Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15 https://archive.org/details/arnoldia3519arno ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ARNOLDIA VOLUME XXXV 1975 PUBLISHED BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACH USETTS O213O Contents of Volume XXXV Number 1, January /February Low Maintenance Perennials, Part II Robert s. hebb 1 Number 2, March/April Poison-ivy and Its Kin william t. gillis 93 ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated george h. pride 124 Arnoldia Reviews 127 Number 3, May/June Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. 133 The Worthy Kerrias jeanne s. wadleigh 160 Arnoldia Reviews 162 Number 4, July/August Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG and ALFRED J. FORDHAM 165 Arnoldia Reviews 187 Number 5, September/October Common Pines of Massachusetts GORDON P. DE WOLF, JR. 197 Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs margo w. Reynolds 230 Arnoldia Reviews 238 Number 6, November/December The Director’s Report richard a. Howard 241 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Alfred j. fordham 263 The Tour of a Botanist in China shiu-ying hu 265 Arnoldia Reviews 296 Index to Volume XXXV 297 Index to Volume XXXV Illustrations are in bold face. Abrus precatorius, 95, 96 Academia Sinica, Institute of Botany, 272, 276 Acer negundo, 117 Acta Botanica Sinica, 277 Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica, 111 Anacardium occidentale, 95, 96 Anthemis, 76 Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis, The, William Flemer, III, 181—186 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi , 234 Arrhenatherum elatius, 62 - var. bulbosum ‘Variegatum’, 61 Arundo donax, 61, 62, 63 Aster, Cornflower, 44 — , Stokes, 44 Auricula, 30 Baeomyces roseus, 147 Balloon Flower, 26 Bayberry, 234 Bearberry, 234 Beebalm, 10 Bergamot, 10 Bethlehem Sage, 33 Betonica grandiflora, 42 Betony, 42 Bibliography of Published Writ¬ ings of the Staff, July 1, 1974- June 30, 1975, 260-261 Bladder-nut, 117 Bocconia cordata, 9 Bonsai, 267, 282 — Exhibition, Shanghai, 268, 282 Botanical Society of China, 277 Botanists in China, list, 285—297 Box elder, 117 British Soldiers, 147 Bussey Hill, 245 Caloplaca elegans, 151, 152 Campion, 4 Candelaria concolor, 153 Cardinal Flower, 2, 3 Carex morrowi ‘Variegata’, 56 Case Estates, 246 Cashew nut, 95, 96 Catmint, 12 Catnip, 13 Cetraria ciliaris, 154 — islandica, 143 Chimaphila maculata, 130 China, The Tour of a Botanist in, 265-295 China Root, 280 Cladonia, 134, 135 — alpestris, 146 — arbuscula, 144, 145 — bacillaris, 148 — chlorophaea, 143, 144 — cristatella, 146, 147 — evansii, 146 — furcata, 145 — mitis, 145 — rangiferina, 144, 145 — squamosa, 148 — subtenuis, 146 — uncialis, 146 — verticillata, 138, 143, 144 Clematis virginiana, 118 Clover, White, 191 Common Pines of Massachu- 297 298 I ARNOLDIA setts, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 197-228 Comptonia peregrina, 116 Cone Flower, 33-34 ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated, George H. Pride, 124-127 Coralberry, 235, 236 Corchorus japonicus, 160, 161 Cornus sericea ‘Kelseyi’, 235, 237 Cortaderia argentea, 62 — selloana, 62 Cotinus coggygria, 93 — obovata, 93 Cotoneaster horizontalis , 231, 232 — microphylla, 231, 232 - var. thymifolia, 232 Cowberry, Mountain, 233 Cranberry, Mountain, 233 Cranberrybush, European, 233 Creeping Jenny, 6 Crop plants, China, 266, 269, 270 Dana greenhouses, 245 Dermatitis causing plants, 93- 121 DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr., Common Pines of Massachusetts, 197- 228 Dhobi-nut, 96, 97 Director’s Report, The, Richard A. Howard, 241-258 Diseases of pines, 226-228 Division, perennials, 76-79 Dogwood, 235 Drug plants, Chinese, 278-281 Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs, Margo W. Reynolds, 230-237 Elymus arenarius, 57 — glaucus, 57 Erianthus ravennae , 57, 58 Eulalia japonica, 57 Evelyn, John, 163 Evening Primrose, 13 Exhibits, 255 False Dragonhead, 24 Fan Memorial Institute of Biol¬ ogy, 276 Festuca ovina, 63 - var. glauca, 63 Flax, 1 Flemer, William, III, The Arbo¬ retum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis, 181— 186 Flora Hainanica, 284 Flora of Canton, 284 Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sini- cae, 277 Fordham, Alfred J., Weather Station Data, 1974, 263 - , and Stephen A. Spong- berg, Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons, 165-180 Fossil Poison-ivy, 114, 115 Fothergill, John, 188 Franklinia alatamaha, 183, 184 Fruiting Shrubs, Dwarf, 230-237 German Catchfly, 4 Gifts and grants, 258 Gillis, William T., Poison-ivy and Its Kin, 93-123 Ginkgo orchards, 269 Globe Flower, 49 Goldenrod, 41 Grasses, Hardy ornamental, 56— 63 Hangchow Botanical Garden, 268, 282-283 Hebb, Robert S., Low Mainte¬ nance Perennials, Part II, 1— 91 Herbaria, Chinese, 276-283 Herbarium, Report, 248-250 Holly-grape, 234 Hollyhock, Miniature, 40 Hop-tree, 117 Howard, Richard A., The Direc¬ tor’s Report, 241-258 Hu, Shiu-Ying, The Tour of a Botanist in China, 265—295 Hypogymnia physodes, 155, 156 Iceland Moss, 143 Iconographia Cormophytorum Si- nicorum, 276 Impatiens capensis, 115 — pallida, 115 Indian currant, 236, 237 Insect pests of pines, 224-225 Jacob’s Ladder, 28 Jewel-weed, 115 Kerria japonica, 160, 161 - ‘Pleniflora’, 160 - ‘Aureo-variegata’, 160 - ‘Aureo-vittata, 160 - ‘Picta’, 160 Kiangsu Institute of Agricultural Sciences, 281-282 Kwangtung Botanical Garden, 285 - Institute of Botany, 283— 285 Lacquer tree, 98 Lamb’s Ears, 42 Lasallia papulosa, 150 Leptogium corticola, 155 — cyanescens, 155 Library, Report, 250-252 Lichens, 135, 136, 137 Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse, Richard E. Weaver, 133—159 Lilac collection, 182 Lingnan Bamboo Garden, Can¬ ton, 283 Linum alpinum, 1 — fLavum, 1 — narbonense, 1 — perenne, 1 Live-Forever, 38 Lobaria pulmonaria, 135, 153, 154 Lobelia cardinalis, 2, 3 — siphilitica, 3 — X vedariensis, 3 Lonicera korolkowii ‘Aurora’, No. 5 cover 3 Loosestrife, 5 Low Maintenance Perennials, Part II, Robert S. Hebb, 1-91 Lu-hua movement, China, 274 Lungwort, 32 Lupine, 4 — , False, 48 Lupinus x regalis ‘Russell Hy¬ brids’, 4 Index to Volume XXXV | 299 Lychnis chalcedonica, 4 — coronaria, 5 — X haageana, 5 — viscaria, 4 Lysimachia clethroides, 5, 6 — nummularia, 6 — punctata, 5 Lythrum salicaria, 7, 8, 9 — virgatum, 9 Macleaya cordata, 9 Mahonia aquifolium, 235 — repens, 235 Maltese Cross, 4 Mangifera indica, 98 Mango, 98 Meadowrue, 45, 46 Medicinal garden, Nanking, 280 - Hangchow, 282 Medicine, Chinese, 277—278 Mertensia virginica, 10 Metasequoia, discovery of, 271 Metopium toxiferum, 98 Miscanthus sinensis, 57, 58 , 58 Molinea caerulea ‘Variegata’, 59 Monarda didyma, 10, 11, 12 Moneywort, 6 Mourning Bride, 36 Mullein, 51 Mullein-pink, 5 Myrica pensylvanica, 234 Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 277-281 Nepeta cataria, 13 — X faassenii, 12-13 Nursery industry, 181-186 Obedient Plant, 24 Oenothera missouriensis, 13, 14 — tetragona, 13 Old Man’s Beard, 149 Oswego Tea, 10 Paeonia, 15, 16, 17, 18 — lactiflora, 17 Panicum virgatum, 59, 60 Papaver nudicaule, 21 — orientale, 18-21, 19 Parmelia, 134, 137 — caperata, 155 300 I ARNOLDIA — conspersa, 152, 159 — perforata, 156 — rudecta, No. 3 cover 1, 156, 157 — saxatilis, 156, 157 — sulcata, 157 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 117 Peltigera canina, 135, 151 Peony, 15-18 Pepper-tree, 93 Perennials, Low Maintenance, 1-91 — , Tabular list, 80-85 Pernettya mucronata, 235 Phalaris arundinacea, 62 - ‘Picta’, 61 Phlox decussata, 21 — paniculata, 21-24, 23 Phlox, Summer, 21-24 Physcia, 138, 141, 156 — subtilis, 152 Physostegia virginiana, 24 , 25 , 26 Pincushion Flower, 36 Pine, 199, 200, 202 — , Austrian, 215 — , Bhutan, 223 — , Black, 215 — , Bristlecone, 206 — , Dwarf mountain, 214 — , Hickory, 206 — , Jack, 207 — , Japanese black, 222 — , Japanese red, 209 — , Jeffrey’s, 212 — , Korean, 213 — , Limber, 211 — , Pinyon, 210 Pitch, 219 — , Red, 218 — , Scots, 221 — , Swiss stone, 208 — , White, 197, 199, 220 — , White-bark, 205 Pines of Massachusetts, Com¬ mon, 197-228 Pinus, 199, 200, 202 — albicaulis, 205, 206 — aristata, 206 — banksiana, 207 — cembra, 208 — densiflora, 209, 221 — edulis, 210 — flexilis, 205, 211 — jeffreyi, 212 — koraiensis, 213 — longaeva, 206 — mugo, 202, 214 — nigra, 215 — parviflora, 216 — ponderosa, 212, 217 — resinosa, 218 — rigida, 219 — strobus, 197, 199, 220 — sylvestris, 221 — thunbergii, No. 5 cover 1, 204, 222 — wallichiana, 223 Plant Sciences Data Center, 245 Platycodon grandiflorum, 26, 27 Plume-poppy, 9 Poison-ivy, 101, 102, 109 Poison-ivy and Its Kin, William T. Gillis, 93-123 Poison-oak, 107, 109 Poison-sumac, 97, 98 Poison-wood, 98 Polemonium caeruleum, 28 — reptans, 28, 29 Pollution, air, 134, 148, 149, 215, 217, 218 Polygonatum biflorum, 29 — commutatum , 29 — multiflorum, 30 Poppy, Iceland, 21 — .Oriental, 18-21, 19 Poria cocos, 280 Prairie Mallow, 40 Primrose, 30-32 Primula auricula, 30 — denticulata, 30 — japonica, 31 — X polyantha, 31 — sieboldii, 31 — vulgaris, 31—32 Propagating unit, Dana Green¬ houses, 185 Propagation of Stewartias, 177- 180 Pride, George H., ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated, 124-127 Ptelea trifoliata, 117 Publications, Arnold Arboretum, 257-258 Pulmonaria angustifolia, 32 — saccharata, 33 Purple Loosestrife, 7, 8 Ramalina fastigiata, 149, 150 Review, The After-Dinner Gar¬ dening Book, Richard W. Langer, 132 - , Azaleas, Fred C. Galle, 194 - , The British Oak, M. G. Morris and F. H. Perring, eds,, 187 - , Chain of Friendship, Bet¬ sy C. Corner and Christopher C. Booth, eds., 187 - , City Leaves City Trees, Edward Gallob, 240 - , The Complete Flower Ar¬ ranger, Amalie Adler Ascher, 238 - , A Dictionary of Useful and Everyday Plants and Their Common Names, F. N. Howes, 192 - , A Flora of Tropical Flor¬ ida, Robert W, Long and Olga Lakela, 127 - , A Flora of the White Mountains, California and Nevada, Robert M. Lloyd and Richard S. Mitchell, 190 - , Flowering Cherries, Geof¬ frey Chadbund, 189 - , Forests of Nepal, J. D. A. Stainton, 190 - , Genetic Resources in Plants, O. H. Frankel and E. Bennett, eds., 238 - , How to Control Plant Dis¬ eases in Home and Garden, Malcolm C. Shurtleff, 296 - , The International Book of Trees, Hugh Johnson, 164 — — , John Evelyn and His Times, Bernice Saunders, 162 - •, Lake Tahoe Wildfiowers, Kenneth Legg, 240 - , Nothing Grows for You?, Frances Tenenbaum, 239 - , 128 More Houseplants Index to Volume XXXV | 301 You Can Grow, Rob Herwig, 239 — - -, Plants for Ground-cover, Graham Stuart Thomas, 131 — — -, Plants; Wild and Culti¬ vated, P. S. Green, ed., 128 — — ■, Popular Flowering Shrubs, H, L. V. Fletcher, 296 - , Seedlings of Some Tropi¬ cal Trees and Shrubs Mainly of South East Asia, Dr. D. Burger Hzn., 196 - — , The Timber Economy of Puritan New England, Charles F. Carroll, 192 - — , Trees of the United States and Canada, F. H. Montgom¬ ery, 189 - , Viability of Seeds, E. H. Roberts, ed., 194 - , Weeds and Wildfiowers of Eastern North America, T. Merrill Prentice, artist, and Elizabeth Owen Sargent, text, 193 - -, Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades, Charles Yocum and Vinson Brown, 162 - — , Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida, Julia F. Mor¬ ton, 129 - , Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine, C. S. Camp¬ bell, F. Hyland and M. L. F. Campbell, 130 - , Your First Garden. Plan¬ ning, Planting and Plants, Jack Kramer, 131 - , Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It, R, Milton Carleton, 191 Reynolds, Margo W., Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs, 230-237 Rhus aromatica, 93, 94, 118 — copallina, 93 — glabra, 93 — radicans, 111 — toxicodendron, 111 — trilobata, 93 — typhina, 93, 94 Rice culture, China, 266, 270 302 | ARNOLDIA Rock tripe, 135, 151 Rosary-pea, 95, 96 Rose Campion, 5 Rudbeckia, 33 — fulgida, 34, 35 — hirta, 34 — laciniata, 34 — nitida, 34 — purpurea, 33 Sage, 35—36 Salvia azurea, 35, 36 — glutinosa, 36 — haematodes, 36 — jurisicii, 36 — sclarea, 36 — X superha, 36 Scabiosa, 36-38 — alpina, 37 — caucasica, 37 — graminifolia, 38 — lucida, 38 Schinus molle, 93, 95 — terebinthifolius, 95 Sedum spectabile , 38, 39 — telephium, 38, 40 Semecarpus anacardium, 97 — gigantifolia, 96 Shade conditions, perennials, 65- 66 Sidalcea cultivars, 40, 41 Site considerations, perennials, 64-65 Smoke-tree, 93 Soil modifications, perennials, 66- 67 Solidago cultivars, 41-42 Solomon’s Seal, 29 South Street tract, 241 Spartinia michauxiana ‘Aureo- marginata’, 61 — pectinata ‘Aureo-marginata’, 61 Speedwell, 52 Spiderwort, 48 Spongberg, Stephen A., and Alfred J. Fordham, Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons, 165-180 Stachys grandiflora, 42 — lantana, 42, 43 — macrantha, 42 Staking methods, perennials, 68-75 Staphylea trifolia, 117 Stay-in-Place, 24 Stewartia, 165—180 — gemmata, 173, 174 — X henryae, 169, 177 — malacodendron, 169, 171 — monadelpha, 169, 170, 174, 175 — ovata, 169 - f. grandiflora, 171 — pseudocamellia, 167, 169, 175 - ‘Korean Splendor’, No. 4 cover 1, 176 — rostrata, 169, 170, 172, 173 — serrata, 169, 172 — sinensis, 169, 170, 172, 174 Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons, Stephen A. Spongberg and Alfred J. Fordham, 165-180 Sticta weigelii, 154 Stokes Aster, 44, 45 Stokesia laevis, 44, 45 Stone crop, Showy, 38 Streptocarpus, cultivars, 124— 127 — ‘Constant Nymph’, 124-127 — ‘Maasen’s White’, 124 Sumac, Aromatic, 93, 94, 118 — ■, Dwarf, 93 — , Poison, 97, 98 — , Smooth, 93 — , Staghorn, 93, 94 Sundrop, 13 Sweetfem, 116 Symplocos paniculata, No. 4 cover 3 Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 235, 236 Thalictrum aquilegifolium, 45 — dipterocarpum, 46 — minus, 46 — rocquebrunianum, 46, 47 — speciosissimum, 48 Thermopsis, 48, 68 Timber trade, colonial, 197-198 Tour of a Botanist in China, The, Shiu-Ying Hu, 265-295 Toxicodendron, 111—112 — diversilobum, 110, 114 — magnifolium, 114, 115 — radicans, 101, 102 - ssp. barkleyi, 103 - ssp. divaricatum, 104 - ssp. eximium, 104, 105 - ssp. hispidum, 102, 107 - ssp. negundo, 104, 106 - ssp. orientale, 102, 104, 106 - ssp. pubens, 103 - ssp. radicans, 102—104 - ssp. verrucosum, 103, 105 — rectum, No. 2 cover 1 — rydbergii, 107, 108, 109, 110 — toxicarium, 109, 110, 111 — vernicifluum, 98 — vernix, 97, 98 Tradescantia virginiana, 48 Tree-celandine, 9 Trollius, 49-51 — asiaticus, 50 — europaeus, 50 — ledebouri, 51 — pumilus, 51 Umbilicaria, 135 — mammulata, 150, 151 Uniola latifolia, 59, 60 Usnea strigosa, 149 — trichodea, 149 Vaccinium vitis-idaea, 233 - var. minus, 229, 233 Index to Volume XXXV [ 303 Verbascum, 51—52 — X hybridum, 52 — nigrum, 52 - — phoeniceum, 52 Veronica, 52—56 — alpina, 55 — holophylla, 53 — incana, 53 — latifolia, 53 — longifolia, 53 — pectinata, 55 — prostrata, 55—56 — repens, 56 ■ — spicata, 54 Viburnum opulus ‘Compactum’, 233 — sieboldii, No. 3 cover 3 Virginia Bluebell, 10 Virginia creeper, 117 Virgin’s bower, 118 Wadleigh, Jeanne S., The Worthy Kerrias, 160-161 Weather Station Data, 1974, Alfred J. Fordham, 263 Weaver, Richard E., Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse, 133- 159 Worthy Kerrias, The, Jeanne S. Wadleigh, 160-161 Xanthoria parietina, 153 — polycarpa, 153 Zhiwuxue ZaZhi, 277 The Arnold Arboretum Vol. 35, No. 1 Jan. /Feb. 1975 Contents LOW MAINTENANCE PERENNIALS Part II Text: ROBERT S. HEBB Drawings: Robert opdyke (All photographs by author, unless otherwise indicated.) ARNOLD I A is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published six times a year: in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Linurn Low Maintenance Perennials j 1 Flax Flax Family (Linaceae) Although not dependably hardy much farther north than Boston, this is a group of otherwise long-lived plants which re¬ quire little attention other than the occasional removal of self- sown seedlings. A position in full sun with a light, well-drained soil is about all that' is necessary. Soggy soil conditions in winter lessen the hardiness of the whole group. The small flowers last only about a day, but they are borne in great profusion and appear over a long period of time. They axe not useful when cut for bouquets. L. narbonense — Narbonne Flax — 1-inch azure-blue flowers with white centers produced from late June through August. Plants VA to 2 feet in height. Sources: 24,60; A, I L. narbonense ‘Heavenly Blue’ — Very heavy-flowering cultivar with deep blue blossoms on plants 12 to 18 inches in height. Source: 69 L, perenne — Perennial Flax — Pale blue flowers, freely pro¬ duced nearly all summer on 2-foot plants. Sources : 3,14,46,66,68; B,J,K,L L. perenne ‘Album’ — White-flowered form of the preceding spe¬ cies. Sources : 24,66; I L. perenne ‘Tetra Red’ — Satin red flowers on plants about 18 inches in height. Sources : 24; I The following may not be as robust or as long-lived as those which precede : L. alpinum — Alpine Flax — This is probably better as a rock garden plant, but may occasionally have uses at the very front of the border. Slender plants with clear blue flowers in June on 6 to 9 inch stems. Narrow, almost Heather-like leaves. Sources: 4,13,24; C,I L. flavum — Golden Flax — Another species equally adapted to the rock garden or front of the border. The compact plants are about 15 to 18 inches in height with leathery leaves; bear numer¬ ous bright yellow waxy flowers from late June to mid-August. Sources: 69; K [ 133] Low Maintenance Perennials \ 3 L. flavum ‘Compactum’ — A dwarf version of the preceding. Grows to a height of about 9 inches. Sources: 3,4,24,60,68; I Lobelia Lobelia Lobelia Family (Lobeliaceae) It is a shame to have to condemn such a beautiful group of na¬ tive plants, but under most garden situations they are short¬ lived perennials and will usually disappear after a few years. When they find conditions exactly to their liking, they will self¬ sow in quantity and always be around. For this reason it would be wise to experiment with a few plants to see if seeding will occur. Lobelias are frequently associated with wet conditions because they are encountered in the wild along streams or in generally wet areas. In the garden, a well-drained, yet moisture-retentive loam is best. Light shade for at least part of the day is preferable, but a position in full sun will not be harmful if the soil is moist. Mulching the plants both in summer and winter is often bene¬ ficial when a permanent display is desired. When self-sowing does not occur, the new basal growth which appears in early fall after flowering may be divided and replanted. Seedlings sown in pans and set out annually also will provide a continuing display. L. cardinalis — Cardinal Flower — Bright scarlet-red flowers on 3 to 4-foot stems from the end of July to early September dis¬ tinguish this as one of the best-loved wild flowers of eastern North America. Sources: 3,4,5,7,13,14,24,26,27,39,43,46,50,58,66,67,68; A,B,C,I, L L. cardinalis ‘Alba’ — A rare white-flowered form of the Cardinal Flower. Does not reproduce true from seed and must be per¬ petuated by cuttings. Only worth growing by serious collectors of wild flowers. Source: 29 L. siphilitica — Blue Cardinal Flower, Great Blue Lobelia — Not a very good name for a beautiful native plant. Has deep blue flowers and grows to 2 to 3 feet in height under garden condi¬ tions. The Indians believed that a concoction made from it was useful in curing venereal disease. Sources: 4,7,26,27,39,43,57; B L. X vedariensis (L. cardinalis X L. siphilitica ) — A stunning hy¬ brid with brilliant purple flowers from July well into September on spikes 2% to 3 feet tall. Best results are obtained in the shade, and this plant definitely benefits from a protective mulch in the winter. Sources: 4,13,66,69; C Left: Lobelia cardinalis [135] 4 | ARNOLDIA Lupinus Lupine, Lupin Pea Family (Leguminosae) These cannot be recommended for general cultivation because of their sensitivity to hot summers. They do best in cool, humid areas such as northern New England and the Pacific Northwest. To those familiar with Lupines where they grow well, the show produced in our area is disappointing to say the very least. Of the several types which are hardy, the following strain is by far the showiest and most popular. L. X regalis ‘Russell Hybrids’ — Stately spikes 3 to 4 feet in height with large pea-like flowers in nearly every color or com¬ bination imaginable. Sources: 13,14,25,30,32,39,46,58,66,69; A,B,C,E,J,K,L Lychnis Campion, Maltese Cross, German Catchfiy Carnation Family (Caryophyllaceae) Some members of this group of bright-flowered plants only can be recommended for a low maintenance situation if the soil is light, and very well drained. Others lack complete hardiness or are distressingly short-lived. All should be given a situation in full sun. L. chalcedonica — Maltese Cross — Brilliant scarlet flowers in dense heads in June and July. Plants 214 to 3 feet in height. Will be short-lived unless soil drainage is excellent, especially in winter. Sources: 4,24,32,68; A, E, I, J,K,L L. chalcedonica ‘Alba’ — The white flowers are not very inter¬ esting when compared to those of the species. Sources : 24; I L. viscaria — German Catchfiy — This species and its several cultivars are the hardiest and longest-lived. The reddish-purple clustered blossoms appear on 12 to 18-inch stems in late May and June above tufts of grass-like foliage. If soil and exposure are correct, little care will be required other than division after about the fourth year. Source: 46 L. viscaria ‘Alba’ — Short 9-inch spikes of white flowers in June and July. Sources: 24; I L. viscaria ‘Splendens’ — Bright rose-pink flowers. Source: L [136] Low Maintenance Perennials \ 5 L. viscaria ‘Splendens Flore-Pleno’ — Double, bright rose-pink flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,49,66,67,69; C,I,J,K L. viscaria ‘Zulu’ — Flowers light red. Sources: 32,66 L. coronaria — Rose Campion, Mullein-pink — Short-lived, usu¬ ally behaves as a biennial, but will seldom disappear from the garden as it seeds freely. Very bright, small reddish-purple flow¬ ers on 2-foot stems. Leaves silverish. Listed in some catalogs as Agrostemma coronaria. Sources: E,L L. X haageana (L. fulgens X L- coronaria var. sieboldii ) — Haage Campion — Brilliantly colored flowers from orange-red to scar¬ let or salmon, produced from June to August. Plants about a foot in height. Hardiness sometimes questionable. Sources: 69; L Lysimachia Loosestrife Primrose Family (Primulaceae) Most members of this genus would not look well in a mani¬ cured, formal border because of the spreading tendency of the more commonly grown species; however, they are acceptable in the low maintenance situation if space permits. Loosestrifes planted in full sun require soil that is moist and fairly rich. If the exposure is partial shade, much drier soil conditions are tolerated. Almost no care is needed if they are planted about 3 feet from their nearest neighbors; otherwise, an occasional reduction in the size of the clumps will become necessary. Division to rejuvenate the plants will not be required for a number of years. L. clethroides — Gooseneck Loosestrife — The 3-foot densely- flowered spikes bend over at the tips producing the curious “gooseneck” appearance. Flowers are white; blooming time is July and August. Leaves turn a bronzy-yellow in the autumn. It bears repeating, with this species especially, that the clumps soon become large. Sources: 13,49,66; C L. punctata — Yellow Loosestrife — The leaves are produced in whorls around the stem, and the yellow flowers arise from these. Plants range in height from 2% to 3 feet. Flowering time is June [137] 6 | ARNOLDIA and early July. Plants are at their best in light shade. Sources: 14,24,32,66,67,69; I L. nummularia — Creeping Jenny, Moneywort — A low creeping plant not suited to the border. Best as a ground cover, used with discretion, in semishaded places. Will often escape into the lawn. Sources: 3,13,14,57; C L. nummularia ‘Aurea’ — Yellowdeaved cultivar of the preceding species. Sources: 24,68; I Lysimachia clethroides Low Maintenance Perennials | 7 Lythrum Purple Loosestrife Loosestrife Family (Lythraceae) The Purple Loosestrife, a native of Europe, is now so widely naturalized that it is difficult to believe that it is only a com¬ paratively recent addition to our flora. A number of selections have been made. These vary consid¬ erably in height and flower color, many without the magenta tint so conspicuous in the wild forms. They are worth culti¬ vating, especially in difficult wet areas of the garden, and also will grow perfectly well in an ordinary soil in full sun. Purple Loosestrifes will tolerate almost any form of neglect and grow vigorously for many years. They range in height, depending upon cultivar, from IV2 to 4 feet and are suitable at the front or middle of the border. They are best grown as single speci¬ mens, or in small groupings of two or three plants spaced IV2 to 2 feet apart. Most cultivars blossom over quite a long period between June and the end of September. L. salicaria — For garden situations, the species is not as inter¬ esting as the selections listed below, but it may find a place in the wild flower garden or for naturalizing in wet places. It should be remembered that this may seed freely and take over extensive areas, frequently choking out all other vegetation. The named cultivars do not seem to possess this tendency. Sources: 4,7,14,39,45,66 L. salicaria ‘Columbia’ — Soft pink flowers on well-branched, bushy plants about 3V2 feet in height. Sources: 28, 66; L L. salicaria ‘Dropmore Purple’ — Rich violet-purple flowers on plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,69; C,I L. salicaria ‘Firecandle’ — Intense rosy-red flowers. Plants 3 feet in height. Sources: 13,24; C,I L. salicaria ‘Happy’ — Dark pink flowers on dwarf, well-branch¬ ed plants, 15 to 18 inches in height. Sources: 24,32,69; I L. salicaria ‘Morden’s Gleam’ — Flowers bright carmine, the nearest to red of any of the cultivars. Plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 13,28,32,37,39,59,69; C,H,J,K [ 139] 8 I ARNOLDIA Lythrum salicaria ‘Purple Spires’. Photo: P. Bruns. [ 140 ] Low Maintenance Perennials | 9 L. salicaria ‘Morden’s Pink’ — Floweis clear pink. Plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,25,32,46,59,60,66,67,68; B,C,H,I,J,K,L L. salicaria ‘Morden’s Rose’ --- Flowers bright rosy-red. Plants 3 feet in height. Sources: 24,28; H,I L. salicaria ‘Pink Spires’ — Bright pink flowers, plants 3V2 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 58; A L. salicaria ‘Purple Spires’ — Rose-purple flowers, plants 3V2 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 28,32,37,58; A,H,K,L L. salicaria ‘Robert’ — Flowers bright rose-red. Plants 2 feet in height. Very compact. Sources: 3,14,24,30,37,59,68,69; B,H,I,J,K,L L. salicaria ‘The Beacon’ — Flowers near-red. Plants 21/2 feet in height. Sources: 68; B L. salicaria ‘Tom’s Choice’ — Rosy-red flowers. Plants 3 to 3V2 feet in height. Source: 68 L. virgatum — Wand Loosestrife — Similar to L. salicaria with purple flowers on branched stems. Plants about 3 feet in height. The species is seldom offered by nurseries, but may have played a part in the parentage of a few of the cultivars listed above as L. salicaria. The following cultivar is of interest, primarily be¬ cause of its low stature. L. virgatum ‘Rose Queen’ — Rich rose-pink flowers on plants 2 feet in height. Sources: 24; I Macleaya cordata Plume-poppy, Tree-celandine Poppy Family (Papaveraceae) This is almost universally listed in catalogs under the old name Bocconia cordata. Plume-poppy is a large plant that produces stems 6 to 8 feet tall with large scalloped leaves that are almost tropical in their effect. Under most conditions it tends to spread rapidly by its [141] 10 I ARNOLDIA wide ranging underground stems. It should not be considered for a small garden or a low maintenance situation. Sources: 24,25,32,66,67,68,69; I,K Mertensia virginica Virginia Bluebell, Bluebell Borage Family (Boraginaceae) This plant is indispensable to the spring garden, especially where true blue flowers are wanted. It grows to a height of about 2 feet with clusters of drooping, bell-like flowers in early May. The buds are soft pink and contrast nicely with the blue, opened flowers. A white-flowered form exists, but is very slow growing and not widely offered by nurseries. This is not a plant for massing in the perennial border. After it blooms the foliage starts to die down and usually has disap¬ peared by July. Therefore, Mertensia should be placed among plants with spreading summer foliage, such as Hostas or Ferns. Plants will not require division for many years. For increase, this is best done in the early autumn, after the plants have died down. Cultivation in summer should be done with care around the dormant plants, and it would be prudent to mark their loca¬ tion in some way. They grow best in shady areas where the soil is cool and moist and contains ample organic matter. Sources: 3,5,13,14,23,24,25,27,28,29,39,43,46,50,57,60,66,67, 68,69; B,C,I,L Monarda didyma Beebalm, Bergamot, Oswego Tea Mint Family (Labiatae) In a strictly low maintenance situation, Beebalm may be rec¬ ommended only for naturalizing in places where the plants can romp. In most herbaceous border situations, clumps spread rapidly, and division is necessary by the end of the second or third year to keep them in bounds and to prevent degeneration. Plants grow to a height of 1V% to 3 feet and bloom from late June to August. The 2 to 3-inch tubular flowers are borne in single or double whorls forming dense heads, and are excellent for cutting purposes. The pungent, mint-like fragrance of the leaves and stems is another good feature. Although Beebalms will tolerate light shade, such a condition encourages the spreading tendencies. A site offering full sun and soil with good moisture retention is best. M. didyma — Flowers bright scarlet. Sources: 14,27,39,46,68 [142] » V MJ mSl * IS p| W mm W • w# i lL i - -»- -s^m. -W&yfi Above and Below: Monarda didyma ‘ Violacea Superba’ 12 | ARNOLDIA M. didyma ‘Adam’ — Ruby-red flowers. Probably the best of the red-flowered cultivars. Sources: 13,24,29,30,66,67; C,I ill. didyma ‘Blue Stocking’ — Flowers bright violet-purple, not blue as the name would imply. Source: 69 M. didyma ‘Cambridge Scarlet’ — Brilliant scarlet flowers. Sources: 24,25,60,66,69; A,B,I,K,L M. didyma ‘Croftway Pink’ — Rich rose-pink flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,67,69; A,B,C,I,K,L M. didyma ‘Granite Pink’ — Rose-pink flowers. More compact habit of growth than most of the other cultivars. Sources: 29,66,68 M. didyma ‘Mahogany’ — Dark wine-red flowers. Sources: 13,57,66,67,69; C M. didyma ‘Melissa’ — Soft pink flowers. Source: 69 M. didyma ‘Prairie Brand’ — Salmon-red flowers. Plants grow to a height of 4 feet, taller than most other cultivars. Source: 69 M. didyma ‘Salmonea’ — Salmon-pink flowers. Sources: 66,68 M. didyma ‘Snow Queen’ — White flowers. Source: 69 M. didyma ‘Snow White’ — White flowers. Sources: 24; I M. didyma ‘Violet Queen’ — Lavender- violet flowers. Sources: 13,24,66; C,I Nepeta X faassenii (N. mussinii X N. nepetella) Catmint Mint Family (Labiatae) This is listed invariably in nursery catalogs as N, mussinii, which is one of the parents. N. x faassenii grows into a mound 15 to 18 inches wide and 10 to 12 inches in height, and is a valuable plant for the front of the border. Blue-violet flowers are produced abundantly on 12- inch stems from late May through July and intermittently there¬ after until September. A heavy autumn flowering is produced if the stems are cut back to about half their length immediately after the first blooming finishes. This encourages vigorous new [144] Low Maintenance Perennials | 13 growth from the base of the plant and helps to perpetuate a bushy habit. The small leaves are silvery-gray in color, a hand¬ some contrast to the blue flowers. They give an unpleasant pungent aroma when bruised. Sources: 3,13,24,45,66,67,68,69; C,E,I,L N. X faassenii ‘Blue Wonder’ — Lavender-blue flowers on com¬ pact, 12 to 15-inch mounds. Sources: J,K N. cataria — Catnip — Easy to grow and beloved by cats and bees, but too nondescript to find a home in a real perennial gar¬ den. Besides the few sources listed here, the plant is readily found in the catalogs of the various herb specialists. Sources: 45,68 N. ‘Six Hills Giant’ — A beautiful light blue-flowered hybrid with gray leaves that grows to a height of about 2 feet. It is rampant and spreading and would soon become an untidy nuisance in a low maintenance situation. Source: 66 Oenothera Evening Primrose, Sundrops Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae) Plants of this group that open their flowers during the day are called Sundrops; those that are night bloomers are Evening Primroses. O. missouriensis — Ozark Sundrop — Here is an American plant that may be grown in any garden offering a well-drained light soil, and space in the sun. If these conditions can be provided, plants will thrive for many years and make few other demands. Ozark Sundrop is a low plant with a somewhat sprawling habit, not over 8 inches in height, and useful at the front of the border. The 5-inch, golden-yellow, cup-like flowers are quite spectacular. They appear over a long period of time from June through August and have a mild fragrance. The plant is late to appear in the spring so its location should be marked. Sources: 14,24,25,27,49,59,66,67,68,69; A,I,J,K,L O. tetragona — Common Sundrop — This is listed in catalogs under the following names: O. fruticosa var. youngii, O. youngii. The species is quite hardy. It is very showy in flower and may be grown where minimal maintenance is not the aim. Soil con¬ ditions and exposure are the same as required by O. missouri- [145] 14 | ARNOLDIA ensis. Plants grow to a height of about 2 feet. The lemon-yellow, lVfc-inch, cup-shaped flowers are borne in profusion throughout June and July. Sources: 29,46,66,67,69; L,B,K O. tetragona ‘Highlight’ — Large yellow flowers on plants 18 inches in height. Sources: 24; I O. tetragona ‘Yellow River’ — The standard variety. Large can¬ ary-yellow flowers up to 2 inches across on plants about IV2 feet in height. Sources: 3,13,24,68; C,I O. tetragona var. fraseri ‘Illumination’ (may be listed as O. fyr- verkeri, or O. ‘Fireworks’) — Deep yellow flowers on plants 15 inches in height with leathery bronze foliage; the young stems and flower buds are reddish-brown. A good plant for rock gardens. Sources: 24,32; I Below: Partially open blossom of Oenothera missouriensis. Photo: P. Bruns. Low Maintenance Perennials | 15 Paeonia Peony, Paeony Peony Family (Paeoniaceae) Peonies are most fitting perennials for the low maintenance garden. The relative ease of culture combined with an exceed¬ ingly long fife, great hardiness, and their popularity as cut flowers make them nearly indispensable. Plants that are to last thirty years and sometimes more in one spot require a deep, rich, well-drained soil. Plenty of humus should be incorporated at planting time, but manure, especially fresh manure, should never come in contact with the thick, fleshy root system. Divisions should contain at least three to five buds or eyes at the top of the roots, and these should be set about 1 inch below the soil fine. Deeper planting leads to poor flowering, or no flowers at all. Late August or early September is the preferred time for planting or transplanting. Although a site in full sun is the usual recommendation, the more delicately colored varieties can be placed in light shade to keep the flowers from fading quickly. Deep shade should be avoided. This pro¬ duces the same result as planting too deeply: few flowers, or none at all. Blossoms also may be lost if buds are nipped by late spring frost. Larger flowers can be produced if the lateral flower buds are removed early, taking care not to injure the terminal bud. This usually will be done only by the perfectionist, even though it takes but a few moments. Peony flowers come in a number of types as well as colors. The Doubles last longest, the stamens and sometimes the carpels being petal-like so that a fully double flower results. The Singles (sometimes called Chinese type) have one or several rows of petals that surround a center of numerous yellow stamens. This simpler type may be preferred by those who find the Doubles too flamboyant. The Japanese type and the Anemone type are often lumped together in catalogs. The former have five or more quite large petals that surround a center of stamens bearing abortive anthers (the part that normally contains pollen). The filaments (the “stemlike” part of the stamen) are thick and en¬ larged. In the Anemone type the filaments have become nar¬ row, incurved petal-like structures. So many cultivars are available from specialist nurserymen that only a few of the better ones can be included here. Each year sees the advent of new ones, and gardeners interested in the group would do well to join the American Peony Society. [147] 16 [ ARNOLDIA Double types: P. ‘Albert Crousse’ — Soft pink. Fairly late flowering. Sources: 68; H P. ‘Festiva Maxima’ — White. Early flowering. Sources: 3,8,12,13,20,23,24,30,37,59,60,65,66,68,69; C,H,I,M P. ‘Karl Rosenfeld’ — Dark red. Midseason flowering. Sources: 6,8,12,20,24,37,59,66,68,69; H,I,M P. ‘LeCygne’ — White. Early midseason flowering. Sources: 13,66,67,68; C,H,M P. ‘Lowell Thomas’ — Brassy red, crinkled petals, dwarf. Mid¬ season flowering. Sources: 6,31,69 Single types: P. ‘Clair de Lune’ — Yellow. Very early flowering. Sources: 44,65,68 P. ‘Pico’ — White. Midseason flowering. Sources: 6,40,66 Low Maintenance Perennials Above: Paeonia lactiflora cultivar. Left: Foliage of herbaceous peonies remains attractive throughout the growing season. [149] 18 | ARNOLDIA Japanese and anemone types: P. ‘Alstead’ — Deep pink with yellow center. Sources: 8; M P. ‘Ama-no-socle’ — Bright pink with yellow center. Sources: 8,40,65,68,69 P. ‘Mikado’ — Bright red, rose stamens tipped with gold. Mid¬ season flowering. Sources: 13,24,68; C,H,I,M P. ‘Nippon Brilliant’ — Bright red. Sources: 8,65,66 Papaver orientale Poppy, Oriental Poppy Poppy Family (Papaveraceae) Oriental Poppies now can be obtained in such a beautiful array of colors that it is unfortunate many people still associate this group only with the orange-scarlet types. Cultivars with showy flowers 6 to 12 inches across that range in color from white to pink, red and near yellow, deserve consideration today. Of these, the white varieties probably should be avoided as they tend to be rather short-lived, and the flowers often become gray from their own pollen. The so-called yellows are basically orange with a yellow tinge. Oriental poppies are bold plants, 2 to 4 feet in height when in flower, with coarse, hairy lobed leaves. In time clumps become large: up to a yard across in some varieties. In small gardens, one or two plants are all that will be necessary. About their only fault in a low maintenance situation is the tendency of the stems of some of the more vigorous cultivars to flop under the weight of the flowers. This can be remedied easily (see staking methods, page 203). A well-drained soil of moderate fertility, and full sun or par¬ tial shade are required. Wet soil conditions in winter lead to a rapid demise. The flowering season is relatively short and the plants disappear entirely from July to September; conspicuous gaps in the garden will result if they have been massed. The leaves reappear in the autumn and remain throughout the win¬ ter. Plants can be divided or transplanted only in August or September and generally do not bloom until the second year after transplanting. It is prudent to provide a mulch for the first winter. [ 150] Low Maintenance Perennials Papaver orientale cultivar [ 151 ] 20 | ARNOLDIA Poppies may be used as cut flowers if the ends of the stems are seared with a flame before being placed in water. Over sixty named cultivars are presently available from nur¬ series. The following selection illustrates the marvelous color range. P. orientale ‘Barr’s White’ — Large pure white flowers with purplish-black markings at the base of the petals. Sources: 3,13,24,66,67; C,I P. orientale ‘Beauty of Livermore’ — Deep red flowers with black spots at the base of the petals. Sources: 23,68; A,K,L P. orientale ‘Bonfire’ — Bright orange-red flowers with crinkly- edged petals. Sources: 12,54,66,67 P. orientale ‘Burgundy’ — Maroon-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,66,68; C,I P. orientale ‘Carnival’ — Flowers vivid orange-red, white at the lower half of each petal. Sources: 12,13,24,28,32,37,60; C,I P. orientale ‘Crimson Pompom’ — Fully double deep red flowers. Sources: 13,24,60; C,I P. orientale ‘Curtis Mahogany’ — Very dark maroon-red flowers with crinkled petals like crepe paper. Sources: 32,59 P. orientale ‘Dubloon’ — Fully double clear orange flowers. Sources: 13,24,66; C,I P. orientale ‘Field Marshal Von der Glotz’ — Large white flowers with black markings at the base of the petals. Sources: 13,24,28,32,37,59; C,I P. orientale ‘Glowing Embers’ — Crimson-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,66; C,I,L P. orientale ‘Glowing Rose’ — Large luminous watermelon-pink flowers. Sources: 12,24,32; I P. orientale ‘Harvest Moon’ — Clear golden-orange flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,28,59,60,66,68; C,I [152] Low Maintenance Perennials | 21 P. orientale ‘Helen Elizabeth’ — Light pink flowers with dark markings at the base of the petals. Sources: 3,12,13,24,28,32,59,66,67,68; C,I P. orientale ‘Henry Cayeux Imp’ — Flowers smoky-rose with lavender tints. Sources: 24,37; I P. orientale ‘Lavender Glory’ — Deep lavender flowers with large black spots at the base of the petals. Sources: 13,24,59,60,66; C,I P. orientale ‘May Curtis’ — Watermelon-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,28,68; C,I P. orientale ‘Mrs. Perry’ — Flowers salmon-pink with an apricot tinge. Sources: 13,24,60; C,I,L P. orientale ‘Pinnacle’ — Flowers white with flame colored edges. Sources: 3,13,24,66,67; C,I P. orientale ‘Queen Alexandria’ — Bright salmon-pink flowers. Sources: 3; A,K,L P. orientale ‘Raspberry Queen’ — Raspberry colored flowers. Sources: 28,32,66 P. orientale ‘Salome’ — Clear rose-pink flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,32,37,59,67,68; C,I P. orientale ‘Surprise’ — Large vermillion-red flowers. Sources: 12,13,24,67; C,I P. orientale ‘Warlord’ — Probably the finest deep crimson-red cultivar. Sources: 3,13,24,59,66,68; C,I,L Papaver nudicaule cultivars — Iceland Poppy — These have strong tendencies to behave as biennials in our area and are fre¬ quently treated as annuals. Under suitable conditions they often self-sow freely, but the several fine cultivars available may not reproduce themselves true to variety. Phlox paniculata (syn. P. decussata ) Summer Phlox, Garden Phlox Polemonium Family (Polemoniaceae) Susceptibility to mildew, rust, and red spider attacks, com¬ bined with the need for thinning new growth annually and di¬ viding about every third year, should be sufficient reasons to ban [153] 22 | ARNOLDIA this handsome group from the low maintenance garden. Also, they require frequent watering during the growing season, and self-sow easily, producing plants of inferior color. For those who are prepared to spray every two weeks against the diseases and pests, few other plants are as showy as Summer Phloxes over such a long period of time in the border. For those who cannot take the time, few other plants will produce such a ragged, tat¬ tered appearance. Summer Phloxes require a deep, rich soil, and full sun or light shade. Thorough deep irrigation in dry periods during the growing season is necessary. Cultivars range in height from 2 to 4 feet and bloom from late June into September. Removal of the faded flower heads prolongs the blossoming period. Flowers range in color from pink in all its shades to red, pale blue to purple, and white. Catalogs often list a group called Symons- Jeune Phlox, which are the celebrated cultivars produced in England by the late Captain B. Symons-Jeune, one of the most noted breeders of Summer Phlox. P. paniculata ‘Blue Ice’ — Pinkish-blue at the center when they first open, the flowers turn white as they age. Sources: 7,24,69; I P. paniculata ‘Dodo Hanbury Forbes’ — One of the best with clear pink flowers. Huge pyramidal flower heads up to 14 or 16 inches across. Sources: 1,7,13,20,24,32,60,66,67,69; B,C,G,I,J,K,L P. paniculata ‘Dresden China’ — Flowers soft shell-pink with a deeper “eye” at the center. Sources: 7,13,23,24,59,67,68,69; C,G,I,J,K,L P. paniculata ‘Fairy’s Petticoat’ — Very large light pink flowers with a darker pink “eye” at the center. Very long period of flowering. Sources: 7,24,44,60,66,67,68,69; H,I,J,K,L P. paniculata ‘Juliet’ — Pale pink flowers. Plants 2 feet in height. Sources: 24,69; I P. paniculata ‘Lilac Time’ — Lilac-blue flowers. Sources: 7,13,24,32,37,67; C,H,I,J P. paniculata ‘Mount Fujiyama’ — Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24,28,67,68; B,C,I P. paniculata ‘Orange Perfection’ — Near-orange flowers. Sources: 3,13,66,67; C,L P. paniculata ‘Pinafore Pink’ — Probably the lowest growing cul- tivar. Plants about 6 inches in height. Flowers bright pink with a deeper pink “eye” at the center. Sources: 24,66,67; L [154] Low Maintenance Perennials I 23 P. paniculata ‘Rembrandt’ — Pure white flowers. Sources: 59,68,69 P. paniculata ‘Russian Violet’ — Bright violet-purple flowers. Sources: 15,20,24,60,66,67; I,J,L P. paniculata ‘Sir John Falstafl” — Very large, luminous salmon- pink flowers with a darker “eye” at the center. Sources: 3,13,23,24,32,44,46,59,66,69; B,C,I,K,L P. paniculata ‘Starfire’ — Brilliant deep red flowers. Sources: 1,3,13,15,20,24,25,28,30,32,37,44,58,59,60,66,67,69; B, C,G,H,I,J,K,L P. paniculata ‘White Admiral’ — Very large clusters of white flowers. Sources: 3,13,15,20,23,24,37,58,60,66,67,68,69; B,C,G,H,I,J,K,L P. paniculata ‘World Peace’ — Pure white flowers in September. Sources: 24,32,59,66,69; I,J,L Below: Powdery mildew on the leaves of Phlox paniculata. 24 | ARNOLDIA Although the following species of Phlox with their numerous varieties and cultivars are frequently listed in catalogs dealing with perennials, they are best either in the rock garden or the wild flower garden. Under most conditions they would not fit into the flower border because of their low stature and spreading habit: P. divaricata (Spring Phlox), P. nivalis (Trailing Phlox), P. stolonifera (Creeping Phlox), and P. subulata (Moss Pink, Ground Pink). Physostegia False Dragonhead, Obedient Plant, Stay-in-Place Mint Family (Labiatae) One could almost forgive this group for its invasive tendencies were it not for the fact that the plants also require annual or biennial division to maintain any semblance of neatness. As they grow with relative indifference to wet or dry conditions and will tolerate sun or partial shade, they are of value for naturalizing in a semiwild area or an informal wild flower gar¬ den. But they should be used in herbaceous borders only when time can be devoted to keeping them in bounds. The common names for Physostegia are of some interest. False Dragonhead refers to the one-time confusion between this genus and D racocephalum (Dragonhead). Obedient Plant, or Stay-in-Place, refers to the fact that the individual flowers can be twisted on the stem and will remain as they are arranged, a characteristic that fascinates children. P. virginiana — Grows to a height of 3 to 3Vz feet and produces spikes of purplish-red flowers from July to September. The named cultivars are of much greater value than the species. Sources: 4,14,27,39,43 P. virginiana var. alba — Flowers pure white on spikes about IV2 to 2 feet in height. Sources: 30,69; K P. virginiana ‘Bouquet Rose’ — Flowers rose-pink on spikes 3 feet in height. Sources: 24,66,69; I,K P. virginiana ‘Rosy Spire' — Later in flowering than the other cultivars. Rose-pink flowers in early September on plants 3 to 31/2 feet tall. Sources: 39,66,68 P. virginiana ‘Summer Glow’ — Rosy crimson flowers on 3-foot plants. Source: 32 P. virginiana ‘Summer Snow’ — White flowers on 2Vfc-foot spikes. Less invasive than the other varieties, but requires the same frequent division. Sources: 13,14,24,32,66,67,68; B,C,I [ 156 ] Low Maintenance Perennials I 25 Physostegia virginiana var. alba [157] 26 | ARNOLDIA P. virginiana ‘Variegata’ — Deep green and white variegated leaves. Flowers pink. Sources: 24,32,66; I P. virginiana ‘Vivid’ — The lowest growing and most compact cultivar, but just as invasive as the rest. Glowing deep rosy pink flowers in early September on plants 2 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,66,67; B,C,I,L Platycodon Balloon Flower Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae) P. grcindiflorum is the only species, but there are a few vari¬ eties and several cultivars that are easily grown and live for many years in a single place. The roots of Balloon Flowers are thick and fleshy and can¬ not tolerate wet ground. A light, well-drained soil of moderate fertility suits them best. The pink varieties may fade unless planted in partial shade, but full sun is best for the blue- flowered or white-flowered types. New plants are rather slow of growth, but established clumps may be expected to thrive for twenty years and longer if they are not disturbed. They have no spreading tendencies, no major insect or disease problems, and they blossom from late June through July. Most varieties grow to a height of 3 feet and in some situations there may be a tendency for the stems to flop. This is easily remedied by sup¬ porting them by the hoop method described on page 203. Growth is late to start in spring, so early cultivation around the plants must be done with care. Balloon Flowers are seen to best ad¬ vantage in groups of three spaced about 15 inches apart near the middle of the border. The flowers may be used for cutting pur¬ poses if the ends of the stems are seared with a flame before being placed in water. P. grandiflorum — Chinese Balloon Flower — Handsome 2 to 3- inch cup-like blue flowers with prominent veins borne on stems 2 to 3 feet in height. Sources: 3,13,14,23,46,67,69; B,C,J,L P. grandiflorum var. album — White-flowered form. Sources: 3,13,24,46,66,67,68,69; B,C,I,J,K,L P. grandiflorum ‘Apoyama’ — A choice dwarf cultivar only 6 to 10 inches high from Japan. Highly prized on the rock garden, it has novelty value at the front of the border as well. Violet- [ 158] Platycodon grandiflorum var. mariesii blue flowers almost all summer. Source: 32 P. grandiflorum var. mariesii — Marie’s Balloon Flower — One of the most compact forms, about 18 inches in height. Stems do not have the tendency to flop. Bright blue flowers. Sources: 14,24,46,66,67,68; B,I,K,L P. grandiflorum var. mariesii album — White-flowered form. Source: 68 P. grandiflorum ‘Shell Pink’ — Soft shell-pink flowers veined deeper pink on plants 18 to 24 inches in height. Might be best planted in semishade. Sources: 13,24,25,69; C,I,J,K,L [159] 28 | ARNOLDIA Plumbago larpentae — See Ceratostigma plumbaginoides Polemonium Jacob’s Ladder Polemonium Family (Polemoniaceae) For refined, delicately textured foliage effects, this small group of mound-like plants is of value in the garden, even though the flowers will never set the world afire with their bril¬ liance. Nonetheless, the terminal clusters of small cup-shaped pale to medium blue flowers appear in spring and early summer at a time when blue in the garden is particularly welcome. Relatively undemanding, these are plants for light or partial shade. They require soil of at least average fertility with good drainage. Hot sunny places where the plants will bake are definitely unsuitable; in such situations the foliage becomes unsightly by midsummer. P. caeruleum — Jacob’s Ladder — Some common names are self-explanatory, others such as this really stretch the imagina¬ tion. This plant’s leaves, composed of numerous opposite leaf¬ lets, supposedly resemble the ladder in Jacob’s dream. The clear blue flowers are borne in nodding panicles at the top of erect, 15-inch stems during the month of May. Source: 14 P. caeruleum var. lacteum (syn. P. caeruleum ‘Album,’ by which it is listed in catalogs). White-flowered form. Source: 69 P. caeruleum ‘Blue Pearl’ — Cobalt-blue flowers with yellow cen¬ ters or “eyes.” Sources: 3,13,14,24,59,66,67,68,69; C,I P. replans — Creeping Jacob’s Ladder — Again, the common name may be misleading. The plants do not creep; they sprawl, and produce mounds up to 2 feet in width. Flowers are light blue with white centers or “eyes.” These appear from May through June. Sources: 27,43,66 [160] Right: Polemonium reptans. Photo: P. Bruns. Low Maintenance Perennials | 29 Polygonatum Solomon’s Seal Lily Family (Liliaceae) A small group of plants, handsome in leaf, long-lived, and of special use in shady parts of the border in rich moist soil. The white flowers appear in late May or June, hanging on short stalks from the axils of the erect opposite leaves. It is for the handsome foliage effect of deep green leaves on arching stems up to 3 to 4 feet in height that the plants are mainly grown. There are no insect or disease problems. Specimens seldom, if ever, require division, but this may be done in early spring for increase. P. biflorum — Small Solomon’s Seal — Grows to heights of IV2 to 3 feet, depending upon soil conditions. The flowers are borne either singly, or more often in groups of two at each leaf axil. Sources: 7,14,26,39,43,57,66; B P. commutatum — True Solomon’s Seal, Great Solomon’s Seal — The tallest and probably the most handsome species in general cultivation. With good soil conditions plants often attain a height of 31/2 to 4 feet. Sources: 1,7,14,26,39,66 30 | ARNOLDIA P. multiflorum — Solomon’s Seal, Lady’s Seal, David’s Harp — This is a European and Northern Asian counterpart to our na¬ tive P. bifiorum and P. commutatum. It reaches a maximum height of 3 feet. Sources: 59,66,69; C Primula Primrose Primrose Family (Primulaceae) This genus, containing hundreds of species varying from minute alpines to 4-foot bog lovers, is so diverse that it has been divided into some 30 sections according to botanical detail (flower structure) and cultural requirements. All except two are native to cool moist areas throughout the Northern hemi¬ sphere and most do not adapt readily to the cold winters and hot summers of the Northeastern United States. Soil and moisture demands vary with the section, but all need high shade, a sum¬ mer mulch, and deep watering during dry periods. A winter covering also should be provided in areas of uncertain snow cover. The following descriptions are limited to a few species and cultivars that are suitable for the perennial garden, and easy to obtain and maintain. P. auricula — Auricula — One of a group of hardy European alpines with rosettes of leathery evergreen leaves. All these need rock garden conditions, but the hybrid forms of P. auricula are larger and less demanding and can be grown in very well- drained fertile soil with a stone chip mulch to protect the crowns and woody stems from excess moisture. The umbels of fragrant flowers on 6 to 8-inch stems have a white “eye” and a wide range of unusual muted colors. The whole plant is often powdered with white meal or farina. Sources: 14,50,67; G P. auricula ‘Lynn Hall Strain’ — A fine mixture of seedlings con¬ taining the full range of colors. Sources: 32,44,49 P. auricula ‘Monarch Strain’ — Another mixture containing the full color range. Leaves silvery. Sources: C,I P. denticulata — Himalayan Primrose — This species has unique round flower heads up to 2 inches across, containing numerous small lilac flowers that open among the expanding leaves in April. In the autumn it forms a large dormant bud that sits on the soil surface throughout the winter. P. denticulata needs some protection and perfect drainage; it could be tried in con¬ ditions similar to those mentioned for P. auricula. Sources: 4,32,43,49,66,69; B P. denticulata var. alba — White-flowered form. Sources: 29,69 [162] Low Maintenance Perennials | 31 Primula japonica — - Japanese Primrose — In deep rich soil this species will thrive and spread by self-sown seed without the waterside conditions it prefers; but it must have summer irriga¬ tion and constant shade. Since the plants can be left for a number of years without disturbance, a generous mulch of manure or compost applied before leaves appear in the spring will help maintain soil fertility. In late autumn after the plants have become dormant a 4-inch mulch of hay or pine needles is a precaution against winter heaving. In late May the first tier of flowers opens just above the leaves, and successive tiers appear for several weeks on the stems that may reach a height of 3 feet. Flower color is typically magenta, but includes white, and shades of pink and crimson. Sources: 4,32,43,49,66,67,68 Primula X polyantha — Polyanthus Primrose — The result of crossing P. vulgaris veris and P. elatior, P. X polyantha has been the subject of much hybridization and is now available in a be¬ wildering array of colors and forms. Although this is probably the most universally grown of primroses, it requires more fre¬ quent division and heavier feeding than some of the species to maintain the size and quantity of the often enormous flowers; it also is more subject to infestation of red spider. Some of the cultivars are not completely hardy. P. X polyantha — Mixed colors — unnamed varieties. Sources: 3,14,43,46,49,58,66; L P. X polyantha — Separate colors — unnamed varieties. Sources: 69; C,L P. X polyantha ‘Colossea Hybrids’ — Large-flowered hybrids in shades of yellow, pink, copper, and red. (Sometimes listed in catalogs as P. veris ‘Colossea Hybrids’.) Sources: 24,32,68; B,I,J P. X polyantha ‘Pacific Giants’ — Very free-flowering strain with large flowers and an extensive color range. Sources: 24,32,44,53,60,67,68; G,I,K,L P. sieboldii — Siebold Primrose — This species is distinguished by its crinkly and scalloped deciduous leaves. It appears very late in the spring, and if conditions are dry, may disappear soon after flowering, leaving at the surface a mat of rhizomes. This is very easy to divide for increase and should be marked against careless cultivation. The flowers appear in late May or early June and are borne in umbels on 10 to 12-inch stems. They range in color from white to shades of pink and rose. Sources: 4,32,66 P. vulgaris — Common Primrose — More often listed in catalogs as P. acaulis, this is the fragrant early primrose of English hedgerow fame. It is an early-flowering evergreen species that is easy to grow in rich humus soil in woodland conditions; to maintain vigor, however, the plants should be divided and re¬ planted in fresh soil every three or four years. A light winter [163] 32 | ARNOLDIA covering of oak leaves or pine boughs wall protect the leaves during open winters. Flowers of the various cultivars come in white and shades of yellow, blue, purple, orange, and red. They are fragrant, appear very early in the spring, and are excellent for cutting. The following list P. vulgaris in a mixture of colors. Sources: 14,22,24,66; C,I,L The following list P. vulgaris cultivars in the sought-after shade of blue. Sources: 22,67 Individual named cultivars are listed by the following (Num¬ ber 22 has a particularly comprehensive list). Sources: 22,24; I Pulmonaria Lungwort Borage Family (Boraginaceae) This is a small group with only a few varieties, but it provides us with plants of low stature, early flowers, and foliage that re¬ mains attractive from spring to autumn. Plants are effective as single specimens, but are used more frequently in groups, spaced about 10 inches apart to give a ground cover effect. The drooping clusters of trumpet-shaped !/2-inch flowers appear late in April and May on stems about a foot in height. They often open pink, then change to clear blue. Some varieties have clear pink or white flowers that do not undergo a change in color as they age. Any shady position where the soil is moist and cool, but not necessarily rich, seems to suit them. Although it is frequently stated that the Lungworts should be divided every four years, they often last in good condition for much longer periods, and division is only necessary when plants have become overcrowded. Because they commence growth early in spring, late summer is the most convenient time to di¬ vide the plants. When this is done, frequent watering is neces¬ sary to encourage the development of a good root system before the onset of cold weather. P. angustifolia — Blue or Cowslip Lungwort, Mary and Joseph, Soldiers-and-Sailors — Flowers open pink and turn to blue or deep blue. The deeper blue forms receive names in catalogs such as ‘Azurea’ or ‘Coerulea.’ The hairy green leaves are not spotted with white as are those of P. saccharata. Sources: 3,32,66,67,68,69 [ 164] Right: Pulmonaria saccharata. The distinctive spots on the leaves make Bethlehem Sage particularly valuable as a foliage plant. Low Maintenance Perennials | 33 P. saccharata — Bethlehem Sage — Even if this did not flower at all, it still would be valuable in the garden. The handsome 3 to 6-inch deep green leaves have numerous white spots that help to create a distinctive appearance. Flowers are bluish or red¬ dish-violet. Sources: 14,68 P. saccharata ‘Mrs. Moon’ — Large pink buds and showy deep blue flowers. Sources: 3,32,66,67 P. saccharata ‘Pink Dawn’ — Bright rose-pink flowers. Source: 69 Rudbeckia Cone Flower Daisy Family (Compositae) The cultivars listed in catalogs under the name of R. purpurea are to be found in this discussion under Echinacea purpurea. The garden varieties in the genus Rudbeckia have yellow flow¬ ers, often with a dark “cone” or center, and resemble our native Black-eyed Susans. Those belonging to the genus Echinacea 34 | ARNOLDIA have Daisy-like flowers in colors ranging from pink to red or white. Rudbeckia is a genus of mixed blessings for the low main¬ tenance gardener. Selections of R. hirta called the Gloriosa Daisies have handsome, large single or double flowers all sum¬ mer long in shades of yellow to orange or mahogany. They are more apt to captivate the gardener than any other Rudbeckia, and are sometimes advertised as “perennials”; on all but the best-drained soils they invariably behave as annuals. Another of the group, R. laciniata var. hortensis, is commonly known as “Golden Glow.” It is a true perennial, towering to 7 feet in height. It produces 2 to 3-inch double yellow flowers for most of the summer; these are excellent for cutting pur¬ poses. A cultivar of this species, R. 'Gold Quelle,’ discussed below, does not romp and is much better suited to a low main¬ tenance situation. For the few Cone Flowers that can be recommended, culture is quite simple. They must have full sun and soil of average fertility; good winter drainage is essential. All the cultivars listed here probably will require division for rejuvenation after the fourth or fifth year. Plant them in groups of three or more spaced about 12 inches apart at the middle of the border. All are excellent as cut flowers. R. nitida ‘Autumn Sun’ (the correct cultivar name is ‘Herbst- sonne’ but it is listed by its English translation in American catalogs) — Grows to a height of 4 to 5 feet and produces 3 to 4-inch, Black-eyed Susan-type flowers. The stems are rugged and staking is not required. Flowers through July and August. Sources: 13; C R. laciniata ‘Golde Quelle’ — Plants reach a height of only 2Vi feet and clumps increase very slowly. The bright, double yellow flowers appear in profusion from July to September. Sources: 14,24,32,66; I R. fulgida var. sullivantii ‘Goldsturm’ — This is probably the finest cultivar in the genus, and represents the Black-eyed Susan to perfection. The deep yellow flowers with near-black “cones” or centers are 3 to 4 inches across and are freely produced on well-branched 2Vz foot plants. They start to appear in mid-July and continue through September. Although this cultivar does not perform well in dry soil, it is one of the best perennials for continuous summer color in a low maintenance situation. Sources: 13,14,24,32,59,60,66,67,69; C,B,I [ 166] Right: Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii ‘Goldsturm’ Lozv Maintenance Perennials I 35 Salvia Salvia, Sage Mint Family (Labiatae) A number of the Salvias are quite hardy in this area, but cer¬ tainly not in every location or in every garden. Some people can grow them well, and others have fleeting success. A few species are biennial or otherwise short-lived and must be raised from seed every few years. The well-known red-flowering types are tropical perennials that are treated as annuals. All perennial Sages require full sun and well-drained soil. Too much moisture at the roots in winter causes certain death, and most species should have the protection of a winter mulch. They often tolerate positions where they bake in summer, and will withstand a surprising amount of drought. S. azurea — Azure Salvia — Native to the Southeast, it can be grown as far north as Vermont but is not reliably hardy without a good snow cover in the winter. Whorls of icy blue flowers on 4 to 5-foot stems in August and September. Sources: 57,66 ^5 ■ i 36 | ARNOLDIA S. azurea var. grandiflora (syn. S. pitcheri, the name by which it is frequently listed in catalogs) — Pitcher’s Salvia — Deep blue flowers. Plants 3 to 3Vz feet in height. Sources: 13,24,67,68; C,I S. glutinosa — Sticky Salvia — The large flowers are pale yellow. Plants 3 feet in height. Somewhat coarse in appearance. Blooms in July. Sources: 24; I S. haematodes — One of the most conspicuous species when in blossom. Flowers are lavender-blue in large panicles during June. Plants are about 3 feet in height. Often behaves as a biennial. Sources: 67,69 S. jurisicii — This species is perfectly hardy in our area, but its 8-inch height and habit of growth better fit the plant to the rock garden. Perhaps of some use at the very front of the border as edging. Forms mat-like clumps and produces violet-blue flowers for most of the summer if seed production is prevented. Sources: 4,69 S. sclarea ‘Vatican Variety’ — Has strong biennial tendencies. Large silvery leaves with a somewhat unpleasant odor. Lavender- pink and white flowers on 3-foot stalks. Source: 67 S. sclarea X superba ‘May Night’ — Violet-blue flowers from May to August if seed formation is prevented. Plants IV2 to 2 feet in height. Sources: 28,69 Salvia X superba (frequently found in catalogs as S. nemorosa ) — If seed production is prevented, this and its cultivars will flower from mid-June until late August. The flowers are violet or purple with reddish-purple calyces. Plants are about 2V2 to 3 feet in height and quite hardy. Sources: 68; B,J,L S. X superba ‘East Friesland’ (listed in some catalogs as ‘Ostfries- land’) — Much branched 18-inch plants with violet-blue flowers in erect spikes. Sources: 3,66,67,69; I,J Scabiosa Pincushion Flower, Mourning Bride Teasel Family (Dipsacaceae) Here is another good group for the low maintenance gardener who can provide a sunny spot and a sandy loam enriched with compost. [168] Low Maintenance Perennials | 37 The “flowers” are really an inflorescence, similar to Sun¬ flowers. Their globular shape with the stamens sticking out of the individual florets has earned them the name “Pincushion.” Varieties recommended here grow to a height of 2 to 2Vz feet and have flowers in shades of blue to white. They are ex¬ cellent for cutting and are long lasting. The flowering season spans the months of June to September. After the fourth year clumps may become crowded and need dividing for rejuvenation. This is best done in the early spring using only the young divisions growing vigorously from the outer portions of the old clumps. Scabiosas have no serious pests or diseases, and staking will not be required; they are most effective planted in groups of at least three, spaced 12 to 15 inches apart near the front or middle of the border. S. caucasica — Caucasian Scabiosa — This species and its sev¬ eral cultivars are the only Scabiosas recommended for the flower border; the others are best in a rock garden situation. S. caucasica has 3-inch blue flowers with contrasting gray stamens. Sources: 3,14,59,66,67; L S. caucasica var. alba — White-flowered form. Sources: 13,67; C,K S. caucasica ‘Blue Snowflake’ — Rich amethyst-blue flowers. Sources: 29,32 S. caucasica ‘Constancy’ — Amethyst-blue flowers. Source: 32 S. caucasica ‘Isaac House Hybrids’ (sometimes also listed in cata¬ logs as “House Mixture” or “House Hybrids”) — The somewhat unusual name refers to their place of origin at Isaac House, Bristol, England, They are a mixture of shades that are basi¬ cally lavender-blue. Sources: 13,68; A,CJ,K S. caucasica ‘Miss Wilmott’ — Pure white flowers. Source: 32 S. alpina — Alpine Scabiosa — Typical small mauve-blue “pin¬ cushion” flowers on tufty little plants about 6 to 9 inches in height. This species has a reputation of not being long-lived, and is best treated as a rock garden plant. Sources: 3,32 [ 169] 38 | ARNOLDIA S. lucida — Very similar to the above in size, recommended treat¬ ment, and life span. The flowers are more lilac than blue. Source: 57 S. graminifolia — Grassleaf Scabiosa — Silvery grass-like foliage on 10-inch plants. The flowers are pinkish and appear from June into August. Another species that is best in the rock garden. Sources: 13,24,32; C,I Sedum spectabile Showy Stone Crop, Live-Forever Crassula Family (Crassulaceae) There are many species in the genus Sedum for use in the rock garden, but only two are subjects for the low maintenance flower border. Of the two, the one that should have a home in every border is the nearly indestructible S. spectabile, the Showy Stone Crop. This forms a neat, compact mound about 18 inches high, and produces numerous brightly colored flowers in large flat-headed clusters (cymes) 3 to 6 inches across from early August until frost. Another species quite similar in appearance and uses is S. telephium (called Live-Forever or Orpine). These two require a well-drained soil in full sun. Division will not be necessary for many years, and the plants need be disturbed only when an increase is desired. They are best seen as single specimens, or in small groups of no more than three, planted about 15 inches apart at the front of the border. S. spectabile — Showy Stone Crop — Rosy pink flowers. Sources: 58,66,68; B S. spectabile ‘Brilliant’ — Carmine flowers. Sources: 13,20,24,37,61,66,68; C,H,I,J,K,L,M S. spectabile ‘Carmen’ — Carmine-rose to red flowers. Sources: 28,32,66,67; L S. spectabile ‘Meteor’ — Very large wine-red flower clusters. Sources: 13,32,66,67; C S. spectabile ‘Star Dust’ — Ivory-white flowers. Blue-green leaves. Sources: 13,24,32,49,69,70; C,I S. telephium ‘Indian Chief’ — Copper or Indian-red flowers. Gray-green leaves. Sources: 24,32,66,67,68; A,F,I,L [ 170] Above and below: Sedum spectabile wRm Above: Sidalcea ‘Stark’s Hybrids’ S. telephium ‘Autumn Joy’ — Rust-brown flowers. Sources: 28,32,49,66,69; L Sidalcea Prairie Mallow, Miniature Hollyhock Hibiscus Family (Malvaceae) Here is an answer, in diminutive form, for those who wish a Hollyhock-like plant without the biennial characteristics of the true Hollyhock. Prairie Mallows are the products of cross breed¬ ing several western American species to obtain a group of nar¬ row upright plants about 3 feet in height with flowers in bright shades of rose, pink or purple. They have single flowers, and the same vertical effect as Hollyhocks, but the leaves are deeply [172] Low Maintenance Perennials | 41 lobed, quite unlike those of Hollyhocks. Another dissimilarity is the freedom from infestations of Hollyhock rust. Sidalceas require a position in full sun and must have a good well-drained loamy soil that is moisture retentive in summer, but well drained in the winter. They are excellent subjects for the middle of the border when planted in small groups with 12 to 15-inch spacings. Division of the clumps after the fourth year is advisable. Cutting back the plants immediately after flowering in July will encourage second flowering at the end of the summer. S. ‘Elsie Heugh’ — Soft pink flowers. Plants 2 to 3 feet in height. Source: 68 S. ‘Rose Queen’ — Rose-pink flowers. Plants about 4 feet in height. Source: 66 S. ‘Rosy Gem’ — Rose-pink flowers. Plants IV2 to 3 feet in height. Source: 69 S. ‘Stark’s Hybrids’ — Mixture of pink, white or purplish vari¬ eties. Plants 3 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,68; C,I Solidago Goldenrod Daisy Family (Compositae) Goldenrods are such conspicuous “weeds” of the wayside from midsummer to fall that their garden value is overlooked in this country. Perhaps, too, they are spumed because of their undeserved reputation as hay fever plants. Hybridization involving several of our native species, princi¬ pally in Europe, has produced cultivars with 10 to 12-inch flower heads on compact plants. They are first class perennial border subjects. Full sun is necessary, and almost any soil type except the extremes will do. There are no significant insect or disease problems, plants are extremely hardy, and staking is not re¬ quired. Division after the fourth year of flowering is frequently necessary. Plants appear best in groups of three, spaced about 12 inches apart. [173] 42 | ARNOLDIA S. ‘Cloth of Gold’ — Soft Primrose-yellow flowers in large clus¬ ters, on compact plants 18 to 20 inches in height. Mid-August and September. Sources : 32,67 S. ‘Golden Mosa’ — Dark yellow flowers on plants 3 feet in height. August and September. Sources: 13,24,67,69; C,I S. ‘Leraft’ — Bright golden-yellow flowers on plants 3 feet in height. August. Sources: 13,24,69; C,I S. ‘Peter Pan’ — Canary-yellow flowers on plants 21/2 feet in height. August. Sources: 32,67 Stachys Betony, Lamb’s Ears Mint Family (Labiatae) The two recommended species in this group differ so greatly in appearance that they are discussed separately below. They have similar cultural requirements that include a position in full sun and very well-drained soil of moderate fertility. They re¬ quire no care other than occasional division sometime after the fourth year depending upon the condition of the plants. S. macrantha — Big Betony (may sometimes be listed as Beton- ica grandiflora, but is most commonly found in catalogs as Stachys grandiflora ) — This grows to a height of lYz to 2 feet and produces tiered whorls of typical Mint-like, 1-inch bright purple flowers. These appear in May and June and are excellent as cut flowers. The heart-shaped leaves are wrinkled and hairy. This species will tolerate partial shade and in such a position the flowers may last longer. Sources: 67,68 S. lanata — Woolly Betony — This is a wonderful low plant for a silvery foliage effect. Its soft, gray, densely hairy, tongue¬ shaped leaves are 4 to 6 inches long. The plant forms a mat of growth often 2 feet in width and a few inches in height, but may become invasive in rich soil. The flowering stalks rise to about 12 inches above the leaves and bear small pinkish purple flowers starting in June. These continue to appear until the end [174] Low Maintenance Perennials I 43 of the growing season. Although the flowers really cannot be called ugly, they are not handsome either, and some gardeners may wish to cut them off. This species has great value as an accent at the front of the border when used sparingly. Sources: 13,24,46,49,66,67,69; A,C,E,I,L Below: Stachys lanata. Photo: P. Bruns. arfSaMttr m “W ■ '-Tm 44 | ARNOLDIA Stokesia laevis Stokes Aster, Cornflower Aster Daisy Family (Compositae) There is only one species, which is listed invariably in cata¬ logs under the old name S. cyanea. The plant is of value for its blue, 3 to 4-inch, Aster-like flowers in August and September. It is of easy culture where a well-drained soil in winter can be provided. If this is not possible, it would be better not to attempt to grow this plant in our area. In nature the flowering stems may reach 18 to 24 inches in height but cultivated selections seldom grow more than 12 inches tall. Stokesias are most effective when planted in groups of at least three, about 12 to 15 inches apart. Spring planting or dividing is recommended. After the fourth year of flowering the plants will probably become crowded and require division. Sources: 4,14,24,49; A,I,L S. laevis ‘Blue Danube’ — Deep blue flowers in July and August Plants 12 to 15 inches in height. Sources: 13,24,28,49,58,60; C,I,J,K S. laevis ‘Blue Moon’ — Quite large silvery blue to lilac flowers. Sources: 13,25,37,66,68; C,H,L S. laevis ‘Blue Star’ — Light blue flowers. Sources: 67; B S. laevis ‘Silver Moon’ — Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24; C,I. Above: Stokesia laevis Thalictrum Meadowrue Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) The delicate compound foliage and lacy flowers of the Mead- owrues can be used to impart a light airy feeling in the border. The flowers, which have no true petals, are comprised of petal¬ like sepals and numerous colored stamens. This somewhat un¬ usual characteristic seldom fails to attract attention. Most species tolerate shady conditions, but may be grown in full sun if soil is relatively moist. The taller growing species have sturdy stems, so staking is seldom required. Established plants should remain in good condition for a number of years. Flowers are excellent for cutting. To achieve maximum effect in the garden, set the plants in groups of at least three, spaced 15 to 18 inches apart. T. aquilegifolium — Columbine Meadowrue — The gray-green leaves are similar in appearance to those of the Columbine. The individual lilac-purple flowers are small but produced in great quantity on 3-foot stems; they appear for a relatively brief period in late May and early June. Sources: 32,66 [177] Left: Stokesia laevis 46 | ARNOLDIA T. aquilegifolium ‘Album’ — White-flowered form. Source: 32 T. aquilegifolium ‘Dwarf Purple’ — Purple flowers on plants 2V2 feet in height. Sources: 24; I T. aquilegifolium ‘Roseum’ — Pink flowers. Source: 32 T. dipterocarpum — Yunnan Meadowrue — - Has lavender or mauve flowers with contrasting yellow stamens. A valuable plant for its August flowering. Reaches a height of about 5 feet and requires a rich moist soil. This species was discovered in Western China by Ernest H. Wilson while travelling for the Veitch Nurseries before he became associated with the Arnold Arboretum. Sources : 24,66; I T. dipterocarpum Album' — White-flowered form. Source: 68 T. dipterocarpum ‘Hewitt’s Double’ — A completely double form with rich mauve flowers, it is probably the most desirable cul- tivar, but does not appear to he available at present from any mail-order source in the country. T. minus (may he found in catalogs listed by its old name, T. adiantifolium ) — Low Meadowrue — This is a handsome foli¬ age plant for the front of the border. The much-dissected, fem- like leaves are reminiscent of the Maiden Hair Fern, and are of great value in bouquets. The flowers appearing in June and July are greenish-yellow and not at all conspicuous. Source: 32 T. rocquebrunianum — Lavender Mist — This is one of the fin¬ est of the Meadowrues, and a plant that could well be in every garden. The lavender flowers with soft yellow stamens appear at the top of 6-foot stems from mid-July through August. Gar¬ deners should not be discouraged with this species after the first or even the second year, especially if the plants obtained from the nursery were small; they require a few years to come into their own. Sources: 13,32,67; C [ 178] Low Maintenance Perennials I 47 Thalictrum rocquebrunianum [179] 48 | ARNOLDIA T. speciosissimum — Dusty Meadowrue — This yellow-flowered species may be found listed in catalogs as T. glaucum or T. rugosum. The dense clusters of slightly fragrant flowers appear in August on stems 4 to 6 feet in height. The blue-gray leaves are effective in flower arrangements. Sources: 32,66,67 Thermopsis False Lupine Pea Family (Leguminosae) This is another in the relatively small group of perennials that have the ability to endure considerable neglect for many years. Although native in the Southeast, it will survive New England winters, has no insect or disease problems, and the compound leaves remain in excellent condition throughout the growing season. The 12-inch spikes of bright yellow, pealike flowers appearing in June and early July resemble a yellow Lupine, hence the common name. Old plants may reach a height of 4 feet and form clumps up to a yard wide. Under such conditions they may require stak¬ ing. False Lupines should be grown in full sun in soil that is well drained; only moderate fertility is necessary. Sources: 3,4,13,14,25,29,66,68,69; B,C,E,K Tradescantia virginiana Spiderwort Spiderwort Family (Commelinaceae) Our native spiderwort, Tradescantia virginiana, is a plant that will tolerate poor soil, poor drainage and poor light, but may become a serious pest under favorable conditions. Plants reach a height of 18 to 24 inches and have fleshy, somewhat grass-like leaves and stems. The three-petaled flowers appear in small clusters during the summer. T. virginiana ‘Blue Stone’ — - Clear deep blue flowers. Sources: 24,69; I T. virginiana ‘Innocence’ — Pure white flowers. Source: 66 T. virginiana ‘Iris Prichard’ — White flowers with a violet flush. Sources: 13,32,66,67,69; C [ 180] Low Maintenance Perennials | 49 T. virginiana ‘T. C. Weguelin’ — Porcelain-blue flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,66,69; C, I T. virginiana ‘Kreisler’ — Deep blue flowers. Source: 66 T. virginiana ‘Orchid Lady’ — Orchid-pink flowers. Source: 1 T. virginiana ‘Pauline’ — Rose-mauve flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I,K T. virginiana ‘Pink Delight’ — Rich orchid-pink flowers. Source: 1 T. virginiana ‘Purple Dome’ — Rosy-purple flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,67,68,69; C, I T. virginiana ‘Purple Perfection’ — Rich purple flowers. Source: 1 T. virginiana ‘Red Cloud’ — Rosy-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I,K T. virginiana ‘Royal Purple’ — Deep purple flowers. Source: 1 T. virginiana ‘Snowcap’ — Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I T. virginiana ‘Valour’ — Deep red-violet flowers. Source: 66 T. virginiana Zwanenburg Blue’ — Medium blue flowers. Source: 66 Trollius Globe Flower Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Globe Flowers are found in nature growing in sunny, moist or marshy situations. In the garden they must have a position where they will remain moist throughout the summer. Under such conditions they will require little attention for many years. Despite catalog claims to the contrary, they bloom only in spring and early summer. The flowers range in size from 2 to 3 inches and may be single or double in shades ranging from pale yellow to orange. They make excellent, long-lasting subjects for flower arrangements. [ 181 ] 50 | ARNOLDIA The deeply-lobed leaves resemble those of Buttercups. According to species or cultivar they range in height from 1 to 3 feet and are most effective in groups of at least three spaced 10 to 12 inches apart near the front or middle of the flower border. Division may be accomplished either in spring or fall, but in most situations it will not be necessary for five years or more. Although a number of fine selections are available in this country, it is unfortunate that more nurseries do not stock them. T. asiaticus ‘Byrne’s Giant’ — Orange-yellow, semidouble flowers with bright orange-red anthers. Plants 2Vfe feet in height. Flow¬ ers a little later than the T. europaeus hybrids. Source: 69 T. europaeus — Common Globe Flower — - The true species prob¬ ably is not offered by nurseries; but a number of cultivars at¬ tributed to this species are available. Many are undoubtedly hybrids between T. europaeus and other species. T. europaeus ‘Commander-in-Chief’ — Large deep orange flow¬ ers. Plants about 2 feet in height. Less vigorous than most other varieties and prefers a deep, rich soil. Source: 66 T. europaeus ‘Earliest of All’ — Small clear yellow flowers. Plants about 2 feet in height, true to name. Source: 66 T. europaeus ‘Excelsior’ — Bright yellow flowers. Source: 32 T. europaeus ‘Fire Globe’ — Deep burnished orange flowers. 2 feet. Source: 32 T. europaeus ‘First Lancers’ — Fiery orange flowers. 21/2 feet. Source: 66 T. europaeus ‘Golden Monarch’ — Large golden-yellow flowers. Source: 66 T. europaeus ‘Lemon Queen’ — Very pale lemon-yellow flowers. 2 feet. Sources: 32,66,68; C T. europaeus ‘Mrs. Mary Russell’ — Pale yellow flowers. Sources: 66,68 [ 182] Low Maintenance Perennials | 51 T. europaeus ‘Orange Glow’ — Large deep orange-yellow flowers. Sources: 32,66 T. europaeus ‘Orange Princess’ — Orange-gold flowers. 2V2 feet. Source: 68 T. europaeus ‘Prichard’s Giant’ — Large golden-yellow flowers. Plants about 2Vz feet in height. Sources: 66,69; C T. europaeus ‘Superbus’ — Bright lemon-yellow flowers. Source: 68 T. ledebouri — Ledebour Globe Flower — Similar in general ap¬ pearance to the preceding species, but flowering starts in June. The flowers are orange-gold with erect bright orange stamens. Plants attain a height of about 2 to 2V2 feet. Sources: 14,32,37,67,68,69 T. ledebouri ‘Golden Queen’ — This is the tallest of all the Trol- lius cultivars, reaching a height of nearly 4 feet under the most favorable circumstances. The very large flowers, often 4 inches across, are orange-yellow. Sources: C,I T. pumilus — Dwarf Globe Flower — This is a treasure for a moist spot on the rock garden or similar situation at the very front of the flower border. The 1-inch, clear yellow flowers are produced in May and June on plants 6 to 8 inches in height. Source: 29 Verbascum Mullein Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) Although they are close relatives of the common Mullein, V. thapsus, which is frequently seen along roadsides and in waste places in our area, the species and cultivars for garden use far outshine the wild plant. Unfortunately the types most frequently available to the gardening public exhibit biennial tendencies, and new batches of seedlings must be raised every year to insure against losses. Many of the species and cultivars will self-sow and perpetuate themselves in a low maintenance situation, but this cannot always be guaranteed. The key to success with Verbascum is a location where the soil is very well drained especially during the winter months. Sandy loam that has moderate fertility will suffice, but the planting site must be in full sun. Although plants will withstand surprising amounts of drought, periodic watering during long dry spells will be beneficial. [ 183 ] 52 | ARNOLDIA The types discussed here vary in height from 2 to 4 feet. The five-petaled saucer-shaped flowers are about an inch in width and densely borne on spikes above basal rosettes of green to silvery-gray leaves. Depending upon variety, the spikes may be solitary or branched; some types produce numerous secondary spikes. The taller varieties invariably need staking to prevent the flower spikes from bending or flopping over after heavy rain. Removal of the flowering stalks immediately after flowering may encourage the production of new basal rosettes of foliage, thus discouraging the biennial tendencies of some of the forms. This will not always work, however. y. nigrum — Dark Mullein — This European native bears bold 2 to 3-foot spikes of small yellow flowers that are purplish at the center. The basal leaves may be oblong or heart-shaped. This species will often be much longer lived than the others discussed here. Source: 69 V. nigrum var. album — White-flowered form of the above species. Sources: 24; I V. phoeniceum — Purple Mullein — This species exhibits a strong biennial tendency. It is one of the principal parents of the gar¬ den hybrids, and unfortunately that tendency has been passed along to them. In a sunny dry location, the plant self-sows with little difficulty in the Boston area, but not prolifically. Plants reach a height of 2!/2 to 3 feet and bear loosely branched spikes of %-inch white to violet or purple flowers. Sources: 66,69; L V. X hybridum ‘Bridal Bouquet’ — Pure white flowers on plants 21/2 to 3 feet in height. Source: 66 y. X hybridum ‘Cotswold Gem’ — Soft amber-colored flowers with purple centers. Plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 24,67,69; I V. X hybridum ‘Pink Domino’ — Rose-pink flowers with maroon centers. Plants 4 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,66,69; C,I V. X hybridum ‘Yellow Queen’ — Bright yellow flowers on plants 3 feet in height. Source: 68 Veronica Speedwell Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) This is a very large group of garden plants. Many are best [184] Low Maintenance Perennials | 53 suited to the rock garden or naturalized areas, but a surprisingly large number of forms of great value in the perennial garden are presently offered by American nurseries. Of these selections, most are suitable for a low maintenance situation and are highly prized for their flowers which are excellent for cutting. Blue predominates, but purple, white and pink shades are obtainable as well. With proper selection of varieties, a succession of bloom throughout most of the growing season is possible. The flowers are small, but are borne densely on numerous erect spikes. Plants vary in height, according to variety, from 12 to 18 inches. They do best in an open, airy, sunny location where the soil is of moderate fertility and well drained, espe¬ cially during the winter. For tidy growth, clumps probably will require division after the fourth year, either in the spring or fall. Single specimens, or small groups of three plants spaced 12 to 18 inches apart at the front or towards the middle of the border are equally satisfactory. V. holophylla — Japanese Speedwell — Broad spikes about 12 to 15 inches high with vivid blue flowers. Starts to bloom in August and continues almost to the end of the growing season. Deep green glossy foliage. Very hardy. Sources: 13,24,29,32; C,I V. incana — Woolly Speedwell — The woolly white leaves and lilac-blue flowers form a handsome contrast. The flowers appear on 12 to 18-inch stems in June and July. When not in flower the plants seldom exceed 6 inches in height, so may be used at the front of the border or in the rock garden as well. Good drainage is a necessity. Sources: 14,24,39,46,49,66,68,69; A,I,J,K,L V. latifolia — Hungarian Speedwell — This species forms a tangled mound of foliage. The deep blue flowers are produced with surprising freedom throughout most of the summer. Source: 66 V. latifolia ‘Crater Lake Blue’ — A most desirable cultivar of the above species. It has vivid gentian-blue flowers and the same long blooming season. Sources: 24,32,59,66,67,69; I,K V. longifolia — Beach Speedwell, Clump Speedwell — Densely borne, lilac-blue flowers on long spikes that average 2 feet in height. Flowers from midsummer to fall. Sources: 66; L [ 185] 54 | ARNOLDIA V. longifolia var. subsessilis — Rich royal blue flowers, quite striking in their effect. Much superior to the species form, and with the same long blooming period. Sources: 24,46,66,67; B,I V. spicata — Spike Speedwell — Numerous 14 to 184nch dense spikes of bright blue flowers from June to early August. Sources: 30; K,L V. spicata var. alba — Pure white-flowered form of the preceding species. Source: 66 V. spicata ‘Nana’ — A very low compact form not over 6 inches in height. Probably of more value in the rock garden, but of some interest for the very front of the flower border. Blue flow¬ ers at the same time as the species. Source: 66 V. spicata ‘Nana Alba’ — White-flowered form of the above cul- tivar. Source: 66 Of the following list of cultivars, some may properly belong under V. spicata and others under V. longifolia. The two species have been crossed extensively and some cultivars are obviously hybrids between the two. For convenience they are lumped together here as Veronica hybrids. V. ‘Barcarolle’ — 1-foot spikes of striking deep rose-pink flowers from June to August. Sources: 24,49,59,69; I,K V. ‘Blue Champion’ — Medium blue flowers from July to late summer on bushy, 21/2-foot plants. Source: 67 V. ‘Blue Peter’ — Deep blue flowers on compact spikes. Much branched lVfe-foot plants with fairly long serrated leaves. Blooms from July to August. Sources : 68,69; B,I V. ‘Blue Spire’ — Very erect ll/2-foot plants with deep violet- blue flowers from June to August. Sources: 13,66; C V. ‘Icicle’ — Pure white flowers from June to September on 2- [ 186] Low Maintenance Perennials | 55 foot spikes. Gray-green leaves. Sources: 13,14,24,32,39,46,58,66,67,68,69; C,I,J,K,L V. ‘Lavender Charm’ — Lavender-blue flowers on 18 to 24-inch spikes from June to September. Dark glossy green leaves. Sources: 13,24; C,I,J V. ‘Minuet’ — Soft pink flowers from June to August on plants about 1 foot in height. Handsome gray-green foliage. Sources: 13,14,24,32,39,46,49,66,67; C,I,J,K,L V. ‘Pavane’ — Bright pink or rose flowers from June to August on 18-inch spikes. Sources: 32,58,66; K V. ‘Pink Spire’ — 18 to 24-inch spikes of soft pink flowers with red anthers. Gray-green foliage. Sources: 13,66; C V. ‘Homily Purple’ — Dark blue-violet flowers from June to Aug¬ ust on rigid spikes lVz to 2 feet in height. Source: 68 V. ‘Saraband’ — Violet-blue flowers from June through August on 20-inch spikes. Sources: 66,67 V. ‘Sunny Border Blue’ — Navy-blue flowers from June to Sep¬ tember on 18 to 24-inch spikes. Sources: 13; C,J,L Although all of the following are excellent in their own way, they are quite low growing and not superior to the few low types already mentioned. For this reason it is suggested that they are better suited to the rock garden than to the front of the flower border. V. alpina ‘Alba’ — White flowers on stalks seldom exceeding 6 to 8 inches in height. Sources: 24,67,69; I V. pectinata ‘Rosea’ — A mat-forming plant with pink flowers with white centers. Hardiness a bit doubtful in the Boston area. Source: 66 V. prostrata (sometimes listed in catalogs as V. rupestris ) — Harebell Speedwell — Forms tufted mats of foliage. Flower spikes 2 to 8 inches in height. Flowers deep blue in May and June. Sources: 68; B [187] 56 | ARNOLDIA V. prostrata ‘Heavenly Blue’ — Sapphire-blue flowers, otherwise the same as the above. Sources: 24; I,K V. repens — Creeping Speedwell — Plants 2 inches in height produce slender spikes of pale or lavender blue flowers in June. Sources: 32,66; A HARDY ORNAMENTAL GRASSES Some of the easiest perennials to grow are members of the Grass family (Gramineae) . They are not seen frequently enough in perennial gardens, and some have a special importance in a low maintenance situation. Ornamental grasses may be of value for their habit of growth, variegated leaves, or decorative in¬ florescences (flowers). Most possess combinations of these; with some, winter interest is an added asset. The dried flowers or fruiting stalks of many are useful in flower arrangements as well. All the grasses recommended here are fully hardy in our area and should grow for many years before division for rejuvenation will be necessary. This is best done in early spring, just before new growth commences, and only when clumps start to die out in the center. Those noted for their winter interest should be allowed to retain their dead leaves until early spring, at which time plants should be cut back to an inch or so above ground level. An excellent, fully illustrated publication Ornamental Grasses for the Home and Garden, Information Bulletin 64, is available at a price of $.30 from the Extension Service, New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850. Carex morrowi ‘Variegata’ — Japanese Sedge Grass — A low, clump forming plant (actually a sedge, Cyperaceae, not a true grass) that grows from 6 to 12 inches in height. The evergreen leaves have narrow white margins. The flowers are insignificant. It will not spread rapidly under normal conditions and is hand¬ some in both winter and summer. Full sun or partial shade is satisfactory, but a soil that does not dry out for long periods is necessary. Excellent for growing in pots or other containers, both indoors and out. Sources: 66,67; C [188] Low Maintenance Perennials | 57 Elymus glaucus — Blue Lime Grass — A very densely-tufted grass with short blue-green leaves. It grows to a height of about 2 feet and is quite effective in small groupings at the front of the border. Unlike E. arenarius which is sometimes used in gar¬ dens, this species does not spread rapidly. Full sun is necessary, but the soil may be either moist or sandy and fairly dry. Useful in gardens near the sea. The leaves lose their coloration with the first frost. Sources: 66; L Erianthus ravennae — Plume Grass, Ravenna Grass, Hardy Pampas Grass — This is a very stately, tall grass that forms imposing 5-foot clumps, and flowering stalks rising 7 to 10 feet in height. It gives the closest effect to Pampas Grass of any plant that can be easily grown in New England. The green leaves present a somewhat coarse effect. The silvery plumes of white or beige flowers are 1 to 2 feet long and appear in Sep¬ tember and early October. These are occasionally destroyed by early frosts. Well-established clumps may produce upwards of 40 to 50 flower heads and these are excellent for use in dried arrangements. Plume Grass is not invasive, but clumps do eventually be¬ come several feet in width. A single specimen will be sufficient in most gardens, where the effect will be dramatic to say the least. Where massed, it can be effective as screening for those who may wish something a bit out of the ordinary. Foliage should not be cut down until early spring as the plants have a rather handsome effect in winter. A fairly moist but well- drained and fertile soil should be provided along with full sun. Sources: 67; B Miscanthus sinensis (syn. Eulalia japonica) — Eulalia Grass, Chinese Silver Grass — This is another very tall grass, usually attaining heights of 5 to 10 feet, and has many of the same uses as Erianthus ravennae due to its large size. The flowers are pale pink or red and appear in large, feathery fan-shaped panicles in September. These can be very effective when dried for ar¬ rangements. As with Erianthus the foliage should be left over winter and not cut until early spring. In a low maintenance situation, a site in full sun with somewhat poor but moist soil conditions should be chosen. In shady locations, or if encour¬ aged by excessive fertility, clumps may require tying to prevent toppling. Sources: 66; B. (The same sources list a form that they call Gigantea; this grows a foot or so taller than the species.) [189] Above: Clump of Miscanthus sinensis provides a contrast to shapes and textures of shrubs and perennials in the Low Maintenance Garden at the Case Estates, Weston. Photo: P. Bruns. Above: Erianthus ravenne. From Dic- tionnaire Practique D’Horticulture et du Jardinage. Paris, 1892-93. Left: Miscanthus sinensis. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. fed. 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USD A Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. [ 190] Low Maintenance Perennials | 59 Miscanthus sinensis ‘Gracillimus’ — Maiden Grass — This form differs from the above in that the leaves are finer in texture, have a conspicuous white midvein and a more arching habit of growth. It is shorter by about 2 feet. Sources: 13,24,28,67,68; B, I, L Miscanthus sinensis ‘Variegatus’ — Striped Eulalia Grass — Grows to a height of 3 to 6 feet. The leaves are striped yellow, white, and green. Although hardy in the Boston area, it seldom flowers here. Sources: 66,67; B Miscanthus sinensis ‘Zebrinus’ — Zebra Grass — A very striking grass with basically green leaves that have prominent yellow bands. It has an upright habit, and the unique foliage makes it an interesting and unusual specimen plant. It is frequently used near water. Does not form as vigorous clumps as the species, and will require staking if grown in the shade. Sources: 66,67; B Molinea caerulea ‘Variegata’ — Variegated Moor Grass — This forms small dense, upright to arching tufts 1 to 2 feet in height. The leaves have cream-colored margins. The green to purplish flowers are produced over most of the summer and are effective when dried. The plant dies to the ground in winter, so has no value at that time of year. It is effective as a low specimen plant or in small groupings at the front of the border. Adapts well either to full sun or partial shade. Sources: 24,66,69; I Panicum virgatum — Switch Grass — Densely upright clumps 3 to 6 feet in height that produce light, airy panicles of dark reddish-purple flowers from July to September. Because of the habit of growth, Switch Grass has distinct ornamental winter value and also has been suggested for use as a wildlife cover at that time of the year. It is suitable as a specimen plant at the middle of the border, and can be used in naturalizing schemes, in waterside plantings, or as a screen when massed. Prefers a site in full sun and is impartial to soil type. In a shady location plants may require staking. Light sandy soils may encourage spreading, but this happens slowly. Sources: 66; B Uniola latijolia — Northern Sea Oats, Spangle Grass — This is one of the best hardy native grasses, and probably the most ap¬ propriate for a partially shaded location. It has a narrow, up¬ right to arching habit of growth. Clumps reach 3 to 5 feet in [ 191 ] Above: Panicum virgatum. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Printing Office. Above: Uniola latifolia. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. fed. 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USDA. Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. height. The handsome 10 to 12-inch spikes of reddish-brown flowers (which turn to bronze) appear in late July and persist into the winter when they retain their pleasing appearance. The best planting site is where soil is fertile and well drained. A position in full sun will cause the plants to grow shorter and be less effective. Source: B [192] Low Maintenance Perennials | 61 The following grasses may be used in a low maintenance situ¬ ation, but they must be placed second in value to those discussed above : Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum ‘Variegatum’ — Variegated Bulbous Oat Grass, Variegated Tuber Oat Grass — This grows to a height of 18 to 25 inches and has wide green leaf blades with contrasting white stripes. The foliage is most effective in spring and autumn. Because the clumps become untidy looking during hot weather, they should be cut back to the base in mid¬ summer. Plants have a definite tendency to spread, and possess an open, upright habit of growth. Will grow well either in full sun or partial shade, and tolerate dry soil conditions. Sources: 24,66; I Phalaris arundinacea ‘Picta’ — - Ribbon Grass, Gardener’s Garters — Although this is a very attractive low grass, it has a decided tendency to become rampant in light soils. Also, the foliage be¬ comes less decorative toward the end of the summer. It grows about 2 or sometimes 3 feet in height and has an open, upright habit, not forming tight clumps or mounds. The leaves are green, striped with white, and occasionally pink. This grass was very popular in the past, and still frequently marks the site of old gardens. Spartina pectinata ‘Aureo-marginata’ (syn. S. michauxiana ‘Aureo-marginata’) — Cord Grass — An excellent plant for either sandy or wet soils, but may become invasive in the former situation. It grows to a height of 4 to 8 feet (tallest in moist locations) and should have a site in full sun. The 2 to 4-foot leaves are shiny green with yellow stripes along the margins. Yellow flowers on 6 to 15-inch stalks appear from late August through September. This is a very good plant for use along streams and ponds or near the sea; it is of less value in the perennial garden. Sources: 66; B The following grasses are not recommended, especially in a low maintenance situation: Arundo donax — Giant Reed — A very coarse, but striking plant. It may vary in height from 7 to 20 feet, but is seldom over 8 to 12 feet in our area. Although it can be used locally, it is at the margin of its hardiness, and must be heavily mulched in winter. Sources: 67; B [193] Above: Arrhenatherum elatius. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. ( ed . 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USDA. Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. Above: Phalaris arundinacea. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Printing Office. Arundo donax ‘Variegata’ — Leaves with broad white stripes at the margins, and a narrower white stripe down the midrib. Less hardy than the species and not for outdoor culture around Boston. Sources: 13,66,67; C Cortaderia argentea (syn. C. selloana ) — Pampas Grass — A densely tufted perennial grass that grows up to 9 feet and more in height and produces conspicuous silvery-white panicles of flowers in late summer. In the Boston area it can only be grown with considerable protection, and this is hardly worthwhile, as Erianthus ravennae makes such a good substitute. Sources: 25,44,59; A [ 194] Above: Arundo donax. From The Gar¬ den, Vol. XVI.-322, Oct. 1879. Above: Festuca ovina. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Print¬ ing Office. Festuca ovina var. glauca — - Blue Fescue — Although this is the ornamental grass most frequently offered by nurseries, it is one of the least satisfactory for the true low maintenance situation because of its need for division every second or third year to maintain the vigor of the clumps. It is frequently suggested for use as a ground cover, a purpose to which it is unsuited. Grow¬ ing in neat clumps about 6 to 12 inches in height, with silvery blue, finely textured leaves, Blue Fescue remains completely evergreen in New England winters. It must have a well-drained soil, but will tolerate either full sun or partial shade. It is a beautiful little plant, well loved by some landscape architects, but not worthwhile for easy maintenance. Sources: 24,32,44,49,58,59,66,67; A,B,C,I,K,L [ 195 ] 64 I ARNOLDIA Planning and Preparing the Garden Site Considerations The ideal site for a perennial garden is one exposed to full sun for the entire day, out of the wind, with a well-drained, fertile, loamy soil abundantly supplied with organic matter, on flat, not sloping land, and occupying a conspicuous location on the prop¬ erty. Few people are blessed with such a site! Fortunately, many perennials adapt to a fairly wide range of conditions, and there are numerous species for special situations. A thorough survey of one’s property should be taken before any decision is made on location. If at all possible, the garden should be sited so that it is visible either from the house or patio, or from the street as an embellishment to the dwelling itself. Traditionally the perennial garden has been provided with a backdrop, usually a hedge or wall of some sort. Wooden and metal fences of many styles are used for this purpose; in fact, a well-planned perennial border can mask a chain link fence as effectively as it complements the beauty of a wooden fence or screen. Other backdrops may include the shrubbery in the foundation planting of a house, a wall of the house itself, or the boundary of a woodland using the distant scene as a back¬ drop. Today landscape thinking and practice have set the perennial border free of the prescribed, often stereotyped, backdrop, mak¬ ing it optional according to the situation. The garden now may be brought out into the middle of the lawn, independent of any single feature, yet integrated into the total scene. In such a position it can take on the various shapes of free-form beds often raised or contoured, and gently defined by curving lines. Shrubs having contrasting shapes, textures, or color can be used as complementary plantings; even interesting large stones or boulders may be sparingly incorporated. The use of these ele¬ ments adds extra interest during both the growing season and the bleak winter months when most gardens are least attractive. Liberation from the necessity of providing a riot of color at all times enables the gardener to give consideration to the sub- [196] Low Maintenance Perennials | 65 tleties of texture and leaf form, to the dramatic effects of bold masses, or interesting small nooks set against the lines or shape of the garden itself. Freed from the rectangular or circular de¬ signs that any child could produce, the art rather than the trade of horticulture can come into full play, and almost endless pos¬ sibilities for the design or location of beds and borders can arise: beside walks, along driveways, in or next to terraces or patios, around existing specimen shrubs or small trees, at the base of a rock outcropping, with or partially surrounding the vegetable garden, by a fence or hedge, or amongst the shrubs of the foun¬ dation planting. The number of acceptable sites for perennials, and for low maintenance perennials in particular, is almost equal to the diverse sites to be found on any property. Sun vs. Shade Once a visually satisfying location for the perennial garden is selected, attention must be given to the interrelated factors of soil and sun and shade. A relatively large number of plants will survive a poor dry soil in full sun; but relatively few will do well in deep shade even with soil of optimum quality. Shade conditions may be divided into three categories : 1 ) partial shade, 2) light shade, and 3) deep shade. Partial shade exists when a location is in direct sun for only a portion of each day. Many sun-loving perennials will adapt to such conditions, but the fewer the hours of direct sun, the greater will be the need for staking, the greater the danger from fungus diseases, and the likelihood that some plants will produce rampant growth. Full sun during the early or later hours of the day is sometimes considered to be preferable to full sun during the middle of the day. Early afternoon sun is the hottest, and is apt to dry the soil and cause flowers to fade rapidly. Light shade exists when plants receive no direct sunlight, but the light intensity is nonetheless high. This occurs when widely spaced buildings or trees cut off the direct rays of the sun, and is the ideal condition for nearly all shade-loving plants. The ex¬ treme condition, deep shade, results when plants receive no direct sunlight, and the light intensity is quite low, similar to indoor room conditions. In such a situation, root competition from trees is often a serious problem. As a practical rule of thumb, the roots of a tree extend from the trunk at least as far as the tips of the branches. A garden that is situated beneath the branches of a tree has to contend with not only the lack of light produced by the branches, but also the competition of the [197] 66 | ARNOLDIA tree roots for water and nutrients. If at all possible a perennial garden should not be sited adjacent to trees. Soil and Its Modifications Existing soil conditions may limit choice of perennials just as exposure to varying degrees of light can affect success. Though it frequently is not possible to alter exposure to sun or shade, soils can be modified; perennials that are not to be divided frequently and will stay in place for several years or longer require thorough attention to their needs before they are planted. The first order of business is to determine what is under the surface of the soil. One or more holes should be dug to a depth of 18 to 24 inches in the area of the prospective site. This will determine the depth of the topsoil, the character of the subsoil, and the conditions of drainage. Many housing developments provide only an inch or two of top soil over a gravel or clay subsoil. This is not adequate to support a garden. Furthermore, the subsoil may be contaminated with mortar, old boards, tin cans, broken bottles, and similar debris that will interfere with drainage and nutrient availability. The soil for the perennial garden should be 6 to 8 inches deep; the subsoil should be freely drained, and drainage should not be impeded by a layer of clay (hardpan). If the conditions are not ideal, they can be easily remedied. The amount and depth of the soil can be increased by incorporating some sort of organic material into the top 6 to 8 inches. This may be com¬ post, stable or cow manure, sawdust, leaves, chopped hay; in short, any sort of decomposable organic matter that can be obtained cheaply. It can be incorporated into the soil with a rototiller, or it can be dug in with a fork or shovel. Preferably, it should be dug in several months before planting is contem¬ plated to allow time for decomposition. Organic matter also will help moisture retention in a droughty, sandy or gravelly soil, and will tend to lighten a clay soil. However, if drainage is poor, it will pay to add sufficient bulk to the soil to raise the surface several inches above the surroundings. Always the watchword is organic matter and more organic matter. It is impossible to state how much fertilizer or lime should be added to the soil before planting. That depends entirely upon the existing state of fertility, and it is necessary to have a soil test made to obtain the true picture. Most State Experiment Stations or County Extension Services will make such tests and [198] Low Maintenance Perennials | 67 distribute information on how to collect a proper sample for analysis. The report they issue on the analysis will state how much of a particular fertilizer will be needed for so many square feet, how much lime will be required to compensate for over¬ acidity (most perennials prefer soil conditions ranging from slightly on the acid side to near neutral), and how much organic matter will be needed. Fertilizer and lime are easily purchased in any garden store. If the garden is being prepared in the autumn, to be planted the following spring, it is best to with¬ hold fertilizer until spring and rototill again. Initial preparation of a new site is usually best in the autumn. The soil is easier to work then; grass can be rototilled in to decompose over the winter, and the soil has a chance to settle. If the initial preparation is in the spring, the grass should be removed, including all roots, and placed on the compost pile. After rototilling the soil will be too loose for immediate plant¬ ing. It should be tamped down by slightly treading with the feet, up and down in rows until the entire area is covered. A distinction should be made here between “treading” and “stomp¬ ing” as it is easy to compact the soil too much, especially if it is wet. After the treading process is completed, and a firm planting bed has been established, the soil should be raked level, and the planting process may begin. After the garden has been planted it should be mulched to a depth of 2 to 4 inches with the same material that was dug in to provide organic matter. This mulch should be renewed an¬ nually. In the long run a mulch should break down and add organic matter and nutrients to the soil; in the short run, it re¬ duces the temperature of the soil in the summer, delays freezing in the fall and warming in the spring (thus helping to avoid frost damage), and acts as a reservoir for soil moisture. It also slows evaporation of water from the soil surface, and inhibits the germination of weed seeds in the soil. Proprietary mulching materials such as ground bark may be used, but they have little to commend them over less expensive materials. Peatmoss has disadvantages since it dries to form a surface that is difficult to wet; on the other hand, once thoroughly wet it may cause soggy soil conditions. [199] 68 | ARNOLDIA Some Suggested Staking Methods The tendency to flop, or the inability of a plant to bear the heavy weight of its own flowers has been listed throughout this hand¬ book as a “fault” possessed by a number of perennials. Some that have this unfortunate tendency possess too many other good characteristics to be excluded from the low maintenance garden. All methods illustrated here are simple, effective, and require very little time of the hurried gardener. It should be emphasized, however, that all staking should be done as early in the growing season as possible, or as soon as the taller growing plants have attained half their height. Staking a full grown plant requires much more time, and re¬ sults frequently are unattractive. If it is allowed to flop, or to be toppled by wind and rain, stems often can become twisted or sometimes broken. After a few days the twists tend to be¬ come permanent, and staking at such a late date is of very little benefit. Below: A clump of Thermopsis has collapsed at the end of the summer. Proper staking earlier in the growing season ivould have prevented this problem. Many plants that produce multiple stems may be staked with small twiggy branches set in the ground just as, or even before, plants commence growth in the spring. This is an old European method, particularly favored with Asters. Seldom used in this country, it is most effective. As the plant grows, it is completely supported by the twigs, but the twigs are entirely hidden. 70 I ARNOLDIA The stems of some taller perennials with large, heavy flowers must be staked individually. Green bamboo canes are best with such plants as Delphinium and the larger flowered Chrysanthe¬ mums; Raffia, cloth or plastic ties are preferred to metal or wire ties which may constrict or damage stems. A twist in the tie should be made between the stem of the plant and the stake to further avoid damage to the stem. [202] Low Maintenance Perennials I 71 Shorter plants such as Peonies with large, heavy flowers can be supported with a round hoop attached to three or four legs. Such hoops are easily constructed from heavy gauge wire or even old coat hangers. The legs may be either of wire or bamboo cane. [ 203 ] 72 I ARNOLDIA Many taller perennials form dense clumps with many stems. With such plants the most satisfactory method of support is often to construct a “cage” with bamboo canes and string as shown in the diagram. If this is done relatively early in the growing season, the structure will be almost completely hidden by the subsequent growth of the plant. [ 204 ] & Baby’s Breath is one of the most difficult plants to stake effec¬ tively. The method we offer is pictured in the White Flower Farm catalog and adapted here. Just as growth starts, 10 to 12 bamboo canes about 2 feet high are placed all around the clump. Twist-Ems are then used to make rings around the canes. [205] 74 I ARNOLDIA As growth progresses, stems grow through, and are supported by the structure. [ 206 ] Low Maintenance Perennials 75 By the time the plant flowers, the supporting structure is completely hidden and the plant will withstand high winds or rain without injury. [207] 76 I ARNOLDIA Division Sooner or later most perennials will need to be divided — either to prevent excessive spreading, or to reinvigorate the plant (or both). Division is also one of the simplest means of propagating many perennials on a modest scale. Spring or fall division is satisfactory with most types. How¬ ever, plants divided in the early spring just as new growth is about to start have the advantage of an entire season for new roots to grow and plants to become established before winter. The best indications that a plant should be divided include: 1) vigor shows a general decline; 2) clumps become very tangled in growth — or become invaded by other plants and weeds; 3) clumps open up and form a dead space in the center. The best divisions are usually obtained from the outermost portions of old clumps — i.e. growth furthest away from the center. This is the most active growing and vigorous part of the plant. Small plants may be lifted with a fork or small spade; they also may be pulled apart by hand or cut with a knife. Three to five “eyes” constitute the best sized division. Anything smaller may not flower during the current season. Large vigorous clumps are best lifted with a spading fork. First the top growth is cut down to about 3 inches. The fork is then inserted at several points around the outside of the clump, and gentle upward pressure exerted at each point. If this is done gradually and gently, the clump can be lifted with a minimum of root breakage. Left: A clump of Anthemis has died at the center and should be divided. [ 209 ] 78 I ARNOLDIA To divide large tightly growing clumps after they have been lifted, plunge one fork down through the center of the clump. Then insert a second fork parallel to the first. As indicated, pull the two forks first inward, then outward, and the clump will break in two with minimal crown and root damage. It is im¬ portant that the initial placement of the forks be as shown. [ 210 ] Low Maintenance Perennials I 79 Once a large clump has been broken up by the spading forks, smaller divisions may be obtained using a hand fork or a knife. [211] Tabular List of Plants Mentioned 05 o <3 o o o 52 o c ^ .fcj § .2 p 3 c/5 S’ S’! rt£Q n) ■0 TJ IS rt rt fC Oh 03 nS K 0 3 3 Oh fct, Cfl t, Cfl SoSE o +? rt o 'S3 3 S3 4> to .H O M C Q £ » 2 h O g D r-H .2 ^ "2 T3 S s^o S3 Ph ^ ui W 3 8 h 0) ■03 S S « 25 = S3 Oh : c o rt C/O U XXXXXX^XX Oi 0) ng o u >H £ U OJ -> > w XX X X X x X X X X X X X X cS 05 00 3 §■ s § a -si < < XXX X X X X XX XX x X X XX XX < < < CO cc 00 3 s Si 'a T 2 -a g CO j£ 03 ■a -> cij 03 CD 3h 03 > H n 03 > W X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XXX X X X X XXX X X X X XX XX XXX X XXXXX XX XX X XX XXX XX X X X X XXX cpqeqpqm MOO 03 *H 3 -5 52 o) „ _ _ _ +3 ea ca e ^ ^ ^ H b ^ 0) v a) rQ -si u u a o u o o [213] Cimicifuga Clematis JJD 3 o <3 5- Q o CD <3 .CJ "S £ 3 P w cr cr'£ fU fl) < 3-S gj a “ h a s ODD fe ft, CO °S£ W £ Q £ W fi H ^ S ^ • S ^ C T3 ^ 3 £ o S 2^0 a cm "-' £ WJ m c 5 £ « *3 3 £ S >h o d a- * W5 * K e< fi o aj to JO 14H D 1-1 O ■'•' « c .■ssa.s 3 *2 to T3 « C o u w C O ►'S '3 i 0"< Dto^ c o o as D X X XXX X * X X X X X XXX xxxxxxx X X 2 -a -g - Q, .3 as > Cl O O OJ U U Q X X xxx x XX x X X X X X X X X X XXXX XX X X X X X X XX x •£ XXXX Xtt'X O 35 as a, 3 £ 3 3 3 C tn || o So s *1 o •S 3 - S S M 'S &-c as s S 3 .3 g S Q. ^3 qqqqqwhwwhu c [214] huphorbia Filipendula Gaillardia H 0) > W 1H rt W x * x x xxx X X X X xx*xxxxxxxxxx X X X X X X xxx X X XX X XXX xxx XXXXXXXXXX XX XX XXXXX XX X X X X X X X X C/3 .a 3 c/3 o Oh rO O 2 e 1 ' J3 ^•2 aj rt PI £ 0) nj o w C WJ 4-1 C, C 3 >3 ,2 , »rH • rH -rH -rH W ^ *— y HH HH -3 H «_i_ij_ii_i_!-i_i_i2§S cu o Ph g oj aj £ O [215] years [(x) indicates the characteristic may he highly variable ] £ 0 .a § .2 3 3 w O' CT'3 a) D .2 P5 * Q fa w n a c 0 3 3 fa fa W s s S s ■c S £3 qj m O W fi Q * <-l fa /-V .5 S 2^o X Oh W Cfl r- Lj 1 1 Icr 'O 3 S m o 3 T1 ,2 * m * K fa ^ t; 73 O 2 -c £ C/J +$ ^ £ O 03 C/J i D £ .2 a -a O ° ^ o U £ o 2 o U CT u oj >. S > W 2 « C5 cs M S-. > w w X X X X SC X X X X X XXXXXXXX X X X X XXX X X X XXXX XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Sh a> « x _ fa. ° a! rt 33 Oh Oh (fa rt 2 o CD a u ^ 7l rt O h _ _ •!*■< O 4*** +J C"* W M W W W Cfl t/1 H [216] Verbascum Veronica Carex x x x X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX x X « * * X X xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx X X X X X X X a) 3 3 ^ in 13 t! <4 IlN whSS P <5l O ^ li Oh D 8 S rt T3 o $ 2 o <5 O Oh [217] 86 | ARNOLDIA Acknowledgements The author is grateful to colleagues and members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum for their assistance in the preparation of this guide. Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., is re¬ sponsible for the comprehensive tabular list of low maintenance perennials, and for portions of the chapter on culture. Mrs. Robert S. Blacklow spent many tedious hours carefully codify¬ ing the sources; Mrs. Frank Magullion put the primroses in their place, and offered constructive criticism of other portions of the manuscript, as did Drs. DeWolf and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. Mrs. Irving Fraim’s lovely garden in Waltham was the setting for many of the photographs; other illustrations reflect the fine workmanship of artist Robert Opdyke. To others, too numerous to mention, gratitude is due for their interest, encouragement, and knowledge freely shared. Without these contributions, large and small. Low Maintenance Peren¬ nials could not have become a reality. Robert S. Hebb Horticulturist, Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Garden (formerly Assistant Horticulturist, Arnold Arboretum) Erratum, page 107 — First two sentences under Heuchera should read: These are excellent plants with few troubles, and capable of being left in place at least five years or longer before division will become necessary. They flower best in full sun, but also will perform well in light shade. [218] Low Maintenance Perennials | 87 Index to Common Names (Page numbers refer to those in brackets') Acanthus, 15 Aconite, 19 Ageratum, Hardy, 87 Alkanet, Italian, 27 Alum Root, 107 Alyssum, Goldentuft, 25 Amsonia, 26 Anchusa, Dwarf, 47 Anemone, 29 Angels Hair, 36 Artemisia, 35 Aster, 40 — , Cornflower, 176 — , Stokes, 176 Astilbe, 41 Auricula, 162 Avens, 94 Baby’s Breath, 95 Bachelor’s Button, Hardy, 53 Balloon Flower, 158 Barrenwort, 80 Basket-of-Gold, 25 Beebalm, 142 Bellflower, 49 — , Garland, 21 Bergamot, 142 Bergenia, 45 Bethlehem Sage, 165 Betony, 174 Bigleaf-Goldenray, 131 Bishop’s Hat, 80 Blackberry Lily, 44 Blanket Flower, 89 Blazing Star, 127 Bleeding Heart, 69 Bloody Cranesbill, 94 Bluebell, 142 — , Virginia, 142 Bluebells of Scotland, 51 Blue Fescue, 195 — Indigo, 44 — Leadwort, 55 — Lime Grass, 189 Bluet, Mountain, 53 Boltonia, 47 Bugbane, 60 Bugle, Bugleweed, 21 Bugloss, Italian, 27 — , Siberian, 47 Bulbous Oat Grass, Variegated, 193 Burning Bush, 72 Butterfly Weed, 38 Button Snakeroot, 127 Camomile, False, 47 — , Golden, 30 — , Ox-eye, 30 Campion, 136 Candytuft, 119 Canterbury Bells, 51 Cardinal Flower, 135 Carnation, 68 Carpathian Harebell, 51 Catchfly, German, 136 Catmint, 144 Catnip, 145 Cat’s Ear, 30 Centaurea, 53 Cerastium, 54 Chalk Plant, 95 Chinese Silver Grass, 189 Christmas Rose, 102 Chrysanthemum, Hardy, 58 Clematis, 62 Cohosh, 60 Columbine, 31 Cone Flower, 165 Coneflower, Hedgehog or Purple, 77 Coral Bells, 107 Cord Grass, 193 Coreopsis, 64 Cornflower Aster, 176 Corn Flower, Perennial, 53 Cranesbill, 92 Creeping Jenny, 138 Cupid’s Dart, Cupid’s Love Dart, 52 Daisy, Gloriosa, 166 — , Painted, 58 — , Shasta, 59 Danesblood, 50 David’s Harp, 162 [219] 88 | ARNOLDIA Daylily, 103 Delphinium, 66 Dittany, 72 Doronicum, 76 Dragonhead, False, 156 Dropwort, 88 Dunesilver, 38 Dusty Miller, 38 Dwarf Anchusa, 47 Eryngo, 84 Eulalia Grass, 189 Euphorbia, Myrtle, 88 Evening-Primrose, 145 False Camomile, 47 — Dragonhead, 156 — Goat’s Beard, 41 — Indigo, 44 — Lupine, 180 — Rampion, 51 — Spiraea, 41 — Starwort, 47 Fescue, Blue, 195 Filipendula, 88 Flax, 133 Fleabane, 83 Fleur-de-lis, 120 Foxglove, 74 Fringed Sagewort, 38 Funkia, 112 Gaillardia, 89 Gardener’s Garters, 193 Garden Phlox, 153 Garland Bellflower, 21 Gas Plant, 72 Gayfeather, 127 Geranium, Bloodred, 94 German Catchfly, 136 Geum, 94 Ghost Plant, 36 Giant Reed, 193 Globe Centaurea, 53 — Flower, 181 — Thistle, 79 Gloriosa Daisy, 166 Goats-Beard, 38 Golden Camomile, 30 — Glow, 166 — Groundsel, 131 — Marguerite, 30 Goldenrod, 173 Goldentuft Alyssum, 25 Grasses, Hardy Ornamental. 188 Groundsel, Golden, 131 Hardy Ageratum, 87 — Aster, 40 — Bachelor’s Button, 53 — Chrysanthemum, 58 — Hibiscus, 109 — Pampas Grass, 189 — Statice, 132 — Zinnia, 100 Harebell, Carpathian, 53 Hedgehog Coneflower, 77 Helen’s Flower, 98 Heliopsis, 100 Hellebore, 101 Hibiscus, Hardy, 109 Hollyhock, 22 — , Miniature, 172 Hosta, 112 Iceland Poppy, 153 Indigo, Blue or False, 44 Iris, 120 Italian Alkanet, 27 — Bugloss, 27 Jacob’s Ladder, 160 Japanese Anemone, 29 — Pearly Everlasting, 26 — Sedge Grass, 188 Knapweed, Mountain, 53 Lace Shasta, 60 Ladybells, 21 Lady’s Mantle, 21 — Seal, 162 Lamb’s Ears, 174 Larkspur, 66 Lavender Mist, 178 — , Sea, 132 Leadwort, Blue, 55 Lenten Rose, 103 Leopard Flower, 44 Leopardsbane, 76 Lily, Blackberry, 44 Lily-of-the-Valley, 64 Lime Grass, Blue, 189 Live-Forever, 170 Lobelia, 135 Loosestrife, 137 [ 220 ] Low Maintenance Perennials — , Purple, 139 Lungwort, 164 Lupine, Lupin, 136 — , False, 180 Lyre Flower, 69 Madwort, 25 Maiden Grass, 191 Mallow, Prairie, 172 — , Rose, 109 Maltese Cross, 136 Marguerite, Golden, 30 Martha Washington Plume, 89 Mary and Joseph, 164 Meadowrue, 177 Meadow Sweet, 88 Megasea, 45 Michaelmas Daisy, 40 Milfoil, 15 Miniature Hollyhock, 172 Mist Flower, 87 Moneywort, 138 Monkshood, 19 Moor Grass, Variegated, 191 Mountain Bluet, 53 — Knapweed, 53 Mourning Bride, 168 Mugwort, 35 Mullein, 183 Mullein-pink, 137 Mum, 58 Myrtle Euphorbia, 88 Northern Sea Oats, 191 Obedient Plant, 156 Old Man, 36 — Woman, 38 Orange Daisy, 84 — Sunflower, 100 Oriental Poppy, 150 Orpine, 170 Oswego Tea, 142 Ox-eye Camomile, 30 Painted Daisy, 58 Pampas Grass, 194 — — , Hardy, 189 Peach Bells, 49 Pearly Everlasting, Japanese, 26 Paeony, Peony, 147 Perennial Corn Flower, 53 Phlox, Garden, 153 — , Summer, 153 Pig Squeak, 45 Pincushion Flower, 168 Pink, 68 Plaintain-lily, 112 Pleurisy Root, 38 Plume Grass, 189 Plume-Poppy, 141 Poppy, Iceland, 153 — , Oriental, 150 — , Plume, 141 Prairie Mallow, 172 Primrose, 162 — , Evening, 145 Purple Coneflower, 77 — Loosestrife, 139 Pussytoes, 30 Pyrethrum, 58 Queen-of-the-Meadow, 89 Queen-of-the-Prairie, 89 Rampion, False, 51 Ravenna Grass, 189 Red-Hot Poker, 126 Ribbon Grass, 193 Rock Cress, 33 Rose Mallow, 109 Sage, 167 — , Bethlehem, 164 Sagewort, Fringed, 38 Salvia, 167 Sandwort, 33 Sea Holly, 84 — Lavender, 132 — Oats, Northern, 191 Sea-Pink, 34 Sedge Grass, Japanese, 188 Senna, Wild, 52 Shasta Daisy, 59 Showy Stone Crop, 170 Siberian Bugloss, 47 Silver Grass, Chinese. 189 Snakehead, 56 Snakeroot, 60 — , Button, 127 Sneezeweed, 98 Sneezewort, 15 Snow-in-Summer, 54 Soldiers-and-Sailors, 164 Solomon’s Seal, 161 Southernwood, 36 89 [221] 90 [ ARNOLDIA Spangle Grass, 191 Speedwell, 184 Spiderwort, 180 Spiraea, False, 41 Spurge, 87 Starry Grasswort, 54 Starwort, 40 — , False, 47 Statice, Hardy, 132 Stay-in-Place, 156 Stokes Aster, 176 Stonecress, 21 Stone Crop, Showy, 170 Striped Eulalia Grass, 191 Summer Phlox, 153 Sundrops, 145 Sunflower, Orange, 100 Switch Grass, 191 Thistle, Globe, 79 Thrift, 34 Tickseed, 64 Torch-lily, 126 Tree-Celandine, 141 Tritoma, 126 Turtlehead, 56 Variegated Bulbous Oat Grass, 193 — Moor Grass, 191 — Tuber Oat Grass, 193 Virginia Bluebell, 142 Wall Cress, 33 Wild Senna, 52 Willow Amsonia, 26 Wolf’s Bane, 19 Wormwood, 35 Yarrow, 15 Yellow-Hardhead, 53 Zebra Grass, 191 Zinnia, Hardy, 100 [ 222 ] Low Maintenance Perennials I 91 An attractive grouping of low maintenance perennials. [ 223 ] 92 ARNOLDIA .Ea«! U S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION (Act of August 12, 1970: Section 3685. Title 39. United States Code) SEE INSTRUCTIONS ON PAGE 2 (REVERSE) 1 TITLE OF PUBLICATION ARNOLDIA 2. DATE OF FILING Sept. 26, 1974 3. FREQUENCY OF ISSUE BI-MONTHLY ■4 LOCATION OF KNOWN OFFICE OF PUBLICATION (Street, city, county, state. ZIP code) (Not printers) ARBORWAY, JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. 02130 S. LOCAtlON OF THE HEADQUARTERS OR GENERAL BUSINESS OFFICES OF THE PUBLISHERS (Not printers ) ARBORWAY, JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. 02130 6 NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHER. EDITOR. AND MANAGING EDITOR PUBLISHER (Name and address) THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, ARBORWAY, JAMAICA PLAIN EDITOR (Name and address) JEANNE S. WADLEIGH, ARNOLD ARBORETUM, ARBORWAY, JAMAICA PLAIN, KKSS. 02130 MANAGER EDITOR (frame and address) 7. OWNER (If owned by a corporation, its name and address must be stated and also immediately thereunder the names and addresses of stockholders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of stock If not owned by a corporation, the names and addresses of the individual owners must be given. If owned by a partnership or otlr - unincorporated firm, its name and address, as well as that of each individual must be gi ven.) NAME ADDRESS The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Mas6. 02130 University 8. KNOWN BONDHOLDERS. MORTGAGEES. AND OTHER S TOTAL AMOUNT OF 80NDS. MORTGAGES OR OTHER SECU ECURITY HOLDERS OWNING OR HOLDING 1 PERCENT OR MORE OF RITIES (If there are none, so state) NAME ADORESS THE PRESIDENT & FELLOWS OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 02138 9 FOR OPTIONAL COMPLETION BY PUBLISHERS MAILING AT THE REGULAR RATES (Section 132.121, Postal Service Manual) 39 U. S. C. 3626 provides In pertinent part "No person who would have been entitled to mail matter under lormer section 4359 of this title shall mail such matter at the rates provided under this subsection unless he files annually with the Postal Service a written request for retos presently authorized by 39 U. S. C. 3626 9 P p P eg 10 FOR COMPLETION BY NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS AUTHORIZED TO MAIL AT SPECIAL RATES (Section 132.122. PostalManua!) (Check one) The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this Have not changed r— > Have changed during (If changed, publisher must organization and the exempt status for Feders. 4 during preceding I—* preceding 1 2 months submit explanation of change Income tax purposes 12 months with this Statement.) 11. EXTENT AND NATURE OF CIRCULATION AVERAGE NO. COPIES EACH ISSUE DURING PRECEDING 12 MONTHS ACTUAL NUMBER OF COPIES OF SINGLE ISSUE PUBLISHED NEAR¬ EST TO FILING DATE A. TOTAL NO. COPIES PRINTED (Net Press Run) 3600 4100 B PAID CIRCULATION 1. SALES THROUGH DEALERS AND CARRIERS. STREET VENDORS AND COUNTER SALES 25 30 2. MAIL SUBSCRIPTIONS 3000 3300 C. TOTAL PAID CIRCULATION 3025 3330 D. FREE DISTRIBUTION BY MAIL. CARRIER OR OTHER MEANS 1. SAMPLES. COMPLIMENTARY. AND OTHER FREE COPIES 60 70 2. COPIES DISTRIBUTED TO NEWS AGENTS, BUT NOT SOLD None None E. TOTAL DISTRIBUTION (Sum of C and D) 3085 3400 F. OFFICE USE. LEFT-OVER. UNACCOUNTED. SPOILED AFTER PRINTING 515 700 G. TOTAL (Sum of E & F— should equal net press run shown in A) 3600 4100 ^ (Signature of editor, publisher, business manager, or owner) 1 certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. PS Form 3526 July 1971 [ 224 ] library |w«ay 8 19 fb NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDE, ARNOLDIA The Arnold Arboretum Vol. 35, No. 2 Mar. /April 1975 Contents 93 Poison-ivy and Its Kin WILLIAM T. GILLIS 124 ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated GEORGE H. PRIDE 127 Amoldia Reviews ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published six times a year: in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $ 8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All illustratiojis in this issue are by respective authors unless otherwise indicated. Cover: Toxicodendron rectum from Hortus Elthamensis . . . , Vol. 2, by J. J. Dillenius. Lugduni Batavorum. C. Haak. 1774. Poison-ivy and Its Kin Nearly everyone has an acquaintance with poison-ivy, chiefly from the rash that it causes rather than from its nature as a plant. Most of what I shall write here, however, concerns this very interesting plant and its distribution in the world. Hope¬ fully I can dispel myths — old wives’ tales — that persist in our folklore despite scientific findings to disprove them. Benign Relatives Poison-ivy is a member of the sumac family ( Anacardiaceae) to which a number of other familiar plants belong. One of them is the common staghorn sumac ( Rhus typhina ) (See Fig. 1). Actually this plant has several relatives in the United States, all with the upright cone of red fruits in the late summer and fall, which differ very little from one another and which, in fact, occasionally hybridize. These are the smooth sumac ( Rhus glabra ) and the dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina ), which has a winged petiole or rachis. Some other related species are found in local areas of the Southeastern United States. Another member of the benign sumacs is the aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica ) (See Fig. 2). It is found in diverse places — generally in regions of well-drained sands with pine forest cover in the eastern half of this country. A cognate species, Rhus tri- lobata , exists in the western part of the United States. Perhaps it might be assumed that there is one species complex with dis¬ tinguishable forms at geographical extremities of east and west. This matter needs to be examined much more carefully. Additional relatives of the sumacs are found in North Ameri¬ ca. Cotinus coggygna , the smoke-tree, a native of Mediterranean Europe east into Central Asia as far as China, is cultivated in temperate North America. There also is an endemic smoke- tree (C. obovata ) that is restricted to limestone and dolomite cliffs in the southern Appalachians, extending into eastern Texas. It has larger leaves and inflorescences than its Eurasian counterpart. The pepper-trees, Schinus spp. are native in Latin American countries. One, Schinus molle, has become weedy 93 Fig. 1 — Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) in flower. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 95 throughout Latin America way up into Texas and southern California. It is a tree with finely divided pinnae and long clusters of red drupes on the carpellate, or female, plants. Like most members of the Anacardiaceae, the plants are dioecious (i.e. either male or female). Another common member of this group, S. terebinthifolius, has become weedy in the southern part of Florida and is so well established there that it is called Florida holly. The name Brazilian pepper-tree is probably more appropriate, however, since it is no relation to the true holly (Ilex'). Poisonous Relatives The familiar cashew nut ( Anacardium occidentale) , planted and escaped throughout the world Tropics, is originally native to India. The “nut” itself is the ripened ovary, but below this is an expanded pedicel and receptacle that become very much enlarged, fleshy and tasty at fruiting stage (See Fig. 3). It is called the “cashew-apple,” and may be eaten raw or made into jam. Because the cashew-nut has poisons in the shell that are closely allied chemically to those in poison-ivy, it is worth men¬ tioning as a poisonous relative of poison-ivy. Cashew nutshell liquid despite its poisonous properties has been important in making heavy-duty brake linings and electrical insulations. During the Second World War, American servicemen overhaul¬ ing planes in the Canary Islands (where there is no similar der¬ matitis-producing plant) repeatedly broke out with a rash that looked similar to poison-ivy dermatitis. It was finally traced to the fact that they were working with the brakes and electrical parts of the planes that had been coated with cashew nutshell liquid hardened to a lacquer-like finish. A decade ago, a number of cocktail stirrers (See Fig. 4) came into the United States from Haiti. They were light in weight, took up little space in one’s luggage, and looked “exotic.” They were, hence, very popular as souvenirs among air travelers who needed to keep their baggage weight to a minimum. The trouble was that the “head” of this little stirrer (in the shape of a voodoo doll) was an unroasted cashew nut, complete with poi¬ sons intact! Moreover, the “eyes” were seeds of Abrus preca- torius, the rosary-pea, containing one of the most dangerous poisons of the tropics. (Two chewed and swallowed seeds can kill an adult.) They have been banned from further entry into this country. — Aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica) in flower. Fig. 3 — Tiny flowers and large fruits of casheiu (Anacardium occiden- tale) in the West Indies. Note the “cashew-apple the enlarged and swollen receptacle. Fig. 4 — A cocktail stirrer or “voodoo i doll” souvenir from Haiti made from unroasted cashew nut head. Eyes are of rosary-pea (Abrus precatorius). Fig. 5 — Fruiting specimen of dhobi-nut. This one is Semecarpus giganti- folia, endemic to Taiwan and the Philippines. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 97 In the Far East the fruits of the tree Semecarpus (chiefly S. anacardium ) are used to make indelible laundry marks in clothing. The fruits have a poison similar to that in poison-ivy that will harden to a black, indelible, and unwashable substance. The fruits have been called dhobi-nuts (See Fig. 5) after the Indian name for the laundrymen, the dhobis. American service¬ men stationed in India during the war often broke out with poison-ivy dermatitis on the neck or waistband — i.e. those places where the dhobis had placed a laundry mark in their underwear. Fig. 6 — Poison-sumac in a typical swamp habitat. 98 [ ARNOLDIA The poison-wood, Metopium toxiferum, a tall shrub or small tree, grows in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and in Florida as far north as Daytona Beach. It produces a rash no different from that caused by poison-ivy. The most common member of the family in the Tropics is the mango ( Mangifera indica ). Even the mango has poisons in it, but they appear to.be restricted to the exocarp (“skin” of the fruit) and pedicel. It is therefore advisable always to peel a mango before eating it. One will note that persons who live in regions of the world where the mango is common do so. Poison-ivy’s best known relative in this area is poison-sumac (' Toxicodendron vernix ), which grows only in swamps and other wet places in the eastern third of the United States (See Fig. 6). This is a shrub with a few stout, ascending stems, pale grey bark, compound leaves with smooth shining leaflets, and pen¬ dent clusters of greenish flowers followed by whitish fruits (See Fig. 7). In Asia one of the close relatives of our poison-sumac is the lacquer tree of China and Japan ( Toxicodendron vemicifiuum) , from which the beautiful oriental lacquer ware is made. This Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 99 lacquer actually is layer after layer of the sap with its natural poisons in oxidized and polymerized form. Those who work with the lacquer endure a painful apprenticeship until they be¬ come insensitive to these poisons. The poisons in poison-ivy have been determined chemically by Dawson (1954, 1956) as being catechols with long side chains : OH OH R R may equal: (CH2)I4CH3, (CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)5CH3, (CH2)7CH = CHCH2 CH = CH(CH2)2CH3, or (CH2)7CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2 CH = CH2 The lacquer tree has the first 3 compounds plus the one with the following radical : R = (CH2)7CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH = CHCH! Morphology Poison-ivy can grow to a rather large size, although the stems commonly do not exceed an inch or so in diameter. There are some records of poison-ivy vines that have achieved 5 or 6 inches in diameter (See Fig. 8), and there is at least one tree of it on record from Sanibel Island, Florida that stands 15 to 20 feet high (Cooley, 1955). The wood is not poisonous be¬ cause the poison is carried in special ducts in the phloem, not the xylem. When the leaves are missing from the shrubs and vines dur¬ ing the fall and winter, poison-ivy may be seen with its stems climbing a number of trees, especially elms. The aerial stems nestle in the corrugations of the bark (See Fig. 9), while the aerial roots hold the vines fast to the tree. In the autumn and 9 ■ 7 — Fruits of poison-sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) in winter. 100 | ARNOLDIA winter the buff or pale yellow fruits that remain on the car- pellate plants are harvested by a variety of birds; certain species of flicker make up nearly a third of their diet from poison-ivy fruits. Because these fruits are eaten by birds the plant is common around trees, fence-rows, under telephone wires, and wherever birds are likely to perch. Incidentally, I refer to the disseminules as fruits rather than seeds because the fruits of Rhus and Toxicodendron species are drupes with the seed wall firmly attached to the endocarp of the fruit wall. What is dis¬ seminated is the entire fruit, with the possible removal of the papery exocarp. Occasionally poison-ivy and poison-sumac are used in decora¬ tive indoor arrangements because of their autumn coloration. Poison-sumac, with its bronze-red or cherry-red leaves in au¬ tumn, is one of the most attractive of our shrubs at that season. Poison-ivy has fall colors ranging from yellow through orange to dark red. The flowers which are produced in June and July often are overlooked because people do not wish to approach the plant closely enough to see them. They are rather tiny, rare¬ ly exceeding 3 mm. in diameter, with the staminate more ob¬ vious than the carpellate because of the exserted stamens with yellow anthers. The flowers are greenish-cream in color and blend into the background of leaves (See Fig. 10). Distribution The total world distribution of the genus Toxicodendron in¬ cludes Eastern Asia and North America south to Colombia in South America. One will note that it is found in North America and Eastern Asia, a classical distribution pattern first noted for a number of plant species by Asa Gray over a hundred years ago (Gray 1846, 1889). A somewhat reduced range is occupied by the Section Toxicodendron , in which poison-ivy and its imme¬ diate relatives, the poison-oaks, belong (See Fig. 11). Poison-ivy is found only in North America and Eastern Asia. It presumably originated in North America about 80 million years ago and migrated across the Bering Straits when there was a land connection between North America and Asia, and when the climate was much milder. In the intervening time, with the formation of the Bering Sea and Straits and the subsequent cool¬ ing of the Arctic, plants that were left in North America went their own way evolutionarily from those in Eastern Asia (Mac- Ginitie, 1937). There are similarities in the morphology of both forms of poison-ivy (Asiatic and North American) to sug¬ gest their common ancestry. Chief among these are hairs on Fig. 10 — Close-up of staminate poison-ivy flowers. The flowers are about 3 mm in diameter. Fig. 11 — Poison-ivy distribution. Shaded areas shoiv native range of all poison-ivies and poison-oaks. the fruits which are common in plants along the Atlantic Coast (T. radicans subsp. radicans ) and the two taxa in Asia (T. radicans subsp. orientate of Japan and T. radicans subsp. hispidum of China and Taiwan). Although poison-ivy was unknown in Europe prior to the colonization of North America, references to it are known in Eastern Asia in writings of Chinese scholars back as far as the seventh century (Toyama, 1918). Capt. John Smith (1609) first described poison-ivy to Western Europe when he reported that it “causeth itchynge.” Although the plant was known much earlier than the writings of Linnaeus, the specimen upon which the name is based is one which Peter Kalm collected about 1751 in the vicinity of Philadelphia. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 103 Most of the diagnostic features of the poison-ivy taxa are found in the carpellate plant, especially in the fruit; therefore it has been difficult in the past to place the original name of poison- ivy among the several subspecies because the type specimen is a staminate plant in flower. One form of poison-ivy (T. radicans subsp. radicans ) is es¬ sentially an Atlantic coastal dweller that occurs from southern Nova Scotia south to the Florida Keys and the western Bahama Islands, and west to eastern Texas. Although there is some variation throughout its range, there is no clear-cut division between populations with specialized characters. I have had to recognize all of these populations as one continuous, although variable, subspecies. A character that unites all of this group along the Eastern Seaboard — and incidentally is shared with populations in Asia — is small tufts of hairs in the vein axils on the lower surface of the leaves. These may be either clear and hyaline or reddish-brown, with a predominance of hyaline ones in the New World and reddish-brown ones in the Old. This subspecies of poison-ivy is the one that can become most dense in its growth. It is perhaps nowhere more abundant than along the sandbars off the coast of New Jersey, Long Island, through the Carolinas, and along the rocky coast of New England. At Island Beach, New Jersey, for example, it forms a dense thicket and carpet that covers the rear dunes and swales — essentially 100 to 200 yards wide — for about ten miles down the undis¬ turbed barrier beach. In the lower Mississippi River basin there is a form of poison- ivy (T. radicans subsp. pubens ) that is virtually confined to the cotton-growing area of rich soils in places such as the “Delta” region of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. On the Edwards Plateau region of Texas and continuing north to the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma another subspecies of poison-ivy is found with sharply pointed lobes on the leaflets (T. radicans subsp. verrucosum ) (See Fig. 12). In recent years, with the activities of man disturbing the habitat, both of these have begun to migrate and come into contact with other subspecies of poison-ivy, with which they interbreed. Because a number of subspecies impinge upon sections of Arkansas and southern Missouri, it is most difficult to name the taxa in these areas due to the great extent of hybridization, introgression, and the blur¬ ring of subspecies lines. Two subspecies of poison-ivy are encountered in Mexico. T. radicans subsp. barkleyi seems to follow the Sierra Madre Orien¬ tal, extending into western Guatemala to the ruins at Zacaleu; 104 | ARNOLDIA T. radicans subsp. divaricatum , which is common in the Sierra Madre Occidental, extends northward into the southeastern corner of Arizona, and to the southern tip of Baja California. There are a few outliers of both of these forms in isolated re¬ gions of Mexico, presumably the result of long-distance dis¬ persal, probably by birds. Where the subspecies overlap — chiefly in the trans-Mexico volcanic belt — occasional hybrids between these two subspecies appear. The most unusual form of poison-ivy is T. radicans subsp. eximium. I say it is unusual because it has leaf forms quite divergent from all other poison-ivy populations, and because it is rarely collected (not between 1937 and 1964, for example). It is restricted to the tributary valleys of the Rio Grande in Texas and Mexico with one outlier in southern Sonora. The leaflets resemble the “club” on a deck of playing cards. The leaf¬ lets of shade leaves are very much smaller than those growing in open sunlight, a general principle with poison-ivy and one that is quite contrary to our usual ecological concept of sizes of sun- and shade-leaves of other plants. Figure 13 shows a single collection in which the shade-leaves are very different from those growing in the sun. These two leaf forms are from the same individual plant from Big Bend National Park, Texas. In the center of the United States (the midwestern states generally north of the Ohio River), there is a subspecies of poi¬ son-ivy that has no distinctive characteristics of pubescence, leaf form, etc. The eastern boundary of this subspecies (T. radicans subsp. negundo ) is the Allegheny ridge, especially clearly delimited in the vicinity of Tuscarora Mountain in Penn¬ sylvania. On the east flank of the Alleghenies is subsp. radicans and on the west is subsp. negundo (See Fig. 14). One of the closest relatives of the poison-ivy of our East Coast is found in Japan (T. radicans subsp. orientate ) (See Fig. 15). It extends from the southernmost portions of the Kurile Islands and the lower half of Sakhalin Island (under Russian mandate) to the northernmost of the Ryukyus (Yakushima) and the Bonin Islands. The Japanese poison-ivy is not nearly so abundant in Japan as poison-ivy is in this country. I believe that this phenomenon is due to the fact that all poison-ivies are essentially plants of disturbed habitats, and respond to the ac¬ tivities of man. Most of the land that is under cultivation in Japan has been thus for a long time with little additional dis¬ turbance by the removal of forests and construction of cities, the making of new roads, etc. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 105 Fig. 12 — Poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. verrucosum) from the Edwards Plateau, Texas. Fig. 13 — Herbarium speci¬ men of poison-ivy from Big Bend Na¬ tional Park, Texas (Toxicodendron radi¬ cans subsp. exim- ium). Both sprigs are from the same in¬ dividual. The upper one with large leaves is from a climbing cane in the sun; the lower one with small leaves is from a pros¬ trate branch in shade. Fig. 14 — A barn leaning under the weight of a poison-ivy vine in Michi¬ gan (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. negundo). Fig. 15 — Poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. orientale) from the Boso Peninsula, southeast of Tokyo, Japan. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 107 Poison-ivy also occurs in China where it has bristly hairs on the fruits (T. radicans subsp. hispidum ). It is found both in northern mountainous regions of Taiwan and also in the interior of Szechuan, Yunnan, and Hupeh provinces of mountainous western China, the area least visited by western explorers. A peculiarity of the various subspecies of T. radicans is that they will climb trees if given the opportunity. If there is no fence or tree to climb, or if the original support is removed, the plant will continue to grow as a sturdy shrub, often up to 5 and 6 feet high. Also peculiar is the fact that the ranges of these subspecies stop as one reaches the 44th parallel of latitude on the north and approximately the 100th meridian of longitude on the west. North and west of these boundaries is a form of poison-ivy that nor¬ mally does not climb trees. It has a number of other character¬ istics that set it apart from the viney poison-ivies. It never pro¬ duces aerial roots; it will grow in different ecological settings from T. radicans (e.g., it will grow in vegetation containing abundant bracken fern, whereas T. radicans usually does not); its leaflets are on much longer stalks than are the leaflets of T. radicans; its leaves tend to be much broader and its fruits far larger. This form is recognized as a separate species, T. ryd- bergii, because it differs in so many characteristics from all the other forms of poison-ivy both in America and in Asia. It is the most widespread and the most uniform of all the poison-ivies. Although it occurs all the way from Central Arizona to the Gaspe peninsula and to the Rockies in southern Canada, it is impossible to distinguish any one geographical race from any other throughout this range (See Fig. 16). The reference to the 44th parallel of latitude as being a boun¬ dary is intriguing for it can be detected along north-south rivers such as the Hudson and the Connecticut as well as it can be seen to be a dividing line between the southern portion of Nova Scotia and the northern part. This parallel of latitude marks an ecotone that has had significance in the past, being the di¬ viding line between the agricultural Indians and the hunter- gatherer Indian in parts of Michigan, for instance (Cleland, 1966). This line also separates the region of presence and re¬ gion of absence of mastodon skeletons. It presumably is an ecological boundary of some importance, on either side of which two forms of poison-ivy have evolved. The Poison-oaks Now to poison-oak. The term “poison-oak” means different 108 ARNOLDIA Bcal-Dirlinglon Herfcinum MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Fig. 16 — Herbarium specimen of Rydberg’s poison-ivy (Toxicodendron rydbergii). Note long petioles and orbicular leaflets that have a tendency to fold along the midrib. Fig. 17 — Distribution of western poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilo- bum) and poison-ivy (T. rydbergii) in the Columbia River gorge of Oregon and Washington, and location of intergrades between them. 110 I ARNQLDIA things to different persons. It generally is applied to plants in the sumac family, and not to any true oak ( Quercus ). The term evolved because of the shape of the leaflets among some of the trifoliolate Toxicodendrons that appear to resemble leaves of true Quercus species. The leaflets of the western poison-oak resemble leaves of one or another of the western oaks such as Quercus agrifolia, and the leaflets of eastern poison-oak look like small leaves of Quercus alba. There is a western poison-oak ( Toxicodendron diversilobum ) that is indigenous to the region from southern British Columbia to northern Baja California, wedged between the deserts and the Sierras and Cascades on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west. Neither poison-oak on the western flank of the moun¬ tains, nor poison-ivy (T. rydbergii ) on the east crosses the Cas¬ cades (except for one population of poison-oak known from a low-elevation pass in northern California). On the other hand, they come into contact in the Columbia River gorge. Where western poison-oak and Rydberg’s poison-ivy overlap in range in the Columbia gorge, they form intergrades (See Fig. 17). The western poison-oak is similar to T. radicans in that it may grow as a healthy vine or shrub, and that it is found in a multitude of habitats. In fact, it exhibits one of the broadest ecological amplitudes of all the species of plants in the west. In the eastern United States, the second poison-oak (Toxi¬ codendron toxicarium ) occurs from southern New Jersey to Marion County, Florida, west to eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Eastern poison-oak, ecologically very different from western poison-oak, is seldom found outside of scrub-oak forests on the coastal plain, commonly where there are ericaceous shrubs, some pine, and bunch- and wire-grasses (Andropogon and Aris- tida ) (See Fig. 18). In eastern Oklahoma, outside the range of pine, all the typical associates are present with T. toxicarium, minus the pine. The sands of poison-oak habitats are usually excessively drained and coarse, low in nutrients, especially cal¬ cium. This species never climbs and is always a sub-shrub, like T. rydbergii. There is some variation in the morphology of the poison-oaks. In the western poison-oak, it is chiefly expressed as a response to variation in site, and not geography. Poison-oak from southern California may be indistinguishable from that growing in north¬ ern Washington, but two forms growing within a mile of one another may differ considerably. In eastern poison-oak this variation pattern seems to hold as Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 111 well, but there are greater differences in leaf morphology be¬ tween staminate and carpellate plants than there are in reference to site, geography, etc. As a standard pattern (occasionally re¬ versed), the staminate plant will have considerably more deeply lobed leaflets than the carpellate. In fact, many female plants have leaflets with undulate or entire margins. The late Prof. Fernald described an elobate form of poison-oak from Vir¬ ginia, never having noticed that all the plants were carpellate! If the reader feels that he has always been confused by the true definition of poison-oak, he is not alone. On the sheet that was examined by Linnaeus and is the first known herbarium specimen of eastern poison-oak, there are two different species attached: eastern poison-oak and aromatic sumac! The name that Linnaeus applied was Rhus toxicodendron. For strict ap¬ plication of this name among those who believe that the toxic sumacs belong with the benign ones in the genus Rhus, the only plant to which this binomial can properly be applied is eastern poison-oak. Yet the literature is rife with the name Rhus toxi¬ codendron applied to all forms of poison-ivy and to both species of poison-oak. The great French botanist Michaux (1803) ig¬ nored the name Rhus radicans and made all the toxic American sumacs varieties of R. toxicodendron; the Swiss botanist DeCan- dolle (1825) did just the converse. There must be something particularly euphonious about the binomial Rhus toxicodendron that has made so many persons latch onto it for use in such a multitude of contexts! For those like myself (Barkley, 1937), who employ a segregate genus ( Toxicodendron ) for the poison- ivies and poison-oaks, the rules of nomenclature preclude any combination using the word Toxicodendron as both a generic and specific epithet (a tautonym). Thus, in Toxicodendron , one must employ the next oldest specific epithet legitimately pub¬ lished for this plant. Eastern poison-oak thus has become T. toxic arium. Although typical poison-ivy (both species) and both poison- oaks normally have but three leaflets, occasionally additional leaflets are formed. Added leaflets are especially common in western poison-oak, in which nearly every clone studied can be found to have some leaves with five or more leaflets. I have seen one population that consistently produced additional leaf¬ lets, ranging even up to seventeen! The Generic Name The use of Toxicodendron as a generic name is an old one, 112 | ARNOLDIA dating back to 1700 in the writings of Tournefort. Few topics can steam up a group of taxonomists so much as arguing the merits of Rhus over Toxicodendron as the name of poison-ivy and its kin. For the poisonous species that have axillary inflor¬ escences, pendent fruits, smaller pollen grains, and fruits with¬ out glandular hairs, I use the generic name Toxicodendron, as do Barkley (1937), Heimsch (1940), and others. Dr. Joe Hen- nen of Purdue University has found rust parasites that attack only Toxicodendron species and others that parasitize only Rhus species. It appears that these rust fungi are fairly competent taxonomists in noting biological distinctions to add to the mor¬ phological ones mentioned above. Uses When I give a talk about poison-ivy, generally someone in the audience will ask, “Well, what good is it?” It is surprising to most persons that poison-ivy does have some value. The Dutch of Friesland Province in the north of the Netherlands have used it since early in this century to stabilize dikes (Van Der Ploeg, 1966). It has been cultivated in England (as far back as 1640!), in New Zealand, and Australia for its ornamental attributes, probably chiefly the autumn coloration (Conner, 1951, Anony¬ mous, 1908, and Anonymous, 1949). Many birds feed on its drupes, some flickers and wren-tits making up at least a quarter of their diet from poison-ivy fruits (Martin et al., 1951). Bees can make a nontoxic honey from its nectar (Rostenburg, 1955). A number of small mammals use it for cover. And there are those intrepid flower arrangers who employ poison-ivy fruits in dry arrangements (See Fig. 19). Poison-ivy and the poison-oaks have been known among the American Indians and have been considered both poisonous and useful in their cultures since pre-Columbian times. In a few American Indian languages the word for poison-ivy is equivalent to “bad woman” or “venereal disease.” In a few cases the In¬ dian language word for this plant reflects an attempt on the part of the culture to appease the species; the word may be roughly translated as “you are my friend” in Cherokee language. The Porno Indians of California used the poisonous sap to dye basket fibers (Balls, 1965). The Meskwaki, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi Indians used it as a poultice to remove warts or on a swelling to make the skin open (Smith, 1928, 1932). In the Wetherill project diggings at Mesa Verde some poison- ivy was found among the medicine man’s possessions. The seeds Poison-ivy and Its Kin 113 that were radiocarbon-dated as having grown around the 13th century have been preserved intact simply by the dry desert air. They are clearly identifiable to this day as Toxicodendron ryd- bergii (See Fig. 20). The use to which the medicine man put these plant products is unknown. As stated in one of my earlier publications (Gillis, 1971 ) : “The Ramah Navahoes made an arrow poison from poison-ivy mixed with deer’s blood and charcoal from a lightning-struck tree, the latter no doubt a connection with black Magic (Vestal, 1952). Another version of making this arrow poison added the juices of Phacelia crenulata var. ambigua Macbr. (Wyman and Har¬ ris, 1941). The Navahoes also used poison-ivy (T. rydbergii ) for good luck in gambling: they chewed a small piece of leaf and gave it to an opponent (Vestal, ibid.). The Karok Indians used sticks of T. diversilobum to spit salmon steaks while smok¬ ing them over a fire, and its leaves to cover soaproot ( Chloroga - lum pomeridianum Kunth) when baking it in an earthen oven. The Concow Indians of northern California even mixed the leaves of T. diversilobum into their acorn meal when they baked bread. Other northern California tribes simply wrapped their meal in its leaves while baking (Balls, ibid.). Some, too, used its supple stems as the warp in weaving baskets (Balls, ibid.). Fig. 20 — Comparison of poison-ivy fruits (Toxicodendron rydbergii). Those on left are modern. The ones on the right ivere retrieved from cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde, arid ivere radiocarbon-dated as having grown in the 13th century. Michigan poison-ivy ilesa Verde poison-ivy A.D. 1961 a*out A.D. 1200 seed cluster seed cluster 35821/709 114 ! ARNOLDIA “The Yuki tribe of California used sap from T. diversilobum to get rid of warts : they would cut off the wart and apply poison- oak sap to the wound. The same treatment was applied to ring¬ worm and rattlesnake bites (Balls, ibid.). They also used the sap, mixed with mountain hemlock and suet, for tribal markings (John N. Taylor, personal communication). The Yukis also (especially the Tatu or Huchnom branch) used a sprig of poison- oak dipped in water to ‘keep the women in due subjection.’ The men, while attempting to conjure up the devil in their meeting- hall, would paint one of their peers, strip him, place a chaplet of leaves over his face to render him incognito, and send him through the village amid whoops and diabolical yells. As he cavorted through the village, he would sprinkle wet poison-oak branches in the squaws’ faces. Screaming with uncontrollable terror, the women would fall prostrate on the ground. Sworn to silence lest they die while discussing a spook, they would never realize who had, in fact, been their attacker (Powers, 1877).” Fossils Fossils of poison-ivy ( Toxicodendron magnifolium ) have been known from the western part of the United States from Oligo- cene time (40 million years ago). Some fossils were quite com¬ mon constituents of the Weaverville flora of northern California (MacGinitie, 1937), curiously enough a region that has no poison-ivy today, but only western poison-oak. The fossils re¬ semble more closely the poison-ivies of eastern Asia than they do extant poison-ivies from this country today (See Fig. 21). This resemblance further strengthens our belief that the two populations were once continuous between the two continents. Fossils of western poison-oak have been found in Pleistocene de¬ posits in the West. They seem to be little different from T. diver¬ silobum of today. The Disease Now to the disease, which has been studied extensively by Kligman (1958) and Epstein (1958). The poison in the poison- ivies, poison-oaks, and poison-sumacs is carried in specialized vessels or resin ducts in the phloem. It is not, therefore, normally present on the surface of the leaves or twigs. But it is found within these resin ducts, in leaves, flowers, stems, or roots in all the Toxicodendron species. Should the leaves be bruised, chewed by insects, or otherwise damaged, then — and only then — will the poison exude from these resin ducts onto the leaf Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 115 Fig. 21 — Type collection of Oligocene fossil of poison-ivy (Toxicodendron magnifolium) from the Weaverville flora of Trinity County, Cal¬ ifornia. surface. Being composed of chemically unstable compounds, the original clear liquid oxidizes and polymerizes in a few hours to a black, gummy substance, not unlike the lacquer exudates of the Asiatic sumac relatives (T. vernicifluum, T. succedaneum, and T. trichocarpum ). It is transferable to the human being either directly by breaking the leaves and stems as one brushes against the plant, or it may be transferred by the blackened catechols that have come to the surface of the leaves and re¬ mained for some time. The poisons may be effective for an in¬ definite period of time in causing dermatitis. Several hundred- year-old herbarium specimens have been known to affect a sensitive person who has handled them! The so-called “cures” employed by laymen to treat the der¬ matitis range from the desperate to the fantastic. A compilation of such treatments (see Kligman, 1958) reveals the range of human imagination in dealing with disease. Some of the cures include drinking photographer’s hypo (sodium hypochlorite), applying either morphine, gunpowder, cream and marshmallows, or aqua regia to the skin. There are those who swear by the ap¬ plication of sap of Impatiens capensis or I. pallida (jewel-weed), 116 ARNOLDIA and one pharmaceutical company once sold a decoction of jewel- weed for this purpose. Some New Englanders claim that the “sure cure” is application of the boiled concentrate of stems, leaves, and fruits of sweet-fern ( Comptonia peregrina ). The dermatitis may be induced in man via the smoke of burning poison-ivy, but not for reasons commonly supposed. The poison is not volatile, even at the temperatures of bonfires. Any transmission of poison in the smoke is therefore by droplets on particles of dust and ash in the smoke, rather than as a gas. While raking up and burning leaves that may include poison- ivy, the wise householder should avoid standing in the smoke, especially if he is sensitive to Toxicodendron poison. The poisons may be transferred to human beings by the hair of animals such as dogs that may run through the poison-ivy or poison-oak; or they may be carried on gloves, boots, and other articles of cloth¬ ing worn by a person who has been out for a tramp in the woods. Originally — over 200 years ago — poison-ivy was placed in the genus Rhus. For this reason the dermatitis which is caused by poison-ivy and its relatives is known as “Rhus dermatitis” by the medical profession. Although I have attempted (Gillis, 1971 ) to make a good case for separating the poisonous species from the benign ones into a separate genus, Toxicodendron, (which, as a segregate genus, has a history dating back to 1700 in the writings of Tournefort and is therefore not a new idea), it is probably best for the medical profession to retain its general terminology for the disease as Rhus dermatitis — a kind of nomen conservandum for the medical folk. Herbicides There is no quick-and-easy way to rid oneself of the poison- ivy plant should one wish to do so; it is hardy enough to be little discouraged by weed killers. The surest method is to pull it up. Use cotton work gloves rather than rubber ones to protect the hands. The poisons are soluble in rubber and will eventually dissolve their way through the glove to the inside. After eradicat¬ ing, discard both plants and gloves. Herbicides that attack woody species will also do the job (commercial preparations of 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T, or a mixture of them), but application probably will have to be repeated inas¬ much as the apparently “dead” plants will usually sprout from the not-so-dead roots.* As I said earlier, they’re hardy. The dead vines and branches still must be dealt with and removed, and may cause poisoning even in the dead state. * Amitrol-T is a weed killer that has been used with considerable success at the Arnold Arboretum. In our experience it is slow to act, but effective. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 117 Plants With Which Poison-ivy Is Confused Poison-ivy may frequently be confused with a number of other woody or vine plants with trifoliolate leaves. Each one will be described below with the differences that one can use in dis¬ tinguishing it from poison-ivy. 1. Box elder ( Acer negundo ). This plant is in the maple family and, therefore, has opposite leaves. It frequent¬ ly has leaves with five leaflets in addition to some with three. The young stems are bright, glossy green with an occasional glaucous patch. Poison-ivy always has brown or dull green young stems and alternate leaves. It also frequently climbs box elder trees, thus adding to the confusion. 2. Hop-tree ( Ptelea trifoliata ). This plant grows as a shrub like poison-ivy. It does not have any well-defined buds, whereas poison-ivy does. The tips of the branches will be quite stubby. The twigs tend to be gray or black, rather than the brown of poison-ivy. The leaflets are borne in threes like those of poison-ivy, but the central leaflet ta¬ pers to the base, while that in poison-ivy does not taper. The edge of the leaflets on the hop tree is smooth, or oc- sionally has fine teeth, but that in poison-ivy (except along the Atlantic Coast and in the Orient) will tend to be notched The fruits are samaras, that is, there is a dry, circular, papery wing surrounding the seed like a wafer. Poison-ivy fruits are berry-like drupes. 3. Bladder-nut ( Staphylea trifolia ). This plant, like the maple, has opposite leaves. It has sac-like persistent fruits which may be an inch or more in diameter and an inch and one-half to two inches long. It grows as a small tree. 4. Virginia creeper ( Parthenocissus quinquefolia ). This plant grows in some of the same habitats that poison-ivy does, and it climbs much as poison-ivy does. It has five leaflets, all originating from one point, unlike poison-ivy’s three. However, some of the younger leaves at the tip of the growing Virginia creeper vine may have only three leaflets. One can look at the scars left from the places where the leaves used to be to determine the difference. In Virginia creeper, they are circular with a raised edge, looking very much like a crater. In poison-ivy, these leaf scars are triangular in shape, often quite narrow. The fruits of Virginia creeper are juicy, purple (almost 118 | ARNOLDIA black) berries, not hard and light colored like those of poison-ivy. 5. Virgin’s bower ( Clevmtis virginiana) . This plant grows as a vine, but has opposite leaves. The leaflets tend to be a light green and they are quite thin and never glossy. The leaves have veins that turn out from the middle vein and curve upward, almost parallel to the edge. The veins of the poison-ivy plant come out at 60 degrees from the midvein and then run into the edge. The flowers of Virgin’s bower are quite conspicuous, cream-white, about three- quarters of an inch across. The fruits have long feathery tails on them. 6. Aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica) . This plant is related to poison-ivy, but has leaves more uniform in size. The notches are rounded, rather than pointed. The leaves are generally quite hairy, with their leaflets tapered to the base, unlike those of poison-ivy. The flowers are yellow and appear immediately as the buds open early in April. The fruits will be almost ripe by the time the poison-ivy flowers are just coming out. The fruits of the aromatic sumac are fuzzy and red. Facts Frequently Misunderstood About Poison-ivy I frequently have used the following 20 summary statements about poison-ivy — the plant and the disease — to help dis¬ pel much misinformation. 1. Poison-ivy is in the sumac family (Anacardiaceae) along with staghorn sumac and its close relatives: pistachio, cashew, mango, squawbush, poison-sumac, and some poi¬ sonous trees of the tropics. It is not closely related to Boston-ivy nor English-ivy. 2. Some poisonous relatives of poison-ivy are poison-sumac (Toxicodendron vernix), poison-wood (Metopium spy.'), and guao or maiden-plum ( Comocladia ) of the Caribbean area, cashew (Anacardium occidental) , the dhobi-nut ( Semecarpus ), and the mango ( Mangifera ). In mango, the poison is in the pedicel and possibly in the “skin” of the fruit. 3. Poison-oak is not an oak, but a sumac. It is called poison- oak because its leaflets resemble the leaves of some na¬ tive oaks. 4. There is no poison-oak in Massachusetts; elsewhere there are two species with this common name: one along the Poison-ivy and Its Kin \ 119 Pacific Coast ( Toxicodendron diversilobum) , and one in the southeastern United States (T. toxic arium) . 5. There are two species of poison-ivy in the United States (and Canada, Mexico, and Western Guatemala and the Bahamas). One, which may grow as a shrub or vine, is Toxicodendron radicans. There are a number of variants now recognized as subspecies. To the west of the 100th meridian of longitude and north of approximately the 44th parallel of latitude there is a non-climbing species, T. rydbergii. 6. The chemical nature of the poison in poison-sumac or in either of the poison-oak species presumably is re¬ lated chemically to that in poison-ivy, but its actual iden¬ tity has yet to be determined. It is possible that the hu¬ man body can detect differences between these poisons, but this has yet to be demonstrated. It is likely that a person who is “allergic” to one of these plants is allergic to them all. 7. The poisons are not volatile and therefore cannot be con¬ tracted “out of the air.” A direct or secondary contact is necessary. 8. The poison may be spread in the smoke of burning poison-ivy because of tiny droplets of the poison present on the particles of dust and ash in the smoke. 9. Poison-ivy may be spread by animals. Petting a dog after it has run through a patch of the plant is a frequent way of contracting it. 10. Poison-ivy may be spread by articles of clothing. A per¬ son may reinfect himself by handling the same shoes he wore when he walked through a patch of the plant. 11. The poison cannot be spread by breaking the blisters on the skin. 12. There is little way of hastening the departure of the di¬ sease. Any medicines that are used on the skin serve to help dry the blisters, treat for secondary infection, or re¬ lieve itching. ACTH or cortisone derivatives will help cure the disease, but should be administered only with the advice and direction of a physician. 13. The level of sensitivity differs from person to person. Once one has surpassed his threshold of sensitivity, he will most likely alter the threshold. In some instances it appears that a severe case will herald more severe cases; in others it appears that one very virulent case precludes any others. 120 | ARNOLDIA 14. An initial contact is sufficient to give a person a rash if he is abnormally sensitive. Usually, however, one must be sensitized by an initial contact before he will react by producing a rash from subsquent exposures. 15. It is difficult to wash off this insoluble poison completely. Strong soap merely removes excess poison from the skin, but will not remove any which has already reacted, be¬ cause the poison is believed to form a complex with skin proteins. It is therefore not removable short of removing the skin! 16. Injections are sporadic in effectiveness. They generally should be avoided as prophylactic measures, and definite¬ ly should be avoided during an attack of the dermatitis. At best, they may confer some degree of immunity; at worst, they may make a mildly sensitive person very sen¬ sitive. 17. Eating a leaf of poison-ivy may have disastrous results. One may surpass his normal level of immunity by the first bite; in this instance, he is headed for an internal case of poison-ivy, occasionally known to be fatal. The idea that American Indians chewed a leaf of poison-ivy to confer immunity is a myth that has never been docu¬ mented. 18. The mechanism of sensitivity is not thoroughly under¬ stood. It does not behave like protein sensitivities such as hay fever pollenosis. It is a hypersensitivity of the delayed type, whose mechanism is related to that of organ trans¬ plant rejection. 19. There are some persons who appear to be immune to poi¬ son-ivy. Probably very few persons are potentially total¬ ly immune, but rather have (a) a high threshold of sen¬ sitivity or (b) have never been sensitized. Any survey of the population generally reveals about 50% of those sur¬ veyed are immune at the time of census. Some studies seem to indicate that red-heads are more susceptible than blonds, who seem in turn to be more sensitive than bru¬ nettes. 20. There is no known easy method for getting rid of poison- ivy, either the plant or the disease. One Man’s Meat . . . Although it would be useful to be able to give one sure-fire method of recognizing poison-ivy or poison-oak from all other Poison-ivy and Its Kin [ 121 members of the plant kingdom, it is not possible to do so with¬ out indicting a large number of benign species in the wild. One can say that a person should beware of all plants whose leaves are made up of three leaflets, but by the time he has gotten close enough to see the number of leaflets, he is probably too close for comfort. Besides, the average tramper in the woods is not going to examine every plant before he steps on it or passes through it. Hence, only by experience will one be able to spot easily these plants in question among the many others in our woodlands and fields. Of all animals in the animal kingdom, only man and a few of the higher primates are sensitive to the poisons. Even rhesus monkeys may be sensitized only with difficulty, and they lose their sensitivity relatively rapidly. A few instances are on rec¬ ord of deliberately sensitizing dogs once the poison was ap¬ plied directly to the skin with the hair removed. But the fact remains that all medical experimentation on this dermatitis must be conducted on Homo sapiens himself. He may use no surrogate in his investigations. We have seen that poison-ivy and poison-oak have value to animals other than man. Birds, small mammals, insects, etc. have made use of the plants in one way or another. Although occasionally browsed by deer, poison-ivy certainly is not a pre¬ ferred food. All of this goes to show that “one man’s meat is another man’s poison.” William T. Gillis Department of Biology Hope College Holland, Michigan 122 [ ARNOLDIA Literature Cited Anonymous. 1908. (Untitled) J. & Proc. Royal Soc. New South Wales 42: xlviii. Anonymous. 1949. English grow poison ivy. Sci. News-Letter 56: 70. Balls, E. K. 1965. Early uses of California plants. Univ. Calif. Press. Berkeley. Barkley, F. A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus and its immediate allies in North and Central America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 24: 265-498. Brizicky, George K. 1962. The genera of Anaeardiaceae in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 43: 359-375. — . 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on the genus Rhus (Anaeardiaceae). J. Arnold Arbor. 44: 60-80. Candolle, A. P. de. 1825. Prodromus, Vol. 2. Paris. Cleland, C. E. 1966. The prehistoric animal ecology and ethno- zoology of the Upper Great Lakes region. Anthrop. Papers Mus. Anthrop., Univ. Michigan No. 29. Connor, H. F. 1951. The poisonous plants of New Zealand. Bull. 99, D.S.I.R.O. Wellington. Cooley, George R. 1955. The vegetation of Sanibel Island, Lee County, Florida. Rhodora 57: 268-289. Dawson, C. R. 1954. The toxic principle of poison ivy and related plants. Rec. Chem. Prog. 15: 38-53. - . 1956. Chemistry of poison ivy. Trans. New York Acad. Sci. 18: 427-443. Epstein, William L. 1958. Rhus dermatitis: fact and fiction. Bull. Kaiser Found. Med. 6: 197-204. Gillis, William T. 1962. Poison-ivy in northern Michigan. Michigan Bot. 1: 17-22. . 1971. Systematics and ecology of poison-ivy and the poison- oaks ( Toxicodendron , Anaeardiaceae). Rhodora 73: 72-159; 161-237; 370-443; 465-540. Gray, Asa. 1846. Analogy between the flora of Japan and that of the United States. Amer. J. Sci. 2: 135-136. - . 1889. The similarity between the flora of Japan and that of the United States, especially the Atlantic side. Darwiniana. Appleton Co., New York. Heimsch, Charles. 1940. Wood anatomy and pollen morphology of Rhus and allied genera. J. Arnold Arbor. 21: 279—291. - . 1942. Comparative anatomy of the secondary xylem in the “Gruinales” and “Terebinthales” of Wettstein with reference to taxonomic grouping. Lilloa 8: 83-198 ( + 942). Jones, N. R. 1955. Economic losses due to poison oak dermatosis. Proc. Calif. Weed Conf. 7: 3-6. Kligman, Albert M. 1958. Poison ivy (Rhus) dermatitis. A.M.A. Arch. Derm. Syph. 77: 149-180. Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum, Vol. 1. Facsimile of the first edition with an introduction by William T. Stearn. 1957. Ray Society. London. MacGinitie, H. D. 1937. Eocene flora of western America, iii. The flora of the Weaverville beds of Trinity County, California. Poison-ivy and Its Kin | 123 Publ. Carnegie Inst. Washington 465: 83-151. Martin, A. C., H. S. Zim, and A. L. Nelson. 1951. American wild¬ life and plants. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Michaux, A. 1803. Flora boreali-Amerieana. Vol. 1. Paris. Powers, S. 1877. Tribes of California. Contr. N. Amer. Ethnology 3: 1-635. Rostenburg, A., Jr. 1955. An anecdotal biographical history of poi¬ son ivy. A.M.A. Arch. Derm. Syph. 72: 438—445. Smith, H. H. 1928. Ethnology of the Meskwaki Indians. Bull. Publ. Mus. City Milwaukee 4: 175-326. - . 1932. Ethnology of the Ojibwe Indians. Bull. Publ. Mus. City Milwaukee 4: 327—525. Smith, J. 1609. Unpublished manuscript later published (1882) by the Hakluyt Society of London and edited by Sir. J. Henry Lefroy under the title “The history of the Bermudas or Sum¬ mer Isles.” Toumefort, J. P. 1700. Institutiones Rei Herbariae. Vol. 1. Paris. Toyama, I. 1918. Rhus dermatitis. J. Cutan. Dis. Syph. 36: 157— 165. Van Der Ploeg, D. T. E. 1966. Rhus radicans in Friesland. Gorteria 7: 345-353. Vestal, P. A. 1952. Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho. Papers Peabody Mus. Amer. Arch. Ethn. Harvard Univ. 40, No. 4. Wyman, L. C. and S. K. Harris. 1941. Navajo Indian medical ethno¬ botany. Bull. Univ. New Mexico Anthrop., Ser. 3, No. 5. Constant Nymph’ Updated Streptocarpus ‘Maasseti’s White’ There was considerable response to the article “Streptocarpus ‘Constant Nymph’ and Its Mutants” published in the May/June 1973 issue of Amoldia. Since recent developments have oc¬ curred of interest to indoor gardeners, it seems desirable to bring things up-to-date. Several nurserymen throughout the United States have re¬ quested and received propagation material from us. At some of the Open Houses held for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, ‘Constant Nymph’ and its mutants have been given away when stock was sufficient. This has led many indoor gardeners to tell us that these Streptocarpus are among the most satisfactory and exciting house plants they have grown. The author has 124 ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated | 125 seen several very fine specimens that prove these plants can become quite large with a bounty of remarkable blue flowers if given proper care. They seem to be superior to other Strepto- carpus used as house plants. An item of additional interest has been discovered by indoor gardeners: These plants set seed readily and the easily grown seedlings flower at an early age in an assortment of types, colors and sizes that best can be de¬ scribed as “motley.” Home growers therefore can make selec¬ tions of their own favorite seedlings and propagate them with ease. The five new clones introduced by the Arnold Arboretum were ‘Blue Nymph,’ ‘Cobalt Nymph,’ ‘Mini Nymph,’ ‘Netta Nymph’ and ‘Purple Nymph.’ They were carefully described in an ar¬ ticle called “New Streptocarpus Varieties” by Carl D. Clayburg in The Gloxinian for September-October, 1970, where the fact was mentioned that the Arnold Arboretum was propagating them at that time. When the first Arnoldia article was written it was pointed out that there was “more to come.” At that time a fine white clone called ‘Maassen’s White’ was causing a sensation in Europe. Soon after it was available in this country the demand was so great that growers found it difficult to keep it in stock. Its snow-white flowers are strikingly beautiful, making it a good companion for the various shades of blue of the earlier clones. ‘Maassen’s White’ propagates readily, matures rapidly, and should be as popular as its blue relatives. Continuing development in both England and Holland makes it clear that the best is yet to come. A Christmas card from the John Innes Institute in 1971 showed a remarkable mixture of new Streptocarpus seedlings obviously of ‘Constant Nymph’ alliance. Since the card was in color the startling new shades of soft pink, rose, dusty red and blue-violet had considerable impact. In the May, 1973, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, an article called “Hybrid Streptocarpus” by A. G. Brown of the John Innes Institute, Norwich, England reviewed the previous work done on Streptocarpus and described the new work in progress at the Institute. The whole article was reprinted in The Gloxinian for July-August, 1974. The plates accompany¬ ing the original article were in color; those used in the reprint appear to be the same but are in black and white. Mr. Brown confirmed what we had found. He pointed out that ‘Constant Nymph’ or any one of its derivatives makes “an ideal flowering house plant not only tolerating but thriving in the 126 | ARNOLDIA climate and conditions of the average house.” He rightfully concluded that a much greater color range than the various shades of blue would be very desirable. The cross that produced ‘Constant Nymph’ was remade sev¬ eral times but each time the Streptocarpus X hybridus parent used was in a shade of pink or red rather than blue. Nearly 3,000 seedlings were grown and evaluated in the second (F2) generation where the variation is great in a cross of this sort. The color range went from white through various shades of pink to red, to purples and new shades of blue. New flower pat¬ terns and markings resulted also. The same habit of flowering almost constantly from April to October was inherited. By using supplementary lighting to counteract shorter days in November through March, it would be possible to have bloom throughout the year, according to Mr. Brown. Nine clones have been named so far. They are ‘Diana,’ a deep cerise with a white throat; ‘Fiona,’ a good pink; ‘Karen,’ a ma¬ genta-pink; ‘Louise,’ a deep blue-violet; ‘Marie,’ a dusky purple; ‘Paula,’ a reddish-purple; ‘Tina,’ bright magenta and pale pink; ‘Olga,’ described as “a bold cerise”; and ‘Helen,’ a pale blue. A recent letter from Mr. Brown in answer to my request for propagating material from the above clones indicates that we may have a wait. He states that “we are a Government financed research station and so we have to take out Breeders’ Rights on our new cultivars and the distribution is undertaken for us by a Government sponsored company . . . They relieve us of all the business side of propagation and distribution.” Apparently, a two-year lapse is required from the time the “Government sponsored company” receives the plant material until it is re¬ leased so that adequate testing may be done. The writer is waiting now to hear from this organization with the hopes that the Arnold Arboretum may be the means of bringing this whole new crop of fine plants to the American gardener. In the meantime, news of an excellent “mini white” clone has come from Holland. Another, a tetraploid form of ‘Maassen’s White’ called ‘Albatross,’ has been described as “very fine in¬ deed.” George H. Pride References Brown, A. G. 1973. Hybrid Streptocarpus. Journal of the Royal Hor¬ ticultural Society. 98(5): Arnoldia Reviews I 127 Brown, A. G. Personal Correspondence Clayburg, Carl D. 1970. New Streptocarpus Varieties. The Gloxin- ian 20(5): 19-20. Pride, George H. 1973. Streptocarpus ‘Constant Nymph’ and its Mu¬ tants. Arnoldia 33(3): 184-188. Arnoldia Reviews Ximenia americana. From A Flora of Tropical Florida. A Flora of Tropical Florida (A Manual of the Seed Plants and Ferns of Southern Peninsular Florida). Robert W. Long and Olga Lakela. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press. 1971. 980 pages, illustrated. $29.50. John Kunkel Small’s work on the vegetation of the southeas¬ tern United States culminated in the publication in 1933 of his Manual of the Southeastern Flora, an impressive volume of 1576 pages. Small was regarded as a “splitter” since he emphasized minor variations in form, structure or distribution as the basis for describing new genera and species. In the genus Chamaesyce Small recognized thirty species, seventeen of which he described. 128 | ARNOLDIA He divided the wood-sorrel, Oxalis, creating three new genera and describing as new ten of the nineteen species. The burden of proof that such splitting is not biologically sound unfortunately rests on the succeeding botanists who com¬ bined the taxa. Work at the generic level has been conducted at the Arnold Arboretum by Dr. Carroll Wood and collaborators, among whom was Dr. Long, senior author of the present volume. To the student of the vegetation of southern peninsular Flori¬ da a new manual was needed presenting insofar as possible a modern treatment both of the taxonomy and the nomenclature of the plants. Long and Lakela’s volume of 980 pages is physical¬ ly as large as Small’s and is not designed to be carried easily in the field. Included are treatments of 1647 species of ferns and their allies, gymnosperms and flowering plants. Many of the commonly cultivated plants or those escaped from cultiva¬ tion are included. A special introduction on the history of botanical collecting in southern Florida was contributed by Joseph Evan. The authors review the geology and the plant communities of the area which has its northern limit at the latitude of Lake Okeechobee and includes the Florida Keys. A useable key to families is supplied along with keys to genera and species. The 125 illustrations in general adequately represent the plants. There are some tech¬ nical errors of fact and of nomenclature which other reviews have noted, but these are very few and can always be corrected in the next edition. The authors are to be commended for complet¬ ing and publishing a useful volume for an interesting and much visited area of the United States. Richard A. Howard Plants: Wild and Cultivated. P. S. Green, editor. Hampton, England: E. W. Classey, Ltd. 1973. 231 pages. £2.70. This volume is fundamentally the 24 papers presented dur¬ ing a conference on horticulture and field botany scheduled by the Royal Horticultural Society and the Botanical Society of the British Isles. The papers represent the interests and talents of the several speakers and form an extremely valuable com¬ pendium highly recommended for personal and professional libraries. The lead article titled “And never the twain shall Arnoldia Reviews I 129 meet: Horticulture and Botany — allies not enemies” appro¬ priately sets the stage for discussions of conservation; the roles of nurseries, private gardens and botanic gardens; the principles of botanical nomenclature and of horticultural nomenclatural problems; the relevance of genetics and the development of gar¬ den plants from wild plants; the value of the herbarium; the literature of plants and special treatments of such genera as Alchemilla, Aceana, Hypericum, “Mesembryanthemums,” Mints, Hebe, Arums, Dandelions and others. The editor apologizes that the colored slides used to illustrate the talks could not be included. The symposium is an idea that should, and certainly will, be copied by other horticultural societies. The reviewer only re¬ grets that he could not have been present for the Conference, for each article, excellently written, deserves the presence of its author. Copies of this volume are available from the Botan¬ ical Society of the British Isles, c/o Department of Botany, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Rd., London, S.W. 7. Richard A. Howard Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida. Julia F. Morton. Tampa, Florida: Trend Publications, Inc. 1974. 80 pages, il¬ lustrated. $3.95. This is the third edition and is by a new publisher ( the former having allowed the publication to go out of print). Corrections and additions are minor in the current edition, and it is hand¬ some with 16 color and 99 black and white illustrations of more than 125 edible and poisonous wild or, occasionally, cultivated plants of Florida. If not used for actual survival, the volume would be extreme¬ ly useful to the casual visitor for the identification and lore of many of the common plants. Richard A. Howard 130 | ARNOLDIA Chimaphila maculata. From Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine. Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine. C. S. Campbell, F. Hy¬ land, M. L. F. Campbell. Orono: University of Maine Press. 1974. 52 pages, 8 y2 X 11", 63 plates, paper cover. $3.00. The identification of plants in winter condition has always been a challenge to the professional as well as the amateur botanist. Nevertheless there are characteristics in the twigs and buds that enable one to name the plant to genus and oc¬ casionally to species. The present volume, although in title limited to the state of Maine, will have a wider application, and has proven to be a pleasure to use. Dichotomous — two-choice — keys are sup¬ plied; the first enabling a determination to genus, and the second to species within the larger genera. Reference is made to the excellent plates that illustrate the critical portions, even to the appearance of the cut end of the stem. The drawings are alive and certainly among the best available for this purpose. A good glossary and an index combining common and scientific Arnoldia Reviews | 131 names is supplied with reference both to plates and to the oc¬ currence of the name in the keys. I particularly appreciate the dedication of this volume to Professor Merritt L. Fernald who, I am sure, would have “humphed” his approval and appreciation. Copies are available from the Secretary, Department of Bot¬ any, Deering Hall, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04473. The book is highly recommended for enjoyable use on winter days. Richard A. Howard Your First Garden. Planning, Planting and Plants. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1973. 120 pages, illustrated. $3.95, paper. $6.95, hard cover. Although truly a beginner’s book, this large (8% x 11-inch) volume has exceptionally good photographs and drawings, a clarity of text and printing to enhance its basic information, and good suggestions. Chapters are devoted to planning; plant selec¬ tion, culture and sources; lists of perennials, trees, shrubs and ground covers; suggested reading; and public gardens worth visiting. This would be an excellent guide for the new home owner or a fine housewarming gift. Richard A. Howard Plants for Ground-Cover. Graham Stuart Thomas. London: Dent and Sons. 1970. 273 pages, illustrated. $12.00. This work by an English author, dealing obviously with Brit¬ ish gardening, arouses mixed feelings in the American reader. There is gratitude for a good deal of material that is useful even in a New England setting; yet there is envy that we cannot utilize all the good things here in the United States. The concept of ground-cover embraces certain plants, mainly perennials and shrubs, that cover the ground. The height of the plants described ranges from a few inches to several feet. There are many pages of descriptive fists on site, micro-climate, native habitat, season, growth habit, as well as characteristics 132 | ARNOLDIA of blossom, fruit, and leaf. Few of the cultivars cited are avail¬ able at U.S. nurseries. There is an interesting section on planting public areas such as highway slopes, but no reference to cushioning plants for softening the impact of ejected motorists. The discussion of cemetery planting makes sense. A very useful appendix, ap¬ plicable here as well as in England, deals with the extermination of certain ground-covers that the author considers to be vicious weeds. Americans will endorse his opinion. In summary, a most useful book with the English orientation taken into con¬ sideration. Elinore B. Trowbridge The After-Dinner Gardening Book. Richard W. Langer. New York: Macmillan. 1969. 198 pages, illustrated. $9.95. The title of this work, now in its third printing, aroused ex¬ pectations of coyness in this jaded reviewer. Examination quite erased the prejudice. This pleasant, readable, humorous ac¬ count of sprouting and growing avocado pits, grapefruit, papaya, mango, kiwi and other seeds in an apartment is presented as the experience of a novice. The author is actually as knowledgeable as most people get to be in a lifetime. He teaches not only tech¬ niques of indoor gardening for a beginner, but the underlying generalizations about plant needs which usually are omitted from such books. Material on containers, soil mixes, drainage, domestic haz¬ ards to furniture and marital harmony are included. Langer arouses the reader’s interest in botany by his example of watch¬ ing the potted mango seed and discovering grass blades. Al¬ though most of the experiments described involve seeds or cut¬ tings of tropical plants, he also deals with others such as Jeru¬ salem artichokes and sunflowers. No nicer gift than this little book can be imagined for the person just developing some curiosity about plants. Elinore B. Trowbridge iA A' LIBRARY J|!NI 23 197S NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Contents 133 Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. 160 The Worthy Kerrias JEANNE s. WADLEIGH 162 Amoldia Reviews ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published six times a year : in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $ 8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Cover: Parmelia rudecta. Photo: R. Weaver. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse by Richard E. Weaver, Jr. The science of lichenology, or the study of lichens, has lagged behind other branches of botany, and many aspects of lichen biology are still shrouded with mystery. In fact, the most mys¬ terious aspect of these plants, and the one basic to understand¬ ing them, was not known until the relatively late date of 1867: that although outwardly lichens appear to be discrete organisms, they are in fact made up of two very different kinds of plants bound together in a totally unique union. The components of lichens are these: (1) numerous individuals of an alga, usually of a one-celled green type similar to those which commonly give a green cast to the northern or shady sides of tree trunks, but occasionally a filamentous blue-green type like the ones which form the familiar blackish, rank-smelling scum on shal¬ low water, damp soil, or clay flower pots; and (2) strands of a fungus, similar and somewhat related to the bread molds. The arrangement by which they live together as a lichen is referred to as symbiosis, the close association of two dissimilar organisms with, in this case, mutual benefit. The exact nature of the lichen symbiosis, and the role that each of the components plays, is not completely understood. The fungus obviously provides protection for the alga, accumulates mineral nutrients, and helps in retaining moisture. The alga, because it contains chlorophyll, is able to synthesize carbohy¬ drates. There appear to be mutual exchanges of other organic nutrients, but these have not been identified. The balance between the components appears to be a pre¬ carious one, and slight environmental changes can in some cases upset it, resulting in the death of the lichen. But here an anomaly presents itself: lichens are able to prosper in some of the most extreme of the earth’s environments, in places where no other plants are able to survive. They are particularly abun¬ dant, for example, in parts of Antarctica. Because of their re¬ sistance to damage by extreme desiccation and cold, it has been suggested that lichens or lichen-like organisms would be able 133 134 | ARNOLDIA to survive in extra-terrestrial environments. In fact, the pro¬ nounced seasonal color changes on the surface of the planet Mars have been suggested to be due to the presence of lichens. Several species have in fact been subjected to simulated Martian conditions, but none survived for more than a few days. In the remainder of this article I shall discuss various aspects of lichens which, I hope, will prove of interest to the reader. The final portion consists of a simplified, illustrated key to the iden¬ tification of some common species. Lichens and Air Pollution The possibility that lichens are intolerant of air pollution was suggested as early as 1866 from observations made around Paris, France. Since then, studies have been conducted in large urban areas on several continents, and the results are clear: the number of species as well as the number of individual lichen plants decreases as the center of a city is approached. The rea¬ son appears to be that the lichens accumulate toxic substances dissolved from the air of cities until they reach lethal propor¬ tions. The most important substances in the decline of urban lichens appear to be sulphur dioxide, a common component of the gases given off by the burning of fuels, and various fluorine compounds. The former primarily affects the algal component by destroying its ability to produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Lichens are decidedly rare in Boston, according to my per¬ sonal observations. Even in the Arnold Arboretum and Franklin Park, relatively large forested areas near the city limits, they are not common. The most common lichen in these places appears to be a species of Cladonia on the bases of trees. But even this plant rarely produces fruiting bodies. Various other Cladonias, several crustose species, and depauperate specimens of a Parmelia also are occasionally to be found. The forests in towns as close as Concord to the west and Walpole to the south support a reasonable diversity of lichen species. But the further one goes from any large city, the better the chances of finding a good development of lichen vegetation. Economic Uses When one considers the complete range of plant products utilized by man, those obtained from lichens are of minor im¬ portance; yet lichens have proved to be of some use. The cell walls of the fungal component consist almost entirely of a unique starch called lichenin. As a result, lichens have some Lichens : Mysterious and Diverse | 135 food value, but the acids present render them somewhat un¬ pleasant to the taste. They have been eaten historically, but mostly in desperation. The manna of the Israelites, for ex¬ ample, was possibly a species of lichen. The Japanese, however, consider Umbilicaria species, or Rock Tripes, to be a delicacy. Cladonias and other fruticose genera of the far northern lati¬ tudes provide a forage crop for reindeer and caribou, and the native people of these areas harvest the lichens in large quan¬ tities to feed their semi-domesticated stock. But Arctic lichens apparently concentrate radioactive fallout from atmospheric atomic bomb tests, and the animals that eat them, and ulti¬ mately the people who eat them are showing signs of radiation poisoning. Various other animals, particularly invertebrates such as slugs and springtails (Fig. 1) also occasionally eat lichens. Besides the folk remedies concocted from various lichens, such as cures for lung disease from Lobaria pulmonaria and for rabies from Peltigera canina, lichens do have medicinal uses. Several of the lichen acids are effective as antibiotics, and com¬ mercial preparations are available in Europe. In addition, a number of species have had a major importance in the past as dyestuffs, and Harris tweeds still are made with the original lichen dyes. Figure 1. Springtails feeding on a subfoliose lichen. 136 | ARNOLDIA Structure and Form The plant body of a lichen is described as a thallus, a term referring to those plant bodies that are not differentiated into leaves, stems, and roots. A cross section through the thallus of most lichens would reveal a structure similar to that illus¬ trated in Figure 2. Both upper and lower surfaces of most lichens are covered with a tough protective covering known as the cortex. This tissue is composed of tightly packed fungal strands or hyphae. Immediately below the upper cortex is the Upper Cortex Algal Layer ■ _ Medulla Lower Cortex Rhizine Layer Figure 2. The structure of a lichen in cross section, greatly simplified. algal layer, made up of loosely packed individual cells of the algal component interwoven with fungal hyphae. The medulla, with loosely packed fungal strands, makes up the bulk of the lichen thallus, perhaps as much as 2/3 of the thickness. Ex¬ tending from the lower cortex are hairlike appendages called rhizines, which anchor the lichen to its substrate much as roots do in higher plants. Unlike roots, however, rhizines do not ab¬ sorb water and mineral nutrients. There are numerous variations on the general pattern. For example, some lichens do not have a well-defined algal layer; rather, the algae are scattered throughout the medulla. Other lichens lack a lower cortex, and still others, lack rhizines. Lichens can generally be broken down into three easily rec¬ ognizable groups on the basis of growth habit (although there are intergrades between each of the groups). Crustose lichens (Fig. 3) are those that form an encrustation on their sub¬ strate, with such close contact as to be difficult to separate from it. Extreme forms actually have most of their tissues embedded in solid rock. Figure 3. The trunk of a red maple nearly covered with several genera of crustose lichens. The round black, gray, and pink fin life ) structures are fruiting bodies. Figure 4. Two species of Parmelia, the largest genus of foliose lichens in our area, growing on a tree trunk. 138 ARNOLDIA Figure 5. Cladonia verticillata, a fruticose or “shrub¬ by” lichen, showing the upright podetia growing out of flake-like squamules. Figure 6. A species of Physcia u'ith numerous, granular-appearing isidia. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse | 139 Foliose lichens (Fig. 4) are perhaps the most familiar type. The thallus of these is organized into lobes or projections ra¬ diating from the center but maintaining a position more or less parallel with the substrate. Lichens of this type appear somewhat ‘leafy,” hence the derivation of the term “foliose.” Many species may be firmly attached to the substrate, but at least they can be pried off with a knife. A few genera of foliose lichens are more or less rounded in shape without distinct lobes. These are attached to the substrate only in the center of the thallus and are known as umbilicate lichens. Fruticose, or “shrubby” lichens are those in which the thal¬ lus is generally freely branched and stands away from the sub¬ strate. The most familiar genus of fruticose lichens, Cladonia, (Fig. 5) including those species commonly known as “British Soldiers” and “Reindeer Lichens,” are unusual in that the plants are composed of two kinds of thalli: one, made up of flake-like, almost foliose segments known as squamules , growing close to the substrate; and the other, of upright structures known as podetia, which bear the fruiting bodies. In those species com¬ monly known as “Reindeer Lichens,” the squamules disappear early in the development of the plant. In other familiar genera such as Usnea, the “Old Man’s Beard,” the entire thallus is fruticose. Reproduction Many aspects of the reproduction of lichens remain a mys¬ tery. Most species appear to reproduce primarily by vegetative means, and indeed if any part of the thallus is broken off, it has the capability to produce a new plant. But a large num¬ ber of lichens have specialized structures for vegetative repro¬ duction. Isidia are minute, cylindrical or branched outgrowths of the thallus, containing all of its tissues. They are present in large numbers in certain species (Fig. 6) and are very fragile. If detached, each one can grow into a new plant. Other species produce soredia, which are minute clumps of algal cells interwoven with fungal hyphae. These erupt in powdery masses (Fig. 7) through the upper cortex. They are easily dispersed by wind and rain, and again each tiny soredium is capable of reproducing the lichen. Sexual reproduction also occurs in lichens, at least in the fungal component. Sexual reproduction has been reported in lichen algae that have been separated from the thallus and grown in sterile culture, but in the lichen itself they appear to reproduce solely by simple cell division. Fruiting bodies of 140 I ARNOLDIA various sorts are produced in many species of lichens. The most common are external cuplike or disclike structures known as apothecia (Fig. 8). In these structures the fungal component produces spores by sexual means, much as a bread mold would do. The spores are scattered by the wind, and ap¬ parently many of them germinate. But to produce another hchen, contact must be made with cells of a suitable species of alga. Since few of the lichenized algae are common as free- living organisms, it is hard to visualize how lichens can be repro¬ duced in this manner. Yet some common crustose species have no obvious means of vegetative reproduction. One of the classic goals of lichenologists has been to syn¬ thesize lichens artificially, that is to create a new thallus by combining the algal and fungal components in the laboratory. Although both lichen algae and fungi can easily be grown in sterile culture, getting them to combine and produce a complete, mature thallus resembling that of a naturally occurring species has never been achieved. Partial successes have been reported in a few cases. The reasons for the repeated failures seem to he in the simple fact that the algae and fungi, when grown sep¬ arately, are different from the same species grown together as a lichen, underscoring the uniqueness of the hchen symbiosis. Classification and Identification Relatively little is known about the algal components of li¬ chens, but it is believed that different genera, with strikingly different morphological characteristics, often contain the same species of alga. Therefore it appears that the fungal compo¬ nent is primarily responsible for the morphological diversity of lichens, and it is assumed that each species of lichen contains its own unique species of fungus. The current taxonomic sys¬ tem reflects this assumption, and lichens are classified essential¬ ly as if they were fungi. Many of the characters used in the classification of lichens, such as those present in the reproductive spores, are quite tech¬ nical and need not concern us here since they are not necessary for the identification of the common species. But one of these technical characters has recently become extremely useful to professional lichenologists and should at least be mentioned. Lichens produce a large number of complex chemical com¬ pounds, called hchen acids, which are unique in the plant king¬ dom. A particular acid may be produced by each of a large number of species or even genera. Others are of more restricted occurrence. But the type of acids present are usually constant Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse | 141 Figure 7. A species of Physcia with powdery masses of soredia. Figure 8. A species of Physcia showing the disclike fruiting structures or apothecia. 142 | ARNOLDIA within a given species. Within the last 40 years, a series of simple chemical tests has been worked out for determining the presence or absence of certain acids in the thallus of given lichen species. Three chemicals are used: potassium hydroxide, calcium hypochlorite, and paraphenylene-diamine. Applied to the cortex or the medulla these produce various color reactions depending on the acids present. The tests are easy to make and results are immediately and clearly visible. Thus they have become indispensable aids for the serious student of lichenology. In recent years a number of lichen species have been found to consist of several chemical races. That is, a widely distributed species may appear to be externally quite uniform throughout its range, but plants from different areas may contain different lichen acids. The significance of this is not clear. However, some taxonomists have described each chemical variant as a different species. In the following key, technical characters are completely ex¬ cluded. The species are identified only by means of easily visible attributes. The lichens included are common and con¬ spicuous foliose and fruticose species that I have encountered in eastern Massachusetts, but most of them are common and widespread throughout the Northeast. Due to the difficulty in identifying them, crustose species are not included. Most li¬ chens do not have well established common names, so only their Latin names are used. The species are broken down into four main groups based on growth form and habitat or substrate. To identify a given lichen, turn to the appropriate category and work through that section of the key. All species are illustrated as an aid to identification. The key is by no means complete for all of the lichens of Massachusetts, or even of eastern Mas¬ sachusetts, but it still should be useful to the interested beginner. It will hopefully at least enable him to gain an appreciation for the diversity among this most fascinating group of plants. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse [ 143 Illustrated Key to the Identification of Some Common Lichens in Massachusetts Fruticose lichens growing on soil, moss, dead stumps, or the base of living trees. la. Upright structures grayish or yellowish, the branches round in cross section, without short, hairlike projec¬ tions on the margins . Go to Number 2. lb. Upright structures dark brown, the branches flattened, with short, hairlike projections on the margins . . Cetraria islandica Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. Ice¬ land Moss. This is a common lichen on sunny, exposed soil and rock outcroppings, often growing among mosses. It is widespread throughout the northern latitudes of the world, and is one of the lichens com¬ monly eaten by caribou and reindeer. The thalli are dark olive or brown and grow from 1 to 3 inches tall. 2a. Podetia of cup-shaped or cone-shaped segments, some¬ times one on top of another . Go to Number 3. 2b. Podetia not cup-shaped or cone-shaped . . Go to Number 4. 3a. Podetia of single cup-shaped or cone-shaped segments. . Cladonia chlorophaea. 3b. Podetia of several cone-shaped segments on top of an¬ other . Cladonia verticillata. 144 j ARNOLDIA Cladonia chlorophaea (Flk.) Spreng. There are many species of the so-called “Goblet Li¬ chens,” most of them differing in the shape of their cups or the types of lichen acids present. This is the one most common and widespread, occurring throughout much of North America. The cups stand to about an inch tall. Cladonia verticillata (Hoffm.) Sehaer. Several Cladonia species are characterized by having sev¬ eral tiers of “cups,” but this is the only one in which the tiers arise from the center of the “cups” below rather than from their margins. This species is common in eastern North Amer¬ ica, and grows from % to 2 Y2 inches tall. 4a. Podetia thin and finely branched, appearing treelike, without conspicuous fruiting bodies. Go to Number 5. 4b. Podetia thicker and unbranched or sparsely branched, not appearing treelike, often with conspicuously colored fruiting bodies . Go to Number 10. (Page 146) 5a. Tips of branches pointing downward in one direction. . Go to Number 6. 5b. Tips of branches pointing upward and outward in vari¬ ous directions . Go to Number 7. 6a. Podetia ashy gray . Cladonia rangiferina. 6b. Podetia yellowish or greenish. Cladonia arbuscula. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse \ 145 Cladonia rangiferina (L.) Wigg. Several species of Cladonia are called “Reindeer Lichens,” but this is the one most properly so- called, because the species name rangiferina is derived from Ran- gifer, the generic name of Rein¬ deer. It is widely distributed in northern latitudes. The only finely branched Cladonia in the Northeast that is ashy gray in color, C. rangiferina often stands as tall as 3 or 4 inches. Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Ra- benh. This species is similar to Cladonia mitis, another com¬ mon plant in the Northeast. They may be distinguished with certainty only by means of chemical tests. Both are similar also to C. rangiferina but are yellowish rather than ashy gray in color. 7a. Podetia often split open, with scattered flaky squamules. . Cladonia furcata. 7b. Podetia not split open, without flaky squamules . . Go to Number 8. Cladonia furcata (Huds.) Schrad. This species may be distin¬ guished from the other finely branched Cladonias both by its color, tending to be slightly brownish when dry, and by the presence of fiake-like squamules on the podetia. It is common throughout eastern North Amer¬ ica, and it grows to about 3 inches tall. 146 I ARNOLDIA 8a. Plants forming discrete conical or mound-like clumps. Cladonia alpestris. 8b. Plants forming scattered, entangled masses . Go to Number 9. Cladonia alpestris (L.) Rabenh. This species and the closely re¬ lated but ashy gray Cladonia evansii of the southern states form discrete, conical or mound-like clumps. After be¬ ing dyed green and treated with glycerin to keep them pliable, they are often collected and sold as artificial miniature shrubs for model train setups and ar¬ chitectural models. 9a. Tips of the podetia usually in twos . . Cladonia subtenuis. 9b. Tips of the podetia usually in threes or fours . . Cladonia uncialis. Cladonia subtenuis (Abb.) Evans. The most common “Reindeer Lichen” in the southern states, this species is also abundant in the Northeast. It may be dis¬ tinguished from C. uncialis by its usually thinner podetia, the tips of which branch in pairs rather than by threes or fours. Cladonia uncialis (L.) Wigg. This species is similar to C. sub¬ tenuis. See that species for the differences. 10a. Fruiting bodies bright red . Cladonia cristatella. 10b. Fruiting bodies pink or brown, or absent . Go to Number 11. Lichens : Mysterious and Diverse | 147 Cladonia cristatella Tuck. This common and familiar lichen is known by the name “British Sol¬ diers” because of the brilliant red color of its apothecia or fruiting bodies. The allusion to the color of the uniform of the British infantrymen of colonial times should be obvious to any¬ one who has seen this lichen. It is a common species on road¬ side banks and other sunny areas, and it is a popular, if ephemeral, component of the terrarium plantings so much in vogue at present. 11a. Fruiting bodies usually absent, but brown if present. . Go to Number 12. lib. Fruiting bodies present and conspicuous, globular or mushroom-shaped and pink . Baeomyces roseus. Baeomyces roseus Pers. Unlike most of the other lichens treated in this section, this species is not a member of the genus Cla¬ donia. Although resembling it superficially, Baeomyces roseus differs from Cladonia in that its primary thallus is made up of numerous white, closely spaced granules, rather than of flake¬ like squamules. It is a com¬ mon species in the Northeast, being almost always found on sunny roadside banks. The fruiting stalks are seldom more than %-inch tall. 148 ! ARNOLDIA 12a. Podetia unbranched and without squamules. Cladonia bacillaris. 12b. Podetia branched and densely covered with squamules. Cladonia squamosa. Cladonia bacillaris (Ach.) Nyl. This is an inconspicuous and not particularly attractive spe¬ cies of lichen, but it is one of those most tolerant of air pol¬ lution. It is perhaps the most common species within the city limits of Boston. It typically grows on dead wood or at the base of living trees. The po¬ detia are seldom more than 14- inch tall and are gray-white in color. Cladonia squamosa (Scop.) Hoffm. Although related to C. chlorophaea and other “Goblet Lichens,” the cups of this spe¬ cies are often so modified as to be almost unrecognizable. The species is quite variable in the amount of branching of the po¬ detia and in the development of squamules on them. Fruticose lichens growing on rocks or trees. la. Upright or pendent structures unbranched or sparsely branched, arising out of a base of squamules . Cladonia bacillaris (See discussion above). lb. Upright or pendent structures much branched, with¬ out squamules at base . Go to Number 2. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse [ 149 2a. Thallus tufted (all of the branches arising from a single point) . Go to Number 3. 2b. Thallus not tufted, but rather hanging in long, hair¬ like strands . Usnea trichodea. Usnea trichodea Ach. One of the most common of the lichens popularly known as “Old Man’s Beard,” this species is often as much as a foot long. It is typical of the high elevation forests of the Appalachians, but it is also common in the Coastal Plain of the southern states. There it is sometimes confused with Span¬ ish Moss, Tillandsia usneoides, a flowering plant the species name of which means “Usnea — like.” 3a. Plants with conspicuously fringed fruiting bodies; main branches of thallus round in cross section and hollow with a tough central cord . Usnea strigosa. 3b. Plants with unfringed fruiting bodies; main branches of thallus flattened and solid . Ramalina fastigiata. Usnea strigosa (Ach.) Eaton. This and other members of the genus Usnea seem to be par¬ ticularly susceptible to air pol¬ lution and are not often found in the environs of cities. The numerous fringed apothecia, or fruiting bodies, are typical of this species. The branches grow to as much as 3 inches long, much shorter than those of the related “Old Man’s Beard.” 150 I ARNOLDIA Ramalina fastigiata (Pers.) Ach. The genus Ramalina contains perhaps 20, mostly epiphytic species in the United States, but this is the one most common and widespread. The speci¬ men illustrated is unusual in that it does not display the disc¬ like apothecia that are com¬ monly produced in this species. The flattened, solid branches are seldom more than 1% inches long. Foliose lichens growing on soil or rocks. la. Thallus roundish, without distinct lobes, and attached to the substrate only in the center . Go to Number 2. lb. Thallus branched, with distinct lobes, attached to the substrate throughout. Go to Number 3. 2a. Upper surface of the thallus with conspicuous, raised, blister-like areas; lower surface brown or tan . . Lasallia papulosa. 2b. Upper surface of the thallus smooth; lower surface black. . Umbilicaria mammulata. Lasallia papulosa (Ach.) Llano. This lichen is often classified in the genus Umbilicaria. It differs from U. mammulata, the only other common umbilicate li¬ chen in our area, by its smaller size, its tan undersides, and per¬ haps most conspicuously, the raised, blister-like areas on the upper surface. The thalli are brownish when dry and are usu¬ ally from 1 to 2 inches in diameter. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse [ 151 Umbilicaria mammulata (Ach.) Tuck. Members of the genus Umbilicaria all are lichens that are attached to the substrate only by a tough cord in the cen¬ ter of the thallus. They are commonly called “Rock Tripes” and have been used as human food. This species with its densely felty, jet-black under¬ sides, grows to nearly a foot in diameter, and is one of our largest lichens. 3a. Plants dark brown when wet; plants usually found growing on mosses on damp soil . Peltigera canina. 3b. Thallus orange, yellowish, or grayish. Go to Number 4. Peltigera canina (L.) Will. This species is common in damp, shady places in North America and Europe. On the latter con¬ tinent it has long been known as the “Dog Lichen,” hence its species name, due to the fact that, mixed with black pepper and milk, it was once believed to provide a cure for rabies. The thallus is dark brown when wet, but it assumes a whitish cast when dry. The lobes are often %-inch or more broad. This genus is one of the relatively few in our area that contain blue-green algae. 4a. Thallus orange . 4b. Thallus yellowish or grayish. Caloplaca elegans. Go to Number 5. 152 I ARNOLDIA Caloplaca elegans (Link) Th. Fr. This beautifully colored lichen is very closely and firm¬ ly attached to the rocks on which it grows, and sometimes appears to be almost crustose. In fact, some members of its genus are crustose lichens. It is common on Cape Cod, often growing on tombstones. 5a. Thallus pale yellowish or greenish, usually more than 2 inches in diameter; undersurface black or brown . Parmelia conspersa. 5b. Thallus ashy gray, usually less than an inch in di¬ ameter; undersurface white. Physcia subtilis. Parmelia conspersa (Ach.) Ach. This lichen is a member of the largest and most familiar genus of foliose lichens in the United States. Most of its relatives, however, grow on trees. It is a very common species, often completely covering large areas of rock. Physcia subtilis Degel. This ge¬ nus Physcia contains a large number of tree-dwelling as well as rock-dwelling species. Most of them are small plants with narrow lobes, but specific iden¬ tification is often difficult. This is perhaps the commonest rock species in our area. The indi¬ vidual plants are seldom as much as an inch broad, but they often coalesce into large col¬ onies. The lobes are less than Vie-inch broad. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse | 153 Foliose lichens growing on trees. la. Thallus bright yellow, tiny, usually less than l^-inch broad, often almost hidden among mosses on tree trunks . Candelaria con color. lb. Thallus not bright yellow, more than an inch broad. . Go to Number 2. Candelaria concolor (Dicks.) Stein. The only foliose lichen common in our area that is bright yellow in color, this tiny plant grows on various hard¬ woods, particularly ash, elm, and sugar maple, as well as on junipers. It is not a particularly conspicuous plant, in spite of its color, because it often grows intermingled among mosses. 2a. Thallus bright orange, on trees near the seacoast. . . Xanthoria parietina. 2b. Thallus brownish, yellowish or grayish, found in vari¬ ous habitats . Go to Number 3. Xanthoria parietina (1.) Th. Fr. Members of the genus Xanthoria are usually bright orange in color, and several other species are found in our area. This plant, often with very numer¬ ous fruiting bodies, is common on exposed trees near the sea- coast, particularly on Cape Cod. A similar but smaller species, X. polycarpa, is found in vari¬ ous habitats, most commonly on aspen trees. 3a. Thallus brown or olive green when dry . . Go to Number 4. 3b. Thallus gray or greenish yellow when dry . . Go to Number 6. 4a. Upper surface of thallus with a network of conspicuous, raised ridges . Lobaria pulmonaria. 4b. Upper surface of thallus smooth . Go to Number 5. 154 | ARNOLDIA 5a. Underside of thallus depressions . 5b. Underside of thallus Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. Lung Lichen. The common name of this plant was derived from its supposed resemblance to lung tissue. Because of this resemblance, the plant was once considered to provide a cure for lung diseases. This large and conspicuous species is only common in rich, mature forests and swamps. When it dries, the lobes curve outward and upward, exposing the pale undersides. with numerous whitish, dotlike . Sticta weigelii. without these depressions . . Cetraria ciliaris. Sticta weigelii (Ach.) Vain. A large, drab, dark brown lichen, this species is occasionally found on rocks as well as trees. The pale, dotlike depressions, called cyphellae, on the under¬ surface are its most distinctive feature. Although occasionally found in open woods in the Northeast, it is much more common in the southern states. Cetraria ciliaris Ach. The genus Cetraria is similar to the more common Parmelia. A number of species are found in the North¬ east, but this is among the more common and distinctive ones. The thallus is generally be¬ tween 1 and 3 inches in di¬ ameter, and the lobes are about 14-inch broad. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse | 155 6a. Thallus greenish-yellow when dry. Parmelia caperata. 6b. Thallus gray when dry . Go to Number 7. Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach. This is the only large, greenish-yel¬ low lichen that is common on trees in our area. The plants are often as much as 6 inches in diameter, with lobes almost %-inch broad. Fruiting bodies are not common, but when they occur their bright chestnut col¬ or is conspicuous against the rest of the thallus. 7a. Thallus papery and slate-gray when dry, turning near¬ ly black when wet . Leptogium cyanescens. 7b. Thallus ashy gray or gray-green when dry, becoming more greenish when wet . Go to Number 8. Leptogium cyanescens (Ach.) Koerb. One of the lichens with blue-green algae in its thallus, Leptogium is most commonly collected on the bases of hard¬ woods where it often grows over or among mosses. It oc¬ casionally is to be found also on rocks. This species is the most common one in the North¬ east. It very rarely produces fruiting bodies, a characteristic that distinguishes it from L. corticola, another native species. 8a. Lobes of the thallus inflated and hollow . . Hypogymnia physodes. 8b. Lobes of the thallus flat and solid . Go to Number 9. 156 | ARNOLDIA Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. This species is sometimes clas¬ sified in the genus Parmelia, which it resembles in many re¬ spects. Upon close inspection, however, the lobes of H. phy¬ sodes are inflated and hollow at least at the tips. It is a com¬ mon species on both hardwoods and junipers, often almost cov¬ ering the younger branches. 9a. Lobes about llo-inch broad . Pliyscia spp. (For a discussion of Physcia species, see P. subtilis above.) 9b. Lobes more than %-inch broad . Go to Number 10. 10a. Lobes with slender black, hairlike projections on the margins . Parvielia perforata. 10b. Lobes without these hairlike projections on the margins. . Go to Number 11. Parmelia perforata (Jacq.) Ach. Although several other species of Parmelia with ciliate lobes (hairlike projections on the margins) may occasionally be found in our area, this one is easy to recognize because of the numerous cup-shaped fruiting bodies with holes in their cen¬ ters. The thallus is loosely at¬ tached to the substrate, and the lobes frequently curve upward. 11a. Lobes more or less angular; upper surface of thallus with a network of fine ridges . Parmelia saxatilis. lib. Lobes broadly rounded; upper surface of thallus smooth. . Parmelia rude eta. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse 157 Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. A species of Parmelia with rela¬ tively narrow, angular lobes, this lichen is very common on the trunks of hardwoods. A similar species, P. sulcata, lacks the coarse isidia found in this plant. Parmelia rudecta Ach. This is the most common large gray species of Parmelia found on hardwoods in our area. A con¬ spicuous feature are the dense masses of granular isidia in the center of the large thalli. Note : The genus Parmelia is the largest group of foliose lichens in the United States. Only a few of the more common and conspicuous species have been included in this key. 158 | ARNOLDIA Selected References The following is a short list of books which are strongly recom¬ mended for the reader wishing to know more about lichens. I have used them all in the preparation of this article. Amadjian, V. and M. E. Hale, eds. 1973. The lichens. Academic Press, New York, 697 pp. This is a technical book, summarizing the recent develop¬ ments in lichenology. It is a collection of discussions by experts in various aspects of the field. Although meant to be used by the serious student of lichens, amateurs will find many items of interest. Bland, J. H. 1971. Forests of Lilliput: the realm of mosses and lichens. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 210 PP- This is a truly remarkable book, perhaps the only basically popular work on mosses and lichens. Although not a pro¬ fessional in either lichenology or bryology, the author has a thorough knowledge of both fields. Many aspects of the uses and natural history of the fascinating plants are pre¬ sented in a most readable style. Hale, M. E. 1961. Lichen handbook. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 178 pp. Although superceded by more recent works by the same author (see below), this is still a very useful book. It in¬ cludes a succinct discussion of lichen biology and natural history in language readily understood by an amateur. The keys are good, but they are not effectively illustrated. This is the book I used as a text when I took Dr. William Cul¬ berson’s lichenology course at Duke University. - . 1967. The biology of lichens. American Elsevier Publ. Co., Inc., New York, 176 pp. Meant to be a student textbook, this is perhaps the best review of lichen biology available on a semi-technical level. It is recommended as a “must” for anyone seriously inter¬ ested in lichens, and if used in conjunction with the fol¬ lowing book, would provide most of the information a serious amateur would need. Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse | 159 1969. How to know the lichens. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 225 pp. This is the best book available for the identification of lichens in the United States. The keys are similar in style to those used in the present article. They are excellent and well illustrated, but they do rely on chemical tests for many identifications. A short discussion of lichen biology is included in the introductory material. Parmelia conspersa (All illustrations in this article are by the author.') The Worthy Kerrias by Jeanne S. Wadleigh An old fashioned shrub, Kerria japonica, infrequently grown these days, has been accorded a position of prominence in the renovated Bussey Hill planting at the Arnold Arboretum. William Kerr, a plant hunter from Kew who discovered Kerria japonica and sent it back from China in 1805 would be pleased: his acquisition, originally known as Corchorus japonicus, has more than justified his notice of it and has been widely cultivated both here and in England where it was a popular cottage shrub in years past. Perhaps its recent recognition in Jamaica Plain will cause gardeners in this area to consider it and its four varieties when an easy, durable accent plant is wanted for in¬ formal landscapes. Kerria has other attributes: it bears sunny yellow flowers be¬ ginning in May and intermittently throughout most of the sum¬ mer, it prospers in shady spots (which also help to preserve the brilliant color of its blossoms), it increases freely, and its slender bright green branches are attractive during the winter months. A member of the Rosaceae and actually native to Japan, Ker¬ ria was renamed in 1818 by Prof. A. P. De Candolle in tribute to Kerr’s memory. The original plant sent back from China was the double K. japonica ‘Pleniflora,’ which at first was culti¬ vated as a warm greenhouse plant because of uncertainty about its hardiness. It subsequently was discovered to be frost- hardy and by 1810 had made its appearance in most of the principal plant collections about London. The species itself bears 1- to 2-inch single flowers not unlike buttercups in appearance; K. ‘Pleniflora’ is more vigorous and its ball-shaped blossoms remain in good condition on the arching branches for a longer period of time. Popularly known as Globeflower (not to be confused with Trollius ), it is the variety most commonly grown, although K. ‘Aureo-variegata’ with yel¬ low-edged leaves appeals to people favoring variegated foliage. A dwarf form, K. ‘Aureo-vittata’ bears branches conspicuously striped with green and yellow. Kerria ‘Picta’ has leaves bordered 160 The Worthy Kerrias \ 161 Right: Corchorus japonicus flore pleno. From The Botanical Magazine. Vol. 31-32. London, 1810. Left: Kerria japonica. From The Botanical Register. Vol. 22. London, 1836 with white (specimens in the Arnold Arboretum shrub collec¬ tion have tended to revert, however.) Generally growing from 4 to 8 feet in height, Kerrias benefit from pruning after the flowering period to promote new growth to bear next year’s blooms, and also to remove tips that have winter-killed. Although hardy to Zone 4, they are susceptible to this injury if not provided with a well-drained, partly shel¬ tered location. The plants increase very rapidly by suckers which the roots produce in ample numbers, but the preferred way to obtain new stock is by softwood cuttings taken in June or July. Arnoldia Reviews Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades. Charles Yocum and Vinson Brown. Healdsburg, Calif.: Naturegraph. 1971. 293 pages, 400 line drawings plus several full-color plates. Paperback, $3.95. This work represents the collaboration of two biologist- naturalists who have taught, lectured, and published. The vol¬ ume is part of a series designed to acquaint residents and visi¬ tors to the Cascade Mountains region of the West Coast with the flora and fauna of the area. Habitats and their ecology are fully outlined. There are botanical descriptions of the plant families represented in the various plant zones. Animals are treated in a similar fashion. The drawings and colored prints are of excellent quality. Some prior reader knowledge of botany and zoology is im¬ plied throughout the work. The impression of this publication is that it is a required field guide for students. It is not, how¬ ever, a traditional guide with keys; on the contrary, it consists of a series of descriptive paragraphs concerning various plants and animals of the Cascade region. It is therefore recommended for students in the Cascade area and in general for adults with an interest in nature and/or ecology. Elinore B. Trowbridge John Evelyn and his times. Bernice Saunders. Oxford: Perga- mon Press. 1970. 203 pages. $6.95 John Evelyn was born in 1620 and died in 1706. From the time of the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 he appears to have been a person of consequence in the government. What this book does do is to give a view of Evelyn and his social milieu — what it does not do is give any real background to ex¬ plain Evelyn the forester and author of “Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees, and the Propagation of Timber . . .” a work which went through four editions in Evelyn’s lifetime. Neither does it 162 Amoldia Reviews \ 163 From John Evelyn and his times. explain Evelyn the translator of “The French Gardiner: Instruct¬ ing how to cultivate all sorts of fruit trees, and herbs for the garden . . 1658 — (3rd ed. 1676). Nor does it explain Evelyn the author of “Kalendrium Hortense . . 1664, 10th edition 1706, which seems to be the original for all subsequent gardeners calendars. The Evelyn portrayed is a very human person and one for whom it is easy to feel sympathy. The book is well worth read¬ ing for its perspective on the life and times of 17th century England. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. 164 | ARNOLDIA The International Book of Trees. A guide to the trees of our forests and gardens. Hugh Johnson. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1973. 288 pages (9 X H%")> illustrated. $29.95. This book must be seen to be believed, for no review can do justice to the encyclopedic coverage, the beauty of the illustra¬ tions, the charm of the text. It is, by far, the best single volume on trees ever published. The author admits he is not a botanist, nor a forester, nor even a gardener, but a writer who has found in trees “a new point of contact with creation, a source of wonder and satis¬ faction,” and he has presented a personal account that, as he states, has made his former awareness of trees seem quite shame¬ ful. With the cooperation of many people, he has assembled a tremendous amount of information on trees. The opening chap¬ ters, 30 in number and each two pages long, cover topics from how a tree grows, to pruning and other arts. They are delight¬ ful essays and reviews at first botanical, then historical; all skim the subject, yet are profusely and appropriately illustrated. It is impossible to stop reading this book because of its content, but one does because of the small type, only to pick it up again and again. The bulk of the volume comprises illustrated, short articles on groups of trees. Chapters such as The Pines of Asia, The Plum Yews and Podocarps, The Chestnuts, The Hawthornes, Empress Trees and Indian Beans, The Elders, cover the best known genera and range from their wild habitat to their ap¬ pearance and diversification as cultivated plants. A reference section and index completes the book, with charts and graphs covering the seasons of flowering, rates of growth ( tree outlines superimposed on photographs of buildings depicting ten to one hundred years), insect pests and a guide to choosing the proper plant according to the site, characteristics of the plant or the environmental problem. A book costing this much is often considered a display item for homes or libraries, but this is a readable, useful, attractive volume, highly recommended. Anyone interested in trees should have a personal copy and no single volume would be more use¬ ful to the botany or horticulturel “student” of any age. The In¬ ternational Book of Trees is a remarkable accomplishment. Richard A. Howard Viburnum Sieboldii. Photo: P. Bruns. r * vf'J* % ' 1 A A L r m 9 w .* 7 < ^Fr-r - ■ / J ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A. LIBRARY AUG 10 197G NEW YORK botanical garden Contents 165 Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG and ALFRED J. FORDHAM 181 The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis WILLIAM FLEMER, III 187 Amoldia Reviews ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published six times a year: in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Cover : Stewartia pseudocamellia ‘Korean Splendor’. Photo: P. Chavny. Stewartias - Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons by Stephen A. Spongberg and Alfred J. Fordham Certainly some of the most interesting and unusual small trees and shrubs available for use in ornamental plantings are the deciduous species of the genus Stewartia. And although the horticultural merits of these plants have occasionally been ex¬ tolled, we feel justified in bringing them to your attention again, particularly since a new species, already in cultivation at the Arnold Arboretum, has recently been discovered and named. Moreover, the methods given below of propagation of Stewartias from seed and cuttings will hopefully encourage growers to in¬ crease the numbers of these pest-free plants so that they can receive the widespread use and popularity we feel they deserve. Stewartia is a member of the tea family, the Theaceae, and plants of the genus are easily recognized in our cultivated flora by their numerous creamy white flowers that are produced indi¬ vidually on short to long pedicels in the axils of the leaves. The small, sometimes bushy trees or shrubs have alternate, simple, dark green leaves that lack stipules; the leaf margins are ser¬ rated or toothed, and the under surfaces are often finely pubes¬ cent when young. In the Boston area Stewartias bloom during late June and early July, a period when most of the spring¬ flowering woody ornamentals have past. The flowers are pro¬ duced on the current season’s growth, and the flower buds, enveloped by the calyx and subtended by one or usually two floral bracts, are evident early in spring as the leaves expand. The calyx is comprised of five sepals that are usually similar in size and shape to the floral bracts, and in some species both are conspicuously foliaceous. The five (or sometimes up to eight) petals of Stewartia flowers are essentially scallop-shaped in outline and form and are silky pubescent on their outer sur¬ faces; in one species the petals are flushed with red on the outer surface near the base. The stamens are numerous, and the fila¬ ments are united to one another towards the base where they 165 166 j ARNOLDIA are usually attached to the base of the petals as well. After flowering, the petals and stamens fall to the ground still at¬ tached to one another. The flowers of Stewartias are similar in size, general structure, and appearance to a single Camellia flower. This fact is not surprising since these two genera, along with Franklinia and Gordonia, belong to the same subfamily of the Theaceae. A key to these genera and other genera of Theaceae in cultivation has been published previously in Arnoldia (17: 1-12. 1957) in an interesting and informative article by Dr. C. E. Wood, Jr. Equally intriguing as the flowers, the relatively large fruits are rounded or conical, usually five-ribbed, woody capsules that are tapered at their upper ends into beaklike projections. The capsules develop from the superior, compound ovaries found at the center of the flowers. When in bloom, the ovaries of the flowers are usually hidden from view by the numerous stamens. Green at first and subtended by the persistent sepals and floral bracts, the capsules gradually assume a rich, light or dark brown color at maturity when they open to disclose the seeds in five internal locules or compartments. The capsules of most species remain on the branches during the winter months, providing an attractive accent to the delicate tracery of the branches. But perhaps the most notable aspect of several species during the winter months is the fact that, once the colorful fall foliage drops, the bark of trunks and limbs is exposed to full view. Four of the deciduous species develop smooth, mottled bark, and on larger trunks and branches soft fawn, silvery or pinkish-brown, or buff colored areas alternate in irregular patterns with one another or with darker cinnamon or reddish-brown areas. The beautiful bark colors and patterns alone are reasons enough to plant these species of Stewartia. As it is now understood, the genus Stewartia consists of both evergreen and deciduous species, although the latter are by far the most familiar horticultural subjects. Only one evergreen species, Stewartia pteropetiolata Cheng, is known to be culti¬ vated in western gardens, and we have documentation of its cultivation in southern California and in England. While the exact number of evergreen species (sometimes grouped as com¬ prising the separate genus Hartia ) remains indefinite (probably Fig. 1. Close-up photograph of the mottled barh pattern developed on the trunks of Stewartia pseudocamellia. Photo: P. Bruns Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons | 167 168 | ARNOLDIA not exceeding eight or nine), seven deciduous species and one hybrid are currently recognized, and all have been introduced into cultivation (see G. P. DeWolf, Jr., The introduction of our hardy Stewartias. Arnoldia 29: 41-48. 1969). All of the ever¬ green species and five of the deciduous species are native to eastern Asia, but the two additional deciduous species occur naturally in the southeastern United States. Thus, Stewartia exhibits one of the fascinating distribution patterns that illus¬ trates the floristic relationships between eastern North America and eastern Asia. The first plants of Steiuartia on record were found in Virginia by the Reverend Mr. John Clayton in about 1687. The plants Clayton described and distinguished from the dogwood ( Comus florida L.) were from a population near Williamsburg on Archer’s Hope Creek; that population is still in existence today. Fifty-five years after the Reverend Mr. Clayton had discovered these plants, Mark Catesby, the English traveler and naturalist, received a new shrub for his garden at Fulham, England, from another John Clayton, an English naturalist in Virginia. The plants flowered in May of 1742, and it is suspected that Catesby, recognizing their ornamental value and botanical interest, gave plants of the new shrub to John Stuart, the third Earl of Bute, for the botanical garden he was helping to establish at Kew. In addition to his gift of living plants to Catesby, the younger Clayton also sent dried herbarium specimens of the shrub to Gronovius, a Dutch botanist who forwarded one to Linnaeus. The name Stewartia (sometimes incorrectly spelled Stuartia ), honoring John Stuart, was given to the new genus and first published by Linnaeus in 1746. An interesting and ironic historic note to the dual discovery of Stewartia by the two John Claytons lies in the fact that both men had discovered different species of the genus. All of the subsequently discovered species of Stewartia have been found in eastern Asia, and like several other ornamental genera with eastern Asiatic and eastern American distributions, certain Asiatic Stewartias are the most commonly cultivated ones in western gardens. However the following key, based primarily on floral and fruit characters, will serve to distinguish between all the deciduous species, American and Asiatic. Following the key are notes on the individual species and the one hybrid, an account of the rather unexpected discovery of S. rostrata from within the Arboretum’s collection, and in conclusion, notes on the propagation of Stewartias. Stewartias — Smalt Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons | 169 Key to the Deciduous Species of Stewartia 1. Styles 5, distinct; petioles widely winged, enclosing the lateral and terminal buds; floral bract 1. ....... S. ovata. 1. Styles united, terminating in 5 or 6 stigmatic crests or arms; petioles narrowly winged, not enclosing the lateral and terminal buds; floral bracts 2 . 2. 2. Stamens with purplish filaments and bluish anthers; capsules dehiscent by the outward folding of the valve margins, the apices of the valves ± coherent; seeds angular. . S. malacodendron. 2. Stamens with whitish filaments and yellow or orange anthers; capsules apically dehiscent, the valves spreading apart from the apex; seeds planoconvex. 3. 3. Floral bracts about equalling or longer than the calyx; small or large trees or shrubs with smooth or fissured bark; young branches usually terete, not zigzagged. 4. 4. Ovaries and/or capsules subglobose, completely glabrous or pubescent only at the very base. 5. 5. Ovaries and/or capsules completely glabrous; 2 ovules or seeds per locule; bark on older branches smooth and mottled. S. serrata. 5. Ovaries and/or capsules pubescent only at the very base; 4 ovules or seeds per locule; bark on older branches finely fissured. S. rostrata. 4. Ovaries and/or capsules conical, pilose or appressed pubescent over the entire surface. 6. 6. Sepals oblong or ovate with acute apices . 7. 7. Floral bracts ovate, subequal to the sepals; styles 6-8 mm. long; seeds 7-9 mm. long. . S. sinensis. 7. Floral bracts oblong, conspicuously longer than the sepals; styles 3-4 mm. long; seeds 5-6 mm. long . S. monadelpha. 6. Sepals ovoid with rounded, ciliate apices. . S. X henry ae. 3. Floral bracts conspicuously shorter than the calyx; small trees with smooth, mottled bark; young branches usually compressed and zigzagged, rarely terete. . S. pseudocamellia. Stewartia ovata (Cavanilles) Weatherby Mountain Stewartia Stewartia pentagyna L’Heritier Stewartia ovata occurs naturally in the mountains and on the adjacent Piedmont of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is also known from two isolated stations on the Virginia Coastal Plain in the vicinity of Williamsburg, and it was at one of these localities that the species was first discovered by the Reverend Mr. John Clayton. 170 I ARNOLDIA Fig. 2. Stewartia. a—e, S. rostrata: a, dormant winter buds, x 2; b, floral bract, X 2; c ovary and style x 2, note pubescence only at the base of the ovary; d, dehisced capsule with persistent floral bracts and sepals X 1 1/2; e, seed, x 4. f—j, S. sinensis: f, dormant wintei bud, x 2; g, floral bract, x 2; h, pubescent ovary and style, x 2; i, dehisced capsule with persistent floral bracts and sepals, X 1 1/2; j, seed, x 4. k—o, S. monadelpha: k, florai bract, x 2; l, stamens, X 2; m, pubescent ovary and style, x 2; n, dehisced capsule with t persistent floral bracts and sepals, x 1 1 /2; o, seed, x 4. Illustrations by Virginia Savage Stewartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons | 171 This species is easily distinguished from other Stewartias by the single floral bract that subtends each of its flowers and by its five distinct styles. The flowers, about inches in diameter, are among the largest produced by any Stewartia, and f. grandi- flora (Bean) Kobuski, a form that occurs sporadically throughout the natural range, is of particular horticultural interest due to its slightly larger flowers (up to 3V2 inches across) with five to eight petals. In addition, the stamen filaments in f. grandi- flora may be purplish rather than the usual white or yellowish color. At the Arnold Arboretum, one plant of f. grandiflora, which came originally from Highlands, North Carolina, pro¬ duces flowers with both purplish and yellowish stamen filaments. Although the bark of Stewartia ovata does not exfoliate to produce a smooth, mottled pattern, the plants develop into small bushy trees or shrubs to about 18 feet in height. And despite its natural southern range, the species and f. grandiflora are hardy as far north as the Boston region. Stewartia malacodendron Linnaeus Silky Stewartia Stewartia virginica Cavanilles Native to the Coastal Plain and Piedmont of the Southeastern United States from Virginia south to northern Florida and west to Arkansas and eastern Texas, Stewartia malacodendron is the species that John Clayton, the naturalist, discovered growing in Virginia. While the Silky Stewartia is rather infrequently en¬ countered in cultivation, it produces, in our opinion, the most beautiful of all Stewartia flowers. The five large white petals form a contrasting, saucer-shaped background, 3 to 3Vz inches across, for the erect boss of stamens that are entirely purplish- blue. The color of the stamens alone is sufficient to identify the species when they are in flower. Unlike the other species of the genus, the reddish-brown capsules of S. malacodendron open along the sides rather than from the apex. Furthermore, the seeds are a dark, shining, reddish-brown color and are un¬ winged and angular in outline. Other Stewartias produce more or less flat, narrowly winged, pale brown seeds. Although we have attempted to grow Stewartia malacodendron several times at the Arnold Arboretum, it has not proved hardy. However, the plants, which develop into large, albeit rather spindly shrubs or small trees to about 20 feet, have been success¬ fully grown as far north as Long Island. 172 | ARNOLDIA Stewartia serrata Maximowicz Including Stewartia epitricha Nakai With the exception of Stewartia X henryae, S. serrata is per¬ haps the least frequently encountered Stewartia in American gardens. Native to Japan, where it inhabits mountainous regions of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands, it is represented in our herbarium of cultivated plants by only a few collections. It is, however, known to be hardy as far north as Connecticut. A small tree with horizontal branches and smooth, reddish- brown, mottled bark, Stewartia serrata will be recognized by its petals that are flushed with red near the base on the outer sur¬ faces, as well as by its completely glabrous ovaries. The cap¬ sules, like the ovaries, are completely devoid of hairs and are strongly five-ribbed; two seeds are produced in each locule. In England, where it is apparently more commonly cultivated, S. serrata is reported to begin flowering before the other species in early June. Stewartia rostrata Spongberg In 1939, the Arnold Arboretum received seed of a Stewartia from the Lu Shan Arboretum in Kiukiang, China, under the name S. sinensis, a species Alfred Rehder and E. H. Wilson had described in 1915. Subsequently, one plant grown from that seed-lot was planted in the Stewartia collection on Bussey Hill in the Arboretum. Only recently, however, did the name and identity of our plant come into question. As one of us was check¬ ing the identities of our living specimens, this plant did not seem to correspond to the published descriptions of S. sinensis. On consulting Dr. G. P. DeWolf, Jr., and Mr. R. S. Hebb of the Arboretum staff, it was found that they, too, were aware that something was strange about our plant labeled Stewartia sinensis. Mr. Hebb’s recollection of S. sinensis grown at Kew in England was of an upright tree with reddish-brown, exfoliating, smooth, mottled bark. Our Arboretum plant, now 38 years old, is a small bushy tree with several limbs from near the base and with tight, non-exfoliating, finely fissured gray bark. As a result of these contradictions, further study was under¬ taken in the herbarium and library. Examination of the holo- type specimen of Steivartia sinensis, a specimen collected in eastern Hunan Province, China, by Wilson in 1901, showed that Mr. Hebb’s memory had served him well. The specimen rep¬ resents a species with smooth, exfoliating bark; furthermore, Steivartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons | 173 Fig. 3. Flowering branch of S. rostrata, the species recently described as new, growing in the Arboretum collections. Photo: P. Bruns the ovaries in the center of the flowers are finely pubescent. The ovaries from flowers of the Arboretum tree have hairs only at the very base. Other herbarium specimens that Rehder and Wilson had an¬ notated as Stewartia sinensis included some plants that agreed in bark and flower characters with the holotype specimen. Addi¬ tional specimens, however, appeared to represent the same species as the Arboretum tree on Bussey Hill. Further study revealed other differences between the two species, differences that are most readily observed when the plants are in fruit. Once it was determined that the Bussey Hill plant was not Stewartia sinensis, the question remained whether it belonged to another species already described, or if it were, indeed, a new undescribed species. In an attempt to answer this question, the taxonomy of the entire genus was reviewed (see the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 55: 182—214. 1974), and all of the pub¬ lished names and as many type specimens as possible were examined. During this process, S. gemmata, a name by which several of our living plants were known, also became suspect. 174 J ARNOLDIA On checking type herbarium specimens of this name it was dis¬ covered that Chien and Cheng, the Chinese botanists who had published S. gemmata, had redescribed S. sinensis. Chien and Cheng had obviously realized that two species were passing under the name S. sinensis, but in an attempt to remedy this situation they chose to give the name S. gemmata to the species Rehder and Wilson had described and named in 1915. This aspect of the confusion, incidentally, points out the great value of type herbarium specimens in determining the correct appli¬ cation of botanical names. Had Chien and Cheng studied the type of S. sinensis, they, too, would have realized that the species that lacked a name was the tree with non-exfoliating bark and flowers with the ovaries pubescent only at the very base. The name S. rostrata has been proposed for this new species because of its distinctive rostrate or beaked, five-ribbed capsules that remain on the branches over winter and sometimes into a sec¬ ond or third growing season. It is of note that Stewartia rostrata is the only deciduous Asiatic species that, like the two American species, has tight, non-exfoliating fissured bark. And herbarium data indicate that it is apparently confined in nature to mountainous regions of Chekiang, Kiangsi, and eastern Hunan Provinces in China. In cultivation, it is included in the collections of the Barnes and Morris Arboreta and at Longwood Gardens, as well as at the Arnold Arboretum. Stewartia sinensis Rehder and Wilson Stewartia gemmata Chien & Cheng Once it was realized that the Arboretum’s plant labeled as Stewartia sinensis was not that species, we were momentarily disappointed that our collection lacked a plant of this Chinese Stewartia. It had been discovered by E. H. Wilson, and Alfred Rehder and Wilson had named and described it as new. How¬ ever, during the taxonomic studies that were initiated because of the unknown identity of S. rostrata, it was recognized that plants on Bussey Hill labeled as S. monadelpha, a species native to Japan, were actually plants of S. sinensis. These plants had been grown from seed obtained in 1934 from the Sun Yat Sen Memorial Park in Nanking, China, and despite the mobility of ornamental plants, it had seemed strange that we had received a Japanese species from a Chinese source. An erect tree or ascending shrub to about 60 feet, Stewartia sinensis is characterized by its attractive, smooth, exfoliating, Stewartias — Small T rees and Shrubs for All Seasons \ 175 mottled bark, its pubescent ovaries, and its foliaceous floral bracts that are about as long as, or slightly longer than, the similar appearing sepals. The capsules are conical and densely pubescent, and two seeds are produced in each locule. The flowers, while smaller than those of some other species (about 2 inches across), are produced in great numbers. In nature this species occurs in mountainous regions of eastern central China, and its closest ally, with which our plants were originally confused, appears to be the Japanese S. monadelpha. Stewartia monadelpha Siebold & Zuccarini Including Stewartia sericea Nakai Known to attain a height of 50 feet in Japan, Stewartia mona¬ delpha is native to mountainous areas of southern Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku Islands. In American gardens, however, it is usually a smaller tree that is noted for its beautiful reddish- brown bark on both the trunk and delicate horizontal branches. Its flowers are the smallest produced by any deciduous Stewartia (a little over an inch in diameter), and it is easily identified in bud, flower, and fruit by the oblong, persistent floral bracts that are conspicuously longer than the five sepals. Stewartia pseudocamellia Maximowicz Including Stewartia koreana Rehder Readily distinguished from other members of the genus by its small, kidney-shaped or rounded floral bracts that are con¬ siderably smaller than the densely silky-pubescent sepals, and by its branchlets that are usually compressed or flattened and zigzagged, Stewartia pseudocamellia is the most widely culti¬ vated species of the genus. The flower buds, rounded before opening, and the flowers which are up to 3 1/2 inches in diameter, are borne on long pedicels. The boss of stamens with orange anthers suggest those of a single Camellia flower. The ground beneath the small trees or shrubs becomes carpeted with the fallen corollas and the attached stamens as the flowering season progresses. Native to Japan, where it is also cultivated, Stewartia pseudo¬ camellia is also known to occur naturally in southern Korea, and the Korean plants grown at the Arnold Arboretum were germi¬ nated from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in 1917. Originally regarded as a distinct species (S. koreana Rehder), and then as a variety of S. pseudocamellia (var. koreana (Rehder) Sealy), 176 j ARNOLDIA the Korean plants do not appear to be morphologically distinct from the plants of Japanese origin. Korean plants at the Arnold Arboretum do, however, differ from Japanese plants in their more saucer-shaped flowers, their extended blooming period, and in the coloration of the leaves in fall. The foliage of the Japanese plants becomes a deep burgundy-red in fall, while leaves of the Korean plants turn a bright yellow- or reddish- orange. As a result of these behavioral differences, differences that are significant to nurserymen and horticulturists, we pro¬ pose here that the Korean plants henceforth be designated as a cultivar, and we suggest the cultivar name ‘Korean Splendor’. Observations made here at the Arboretum indicate that indi¬ vidual flowers of ‘Korean Splendor’ persist on the plants for slightly longer than 24 hours once the buds have opened fully. The prolonged blooming season (as compared with the Japanese plants) is not the result of the persistence of individual flowers, but is apparently the result of a greater production of flowers coupled with the less synchronous maturation of the buds. We Fig. 4. The camellia-like flowers of S. pseudocamellia 'Korean Splendor’ are accented by the rich green foliage. Note the rounded, silky buds yet to open. Photo: P. Bruns Stevjartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons \ 177 have also noted that small bumblebees are attracted to, and force their way into, the unopened buds of S. pseudocamellia and ‘Korean Splendor’, apparently in search of pollen. The value of S. pseudocamellia and ‘Korean Splendor’ as summer-flowering trees is extended and enhanced by their equal beauty in winter when the mottled bark is viewed against snow-covered ground. Stewartia X henryae Li Stewartia pseudocamellia ‘Korean Splendor’ X S. monadelpha This putative hybrid between the two above listed Stewartias originated spontaneously in the collections of the Henry Founda¬ tion for Botanical Research in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. It differs only slightly from S. pseudocamellia, but can be dis¬ tinguished from that species by its oblong floral bracts that resemble those of S. monadelpha, its slightly smaller flower size, and the presence of two seeds per capsule locule. Stewartia pseudocamellia produces four seeds per locule, although two are often abortive. From S. monadelpha the hybrid can be distin¬ guished by its ovoid sepals with rounded, ciliate apices, and by its larger flower size. This small tree is known from several specimens at the Henry Foundation where both of the presumed parental species grow in close association with the hybrid, and it is also known in cul¬ tivation at Barnard’s Inn Farm on Martha’s Vineyard. Cuttings obtained from the latter source have been rooted in the Arbo¬ retum greenhouses, and young plants of S. X henryae will soon be added to the Arboretum collection; to our knowledge, it does not occur elsewhere in American gardens. Propagation of Stewartias by Seed Stewartia seeds are produced within the five-locular, woody capsules, and each locule, depending upon the species, con¬ tains two or four seeds. In some instances fewer seeds are pro¬ duced in each locule due to the abortion of one or more of the ovules; abortion results because the egg within the ovule either was not fertilized, or the egg failed to develop after fertilization. Natural dispersal of the narrowly- winged, flattened seeds of most species is by wind, and in the latitude of Boston the cap¬ sules open and the seeds are available for dispersal (or collec¬ tion) during late September and early October. 178 I ARNOLDIA A careful watch must be maintained if one intends to collect the seeds from the dehisced capsules on the plants, since tightly closed capsules can open unexpectedly, and the seeds may be scattered quickly. As a result, it is best to collect capsules before they have dehisced. Maturity of seeds is indicated by a change in the appearance of the capsules; about mid-September they begin turning from green to brown, and at this stage the seeds are fully developed and viable, and the capsules can be gathered. Separation of the seeds from the capsules is easy if the fruits are placed in a paper bag, tray, or other container that is then placed in a dry location. In a few days the closed capsules will have opened, and when the container is shaken the seeds will fall out. Separation of the seeds from the capsules can then be accomplished by emptying the contents into a screen of suit¬ able mesh size to retain the capsules but to permit the passage and final collection of the seeds. Difficulty in the separation of seeds from capsules may be experienced with the fruits of Stewartia malacodendron. As mentioned previously, the capsules and seeds of this species differ from those of other species. The angular seeds are often held tightly within the locules, and their removal may require the forceable opening of the capsule by hand. Since the hard woody capsules of this species dehisce naturally along the sides, a blow on the top of the capsule with a small hammer may be necessary to release the seeds. When kept in dry storage, Stewartia seeds lose their viability quickly. As a result they should be sown or placed in pretreat¬ ment without delay after they have been harvested. All of the species grown and tested at the Arnold Arboretum (S. ovata, S. pseudocamellia and ‘Korean Splendor’, S. rostrata , and S. sinensis ) produce seeds that are doubly dormant, and in their natural habitats the seeds would require two years to germinate. In other words, seeds dispersed in October of 1974 would be physiologically prepared to germinate by natural seasonal changes in the spring of 1976. However, by placing the seeds in a stratifying medium and providing artificial seasons, the seeds can be induced to germinate in about seven months. This pretreatment must be done in two stages, and the container for the seeds and stratifying medium during the process should be a polyethylene bag. Polyethylene film has the property of being air permeable yet vaporproof. Twisting the top of the bag and binding it with a rubber band makes the stratifying unit vapor¬ proof for the entire treatment, and it should not be opened until the treatment has been completed. Steivartias — Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons j 179 At the Arboretum greenhouses, a stratifying medium com¬ posed of equal parts sand and peatmoss has worked well with Stewartia seeds. This mixture is dampened (moist but not wet) and, in proportion, the medium should be two or three times the volume of the seeds. This factor is important since at sowing time the seeds are not separated from the medium and the entire contents of the polyethylne bag are sown. Using seeds of those species in cultivation at the Arnold Ar¬ boretum, it has been determined that a period of warm stratifica¬ tion for four months followed by cold stratification for three months satisfies the requirements for germination. Seeds placed in warm stratification in early October are transferred to cold pretreatment in early February, and the seeds are ready for sow¬ ing in the greenhouse or out-of-doors in early May. This time¬ table is excellent, since the seedlings will respond favorably to the warm and lengthening days of spring. Warm stratification can be accomplished by placing the sealed bags in a location where the temperature is subject to normal day and night fluctuations. We place our bags in bins on a greenhouse bench where the temperature has ranged between 60° and 100°F. Any location where the day and night tempera¬ tures vary would be satisfactory; full sun, however, should be avoided since it might lead to high temperatures within the bags that would be detrimental to the seeds. When the period of warm stratification has been completed, the bag is simply trans¬ ferred to a refrigerator to satisfy the need for cold treatment. At the Arboretum, cold pretreatment is accomplished at about 40°F.; however this temperature is arbitrary, and the tempera¬ ture maintained in the storage compartment of any refrigera¬ tor should suffice for the cold treatment. Propagation of Stewartias by Cuttings As an alternative method of propagation, soft-wood cuttings may be taken from Stewartias to be rooted, and depending upon the availability of donor plants, large numbers of new plants can be asexually initiated. At the Arboretum, cuttings of Stewartias have been taken as early as June 23 and as late as August 20. Although rooting has been partially successful in all our attempts over this time period, the greatest number of cuttings was successfully rooted when the cuttings were taken and treated between June 23 and mid-July. 180 | ARNOLDIA Although a wide variety of root-inducing chemicals have been used with success with Stewartia cuttings, we have found that Indolebutyric acid (IBA) has proven to be the best rooting stim¬ ulant. Normally, the cut ends of the cuttings are dusted with a 0.8% treatment of IBA in talc with the fungicide Thiram’ added at the rate of 15 percent. High percentages of rooting have also occurred employing quick-dip treatments using a combination of IBA plus NAA (Napthalene acetic acid) at the rate of 2500 parts per million of each in water. Quick-dip treat¬ ment involves immersing the bases of prepared cuttings in the liquid preparation for five seconds. Rooted cuttings of Steivartia , particularly those made late in the growing season, have presented a survival problem during the subsequent winter. When potted or flatted after rooting, the plants have gone into dormancy and never recovered. This loss can be averted, however, if the cuttings are not disturbed after they have rooted. The procedure we use is to fill plastic flats with a rooting medium of half ‘Perlite’ and half sand by volume. The cuttings are made, treated, and inserted in the flats which are then placed under intermittent mist. When root¬ ing has occurred, the cuttings are left in the flats and hardened off. In November they are transferred to our cold storage unit where the temperature is maintained at approximately 34°F. In February or March the flats are returned to a warm green¬ house, and when new growth begins to appear, the plants are transferred to containers. When handled in this manner, the rooted cuttings can be expected to survive and grow. When a Steivartia is planted in the garden, it is advisable to place the plant in its permanent location where it will be exposed to full sun or high, only partial, shade. The plants appear to grow best in moist, acid soils, and it has been reported that larger plants transplant poorly. However we have had no dif¬ ficulty transplanting plants upwards of 7 or 8 feet if a sufficient ball of soil is taken. Ideally, the plants should be grown as specimen trees and shrubs so that the full beauty of form, flowers, and bark can be enjoyed from all aspects and at all seasons of the year. The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis* by William Flemer, III The many services that an arboretum performs for the public at large are too well known to require elaboration. So also is the educational importance of an arboretum attached to a col¬ lege or university. Less frequently appreciated are the services that an arboretum performs for the commercial nursery indus¬ try. And in exchange there are services that the nursery can perform for arboreta, so the relationship can be a two-way street; in short, a symbiotic one. Perhaps the most important arboretum function of all, from the nurseryman’s point of view, is to serve as a show case for the products that he grows and sells. Most nurseries, being rela¬ tively small commercial enterprises, must make every acre count from a production standpoint. In the case of plant markets un¬ attached to field production, space is even more limited and the efficient manager tries to make every square yard count. Therefore, few nurseries indeed can find the room to grow to full size and display mature specimens of the many tree and shrub species that they offer for sale. This limitation is especially evident in the case of shade trees, many of which need a quarter of an acre or more of ground space at maturity. While it is true that many of the important nursery plants can be found in ma¬ ture form and size in the average older residential town, they are almost never labeled for identification and similar species or clones are rarely if ever planted adjacent to each other so that meaningful comparisons can be made. Consequently, for¬ tunate is the retail nurseryman whose establishment is near an arboretum. Not all customers wish to research very thoroughly the trees and shrubs that they propose to plant; but for those who want to see the differences and special qualities for them¬ selves, a nearby arboretum or botanical garden offers the best answer to their many questions. * An address presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Asso¬ ciation of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta in Jamaica Plain, Mass, on Octo¬ ber 5, 1974. 181 182 I ARNOLDIA Lilac collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: P. Chavny. The “show case” function of an Arboretum can be a valuable sales tool for a nursery too. Displays of mature plants in full bloom often serve as a strong stimulus to the public to seek out a nursery and buy some younger specimens for their home grounds. This is particularly true of collections of showy flow¬ ering shrubs like Azaleas, Lilacs, and Rhododendrons. I know of one retail nurseryman located near an arboretum famous for its lilac collection. He regularly stocks a container-grown selec¬ tion of the best cultivars because he knows he will have a brisk demand for them each spring following “Lilac Sunday.” Of equal importance to the nursery industry is the arbore¬ tum’s function as the only source of many authenticated true- to-name species and cultivars. If a grower wishes to add a rare plant to his production schedule, he frequently has nowhere else to turn for foundation stock. In the vicissitudes of human error, mistakes do occur in the propagation department and clones become mixed, to everybody’s chagrin. This is particularly true in the case of very similar appearing plants that are slow to come into bloom, like lilacs, cherries or crabapples. In such a plight, a request to an arboretum specializing in the group can provide a new supply of true-to-name scions or cuttings. The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery | 183 For a limited number of nurseries engaged in breeding pro¬ grams arboreta are invaluable genetic “banks” for parent breed¬ ing material. It is impractical for a nursery to maintain in per¬ petuity, true-to-name plants of all the parent stock that might someday be wanted for a breeding program. Yet, taken as a whole, our North American arboreta do this as a matter of rou¬ tine operation, and this resource is invaluable for the serious private or institutional plant breeder. The nursery industry, particularly its mail order segment, thrives on new and improved plants. All arboreta that maintain a policy of adding new plants to their collections for testing and display are an important source of new plants for nurserymen. Those which have an active breeding program are even more important because they are actually producing new and im¬ proved clones themselves. The National Arboretum in Wash¬ ington, with its many breeding programs and its plant explora¬ tion trips (in part financed by Longwood Gardens) is doing es¬ pecially noteworthy work in this area at present. The new and unbelievably hardy Azaleas being produced by the University of Minnesota’s Landscape Arboretum is another example, as is the imposing list of woody ornamentals introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in Massachusetts. It is difficult to appreciate the enormous contribution that arboreta and botanical gardens have made to our nursery industry and thence to the gardening public. Arboreta have a new and growing role in the preservation and dissemination of rare native species and races of plants. Just as zoological gardens may end up as the sole hope for the survival of rare and endangered mammals and birds, so arboreta may become the sole hope for endangered plants. Suburbaniza¬ tion and other changes in land use patterns are taking an in¬ creasing toll of rare plants each year. When possible, the crea¬ tion of sanctuaries for rare plants or biomes is the best solu¬ tion, but all too often local indifference or even greed may mili¬ tate against such a hope. In these cases the concern and skill of an arboretum can save the day for posterity. The case of the Franklinia is a well known illustration. One small private botanical garden literally saved this handsome small tree for the gardens of today. A unique natural population of Franklinia was extirpated by collecting and export to England where the climate was unsuited to it. The sole surviving parent tree in Philadelphia was the source of all the Franklinias that we enjoy today. 184 ! ARNOLDIA Franklinia alatamaha A final important Arboretum function is research in propaga¬ tion techniques and the dissemination of the findings. This is particularly important in the area of rare or little-grown plants. The Arnold Arboretum’s Alfred Fordham recently received the Award of Merit of the International Plant Propagators’ Society for his lifetime of contributions to this field. Research in how to germinate seeds of rare plants, often with peculiar dormancy requirements, research in the rooting of cuttings and in finding and evaluating understocks for clones that must be reproduced by grafting, have made important contributions to the nursery industry. In the field of propagation, the last word has never been said, and the future will hold many happy surprises for the nursery propagator, as a result of arboretum research. On the opposite side of the equation, there is much that the nursery community can and does do to further the work of the arboreta and botanical gardens. Especially important is the dissemination to the gardening public of the new plants that they create. An arboretum has neither the space and staff, nor the finances to distribute new plants to the public at large. The best that can be accomplished is to send new introductions to cooperating producing nurseries, the solution presently in ef¬ fect. Not all new plants have commercial possibilities, and The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery | 185 there are bound to be some disappointments. Arboretum breed¬ ers are by no means immune to the temptation of commercial ones, that tendency to think that each creation is unique and valuable in itself. A fairly recent example was the flood of Glen Dale Azaleas, a group of hundreds of cultivars whose ac¬ ceptance by the trade was buried under an avalanche of “look alike” clones. The harsh reality of commerce is necessary to separate the unique yet vigorous clones from the competing “also rans.” Commercial nurseries also can provide, free or at a nominal cost, the understocks needed for routine arboretum propagation and research. Space and facilities are always at a premium, especially in the limitations imposed by an urban location, and nurseries that grow such understocks in enormous quantities can provide exactly the kinds and sizes wanted, thus relieving limited Arboretum propagation facilities of the burden. For establishments with a propagator on the staff, and many are Propagating unit in the Arboretum’s Dana Greenhouses. 186 1 ARNOLDIA now in this situation, nurserymen can propagate the young plants needed for replacement or addition to the collection quickly and efficiently. Each year finds our firm engaged in such activity for arboreta that have no propagator or the spe¬ cialized structures and techniques needed for certain unusual propagation practices; and many other nurseries regularly take on such special work for favored institutions. Nurseries, as individuals and through their state and national associations, also can and do assist in financing arboretum work. Our firm and many others regularly make grants of funds and plant material; the latter especially useful for the establishment of the many new arboreta springing up across the country, especially teaching arboreta associated with the new community colleges. The assembly of “one of each” orders for arboretum planting is especially costly and time-consuming, but we think it a very valuable investment for future generations of plant lovers. More and more arboreta and botanical gardens are forming associations of “Friends of The XYZ Arboretum.” Such groups, properly led and encouraged, can provide financial assistance, tour guides to relieve pressure on the Arboretum Staff, and volunteer teachers for classes and children’s activi¬ ties. “Friends” associations are an invaluable first line of de¬ fense when condemnation proceedings arise, as they sometimes do. And a devoted group of wealthy “Friends” is almost the only source for bequests when death takes its toll. Such a valu¬ able association, like any other, must be carefully cultivated to bear fruit. Nurserymen are more than glad to provide quan¬ tities of small rare or new plants to be distributed as gifts to members of such supportive groups. The scope of this kind of industry cooperation and support is bound to grow in the years to come. Symbiosis is an association of living organisms from which both derive benefits they could not have alone. It is a term that can truly characterize the fruitful relationship between the members of the AABGA and the nursery community. Mr. Flemer is President of Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, New Jersey. Arnoldio Reviews The British Oak. M. G. Morris and F, H. Perring, editors. Faring- don, Berks., England: E. W. Classey Ltd. 1974. 376 pages, il¬ lustrated. £6.00. The Botanical Society of the British Isles is an association of amateur and professional botanists whose common interest lies in the study and conservation of flowering plants and ferns. The Society has sponsored a series of conferences, and since 1948 many of the papers presented at individual conferences have been published as symposium volumes. In 1973 we wel¬ comed “Plants, Wild and Cultivated” edited by P. S. Green. The current volume relates to a three-day conference held in the same year. “The British Oak” is a comprehensive study of two native species, Quercus petraea and Q. robur. Peats and sediments pro¬ vide a pollen record indicating that the oak has been dominant over large areas of the British lowlands for some 8,000 years. Today Q. robur and Q. petraea remain the dominant trees in all of the British Isles. As chapters in this volume, twenty-one papers by botanists, foresters and historians cover the taxonomy, cytology, morphol¬ ogy, reproduction, regeneration, productivity, and the ecological role of the oak. The wealth of information makes this an excel¬ lent reference work and demonstrates the value of such confer¬ ences. The pattern is one that might well be followed to con¬ solidate the knowledge of equally valuable American trees. Richard A. Howard Chain of Friendship. Betsy C. Corner and Christopher C. Booth, editors. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 1971. 538 pages. $20.00 Nearly everyone knows of Peter Collinson, the Quaker Mer¬ chant of Mill Hill who subsidized and encouraged John Bartram. Less known is his contemporary, the Quaker physician, Dr. John Fothergill, and his garden at Upton. FothergilTs contacts were world-wide. It is recorded that, in the most flourishing 187 188 ; ARNOLDIA From Chain of Friendship. period, his garden contained nearly 3,400 kinds of glasshouse exotics and about 3,000 kinds of hardy plants. Fothergill is of interest to Americans because of his support of, and contact with, horticulturists in the Philadelphia area (including William Bartram), and because he is commemorated in the genus Fothergilla. These selected letters of Dr. John Fothergill give us a glimpse of English society as seen through Quaker eyes in the middle of the 18th century. It includes, incidentally, some background to the political troubles that culminated in the American Revo¬ lution. Altogether a delightful and interesting book. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Arnoldia Reviews I 189 Flowering Cherries. Geoffrey Chadbund. London: Collins Pub¬ lishers. 1972. 160 pages, illustrated. £2.85. It is unfortunate that in many areas cherries are threatened by a virus that, added to their other problems, now makes these spring favorites a poor choice for the average small garden. However for those who are prepared to ignore the hazards, this is a reasonably priced and well-written book that should ful¬ fill the late author’s hope that he can help the cherry lover to select, plant, and grow the best variety for his purpose. The 58 cultivars and species described have been selected from the hundreds that have evolved since the cherry first be¬ came popular in the Orient centuries ago, and are arranged according to habit of growth. This at first appears to be awk¬ ward; but with the aid of the index it proves to be simple and quite effective. The real problem will arise when the gardener has selected the tree that he wants and then tries to locate it commercially. The chapter on cultivation contains sound information and advice, but I feel that the disease and pest problems are dis¬ missed too lightly. To add variety and complete this very pleas¬ ant volume there is also a list, with short descriptions, of trees and shrubs for use as foil and background. Sheila Magullion Trees of the United States and Canada. F. H. Montgomery. New York: Frederick Warne and Co., Inc. 1970. 144 pages, illustra¬ ted. $4.95. This work is a pocket-sized tree and, occasionally, shrub guide to specimens in northern areas. The key is described as unique, but substantially represents the usual dichotomous keys to woody plants. The descriptions of particular species are fuller than usual and there are good, brief descriptions of habitat. Although it has a glossary at the back, this little volume is virtually useless to anyone who does not have a good basic course in botany and/or taxonomy. A book best suited to the expert rather than the novice. Elinore B. Trowbridge 190 [ ARNOLDIA Forests of Nepal. J. D. A. Stainton. New York: Hafner Pub¬ lishing Co. 1972. 181 pages, illustrated. Devotees of British Colonial literature recognize Nepal as the home of the Gurkha, legendary fighting men of the wars in the Indian sub continent. Nepal is also an Indian state in one of the most horticulturally and botanically interesting re¬ gions of the world. It has been only recently however, that westerners have been allowed to travel in the country. Between 1954 and 1969 J. D. A. Stainton made 18 plant col¬ lecting trips to Nepal. The present volume is a synoptic over¬ view of the plant association to be found in that country. It is written for the interested lay person who may have the good fortune to visit Nepal. Supplementing the text are 156 colored reproductions of pho¬ tographs and a folding map which shows the physiography and the botanical regions. All in all a useful and interesting book. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. A Flora of the White Mountains, California and Nevada. Rob¬ ert M. Lloyd and Richard S. Mitchell. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1973. 208 pages. $8.00. The White Mountains on the California/Nevada border are celebrated as the home of the oldest known living things: the Great Basin bristle-cone pines. This manual details our knowl¬ edge of the plants and plant communities of this area. The little book is a model of what a local flora should be. A map shows the location of various areas mentioned. Chapters deal with the geology of the area, the phytogeographical rela¬ tionship of the plants and the plant communities and vegeta¬ tion. For pilgrims to the bristle-cone pine forests this little book will be indispensable. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Arnoldia Reviews I 191 White clover. From Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It. Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It. R. Milton Carleton. New York: Van Nostrand. 1971. 2nd edition. 127 pages, illus¬ trated. $7.95. The author is a well-known contributor to various garden magazines. Lawn management is his horticultural specialty. On the basis of decades of study of grasses, fertilizers, disease iden¬ tification and treatment, he distills his wisdom in this treatise. Everything is here. Emphasis is on starting newly or anew. We read how to site, grade, prepare the soil, fertilize, select appro¬ priate grasses for seeding or sodding. We are instructed in how to nurse the grass, recognize ailments and engage in the neces¬ sary chemotherapy. The treatment is so complete, so scientific, and so dull that most readers will find their salvation in the chapter “Places Where Grass Doesn’t Grow.” The author’s solution to that di¬ lemma: ground-covers. This should arouse the ire of an Arnold Arboretum staff member who is fond of stating, “the best ground- cover in the long run is — grass.” He obviously hasn’t read Milton Carleton’s book or his reply might be, “anything but grass — grass is SO MUCH WORK.” Elinore B. Trowbridge 192 | ARNOLDIA A Dictionary of Useful and Everyday Plants and their Common Names. F. N. Howes. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1973. 290 pages. $12.50. One of the most useful indices of plant names available to taxonomists has been A Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns compiled by J. C. Willis (6th ed. 1931). The 7th edition of this work (1966), edited by H. K. Airy Shaw, elim¬ inated for brevity much of the general information on economic uses, as has the 8th edition (1973). The present volume com¬ piled by the late Keeper of the Museum at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, consists of that material extended and brought up to date. It is said to include the “common names of plants throughout the world, where English is, or has been spoken or used.” Trade names and the names of economic or commercial plant products, including timbers, are included and given in English. No dictionary could ever be complete since common names are so variable in use and in spelling. “British-English” spelling commonly is not the same as an “American-English” spelling. The information supplied varies considerably from long detailed discussions to very brief statements. Most data is supplied under the common name, requiring a cross reference from a generic or scientific name; the cross references are not always adequate. A number of the binomials used do not repre¬ sent the correct scientific name. Recognizing such limitation, the work of Howes will be useful for occasional reference and probably best used as a starting point for further research on an otherwise obscure English common name. Richard A. Howard The Timber Economy of Puritan New England. Charles F. Car- roll. Providence: Brown University Press. 1973. 221 pages. $12.50. The colonial economy of New England was based upon fishing, farming, and lumbering. While most of us have heard, in a general way, about the King’s Trees, I think we are rather ignorant about the colonial timber trade. This volume tells, in a few pages, a great deal about the economic impact of various forest products upon England and Europe and the West Indies. Along with R. G. Albion’s “Forests and Sea Power” it should be on the shelf of every New England colonial history buff. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Arnoldia Reviews I 193 Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. T. Merrill Prentice, artist, and Elizabeth Owen Sargent, text. Salem: Pea¬ body Museum and Barre Publishers. 1973. 114 color plates plus unpaged preface, forward, introduction, and index. $45.00. The most appropriate, accurate description of this volume is supplied by the artist on the third flap of the dust jacket which, in time, will be lost. It is worth repetition. “This book is not intended to be a reference book and certainly not a field guide. It is by no means complete; however, it may serve to identify some of the less familiar plants and to draw attention to others which may have escaped notice. I have made a real effort to Lilium tigrinum. From Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. 194 | ARNOLDIA draw the plants accurately, true to form and color. In general the plates are arranged in the sequence of bloom, beginning with skunk cabbage which appears in March and ending with the seeds and berries of autumn. The book is intended for pleasure rather than instruction and I hope it may in some measure achieve its goal.” The brief commentary rarely exceeding fifty words of free verse which Ms. Sargent provides for each plate is indeed an “enthusiastic response to the life around me.” Both the artist and the writer have achieved their goals in this expensive, at¬ tractive, well-bound and pleasing volume. Richard A. Howard Viability of Seeds. E. H. Roberts, editor. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 1972. 448 pages, illustrated. $20.00. Viability is defined as: “ability to live, grow and develop.” “Viability of Seeds” is an attempt to assess the state of our knowledge of the factors which affect or influence seed viability. It is apparent that much of the work on this subject has been done with a limited number of species of crop plants and weeds; thus the data base is still too limited to allow sure generalizations to be made. The present volume is welcomed as a summary of present knowledge and an indication of the vast quantity of work to be done. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Azaleas. Fred C. Galle. Birmingham, Ala.: Oxmoor House. 1974. 96 pages, illustrated. $6.95 hardcover, $1.95 paperback. This work is part of a long series of titles published by South¬ ern Living, a regional magazine. The contents are, therefore, suited to readers who reside in Zones 8 or 9, and for visitors to azalea country in spring and early summer. In a pleasant and comfortable style, the author, director of the Callaway Gardens in Georgia, fully describes and illustrates basic procedures relating to azalea growing. The first half of the test includes digging, planting, weeding, feeding, pruning, mulching and watering. There is attention to selecting suitable sites for “naturalistic” plantings; there are lists and discussions Arnoldia Reviews I 195 Detail of raised bed planting. From Azaleas. of complementary “companion plants.” Azaleas in containers, including Bonsai, are treated. Propagation and disease diagno¬ sis and treatment have complete but not excessive space. The final half considers particular species and hybrids thereof with color descriptions, hardiness ratings, sunshine requirements at various altitudes, and the like. Several pages are devoted to a state-by-state listing of various southern “azalea show gardens.” For one in the northeast this little book is still a good buy. The cultural information alone is worth the price of the volume. Elinore B. Trowbridge 196 | ARNOLDIA Seedlings of some tropical trees and shrubs mainly of South East Asia. Dr. D. Burger Hzn. Wageningen, Netherlands : Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. 1972. 399 pages, illustrated. 60 Dfl. The variation in form between seedlings of different species is familiar to all gardeners. We are less apt to observe the change in form of the successive leaves produced by the ger¬ minating seed until the mature pattern of leaf position, size and shape is established. The young plant in its cotyledons and first few leaves does offer characteristics by which the species can be identified. Dr. Burger obtained fruits from known native and cultivated plants and germinated the seeds. In this volume 187 species of 49 families are described and illustrated. The book will be use¬ ful primarily to foresters in South East Asia. When used along with James Duke’s comparable work on plants of Panama and Puerto Rico (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 52: 314-350. 1965; 56: 125- 161. 1969) a good coverage of seedling morphology of tropical families is obtained. The present volume was prepared for pubhcation in Dutch in 1924, but was never published. In 1967-1971 the manuscript was translated into English for the present pubhcation. Re¬ grettably the translation has resulted in many awkward sen¬ tences and questionable use of punctuation. The identification keys supplied for a few famihes seem superfluous considering the few taxa treated. The illustrations are excellent and useful. Richard A. Howard Symplocos paniculata ( Asiatic Sweetleaf'). Photo: P. Bruns. ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Contents 197 Common Pines of Massachusetts GORDON P. DE WOLF, JR. 230 Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs MARGO W. REYNOLDS 238 Amoldia Reviews ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published, six times a year: in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Cover: Pinus thunbergii. Photo: P. Chvany. Common Pines of Massachusetts by Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. We tend to take wood for granted; or, if we are very modem, to assume that steel, aluminum, and plastics have made wood obsolete. Such is not the case, and, although wood may not seem very important in a stainless steel and glass office build¬ ing, it still provides shelter and comfort for most of us. To the English colonists who settled New England, wood was a vital commodity that shaped their future in an alien land. The trees that they encountered were usually in vast tracts, and some were totally different from any they had known in England. The colonists’ need to clear land for gardens and pastures, combined with the fact that Spain, Portugal and the British West Indies were experiencing a lumber shortage, encouraged the development of a thriving export trade in timber products. White oak barrel staves to make barrels for wine, molasses, and rum were one of the most valuable New England exports. Old England seemed to be interested in only one commodity, how¬ ever: white pine logs for masts. Until the settlement of the American colonies, Britain had obtained most of her ship building timber either locally or from various ports around the Baltic Sea. With the growth of popu¬ lation and empire, the numbers and sizes of ships increased. One of the most serious problems for the ship builder was the availability of suitable masts. At the end of the Colonial period a First Rate ship carrying 120 guns required a main mast 40 inches in diameter and 40 yards (120 ft.) long. A mast this size could be made from several smaller stems, but was expensive. Such “sticks” had been available in logs of Pinus sylvestris from the Baltic, but these soon became rare due to excessive lumbering. White pine ( Pinus strobus ) from New England was the best substitute. The need for large white pines for masts for the Royal Navy led to a continuing series of laws restricting the use of white pine and to a lumbering industry set up to supply them. It be¬ came illegal to cut white pines over 24 inches in diameter for any other purpose. 197 198 | ARNOLDIA Big trees were cut (or poached) of course, and the evidence may be seen in many an old house where the boards for floors and wainscotting are between 20 and 23 inches wide. In many cases the sides of the board are not parallel, one side being straight, the other, tapering. The tapering side was the outside of a great log; the straight side, the middle. Two boards 20 inches wide at the widest end could be obtained from a 40-inch log. We should not assume that in days of old all trees were sound. Sir John Wentworth, Surveyor General of His Majesty’s Wood, recorded in 1771 that: “This season the Mast Cutters for His Majesty’s Contract found in one District a fine Growth of large and uncommonly fair trees, but on cutting them, one hundred and two out of one hundred and six proved rotten at the heart and not worth a shilling.” The whole question of the colonial timber trade is a fascin¬ ating one, and has been dealt with by two skillful authors.* Our interest in pines, however, is not in the timber but in the living plant and in particular, those that are commonly avail¬ able for planting in Massachusetts. Pines constitute the most important group of lumber trees in the world, and also are highly valued for ornamental plant¬ ing. There are about 80 species, mostly of temperate regions, but a few occur in the tropical and subtropical climates of the West Indies, Central America, the Philippines, and southeastern Asia. In nearly all of the species the trunk is typically erect, with whorls of secondary branches inclined more or less at right angles to the trunk. If the terminal bud or shoot of the trunk is destroyed, one or more of the buds or branches in the whorl immediately below the damage becomes erect and assumes the function of the trunk. If a single bud or branch becomes erect, the trunk ultimately has a crook in it at that spot. If two or more buds or branches develop, a forked or multi-trunked tree is the result. The leaves of pines are narrow and needle-like. The primary leaves (Fig. 1), which may be reduced to mere scales (Fig. 2), are produced on all the growing shoots. In the upper axil of * Robert Greenhalgh Albion, Forests and Sea Power, The Timber Prob¬ lem of the Royal Navy 1652—1862. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books. 1965. Charles F. Carroll, The Timber Economy of Puritan New England. Providence, R.I. : Brown University Press. 1973. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 199 Fig. 1. Pine seedling with pri- Fig. 2. Twig from mature tree mary leaves, some with showing primary leaves fascicles of leaves in their reduced to scales, axils. some of the primary leaves a bud grows forward to produce a cluster or fascicle of 1 to 5 leaves (Fig. 1). This fascicle of leaves consists of a rudimentary mass of stem tissue to which the needles are attached at the tip (Fig. 3). At the base of the needles is a series of closely appressed scale-leaves that form the sheath (Fig. 4). In Pinus strobus, the white pine, and spe¬ cies closely related to P. strobus (subgen. Strobus; syn. sect. Haploxylon ) the sheath generally falls away in the first sum¬ mer (Fig. 3). By contrast, the sheath persists for the life of the fascicle in the hard or yellow pine group (subgen. Pinus; syn. sect. Diploxylon) . The growing shoot produces at its tip a terminal bud sur¬ rounded by a whorl of generally 5 lateral branch buds (Fig. 5). One or more of these buds may be modified to form a young female cone, one evidence that the cone is simply a modified branch (Fig. 5). The young female cone continues its develop¬ ment through the summer of the year it is formed; the branch buds remain dormant until the following spring. The male cones are produced in clusters in the base of the terminal bud, in the same relative positions as the fascicles of leaves. 200 I ARNOLDIA Fig. 3. Fascicles of leaves of the Fig. 4. Base of fascicle of leaves white pine group after the showing sheathing scales, sheath scales have fallen. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 201 In all of the white pines the female cones are produced at the tip of the first flush of growth in the spring. If there is a second flush of growth later in the season, the cones will seem to be borne laterally. In some of the hard pines the young female cones are borne laterally (not at the tip) on the first flush of growth (Fig. 6). The young female cones are pollinated in the spring of the year of their formation. They enlarge somewhat during that summer, become dormant in the fall and rapidly enlarge to ma¬ turity during the second spring and summer. Generally the cones open at maturity during the fall of the second year and shed their seeds. Some pines (P. rigida and P. sylvestris') produce cones every year. In many species, however, cones are only produced at longer intervals, sometimes only every 5 to 10 years. The seeds may be small and winged, or large and nut-like. In some spe¬ cies the cones do not open at all, or do not open immediately and the seeds consequently are retained for several years or indefinitely. Pines generally produce a tap-root; hence a deep, well-drained (but not necessarily rich) soil suits them best. Their roots are easily injured by drying so, except in seedling stages, they must be moved with a ball of soil. Bushiness in growth may be pro¬ moted by removing the terminal buds of the branches, which stimulates the growth of lateral buds. Propagation is generally by seed. Selected clones must be propagated by grafting. Each year, sometime between spring and fall, the oldest needles on the twigs turn brown and fall away. This is a natural phenomenon and not a cause for alarm. The term ever¬ green simply means that the green leaves of one year are re¬ tained on the plant until new leaves are formed the following year. In general, the leaves of pines are retained for two or more years according to each individual species. Leaves on vigorously growing young plants usually are retained longer than those on plants that are growing slowly. Leaves on lead¬ ing shoots may be retained longer than those on branch twigs. Finally, pines growing in exposed situations, or at the limit of their hardiness, will generally shed their leaves sooner than trees growing under more favorable circumstances. Fig. 5. Branch tip showing terminal bud surrounded by a whorl of three lateral branch buds and two female cones. 202 | ARNOLDIA Fig. 6. Female cone in subterminal position on the twig. Fig. 7. Pine needle scale on leaves of Pinus mugo. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 203 A. AA. B. BB. C. CC. D. DD. E. EE. F. FF. G. GG. H. HH. I. II. J. JJ. K. KK. L. LL. M. MM. Key to the Identification of Common Pines in Massachusetts Sheaths of the needle clusters deciduous Sheaths of the needle clusters persistent Needles 1 to 4 in a fascicle Needles 5 in a fascicle Needles with conspicuous whitish exuda¬ tions of rosin, persistent 10 to 12 years Needles without rosin exudate, persistent for less than 10 years Needles drooping on the twigs Needles straight, twisted or curved, but not drooping Twigs hairy, at least when young, needles 3-5 in. long Twigs smooth, without hairs, needles 5-8 in. long Needles twisted, 1-3 in. long Needles straight or curved Needles curved, directed forward Needles straight, more or less spreading Winter terminal buds acute, stomates in rows only on the back of each needle Winter terminal buds with an elongate tip, stomates in rows on all three sides of each needle Winter terminal buds XA in. long, the tips of the scales appressed Winter terminal buds V2-3A in. long, tips of the scales spreading Sheaths of the fascicles persistent but re¬ flexed the 1st year, deciduous the 2nd or 3rd year Sheaths of the fascicles persistent for the life of the fascicle Twigs Vu-Vs in. diameter, needles 3A-lx/2 in. long Twigs more than Vs in. diameter, needles more than IV2 in. long Twigs more than Vz in. diameter, needles 5-10 in. long Twigs more than Vz in. diameter, needles less than 6 in. long Winter buds resinous, tips of bud-scales appressed Winter buds not resinous, tips of bud- scales free Haploxylon (B) Diploxylon (J) edulis C aristata D E F strobus wallichiana parviflora G H I albicaulis flexilis cembra koraiensis aristata K banksiana L M N ponderosa jeffreyi 204 | ARNOLDIA N. Needles 3 in a fascicle NN. Needles 2 in a fascicle O. Needles 4-6 in. long OO. Needles less than 4 in. long P. Winter buds with the basal scales reflexed, needles slender and flexible, not break¬ ing when bent PP. Winter buds with the scales spreading, needles stout and stiff, breaking when bent Q. Shrub with ascending branches, needles persistent for 5 years or more QQ. Tree, with an erect trunk, needles persis¬ tent 2 to 3 years R. Winter buds resinous, bark of upper por¬ tion of trunk reddish-brown RR. Winter buds not resinous S. Winter buds chestnut-brown, needles slen¬ der, flexible, bark of upper part of trunk reddish-brown SS. Winter buds whitish, needles stout, stiff rigida O P Q resinosa nigra mu go R sylvestris S densiflora thunbergii Young branch tip of P. thunbergii. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 205 Pinus alhicaulis Englemann White-bark pine Tree to 10 m. (30 ft.) or a shrub at timberline. Twigs stout; bark reddish-brown with scattered stiff hairs. Bark on older branches and trunk broken by narrow fissures into thin, nar¬ row, brown or creamy-white plate-like scales. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 5 to 8 years, 5-7.5 cm. (2-3 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved, densely crowded on the twigs, directed forward. Cones subterminal, ovoid-cylindrical, 3. 5-7. 5 cm. (1V2-3 in.) long, never opening. Seeds edible. Grows in mountains above 1500 m. (5000 ft.) from SW Al¬ berta and British Columbia south to NW Colorado, NE Nevada and the mountains of east central California. It matures in about 150 to 200 years and is a very slow growing species. Some individuals only 5 feet tall are about 500 years old. There is some doubt as to whether this pine is actually in cultivation here. Young trees (less than 50 years old) are very similar in appearance to Pinus flexilis. The surest identifica¬ tion is by the cones, which do not open in P. albicaulis but do in P. flexilis. We have had reputed P. albicaulis here, but on coning the trees have proved to be P. flexilis. 206 I ARNOLDIA Pinus aristata Engelmann Hickory pine, Bristlecone pine Bushy tree to 15 m. (50 ft.) or a semiprostrate shrub at timberline. Twigs reddish-brown, smooth or hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 10 to 12 years, 2-4 cm. (%— IV2 in.) long, stout, stiff, curved, densely crowded on the twigs, directed forward the first year, spreading later, marked with one or more resin droplets. Cones subterminal, cylindric-ovate, 7. 5-8. 5 cm. ( 3-3V4 in.) long, each scale with a slender, curved spine to 6 mm. (V4 in.) long. Grows in mountains above 2300 m. (7,500 ft.) from Colo¬ rado to Arizona and New Mexico. A very slow growing pine with an irregular habit. In the eastern United States it may be only 4 feet high in 16 years. A closely related form, growing in Utah, Nevada and extreme eastern California, has recently been separated as Pinus long- aeva. This includes the pines recently heralded as the “oldest living things.” The habit of the two species differs in that the branches of P. aristata are spreading or ascending, while the branches of P. longaeva are spreading and pendulous. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 207 Pinus hanksiana Lambert Jack pine Small to medium-sized scrubby tree 8—18 m. (25—60 ft.). Twigs slender, greenish-yellow, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting for 2 to 3 years, 2-3.8 cm. ( %— l1/?, in.) long, stiff, curved or twisted. Cones lateral, bent, conical, 2.5-6 cm. (1- 2Vz in.) long, sometimes opening at maturity, sometimes re¬ maining closed for several years. Found in well-drained sandy or rocky soil at elevations from 30—400 m. (100—1200 ft.) from Nova Scotia to the Athabasca River southward to Maine and central Michigan. It bears cones at 10 years of age, and practically stops grow¬ ing at 80 years. Some of the cones remain closed for many years, opening in response to the heat of forest fires and shed¬ ding their seed over the burned land. The seedlings are very intolerant of shade. Jack pine will grow on sterile, well-drained, soils. It is not an attractive tree. 208 | ARNOLDIA Pinus cembra Linnaeus Swiss stone pine Tree 20-25 m. (60-75 ft.). Twigs densely yellowish-brown, hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persisting 3 to 5 years, 5-12 cm. (2-5 in.) long, straight. Cones ovoid, 5-8 cm. (2-3Vfe in.) long, never opening. Seeds edible. Native to central European Alps from 1200-2400 m. (4,000- 8,000 ft.) and in the Carpathian mountains. A very hardy, but very slow growing pine, preferring a deep, moderately fertile soil for best growth. In Europe the wood is highly prized for wood carving. It is related to P. sibirica and P. koraiensis. Three plants received in the Arboretum in 1918 are only 20 to 25 feet tall today. Common Pines of Massachusetts \ 209 Pinus densiflora Siebold & Zuccarini Japanese red pine Tree 20-36 m. (70-120 ft.)- Twigs green, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 2 to 3 years, 5-6 cm. (2-21/2 in.) long, slender, soft, twisted. Cones subterminal, about 3.5 cm. (2 in. ) long, slender, soft, twisted. Cones subterminal, about 3.5 cm. (2 in.) long, conic-oblong, opening at maturity. In Japan it ranges from 150-900 m. (500-3,000 ft.). It also occurs in the Chinese provinces of Kiansu and Shantung. The stems tend to be twisted. Like P. sylvestris the branches and upper part of the trunk are covered with thin, exfoliating, orange-brown bark. P. densiflora is intolerant of shade, but grows well on heavy, moist, but not wet, soils. 210 I ARNOLDIA Pinus edulis Engelmann Pinyon pine Short stout tree 4-15 m. (12-50 ft.). Twigs stout, orange- brown, smooth or very minutely hairy. Needles 2 to 3 in a fascicle, persistent for 3 to 9 years, 2.5-4 cm. (I-IV2 in.) long, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, ovate, 2. 5-3. 5 cm. ( 1— IV2 in.) long, opening to release the edible seeds. Native to mountains and foothills 1500-2400 m. (5,000- 9,000 ft.) from S Wyoming and N Colorado south to W Okla¬ homa, W Texas, and San Bernardino County, California. A dominant component of the juniper-pinyon pine woodland of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Pinyon nuts were an important food for the Indians of the Southwest. They are still important commercially and are, after pecans, the most important nut crop in the United States. Pinyon pine is extremely slow growing; trees 25 years old may be only 3-4 feet tall. They grow at the rate of only 2-4 inches per year. At the Arnold Arboretum there is a single tree grown from seed received from Utah in 1927. In 48 years it has reached a height of about 10 feet. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 211 Pinus flexilis James Limber pine Short stout tree 12—25 m. (40-80 ft.), or a shrub at timber- line. Twigs stout, orange-brown, hairy at first. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 5 to 6 years, 3.8-7 cm. (lVz—3 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, subcylindric, 7.5-13 cm. (3-5 in.) long, opening at maturity. Native to mountains 1500-3600 m. (5,000-12,000 ft.) from S Alberta and British Columbia south to W Texas and S Cali¬ fornia. The slow growing trees virtually stop increasing in size at about 200 years of age, but may five to be 400. Young plants are very similar in appearance to P. albicaulis and form a rounded, bushy tree. At the Arnold Arboretum three young grafted plants received in 1951 are now 15 to 20 feet tall. 212 I ARNOLDIA Pinus jeffreyi A. Murray Jeffrey's pine Tree 30-60 m. (100-200 ft.)- Twigs massive; buds non- resinous, with an odor of pineapple when crushed. Needles 3 in a fascicle, persisting for 5 to 9 years, 12-25 cm. (5-10 in.) long, stout, stiff, elastic. Cones broadly oval, 13—30 cm. (5-12 in.) long, opening at maturity. Occurs in mountains between 1000—3100 m. (3,500—10,000 ft.), in SW Oregon to Baja California, generally at higher eleva¬ tions than P. ponderosa, which it resembles. This species begins cone formation at 8 years of age. Indi¬ vidual trees fruit at 4- to 8-year intervals. Individuals mature at 150 years and live to 500 years. Common Pines of Massachusetts \ 213 Pinus koraiensis Siebold & Zuccarini Korean pine Slow growing tree 30-45 m. (100-150 ft.). Twigs densely rusty-brown, hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent for 2 to 5 years, 6-12.5 cm. (2Vz-5 in.) long, straight. Cones sub¬ terminal, becoming lateral by the growth of the shoot in the summer, cylindric or conic-oblong, 10-15 cm. (4-7 in.) long, opening when mature, but so encrusted with pitch that the seeds are retained. Grows on well-drained hillside and mountain slopes ranging from near sea level to 2500 m. (8,000 ft.) in E Russia, Man¬ churia, Korea and the mountains of central and S Japan. An important timber tree with uses similar to P. strobus. The seeds are edible. Two plants grown from seed received in 1918 are now about 25 feet tall at the Arnold Arboretum. 214 | ARNOLDIA Pinus mugo Turra Dwarf mountain pine A shrub with ascending branches to 3.5 m. (11 ft.). Twigs dark greenish-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persist¬ ing 5 to 10 years, 2-8 cm. (%-3 in.) long, stout, crowded on the twigs. Cones subterminal, 2-5 cm. (%— 2 in.) long, conical. Grows on mountains of central and southern Europe. Part of a variable complex of forms that range from prostrate shrubs to erect, single-stemmed trees. The forms in cultivation are useful for mass plantings on slopes and rocky areas, as well as for foundation plantings. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 215 Pinus nigra Arnold Black pine, Austrian pine Fast growing tree, 36—45 m. (120-150 ft.). Twigs stout, yellowish-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting about 4 years, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) long, stiff, stout, straight or curved. Cones subterminal, 5-8 cm. (2-3 in.) long, ovoid- conic, opening at maturity. It is native to SE Europe. Widely planted as a windbreak, it is tolerant of poor and alkaline soils. It survives wind and heavy snow, also salt spray, but is damaged by atmospheric pollutants. Although the stem is usually straight, it is so full of knots that it is useless for timber. 216 | ARNOLDIA Pinus parviflora Siebold & Zuccarini Japanese white pine Tree 6-15 m. (20-50 ft.). Twigs slender, grayish, with minute scattered hairs. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent for 2 to 5 years, 2-7.5 cm. (%-3 in.) long, slender, curved and twisted. Cones subterminal, ovoid or oblong-ovoid, 5—10 cm. (2-4 in.) long, opening when mature. Grows on elevations of from 60-2500 m. (200-8,000 ft.) throughout Japan. In cultivation this is a relatively short, spreading tree, and may be recognized by its sometimes tufted needle clusters and small cones which are borne even on young trees. It is much used in Japan as a subject for Bonsai. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 217 Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex Lawson Western yellow pine, Ponderosoa pine Tree 45-70 m. (150-230 ft.). Twigs stout, orange-brown, smooth; buds resinous, with an odor of turpentine when crushed. Needles 2 to 5, usually 3, in a fascicle, persistent about 3 years, 12-26 cm. (5-10 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, 8-15 cm. (31/2-6 in.) long, ovoid-oblong, opening at maturity. Grows at altitudes ranging from sea level to 3350 m. ( 10,000 ft.), from SW Oregon and NW California to North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and extreme W Oklahoma, and from British Columbia south to central Mexico. Ponderosa pine was first recorded by Lewis and Clarke, who saw it on the upper Missouri River in 1804. It is very sensitive to air pollutants. 218 | ARNOLDIA Pinus resinosa Aiton Red pine Tree, 21-36 m. (70-120 ft.). Twigs stout, orange-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 4 to 5 years, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) long, slender, flexible. Cones subterminal, ovoid- conic, 5-6 cm. (2— 2V2 in.) long, opening at maturity. Grows from Nova Scotia to the valley of the Winnipeg River, south to Pennsylvania. Red pine is a valuable timber tree. It grows more rapidly than white pine, but is less tolerant of shade. It is resistant to salt spray, but suffers breakage from ice, and is sensitive to air pollutants. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 219 Pinus rigida P. Miller Pitch pine Tree, 15-18 m. (50-60 ft.). Twigs stoutish, green, becoming brownish-orange, smooth. Needles 3 in a fascicle, persistent 2 years, 7.5-12 cm. (3-5 in.), stout, rigid, slightly curved and twisted. Cones lateral, ovoid, 2.5-9 cm. (1— 31/2 in.). Occurs in poor, sandy or rocky soils, Maine to SE Ontario, south to N Georgia and E Tennessee. Remarkable for the adventitious buds on stems and branches that produce short, scrubby, branches. Unique in its ability to sprout from cut or burned stumps. It was widely planted on Cape Cod in the 1840s and 1850s on abandoned farm land. These plantations were the basis for the extensive pine wood¬ lands there now. 220 | ARNOLDIA Pinus strobus Linnaeus White pine A fast growing tree 24.5-45 m. (80-150 ft.). Twigs thin, greenish, hairy at first. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 2 to 2V2 years, 7.5-10 cm. (3-4 in.) long, slender, soft, drooping. Cones subterminal, cylindrical, curved, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) long, resinous. Common tree of second growth ranging from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia. It grows best on moist, well-drained, sandy soil; is easily transplanted, and unlike many other pines may be sheared. It is the largest growing native conifer east of the Mississippi. Old growth trees found in early colonial times were up to 6 feet in diameter at the butt. Subject to snow and ice breakage, P. strobus survives temperatures to 94° below 0° F. It is very sensitive to salt damage. The wood is white to light brown. It is used for boxes and crates; for patterns, millwork, building construction and matches. Wood from trees less than 50 years old is usually so full of knots that it can be used for nothing save crates and knotty pine panelling. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 221 Pinus sylvestris Linnaeus Scots pine Tree, 20-30 m. (70-100 ft.)- Twigs slender, orange-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persistent 2 to 3 years, 2.5-10 cm. (1—4 in.) long, stiff and twisted. Cones subterminal, ovoid- conic, 2. 5-7. 5 (1-3 in.) long, opening at maturity. Occurs in north and central Europe, extending south in the mountains to Spain, N Italy, and Macedonia, eastward in N Asia to the Pacific coast of Siberia. Widely grown and valued for timber in Europe, where it has a long history of use. The forms that have been commonly cul¬ tivated in this country have not made straight trunks and have been short-lived. Requires a well-drained soil and sometimes self-sows. It is more or less tolerant of salt spray, ice, drought, and wind, but less so than P. nigra. P. sylvestris and P. densiflora are unique in having thin, red- brown, scaling bark on the upper parts of the trees. 222 | ARNOLDIA Finns thunbergii Parlatore Japanese black pine Tree, 30-36 m. (100-120 ft.)- Twigs light brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 2 to 3 years, densely crowded on the twigs, 6-11 cm. (2V2-4V2 in.) long, rigid, twisted. Cones terminal, ovoid, 4-6 cm. ( 1%— 2V2 in.) long, opening at maturity. Occurs in coasts and lowlands of the islands of central and S Japan, and the coast of S Korea, sea level to 950 m. (3,100 ft.). A common plant that has been extensively used for Bonsai. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 223 Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson Bhutan pine Tree 15-45 m. (50-150 ft.). Twigs greenish or greenish- brown, smooth. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persisting 3 to 4 years, 12.5-20 cm. (5-8 in.) long, slender, drooping. Cones sub¬ terminal, cylindrical, 15-30 cm. (6-12 in.) long, resinous, opening at maturity. Grows on mountains from 1600-3200 m. (6,000-12,000 ft.) in Afghanistan to Nepal. An important timber tree and a source of rosin and turpen¬ tine. It is fast growing, but in cultivation has a tendency to branch near the base, forming a bushy tree. In Boston it has been damaged by winter cold and severe winds. It is reputed to be resistant to atmospheric pollution, and to white pine blister rust, but is susceptible to white pine weevil which damages the buds and deforms the stems. When to treat * C/3 H c/3 W Ph H U W C/3 £ * Based on information taken from “The 1975 Insect and Disease Control Guide for Trees and Shrubs” by Clifford S. Chater and Francis W. Holmes, published by the Cooperative Extension Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. 01002. Death of leaves and Blight A. In dry weather clip out and destroy affected parts. Disinfect twigs. Caused by various tools between cuts. fungi and bacteria s 2 « 8 .a M C/5 03 a u 0) 03 p v5 2 J) B O O O TJ 'G'S 2 £ A3 U o os As f § PQ fo! c _3 g ^ '*3 o> [2 M t* Cj cij oj 'S> “ 'S £ - <4h c5 ^ « as A3 cd 5 73 rt 1,4 g3 |t§ &S.s cj c D ^ § A rS (A XJ £ c > 03 n > w § ^ bX)pri 03 M Oh C/3 0) bJO 03 £ £ 33 aj o LU os ™ A> 13 y g ° o aj 5a X) tn T! 4) .y Gb a a «4H M O 0> -*-* oj c -c |> o ™ M ^ 33 C a (3 3 ° § f A3 Ad A3 I'S U G o ■d o a: A3 T3 ^ 03 2 bX) 2 £ r2 3 U C+-H O ^■g , s ar « > -g & g> 3 .S ; G ,fi -3 13 Ef , 2 3 5 s° 2 ) -O CU J2 w C o3 C3 03 Q 3 O 'C as > >■% A3 X! » 'Gb 3 G as 3 U tfJ Ad If 0J o ^2 ^ '53 b .5 ° A3 T3 y § s O 3 A 33 p OS TS 43 a) I— I 0^-2 C/3 03 D, I_i 4J 0) cd •ZP w & .55 ? C o S w 9 *3 > P u 5 'c rt .£) 03 -* £ Vh 3 O M Eh P* 3 O 3 S X) rC rt So « C .. 3 SH a 3 c O 3 So o 0/3 *En -| tC n £ ° 2 - w bJD G n ^ p's p y 3 o o ■£ -p s * rO o CD pTj "O £ . O tr ao rt g p ^ O O C4h OiD ^ 0 «*H tuO M° C 3 6X)S > 3 £> I? S --H C (L) S 3 £r C/l *F“9 u .S T) 3 y PS P T3 3 33 rt 3 2 § 2 § 6, !h _ c+h O <4h CTj ° - ° w “ 3 3 a) £ S 33 y to 2 . y P £p33 ^ 43 60 <3 3 - O M - TD T3 £ .2,33 c/3 .5 £ o I O (D ^ CD pC in -M -*-* y £ P'S 60 a ■a y £ o e 1/3 O > * Based on information taken from “The 1975 Insect and Disease Control Guide for Trees and Shrubs” by Clifford S. Chater and Francis W. Holmes, published by the Cooperative Extension Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. 01002. Common Pines of Massachusetts | 229 Garden planting of Vaccinium vilisidaea minus. Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs by Margo W. Reynolds To the average gardener the chief attraction of any shrub is usually its flowers: the bigger the better, and if it’s bright and showy, too — well, that’s just an added plus. Connoisseurs and those familiar with plants know better and recognize the flaws in this kind of thinking. They realize that although flowers are often the most conspicuous feature of a plant, many shrubs offer a great deal more. Fruits are one of the extra dividends. All too often they are relegated to secondary consideration or overlooked entirely when one is selecting materials for home planting. Yet many shrubs are more highly prized for their fruits than they are for their flowers. Bittersweet is one colorful example, and there are many, many more that will provide year-round interest in a display garden. A boon to the homeowner with a small piece of property are attractively fruited shrubs that are both small in size and easy to maintain. Dwarf shrubs, evergreen and deciduous alike, that either by habit or occasional pruning can be kept to three feet or below, have an infinite number of uses in today’s small gar¬ dens. Classified as shrubs by virtue of their woody stems, they fulfill a multitude of purposes in the contemporary landscape. Some form dense, spreading mats and act as soil binders on eroding slopes or banks, as well as ground covers where grass is difficult to establish. Others highlight certain areas of the rock garden or serve as attractive specimen plants in the overall garden scheme. Because of their compact, slow-growing habit, these dwarf shrubs are easy to maintain and remain in scale with the settings for which they were planned. Most conspicuous among fruiting shrubs are those with red and yellow fruits, and foremost in this category are the vibur¬ nums, cotoneasters and barberries. Although there are fewer ornamentally attractive ones, white-fruited shrubs provide their share of color also. Dark blue and black-fruited shrubs are generally the least striking from a color standpoint, but there 230 Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs | 231 are several which do merit more than passing attention. I have included them in the recommended list that follows although they probably should not be given preference over plants with more vivid coloration when space is very limited. Before listing some of the more spectacular fruiting shrubs, it might be worth just a moment to stop and discuss some of the factors that affect fruit development and insure maximum coloration. Fruiting, in general, is enormously dependent upon both weather and soil conditions. Temperature, rainfall and amount of sunshine all are pertinent. Frost, too, plays an im¬ portant part. In some instances it serves to hasten development, while in others it merely causes the fruit to brown and drop off prematurely. Long periods of rainy, overcast weather often have a deleterious effect upon fruit ripening. Protracted periods of sunshine and warmth, on the contrary, will cause fruits to ripen and color more quickly. To the same degree, soil composition is a factor. Poor, dry soil often retards development, whereas the same plant growing in moist, well-drained soil will develop normally and fruit with¬ out problem. The addition of nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil of some plants often results in better coloration. Red-fruited Dwarf Shrubs Cotoneasters. As a group, cotoneasters are a reliable and orna¬ mental addition to almost any garden. They run the gamut from evergreen to semi-evergreen to deciduous, and vary in height from prostrate ground covers to 18-foot specimens. The flowers of this plant group are fairly inconspicuous and the primary ornamental value lies in their brightly colored berries, seldom more than 1/4-inch in diameter. Several species can be grouped in the low-growing category with which we are concerned. Among the best are Cotoneaster horizontalis and C. microphylla. C. horizontalis , commonly known as rock spray or rock cotoneaster, is semi-evergreen and attains a height of 18 to 24 inches. Probably the best known and most widely planted cotoneaster, this neat, rugged little plant can be used with equal facility in the rock garden, as a foundation planting, as an edging for the shrub border, or as a ground cover on steep banks. It has an interesting cascading habit, which makes it especially suitable for these kinds of plantings. The fruit is a pea-sized berry produced in abun¬ dance that persists well into December. 232 I ARNOLDIA Cotoneaster horizontalis. Gotoneaster microphylla , a low, evergreen shrub commonly called small-leaved cotoneaster, attains a height of 2 to 3 feet and is an excellent specimen plant for the rock garden. It, too, has persistent small berries. C. thymifolia, a variety of C. mi- crophylla, should also be mentioned here. It has the smallest leaves of any cotoneaster (1/8 to 3/8 inches) and it is a good small specimen plant for a special area of the rock garden. Viburnums. Most viburnums are rather tall and somewhat coarse for specimen plantings, but their fruits are often spec- Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs | 233 tacular. For this reason it is particularly gratifying to know that there is a small viburnum suitable for rock garden plant¬ ing. The berries, too, are every bit as showy as they are on some of the larger viburnums. The plant to which I refer is Viburnum opulus ‘Compactum’, a dwarf form of the European cranberrybush. Although its eventual height is 5 feet, it is a slow grower and periodic pruning will keep it small. This particular variety blooms freely and then produces red berries in great profusion. These fruits have the added plus of persisting throughout the winter. Again, unlike most viburnums, V. opulus ‘Compactum’ is both dainty and compact, assuring it a place of distinction in the small garden. Vacciniums. The mountain cranberry or mountain cowberry, as it is sometimes called, has the Latin name of Vaccinium vitis-idaea var. minus and is a close relative of the blueberry. Vaccinium vitis-idaea. Photo: P. Chvany. 234 | ARNOLDIA Although not quite as ornamental as the above-mentioned plants, it definitely has a place in naturalistic landscaping pro¬ vided its requirements for cool shade and moisture are met. It cannot tolerate hot, dry summers, but withstands severe north¬ ern winters with ease. The mountain cranberry, which reaches a maximum height of only 4 to 8 feet, is often difficult to establish and one should be forewarned. It is best started in spring from potted plants set out in sandy, acid (pH 5.0) soil. Arctostaphylos. I often wonder whether I always single out this plant because I like the sound of its name, or whether I have other reasons! In this particular case, there is no denying that this diminutive shrub has great value as a fruiting ground cover plant. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (bearberry) is certainly worth more than just passing note. Evergreen, with scarlet berries and prostrate, creeping habit, bearberry is well-adapted for growing in poor, dry sandy soils. Increasingly it is being used along highways and sandy bank areas where little else will grow. In the home garden it is of enormous value in the rockery or as a ground cover. Happily, it is nearly maintenance-free as well. Blue-fruited Dwarf Shrubs Bayberry. Blue-berried shrubs with ornamental appeal are many and varied. Among the first to come to my mind is the ver¬ satile bayberry ( Myrica pensylvanica) with its small greyish- blue fruit. Growing wild throughout its range from Newfound¬ land to North Carolina, the bayberry is found predominantly in sandy soil along the coast. Because it also prefers full sun, it is a natural choice for seaside gardens and exposed, dry hillsides. An attractive twig habit, aromatic, semi-evergreen leaves and persistent grey-blue berries all contribute to the ornamental value of this shrub. Although plants are known to grow 8 feet tall, they seldom attain more than 3 to 4 feet and can be kept small and vigorous by occasional heavy pruning of old clumps. It is necessary, however, to plant both male and female plants together in order to insure fruiting, as the sexes are usually separate. Holly-grape. Two species of Mahonia, the Oregon holly-grape, lend themselves to planting for their fruits alone, although their Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs | 235 foliage and flowers are equally noteworthy. The larger of the two is Mahonia aquifolium which generally grows to about 3 feet. The bright yellow flowers are followed by grape-like clus¬ ters of blue-black berries in the fall. The lustrous semi-ever¬ green to evergreen foliage turns a most attractive purplish- bronze in the autumn. Mahonia repens is similar in every way to the above except that it is smaller (10 inches) and its foliage is slightly less lustrous. Planting in the shade seems to protect these plants from the winter burn to which they are susceptible if grown in the sun. Maintenance is at a minimum, for severe winter weather keeps these superior ornamentals low; occasional pruning will keep them dense and vigorous. White-fruited Dwarf Shrubs Dogwood. White-fruited shrubs are probably best represented by Cornus sericea stolonifera ‘Kelseyi’. This dwarf form of C. sericea rarely exceeds 24 inches in height and so is an ex¬ cellent, though slightly coarse, plant to use at the edge of the shrub border. Although better known for its vivid red twigs which show to best advantage against a new-fallen snow, its white fruits have their own merits against the red twigs. This particular native shrub seems to grow well under most con¬ ditions, though it prefers to be somewhat moist. From red, white and blue we come to the purplish fruit group. Here, two dwarf shrubs of particular ornamental value are the coralberry ( Symphoricarpos orbiculatus ) and the Chilean per- nettya ( Pernettya mucronata) . The latter is an excellent spec¬ imen and probably one of the best-fruiting small shrubs avail¬ able. An evergreen with lustrous dark foliage, the pernettya produces fruit in great profusion. Varieties run the gamut from white through pink to a lovely deep purple. Pernettya’s mature height is lVz feet, so it makes an attrac¬ tive specimen at the edge of the shrub border or in the rock garden as an accent plant, provided it is growing in an acid soil. Full sun will keep it neat and compact; shade tends to cause untidy, open growth. Like many other shrubs this re¬ quires two strains or varieties, growing in close proximity, to insure fertilization and subsequent fruiting. It should be noted here that unlike the other shrubs mentioned, pernettya is only hardy as far north as central Connecticut and Cape Cod. 236 [ ARNOLDIA Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs | 237 Top left: Symphoricarpos orbiculatus. Lower left: Close-up of its fruit. Cornus sericea stolonifera ‘Kelseyi.’ Coralberry and Indian currant are two of the names under which the native Symphoricarpos orbiculatus masquerades. A widely planted ornamental, coralberry ’s flowers are of secondary importance to the spectacular purplish-red fruits that decorate the gracefully arching branches in the fall. At 3 feet it most definitely fits into our dwarf shrub classification. Its greatest value, perhaps, is that it adapts readily to nearly any soil and grows equally well in sun or shade. Because it suckers freely, it is best used as a soil binder for slope planting. Arnoldia Reviews The Complete Flower Arranger. Amalie Adler Ascher. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1974. 288 pages, illustrated. $9.95. The dust jacket tells us that Mrs. Ascher began flower ar¬ ranging as a pastime and has pursued her interest in the sub¬ ject to become a nationally successful exhibitor, teacher, and judge. She also conducts a TV series and writes articles for various publications. She shares the wealth of knowledge gained from this pro¬ fession in a very comprehensive book that covers every pos¬ sible aspect of arranging. It explains the basics of color and design, simplifies the tiresome mechanics, gives advice on ac¬ cessories and how to keep the finished design fresh for days. All the traditional styles and materials are discussed, but also accorded full chapters are the subjects of lighting, flower show competition, and the increasingly popular modern styles. These give the book a very complete and up-to-the-minute outlook. To conclude, there is a chapter of ideas for the flower ar¬ ranger’s garden. Using her own as a guide, Mrs. Ascher sug¬ gests plants to provide a year-round selection of interesting flowers and foliage. Each chapter is well illustrated with appropriate black and white photographs of the author’s arrangements. There are two groups of color plates that include, as well as numerous other modern concoctions, the design for which she won a “flower arranger of the year” award. Whether you are interested in competition or require only that the daylilies stay open for a dinner party, this is definitely a book to consider adding to your collection. Sheila Magullion Genetic Resources in Plants. O. H. Frankel and E. Bennett, edi¬ tors. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company. 1970. 554 pages. $17.50. Conference reports can be deadly documents to read. The present volume, which is based upon a conference held under FAO sponsorship in 1967, is a very mixed bag. Many of the general papers in the first section of the book contain little that is new and much that is of questionable relevance to the sub- 238 ArnolcLia Reviews | 239 ject. However, there is much in the balance of the book that is intensely interesting. The themes that run through the book seem to be : 1 ) in general any given crop, as cultivated under “primitive” condi¬ tions, contains a relatively large sample of the available germ plasm of the species. 2) individual crops, as cultivated in the “developed” countries, are based on a dangerously small sample of the available germ plasm of the species. 3) the replacement of indigenous varieties of crops in the “underdeveloped” nations by cultivars produced in or by the “developed” nations is caus¬ ing a serious loss of germ plasm. 4) some practical way must be found to preserve the germ plasma of “primitive” forms of crops. The chapters on the various aspects of plant exploration are perhaps the most exciting reading. The chapters on the indi¬ vidual crops give a good view of contemporary problems. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. 128 More Houseplants You Can Grow. Rob Herwig. New York: Collier Books. 1974. 61 pages, paperback. $1.75. Nothing Grows for You? Frances Tenenbaum. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1974. 118 pages, illustrated. $6.95. The true value of these two books on houseplants is in in¬ verse proportion to their price. Rob Herwig has presented his 128 plants in a well-organized and well-photographed booklet. His symbol code for the grow¬ ing requirements of each plant is most helpful. The plants de¬ picted were chosen by Dr. Donald Wyman, and are, therefore, an interesting group. It should be noted that many of them require greenhouse culture for their survival when not in the house on display. In spite of a certain archness in presentation, which seems to overcome many people when writing about plants, this is a useful and attractive book at a reasonable price. Nothing Grows for You?, costing almost four times as much as Mr. Herwig’s volume, is rambling, verbose, and written in a painfully coy and folksy style. Except for some very basic sug¬ gestions as to how to treat various ordinary houseplants, the advice to the reader consists mainly of exhortations to throw away any plant that seems ailing or difficult to grow. The illustrations range from barely recognizable and botan- ically incorrect line drawings of common houseplants to de¬ pictions of pots of ivy, each leaf with a smiling or weeping face. They have no horticultural or aesthetic merit. 240 | ARNOLDIA Mrs. Tenenbaum mentions in her preface that there are “loads” of books on houseplants. The novice would do well to consult other authority than hers. Cora L. Warren Lake Tahoe Wildflowers. Kenneth Legg. Healdsburg, Calif. : Naturegraph Publishers. 1970. 96 pages, illustrated. $2.25. This is a “mini-volume” pocket guide written by a naturalist who has evolved into an ecologist. The wildflowers are arranged in color categories and each is identified by popular and botan¬ ical name and depicted by a full page in color from original watercolors. The editorial style is charming, informal, and chatty without being irritating. The pictures accurately repre¬ sent the plants. The work is intended as a companion on a nature walk rather than as a scientific tool. Viewed in this light, it agreeably fulfills its purpose. Elinore B. Trowbridge City Leaves City Trees. Edward Gallob. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1972. 64 pages, illustrated. $6.50. The format consists entirely of large black and white pic¬ tures with text. Author’s photographs show trees in real city settings: flanking playgrounds, street parking areas and various architectural backgrounds. There are also some excellent pho¬ tograms, or black and white prints, made directly from leaves, and a very simple key-like introduction. The trees pictured and described are in the northern segment of the United States, east of the Mississippi. This work apparently is intended for the novice and is suit¬ able for the teens on. It does not “talk down” to the reader, but the editorial style is pleasantly simple and unaffected; there is even humor. Popular plant names are used. The photographs have human interest and feeling. The plant details are good and flowers and fruits are sometimes included. This volume could well develop further an uninformed curi¬ osity by supplying the tool of basic recognition, building a feeling of mastery, and arousing and sustaining interest. Highly recommended. Elinore B. Trowbridge Lonicera korolkowii ‘aurora Photo: P. Chvany. : Contents 241 The Director’s Report RICHARD A. HOWARD 263 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum ALFRED J. FORDHAM 265 The Tour of a Botanist in China SHIU-YING HU 296 Arnoldia Reviews 297 Index to Volume XXXV ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130 Published six times a year: in Jan¬ uary, March, May, July, September, and November. Subscriptions $8.00 per year. Price of single copies upon request. Second Class postage paid at Boston, Mass. Copyright © 1975 by the President and Fellorus of Harvard College the cover: Grounds crew member Maurice C. Sheehan spreads mulch in Jamaica Plain. Photo: P. Chvany. The Director’s Report The Arnold Arboretum During the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1975 The observance of the Bicentennial of the United States began in the spring of 1975 in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. The additional publicity given to the Commonwealth has cited the Arnold Arboretum in brochure and maps, resulting in an increase in the number of visitors to both Jamaica Plain and Weston. The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston is shown on many of the route maps of the colonial battles. The Jamaica Plain location of the living collections is one of the stops in the Museum Loop Shuttle Bus service, furnished free to visitors, and operating from Boston Common to the Franklin Park Zoo, with numerous intermediate attractions. Special at¬ tention has been given by the Arboretum staff to the appearance of the grounds and the handling of these visitors on weekends. National problems have affected the Arboretum through the continuing increase in costs of supplies, in shortages, and in the need for fuel conservation. The Arboretum followed the Uni¬ versity policy as far as possible in observing fuel-saving days during the Christmas holidays, and by reducing temperatures in all buildings. The only exception made was in the green¬ houses where reducing the temperature the previous winter had serious effects on the research projects and the quality of the collections. The annual meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta was held in Boston in October with head¬ quarters at the Arnold Arboretum. Representatives of approxi¬ mately 100 botanical gardens, arboreta, and horticultural soci¬ eties gathered for these meetings which were hosted by the Arboretum staff with the valuable assistance of the Arboretum’s Volunteers. The previous fiscal year saw an attempt by the City of Boston to acquire the South Street tract of the Arnold Arboretum for a campus-style high school. No sooner had the City agreed to seek an alternate site, than a bill was filed in the legislature of the Commonwealth to acquire the same site for athletic facilities for Boston State College. 241 242 | ARNOLDIA Much time is required of the Arboretum staff, the officers of the University, and even representatives of the National Historic Site Commission in Washington, to combat such bills. The land in question is classified as “wetlands,” is inadequately fenced and has relatively few organized collections. It is, however, included within the boundaries of the Arnold Arboretum as recognized in the National Historic Landmark designation. The land is used in teaching and research programs, will be needed in the future for the development of the living collections, and should not be lost to the use of the Arboretum. Convincing legis¬ lative committees that open land is useful for current biological studies and is needed for future plantings seems to be difficult. Finally it should be noted that the changes in governance and fiscal operation of the University in recent years have had an ever-increasing effect on the Arnold Arboretum. Additional charges for University operation have been made against the endowment and gift funds of the Arboretum. Other depart¬ ments have chosen to de-emphasize the status and role of the curator in their operation. The decision by some organizations and departments to appoint only professors with stipulated and required teaching assignments within the University has been proposed as a University-wide policy. The role of the Arnold Arboretum has been quite different from that of other depart¬ ments, or even some museums, in its association with the public and with the City of Boston, in the emphasis of curatorial excel¬ lence in living and other collections, and in its traditional method of staff appointments for research and service with an option of compensated teaching within the University. These and other problems of academic life in 1975 have been the subjects of continuing discussions within the staff, with the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, and with Deans and administrative officials of the University. The complex and difficult role of a self-supporting arboretum with a significant autonomous repu¬ tation must be considered in its association with a special public, as well as with one of general interests, with a city and with a university. Staff There were staff changes in the several sections of the activity of the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Patricia Hall resigned as Librar¬ ian of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum, and we were fortunate to secure the services of Mrs. Lenore Dickinson on transfer from within the University. In the herbarium, Dr. Norton G. Miller, appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium as The Director’s Report | 243 Associate Professor and Associate Curator, arrived to assume his duties on January 1. With regret we received the resignation of William Grime, Curatorial Assistant, to accept a position at the Field Museum in Chicago. Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu was given a leave of absence for the second half of the year to teach at Chung Chi College in Hong Kong, and to continue her work on the vegetation of Hong Kong. Miss Kathleen Clagett was pro¬ moted to the role of Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. In the horticultural area Mr. Robert Hebb, Assistant Horti¬ culturist, resigned to accept a position at the Cary Arboretum, and Miss Pamela Bruns, Illustrator, resigned to relocate in New Hampshire. Mr. Edward H. Flaherty, III, was appointed Cura¬ torial Assistant to work with the labeling, mapping and record keeping of the living collections. Mr. Arturs Norietis of the greenhouse staff reached the mandatory retirement age and re¬ tired at the end of the year. Dr. Yin-Tse Lee was reappointed a Mercer Research Fellow, and honorary appointments were approved for Mrs. Constance Derderian (Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection) and for Dr. Arturo Gomez-Pompa (Honorary Research Associate of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium). Horticulture The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum are grown on 265 acres in Jamaica Plain and 110 acres in Weston. By an agreement nearly a century old with the City of Boston, the grounds, and therefore the collections in Jamaica Plain, are open to the public at “reasonable hours.” The care and development of the collections are the responsibility of the staff, while the maintenance of roads, paths, benches, and fences are the re¬ sponsibility of the City of Boston, which also supplies police and fire protection. Not all of the Arboretum is fenced in, and even the fenced areas cannot be closed due to nonfunctioning gates. In fact, the Arboretum collection is open all of the time. A periodic review by staff and Visiting Committee of the prob¬ lems of nighttime parties, vandalism to plants, labels and build¬ ings, fitter, undisciplined visitors, illegal behavior, fires, etc., commonly results in recommendations of additional guards, better fences, locked gates and admission fees. Contrasting recommendations have also been received from legal advisors, security agencies and the Police Department. Although the problems remain unresolved, they are less than those experi¬ enced by arboreta in other major cities — a small consolation. 244 | ARNOLDIA During April and May, Captain L. Quinlan of Station 13, Boston Police Department, had a 12-hour patrol from 10:00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. in the Arboretum each day. This resulted in a marked improvement in the crowd behavior and in the litter problem. The original indenture directed the staff of the Arnold Arboretum to grow all plants hardy in the vicinity of West Roxbury. Sargent and subsequent directors limited this di¬ rective, for the most part, to woody plants appropriate in an arboretum. Many plants are acquired and placed on the grounds only to be lost through a lack of hardiness, improper environmental conditions, theft, injury or other factors. The grounds of the Arnold Arboretum were mapped carefully in the 1940s and the location of each plant recorded in the permanent files. It is to¬ day one of the most carefully documented living collections. The collections in 1949 numbered 3,861 taxa. Additions and losses have been variable in subsequent years, but in 1974- 1975, 6,186 hardy taxa, as species, varieties and cultivars, are within the living collections in Jamaica Plain and Weston. Other taxa are in greenhouses or nurseries as young plants or research collections and are not counted. Each taxon is repre- TU'ri'yj ey- Mb . if I xdl h The Director’s Report | 245 sented by one or more plants, and often by several collections from different geographic areas or different sources. In recent years the records of the Arnold Arboretum living and dead collections were incorporated in the data bank of the Plant Sciences Data Center, an organization recently renamed from the Plant Records Center. The original printouts of the computer records of the living collections revealed duplication of numbers, misidentifications, misspellings, and the lack of in¬ formation really needed for some entries. During the past year Mr. Hebb, assisted by several Volunteers, worked over the computer printout and submitted corrected entries to the Plant Sciences Data Center. When these have been incorporated, an up-to-date printout will be available. The greenhouses and plant propagation efforts are funda¬ mental to the care and maintenance of a quality living collec¬ tion. Mr. Fordham and his staff handled 617 taxa within the greenhouses for replacement of plants on the grounds (339), for information on methods of propagation (220), for general observation (12), for distribution (20) and for staff research (26). Requests are received from other organizations for seeds or propagation material, and these are filled whenever possible. Thus, 99 shipments representing 468 taxa of plant materials were consigned within the United States, and 11 shipments of 69 taxa were made to 7 foreign countries. We received from United States sources 71 shipments of 161 taxa, and from 8 foreign countries 12 shipments of 37 taxa. Although it is easier to ship and receive materials as seeds, these have genetic vari¬ ability and may be less than satisfactory for research purposes. Nevertheless we requested and received 114 shipments of seeds of 589 taxa from the United States and 30 other countries, and distributed on request 48 shipments of 186 taxa to 11 countries. The area around the greenhouses contains many interesting plants of small stature, espaliers and bank plantings. This area is open to the public daily. The greenhouses themselves contain no display material, but only research and maintenance collec¬ tions. Classes and special groups are admitted as scheduled, and the greenhouses are open to the public one afternoon a week. We are indebted to Volunteers who serve as guides dur¬ ing these open afternoons. The major landscape development on the summit of Bussey Hill was completed during the first part of the fiscal year and formally opened in October with a special invitation to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. The construction was done Volunteer Mrs. Garrett Birkhoff Deft) assists greenhouse staff member Donna A. Lynch in saran house. Photo: P. Chvany. 246 | ARNOLDIA by Delmonico Construction of Hull, Massachusetts under the supervision of Mr. Vincent Merrill of Shurcliff, Merrill and Footit. The plantings were done by the Arboretum grounds crew. The attractive new area, with benches and walls, has drawn many visitors to its special plantings of summer bloom¬ ing plants. Labeling and mapping of the plants has been the responsi¬ bility of Mr. Edward Flaherty, III, who received support from Volunteers as well as from summer student trainees in checking maps and plants for labels. Hopefully the labels can be pre¬ pared during the winter months and placed next spring. The Case Estates The Case Estates in Weston comprises approximately 110 acres, and serves as a general nursery area for recent introduc¬ tions, an area for accessioned collections either not wanted, or for which there is no room in Jamaica Plain, and for display collections of special educational value. Staff research projects also can be accommodated in Weston, and to facilitate this use new irrigation lines are being installed by our staff on a program to take several years. The ground cover plant collections are also under renovation on a schedule, and other beds were lined with new edging material and im¬ proved in quality during the spring season. The collection of medicinal herbs has been difficult to maintain due to the rapid spreading of some taxa by vigorous rhizome development. Sec¬ tions of metal barrels have been prepared and used to contain the most rampant spreading species. Two buildings in Weston are used for teaching, as class rooms or informal laboratories. The central portion of the brick barn has excellent acoustics and is used for meetings of 50 to 150 people. During the winter the wood paneling of this area was cleaned and refinished. At the request of the Director, the Harvard Corporation voted to permit the town of Weston to take 10,446 square feet of land of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston for a compensation of one dollar ($1.00). This taking is associated with a long-planned and equally long-delayed action to widen Wellesley Street in order to permit sidewalk and bicycle paths for the protection of pedestrians and visitors to the Case Estates. Although construc¬ tion is delayed again for reasons of fundings, eventually a larger measure of safety will result. The Director’s Report | 247 New Bussey Hill plantings are shown to tour group by Joyce Fantasia. Volunteer Guide. Photo: P. Chvany. 248 | ARNOLDIA Herbarium In a multifaceted trade for space involving the Botanical Museum and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the herbaria acquired three units within the MCZ representing approximately 3,000 square feet. With funds supplied largely by the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the rooms were renovated for herbarium, research and office space. Professor Carroll E. Wood, Jr., moved his office into one of the units along with the re¬ sources and staff of the project on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. The herbarium cases containing the herbarium of the New England Botanical Club, a responsi¬ bility of the Gray Herbarium, occupies slightly more than one unit, and the remainder of the space now holds the collections of ferns and related nonflowering plants. The shift of these collections permitted some expansion of the storage of each. Special attention has been given during the year to curating the ferns, with funds from the NSF curatorial grant. This collection is now in superb condition. The removal of the New England Botanical Club collection from the fourth floor of the Harvard University Herbaria build¬ ing has permitted further adjustments within the building. A suite of three rooms, forming an office and laboratory complex, has been designed for Professor Rolla Tryon of the Gray Herbar¬ ium, and his associates. This will be completed and occupied during the next fiscal year. A small room has been created for archival material previously scattered in miscellaneous files. Dr. Miller has acquired space adjacent to his office which will be remodeled as a laboratory. Dr. Schubert will obtain a larger office and Dr. Howard will acquire a small laboratory area. While additional space is welcomed by the recipient staff members, the problems of overcrowding of library and herbar¬ ium collections remain critical. The University did approve the hiring of an architect to prepare drawings for an addition to the Herbaria building. A prospectus, including such drawings, will be needed when funding for construction is solicited. Hope¬ fully the addition contemplated will offer proper housing for herbarium specimens and library resources, as well as supply the laboratories and offices for professors of biology. The herbarium of cultivated plants and general herbarium storage area maintained in the administration building in Jamaica Plain were fumigated by the Waltham Chemical Com¬ pany during the Christmas holidays. An Herbarium Committee was formed under the chairman¬ ship of Professor Miller. An initial duty of the committee was I jmM m y f : Staff members Dr. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., and Ida H. Burch collect her¬ barium specimens. Photo: P. Chvany. to seek a replacement for Mr. Grime, and Mrs. Jackie Smith was selected to begin her duties in the next fiscal year. Following the changes in the herbarium location of specimens, a new Information for Visitors leaflet was prepared, and the leaflet on loans and the handling of specimens was revised. At the end of the year all microscopes in the herbaria were inventoried, and were cleaned and adjusted on a special contract. The curatorial grant received from the National Science Foun¬ dation was renewed for the third year of a possible five-year period. The grant to Harvard is administered in the office of the Gray Herbarium on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum, Botan¬ ical Museum, Farlow Herbarium and Library, and the Gray Herbarium. The grant has permitted the hiring of additional personnel for mounting of specimens and for curatorial work; the result of this additional labor is evident and welcome. The herbarium is an active one. The collections are funda- 250 | ARNOLDIA mental to the research of many of the staff, and are regarded as a significant national systematic collection. The requests for loans honored during the year comprised 129 loans of 18,288 sheets to 46 institutions within the United States, and 55 loans of 8,105 sheets to 32 institutions in other countries. Specimens mounted and inserted in the herbarium totaled 15,014, bringing the accessioned herbarium to 1,026,459 specimens of which 154,044 comprise the herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain. A total of 16,339 specimens was received: 10,012 by exchange, 2,101 as gifts, 3,632 by subsidy, and 594 in return for identification. In contrast 3,894 specimens were sent in exchange. The herbarium collections housed in the Harvard University Herbaria building in Cambridge require repeated adjustments due to the lack of sufficient space for proper storage and curating. Another 25 Merrill cardboard boxes were added during the year, making a total of 2,396 such containers holding regular herbarium specimens, used in stacks or on top of other cases. In addition it has been necessary to remove unidentified specimens from the generic sequence in the herbarium in order to house properly regular and identified collections. At present the basement area holds 25 cases of such material, identified only to genus or family and removed from the regular sequence. This admittedly is improper care of valuable collections, but is the best that can be done until additional space and facilities become available. The research of the staff includes floristic studies, mono¬ graphs, and investigations of single taxa. The bibliography of published papers indicates the type of projects completed and published during the past fiscal year. Library Mrs. Lenore Dickinson assumed the duty of head Librarian on August 1, 1974, in a joint appointment with the Gray Herbarium. Mrs. Dickinson is assisted in Cambridge by three full-time Library Assistants, also shared with the Gray Herbar¬ ium, and in Jamaica Plain by one Library Assistant. Students are employed for shelving of books and routine cleaning in Cambridge, and Volunteers have assisted materially in Jamaica Plain. A Library Committee consisting of staff members from the Gray Herbarium and the Arboretum was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. Bernice Schubert to assist the library staff in policy decisions. The number of botanical periodicals pertinent to areas of staff interest seems to increase yearly. The subscription costs The Director’s Report | 251 of both new and existing periodicals have increased, as have expenditures for binding, supplies and equipment. Throughout the University library system, efforts to restrict budget increases have led to an examination of library holdings. In the Biological Laboratories, for example, periodical subscriptions are being canceled if the journal is in another library in Cambridge or Boston. This is certain to increase the demands upon the Arboretum library. To the present, however, no journal has been dropped from the Arboretum holdings. Since its beginning, the library of the Arnold Arboretum has had an individual system of cataloguing and book arrangement. This was feasible while the library was small or increased slowly, while the primary use was by a cooperative staff, and while management was through the personal interest of a Librarian familiar with the arrangement through long years of service. All these permissive factors have been changed in recent years, and the necessity of adopting a standard system has become evident. Thus, the Library of Congress system of cataloguing has been adopted for new accessions, and as time permits volumes or sections of the current library will be changed to conform. Catalogue cards under this system can be obtained from the Library of Congress, other research libraries such as the Na¬ tional Agriculture Library, or from the publishers when ordering books. The reference collections in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain will be the first areas where the Library of Congress classification can be put into effect. In time the staff adapts to the methods being taught to library personnel. There has been an 18 per cent increase in total library circula¬ tion over the past year and the use of books by other than staff and students within the Herbaria building is now 20 per cent of total circulation. The requests for books on loan has been handled largely by photocopies, and only three volumes were sent on interlibrary loan during the year, while the 277 photo¬ copy requests filled represented a 20 per cent increase in such service. Following the discovery of vandalism of rare books, an alarm system was installed in the library, greatly restricting the off-hour use of the library by the scientific staff. With financial assistance provided by the Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities it was possible to repair and restore the bindings on a number of valuable books of the 18th and 19th centuries. The curatorial grant from the Na¬ tional Science Foundation has provision for some retrospective binding and restoration of volumes, as well as the acquisition of 252 | ARNOLDIA book boxes for the storage of unbindable materials. The regular binding program for periodicals is continued with unrestricted funds of the Arnold Arboretum. Archival materials associated with the library holdings in¬ clude catalogued collections of kodachrome slides and historic negatives of Wilson and Rock expeditions. Many hours of labor were contributed in Jamaica Plain by Volunteers during the year in renovating both the kodachrome slide collection and the negative files. The glass negatives exposed by Wilson have been placed in special plastic envelopes for better protection and the legends have been carefully restored on these and the Rock pictures. The library was increased during the year with the addition of 1,433 catalogued items to total holdings of 84,346 volumes and pamphlets. Education The staff of the Arnold Arboretum must function within several distinctive educational levels in the Boston community. By terms of the endowment the Arnold Professor and Director of the Arnold Arboretum is required to teach the knowledge of trees within the University. The role of other staff members in college and university teaching has varied over the years. The opportunity to teach at Harvard has been extended to qualified staff members who have had various joint appointments, usually as lecturers, but occasionally as assistant or associate professors in addition to their regular curatorial appointments. Some departments and museums within the University have now adopted a policy of appointing only professors who will be required to teach a minimum number of courses. Curatorial work in these museums will only be supervised by the professors, and no public service function will be required. Traditionally, and in practice, the Arnold Arboretum has not been solely a teaching organization, but one devoted to research, offering its collections for public visitation or scholarly use to horticulture as well as botanical need. Both teaching and service roles of some or all of the staff have involved contacts with a general public in answering questions, lecturing or conducting tours, supplying material, preparing exhibits or displays, and writing at various levels. However, the role of the curator in maintain¬ ing collections is still valid and fundamental to an organization whose traditional work is based on collections of living plants, dried specimens and library books. Dr. Wood taught all or part of three regularly scheduled Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., instructs class at the Arboretum. Photo: P. Chvany. The Director’s Report | 253 Harvard courses in Biology during the year: Biology 103, The Taxonomy of Vascular Plants; Biology 11a, Diversity in the Plant Kingdom; and Biology S-105, Plants of the Tropics. Dr. Howard shared the summer course with Dr. Wood and also offered in the fall. Biology 209, The Phylogeny of the Flowering Plants. Drs. Howard, Schubert and Wood all supervised the work of graduate or undergraduate students in numbered re¬ search courses. Two Summer School classes were offered at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. Biology S-110, Principles of Prac¬ tical Horticulture, was taught by Dr. DeWolf, and Dr. Weaver offered Biology S-109, Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants. An evaluation is now being made of the participation by Arboretum personnel in the Summer School program in view of the distance from Cambridge, the lack of air-conditioned lecture rooms as well as proper laboratories and equipment, and the difficulties of involving the staff in summer instruction programs without additional direct compensation. The staff members of the Arnold Arboretum are invited to present seminars or lectures at other colleges, and they meet college classes that visit the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Fordham has the greatest contact in this area, for most biology or 254 | ARNOLDIA horticultural classes visiting the Arboretum request explanation of the propagation work or the procedures used in the green¬ houses and nurseries. For tours of the collections, primarily in the spring, the Volunteers are willing and able to lead visiting garden clubs or plant study groups, but the curatorial and pro¬ fessional staff is involved in the explanations and tours of college groups in the library, herbarium, greenhouses and laboratories. Nationally and internationally, members of the Arboretum staff have had roles in professional organizations. As selected examples. Dr. DeWolf has served on the International Orchid Commission on Classification, Nomenclature and Registration. He attended the Eighth World Conference in Frankfurt, Ger¬ many, and was elected chairman of the commission. Dr. Schu¬ bert has attended the Mexican Botanical Congresses and served as an active section chairman. In preparation for consideration at the International Botanical Congress, Dr. Schubert has served as chairman of the Standing Committee on Stabilization of Specific Names. For the past two years Dr. Howard has been president of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta. Many requests are received for staff members of the Arnold Arboretum to speak, or to take part in various ways in local organizations and projects. Staff members usually will speak without charge within the communities where the Arboretum is located: i.e., Jamaica Plain, Cambridge, and Weston. Our in¬ structional programs are coordinated with those offered to the public by such local organizations as the Garden in the Woods, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Wellesley College, the Massachusetts Audubon Society, Habitat, Inc., and the Cam¬ bridge and Boston Adult Education programs. Mr. George Pride serves as coordinator for the Arboretum in these programs. He has also represented the staff at the Earth Week inner city environmental conference on the theme of changing vacant lots to garden plots. As these gardens developed, he served as a judge for the Street Scene exhibits in Cambridge and the 4-H Club vegetable workshop in Dorchester-Roxbury. The nationwide interest in conservation, particularly the category of endangered plant species, has also involved the staff. Dr. Wood was invited to participate in a discussion at River Front Farm in Virginia, where twelve botanists and a total of fifty people attempted to prepare a list of such taxa for publica¬ tion. Dr. DeWolf chaired a session on plant materials for the International Conference on Preservation and Restoration of Historic Gardens and Landscapes, held at Dumbarton Oaks in The Director’s Report | 255 Washington, D.C. Locally, Dr. Howard has attempted to con¬ tribute a “reasonable approach” in advising on some drastic legislation proposed for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts by concerned citizens. Staff handling of sales and rentals of our two educational films has proved costly in time. We asked for and received competitive bids from film distributors, and contracted with Macmillan Films for the distribution of The Arnold Arboretum and Poisonous Plants. With extensive advertising by this com¬ pany the films will receive wider use; the staff has the right to retain several copies for local use. We plan to apply the royalties and additional gifts to the development of another film. Displays explaining the work of the staff or the plants grown at the Arnold Arboretum are often requested by schools and libraries. The lecture room in the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain offers wall space for other exhibits. One, “Plants in Many Moods,” comprising the photography of Peter Chvany, was followed by photographs of botanical gardens and arboreta of the United States by Dr. Howard. An exhibit of books, speci¬ mens, and photographs of poisonous plants was prepared by Sheila Geary and displayed in Widener Library during the summer and fall. Specimens of species roses embedded in plastic by Mrs. Sheila Magullion, an Arboretum Volunteer, has made an attractive exhibit that has been displayed in libraries in the suburbs of Boston. Another exhibit, of cones and needle foliage, has been displayed similarly. The transparency display panels used in Jamaica Plain have formed part of an exhibit in the Information Office in Holyoke Center, and artifacts of the Wilson expedition to China were supplied to the Boston 200 Committee for the exhibit “Where’s Boston?” staged at the Prudential Center. During travel for field work or vacation, the staff acquires specimens or photographs useful in teaching and demonstra¬ tion programs. During the year Dr. Weaver visited the Canary Islands; Mr. Pride, the West Indies; Dr. Stevens, herbaria and gardens in Europe; Dr. Spongberg, gardens and collections in England. Ms. Annette Aiello, a graduate student working on the ornamental genus Portlandia , visited Mexico and Jamaica during the year, supported in part by a grant from the Atkins Fund, and in part by the Arnold Arboretum. The James R. Jewett Fellowship was awarded to Mr. Larry Morse, a graduate student, for support of field work in a study of the species of Hudsonia in the coastal areas of eastern North America. L 7' The Director’s Report | 257 Publications An Editorial Committee was appointed during the year to aid Dr. Bernice Schubert, who has served as Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum since 1963. In October of the fiscal year. Miss Kathleen Clagett was appointed Technical Editor, Dr. Schubert continuing as chairman of the Editorial Committee which will assume responsibility for the botanical content of the manuscripts submitted. The publication schedule of the four numbers comprising a volume of the Journal was upset during the year by the employee strike in the Printing Office. The four numbers issued included 26 articles by 32 authors, and totaled 626 pages. The new cover for Volume 56, 1975, represented a mass collection of leaves of Sassafras albidum drawn by Karen Velmure. The six numbers of Arnoldia, edited by Mrs. Jeanne S. Wad- leigh, totaled 550 pages. A treatment of “Low Maintenance Perennials,” by Robert Hebb, was issued in two numbers. One number was devoted to “Wild Plants in the City,” by Nancy Page and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. “Lichens,” by Weaver, and “Poison-ivy,” by Gillis, were major articles of other issues. The first volume of Flora of the Lesser Antilles was published by the Arboretum during the year. A grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust made possible the printing. The first volume contains a treatment of the Orchidaceae by Leslie Garay and Homer Sweet, and introductory historical and phyto- geographical data by Dr. Howard. Hastings House Publishers, Inc., issued Stephanne Sutton’s biography of Joseph Rock under the title. In China’s Border Provinces This work utilizes many of the historical records and photographs among the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Rock made one trip to China sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum during the administration of Charles Sargent. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Company reprinted “Wild Plants in the City”; it also plans to reprint and distribute “Low Maintenance Perennials.” Harper and Row Publishers, Inc., published A Student’s Atlas of Flowering Plants: Some Dicotyledons of Eastern North America. This work was planned and prepared under the direc¬ tion of Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., who was assisted by Dr. Elizabeth Shaw, Karen Velmure, and Dr. Kenneth Robertson. The volume features 120 illustrations, representing habit sketches and detailed drawings and dissections. The work is enhanced by an “atlas of descriptive terms,” with references to illustrations, and a comparable list of adaptations for pollina- Top left: Spring dresses the hillside adjacent to the Administration Build¬ ing in Jamaica Plain. Photo: P. Chvany. Below: The quiet beauty of the Arboretum in winter. Photo: P. Bruns. 258 I ARNOLDIA tion and seed dispersal. The original printing was soon de¬ pleted, and a second printing, with a new title page, was issued during the year. The staff also prepared a new brochure and map for the col¬ lections in Jamaica Plain, incorporating additional data on publications and on the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Gifts and Grants Dr. Wood received a grant from the National Science Founda¬ tion for a one-year extension of the research associated with a generic flora of the Southeastern United States Dr. Howard received a grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust to aid in the publication of a volume of the Flora of the Lesser Antilles issued during the year. The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum generously contributed monetary gifts as well as gifts in kind. Donations of books for the library were accepted from Mrs. F. S. Deland, Mrs. S. C. Lee, and Mrs. Maud E. Upton. Memorial gifts were received in the names of Mrs. Peter Boshco, Stephen Britton, Loring Conant, William Coulter, Sr., Virginia S. Jewett, Elisha Wilson Morse, and Stanley Woicik. Richard A. Howard i The Director’s Report | 259 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum — 1974-1975 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology and Director Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Director of Arnoldia (Re¬ signed April 18, 1975) Ida Hay Burch, B.A., Curatorial Assistant Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec¬ tions* Kathleen Ann Clagett, M.A., Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Constance Tortorici Derderian, A.B., Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Lenore Mikalauskas Dickinson, M.S., Librarian* (Appointed Sep¬ tember 1, 1974) Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Edward Herbert Flaherty, III, Curatorial Assistant (Appointed July 15, 1974) Sheila Connor Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian Arturo Gomez-Pompa, Dr. Sc., Honorary Research Associate* William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant* (Resigned February 28, 1975) Patricia Dick Hall, M.S., Librarian* (Resigned August 31, 1974) Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist (Resigned Oc¬ tober 31, 1974) Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Research Fellow in Temperate Asiatic Botany Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Norton George Miller, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Associate Pro¬ fessor of Biology* (Appointed January 1, 1975) George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth Ray Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Peter Francis Stevens, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Karen Stoutsenberger Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne Stockbarger Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Arnoldia Richard Edwin Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology * Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium AABGA members relax between sessions during Annual Meeting. Photo: P. Chvany. 260 | ARNOLDIA Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff July 1 , 1974 — June 30, 1975 DeWolf, G. P., Jr., Plant registrations. A.A.B.G.A. Bulletin 9(2): 44-47. 1975. Fordham, A. J., Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 34(6): 425-430. 1974. - , Why some conifers deviate from normal. Internat. PI. Prop. Comb.' Proc. 24: 472-477. 1974. Gillis, W. T. (with G. R. Proctor), Caesalpinia subgenus Guilandina in the Bahamas. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 425—430. 1974. - , Phantoms in the flora of the Bahamas. Phytologia 29: 154- 166. 1974. - , Poison-ivy and its kin. Arnoldia 35(2) : 93-123. 1975. - — (with G. R. Proctor), Additions and corrections to the Ba¬ hama flora — II. Sida 6(1): 52-62. 1975. Hebb, R. S., Low maintenance perennials. Arnoldia 34(5): 253- 384. 1974; 35(1): 1-91. 1975. Howard, R. A., Karl Sax, 1892-1973. (With portrait.) Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 333-343. 1974. - , Foreword in J. F. Morton, Folk Remedies of the Low Coun¬ tries. Seeman Co., Miami, Fla. 1974. — , The director’s report. The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1974. Arnoldia 34(6): 385—423. 1974. — , Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Vol. 1. Orchidaceae, by L. A. Garay and H. R. Sweet. [Includes foreword and phytogeo¬ graphic and floristic relationships by R. A. Howard.] Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 1974. - , Further comments on Styrax L. Sida 5(5): 334-337. 1974. - , Gaultheria swartzii , nom. nov. and the combinations in Raeuschel’s Nomenclator. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 240-242. 1975. - - , The Arnold Arboretum. Plant Sci. Bull. 21(2): 18-23. 1975. Lee, Y. T. (with J. H. Langenheim), Additional new taxa and new combinations in Hymenaea (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 441-452. 1974. Page, N. M. (with R. E. Weaver, Jr.), Wild plants in the city. Ar¬ noldia 34(4): 137-252. 1974. [Reprinted by Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co. x + 117 pp. 1975.] Pride, G. H., ‘Constant Nymph’ Updated. Arnoldia 35(2): 124-127. 1975. Robertson, K. R., The genera of Rosaceae in the southeastern United States. (Continued from Jour. Anold Arb. 55(2): 303-332. 1974.) Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 344-401; 55(4): 611-662. 1974. - , The Oxalidaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 223-239. 1975. The Director’s Report | 261 Schubert, B. G., Report of the standing committee on stabilization of specific names. Taxon 24: 171-200. 1975. Spongberg, S. A. (with E. Shaw), Nomenclature proposals to the Leningrad Congress, 148. Taxon 23: 878. 1974. - (with C. E. Wood, Jr.), Nomenclature proposals to the Lenin¬ grad Congress, 150. Taxon 23: 879, 880. 1974. - , Changes of botanical names. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. Rec., Plants & Gardens 30(4): 45—47. 1975. - , Lauraceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(1): 1-19. 1975. Stevens, P. F., The hybridisation and geographic variation of Rho¬ dodendron atropurpureum and R. womersleyi. Papua New Guinea Sci. Soc. Proc. 25: 73-84. 1973. (1974.) - , The circumscription and relationships of Dimorphanthera (Ericaceae), with notes on some Papuasian species. Contr. Herb. Austral. 8: 1-34. 1974. - , A review of Chisocheton (Meliaceae) in Papuasia. Contr. Herb.Austral.il: 1-55. 1975. Sutton, S. B., In China’s Border Provinces. 334 pp. Hastings House, N.Y. 1974. Wadleigh, J. S., (pseud. J. Kilborn), Gardening in these times. Hor¬ ticulture 53(3): 41-43. 1975. - , The worthy Kerrias. Arnoldia 35(3): 160—161. 1975. Weaver, R. E., Jr., Lichens: mysterious and diverse. Arnoldia 35(3): 133-139. 1975. - (with B. Maguire), The neotropical genus Tachia (Gentian- aceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(1): 103-125. 1975. - (with N. Page), Wild plants in the city. Arnoldia 34(4): 137-252. 1974. [Reprinted by Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co. x + 117 pp. 1975.] - (with L. Riidenberg), Cytotaxonomic notes on some Gentian- aceae. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 211-222. 1975. Wood, C. E., Jr., A student’s atlas of flowering plants: some dicot¬ yledons of eastern North America. 120 pis. Harper & Row, New York, N.Y. 1974. - — , Illustrated angiosperm families, pp. 852-877 in A. E. Rad¬ ford et al., Vascular Plant Systematics. Harper & Row, New York, N.Y. 1974. - (with S. A. Spongberg), Nomenclature proposals to the Lenin¬ grad Congress, 150. Taxon 23: 879, 880. 1974. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data — 1974 Average temperature for 1974: 50.6° Precipitation for 1974: 45.85 inches Snowfall during winter 1973-74: 31.2 Warmest temperature: 98° on July 10 Coldest temperature: -8° on Jan. 18 Date of last frost in spring: April 26 Date of first frost in autumn: Oct. 14 "‘Growing season for 1974 was 170 days Avg. Max. Temp. Avg. Min. Temp. Avg. Temp. Ex¬ treme Max. Ex¬ treme Min. Precipi¬ tation Snow¬ fall Jan. 38.2 19.1 28.6 65 -8 3.67 12.4 Feb. 38.2 16.4 27.3 57 6 3.33 14.5 Mar. 47.9 27.7 37.8 71 14 4.73 .3 Apr. 60.8 39.4 50.1 88 26 4.44 3.7 May 66.2 44.9 55.5 88 33 3.71 0 June 77.0 55.1 66.5 97 42 2.82 0 July 86.5 61.6 74.5 98 49 2.13 0 Aug. 84.7 60.4 77.5 97 50 3.47 0 Sept. 74.0 53.4 63.7 88 36 7.49 0 Oct. 60.0 36.7 48.3 79 20 3.39 0 Nov. 52.2 34.5 43.3 76 18 2.0 4.3 Dec. 42 26.3 34.1 61 13 4.67 3.5 * Growing season — The growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. Alfred J. Fordham 263 Trellis for woody vines adjacent to shrub collection in Jamaica Plain. Photo: G. Wadleigh. 264 I ARNOLDIA Map showing the directions of the tour and the places visited. Broken lines indicate travels made by airplanes; solid lines, those by train or bus. The Tour of a Botanist in China by Shiu-Ying Hu On the morning of August 7, 1975, three members of the Insti¬ tute of Botany, Academia Sinica, were at the International Airport of Peking to fare me well. Their message was, “Please bear our greetings to botanists elsewhere.” To give this message of goodwill to the readers of this article is an objective of the following report. This summer I had the opportunity to participate in a tour organized by members of the Faculty of Science, Chinese Uni¬ versity of Hong Kong. The purposes of the tour were to visit China, and to see the industrial and scientific institutions there. My personal hopes were to see my relatives and friends whom I have not seen for thirty years, to visit botanical institutions, gardens and professional botanists, and to purchase publications for the library of the Arnold Arboretum. To these ends I re¬ turned with satisfaction and gratitude. The programs and activities of the tour were arranged com¬ pletely by the China Travel Service (CTS). As soon as the group arrived in Canton, two members of CTS were assigned to us for the entire tour. With the exception of personal friends and relatives, all contacts with people and institutions had to be made through the introduction of an official agent such as CTS. As the programs for the tour were designed for a wide spectrum of interests which included only some parks and gardens, most of my visits to herbaria, professional botanists, and botanical and medicinal gardens were made through special requests, at the cost of certain items of general interest and mostly with additional expenses. Under these conditions, the number of botanical institutions visited was limited. I fully realize that such limited observations cannot give a fair picture of botany in China today. However, incomplete as it is, so far as I know, such information is not available to botanists outside China. To give these botanists a glimpse of the botanical activities in China and some information of botanists there, as far as ma¬ terial is available to me, is another objective of this article. 265 266 | ARNOLDIA This report contains a general account and first impression of the tour, the botanical gardens and institutions visited, bot¬ anists and their current work, and some lessons learned through contact with the people. For convenience, the places visited are plotted in an outline map and the geographical names adopted are those appearing in outstanding newspapers such as the New York Times. Some older familiar names and those used in the Times Atlas of China (1974) are placed in parentheses. A General Account of the Tour with First Impressions Our tour within China began at Shen-chen (Sham-chun, Hong Kong spelling), where we went through customs inspec¬ tion and made some currency exchanges. There the group was taken to a large garden which has a hedge of Fokienia. Among the trees there are several cauliflorous Artocarpus with large oblong fruits about 20 cm. long and 15 cm. in diameter. In a large dining room with a capacity for 300 people, we were served a sumptuous welcome lunch, then we took a train for Canton. The train went over the Pearl River delta. There are a few low hills in sight. Rice is the major crop on both sides of the railway. The minor crops include tapioca plant, sweet potato, taro, greater yam ( Dioscorea alata ), jute and hemp. The latter two species are planted for fibers. Large trees of lychee ( Litchi chinensis ) and lungan ( Euphoria longan ), and banana are planted near villages. Papaya is occasionally cultivated along the banks between rice paddies. A very interesting phenomenon that I have not seen before is a green manure plant, Sesbania cochin- chinensis , grown in loose rows among rice. For our tour Canton was treated merely as a passing station. Programs were arranged for one half-day to see two historical sites before we took off for eastern China. However, at the con¬ clusion of the tour, permission was granted to me and a former student to stay for two extra days in China to see botanical establishments in Canton. Then I was able to visit Sun Yatsen University which is now in the campus of former Lingnan Uni¬ versity where F. A. McClure started a bamboo garden in the early 1930s. We also visited a botanical garden and the Her¬ barium of the Institute of Botany established by W. Y. Chun at Shih-p’ai, outside Canton. Hangchow (Hang-chou) was the first city that we visited in eastern China. This place is known as the garden city of China. It is built by the side of West Lake (Hsi-hu) and it has Chien- tang River on the other side. Our hotel was situated on the lake side. For the first day we were driven 40 miles into the country Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu and Prof. H. T. Chang in front of gate of the present Sun Yatsen University. Photo: C. H. Yeung. to see a temple preserved for its art objects. Formerly the monks of this temple had the holdings of vast areas of land, and a good sized forest was preserved. So far as I know, this is by far the best preserved mesophytic forest of eastern China. There many large trees of Acer, Aesculus, Catalpa, Celtis, Cinnamomum, Cry-ptomeria, Liquidambar, Platycarya, Pterocarya, Quercus, Sapindus, and Ulmus have attained the height of 30-40 meters and a diameter of one meter or more. In Hangchow we also visited a nursery specializing in flowers and flower arrangements. A young lady who is responsible for the bonsai section showed us around. From her we learned that the administration of botanical activities of Hangchow is the responsibility of the Bureau of Garden and Forestry. This office has 17 departments; the Flower Nursery, the Hangchow Botan¬ ical Garden, the Park Department, etc. are some of the depart¬ ments. The nursery was started in 1958. It has 16 technical staff members who take care of the sections of bonsai, orchids, greenhouse, roses, chrysanthemums, woody and herbaceous flowers. It supplies flowers for all occasions and all needs. We were shown over 2,000 bonsai, and 5,000 pots of Cymbidium. Some of the cultivars of Cymbidium are extremely expensive: $500.00 per plant in U.S. currency. In Hangchow we visited a water garden over zigzag bridges, a hill garden with pagoda on a hill-top in a setting of natural boulders, and a small garden with streams. We spent half of 268 | ARNOLDIA a day in Hua-kang Park (Flower Creek Park). It is very well cared for and it reminds me of gardens visited in Kyoto and Tokyo, only this one is much larger. Its site of 300 mu (15 acres) is covered with beautiful lawn, impressive deodar-cedar and lace-bark pine, wisteria, and many other trees, shrubs and creepers, natural boulders, lakes, ponds with various kinds of aquatic plants, bridges, and hundreds of fishes swimming, jumping, and fighting for the bread thrown to them in a special area. By a special arrangement I was able to visit the Hangchow Botanical Garden, which will be described later. From Hangchow we took a train to Shanghai, the largest city, and a highly industrialized and commercialized center of China. In Shanghai we were put up on the thirteenth floor of the Inter¬ national House where we had an extensive view of the city below. This building is next to the Shanghai People’s Park which is converted from the former race course under British management. A bonsai exhibition was going on while we were in Shanghai. It occupied one-tenth of the Park and admission was five cents. All lights on the streets are put out by 4 : 45 A.M. People begin to appear individually under the trees of the sidewalks along the park for morning exercises and by 5:40 A.M. a loudspeaker broadcasting instructions begins. Then the park is open and people also practice physical exercise on the walks in the park. A reliable informant told me that under the leadership of Miss S. K. Cheng the largest botanical garden of China is under construction in Shanghai. Five million dollars have been allo¬ cated for this work. In the spring Miss Cheng took a party of eleven persons to Hainan Island. They visited botanical gardens and research institutions in botany along the way to find out what may be introduced into cultivation in Shanghai, in the field or under glass. From Shanghai we took a train to Soochow (Su-chou). For¬ merly western visitors to China called Soochow the Venice of China. Then transportation within the town was carried on by boat. Now modern roads and streets for cars and buses are built to and within the city; yet vegetables and other farm prod¬ ucts are carried by boat from producers on the farm to con¬ sumers of the street. There is a Chinese saying about Soochow that we heard quoted proudly by our guides. This is, “The paradise above is the Soochow-Hangchow below.” Soochow is indeed beautiful in landscape and rich in produce. In comparison with Hangchow, the gardens in Soochow are smaller, more compact and artificial. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 269 With the exception of Hu-ch’iu ( = Tiger Hill), all the gardens that we visited were former private residences. The unique char¬ acteristics of these gardens are the skillful use of rocks which gives the appearance of a scenery with hills, ledges, cliffs and streams, and the scanty planting of trees, shrubs and creepers. One of our most impressive days in China was the one spent in a rural commune 40 miles outside Soochow. On the eastern side of Tai Lake there is an island called West Tung-ting Shan, and a peninsula with a hill called East Tung-ting Shan. The area we visited is called East Tung-ting Shan Commune. Mem¬ bers of this commune work in teams, but they all have their own homes. Each family has a small piece of land near the house for vegetables. Together they work in ponds for fish and shrimp, in paddy fields for rice, lotus and chiao-po ( Zizania caduciflora) , and in orchards of mei ( Prunus mume ), yang-mei ( Myrica rubra), loquat, peach, Chinese date (Z izyphus jujuba), orange, tangerine, chestnut and ginkgo. They cultivate mulberry trees and keep them short for harvesting the leaves to feed silkworms. This is the first time I saw ginkgo in orchards. The trees are kept short and with broad crowns for the convenience of gathering the seeds. In this area all the trees bear seeds much larger than what one may see elsewhere in China or in America. Good cultivars are propagated by grafting. This com¬ mune has factories for making tea and canning fruits and ginkgo seeds. We were taken to a factory where women were embroidering fine garments; one of them was for the Emperor of Japan, we were told. The commune takes order from Shang¬ hai and assigns the work to its members. The real achievement of this commune is that through group action the problem of water in agriculture has been solved. Over eighty small reser¬ voirs have been built and the water of Tai Lake is pumped by steps up the hill where proper irrigation keeps the fruit trees in the orchards flourishing. Likewise a 20-mile-long dam has been built to prevent the fields from flooding in summer. The in¬ creased area of arable land and the insured return of labor have not only improved the life of the people, but they have also enriched the capital investment of the commune in tractors and trucks. Consequently, mechanization releases a certain amount of man power for work on fine objects of art. From Soochow the group took a train to Wu-hsi to visit a modern city of the silk industry. Special arrangements were made for me to skip the activities in Wu-hsi so that I might have two extra days in Nanking to visit relatives, former teachers, and friends. I was most happy to return to Ginling College 270 | ARNOLDIA campus where I had the first course of botany. It is now used by the Kiangsu Teachers’ University, and there are many new buildings on the back hills. The campus has retained its former charm and the trees are taller with bigger trunks. The pond is full of lotus, but I did not see any birds on the trees around it. My classmates and I had a very enjoyable evening in the house of our former president, Dr. Y. F. Wu, who entertained us with a delicious dinner. Botanical activities in Nanking included a visit to the medic¬ inal plant garden of the College of Chinese Medicinal Sciences, and the Institute of Agricultural Sciences. A very informative and inspiring morning was spent in Nanking Hotel with Dr. R. W. Shan and T. Y. Chou, two taxonomists from the Institute of Botany in Kiangsu, and Prof. P. C. Yeh, a dendrologist and tree breeder of Nanking Technical Institute of Forest Products. We flew from Nanking to Shen-yang (Mukden), and passed over my home town, Suchow (Hsii-chou). Formerly, in this part of China, Suchow was the dividing point for the type of agriculture, and used to be the northern limit of rice culture. The major crops of this region were wheat, sorghum, soybean, mungo-bean, cotton, peanut and sesame. Now from the air one can see canals and irrigated rice fields all the way from Nanking to Shen-yang. At Tsinan (Chinan), the capital of Shantung Province, we landed for lunch. If it had not been for the attrac¬ tive flowers of Calystegia pellita , an indicator of North China, I would not have known that I was in the Yellow River Region, for the airport is surrounded by rice fields. „ Shen-yang is a city of heavy industry; there are about one thousand factories in the area. Visits to plants of steel industry, electronics and mines were arranged for our group. As Shen¬ yang was the capital of Ching Dynasty before it was moved to Peking, there are imperial palaces and royal tombs in the area. We visited a park that is converted from a royal tomb. The place has been protected and some native trees are preserved. Sophora japonica was in full bloom; Celtis, Morus, Phellodendron, Pinus, Pyrus, and Ulmus are common. It is interesting to note that the street trees common in Shen-yang are Populus canadensis and Robinia pseudoacacia , both introduced from the New World. A day-long bus trip took us through rice fields and an exten¬ sive area with eggplant, Chinese cabbage or radish, to a mining area, Fu-shun, where we descended 535 meters to a coal mine. A similar trip took us to a hydroelectric plant with a dam of 1700 meters. Fields of sorghum and corn are equally common. In plains and hills of this area there is hardly any native vegeta¬ tion left. The Tour of a Botanist in China [ 271 In An-shan we were taken to a park called Two Nineteen, so named to commemorate the date of liberation of the town, February 19th, 1948. In this park there is an artificial lake with bridges, lotus in flower, and boats for pleasure rides. This lake is called Labor’s Lake, and we were told that it was built volun¬ tarily by laborers of the area. While members of the group and the guides enjoyed the boat ride and the lake sight, I slipped off to the greenhouse area and made a list of the species in culti¬ vation. It is worthy of note that 70 percent of the species are woody and are planted in large containers 50—100 cm. in di¬ ameter. These specimens are moved around for decorating auditoriums or other public places for special meetings. Cycas revoluta. Araucaria excelsa, Juniperus chinensis, Magnolia grandiflora, Ficus elastica, Camellia japonica , Rhapis excelsa and Trachycarpus fortunei are among the 35 species listed. It is also interesting to note that annually tropical species such as Michelia alba, M. figo, and Nerium indicum are brought to flower and their containers are buried in the ground in certain broad city streets to provide temporary islands. This practice was observed on the streets of Shen-yang. Arrangements were made for me to spend an evening in the homes of Prof. T. N. Liou, Director of the Institutum Sylvicul- turae et Pedologiae, and C. Wang of the same institute. Wang was the first person who collected a specimen of the living species of Metasequoia. Before World War II he graduated from Peking University where he had his botanical training from Prof. Liou. Wang gave me a personal account of the discovery of the type tree that evening. It happened in July 1943 when he was making a trip between Szechwan and Hupeh. While wait¬ ing for available means of transportation, he met a former Peking classmate, Mr. L. H. Yang, who was teaching in the Agricultural School at Wan Hsien. Yang told him that there was a very unusual conifer at Mou-tao-chi. With the instruction given by Yang, Wang went and found the tree. He collected some leafy branches and picked up some cones dropped between the tiles of the roof of a small temple nearby. In his field book, he named this specimen as Glyptostrobus. On returning to Chunkging (Chung-Ching), he showed the specimen to C. L. Wu who was working with Prof. W. C. Cheng in Central Uni¬ versity. Wu took a set of the collection to Prof. Cheng, who in turn sent a collector for some better specimens, and published the species with H. H. Hu. We left Shen-yang for Ta-lien (Dairen) via An-shan. The trip between An-shan and Ta-lien was by train. Robinia pseudo- 272 I ARNOLDIA acacia is planted on both sides of the railroad. On the slope between the trees there are many yellow flowers of Potentilla and Ranunculus. The major crop of this region is corn. Sweet potato and soybean are occasionally planted also. Distant hills are barren; erosion by rain and wind is obvious. It should be mentioned here that in a report published in January 1975 by the Bureau of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, one reads about the excellent result of afforestation in Hsing- chin Hsien of the Liao-tung Peninsula. According to this report, small trees were planted over 85 of the 108 barren hills of the county in 1973, and through the Four-sides Movement, six million small trees were planted by the village-side, the house- side, the road-side and the bank-side of the same county. Per¬ haps similar activities are going on in other counties of the Peninsula, but the trees are too small to be observed from a distance in a moving train. Ta-lien reminds one of Boston, Massachusetts about thirty years ago. A list of 35 trees, shrubs and herbs observed in the Hsing-hai Kung-yuan (Star Ocean Park) indicates that all the genera and many of the species occur in the Arnold Arboretum or other gardens in the Boston area. From Ta-lien we flew to Peking. In addition to visiting his¬ torical sites and educational institutions, we made two day-long trips: one to Tientsin (Tien-chin) in the south, and another to the Great Wall in the northwest. On the day when the group was scheduled to visit Peking University, which is now situated in the Campus of former Yenching University, arrangement was made for me to visit the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica. Early that morning, Miss S. Y. Wang of the Institute The Tour of a Botanist in China | 273 came to the hotel room and took me to the Institute where I ex¬ perienced the warmest welcome and the best reception ever given me by a botanical institution I have visited. There I met some old friends and many eminent botanists whose publications have been familiar for decades. The pictures of some of them are shown at left. From Peking we returned to Canton by plane. In the plane, Mr. S. T. Chen asked me to read a poem which can be translated as follows: “The thousands of poplar and willow trees of Peking, Can not tie up the iron-bird from flying. If not restricted by the schedule of returning time, I would stay forever in this mother-land of mine.” It seems that members of the tour all share Chen’s feeling as expressed by this poem. Before giving my first impressions of the tour, I should like to explain that I left China as a mature botanist with the back¬ ground of farm life in northern Kiangsu, and what impressed me the most is the effect of scientific agriculture on the life of farmers. This is not to say that the agricultural practices in China today are all modern. Most of the methods used now were familiar to me before I left. Although tractors are intro¬ duced into farms, ploughing is done largely by oxen or buffaloes in the south, and horses, donkeys or oxen in the north. Although chemical weed killers are known to some farmers, the weeding in fields and gardens is done primarily by hand. Although most communes have one or more trucks and tractors for transporting farm products, the bulk of fruits and vegetables is moved in carts pulled by animals in the north, and by men or women around Nanking. However, the amount of science and tech¬ nology applied to agriculture and forestry has already made marked changes in the rural landscape. The rice fields that extend from Canton to Shen-yang and Peking, and the woods on hills in some places such as the White Cloud Mountain near Canton and Purple Mountain east of Nanking, are all new to me. The fundamental factors that brought about these changes lie in a nationwide planning and the mobilization of the people for group action. The use of electricity to improve irrigation and the construc¬ tion of canals and dams to regulate the water supply and to prevent flood are primary factors that change the rural land¬ scape. In my youth I experienced repeated annual floods, famine and hunger. The people of the small cluster of villages Photograph taken outside the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Peking. Front row, left to right: F. T. Wang, T. Tang, S. Y. Flu, Y. Ling, S. Li, and R. Hsu. Back row: C. C. Hu, T. T. Yu, and T. H. Wang. Photo: Institute of Botany, Peking. 274 | ARNOLDIA related to mine tried to improve the condition by digging the canal running between them. As they had no cooperation from people in distant villages at the lower end of the canal, the portion repaired was soon filled up by the deposits brought down from the hills by rain. Now with nationwide or provincial planning and group effort of all the people concerned, flooding is practically under control. July to August is the rainy season and the flood time in the area visited. In the extensive stretch of land the tour covered this summer, I did not observe any flooding over crops except along the railroad near Tientsin. The other factor that brought about changes of the physiog¬ nomy in the country and attracts the attention of a botanist is the LU-HUA movement. The short and concise term, lu-hua, is seen and heard everywhere in China. The Chinese character that stands for lu means green and that for hua means to trans¬ form. In the manner by which the term is used by the people, lu-hua connotes ideas that can be expressed by no English equivalent. The word “verdification” may be used for lu-hua, but such a word is not in my dictionary. The aims of lu-hua are to make the countryside garden-like, to convert the hills into orchards and forests, to produce firewood for the people, and to supply timber for houses and for national construction. The activities of lu-hua involve afforestation of the barren hills, the establishment of orchards of fruit trees and of other species of economic importance such as tea-oil trees ( Camellia oleifera), and four-sides planting in plains and cities. At present the most obvious effects of lu-hua are the trees along the railroads and highways, the small vegetable gardens around houses and even some public buildings, the castor-oil plants along the banks of canals, and the quick and low growing woody species that yield firewood from stump sprouts, and grow on the narrow paths between paddy fields and irrigation ditches. The most striking features are the broad bands of Taxodium in the swampy low land along the railway between Shanghai and Nanking, and the wide stretches of trees along both sides of the highway between Peking and its airport. On each side of this highway there is a green wall formed by a harmonious planting of tall poplar, intermediate pagoda tree ( Sophora japonica ), and short Amorpha fruticosa. Beyond this wall are several rows of willow, and then apple or walnut orchards and farmhouses. Another ten years from now visitors to China will have a different view of the distant hills from their train or bus. For several years, especially after the conclusion of a National Con- The Tour of a Botanist in China | 275 vention of Workers for Afforestation that took place in August 1974, the communes of hilly districts have responded to the lu-hua movement by mobilizing fifteen to one hundred thousand farmers each. These workers have planted hundreds of millions of trees in each county, according to reports in publications of the Bureau of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. It is worth noting the species planted. These vary with the locality. In North China, apple, pear, peach, grape, mulberry, walnut and junipers are planted. In the middle Yellow River Region where strong wind and moving sand is characteristic, paulownia and willow are planted. In Central China, cunning- hamia, cryptomeria, black locust and other exotic species are used. In South China localities such as Fukien, tea-oil, persim¬ mon, lungan, lychee and many introduced species such as Eucalyptus citriodora, Grevillea robusta, Casuarina equisetifolia, and Acacia confusa are planted. In many places introduced species are preferred to the native ones that fit the same habitats. For example, Taxodium ascendens and T. distichum are planted in place of Glyptostrobus pensilis and Metasequoia glyptostro- boides in low land and swampy areas; Pinus elliottii, P. taeda, and P. palustris are used instead of P. massoniana on slopes. Some of these species are chosen for a better quality of wood; others, for stronger resistance to insect attacks or for faster growth than the native species. My first impression of changes in cities is the degree of in¬ dustrialization. From the hotel buildings in all the cities visited, one can see tall chimneys of factories on the horizon. Even the residential cities such as Hangchow and Soochow, which used to be called the land of rice and fishes, are now proud of their industrial productivity. We were told that in Hangchow there are 700 factories. Thirty-eight of these employ one thousand or more workers each; these are steel industries, refineries, truck manufacturers, etc. In Soochow, watches, optical equipment, art pieces, furniture and carvings are produced. Although in¬ dustries have brought better life to the workers and stronger financial capacity to the municipal governments, in the business centers and residential areas there seems to be a loss of the grandeur and brilliance that were formed in my memory. The change in me might have contributed partially to this impres¬ sion. Before I left China, I was moving from a village to a town, and from smaller towns to larger cities. The first impressions of things seen appeared bigger and more magnificent than the ones known before. However, there seems to be evidence of less concern by the people regarding the outside appearance of the 276 | ARNOLDIA houses where they live. With the exception of the hotels visited, the front view of houses and stores generally looks shabby. The four-sided planting of the lu-hna movement will eventually im¬ prove this condition. At present some areas have good-sized trees along the street. As birds are not encouraged, insect con¬ trol becomes a serious problem. In Hangchow and Shanghai we met crews spraying the London Plane-tree ( Platanus acerifolia ) every day. Botanical Institutions Visited In my general account of the tour, I have mentioned special arrangements provided for me to visit some botanical institu¬ tions and botanical gardens in China. Here some additional information about each one is given. Peking is taken arbitrar¬ ily as the focal point. As no other institutions were visited north of Peking, the sequence adopted for entering the units is geo¬ graphically southward from Peking to Canton. Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Peking: The Institute is temporarily located in a building near the Peking Zoo on the northwestern section of the city. Plans have been made for a modern new building as its permanent home near the Botanical Garden outside Peking. The herbarium and library of the In¬ stitute have the collections of the former Fan Memorial Institute of Biology and those of the Botanical Institute of the former Peking University. At present the herbarium contains ten times more specimens than it did in the early 1950s. It has a staff of slightly over 300 technical people. In its seven laboratories, active research programs are progressing in many directions of various botanical disciplines, including taxonomic and floristic studies, physiology and morphogenesis, paleobotany, ecology, phytochemistry, economic botany, etc. A monumental work has been completed in the preparation of Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum in five volumes. The work is in Chinese with scientific names and illustration for every species. Volume V is in press. The following summary may give some general idea of the volumes published. Volume I. (1972) Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae, An- giospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Archichlamydeae, fam. Casua- rinaceae to Hernandiaceae according to the system of Engler, pp. 1-1157, figs. 1-1730, including: (1) Appendix I. Keys to the families and some genera; keys to the species of Gymnospermae; (2) Appendix II. An illustrated glossary of botanical terms; and (3) Indices to Chinese and scien¬ tific names. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 277 Volume II. (1972) Angiospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Archichlamy- deae, fam. Papaveraceae to Cornaceae, pp. 1—1312, figs. 1731-3954, including keys to genera of the families in¬ cluded and indices to Chinese and scientific names. Volume III. (1974) Angiospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Sympetalae, fam. Diapensiaceae-Solanaceae, pp. 1-1083, figs. 3955- 5414, including descriptions of the families included and keys to the genera of each family, and indices to Chinese and scientific names. Volume IV. (1975) Sympetalae, fam. Scrophulariaceae to Com- positae, pp. 1-932, figs. 5415-6830, including descriptions of the families included and keys to the genera and some species, and indices to Chinese and scientific names. The Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae is largely in prepara¬ tion, with portions of Rosaceae and Cyperaceae already pub¬ lished. The responsibility for the manuscripts of various families and genera is assigned to different persons in universities and botanical institutions throughout the country. In March 1975 the enlarged Sixth National Convention of the participants of the stupendous preparation of the flora took place in Peking under the auspices of the Bureau of Science and Technology. In addition to the people who are responsible for the manuscripts of various families and certain large genera, representatives of the Party, the Army, administrators of the botanical institutions that contribute scientists and technical personnel, leaders of workers in the farms, industry, and the barefoot doctors were invited. I was informed that at the conclusion of the conven¬ tion an important decision was made that the flora will be completed in ten years. Members of the Institute of Botany in Peking all have confidence that this will be done. Two excellent journals are published regularly under the aus¬ pices of the Botanical Society of China. These are the Acta Botanica Sinica and the Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica. Another periodical, Zhiwuxue ZaZhi ( Botanical Magazine ), is a popular quarterly journal. It is designed for short articles of two or three pages introducing botanical principles and technology to the general public. It is published regularly in February, May, August and November. Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine: The scien¬ tific world has begun to turn its attention towards traditional Chinese medicine. For example, in the past three years teams of American doctors and of pharmacological scientists have visited China to observe and to learn. In a report. Prof. Norman R. Farnsworth of the School of Pharmacy, University of Illinois, 278 j ARNOLDIA using the computerized information of his office, has confirmed Chairman Mao's statement that Chinese medicine is a treasure house. It is fitting to say that the College of Traditional Chinese Medicine at Nanking is a pioneer institution in the study of Chinese materia medica. By applying scientific methods in its work on Chinese medicinal plants, it has opened the treasure house and done an excellent job in illuminating the principles and facts on Chinese medicine. From the beginning its triple objective included teaching, research and production. Its var¬ ious research teams have identified the raw material of Chinese medicine, analyzed various market products and studied their chemical compositions, and extracted pure forms of the effective principles. Its production team has cooperated with drug manu¬ facture houses to produce pills, ointments and injections for the service of the people and to meet government assignments. In 1976 it will celebrate its fortieth anniversary. Its four thousand graduates work in various disciplines of Chinese medicine throughout the country. At present the college has 800 students and 190 teaching staff members. In my visit I was shown the herbarium, the collection of identified Chinese drugs as bought from the market, and the laboratories where chemical activities take place. Then we went to the medicinal garden twenty miles outside Nanking. The herbarium was organized by H. T. Sun who was its curator before he died. Sun was a student of S. S. Chien, and worked with him in the Botanical Laboratories in Nanking and in Po-pei, Szechwan, during World War II. For many years he was recognized as the Chinese specialist of Labiatae. The Chinese drug collection occupies a large room. All the samples are in individual glass containers, each with a label of the Chinese and the scientific names. So far as I know this is the best reference collection of Chinese materia medica prepared and identified by men of scientific training. The activities in the Chemistry laboratories are out of my line. The exhibits that attracted my attention were the extracts of Andrographis paniculatus used as a substitute for penicillin, and those of different species of Lgcoris employed as antican- cerous drugs. The most interesting object was the preparation of injection material from the fruit of Camptotheca acuminata for the treatment of patients with cancer. A syrup prepared from Ilex chinensis for patients with high blood pressure was naturally a delightful surprise to one who has spent thirty years in the study of the genus Ilex in China. The Tour of a Botanist in China I 279 Camptotheca acuminata growing near Shih-Fang Hsien. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1908. 280 | ARNOLDIA The medicinal garden is the best of its kind. It is on a thirty- five-acre farm assigned to the College for the following pur¬ poses: to have a living collection of Chinese medicinal plants, to provide material for chemical analyses and other experiments, and to perform research in the field. The living collection has about 900 species. The specimens are planted in three groups. The shade loving species and those introduced from the high mountains of western China or from the cold temperate regions are cultivated with special care under shade. The mesophytic species are cultivated in plots by families in the nursery. Climb¬ ers are planted in a special area with supports. For the meso- phytes and the shade loving species each plot is about one and a half meters long and one meter wide. The climbers are in rows. One of the interesting projects of field research is the culti¬ vation of Poria cocos , a parasitic fungus growing in the root of Pinus massoniana. The large sclerotia of the parasite, about 15 cm. long and 10-12 cm. in diameter, are collected for medicinal use. So far, only spontaneous products are known. Formerly, large amounts of the sliced central chalk-white portion were exported under the common name, China Root. Small sclerotia of the species are now produced in a laboratory of the medicinal garden. They are too small to be of any practical use yet. The publications of the College include a Bulletin, a statistical Survey of the Amount and Cost of Production of Chinese Medi¬ cine (1954—55), a preliminary study on the Identification and Preparation of Chinese Medicine in Nanking Area (1958), and the Chinese Pharmacognosy (1960). The last mentioned work is an illustrated treatise on Chinese materia medica. It is a large book with a dimension of 26 by 18 cm., and consists of 1416 pages with 1396 figures. It is divided into four parts. Part I (pp. 1-115) consists of general aspects of Chinese medicine, including the history, source material, chemical constituents, preparation, identification and principles. Part II (pp. 116- 1173) consists of plant drugs, including introduction of plant cells, tissues, and organs with an illustrated glossary, descrip¬ tions and illustrations of important plant families, explanation of the cultivation of medicinal plants, and 498 detailed treat¬ ments of species grouped by the organs from which the drugs are obtained. Part III (pp. 1174-1273) consists of 82 kinds of animal drugs. Part IV (pp. 1274—1324) contains 54 kinds of mineral drugs. The plant drugs are arranged by the parts em¬ ployed. These include whole twigs 24, wood 6, bark 20, rhizomes 55, roots 87, leaves 23, flowers 37, fruits 97, seeds 62, entire The Tour of a Botanist in China | 281 herbs 50, and others (including resins, gums, copals, etc.) 42. Illustrated discussions of related products of 160 species are given as notes at the end of some drugs. Consequently the book contains 634 species of plants that yield Chinese drugs. Regard¬ ing the quality of the work, Japanese pharmacologists who can read Chinese have commented that it is the best of its kind ever produced in Chinese pharmacognosy. I was told that a bigger book of similar nature is in preparation. In this one both the officinal and the herbal medicines are included. Kiangsu Institute of Agricultural Sciences : “Everyone has food,” was the comment I heard from friends who had returned to China before I did. The higher per acre yield now than 25 years ago is the fact told me proudly by the people who are engaged in agricultural productions, whether in communes or in experimental stations. Now in every province there is an Institute of Agricultural Sciences which is responsible for the development of high yield strains, of better methods in farm management, and of modern measures in crop protection. On the advice of Dr. Y. F. Wu, President of the former Ginling College, arrangement was made for me to visit the Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Nanking. The Institute is situated outside the Chung Shan Gate on the outskirts east of Nanking, and is on an 165-acre farm. Its eight research laboratories are engaged in crop plant improvement, plant protection, animal husbandry and veterinary science, soil and fertilizer, horticulture, economic crop plants, farm manage¬ ment and farm products. It has a staff of six hundred people. On observing my surprise at such a large number of people, my hosts quickly explained the dual responsibilities of members of the Institute. In addition to operating research projects in Nan¬ king, they also go out to reside in the communes to work with the people, which they call tun-tien (to squat on points), or to carry on surveys, or to give supervision in a large area, which they call p’ao-mien (to run the surface). In the field I was shown the various improved strains of high-yielding rice and different demonstrations in the manage¬ ment of cotton farms, including intercropping of cotton with corn or with sweet potato. Then I was taken into a reception hall to see the exhibits of four strains of high-yielding wheat developed by the Institute, and seven kinds of seeds of green manure plants introduced by the Institute to the farmers of the province. Finally I was asked to try the fruit of a cultivar of peach called pan-t’ao (discoid peach). The fruit of this cultivar is strongly compressed on the baso-distal axis. It has a diam- 282 [ ARNOLDIA eter of 6-7 cm. and a height of 2-3 cm. The stone is small and round, about 1.5-2 cm. in diameter, and clings to the flesh. This cultivar has a long history. It was developed from the famous shui-mi-t’ao (watery honey peach) of the lower Yangtze Region. Its fruit is the most juicy and sweet of the peaches. Bonsai Exhibition in Shanghai : This exhibition was prepared for the general public in a park of the business center of metro¬ politan Shanghai, and occupies an area of about one-half of an acre. At the entrance there is a frame with a miniature land¬ scape. The frame is approximately 4 meters long, 3 m. high and 1.5 m. wide. The background is a painting; the floor, white with running water, and the scenery composed of small dwarfed trees and gray rocks. The plants used are Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus wangii , P. massoniana , all about 20 cm. high; four Pseu- dolarix amabilis about 12 cm. high; an Acer palmatum-, a Punica granatum about 20 cm. tall and with a flower bud; a species of Rhododendron-, a Serissa serissoides-, and a small bamboo. It is a very attractive arrangement. Individual specimens are in pots on attractive stands and labeled in Chinese. Ten genera of gymnosperms and 23 genera of angiosperms are used. These are: Cycas, Ginkgo, Torreya, Podocarpus macrophylla var. maki. Metasequoia, Pinus wangii, P. tabulaeformis, Juniperus, Cryptomeria, Pseudolarix, Ulmus parvifolia, Berberis, Nandina, Pyracanthus, Caragana, Millettia, Buxus microphylla var. sinica, Acer palmatum, A. paxii, Sageretia theezans, Malvaviscus, Lagerstroemia indica, Punica granatum, Elaeagnus, Rhododendron, Jasminum nudiflorum, Schefflera, Diospyros sinensis, Trachelospermum, Rhapis excelsa, and Serissa. Also a bamboo and a variegated-leaved grass are on display. Hangchow Botanical Garden: This is the youngest and also the largest of all the botanical gardens that I have ever visited. It was started in 1956, and it covers 517 acres. Three-fifths of the area is planted and the remainder is for conservation of the spontaneous vegetation. The objectives of the garden are exhibi¬ tion and research. The activities concern classification, economic botany, a bamboo garden, ornamental plants, and dendrology. All the plants are labeled on stone or cement blocks buried in the ground; the names, both Chinese and scientific, and eco¬ nomic importance are chiseled and colored. It was raining and time was short. Under umbrellas we went through the medicinal plant collection, and the plantings of Juglandaceae. The design of the medicinal plant section is unique. All the species are planted in an area with a landscape The Tour of a Botanist in China | 283 of an oriental garden with a winding stream, trees, rocks and various herbs. Aquatic species are planted in individual con¬ tainers a meter in diameter and these are buried in the ground. The lawns between trees are very well kept. We went to see the Sequoia sempervirens and Sequoiadendron giganteum that came with the Nixon party. These are kept in a locked-up area. Lingnan Bamboo Garden in Canton: This bamboo garden was started in the late 1920s and the 1930s by the late Prof. F. A. McClure of Lingnan University with the assistance of H. Fung. The campus is now used by Sun Yatsen University. A large building occupies a portion of the former garden, and the front gate of the present University is nearby. A portion of the Bam¬ boo Garden is left on the old site. According to my memory it is less than one-fifth of the original size. Fung is living, but he is too old to work in the garden. I was shown three species of Lingnania, and was told some of the species died after flowering while some others have been moved to a more suitable site. At present the center of the study of bamboo in this area is shifted to the Kwangtung Institute of Botany at Shih-pai where L. C. Chia is active in research of the bamboo of Kwangtung Province. Kwangtung Institute of Botany: The name of this institution has been changed several times. When it was first organized by Prof. W. Y. Chun, the name was the Botanical Institute, College of Agriculture, Sun Yatsen University, as it appeared in its journal, Sunyatsenia. By the 1950s and in the 1960s its name was Instituti Botanici Austro-Sinensis, Academiae Sinicae, as it appeared on the title page of its publications, Flora of Canton (1956) and Flora Hainanica II (1965). On the title page of Flora Hainanica III (1974) the present name is used. The herbarium of the Institute is the second largest in China. It is kept in excellent condition, and it has good working space for its staff and for visiting botanists. It was in this herbarium that Y. Tsiang carried on his research of the Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae of China. His research area is kept there al¬ though he has been on the teaching staff of a neighboring institution of higher education, the College of Agriculture and Forestry of Kwangtung. When Professor Chun started the herbarium in the late 1920s, he decided to file the specimens of the world’s newest herbarium by the newest system of classifica¬ tion of the flowering plants. Consequently this becomes the only known herbarium that has adopted Hutchinson’s system, both in the filing of the specimens and in the publications. From left, T. C. Li, P. W. Li (pomologist) , S. Y. Hu, Y. Y. Y eh, and H. M. Wu ( ecologist ) at entrance of the guest house at Kwangtung Botanical Garden. Photo: C. H. Yeung. Regarding the research activities of the Institute, all its botanists are participants in the preparation of the Flora of China, each taking one or more families. Other publications include Flora of Canton and Flora Hainanica. Flora of Canton (1956, 1-951, figures 1-415) is a very useful book for the iden¬ tification of species in the Canton-Hongkong area. It was the collaboration of sixteen botanists, F. C. How being the Editor- in-Chief. It is in Chinese, with keys, descriptions, Chinese and scientific names, and the citation of a few voucher specimens. I have seen only two volumes of Flora Hainanica. Volume II (1965, viii, 1-470, figures 1-520) was published under the editorship of W. Y. Chun and C. C. Chang. It is in Chinese, with keys, descriptions, Chinese, scientific and important syno¬ nyms and citations of literature, distribution and ecological notes. This volume contains 844 species and 51 infraspecific taxa in 287 genera of 44 families, including Myrtaceae, Mal¬ vaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminoseae, Fagaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Moraceae, etc. It has indices of the Chinese and scientific names and synonyms. Volume III (1974, i, 1-629, figures 527-942) indicates no authorship. It contains 927 species and 77 infraspecific taxa in 409 genera of 56 families. The treatment of the species is similar to that of Volume II. However, there is one very different feature, i.e., the publication The Tour of a Botanist in China [ 285 of new genera, species and varieties, and many nomenclatural changes in fourteen families including Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Myrsinaceae, Styracaceae , Oleaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Rubiaceae, Compositae, Primulaceae, Solanaceae, Scrophularia- ceae, Gesneriaceae and Acanthaceae. Kwangtung Botanical Garden: This is a large garden adjacent to the Institute of Botany. It is concerned with scientific re¬ search for the service of the people. Its activities include the introduction, acclimatization and extension of species econom¬ ically important. It has an exchange program with sixty coun¬ tries, especially Africa. At present it has over three thousand species under experiment. The research team of the Garden has found many desirable characteristics in Taxodium ascendens and T. distichum for lu-hua in the low-land of Kwangtung. These species can be propagated vegetatively. They have rela¬ tively smaller crowns than the native species, and cast less shade on the adjacent crops. They grow rather fast and after six to eight years they can be cut and the wood can be used as a sub¬ stitute for Cunninghamia to meet the need of farmers for construction. The Garden has 200 acres of developed land. At Ting Wu Mountain of northern Kwangtung, it has an arboretum of 3,000 acres. One-fourth of this area is occupied by natural forest. With our limited time, we were able to walk through the excel¬ lent orchid collection and the medicinal plant section of 700 species planted in pots. News about Some Botanists in China It is a great pleasure to tell the news about two of the oldest botanists who are active in research projects or teaching. These are Prof. S. S. Sin, who is now 84 and is working on the nu-shv, (Ancient Agricultural Books) of China, and Prof. J. C. Liu who is 83 and goes to work in Peking University daily. Sin is well known for his exploration of Yao Shan in Kwangsi, and Liu for his Systematic Botany of the Flowering Families in North China published in 1931. To many Chinese students of botany, this book is like Gray’s Lessons in the United States in the 1850s. The pioneer floristic and taxonomic botanists of China, S. S. Chien, H. H. Hu, and W. Y. Chun are dead. So is Prof. Y. Chen, author of Classification of Chinese Trees and Shrubs. This work is illustrated. Its usefulness in China is like Rehder’s Manual in the English speaking world. The revised edition is now in press; for this work Chen stayed in Nanking during World War II to be with the material for the revision while his 286 | ARNOLDIA associates moved with the University of Nanking to Chengtu, Szechwan. He died in Peking as a member of the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. The following information about botanists active in various disciplines of botanical research is gathered from available pub¬ lications and personal communications. This incomplete list is being sent to several institutions in Peking, Nanking, Hangchow, Canton and Shen-yang for corrections and additions. If I hear from any of these while the report is still in manuscript form, due changes will be made. As in the report on the botanical institutions visited, Peking is again taken as a focal point. Botanists in Peking and Vicinity Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica Floristic and taxonomic research: Chen, C. — Collaborator of T. Tang in Cyperaceae. Chen, S. C. — Same as the above. Ching, R. C. — Ferns, now works at home, recently published two new families, Pteridiaceae and Hypodenatiaceae. Chung, P. C. — Serophulariaceae, Campanulaceae. Hong, D. Y. — Commelinaceae. Huang, C. C. — Geraniaceae. Ku, T. C. — Collaborator of T. T. Yu. Kuan, K. C. — Book review, botanical critic. Kuang, K. Z. — Physochlaina. Liang, S. Y. — Collaborator of Tang in Cyperaceae. Ling, Y. — Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Director. Lou, J. S. — Collaborator of P. C. Wu. Lu, A. M. — Collaborator with K. Z. Kuang in Physochlaina. Lu, L. T. — Collaborator with T. T. Yii in Rosaceae. Lu, L. Y. — Myrtaceae. Tai, L. K. — Collaborator with Tang in Cyperaceae. Tang, T. — Orchidaceae, Cyperaceae. Tang, Y. C. — Population study, Tofieldia mentioned. Tsui, Y. W. — Caryophyllaceae. Wang, F. T. — Liliaceae, Leguminosae. Wang, W. T. — Ranunculaceae, Gesneriaceae. Wu, P. C. — Bryophytes. Ying, T. S. — Epimedium. Yii, T. T. — Rosaceae. Morphogenesis and cytology: Chang, P. T. — Collaborator of L. C. Chien, see the following. Chien, L. C. — Ultrastructural changes in cold resistant wheat. Chien, N. F. — Collaborator with Z. C. Chu and J. S. Kuo Ching, Y. H. — Collaborator with L. C. Chien. Chu, Z. C. — Morphogenesis of wheat pollen plants. Duan, C. H. — Collaborator of C. H. Lou. Li, Y. — Effects of 02 and CCh on post-maturation of tomato. Lou, C. H. — Protoplastic withdrawal in the withering leaves of plants. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 287 Kuo, J. S. — Anther culture of Nicotiana and Capsicum. Kwei, Y. L. — Collaborator of C. L. Lee of Peking University. Mao, C. Y. — Collaborator of Y. Li. Sun, C. S. — Androgenesis of Triticale. Tang, P. H. — Pollen development and physiology of Clivia. Tsui, C. — Physiology and nutrition of micro-organisms. Tuan, H. C. — Cytology. Wang, C. C. — Collaborator of Z. C. Chu. Wang, S. C. — Studies on factors affecting growth, development and yield of wheat. Wang, V. H. — Collaborator of Y. Li. Wang, Y. Y. — Collaborator of J. S. Kuo. Wu, S. H. — Cytology. Paleobotany: Hsii, J. — A leading Chinese paleobotanist, lately worked on collections of the recent Chinese Himalayan expeditions, from plant-bearing sandstone beds at 8,012 m. altitude. Kong, Z. C. — Collaborator of J. R. Tao. Sun, X. J. — Collaborator of J. Hsii. Tao, J. R. — Fossil flora and spore-pollen investigation on the Shang-in coal series in Yunnan. Morphology and anatomy: Chang, C. Y. — Morphology of Archangiopteris and relationship with Angiopteris. Hu, Y. S. — Collaborator with Y. L. Kwei. Kwei, Y. L. — Epidermal feature in classification of Taxus. Shi, Y. C. — Pollen morphology of Thalictrum . Ecology and vegetation studies: Chang, C. S. — Collaborator of Y. L. Li. Li, Y. L. — Beech forest of Fan-ching Shan in Kweichow. Ming, T. L. — Collaborator of Y. L. Li. Tsien, C. P. — In Y. L. Li’s team. Ying, T. S. — Same as the above. Vertical vegetation belt of Mt. Jolmo-lungma (Mt. Everest): Chang, K. W. and S. Chiang — Co-authors of the above subject. Azotobacter and nitrogenase: The team of Laboratory 7 of the Institute. Institute of Microbiology, Academia Sinica Chao, C. D. — Usnea of China. Hsii, L. W. — Collaborator of C. D. Chao. Sun, Z. M. — Same as the above. Yii, Y. N. — Fungus infection of Zizania , Yenia is recognized as a genus, segregated from Ustilago. Institute of Agriculture and Forestry Cheng, W. C. — Gymnosperms of China, director. Chu, W. F. — Wood technology, especially the anatomy of wood and bamboo; compilation of a Dictionary of Forestry in Chinese. Wu, C. L. — Ecology and afforestation. 288 | ARNOLDIA Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Chen, P. C. — Collaborator with P. K. Hsiao. Chen, Y. H. — Same as the above. Feng, S. C. — Same as the above. Feng, Y. S. — Same as the above. Ho, L. Y. — Same as the above. Hsia, K. C. — Same as the above. Hsiao, P. K. — Phytochemistry of medicinal plants, using chro¬ matography and UV spectra. Lien, W. Y. — Menispermaceous plants used in medicine, with new taxa described. Ling, S. C. — Collaborator with P. K. Hsiao. Liu, K. S. — Same as the above. Lti, S. C. — Same as the above. Sung, W. C. — Same as the above. Yueh, C. H. — Collaborator with C. Y. Cheng in Trichosanthes. Peking Medical College, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences Cheng, C. Y. — Trichosanthes, with nomenclatural changes and description of new species, in collaboration with C. H. Yueh; synopsis of Rheum with descriptions of four new species and two new varieties, in collaboration with T. C. Ko. Ko, T. C. — Collaborator of C. Y. Cheng. North China Agriculture University Shao, L. M. — Collaborator of C. H. Lou in cell physiology. Wu, H. J. — Physiology, effect of gibberellin on growth of Ramie. Peking University, Department of Biology Lee, C. L. — Morphogenesis, excised stem of mint. Peking Teachers College, Department of Fundamental Agriculture Chao, W. P. — Cell physiology. Botanists in the Maritime Provinces Eastern China Shantung Institute of Tobacco Research, Academy of Agricultural Sciences Hsti, H. C. — Anther culture, collaborator of J. S. Kuo. Kung, M. L. — Same as the above. Kiangsu Institute of Botany, Nanking Chen, S. L. — Gramineae, collaborator of Y. L. Keng. Chou, T. Y. — Cruciferae. Shan, R. H. — Umbelliferae. Kiangsu Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Nanking Hsi, Y. L. — Research in the genus Gossypium. Mei, C. L. — Research in the genus Triticum. Tsui, C. L. — Research in the genus Oryza. Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Hsti, K. C. — Research and teaching in Chinese medicinal plants. Hsii, L. S. — Same as the above. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 289 Nanking University Keng, Y. L. — Gramineae, now works largely at home. Wei, C. C. — Plant pathology, Manual of Rice Pathogens, re¬ vised edition in press; manuscript Manual of Fungus Patho¬ gens. Nanking Technical Institute of Forest Products Shang, C. B. — Lauraceae Yeh, P. C. — Tree breeding, produced Fi of Liriodendron chi- nense X L. tulipifera and intergeneric hybrids of Cryptomeria X Cunninghamia and Taxodium X Cryptomeria. Shanghai, Futan University Hsii, P. S. — Viburnum of China. Hu, C. C. — Screening the plants of Chekiang and Anhwei for antibacterial properties. Wang, H. J. — Collaborator of C. C. Hu. Yin, C. C. — Same as the above. Shanghai First Medical College Li, Y. — Collaborator of R. H. Shan in Bupleurum. Shanghai Teachers’ University, Department of Biology Chiu, P. S. — Asiatic Woodwardia. Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica Fan, G. J. — Obtained lycoramine from Lycoris longituba Hsu & Fan for curing epilepsy. Hsii, Y. — Senior author in the Lycoris work, see above. Hangchow Botanical Garden Chang, S. Y. — Economic botany, medicinal plants, adminis¬ trator. Chiu, P. L. — Ferns, new species of Plagiogyria chekiangensis. Yao, C. Y. — Bamboo. Rui-an District Medical Team, Chekiang Ling, C. — Acanthaceae, Championella sarcorrhiza C. Ling, and C. obligantha (Miq.) Bremek., source of a medicine for curing kidney trouble. Southern China (including Kwangsi) Kwangtung Institute of Botany Chang, C. T. — Blumea. Chen, F. H. — Primulaceae, Carpesium. Chia, L. C. — Economic botany, bamboo. Hu, C. M. — Collaborator with F. H. Chen in Carpesium. Hwang, S. M. — Aristolochia. Kao, Y. C. — Rubiaceae. Liu, Y. H. — Magnoliaceae, Sabiaceae. Wu, H. M. — Ecology. Yii, C. N. — Collaborator of C. T. Chang in Blumea. Sun Yatsen University, Canton Chang, H. T. — Hamamelidaceae, Myrtaceae, Pittosporaceae. Fan, K. C. — Marine algae. [Deceased on December 20, 1974.] Kwangtung College of Agriculture and Forestry, Canton Hsii, H. H. — Sterculiaceae. Lee, — Plant physiology. Li, P. M. — Pomology; Dean of the College. Li, P. T. — Collaborator of Y. Tsiang in Asclepiadaceae. 290 | ARNOLDIA Tsiang, Y. — Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Eu- phorbiaceae. South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Hainan Island Pan, K. Y. — Collaborator with Y. C. Wang and K. C. Fan. Wang, Y. C. — - Marine algae of Hsi-sha Islands, new species of Rhodophyta, in collaboration with Y. C. Wang and K. Y. Pan. Zhan-jiang College of Fisheries, Hainan Island Li, W. H. — Marine algae, new species of Rhodophyta. Kwangsi Institute of Botany Chang, P. N. — Economic botany, medicinal plants, Check List of Plants of Kwangsi. Liang, C. F. — Aristolochiaceae. Central China In Central China there is Wu-han University which has been active in botanical explorations in Hupeh and Szechwan. There is also the Lu Sha Botanical Garden in Kiangsi. Unfortunately, in this tour Central China was not included, and the information about botanists there is regrettably scanty. Hupeh Institute of Botany, Wu-han Fu, S. S. — Ferns and many families of flowering plant, in¬ cluding Moraceae, Proteaceae, Ficoideae, Polygalaceae, Ac- tinidiaceae, etc. Hupeh Institute of Hydrobiology Jao, C. C. — Fresh water algae, the Charophyta of Hupeh. Lee, Y. Y. — Collaborator of C. C. Jao. Kiangsi Communism Proletarian University, Department of Forestry Chuang, F. T. — Anatomy of Pinus elliottii, introduced to China in 1946, now used extensively for afforestation in Kiangsi, variations of resin canals and vascular tissue observed. Szechwan and Yunnan Szechwan University, Department of Biology Fang, W. P. — A Chinese pioneer in the exploration and study of the botanical resources of Szechwan, especially those of Mt. Omei, Aceraceae, Comaceae, Ericaceae, recent work in¬ cluding Nyssaceae, with the description of new species in Nyssa and Camptotheca. Soong, T. P. — Collaborator of W. P. Fang in Nyssaceae. Szechwan Medical College, Department of Pharmacy Hsieh, C. K. — Codonopsis in Szechwan, in team work with the following people. Shen, L. D. — Same as the above. Tang, S. Y. — Same as the above. Yueh, S. G. — Same as the above. Szechwan Institute of Biological Sciences Li, C. L. — Potentilla and related genera. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 291 Szechwan Institute of Forestry Chao, N. — Zanthoxylum. Yunnan Institute of Botany Chen, C. — Labiatae, in collaboration with C. Y. Wu. Chou, C. — Studies of Panax in Yunnan, in collaboration with the team of H. T. Tsai, chemotaxonomic study and experi¬ mental work. Feng, K. M. — Same as the above. Huang, W. K. — Same as the above. Yang, C. — Same as the above. Wu, M. C. — Same as the above. Tsai, H. T. — Senior author in the report of team work in the study of Panax. Li, H. W. — Labiatae ( Paraphlomis ) and Rafflesiaceae ( Sapria and Mitrastemon) . Huang, S. C. — Labiatae, in collaboration with C. Y. Wu. Wu, C. Y. — Labiatae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Saxi- fragaceae, Malvaceae, etc.; Director of the Institute. Northwestern China — Including Chinghai and Sinkiang Northwestern Institute of Botany Chang, M. S. — Mosses of Tsinling. Fu, K. T. — Exploration, Crassulaceae, especially Sedum and Sinocrassula , new taxa of Corydalis published recently. Hsu, Y. P. — Exploration, Pteridophyta of Tsinling, described 15 new taxa as junior author with R. C. Ching. Flora Tsinlingensis — In Chinese, without authorship, two parts published. Volume I. part 2. Spermatophyta, 1 -f 1-647, figures 1-487. 1974. Including 813 species and 166 infraspecific taxa, families arranged by Engler system, Saururaceae-Rosaceae, with description of new species and varieties in Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Papaveraceae, Ranunculaceae, Crassulaceae and Rosaceae. Volume II. Pteridophyta, iii + 1-246, plates 1-50. Including 29 families from Psilotaceae to Azollaceae, with 52 new species and varieties described in addenda, of which 34 are by R. C. Ching alone, 15 by Ching and Hsii, 2 by Ching and Hsieh, and 1 by Ching and Wu. Northwestern University, Department of Biology Hu, Z. H. — Histochemical and cytological study on the forma¬ tion of rubber and differentiation of cellular structures in the secretory epidermis of the fruit of Decaisnea fargesii. Tien, L. H. — Collaborator of Z. H. Hu. Lanchow University, Department of Biology Cheng, K. C. — Physiology, on the mechanism of the intercel¬ lular migrating chromatin substance in pollen mother cell. Ching, H. — A member of C. S. Lii’s team. Li, Y. C. — Same as the above. Lii, C. S. — Physiology, on the effect of CCC on the distribution 292 I ARNOLDIA and accumulation of materials during the grain filling period in wheat. Nien, H. W. — A member of K. C. Cheng’s team. Wang, I. H. — Same as the above. Yang, C. L. — Same as the above. Yang, C. T. — A member of C. S. Lii’s team. Shensi Institute of Forestry Fu, Y. C. — Salicaceae, described a new variety of Populus tomentosa. Wang, C. H. — Same as the above, junior author. Shansi University, Department of Biology Liu, P. — Rusts of China, including the description of Calostoma variispora as a new species. Li, T. Y. — - Collaborator of the above. Tu, F. — Same as the above. Chinghai Institute of Biology Chang, H. T. — Revision of Notopterygium in Umbelliferae. Chinghai Institute of Materia Medica Hu, H. M. — Medicinal plants of Chinghai. Sinkiang Institute of Biology, Pedology and Psammology Shen, K. M. — Umbelliferae including new species of Ferula and their economic importance in Sinkiang. Shui, L. R. — Collaborator of K. M. Shen but not co-author of the new species. Yong, G. — Same as the above. Ramil — Same as the above. Sinkiang August I Agricultural College An, C. H. — Morphology of Cruciferae. Chang, H. S. — Ecology and geography of the wild fruit tree forest in the Ili Valley of Sinkiang. Northeastern China Shen-yang Institute of Sylviculture and Pedology, Liao-ning Chang, Y. L. — Gramineae, Cruciferae. Fu, P. Y. — Salicaceae. Li, S. H. — Ranunculaceae. Liou, T. N. — Director. Wang, C. — Salicaceae. Wang, W. — Compositae. Academy of Agriculture and Forestry of Hei-lung-chiang Hsii, C. — Anther culture of wheat, collaborator of Z. C. Chu. Yin, K. C. — Same as the above. Northeastern Forestry Academy, Harbin Chou, Y. L. — Salix of Shingan-ling. Yang, H. C. — Lauraceae of China, Director. The Tour of a Botanist in China | 293 The four-week’s tour gave me a good opportunity to listen, to observe and to learn. In conclusion I should like to summarize what I have learned about the condition of the life and work of professional botanists in China. They work in a state emphasizing trio-union (san-chieh-ho) , and cherishing its brain-bank and experience pool. They live in a style that lacks physical and social gaps, and they entertain a dedicated devotion to their profession and a strong will to serve the country and the people. The botanists of China, like all other scientists of the country who work in institutions where science, technology and experi¬ ence are essential, are familiar with the san-chieh-ho of mem¬ bers of the Revolution Committee, the technical staff and the manual workers. In every institution we visited, be it a coal mine, an electronic plant, or a steel factory, we were introduced by the representatives of CTS to members of the Revolution Committee of that organization. One of them acted as the spokesman and gave us the history and the general condition of the organization, with special emphasis on the manifested changes and the increased production after the Cultural Revo¬ lution. Then we were shown the operation of the establishment with members of the technical staff explaining, and the laborers demonstrating the performance. All the botanical institutions visited, except Hangchow Botanical Garden, operate in similar manner. In Hangchow Botanical Garden, S. Y. Chang performed all three functions. The legal age for retirement in China is 55 for a woman and 60 for a man. On retirement a person receives 70 per cent of his regular salary for life. However, this regulation does not seem to apply to the top scientists, professors, doctors and experienced administrators; these people neither have retirement nor sick leave. They work till the end of their lives and they receive full pay even if they are sick or incapacitated for decades. The national medical insurance takes care of their medical bills. I met four persons who are in this condition. The following fact is cited merely as an example of respect for the older members of an institution. In North China, people salute a man who has passed his 70th birthday by adding the word “lao” ( = old, sounds like lord ) to his surname. In the Institute of Botany, Peking, everyone calls Y. Ling “Ling Lord” and in Shenyang, T. N. Liou is called “Liou Lord.” In public meetings one hears about the importance of soldiers-laborers- peasants in the national reconstruction. In popular publications one is advised to learn from them. The exaltation of these 294 | ARNOLDIA people, however, does not mean the neglect of the brain-bank and experience pool in China. By the governmental regulations for salary scale, the profes¬ sional people have higher monthly salaries than the technicians and laborers of the same institution; yet the physical environ¬ ment and social condition of all the people are very similar. The physical and social gaps that used to exist in China before I left thirty years ago are now bridged. Unexpectedly I visited an institute of higher education. The president of the college lives next door to the driver of the car for the institution; their bungalows are of similar size and structure. All the teaching staff as well as the laborers live in such units, each shared by two families. The president’s bungalow is shared by a nurse who takes care of a grandchild, and cooks. In another city I visited the director of a botanical institution in his two-room apartment. His right-hand man receives visitors in a bed-living- room combination in similar manner, as do high school teachers or factory workers. After visiting homes of people in different occupations from Shen-yang in the north down to Canton in the south, I realize that a great change in the professional people of China has occurred. Their former aspiration for material gains and personal fame are replaced now by the pride of having an independent and strong country, and the will to serve her and the people to the best of their ability. The time and labor saving devices and modern facilities that are considered daily necessities — such as a private automobile on the road and a refrigerator in the kitchen — are not available to any of the scientists, engineers and physicians whom I have met. Visitors to China are given red-carpet treatment. The luxuries of modern hotels and the beautiful products in friendship stores are for guests of the country. Only those with the proper introduction of CTS or foreign passports stamped correctly may enter. Re¬ garding material possessions, the Chinese professional people have had a mental revolution. They seem to be content with what they can have, and they are looking forward to a time when all the citizens of the country may enjoy more of the products of science and technology. They are working hard towards that goal. In Nanking, my former professor of dendrology and his wife came to see me in the hotel. As lunch time approached, I asked them to stay and eat in the hotel. They refused because he had to return for a program with representatives of the Royal Society of the United Kingdom. Holding my hands in his, this well-tanned, white-haired professor said, “Let’s each use the time due to us for the service of the people and the country.” The Tour of a Botanist in China | 295 Acknowledgements I should like to take this opportunity to express my deep appreciation to the members of the Revolution Committee of various botanical institutions and gardens visited, for their hos¬ pitality and for the information on the general aspects of their organizations; and to the professional botanists who have ex¬ plained their work to me. To my former teachers. Dr. Y. F. Wu of Nanking and Dr. H. T. Chen and Prof. P. W. Li of Canton, I am most grateful, for without their advice and assistance I would have missed seeing several botanical establishments in¬ cluded in this report. My thanks and fond memories are due my former students of Chung Chi College, the Chinese University of Hong Kong — Miss C. H. Yeung and Mr. K. B. Lau, who assisted me in many ways in the tour, especially in taking photographs, and to my nephews. Dr. C. L. Hu and Mr. C. C. Hu who helped me in traveling by means of public transporta¬ tion in Nanking and Peking, respectively, to visit friends and former teachers. Arnoldio Reviews How to Control Plant Diseases in Home and Garden. Second edition. Malcolm C. Shurtleff. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State Univer¬ sity Press. 1966. 649 pages, illustrated. $10.50. A condensed, encyclopedic handbook in non-technical lan¬ guage to guide in the identification and control of plant dis¬ eases, with emphasis on the control. A brief discussion of the general nature of plant diseases is followed by a chapter on causes, including environmental conditions, and diseases caused by various organisms and their control measures. These sections prepare the reader for the main part of the book where diseases are briefly described after listings of the plants that are susceptible to them. Common names with technical names italicized in paren¬ theses help the average gardener. Resistant plant varieties have been included in the control recommendations for many diseases. This volume with its wealth of information is the best on dis¬ ease control that I have ever seen for use by most gardeners. The person using this reference work will have to remember, however, that some spray materials referred to can no longer be employed because of restrictive regulations. Robert G. Williams Popular Flowering Shrubs. H. L. V. Fletcher. New York: Drakes Publishers. 1972. 192 pages, illustrated. $5.95. A truly excellent book with the usual reservations about those of English authorship; unless they live in California, most U.S. gardeners must forego the joys of ceanothus, cistus, escallonia, and hebes. I continue to be impressed by the high educational level of English horticultural writers, and Mr. Fletcher is outstanding in this regard. The various shrubs are considered alphabetically with good discussions of the particular varietal attributes. There is a great deal of horticultural information; for example, I had never read that all prunus need lime (our much-used P. laurocerasiis is in that category). This is an inexpensive, satis¬ fying book for the shrub lover. Elinore B. Trowbridge A pleasant stroll in the Case Estates. Photo: P. Chvany. , / \ U<>, g& \ M * V ' I w}b&t\\ \ ,4>y *+■£*■ * / ViW 7 \\ M *• fi lfj 1^7 I! A t 'Hi V' 1 1 ‘ ' »• 4 <* ' r "/ Jy ./ ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A.