the added
D and P votes at the election for Governor in 1895.
No counties changed sides in 1896. Every county
gave Bryan a plurality in 1896.
Missouri.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
133,000. Increase in R vote, 1896 over 1892, 78,000,
Of 16 counties changing sides in 1896, 3 changed
from DtoR. Jefferson and Washington and Perry,
voting D from 1872 or 1876, voted KR in 1896. The
counties with previous R records voting for Bryan
in 1896 were Dade, Dallas, Greene, Jasper, Law-
rence, Polk, Wright, Douglas, Laclede, Sullivan
and Webster, Barry, and Saar The aggregated
pluralities of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 27,000.
Montana.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
8,000. Increase in D-P vote of 1896 over D and P vote
of 1892, 17,000. Decrease in R vote, 1896 as com-
pared with 1892, 8,000; as compared with vote for
Congress, 1894, 12,000. Every county except Custer
and Dawson voted in favor of Bryan. The aggre-
gated pluralities of 20 D counties, 1896, exceeded
32,000. At the congressional election above referred
to the P vote was nearly 50 per cent. in excess of
the regular D vote. For statistical purposes Mon-
tana is classed as a silver State. the product of
silver in 1893 reached nearly 17,000,000 ounces.
Nebraska.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
23,000. Increase in R vote, 1896 over 1892, 15,000.
The recent record of Nebraska shows strong Popu-
listic tendencies. The R vote of 1892 was only a
trifle in excess of 4,000 ahead of the P vote. At an
election for Supreme Court judge in 1895, a a
Democratic-Silver-Populist vote aggregated 99,000,
being nearly 20,000 more than the straight R vote.
Out of 90 counties voting in 1896, 67 gave D-P
pluralities aggregating 18,000. The remainder, 23
counties, voting in favor of McKinley, reached an
aggregated plurality of nearly 5,000. Two of the
counties (Blaine and Greeley) gave Republican plu-
ralities in 1896. ;
Nevada.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
500. Increase in D-P vote of 1896 over P vote of
1892, 1,000. (No D vote in 1892.) Decrease in R
vote, 1896 as compared with 1892, 800. Every
county voted in favor of Bryan in 1896, the aggre-
gate of pluralities exceeding 6,000. Nevada is a
silver State, the product, 1893, exceeding 4,500,000
ounces.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
hire—Decreased total vote, 1896
compared with 1892, 5,000. Decreased D-P vote,
1896, compared with added D and P votes in 1892,
20,000; increased R vote, 1896 over that of 1892,
11,000. Two counties, Coos and Carroll, changed
sides in 1896, both from D to R. The Sound-money-
D plurality, 1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 3,500.
The pluralities of counties voting R in
1892 and 1896 exceeded 32,000.
New Jersey.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
33,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 39,000 less than
the added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote, 65,000
more. Ten counties changed sides in 1896, all from
D to R. Bergen, Hudson, Monmouth and Sussex,
Middlesex, and Union, voting D for twenty years or
over, give R pluralities in 1896. Somerset voted D
in 1 1888, and 1892, but R in 1896. Essex,
Morris, and Salem voted D in 1892 and R in 1896.
The Sound-money-D plurality, 1896, with Palmer
vote, exceeded 52,000. The aggregated pluralities
of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded
000.
New York.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
57,000. The D-P vote, 1896, was 120,000 less than
the added D and P votes of 1892; the R vote, 1896,
was 210,000 more than in 1892. Fourteen counties
changed sides in 1896, all from D to R. Kings,
New York, Rockland and Westchester, Albany,
Queens, Richmond and Seneca, voting D for twenty
ears or over, gave R pluralities in 1896. Columbia,
ie, Ni Rensselaer, Schenectady, and Ulster
voted in favor of Cleveland in 1892, but gave
ene for McKinley in 1896. The Sound-money-
a wr 1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 116,-
. The ted pluralities of counties voting
_Rin 1892 and 1896 exceeded 162,000.
North Carolina.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 49,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 3,000 less
than the added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote,
55,000 more. Of 20 counties changing sides in 1896,
15 changed from D to R. Buncombe, voting D for
over twenty years, voted R in 1896. Alamance,
Bertie, and Surry had shorter records. Davidson,
Edgecombe, Forsyth, Halifax, Montgomery, New
Hanover, Northampton, Randolph, Richmond,
Transylvania, and Watauga voted D in 1892, but
R in 1895. The counties changing from R in 1892
to D in 1896 were Pender, Granville, Person, Rock-
ingham, and Sampson. The Sound-money-D
plurality, 1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 8,000.
The aggregated pluralities of counties voting R in
1892 and 1896 exceeded 10,000.
North Dakota.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 11.000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892,
9,000. Seven counties changed sides, from D in
1892 to Rin 1896, i. e., Barnes, Dickey, La Moure,
Mercer, Oliver, Richland, and Williams. Out of 39
counties in the State, 31 gave pluralities for Mc-
Kinley, aggregating nearly 7,000, the aggregated
luralities of the 8 Bryan counties exceeding 1,000.
Tn 1892 the Populists had a plurality. In 1894, for
Governor, the total D and P vote was over 17,000.
Ohio.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892, 158,-
000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 120,000.
Out of 13 counties changing sides in 1896, 11
changed from D to R. Franklin, Pike and Vinton,
and Erie, voting D for twenty years or over, gave
R pluralities in 1896. Montgomery and Stark voted
D in 1888 and 1892, but R in 1896. Cuyahoga,
Hancock, Mahoning, Muskingum, and Summit
voted in favor of Cleveland in 1892, but for Mc-
Kinley last November. The counties changing
from R to D in 1896 were Morrow and Williams.
The Sound-money-D plurality, 1896, with Palmer
vote, exceeded 15,000. The aggregated pluralities
e fir voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded
75,000.
773
Oregon.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
19,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 13,000. Out.
of 16 counties changing sides in 1896, 2 changed
from D to R. Crook, voting D in 1884, 1888, and
1892, and Gilliam, voting D in 1892, both voted R in
1896. The counties changing from R to D in 1896
were Douglas and Polk, Coos, Jackson, Josephine,
Klamath, Lake, Umatilla, Union, Lane, Baker,
Grant, Linn; and Wallowa. The aggregate of plu-
ralities given by counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 8,000. The Populistic teudency in Oregon
is strong. In 1892 and in 1894, for Governor, it
represented 33 per cent. of the entire State vote.
Pennsylvania.—tincreased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 190,000. The D-P vote, 1896, was 27,000 less
than the added D and P votes in 1892; the R
vote, 212,000 more in 1896 than in 1892. Of 19
counties changing sides in 1896, 18 changed from
D to R. Clearfield, Elk and Lehigh, Adams, Bucks,
Cambria, Carbon, Center, Clinton, Cumberland,
Juniata, Lycoming, and Wayne, voting D for twent
ears or over, gave R pluralities in 1896. Schuyl-
ill had a shorter record. Fayette, Luzerne, Mont-
gomery, and Northumberland voted in favor of
Cleveland in 1892, but for McKinley in 1896. Craw-
ford County, with a R record, voted D in 1896. The
Sound-money-D plurality, 1896, with Palmer vote,
exceeded 31,000. The aggregated pluralities of
a voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded 278,-
Rhode Island.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 1,500. The D-P vote, 1896, was 10,000 less
than the added D and P votes in 1892; the R vote,
10,000 more in 1896 than in 1892. No counties
changed sides in 1896. The aggregated pluralities
of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded
000.
South Carolina.—Decreased total vote, 1896 com-
pared with 1892, 1,400. Increased D-P vote of 1896
over D and P votes of 1892, 1,700. Every count
voted for Bryan in 1896, including Berkeley, whic
voted R in 1892. Only the one county just men-
tioned, out of 36 counties voting, changed sides.
South Dakota.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 12,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892,
6,000. The strength of D counties was large in
1896, but not unusual. In 1890, the added P and D
votes exceeded the R vote by 9,000. In 1892 also
the added D and P votes exceeded the BR vote by
nearly 1,000. The Populistic tendency of the State
is strong, representing, in 1892, nearly three sevenths
of the whole vote. In 1894, for, Governor, the P
vote was over 26,000 out of a total vote of less than
76,000. In 1896, 30.counties gave 4,500 in D plurali-
ties: 23 counties gave 4,300 in R pluralities. South
Dakota is a silver State, the product in 1893 exceed-
ing 140,000 ounces.
Tennessee.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
52,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 48,000.
Of 4 counties changing sides in 1896, 3 changed
from D to R. DeKalb and Montgomery voted D
for twenty years or over, but R in 1896; Hamilton
voted in favor of Cleveland in 1892, but for Mc-
Kinley in 1896. McNairy County changed from R
to D. The Sound-money-D plurality, 1896, with
Palmer vote, exceeded 1,000. The aggregated
plurality of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 32,000.
Texas.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
122,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 90,000.
Eighteen counties changed from D to R in 1896, 5
of these, Guadalupe, Travis, Duval, Lee, and Webb.
after voting D for twenty years orover. The others
were Fayette, Galveston, Austin, Colorado, Comal,
Gillespie, Gregg, Washington, Brazos, Hansford,
Kinney, La Salle, and Victoria. Of 225 counties
voting in 1896, 195 gave over 14,000 in D pluralities,
174
and 30 gave over 11,000in R pluralities. The Popu-
listie tendency in Texas is strong, representing in
1892 nearly 24 per cent. of the whole vote of 422,000.
In 1894, for Comptroller, the P vote equaled nearly
35 per cent. of the total vote. For Governor, in
1895, the P vote exceeded 33 per cent. The silver
product of Texas, 1893, was nearly 350,000 ounces.
Utah.—This State voted at a presidential election
for the first time in 1896. Every county voted in
favor of Bryan, according to the most reliable
available statistics, with aggregated D pluralities
exceeding 50,000. The silver product of 1893 ex-
ceeded 7,000,000 ounces.
Vermont.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
8,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 5,000 less than
the D vote in 1892; the R vote, 13,000 more. No
counties changed sides in 1896. The aggregated
pluralities of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 40,000.
Virginia.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
102,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 20,000 less than
the added D and P votes of 1892; the R vote, 22,-
000 more. Of 37 counties changing sides in 1896,
23 changed from D to R. Botetourt, Buchanan,
Carroll, Grayson, Greene, Pulaski, Shenandoah,
Smyth and Washington, and Patrick, voting D for
twenty years or over, gave R pluralities in 1896,
King George, Montgomery, Norfolk, Page, Roanoke,
Rockbridge, Rockingham, Scott, Spottsylvania,
Stafford, Warwick, Wise, and Wythe changed from
D in 1892 to R in 1896. The counties changing
from Rin 1892 to D in 1896 were Dinwiddie, Essex,
Middlesex, Prince Edward, Prince George, South-
ampton, Sussex and York, Gloucester, Northamp-
ton and Surry, Norfolk City County, Clarke, and
King and Queen. The Sound-money-D plurality,
with Palmer vote, exceeded 7,000. The aggregated
plurality of counties voting R in 1892 and 1896
exceeded 5,000. The Populistic element in Virginia
is considerable, representing, in 1893, for Governor,
over 28 per cent. of the whole vote. This, however,
was an exceptional case, there being no R vote.
The Weaver vote in 1892 was over 12,000.
Washington.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 5,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 3,000.
Of 34 counties voting, 26 gave over 13,000 in D
teach 8 gave over 1,000 in R pluralities,
efferson County changed from D in 1892 to R in
1896. The Populistic tendency in this State is strong,
representing in 1892 over 20 per cent. of the total
vote, and in 1894, for Congress, over 33 per cent.
of the whole vote cast. The silver product of
Washington, 1893, exceeded 150,000 ounces.
West Virginia.—Increased total vote, 1896 over
1892, 28,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892,
24,000. Ten counties changed sides in 1896, all
from D to R. Cabell, Calhoun, Pleasants, Raleigh
and Tucker, Brooke, Lewis, and Ohio, voting D for
twenty years or over, gave R pluralities in 1896.
Clay and Mercer voted in favor of Cleveland in
1892, but for McKinley in 1896. The Sound-money-
D plurality, 1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 3,000.
The aggregated plurality of counties voting R in
1892 and 1896 exceeded 19,000.
Wisconsin.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
75,000. The D-P vote of 1896 was 21,000 less than
the D and P votes in 1892; the R vote, 97,000 more
in 1896 than in 1892. Thirty-one counties changed
sides in 1896, allfrom Dto R. Dodge, Fond du Lac,
Jefferson, Kewaunee, Manitowoc, Marathon, Outa-
gamie and Washington, and Brown, voting D for
twenty years or more, gave R pluralities in 1896.
Langlade, Sheboygan, Wood, and Oneida had
shorter D records. Ashland, Chippewa, Dane,
Forest, Green Lake, Iowa, Juneau, Kenosha, La
Crosse, Marinette, Marquette, Milwaukee, Oconto,
Portage, Shawano, Taylor, Waukesha, and Winne-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
bago voted in favor of Cleveland in 1892, but for
McKinley in 1896. The Sound-money-D plurality,
1896, with Palmer vote, exceeded 49,000. The ag-
gregated plurality of counties voting R in 1892 and
1896 exceeded 46,000.
Wyoming.—Increased total vote, 1896 over 1892,
4,000. Increased R vote, 1896 over 1892, 1,600. No
counties changed sides in 1896. Of the 13 counties
in the State, 7 voted in favor of McKinley, 1896,
and 6 for Bryan. The aggregated plurality of -
counties voting R in 1892 and 1896 exceeded 800,
Some Interesting Totals—Totals or aggregates
for some of the details shown or referred to in the
preceding text reveal, among other facts, that in
33 nonsilver-producing States, 274 counties in 1896
changed from D to R, giving a total Sound-money-
D plurality of more than 490,000, without the
Palmer vote. Of this 490,000, over 215,000 were
cast by 121 counties whose previous D record ex-
tended back twenty years or over. In 18 of these 33
States 94 counties changed from R to D in 1896.
In 15 States all changes, if any, were from D to R.
The aggregated pluralities of counties voting R in
1892 and 1896 in the 33 States exceeded 1,318,000.
In the 12 phage i oe and Populist States
562 counties gave D pluralities aggregating more
than 824,000, and 180 counties gave R luralities |
exceeding 50,000. In these 12 States 36 counties
with previous D records gave R pluralities in 1896.
The silver product in the “silver States” in 1893
exceeded 54,000.000 ounces.
In 35 out of the 45 States voting in 1896 the per-
centage of the D-P vote to the total State vote of
1896 was less than the added D and P votes of 1892.
In 34 States the percentage of the R vote to the
total vote in 1896 was greater than in 1892. In 18
States the added actual D and P votes of 1896 was
less than in 1892. In 17 States the added D and P
vote of 1896 was less than at the last preceding
election for Governor. In 10 States the added D
and P votes of 1896 was less than at the last pre-
ceding election for Congress.
David Rowland Francis was born in Rich-
mond, Ky., Oct. 1, 1850. He was of Scotch-Irish
DAVID ROWLAND FRANCIS.
descent. After attending the public schools in
Kentucky he entered Washington University in St.
UNITED STATES CENSUS.
Louis, Mo., from which he was uated in 1870.
Embracing a mercantile career, he organized after
three years of training the commission company of
D. R. neis & Bro. in St. Louis, which was from
the outset ope of the leading firms operating at the
Merchants’ Exchange in that city. In 1883 he was
elected vice-president of the Exchange, and in the
following year was chosen its president. In 1884
he was a delegate to the National Democratic Con-
vention that nominated Grover Cleveland for the
first time. In the following year he was elected
Mayor of St. Louis, overcoming a Republican ma-
jority at the previous election of 14,000, and as
mayor he promoted needed municipal reforms. In
_ 1888 he was elected by a large majority Governor
of Missouri, and his administration was much
praised. He was a sound-money advocate during
the agitation for free coinage that ended in the
triumph of the silver party at the Democratic Na-
tional Convention in Chicago. In August, 1896, he
became Secretary of the Interior.
For a sketch of Mr. McKinley, see page 428; for
rtrait, see frontispiece.
UNITED STATES CENSUS. Official reports
of results obtained during the eleventh census in-
vestigation are now practically complete. Numer-
ous volumes have been issued, and the remainder—
making, in all, 25 quartos, a compendium in 38 vol-
umes, ract, and-a statistical atlas—are being
issued from the La as rapidly as present printing
and binding facilities will permit. :
In previous issues of the “ Annual Cyclopedia”
such of the important facts as were made available
before going to press found a place, chiefly under
the heading Unirep States Census. In the vol-
ume for 1890 peered: General Plan and Scope
of the Eleventh Census—Official staff. Area of
tes and Territories—Gross, water, land. Pop-
ulation. States and Territories —1890—80—70-60-
650; 306 cities of 10,000 and over, 1890-70-50;
review of enumeration results, with comparisons;
grouping of States, with reasons; rank of States
and Territories, 1890—"80—'70—60—50 ; results of State
census in 14 States, 1885; Alaska; Indian Terri-
tory and reservations; in cities, at each census,
1790-1890; rank of cities, 100,000 and over, 1890-
780~70; colored, of the South, by States, also com-
parison with whites, Chinese, Japanese, and In-
dians; increase and decrease; center of, location at
each census ; distribution in accordance with rain-
fall; distribution in accordance with humidity;
distribution, by drainage basins. Transportation.—
Urban rapid transit, totals; length of line, 1880-’90,
and motive power, 58 cities. Hducation.—Teachers
and pupils, male and female, public schools, 1880-
90, 20 States and Territories; teachers and pupils,
white and colored, 1890, 182 cities. Pauperism and
Crime.—Convicts, by States and Territories. F%-
nance.—Bonded debt, floating debt, and cash and
funds in hand, 1889-90, by States; bonded debt,
floating debt, and available resources, 1889-90, 858
cities, by States and Territories. Manufactures.—
Product of pig iron and steel, with furnace stacks
and steel works, 1880-90, by States and Territories.
Mines and Mining.—Coal product, with total in
tons, value at-mines, number of employees and
wages paid, Alabama, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
States west of Mississippi river, 1889.
In the “ Annual Cyclopedia” for 1891 the article
Unirep States Census included the following
official data: Population.—Total, places of 1,000
and more, also totals, by classes, for places of 1,000
and under 2,500; 2.500 and under 4,000; 4,000
and under 8,000; 8,000 and under 25,000; 25,000
and over; official count ‘for Alaska. Special
Classes.—Totals of insane, public and private insti-
tutions: schools for deaf; schools for blind. Pau-
775
perism and Crime.—Totals of prisoners in peniten-
tiaries and in county jails; inmates of juvenile
reformatories and paupers in almshouses, Edu-
cation.—Teachers and pupils, male and female,
public schools, 1890, 28 additional States and Terri-
tories; teachers and pupils, white and colored, 1890,
147 additional cities. Social Statistics of Cities —
Totals, miles of paving, cost of lighting. strength
and cost of fire and police force, 1890, 309
cities. Religion—Names, membership, and pro
erty of 89 sects and denominations, 1890. Tie
nance.—Aggregate, bonded debt, floating debt, and
sinking fund, also assessed valuation, with per cap-
ita in each political division, 1880-90 for United
States. States, counties, and municipalities. Agri-
culture.—Aggregates of quantity and value, prod-
uct of hops, truck farms, floriculture, viticulture,
nurseries, seed farms, tropic and semitropic fruits and
nuts, also aggregates of horses, mules, and asses on
farms, and live stock on ranges. The aggregate of
acres irrigated, with details of States and Territories
is also | Paco Some classes are for 1889, others for
1890. Manufactures—Aggregates in proof gallons
for alcohol, Cologne spirit, high wines, whisky,
brandy, rum, and gin as distilled spirit consumed in
the arts, manufactures, and medicines, 1889, Mines
and Mining.—Product, in value, of metallic, non-
metallic, and unspecified minerals, 1880-’89, with per-
centage of increase. The product of bituminous and
anthracite coals, quantity and value, by years, 1882-
89. Aggregates, in quantities, or values, or both,
1880-89, of pig iron, iron ore, aluminium, copper,
lead, zine, quicksilver, nickel, gold and silver, min-
eral waters, petroleum, natural gas, and minor min-
erals. Fish and Fisheries—Details, with aggre-
gates in value, 1880-89 of the whale, fur-seal, and
sea-otter fisheries, including vessels and men. De-
tails, with aggregates in value, of the Pacific States
fisheries, 1889, including salmon canning. Trans
tation. Aggregates of passengers carried, earn-
ings and income, expenditures, and miles operated,
in each of the ten railroad groups, 1880-89, with
names of States comprising each group. The traffic
on the Lakes, in classes, tons, and value, 1889.
The next issue of the “Annual Cyclopedia”
(1892), under the same heading, contained the latest
available official data as detailed below: Popula-
tion.— Aggregates of color, sex, and general nativity,
with actual increase, under headings of males, fe-
males, native, foreign, white, and colored, for each
decade, 1850-90. Percentages, United States, male
and female, native and foreign, white and colored,
each decade, 1850-90. Aggregates and totals by
States, 1890, of males, females, native born, foreign
born. Aggregates and largest totals, with analysis
of dwellings and families, 1890, in States and larg-
est cities. Pauperism and Crime.—Totals, by sex
and age, of juvenile reformatory inmates, with brief
analysis ; totals by age, sex, color, nationality, etc., of
prisoners convicted of homicide, with totals for terms
of imprisonment and death penalty. Hducation.—
Apparent total enrollment, public schools, 1880-90,
sock Beato and Territory, with totals also for private
schools and parochial schools ; brief analysis, includ-
ing special reports concerning the Southern States,
and details of parochialschools bycreeds. Religion.—
Membership and property of 27 additional sects and
denominations. Finance.—Revised aggregates of
United States debt, as a unit, 1890; State debt,
county debt, municipal debt, and school-district
debt, with notes on increases and decreases, and
or capita statement. Avene
mor} . STRNGAAEs RIE a VF iad ie o,winin.n 9 dco} so gicleoioie (c) $1,799.671,492 “| ca aae
Gueu.oL materials US6d vusra, Mese eee see has oes s velsa cist de vsececacwees $3,395 ,925,123 $5,021 453,326 47°87
WAUS-OL PIOGUCtE iiss ce ears vedatee sue eNevasle ss violet sb sccncdceanbeas $5.349,191,458 $9,056,764 ,996 69°31
a The difference between the totals stated in this table and those published in the reports of the tenth census is
caused by the elimination of data duplicated under the head of ** Mixed textiles,” such data having been included in the
totals for the different branches of the textile industry; also by the inclusion of ** Petroleum refining.”’
b This item was not reported at the census of 1880.
c Not reported separately at the census of 1880.
UNITED STATES CENSUS, 779
does, the vast progressive strides taken in the manu-
facturing industries of the country between the
taking of the last two Federal enumerations.
Owing to the changes in both the form and the
scope of the inquiry at the census of 1890 compared
with that of 1880, the totals as reported at the two
census periods should not be used to compute the
percentages of increase. In the following com-
parative statement, showing the percentage of in-
crease, the statistics for 1890 do not include the
data for the industries previously enumerated as
not being included in the reports of the tenth cen-
sus. The employees and wages are shown under the
two classes of “ Officers, firm members, and clerks,”
and “ All other employees.”
Fisheries.— Aggregates.—The aggregate of per-
sons employed in fisheries in the United States,
1890, was 163,348; 1880, 131,426. The whole
amount of capital invested in this industry, 1890, is
recorded as $48,602,123; 1880, $37,955,349. ... .0.2srss0. 2,729) 3,635) 1,362) 1,976} 2,004) 1,098) 106 75) 1,285) 720 646 BD} .20%
TONNGRBOD Le Seeaw nc ceed 1,845} 3.599/ 1,112) 1,817] 2,283) 1,598) 168} 120) 1,484) 1,082 654 62) 240
Alabama.............6+ 1,469) 2,187 791; 1,877] 2,824) 1,925] 194) 171] 1,086 927 5738} 188) ....
Mississippi............-. 1,103} 1,756 559) 1,014) 1,105 987 72 71 429 390 284 10
Louisiana. ..5.6.3....45. 910) 1,173 539 857} 1,408] 1,082). 200) 156 856 725 524; 228
SLOSS 6555 535k De eke 1,668) 2.763) 1,153) 1,588} 4,597) 2,158} 150) 112) 3,319) 1,611) 1,040 73 83
ORIBNHOMB . S Ng vine ov Ooh 7 34 26 3 Rae PRUE > tees NWaes Cine we ex] Ls ak he asic rare
APEAUHSE 5, vesedasses 789| 1,671 760} 1,156) 1,410 V7 63 51 “832 477 397 Bil Axe.
Western Division........... 5,686} 1,961) 1,268} 1,700] 6,532 246} 192 12| 4,059 154) 1,735) 423) 304
Montana................ 187 52 39 39 421 7 11 2 225 4 193 11
WC OMIDP O iaanss se ben 38 14 16 7 vi Oia s al ac ee 10 1 59 Shae
Colorado..... .. 326 192 205 189 879 54 23 4 526 38 275 91 ve Sa Pea ve 16 228) 13 295 11 16 SS 3
North Central Division... 4,159] 1,292) 18,873} 3 3,458; 503) 3,930) 147 8,743) 225) 14,882} 544) 10,783) 423
Ohio. ULAR eae 1,126, 403) 2,684 499; 152 618} 23 1,071 37| 4,152; 196) 3.248} 147
d ks See 71 165) 1,876 266 35 451 19 1,059 54) (1,706 69} 1,221 31
ASAD AR ee 383} ..... 3,721 2 959 115 691 7 7,596 45) 3,131 49) 2,264 42
RGIMORINT SC, . csis0 cee 466, 230) 2,026) . 397 70 468} 22 1,057 23) 1,168 21 748 13
Wisconsin............. 445) 146) 1,073) 1 296 20 259} 12 467 9} 1,517 9} 1,124 6
Minnesota..... SES 258 26) 1,001 7 34 160 4 442 2 263 3 102 1
Lo | Se 392) 135) 994 161 16 7 6 QO eases 984 17 637 8
Mire cds cusses 279 81) 2,687 210 33 5387; 22 1,377 84) 1,812) 144) 1,066) 125
North Dakota.........| ..... 54 94 10 21 2 6 ge ee 24 1 ye aera
oS Oe eee 17 17 2 36) ° 1 91 1 OG). sass V4 2
ea 166 71 641 105 6 138 1 351 6| . 180 3 111 1
‘2b Beare 173 35) 1,892 191 10 334 8 684 14 359 32 234 47
South Central Division... 298 61) 15,131 6 1,744, 364) 4,457) 2138 7,245) 250) 2,381 860| 2,668) 782
RORIMIOEY oc seb vues: 212 61) 2,004 217 28 655 24 942 52 778 181 800 143
pS ee ears eee 2,283 293 86 590} 23 1,193 50 685} 259 860) 275
MIT ores tied Sah “tees «3 |) « 828 AQT) ses 401 P 63 120 115} 25°80 | 26°20 a6
MISSOUNS << oc pwauy teense 3,928} 1,924 25| 2,004 36 666 963; 1,050) 28°15 | 22°41 91
North Dakota............ 13 oe 6) sree 2 2 6} 19°45 | 10°15 6-0
South Dakota........ Pre 5 | ae BI Sears OT eax, 3} 23°70 | 10°15 4°2
NGDPASKA Ss, since vee aces 318 153 1 165 me 56 46 64| 22°69 | 22°30 3°1
IRADEBR® ey i5 i vials uieig bis's 6h 874 229 9 145 6 89 24 96| 27°98 | 24°71 40
South Central Division....... 7,149] 3,146) 386) 4,003! 828) 1,896 936) 1,263) 21°20) 15°41 29°7
Kentucky .sci ose seca e's 1,627 658 7 969 39 526 288 8336] 22°00 | 17°74 | 1,860,031) 21°6
Tennessee...........2.0++ 831 449; 121 432 G5 234 83 43} 25°78 | 18°90 | 1,276,631) 26°6
MIBDAMNA; Joc vias cg eaten yee 316 139 4 177 6 51 9 24) 20°02 | 14°86 | 1,069,545) 41°0
“Mississippi............... 230 116 31 114 15 60 17 7| 25°91 | 20°95 902,028, 40°0
LOUISIBOR oi dcc.ccntete snes 8,350} 1,877] 144) 1,978) 187 712 467 731] 11°12 8°62 794,683) 45°8
SPOKES bose ut eniiescneaeah ae 705 379 39 326 6 192 vi 102} 21°81 | 11°07 | 1,564,755) 19°7
DORIGNOMIAL Sans hoek eeckc Ol) nase ed emote cdav|’ wcageh aeRO Ces enlt Ueeeehimscute ORT sa. 44,701; 54
ATEBHGHEI AS ie cacie sae an 40 28 12 11 2 20| 19°77 | 13°49 787,113] 26°6
Western Division. ............ 6,368) 3,357 56) 3,011 12) 1,162) 1,773) 1,271] 17°02 | 16°92 2,400,161) 8°38
MONEAUB ecco stec es ress 66 Da ants 15 1 7 13 82| 12°85 | 11°92 107,811} 55
WU OEENINIIES tomas ley ek opine? 20 ASH? ow os BI” wae 5 2 10} 12°97 | 13°98 47,755) 34
Colorado. Wee sa retaa dt boat 731 317 3 414 5 133 122 146; 15°89 14°54 327.8! 52
New Mexico.............. 131 40) oct M11) eae 53 2 14) 11°86 3°98 112,541} 44°5
MATIBODE:, ies an-eraieet cases 16 i Esl i Bb 1 6 2 8} 13°40 | 10°42 46,07 23°4
TiAl 955 ck cia he toenteden 36 2) EN 8 v4 3 9| 17°49 | 17°92 147,227, 56
Wavadasssvsde aches uswas 49 DB) wast Sit Seal) Sasse 16 3} 16°14 | 14°32 225) 12°8
Idaho Ean cadien Rata Cee dell Meshes al ba antene PGE vivese deems toaeaall) ke etid hile ders 16°96 17°89 62,721 51
Washington. ............. 341 216 3 125 1 38 34 100} 15°87 19°68 275,639} 4°3
Oregon. sates ad eaie atcha 163 82 1 81 28 22 47| 20°19 21°42 244.374, 4:1
Calilorniag sc sGsse es os0s 4,815) 2,562 49| 2,253 5 885) 1,557 902} 18°36 | 18°67 989,896, 7°7
The United States...... 111,910) 55,245) 2,135) 56,665) 1,974] 23,530) 24,223] 26,465} 20°29 19°84 | 47,413,559) 13°3
< ihe gi vibe of prisons, almshouses, hospitals for the insane, and schools for the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-
minded.
+ Includes all persons of negro descent.
negroes, 658. The number of insane admitted to in institutions on June 1, 1890, the information as
public. institutions from 1881 to 1889, inclusive, was to whether they could read or write was not given
190,458 ; males, 104,748 ; females, 84,485. The num- for 8,963. Of the remaining 65,065, 51,362, or 789
ber treated was 227,461. The total expenditures per 1,000, could both read and write; 1,684, or 26
for the same time were $100,258,606 ; current, $76,- per 1,000, could read but could not write; and 11,-
599,259; building, $18,520,547 ; unspecified, $5,138,- 833, or 182 per 1,000, could neither read not write.
800. The number of insane admitted to private in- Feeble-minded.—The total number of feeble-
stitutions from 1881 to 1889, inclusive, was 13,833; minded whites, 1890, was 84,997; negroes, 10,574;
males, 6,894 ; females, 6,939. Of the 74,028 insane Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 38. The
UNITED STATES CENSUS. T87
EDUCATION.
AGGREGATES.*
STATES AND TERRITORIES. PUPILS. TEACHERS. Private | Parochial
- schools. | schools.
MALE. FEMALE. MALE. | FEMALE. ——
: Pupils. | Pupils.
Colored. White. | Colored. | White. | Colored. | White. | Colored. ;
Ris win'saos 15,024, 1,788,175, 15.852) 26,642 32) 83,003 116} 196,173) 311,684
“OS See 65 77111 54 1,626 aaueh 4,929 teak 826 4,015
aes EM 24 34,629 15 404 eens 3.056: rere 4,816} 7,272
wecnhn vi 36, 62 67 Sede 4,125 4.553 3.
Dos Atel tales hs « 1,306 219,523 1,364 . Re ie G| 2777| 42,572
Bray share wiki ws aise 118 31,891 134 285 ey 1,483 eek 4,053 7,200
OE are 750 T4771 820 261 < 3,446 ccroht 8,902} 15.419
oS oS re ee: 3, 616,349 3,501 8.707 3) 30.868 31| 77,042) 119,242
i ee 5,970 138,693) 6,502 1,388 13) 4,930 2} 16,878) 34,577
Bere ns aaa csireil 3,218 ,640| 3,400) 10,388 16} 19,037 36| 48,326) 77,628
295,551 642,759) 325,461) 17,468) 5,716) 19,746) 5,000) 165,253) 30,869
2,374 15,012 2,345 217 36 499 62 1,289 1,711
18,600| - 845 18,825 1,571 218; 93,277 295} 12,799) 14,823
6,436 15,696 7,899 349 692 227 5.387 3,282
59,423 114,163) ~ 67,836) 2,719 $60 4,108 1,092) 17,648) 3,297
3.255 91,586 3,539 3,499 105 2,131 78 3,600 1,750
59.680 118,466 66.617 3.344 1,501 2,698 1,008} 43,943 1,808
‘BS,785 49,810) 63.771 1,378 1,088 1,952 664) 20,303 1,405
68,547 124,255) °75,060| 3,477 1,358) 3,154 1,283) 55.536 1,237
18,451 29,407; 19,569 914 404 1,235 291 4,748 1,556
30,029; 2,699,866) 31,319) 63,044 400) 123,632 541) 187,827) 398,585 -
2,035 431,634 065) 12,370 16) 16,013 25| 39.204) 65,698
2.039 2,412 . 21 7,301 28} 20,012} 27,228
2,819 344 883) 8,680: 18} 18,251 20| 31,791) 82.251
929 235,472 820 Ht Re 13,196} 4... 11,551) 40,276
45 210,171 38] 3,225) . 10,659) * ..... 7.954) 66,065
100 158. - 8 2,921 ; 7,418 z 7.751) 34,400
636 262,576 650 6,226; . 21,842) ..... 19.891) 23,728
16,324 319.619} 16,845) -7,161 3807 8,591 417; 29,015) 35,670
1 18,218 1 636) ..... + eee 624 1,993
4 39.397 5 1,437 . S| ee 1.432 2,316
124,356 MOR) "Smelt! 38: TOR sans 6.484 9.506
4,756 200,370; 5,099) 5,364 38) 7,698 49} 12,118 9,454
341,201 926,064) 358,638) 24,361 8,206) 21,416) 5,202) 200,202} 41,115
27,353 191.196) 29,194 4,520 613; 4,902 667; 29,308) 13.370
52,729 196,421) 53.645) 5,068 1,123) 3,429 795| 55.333 2.476
386 104.840; 63.503) 3,036 1,481 2,130 778} 27,381 2,051
91,446 86.311; 94.977 2,183 1,912} 3,023 1.349} 24.312 2.197
27,359 50, 27,300 1,139 2,168 291; 20.103) 12,156
51,482) 211,665) 59,815 5,530 1,694) 4,354 875} 29,044 6,
eh oes 885 1 Bile weeks Thon 02%; 1 ee
31,446 84,690) 30.203} 2,858 844 1,392 447| 13.518 2,320
1,602) 287,956 1,525 a 5 | ne 12.262 1) 54,749) 17,349
53 9,206 i eee eee 1,319 384
6 4,138 7 | eee Lae ear 159 191
va 36,059 26 Boh a sesas i eee 4,752 2,811
Shae te aakea tia cpiee 4,440 8,987 ne Be 311 eyes 4,770 1
Bad Sede s enaninsice sya ae 4,685 1 4,333) .... 99 te 172 amet 479 518
Sten s ay Slaslaree «achat ae 24,819 4 22.894 420 c 581 Sa'ent fn AO eae 526
USC dso is san golden oss eae oe ee AAOBL. ace ne sl) a Pee ae 131 325
AMRIT cacy. shikaap Race een as ot TAIOl See S000 1 S.. os. a toy | alae os! ae 104 | aes
WWARIMUETON 5c 2 a acicces ecaccs 30,011 17 91 747 aaneh Mata o> 6 OME 8 3,575 914
Oregon ......... Badr 2 ee care 35,347 6 30,151 15 ROP ic aces zo bs Spe 4,891 727
RRS ES cd eA cos oas cc kon > 129,909 325 34,241 11 1,906}. 309) 1} 22,227; 10,352
PARR oa ars's ohne sncrawnsadmes 94 845 125,751 343 SY yaaa | See oy re
The United States... ...... 6,612,648) 683,407) 6,344,820) 732.795) 137,656) 14.354) 260,059) 10,860) 804,204) 799,602
* Includes all public, private, parochial, and other denominational schools.
number of feeble-minded males was 52.962, and of Idiots —The number of idiots reported in 1880
feeble-minded females 42,647. According to gen- was 76,895, but of this number over 29 per cent.
eral nativity and color, the sexes are divided as fol- was obtained from special returns made by physi-
low: Native whites, 42.277 males and 33,633 fe- cians. In 1890 the physicians did not make any
males ; foreign whites, 4,875 males and 4,212 females; special reports for this class of the population. so
negroes, 5,788 males and 4,786 females; Chinese, that the proportion of feeble-minded to total popu-
Japanese, and civilized Indians, 22 males and 16 fe- lation returned by the enumerators is greater than
maies. Thetotal number of feeble-minded reported it was in 1880. In both the tenth and eleventh cen-
in 1880 was 76,895. suses a certain number of persons were reported as
a
788 UNITED STATES CENSUS.
EDUCATION. RELIGION.
PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS.* COMMUNICANTS
OR MEMBERS.
STATES AND TERRITORIES. STUDENTS—PROFESSIONS. No. of | Value of
p o. of
Aggre- z tif church Per cent.
gate of | rheok Meai- | T!0-| wech- | Peda- | “°™* shia fan OP heii =
e ggregate. lax
a ogy. Law. | cine, hice nology.| gogy- ane
North Atlantic Division...| 31,994) 2,768) 1,496) 8,907) 1,454) 4,354) 13,015) 27,887! 26,707|/$842,227,877| 6,176,015) 25°49
Waine..y.2sskss evs ssi 996 | ene HOR Road epee 841 1,605) 1,342) $6,192,400 159,846) 24°18
New Hampshire ...... Qa ees] ates 2) eee 73 102 783 774| 4,457,225 102,941} 27°34
WePiOnt rs: scent acs sane ROB] Kal see 222 by, Kigeeeat 629 904 4,643,800 106,315} 31°98
Massachusetts........ 4,596} 867) 445 854) 393) 1,203) 1,334 nit“ 2,458} 46,835,014 942,751) 42°11
Rhode Island ......... BOS nee reh, esieote | sated Bhi kes 215 886) 7,583,110 148,008} 42°84
Connecticut,.......... 1,183] 229) 111 54] 67| +343) 879] 1,149] «1,175! 16,985,026 341] 41°45
NGW TY OF hess ca sivclice’ > 12,110} 874) 782) 4,719) 545) 1,478] 38,712) 82387] 7,942) 140,128,008] 2,171,822) 36°21
New Jersey........... a yb eb ir 13 30| 397 266} 2,085) 2,204) 29,490,414 508, 35°18
Pennsylvania......... 10,622) 828) 158) 2,860) 379) 860) 5,537) 10,175) 9,624) 85,917,870) 1,726,640) 32°84
South Atlantic Division...| 8,604) 1,876) 1.011) 2,330 43) 803) 3,041) 30,423) 29,309) $62,009,981} 3,295,916; 37°21
Delaware .......... ADS PEEP sd cat; ive al oem SP; 11 382 401|» $2,708,825 48,679) 28°89
Marvin: a5 sis0etk ce 2.748) 645 99} 1,200) ....| 258 546) 9.2828) 92,369) 15,445,946 379,418) 36°40
District of Columbia..|} 1,433 83) 588 424 BB)! wees 802 217 205) 6,313,625 94. 40°89
Virginia: sc. tens peecs 1,567} 198) ~208 TBp iS acel aS 750} 4,998) 4,894) 10,473,943 569, 34°37
West Virginia......... Dein mene AQ) ness ote 14 953} 2,989) 2,160) 3,701,483) 189,917} 24°90
North Carolina ....... 457; 122 43 OAM leer 248 6,824 6,512 7,077,440 685,194) 42°35
South Carolina.. ..... 516; 108 30 GO ks oe 154 145} 3,815) 3,967} 5,636,236 508,485) 44°17
Georeiascidive eect 804) 204 33 410 7 139 11 6,899} 7,008) 8,228,060 ,051| 36°96
WIOVIGAs inn 5s .waecuuee 91 1G}! Sect Sp caee isval Pian 75 1,971 1,793} 2,424,423 141,734) 36°21
North Central Division....| 30,914) 3,453) 1,795} 7,790 386) 1,592) 15,948) 59,847| 48,264/$198,828,535| 6,738,989) 30°14
OOn cis. teas see ens 6,195} 451; 178] 1,778 18} 131) 3,639) 9,345) 8,857) $42,138,862) 1,215,409) 33°10
ANMIANE So Fecicasiee sale 8,780) 111 80 357 21 2,743} 6,480) 5,944) 18,671,131 693, 81°65
MUGS oie ee8 es eeacee 5.930} 1,118) 376) 2,861 90} 215) 1,270) 8,296) 7,352 715. 1,202,588} 31°43
Mich}waitiss 23S itasse ns 2,591; 139) 533 742) #151) 219 807} 4,798) 3,761) 18,682, 569,504) 27°20
Wisconsin..... aaaodet 2,077; 3859) 112 35) ....| 113) 1,458) 3,722) 3,286) 14,521,341 556.355) 32°98
Minnesota............. 1,886} 606) 134 144 38} 135 829} 3,429) 2,619) 12,940,152 532,590) 40°91
VOWS Sickel acces ace Cae 2,064) 155) 155 B4l), ..55 66) 1,147) 5,539) 4,536) 16,056,786 556,817; 29°12
MIBSOUTE 5 oi ewidires clans 3,947; 423) 150) 1,269 18} 186) 1,901 8,064; 6,121) 19,663,737 735,839| 27°47
North Dakota......... TIO) gh eal weans ; 110 868 335 780,775 59,496) 32°56
South Dakota......... CBT ore hh eer aeeee 26 1,589 774| = 1,761,277 85,490) 26°00
Nebraska............. 22 26 3 502] 2,797 1,822} 6,443,689 194,466) 18°36
ICR DNAS S02 oss nexwic ae 1,153 69 7 87]. 33 937; 4,920) 2,854) 7,447,569 336,575) 23°58
South Central Division....| 7,520) 763) 330) 2,786 7 212) +3,422) 40,744) 33,993) $50.381,948) 3,555,324) 32°13
Rentucky ..s.6s.cs0s0. 1,677| 828 30! 1,185 rose 134, 5.555} 4,768) $12,112,320 606,397) 32°63
Tennessee............. 2,203} 245) 1382 996 106 724) 6,350) 5,792) 9,885,943 551,673} 31°21
Alabama.............. 1,587 7 21 328)\ ois cal), somal’ skaees 6,383} 6,013) 6,768,477 559,171) 39°96
BU OC | 0) ) 533 23 pL) a (aA pate 5 494 5,186} 5,001 4,390,173 430,557| 33°39
TOUISIADS 3.5 ov esccuess 634 54 52 386 415 Bese 135} 2,701 2.520) 5,032,194 399,991| 35°76
LOMNG eld sue nsakereks 617 56 79 1B} ces 14 455) 8,766) 5,638) 8,682,337 677,151} 30°29
Oklahoma....... Ser) Mee ee Sinai. Semel. ust eee Vea ye Eand |, cemtane 123 41 61,575 4,901; 7°93
Arkansas ............. DO) Aches ete Tol! CSkes 92 99| 4,874 3.791 3,266,663 i 26°26
Indian Territory......| ..... ee read Me ete are meer: be 806 4 182, 29,275]. 4.00
Western Division ......... 2,582) 113) 112 639 30) 167) 1,471 6,276} 4,248) $26,187,298 846,562) 27°47
MONTANE 0 yeasty sce} v9.0 Sach Saote ct ee cule PRY (Maes Mees, 273 164 $885,950 32,478] 24°57
WV VOUS sy cnc dcceses] ev cde Soe licaeewel cues 2 3h\ cnc) moe ate 141 43 368,625 11,705) 19°28
Colorado. Fo. i6 os. cees 253 | ee BOOT Shack « 54 91 7 463) 4,743,317 86,837| 21°07
New Mexico..........] ..... rd Races yeaa Aart etapa | mae 463 381 925 105,749) 68°85
a Aenea] Manas ale or 28 131 70 270,816 26,972) 45°24
GA a5 Sa) tase Ns ta eee 94 427 280) 1,493,791 128,115) 61°62
4B) 328 |) Geese eet 9 36 64 41 ; .877| 12°84.
; apy eh Pouch Gael Mutt nh ceeeehe clic | mrceene 247 143 281,310 d 28°48
Washington TO) ET Aer eae f HAAN teas 28 2 79 892 582} 2,408,625 58,798) 16°83
Oregon. . PERE TCs we 350 34 36 TOL) crindt = eee 210 969 592 829,150 70,524) 22°48
California... . e 1,683 17 76 463 30| 104 933 1,996] 1,505) 11,961,914 280,619} 23°23
AISSER. a0 caendescnstt taeae Meeee Wisc a| okezes visto at i etetied ) oareeete 26 34 203,650 14,852] 2.6
The United States...| 81,564) 8,473) 4,744) 22,452) 1,870) 7,128) 36,897) 165,177| 142,521/$679,630,139 elias 32°85
* Public and private. + Per cent. of population is represented by the number of communicants in each State.
idiots or as feeble-minded who should properly be numher of deaf-and-dumb males was 22,429, and of
reported among the insane, being cases of terminal deaf-and-dumb females 18,163. According to gen-
or of senile dementia. It should also be noted that eral nativity and color, the sexes are divided as fol-
in 1880 every case of insanity reported as having low: Native whites, 18,281 males and 14.997 fe-
begun under the age of twelve was reported as an males; foreign whites, 2.358 males and 1,811 fe-
idiot, while in 1890 the age limit is lowered to ten. males; negroes, 1,772 males and 1,343 females; Chi-
Deaf and Dumb.—The total number of deaf-and- nese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 18 males and
dumb whites, 1890, was 37,447; negroes, 3,115; 12 females. The total number of deaf and dumb
Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 30. The reported in 1880 was 33,878. .
UNITED STATES CENSUS. 789
RELIGION.
MEMBERSHIP.
STATES AND TERRITORIES.
All Bap- | All Cath- | Copere- Jewish | Latter | guvta. | aut Meth-| All Pres: | tant’ | Unita-/DMcipls
gation- | Friends.| congre-| Day 2 if ‘ 1.
tists. olics, alista, i Saints. therans, odists. | byterians. i rians, Christ.
North Atlantic Division ..... 435,043 |2,941,171 290,352) 28,000 63,188) 1,736) 333,736| 774,544) 454,520 289,563/49,029| 18,132
57,548) 21,523] 1,430) ...... 442 904) 23,041 224) 3,291) 2,421; 293
39,920) 19,712) 418] ......] ...2.. 520 12,354 956 2,911) 3,252) ......
42.810) 20,465) 251 r? pee 174) 17,527] 1,267] 4,335] 968) 262
615,072) 101,890} 1,602) 2.501) 457) 4,137} 61,188) 5,105) 27,166/34,610 777
96,825, 7,192) 698) 910) 233 590| 7,353 828) 9.458 1.595, 35
152,945) 59,154) ...... 1,621 8| 5,762) 30,815) 1,864) 26,652) 179) 337
1,153,650) 45, 7,078) 45,807) 158 046 .551| 168,564/127,961| 4,470) 4,316
223,274) 4,912) 3,261) 4,276, 21) 12.878) 96,377] 59.464) 30,429] (363; 105
559,127| 9,818) 13,267) 8,029, 417) 219,725] 260,388) 216,248) 57,360] 1,171) 12,007
254,883). 8.469) 8,792) 9.507) 1,395) 67,721/1,279,623| 142,263) 83.274) 1,488) 43,775
oo eee 2,006} 11,776) ...... 744] 3,575] 75 296 4.622} 2,858} 60
6 12.483) 24,223) 603) 1,774
5,128, 7.476} 600 700
27.746| 20,520] ..... 14,100
10,952} 2,906] .....| 5.807
36,102| 8,186] ..... 12,437
26,118) 7,465) 150) 2.880
14,538] 5.515) 75| 4,676
4,574| 4,225] ..... 1,306
427,629 110,089) 10,807 365,442
108,607) 17.711] 907) 54,425
43.351| 5.185} 320) 78.94
.213| 20,854) 1,932) 60,867=
25,931| 18,136 1,904 5.788
14,154) 10,457} 1, 1,317
15,055| 11,142) 1.349] 1.917
40.528) €,481| 1,238) 30,989
53.510) 8,953) 1.135) 97.773
298 30 044, 892) 55) | 20
South Dakota. .......... 4,052} 25,720) 5,164) 266) ...... 88} 23,314] 12,116) 4.778) 2.649) 105) 490
Nebraska........ at a 13,481} 51,503) 10.045) — 980| 1,062) 1,058, 27.297) 42.941 15.065) 4,036) 190) 7,715
SS aaa 84,511| 67,562) 11,945) 8,257 " 1,106, 16,262) 95,781, 31,393) 3,593) 278 25,200
South Central Division.......|1,382,992} 452,941) 6,640} 2,101| 13,365 1,779) 25,587/1,193.379| 213,113) 37.222| 270 192,390
Kentucky... ............ ; 92,504] 449] ...... 955! 249, 2,894) 141,521] 40,880] 7,161) 100) 77,645
Tennessee.............00. 185,189} 17,50| 1.429) 1,001) 1,760 198) 2,975) 223.116] 66.573) 5,671 60) 41.127
Alabama. ...........-... 258, 13,230} 1,683) ...... 3,168, 592 791| 242,624) 21.502) 6.085] .....| 9.201
Mississippi......... 4 eas 224,612} 11.348] 210) ...... 1.370, 197 533, 164,589] 18,250) 3.560] ..... 5,725
Louisiana................ 98,552) 211,863] 1,057) 66) 3,374 ...... 2.952) 65.698) 5,864] 5.162) 110| ‘209
GEORG. cco sexe» Sew 523, 99,691; 846) 120) 1,994) 437) 14,556] 218.890] 37,811) 7,097) .....| 41,852
Oklahoma...... Tae BiG 1270) 2701) A108} ese | Gaucahctos sea 2, 550} 105) ..... 269
Arkansas ................ 128.724, 3,845) 669/ 338) 744 60 1,886) 123.316] 18,022) 2.381| ..... 14,385
Indian Territory......... 9,147, 1,240) 127] 468 sty 46 sada MODI, SBN Sake cl ac 5 1,977
Western Division ............ 28,400] 435,731) 21.951) 1.813) 8,846 145.199, 10.131) 81,336) 40,807) 20,361/ 6,155) 21,312
Momatiar tes. =. oo seas < 683} 25,149] 845] ...... 140) 122 394] 2,495] = 1,282) 1,104] ..... 785
WRENN has dicta p\c asc 22> 262 7,185 | eal pep ete 336 721 912 364 467| ..... 48
Colorado...........-.-.++ 4,944, 47,111 3,217] 88) 1,062 1,762) 1,208) 10,850) 6,968, 3,814) 644) 2,400
New Mexico............. 255) 100,571 i en 50) 256 64 360) 1,275] 373] ..... 65
ON RS a ae 197} 19,000] ~ 169)"....2:].2e: 6,500 ........ 656 188} 179) ..... 78
Se 327; 5,958] 460) ...... 100 118,201 84) 1,055 688, 751] ..... 270
(MENU ceo dos sire ccs 63} 3.955 ey aS fe a er Oe 418 275, 585 .....| ....-.
BRAM 9.5 c cp ntecie ss 745| 4,809) 105] ......| ...... 14,972 401| 1,162 815| 364] ..... 350
Washington ............. 3,941) 20.848] 3.154) ...... 150, 34) 1.912) 12,697} 4,343) 1,698} 802) 5816
°) ete lle 5.500| 30,231] 2,087) 766] 1,165) 95, 1,080| 11,927) 5.244| 1.849] 890, 4.067
California................ 11,383] 157,346] 11,907} 1,009] 6.179 1.396] 4,267| 36,874) 18.984) 9,221| 3,819] 7,433
RORRM ee, oS exlan Gin Linea dad’ 18.5031. : 50's] sc ccauapucrdcuswiuchssdveevess 162,165
- More than 25
792
. In each of the above classes, males exceed females,
except in the following:
From ane YOATS «0-0 e cece eee eee eee cece stg females
see 8" ae eae ye cr SR a 10 es
et 90 Years and OVEP. 22.5 s0s5000ss as sa'e 19,842 ‘
Among the colored population females exceed
males in the following classes: Fifteen to nineteen,
‘twenty to twenty-four, forty to forty-four, eighty to
eighty-four, eighty-five to ninety, ninety years and
over.
Color.—In cities of 25,000 and over (1890) the
colored population exceeded that of the whites in
Charleston, 8. C., only. The colored population ex-
ceeds 50 per cent. of the whole in Richmond, Va.,
Nashville and Memphis, Tenn., and Atlanta, Ga.
er cent. of the inhabitants of New
Orleans and Washington, D. C. (1890), were colored.
Conjugal Condition.—According to the census of
1890, the only political division in which spinsters
exceed bachelors in numbers is the District of
Columbia. In every State and Territory the single
males exceed the married males. In 18 States the
excess is over 50 per cent. Married females are less
in number than spinsters in évery State and Terri-
tory. ‘
Native and Foreign Born.—The five States hav-
ing the largest number of foreign-born inhabitants
(1890) were New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois,
Massachusetts, and Michigan. Foreign Whites.—
The foreign whites, in point of members, were
stronger (1890) in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois,
Massachusetts, and Michigan. Canadians are most
numerous in Massachusetts and Michigan; Mexi-
cans are found principally in Texas and Arizona;
Cubans and South Americans congregate chiefly in
Florida and New York; English, Scotch, and Irish
refer New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
llinois; Welsh find their homes mostly in Penn-
sylvania and Ohio; Germans are found largely in
ew York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio: Dutch
reside in Michigan, Illinois, New York. and Iowa.
Belgians choose Wisconsin, New York, Illinois,
and Michigan ; Swiss, in the order stated, are most
populous in New York, Ohio, California, and IIli-
nois; the Norwegian ponte of the population is
thickest in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa;
Swedes also favor these States, with Nebraska in-
cluded; Danes cluster most in lowa, Nebraska, and
Minnesota; there are many Russians in South Da-
kota and Michigan; the largest number of Hun-
garians (1890) were in Pennsylvania; Bohemians
and Poles in Illinois. Italians are plentiful in Cali-
fornia and New Jersey; Spaniards have a strong
liking for, Texas, California, and Florida; Portu-
guese seem to prefer California and Massachusetts ;
Greeks, Chinese, and Japanese cling to the Pacific
coast.
Native and Foreign Born in Cities—In no city
over 50,000 (1890) did the foreign-born inhabitants
predominate. The cities having over 50 per cent. of
foreign-born population were New York, Chicago,
Boston, San Francisco, Cleveland, Ohio, Buffalo,
a Y., Detroit, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, and St.
aul.
Iiliteracy.—Of the total illiterates, ten years of
age and over (1890), the largest percentages were in
New Mexico (65 per cent.); South Carolina (55 per
cent.); Alabama (50 per cent.); Georgia (49 per
cent.); and Mississippi (49 per cent.). Of native
white illiterates, ten years and over, the greatest
numbers were in New Mexico (64 per cent.); North
Carolina (82 per cent.); Tennessee (27 per cent.);
Arkansas (25 per cent.); and Alabama (25 per
cent.), Of foreign white illiterates ten years and
over, the largest total were in New Mexico (43 per
eent.); Rhode Island (27 per cent.); New Hamp-
UNITED STATES CENSUS,
shire (27 per cent.); Arizona (27 per cent.); and
Vermont (27 per cent.). Of colored illiterates, in-
cluding persons of negro descent, Chinese, Japanese,
and civilized Indians, the largest numbers (1890)
were in New Mexico (92 per cent.); Georgia (82
per cent.); Alabama (80 per cent.); Louisiana (79
per cent.) ; and South Carolina (78 per cent.).
Gainful Occupations.—Proportion of Females.—
Of the total of persons ten years of age and over
employed in gainful occupations, the number of
females exceeded 25 per cent. of the whole in New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec-
ticut, New York, Maryland, District of Columbia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisiena. In agricultural, fishing,
and mining pursuits more than 25 per cent. are fe--
males in South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana. In professional service the percentage
of females exceeds 50 per cent. in N pte shen Hli-
nois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. In
domestic and personal service (1890) females ex-
ceeded males in the District of Columbia, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In
mechanical and manufacturing industries the nuin-
ber of females to the whole engaged, ten years and
over (1890), exceeded 25 per cent. in 11 States.
Leading Occupations of Females.—The 10 lead-
ing occupations of women, exclusive of those classed
as servants and laborers are, with the number of
women employed (1890), as follows:
Dresamakerss oc. oo yks oSvac savas coeds banenrwatiatare 288,328
Teachers, school and college................eeeeeeee 245,871
With, or as farmers, planters, and overseers........ 226,42
LaUnagrenses <5. icas yo ceb sii sap ce yueevusesanerseeenbae 216.681
Reamatresaes * oc. spas nore sees be eke aues eae ad eames 146,043
Cotton-mill Operatl ves: icici cove bcs sncvcdctssechue 92,965
Clerks and'copyista......ivsuvasscaaccansucntaeesaneeee 64,219
Tasigressee. . Jo55< 5 divas ones te adetedaoahices wear lie aneen 63,809
MATINGIR: Jase Fiadiee 5.20 ce cas 4 nash a wg 899 Wes eine care 60,087
SalesWomen 5 «coc Fave co pone cad wesnay prot eee 58,451
The professions and industries in which more
women than men were employed (1890) are:
CALLING, Women Men.
MaSiC. can, peek tanec ee bh sacks pacies 34,519 27,636
Teachers, school and college........... 245,371 96,581
Boarding- and lodging-house keepers.. 82,593 11,756
Housekeepers and stewards............ 86,089 5.947
IM IGUNGIICS. C5 co.cc puisad dws ceea sock sieso 216,631 81,831
Nurses: mid wilery..caeens 45000-5525 41,396 6,190
SONVREIG.. scotvecnts tre tete et eccasases 1,216,639 238.152
Stenographers and typewriters........ 21,270 12,148
Paper- DOs MAKOIS..6 605 \ctsc ves heey esse 13,043 4,714
BOON MABE soins ehe eee ieee oc eens. 1,590 1,011
Corset MAKSres cclk hi S.cs cecsepssecaces 5,800 733
Cotton-mill operatives .............065- 92,965 80,177
Dressmakers, soevcma tusecvas pesknesses 288,328 836
Glove MARGE Ns ins cees ctvane reese 4 3,675 2.741
Hosiery and knitting-mill operatives... 20,810 8.745
Milliner i ogdacusisett ase cncngsecs trees: 60,087 395
SEAMBWMESSER Fen, owe to ties od &b bo 146,043 4,001
Sewing-machine operatives............ 6,022 1,104
Shirt, collar, and cuff makers.......... 15,975 5,132
Silk-mill operatives..................5- 663 14,192
Straw Workers csuiet sca dsatee «| wee caaws 2,423 1,243
Umbrella and parasol makers......... 1,938 1,465
Survivors of the Civil War.—The States con-
taining (1890) the largest number of Federal sur-
vivors (soldiers, sailors, and marines) were: Penn-_
sylvania, 110,780; Ohio, 101,602; New York, 86.041;
Illinois, 71,158; Missouri, 63.747. Of the Confed-
erate survivors, Texas, in 1890, held the largest
number, 66,791; the next in order being Virginia,
48.713; Georgia, 47,080; North Carolina, 43,947;
and Alabama, 34,004.
Agriculture.—Unimproved Land.—The States
having the largest percentage of acreage in unim-
proved land (1890) were: Arizona (92 per cent.) ;
Florida (68 per cent.); New Mexico (67 per cent.) ;
North Carolina (65 per cent.); and Arkansas (63
UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.
per cent.). Those having the smallest unimproved
area were the District of Columbia (16 per cent.) ;
Illinois (16 per cent.); Iowa (17 per cent.); Ohio
(21 per cent.); and Indiana (26 per cent.).
_ Acreage of Farms.—Texas (1890) had the largest
number of farms of 1,000 acres each or over (5,415).
Next in rank, with as large an area, are: California,
3,672 farms: Georgia, 2,758; Mississippi, 1,654;
Alabama, 1,576; and North Carolina, 1,468. Of
farms occupying from 50 to 100 acres, Ohio, in 1890,
had 82,380; liknois, 68,746; New York, 67,835;
lo falpa 66,743 ; and Indiana, 65,198.
Fisheries.—Capital and Value of Products.—
The leading States in amount of capital invested
(1890) were: Massachusetts, $7,483,193; New York,
$5,125,361; Maryland, $5,118,843; Connecticut,
$5,072,274; Virginia, $3,429,469. Their rank in
value of products is as follows: Massachusetts,
$6,367,033 ; Maryland, $5,654,024; Virginia, $4,816.-
225; New York, $3,798,815; and New Jersey, $3,130,-
893. Maryland and Virginia lead in number of
men, vessels, and boats employed (1890).
Minerals.—The five leading States (1889) in
value of mineral products, include Pennsylvania,
$150,876,649; Michigan, $70,880,524; Colorado,
$41,126,610; Montana, $33,737,775; New York,
$24,165,206.
Religion.—According to the census reports, the
greatest numerical strength of the leading denom-
inations is in the following States, in the order
named :
Protestant Episcopal—New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Connecticut.
Roman Catholic— New York, Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania, [Hlinois, and Ohio.
“MethodistNorth Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, New
York, and Pennsylvania.
Baptist—Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ala-
bama, and Texas.
Presbyterian—Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio,
Illinois, and Tennessee.
Inutheran—Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illinois, and Ohio.
Congregational — Massachusetts,
New Yor . Illinois, and Ohio.
Conelusion.—This article concludes the state-
ments in the “Annual Cyclopedia ”’—beginning
with the 1890 issue—concerning the results of the
eleventh census. It is believed that, with the aid
of the reference list inserted at the beginning of the
article, any aggregate or total of importance pub-
lished under any census heading can be found with-
in the series.
UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE. The
public finances for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1896, were far from satisfactory, and still show the
necessity for additional taxation. The expenditures
were $25,203,245 in excess of the revenues. leaving
that amount to be supplied from the cash in the
Treasury. For the previous year the deficit was
$42,805,223. The deficit was lessened by a gain in
receipts of $19,102,206, with an increase of expendi-
tures of only $1,961,228. Of the receipts, there was
a gain in internal revenue of $3,341,193, in the pos-
tal service of $5,516,080, in customs of $7,863,135,
and in profit on coinage of $1,256,512, and no de-
crease in any important item. ;
Of the expenditures there was an increase in the
postal service of $5,516,080, but owing to increased
receipts there was a reduction in the deficiency of
the service of $1,716,542. There was an increase of
$4,406.999 in payments on account of interest on
the public debt, of $2,225,774 on account of Indians,
and a falling off of $3,729,131 in the construction of
new war vessels. Exclusive of the postal service,
there was a net decrease in ordinary expenditures of
$4,015,852,
Connecticut,
793
The following tables show 8 pe items of
receipts and ao for 1896, compared with.
like items for 1895, postal service included :
YEAR ENDING June 20,
SOURCE OF RECEIPTS, SS
1896, 1895.
Internal revenue..................- $146,762,865 $143,421 ,672
Piimbal MPVEON Tas fe diwa rik axceucs: 82,499,208) 76,983,128
MOOI Ss cats s hea nett Shoah 160,021,752| 152,158,617
Sales of public lands. .............. 1,005,523 1,103,347
Tax on circulation of national
SAME or Uo cs tna eee tea a» 1,763,497 1,712,551
Repayment of interest on Pacific
WRUWAYE 3,051,777 3,197,348
Total Or@imary.<. +s. 0-c5-2<04 54 $409,475,409| $390,373.203
Premium on public debt........... 11,166,246) 11,339,345
Principal of public debt............ 482,710,363) 395,787,206
SPPRNL SOURS anaes eee $903,352,018| $797 499.754
| YEAR ENDING JUNE 30,
ITEMS OF EXFENDITURES.
1896. 1895.
Oousrew sss er occ tes ns ches Skane $7.736,610| $7,639,167
WROCUIAVD: wots 1,268,877; 11,716,002
SHGHOIRT CS) 53.252 apes ee ess Sot ox. 7,873,000 8,277,029
Postal Service. oo6 7 anos ek wen hake os 82,499,208} 76,9831
Deficiency in postal service.......- 9,300,000; 11,016,542
Foreign intercourse................ 1,605,011 1,703,263
improving rivers and harbors.....) 18,104,376) 19,897,553
Other expenses, military establish-
WOU. Se seec scabs aces ctesden tacawe 32,726,545) 31,907.206
Constructing new war vessels...... 9,453,003) 13,182,134
Other expenses, naval establish-
MMOL Sopcldaats ses keeaecdseunetncss 17,694,729) 15.615,662
TBI ace cess Ske a Peace ees 12,165,528 9.939.754
Pengigne on ddeccaxsnenoven csaeaert s 139,424,001) 141,395,229
Constructing public buildings, in-
ClUGMS RikeR C, css aseancaevisss cs 2.997, 382 3,599,614
District of Columbia............... 6.269.362 6.176,£91
Interest on public debt............. 35,285,029; 30,978,080
Bounty On Sugar... 622. . ss6e ee cce ts 232,691 966.154
Life-saving service................- 1,442,724 1,284,018
Mint establishment ................ 774,418 853,113
Revenue-cutter service ............ 1,027,617 929.887
Engraving and printing ........... 1,116,373 1,146,552
Lighthouse establishment ......... 114,855 2,763,243
Collecting customs revenue........ 7,304,790 6,808,269
Assessing and collecting internal
TOVGMNG: doua ness eee canes de acanes 3,769,643 3,762,682
i Boies eh cavesse ach cesse 21,182,882} 24,437,204
Total ordinary ............-...: $434,678,654) $43,178,426
Public debt principal .............. 396,190,023) 354,276,859
Grand totals ways sek sessecs. ccs. $30,868,677) $787,455,285
In addition to the ordinary receipts, the cash in
the Treasury was increased during the last fiscal
vear by the sale of $100,000,000 of 4-per-cent. bonds
issued under the Resumption Act of Jan. 14, 1875,
yielding $111,166,246.
In addition to the cash belonging to the Treasury,
and subject toits official check, there are held under
control of the Treasury Department large deposits
belonging to public disbursing officers, and also re-
serves of coin and paper as a basis of the monetary
circulation. The table on next page shows in de-
tail the character of the assets thus held, and the
liabilities against such assets, for the years ending
Dee. 31, 1895 and 1896.
It will be seen that at the end of the year the
general Treasury balance was $50,293,179 greater
than at the beginning of that period, which result
was obtained by the Pome of sale of the 4-per-
cent. bonds as stated, less the amount taken from
the cash to meet current expenditures in excess of
—
794
current receipts. In the aggregate, there was an
increase of $65,885,105 of assets, of which the in-
creased holding of gold alone was $62,005,275, large
importations of that metal having occurred in the
last few months of the calendar year. Of the amount
UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.
debt is $100,000,000 of the United States notes,
being the portion of such notes for which a reserve
is held. The details of such debt are set forth in
the following table:
OvTSTANDING Dec. 31,
of gold held Dec. 31, 1896, $100,000,000 is elsewhere DEBT WITH RESERVE.
reported as the reserve accumulated under the Re- 1896. 1895. |
sumption Act to meet the redemption of the United eaten Maes et puaki)..| sino obuiondl ‘Sekacna
. ] ili jc ] ni no greenbacks).. A A e e
States notes, and a= # dability is Included ag.0 pare ~ 77 Sor sens Gale reo 119,816,280] 1377771.280
of the general Treasury balance. Currency certificates . **] 50;830.000 "450,
; Gold certificates ....... -.| 89,279,789 099,889
YEAR ENDING Dec. 31, _ Silver certificates. .........s..+0... 870,883,504) 345,702,504
ITEMS.
1896. 1895. Totalityic. opawnvces ek eee $680,809,573| $631,285,941
Assets ! 2 The monetary circulation of the country consists
Gold coin or bullion.............+.. ha stp hd of gold, silver, and minor coins, United States notes,
So fore Ss Yo peat eta Ma TK Rr gold, silver, and currency certificates, Treasury and
Treasury notes (1890) ..............| 85,645,059} 22.044/511 national bank notes. A large proportion of these
National bank notes.............. -| 14,278,970 7,063,137 issues is held in the Treasury, as has already been
Balances in national bank deposi- 271.9899 Shown. The amount in circulation outside of the
PLIES cars 0 sed siks sissoes 4a pan Cr me 16,159,153) 14,271, ~ D 1. 1895 d 1896. i £ forth
Gold certificates .............2.000- 1,392,350 163,450 ‘Treasury on Dee. 31, an , is set forth in
Silver certificates .................- 14,227,704 9,625,856 the accompanying table:
Bonds and interest ap paid.... Bode - oncom : raiatia
Currency certificates (1872) ........ 845, s . N CIRCULATION i
. Minor coins and fractional notes .. 1,106,688 1,048,729 CIRCULATION OUTSIDE OF THE :
Subsidiary silver coins............. 14,215,766) 12,764,321 TREASURY. 1896. 1895.
ROU. wackeye pata sores hayek $853,463,552) $787,578,447 Gold eBid cece ee $517,743,229| $484,728,547
Liabilities : Standard eyeied Gollara..s 533.1. pee en
Gold certificates ............s00000. $30,270,780] $50,000,809 Gupsidhary eiversssrscssssrerss] Segvue| Grane
Silver certificates... css Sep us dsswe 370,883,504) 345,702,504 Silver certificates .............. 356,655,800| 336.076,
Currency certificates (1872) ........ 830,000) 34,450,000 Treg. notes (1890)........... 84,171,221 115,726,769
Treasury notes (1890)........+..2+45 119,816,280) 137,771,280 tnited States notes............ 261,367,758 855,87
Deiter eb areie aa crak Botes...| 8.015.165 7.885.879 Currency certificates (1872) ....| 50,880,000} 81,605,
ublic disbursing officers.......... st 47, 558,168 National bank notes........... K i
Outstanding checks and drafts.... 2,670,851 2,834,026 National bank notes ci sath a
General Treasury balance ......... 320,380) 178,027,201 Total! dicate ee $1 ,650,223,400, $1,579,206,724
POURS sas cxwccuseene seaeteet ets $853,463,552) $787 578,447
_
The debt of the United States is of two kinds, one
with reserve and one without. To the extent that
a reserve is maintained the aggregate is necessarily
reduced. Of the debt without reserve, there was an
increase during the calendar year of $59,186,767.
In this class of debt is included the amount of United
States notes outstanding, of which the coin reserve
held for their redemption on Dec. 31, 1896, was re-
ported as $100,000,000; also the national bank re-
demption account, being the balance due from the
Government to national banks on account of legal
tenders furnished the Government by the banks for
redemption of their notes, the amount of such legal
tenders being included in the general Treasury bal-
ance subject to the official check of the department.
The details of this class of debt are set forth in the
following table:
It will be seen that there has been in the aggregate
an increase during the period of $71,016,676. The
only significant change in the circulation is the per-
sistent increase in the amount of the silver certificates
and the decrease in that of the Treasury notes of
1890, not wholly evidenced by the table. At the time
of the repeal of the act authorizing the issue of Treas-
ury notes, Nov. 1, 1893, there had been issued of such
notes in payment of silver bullion $155,931.002. On
Dec. 31, 1896, there was outstanding of these notes
only $119,816,280, a reduction of $36,114,772. This
reduction was brought about by retiring the notes
and issuing in their place silver certificates author-
ized by the act of 1878. Under the authority given
the Secretary to coin such portion of the silver bul-
lion purchased under the act of 1890 as he might
deem necessary, there has been coined to Nov. 1,
1896, 56,306,876 silver dollars, yielding a seigniorage
or profit of $13,304,635; on all of which dollars sil-
ver certificates could be issued, thus easily enabling
the change from notes to certificates to be made.
OvuTSTANDING Dc. 31,
DEBT WITHOUT RESERVE.
1896. 1895.
Funded loan (1891), 43 per cent.,
continued at 2 per cent...... $25,364,500 $25,364,500
Funded loan of 1907. 4 per cent. 559,638,900 559,631,750
Refunding certificates, 4 per
CONG sc snemenseas eos bane eeeeed 45.890 50.310
Loan of 1904, 5 per cent... 100,000,000 100.000,000
Loan of 1925, 4 per cent........ 162,315,400 62,315,400
Old loans matured............. 1,383,070 1,674,510
Old demand notes.............. 4,347 54,847
United States notes (green-
DSCER). vxieAelos os base cc eee 246,681,016 283,418,748
National bank redemption ac-
DOUG... .\o25 4 osc Pea ae 18,876,333 22,659,734
Fractional notes ..........s.00% 6,890,504 6,893,394
sbOLAL, » 53s ne Saaee een $1,121,249.960| $1,062,063,193
The debt with reserve is represented entirely by
obligations employed as a part of the monetary cir-
culation of the country against which the public
Treasury holds an equivalent of cash. This class of
debt increased during the last year $49,523,632,
causing, of course, an equivalent increase in the
cash of the Treasury, Included in this class of.
VALUE.
CHARACTER,
1896. 1895.
Gold—
Double eagles. ...............000% $51,874,460) $25,211,780
Bagles’; 3o:.cike ep career eens: 4,157,490 9,717,820
Half eagles: 2 icvcvasracoeeee ae 2,816,640 893,
Quarter eagles, .....61554s5-00s- 29, 10,295
Total. A.vigexeasaseere eens $58,878,490] $43,933,475
Silver—
Standard dollars...........s.se0% $7,500,822] $3,956,011
Half dollars 1,805,032 845,
2,005,705 1,972,423
129,082 295,101
LotahicnisAcsakatvaceaaeoaekor $11,440,641) $9,069,480
Minor— -
Five-cent nickel............+s.0:: $407 653 $452,151
One-cent bronze .......0......005 461,684 i
TOUR) sc epiciekvae esas cao ee $869,337 $712,594
Grand total... siasakeeeeaae $71,188,468) $53,715,549
UNIVERSALIST CHURCHES.
The coinage of the mints, which are at Philadel-
phia, San Francisco, and New Orleans, for the fiscal
year 1896 consisted of 3,584,760 pieces of gold, of
the value of $58,878,490; of 20,424,529 pieces of
silver of a face value of $11,440,641: and of minor
coins 54,321,484 pieces of a face value of $869,337.
The law restricts the minor coinage to the Phila-
delphia mint. The character and value-of the coin-
reg 1895 and 1896 is shown by the preceding
table.
UNIVERSALIST CHURCHES. The follow-
ing is a summary of the statistics of the Universal-
ist Churches of the United States for 1896: Num-
ber of parishes, 1,006; of families, 45,405; of mem-
bers, 40,441 ; of members of Sunday schools, 59,370;
value of parish property above indebtedness, $9,260,-
921; amount raised for parish expenses, $1,369,202 ;
for church edifices, $357,257; amount of debts can-
celed, $96.966 ; of parish contributions to missions,
$69,300. These numbers show gain in every item,
the increase in the year’s number of members hay-
ing been 1,641. The invested funds of the General
Convention amount to $271,014. and those of the
various State conventions for women’s societies and
other auxiliary societies to $443,702, making a total
of $714,716. The missionary enterprises, besides
those of the several State conventions, include the
Pacific Coast Home Mission, maintained by the
Woman’s Centenary Association; the mission in
the South, with headquarters at Atlanta, Ga.; a
southwestern mission with offices at St. Louis, Mo.;
a mission among the colored people in Virginia;
and a mission in Japan. Two new missionaries
were sent during the year to Japan.
The Young People’s Christian Union of this
Church held its seventh annual national conven-
tion in Jersey City, N. J.,July 8 to15. Nearly half
of the churches in the denomination have unions,
which were represented in the convention by dele-
gates from 20 States. A gain of more than 30 per
cent. in membership was reported. The mission
work assumed several years previously had become
self-supporting. Propositions were submitted for
revision of financial and missionary methods, the
purpose of which was to bring them into closer
affiliation with those of the General Convention.
URUGUAY, a republic in South America. The
Senate is composed of 19 members, representing the
19 departments, elected indirectly for two years.
The Chamber of Deputies has 69 members (1 to
every 3,000 inhabitants), elected by direct suffrage
for three years. The presidential term is four years..
The President for the term ending March 1, 1898,
is J. Idiarte Borda. The Ministers in 1896 were:
War and Marine, Gen. J. J. Diaz; Interior and
Justice, Miguel Herrera y Obes; Agriculture, In-.
dustry, Instruction, and Public Works, J.J. Castro;
Finance, Federigo Vidiella; Foreign Affairs and
Worship, Dr. J. Estrazulas.
Area and Population.—The republic hasan es-
timated area of 72,110 square miles, and a popula-
tion estimated in 1895 at 830.980. Of this num-
ber nearly a third are of foreign birth, consisting
of Spaniards, Italians, Brazilians, Argentinians,
French, and, ip smaller numbers, English, Germans,
and others. Montevideo, the capital, has a popula-
tion of 175,000. The number of marriages in 1895
_ was 4,154; of births, 31,158: of deaths. 12,874: ex-
cess of births, 18,284. The immigration was 9,158.
Finances.—The expenditures for the year ending
June 30, 1896, were 13,647.924 pesos, of which 505,-
490 pesos were for legislation, 62,042 pesos for the
presidency, 117,407 pesos for foreign affairs and
worship, 2,213,694 pesos for the interior, 832,026
pesos for finance, 953,346 pesos for public works,
1,730,507 pesos for war and marine, 5,721,735 pesos
for the public debt, and 1,511,674 pesos for other
2
URUGUAY. 195
expenses. The revenue for the year ending June
30, 1897, was estimated in the budget at 15,581,299
pesos, and-the expenditure at 14,634,785 pesos. The
consolidated debt amounted on June 30, 1896, to
101,476,102 pesos; international debt, 4,693,425 pe-
sos; unified internal debt, 6,877,950 pesos; guaran-
tee debt, 3.830.208 pesos; liquidation debt, 1,507,570
pesos ; railroad debt, 94,478 pesos; total public debt,
118,479,733 pesos.
The Army and Navy.—The permanent military
force consists of 4 battalions of rifles, 4 regiments
of cavalry, and 1 regiment of artillery, having a
total strength of 283 officers and 3,222°men. The
police number 3,200, and the national guard about
20,000 men. The regular troops are armed with
Remington rifles and carbines, and have 67 cannon
and mitrailleuses.
The fleet consists of 3 gunboats and an armed
steamer, and is manned by 22 officers and 162 sailors,
Commerce and Navigation.—The special com-
merce for the financial year 1894 amounted to 23,-
800,000 pesos for imports and 33,500,000 pesos for
exports. The imports and exports for 1895 and
their distribution among different countries are
shown in the following table, giving values in pesos
(1 peso=$1.05) :
COUNTRIES. Imports, Exports.
PURMIME Soca occ cost wie wae ca cen oo 7,890,000 4,950,000
VEL OE aes 58, Rea ee pg ea ge 2,382,000 5.830.000
SGURININ s 5a ora sce cs bes owes caen 1.366,000 4,363 000
OTN GNNG cece 2 oq <= 2am nena eden 2,968,000 1,670,000
SHS Lee eh ee a Pe aR TN 2,031,000 298.000
PEMA isn Gece ace acs bige'tiewen corey as 2,179,000 695.000
PAPUHGON sean fos oa cise weeds sts sen 15, 116,000
RPDER sed occ eon ot oak aaeo ee 2,218,000 6,882,000
PRIIREE CREO OR ete cca seme ass .760,000 3.058.000
Pot eget Rennie 505.544 032 2e5c 2,240,000 4.076.000
Cane522- <: Ps re eee eee 214,000 203.000
PR UB a hale era os cece vane ees eek SLOT 6 igece
CBSE COUDUEIGS. coce nc ieee ce ose cece 4,000 119,000
PIG e es ae oan ies ase Paces aoe bs 2 25,386,000 32,544,000
The values of the principal exports in 1895 were:
Wool, 10,252,000 pesos; hides, skins, and leather,
7,300,000 pesos; meat, 4,923,000 pesos: cereals,
3,510,000 pesos; extract of meat, 2,029,000 pesos;
tallow, 1,844,000 pesos: live animals, 1,004,000
SOS.
The number of sailing vessels in the ocean trade
entered at Montevideo in 1895 was 351, of 218,448
tons, and of steamers, 927, of 1,640,141 tons: the
number of sailing vessels cleared was 196, of 119,-
763 tons, and of steamers, 753, of 1,388,101 tons.
In the coasting trade, 1,652 sailing vessels, of 59,-
544 tons, were entered, and 1,683, of 56,782 tons, were
cleared, and 824 steamers, of 474,122 tons, were en-
tered, and 828, of 471,209 tons, cleared. The mer-
eantile navy in 1895 consisted of 19 steam vessels,
of 4,608 tons, and 45 sailing vessels, of 17,779 tons.
Communications.—The railroads in operation
in 1894 had a length of 995 miles,and 190 miles
were building.
The telegraphs on Jan. 1, 1895, had a total length
of 3,904 miles, of which the railroads owned 974
miles. The number of dispatches in 1894 was
283,150.
The postal traffic in 1894 was 7,368,791 internal
and 6,880,495 foreign letters, newspapers, ete. The
receipts were 1,231,490, and expenses 1,506,610
francs.
Legislation.—The Chamber in May approved
bills for extending railroads and one for establish-
ing a Government bank, the old bank having col-
lapsed in the crisis of 1890. For the new bank Lon-
don capitalists interested in railroad concessions
promised to loan the required capital on condition
that compensation be paid for certain railroad con-
tracts. Theold national bank cost the Government
796
$32,000,000. A new gold loan of £1,667,000, bear-
ing 5 per cent. interest, was placed in London at
714. It was made a first charge on 53 per cent. of
the customs receipts, of which 45 per cent. were al-
ready pledged to pay the interest and sinking fund
of the consolidated debt. The proceeds of this loan
were employed to found the new Banco de la Re-
publica. The bank has a monopoly of the emission
of paper currency and of judicial deposits. It will
loan money on rural credit and also on personal
property as a mont de piété. The government de-
nounced on Aug. 1 the commercial treaty with
Germany, concluded for three years in 1892 and
afterward continued from year to year. In Sep-
tember public feeling among the Liberals and the
foreign element was aroused, and meetings were
called to protest against the establishment of
another archbishopric and two new dioceses.
Revolutionary Uprising.—A plot to overthrow
the government was concocted by influential men
in Uruguay in conjunction with friends in the
Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul. Munitions
of war were collected and stored away during two
or three years. It was intended to invade Uruguay
from three points on the Brazilian frontier and at-
tack the capital on Nov. 29. The Brazilian Gen.
Gumercindo Saraiva, one of the leaders, encountered
a government force under Gen. Muniz, and hence
the plan was changed. Being forewarned, the
. government seized a large quantity of arms and
ammunition in Montevideo and arrested many of
the leading revolutionists on Nov. 27. Gen. Muniz,
who pursued Saraiva and overtook him near the
Brazilian line at Cerro Largo, was defeated and
taken prisoner in the battle that followed. Other
bodies of rebels were turned back by the govern-
ment troops, but at Durazno and Aparicio the revo-
lutionists gained numerous and important adher-
ents.
UTAH, a Western State, admitted to the Union
Jan. 4, 1896; area, 84,970 square miles. The popu-
lation, according to the census of 1890, was 207,905 ;
the estimated population in 1895 was 247,324. Capi-
tal, Salt Lake City. ’
Government.—tThe first State officers were the
following: Governor, Heber M. Wells; Secretary
of State, James T,. Hammond; Treasurer, James
Chipman; Auditor, Morgan Richards, Jr.; Attor-
ney-General, A.C. Bishop ; Superintendent of Pub-
lic Instruction, John R. Park—all Republicans ;
Adjutant General, John Q. Cannon; Coal Mine In-
spector, Thomas Lloyd; Fish and Game Warden,
John Sharp; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
C. S. Zane; Associate Justices, George W. Bartch
and J. A. Miner—all Republicans; United States
District Judge, John A. Marshall; United States
District Attorney, John W. Judd; United States
Marshal, N. M. Brigham.
Inauguration of the State Government.—The
new Constitution having been submitted, examined,
and found to comply with the conditions of the en-
abling act, the proclamation admitting Utah as the
forty-fifth State of the Union was signed by the
President on Jan. 4. Monday, Jan. 6, the day on
which the Territorial government terminated and
the State government was inaugurated, was ob-
served as a day of general rejoicing. The formal
exercises at the capital were preceded by a great
street parade of militia, soldiers of the United
States. fire and police departments, State and city
officials, secret| orders, fraternal societies, local or-
ganizations of various kinds, and other citizens, and
was followed in the evening by an inaugural ball.
The inauguration was held at the Tabernacle.
After the proclamation of Statehood had been read,
Mr. Rawlins gave to the Governor, to be preserved
among the public archives, the pen used by the
UTAH,
President in signing the bill under which Utah be-
came a State. The Governor, after taking the oath
of office, issued a proclamation convening the Legis-
lature in special session at 2 o’clock the same day,
for the purpose of fixing a time for the opening of
the first regular session. In his inaugural address
he reviewed the history of Utah, beginning with the
organization of the temporary State of Deseret in
1849, eighteen months after the arrival of the pio-
neers. This was designed to provide for the inter-
val before action was taken by Congress, and wus
followed by the establishment of the Territory, Sept.
9, 1850, by the organic act, under which the govern-
ment was administered up to the present year. At-
tempts to secure Stateliood were made in 1856, 1861,
1867, 1872, 1882, and 1887, when constitutions were
framed and memorials sent to Congress asking for
admission, but without result. The name Deseret
was given to the proposed State each time until
1882, when that of Utah was adopted.
Finances.—The report of the auditor for 1896
shows that the year’s receipts from all sources were
$997,537.45. The amount turned over by the Ter- —
ritory was $23,935.46, making a total of $1,021,-
472.91. The disbursements for the year amounted
to $600,522.53, of which $576,054.83 was toward re-
deeming warrants, $22,000 to the Agricultural Col-
lege, the amount received from the General Govern-
ment, and $2,467.70 on court certificates, making a
balance in the treasury at the close of the year of
$420,950.38. The floating indebtedness represented
in outstanding warrants was reduced nearly half.
On Dee. 81, 1895, it amounted to $201,434.70; at the.
close of 1896 there were only $102,829.25 in war-
rants outstanding. The auditor’s statement of re-
sources and liabilities shows an excess of resources
available on Dee. 31, 1896, of $142,895.63.
The total value of property assessed for taxes in
the State is $107,292,083. The tax levy forthe year
was fixed at 8 mills on the dollar. The valuation
of property of railway and street-car companies is
$15,336,775.
The Legislature at its last session provided for
the collection of a fee of 25 cents per $1,000 on the
capital stock of each corporation incorporated after
the passage of the law, and the same fee for each
company filing with the Secretary of State amended
articles increasing its capital stock. These fees
yielded $6,888.90 in nine months. Another law au-
thorized the collection of a tax on the gross annual
premiums of foreign insurance companies doing
business in the State. This tax yielded $8,645.25.
The sale of $200,000 of State bonds, drawing 4
per cent. per annum interest, and running twenty
years, was made by the State Board of Loan Com-
missioners June 1, at a premium of $3,212.50.
Congress appropriated $42,356 for carrying out
the provisions of the enabling act.
Education.—The State University had 539 stu-
ene enrolled in 1895-96, and graduated 44 in
une.
In January articles of incorporation were filed for
Sheldon Jackson College, a Presbyterian institution
to be established at Salt Lake City. A beautiful
site of 80 acres just outside the city has been given
for the buildings.
By act of the Legislature the schoo] for the deaf
and dumb, theretofore conducted in connection
with the University at Salt Lake City, was estab-
lished as an independent school on the campus of
the old reform school at Ogden, with the added
functions of educating the blind. There are 10 pu-
pils in the department for the blind and about 60
in that for the deaf. The estimate per capita is
$250 for deaf-mutes and $300 for the blind.
The Industrial School.—The institution for-
merly known as the Reform School was, by act of
UTAH,
the Legislature, ordered to be removed from its orig-
inal location, and its name was changed to State
Industrial School. This was done to make room for
the School for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind, for
which the elaborate buildings were better adapted,
and authority was given the trustees of the Indus-
trial School to procure another location in Ogden
City. The buildings and grounds known as Ogden
Military Academy, consisting of 10 acres and a brick
building, were accordingly purchased.
The State Prison.—The amount appropriated
for the support of the prison, $30,000, is $10,000
less than its cost in 1895; but a balance of $2,650
remained in the treasury at the close of the year.
Industries.—Of these, the Governor says in his
message: *‘ Although few of the silver mines and
ts have been able to survive the battle waged
against the white metal by the allied money powers
of two worlds, the yield of the old and well-equipped
silver mines of the State has materially increased,
and gold mining, which meantime has taken on new
life, has nearly doubled its product. The crops have
never been more prolific. and prices, though still
ruinous because of the demonetization of silver,
ranged toward the end of the year slightly higher,
se ogee | many of the farmers to market their prod-
ucts. The yield of the sugar factory was the great-
est in its history, being above 9,000,000 pounds,
The Rio Grande Western Railway has extended its
line 40 miles farther to the south. Two of our great
mountain streams have been harnessed during the
year, and the electrical power generated by these
enormous and costly plants is available at minimum
cost. The silk industry, to which Utah is so well
adapted, under the encouragement of asmall bounty
provided by the last Legislature, began to breathe
during the year, and, if the present policy is con-
tinued, there is no doubt that the 1,000 pounds of
cocoons produced last year will soon be followed by
the manufacture of raw silk.
“The mineral production for the year was esti-
mated at $15,897,266.”
Shipments were given as follows: Silver-lead ores,
115,170,760 ; silver-lead bullion, 43,395,733 ; copper
matte, 3,690,048 ; copper bullion, 717,228; copper
ore, 199,400; copper buttons, 35,335; carbonates,
27,676 ; total, 163,236,180.
Semicentennial Celebration.— The Legisla-
ture provided fora commission of 10 persons to con-
duct a semicentennial celebration, in 1897, of the
fiftieth anniversary of the arrival of the Utah pio-
neers, and appropriated $5,000. The commission
has resolved to hold a celebration in July of 1897,
lasting five days, to cost not less than $50,000.
Militia.—The organized forces of the State are
made up of 16 companies of infantry, 2 troops of
cavalry, 2 light batteries, and a signal corps—in all,
93 officers and 837 enlisted men.
Legislative Session.—The Legislature convened
Jan. 6 and adjourned April 8 (5 by legislative fic-
tion). The Senate stood—Republicans, 12; Demo-
crats, 6; the House—Republicans, 33 ; Democrats,
12. Charges of fraud having been made in regard
to the election in Utah County, a committee wasa
pointed to investigate. The majority report was In
favor of seating 1 of the 3 contestants, Republi-
cans; but the minority report was adopted and the
3 Democrats retained their seats. Presley Denny
was Speaker of the House, and George M. Cannon
Presideut of the Senate.
The election of 2 United States Senators took
place Jan. 22. The names of Frank J. Cannon,
Arthur Brown, C. W. Bennett, and C. C. Goodwin
were before the Republican caucus; the first 2 were
made the candidates. Moses Thatcher and Joseph
L. Rawlins were the Democratic candidates. In
the Senate Cannon and Brown received each 12
797
votes, and Thatcher and Rawlins each 5. In the
House the vote stood: Cannon, 31; Brown, 29;
Rawlins, 14; Thatcher, 14; Bennett, 1; Goodwin,
1. The new Senators took their seats Jan. 27, Mr.
Cannon drawing the term ending in 1899, and Mr.
Brown that ending in 1897.
Measures to the number of 125 were passed, many
of them defining the duties of State dhsets and de-
epfeceg others the methods of court procedure.
Zany laws in the interest of labor were passed,
among them acts prohibiting blacklisting, child
labor, and payment of wages in saloons; an eight-
hour law; one providing for payment of attorney’s
fees when a mechanic or laborer sues for wages ;
and one defining who are and who are not fellow-
servants. A State board of labor was provided for,
and a State mine inspector, whose duty it shall be
to inspect all mines at least once a year, and make
reports in regard to their working, timbering, ma-
chinery, and ventilation ; and investigate accidents.
A board of horticulture was created, to consist of
6 members. Its principal duty.will be the super-
vision of all imported and exported trees, fruits, and
plants, in order that all in any way infected may be
destroyed, and so prevent the spread of disease and
aid in producing better fruit.
The trustees of the Agricultural College are au-
thorized and required to hold institutes for the in-
struction of citizens of the State in the various
branches of agriculture. Such institutes are to be
held annually at least once in each county, and they
may employ an agent or agents to perform such
work in connection with the faculty of the college
as they deem best.
An act for the establishment of sericulture pro-
vides that “for the term of ten years after the pas-
sage of this act there shall be paid out of the State
treasury to any corporation, firm, or person en-
gaged in the production of cocoons of the silk-
worm, a bounty of 25 cents for each pound of
cocoon produced in the State. No bounty shall be
paid for cocoons not produced by worms fed en-
tirely upon the leaves of the mulberry tree, nor
shall more than $2,000 be paid for bounties under
the provisions of this act in any one year. The
Governor shall appoint the Utah Silk Commission,
to consist of 5 persons, to serve without compensa-
tion. It shall the duty of said commission to
examine all cocoons for which bounty is claimed,
and certify to the Secretary of State the quantity,
grade, and quality upon which bounty shall be paid,
and the name of the party entitled thereto. It shall
also be the duty of said commission to publish in
book or pamphlet form explicit instructions in all
the practical branches of sericulture, for free dis-
tribution to the people of the State; also to provide
instruction in reeling in each county raising 100
pounds of cocoons; to provide reliable eggs, and in
every way encourage those engaging in this indus-
try; and provide the best possible market for
reeled.silk and cocoons until it can be consumed by
manufacturers in our own State.”
Bounties were provided for the cultivation of
canaigre root, and it was made mandatory on coun-
ties to offer bounties for the killing of wild animals
on petition of 100 citizens.
A registration bill was passed, and the Australian
ballot Jaw was adopted.
Provision was made for a uniform system of
public schools, and for the instruction of the deaf
and dumb and the blind.
Women were made ineligible to serve as jurors.
A bill was passed to provide deserted wives with
maintenance and property from their husbands’
estates. Women employed as teachers in public
schools are to receive “the same compensation as
men for the same class of work.
798
In returning with his approval “ An act relative
to the heritable rights of the issue of polygamous
marriages,” the Governor sent the following mes-
sage:
eT understand that the purpose of this act is to
re-enact and make clear the laws already in opera-
tion, and that it entitles the issue of polygamous
marriages, born previous to March 3, 1888, to in-
herit or to be entitled to any distributive share in
the estate of the father of such issue. I believe
that this legislation is proper and right, and it ap-
pears to me, in view of the fact that conditions
which called forth congressional legislation on this
subject are settled, and that the past has been con-
doned, that it would be in the interest of public
policy and for the welfare of the State to remove
whatever ban may exist against the issue of polyga-
mous marriages, up to one year succeeding the
date of the amnesty proclamation of the President,
or (what would be better, in my judgment) up to
the date of the admission of the State. I am con-
vinced that such legislation would not only be in
the interest of the State, but the children them-
selves affected thereby would be better citizens in
the knowledge that they are entitled to all the legal
rights and privileges of their fellows. Legislators
will not forget that while the manifesto was final
with the great majority of the people, it signaled
the immediate surrender of what had for a lifetime
been held as a vital religious sacrament, and some
hearts can not change in a day.”
Accordingly, another act was passed, legitimizing
the children of polygamous marriages to Jan. 4,
1896.
The statute controlling the incorporation of cities
was so amended that the great mining camp of
Mercur can be incorporated. A board of Land
Commissioners will have charge of the State lands,
The Governor vetoed a bill providing for court
stenographers and one concerning the penitentiary,
both of which were again passed.
An issue of State bonds to the amount of $200,-
000 was voted, in order to fund the outstanding in-
debtedness. The tax-levy bill fixed the amount to
be raised for general State purposes at not more than
$515,000, and for school purposes at not more than
$300,000. County commissioners may levy a 5-
mill tax for general county purposes and a 3-mill
tax for schools. A revenue bill was passed fixing
the date of assessment on the first day of March,
Mortgages are not taxed. Bankers are to make
statements of the aggregate amount of deposits on
hand, and this, being subject to check, will not be
taxable. Railroads, telegraph and telephone com-
panies, car companies, and railway depot companies
will have their property assessed by the State Board
of Equalization. Mines are assessed on their net
proceeds. The State board is to consist of 4 mem-
bers appointed by the Governor, and not more than
2 may belong to the same political party.
Salaries of State officers were fixed as follows:
Governor, $2,000; Secretary of State, $2,000: Au-
ditor, $1,500; Treasurer, $1,000; Attorney General,
$1,500; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
$1,500; Fish and Game Commissioner, $500; Jus-
tices of the Supreme Court, each, $3,000; Clerk of
the Supreme Court and ex-officio Librarian and
Statistician, $1,800; District Judges, each, $3,000 ;
Adjutant General, $500; 2 Land Commissioners,
each, $1,200; Coal Mine Inspector, $1,000. To
these are added allowances for clerical assistance,
traveling expenses, etc. For necessary expenses
the Land Commissioners may use $28,000 in 1896,
and the Governor is allowed $10,000 for procuring
surveys.
The appropriations for State institutions were as
follow: University, for 1896, $25,000; deficit fr
UTAH.
1894-95, $13,500; school for the deaf and dumb
and the blind, $10,750; industrial school, for 1896,
$6,000 ; deficit for 189495, $6,157; insane asylum,
for the care and maintenance of 235 patients for
the year 1896, at $3.50 a week, $42,770; for special
purposes at the asylum, $7,095; for the Agricul-
tural College, general maintenance, 1896, $10,000;
for deficit, $8,930, and for special purposes, $3,070;
for the prison, $24,000; library, for 1896, $3,000,
and for deficit, $3,014; for the militia, $3,000; for
the Board of Equalization, $2,000,
Counties were divided into four classes, according
to assessed valuation, and the salaries of officers of
the first three classes were fixed, those of the fourt
class being left to be determined by the boards of
county commissioners, though the maximum salary ~
was prescribed in eachcase. The sheriff, who receives
the largest salary among county officers, has $2,400
in counties of the first class (those showing a valua-
tion of $20,000,000 or over), $1,800 in counties of
i. second class, and $1,500 in those of the third
class.
The State University was made a body corporate,
and it is provided that its courses of study shall be
so arranged as to supplement the courses of the
public schools. It is to be under control of a board
of nine regents. One hundred free scholarships
may be maintained,
The act says further: “The Normal School shall
be continued for both sexes, and its course may ex-
tend to a period of four years, or until graduation,
and shall include practice in teaching and peda-
gogy. No partisan political, sectarian, or religious
doctrine shall be taught, and no political or re-
ligious test required.”
A libel law was made which provides that before
bringing suit against a newspaper the aggrieved party
shall serve notice on the publisher at least three
days in advance of serving the complaint, and if it
shall appear that the statements were made in good
faith and that a full and fair retraction was made
and printed as conspicuously as the libel, within three
days after the matter was brought to the notice of
the publisher, then the plaintiff in such case shall
recover only actual damages; provided, however,
that the provisions of the act shall not apply to the
case of any libel against any candidate for a political
office in the State unless the retraction’ of the
charge is made editorially in a conspicuous manner
at least three days before the election, in case
such libelous article was published in a daily
paper; if published in a weekly paper, at least ten
days before the election.
Among the other more important measures were:
An irrigation act.
For the codification of the laws.
Regulating insurance, and imposing a tax of 14
of 1 per cent. on the gross premium of each com-
pany collected from policyholders in the State, sub-
ject to some deductions, and requiring annual re-
ports to the Secretary of State.
A fish and game bill.
Providing for a State board of examiners.
For the release of one joint debtor without re-
leasing others.
Amending the law in regard to civil actions so
as to make a contractor liable at the place where
the contract is to be fulfilled.
Providing that mayors of cities may disapprove
of parts of an appropriation without vetoing all.
‘ Furnishing a design for a great seal for the
tate.
Providing the manner of establishing public
libraries,
For the prevention of disease among sheep.
To prevent sale of stock under fraudulent pedi-
grees, :
UTAH.
Regulating the sale of oleomargarine.
Providing for the management of herds.
To prevent pooling by corporations, combina-
tions, etc., for the purpose of keeping up the price
of commodities.
Prohibiting the sale of liquor to Indians.
A bill to abolish capital punishment was de-
feated. Memorials to Congress were adopted, one
asking for the annexation of parts of Coconino and
Mohave Counties in Arizona to Utah, one censur-
ing Ambassador Bayard and demanding his recall,
and others asking for silver and tariff legislation ;
another petitioned for the gift by the Government
to the State, for educational purposes, of the land
that was formerly occupied at Fort Cameron, Beaver
County. It is desired to establish a normal school
at that place.
The formon Church.—A resolution to restore
the real property of the Church was passed by Con-
gress in hatch, and the cases involved were sent to
the Supreme Court of the State for final disposal.
This property is valued at $285,000. The personal
property, which was also confiscated under the Ed-
munds act, and was valued at $450,000, had been
previously returned.
Great surprise and indignation were created by
the publication in April of a manifesto issued at
the general conference of the Church and signed
by leaders of the Church, including the first presi-
peat Dia of the apostles, and others. After say-
ing that the authorities of the Church were misrep-
resented and misunderstood during the election
contest of 1895 (see “ Annual Cyclopedia” for 1895,
page 739) and charged with using Church influence
in political matters, the document goes on to say
that the leading authorities never have attempted
or desired to have the Church in: any manner en-
croach upon the rights of the State, or to unite in
any degree the functions of the one with those of
the other. The part of the manifesto which has
been the subject of discussion is the following:
“ We unanimously agree to and promulgate asa
rule that should always be observed in the Church,
and by every leading official thereof, that before
tre any position, political or otherwise, which ©
wo
d interfere with the proper and complete dis-
charge of his ecclesiastical duties, and before accept-
ing a nomination or entering into engagements to
perform new duties, said official should apply to
the proper authorities and learn from them whether
he can, consistently with the obligations already
entered into with the Church, upon assuming his
office, take upon himself the added duties and
labors and responsibilities of the new position. To
maintain proper discipline and order in the Church,
we deem this absolutely necessary, and in asserting
this rule we do not consider that we are infringing
in the least degree upon the individual rights of a
citizen. We declare that in making these require-
ments of ourselves and our brethren in the minis-
try, we do not in the least desire to dictate to them
concerning their duties as American citizens, or to
interfere with the affairs of the State.”
The discipline and order of the Church were the
subject of an address by Joseph F. Smith, a mem-
ber of the first presidency, at Provo, shortly after
the general conference. “He said that the Church
authorities had the right to dictate both spiritually
and temporally. The two were inseparable. If a
man has a million dollars or a 160-acre farm, and
should be called on a mission, and by going would
lose all he possessed, it would be his duty to go on
the mission. President Smith dwelt at great length
on the discipline of the Church, and in closing told
the Saints that the manifesto lately read and
adopted at the general conference in Salt Lake
City would be read to them for their approval or
799
disapproval, as they saw proper to vote. “ But,”
the speaker said, “ all who vote against it have not-
got the spirit of the Gospel at heart.”
In connection with these declarations, the depos-
ing of Moses Thatcher from his position as one of
the apostles was regarded as significant.
Political.—The Republicans held a convention
at Salt Lake City, April 7, and adopted resolutions
in favor of free coinage of silver. The delegates
chosen to the national convention were not in-
structed for any candidate. The party was divided
after the national convention, and 2 conventicns
were held Sept. 24. The regular Republicans met
in Mount Pleasant, and the Independent (silver)
Republicans at Salt Lake City. The latter accepted
the candidates for presidential electors named the
same day by the Democratic convention at Provo,
and nominated Lafayette Holbrook for member of
Congress.
At the Mount Pleasant convention the follow-
ing resolution was adopted :
“We indorse the platform of the Republican
convention held at St. Louis, and make it a part of
this platform, with the exception of the financial
qucstion. We renew the promises which have been
made in former platforms of the Republican party
of Utah. We believe in bimetallism, and thereby
we mean the use of both gold and silver as standard
money and free and unlimited coinage of both
metals at the ratio of 16 to 1.
Candidates for presidential electors were named
at this convention, but the candidate of the Inde-
pendent Republicans for member of Congress, La-
fayette Holbrook, was nominated at another con-
vention held in Ogden the 26th.
Two Democratic conventions were held; at the
first, held June 6, in Salt Lake City, six delegates
were chosen to the national convention. Of the
alternates named, three were women. Delegates
were instructed to vote in favor of a free-coinage
platform and candidates pledged to that principle.
At Provo, Sept. 24, W. H. King was named for
member of Congress.
Warren Foster was the candidate of the People’s
party for member of Congress.
The legality of the election, Nov. 3, was disputed
on account of alleged irregularity in the passing ef
the election law. A rule of the House provides that
no bill or joint resolution shall be amended after
its third reading, and the records showed that the
House accepted amendments proposed by the Senate,
and after that the bill was then sent back to the
Senate and regularly engrossed and signed by the
presiding officer. It was also alleged that the bal-
lot had not been secret as required by law. But
the Supreme Court held that the points of the con-
testants were not well taken, and the election was
declared valid. The grounds for the decision were
that the election bills were signed by the presidents
of both houses, and the Governor was the best judge
as to whether they had been properly enacted ; that
the ballot system was secret, the method providing
for tracing ballots being only applicable to frandu-
lent ballots, and that the use of party emblems on
the ballots was proper.
The result of the election was an overwhelming
victory for the Democratic party. The presidential
vote (unofficial) was 64,851 for Bryan and 13,461
for McKinley. Of the 3 electors, 1 was for Watson
for Vice-President and 2 were for Sewall. For
member of Congress, W. H. King received 47,217,
Lafayette Holbrook 27,503, and Warren Foster
2,202. The State Senate is entirely Democratic,
including 2 Populists elected on a fusion ticket.
In the House the Republicans have 3 members out
of 45. One woman was elected to the Senate and 1
to the House.
800
VENEZUELA,
Vv
VENEZUELA, a federal republic in South Amer-
ica. The Senate consists of 83 members from each
State, 27 in all, elected for four years. The House
of Representatives has 63 members, 1 to 35,000 of
population, elected also for four years by the di-
rect suffrage of the male citizens of the age of
twenty-one years and upward. The President and
the Council of Government are elected for four
years. The President for the term ending March
5, 1898, is Gen. Joaquin Crespo. The Council of
Government consists of Manuel Guzman Alvarez,
President; Dr. F. Acevedo, Vice-President; and
Dr. H. Rivero, Gen. Custodio Milano, Luis Zagar-
zazu, José G. Riera, Tomas José Guillén, and Man-
uel M. Gallegos, members. The President’s Cabi-
-net at the beginning of 1896 was composed as
follows; Interior, Dr. J. F. Castillo; Foreign Af-
fairs, Dr. Ezequiel Rojas; War and Marine, Gen.
Ramon Guerra; Public Instruction, Dr. Federigo
R. Chirinos; Fomento; Dr. Manuel A. Diez, ad in-
terim ; Public Works, H. Pérez, ad interim.
Area and Population.—The area of Venezuela
is estimated at 593,943 square miles, including a
large area claimed by Great Britain. The ula-
tion according to the census of 1891 was 2,523,527,
consisting of 1,137,139 males and 1,186,388 females.
The number of foreigners was 42,898. There were
6,705 marriages in 1889, and the number of births
was 76,187 and of deaths 55,218. The number of
immigrants in 1890 was 1,555.
Finances.—The budget of 1896-97 makes the
total revenue 40,300,000 bolivars (1 bolivar = 193
cents), of which import duties give 27,000,000, other
customs duties 162,000, taxes 7,300,000, and state
property 6,000,000 bolivars. The expenditures are
9,721,179 bolivars for the Interior, 1,950,570 for
Foreign Affairs, 1,994,970 for Fomento, 3,068,221
for Public Instruction, 2,668,424 for Public Works,
15,558,130 for Finance, and 5,838,506 for War and
Marine; total, 40,300,000 bolivars.
The public debt in 1896 consisted of 15,794,305
bolivars of consolidated debt paying 5 per cent. in-
terest ; 1,119,291 bolivars of 6-per-cent. internal
bonds issued in 1894; the internal consolidated
debt of April 14, 1896, amounting to 42,277,205 boli-
vars, paying 6 per cent. ; 3,663,490 bolivars of war-
rants, paying 1 per cent. a month; the Spanish,
French, and German 3-per-cent. debt, amounting
to 4,266,388 bolivars ; and 10,792,190 bolivars raised
to construct the Caracas aqueduct; total, 141,744,-
528 bolivars.
Commerce.—The trade of Venezuela is mainly
earried on with Great Britain, the West Indies, the
United States, Germany, France, and Colombia.
The exports in 1894 amounted to 107,655,694 boli-
vars. The principal articles of export were: Coffee,
84,769,000 bolivars ; cacao, 9,651,000 bolivars; gold,
2,884,000 bolivars; hides, 2,849,000 bolivars; ani-
mals, 1,142,000 bolivars.- Rubber, timber, cocoa-
nuts, cinchona bark, copaiba, and tonca beans are
also exported.
During 1894 there were 1,480 steamers and 7,620
sailing ships entered and cleared.
Communications.—The railroads have a total
length of 394 miles. The length of the state tele-
graph lines is 3,882 miles.
Defenses.—The army as reorganized under the
law of July 30, 1895, consists of 11 battalions, each
formed of 6 companies of 60 men each. Every
able-bodied citizen between eighteen and forty-five
years of age is enrolled in the militia, which num-
bers about 250,000 men.
The fleet consists of 3 steamers, to each of which
is attached a company of marines.
The Boundary Commission.—The commission
appointed by President Cleveland to report upon
the true divisional line between British Guiana and
Venezuela for the information of the President and
Congress was organized under the presidency of
Justice David J. Brewer early in January, 1896.
President Cleveland had declared that “when such
report is made and accepted it will, in my opinion,
be the duty of the United States to resist by every
means in its power, as a willful aggression upon its
rights and interests, the appropriation by Great
Britain of any lands or the exercise of governmental
jurisdiction over any territory which, after investi-
gation, we have determined of right belongs to Vene-
zuela.” The Secretary of State at the request of the
commission called the attention of the governments
of Great Britain and Venezuela to its ‘appointinent,
and explained its object, which was to inform the
Executive upon certain facts touching a large ex-
tent of territory in which the United States have an
indirect interest, not one of territorial aggrandize-
ment or material gain in any form, their sole con-
cern being the peaceful solution of a controversy
between two friendly powers for a just and honor-
able settlement of the title to the disputed territory
and the protection of the United States against any ©
fresh acquisition in our hemisphere on the part of
any European state. The note suggested to each
Government that it might see a way consistent with
its sense of international propriety to give the com-
mission the aid it could furnish in the way of docu-
mentary proof, historical narrative, unpublished ar-
chives, or the like. An act of either Government in
this direction might, it was added, be accompanied
by an express reservation as to its claims, and should
not be deemed to be an abandonment or impair-
ment of any position heretofore expressed, and by
designating an agent or attorney whose duty it
would be to see that no proofs were omitted or over-
looked, it would, by acting the part of amicus curiae,
throw light upon difficult and complex questions of
fact. The British as well as the Venezuelan Gov-
ernment welcomed the friendly co-operation of the
United States, and both engaged jurists to pre-
pare their cases, the British case being ostensibly
prepared as a parliamentary document. The Gov-
ernment assurance of title on which the holders of
land and mining claims in the contested regions
did not antedate March 19, 1889, when Viscount
Gormanston, then Governor, declared that, so far
as the territory included in the line known as
Schomburgk’s was concerned, no doubt need exist.
Two years before the Secretary for the Colonies had
instructed Lieut.-Gov. Bruce to caution all persons
interested in mining licenses that they were issued
and must be accepted subject to the possibility that
in the event of a settlement they might become
part of Venezuelan territory, in which case no claim
for compensation could be recognized. When the
gold discoveries were made the zealous British Gov-
ernor, according to the report of a Venezuelan
commission appointed to make an investigation on
the spot, used the influence of the colonial Govern-
ment to promote emigration to the gold fields, while
the Venezuelan settlers there were attracted to the
coast settlements of the colony, and the Indians
ms
—
VENEZUELA, 801
were treated so generously that they offered no op-
ition to the mining operations. The success of
these efforts was reflected in the returns of the gold
exports, which rose from 939 ounces in 1885 to
6,518 ounces in 1886, 11,906 ounces in 1887, 14,510
ounces in 1888, and 14,624 ounces in the first half
of 1889.
In 1895 Mr. Chamberlain contemplated the grant-
ing of all the northwest district, extending from the
Cuyuni river to the western boundary of the colony,
to a chartered company, with absolute right to the
minerals dnd precious stones, timber, railroad, and
township rights, as well as leave to sell the conces-
sions to public companies. After the appointment
of the Boundary Commission the Government of
British Guiana ceased granting mining licenses,
and the companies already organized for quartz
mining suspended operations.
The Boundary Commission sent Prof. George L.
Burr to Holland to examine Dutch records bearing
upon the boundary dispute. The archives of the
atican were likewise explored, and certified copies
of Spanish and Venezuelan documents relating to
the subject were obtained.
The Venezuelan case was presented to the United
States Commission by James S. Storrow, counsel for
Venezuela, and approved by William L. Scruggs,
legal adviser of the Venezuelan Government and
special counsel before the Boundary Commission.
Tt was pointed out that the proposal made in 1890
by Venezuela for arbitration did not involve the
surrender of a province, inhabited by 40,000 British
subjects, which had been in the uninterrupted pos-
session of Holland and of Great Britain successively
for two centuries, which was the objection that
Lord Salisbury had raised in 1880 in reference to
the claim of Venezuela that the Essequibo river was
the boundary, because Venezuela, in asking for
arbitration, offered to recognize in Great Britain
a right to its settlements on both banks of the
Essequibo, reserving for itself the banks of the
Orinoco, which the treaty of Aranjuez had recog-
nized as Spanish, and every English ministry, ex-
cept Lord Salisbury’s, had offered so to recognize.
The proposal was to arbitrate the rest, consisting of
territory where England even then had no settle-
ments; but the offer was refused. The settlement
of the Dutch and the English had never extended
beyond the rich alluvial land of the seacoast and
the river estuaries. Assuming, for the sake of argu-
ment, that England might have a right by occupa-
tion wherever its people had their settled homes
but for a single generation, the contention of the
Venezuelan brief was that there was no title by
occupation to 40,000 square miles in which neither
the Dutch nor the English ever had a settlement.
The Spanish discovered Guiana in 1500, and soon
established themselves so strongly that no other
power was ever able to penetrate inland beyond the
reach of its ship’s guns, not even the formidable
Raleigh expeditions of 1595 and 1616. The earliest
Dutch attempt at settlement occurred not before
1621, previous to which ships only touched for
trade near the mouth of the Essequibo, where the
Spaniards already had a fort. Neither the Dutch
nor the English later attempted to have any settle-
ment in the basin of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni
above their lower cataracts, nor on the Essequibo
above its lowest cataracts, nor in the coast region
west of the Pomeroon, but confined their occupa-
tion to the fertile alluvial tide-water districts. The
temporary Dutch post alleged to have existed in
the Cuyuni basin and the more doubtful one at
Barima Point were at most mere shops for friendly
trade with the older settlements of the Spaniards.
When two posts established in the same regions be-
tween 1755 and 1770, temporary huts chiefly, if not
VOL. XXXvI.—O1 A
entirely, for slave raids on the Spanish Indians, the
Spaniards sent expeditions against each as soon as
it was discovered and destroyed both, carrying
away the occupants of one as prisoners, while the
occupants of the other escaped. The Spaniards
asserted their right to do this on the ground of ter-
ritorial sovereignty. The States General complained
to the King of Spain, but they got no redress and
never afterward renewed their claim. It is upon
these acts of attempted occupation, if they can be
dignified by that name, that the English have based
their claim to the gold regions of the southern part
of the Cuyuni basin and of the Barama and Barima
rivers, and the still more monstrous claim to hold
the mouth of the Orinoco, whose entire basin has
always been held by Spain and its successors. The
actual settlements of the Dutch and the Spaniards
were separated by 150 miles of forest, in which no
white man lived. The whole of the basin of the
Cuyuni and Mazaruni is claimed as Venezuelan
territory on the principle that first occupation of a
part is in law an entry upon and possession of the
whole, which the entry of a second claimant can
not displace beyond the actual occupation of that
second. The British claim is therefore limited to
their settled districts and can not reach the ultra-
settlement region. After the first discovery of the
northeastern coast of South America by the Span-
ish, their explorers coasted the whole of Guiana and
sailed up the Orinoco, and in consequence of their
stories of gold more than a score of Spanish expe-
ditions penetrated Guiana in search of it.
The Spaniards settled on the lower Orinoco at
San Thomé because it was the entrance to the in-
terior, and by holding it they kept all other comers
out. Freebooters of other nations attacked the
Spanish settlements with the design of effecting a
lodgment and gaining access to the gold region,
but Spain possessed the land so strongly as to hold
it against them all. The Spaniards reached toward
the interior not merely with their expeditions, but
with their civil settlements and their extensive mis-
sion villages. This was done so thoroughly, and by
Spaniards alone, that these vast regions are to-day
rvaded with the Spanish language, names, re-
igion, and habits, having received no European
civilization from any nation except from Spain.
The Dutch who settled on the estuary of the Esse-
quibo were barely strong enough to live. Their
colony consisted in 1735 of only 150 whites and
3,000 negroes, and all their cultivation and use of
the soil and all their houses west of the Essequibo
were within 3 miles of the coast, not reaching
to the Pomeroon river, and 5 or 10 miles up the
banks of the Essequibo, the Cuynni, and the Maza-
runi, above their confluence, but below their lowest
cataracts and on tide water. The English extended
substantially no farther. They now assert a right
150 miles beyond any actual Dutch occupation.
The main basin of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni isa
true interior basin, shaped like a tray with a rim,
and tipped so as to throw all its waters to the east-
ern corner, where they escape through what is virtu-
ally a single breach in its rim, and pour as one
stream into the Essequibo estuary by a series of
rapids and cataracts, with a drop of 200 feet in 40
miles. The difficulty of penetrating this basin is
such that a single blockhouse placed in the gorge
was sufficient to protect the settlements against in-
cursions from the interior and to prevent the escape
of runaway slaves from the plantations. The moun-
tainous ridge forming the rim of the basin consti-
tuted for two hundred and fifty years an absolute
barrier to the spread of the Dutch and English
settlements and forms a natural boundary, such as
is recognized in international law. The natural
entrance to the basin has always been from the
802
ancient Spanish settlements on the Orinoco, over
the easy slopes of that part of the water-parting,
and into the northern part of the Cuyuni basin.
The Spanish, now the Venezuelan, settlements cover
a large part of this basin, and the Spaniards also
exercised dominion over the unsettled part by ex-
cluding other nations from it. When the demand
sprang up in the Dutch settlements for red slaves,
or Indians, poytos, as they were called (Carib slave-
raiders), directed by Dutchmen, captured Indians
on Spanish territory, preferably the domesticated
Indians of the mission.
From the time of the early use of Indian slaves
in the eighteenth century it was forbidden to cap-
ture slaves in the river Essequibo and its districts,
because the Dutch authorities wished to avoid re-
taliatory attacks from Indians and to diminish the
risk of runaways; but the planters were allowed to
buy slaves from the Caribs of the lower Orinoco,
The Spaniards in 1758 discovered that the slave-
raiders had formed an establishment on an island
in the Cuyuni river, whereupon the Spanish com-
mander sent a strong force which swept down the
principal affluent and then the main river, found
only one post, destroyed it, and made prisoners of
its occupants, refusing to release them at the de-
mand of the Dutch Governor. The Barima region
was between 1760 and 1770 the scene of similar in-
cidents. There were no Dutch settlements beyond
the Maruca, where a small armed outpost was main-
tained, but Dutch slave traders stayed with the Car-
ibs in the delta district, and Dutchmen engaged
there in contraband trade. As soon as the Span-
iards discovered this they stopped it; the States
General again complained, and, getting no redress,
desisted from complaint. The Spaniards first oceu-
pied and have ever since occupied the great basin
of the Orinoco, used the lower reaches of the river
for ingress to their empire within and egress to the
sea, and exercised sovereign rights over the mouth
of the river by an armed pilot-station on the lowest
convenient island, by coast-guard launches, ete.
The delta lands, though uninhabited and unfit for
habitation, are not vacant territory which another
nation can appropriate and thus establish a hostile
military occnpation, for it is settled law that those
who possess the watershed and the firm banks own
the delta islands and the shores below. The Eng-
lish allegation is that the Dutch established about
1666 a post for trade or to watch the Spaniards at
Barima Sand, on the delta pass known as Brazo
Barima, which they soon abandoned, either volun-
tarily or for fear of the Spaniards. Between 1760
and 1770 a few Dutch slave-traders lived with the
Caribs on one of the tributary creeks. About that
time the Dutch were apprehensive that the Span-
iards intended to come through the delta bayous to
attack the settlements, and the Dutch Governor is
said to have put a watchman or two on the Barima.
But all these places were destroyed by the Spaniards
before 1768. Neither Dutch nor English attempted
to reoccupy till the armed invasion in 1884 of the
Demerara magistrate Michael MeTurk.
When the new Dutch West India Company was
organized, in 1764, the grant in the charter covy-
ered only the places of Essequibo and Pomeroon,
evidently excluding the Orinoco, 100 miles from
these rivers. In the treaty of Aranjuez, made be-
tween Spain and Holland in 1791 for the mutual
restitution of runaways, the places in South Amer-
ica between which such restitution was to take place
were all the Spanish settlements on the Orinoco on
the one hand and Essequibo and Demerara, Berbice,
and Surinam on the other. In 1794 the Dutch Sec-
retary of State recognized that Dutch territory be-
gan at Maruea, which was deseribed in 1796 by the
British officer Pinckard as the remotest point of the
VENEZUELA.
colony of Essequibo, and was stated to be the limit
of British territory by the British Governor in 1839,
In that year Schomburgk, taking the line drawn in
the sketch map of Bouchenroeder from the mouth
of the Barima or the Amacuro and accepting Hart-
sinck’s statement in his history of 1770 that the
Dutch once had a pow at Point Barima, adapted
the arbitrary straight line of the Dutch surveyor,
who was utterly ignorant of the country beyond the
Pomeroon, to the natural lines, mountain ranges, and
rivers, and submitted it to the British Government,
pointing out in his memoir that the Venezuelan
boundary merits the greatest attention “on account
of the political importance of the mouth of the Ori-
noco.” He was directed by Lord Palmerston to
survey the line and set some posts on it, which Lord
Aberdeen in 1842, on receiving a vigorous remon-
strance from Venezuela, ordered to be removed, de-
claring that they were not indications of dominion
and empire, but a preliminary measure open to dis-
cussion. In the subsequent discussions Lord Aber-
deen, Lord Granville, and Lord Rosebery offered
to secure to Venezuela the undisturbed possession
of the mouths of the Orinoco, recognizing that it
was diplomatically inadmissible to claim on such
flimsy pretenses what were described as the Darda-
nelles of the Orinoco. Lord Salisbury is the only
minister who has insisted upon a different view, and
his claims grew every time he recurred to the subject.
The Schomburgk line, put forward at the outset
merely as a basis for discussion, became the irre-
ducible minimum, and all that Great Britain was
willing to submit to arbitration was newly claimed
territory extending far outside of that line. Even
the Schomburgk has been altered and expanded
from one running approximately north and south,
cutting across the Cuyuni and its southern basin,
as laid down on all the maps published prior to
1886, in which year the Colonial Office discovered
that it went around by the great bend of the
Cuyuni. The line on all the maps made before the
discoveries of gold gave a new speculative value to
the land outside as well as inside of it, strikes the
Cuyuni, not at the Acarabisci river, but at the Oto-
mong river, 20 miles below. The two nations hav-
ing in 1850 mutually agreed that there should be
no occupation of the disputed territory by either,
Venezuela severed diplomatic relations with Great
Britain on Feb, 23, 1887, after British armed forces
had in 1884 and subsequent years invaded the dis-
puted territory and taken possession up to the ex-
panded Schomburgk line. Venezuela, for the sake
of a settlement, offered in 1890 to exempt the set-
tled districts from arbitration. The region which
it did then require to be arbitrated, and in which
the recent gold diggings are found, contains no set-
tlements even to-day. They are worked exclusively
by negroes, who are hired on the coast and go up
for three months at a time. There are no houses
there, for they live in huts built in the Indian fash-
ion, or mere shanties, and no families or permanent
residents, with the exception of a few foreinen or
officials whose duties keep them there and some
negroes who have kitchen gardens. Nor have the
English spent any money in permanent improve-
ments in those regions. With scarcely an excep-
tion the gold is got by simple washing, by hand
labor. The highest estimate of the total capital is
$2,000,000, and that is chiefly to pay wages and cur-
rent expenses until the product can be marketed.
The total output of gold, by official returns, has
been $10,500,000 up to 1896. The Guiana Govern-
ment gets a royalty of 90 cents an ounce, which has
amounted to upward of $500,000. In 1895 the sum
collected was $119,000. The total expenses of clear-
ing streams, making roads, ete., have been less than
that, so that if every British subject were required
VENEZUELA.
to quit those regions with nothing but what he could
carry with him the colony would still be at least
$8,000,000 richer for its invasion of the territory
claimed by Venezuela.
The English case was prepared by Sir Frederick
Pollock, Professor of International Law at Oxford
University, and was first presented to Parliament
in the form of blue books. The historical argu-
ment, drawn from evidence in the Spanish and
Dutch archives, was that from 1648 to 1796 the
Dutch were in uninterrupted possession of the en-
tire coast line from the river Corentin to Barima,
and during this period explored the upper portions
of nearly all the rivers, and to a considerable extent
made settlements in the adjacent districts: that
prior to 1723 there was no Spanish settlement in
the territory in question except San Thomé de la
Guayana, which was twice removed to higher
points on the Orinoco; that between 1724 and 1796
the Capuchin missions were established south of
the Orinoco, and gradually extended southward and
eastward toward the Dutch territory, the farthest
point occupied being the village of Tumereimo,
founded about 1788: that before 1796 Dutch settle-
ments had existed far up the Cuyuni, while a Dutch
fort was established near the river Yuruari, and
that the Dutch had full control of the basin of the
Cuyuni; and that with the exception of the settle-
ment of San Thomé de la Guayana and the mis-
sions the Spaniards had exercised no authority or
dominion whatever over the territory now in dis-
pute. From reports of English and Spanish offi-
cials to their respective governments, the conclu-
sion was drawn that Great Britain, on succeeding to
all the rights of the Dutch, extended its settlements
and continuously exercised over the territory origi-
nally claimed by the Dutch all those rights by which
nations usually indicate their claim to territorial
ions, while neither Spain nor, after the dec-
faration of independence, Venezuela had either pos-
session or dominion over the territory in question.
Since 1846, while maintaining her just rights and
insisting that its just claims would embrace prac-
tically the whole watershed of the Essequibo,
Cuyuni, Yuruari, Pomeroon, Waini, and Barima, it
is represented as having consistently shown a de-
sire to make a fair arrangement with Venezuela as
to the boundary; and it is further argued that the
claim of Venezuela that its boundary extends to
the river Essequibo has been based upon conten-
tions that are in no way supported by the facts and
can not be justified upon any reasonable grounds—
namely, upon the original discovery and first ex-
ploration of the South American Continent by
Spain, which are clearly irrelevant; upon the bull
of Pope Alexander VI, which can not be considered
as having any real bearing on the question; upon
an allegation that the occupation by the Dutch was
in violation of the treaty of Miinster, which allega-
tion is shown to be unfounded; upon the possession
hy the Spaniards of the territory south of the Ori-
noco, including the rivers Barima, Marnea, and |
Pomeroon, whereas the only Spanish settlements at
any time were San Thomé de Guayana, situated on
the south bank of the Orinoco, which was moved
farther up the river as it was destroyed by the Brit-
ish and the Dutch successively, and the Capuchin
settlements, between the Orinoco and Tumeremo;
and upon the assumption that the Dutch never had
any possessions north of the Essequibo, which is
shown to be equally erroneous.
A parliamentary paper was issued in consequence
of the finding of discrepancies and mistranslations
in the blue book, one of which made a secret report
to the Spanish Government before the treaty of
Miinster say that the Dutch settlements extended
from close to the Amazon as far as the Orinoco,
803
whereas in the original they were said to reach
at least as far as the Pomeroon. A supplemen-
tary blue book gave documents relating to the
Dutch and Spanish settlements prior to 1796, the
post holders and the jurisdiction exercised by them,
trade relations with the Indian tribes, and bounda-
ries purporting to show that the Dutch explored
the main streams and tributaries of all the prin-
cipal rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean be-
tween the Amazon and the Orinoco, made settle-
ments at various places in the interior, instituted a
regular system of trading with the Indian tribes
and with their Spanish neighbors, their post holders
having special functions in controlling such trade;
that they issued passports, and in other ways estab-
lished their control over the district, and entered
into relations with the native tribes, many of which
owned allegiance to them ; and that subsequently to
1745 the boundaries were on various occasions the
subject of discussion,and both Dutch and Spaniards
considered the territory embraced in the watersheds
of the Essequibo, Mazaruni, and Cuyuni and of the
other rivers flowing into the Atlantic between the
Corentin and the Orinoco belonged to the Dutch.
The conclusions drawn from the documents were
that for a period of upward of two hundred years
the Dutch had control of the whole coast extend-
ing from the Corentin to the Orinoco and of all the
rivers flowing direct into the Atlantic; that they es-
tablished settlements at various points on the coast
and in the watersheds of the rivers—notably, far up
the Cuyuni,in close proximity to the territory after-
ward occupied by the Capuchin missions: that they
controlled the trade of the whole district between
Barima and the Corentin, and established local offi-
cers to protect that trade; that the native tribes
throughout substantially the whole district entered
into friendly relations with the Dutch, regarded
them as their protectors, were to a large extent
under their control, and combined with them to
resist the Spaniards; that at a very early date the
Dutch had a post at Barima, which district and its
trade and inhabitants remained throughout under
the control of the Dutch; that the Spaniards recog-
nized the authority of the Dutch as extending to
the right bank of the Barima; that ultimately the
Spanish authorities recognized the junctions of the
rivers Uruan and Corumo with the Cuyuni as being
on the frontiers of the Spanish possessions, and the
Dutch colony of Essequibo as extending to those
points: and that beyond San Thomé de Guayana
and the Capuchin missions the Spaniards had no
settlement of any kind in the territory in question,
had no control over the trade, were opposed by and
were hostile to the Indians, and exercised no do-
minion or authority whatever.
British Activity in the Disputed Territory.—
The richest of the gold fields, and the one in which
the most capital has been expended in development
work is the Barima district. A regular service of
steamers has connected it with Georgetown, and two
railroads have been begun, running from the landing
to the site of the mining operations. Morawhan-
na, nearthe mouth of the Barima river, was made
the seat of government, and from this place roads
were built in various directions into the interior.
By this route the gold fields on the Cuyuni are
most easily reached. In the Barima district crush-
ing machinery has been erected for treating rich
quartz deposits. Several companies were floated in
the colony, and London capitalists subscribed money
for the development of some of theclaims. In March
Sir Augustus W. L. Hemming succeeded Sir Charles
Cameron Lees as Governor of British Guiana.
A road from Bartica to the British frontier post
at Uruan was begun in March, 1896. Another road
was built from Cartabo Point between the Mazaruni
804
and Cuyuni rivers. A road from the Barima river
joined it with the Barama, and a survey was made
to continue it along the left bank of the Cuyuni as
far as Acarabisci, and thence to Uruan. Dr. P.
Rojas had warned the Guiana authorities two years
before that the construction of such a road from the
source of the Barima to the Cuyuni on the Uruan
would produce a collision with the authorities of
Venezuela in that zone. When the English sur-
veyor, William Alfred Harrison, had almost com-
yleted his task, he was arrested on June 15 by the
enezuelan police, being on the left side of the
Cuyuni, the provisional boundary agreed to by Mr.
Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, and
was taken to the Venezuelan station at El Dorado,
The local Venezuelan authorities had warned the
surveying party that they were trespassing a week
earlier. The Caracas authorities, upon receiving
the report of Harrison’s arrest, ordered his imme-
diate release. Meanwhile a force of colonial police
had been sent to the spot from Georgetown. The
British claimed that Harrison was arrested on their
side of the Schomburgk line, the agreed provisional
boundary, the place being below the junction of the
Acarabisci with the Cuyuni, but Venezuela asserted
that the Schomburgk line followed the Cuyuni at
this point. A railroad has been built from Wismar,
on the Demerara river, to a point on the Essequibo
above the dangerous falls that impede the lower
reaches of the water way.
The cost of the Government agency, magistrates,
police, gold officers, commissaries, and other nra-
chinery of government in the gold districts from
the first discovery of gold down to March 31, 1896,
was $376,470. The population in the mining dis-
tricts was estimated at 13,000. The total output of
gold up to that date had been 775,590 ounces, valued
at $13,185,000, derived entirely from placer working,
as the valuable quartz reefs that had been discovered
were still waiting for capital to develop them.
English and foreign oxpital could not be expected
in considerable amounts so long as the boundary
question remained unsettled. At the suggestion of
Mr. Chamberlain the combined court of British
Guiana in April voted to augment the police force
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