LIBRARY

OF THE

GRAY HERBARIUM

Received

ARNOLD ARBORETUM

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the

Bulletin of Popular Information

VOLUME IV
1944

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PUBLISHED BY THE

ARNOLD ARBORETUM

JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fokeweed, fruitino^ ; and Rokeweed, young sprouts ready to gatlier. Plate

L p. 3.

Jerusalem Artichoke, flowering tuber; and Chicory. Plate II, p.

Mountain Sorrel {Oxj/i-in digyna)', and Cowslip {Caltha paiustris). Plate III, p. 31 .

Pihanona {Monstera delicioxa); and Chayote (Sechium edule). Plate IV, p. 33.

Pungapung {AmorphophaUus campanidafus) ; and Cashew (Anacardium occidento/e).
Plate V, p. 35.

Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass. View southwest among glacial moraines, to
valley of Macdonald Creek. White spruce and lodgepole pine in foreground
(Photo. D. S. Correll, courtesy of the Geographical Revieiv). Plate VI, p. 69.

Natural prairie in valley of Pine Creek, about 100 miles west of Whitehorse.
View southward across the Alsek valley to the Dezadeash Mountains. Plate
VII, p. 69.

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ARNOLDIA

A coiitiinuition of the
IU lletix of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

V’^oLUME 4 .\JARCH o, 1944 Number 1

FOOD FI:AN'I'S in I'HK ARNOLD ARBORF/rUM

IN the general search tliat is heiiio' made under the stimulus of war cniiditions
tor food plants and for plants of economic \'alue even as small an area as the
Arnold Arboretum has somethinti' to contribute. For althouoli the most important
work of the Arboretum lies in other fields, various plants are found in the native
flora and in the collections of trees and shrubs drawn from many parts of the
world that have foot! value, and some of them are beino' used in a limited way
for food purposes. The plants «i'owinj>’ spontaneously in the Arboretum are of
course those found ‘generally in eastern Massachusetts and most of them over a
lar<re part of eastern North America. Most of the cultivated trees and shrubs are
also grown or may be grown more or less generallv in this region. Notes on the
fpod plants of the Arboretum will, therefore, have a wider application than to
the limits of the area itself.

Almost one hundred species of the larger fungi have been identified as occur-
ring in the Arboretum and the number that might be found is no doubt much
larger, ddie fungi differ so widely in appearance from flowering plants that maiyv
people scarcely think of associating thetn ; and yet they form an important class
in the vegetable kingdom. Some sorts found here are most undesirable, as tliev
attack trees and other plants through injuries in the bark and wood, and promote
decay. 'I'he more permanent vegetative parts of these plants are seldom seen, as
they grow underground or are concealed under the bark or in the tissues of de-
caying wood. 'I'his subterranean growth, called the mycelium, is .a mass of root-
like or net-like fibers which at certain seasons and under favorable conditions of
moisture and temperature sends up the familiar growths known as mushrooms,
toadstools and puff balls, or the branching bracket-like forms often seen on de-
caying trees and logs. 'I'liese are the fruiting parts of the plants on which the
microscopic spores for the propagation of the species are borne, usually on the
gills or pores.

'I'he popular distinction made between mushrooms and toadstools and the idea
that the former are edible and the latter poisonous has no basis in fact. The name
toadstool obviously refers to the shape and to the fancied resemblance to a piano i
stool or similar bit of furniture. If applied consistently, it would include the
mushroom of commerce and many of the edible native sorts. Unfortunately there
are a few sorts of poisonous mushrooms, and one or two species are so toxic that
serious illness or death may result from eatino- a small portion of them. For this
reason, it is well to let all doubtful sorts alone. But it is not necessary for anyone
with a little intelligence and enterprise to refrain from oatherin*)- and eatino- wild ;
mushrooms, since the |)oisonous ones can easily be distino-uished from the o-ciod
ones by consultinji’ one of the many |)opular illustrated i)apers or books on tlie
subject or by receiving- a little instruction fia)m someone who knows mushrooms.

Only a few of tlie numerous sorts ol‘ edible mushrooms found in the Arboretum
can be mentioned here. Some of them can be found from .June until November.
'The supply varies oreatly in diHerent years, and they are most abundant in rainy

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s(*as«-)ns.

'The field mushroom {Jgarirus cdwpestns) is sometimes abundant in meadows.

It usually jirows in open places where the orass is not too tall. 'This is a wild
form of the common marked mushioom. In similar places, or sometimes .about
tree's that have been emit i\ .ateel eer fertili/eel is tbunel the parasol mushre)e)m {Lep-
iola procera) or its I'clatix e, the smeeoth lepieda ( />. ndiic'nui). All e)f these are ex-
cellent to eat. 'The lar«’e puffballs {('i/dthus ol/d, Chn'dt'ui ci/dlliijbrniis, etc.) <>row
usu.ally w here the ^rass has been kept moweel eu' alon**; |),aths e)r reKidsides. Small
tbrms o’reew in clusters abeeut elecayino- stumps. All e)f the puff balls with the Hesli
white eu- p.ale ceeloreel while yeHni»‘ are sate anel jfoeeel te) eat. 'Idle* eiyster niush-
reuun (^Pleurotus ostredliis) is eeften fe)und as .*1 seift shelf-like* orowth ein decayinji;
lous after heavy niins. In the late fall larji,e clusters of the honey inushreHnn
{Aruiilldrid nielled) anel ejf the brie*k-top mushroeun {lippholomd suhldleritiudi) come ^
up abeiut the* base*s of reittin**; stumps or sprinj)* up from the decayino- roots w here
they are eiften well eoncealeel by the «rass. Both are of rather firm or tough tex-
ture, but many people esteem them. 'I'he shaggy mane and inky cap are gregar-
ious mushroenns, often very abunelant em grounel fertilized with stable manure or
on fertilizer heaps. 'I'hey are \ ery fragile but good, if taken soon after they come
up. 'Fhere are scores of other sorts that are edible and desirable, if found in suf-
ficient quantity. Many of our citizens of foreign origin prize the wild mushrooms
highly, and they may be seen searching for them when in season. Others, in-
cluding members of the Arboretum staff, know their value too and do not over-
look this sort of highly palatable food.

With the first days of spring the search for greens begins. The leaves of the
common dandelion {TdrdA'dcum offic'iudle) are^among the earliest to appear. 'I'hey
are extensively gathered and eaten and are sometimes sold on the market. Some <-
pecqjle profess to like them in spite of the slightly bitter taste, and there is a j j

Pokevveed, fruiting top PLATE I Pokeweed, young sprouts ready to gather

popular idea that they serve as a spring- tonic as well as an addition to the bill of
fare. They are rich in vitamins. The young sprouts of chicory {Cichorium Intijhus)^
charlock {Brassica arvensis), yellow dock or curly-leaf dock {Bmnex crispvs), sow
tliistle {SoncJius oleraceiis), wild lettuce {Lactnca spp.), and lambstiuarters {Chen-
opodium album), are also gathered for greens. The last is a relative of the garden
spinach and tastes somewhat like it. It is sometimes found in large patches on
dumps or in waste ground.

'file most desirable weed or wild plant for greens found in this area is the poke-
weed or pokeberry (P/ij/tolacca americaua). This plant has become abundant in
recent years in various i>arts of the Arboretum, growing on partially sliaded banks
or in waste or cultivated ground where tlie soil is rather fertile. It is a deep-
rooted perennial, and late in the spring when the ground has become quite warm,
it sends up clusters of sprouts from the base of the old stems, 'fhey are as tender
as asparagus and can be used until they are four or five inches high and the leaves
are about half grown. 'I'he plants grow to a height of five or six feet and in late
summer they are rather attractive when loaded with the long pendulous racemes
ol* purplish black fruit. Our pit)neer ancestors made ink by soaking rusty nails in
a decoction ol‘ pokebei’ry juice. Chicory also had another and a more important
use. 'I'he Meshy roots after being dried were roasted and ground and used as a
substitute for (a>tf'ee oj' were mixed with (a)tfee.

A number of other plants found in the Arboretum are sometimes used for greens
or for salads, including Mtldle-heads or the young sju-outs of several ferns, |)urs-
lane (Poiiulara oleracea), sprouts of the ctmnnon milkweed {Asdepias syriacus),
peppergi’ass (Lepidlum rirgl/iicum), and w’atei’ cress {Borippa Nasturthim-aquaticum).
W'ater cress grows along brooks anti ditches and is a tender and tasty salad plant,
when grown in clean running waiter. In some years it is very abundant in the
Arboretum.

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Sassafras {Sassafras a! bid urn \ar. utoUe) is probal)ly the best-known spice plant
of the North American Mora. It grows over a large part of the eastern and cen-
tral United States. In some sections it becomes a large tree, but in New^ England
it is usually shrubby, S|)i-eading into thickets. It is a relative of the cinnamon
tree, and the bark of the roots is highly aromatic. An oil distilled from that part
of the })lant is used for Mavoring candies, root beer and other beverages, and in
perfumery. In early colonial days sassafras became an important article of com-
merce and it sometimes formed the most valuable cargo of ships sailing from Cape
Cod, Martha's X'ineyard and Nantucket. The custom of drinking sassafras tea in
spring is still veiw j)revalent in many parts of the South and Middle-wxst, where
it is regartled as a medicine as well as a beverage. Its reputed medicinal virtues
are vague but very general and you are told that ^^It’s good for wdiat ails you.”
A thicket of native sassafras is growing near the top of Peters Hill in the Arbo-
retum and it is planted elsewiiere. The roots should be dug in early spring and
tea can be made from them by steeping them in boiling water. The Mavor is very

[4]

Jerusalem Artichoke, flowerinfi- tuber PLATE II Chicory

a^Teeable to most people. 'Fhe aromatic winterg-reen {GauUheria procumheu.s) grows '
sparingly on Hemlock Hill. The leaves have been used for tea and they are the '
source of wintergreen oil used for flavoring confections. j

Kdible native fruits found in the Arboretum include blackberries, dewberries,
raspberries, strawberries, blueberries, service berries and elderberries. Most of 5
them are not produced in sufficient quantity to be of much importance. A species j
of blackberry has become established in the low meadow near the maple collec- I
tion and elsewhere that produees large (piantities of fruit of a good quality. The i
seeds were ])robably brought in by birds from cultivated plants, as it appears to J
be a selected variety of the native high-bush blackberry. Two sorts of low blue- |
berries (Faccinium angustifo/ium and F. vaciUans) grow abundantly in open woods li
and on roeky ground in several parts of the Arboretum. The (juantity of fruit i
produced is not large, but children and older visitors can often be seen gathering i
tlie berries in season. f'Jderberries {Sambucus canadensis) grow sjmntaneously in I
tlie low meadows, and tliey are sometimes used for jellies or for other puri)oses
as well as tor making wine.

Many fruit-bearing trees and shrubs o(‘ exotic origin, as well as most of the j
native sorts, .are cultivated in the Arboretum. None of them are selected prima- i
rilv for their fruit and uo attempt is m.ade to grow commercial pomulogic.al \ari- I
eties. But most of them produce fruit in considerable <|uantity, and some of it )
has food \alue. Clooseberries, currants, barberries, apples, pears, cjuinces, apri-
cots, cherries, |)lums and grapes are found in great variety, riiere is a large col-
lection of Juneberries and shad bushes {Anielancitier spp.). 'i'he fruit of all sorts
is edible and it is often abundant. No use is made of it here, but in some sections
the plants are cultivated for their fruit.

'fhe American plums often bear very heavy erops of fruit. Beach plum (Pritnus
niaritinai) jelly is well known in New England, and the fruit of several other spe-
cies is equally good. Among the best sorts in quality of fruit are Prunns americanay
P. lanata, P. Iiorhdana and P. Munsoniana. Most of the Japanese cherries are grown
exclusively for their Howers, but a few sorts produee small but edible fruit. The
Chinese crab-apples are also grown mainly for their flowers, but nearly all of them
bear heavy erops of fruit, and in some species it is so handsome and brightly
eolored that the trees are almost as attractive in autumn as in the flowering sea-
son. The fruit of a number of species is exeellent for the making of jelly and
marmalade.

'riie butternut {Juglans cinerea) and three or four species of hickory, as \vell as
the liazelnut (Cotp/ns aniericana) are native in the Arboretum. The chestnut
{Casfanea dentata) formerly grew in the woods until destroyed by the blight.
Sprouts still come up from old stumps on Peters Hill. In the planted groups are
found additional species of walnuts, hiekories, ehestnuts, filberts and hazelnuts.
'I'he black walnut {Juglans nigra), the shagbark hickory {Carya ovata), the king-
nut (C. laciniosa) and the chinquapin {Casianea pumila) are often heavily loaded

with nuts. Usually the »ray scjuirrels ^et must of the nuts even before tliey ripen,
hut in 000(1 seasons boys and otlier visitors eoinpete with them for tlm remainder
of the crop.

In the low meadow near the maple eolleetion there is a laro;e patch of the sun-
flower, IIeh(uillu(s hiherosd. 'The fleshy tuberous roots of this plant, hnown as
Jerusalem artichokes, are esteemed as a vejjetable by many people. 'I'hey oro\v
in (Treat (juantities a few inches below the surface and are best duo' in late fall
after the plants have bejTun to wither, and early in tlie sprino- before the new
orowth appears. In IbfJ these were sold in the Boston markets for as hioh as
■2.) cents per pound, and in one lar^e patch there are literally hmulreds of pounds
available to anyone who may wish them.

In more indirect ways the Arboretum also contributes to the program of food
conservation. One of them is in the feeding of birds and in the fact that the
Arboretum is a bird sanctuary. Seeds and fruit of many plants furnish food for
the birds, and they are amon^ the best friends of the farmers and (rardeners in
their fifrht aoainst destructive insect enemies.

Khnest J. Bai.mkk

[7]

Cuts in this bulletin are reproduced from the original drawings appearing in
EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA by Merritt Lyn-
don Fernald and Alfred Charles Kinsey, pp. 4<"2"2, 12d fig., 25 plates. Idlewild
Pi •ess, Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York. The Gray Herbarium of Harvard Uni-
versity recently announced this important publication. More than one thousaiul
s])ecies of edible flowering plants and the more important edible ferns, musli-
rooms, seaweeds and lichens which grow wild in North America north of Florida
and east of tlie Great Plains are considered in this book. One liundred and
twenty-five line drawings and twenty-five half tone plates aid materially in the
identification of these edible plants and additional notes are given concerning
their identification. Recipes for cooking anti preserving the different types of
vegetables and fruits are given.

'Phis is the most comprehensive and authoritative treatment of our edible wild
plants ever prepared. It may be obtained either from the Idlewild Press, Corn-
wall-on- Hudson, New York, or from the Gray Herbarium, Har\ard University,
Garden Street, Cambridge 38, Massachusetts. The price, post paid, is |3.00.

Donald Wyman

[8]

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the
Hulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 MARCH “24, 1944 Numbers .‘I

SHORP (iUll)K ro CARE OF I'HF HARDEN DURINO WAR PIME

Pruning

Many people will have to do their own pruning this year. For some this may
he the first time they haN e ever attempted it themselves. Rruning is not dilfieult
once the general I’undamentals are understood, and it may be well to tleyote this
issue ot Arnoldia to the general rules tor pruning trees and shrubs which are
commonly found on the home grounds, as a ‘refresher," especially for tht)se who
are not experienced or who have never attempted to do their own pruning.

Reasons for pruning

r 1. To cut down water loss at time of transplanting. Since many roots are un-
a\oidably cut off or injured in the transplanting operation, a certain number of
the branches must be removed to make up for this loss. If such pruning is not
(h)ne at transplanting time, a larger number of leaves w ill be produced than can
be properly supplied with water by the roots. As a result, the branches tu- even
the whole plant may die and in any case the plant will be weakened. If [)roper
pruning is done at the time of transplanting, thus permitting time for the forma-
tion of new roots to support the new foliage, the new growth will make a vigor-
ous start, 'fhis is one of the most difficult points for the amateur to understand,
hut it is vitally essential. Naturally one always dislikes to cut off what appear to
(be normal branches. Clearly, if nurserymen would prune their plants before thev
sell them, far better results would be ol)tained by the average gardener.

2. To cut out dead, diseased or scale-infested limbs.

3. To remedy structural defects and other faults such as unnatural growth.

Sometimes a branch takes the lead in vigorous growth and must be restrained
for the general good of the others. Freciuently a bad crotch forms, that is, two
branches of apparently equal vigor form at the same height on the trunk but on

opposite sides of the tree. Splitting of the trunk at this place may result later,
especially in fruit trees which bear heavy crops, hence it is always advisable to
prune one branch back, or in certain cases to remove it altogether.

4. To increase density of windbreaks, screens and hedges. Usually this is a
mere clipping operation to force the growth of many small branchlets.

5. For utility purposes. Often a branch obstructs a view, hits the house during
windy weather, ])artly blocks a driveway, or unnecessarily bars the path of elec-
tric light wires. Such branches should be removed, if possible. In this connec-
tion it should be remembered tliat there is much more space available for service
wires tlirough the wide arching limbs of an American elm or the wide spreading
branches of a white oak tlian there is through the rather dense branching system
of a Norway maple. Hence, when a tree must be planted wliere it may interfere
witli service wires, it is advisable to select a tree with an open branching system,
rather than one like the Norway maple, which is dense in habit.

6. To promote flowering and fruiting of certain specialized plants. It is liere
empliasizetl that all pruning is a dwarfing process, \dgorous young shoots may
tlevelop after a large limb has been removed, but careful experiments liave proved
that, other conditions being e(pial, the plant which is pruned grows less (usually
measured in total amount of leaf area) than the plant which is unpruned. The
leaves of the plant are tlie food manufacturing organs. Water and mineral nutri-
ents taken in by the roots, associated with sunlight, heat and carbon dioxide from
the air, are the raw materials from whicli the leaves manufacture foods, through
the action of chlorophyll. Any pruning would decrease the total leaf area of the
tree, and this decreases the total amount of food manufactured. Therefore, total
growth would be decreased also. 'I'his is a very important fact to keep in mind
whenever pruning is contemplated.

Time for pruning

Pruning can be done now, for tests made in the northeastern United States
show that wounds heal quicker wlien made between February 1 and May 1, than
when made at any other time of year. If a plant, like early flowering forsythia
or the flowering dogwood, is to be pruned for some justifiable reason, pruning
might best be put off' until after the flowering, so that one will obtain the full
benefit from the flower buds now on the plants. If flowering this year is not a
factor, prune at once. On the other hand, for plants which flower on the current
year's growth like the rose of sliaron, the time to prune is now. A few trees,
among which are tlie birches and the yellowwood, are best pruned in the sum-
mer, for they ‘bleed" profusely when pruned early in the year.

Wound dressing

N’arious types of commercial wound paints are on the market, and those made
from asphaltum are satisfactory. Wounds over two inches in diameter should al-

[ K) ]

ways be painted. Wounds less tluan two inches in diameter may lx* left untreated,
but it is always safer to paint all wounds. Orantre shellac has been used as a
paint but it is difficult to obtain now and the color is objectionabh*. White .-ind
red lead paints are also objectionable in color and are slightly injurious to the
cambium, but they do form effective wound dressinos. If neither asphaltum paint
nor orantje shellac can be used, then these paints mav be used. Wounds may be
repainted annually if necessary.

Methods of Pruning
Fruit Trees

Obviously the method of iiruning varies with the type of plant. Apple trees,
for instance, ai'e an example of fruit trees. I'here should be a fairly jirominent
central leader and great care should be taken so that there are no bad crotches ;
i.e., branches of etjual si/e and vigor originating at the same height on the trunk
but on opposite sides. On old trees, there is a tendency for the foianation of
water sprouts — \ igorous young shoots originating from the older branches.
'These are often profuse and much too \'igoious, acting as a tlrain on the tree anti
most of them should be removed. 'Then, too, air and light should be allowed in
the center of the tree to allow the fruits to develop properly, and this fre<iuently
necessitates the removal of many small limbs in the center of the tree. Too many
flowers and fruits on an apple tree are undesirable because the fruits \\ ill remain
small and fret|uently too many will fall before maturity. I'he ideal is to obtain a
tree with sturdy, well-spaced branches, strong enough to carry a heavy crop of
fruits without breaking, and with sufficient light and air available in the center
of the trees so that fruits will be produced there as well as at the ends of the
branches. If fruits are produced only at the tips of the branches, too much weight
occurs at the ends and breakage may occur.

Grapes

There are several methods of |)runing grapes, but one popular method is suffi-
cient for this article. This is known as the four-arm Kniffin system. Presupposing
the grape vine is to be grown on Avires, posts are erected 8 to 10 feet apart, and
two heavy wires strung between them, one at *2^ feet from the ground, the top
wire about 5 feet from the ground. The first year the grape is planted, it is al-
lowed to grow at will. 'Phe next year the strongest leader is selected and tied to
the top wire perpendicularly. 'The idea now is to obtain four main branches which
will grow from either side of the main leader on the two wires. 'The third spring,
select these four branches, tie them carefully to the wires, cut them back to
about 8 to 1*2 buds (this depends on the variety and the vigor of the plant). All
other branches can be cut off excej)t a short branch bearing a few buds near
where each main branch joins the central leader; for these sh(»rt branches are
to grow into the long branches which will bear the fruit the following year. In

[ 11 ]

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the grape, fruit is borne only on one-year-old wootl. After the four branches
have fruited, they should be removed in the spring, thus permitting the four new
one-year-old branches which have been growing during the past season to be
used as the fruit bearing branches during the current year.

Raspberries

Raspberries are usually pruned immediately after they are through fruiting for
the simple reason that once a cane has fruited, it does not fruit again and usually
dies. Hence, as soon as the canes have fruited, cut them out and leave only tlie
new suckers which have come up during the current growing season. Experienced
growers kiu)w that the best way to produce raspberries is to limit the lieight of
the canes to about dj or .) feet and grow them in a row about two feet wide
l)etween a few strands of uire which will help hold them upright.

Blackberries

Blackberries are slightly tlifferent in that their fruits are not Imrne on the main
cane as is the case in raspberries, but on lateral branches. 'I'hese laterals sliould
be piuned back somewhat, but the amount ol pruning depends on the \’ariety.
W ith the Eldorado, the best variety for Massachusetts, laterals should be left IS
to inches long since most of the dower buds are produced at the ends of these
laterals.

Blueberries

Severe pruning in the dormant season is of the utmost importance with blue-
berries in order to produce a good crop of large fruits. A few of the older main
branches are cut back or removed each year in order to insure an ample supply
of vigorous growing young wood. 'I’he slender weak growth throughout the plant
should be removed annuall}'. Those branches which are allowed to remain should
be cut back to 3 or 4 dower buds. However, varieties dider in the amount of cutting
back required. Cabot, for instance, should be cut back more heavily than Rubel. '

Vines in general

Ornamental vines, like bittersweet, clematis, honeysuckle, bower actinidia and
the like, need little pruning except the regular removal of any dead wood. W-is-
teria, on the other hand, fretpiently retiuires heavy pruning in order to induce it
to dower well. This pruning is frequently done during the period (usually June)
when the shoots are elongating, the idea being to cut them back continually so
that food will be available for the formation of dower buds and will not all go <
into vegetative growth. If a wisteria vine blooms satisfactorily without any prun-
ing, it might be left alone, but if few dowers are produced, then a continual pinch- ;
ing back or cutting back of the elongating young shoots is very much in order,
and will probably result in profuse dowering the following year. Also, pruning
or cutting back some of the roots of a non-dowering wisteria may aid it in pro-
ducing dowers the following season.

[ i-> ]

Heclj^es

Youno- deciduous hedges should be pruned lieavily when platited (iriany to the
frround) in order to make the hedj^e more dense at tlie bast*. Alter this initial
prunino- tlie plants sliould orow unmolested the first season in order to j^row vig-
orously and de\elop a strong- root system. Another heavy pruninji,- may be neces-
sary the second season, after which IVetpient trimmino-, to promote denst'iu'ss, is
desirable until the hed<>e reaches maturity.

Mature deciduous hedges need to be trimmed but once a year, except a few of
the most xi^orous ones such as California prixet, osaoe-oran<»e, or honey locust.
'I'his may be done at any time of the year but probably for best results the hed<re
should be trimmetl just after the first ‘vroxvth has stopped in the late sprin**- or
the early summer; if trimmed at this time the hed«re xvill have a fairly even,
iinilorm appearance for the rest of the year. 'The plants mav ^roxv some after this
trimming-, but not enough to spoil the uniformity of the hed<»e, uidess they are
the unusually vigorous ty{)es above mentioned. If the pruning is delayed too lat(*
in the summer, nexv groxvth may result xvhieh xvill not hax e sufHeient time to ma-
ture properly befoi'e freezing xx eather.

On the t)ther hand, if trimming is done in the fall or very early sjiring, tin*
hedge xvill remain ex en for a short time only, for xvhen groxvth starts in the spring
it will have a decidedly uneven appearance for the rest of the x ear. A little care-
ful obserxation and practice xvill give the home oxvner a better knoxvleilge of xvhen
he may trim his particular hedge under his particular conditions and get the best
effect for the longest [jeri<>d of time.

Since evergreen hedges are sloxver in their groxvth, they do not need to be
pruned so much nor so early as deciduous hedges. Hoxvever, each year's groxvth
can be made much more dense by one or txxm trimmings early during the groxv-
ing period.

The amount of groxvth to be removed depends on the present size of the hedge
and on the permanent size desired. If it is to grow no larger, only about one inch

of the current year’s groxvth should be left after trimming. In fact, it may be

necessary to cut back to three- or four-year-old xvood at intervals in order to keep
the plants xvithin bounds, but only a very little of such trimming should be done
:> at first in order to determine xvhether or not this method is feasible for the type
ji of hedge being groxvn.

I If a hedge has a considerable amount of groxvth to make before it reaches the

I proper size, then more of the current season's grow th can be left on. Sometimes

I several clip{)ings can be given a young hedge during the groxving season, simply
to remove a small amount of the terminal groxvth and so promote the branching
] of side shoots.

i 'I'he general shape should be xvide at the base and narroxver at the top. Styles
I differ. Some like a rounded hedge xvhile others prefer one more or less triangu-
I lar xxith only a very narrow flat surface at the top. The hedge xvith the rounded

top tends to shed the snow mucdi better than the one with a hat top, and this is !
important in sections where the snowfall is heavy, particularly if the jdant used '
is weak-wooded. i

The following points about trimming hedges cannot be over emphasized.

1. Always trim so that the base of the hedge is wider than the top.

Do not be in a hurry to force growth in height at the expense of denseness
and width.

3. In an old deciduous hedge that is scraggly and open at the base, it will
usually pay to cut the ])lants to within a few inches of the ground now and let !
the new growth develop again from the base, rather than attempt to correct
the growth in other ways.

Lawns *

Actually, the cutting of grass on the lawn is a pruning operation. 'I'liis year
especially, when little or no fertilizer is available for use on the lawns, it is es- ,
sential to let the grass remain on the lawn after cutting. Do not rake it off'. (Irass !
should l)e cut so that what remains is about inches high, and it should be cut i
fre(|uently enough, so that the cliiJ|)ings will dry up in a day or two. If the grass
is too thick or too long, the clippings will mat and may injure or even kill the ‘
living grass underneath, 'khis may be avoided by mowing the lawn frequently
enough so that the clippings will not mat down, but will tjuickly dry up. 'I'lic
amount of rain, kind of soil, fertilizer, and the amount of moisture in the soil, all ■
govern the speed with which the grass grows and each person will have to decide
for himself exactly how frequently the mowing of his own lawn should be done, j
Clipping must be done more frequently in the late spring than in the summer. (
The accumulation of dried, clippings over the course of one year not only acts as a i
mulch to the grass roots, but eventually adds considerable fertilizer to the soil in 1
the form of much-needed nitrogen.

[ i-t]

SPRAY PROGRAM IN THE HOME GARDEN

Woody Plants

Scale insects

Miscible oil

1-15

Feb. 15 to early April

Applied when tempera-
ture remains 1()° F. and

above until oil dries

Euonymus scale

Miscible oil

1-15

Feb. 15 to early April
(If applied to an ever-

green species, defoliation
may occur)

“ “

1-50

In tlie summer

Pine leaf scale

Miscible oil

1-30

Early April

Spruce gall aphis

Miscible oil

1-30

Early April

Larch case bearer

Spring canker )

worm \

Willow leaf beetle ■

Arsenate of lead *2 lbs.

Calcium caseinate 1 lb.

Water 50 gal.

As soon in spring as
young appear

No'I’k: — For the willow leaf beetle the spray

should be applied

to the undersurface of the leaves in

early June.

Elm leaf beetle i

Arsenate of lead

3 lbs.

Early June for the Elm

and ^

Calcium caseinate

1 lb.

leaf beetle and early July

Japanese beetle [

Water

50 gal.

for the Japanese beetle

Notk: — If the Japanese beetles are profuse on garden produce or

fruits,

spray with liotenone

, 3 lbs. in

50 gal. water.

Lace wing fly of

Sunoco oil

1-70

As the insects appear in

Rhododendrons

spring

1-00

In summer on a cloudy
day when temperature is
not over 80° F.

Red spider on

Sunoco oil

1-100

Applied in summer as a

evergreens

fine mist on a cloudy day

when temperature is not
above 80° F.

Roses

Rose bugs

Arsenate of lead

4 lbs.

Apply when beetles first

Molasses

1 gal.

appear and at intervals

Water

50 gal.

of one week if infesta-

tion is severe

Black spot

of Roses

Finely oroimd sulfur dust 9 parts Applied weekly, prefer-
lead arsenate 1 i)art al)ly before a rain rather

than after it

Note: — Some eoinmereial dusts are available that are dyed oreen
and are not so eonspieuous as ])ure sulfur dust.

Grapes

Bordeaux Mixture (f-4-.)0)

Note: — Usually four sprays will suffice if applied at the ])roper time: —

I. When new nrrowth is lono-

^2. Wlien new orowtli is 4-0" lonji'

.4. As soon as blossoms fall

4. Just before berries touch in the clusters

Apples

Dwarf apjdes are ideally suited for the home warden especially because they make
insect and disease control very simple, 'rhou.uh there are many insects and dis-
eases infesting apples, usually the following dust ai)plied every week or ten days
until mid-July or early August will prove a satisfactory control, especially on
dwarf apple trees.

Cutworms

Cabbage maggots

Cabbage worms

Mexican bean
beetle

Striped cucumber
beetle

Potato bugs and
Potato blight

Fine sulfur dust S parts

Arsenate of lead 2 parts

Vegetables

Heavy paper or cardboard collar during late May and June
around young plants, 2" below
ground and 4" above

b" square of heavy rooting paper in May and June
on surface of soil over plant roots

Rotenone dust Weekly from time worms

first appear

Rotenone or Pyrethrum

dust

apply to undersurface of
leaves every week or ten
days

Calcium arsenate

1 part

weekly from time

talc

(»»r dust with Rotenone)

9 parts

beetles first appear

j Bordeaux Mixture

9 parts

dusted on from :2-fc) times

Arsenate of lead

1 ])art

from time plants areb-8"
high, or as needed

Donald Wyman

[ i«]

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard Universit}^

Volume 4- APRIL 21, 1944 Number 4

RHODODENDRON WINTER INJURY

Rhododendrons have been seriously injured durino- tlie past winter. In
fact, a cursory investioation seems to indicate that the injury will be as
I widespread as it was after the winter of 1940-41. Injury has been noted in Phil-
i adelphia, northern New Jersey, New York and Boston, undoubtedly indicating^
that rhododendrons grrowing in a wide area have suffered. As many home owners
will be disappointed with their plants this spring, and because of this widespread
, injury, this issue of Arnoldia is devoted to a discussion of some of the factors that
might have been the cause. (For notes on the injury occurring three years ago,
see Arnoldia vol. 1, 88—8(1, April 29, 1941.)

The injurv became evident in the Arboretum about two or three weeks ago.
Prior to that time, the plants were apparently in good condition, though it is ad-
mitted that we did not make minute examinations. The greater number of the
evergreen rhododendrons are growing at the base of Hemlock Hill. This spot is
1 fre(|uently veyv cold and very windy at times during the winter, and wind has
I caused freakish injuries tf) rhododendrons and other plants as well.

The injuries this spring are varied. A branch here and there may have been
killed on a plant while the remaining branches are in a healthy condition. Some-
• times only a few leaves are injured ; sometimes half the plant is killed. Several
. large ])lants in the collection, plants which have been growing there for ten or
fifteen years, are completely killed, while their immediate neighbors are appar-
I ently unscathed. Of course there are many varieties of rhododendrons growing in
I I the Arboretum with varying degrees of exposure. Most of the plants are mulched
^jwell with oak leaves, and those with the worst exposure were protected from
winter winds by pine boughs, set and tied in place during December and re-
■ I moved the first week in April.

! How did the damage occur?

■ Obviously, the temperature records should be consulted first to determine

[17]

i

whether the injury was caused by low temperatures. This was not the cause of !
injury in the Arboretum last winter for several reasons.

Records of maximum and minimum temperatures are recorded daily at our |
oreenhouses. Only once did the temperature drop below zero (December ‘24-) ,
when it was — I ° F. and onl,v five times did it drop below ten degrees above zero.
From the standpoint of winter cold, this was a mild winter, and accurately kept >
temperature figures are not the only criterion. Plants themselves tell the temper- '
ature story. For instance, the flower buds of Viburnum Jragrans are very much in
evidence all winter long. These are frecjuently injured by low temperatures. \
However, Viburnum Jragrans in the Arboretum is in full bloom now with ium- 1
dreds of beautiful pink flowers, not one of which shows any winter injury. In i
fact, the flowers of this plant have not looked so well for many years. >

Cori/Iopsis flower buds are frequently injured by cold winters, but none were i
affected in the past winter. Forsythia flower buds also are frequently injured by '
low temperatures, but these are in splendid condition and soon will begin to oi)en
in all their golden splendor. The flowers of our cherished native dogwood, Cornus |
Jiorida, are not injured, and, incidentally, the trees tliroughout this area are loaded
with flower buds giving promise of a gorgeous display in Ma}’. It may be remem-
bered that the previous winter 48) was a severe one with respect to many

wood}’ plants and that in many cases the outer bracts of the dogwood “flower’*
bud were injured to such an extent that when the “flower” was fully open, only
two bracts were a normal white, the other two were grayish and stunted or else
had dropped off altogether b}" flowering time. Such is not the case this year and
it is safe to predict that dogwoods will {)roduce in another month one of tlie best
flowering display’s in years.

And as a final example (there are many more which could be mentioned), the
flower buds of the rhododendrons themselves are in splendid condition, except on
timse branches or plants that have been completely killed. In severe winters, the
flower buds show considerable injury at this time, but such is not the case, at
least in the Arboretum collection. Of course, these plants will not bloom for six
weeks, and complications in the injured water systems of the plants may arise
which might cause some of the flower buds to die before they open, but now, the
majority of the plants that are uninjured are well covered with perfectly normal
well filled flower buds. These plants, too, will produce a splendid display of !
flowers this season. |

Consequently, from the temperature records taken in the Arboretum and from ’
the fact that other plants with tender flower buds were uninjured, low tempera- i
tures alone were not responsible for the peculiar and disappointing type of winter i
injury which is so evident on rhododendrons.

High winds

High winds are frequently the cause of winter injury, and often a contributing
cause. This was not the case in the Arboretum last winter. One has only to in-

[ 18]

spect tile plants in the collections to be convinced. Mere it would be (piicUly evi-
dent that injured branches are not those that are most exjiosed. On the contrarv,
the injured branch as evidenced in our collection may be the branch most pro-
tected from sii/i nml ic'm/ ! Kntire plants i/t the center of the collection have been
killed, whereas those on the outside of the collection, those most exposed, have
not been injured. Hence it is not jiossible to blame the injury to hi^h winds.
'I’his fact is borne out by an examination of the official weather bureau reports
for the months in question (November '4.S to March *44) which show that the
wind velocities for each of these months has been about normal.

It may be remembered that in March of 1941 there were several days when
there were comparatively hio-h temperatures, some slioht wind, full sunshine and
rather remarkably low humidities, factors which combined to make a condition
most unfavorable to rhododendrons at that time of year. No such correlation of
temperature, humidity and sunshine existed durintr this past winter; conseciuent-
ly, with these factors in mind, it would seem logical that injury was not caused
by high winds or a combination of low humidity and high temperature.

Rainfall

If there is anv one factor which can be singled out as being responsible for the
injury, it might well be the rainfall, or better, the rainfall and the snowfall. In
the first place, there was practically no protecting blanket of snow on tlie ground
all winter. The one major snow storm occurred March 20, a ten-inch fall which
did no good as a ground cover for it melted in a few days.

In Boston the annual rainfall amounts to about 40 inches eacli year. Bv the end
of December, 1948, there was an 8 inch deficit in this expected amount. November
and December are actually the critical months for it is during these months that
the ground freezes. Once this occurs, the grouiul water becomes unavailable to
plants. If the soil freezes at a time when the |)lants themselves have not had
sufficient water, injury may occur. Especially is this true of broad-leaved ever-
greens for their stomates are continually exposed to the atmosphere and must
give up water on warm or windy days, even though the ground remains frozen. In-
jury occurs when no more ^ ^stored*' water is available from plant parts above the
ground, and with the ground frozen, the plant gives up water essential to the
life of the plant cells.

During November and Decend)er of 1948 there was a rainfall of only 8. 15 inches
— less than half the normal amount for those two months. By November there
was already a 5 inch deficit in the rainfall. Hence the rhododendrons went into
the winter (after the soil had frozen) in a very dry condition. With practically
no snow cover, and evaporation of water from the soil surface throughout the
winter, tlie situation was aggravated. With the first occurrence of high tempera-
tures in March, increased evaporation occurred from the leaves but water could
not be taken up from the soil, hence injury occurred. It is extremely difficult to
explain the unequal injury of these plants; i.e., why only a branch was killed

here and there on one plant. It is likely that unequal absorption of water by var-
ious plant parts, unequal root distribution, and unequal freezing and thawing- oi
the soil are all related to the problem.

It is interesting- to note that very few plants other than rhododendrons have
been injured here this past winter.

Care of injured rhododendrons

Now that the injury is evident, what steps should be taken to help the rhodo-
dendrons back to good growth.^ All dead wood should be cut out, the plants given
plenty of water and the tops sprayed with water occasionally (except in bright
sunshine when the temperature is high). Everything should be done to aid the
plant into vigorous growth early in the season. The only thing which might have
prevented injury to rhododendrons this past winter (presupposing normal cultural
methods were followed) would have been a thorough watering of the plants
throughout late October and November, or during the several week i)eriod jn-ior
to the time the ground froze.

Donald Wyman

I

le

'91

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 APRIL 28, 1944 Number 5

SPRING DISPLAYS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM, 1944

This year, like last, time and g’asoline are at a premium. Persons who are
interested in the beautiful collections at the Arboretum would undoubtedly
appreciate some information about the time when these displays are expected to
be at their peak. The followin<? ten groups of plants have been selected merely
because they constitute some of the more conspicuous flowering collections during
the spring montlis. Dates given can only be approximate but are corrected for
this year, a year which has been marked for its cold weather up to this time, as
evidenced by many of the plants flowering a week or two later than they nor-
mally do.

Magnolias

Phe magnolia collection, situated around the administration building by the
Jamaica Plain gate, is coming into flower now. There are 18 species and 26 va-
rieties of these in the Arboretum, the first in flower always being Magnolia sfel-
lala, shortly followed by M. Kobus and M. denudata. Then come the colorful M.
Soidangeana varieties, most of which should be in bloom during the first week in
May. Th is collection is not marked for large numbers of trees but rather is of
interest for its individual specimens.

Forsythias

Every one who has visited the arboretum during the latter part of April will
remember the impressive bank planting of forsythias at the base of the lilac col-
lection opposite the ponds. Contrary to popular belief there is not just one for-
sythia,” but in the collection at the Arboretum 6 species and 15 varieties are
represented. Forsijthia intermedia spectabilis has the largest, deepest yellow colored
flowers of the varieties yet named, while F. intermedia primulina is very lovely be-
cause of its pale primrose yellow flowers. Since F. ovata started to bloom April
20 and the other forsythias are now in full flower and will be colorful for another
week or two, it is seen that these plants can fill a corner in the garden with
bright spring cheer for several weeks.

[ -21 ]

Oriental cherries

Many of these interesting- small trees were first introduced into this country by '
the Arnold Arboretum. However, the trying climate of New England has not i
been kind to many of the double flowered varieties. The single flowered species, ,
like Priiuus Sargenfl, P. siihliirtella , P. triJoha, P. tomeutosa and others will be in ‘
full bloom the first week of May. Prutius suhhirtella autumna/is' particularly is worth
observing because its flowers are semi-double. It can be termed the first of the
double flowering cherries to bloom, a splendid tree being situated immediately
within the Forest Hills entrance.

The double flowered cherries bloom a week to ten days after the single flower-
ing forms, and can be expected in flower during the week of May 15. The col- ,
lection of these on Bussey Hill has been hard hit by severe winters, but there ^
are a few, here and elsewhere in the Arboretum that are well worth inspection. i
One of the hardiest of all is the variety ‘^Kwanzan.’’

Crab apples

Much has been written in these pages during the past few years in praise of j
the oriental crab apples as ornamental plants. They will start to bloom within a |
few days but the peak of their bloom will not come until the week of May 15. :
Some excellent old specimens are planted adjacent to the Forest Hills entrance.
Others can be found on Bussey Hill. The largest collection is planted around the
base of Peter’s Hill on the further side of Bussey Street. All in all, there are i
nearly ^00 species and varieties of the genus Malus growing. in the collections, {
many of which make admirable ornamentals. Their vividly colored fragrant flow- '
ers are always followed by myriads of bright colored fruits in the fall. Most of ■
the varieties being grown in the Arboretum are available from some nursery in
the United States. If there are some that you would like to have in your garden
and you cannot find them in the available nursery catalogues, write to the Arbore-
tum and it may be that sources can be located. The delicate pink and white blos-
soms of yialux JJoribu/xIa , the purplish red flowers of M. purpurea and its several
varieties and the carmine flowers of M. atrosauguinea are all outstanding and should
be compared, one with the other, in order to select the ^^best” species or vari-
ety for one's own garden.

Azaleas

The parade of the azalea blossoms has already begun. Rhododendron mucronu-
lafum (to all intents and purposes considered an azalea) started to bloom last
week, and by May 15 a wealth of azaleas should be on colorful display. The
pinkshell azalea is ideally planted beside Meadow Road and also at the edge of
one of the ponds, where its delicate pink flowers are always mirrored in the water
beneath the tall growing oaks. The torch azalea from Japan should also be at its
height of bloom at this time. There are hundreds of these in the woods of the
Arboretum but perhaps the best display of all is beneath the century old pines
on Bussey Hill. The royal az-ilea, the one with the largest flowers, is also in

[ -2-2 ]

bloom at mid May, followed by some of the natives in late May and the ^orj^eous
Oranjre R. caleudulaceinu in early June. Many hybrids also bloom in late May and
early June, espeeially the popular Cxlient a/aleas, so many of them that it is eer-
tainly worth a trip to the Arboretum to compare the varieties at their heijrht of
color. The laroest collection of hybrids is on the southern slo|)e of Bussey Hill
facintr Hemlock Hill.

Dogwoods

Whenever dogwood is mentioned, one immediately thinks of the Howering dog-
wood, Corn us florid a , native, widely distributed over the eastern United States.
'I'his tree is frequently seen in the Arboretum and this year its presentation of
blossoms should he one of the best in years, for the ])lants are covered with fat
flower buds that are merely awaiting warm weather to start opening. The week
of May lo should see these trees come into the glory of full bloom and they will
remain at their best until lilac time. Among the many interesting plants growing
in the Arboretum are a double flowered dogwood and a variety with pendulous
branches.

There are approximately 65 different kinds of dogwoods growing in the Arbo-
retum, many of them being in the collections near the lindens along Meadow
Road. Most of these of course are the shrubby types. Coruus mas and C. oflicin-
a/is started to bloom last week. Although the big display of the dogwood clan is
with Cornus floridoy many of the shrubby sorts that follow have interest and cer-
tainly C. kousa and its variet.v chinensis are well worth seeing when they bloom
in June.

Lilacs

J'here are approximately 550 lilacs growing in the collections and the nurseries
in the Arboretum ! To manv it proves confusing to walk through the long lines
of bushes when they are at the height of their flowering jjeriod (about the week
of May ^2^2 this .vear) for there are so many varieties that look alike! Yet there is
always the possibility of spotting a variety that has just the right color for one’s
own garden. It is indeed difficult to distinguish some of the varieties apart be-
cause of their similarity. That is why the Arboretum has listed some varieties as

the best” in order to point out some tliat are outstanding and at the same time
are available from nursery sources.

Of this large group 80 are lilac species. Most of the others are varieties of
Syringa vulgaris but it should be pointed out that each year now, we are expect-
ing more and more bloom (in early June) from the hybrids and varieties of S.
Prestoniae which are planted at the upper end of the main collection towards the
Kuonijmus group. These lilacs do not have the fragrance of the S. vulgaris varie-
ties but they have vigor, hardiness and bloom a week or two after most of the
S. vulgaris varieties are past.

Rhododendrons

I'he main collection, planted at the base of Hemlock Hill beside a meandering

[ ]

stream, should prove very colorful this year, even though many plants have been
seriously injured during the past winter. The rhododendrons, like many other
plants, are at their best in alternate years. They seem to be Avell covered with
dower buds at this time, and, if no complications arise from the buffeting many
of them underwent last winter, a splendid display should be in store for those |
who care to walk over to see them during the drst week in June.

Mockoranges

The main mockorange collection is across the road from the lilacs, near the
Forest Hills entrance, with some planted in the shrub collection. Together they
number at least 1 10 different species and varieties, all of which should bloom
during a two or three week period starting about the first week in June, with the i
peak of the bloom being the week end of June 17. These dense shrubs vary in |
size from dwarfs about a foot high, to massive shrubs 15 feet high. Some, like
the hybrid Philadelphus virghiaVis varieties have very fragrant blossoms, while '
others like the mound-like, dense, single fiowered P. spleitdens have very little
fragrance. The dowers of all are white, the fruits have no ornamental value and .
none of the species have any autumn coloring in the fall. Consequently, the only
time to enjoy these plants is when they are in dower. Since last winter was a
comparatively mild one as far as temperatures were concerned, many of the
slightly tender hybrid varieties are probably uninjured and should be well covered
with dowers during mid-June.

Roses

Those who have visited the Arboretum know that there is no formal rose gar-
den as such. However, there are well over a hundred species and botanical varie-
ties of roses growing in the shrub collection adjacent to the Forest Hills entrance, j
'fhese begin to dower in late May with Rose Ecae, R. primula and R. Hugouis lead- I
ing the display that reaches its height during the third week of June. Many of
the old-fashioned roses are growing in this interesting collection, including some ,
of the moss roses, the Lancaster and York rose, the old cabbage rose or rose of
a hundred petals and several varieties of the Scotch rose, the rose which is native
over a wider area of the earth’s surface than any other rose.

'fhese then are some of the most prominent displays of dowers to be anticipated
in the Arboretum this spring. The Arboretum is easily reached by automobile,
being situated at the junction of Centre Street and the Arborway in Jamaica
Plain. Routes 1, J, "28, .88, and 138 go right past it. Or it may be reached by
taking the Arborway car at Park Street and getting ofiT at the Arborway. Or, it
may be quickly reached by taking the Forest Hills subway, getting off at Forest
Hills and walking one block along the Arborway to the entrance gate. F.asily
accessible, with a major proportion of these displays within a short walk of the
Forest Hill s gate, there is always the opportunity to see gorgeous dowering dis-
plays during May and June with little expenditure of time and effort.

Donald Wyman

ARNOLDIA

A continiuition of the
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 MAY 26, 1944 Number 6

HOW TO SPEND AN HOUR IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM

Many visitors to the Arboretum express a desire to see all parts of the 265
acres, but apologetically remark that their time is limited — they only have
‘‘an hour.” To one who is familiar with the many thousands of different kinds
of trees and shrubs growing on these 265 acres, it is manifest that little more
than a hasty trip through the grounds can be accomplished in an hour. If, how-
ever, the hour is spent in leisurely strolling up and down the walks through the
shrub collection, immediately adjacent to the Forest Hills gate, over a thousand
different kinds of shrubs (and vines) can be closely observed and many notes can
be made concerning the ornamental qualities of the most interesting of these.

First, one might walk between the two rows of vines, each containing about
60 different kinds of vines. Some, like the Ampelopsis species are noted for their
interesting foliage and a few for their bright fruits. Others, like the trumpet-
creepers, are valued for their conspicuous flowers in early summer. Of particular
interest should be the five-leaved Akebia {Akehia quhiata) which is one of the best
twining vines available because of its excellent almost semi-evergreen foliage.
Several species of bittersweet {Celastrus) are growing near the Akebia, and it is
easy to note the distinguishing characteristics between the native American bit-
tersweet (C. scaudeus) and the oriental bittersweet (C. orbicu/ata). One other bit-
tersweet might be noted here too. It is not available in the trade but it should
be, for it has small thorns, grows in a dense mass, and thus makes a formidable
barrier plant. This is C. flagellai'is, a splendid little vine and well worth planting
for barrier purposes.

Then one could easily spend much time examining the long rows of shrubs,
many of which are commonly grown in nurseries and hence are available to every
home owner. Most of the shrubs in this collection have been permitted to grow
with a minimum amount of pruning, so that the true habit could be properly at-
tained. In some cases, crowding has unavoidably modified the habit and certain

[ ]

allowances, therefore, must be made, but on the whole most of these plants have
been allowed to develop more or less as they would in nature.

The barberries occupy most of the row next to the vines. It should be kept in
mind that many barberries carry the destructive wheat rust, and legislation is in
force against planting them in many areas. All varieties of Berberis Thuuhergii
are fairly immune to this disease, and so B. Thutibergii minor deserves special at-
tention because of its diminutive leaves, flowers and fruits. Berberis koreana, too,
is nearly immune and is fast replacing many of the more susceptible species, hence
it too, should be observed closely. In the fall its brilliant red foliage and scarlet
fruits make it truly desirable.

Tlie tall, aristocratic pearl bushes {Exochorda sp.) might be inspected. Here is
clear evidence that the species common in the trade {E. racemosa) is not the hard-
iest, in fact it is the least hardy ! Exochorda Giraldii Wilsouii is probably the best,
particularly because of its larger flower clusters, and again because it is certainly
hardier than the common E. racemosa.

Most of the spireas can be passed over quickly since their similarity in flower
is frecpiently confusing to the amateur. The vigorous growing ninebarks {Phijso-
carpus species) clearly show their vigorous habit of growth and demonstrate the
fact that when they are planted tliey should be allowed plenty of room for ex-
pansion.

The rose species occupy tlie better part of two full rows the length of the en-
tire collection. These might be called the wild roses of the world. Some are
lyvbrids, many are ffimiliar ‘‘old fashioned” roses like the cabbage rose {Rosa
centlfolia) and the Austrian copper rose. The rose with the smallest flower {R.
JVatsonia/ut) is of interest for this fact and also because of its finely cut foliage.
Many of these roses bear close scrutiny — R. HeJenae for its delicate flowers, R.
Roxburghii hirtida for its very large flowers and interesting bark, unique among
roses, and many others which will bloom during the month of June.

The quinces were particularly beautiful during mid-May. The comparatively
mild winter did not injure the flower buds and hence an excellent opportunity
was presented to compare them in flower. It should be pointed out that the hy-
brid Chaenome/es cathayensis is not hardy. Chaenome/es lagenaria kermesin a semi-
plena'' is ap{)arently the largest growing of all, while Chaenomeles japonica and
its varieties are the lowest, being less than three feet tall.

\hirious mock oranges and deutzias are about to come into bloom now and in-
teresting notes might well be made concerning them as well as the hydrangeas,
weigelas and privets. Thougli several species of these are commonly seen in gar-
dens, other less well-known ones grow here in these rows, making comparisons a
most interesting way of spending a short time in the Arboretum. This shrub col-
lection is one of the very few places in this country where so many different kinds
of woody plants can be seen and close!}" examined in such a small area. An hour
spent Iiere is well worth while to both amateur gardeners and professional plants-
men.

[ -jc ]

The mid-May frosts

The vaoaries of the weatlier liave not left tlie trees and shrubs of the Boston
area untouched this year. Mention has already been made of injury to rhododen-
drons (in Arnoldia, vol. 4, No. 4, 1944). On the nijyhts of May 18, 19 and
parts of Boston and its suburbs experienced killinjf frosts. 4'his was true in many
other parts of the country as well. Damatje done to crops has been considerable
and some ornamental plants were injured. As an example, this sprintr a jdantintr
of 4^ varieties of Ghent hybrid azaleas was made on the James B. Case estate in
Weston, now the property of the Arnold Arboretum. The frost on tlie nijjht of
the 18th killed all of the flowers and the leaves of all the varieties, a very dis-
appointing loss since these plants were just coming into bloom for the first time.
Now no records of flower size and color can be made until next year, and these
data were needed for use in a proposed selection and propagation program.

The highbush blueberries in the Arboretum were uninjured, but in low lying
areas of Boston’s suburbs a very heavy crop of flowers was completely killed —
sad news to many a housewife who was depending on some of the fruits for can-
ning this summer.

The young shoots of many oak trees were either partly or entirely killed, de-
pending on the situation in which the trees were growing. Such a freeze occurred
about six years ago when many oak trees were injured. The unseasonably warm
weather during the first part of May developed the foliage with a rush, so that
when the freeze came, the young growth of many plants was entirely too tender
to withstand it. Young shoots of sycamores, sumac and hickory trees were also
killed in the western part of the state and many oak woods appear brown when
viewed from the train window because of the killing.

Clddrasiis hitea, for instance, was badly injured. One tree in my garden — aj)-
proximately fifteen feet tall — had all its leaves killed. New leaves and shoots
will grow on this tree, but it is of interest to note that the leaves and young
shoots of Fagus gj'audifolia , Fagus sylvaticd ^ Ace?' sacch(n'um and Acer maudshuricum
growing in the same place were not injured. Lilacs, Rosa primula and R. j'ugosa
were not injured in the same situation where the young shoots of hybrid tea roses
were killed back to the ground, although it is understood that there was killing
of lilac foliage in some of the other suburbs.

The young shoots of many Taxus species and varieties are about an inch long
at this time of year. These shoots were all killed in certain sections of the Bos-
ton suburbs, whereas the young shoots of pine and spruce were not injured. This,
of course, means only that in these certain locations the young shoots of Taxus
are the first to be killed. I do not have a record of the exact temperatures, but,
at Weston, there was an eighth of an inch of ice on small pools the morning fol-
lowing the first freeze.

Fern fronds, young grape shoots, and even some clover leaves and shoots of

[ 27 ]

poison ivy were killed. Such injuries are not serious as the plants affected all
have strongly recuperative properties, but it is interesting to note that even j
native plants were totally unprepared for such a drop in the temperature.

Plants in the Arboretum did not suffer very much. Few of the hundreds of 1
azaleas in full bloom were injured. Flowers of Malus ioen sis plena were just open- ^
ing and the outer petals of these were turned brown. The lilacs suffered no in- j
jury. If they had, it would have been disastrous indeed for it is estimated that j
perhaps between 30,000 and 45,000 people visited the Arboretum to see them i
on Lilac Sunday, May 21, just after the frosts.

Tlie cold spring kept many of the early blooming shrubs in check until tlie j;
first of May. Then there was a procession of unseasonably warm days with high |
temperatures and strong sunshine. The flowering season was about two weeks '
behind by the end of April and even forsythias did not reach full bloom until ^
shortly after May first. Then with the warm weather, many plants burst quickly |i
into bloom so that by mid-May plants were blooming very near to the accustomed d
time when they are normally expected. The sudden frosts, after two weeks of (|
unusually warm weather, came at a time when the young growths of many plants j
were too tender to withstand low temperatures. The differences in the wa.v the i
same varieties were affected in different locations is, of course, accounted for by i
differences in elevation, air drainage, and the vagaries of low temperatures and
wind currents in general. ^

Donald Wyman

Notes

E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold x\rboretum was elected a member of the ,
council of the American Philosophical Society for a term of three years at the
annual meeting of the Society in April. He was also selected by the Executive i
Committee of the National Academy of Sciences to represent that Society on the
Board of the National Parks Association, succeeding the late Dr. J. McKeen
Cattell.

Arnold Arboretum staff members. Dr. H. M. Raup, Assistant Professor of Plant
Ecology, and Dr. A. C. Smith, Curator of the Herbarium, were both honored by
being elected to membership in the American ^Academy of Arts and Sciences at
its annual meeting in May.

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of tlie
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harv^ard University

Volume 4 JUNFi 16, 1944 Number 7

EMERGENCY FOOD MANUALS

AS everybody at all familiar with world events realizes the present global war
is in many respects very different from the first world war. Not only are
many operations prosecuted along lines totally different from those which charac-
terized the period between 1914 and 1918, but sources of special information
have been developed in a wide variety of fields. Relatively speaking, the last
great war was a world war in name, but in the present conflict actual combat in-
volves not only the oceans of the world, but also the continents of Europe, Asia,
Africa and the islands of the Pacific. In this second conflict botanists trained and
experienced in widely diversified fields are contributing materially to the solution
of various complex problems. The emergency food manuals are a small but dis-
tinctly important contribution from the fields of systematic and economic botany.

In the early part of the century when I commenced botanical work in the
Philippines I soon realized, from field experience, that it was incumbent upon me
to accumulate as much knowledge as possible regarding the edible qualities of
various jungle plants. In my first year I had the experience of having been ma-
rooned for more than a week with no other available food than rice ; and boiled
rice three times a day with nothing to diversify it, is not only monotonous but is
also distinctly not a satisfying diet from any angle. At that time I knew practi-
cally nothing about what one could find to eat in the vast tropical forests of the
Philippines. Little did I realize that forty years later my services would be drafted
to compile the data regarding jungle foods for the benefit of the men in our var-
ious services who were called upon to operate in the islands of the Pacific. Several
years after the boiled rice experience when three of us were marooned by heavv
rains in central Mindoro, entirely out of food and no avenue of escape open to us
as long as the rain continued, one of my companions observed, when on Thanks-
giving Day 1906 we dined on two broiled wood rats each, supplemented by boiled
fern tips, ^^Cheer up, you couldn’t buv a meal like this at Delmonico’s. ” This

is, however, no place to enlar^-e upon tlie subject of what I have eaten and wliy,
for the list would indeed be a stran<ye one.

It is clear to anyone familiar with the troincs, and who has even a limited
knowledo'e of the plants, parts of some of which may be eaten with entire safety,
tliat there is no need of anyone starvino- to death in the midst of relative plenty,
'frue, an army could not possibly subsist on what mio-ht be found in the junoles,
but individuals and small ^roujis of men can find much that may be eaten pro-
vided they know what to select. Dr. H. Lam mentions in his most interesting:
account of his trip up the INJandieramo River to the summit of the Central Snow
Ranoe (Mount Wilhelmina) in H)^20 that his part.v met at the Meervlakte two
Chinese bird hunters accompanied by nineteen native Papuans, who had travelleil
iidand from the coast to the Idenburo- River and thence down the Mamberamo.
For a period of seventy days they had subsisted wholly on such plant and animal
food as they could secure in the New (niinea forests, proof, if proof be needed,
that it is possible to live on the country even in uninhabited areas such as this
one in New Cuinea.

Naturally, widely scattered and very rare or local species should not be con-
sidered in any popular booklet on edible plants, hence a prime necessity, if any-
thino- really useful is to be prepared, is a wide field experience on the part of tlie
compiler. He must in the first place know the tropics from personal experience,
and in the second place he must know what plants and plant parts may be eaten,
either crude or processed — and some plant parts must be processed before they
can be eaten in order to eliminate certain poisonous principles. But what is of
even oreater im|)ortance than this is a knowledjie of what are the common and
widely distributed species. It would be utterly valueless were a species to be in-
cluded that is so rare or so local that no one could possibly expect to find enouj^h
to satisfy, in part, the hunger of even one man.

'file first emero’ency booklet prepared was a small one compiled by Cajdain
A. B. Ciodshall and published in Panama in 194^, entitled “Fidible, Poisonous
and Medicinal Fruits of Central America,” illustrated by 4 "2 excellent line draw-
ino's. Immediate!}’ the idea aj)pealed to others and within a very short time after
this booklet appeared no less than twenty -one different individuals or agencies,
representing various branches of the service, commenced to play with the idea of
preparing something for the benefit of our service men who might become sepa-
rated from their commands and who might have to live for a time on what they
could find in the tropical jungles. There was no coordination of these endeavors,
and too freciuently individuals with no knowledge of the subject and with no
tropical exjierience were assigned to the task of compiling data. Because of this
confusion a meeting of representatives of the various services was arranged under
the auspices of the National Research Council in Washington in September, 1942.
'Phe result of this conference was to enlist my services to prepare the copy for a
booklet appertaining to the Pacific islands, while to Mr. Paul C. Standley and

>

Mountain Sorrel (0.ryHa digyna) PLATE III Cowslip {Calthn imlnstrh)

Reproduced from Standley, Paul C. “Edible Plants of the Arctic Regions” 1944,
by courtesy of the author and the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Navy Department

Dr. B. E. Dahlji'ren of tlie Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, were as-
signed the arctic and subarctic regions (including Alaska) and tropical America.

Immediately on my return to Boston from this conference I commenced to com-
pile tlie data that were available to me, and the result was the completion of the
copy and the illustrations late in December, 194^2. The booklet of 149 pages
with ll.S illustrations was issued in a large edition on April 15, 1943. This is
Technical Manual 10-4‘20, entitled “Emergency Food Plants and Poisonous
Plants of the Islands of the Pacific,’" issued by the War Department for wide
distribution to service men.* It is non-technical, without descriptions, the illus-
trations taking the jilace of descriptions, and includes the majority of the common
and widely distributed jungle plants tliat may be used as food, even including
some that, unless the seeds or the tubers are properly processed, are actually
l)oisonous if eaten raw. It covers in general certain natural groups such as the
palms, ferns, grasses and aroids, followed by a consideration of those species in
various unrelated families that produce edible tubers, those plants parts of whicli
may be freely eaten as greens, edible fruits, edible seeds, a brief consideration of
poisonous plants that it is desirable to avoid, and finally a consideration of tlie
more common species parts of which, when macerated and thrown into pools or
slow streams, will suffocate or poison fish. The area covered is all of the islands
of the tropical Pacific, Papuasia, the Philippines, and all of the Malay Archipe-
lago; and for all practical purposes it also covers British Malaya, Indo-China,
Siam, Burma, and southern and eastern India. All in all some 1^28 different edi-
ble plants or plant parts are illustrated and others are discussed or mentioned.
Some of these species will be found on every island of the entire tropical Pacific
region that is high enough to support an}’ vegetation.

A more finished product in this field is the Edible and Poisonous Plants of
the Caribbean Region'* by B. 45. Dahlgren and Paul C. Standley of the Chicago
Museum of Matural History, in somewhat larger format than TM 10-420, men-
tioned above. This is a booklet of 102 pages with 72 illustration, published by
the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery of the Navy Department in 1944, and the
ecpially authoritative “Edible Plants of the Arctic Region” by Paul C. Standley,
a booklet of 49 pages with 27 illustrations, issued in 1943. The former is avail-
able to the public through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Print-
ing Office, Washington, D.C. at 20 cents per copy. These, then, are some of the
contributions of American botanists who are familiar with their fields and also, on
the basis of extensive field work, familiar with the tropics. Little can be said in
favor of the botanical parts of “jungle Desert Arctic Emergencies” and “jungle
and Desert Emergencies” issued under the auspices of the Army xA.ir Forces in

*'riiis is available to anyone interested in securing a copy through the Super-
intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., the
price being fifteen cents in coin (not stamps) per copy.

[3-2]

\

I inanona {MonnUni delicloxa) PLATE IV Chayote {Sechium (‘(lute)

Reproduced from Dahlj?ren, B. E. and Standley, Paul C. “Edible and Poisonous Plants of the Caribbean Ke-ion“ 19U.
by courtesy of the authors and the Bureau of Medicine and Sur^>ery, Navy Department

for the simple reason that too much of the relatively small amount of data |
about plants included in them verges on botanical misinformation, rather than on j
real facts.

But the United States Government is not the only one that has tapped this |
special botanical reservoir of information for the benefit of its service men operat- i
ing- in strange lands. About the middle of 19f3 there was issued in Australia a ;
booklet entitled Friendly Fruits and Vegetables’ ' compiled for the use of Aus-
tralian service men operating in the Southwest Pacific area. This consists of 7 1 !
pages with 37 figures. In August, 1943, there was issued under the auspices of i
the Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland, New Zealand, “Food is Where [
You Find It. A Guide to Emergency Foods of the Western Pacific.” This is a j
7^ page booklet with illustrations of nearly fifty plant species as well as pictures i
of certain fishes that are poisonous if eaten, and others that inflict severe wounds
(including also the poisonous sea snakes and cone shells), as well as other fishes
and marine forms that may be eaten with safety. These two antipodean contribu-
tions include much the same plant species as those discussed in Technical Manual
lO-f^O. To be mentioned in this category are two booklets issued in Honolulu
for the needs of our service men in the Pacific area, one by K. P. Emory, pub-
lished by the Bishop Museum entitled “South Sea Lore,” and one compiled and
published by the United States Army, entitled “Castaway’s Baedeker to the
South Seas.” Both of these contain some information regarding edible and other-
wise useful Polynesian plants. The former is a booklet of 75 pages and the latter j
one of b3 pages, and both are illustrated.

Nearer home, and a mine of information regarding the edible qualities of our
own species is the Eernald-Kinsey ^ Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North Amer-
ica,** pp. i-xiv. 1-45^2. fig. 1-1'29. pi. l-'25. 1943. This was prepared at the Gray
Herbarium of Harvard University, and is by far the most complete and most
authoritative treatment of our native edible plants that has been issued. It covers
tlie area from the Maritime Provinces to Minnesota southward to eastern Okla-
homa and northern Florida. It is available from the Idlewild Press, Cornwall-on-
Hudson, N.Y., price $3.00. (See ARNOLDIA, 4: 8. 1944.)

4*he published information regarding potential jungle food plants is tremen-
dously scattered in periodical literature, covering the fields of botany, horticulture
and agriculture, as well as in various standard botanical treatises. Several of the ,
|)articularl3' valuable reference works in the field of economic plants appertaining ;
especially to the Malayan region and hence also to Polynesia, Micronesia, the en- i
tire Southwestern Pacific region and all of southern Asia are: Ochse, J. J. &
Bakhuizen van den Brink, R. C. “Fruits and Fruticulture in the Dutch East |
Indies** i-x. 1-180, pI.l-o7 (in color). 1931. (This is an English edition of their
“ \h-uchten en vruchtenteelt in Nederlandsch-Oost-Indie”) ; their Vegetables
of the Dutch East Indies (Edible Tubers, Bulbs, Rhizomes, and Spices Included).
Survey of the Indigenous and Foreign Plants Serving as Pot-herbs and Side

c/? G

TO ^

^ I

^ O

§ -

o

c« 0;
O c/3

O, 5

J 5'

CL( V
r° C

^ i

rT‘ ^

y o

? -js

0/ 4_l

be 3

S

T3

qj

3

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Dishes.” i-xxxvi. 1-1006, illus. 1931. (This is an English edition of their “ind-
ische groenten”); Heyne, K. K. ^^Die nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indie |
— .” 1: l-^.50. i-xxviii. 1 9 1 6 (re-issue 1-.570. i-lxxx. 2: l-34‘9, i-xxxix.

1916, 3: l-40^i, i-xlviii. 1917, 4: 1-^254. i-xxxvi. 1917; ed. 2, 1 vol. in 3, p.p. ;
1-1662. i-cexli. 1927 ; and Burkill, I. H. “Dictionary of the Economic Products '
of the Malay Peninsula,” 2 vols. pp. i-xi. 1-2402. 193.7.

Thus certain information, not previously available in any single volume, some j
of it based on actual experience and observation on the part of individual authors, !
some compiled from widely scattered publications, has been assembled. In the i
compact form of the booklets brieH.v discussed above, these data have now been |
made widely available for all who may be interested in acquiring information :
which, on occasion, may be vitally important. This of course applies especially I
to individuals lost in the jungles of the tropics, cut off from their food supply and
thus those whose lives are dependent on their own efforts.

E. D. Merrill

Notes

Dr. H. M. Raup, of the Arboretum staff, left Boston on May 31, with his party
of seven, to continue the botanical survey of the Alaska Military Highway. Last
year his party covered that part of the road from its southern terminus to White-
horse. This year the group, which consists of Dr. and Mrs. H. M. Raup and their
two sons, Karl and David, Dr. S. K. Harris of Boston University, Dr. John H. H.
Sticht, glacial geologist, and Mr. Frederick Johnston of Andover Academy, arch-
aeologist and anthropologist, will cover the region from Whitehorse to the Alaskan
terminus of the road. The botanical field work will be done by Messrs. Raup and
Harris and Mrs. Raup. This trip has been made possible by special grants received
from the Milton Fund of Harvard L^niversity, the American Philosophical So-
ciety, the National Academy of Sciences, the Society of Sigma Xi, the American
Geological Society and the Peabody Foundation. This year, as last, the party will
operate in the field, not only with the permission of the military authorities, but
transportation on the road and commissary privileges have been granted by these
authorities without which it would be impossible to operate. This will be Dr.
Raup’s tenth season in botanical field work in the northern parts of North Amer-
ica. The part}' will return about the middle of September.

[30 ]

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 OCTOBER 18, 1944 Number 8

AUTUMN COLOR

All indications point to a splendid display of autumn color this fall. I'liere
has been plenty of sunshine during September and rainfall has not been ex-
cessive. The few days prior to the hurricane of September 14 were about the last
during wliich there was an appreciable amount of rain in Boston. The nights dur-
ing the first week of October have been very cool, with light frosts in low spots
in the Boston suburbs. All these indications thus point to the combination of con-
ditions that should produce a fine display of color during the next few weeks. In
order that Arnoldia subscribers will be better able to interpret what they may see
during tliis period, the following notes on autumn color are presented, these data
being in part publication of an earlier number of the Bulletin of Popular Informa-
tion (Series 4, Vol. IV, November, 198b).

rhe eastern United States is fortunatefv located in one of the few regions of
the world where brilliant autumn coloration of foliage prevails. There is only one
small region in the southern hemisphere, and that in .Soutli America. In the north-
ern hemispliere, there is a large region in eastern Asia, including central and
nortliern Japan, and a small region in the southwestern part of Kuro])e. In North
America, the region characterized by brilliant autumn foliage extends from the
Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida and westward to the Great Plains, areas wliich
are blessed with extensive deciduous forests and considerable raintall. Here the
general climatic conditions are often just what is needed to produce that lovely
phenomenon of nature — the autumn coloration of deciduous foliage.

In North America the most brilliant displays of autumn color are of course in
southeastern Canada, the northeastern United States and in certain other areas
at higher altitudes. 'The further south one goes, the less brilliant is the display
of autumn color, particularly in areas along the seacoast. In the higher altitudes
of the South, such as the Blue Ridge Mountains, the color is usually just as bril-
liant as in the northeastern United States.

[ ]

It should be pointed out that it is chiefly in areas of predominantly deciduous
forests that autumn color displays are best, and such forested areas occur only in
two o-eneral regions in the world. Plants growing- in deciduous forests in tropical
regions usually drop their leaves towards the end of the dry season. Since these
leaves usually dry up before they fall (because of lack of water), they do not de-
velop brilliant colors but usually turn brown and then fall off. In the case of plants
growing in deciduous forests in temperate regions ^ — especially in areas with ample
rainfall equally distributed throughout the year^ — the leaves fall at the approach
of cold weather, and because the plants have been well supplied with water, leaves
of many trees do change color before they fall. This gorgeous phenomenon is
what focuses our attention on the woods and forests at this time each year.

In some years, the autumn color is much more pronounced than in others. 'Phere
are always plants, the foliage of which turns yellow in the fall, but it is the bril-
liant reds and gorgeous scarlets which, in combination with the yellows, make
autumn color of outstanding beauty. It is chiefly the reds and scarlets which are
intensified by the right climatic conditions.

Leaves are green because the.v contain a complex material called chlorophyll.
This is essential to the growth of all plants, except the saprophytes and a few
parasites, for it is through the action of chlorophvll that the plant can manufac-
ture the food it recpiires from crude chemicals in the presence of light and heat.
Chlorophyll is a highly complex chemical material, being continually manufactured
in the leaf and at the same time being continually broken down. Ordinarily, the
rate of its breakdown about etpials the rate of its manufacture. In the fall, the
rate of (-hlorophyll manufacture is gradually reduced, although the rate of its de-
composition is maintained. I'lie exact cause for tliis i^henomenon is not fully un-
derstood, but the accumulation of waste products i!i the leaf may be the principal
cause.

Why leaves are yellow

certain stage is readied wliere there is little if any chlorophyll manufactured.
Most of tlie chlorojiliyll already made eventually is destroyed. 'Phis is the reason
why leaves are yellow, for the two yellow pigments usually i)resent, carotin and
xanthophvll, are continually masked by the chlorophyll. When most of the chlo-
rojiliyll is destroyed, these pigments become a|)i)arent. d’hese same coloring ma-
terials are present in large (piantities in egg yolk, carrots, and in some yellow
flowers.

When green plants are taken into dark places, such as a cellar, the leaves often
turn yellow. Also, voung shoots appearing for the first time under the dark con-
ditions of the cellar are usually yellow. This is explained by the fact that chloro-
phyll is manufactured only in the presence of light. WTen light is absent, plants
are unable to manufacture new chlorophyll and the yellow [figments become
l>redominant as s(x>n as all the previously manufactured chloroiih} !! has been
destroyed .

[ ]

The o:ra(luaI cessation of cliloropliyll manufacture and the final breakdown of
all that previously made, completes the first sta«re in autumn coloration. 'Phis is
the reason for certain plants becomino: yellow. 'Phere are some plants, like some
matjnolias for instance, the leaves of which do not turn yellow, hut chanjre from
j^reen directly to brown. P'or some reason, the breakdown of the chlorophyll does
not start soon enoujjh or is not complete enouoh to result in the appearance of
the yellow pijrments. 'Phe yellow color does appear in the foliaoe of many other
plants regardless of the weather conditions. There is an interesting high degree
of individuality in certain species. Red maple, for instance, usually turns a good
red in the fall, but certain individuals may color y ellow. The same can be said
of sugar maples and several other plants. This is a most interesting physiological
problem worthy of considerable investigation.

Why leaves are red

The gorgeous beauty of most autumn color combinations results from the bril-
liant reds and scarlets, together with the yellows. The sassafras, some of the
maples, oaks, sumacs, sourwood, tupelo, and other plants are particularly out-
standing for their brilliant red autumn color. These plants are most interesting
in that the brilliance of their color apparently varies from year to vear. The red
in their leaves is caused by a third pigment called anthocyanin, which results in
some way from the accumulation of sugars and tannins in the leaf. In some of
the maples valued for their sugar production, it is probably the sugars which cause
this red color. The oaks, however, being rich in tannins })robably owe their high
autumn coloration to the presence of these.

There are two factors necessary in the production of red autumn color. 'I'he
first is light. 'Phere must be warm, bright, sunny davs in the fall, during which
time the leaves naturally manufacture a great deal of sugar. Secondly, such days
must be followed by cool nights, during which the temperature is below F.
Riant physiologists have shown definitely that, under such conditions, there is
little or no translocation of sugars and other materials from the leaf to other i)arts
of the plant. In other words, when cool nights occur, following warm, bright,
sunny days, sugars and other materials are ^ ^trapped” in the leaves. The accu-
mulation of these products results in the manufacture of the red anthocyanin.

'Phe combination of these factors is well understood when one observes a cer-
tain tree that may be red only on that side exposed to the sun. Other leaves not
directly in the sun's rays may be green or yellow. I^eaves exposed to the sun
have been able to manufacture more sugars, which when accumulated and
“trapped” in the leaves by cold night temperatures may result in the red color.
It is interesting to note that trees and shrubs growing in swamps and other low
places are often among the first to color in the fall, simply because it is in such
places that cold air first settles ()n still nights.

With these points in mind, it can be easily seen why there is so much diver-
gence of opinion about autumn color. When plants are located so that they re-

eeive full sunlioht, especially in the late afternoons during the early fall, they |
should be expected to show pronounced color if the weather conditions have been J
favorable. On the other hand, if a plant grows in the shade where it receives no
direct sunlight, it cannot be expected to have marked autumn color.

One species in the Arboretum annually demonstrates this point. There is a
splendid plant of FothergiJla monficola in the shrub collection of the Arboretum.
'I'his plant is exposed to full sunlight, while the shrub collection is in the lowest
spot in the Arboretum, so one would normally expect plants there to color if any :
did. In years when the climatic conditions have favored autumn color formation,
tliis particular plant of FothergiUa motiticola is gorgeously colored red and yellow
— on the western side. On the eastern side, where the foliage is shaded from i
the late afternoon sun, the foliage is merely colored .vellowish and does not show I
the brilliant contrasts of red and yellow. Fortunately all plants do not show sucli
great variation in autumn color when one side is compared witli another, but it
is a fact, that the western side usually lias the deepest colored foliage when tliere
has been plenty of sunshine. Idiis point sliould be kept in mind in planting, lo-
cations and plants being selected that would show to best advantage during the
jieriod of autumn color.

Dull autumn coloration

A warm, cloudy fall, sometimes witli much rain, will restrict the formation of
bright colors in the foliage. With insufficient sunlight, the sugar production is
greatly reduced, and with warm nights, wliat little sugar has been manufactured
in the leaves can be readily transported to the trunk and roots where it has no
effect on the color of the foliage.

'I'he leaves of many evergreens change color in autumn. Some of the junipers
and arborvitaes are listed in the following groups. Some pines may turn yellow,
but usually such color lasts only fora siiort time, the leaves quickly turning brown.
'Phis is particularly true of those evergreen leaves wliich are normally shed each
year, and altliough the autinnn color may not be conspicuous in many evergreen
l)lants, nevertlieless it is evitlent on close examination.

All leaves eventually turn brown. Phis is not an autumn color, but is merely
the result of the deatli, and in some cases the decay of the plant tissue. Some-
times, tlie leaves turn brown while the.v still remain on the tree, as in the Amer- j
ican beech and in some of the oaks. In other cases, like the sugar maple and the J
si^icebush, the leaves drop from the plants while they are still brightly colored I
and turn brown afterwards.

Autumn color is then a pliysiological i)henomenon which is very complex. There
are plants tlie leaves of which will always turn yellow regardless of current cli-
matic conditions, but many of tlie jilants with red fall foliage will be striking in
appearance only when warm, sunshiny days prevail, followed by nights with tem-
peratures below t.‘)° F\ The sugar formation in the leaf, the amount of sunshine ;

[ 40 ]

received by the plants, and the temperature of the air are tliree variable factors
which to a lar<fe de«;ree control autumn coloration.

Woody Plants with Autumn Color

'I'he followino' plants are listed accordino; to their most conspicuous autumn
color. As has been exi)lained above, these may clian^e from year to year, de-
|)endino- on climatic conditions. For instance, some years Chidrast'is lulea will be
yellow, other years the same trees will be purplish, 'fhe de<*ree of color may also
de|)end on soil conditions, it beino- a well-known fact that pin oaks, for instance,
which have received heavy applications of nitroj[yenous fertilizers, will have a much
deeper red color than those jrrown on poor soils without sucli fertilizers. With
these (jualifications in mind, the following- lists are offered. Plants with an aster-
isk (*) usually show conspicuous autumn color.

Autumn Color - Red

*Acer Oinnala
japonieum
rnandshuricum
pal ma turn

platanoides Sch wedleri

* rubrum - red and yellow

* Schlesingeri - verv early red
saccharum - red and yellow
tridorum

Aronia arbutifolia
melanocarpa
prunifolia

*Berberis, many species
Carpinus carol in iana
*Cornus alba
dorida
kousa
mas

stolonifera

'^'Cotinus americanus

* Coggygria
Cotoneaster divaricata

* Crataegus Phaenopyrum
'^Enkianthus campanulatus

* perulatus
'^'Euonymus alata

atropurpurea
europaea

obovata
saclialinensis
sanguinea

*Fothergilla species - red and yellow
Franklinia alatamaha - red and yel-
low

*Liquidambar Styracidua - red and
yellow

Malus Dawsoniana - red and yellow
Nemopanthus mucronatus
^'Nyssa sylvatica
*Oxydendrum arboreum
*Parthenocissus quinquefolia
tricuspidata
Photinia villosa
Prunus mandshurica
Maximowiczii
nipponica

* Sargentii
*Pyrus communis

* j)vri folia

* ussuriensis
*Quercus borealis maxima

Si *

coccmea
palustris

* velutina

Rhododendron calendulaceurn
Schlippenbachii

[41]

* Rhododendron Vaseyi

*Rhus aromatica

* copallina - shining red

* glabra

* radicans — red and yellow

* typhina
vernicidua

Ribes aureum
hirtelhim
odoratum

*Rosa rugosa - red and yellt)w

setigera

* virginiana - red and yellow
^Sassafras albiduin - red, yellow to

orange

^'Spiraea prunifolia - glossy red
Syringa oblata dilatata
^Vaccinium species
^Viburnum dentatuin
Lantana - deep red

* prunifoliuin

* tomentosum - velvety, dull red

Autumn Color - Re

Cornus Amonniin

* raceinosa
Forsythia viridissima

*Fraxinus ainericana
*Gaultheria procumbens
*Gaylusaccia brachycera
Ilex decidua

*Juniperus horizontalis pluinosa
virginiana

*Leucothoe Catesbaei
Ligustrum obtusitbliinn llegelianiim
*Mahonia Aquifolium

* re])ens
Malus baccata

purpurea Fdeyi

* sublobata

Myrica pensylvanica - bronze
^Pachistima Canbyi
Physocarpus monogynus

Autumn

*Acer pensylvanicum

* platanoides
rufinerve
saccliarinuin

Actinidia arguta

^Amelanchier species — yellow to red
*Assimina triloba
*Betula species

I to reddish purple

Prunus allegheniensis Daviesi
armeniaca ‘‘Mikado”
canescens
cyclamina
serrulata spontanea
*Quercus alba

Rhododendron obtusuin Kaempferi
roseum

Rubus liispidus
Symphoricarpos Chenaultii
^'Thuja occidentalis ericoides - purple
plicata - bronze
^Viburnum acerifoliuin
Carlesii

* dilatatuin
Lenta go
inolle

Rafinesquianum affine
Vitis Coignetiae

Color - Yellow

'^'Celastrus species
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
*Cercis canadensis
*Cladrastis lutea — yellow to purplish
'*^Clethra acuminata

* alnifolia
Diospyros virginiana
Dirca palustris

[4-2]

*Ginkgo biloba
*Hamamelis mollis

* vernal is

* virginiana
Hypericum species
Kalopanax pictus
Kerria japonica

'■'Larix cleciclua
laricina

*Lindera Benzoin
'■'Liriodendron I'lilipifera
Madura pomifera
Malus Halliana spontanea — yellow
and purple
Ostrya virginiana

Autumn Color -

Aesculus parvidora - yellow brown
'■'Carya species — yellow to brown
*Castanea dentata - y ellow to brown
mollisima - yellow to brown
Dirca palustris
^■'Fagus grand ifolia

No autumn

Ailanthus altissirna

Akebia cpiinata

Baccharis baliinitblia

Clematis, many species

Daphne Mezereiim

Davidia involucrata

Elaeagnus angustifolia

Euonymus Bungeana semipersistens

Hibiscus syriacus

Ligustrum vnlgare

Lonicera fragrantissima

Parrotia persica - yellow to orange
*Phellodendron anuirense
Physocarpus opulitblius
Populus alba
grand identata
nigra italica
tremuloides
Poncirus trifoliata
Prinsepia sinensis
^'Pseudolarix Kaempt'eri
'“'Sorbus americana
aucLiparia
Ulmus americana
Zelkova serrata

Yellowish to Bronze

sylvatica

Gymnocladus dioica
'‘"Magnolia stellata — yellow brown
Malus ioensis plena - yellow brown
*Quercus imbricaria

color

svritigantba
tbibetica

Lycium halimifbliiim
Polygonum Aiiberti
Potentilla species
Prunus Persica
Robinia Pseudoacacia
Salix blanda
|)entandra
Sophora japonica
Vitex Negundo

I Note: — Since this number of Arnoldia deals with foliage colors tor a short period
in the fall only, attention should be called to other recent issues which treat of
i foliage colors at other times throughout the year.

Winter Foliage C’olor of Narrow-leaved Evergreens. Arnoldia, Volume 3, No.
.S, May, IPf:’>.

Broad-lea\ ed hb ergreens with Clreen Foliage throughout the inter. Arn-
oldia, ^"olume .‘f. No. t. May, 1P4.‘5.

[ +.•! ]

Foliage Colors of Woody Plants April to September. Arnoldia, Volume 2, Nos.
11 to 12, December, 1942.

Autumn blooming shrubs

Tlie display of color in the fall not only consists of colored foliage and bright
colored fruits, but also includes the flowers of a few late blooming shrubs and
vines. The sweet autumn clematis {Clematis paniculatn) and the fleecevine {Pohjgo-
mim Auberti) are tvvm vines whose white flowers have considerable merit in tlie fall.

Klsholtzia Stauntoui is a fall flowering shrub from China which grows about four
feet tall and has many spikes of small lilac colored flowers. It was first introduced
into this country in 1905, and although it has not found its vv'ay into many gar-
dens, it is listed by several nurseries.

Fraiikli/iia alatamaha in the Arnold Arboretum begins to bloom about the first
of September and continues until frost kills flower buds and leaves. The plants
tliis year do not have many of their pure wliite, waxy flowers, due in large meas-
ure to the serious set-back the plants received in the prolonged drought this sum-
mer. Usually at this time they are covered with flowers. Though this native
American plant is usually grown in the south as a tree, it is grown in the Arnold
Arboretum as a shrub, with many brandies from the base of tlie plant. When
grovvm in this manner, winter killing is not nearlv’ as severe as it is when the
plant is grown as a tree, and, also, soil can be mounded around the base of the
plant to aid in winter protection.

4’here are several members of the Lespedeza clan which are in bloom now. One
of the most conspicuous this year is Lespedeza japoiiica , almost impossible to find
in nurseiw catalogues, but a handsome, free-flowering shrub nevertheless, with
its pure white flowers borne on conspicuous terminal spikes. Our plant is about
four feet tall. Lespedeza Tl/aahergli is also in full bloom, with pink flowers. It is
only about three feet tall, and the flowers are not as conspicuous as those of L.
japonica. 4'lie native witch-hazel {Hamame/is virgiaiana) is starting to bloom now,
usually an indication that most shrubs have ceased flowering for the year. How-
ever, the unseasonably warm weather (it was 8b° the other day) not only brought
it into bloom ahead of schedule, but the flovv'ers of many spring blooming shrubs
(Spi raeasy Chaenometes, etc.) are starting to appear here and there in the plant-
ings also. The advantages" of New England weather this year have been for-
cibly emphasized by a late spring freeze, a long summer drought, an earthquake,
a hurricane, and now a real Indian summer; to say nothing of a mosquito menace
in mid October 1

Donald Wyman

[ ]

ARNOLDIA

A continuation of the
Bulletin of Popular Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 DECEMBER 8, 1944 Numbers 9-11

AVAILABLE RAPID GROWING VINES FOR THE UNITED STATES

VINES play a very essential })art in any orarden, and rapid fjrowing vines are
frequently desired for some particular purpose which no other plant material
will fulfill. Sometimes they are needed only temporarily; other times they are
needed permanently. Rapid growinff vines are not always the most ornamental,
but, since their number is rather lar^e, some of the best will be found amont;
them. Nor are the most ornamental vines always the easiest to obtain. Rapid
jrrowinjy vines that are easily obtainable are very much of interest and are in de-
mand throujjhout the country. Consequently, this number of Arnoldia deals with
those rapid "rowing vines, easily obtainable, that are recommended in different
areas of the United States. They may not all be of prime ornamental value when
compared with some of the rarer ones, but their rapid habit of growth makes
them of considerable value for certain screening purposes.

The information in this issue of Arnoldia is taken from a report prepared a
short time ago when there was a great deal of interest in the camouflaging of
various installations in this country, both public and private. Various horticul-
turists* * in widely separated parts of the country contributed information on the

* Edgar Anderson, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri
W. H. Friend, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, Texas
Norvell Gillespie, O.C.L)., San Francisco, California

John Hanley, University of Washington Arboretum, Seattle, Washington
A. C. Jordahn, The Coconut Grove Palmetum, Coconut Grove, Florida
E. L Kammerer, Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois
H. E. McMinn, Mills College, Oakland, California

H. B. Parks, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, San Antonio, Texas
H. W. Shepard, School of Landscape Architecture, University of California, Berkeley,
California

Maunsell Van Rensselaer, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California
Eric Walther, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California
Donald Wyman, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts

vines in their respective areas, and this aided materially in the selection of the j
final lists of plants. It must be understood that all of the vigorous and fast grow- j
ing vines do not appear in the following lists, merely because some are very dif- •
ficult to find in nurseries and are of more or less restricted occurrence in nature.

Areas |

For purposes of selecting the right vines for the right areas, the United States '
has been divided into eleven general areas, and vines are listed and recommended |
for each area. Naturall.v, these areas will overlap considerably. It is readily un-
derstood that there are many places within a certain area, wliere, because of al-
titude, soil conditions, or some climatic factor, recommended vines may not thrive. '
For instance. Area No. 1 — the F.astern United States — bounded by the Atlantic |
Ocean, Canada, the Mississippi lliver, and a line across southern Mississippi, ,
Alabama, and Georgia — covers a great territory witli widely varying climatic con- i
ditions. Vines that would not grow in the vicinity of Mt. Washington in New i
England would fiourish in the comparatively mild climate of the James River in i
Virginia. With these points in mind, the recommended areas for growing these
vines should be taken with considerable reserve. JJie most vigorous and most
hardy vines only have been selected. All can be used for screening purposes. ,
Vines for growing within specific localities should be selected after first obtaining
available information concerning plant growth and liardiness in the specific lo-
cality under consideration.

1. Eastern and Northeastern United States — In general all that part of the
United States east of the Mississippi River and between lower Georgia, Alabama,
Mississii)pi and Canada. -

2. North Central United States — The entire area in Wisconsin, Olno, Indiana, ,
the Chicago area, and possibly west of the Mississippi into Iowa. (Areas 1,^ and

,S overlap somewhat, but much of the recommended i)lant material is identical.)

3. Central United States^ — ^Including a wide area around Missouri, Arkansas,
Oklahoma. In general, this area has summers that are more hot and dry than in
tlie eastern United States.

4. The Great Plains Area — Including a wide area around Minnesota, Nebraska,
North and South Dakota, Kansas, Montana, Wyoming. However, in northern
Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota, temperatures go extremely low in the
winter and some of these vines may not survive in the areas with extreme winter
cold.

5. Northwest Pacific Coast — Between San Francisco and Seattle. Many of the
vines can be used considerably farther inland than the coastal area.

6. San Francisco Area — This is intermediate between Areas .5 and 7. Many of
the vines recommended for growing in both these areas will grow in the vicinity
of San Francisco, some, however, needing special care.

[-16] !

7. Southern California — This does not iiudude tlie hot, arid areas.

8. Semi-arid area of Southwest Texas

9. Coastal Area of Southern and Southwestern United States — 'I'his includes
part of Texas and a treneral area across all the (hilf states throu^rh Florida hut
does not include the subtropical areas of Texas and Florida.

10. Extreme Southern Texas and Southern Florida — Subtropical areas only.
'Fhere is a small area, south of Corpus Christi, which can be considered as sub-
tropical, tojjether with the southern part of Florida.

11. Extreme southern part of Florida — Many of the vines listed in area 10 can
be grown throughout southern Florida but there is an area from Stuart south
around the coast to Ft. M.vers, where truly tropical vines can be grown.

VINES FOR EASTERN AND NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES

(Area l)

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Campsis radicans
Hedera Helix

Farthenocissus f|uinquefolia
Farthenocissus tricuspidata

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire.)
Ampelopsis aconitifolia
Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Max-
imowiczii

Clematis paniculata
(dematis virginiana
Clematis Vitalba
Clematis Viticella
Smilax hispida
Vitis aestivalis
Vitis argentifolia
Vitis Coignetiae
Vitis Labrusca
Vitis vulpina

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Actinidia arguta
Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens

Lonicera japonica Halliana
Lonicera sempervirens
Menispermum canadense
Folygonum Auberti
Fueraria Thunbergiana
Wisteria floribunda
Wisteria sinensis

Used as ground covers
Akebia quinata
Celastrus ^)rbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Farthenocissus quinquefolia
Fueraria Thunbergiana

Retaining leaves late in fall to early
winter

Akebia quinata
Clematis paniculata
Clematis virginiana
Clematis Vitalba
Clematis Viticella
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Smilax hispida

Most ornamental

Campsis radicans— red flowers
Celastrus sp. — yellow and orange
fruit

Clematis sp. — white flowers Polygonum Auberti — white flowers

Lonicera sp. — yellow or reddish Wisteria sp. — white to purple

flowers flowers

Note: Three vines, namely Lonicera japonica Haliiana^ Polygonum Auberti and
Hefle?a Helix will grow well in Boston but are frequently injured by severely
cold winters. Consequently, they might best be used south of New York. A
third, probably the fastest growing of all vines, Pueraria Thunbergiann should
not be considered thoroughly hardy north of Philadelphia.

VINES FOR THE NORTH CENTRAL UNITED STATES

( A rea

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Campsis radicans
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Parthenocissus tricuspidata

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)

Ampelopsis aconitifolia
Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Max-
imowiczii

Clematis paniculata
Clematis virginiana
Smilax hispid a
Vitis aestivalis
Vitis Coignetiae
Vitis Labrusca
Vitis vulpina

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Aristolochia durior
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens

Lonicera japonica Halliana
I.onicera semi)ervirens
Menispermum canadense
Polvgonum Auberti
Wisteria floribunda
Wisteria sinensis

Used as ground covers

Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Pai thenocissus quinquefolia

Most ornamental

Campsis radicans — red flowers
Celastrus sp. — yellow to orange
fruits

Clematis sp. — white flowers
Lonicera sp. — yellow or reddish
flowers

Polygonum Auberti — white flowers
Wisteria sp. — white to purple
flowers

Note: There are no evergreen vines for this area, unless Euonymus species might
be considered. These are comparative!}’ slow in growth and susceptible to scale.

VINES FOR THE CENTRAL UNITED STATES

( A rea .S )

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Campsis radicans
Parthenocissus quinquefolia

[ ]

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)
Ampelopsis arborea
Clematis paniculata
Clematis virginiana
Smilax hispida
Mtis sp.

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Aristolochia durior
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus seandens
Lonieera japoniea Halliana
Lonieera sem|)ervirens
Polygon um Auberti
Fueraria Thunbergiana
Wisteria floribunda
Wisteria sinensis

Used as ground covers
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus seandens
Lonieera japoniea Halliana
Farthenoeissus (piinquefolia
Fueraria 'riiunbergiami

Evergreen vines

none

Most ornamental

Campsis radieans — red flowers
Celastrus sp. yellow to orange
fruit

Clematis sj). — white flowers
Lonieera sp. — yellow to reddish
flowers

Folygonum Auberti — white flowers
Wisteria sp. — white to |)urple
flowers

Note: This area is considerably more hot and dry in the summer than many areas
in the eastern United States, consequently the choice of material is more
limited.

VINES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS AREA

(Area 4)

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Farthenocissus (juinquefolia

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (Th ese will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)

Clematis {)aniculata
Clematis virginiana
Smilax hispida
\ itis amurensis
Vitis Labrusca
Vitis vulpina

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of v^arious kinds and shapes)
Aristolochia durior
Celastrus orbiculata

Celastrus seandens
Lonieera sempervirens

Used as ground covers
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus seandens
Farthenocissus quinquefolia

Evergreen vines

none

Hardiest for this area

Celastrus seandens
Farthenocissus quinquefolia

Most ornamental

Celastrus sp. — yellow and orange
fruit

Clematis sp. — white flowers

Note: I’he climatic conditions in this huge area vary greatly. In some unusually
dry and cold areas, none of these vines may grow. In others where moisture
is not too limited but where winter temperatures are extremely low, only Ce-

[49]

ktsfrus scandens and Parthenocissus quinquefolia may grow. The more moisture
and more moderate the winter temperatures, the more vines on this list may
succeed. All have been successfully grown in Minnesota; in North Platte,
Nebraska ; and in Brookings, South Dakota.

VINES FOR THE NORTHWEST PACIFIC COAST

(An

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Hedera Helix

Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Parthenocissus tricuspidata

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)

Ampelopsis aconitifolia
Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Max-
imo wiczii
Clematis montana
Clematis paniculata
Clematis virginiana
Clematis Vitalba
Clematis Viticella
Smilax hispida
Vitis aestivalis
Vitis argentifolia
Vitis Coignetiae
Vitis L«‘ibrusca
Vitis vulpina

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Actinidia arguta
Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Lonicera etrusca superba
Lonicera japonica Halliana
I^onicera sempervirens
Menispermum canadense

■a .))

Polygonum Auberti
Pueraria Thunbergiana
Wisteria floribunda
Wisteria sinensis

Used as ground covers
Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Hedera Helix
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
I’ueraria Thunbergiana

Retaining leaves late in fall to early
winter

Akebia quinata
Clematis montana
Clematis paniculata
Clematis virginiana
Clematis Vitalba
Clematis Viticella
Hedera Helix (evergreen)

Lonicera japonica Halliana
Smilax hispida

Most ornamental

Celastrus sp. — yellow and orange
fruits

Clematis sp. — white flowers
Ivonicera sp. — yellow to reddish
flowers

Polygonum Auberti — white flowers
Wisteria sp. — white to purple
flowers

Note: Most of tlie vines in this list can be grown from San Francisco to Seattle.
'I'he list is practically identical with that for the eastern United States. How-
ever, the climate along the northwest Pacific Coast is considerably milder than

[ ->0 ]

that of New t^nofland — more on a par with that of the Carolinas. ('onseciuentlv
these vines should orow more luxuriantly.

FROST RESISTANT IN SAN FRANCISCO AREA

(!)

(Area

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets
Hedera Helix

Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Parthenocissus tricuspidata

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)

Cissus striata
Clematis montana
Clematis paniculata
Clematis Vitalba
Phaedranthus buccinatorius

Twining ( For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Actinidia chinensis
Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Lonicera sempervirens
Mandevilla suaveolens
Muehlenbeckia complexa
I’olygonum Auberti
Pueraria d’hunbergiana

Used as ground covers
Akebia quinata
Celastrus orbiculata
Celastrus scandens
Hedera Helix
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Muehlenbeckia complexa
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Pueraria Thunbergiana

Evergreen foliage

Hedera Helix
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Mandevilla suaveolens
Muehlenbeckia complexa
Phaedranthus buccinatorius

Most ornamental

Celastrus sp. — yellow and orange
fruit

Clematis sp. — flowers
I.onicera sp. — yellow to reddish
flowers

Phaedranthus buccinatorius —

showy red to purplish flowers

Note: During the rainless summers, all plantings require frequent watering with-
out which they are certain to fail. Their annual growth is directly proportional
to the amount of summer irrigation.

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

(Area

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Campsis grandiflora
Ficus pumila
Hedera Helix

Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Parthenocissus tricuspidata

7)

Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)
Ampelopsis arborea
Bignonia capreolata
Boussingaultia baselloides

Cissus capensis
Cobaea scandens
Distictis lactiflora
Doxantha Unguis-cati
Pandorea pandorana
Passiflora sp.

Phaedranthus buccinatorius
Pithecoctenium echinatum
Pyrostegia ignea
Vitis californica
Vitis Girdiana

Twining (For twining about wires and

supports of various kinds and shapes)
Bougainvillea glabra
Bougainvillea speetabilis
Dolichos lignosus
Ipomoea sp.

Lonicera etrusca superba
Lonicera japoniea Halliana
Lonieera sempervirens
Muehlenbeckia eomplexa
.Seneeio mikanioides
Solanuni jasininoides
Sola nu in Rantonnetti
Wisteria floribunda

Used as ground covers
Aniiielopsis arborea
Pled era Helix
Lonieera japoniea Halliana
Muehlenbeekia eotn])lexa

Evergreen vines

Bougainvillea glabra

Cobaea scandens
Distictis lactiflora
Dolichos lignosus
Doxantha Unguis-cati
Ficus pumila
Hedera Helix
Lonicera japoniea Halliana
Muehlenbeckia coinjilexa
Pandorea pandorana
Passiflora sp.

Pliaedranthus buccinatorius
Pyrostegia ignea
Solanum jasininoides
Seneeio mikanioides
Teeoniaria capensis

Most ornamental

Bignonia eapreolata — yellow-red
flowers

Bougainvillea sp. — magenta fruit
bracts

Boussingaultia baselloides — fra-
grant white flowers
Canijisis grandiflora — scarlet flowers
Distictis lactiflora — purple to white
dowers

Ficus pumila— fine foliage
Ipomoea sp. — showy flowers
Lonii*era sp. — fragrant flowers
Passiflora sp. — showy flowers
Phaedranthus buccinatorius — red

flowers

Pyrostegia ignea - orange flowers
Wisteria floribunda — white to pur-
ple flowers

Bougainvillea sjiectabilis
Cissus capensis

Note: There are many vines grown in Southern California. These are only a very
few of the most common. Some are grown as perennials which in the north
might be treated as annuals. Also, some of the vines grown farther north cer-
tainly would grow here. However, during rainless summers all plantings re-
quire frequent watering without which they are certain to fail. Their annual
growth is directly proportional to the amount of this summer irrigation.

[ -^2 ]

It should be noted in this connection tliat the tbllowinjr vines are droinrlit
resistant :

Bouoainvillea spectabilis
Ficus puinila

IMtliecocteniuin echinatuin

'Fecoinaria capensis
Vitis Girdiana

Ilubus vititolius needs moisture

SOUTHWEST TEXAS - SEMI-ARID AREA

(Area 8)

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Campsis radicans
Ficus |)unn]a
Operculina dissecta
I ’a rt h en oci ss u s (| u i iKj u efol ia

Climbing by tendrils or twisted leaf
stalks (These Avill cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)
Ampelopsis arborea
Boussingaultia baselloides
Cissus incisa
Clematis crispa
Clematis Drummond ii
Clematis Fitcheri
Clematis texensis
Farthenocissus heptaphylla
Farthenocissus (juimiuefolia
Vitis candicans

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Lonicera sempervirens

Folygonum Auberti
Fueraria Thunbergiana
S e r j a n ia b i-a c h y ca r \ )a
Thunbergia a lata

Used as ground covers

Ampelopsis arborea
Clematis Drurnmondii
Fueraria Thunbergiana
Serjania brachycarpa
d’hunbergia alata

^ Most ornamental

Boussingaultia baselloides — fra-
grant white flowers
Campsis radicans — red flowers
Clematis sp, — flowers
Ficus pumila — fine foliage
Lonicera sempervirens — red and

yellow flowers
Folygonum Auberti — white flowers
Thunbergia alata — white to pur-
plish flowers

Note: Because of the large area and numerous climatic conditions in Texas, lists
of vines are offered for three areas. Seventeen of these vines are grown in all
three areas.

COASTAL AREA OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES
(EXCLUSIVE OF SUBTROPICAL AREAS OF TEXAS AND FLORIDA)

(Area o)

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Hedera Helix

Campsis grand iflora Operculina dissecta

Campsis radicans Farthenocissus quinquefolia

Ficus pumila Farthenocissus tricuspidata

[ '>8 ]

Climbing by tendrils or twisted leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)
Ampelopsis arborea
Anredera vesicaria
Bignonia capreolata
Boussingaultia baselloides
Cissiis incisa
Clematis crispa
Clematis Drummondii
Clematis paniculata
Clematis Pitch eri
Clematis texensis
Parthenocissiis heptaphylla
Smilax hispida
Vitis candicans

Twining (For training about wires and
supports of various kinds and shapes)
Actinidia chinensis
Akebia (piinata
Aristolochia durior
Ipomoea cairica
Lonicera japonica Halliana
Lonicera sempervirens
P h a s e( ) 1 u s C ’a ra ca 1 1 a
Polygonum Auberti
I’ueraria 'Phunbergiana
S e r j a n i a bra c h y c a r pa
Wisteria tloribnnda
Wisteria sinensis

Used as ground covers
Ampelopsis arborea
CleTuatis Drummondii

Pueraria Thunbergiana
Serjania brachycarpa

Evergreen (E) and semi-evergreen
(S) vines

Ampelopsis arborea (S)

Cissus incisa (S)

Clematis crispa (S)

Clematis Drummondii (S)

Clematis Pitcheri (S)

Clematis texensis (S)

Ficus i)umila (R)

Hedera Helix (?’.)

Ipomoea cairica (p’.)

T.onicera japonica Halliana (R)

Lon icera sem pervirens (F.)
Operculina dissecta (S)

Phaseolus Caracalla (PL)

Serjania brachycarpa (S)

Most ornamental

Bignonia capreolata — yellow red
flowers

Bougainvillea sp. — magenta fruit
bracts

Boussingaultia baselloides — fra-
grant white flowers
('am|)sis sj).^ — red flowers
Clematis sp. — flowers
P'iciis pumila — fine fV)liage
Ipomoea cairica — pink flowers
Polygonum Auberti — white flowers
Wisteria sp. — white to purple
flowers

Note: 'Phere are several vines ideally suited for growing on and along the Gulf
(’oast beaches. 'Fhey would include:

Brunnichia cirrhosa (native of Gulf Coast)

Cardiospermum sp.

( ncculus carolinus (native of I’exas)

Ipomoea Pes-capre (native of Gulf C'oast)

'I'etrastigma Harmandii

It is also of interest to note that Ampelopsis orhnrea will cover more scpiare feet
in less time than any other vine in most parts of Texas.

[ ]

EXTREME SOUTHERN TEXAS AND SOUTHERN FLORIDA (SUBTROP-
ICAL AREAS - EXCLUSIV E OF THE SOUTHERN END OF FLORIDA)

(Are;i

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets
Canipsis grand iflora
Cainpsis rad leans
Fieus pinnila
Opereulina disseeta
Partlienoeissus (|uin(iuefolia

Climbing by tendrils or twisted leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to chicken wire)

Ampelopsis arborea
Anredera vesicaria
Antigonon leptopus
Boiissingaultia baselloides
Cissus incisa
Clematis crispa
Clematis Drummond ii
Clematis paniculata
Clematis Pitch eri
Clematis texensis
Cobaea scandens
Doxantha Ungiiis-cati
Parthenocissus hepta|)hvlla
Passidora sp.

Pyrostegia ignea
'Fetrastigma Harrnandii
Vdtis candicans

Twining ( For twining about wires and
sujiports of’ various kinds and shapes)

Bo u ga i n V i 1 1 ea gla bra
Bougainvillea spe<‘ta bills
Cryptostegia granditlora
Cryptostegia madagascariensis
Ipomoea cairica
I.onicera sempervirens
M uehlenbeckia complexa
Phaseolus (’aracalla
I’olygonum Auberti
Pueraria I’hunbergiana

10)

S e r j a n i a b r a c h y c a i* pa
'riumbergia alata
^ W isteria jaj)onica

Used as ground covers
Ampelopsis arborea
Clematis Drummondii
M Li e h 1 e n b e c k i a c* o m j ) 1 e x a
Pueraria rhuTd)ergiana
S e r j a n i a b ra c h y ca r pa
Thunbergia alata

Evergreen (E) or Semi-evergreen (S)

Ampelopsis arborea (S)

Antigonon leptopus (P'i)

Cissus incisa (S)

Clematis crispa (E)

Clematis Drummondii (E)

Clematis paniculata (E)

Clematis Pitcheri (E)

Clematis texensis (E)

Cobaea scandens (E)

Cryptostegia granditlora (E)
Cryptostegia madagascariensis (E)
Doxantha Unguis-cati (E)

Ficus pumila (E)

Ipomoea cairica (?’.)

Lonicera sempervirens (F.)

M uehlenbeckia complexa (E)
Opereulina disseeta (E)

Passidora sp. (E)

Idiaseolus Caracalla (F.)

Pyrostegia ignea (E)

Serjania brachycarpa (S)
ITunbergia alata (E)

Wisteria japonica (E)

Most ornamental

Antigonon lei)topus — pink dowers
Bougainvillea sp. — magenta fruit
bracts

[55]

Boussingaultia baselloides — fra- Ipomoea cairica — -pink flowers

grant white flowers Passiflora sp. — showy flowers

Campsis sp. — red flowers Polygonum x^uberti — white flowers

Clematis sp. — flowers Pyrostegia ignea — orange flowers

Cryptostegia sp. — flowers Wisteria japonica — white flowers

EXTREME SOUTHERN PART OF FLORIDA
(From Stuart south around the coast to Ft. Myers)

(x^re;

Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets

Ficus pumila
Monstera deliciosa
Philodendron sp.

Scindapsus aureus
Syngonium sp.

Climbing by tendrils or twisted leaf
stalks (These will cling to any mate-
rial similar to cliicken wire)
xAntigonon lejotopus
xA ntigonon ma croca r pu m
xArrabidaea magnifica
Clematis ])aniculata
Clytostorna callistegioides
Cydista aetiuinoctialis
Doxantha Unguis-cati
Passiflora coerulea
Pa s s ifl t)ra (j u ad ra n gu la r i s
Pith ecocteni um ech inatum
Porana paniculata
I’yrostegia ignea

Twining (For twining about wires and
supports of Aarious kinds and shapes)
xAllamanda cathartica Hendersonii
xAllamanda cathartica Williamsii
Allamanda violacea
Argyreia nervosa
xAristolochia brasiliensis
Aristolochia grandiflora Sturtevantii
Rougainviliea glabra
Bougainvillea glabra Sanderiana
Bougainvillea spectabilis (and vars. )

Clerodendron 'rhom|)Sonae
C ry p tos t e gi a g ra n d ifl o ra
Cryptostegia madagascariensis
I|)omoea Horsfall iae Briggsii
Jac(iuemontia pentantha
Pereskia aculeata
Petrea volu bills
1 ’od ra n ea K i ca s( >1 ia n a
Quisqualis indica
Stephanotis floribunda
'riumbergia alata
d' h u n bergia grand iflora
d’rachelospermum jasminoides

Evergreen

xAntigonon sp.

Clematis paniculata
Clerodendron Thompsonae
Clytostorna callistegioides
Cryptostegia grandiflora
Cryptostegia madagascariensis
Cydista aequinoctialis
Doxantha Unguis-cati
Ficus pumila
Monstera deliciosa
Passiflora coerulea
Passiflora quadrangularis
Pereskia aculeata
Petrea volubilis
Pithecoctenium echinatum
Pyrostegia ignea
Stephanotis floribunda
Thunbergia alata
Thunbergia grandiflora
d'rachelos|)ermum jasminoides

Most ornamental

Allamancla sp. — lar^e, conspicuous
yellow to rose-colored flowers
Bouoaiiivillea sp. — brilliantly col-
ored flt)wers, many vars. ; vioorous
habit

Cydista aequinoctialis — showy

white or purplish flowers
Ipomoea sp. — larjye flowers

I’etraea volubilis — violet colored

flowers in early sprinjj:
I’odranea Ricasoliana — panicles of
pale pink to red flowers
Rorana paniculata pure white

flowers in early fall
Quis(jualis indica — white to red,

fra}]: rant flowers
riumbernia »randiflora” larcje blue
or white flowers

ANNUAL VINES

No attempt has been made to list all the annual vines, of which there are many
ffood types for each area. A few suo-crestions, but b}" no means an exhaustive
selection, would be: —

Common Name Area for which recommended

Calonyction aculeatum

Larg^e Moon Flower

8,9,10

Cardiospermum sp.

Baloon Vines

Gulf Coast

Cobaea scandens

Cup and Saucer Vine

b

Convolvulus sp.

Bindweed

o 5 7

Cucumis sp.

Melons

1,^2, 8, .5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Cucurbita sp.

(Tourds

1 , 2 , 8 , .5 , b , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0

Dioscorea bulbifera

Air Rotato \dne

9,10

Kchinocystis lobata

Wild Cucumber

Gulf Coast

Kc h i n ( )cy s t i s or e ji’an a

Oregon Man-root

,>

Hurnulus sp.

Hop

i,2,.),b,7

Ipomoea s|).

Morning' Ci lories

1 ,2,8,.),b,7

Lafxenaria sp.

(iourds

1,2, 8, .5,0,7,8,9,10

Lathy rus sp.

1 Vas

.5,0

Rassidora sp.

Rassion Flowers

b,9, 10

I^haseolus sp.

Beans

1,2, 8, .5, 0,7,8, 9, 10

Quamoclit sp.

Star Glory Vines

7

Rhynchosia minima

Miles of Gulf Coast

Thunber^ia sp.

Black Eyed Susan Vine

9

Tropaeolum sp.

Nasturtiums

5,0,7

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[ 64 ]

A continuation of the
Bulletin of Popui.ar Information
of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University

Volume 4 DECEMBER 29, 1944 Number 12

EXPEDITIONS TO THE ALASKA MILITARY HIGHWAY 1948-1944

The Alaska Hijjhway, for many years an apparently unattainable dream of
American travellers and vacationists, has suddenly, under the necessity of
war, become an actuality. It is not yet open to the oeneral public, but presumably
it will become so after the war. Public interest in the buildin*^ of the road, and
pride in its accomplishment are taking form in hopeful plans — millions of them —
for automobile trips to northern British Columbia, Yukon or Alaska. Perhaps few
people have realized, however, that the road opens to naturalists some of the most
inaccessible areas of northwestern America — vast stretches of wilderness situated
between the Mackenzie and Yukon River basins, and in southwestern Yukon and
adjacent Alaska. The opening has taken place rapidly, rather than by slow
stages, so that nearly all of the new highway is through a relatively unmodified
and unspoiled wilderness. Before the building of the road the only inhabitants
were a few scattered Indians, and an occasional trapper or trader. Only a few
hardy prospectors and geological surveyors, and still fewer students of plants and
animals, had made hurried and expensive trips into the more remote districts.
The solutions for a whole series of problems having to do with the systematic re-
lationship and geographic distribution of the fauna and flora, the structure and
development of biotic communities, and the migrations of plants and animals,
including prehistoric man, have awaited an examination of these regions.

In addition to the more purely scientific attractions of the highway, it presents
also some unique opportunities in applied biology. One of the greatest problems
in modern studies of land utilization and the reasonable conservation of our nat-
ural biological resources is the difficulty of estimating long-term natural poten-
tialities in the land. One of the best clues to a solution of this problem, and very
often the only one, is in the kind and distribution of native vegetation and ani-
mal life under the conditions that obtained before the coming of white men.
'rhose who have tried to gather such information for regions that have long been

under settlement are keenly aware of the unsatisfactory nature of the scattered
material that has to be sifted laboriously out of early records. Most such records
were made by persons whose knowledge of natural history was extremely sketchy,
and who could not dream of modern ideas and methods. Tiie new road therefore
offers an extraordinary opportunity to describe a vast new reoion in terms that
should be of use in settino- up a rational prooram of biolot>ical exploitation.

'fhe Arnold Arboretum, in collaboration with certain other institutions, spon-
sored two expeditions to the Alaska Highway in the summer seasons of 1943 and
1944. In 194.3 approximately the southern two-tliirds of the road were covered,
between Dawson Creek, B.C., and Whitehorse, Yukon, while the journey of 1944
extended the survey from Whitehorse to the Alaska terminus at Fairbanks. The
field party of 1943 included, in addition to the writer. Dr. Charles S. Denny, who
was then at Wesleyan University in Connecticut, but who is now with the U.S.
Geological Survey at Washington, Dr. Donovan S. Correll, then of the Botanical
Museum at Harvard, Mrs. Lucy G. Raup, and Karl and David Raup. Dr. Correll
collected mosses and served as assistant in handling the vascular plants, while
Mrs. Raup collected the lichens. Dr. Denny is a geologist whose primary purpose
was a survey of the glacial features of the region. In 1944 Mrs. Raup continued
the lichen collections and served as general assistant in all of the botanical work,
as did also the two boys, Karl and David. Dr. Denny’s geological investigations
were ably carried forward by Mr. John H. H. Sticht of the Department of Geol-
ogy and Geography at Harvard. A highly interesting and diverting phase was
added to the work during the second season by Mr. Frederick Johnson, an arch-
aeologist and anthropologist of the Robert S. Feabod.v Foundation for American
Archaeology at Andover, Massachusetts. Dr. Stuart K. Harris of Boston Univer-
sity served as cook to the expedition of 1944. At the same time he collected
birds and small mammals and occasionally assisted with the plant collecting.

'fhe two trips were financed b.v generous grants from several sources. In addi-
tion to the Arboretum's contributions, the botanical work was supported by grants
from the Milton Fund at Harvard, the American Philosophical Society, the Amer-
ican Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Science, and the
Society of the Sigma Xi. In both seasons the geological work was supported
financially by the Geological Society of America, and the expenses of Mr. John-
son's archaeological studies were paid for by the Peabody Foundation. Invaluable
assistance was given by the Department of Mines and Resources in Canada,
lirincipally through the loan of field equipment.

Fven with adequate financial assistance, the expeditions would not have been
possible at all had it not been for the all-important transportation facilities that
were supplied by the Northwest Service Command of the United States Army.
Arrangements for this were made through the Joint Economic Committees of
Canada and the United States, an organization that was formed in June, 1941,
in part for the puiqiose of gathering and correlating information on the natural

resources of western Canada and Alaska. In fact our two exi)editions were orig-
inally su<)f»ested by representatives of the Joint Kconoinic (A)nnnittes, and Wi ic
carried out under the combined auspices of the Committees and the Arnold Ar-
boretum. The Army command supplied the held parties with all necessary trans-
portation on the hio-hway, and made it possible to purchase subsistence supplies
from the Army depots. It would be difficult to express too <)-reat an appreciation
of the efficiency and o'ood will with which the oJicers and men of the Army car-
ried out their part in the proo’ram.

With the exception of the means of transport the parties were (pdte independent
so far as livinn,- facilities were concerned. There are no rejrular stoppinn- places for
unattached civilians alon»' the road, so that a complete set of carnpinf^ jicar had
to be carried. Only on rare occasions was it possible to hnd bunk space in bar-
racks or in abandoned construction camps. Durino; the jieriod of active construc-
tion excellent meals could be had at the civilian labor camps, but later this became
nearly impossible.

riie Alaska Hi^^hway can be reached from the outside world by four routes.
The easiest is by way of Edmonton, Alberta. From here there is both a railway
and an automobile road to Dawson Creek, B.C., which is the southern terminus
of the hiohway. A second route is by way of Ska<rway, Alaska, which is reached
by boat from Seattle, Vancouver, cir Prince Rupert. A narrow-ouat^e railway, the

White Pass and Yukon,” leads from Skagway to Whitehorse and so to the high-
way which passes westward through the latter place. The third route is by boat
to Anchorage, Alaska, and thence by the Alaska Railway to Fairbanks. The
fourth is by boat to Valdez and then by the Richardson Highway to Big Delta,
a place on the ne^v highway about 100 miles east of Fairbanks. There is now an
alternative to this last route, by a new road leading from Gulkana to Slana and
finally to Tok, which is on the main highw'ay in the upper Tanana Valle}'.

In 194J our party left Dawson Creek on June 8th and made its first base camp
at the Beatton River, about 1 dO miles north of Daw'son Creek. There it remained
until July 4-th. The Beatton River crossing is in the outer foothills of the Rockies,
at an altitude of about 8*200 feet. Many shrubs and trees w ere just breaking their
winter buds there in the second w'eek of June, and frosts w'ere not uncommon at
night. The next base camp w'as at Summit Pass, wdiere the highw’^ay runs west-
ward through the front range of the Rocky Mountains. The altitude in the pass
is about 4^200 feet above sea-level, and within about 300 feet of the mountain
timbeiiine. The situation proved exceedingly favorable for alpine collecting, and
w'e stayed there from the 7th to the 28th of July.

The next camp, from July 30th to August 7th w'as at Watson Lake, in the
plain of the upper Liard valley. A few' collections w'ere made enroute there from
Summit Pass, notably at a hot spring near the low^er crossing of the Liard River.
Whitehorse w'as reached on August 9th, but the party stayed there only long-
enough to replenish supplies, and left on the afternoon of the 10th for the return

[ <i7 ]

trip. The last camp of the season at which large collections were made was at a
point between Little Atlin and Teslin Lakes, where the road passes between two
precipitous mountains. By August ‘21st, when the expedition left this place, the
season was well advanced, with hard frosts occurring frequently, 'fhe time be-
tween August ^Ist and Sept. 5tli was given to a rather leisurely trip back to
Dawson Creek, with frecpient stops for pictures, notes, and miscellaneous collec-
tions.

d'he 1944 expedition left Boston on May dlst and went directly to M'hitehorse
by way of Vancouver and Skagway. After transportation and supplies had been
arranged for at Whitehorse, the first base camp of the season was made at Pine
Creek, about 100 miles to the west. This is in the valley of the Alsek River,
close up to the northern base of the Coast Range. About ^^2 weeks were spent
here, from June 14th to JOth, and then a new camp was set up near the eastern
end of Kluane Lake. Kluane Lake proved to be quite rich in archaeological and
geological as well as botanical interest, and was used as a center of operations
until July 26th. From there we drove directly to Fairbanks, where we remained
from July 28th to August 1st. A base camp was then established in the 'Panana
Valley about 180 miles east of Fairbanks, and collections were made from neigh-
boring valleys, hills, and mountains. xA.ugust 16th and I7th were spent travelling
again, this time back to Burwash Landing which is near tlie western end of
Kluane Lake. About a week was devoted here to the last serious collecting of
the season. Frosts had already come, and most plants had matured and lost their
seed. Three days were used for a fine trip by boat to the north shore of the lake
and to the head of a long northern arm that reaches some 20 miles back into the
mountains.

'Pwo or three days were devoted to fall collecting and a search for Indian arti-
facts at Pine Creek, the scene of the first camp of the season. On returning to
Whitehorse, we did not retrace our route back to the United States by way of
Skagway and tlie coast, but continued on down the highway to Dawson Creek.
'Phis was a leisurely trip similar to that of the fall of 194.8, with frequent though
brief stops along the way. The weather was fine, and the frosts had brought out
the autumn color in all its glory. Dajs or parts of days were spent at Teslin
Lake, Watson Lake, Muncho Lake, and Summit Pass. A camp of several days
was made at the Buckinghorse River, and, finally, three days at Dawson Creek
saw the party packed and ready for home.

'Pile road itself is remarkably good. It is of ample width and well-graded, with
a gravel surface. 'Phe original track had some bad hills and turns, but with local
straightening and rerouting most of these have been eliminated. The distance
from Dawson Creek to Fairbanks is about 1600 miles.

In terms of landscape the region of the highway can be divided roughly into
eight districts. At the southern end it begins in the agricultural country of the
upper Peace River, where broad expanses of gently rolling arable land, at an al-

[«B]

PLATE VI. Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass. View southwest among glacial
moraines, to valley of Macdonald Creek. White spruce and lodgepole pine
in foreground (Photo. D. S. Correll, courtesy of the Ocoijraphical licririr).

PLATE VII. Natural prairie in valley of Pine Creek, about 100 miles west
of Whitehorse. View southward across the Alsek valley to the Uezadeash
Mountains.

titude of about 2000 feet, are separated by remnants of ancient plateaus that rise
a thousand feet or so hi«-her. Northward from Ft. St. John the road soon leaves
this country and rises to the hig-her plateaus and outer foothills of the Hockies.
It remains at elevations ranging from 8000 to dOOO feet for about a hundred miles,
tlien descends gradually to the INluskwa River at Nelson. There are some fine
views westward in this area, for the road follows in many places the western rim
of a high escarpment from which one looks across a broad valley to the high
peaks of the mountains.

Summit Pass is about 100 miles west of Nelson. It is reached by way of the
north fork of the Tetsa River which rises in the Pass. Seenieally this is one of
the more striking areas along the highway. Towering limestone mountains whose
summits reach to about 7000 feet above sea level stand on either side, with still
higher peaks a short distance back. Two small lakes in the pass add greatly to
its charm. The Tetsa valley and the pass mark the beginning of the third topo-
graphic district. It is ruggedly mountainous and extends northwestward about
120 miles to the lower crossing of the Liard River. The scenery is beautiful
throughout most of this stretch, particularly in the Toad and Trout River valleys.
Muneho Lake, at the head of the Trout River, is especially attractive.

The fourth district is the broad upper basin of the Liard River, traversed by
the road from the lower crossing which is near the mouth of the Trout to beyond
Watson Lake and the upper crossing. The surface of the Liard Plain is for the
most part gently rolling, with the mountains visible from the road only in the
distance or not visible at all. It is continuously forested, and after the breath-
taking scenery of the Rockies is apt to be monotonous to the traveller. Watson
Lake, however, is a delightful place in spite of the low relief of the surrounding
country. Other points of interest are the hot spring near the lower crossing, and
Lower Post, an old trading establishment along the Liard near the mouth of the
Dease River.

After leaving the iJard plain the road winds Avestward up the valley of the
Raneheria River to the continental divide in the Stikene Mountains. These moun-
tains are not so rugged as the Rockies, and differ markedly in form because they
are of igneous rocks. The divide itself is not a spectacular pass, but rather a broad
upland marked by muskegs, lakes, and rather low mountain summits. The road
descends the western slopes b.v way of the Swift River valley.

'Phe sixth topographic district is the great lake countr}" of the upper Yukon
basin. Teslin Lake is the first large body of water met with as one goes from east
to west, 'riiis is a narrow lake some 90 miles long, surrounded by low mountains
in the northern part. The liighway follows its northeastern shore for about 40
miles, then turns westward across the Teslin River. From here on there is a suc-
cession of lakes — Squanga, Little Atlin, Marsh — to Avithin a fcAv miles of White-
horse. Whitehorse is on the LcAves River, at the head of navigation on the Yukon
system. West of this place the route leads across a plateau country to the Alsek

[70]

River valley. Bejjinninjj about .50 miles west of the town, semi-open prairie
eountry appears, with lofty snow-eoverecl peaks in the baekjjrouncl. 'I’he onl\
lartje body of water eneountered beyond Whitehorse is Kluane Lake, situated in
the mountains about .)() miles beyond the Alsek. I'he wliole rejrion of the
Dezadeash valley and Kluane Lake is perhai)s the most eharmin{j: section trav-
ersed by the entire hijrhway. It has i^reater variety in color, form, and vej^etation
than anv other district. 'I’he prairies and alpine meadows are veritable {gardens,
set in the most picturesque mountain landscape imaofinable.

Beyond Kluane Lake the road crosses a series of larj^e streams that issue from
the hioh ranjres to the south and finally find their way into the Yukon. 'I'hese
are the Duke, Donjek and VVhite Rivers, all with deep valleys and broad jfravel
beds. West of the White the route leads through a wide region of lakes and
muskegs to the Alaska border and the upper Tanana valley. Scenically this sec-
tion is rather uninspiring, but it has great topographic significance because in it
the transition is made from a glaciated to an unglaciated region. The surface be-
comes more subdued in relief, and the hills have long rounded slopes with V-
shaped valleys between them. The upland valleys are broad, with gentle, even
slopes to the lakes or streams that occupy them. The whole surface is a “ma-
ture*’ one, developed by a long period of erosion and solifiuction (movement of
soils under the influence of frost) without the effects of glacial scouring or deposit.

The last notable topographic division is the Tanana valley itself, which the road
follows all the way to Fairbanks. It is a broad valley, bounded on the north by
the unglaciated Yukon Plateau, and on the south by the mountains of the Nut-
zotin and Alaska Ranges. 'Lhese mountains, with one exception, appear only in
the distance on the southern horizon. The exception is between Tok and the
Robertson River, where the route leads up to the base of the slopes. Southern
tributaries to the 'I’anana, rising in the mountains, carry enormous quantities of
gravel which they have de|)osited in huge fans in the main valley, pushing the
river over to the north side. I'he highway, on the south side, traverses one after
another of these great fans, whose even surfaces and ample road materials have
made possible long straight stretches, often *20 miles or more in length.

riie scientific results of the two expeditions are somewhat varied, but their
general significance is greatly enlarged, we believe, from having been gathered
in an active field collaboration among botanists, glacial geologists, and an anthro-
pologist. The first of the basic objectives was a description of the natural flora
and its distribution along the highway. To this end some 4100 field numbers of
plants were collected, involving approximately i25,000 specimens. Accompanying
descriptive matter includes an account of forest types seen along the road, most
of it in mile-by-mile notes. This is correlated with similar records of the princi-
pal soil types and topographic features. More detailed studies of local distribution
and soils were made in the neighborhood of base camps, with special reference
to the influence of soil frost upon the development of topography and vegetation.

Particular attention was j^iven to the interpretation of aerial photographs in those
parts of the area for which they were available. The geologists set out to describe
the glacial phenomena of the country along the highway, with a view to fitting
them into the general pattern of Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene events, or to
setting up a new pattern if this should prove necessary in the light of new ma-
terial. Topographic phenomena related to soil frost were given special attention,
for they loom large in this subarctic wilderness. The anthropologist found his
primary interest in a search for evidence of prehistoric man — this to be related
on one hand to the early history of marl in America, and on the other to the
present distribution and living habits of the Indian tribes of the region.

An integral part of all these scientific aims and results was a search for ways
in which the vast wilderness ojrened by the highway can be put to use by modern
Americans. Even if the road is no more than barely maintained to service the
great modern airports that have been established along it, a great many people
will have to live either in camps by the road or at the airports themselves. What
portion of their necessary food, shelter and materials of abode can these people
find in the country? And are there any native resources that can be exported
profitably? In addition to beginning a general biological description, our two
expeditions have looked for evidence of agricultural potentialities, and have at-
tempted to evaluate forest resources. Notes on the latter take the form not only
of descriptions of existing timber, but also of attempts to unravel the history of
the present stands and to predict the course of future development. In these
practical aspects, the work of our expeditions supplements that carried on at the
same time by the Geological Surve.v of Canada in the field of mineral resources,
and by the Canadian Department of Agriculture in its survey of soils. Not since
the early days of pioneering and railroad building in the West has so huge a ter-
ritory been made available for exploitation in so short a time. The primary ideas
on what could be done in the way of biological exploitation rested then, and
must rest now, on a clear understanding of the natural biological resources of the
country.

H UGH M. Raup

INDKX ro VOIA’MK IV

IlliistratioTis are in bold face ty|)e

Ajyarieus canipestris, *2
Alaska Military Highway, Expedi-
tions to the, 1948-1944, (io-7‘2
Ainelanehier spp., d

Amorphophallus campanulatus,

Plate V, 85

Anacardium occidentale, Plate V, 85

Armillaria mellea, 2
Arnold Arboretum, frosts, the mid-
May, ^27

— Food Plants in the, 1—7

— How to S])end an Hour in the,
25-28

— Spring- Displays in the, 1944, 21-
24

Asclepias syriacus, 4
Autumn Color, 87-44

— Dull, 40

— No, 48

— Red, 41

— Reddish to reddish purple, 42

— Why leaves are red, 89

— Why leaves are yellow, 88

— Woody plants with, 41

— Yellow, 42

— Yellowish to Bronze, 1-8
Azaleas, 22

Brassiea arvensis, 4

Caltha palustris, Plate III, 81

Carya laciniosa, 0

— ovata, b

Case, James B. estate, frost damage,
27

Cashew, Plate V, 85
Castanea dentata, d

— pumila, d

Chayote, Plate IV, 88
Cheno})odium album, I-
Chicory, Plate II, 5
Chiehorium Intybus, 4
Clavatia cyathiformis, 2
Cornus florida, 18
Corylopsis, 18
Corylus amerieana, d
Cowslip, Plate III, 8 1
Crab apples, 22
Cyathus olla, 2
Dogwoods, 28

Fimergency Food Manuals, 29
Forsyth ias, 21

Garden, Short Guide to the Care of
During War Time, 9- Id
Gaultheria procumbens, d
Helianthus tuberosa, 7
Hypholoma sublateritium, 2
Jerusalem Artichoke, flowering
tuber, Plate II, 5
Juglans cinerea, d

— nigra, d
Lactucca spp., 4
Lepidium virginicum, 4
Lepiota naucina, 2

— p roc era, 2
Lilacs, 28
Magnolias, 21
Merrill, E.D., 28
Mock oranges, 24

Monstera deliciosa, Plate IV, 88
Mountain Sorrel, Plate III, 81
Oriental Cherries, 22
Oxyria digyna, Plate III, 81

Phytolacca amerieana, 4

Pinanona, Plate IV, ilS
Pine Creek, Natural prairie in val-
ley of, Plate VII, p. 69

Pleurotus ostreatus, 2
Pokeweed, fruiting top, Plate I, 8

— Young sprouts ready to gather,
Plate I, 8

Portulaca, oleraeea,

Pruning, 9

— Methods of, 1 1

Blackberries, I'i

Blueberries, I'-i

hh-uit trees, 1 1

— — Grapes, 1 1

Hedges, 18

Lawns, 14

Raspberries, L2

Vines in general, 12

— Reasons for, 9

— Time for, 10
Primus americana, 6

— hortulana, 6

— lantana, 6

— inaritima, 6

— - Munsoniana, 6

Pungapung, Plate V, 8.5

Raup, H.M., 28

Rhododendrons, 28

Rhododendron Winter Injury, 17-20

— Care of, 20

— High winds, 18

— How did the damage occur, 1?

— Rainfall, 19

Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass,
Plate VI, p. 69

Rorippa Nasturtium-aquaticum, 4

Roses, 24
Rumex crispus, 4
Sambucus canadensis, 6
Sassafras albidum molle, 4
Sechium edule, Plate IV, 88
Shrubs, Autumn blooming, 44
Smith, A.C., 28
Sonchus oleraceus, 4
Spray Program in the Home Garden,
15, 16

Taraxacum officinale, 2
Vaccinium angustifolium, 6

— vacillans, 6
Viburnum fragrans, 1 8

Vines, Available Rapid Growing for
the United States, 45-64

— Annual, 57

— Chart, 58-64

— for the Central United States, 48

— [for] Coastal area of Southern and
Southeastern United States, 58

— for Eastern and Northeastern
United States, 47

— [for] Extreme Southern Part of
Florida, 56

— [for] Extreme Southern Texas and
Southern Florida, 55

— Frost Resistant in San Francisco
Area, 51

— for the Great Plains Area, 49

— for the North Central United
States, 48

— for the Northwest Pacific Coast, 50

— [for] Southern California, 52

- — [for] Southwest Texas, Semi-Arid
Area, 58

These bulletins will be discontinued until Spring of next year. Subscription
renewals for 1945 are now due, price $1.00 per year. Checks should be made
payable to Harvard University, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass.

[74]

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