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100M/7-87— 871203

THE ART OF
THE SECOND GROWTH

OR

AMERICAN
SYLVICULTURE

By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph. D.

Director of the Biltmore Forest School, Late Forester to the
Biltmore Estate, N. C.

THIRD AND REVISED EDITION

ALBANY

THE BRANDOW PRINTING CO.

1912

PREFACE

The handbook on " The art of the second growth " or on
"American Sylviculture," herewith presented in an enlarged and
revised form, is the third issue of a book originally styled
" Biltmore Lectures on Sylviculture " when it was first published
in 1905.

The tasks of Sylviculture confronting the American foresters are
as diversified as are the conditions governing them in a country
like ours which presents, within its two billion acres of land area,
the widest and wildest fluctuations of the factors framing the possi-
bility, the intensity, and the methods of American Sylviculture.

The call for Sylviculture arose in the West at a time at which
it was hoped that forest plantations might influence favorably the
adverse climate of the newly opened prairies.

Since that time, which lies in the seventies of the last century,
prairial Sylviculture has lost ground, while its importance, for
commonweals as well as for owners of woodlands, has become, in
the wooded sections of the country, an issue of American Forestry.

The terms " Sylviculture " and " Forestry " are by no means
identical: Forestry comprises any and all work connected with
forests, inclusive of all logging and lumbering; Sylviculture is but
that part of Forestry which has a second growth for its object.
As long as there was at hand in the vast stretches of primeval
forests an abundance of first growth, there could exist in the
w^ooded states but little use for " the art of the second growth."

No forester lives who has enjoyed a world's experience in Sylvi-
culture; the forester's experience is local, necessarily; a writer
of a book on Sylviculture is apt to apply his local observations to
the second growths developing in all the 48 states of the Union.
I have tried, in the pages foimd within the covers of this book,
to avoid generalisations based on a local experience, and to write

PREFACE

a handbook useful to the forester working in a second growth or
for a second growtli anywhere in this country.

Necessarily, the majority of my own work in Sylviculture was
embraced by the 15 years during which I had charga of a vast area
of woodlands in western North Carolina. It was my good fortune
to be confronted, within this area, by a large diversity of conditions.
There were 3,000 acres of abandoned farmland, which I have been
insLrumental in clothing with a second growth; there were 10,000
acres of woodlands, cut-over, burned over, and neglected before I
took charge, which were to be converted into cultured forests; and
there was the " Pisgah Forest," primeval woodlands extending over
100,000 acres, situated beyond the reach of the axe, and of little
value, extending from the valley of the French Broad River at
2,000 feet elevation to the Balsam Mountains at 6,000 feet eleva-
tion. The cut-over woodlands are typical, from the sylvic stand-
point, for the Piedmont region of the South; the Pisgah Forest is
typical for the conditions prevailing in the Appalachians.

For brevity's sake, these types of conditions are referred to in
the following pages by the terms " Biltniore " and "Pisgah Forest '
respectively.

Frequent reference is made, also, to the German forests, wherein
I have spent the first nine years of my career as a forester; to
the Adirondacks to which I was introduced by Dr. B. E. Fernow,
Gifford Pinchot, and C. R. Pettis, and which I am visiting annually
accompanied by the students of the Biltmore Forest School having
its spring quarters in the heart of the Adirondacks. Reference is
further made, frequently, to Michigan, where the Biltmore Forest
School has its summer camp at Cadillac, Mich., and to Oregon where
the Biltmore Forest School sojourns at Marshfield during the fall
of every year. The directorate of the Biltmore Forest School, a
forest school living in the woods of the North, South, East and
West, has forced me to become intimately acquainted with the
possibilities of Sj'lviculture in more than one forest region. It is
these facts which lead me to hope that I am submitting to the
reader a book on American, and not on local Sylviculture.

I should have liked immensely to insert in this book a large
number of pictures illustrative of the matters and things therein
described. Unfortunately, the funds at my command did not allow
of the additional expense which the extensive use of illustrations
would have involved.

This book on " The art of the second growth " is the seventh
part of an " American Encyclopedia of American Forestry " written
and rewritten by me in the course of the last fourteen years. The six
4

PREFACE

remaining parts of American forestry which I have treated hereto-
fore, by six books or publications, in a similar manner, are analysed
in the following schedule:

A. Public Forestry, or forestry by the people, treated as
Part I, Forest Policy.

B. Private Forestry, or forestry for the owner, treated as
Part II, Forest Utilization, the art of logging and lumbering.
Part III, Forest Finance, the art of financial calculations in

forestry.
Part IV, Forest Protection, the art of protecting the woods

against damage by fire, insects, fungi, etc.
Part V, Forest Mensuration, the art of estimating timber,

of measuring the growth of the trees, and of

lumber inspection.
Part VI, Forest Management, the art of forest working

plans.

The last part is, then,
Part VII, Sylviculture, the art of the second growth.

May the new issue of the present book on Sylviculture find with
the American lumberman and with his forester a better reception
than that accorded to the original edition! And may it assist in
the redemption of the American Forests!

C. A. SCHENCK.

SYNOPSIS OF PARAGRAPHS

CHAPTER I.

Foundations of Sylviculture.
Paragraph.

I. Introduction.
II. Eeologic factors and their influence on the sylva.

III. Influence of the sylva on the eeologic factors.

IV. The North American sylva.

V. General definitions and explanations.
VI. Light demanders and shade bearers.
VII. Pure versus mixed woods.
VIII. Dr. Henry Mayr's fundamental principles of sylviculture.

CHAPTER II.

The Seed Forest.

IX. Genesis of the seed forest.
X. The seed.

XL Preparations for direct seeding.
XII. Securing and preparing the seeds.

XIII. Direct seeding.

XIV. Season for direct seeding.
XV. Auxiliaries to direct seeding.

XVI. Direct seeding of the broadleaved species.
XVII. Direct seeding of the coniferous species.
XVIII. Actual planting of seedlings: Introductory remarks.
XIX. Criteria of good seedlings.
XX. Age, size and number of seedlings used.
XXI. Lifting seedlings from nursery bed.
XXII. Transportation of seedlings.
XXIII. Common methods of planting seedlings.
XXrV. Special methods and tools used for planting seedlings.
XXV. Season for planting seedlings.
XXVI. Cultivation of plantations.
XXVII. Prairie planting in particular.
XXVIII. Methods of obtaining plants for planting.
7

SYNOrSIS OF PARAGRAPHS

Paragraph.

XXIX. Permanent nurseries in particular.
XXX. Seed planting in seed beds.
XXXI. Transplanting in transplanting beds.
XXXII. Protection of nurseries.

XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries.

XXXIV. Special nursery methods proclaimed by renowned sylvi-

culturists.
XXXV. Raising and planting hardwood seedlings.
XXXVI. Raising and planting softwood seedlings.
XXXVII. European results of planting experiments with American

hardwoods.
XXXVIII. European results of planting experiments with American
softwoods.
XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed regeneration (enesar).

XL. Age of trees fit for natural seed regeneration (enesar).
XLI. Types of natural seed regeneration (enesar).
XLII. Types in which lumbering precedes natural seed regenera-
tion.
XLIII. Cleared compartment type.
XLIV. Cleared strip type.
XLV. Cleared group type.
XLVI. Cleared selection type.
XLVII. Types in which lumbering coincides with natural seed

regeneration.
XLVIII. Shelterwood compartment type.
XLIX. Shelterwood strip type.
L. Shelterwood group type.
LI. Shelterwood selection type.

LII. Types in Avhich lumbering follows natural seed regenera-
tion.
LIII. Advance growth compartment type.
LIV. Advance growth strip type.
LV. Advance growth group type.
LVI. Advance growth selection type.

LVII. Regeneration of valuable species by natural seed regenera-
tion with, amongst and into companions of weedy
character.
LVIII. Pedagogie of the seed forest.
LIX. Cleaning in seed forests.
LX. Weeding in seed forests.
LXI. Improvement cutting in seed forests.
LXII. Thinning in seed forests.

8

SYNOPSIS OF PARAGRAPHS

Paragraph.

LXIII. Pruning in seed forests.

LXIV. Underplanting in seed forests.

LXV. Key to the forms of seed forests.

LXVI. Critical remarks on seed forests.

LXVII. Seed forests by species.

CHAPTER III.

The Sprout Forest.

LXVIII. Genesis of the sprout forests and its types.
LXIX. Pedagogie of the sprout forests.
LXX. Key to the forms of sprout forests.
LXXI. Critical remarks on sprout forests.
LXXII. Sprout forests by species.

CHAPTER IV.

The Composite Forest.

LXXIII. Genesis of the composite forest and its types.
LXXIV. Pedagogie of coppice under standards.
LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice under standards.
LXXVI. Critical remarks on coppice under standards.
LXXVII. Coppice under standards by species.

CHAPTER V.

Propagation of Forest Products Other Than Wood and Timber,
LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-products.
LXXIX. Combination of sylviculture and agriculture.

SYLVICULTURE

CHAPTER I

FOUNDATIONS OF SYLVICULTURE
Paragraph I. Introduction.

" Sylviculture " comprises all human activities by which trees,
wood, bark, and any other forest product imaginable are raised and
tended. Sylviculture is the art of the second growth, essentially.

Sylviculture was practiced, in ancient days, for park or for
orchard purposes. The first writings on Sylviculture proper appear
in the so-called " House Father Literature."

Sylviculture as a branch of forestry was developed by George
L. Hartig, Henry von Cotta, and Christian Hundeshagen, a hundred
years ago.

European standard books on Sylviculture, of a modern char-
acter, are those of Charles Heyer (adapted by Sir Wm. Schlich and
Richard Hess), by Charles Gayer, by Henry Mayr, and by Wagner-
Tuebingen.

For America, the teachings of European Sylviculture are of
no more direct iise, at the present time, than Asiatic teachings
might be. The economic and the climatic differences between the
various countries are such as to require different methods of Sylvi-
culture in each of them. Nevertheless, the ecologic principles
underlying the practice of Sylviculture are identical all the world
over.

The planting of forests, on a large scale, is out of the question
in America, for the time being. The expense of planting an acre
of land in this country exceeds frequently the price at which an
acre of merchantable forest may be purchased. The modern owner
of woodlands is not far-sighted enoiigh — possibly not credulous
enough — to anticipate the arrival of German prices of timber for
a time at which the plantations now started will have developed
into merchantable trees.

Assuming that the trees will be as valuable by 1980, in this
country, as they are to-day in Germany, France and England,
11

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

forest planting should be, at least, as remunerative in this country
^vhere soil values are low, as it is in the old country where soil
values are high.

In Germany, too, the production of a second growth by human
aid was not thought of so long as timber and fuel wood had little
value.

When the value of a product increases, arrives the time at
which it is wisdom to produce it.

Sylviculture will be practiced in the United States, to begin
with, here and there, on lands where the conditions for it are
favorable. As the years go past it will . expand al! over the
woodlands of the L^nited States.

Sylviculture considered as a branch of the science of forestry
comprises the following themes:

A. Ecologic principles, facts and definitions.

B. The genesis, or the birth of the forest.

C. The pedagogic, or the tendance of the forest.

D. The sylvical forms of the forest.

"Genesis," in the true meaning of the word, is the act of
producing, or giving birth or origin, to anything. The term
" genesis " is also applicable to the theories, explanations or ac-
counts of the origin of anything.

" Pedagogie " comprises the principles and rules pertaining to
the training of the young.

The terms " forest genesis " and " forest pedagogie " have not
met with a favorable reception by the critics of the first and
second edition of the present book. The author continues to use
the two terms, for lack of better substitutes, in his lectures at
the Biltmore Forest School and in this third edition of his
" Sylviculture."

In the discussion of themes B, C, and D, a distinction is made
between the treatment of:

1. Seed forests.

2. Sprout forests.

3. Composite forests.

Paragraph II. Ecologic factors and their in-
fluence on the sylva.

A. Definition.— Plant ecology is a branch of botany show-
ing the dependence and adaptation of plant forms and plant life
on and to the surrounding local factors (climate, soil, etc.).
12

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

B. Natural laws govern the organization of the species
and regulate the communal life (symbiosis) and messmateship
(commensalism) of individuate with their own kin, with relatives
and with other plants belongings to the same household and feeding
at the same table.

C. Tlie most important ecologic factors are:

I. Air. Oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid, the main com-
ponents of air, are essential for plant life. The relative proportion
of the two integral parts, 79% N., 21% 0., varies but little with
altitude, latitude and elevation. Salt particles in the air near
oceans and sulphuric acid in the air near smelter works are in-
jurious to plant life.

II. Light. Intensity depends on:

Season.

Latitude.

Altitude.

Direct insolation is said to be, on the whole, of less importance
t|ian diffused light (excepting polar regions).

Light is not required for germination of seeds. Without light,
however, there is no assimilation, and hence no possibility of tree
life. Assimilation increases with increasing intensity of insolation;
excessive insolation is, however, destructive. For each species, and
for each stage of its growth, there exists a certain optimum, mini-
mum and maximum of insolation with reference to the possibilities
of its success. The damaging influence of excessive insolation is
prevented by the inner organization of the plant.

The duration (number of days) of insolation is as important as
the intensity of insolation. Within the individual tree the lower
branches are killed gradually, being overshadowed by new upper
branches. Without light no bud; without bud no leafing branch;
without new leaves annually formed no limb can live.

Within one and the same species a tree once acquiring superi-
ority over its neighbors is apt to retain superiority until death.
Since it enjoys more light, it assimilates better.

Within rival species, owing to a greater sensitiveness of chloro-
phyl and thanks to a more favorable inclination, form and position
of the leaves, some species exceed others in assimilation and vitality
under the same influx of light. Shade bearing are such leaves as
assimilate suflficiently (so as to bear buds at the axils) in spite of
the fact that but little diffused light chances to strike them.

Many dicotyledonous trees form a so-called " leaf mosaic," the
lower tiers of leaves fitting themselves into the interstices of light
13

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

left in the upper tiers. Many leaves alter their inclination toward
the sun according to the hourly degree of insolation (photo-metric
movement). The epidermis of light demanding and sun-exposed
leaves is heavy, leathery. The leaves of shade bearers are thin and
wither quickly when picked. Light demanding leaves are often shin-
ing, reflecting and whitish, so especially in tropical countries, and
the leaf stomata are deeply sunk into the surface. On the same
tree, leaves growing in the shade are darker than those growing in
the light; old leaves darker than young ones.

The formation of spines and thorns indicates a sun plant; hair
or down are usually found in light demanders more than in shade
plants.

III. Heat.

For each plant and for each step of its development can
be determined a minimum, optimum and maximum of heat required
or allowed. Without heat, growth is impossible, since cell division
is impossible. The formation of chlorophyll, breathing, assimila-
tion, germination, flowering, fruiting and transpiration depend on
heat. The distribution of the genera is governed, pre-eminently, by
heat.

For some polar plants, life is possible below 32 degrees air
temperature Faht. As a rule, however, plant activity begins to be
observable at 50 degrees Faht.

The maximum of heat compatible with plant life generally lies
below 115 degrees Faht. Excess of temperature over maximum is
more disastrous than deficiency of heat beloAV minimum. Plants,
however, temporarily fortify themselves against periodical extremes:

1. By non-freezing cell contents.

2. By reduced water contents (seed, rosin).

3. By lignification.

4. By dropping leaves during winter or during period of exces-
sive drought.

5. By adequate covers (bark, hairs, bud scales, layers rich in
air cells, reddish color, wrappings formed by last year's leaves).
These covers, at least, allow the plant to escape the dangers of ra'tlid
changes of temperature.

Short periods of vegetation and long periods of rest result
from deficient heat. Hence no annual plants in polar regions.
Short shoots, evergreen leaves, preparation of flow^ers in year pre-
ceding fruit are characteristic of a polar flora. In tropical countries
there are no periods of rest unless determined by periods of drought.
14

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

IV. Moisture of air and precipitations.
Water is at hand

a. to increase the toughness of wood (imbibition water of
cell walls) ;

b. to allow of solution of cell contents (cell sap) ;

c. to serve as plant food, through assimilation;

d. to allow of osmotic movement of sap;

e. to assist in photometric movement of leaves (through swell-
ing and irritation) ;

f. to reduce rapidity of change of temperature by evaporation.
Some lichens survive a process of absolute drying. Lack of

moisture causes crippled growth, and frequently subterranean
forests (mesquit).

After Henry Mayr, the minimum of moisture compatible with
tree growth is two inches of rainfall and fifty per cent, of relative
humidity during the period of vegetation.

Phanerogamous plants are unable to absorb water directly
through the epidermis, obtaining it instead through the spongiolse
of the roots and, in gaseous form, through the stomata of the
leaves. Mosses and lichens, however, absorb water directly through
the epidermis. The hygroscopic power of a dead cover of mosses
on the ground equals that of a live cover.

Wet climate creates evergi-een woods (Pacific coast and ant-
arctic forests of South America).

A dry climate gives rise to annual species, to a distinct period
of rest, to rapid flowering and fruiting.

Precipitations equally distributed over the twelve months of an
entire year and precipitations falling during a few weeks result in
entirely diff"erent floras. Rain in summer stimulates growth much
more than rain in winter. De Candolle divides our globe according
to moisture and heat and on the basis of the resulting floral differ-
ences, into five regions.

1. Hydromegathermal region (water great heat). Mean annual
temperature over 68 degrees Faht. (Amazon river region, wet tropi-
cal zone).

2. Xerophilous (dry loving) region. The region and borders of
arid deserts, prairies, svmny slopes, etc., exhibiting a flora very
modest in moisture requirements.

3. Mesothermal (medium heat) region, having mean tempera-
ture of 59 to 68 degrees Faht. (northern Florida, etc.).

4. Microthermal (little heat) region of 32 to 59 degrees Faht.

5. Hecistothermal (least heat) region of less than 32 degrees
Faht.

15

A M K K 1 C A :: SYLVICULTURE

The most important representative of a xerophilous character
is the i'ellow Pine. The hecistothermal zone shows Spruces, Birches,
Cottonwoods.

V. Wind.

Wind brings moisture and drought, heat and cold; it covers
or uncovers vegetation with sand or snow drifts, tumbling, at
prior geographical eras, whole mountains into the valleys (Loess
formation). Severe wind dwarfs tree growth and forces branches
to grow in leeward direction only. The influence of a slight ob-
struction, preventing the access of wind at high latitudes, is splen-
didly illustrated by the growth of Spruce and Fir on Pisgah Ridge.
On high mountains, the possibility of gi'owth is often entirely
determined by wind.

Wind is responsible for the crooked growth of Catalpa in the
prairies, the shake in Hemlock on exposed ridges, the fungus dis-
eases in many trees.

The rainfall and, consequently, the existence of forests depends
on the moist sea winds supplied by the Pacific, the Atlantic, the
Gulf and the Great Lakes. A cross-section through North America
at the latitude of Lake Michigan and Portland, Oregon, shows the
inter-aependence between the lowest gaps in the mountain chains
and the forest on the next mountain chain lying to leeward. For
instance: lowest gap in Coast Range at 3,000 feet above sea level;
no forest in Cascades below 3,000 feet; lowest gap in Cascades at
4,000 feet above sea level; no forest in Blue Mountains below 4,000
feet; lowest gap in Blue Mountains at 5,000 feet above sea level;
no forest in Rockies below 5,000 feet.

The east slopes of the Coast Range, Cascades, Blue Mountains
and Rockies, below the gaps in these chains of mountains, show
little or no forest, and the lowlands to the east of the mountain
chains are deserts and prairies.

Moist sea winds, after passing one chain of mountains allow
the forest to grow on the next chain only above the altitude of the
gaps in the first chain.

Picea alba and dwarf pines like Pinus pungens show great
strength in resisting wind. In the West Tsuga mertensiana, Pinus
albicaulis, further Western Juniper rank first among the trees brav-
ing severe storms.

Wind is essential for the breathing and for the perspiration of

leaves and bark; for driving pollen on stigma to fertilize the seed;

for trimming the branches, thus forming clear boles; for distributing

seed. The investigations conducted by Fliche (French forester)

16

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

have yielded, however, the astonishing result that winged seeds
travel much more slowly than heavy seeds coveted by birds. Fliche
gives the following number of years as required by trees traveling
from Nancy to Paris, a distance of 160 miles:

Beech 18640 years.

Chestnut 12920 years.

Pine 48G80 years.

Sarvis 1330 to 2000 years.

VI. Structure of soil.

Soil consists of natural rock; or of rock disintegrated under
the influence of water, frost, heat, oxygen, carbonic acid, lichens,
bacteria; or of material deposited by water, wind or glaciers.

The components of soil are:

a. Soil skeleton, large grains, principally quartz and stones.

b. Soil flesh, minute semi-soluble particles, — the mud of the rivers.

c. Soil fat, the humose particles giving the soil a dark color.

d. Soil blood, the air and water, filling the pores of the soil.
The size of the pores determines the capillary capacity.

According to the resistance which soil off'ers to spade or plow,
we distinguisli the following classes:
Light soil;
Loose soil;
Binding soil;
Heavy soil;
Stiflf soil.

VII. Air in the soil.

Roots require oxygen for breathing. Like fish, they die from a
lack as well as from a superabvmdance of oxygen. Subterranean
air is rich in carbonic acid exhaled by roots, fungi, bacteria,
animals. Swamp soil contains little air. Hence no species find a
living in swamps but those which have large inner air ducts.

Prairial soil is naturally so compact that it contains little
oxygen.

VIIL Water in the soil.
It occurs:

a. Chemically bound to minerals and salts.

b. Absorbed by the hygroscopicity of the soil.

c. Raised by the capillary power of the soil.

d. As ground water, — lakes, swamps, brooks being merely areas

of open ground water.
The size of the pores and the presence of humus govern the
17

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

intensity and rapidity of water obtention and retention. Sand,
for instance, allows water to enter into its large pores quickly, but
gives it up rapidly as well. Wet, moist, fresh, dry and arid soil
are distinguislied.

The degree of the wetness of the soil is of the utmost impor-
tance for tree growth. At its Southern limit, a species may grow
but along watercourses. The water in the soil dissolves the mineial
salts and seems to be of great influence on the bacterial life in
the soil.

iX. Heat in the soil.

It is derived from the earth's own temperature, from chemical
processes in the soil (notably fermentation) and from the sun rays.
In the latter case, the angle of insolation, the duration of insolation,
the heat capacity, the color, the porosity of the soil and its
vegetable cover serve as influencing factors.

A cold root has no pumping power. Fine root fibres die from
temperatures which fine oranches easily withstand. The actual
influence of the heat in the soil on tree gi'owth is practically un-
known. The opening of the buds in spring and the fall of the
leaves in autumn are probably connected with the thermic changes
occurring in the various strata of the soil.

X. Depth of soil.

Flat rooted species easily obtain the superiority over tap-
rooted species on shallow soil. Tree roots, however, are not apt
to penetrate to a depth greater than six feet. Shallow soil in-
creases danger from fire, drought, storm. A tap rooted species,
planted on shallow soil, produces but a stunted form. Shallow
soil is well adapted to the coppice system, in case of broad leaved
tap rooted species.

XI. Food in the soil.

A tree, like a crystal, is composed of various chemical elements.
The available amount of that necessary element which happens to
occur in the relatively smallest degree determines, in both crystal
and plant, the rate of growth actually taking place (Liebig''s law).
The superabundance of one component, even of a necessary com-
ponent, prevents, on the other hand, the local existence of many
species.

The ten necessary elements found within a plant in solid, liquid
or gaseous condition are 0, H, C, P, Fe, K, Mg, Ca, N, S,

" Roots search food as if they had eyes," is a rule easily proven
in any nursery.

18

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

XII. Species of soil,

a. Rock. Most important rock formations are: Granite, gneiss,
limestone, sandstone, slate and trap.

Vertical stratification facilitates decomposition and tree growth.
The various species of rock differ in hardness, porosity, heat con-
duction, and above all in soluble mineral contents.

b. Quartz sand. Quartz sand is unproductive when pure, since
silicic acid fails to be digested by the roots and fails to react with
the acids and radicals usually found in the soil. Quartz sand is
loose, has small hygroscopicity, small capillarity and small heat-
retaining capacity. It is hot during the day and cold during
the night.

c. Lime. Lime when pure is a poor soil, although not quite as
dry and hot as sand. Lime, however, mixed with loam and clay
(so-called marl) forms an extremely productive soil.

d. Clay. Clay has great absorbing and hygroscopic power. It
is wet and cold. Main components are aluminum-silicates.

e. Loam. Loam is a mixture of sand and clay — the usual soil
in agricultvire and forestry. It is usually colored by iron (red
loam at Biltmore). We speak of a sandy loam or of a loamy sand
according to the prevalence of one or the other component. Loam
soil exhibits a happy medium of qualities favorable to tree growth.

f. Humus. Humus results from the decomposition of vegetable
and animal matter under co-operation of bacteria, fungi, rain worms
(Darwin), larvae. Humus forms a solvent of mineral plant food.
A bad conductor of heat and cold, it prevents rapid changes of
temperature in soil, has great hygroscopicity and great water-
retaining power and is a preventive to evaporation of soil moisture.

Mild forest humus shows a basic reaction, whilst the sour
humus of the swamps shows an acid reaction.

Unfavorable to the trees is the dust humus formed by many
Ericaceae.

XIII. Physical versus chemical qualities of soil.
Agriculture withdraws food but from the top layer of the soil.

It deprives that top layer of its rarest and most valuable com-
ponents, by removing an annual crop of grain excessively rich in
nitrates, phosphates and potash. The porosity, and through it the
water capacity and the heat capacity of the soil, are readily con-
trolled on the field by the plow. It is necessary in agriculture, in
the long run, to return to the soil in the shape of fertilizer as'
many pounds of nitrates, phosphates and potash annually as have
been removed in the shape of crops from a given acre of land.
19

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

The productiveness of agriculture depends, above all, on the
chemical qualities of the soil tilled. A crop of trees, on the other
hand, takes from the soil but little, since the tree consists mainly
of C, 0, H, or since wood is nothing but air solidified by sunshine.
The phosphates, nitrates and potash absorbed by the tree are
returned to the soil by the fall of branches, leaves, seeds, flowers,
etc.

The traces of chemical fertility locally removed in the shape
of logs are, in addition, counterbalanced by the decomposing influ-
ence on the rock exercised by roots, root-bacteria, and enzyms.

Hence it is not likel}' that a rotation of crops, such as is
required in agriculture, has any advantages in the case of forestry.
In primeval vpoods, we know that Nature allows a species to
succeed itself. It must be admitted, howeverj that a short-living
crop of weeds (fire cherries, aspens, briars, herbaceous weeds)
intervenes frequently between successive generations of trees.

The physical qualities of the soil preeminently influence the tree
species and the rate of its growth. The chemical qualities of the
soil play the most potent role in the case of agricultural species.

Soil fit for agriculture is not necessarily a good forest soil
(prairies). Soil fit for forestry (strong North slopes) is often
utterly unfit for farming.

XIV. Soil covers.

Soil covers are either dead or living. Dead soil covers are
snow, debris of leaves and twigs. Living soil covers consist of
mosses, grasses, etc.

After K. Boehmerle, a living moss-cover retards the growth of
young trees, during a dry season. The moss absorbs the larger
part of the precipitations. During .a wet season, the moss-cover
may be useful by storing the surplus of moisture. It seems advis-
able to remove the moss from the woods in rotations of about three
years. Compare C. G. F., 1910, page 523.

Snow keeps the soil warm, prevents rapid changes of tempera-
ture, prevents young plants covered by it from perspiring, prevents
heaving of plants by frost.

The debris on the ground feed millions of animals and fungi;
the}' harbor, on the other hand, mice, larvae and other enemies of
plant growth. Debris frequently prevent reproduction from self-
sown seed and increase the severity of forest fires. Living, as well
as dead soil covers, influence the evaporation of moisture, the
porosity of the soil and the drainage.
20

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

XV. Life in the soil (Compare Swiss L. F. F. 1904, May and
June ) .

The soil lives like a plant or an animal, since it shows con-
tinuous changes of form and of composition. Very little, however,
is known of the life and the interdependence of millions of live
individuals found in the soil. Certain it seems that tree growth i^
bound on the presence of certain fungi and bacteria living on the
roots (Mycorrhiza, important, notably, for shade-bearing trees).

Most important are the bacteria capable of digesting the
nitrogen of the subterranean air. Leguminous plants (Clover, Black
Locust) are beset with root knobs, containing bacteria busily
engaged in the assimilation of nitrogen. The hypliae of a fungus
called Frankia play a similar role on the root knobs of Alder and
Sweet Fern. After P. C Mueller, Spruce will grow on poor sand
lacking nitrogen if Pine is mixed with it, furnishing nitrogen
through its mycorrhiza.

At Biltmore, Cherry plantations have succeeded surprisingly
well when there was an admixture to them of Yellow Pines.

The maximum number of bacteria is said to be found two feet
below the surface of the ground, and none exist below six feet.
The number of bacteria per pound of soil varies from one hundred
million to two hundred and fifty million.

Important, too, in plant ecology is the life of the larger animals
(worms, insects, nematodes, centipeds) changing the vegetable mat-
ter of the soil into manure proper, mixing mineral soil and vegeta-
ble matter, increasing the porosity, drainage and aeration and
neutralizing the acids of the soil. Shade, protection from wind
and sufficient moisture are beneficial to animal life in the soil.

Paragraph III. Influence of the sylva on the
ecolo^ic factors.

The influence exerted by the forest on "the local climate (heat,
air, precipitations, etc.) is dwelt upon in the lectiu-es on forest
policy.

Whilst the ecologic factors shown in the previous paragraph

exhibit the important influence which the soil has on the tree, there

exists at the same time, although to a lesser degree, an influence

of the tree on the soil. This influence is invariably such as to

21

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

facilitate life to the tree itself and to its progeny. The production
of humns is the main source of that influence.
Governing factors are:

A. Leaf canopy overhead. Evergreen as well as deciduous
woods return to the soil by the leaf fall annually a large amount
of dead matter readily assimilable. Shade bearers furnish a better
humus than light demanders, excluding, at the same time, intensive
insolation, so that the decomposition of the leaf carpet and the
evaporation of the soil moisture is favorably retarded.

A hvunus formed by Beech, Maple and Chestnut is considered
especially good. Beech is called abroad, justly or unjustly, the
" Mother of the Forest," owing to its soil-improving qualities. The
leaf canopy is particularly dense during the thicket and the pole-
wood stage. Even light demanders, whilst young, improve the
fertility of the soil. At a higher age, when the light demanders
place themselves far apart one from another (say less than 100
trees per acre), the humus on the gr-ound is destroyed frequently,
being replaced by a dense and impermeable matting of grasses or
shrubs.

Amongst the conifers. Yellow and White Pine seem to furnish
the best humus. Spruce humus is too waxy.

B. Rate of disintegration of leaves.

This rate depends on insolation, on heat capacity of soil (sand
versus clay), on atmosplieric humidity. Usually the decomposition
of the leaf fall takes place within two or three years. The thin
leaves of the shade bearers decompose quicker than the heavy leaves
of the light demanders. The atmospheric moisture of high alti-
tudes causes an accumulation of large quantities of leaves. In the
tropics, there is little litter on the ground.

C. Root system.

It is the decaying root which allows the precipitations to trickle
down to the lower strata of soil. Hence tap rooters seem more
efficient than flat rooters in converting a rapid surface drainage into
a slow underground drainage. Decomposing the rock by chemical
action, the tap root foi'ces it to yield its soluble salts.

D. Soil improvement through root-bacteria and fimgi.
The upper layers of forest soil are densely peopled with the

hyphae of basidiomycetes, living on humus. Leguminous trees
(Locust, Kentucky Coffee tree, etc.) by their root-bulbs increase the
fertility of the soil, and the Alders seem to act in a similar man-
ner. On abandoned fields in Pisgah forest the soil is improved by
22

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Sumac, Sassafras, Locust, etc. These species act as ushers for
more exacting forest growth, improving the physical conditions of
the soil. Little is known about the nature of the improvement.

Paragraph IV. The North American sylva.

The northern limit of the forest coincides with the isothermal
line of 30 degrees Faht., which lies on the west side of the continent
at Co degrees latitude in Alaska (under influence of the Japan cur-
rent), and on the east side at 57 degrees latitude in Labrador and
at the Hudson Bay.

The tropical forest shows no seasons. Its species are evergreen.
In the United States it is found at the extreme southern point of
Florida and of Texas.

The sub-tropical forest is characterized by the evergreen broad-
leaved trees, and is the zone of rice and oranges, extending in east-
ern North America to 35 degrees, in western North America to 40
degrees, latitude.

The moderately warm forest region is the zone of the broad-
leaved deciduous trees, of corn, vine and wheat.

The moderately cold forest region is that too cold for the
production of corn.

In North Carolina a trip from the coast to the high Balsams
leads the traveler from the northernmost limit of the sub-tropical
through the moderately warm forest region into the southernmost
limit of the moderately cold forest region which sets in at about
4,000 feet elevation.

The following table shows the composition of the forest of the
United States and of Canada, under the influence of the climate:

Percentage of forest area occupied by:

In United States. In Canada.

Tropical forest i^% 0%

Sub-tropical forest 15 % 0%

Forest of the moderately warm zone 75 % 10%

Forest of the moderately cold and alpine zone... 9V2% 90%

The United States contain two big and one minor forest region,
namely the

Atlantic forest region;
North Mexican forest region;
Pacific forest region,

23

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

The Atlantic and the Pacific forest join under the influence of
the Hudson Bay winds in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Al-
berta. There are no prairies proper north of 52 degrees latitude.

A. The Atlantic forest.

I. Eastern tropical forest. Mahogany occurs only as a small
tree, Palms and other typically tropical orders (Sapotaceae, Ebon-
aceae, Euphorbiaceae, Verbenaceae) compose the forest. It must
be remembered that Southern Florida exhibits but the extreme
northern occurrence of the tropical forest.

II. Eastern sub-tropical forest. It shows evergreen Oaks, Mag-
nolias, Persea, etc., besides the Pines, the soil being too poor for the
formation of a large wintergreen broad-leafed forest. The Avinter
temperature averages 53' degrees Faht.; precipitations are heavy;
relative humidity is 75 degrees. Sabal palmetto is a characteristic
weed. Bald Cypress and Cuban Pine are characteristic trees of
the region. Among the other Pines, the Long Leaf Pine is the most
important, associated in the north and west with Pinus clausa,
echinata, taeda, serotina, glabra. Liquidambar, Nyssa and Fraxinus
platycarpa occur in swamps at the edge of which Southern '\^^ute
Cedar appears frequently.

III. Eastern winter bald forest of the moderately warm zone.
It is fringed at the south, north and east by a broaa belt of Pines,
which belt connects this region at the south with the sub-tropical
forest, at the north with the Fir and Spruce forest of the moder-
ately cold zone. It is divided into a northern and a southern half
by the 39th degree of latitude. Each half sIioavs an Atlantic, a
central and a prairial sub-region.

a. South Central Sub-region. Traversed by the Mississippi, the
sub-region is characterized by high temperatures, large precipita-
tions and fine soil, which allow of the best development of broad-
leaved woods found in the world. Twenty-three Oak species, eight
Hickory species, two Walnuts, Buckeyes, Chestnut, Gums, Cotton-
woods, Yellow Poplar, Sycamore, Beech, Maple, Elm, Red Cedar, etc.,
stand in a dense undergrowth formed by Dogwood, Kalmia, Rho-
dodendron, Hazel, Hawthorn, Buckthorn, Witch Hazel, etc.

In this sub-region the heavy seeded broad-leaved trees obtain
the maximum of size, quality and number of species at altitudes
running up to 3,000 feet. Higher up the number of species
diminishes. At 5,000 feet only Red Oak, Chestnut, Beech, Buckeye,
Sugar Maple (resembling north central subdivision) are found, and
24

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

at 4,000 feet the Spruces and Firs (southernmost sentinels of moder-
ately cold zone) set in.

b. South Atlantic Sub-region. It comprises the Eastern foot-
hills of the Alleghanies (Piedmont Plateau) and part of the Coastal
Plain. Temperature SYz degrees Faht. less, soil poorer, precipita-
tions less abundant than in the South Central sub-region, hence
much Pine (taeda, mitis, rigida, virginiana). Only ten Oak species;
White Cedar swamps; broad-leaved flora otherwise as in South
Central, but of rather inferior development.

c. South Prairial Sub-region. Extending from the 92nd to the
102nd degree of longitude, the forest appears poorer than the annual
temperature and the annual rainfall seem to indicate; a discrepancy
between cause and effect, possibly due to forest fires. West of the
95th degree of longitude. Oak, Ash and Walnut occur along rivers,
especially on Eastern banks. Oak also appears scattered through
the depressions.

d. North Central Sub-region. Precipitations coming from
South as well as from North very abundant. Average winter
temperature 30 degrees Faht. Quick change of temperature. The
light-seeded, broad-leaved species reach maximum in this section.
White Pine and Hemlock, six Maples, five Birches, Elms, Lindens,
Ashes, Butternut, Red and White Oak compose the forest.

e. North Atlantic Sub-region. Plenty of moisture, the moun-
tains being close to the seashore, but not so much as in Lake states.
Average winter temperature 34 degrees Faht. at seashore. Pinus
rigida and echinata, Beech, Birch, Chestnut, Maples, often replaced
by Poplar and Willow. Spruce sets in at altitude exceeding 1,000
feet, accompanied by Hemlock, White Cedar, Red Cedar, ^^Tiite
Pine and Tamarack.

f. North Prairial Sub-region. Dry summers, blizzardy winters
and more sandy soil. No Hemlock, Red Pine and Jack Pine
intruding from North. Scrub Oak openings. On best soil still good
development of Linden, Maple, Elm and Birch. White Pine of
poorer quality than in sub-region " d."

^ IV. Eastern Evergreen Forest of the moderately cold zone.
The majority of this zone lies in Canada, in the northern Lake
states and in Maine. It occurs in North Carolina at 5,000 feet
elevation; in the Adirondacks at 2,000 feet; in Maine at sea level.

The region occupies a big belt stretched across the continent, so
that the western and eastern flora join hands in it. A typical tree
of this region, the White Spruce, often forms large pure forests.
25

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Other species of the zone are Red Spruce, Black Spruce, Balsam-fir,
Cotton- woods, Canoe Birch, Hemlock, White Cedar and Tamarack,
tlie latter here obtaining its optimum.

B. The Nortli Mexican forest.

The North Mexican flora intrudes, coming from Mexico, the
states of Arizona and New Mexico. It is small in area, but inter-
esting botanically. Forest not possible save at altitudes exceeding
5,500 feet. Forest proper — dense forest — but at 8 000 feet.

I. North Mexican sub-tropical forest.

Characterized by Cactus, Yucca, Agave and Mosquite (Prosopis).
Evergreen Oaks in moist valleys. Madrona (Arbutus), a beautiful
tree, on sunny slopes often mixed with Manzanita (Acrostaphyios
pungens).

II. North Mexican forest of the moderately warm zone.

This zone, very narrow, should contain winter-bald broad-leaved
species. The dryness of the soil and of the air, however, does not
allow of their occurrence save on moist ground along rivers. West-
ern Walnut, Mexican Ash, Poplars and Willows. The Pines are the
leading species of the zone, forming huge forests at altitudes ex-
ceeding 6,000 feet elevation. Some of these Pines are northern
sentinels from Mexico, others outposts from the States. Im-
portant is Pinus Chihuahuana, in Mexico largely used for timber, up
to 80 feet high, three feet in diameter, three needles. Pinus
Arizonica, a five-needled Pine, occurs at 6,000 feet elevation. Pinus
reflexa, locally known as White Pine, occupies moist dells at 8,000
feet elevation. Nut pines at lesser elevations as low brush, notably
Pinus edulis, monophylla, osteosperma.

C. The Pacific forest.

Typical difl'erencc from Atlantic forest lies in the relative lack,
not in species but in area, of broad-leaved woods. Tropical forest
is absent, possibly due to lack of moisture at low elevations in
Southern California.

I. Pacific sub-tropical forest.

Occupying Southern California. This zone is devoid of deaee
forests, the northern edge excepted. Evergreen Oaks, or rather
Winter Green Oaks (Pasania densiflora is leafless during dry sum-
mer) dot the ground in park-like groves. California Laurel (Um-
bellularia calif ornica) is a characteristic tree of this region, grow-
ing up to 100 feet high. Impenetrable bush thickets cover hot
aspects, formed by Leguminosae, Labiatae, Compositae, Rosaceae,
etc. The rare and beautiful Montery Cypress along the seashore.

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Sequoia sempervirens in the Coast Range is the biggest tree of the
zone, found at its edge. Pinus insignis, known as Montery Pine,
is valuable on sand dunes.

Pinus tuberculata (attenuata) occurs most frequently in even-
aged woods. Pinus sabiniana. Nut or Digger Pine, valuable for the
Indians, of Olive-like appearance, is mixed in the Oak parks and in
the Chaparal thickets. Another Nut Pine is Pinus parryana, grow-
ing 30 feet high. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa on St. Bernardino range.
Eucalyptus and Accacia from Australia, Oranges and Figs from
the Orient, were successfully introduced.

II. Pacific forest of the moderately warm zone.

This zone covers the major part of the forests of Oregon,
Washington and Northern California. It is characterized by an
even annual temperature and high precipitations. The winter bald
Oaks are represented in Oregon by Quercus garryana (White Oak),
in California by Quercus kellogii (Black Oak). Fraxinus Oregona,
Acer macrophylluni, Populus trichocarpa (the biggest Cottonwood
of the world) occupy the bottom land along the rivers; further
Sorbus, Amelanchier, Crataegus, Prunus, Salix, Aesculus, Alnus,
Acer, Negundo, Platanvis, Betula. All of these latter species unim-
portant commercially.

In strict contrast with the Atlantic forest of the same zone,
the conifers rule in importance, foremost among them the Douglas
Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) which stands temperatures of 15
degrees Faht. easily. Best development on west slope of Coast
Range. In the Rockies, it forms short boles, owing to shorter
growing season and lack of atmospheric moisture. In Colorado,
Arizona and New Mexico occurs a gray variety. In the Sierras it
appears as a dependent species. On the Eraser river, a fourth race
of Douglas Fir is distinguished.

Pinus ponderosa Cijellow Pine, Bull Pine). Height and timber
quality depend on proximity to Pacific Ocean. Optimum in Sierra
Nevada, where trees 300 feet high are frequently found. Very
heavy sap-wood. Name ponderosa undeserved. No tree species
of the United States occupies a larger territory or shows greater
adaptability.

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port Orford Cedar) occupies a
small territory close to the Pacific Coast. It does not ascend the
mountains to altitudes over 1,500 feet. Heavy shade bearer,
splendid reproduction.

Thuja plicata (Red Cedar of the West) up to 170 feet high.
Rare in California. Best development in Oregon and Washington
27

A M E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

and Nortliern Idaho, where it occupies the moister coves. Boles
very tapering; shade bearing.

Libocedrus decurrens (White Cedar, Bastard Cedar) on west
slope of the Sierras at medium elevations, where the tree is mixed
with Abies concolor, Yellow and Sugar Pine. Regeneration easy,
often in places previously occupied by the Pines.

Pinus lambertiana (Sugar Pine), with five needles in a sheath,
specific gravity less than that of Eastern White Pine (Pinus
strobus). The biggest Pine of the world. Very large cones.
Optimum in Sierras at 5,000 feet elevation; occurs often with
Sequoia, Libocedrus, Abies concolor. Yellow Pine, Pinus jeflfreyi.
The latter, a very close relative of ponderosa and distinguished
from it by bluish shoots and needles bent towards the shoots,
occupies the lower Sugar Pine belt. It prefers moist ground and
readies but one-half the size of ponderosa.

Mayr groups the above trees as follows, according to their
demands on moisture:

Demands on soil moisture:

1. Libocedrus decurrens,

2. Pinus jeffreyi,

3. Abies concolor,

4. Pinus lambertiana,

5. Pinus ponderosa.
Demands on air moisture:

1. Abies concolor,

2. Pinus lambertiana,

3. Pinus jeffreyi,

4. Libocedrus decurrens,

5. Pinus ponderosa.

Abies grandis (White Fir of Northern Pacific Coast). The only
fir on Vancouver Island. Optimum at coast in Oregon where it
grows up to 300 feet high, standing alongsiae gigantic Oottonwoods;
extends eastward across the Northern Rockies, and is the first
Pacific fir met by the traveller going west on the Northern Pacific.
Requires moist soil.

Abies concolor (White Fir of Colorado and of the Sierras).
Running south to the San Bernardino mountains, where it occupies
elevations of up to 10,000 feet. Traversing Nevada, it occurs in
Colorado (gardener's variety glauca). It accompanies Sugar Pine
and Bigtree. After Muir, always mixed with Abies magnifica,
occurring at altitudes ranging between 5,000 feet and 8,000 feet.

Abies bracteata (Santa Lucia fir of high mountains) occurs in
Southern California in moist cool dells.

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Tsuga heteroijhylla (Black Hemlock of low elevations). A fine
tree, the progeny of which forms a dense undergrowth underneath
Douglas fir. Heavy shade bearer, requiring plenty of moisture,
occurring in Alaska, Coast Range and Cascades.

Picea sitchensis (Tideland Spruce). Along coast on moist soil
in Washington and Oregon, on dryer soil in Alaska, shade bearing
and branchy. Stinging needles. Up to 200 feet high.

Sequoia washingtoniana (Bigtree). Occurring in the Sierras
in scattered groups at elevations ranging from 4.000 to 7,000 feet.
Enormous seeding capacity and sprouting capacity. Average
diameter 20 feet, height 275 feet, age up to 4,000 years.

III. Pacific forest of moderately cold zone.

This zone is economically of little importance, although it is
the forest zone proper, owing to the impossibility of agriculture
within this zone. It is "The Canadian Forest Zone." It lies in
the Sierras at 8,000 feet, in the Cascades at 4,000 feet, and in
Alaska at seashore. The forests of the Northern Rocky mountains
belong to it preferably.

Pinus murrayana (Lodgepole Pine). Shade bearing, in close
stands, very branchy, very sappy, retaining cones, easily destroyed
by fire, closely related to the Jack Pine of the east. Frequent on
old burns, typical for Yellowstone Park, going south to Arizona.

Larix occ^dentalis (Western Tamarack). Splendid lumber tree,
often in pure forests, optimum in Idaho, natural regeneration easy,
rapid height growth, little sap wood, timber equal to that of Long
Leaf Pine.

Pinus flexilis (Limber White Pine). More branchy and much
shorter than eastern White Pine; forms open forests on south
slopes of Sierras and in Nevada at 7,000 feet elevation; it extends
from Montana southward to Colorado.

Pinus monticola (Western White Pine). In Cascades, British
Columbia, Idaho, Montana, in the latter state more on slopes drain-
ing westward.

Abies nobilis, amabilis, magnifica, the Red Firs of the west.
Magnifica known in California as Larch. The two first named often
associated with Abies grandis and more frequent In Washington and
Oregon than in California. Amabilis extends into Alaska. Red
Firs are lacking in the Rockies. Needles are dark.

Picea engelmanni (White Spruce). At home in middle and
southern Rockies, on northern slopes at altitudes averaging 10,000
feet.

Picea parryana (Colorado Blue Spruce). Needles very pointed
and stinging, of a bluish tint. Occupies moist ground.

A ISI E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

IV. Pacific forest of the Alpine region.

Typical trees are:

Pinus albicaulis (Dwarf White Pine), occurrin;? in the Cascades
and the Northern Rockies.

Pinus balfouriana and aristata (Fox-Tail Pine), White Pines
found in California at 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet elevation: twigs thin,
retaining needles for many years.

Abies lasiocarpa (Balsam). At edge of tree growth but a
shrub. In Colorado at lower, warmer situations a valuable tree.
Occurs in all states of the west.

Larix lyallii (Larch of British Columbia). Occurs here and
there in Washington, Idaho and Montana, at very high altitudes.

Tsuga niertensiana (Hemlock). A storm-battered Hemlock, at
high altitudes in Sierras, Cascades, Montana. A branchy tree up
to 100 feet high, inaccessible and hence of no value.

Paragraph V. General definitions and explan-
ations.

A. By the term " wood " is understood an aggregate of

trees of such uniform character that it can be subjected to the
same manner of treatment. In the American vii^in forests,
" woods " are rare. As a matter of fact the term " w^oods " as well
as the term "forests" has no definite meaning in America. A
forester should keep in mind, however, that a plantation or a
natural regeneration, whatever its age and its condition, must be
classed under the heading " forests."

A " group " of trees consists of even-aged specimens of the same
species and is larger than a bunch, clump, or cluster. No recog-
nized definitions of the term "group" and "clump" are at hand,
unfortunately, based on the space or the acreage covered by them
as units. Groups, as understood in the following pages, are dis-
tinct aggregates of trees covering ^\ to 4 acres.

Seed forests, or high forests, are forests composed of specimens
originating from tree seeds.

Sprout forests, or coppice woods, are forests composed of speci-
mens originating from sprouts, stoolshoots, rootsuckers, layers,
cuttings, and not from the seeds of the trees.

Composite forests are forests recruited from tree seeds as well
as from stumpsprouts. The composite forest is a mixture or a
combination of the seed forest and of the sprout forest.

30

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

B. Pure forests, pure ivoods, pure groups or bunclies

are such as contain one timber species only, 5 per cent, admixture
being permissible. Species able to form, pure forests are termed
gregarious or ruling species, sub-divided into distinctly ruling
species, which are usually found in pure stands, and conditionally
ruling species, which are occasionally found in pure stands.

I. After Drude, the participation of a species as a mess-mate at
the forest table is expressed by the following terminology:

a. Social species, denoting the main character, the striking
feature (in nimibers and volume) of the forest; the rank and file
of the forest;

b. Gregarious species, occurring in clumps and groups, island
like;

c. Copious species, interspersed with others, the degree of fre-
quency being interpreted by exponents, e. g., copious^, copious^
copious^ ;

d. Sparse species, occurring isolated and in single specimens;

e. Solitary species, very isolated and very rare.

II. The ratio of the participation might be expressed in per
cent., as follows:

Social, forming 60% and over of growing stock.
Gregarious, forming 40% and over of growing stock.
Copious, forming 20% and over of growing stock.
Sparse, forming 1% and over of growing stock.
Solitary, forming less than 1% of growing stock.
Intermediate stages might be indicated by a combination of the
given designations, e. g., " social-gregarious."

III. The configuration of the ground and the rapidity of its
change influence vitally the possibilities of a species as a component
of the forest.

IV. Species which are not*" ruling," or which are locally not
" ruling," are called " dependent " species.

A species might be ruling in North Carolina, while it is depend-
ent in South Carolina. The distribution of the species is limited
by its demands on soil and climate. Far away from its center of
distribution, a species is likely to be dependent.

V. The ruling species in the south are: Long Leaf Pine, Bald
Cypress, Loblolly Pine, Short Leaf Pine, Sweet Gum, Post Oak,
Cottonwoods, Chestnut.

The ruling species in the west are: Lodgepole Pine, Pinus ponde-

31

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

rosa, Douglas Fir, White Fir (Abies grandis), Engelmanii's Spruce,
Western White Pine, Port Orford Cedar, Redwood, Sitka Spruce.

VI. The meek species are those that conquer the globe. With
the inroads of civilization on the fertility of the soil, and especially
on the water capacity of the soil, these meek species obtain addi-
tional chances to supersede the exacting species.

C. Weapons of the species in the struggle for exist-
ence are:

I. Shade-bearing qualities.

IL Modesty as regards the fertility^ the depth, and the aeration
of the soil, further as regards the moisture and the heat during the
period of vegetation.

III. Power of resistance to storm, sleet, snow, late and early
frosts, droughts, fire, etc.

IV. Immunity from forest insects and forest fungi.

V. Longevity. Oak lives longer than Beech; Sequoia longest
of all.

VI. Reproductive power, especially reproductive power from
stumps or roots, frequency and richness of seed years.

VII. Portability and sensitiveness of seeds; number of enemies
of seeds; germinating percentage of seeds.

VIII. Rapidity of heiglit growth in early youth.

D. Density of stand. Every ruling species shows a particu-
lar density of cover and a particular ramification during every
stage of its life, when grown in pure forests.

I. Density of leaf cover overhead.

a. The form of the crown of the individual depends on side-
shade, topshade, neighborly friction and quality of soil.

b. Natural regeneration causes a greater density of cover than
artificial regeneration, certainly during the thicket and pole stage.
Other influencing factors are: quality of the soil, age of the forest,
inroads by snow break, wind fall, fire, deer, fungi, insects.

c. A dense canopy overhead produces clear-boled timber and
allows of a heavy layer of humus on the ground. The method of
regeneration distinctly influences the value of the timber to be
formed.

II. Number of trees per acre.

Under normal conditions an acre of pure forest contains the
more specimens of equal height or diameter, the better the quality
of the soil and the better the climate; and the more specimens of

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

the same age, the poorer these factors are
Pine Forests:

Xuiiiber of trees per acre.

Soil. Boles 75' long. Diameter 12".

I qmility... 320 240

II quality... 240 215

III quality... 190 190

For e.xample — Yellow

Age 60 y IS.
380
4G0
540

During the pole stage and tree stage, shade bearers exhibit per
acre of ground about 507o more trees than light demanders.

The following curve illustrates the interdependence between age
and number of trees 'ler acre:

of

trees

per

10,000

5,000

2,500

1,000

900

800

700

600

.500

400

300

200

100

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

When the forest is

rO 80 90 100 120 130 140 1.50 160 170 180
years old.

III. Growing space of a tree.

In their earliest youth nil species stand or even desire a dense
cover overhead. When the food supply stored in the seed shell is
consumed, however, the seedling requires light to digest its food.
With increasing age, the tree boles getting longer, the crowns rub
and beat one another intensely, oscillating in the wind. As a con-
sequence each crown is surrounded with an air space, the relative
width of which depends largely on the length and the flexibility of
the bole. It might be stated that the growing space of a tree is a
function of the square of the gradually lengthening bole.

Trees differ in the ease with which warring neighbors lose their
buds and shoots. Oak, for example, loses its May shoots easily,
whilst Beech, struggling with Oak, loses but a few leaves along its

33

A ]\I E R I C A N S Y L V I C U L T U R E

flexile swaying twigs. In heavy storms Yellow Pine often loses
wliol^ branches. White Pine, on the other hand, does not lose its
shoots (topshoots) easily, unless they are whipped in the wind
by the stiff branches of Black Locust, Beech, ]\[aple. Aspen, etc.,
forming a superstructure above it. The top shoots of the taller
individuals are immune from harm. Thus a tree, once in the lead
of its competitors, has a good chance to retain the lead over them.

IV. Grades of density of cover are: Pressed cover, Close cover,
Light cover and Open cover. Xo strict definition of these terms can
be given. Obviously the number of stems under pressed conditions
is very large, and under open conditions very small.

Indications of a normal cover are:

a. Relation between length of crown and length of bole.

b. Xormal diameter growth and height growth.

c. Proper participation of the various diameter classes in the
volume of wood at hand. The normal participation in a pure, even-
aged wood is for the

1st. Diameter class, 40% of total volume.
2nd. Diameter class, 24% of total volume.
3rd. Diameter class, 17% of total volume.
4th. Diameter class, 12% of total volume.
5th. Diameter class, 7% of total volume.

If cover overhead is too dense, the first diameter class shows
over 40% of volume and vice versa.

V. In nature, the same causes necessarily havo the same result.
The causes of timber production are soil and atmospheric food " fall-
ing " onto the soil in the shape of sunshine, moisture and air.
Hence, whatever the species are, it seems as if the acre of ground,
fully stocked, must produce on the annual average the same weight
of timber, though not the same volume of timber. Thus, ceteris
paribus, species of light specific gravity are the best volume pro-
ducers. Since, however, shade-bearing species are better digestors
of atmospheric and terrestrial food, the largest growth per acre
per annum is obtained from shade bearers and " intermediates " of
light weight (Hemlock, Spruce, Fir, Douglas Fir, White Pine, etc.).

In the virgin forest the annual production of wood fibre is
exactly offset by the annual death and decay of wood fibre. The
virgin forest is a forest seemingly in economic stagnation.

VI. The sectional area of a tree usually measured chest high
(41/0 feet above ground), inclusive of bark, is the area of the circle
corresponding with the diameter measured chest high.

34

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The sectional area of an acre of forest is tlio sum total of the
sectional areas of the trees standing thereon. It rarely exceeds one-
half per cent, of the acreage of the ground, or 218 square feet per
acre. On the Pacific Coast, more than twice this figure is reached
by the Douglas Fir.

E. Rotation.

By rotation is understood the number of years Avhich a seedling
requires to reach maturity. For a second growth in America,
rotations will vary in length from 60 years to 160 years, according
to the species and local conditions. During a rotation a wood lot
may pass through the cleaning stages, thinning stages, the stage
of preparatory cutting, the seed-cutting stage and the stage of final
removal. Out of thousands of specimens borne, but a few dozen
persist to the end of 'the rotation.

F. Size classes and age classes.

I. Pinchot adopts the following seven age classes or size classes
of trees in his "Primer: "

a. Seedlings, up to 3 feet high.

b. Small saplings, from 3 to 10 feet high.

c. Large saplings, 10 feet high to 4 inches diameter.

d. Small poles, from 4 inches to 8 inches diameter.

e. Large poles, from 8 inches to 12 inches diameter.

f. Standards, from 12 inches to 24 inches diameter.

g. Veterans, over 24 inches diameter.

IL During the sapling stage, the specimens form a thicket;
during the pole stage, they form a polewood; and during the
standard and veteran stage, a tree forest.

III. During the thinning stage (pole stages) of trees in an even-
aged wood, the following classes of mess-mates might be distin-
guished :

a. After Schlich, " Dominant," " Dominated," " Suppressed, yet
alive," and "Dead."

b. After Pinchot, " Dominant," " Retarded," and " Overtopped."

c. The usual classification, adopted by German foresters after
Krafft is:

1. Predominating trees, having crown strikingly well developed.

2. Dominating trees. With well-developed crowns, forming the
main cover overhead.

3. Condominating trees, with crowns of a fairly normal form,
but of somewhat poor vigor, carrying, however, their crowns within
the level of the main canopy.

35

A :\1 E R I C A X 8 Y L V I C U L T U R E

4. Dominated trees with ciowns more or less crippled or pressed
from tlie sides, subdivided into two sub-classes, viz.:

a. ;Most of crown free from cover overhead.

b. Most of crown underneath cover overhead.

5. Trees absolutely suppressed, standing entirely under the cover
of others.

G. Even-aged woods:

Woods, the components of which ditl'er in age by less than 25
years, are called " even-aged woods." The struggle for existence
between even-aged comrades can be alleviated readily by the for-
ester's interference.

In America, even-aged woods may be formed:

I. By Long Leaf and by Cuban Pine.

n. By .Jack Pine and Lbdgepole Pine.

IIL By Bald Cypress.

IV. By Douglas Fir.

V. By Pinus echinata, taeda, strobus, ponderosa, virginiana on
abandoned fields.

H. Distribution of species.

The vertical distribution of the species depen-'s on the latitude
and the proximity of the ocean, j)r better on sea winds. In the
neighborhood of Biltmore, the* following altitudes may be given:

Spruce and Fir — 5,500 feet.

Beech— 3,000 to 6,000 feet.

Hemlock— 3,000 to 3,800 feet.

Chestnut— 2,000 to 5,000 feet.

Chestnut Oak— 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

Pignut Hickory— 3,000 feet.

Bitternut Hickory— 3,800 feet.

Black Cherry— 3,500 to 5,000 feet.

Pinus virginiana— 2,000 to 2,500 feet.

Pinus strobus— 2,000 to 3,500 feet.

Yellow Poplar— 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

Buckeye— 4,000 to 6,000 feet.

Red Oak— 2,000 to 5,500 feet.

White Oak— 2,000 to 5,000 feet.

S])anish Oak— 2,000 to 3,800 feet.

Post Oak— 2,000 to 3,000 feet.

Black Oak— 2,000 to 3,600 feet.

Echinata— 2,000 to 2,600 feet.

Rigida— 2,000 to 3,.500 feet.

Pungens — 4,500 feet.

36

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Locust— 2,000 to 5,500 feet.

Black Gum— 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

Every species, thrives best in certain centers, which are few in
the case of the exacting and numerous in the case of modest
species like Yellow Pine, both east and west.

Aside from vertical and horizontal elevation, the influence on
■distribution exercised by storm, snow and sleet is very marked.

Paragraph VI. Li^ht demanders and shade
bearers.

A. A plant is termed the more shade bearing or tolerant

of shade, the less light it requires for the functions of assimilation,
breathing, perspiration, flowering and fruiting. Only parasites live
-without light, and hence without chlorophyl.

B. The follcnring characteristics, in their aggregate and
•not singly, may lead the observer to classify a tree as a shade
'bearer :

I. Dense leaf canopy.

II. Leaves thin, dark, flat, numerovis, not glossy, not downy,
not bunched at the ends of the branches, with blades spread hori-
zontally, withering quickly after separation from the branch.

III. Thin bark.

IV. Thick sapwood.

V. Branches persistent, spread flat or pointing downward, com-
paratively thin and interlacing. Crowns long.

VI. Little live soil cover, and a heavy layer of dead humus
underneath leaf canopy.

VII. Dense stand of trees.

C. Factors influencing the relative demand for light

within one and the same species are:

I. Latitude and hence intensity of insolation.

II. Site, which may be in the heart of a continent, or else at
the edge of an ocean.

III. Exposure.

IV. Fertility of soil, and hence digestive power.

V. Age of plants.

VI. Distance between the crown levels of the shaded and of
the shading trees.

Instances for I and III:

37

A M E K I C AN S Y L V I C U L T U K E

White Pine is, in the Soutii, almost shade bearing; in the
North, it is almost light demanding.

Yellow Poplar stands heavy shading overhead on fertile soil.

D. The woody species, in their relative order of resistance
against heavy shading, might be arranged as follows:

I. Relative order for the Southern Appalachians:

Witch Hazel.

Dogwood.

Fir.

Hemlock.

Hard Maple.

Chinquapin.

Black Gum.

Spruce.

Linden.

Soft Maple.

White Pine.

Pinus virginiana.

Chestnut.

Red Oak.

^Vhite Oak.

Chestnut Oak.

Ash.

Spanish Oak.

Black Oak.

Finger Oak.

Post Oak.

Pinus rigida.

Black Locust.

Poplar.

Hickory.

Pinus echinata.

Sassafras.

Unfortunately, at Biltmore, shade bearers are usually weeds
interfering with the valuable species.

II. Pinchot gives the following schedule for the Adirondacks:

Hard Maple.

Beech.

Hemlock.

Spruce.

Balsam.

38

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Soft Maple.

Birch.

White Pine (intermediate).

Black Cherry.

Black and White Ash.

Bird Cherry.

Cottonwood.

Tamarack.
The trees above Wliite Pine, Pinchot calls " tolerant " and those
below White Pine, " intolerant of shade." Species neither tolerant
nor intolerant are " intermediates."

III. The leading species of the United States, classed according
to light or siiade-demanding qualities are:

a. Eastern Conifers:

Long Leaf Pine — distinctly intolerant of shade.
/ /Echinata — light demander.
y' Taeda — intermediate.
7 Virginia — intermediate.

Rigida — not so tolerant as Virginiana.
; <:Bald Cypress — light demander.
^T^Chamaecyparis spheroidea — shade bearer.
J'Spruce — fair shade bearer.
' Balsam — intense shade bearer,
i- Hemlock — intense shade bearer.
j ^ Tamarack^ — light demander.
J5 Arbor vitae — shade bearer.
■ White Pine — intermediate.

Jack Pine — liglit demanding towards intermediate.
j I Norway Pine — light demander.

b. Eastern hardwoods:

/ Beech — shade bearer.

Hard Maple — shade bearer.
Silver Maple — shade bearer.
Red Maple — shade bearer.
Black Gum — shade bearer.
/ " Sourwood — light demander.
/ '- Locust — light demander.
/ •^^ Yellow Poplar — light demander.
Chestnut — intermediate.
Oaks— light demanders (White and Red Oak stand shade

when yoving).
Elm — shade bearer.

39

•/

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Riicli — light deniander or intt>rniediate.

Black Walnut — intermediate.

Linden — shade bearer.
rx Umbrella tree — less light demanding than Yellow P()[)lar.
/ "^ Cucumber — less light demanding than Yellow Poplar.

Sycamore — medium shade bearer.

Willows and Cottonwoods — light demanders.

Li(|uidanibar — light deniander.

Hickories — light demanders.
Western Conifers:

Douglas Fir — intermediate.

Ponderosa — light deniander.

Nut Pines — intense light deniander.

Lodgejiole Pine — intermediate.

Sugar Pine — intense light deniander.

Lawson Cypress — intense shade bearer.

Tide-land Spruce — shade bearer.

Redwood — shade beafer.

Western Hemlock — intense shade bearer.

Western Firs — intense shade bearers.

Larch — intense light demander.

Englemann's Spruce — shade bearer.

Colorado Blue Spruce — shade bearer.

Paragraph VII. Pure versus mixed woods.

A. Conditions inviting pure ^voods and mixed woods.

Conifers are more apt to grow in pure forests, owing to tlieir
greater modesty. Abroad, up to a very recent time, the desire of
the forester was to raise mixed woods, but quite recently the
■" Danish propaganda " has turned tlio minds of some foresters back
to pure woods.

Severe climatic conditions and poor soil conditions invariably
give one species the preponderance; for example: Bald Cypress rules
in the swamps of the South, Tamarack in those of the North; Nut
Pines prevail in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest; Long
Leaf Pine on poor sand in the South; Cuban Pine in half swamps of
the South; Red Spruce on the "Black Slopes" of New England;
White Spruce in Northern Canada; Lodgepole Pines on old burns;
Jack Pine on poor sand in the Lake States.

Pure forests are sometimes in the interest of the owner, for
40

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

example: Pure Spruce near paper mills; Hickory near carriage
works; Tan Bark Oak near tanneries.

A long rotation often leads to a pure forest, a short-lived
admixture being gradually pressed out.

Abroad the forester is required to maintain the fertility and
productiveness of the soil. Since light-demanding species allow
the soil to be baked by the sun during the pole and tree stage
of the forest when grown purely, an admixture of shade bearers
is advisable and is obtained by underplanting.

B. Kinds of mixture.

A mixture may be temporary or permanent; a mixture may
be even aged or uneven aged; the species may or may not differ
in height growth; the mixture may be composed of single indi-
viduals; or of strips, rows, bunches, groups; or it may show an
irregular character.

In the course of time the original character of the mixture
can be changed entirely by the forester or by nature.

C Advantages of mixtures.

Mixed forests take advantage of existing differences of soil
qualities; the moisture-demanding species gradually claiming the
dells and the more modest kinds obtaining preponderance on the
dry plateaus or spurs.

A mixture may form a preventive against late frost.

A mixture is better protected against damages by fire, insects,
fungi, storms, snow, etc. At Biltmore, White Pine protects the
Shortleaf Pine admirably, where the two are raised in alternating
rows, during the thicket stage against damage by snow.

A mixture produces a better quality of humus (Pine and Oak
humus is better than pure Oak humus or pure Pine humus.)

A mixture produces a larger quantity of timber for the above
reasons in addition to the fact that a mixture allows its com-
ponents to more fully utilize the productive factors of the air
as well as those of the soil throvigh

a. Difference of crown formation, crown levels, crown density;

b. Difference in root system (tap and flat-rooters mixed) ;

c. Difference in mineral and light requirements.

A mixture also tends to produce cleaner timber, — certainly so
for the benefit of light demanders when placed in mixture with
shade bearers.

For all these reasons a mixed forest may be said to produce a
larger and safer revenue than a pure forest.

41

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

\'aluable species miglit be raised beyond tlie limits of their
liabitnt in mixed forests.

D. Objections to mixed forest.

The administrative and the sylvicultural management of mixed
woods is more difficult and hence more expensive than that of
pure woods.

In America logging expenses are much increased where only
one species can be utilized in mixed forests. Logging for Spruce
on " Black Spruce Slopes " in the Adirondacks is relatively cheaper
per thousand feet board measure than logging for Spruce where
Spruce forms but one-third of the growing stock. This objection
does not hold good, of course, where all species are marketable at
the same time. Still, the logging, milling and marketing of
numerous kinds is more difficult than that of a few.

E. Rules governing the composition of a mixture and
rules for treating mixed forests (holding good for artificial and
semi -artificial forests) :

I. Species selected for a mixture must improve one another.

II. Each species should occupy that section of ground on which
it thrives best.

III., The mixture should at least maintain the productiveness
of the soil.

IV. A light-demanding species mixed with a sliade bearer must
either be given an advance in age or else must naturally possess-
an advantage in rapidity of height growth; otherwise it soon dis-
appears. This relative height growth is not a fixed quantity; it
usually differs according to the soil and to the climate.

V. The denser the forest cover is, the earlier and the more
intense must be the help given to the species likely to be suppressed
(Sassafras and Locust in mixture with Chestnut).

After Henry Mayr, species which are botanically dift'erent, form
the most natural mixture (Oak and Pine at Biltmore; Birch and
Spruce in Balsams; White Pine, Linden and Elm in Michigan). The
number of exceptions to this rule is great (Norway and Jack Pine in
Michigan; Red Firs and White Firs in the Pacific Coast States).

Paragraph VIII. Dr. Henry Mayr's fundamental
principles of Sylviculture.

A. Forest is possible only wlicrc the mean temperature of
the four montlis of most active growth averages 50 degrees Faht..
or over.

42

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

B. A mean summer temperature (May to August) of 53
to 59 degrees Faht. produces the Fir and Spruce zone of Europe,,
Asia and America. A mean summer temperature of 59 to 64
degrees is productive of Beech, also of White Oak, Maple, Hemlock
and Chamaecyparis. A knowledge of the summer mean is essential
when introducing exotics. A knowledge of the possibilities of forest
growth in a given country implies a knowledge of the mean summer
temperature.

Some very modest trees are unreliable as indicators or ther-
mometers (e. g. Pinus echinata, Pinus ponderosa).

C. A species may be grown far from its original habitation^
provided that the local climate of the new region is analogous to
that of the old. If the exotic comes from a warmer climate, it
should be placed on south ylopes with plenty of sun; if it comes
from a colder climate it should be placed in moist soil and on
cool aspects. There is no such thing as adaptation of trees to a
different climate, or as acclimatization of trees. Walnut, Peach,
and Black Locust have been grown in Germany for centuries, be-
cause the climate of naturalization was and is essentially identical
with that of the natural habitat of the trees.

D. Tree specimens of a cold climate do not possess in.
themselves any special power of resistance to frost. It is useless to
import seeds from colder climates in the hope of obtaining greater
hardiness.

E. Species of trees growing in hot localities or else in
open stands place comparatively small claims on the fertility of the
soil. All species bear shade better when brought to a warmer
climate and require more light when brought to a colder one.

F. In level countries, at not over 500 feet elevation, the
habitation of a species depends on latitude considerably modified
by sea winds. In many countries, away from the ocean, that
modification is so strong as to create a dependence of the habitation
more on longitudes than on latitudes. In high mountain regions,
altitude may produce effects similar to those of latitude: it is,
therefore, a mistake to label one species as a mountain species and
another as a plains' species. In Eastern North America Picea
rubens, in Western North America Douglas Fir, also Abies grandis
and amabilis, bear witness to this truism.

G. The climatic needs of a species are better characterized
by the forest zone than by the latitude or the altitude at which or
up to which it grows. Even a knowledge of altitude and latitude

43

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

combined furnishes insufficient information relative to such climatic
needs.

H. If there are found two neighboring species of the

same genuo in a given climatic zone, it is safe to assume that these
two species were not mix?d originally, but that each had its dis-
tinct habitation and that the mixture is due to the action of man.

I. In primitive forests, the species which harmonize are

those which diflVr botanically.

J. When two kinds are so alike as to be almost varieties
but have, nevertheless, different climatic needs, then they are, in
reality, true and distinct species (Douglas Fir in Colorado and
Oregon ) .

K. Frost injury is always due to the death of the Plas-
modium killed by the direct action of the frost. The plasmodium
is most sensitive during the time of cell formation and of active
growth. The plasmodium in the inert stage, as in seeds, is actually
insensitive.

L. All species become more hardy as they grow older. This
is simply due to the trees rising above the cold layers of tempera-
ture near the ground and to the greater thickness and mass of the
trunk, resisting rapid changes of temperature.

M. The degree of moisture in the air required for forest
^owtli is 50% relative humidity during the growing season. The
broad-leaved trees and the two and three needled Pines are the
species best adapted to regions of extreme dryness or of sudden
changes in atmospheric moisture.

N. The association of trees into a forest has the effect
of increasing tlie relative humidity by not to exceed 10%. Hence
the necessity of maintaining forest in regions where the tension of
watery vapor is close to 50%. The partial destruction of a forest
may entail the death of the remainder rendering reforestation im-
possible unless it is started from the nearest adjoining forest.
Inside a forest the greater atmospheric humidity acts as beneficially
aa a moist ocean wind, lacking, however, the latter's violence.

O. It is in moist, cool localities (mountains and northern
climate) that climate variations are the least extreme during the
growing season. It is here that the annual rings are equal, the
grain fine and regular, and the timber of the greatest commercial
utility.

44

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

•P. The moister the climate, the easier becomes forest cul-
ture, and the forester is apt to make the least mistakes in thin-
nings, regeneration fellings, etc. Air moisture seems to exercise a
favorable influence on the straightness of tJie stems.

Q. A failure of rain for several days may be fatal

to young plants. The faculty of persistence increases with age,
and the grown trees can endure long periods of drought. If,
however, the lack of rain is such as to bring the sum total of
precipitations during the four months of the growing season below
the two-inch mark, then the forest disappears, even if the humidity
of the air remains above 50%. Exception: Immediate neighbor-
hood of lakes and rivers with their sub- soil percolation.

R. A fairly moist soil is the best for all species in
their optimum climate. In hotter places the locality must be more
damp, while in colder ones it may be dry without hindering growth
(White Pine in the Southern Appalachians in swamps, in Canada on
dry soil; Sitka Spruce in W^ashington on wet land; In Alaska on
dry land).

S. Snoiv protects those parts of a plant which it covers;
it increases the danger, however, for the parts just above the snow
level. Snowy winters are, therefore, useful to low plants, but
harmful to trees.

T, As regards the winds, the most dangerous are those
following the direction of the barometric minima, which travel in
North America and in Europe from west to east; in East Asia
from south to north. Next dangerous are the winds traveling in
the opposite direction, whilst those from other points of the com-
pass are more harmless. Every mountain, however, creates a de-
flection of the current and possibly a return in the opposite
direction.

U. In their youth, the trees are almost indiff'erent to the
quality of the soil; with increasing age their exigencies increase.
Thus plantations on poor soil may thrive well for a number of
years, to be suddenly arrested at the beginning of the pole stage.

V. In their most suitable situation (natural optimum) a
species succeeds on soil of any mineral descrijition. Ih a less favor-
able climate the soil requirements of the species increase.

W. The light most favorable to activity of the chlorophyl
is not the light of the blazing sun, nor is it the diff'used light
coming through rain or fog, but that light which is reflected by
45

AMERICAN. SYLVICULTURE

brilliant white clouds. Leaf cover overhead is favorable when it
filters the rays of a burning sun and unfavorable when it excessively
reduces the intensity of insolation. LTnder a continental climate,
cloudless days are more numerous than near the coast. The influ-
ence of thinnings and removal cuttings on the remaining growth,
consequently, depends on the continental position of a forest, — not
solely on species and soil.

X. The regeneration of forests approaching exploitable age
is easiest in their optimum climate. If the climate is too warm,
seed will be more abundant, and the young plants will endure cover
better. The moisture of the air, however, is wanting, and the
denser cover overhead may intercept too much of the needed rain-
fall.

If the climate is too cold, the moisture of the air indeed
increases; but the production of seeds and the persistence under
■cover decrease.

Y. In mixed forests, artificial regeneration is more diffi-
cult than natural regeneration. A clean felling results in a capri-
cious complication of natui-al laws and phenomena whose contrary
actions are not easily understood. Natural regeneration, a mixture
of species suitable to the locality, a crop resembling as closely as
possible the primitive state, such are the conditions which the
forester should seek to realize for the avoidance of dangers as well
as for the greatest possible yield of the most valuable produce. No
method of treatment harmonizes better with nature's laws than
the so-called selection system, when each tree is placed in a con-
dition most favorable to its development, and when no single tree
is removed for a purpose other than that of regeneration or im-
provement of the crop.

46

CHAPTER II
THE SEED FOREST
Paragraph IX. Genesis of the seed forest.

A second growth can be started or born either naturally (from
stump shoots, root suckers and self-sown seed) or artificially (by .
planting seeds, seedlings or cuttings). Forests born from stump
sprouts, root suckers and cuttings are called " coppice forests " or
" sprout forests." Forests born from seeds or seedlings are termed
" high forests " or " seed forests."

A. Planting in Europe.

Prior to the year 1830, the European foresters did not know,
practically speaking, of forest nurseries. The forests were regener-
ated by Natural Seed Regeneration (N". S. R., pronounce "enesar"),
where seed forests were desired, or else were raised by planting
the tree seeds directly on the site where the second growth was
intended to stand.

Since the year 1830, seedlings, raised in forest nurseries, were
planted on an increasing scale. Now-a-days, in central Europe, the
forester bent on artificial regeneration of his stand of timber prefers
planted seedlings to seeds directly planted, especially in the case
of Yellow and White Pine, Spruce, Ash, Maple and Larch. Beech
and Fir are invariably regenerated abroad from self-sown seed;
also Oak in France, while in Germany acorns are planted usually.

B. Advisability of planting in America.

Excepting the case of the prairies and, possibly, the case of
fields abandoned by farmers in the Eastern States, the idea of arti-
ficial propagation of forest crops (by planting) seems preposterous
in America. As long as an acre of virgin forest can be bought for
a lesser sum of money than is required, in the same locality, for the
successful re-forestation of an acre of ground, the chances for a
remunerative outcome of planting seem slim. However, the fol-
lowing points should not be lost sight of:

I. The stumpage prices apt to prevail in America in the year
1960 are likely to equal those now prevailing abroad. Hence the
47

A M E R I C A N S Y L V I C U L T U R E

same practice wliioh is now remuneiative abroad must prove paying
in tiiis country; possibly more paying for the .reason that the value
of the soil on which the growing crop must yield an annual dividend
is abroad about ten times as high as it is in the United States.

II. An expense for taxes and administration is incurred annually
by the forest owner, whether the ground is kept fully or only
partly stocked; hence it seems a remunerative venture to — at least —
reinforce natural regeneration by artificial planting.

III. The growth of weeds naturally plentiful in primeval con-
ditions cannot be overcome unless radical artificial remedies are
adopted.

C. On the otlier hand, tlie following objections to planting
must be considered:

I. As long as the American forest is much endangered by fire, it
is unwise to invest any money in young growth for which the
danger of destruction by fire is excessive.

II. Trees of a condition now considered "weeds" may gradually
attain a stumpage value (as Chestnut at Biltmore).

III. Even European forestry is now reverting to a natural propa-
gation of forests owing to the dangers usually inherent to artificial
planting.

D. Definitions.

The word reforestation is used if the area to be planted has
been previously occupied by tree growth.

The word afforestation is used if there was no tree growth on-
the plot for a number of years beforehand.

The term " direct seeding " is applied, by the Forest Service of
the United States, to reforestation in all cases where the seeds are
planted precisely on those sites in which the trees are meant to be
raised.

Direct seeding is distinguished from indirect seeding or seeding
in nurseries. In the latter case, the seeds are planted within forest
nurseries, on seedbeds. The seedlings raised in the nurseries are
planted (" Qutplanted ") on those sites wliich the trees are meant
to re-stock.

Paragraph X. The Seed.

The (juality of seeds is shown by their size, weight, color, scent.
A tree standing in an open position, not too young and not too old,.
]iroduces the best seeds.

48

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

A. Seed years:

The atmospheric condition of the year or years during which
tlie seed is formed influence the quality of the seed. Drought in
summer and early frosts in fall cause the seeds to drop immature.
Black Oaks and Pines require two years for the formation of seeds.
Juniper three years. It seems as if all trees require a number of
years for the preparation of seeds, inasmuch as the medullary rays
before a seed year are found full of starch, and after a seed year
devoid of starch. This phenomenon may explain the periodical
occurrence of seed years in Bamboo and Canebrakes, in Chestnut,
Oak, Beech, Pine, etc.

The length of the period elapsing between seed years depends on
the local climate and the position of the trees, being short for trees
standing in orchard-like positions on warm and sheltered ground
where abundant heat allows of the rapid accumulation of starch.

B. Rest:

After dropping from the tree, all seeds undergo a period of rest
in our climate. This rest is very short in the case of Cottonwood,
Willow, Elm and Soft Maple. In the majority of cases, in Eastern
North America, it lasts from November to April. In rare cases
(C4erman Ash, German Linden, Red Cedar, Hornbeam) the period of
inactivity covers about seventeen months. Seeds which get too dry
while stored, often show a prolonged period of rest. For White
Oak acorns the period of rest is but one month; for Red Oak acorns
five months. The assumption that frost is required during the
resting period for the benefit of the seed is erroneous. The germin-
ating percentage is greatest immediately at the conclusion of the
period of rest.

C. Tests:

Germinating tests are made with from 50 to 200 grains.

I. Water test applicable to large seeds. Thrown in water, the
good seeds will sink, and the bad seeds will float.

II. Cutting tests, made with a knife, used for testing acorns,
chestnuts, nuts of Nutpines, also seeds of Ash, Yellow Poplar,
Beech, etc.

III. Hot-pan tests for conifers, which causes good seeds to jump
and burst, poor seeds to burn and char.

IV. Pot tests made in the following manner: Fill the lower half
of a flower pot with sawdust, the upper half with sand in which the
seeds are imbedded. Place the pot in a basin partially filled with
water, in a warm room.

49

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

V. Flannel test: Place the seeds between two strips of flannel
kept moist by running their ends into a bowl of water standing at
a lower level.

VI. Test in the commercial-test apparatus, which consists of a
bottom plate (glass or china), a bell-shaped top (same material) and
a clay disk containinng 100 small grooves, which fits into the bottom
plate. All three parts are open in the center. The clay disk is
burned in such a way as to retain good hygroscopic qualities, and is
boiled for a number of hours (in water) before using, to kill adher-
ent spores of fungi. Moist sand is kept between the disk and the
bottom plate. The grains of seed are inserted into the grooves.

Paragraph XI. Preparations for direct seeding.

The germinating bed must offer the seed a proper, constant and
equal supply of heat, oxygen and moisture. The actual amount of
heat, oxygen and moisture required has not been ascertained scien-
tifically. Observation in the woods is the best teacher of tlie condi-
tions securing the largest possible germinating percentage for any
given species.

The preparation for seed-planting may extend over the eniire
area to be planted; or over certain strips which may be inter-
rupted or continuous; or it may merely involve the grubbing of
plots, or the stirring of spots. WTiere the ravages of game are
feared, it is advisable to work the soil irregularly, and not in a
geometric order.

A. Removing the soil covers, such as briars, Kalmia, Cliin-
qviapin, mosses, dead leaves, humus. A plow and grubber (cultivator)
or a harrow can not be used usually for the purpose; the hoe (a
strong make) is largely used abroad; weeds are removed with brush
hooks or scythes or machetes or are, if possible, killed by deaden-
ing. In certain cases, an iron rake might do. Often it is necessary
to remove the cover by fire; fire, however, produces a heavy growth
of weeds on fertile soil (in Pisgah forest).

B. lioosening tlie soil. Just after logging, the soil has
enough porosity to allow of the development of a second growth.
On abandoned fields or in prairies, thorough working with the plow,
often continued for a number of years, may or must precede the act
of planting.

50

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph XII. Securia^ and preparing the
seeds.

A. European tree seeds are usually bought from reliable
dealers, who rival in furnishing the best seed at the lowest price,
guaranteeing a certain percentage to germinate. In America, the
forester must secure seeds himself, collecting them by contract, or
preferably, by day work. Some European sylviculturists insist that
seeds should be taken from the best and strongest trees exclusively.
Mayr considers special care superfluous.

The experiments conducted at Trippstadt, Germany, in con-
nection with this problem, are of intense interest: Seeds of Pinus
sylvestris were obtained from Finland, Belgium, Hungary, France,
and Bavaria; were planted in the same nurseries; and were out-
planted on the same planting site, by the same workmen and at the
same time. After seven years from the time of planting, the planta-
tions made with the various local strains or varieties of one and the
same botanical species, Pinus sylvestris, exhibit very striking con-
trasts in their respective rates of growth, in their ramification,
in their endurance of atmospheric calamities, in the ease of sub-
duing the weeds surrounding the young plants, etc.

B. By " coning " is understood the extrication of coniferous
seeds from the cones encasing them. " Coning " of Spruce, Pine,
Eir and Larch on a commercial scale is practiced in Europe by Henry
Keller, Appel & Co. and A. Lecoq, all of Darmstadt, Germany.

Certain Pine species (Nutpines) have wingless seeds. The wings
of other Pine seeds hold the grain in a claw.

The seed of Spruce lies in the wing as in a spoon; the seed of
Larch and Fir is attached to the wing and is not easily separated.

Among the broad-leafed " cone bearers " — Alders, Birches and
Magnolias — the " coning " of Magnolias alone offers some difficulties.

L The methods of "coning" are as follows:

a. Coning by insolation, the oldest and safest method. Traya,
the bottoms of which contain open lath work or wire netting, are
placed in the sun and removed to a shed if rain threatens to fall.
The cones are spread on the trays in. layers not over two cones deep
and are stirred with a rake. In place of trays, drums might be used
to good advantage. In New Mexico, the cones are spread on beaten
clay soil. At Biltmore, flat barn roofs have answered the purpose.
In a cold climate the sun process allows the seeds to be obtained
but at a time too late for seed planting. The germinating per-
■centage of seeds obtained by the sun process is, otherwise, superior
to that of seeds coned by other methods.
51

A M K K I C A N SYLVICULTURE

b. Coning by stove heat.

It is essential that the heat in the coning room should not
reach 110 degrees. Thorough ventilation is required to prevent
sweating and moulding of cones. The cones are spread in the
coning-room in thin laj-ers on shelves or screens, through the inter-
stices of which the seeds drop. The cones are stirred three or four
times a day.

It is unwise to have the stove in tlie coning-room. An American
liot-air furnace in the basement is well adapted to furnish the heat.

Many of the large European forest administrations have such
or similar arrangements for coning.

c. Commerical method.

In the commerical establishments, heat is supplied by steam
pipes, controlled by automatic devices. The trays or drums are
kept in a rocking motion by machinery. The" seeds, after falling
through the interstices of the trays, are at once conducted to a^
cool room.

II. Separating the seeds from their wings.

In the case of Pine and Spruce seeds, flailing is sufficient. It
is not advisable to wet the seeds before flailing. For Larch, rubber
millstones are used, the distance between the stones being equal
to the smallest diameter of the seed.

III. Cleaning the seed from dust, needles and wings. The seeds
are freed from admixtures by fanning, shoveling, centrifuge or any
grain-cleaning machine. The large commercial establishments drop
the seeds on endless rolls of cloth, which are moving on an incline.
The heavy seeds slide down, whilst dust and wings are carried
uphill.

IV. Work of the U. S. Forest Service:

a. Extracting seeds: The Forest Service obtains tile seeds of
Douglas Fir, of Spruce, and of Pine in the West by drying the cones
on canvas. The canvas is raised above the ground during wet
spells and rolled up into a sack if need be. The cones of Lodge
Pole Pine can be collected in summer. The Lodge Pole cones might
be soaked before drying, to facilitate opening. Twelve square feet
of canvas are required, on an average, per bushel of cones. Tempera-
tures of 140 degrees reduce the vitality of the seeds.

b. Cleaning: For the cleaning of seeds are used:

(a) Fanning mills.

(b) Corn shellers.

(c) Two boards, in the case of Juniper berries, between

which the berries are rubbed.
52

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH
c. Results of Forest Service seed collection:

Species

Germi-
nating
percent-
age

No. of

lbs.

per
bushel

Seeds
per lb.

Cost
per lb.

Commer-
cial
price
per lb.

55
75
51
86
83
51
67
57
55

18
60

4

1.1

1

8'

43,000

9,000-13,500

2,400

3,100

120,000

400,000

400,000

28,000

26,000

55,000

75,000

175,000

$1.20
0.80

0^50
4.00

2^00
1.26

3 '.00
1.50
1.20

$2.50

Western Yellow Pine

Sugar Pine . .

Jeffrey Pine

Xodge Pole

Sitka Spruce

2.25
3.00-7^00

Western Red Cedar

Western White Pine

Eastern White Pine

Red Pine

4.00
3.00-4.00

Engelniann Spruce

Coulter Pine

4.25
3 00

All of the data tabulated refer to cleaned seeds, free from wings, dust and dirt.

V. Statistical notes.

a. Spruce in the Adirondacks (after Clifford R. Pettis).

1. Cost of picking cones 50 cents- per bushel (green).

2. One bushel of green cones yields tAvo bushels of dry cones,
^containing ly^ pounds equal to I1/2 quarts of Spruce seeds.

3. One bushel of cones weighs 60 pounds, one bushel of seeds
40 pounds.

4. One pound of seed contains 150,000 grains.

5. It costs 95 cents to collect, cone and clean one pound of seeds.

b. White Pine at Biltmore.

1. 100 bushels of cones will weigh 2,200 pounds (a "long ton").

2. One bushel contains 600 to 700 cones, and yields, on an
.average, Vo pound of absolutely clean, wingless seeds.

3. One pound of such seed contains 25,000 to 30,000 grains.

c. Yellow Pine (ponderosa) in New Mexico (after Wm. H. Mast).

1. One bushel of cones yields 1.55 pounds of clean seed.

2. The expense of collecting, coning and cleaning averages
•23 cents per pound.

d. Colorado Blue Spruce in New Mexico (after Wm. H. Mast).

1. One bushel of cones yields 1.2 pounds of clean seeds.

2. The expense of coning, collecting and cleaning averages 23
■<;ents per pound.

e. Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata) at Biltmore.

One bushel of cones yields one pound of clean, wingless seeds
:at an expense of $1.00 per pound.
53

A M E K I C A X S Y L ^' I C U L T U R E

C. Seeds stored beyond the duration of their natural

period of rest sliow a reduced percentage of germination. The per-
centage might be increased by the use of slightly acid solutions,.
lime Avater or hot water. Coniferous seeds are often placed in cold
water for three to seven days previous to planting; seeds thus
treated, howcA-er, must be supplied after planting with moisture
artificially if drought sets in.

The United States Forest Service, under the guidance of Mr.
Raphael Zon, has made extensive experiments concerning the best
conditions for the storage of seeds. Seeds were stored at thirteen
different locations, so as to get the influence of the locality on
retention of vitality. At each locality one part of the seeds was
kept in the office above freezing, another in an outside barn, and
a third in a cellar. Storing in basements has proven best so far.
Seeds stored in Colorado and New Mexico were best as to locality.
In Washington City, seeds stored at 6 degrees F. gave the best
results.

Tests are now being made showing the influence of the con-
tainer on vitality; amongst these are tested "manila" containers,
bags soaked in paraffin, oil-cloth bags, and sealed glass containers.
The best results were obtained so far in sealed glass containers,
and the poorest in oil-cloth bags.

D. The "malting" of seeds (placing the seeds in heaps,,
moistening them and stirring them in a warm room) is a rather
dangerous procedure. After Weise, Douglas Fir and "\Miite Pine
seeds shoiild be mixed with moist and fertile soil and stable manure,
to be then exposed to a hot-house temperature until, the germs begin
to show. S. B. Green recommends to pour boiling water on the seeds
of Locust, Honey-Locust and Coffee-tree, and to allow the seeds
to remain in the water until it is cold, planting immediately
thereafter.

Paragraph XIII. Direct seeding.

Seeds should not be planted on rainy days, especially not on
clay soil. For broadcast planting, the area to be planted and the
seed are divided into equal lots. The quantity of seed allotted to
the unit of space is divided into halves. Each half is sown
separately by going over the ground crosswise.

Broadcast planting is rare nowadays.

Rough nursery beds, (either nmning full length of the area or
interrupted beds), furrows or banks are frequently provided. Nar-
54

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

row trenches may be pressed into the beds or banks with the help
of a board, a hoe handle or a wheel.

The seed is usually sown by hand, possibly with the help of
a beer bottle, a so-called seed horn, or with a seed-planting machine.
The machine should be used on grovmd as well prepared as a seed-
bed in a nursery. t

" Covering " purports to place or rather press the seeds into
contact Avith the mineral soil on all sides; to prevent sudden
changes of air temperature from striking the seed; to prevent the
seeds from drying out under excessive exposure to the air. The
cover must be such as to allow a young germ to push its cotyle-
dons through the cover easily. The seeds keeping their cotyledons
below ground (Oaks, Sassafras, Chestnut) allow of a heavy cover.

In the case of coniferous seeds, a proper cover is secured with
the rake or with a brush drag; or by marching the planters, a band
of sheep or a herd of cattle over the plantation. Heavy seeds
are often strewn on the ground without any preparation and then
covered with a shovelful of dirt. In America seed-planting in the
open is unadvisable as long as the prices of seeds maintain their
present level.

" Planting of cones " was the leading method used a hundred
years ago by European foresters. The cones were strewn on the
ground and stirred periodically, by sheep, with good results.

Seeds more than one-quarter inch thick, especially nuts, are
usually dibbled with a dibbling hammer, wedge, knife, hoe, spade,
etc. The hole made should place the seed at the best depth. The
hole is closed by side pressure, by the foot or the hammer, or by
allowing a lifted sod to drop back into place. The common plant-
ing spade puts the seeds too deep.

A. The quantity of seeds used per acre depends on:

Price of seed.

Density of stand desired.

Tenderness, sensitiveness and rate of growth of species.

Local damage from late frost, drovight, weeds, insects, mice,
squirrels, rabbits, game, birds, etc.

Quality of both soil and seeds.

Fineness of prepared soil.

Method of planting by hand or machine, regular or irregular,
broadcast or in patchwork. Planting seeds in bands or strips
requires two-thirds or three-fourths of broadcast amount; planting
in patches one-half, in seedspots one-fourth of the quantity required
for broadcasting.

55

A M E K I C A \ SYLVICULTURE

B. Figures adopted at Biltmore for broadcast planting

are, per acre:

White Oak and Chestnut Oak. 12 bu.

Red Oak and BUick Oak, S bu.

Ash, 40 lbs.

Beech, 130 lbs.

Maple, 40 lbs.

Elm, 24 lbs.

Birch, 32 lbs.

Firs, 45 lbs.

Spruce, 10 lbs.

Larch, 10 lbs.

Yellow Pine, 8 lbs.

^Vhite Pine, 12 ibs.

C. Small seeds: Number of seeds in one pound (ap-

proximateljf, all coniferous seeds vvitliout wings) :

Asli 6,200

Elm 55,000

Silver Fir 9,000

Tamarack 70,000

White Pine 30,000

Maple 5,000

Birch 80,000

European Spruce 56,000

Scotch Pine 70,000

Eastern Spruce 150,000

Western Y'ellow Pine 12.000

D. Large seeds: Number of seeds in one bushel are:

^Miite Oak 8,000

Red Oak 3,000

Walnuts 800

E. Work of the Forest Service: The Forest Service has
tried direct seeding — first in 1905, with phenomenal success, in the
Black Hills of South Dakota. Since that time the success obtained
has been more limited. In 1910, approximately 14,000 acres were
planted by direct seeding in the National Forests. Seventy-five
per cent, of all Service planting is seedspot work.

After Raphael Zon, U. S. Forest Service, the following quan-
tities of seed should be used for direct seeding in the National
Forests:

56

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Species of Trees

Pounds per Acre

Broadcast
method

Seedspot
method

3 -5

5 -8
1^3

6 -10
8 -12
li-3

li-2i
6 -8
5 -7
8 -10
8 -10
8 -10
8 -10

7

1
1

P

3
3
3

1'

2

Western Yellow Pine

Engelmann Spruce

Lodge Pole

Western White Pine

Noble Fir

Grand Fir

Red Pine

Arizona Cypress

Big Tree

In the case of seedspots, Mr. R. Zon figures on spots 12-20
inches square, with the sod thrown on the South side, or else below
the spot, the spots to be spaced 6 by 6 feet, and 12 seeds (only) to
be used per spot.

The cost, per acre, incurred by the Forest Service for direct
seeding in the National Forests depends on the character of the
land, the method used, and on the species of trees to be raised.
Mr. R. Zon gives the following figures for three different classes
of land seeded directly:

Cost per Acre

Norway

Yellow

Douglas

Spruce

Pine

Fir

1st .Class:

Level and open country, light soil, no
debris.

$

$

$

(a)

Seed-spot method: Spots 12 in. sq..

6 ft. apart. 12 grains per spot:—

2.10

3.70

2.49

(b)

Double furrows 8 ft. apart, 8 seeds
per foot of furrow, harrowed be-

fore and after seeding:—

3.75

13.03

5.79

(e)

Broadcasting, without soil prepara-

tion, 100,000 seeds per acre:—

1.52

12.62

4.22

2nd.CIass:

New burns on moderately level
ground, large quantities of down
timber: soil, clay-loam.

(a)

Seedspots 12 in. sq., 9 ft. apart. 10-15

seeds per spot: —

1.86

2.55

2.00

(b)

Broadcastmg without soil prepara-

tion:—

1.65

12.75

4.35

3rd Class:

Steep slopes, down timber, loose rock,

(a)

Seedspots, 12 in. sq., 6 ft. by 6 ft.,
ground dug up 4 in. deep, 10-15

seeds per spot: —

2.20

3.89

2.59

(b)

Broadcasting without soil prepara-

tion:—

1.85

12.95

4.55

57

A :M E K I C A N SYLVICULTURE

Paragraph XIV. Season for direct seeding.

For Cottonwoods, Elms (excepting Eed or Slippery Elm), Soft
Maple and Mulberry, the best time of planting is nature's time, —
immediately after the fall of the seeds — in early summer. In the
case of the species enimierated, the period of rest is very short and
the seedlings starting rapidly have time to lignify before winter.
In all other cases the forester may plant either in fall or in spring.
Planting in winter is usually prevented by the condition of the soil.

A. Planting in fall invites:

I. Inroads of animals in winter.

II. Washing of seed when snow melts.

III. Damage from late frost, since planted seeds sprout early
in spring.

B. Spring planting necessitates:

I. Expense for seed storage over winter.

II. Checks during storage, injurious to germinating percentage.

III. Higher expense for planting, the work taking place at a
time when labor is scarce.

Spring planting forms the rule, except with Fir, Beech, Chest-
nut, ^Ylnte Oak.

In semi-tropical regions or places of periodical drought, the best
planting time is the fortnight preceding the rainy period. On dry
soil seeds are planted as early in spring as possible so as to profit
from the moisture left by melting snow.

Seeds which naturally germinate 18 months after maturity
(Red Cedar, Hornbeam, some Ashes, some Basswoods) require strati-
fication: Place seeds, in dry soil, in a ditch ten inches deep and ten
inches wide, to a depth of five inches. Cover seeds with straw and
dry weeds, and finally with dirt. After the lapse of a year the
seeds are ready for planting.

In the Rockies, and also on the Pacific Coa*t, fall seeding is
preferable to spring seeding. It has been found, however, that for
Wyoming and Eastern Montana the early spring, and that for
Arizona and Xew Mexico the summer are the most desirable periods
for direct seeding (R. Zon).

Paragraph XV. Auxiliaries to direct seeding.

A. Means to protect species needing shade in earliest
youth.

I. Plant seeds with oats, barley or summer rye, planting the
grain in quantities not to exceed 75% of the normal. Cut grain
58

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

crops high. This method was used regularly 100 years ago, for
European Pine and White Oak, possibly with a view to early^
retiu-ns, possibly to avert ravages of field mice and birds.

II. Certain species, tender and shade demanding in early youth,
like Beech and Fir, cannot well be raised in the open, unless an
usher growth 12 to 15 years older (of Yellow Pine, Sassafras, Black
Locust, Birch) is previously started on the ground. The usher
growth is gradually removed Avhen the seedlings underneath w^ant
" skylight." In semi-arid parts such usher growth is perhaps
doubly advisable; further in prairies, where Poplars and Willows,
Box Elder and Soft Maple might serve as ushers.

B. Means to protect the seed plantation from animals

and weeds.

I. Against seed-eating animals. Planting in late spring offers
some protection. Planting in sprouting condition protects heavy
seeds from rodents; slight coating of red lead protects conifers
from birds. A watchman might be kept on large plantations, to
scare the birds away. By coating large seeds with tar, crows
might be kept away.

On wild land the damage by rodents is much greater than it is
on land in cultivation or on large burns. Tree seeds are more liked
by birds than are farm grains. In the West, rodents must be
poisoned prior to any direct seeding. The United States Biological
Survey, on the basis of extensive investigations, recommends dif-
ferent poisons for the different rodents, as follows:

(a) Formula for poisoning chip-munks and ground squirrels:

Strychnia sulphide, one ounce, and saccharine, one tea-
spoon, are dissolved in water by boiling. Add one-half cup-
of laundry starch, one quart of water, and boil till the mass
thickens. Then mix the poison with 20 pounds of barley,
securing a thorough coating of the grains of barley. The
best season is spring and early simimer.

(b) Formula for mice:

Heat IG quarts of wheat slightly; sprinkle thereon one
ounce of acid, alcaloid, or sulphide of strychnia and one
teaspoonful of saccharine; that done, mix the poisoned
wheat with one pint of melted tallow.

(c) Formula for rabbits:

Use the twigs of fruit trees in lievi of barley; otherwise
proceed as for chip-munks.
One bushel of poisoned grain will serve 40 acres thoroughly.
59

A ]M E R I C A N SYLVICULTURE

II. Against weeds. Light covers of weeds are no disadvantage.
AVhere weeds are heavy, seedlings should be planted, rather than
seeds. Mowing (with scythe) weeds and crushing briars — prefer-
ably before weeas are seeding — is recommended. Where seeds are
planted in rows or furrows on abandoned fields, cultivation checks
•weeds.

III. Against domestic animals. Pasture is not permissible in
seed plantations before the thicket stage is past.

C. Reinforcing. Bare spots trhere the seeds have failed
are usually reinforced by planted seedlings. The latter are taken
from adjoining dense spots. In broad-leaved species, the blanks
where seeding has failed, had better be marked during the preceding
summer.

Paragraph XVI Direct seeding of the broad-
leaved species.

A. Acorns.

The germinating acorn leaves the cotyledons below ground.
If the first shoot is killed another forms at once. A shelter (or
usher) growth to husband a plantation during its first years is
bardly needed. Still plantations of Yellow Piue made to protect
the Oaks planted between the Pines are often found abroad. Its
long tap root prevents the Oak from being lifted by frost.

The soil cover given varies between one and three inches,
according to the looseness and porosity of the soil. In case of
spring sowing, germination requires from five to six weeks.

White Oak and Chestnut Oak acorns planted in fall are often
found sprouting before Christmas. The blumula in such cases,
however, does not appear above the ground. Red Oak and Black
Oak seem to sprout only in spring.

Acorns may be sown broadcast, especially on abandoned fields,
•or may be planted with oats and barley or summer rye. The cover
is given with a harrow in ease of broadcast planting.

More often acorns are planted in furrows from two to seven
feet apart. It is better to plant acorns closely within furrows
far apart, than sparingly in furrows near together. The cover is
given either by a second furrow or by lioe or rake.

Cultivation between rows (during summer) is practiced abroad,
in the Rhine valley, for three or four years. On abandoned fields,

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH'

cultivation seems required for the purpose of checking mice, squir-
rels, rabbits and weeds.

Where acorns are planted for mixture merely with Beech, Pine
and Chestnut, irregular patches are planted or else " oversoiling "
is used. In the latter case, a handful of acorns is roughly covered
by a shovelful of dirt.

The usual method adopted abroad for raising Oak is dibbling.
Care should be taken to prevent dibbled acorns from being placed
too deeply.

The answer to the question whether spring or fall planting is-
better, depends on the number of enemies preying on the acorns in
winter. Since the Black Oaks are not much molested, it might be
as well to plant them in fall. Black Oaks suffer little in germinat-
ing percentage during winter storage. W^hite Oak acorns, however,
are much eaten by mice, squirrels, turkeys, hogs, etc., and would
be planted in spring if winter storage did not invite a large loss
of germinating percentage. For wintering White Oak acorns, it
is best to place them (imitating nature) in slight layers under a
cover of leaf-mould on fairly dry soil.

After Charles Heyer: Large baskets are roughly made on dry
soil, the bottom and walls lined with moss; within are placed
alternate layers of moss or sand and acorns. The basket is roofed
with straw.

After Von Alemann: Ditches 8 feet wide by 10 inches deep are
made on dry soil. The acorns must not be too wet when put into
the ditch. The cover consists of a layer of vegetable matter. A
rough hut is made all over the ditch, out of slabs, bark, twigs, etc.
The acorns are stirred up twice a week during winter.

Heyer's method also requires a steep-walled ditch around the
place of storage to keep mice out. Possibly it might be wise to
keep soaked acorns submerged in running water.

After Hillerieh (Forstnieister at Mitteldick) frost-proof cellara
are constructed, some 6 foot deeper than the surface of the soil,,
stone-walled and stone-floored. The roof, straw-covered or tile-
covered, is made fairly airtight. The acorns ore spread on the
floor in layers up to 2 feet deep, and are stirred over from week
to week.

B. Chestnuts.

Chestnuts require more fertile and hence better-prepared soil

than acorns. The nut has still more enemies than the White Oak

acorn. Its germinating power is much reduced by dry storage over

winter. The devices for storing acorns might be used as well for

61

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

chestnuts. Possibly storage in the husk is preferable. Small
quantities are stored in bran. At Biltmore the planting of Cliest-
nut on abandoned fields is very unsuccessful, owing to enemies and
poorness of soil. Abandoned fields in Pisgah Forest often show
fair growth of chestnut — on better soil, especially on moister soil.
No experience is at hand relative to nut-plantations on good land
newly cut over. Chestnuts dibbled in at Biltmore to form a lower
story beneath Yellow Pine are always eaten by squirrels.

C. AValnuts.

Walnuts, both Black and \Miite, can be held over winter like
potatoes, without loss. Yet fall planting is better where squirrels
do not endanger the nuts.

\Valnut has done well planted in furrows on abandoned fields
at Biltmore where soil was good, without cultivation; on poor
soil the weeds are choking it to death. Tlie dibbling of walnut
into woods just cut over has been badly handicapped in Biltmore
and Pisgah Forest by squirrels. Otherwise dibbling is the best
method in the woods. Possibly the attacks of squirrels might be
prevented by late-spring dibbling of nuts in sprouting condition.

D. Birch.

Birch seeds are very small, two-winged. European price for
Betula lenta, lutea and nigra, $2.50 per pound; Betula papyrifera,
62 cents per pound; for European White Birch (Betula alba), 8 cents
per pound. Germinating percentage is bad, especially if seeds are not
kept in loose storage. The soil requires little preparation for seed
planting. A large layer of mould must be removed. Seed can be
planted any time from fall to spring. The old foresters used to
plant the seed on the snow — so as to have the seeds washed into
the soil by the melting snow.

The southern Birches, being solitary, might be planted in
irregular patches or trenches, or in places where the mineral soil
is exposed by the fall of trees whirled out of the ground with
stumps and roots. European Birch is very modest, thriving well on
dry soil.

The seedlings are very hardy. They suffer, however, from
weeds, grass or leaves blown over them and depriving them of air
and sunlight. Betula lenta, at Biltmore, is apt to "damp off."

E. Beech.

Nuts appear every three to seven years in the woods. In

Michigan, the fall of 1911 brought a full mast. The nuts ripening

in October had better be planted at once after ripening, though

much endangered in winter by mice. Storage over winter, possible

62

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

as in White Oak acorns, requires still more care. If spring planting
is resorted to, nuts germinate within five or six weeks. Beech
seedlings must have a shelter growth, and cannot survive in the
open (excepting moist mountain slopes). The preparation of the
soil is made Avith hoe or spade roughly, to a depth of three inches.
Abroad, Beech is often used for an undergrowth in pole woods of
Pine, Oak, Tamarack, Ash, etc., with a view to improving the
humus and, indirectly, the boles of the trees forming the upper
story. " Beech is the mother of the soil," because it furnishes the
best humus. Beech is exacting; it requires strong and moist soil.
Pure forests of Beech are found in the Southern Appalachians at
4,000-4,500 feet, with Poplars as standards in an upper story; pure
beechwoods are frequent near Louisville, Ky., in the Adirondacks
and in Michigan. The price of German Beechnuts is two pounds
for five cents.

F. Alders.

The Western Alder, Alnus Oregona, and the European Alder
are valuable, while the Eastern Alder is only a shrub lining the
creeks. European Alder is invaluable as a swamp tree and for
plantations on very binding soil (clay pits). The seed of the
European species is worth 10 cents per pound. Seeds ripen in
October and are best kept over winter in the cones. The small
seedling is not sensitive to heat and cold, but suffers under the
heavy grass usually found in swamps. Since swamps are inaccessi-
ble in early spring, planting of seedlings is preferable to direct
seeding. The Western Alder is the common usher for Lawson's
■Cypress.

G. Ash.

Seeds are abundant, showing about 70% germination. The
seedling, in the first year, develops to a length of eight or ten
inches, from seeds covered with three-eighths inches of dirt. Little
preparation of soil is needed. During the first two years, on good
soil, a heavy shelter overhead is easily borne. American \Miite
Ash may be grown on soil subject to long inundations.

"Wliite Ash is exacting. Within one and the same acre planted
in White Ash, where the eye can scarcely perceive any undulations
of the soil, the plantation may do excellently in slight depressions,
and miserably on slight elevations.

Prices of Ash seeds: European Ash, 4 cents per pound; White
Ash, 25 cents per pound.

At Biltmore, White Ash seeds planted in rows six feet apart
have done well when the soil cover was not too heavy.
63

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

H. Maple.

Hard Maple seeds ripen in September. Silver and Red Maple
seeds in June. It is wise to plant the seeds just when ripe. Price
of seeds: Acer rubrum, $.3.00 per pound; Silver Maple, $1.00 per
pound; Sugar Maple, 80 cents per pound; European species, 4 cents
to 5 cents per pound. The green germ of American Maples is said
to die if the seeds are not planted at once. Soft Maples develop
the seedling in the year of the seed. For seeds to be planted in the
woods, the soil is prepared with the rake, and the seeds covered
with one-half inch of soil. Maple planted on abandoned fields on
Northern slopes, well watered and well drained, is likely to be
successful. The young seedlings are sensitive at the time, when
the cotyledons first appear above the ground, and a cover overhead
is advisable, where late frost prevails. On rocky soil in Northern
coves, Maple seed is often strewn on the rocks, the rain being
expected to wash the seeds into the crevices. Sugar Maple is more
exacting than Soft Maple. It does not grow so well in damp soil
as Soft or Red Maple. Acer negundo (Ash Leaf Maple) does well
in the northern prairies. Seeds ripen in fall.

I. Elms.

Seeds flat, roundisli, winged, the wing surrounding the seeds.
Seeds, ripening in June, must be planted at once, since they cannot
be kept in dry storage (except Slippery Elm). Germinating per-
centage is always small. Elms require such good soil that they
cannot be raised except on strong, northern, moist soil of agricul-
tural value. Elm seed is never planted broadcast; in suitable
localities, seed might be planted in patches on soil roughly prepared
with rake. Very little cover must be given.

Seeds cost: Ulmus anierieana 22 cents per pound. Ulmus
campestris 6 cents per pound.

J. Buckeye.

The Asiatic species is valuable in game parks, its fruit being
eaten by deer and boar. The American species are poisonous (llava
and glabra). Seeds ripen in October, are stored without loss, but
can as well be planted in fall. After Weise, the seeds should be
planted with the navel down. First class soil (Ohio) is required,
or at Biltmore strong North coves at higher altitudes, where Buck-
eye is sometimes found in small groves. Planted in furrows on
abandoned fields (Biltmore), Buckeye has shown rapid progress
during the first year, but has since made but small shoots. Seeds
of the Asiatic species cost 214 cents per pound.
C4

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

K. Black Locust.

The seeds ripen in fall and are easily kept over winter un-
injured by mice, birds or insects. To prevent seeds from lying
over, S. B. Green advises to pour boiling water over them just
before planting, a treatment causing many seeds to sprout at once.
The fleshy, oval cotyledons and the primordial leaves are not
pinnate. The tree is an exception to the rule of optimum depth
of covering (the depth of long diameter of seed) since it does
best when covered 2 to 3 inches deep. The seedlings are sensitive
to late frosts. The planting had better be delayed until the danger
of frost is past. The price of seeds, 5-10 cents per pound, renders
Locust seeds the cheapest seed obtainable since the germinating
percentage is high. The seedlings grow until late fall, when they
reach nearly two feet in height. At Biltmore, Black Locust is
planted into Oak coppice on raked patches, with the rake, and oh
abandoned fields in furrows 5 to 6 feet apart. Five pounds per
acre is enough. Plantations suffer from ground mice and, later on,
from insects (Cyllene, Ecdytolopha). Locust thrives on agricul-
tural soil; it is used in Europe to reforest the Hungarian prairies;
further along railroad cuts. Forest-grown Locust is superior to
field-grown Locust.

L. Hickories.

The nuts of the thin- shelled species (ovata and minima) can-
not be held over winter and require fall planting. Seed planta-
tions suffer from mice and squin-els, and especially from voles,
which bite-off the seedlings below ground, row after row. Bitter-
nut seems exempt from such attacks. The seedling, in the first
years, spends all its energy in developing a large tap root. The
plantations at Biltmore made in furrows on abandoned fields might
have succeeded better had they been cultivated continuously to
check the mice and voles. Hickory needs fertile, fresh soil; the
" Hickory flats " in the virgin forest are convertible into superior
farm land. Hickoria ovata, 1.3 cents per pound; Bitternut, Pignut
or Mockernut, 15 cents per pound.

M. Linden or Basswood.

Seeds falling in early fall are always poor. The ripe seed (in
bunches, attached to wingbracts) falls in late fall or winter. Linden
is very exacting and pure woods are very rare. Planted in the
forest, it serves but as an admixture. Seeds are planted in spring
on soil roughly prepared with rake or hoe. The cotyledon is
typically five-pronged, hand shaped. Tlie young plant is so sensi-
tive that cover overhead is strongly advisable.
65

A ]M E R I C A N S Y L V I C U L T U iv E

N. Cucnmber tree.

Seeds ripening in cones late in fall are removed, with great
trouble, by hand. Many seeds lie over. The seedling develops on
good soil a very long and strong shaft. For forest planting,
Cucumber is used but in patches, mixed with Chestnut and Yellow
Poplar.

O. Yellow Poplar or Tulip Tree.

Seeds appear annually; of very low germinating percentage.
Nature plants the seed between October and May, slowly dis-
membering the cone. Seeds may be planted in spring after loose
storage. The cones are apt to heat and mould, if tightly packed.
The cotyledons (size of a nickel) do not show the typical lack
of the tip of the leaf blade. They drop off (in strong seedlings)
before July 15th. Seedlings do not suffer from mice. Heavy rains,
however, are apt to wash them out of the ground. The young
seedling stands a good deal of shade. If deprived of light entirely,
it is certain to be killed by the first frost. Seeds cost 15 cents per
pound. Large quantities are required for planting, say 50 pounds
per acre. The seedling grows fast, at the age of two years it is
three feet high, on good soil. "Wliere seeds are planted in the
woods, it is necessary to check the weeds, especially on north slopes.

P. Sassafras.

It might be planted on poor abandoned fields as usher growth.
At Biltmore, seeds gathered in late summer have failed to sprout,
whether planted in fall or spring. Tlie fleshy cotyledon is kept
below ground at a depth of one and one-half inches. Possibly, the
seed must pass through a bird before it can sprout, or the flesh
must be removed by hand or by malting.

Q. Black Cherry.

Primeval trees are found on fairly rich soil. The Cherry,
however, can be easily raised on abandoned fields not better than
those at Biltmore. During early youth, until pole stage, mice and
rabbits peel the bark badly. The end of the annual shoot is almost
always killed in winter. The small purple fruits ripening in early
autumn are eagerly eaten by birds. The seeds, after passing
through the bird, are scattered all over the woods. The seeds are
easily kept over winter, but lie over if kept in a dry condition. A
hot-water bath before planting might cause the seeds to germinate
speedily. In woods, Cherry should be planted under one-half inch
dirt cover, irregularly, Avith full enjoyment of light. Seed 50 cents
per pound. The seeds might be planted in rows on abandoned
fields in mixture with Pines more cheaply than the seedlings.

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

R. Black Gum.

Nyssa sylvatica nas never been raised on a large scale, owing
to the low value of its timber. As an undergrowth or admixture
with Hickory, Ash, Oak, etc., it might prove, however, a valuable
tree, owing to its dense leaf canopy and owing to its shade-bearing
qualities. The seeds, cherry-like, dark blue in fall, of acid taste,
seem to appear annually, and old trees are often surrounded by
an abundance of seedlings; the latter, very light colored, are four
inches high by July, showing two heavy oval entire cotyledons,
whilst the primordial leaves show the proper form. Seedlings do
not seem to suffer from frost, heat or animals. On abandoned fields,
however, Black Gum seems to come up from sprouts and not from
seeds. The seed is not on the market.

Paragraph XVII. Direct seeding of the conif-
erous species.

A. Firs.

Very intensive shade-bearers, the Firs cannot be raised wdthout
shelter overhead. The young seedling suffers much from frost and
heat. Its six to ten cotyledons show two white stripes on the
upper side. The young plant is apt to die from leaves smothering
it. Its height growth, to the seventh year, is small whilst the
seedling tries to establish a root system and to cover its growing
space by long side branches. Fir is usually planted in irregular
patches as an admixture, moss and mould being raked away. The
seeds losing vitality quickly when winter-stored (unless stored in
the disintegrating cones) are usually planted in the fall, in spite of
impending ravages of mice and birds. The covering is from one-
fifth to one-third of an inch. Since the cones begin to dissolve in
November, they must be gathei'ed in early winter. Abies concolor,
$3.00 per pound; Abies fraseri, $3.50 per pound; Abies amabilis,
$4.50 per pound; Abies balsamea, $1.00 per pound; Abies grandis,
$3.00 per pound; Abies magnifica, $5.00 per pound; Abies nobilis,
$2.00 per pound; Abies pectinata, 5 cents per pound.

B. Spruce.

Seeds ripen in the year of the flower and are emitted from the
cones, which have become pendulous, between November and April,
The seeds are easily wintered either Avithin or without the cones;
after some authors, preferably in the cones. Seed years occur at
intervals of about five years. The germinating percentage is high.
67

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

The seeds are usually planted late in spring after bird migration,
either broadcast on ground roughly raked, or more often on inter-
rupted beds from one to two feet wide, prepared with hoe and
slightly raised over the general ground level. It is said that a
man can plant one acre of ground in eight hours, using the rake.
Previous to planting it is wise to moisten the seeds for three to
five days in cold water, especially if the seeds are planted in late
spring. The cover should be one-fifth inch. Germination takes
place after four weeks with from six to eight cotyledons, serrate on
the upper side. Young plants are sensitive to drought and readily
raised by the frost. Spruce suffers from suppression by weeds and
leaves. Its height growth is more rapid than that of Fir. Prices
of seeds: Picea canadensis, $L10; excelsa, 13 cents; engelmanni,
$5.50; rubens, $4.25; pungens, $5.00; sitkaensis, $5.50 per pound.

C. Yellow Pines.

On dry sandy soil, it is wise to plant in early spring, so as to
find a moist seed bed. The young seedlings do not suffer from
late frosts and are not apt to be lifted by winter frosts. The
removal of stumps stops the attacks of stump-breeding bark beetles
and snout beetles (weavils). Intensive loosening of the soil invites
the attacks of junebugs, wire worms, etc., and is not needed on
sandy soil. Broadcast seeding is advisable on soil slightly covered
with grass; the cover should just be scratched with the harrow.
The seed, unless planted with the rake, is embedded in the soil by
driving sheep, cattle and hogs over it. Before planting it might
be wise to fire the ground, notably so in the case of Jack Pine,
Lodgepole Pine and Norway Pine. Yellow Pine is never planted
in seedspots, since it comes up in larger groups, of even age.
Planted under shelter it would not obtain enough sunlight. Tlie
seeds are often planted on long strips two or three feet wide,
separated by trenches, the weeds and dirt removed from the
trenches being heaped on the strips. On the very driest soil, Jack
and Red Pine will do in the north; in the south, Long Leaf Pine.
The moisture demands of Pinus taeda exceed those of Pinus mitis.
Wet ground is required by Cuban Pine. Pinus ponderosa may grow
on any soil and aspect, north and south. European Pine should
not be tried in places where snowfall is heavy. The sand dunes
at San Francisco are planted in Monterey Pine. A method much
used abroad some 80 years ago was the planting of Pine cones
(eight bushels of cones per acre). The cones were turned from
time to time by a brush drag. Another old method for raising Pine
consisted in planting the seeds on top of oats, barley or summer rye.
68

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The cover given should be one-fifth of an inch. The seeds are
mulched for three to seven days, before planting, in cold water.
Old seeds are apt to lie over for a whole year. Germination
occurs in from three to four weeks. The first leaves stand singly,
and not in sheathed bunches. The primordial leaves are strongly
serrate. The germinating percentage is high, say seventy to ninety
per cent. The seedlings of Pinus rigida creep on the ground the
first two years as if dwarfed. Prices: Banksiana, $5.00; mur-
rayana, $100.00; inops or virginiana, $1.10; jeffreyi, $4.00; mitris,
$10.00; ponderosa, $2.50; pungens, $4.50; resinosa, $9.00; rigida,
$2.50; European Scotch Pine, 50 cents; tuberculata, $4.50; taeda,
$10,00; palustris, $4.50 per pound. In Jack Pino, Lodgepole Pine
and Table Mountain Pine the seed is not emitted for a number of
years from mature cones. At Biltmore, mitis drops the seed
between November 1 and December 15; Palustris seeds seem to drop
before December 15, since seedlings appear by middle of January.

In the arid West, and notably in the National Forests of
Arizona, the Forest Service has met with unexpected difficulties in
the afi'orestation of its lands with Western Yellow Pine. There
are dry winds in spring; and September already brings heavy frosts
which are more disastrous than is drought. The seedlings, nursery-
raised, and kept in cold storage till the rainy season begins, are
killed by the early frosts. Transplants, with deep-going roots,
three years old, supposed to be drought-resisting, have died.

The Service has now adopted the following recipe: The
nurseries are neither shaded nor are they subirrigated. Sprinkling
must be light; if there were no sprinkling, the roots would go too
deep; if there were heavy sprinkling, too much foliage would de-
velop. Continuous cultivation is absolutely essential. The nur-
sery is ploughed to a depth of eight inches; the manure is kept at
a depth of three inches.

D. White Pine.

White Pine seeds cannot be kept so easily over winter as Yellow
Pine seeds. The seed matures at Biltmore about September 15th,
and falls at once after maturing. The European recipe, " to gather
the seeds when drops of rosin appear on the cones," is misleading.
After gathering, the cones should be fully matured by exposure to
sunlight. Cones placed in heavy layers — over six inches — after
gathering are apt to mould, when the seeds will be destroyed.
White Pine cones placed in light layers on wire netting emit the
seeds easily, when heat is applied, and when the cones are stirred
several times a day. The rooms in which the coning takes place

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

must be well ventilated. Seed years occur in tlie Soutli every three
years — in the Nortli, say, every seven years. INIulching before
planting, in case of direct seeding in spring, is absolutely necessary.
Germination after three to four weeks; seven to ten cotyledons,
primordial leaves singly. Seedlings suffer still more from fungi
(honey fungus) than Yellow Pines. Owing to the high price of
seeds of White Pine, the seed is usually planted in nurseries, and
not in the woods. At Biltmore, planting of seed in patches with
the rake without preceding preparation of soil, under light cover,
has proven a failure. White Pine does well on abandoned fields
after fires, — except on East and Southeast slopes where flat-rooted
plants are apt to be lifted by frost. Germinating percentage up to
90%. Seeds cost about $L50 per pound. •

E. Hemlock.

Seeds mature toward the end of September, are very small and
easily removed. Seedlings are very shade bearing and minute.
Hemlock cannot be grown in the open. Price of seed being high
and natural regeneration being easy, seed plantations will not be
made on a large scale. Price of seeds: canadensis, $3.50; hete-
rophylla, $8.00; mertensiana, $5..50 per pound.

F. Larch.

The cones are very tough and not easily opened by heat. It is
hard to separate the wing from the seed. The germinating per-
centage is low. The seed is planted in spring on open ground,
usually in patches, mixed with Pines, Spruces or Hardwoods. The
planting of seed of northern Tamarack in northern swamps is out
of the question. The height growth in early youth is rapid.
Larch puts heavy demand on light. Cotyledons, five to seven in
number, appear four weeks after planting. The seeds are mulched
in cold water for at least a week before planting. The primordial
leaves stand singly; brachyblasts are formed from the third sum-
mer on. Y'oung shoots never show brachyblasts. Price of seeds:
European Larch, 50 cents per pound; Japanese Larch (leptolepis)
$2.50 per pound.

G. Douglas Fir.

It had better be called Pseudoabies than Pscudotsuga. Cones
are ripe in October; bracts are twice as long as scales; seeds fall
immediately after maturing in fall. Germinating percentage is 20
to 30 per cent.; seed received from dealers is apt to lie over. Thor-
ough mulching or hot-house treatment (after Weise) increases the
percentage and the rapidity of sprouting. Germination takes place
70

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

after five to seven weeks. The five to seven cotyledons are pointed
and sliow two white stripes and a raised midrib above.
Two distinct varieties of Douglas Fir:

a. Pacific Coast Douglas Fir, growing rapidly, foliage bluish,
large cones, often two top shoots during summer, the second one
usually from a side bud.

b. Rocky Mountain Douglas Fir, known as varietas glauca,
owing to its grayish foliage, of very slow growth, greater hardiness,
smaller cones, developing but one shoot annually. Price of seeds:
$3.75 per pound.

H. Lawson's Cypress.

Cones blue brown, globular, only six scaled, Fmall, three seeds
under scale, seeds two winged. Wing one-twenty-fifth inch wide.
Seeds mature in September and October, falling at once. 150,000
grains per pound. Sprouting Avith two cotyledons only, one-fifth to
one-third inch long. Young seedlings stand the densest shade, nota-
bly of Alder. In the sapling stage, fungi seem to play havoc in the
plantations, a fact which may explain the small range of the species.
Seed 60 cents per pound.

I. "Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata).

Scales of cones oval and upright, covering pairs of seeds. Seeds
two-winged; wings one-quarted inch long, elliptical, drawn in at top.
One pound contains 300,000 grains. Two cotyledons only. Seed-
lings stand heavy shade. Seed costs $2.25 per pound.

Paragraph XVIII. Actual planting of seedlings:
Introductory remarks.

A. The forester uses seedlings one to ten years old or,
better still, one to five years old. The planting expenses increase
at a cubic ratio with the increasing weight of the plants.

B. Seedlings are planted either with or without " balls "

of dirt. They are taken from the nursery or from the woods.
Yellow Pines over three years must be planted as " ball plants."
Ball planting is always safer, as it prevents a loss of root fibres.
Under any circumstances, it is wise to leave some dirt attached to
the roots, preventing the roots from drying and allowing them to
quickly re-establish their sucking contact with the pores of the soil.

C. The small stemlet of young seedlings might be cut off
before planting (stump plants). Advantages of planting stumps:

71

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

I. In case of Locust, etc., lack of thorns.

II. In case of tap rooters (Walnut, Hickory, Oaks Avhere loss of
root fibre is great), rapid re-establishnient of the equilibrium pre-
viously existing between water-sucking power and evaporation.

III. Certainty of planting the seedlings neither deeper nor
higher than they were in the nursery.

. Conifers cannot be stump planted.
If stump plants of Ash or Maple are to be used, stumps one and
one-half to two inches high should be left. In the ease of Oak, the
stemlet should be cut off just above the point of differentiation.
Stumping seems practicable in the case of Chestnut as well, and is
often applied to Catalpa, Locust and Honey-Locust. Stumping is
objectionable on account of the rabbits eating the new shoots, or
where weeds are rank.

D. Bunch planting is often practiced where very small seed-
lings, cheaply raised and not transplanted in the nursery, are there-
after exposed in the woods to atmospheric hardships or to damage
by animals. From two to thirty seedlings form a buncli planted
into one hole. Bunch planting, although losing favor with the
foresters abroad, is applied to German Spruce and Beech.

E. Plants may be planted irregularly or else in triangles,
squares, rectangles. The advantage of an exact geometrical ar-
rangement, which may be obtained with the help of long planting
strings, bearing blue and red marks, are:

I. Saving of time and expense. Each workman is kept busy by
the work of his neighbor, and none can fall behind. Supervision by
rangers is facilitated.

II. The number of plants needed is easily found and the probable
expense is more accurately estimated.

III. Small seedlings can be found easily thereafter in high weeds
or grass.

IV. A regular plantation may be opened to pasture at an
earlier date.

V. A mixture of species, and, later, underplanting are more
readily obtained.

VI. The cleaning, thinning and pruning of the plantation is
facilitated.

VII. Possibility of cultivation between the rows in prairies and
on abandoned fields.

The triangular form gives at a given planting distance the
largest number of plants ]wr acre, distributes the growing space
equally, and is therefore said to raise cleaner stems. The arrange-
72

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

nient in squares allows for a given planting distance 15% less plants
per acre than the triangular system.

Tlie rectangular system, though scientifically objectionable,
practically prevails over the others. The plantlets standing close
within a row assist one another from early times on. Planting
between the rows and the cultivation of slopes are facilitated within
rectangles. It is said, however, that the saplings form large side
branches and retain the same for a longer period of years. Rectan-
gular plantations are known to suffer less from snowbreak.

F. Usually it is best to make the holes for the plants before
planting,— unless, on clay soil, the holes are apt to collect water.
The making of holes takes more time, in many a case, than the
planting itself. It should not be done during the few spring days
favorable to tree planting.

G. The rangers should make all needful preparations for
planting several days or weeks before planting, securing the seed-
lings, " heeling them in " close to the plantation and getting the
implements and tools in proper condition.

No. of plants No. of plants

Planting per acre in per acre in

distance. squares. triangles.

1 foot 43,560 50,650

2 foot 10,900 12,674

3 foot 4.850 5,640

4 foot 2,725 3,168

5 foot 1,750 2,034

6 foot ■ 1,210 1,407

Paragraph XIX. Criteria of ^ood seedlings.

A. The root system;

The root system should be as compact as possible and as rich
in fine hair fibres as possible, qualities which are obtained in a
well-fertilized nursery. It must be remembered that the small
hair fibres are the feeders of seedlings, and that the stronger roots
act merely as the skeleton giving the plant a firm anchorage in
the soil.

A short exposure to sunlight and to dry winds kills the root
hairs. Roots cannot live in air any better than fish, though requir-
ing oxygen like fish (compare paragraph XXII). Toumey claims
that " many successful planters never set evergreens until the root

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

tips sliow signs of growth." This experience is entirely at variance
Avith the universal European experience. Conifers are very sensitive
against loss of root fibres. Fresh tips, evidently, are most apt to
be injured in handling or by drought.

The pruning of the root system is a necessary evil in the case
of very long tap roots. Conifers do not allow of it. Badly damaged
roots may be clipped with a sharp knife just above the damaged
point.

B. The shaftlet: Crooks are not injurious, the plant healing
them quickly. Slender plants are not desirable, partly because they
sway badly in the wind, thus getting loose in the soil; partly
because slender shafts are due to an excessively close position in
the nurseries. In the case of broad-leaved seedlings one or two
years old the siiaft of spindling specimens may be cut-off without
lasting injury (not in conifers). "

C. The buds: The buds must have a healthy color, a large size
and a goodly number. Small buds prove the plant to be weak; so
that it has a poor chance to withstand the hardships of transplant-
ing. In conifers, the condition of the buds is especially telling.
Poor and few buds in hardwoods render it advisable ito lop the
stemlets.

Paragraph XX. A^e, size and number of seed'
lin^s used.

A. Young plants are more easily transplanted than old
plants, the loss of roots being smaller. Large saplings (10 feet liigh
to 4 inches in diameter) are transplanted at great expense and great
risk. They must be transplanted with big balls of dirt attached.

B. The number of plants used in Europe varies between
1,000 and 40,000 specimens per acre in case of Pines, Spruces and
Beeches. The advantage of a large number of small plants is:

I. Better chance for nature to select the fittest.

II. Less reinforcing required.

III. Even unexperienced planters can be used.

IV. Plant material is very cheap.

V. Larger returns from first thinning and clearer boles.

On the other hand, the advantage of planting stronger seedlings,
especially transplants three to six years old, lies in the following
points:

VI. On poor soil, strong plants liave a better cliance.

VII. Older plants have already overcome tlie '• measles " of
childhood ( — fungi, insect diseases — ) to a large extent.

74

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

VIII. Such plantations suffer less from snowbreak.

IX. The rotation is shortened by a number of years. In a
White Pine plantation made with seedlings seven years old, instead
of seedlings two years old, the rotation is reduced from fifty to
forty-five years; and the original cost of planting may be 27%
higher, figuring at 5% interest; 22% higher, figuring at 4% interest;
13% higher, figuring at 3% interest.

C. Generally speaking, Oak, Hickory and Walnut

should be planted one year old on account of the large size of the
tap roots. Spruce, Fir and Hemlock should be planted three to five
years old, after previous transplanting in the nursery. Ash should
be planted six years old when used in moist sites having a luxurious
growth of weeds. Yellow Pine must always be planted one or two
years old, unless ball planting is resoi'ted to.

.After Toumey: For the prairies, yearlings are best in case ot"
Cottonwoods, Box Elder, Soft Maple (Soft Maple sprouts in June
and is very small in fall), Russian Mulberry, Catalpa, Walnut, Black
Cherry, Locust and Honey-Locust. At Biltmore, Black Cherry ti'aus-
plants three years old do very well. Locusts two years old are
clipped back. Maple and Ash are transplanted and used three to
four years old; Yellow Pines used one or two years old; White
Pines two, three or four years old; Catalpa one year old, etc.

Paragraph XXI. Lifting seedlings from nursery
beds.

It is not advisable to plow the seedlings out of the ground or
to tear them out with tongs. In the case of species having small
reproductive power (Conifers, Beech, Birch) additional care is
needed. The spade should be used; and the plant should be lifted
together with large clumps of dirt which, thrown on the ground,
collapse and allow of the safe extrication of the plants contained in
the clumps.

It is Avise, carriage charges permitting, to allow some dirt to
stick to the roots. On more binding soil the hollow cylinder spade
might be used for lifting small plants. Plants should be well cov-
ered with burlaps, wet moss, dirt, etc., at once after digging. Plants
left unearthed for a number of days should be heeled-in- thoroughly,
shinglelike, one row covering the other, in a shady place.

A machine lifting the seedling from (sandy) nursery beds se-
curely, row by row, is used in the state nurseries of Hessen. It is
constructed bv Forstwart Laudenburcer.

AMERICAX SYLVICULTURE
Paragraph XXII. Transportation of seedlings.

If tlie roots are thorouglily protected, a voyage from Europe to
Biltmore, though it may take six weeks, will not injure the plants.
Plants are loosely put together in bunches of one hundred to two
hundred, are placed in baskets or open crates, the roots in the
center, the tips at the circumference. Layers of plants alternate
with layers of damp moss. Seedlings packed tightly, especially in
boxes, are apt to mould.

Plants merely taken to a nearby plantation on wagons should
be well covered Avith branches, moss or sacks, and should be
sprinkled during transportation. Ball plants do not need packing
unless balls are very loose, when burlaps are neciessary. One hun-
dred Yellow Pine ball plants, with balls ten inches square, make
up a two-horse load. Fifty thousand seedlings without balls and
well watered, or eighty thousand seedlings slightly dampened,
usually make a wagon load.

Under adverse climatic conditions, the use of plants planted in
minute paper bags — like those used in raising Eucalypts — is highly
advisable.

Experiments made at Biltmore with one-year White Pine seed-
lings are to the effect that seedlings having the roots exposed to
air and wind

for 10 minutes, had a death rate of 5%
for 20 minutes, had a death rate of 10%
for 30 minutes, had a death rate of 70%
for 45 minutes, had a death rate of 90%
for 60 minutes, had a death rate of 100%

The experiments prove that the utmost care is necessary, under
adverse co'^iditions, to preserve the vitality of the roots during the
act of transportation.

Paragraph XXIII. Common methods of plant-
ing seedlings.

A. Planting in furrows.

The furrows should be made deeply with a sub soil plow. Tiie
plants are distributed, at proper distances in the furrows. Then
another furrow is at once given with a turning plow, throwing the
needed dirt over the plants, which are tliereafter adjusted by hand
and pressed into proper position.

This is a quick method of planting, but is practical only on
76

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

prairies or on abandoned fields. It involves the danger of reckless,
spreading of roots and of loose imbedding of the plant in loose soil.
The plants are also apt to be placed too deep and to be shaken
badly by wind. The method, however, yields good results in case of

I. Stump planting (Oak, Locust, Catalpa).

II. Planting many one-year-old seedlings (so that a large per-
centage might be lost without great damage in the end).

III. Plants not injured by deep planting (not for White Pine
and Spruce). Plants placed too deep form a second root system
close to the surface and develop a bushy bole, useless in forestry,,
pleasing in a garden.

At Biltmore, the furrow method was used by Pinchot at the
Shiloh Crossing plantation. A modification of the furrow method
was used at the Rice farm in 1903, where deep furrows were drawn,,
the plants inserted by hand, covered by hand and adjusted by
hand. A planting machine (Dr. Fernow's and Rodman's), resembling^
a tobacco planting machine, is not used.

B. Planting in holes. The holes are either holes dug with the
spade, or clefts wedged into the soil. Most planters mulch the roots
in loamy water so as to increase their weight and so as to reduce
their spread before insertion into the hole. The root fibres suflfer
from this mulching, however, being braided unnaturally. The root
tips should not be bent upward. The depth and width of the hole
should correspond with the actual size of the root. Several plants
might be placed in the same hole to save expense. Theoretically it
is best to place each plant in the center of its hole. At Biltmore,
however, planting in the lower edge of the hole is preferred because :

I. No root is bilaterally developed.

II. Planting at the edge is the best preventive against deep
planting, the planter holding the plant with the left hand at the
point of differentiation against the edge of the hole, when drawing:
with the right hand the dirt required to fill the hole.

III. Such plants are firmly imbedded and are less shaken by the^
wind.

On forest soil it is wise to place the top dirt dug from the
hole around the root tips, and the bottom dirt of the hole close to
the surface. The workmen should be shown daily by the forester
how to plant. It is of the utmost importance to pulverize and
loosen the dirt first, and to then press and beat it tightly with fist,.
heel or mallet around the roots. Some planters give a trifle of
forest humus into the hole; others carry fertile garden dirt in
baskets to the plantations. The placing of stones on the hole (as.
77

a:\ierican sylviculture

refrigerators) is recommended. One man's work at hole digging
per day is 300 to 3,000 according to root-size and conditions of soil.

C. Tlie seedling must stand, after planting:

I. Firmly, the dirt being tiglitly packed around its roots, so that
it cannot be shaken and so that the roots may establish their
sucking contacts.

II. Naturally, the roots retaining the same manner of spi'eading
and ramifying which they had in the nursery.

III. Erect and just as deep as it stood in the nursery (excep-
tion: barren sand).

Paragraph XXIV. Special methods and tools
used for planting seedlings.

A. Biermans spiral spade, costing $2.00, is pointed para-
ibolically, the blade being 7V2 inches long and 5 inches wide. When

used boringly, this spade forms a parabolic hole and loosens the
soil. With the left hand the seedling is pressed against the side of
the hole, while the right hand places some sod ashes (See Par.
JiXIX, D. VI.) immediately over the fine root fibres. Then the best
part of the soil is used to fill the near half of the hole, and the
poorest for filling the far half. The instrument is adapted to hard-
ened soil. On wet and binding soil, the dirt clogs in the curves of
the spade. Capacity per hand per day in Germany 320 plants.

B. The Planting Dagger is used for Yellow Pine seedlings
one or two years old, to be planted on sandy soil. The dagger is
three inches longer than the longest root. It is made of wood, iron
shod at the point. It makes a narrow, funnel-shaped hole, which is

■ closed by pressure from another hole made a few inches from the
first. On loose, sandy soil it is wise to plant Yellow Pine seedlings
deeply — up to first needles — since \ellow Pine is not aff"ected, in
that soil, by deep planting. Daggering is the cheapest possible
method for planting Long Leaf Pine, Jack Pine, Lodgepole Pine, etc.
■Capacity 800 to 900 per day and hand.

C. The Buttlar Iron, one much used for thrusting holes into
the soil, is now in disfavor since it causes the seedlings to be
inserted into holes having walls as impenetrable as those of a
flowerpot. Only plants one or two years old can be thus planted
4'' cleft planted ").

78

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

D. The Wartenberg Iron consists of a sword IS inches long,
attached to a heavy handle. Price $2.25. Similar irons Avere made
at Biltmore out of three-inch wagon tire, at a small cost. A deep
cleft is made by the iron in wliich tap-rooted seedlings are readily
inserted. On binding soil, however, or in a broonisedge field, the use
of this iron cannot be recommended.

E. The planting hammer is used to make small holes for
small roots. The iron part of the hammer is about five inches long.
The planting hatchet, a similar make, may be used to advantage for
planting one-year-old plants. The holes are closed by beating the
dirt round the holes with the back of the hammer or with the
hatchet.

F. Von Alemann constructed a very heavy square spade which
is pushed and drawn in a particular way, like the lever of a hand-
car on the railroads, so as to make the lower part of the hole wider
than the middle part, the cross-section of the hole forming an X.
If Oaks are planted, an extra hole is made at the bottom of that
made with the spade, by means of a long dagger in which the tap
root of the oak is to be imbedded. The hole is closed by pressure
from above. It seems doubtful whether the soil will close entirely
over the roots unless it be sandy. One man plants 580 Oaks two
years old or 1,270 Yellow Pines two years old with this instrument
on plowed ground.

G. The Planting Beak, constructed by Earth, makes and
empties a triangular hole, removing the dirt filling the hole. Plants
one or two years old are placed along the vertical side of the hole.
Then the dirt kept in the beak is filled in. The instrument is SVs
feet long and weighs 15 pounds. It is said to be superior to all
cleft planting tools, whilst it works just as cheaply on loose soil.

H. Planting under sod cover. (Von Alemann). Two sods
are turned over, like the covers of books, and laid back, upside
down, without loosening the " hinge " of the sods. The soil in the
hole is deeply worked with a spade. In the middle of the hole the
plant is placed, with the roots spread as much as possible within the
entire Iiole. Then the two sods are turned back into their original
position, so that the seedling stands between them. This is a good
method on ground where frost is to be dreaded, and is used for
Ash, Alder and Water Birch one to three years old.

I. Mound Planting (Manteuffel). Small mounds are made
consisting of rich nursery soil to be carried in baskets to the
plantations. The plant is placed into the mound, its roots touching
79

A :M E R I C A N SYLVICULTURE

the vegetable mould underneath. The mound is covered with sods
to prevent erosion. The method Morks well on very dry and hard
ground. About 100 i)lants are planted per day and per man after
this method. Its advantages are:

I. The vegetable cover of the soil, by its disintegration, fur-
nishes food for the rootlets.

II. The quality of the soil surounding the roots is very good.

III. The soil in the mounds is kept moist with condensed
atmospheric vapor, owing to its greater porosity.

IV. The planter is not likely to plant the seedling too deep.
The method is also applied on very wet soil. The mounds may

be replaced by ridges. Experiments have shown that planting in
mounds does better in years of drought than planting in holes.

Modifications of the Manteuffel method are in common use.
Ordinary soil dug out at the planting site may be used to make the
mound; or, where there are heavy sods, a sod is turned upside down
and left to rot for a year. The mound thus made is rich in plant
food resulting from the disintegration of root fibres and vegetable
matter.

Disadvantages of mound planting are:

a. The mounds are easily washed away on slopes unless under
cover of mother trees.

b. The best soil is washed out if the mound is not covered with
sods, stones or brush.

c. Insects and mice find hiding and breeding places in the sod-
covered mounds.

d. Mound planting is very expensive.

J. Ballplanting, with Charles Heyer's hollow cylinder
spade.

The cylinder spade can be used to best advantage on binding
soil. It lifts the plant (seedlings, notably conifers one or two years
old) from the nursery Avithout loss of roots and prepares for it a
hole on the ground to be planted having the exact form of the ball
of dirt adhering to the roots.

The method is particularly safe and seems particularly adapted
for prairie planting since it protects the seedling before, during and
after the act of planting; since it prevents the seedling from loosing
its foothold in the soil under the influence of high winds; since it
allows of planting at almost any season of the year.

On stony soil, the cylinder spade cannot be used. Edward
Heyer's " cone spade " facilitates the transfer of larger seedlings
with heavier balls of dirt from the nursery or from the woods to
new plantations.

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph XXV. Season for planting seedlings.

Factors influencing the season are:

Local climate. ' I

Labor available.

Time available.

Species planted.

Theoretically, seedlings sliould be planted during the period of
inactivity of roots and buds, or in mid-winter. This theoretical
demand, however, in a Northern climate, cannot be carried out, the
ground being frozen at that time. Hence the choice remains
between planting in late fall and planting in early spring. After
Engler, roots show two periods of active growth, viz.: a spring-and-
summer period influenced by soil moisture, and a fall period in-
fluenced by soil heat. The growth of the roots during August and
September, between the two periods mentioned, is very weak.

In spring, the growth of the roots starts in March and April
and shows the highest activity in May, June and July.

A. Spring Planting.

The seedlings are planted before the opening of the buds. The
moisture left in the soil by the melting snow is very favorable to
their growth. Objections to spring planting are:

I. Scarcity of labor, unless forest planting begins at a time at
which fields are too wet to be worked.

II. Larch, Maple, Cherry, Tulip tree and Birch sprout so early in
spring that it is impossible to adopt spring planting in their case.

III. Moist ground, hummocks and swamps are not accessible in
spring.

rV. The soil is not packed as tightly around the roots on the
arrival of spring as is the case in fall planting.

B. Fall Planting.

Fall planting is preferred on wet areas and in the case of early
sprouting species. The disadvantages of fall planting otherwise
outweigh the benefits combined therewith.

I. Seedlings planted in fall are apt to be heaved up by the
winter's freeze.

II. The severe winds of the winter loosen the foothold of coni-
fers planted in fall.

III. Fall-planted seedlings are more subject to late frost, open-
ing their buds some ten days earlier than spring-planted seedlings.

IV. On weedy soil, fall-planting is handicapped by the presence
of a rank growth of weeds which has rotted down at the arrival of
spring. 81

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

In the Southern states, even at Biltmore, planting in January
and February is very feasible, perhaps advisable in average years.

Ball plants can be planted at any season of the year.

In countries of periodical rainfall (California, Oregon, India and
Porto Rico) it is best to plant just before the beginning of the
rainy season.

In swamps, summer planting or early fall planting is a
necessitv.

Paragraph XXVI. Cultivation of plantations.

A. Practice: The European forester cultivates his planta-
tions but rarely for the reason that his plantations are made
immediately after lumbering, when the rootwork and the stumps
on the ground render cultivation difficult. Under the prevailing
conditions of soil (humus, porosity), cultivation is usually not
required for the success of a plantation. Irregular plantations can-
not be cultivated.

The forester afforesting sand lands obviously objects to
cultivation.

The forester afforesting swamps finds cultivation impracticable.

B. Advisability: Cultivation is advisable:

^"Nniere there is neither humus nor rootwork in the ground;

"S^Hiere the soil, like prairie soil, is compact and hard, lacking in
aeration, porosity, capillary power, hygroscopicity ;

Where competing herbaceous weeds threaten to smother small
seedlings ;

Where mice or soil breeding insects prevail, which are disturbed,
exposed or killed by continuous cultivation.

C. Frequency.

The forester may cultivate \ip to three times per annum, during
one, two or more years — sometimes till the leaf canopy overliead
secures for the soil a solid layer of humus by dense shading.

D. Tools.

A bull-tongue plow is used, on rougli ground, for plant rows
placed less than three feet apart.

Cultivators are used, as in agriculture, where the soil is loose,
and where the rows are far enough ajiart and the ground is free
from stumps or roots or boulders.

Hoes are used, where but a plant here and there requires culti-

82

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

vation, where labor is cheap and where the soil does not allow of
using teams and machinery.

Mules and horses are muezled to protect broad-leaved seedlings
from being browsed.

Paragraph XXVII. Prairie planting in particular.

A. The prairie exhibits climatic differences as marked

as those prevailing between the State of Georgia and the District of
Labrador.

"General prescriptions for prairie planting" are impossible,
owing to these climatic diversities.

B. The species used must he adapted to the quality of the
soil, the intensity of summer heat, tlie duration of the summer, the

soil moisture, the air moisture. Native trees should be given the
preference in case of doubt.

C. Prairie plantations are meant either for production of
farm timber (ties, posts, etc.), or for shelter to stock, house,
orchard and field.

D. Species recommended for prairie planting are:

I. For Canada:

White Spruce, Cottonwood, Balm of Gilead, Box-elder, Green
Ash, Russian Poplar; further Yellow Pines.

II. For Minnesota and Dakota:

Cottonwoods, Soft Maples, Willows, Ashes, Box-elder, Tama-
rack in swamps, Bur Oak along rivers.

III. For Nebraska and Iowa:

The same species and Red Cedar, Russian Mulberry.

IV. For Kansas, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Missouri:

Osage Orange, Black Locust, Hardy Catalpa, Post Oak and
White Oak.

E. Naturally we should expect the Xerophytic species,
like Yellow Pines, to do best in the prairies, and the old stumps found
buried in the groimd bear testimony to their possibilities. Being
evergreen, the Pines protect the farmers best from blizzards. Still,
just Pines are most apt to meet with distress previous and after
the act of planting. Ball. planting should be tried. The European
Pinus montana resists wind particularly well.

F. Preparation of soil: It is best to prepare the soil thor-
ouglily by several years' field crops. Deep plowing is required

S.3

A]\IERICAN SYLVICULTURE

(Tourney) in the fall previous to planting and in the spring of
planting.

G. Treatment of plants: The seedlings arriving at the farm
should be removed from the package; heeled in under shade, pro-
tected from winds and sprinkled if frost is not to be feared.
Tourney wishes to puddle plants before heeling, and desires to plant
the conifers invariably after the broad-leaved kinds.

H. Planting: The planter must wait patiently for proper
weather. Thorough protection of the roots during every moment
of the act of planting is essential. Each individual must be planted
by itself, — no dozen methods! The plants should be set closely
within the rows; the soil must be packed tightly around the roots.
Reversed sods or stones may be used to ballast the roots and to
prevent the wind from shaking them loose.

I. Cultivation: Cultivation is necessary up to the time wlien
the trees cover the ground fully, littering it with humus. Where
barefrost is dreaded, cultivation should end in late summer.

Paragraph XXVIII. Methods of obtaining plants
for planting.

A. Seedlings are obtained frequently from the ivoods

nearby, a method which seems to recommend itself as cheap and
natural. It is a fact, however, that the roots and the buds of ■v\ild
seedlings are badly adapted for the purpose of planting. The
former are far-spreading; the buds are weak and few. In addition
it is risky to take plants from the shelter of mother trees suddenly
onto open ground. The use of wild seedlings over two years old
is particularly unsuccessful. The failure of the timber culture
act to prove efiicient is largely due to the use of wild plants in
prairie plantations.

At Biltmore, seedlings of Yellow Poplar, Yellow Pine, Ash and
Maple are often picked up in the woods, on logging roads, with a
spade and removed to the nurseries. Such seedlings are taken at a
very young age, without loss of dirt, to nurseries placed under lath
screens. They are never removed directly to open plantations,
with the exception of ballplants of Yellow Pine.

B. Purchase of plants from commercial nurseries;

During the last twenty-five years, a number of financially
strong commerical nurseries have arisen abroad which, buying seed
84

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

cheaply, located on suitable ground at good shipping points, enjoy-
ing many years' close acquaintance with the needs of Sylviculture,
have supplied the various German forest administrations with cheap
plants of a superior grade. The Biltmore Estate has often obtained
plants raised by Heins Sons, Halstenbeek, near Hamburg, notably
Wliite Pines, which have been very successful in spite of a six-
weeks' voyage. On the other hand, American tree nurseries usually
prepare plants but for ornamental purposes and not with a view of
fostering the development of the tree bole.

Since the rangers and the helpers in forest planting should
know the sylvicultural needs of the seedlings, it is surely wise to
offer them object lessons at home through self-administered
nurseries.

C. Nurseries proper, in charge of the ranger.

Where mice ai-e much feared the niu'series should be sur-
rounded by a deep, straight- walled ditch. Fences are made of
wire, lath, rails, etc., differing in material, strength, height and
fineness of mesh according to the enemies locally dreaded.

Proper nurseries yield the largest percentage of seedlings from
a given quantity of seeds. The seedlings raised therein have a
better, more compact and more fibrous root system than wild plants.
Expensive and exacting species should always be raised in " forest
gardens."

There may be distinguished:

Nurseries under tree cover.

Shifting nurseries.

Permanent nurseries.

I.. Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, being required
only for the production of seedlings of tender species; notably of
Hemlock, Hard Maple, Beech. The nursery is formed by a pole-
wood heavily thinned and dug over with the spade. Here Beech-
nuts are planted broadcast or in furrows and the seedlings removed
■when two years old, without transplanting. Hard Maple and Hem-
lock should be raised as in open nurseries.

It is a noteworthy fact that broad-leaved kinds often thrive
best under conifers (Oak and Beech under Pine) and conifers best
under broad-leafed kinds (Spruce best under Beech, Maple, Birch).
None but theoretical explanations can be given for this observation,
the best explanation being the difference in the enemies attacking
such species.

Objections to nurseries under tree cover:

a. Soil preparation is costly and insufficient.
85

A il E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

b. Plants raised cannot be planted in the open without loss.

c. Nurseries under tree cover suffer badly from mice and
squirrels and obtain insufficient rainfall. On the other hand, weeds
and grasses are kept down by the shelter overhead.

Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, not tlie rule.

II.. Shifting versus stationary nurseries.

The advantages of stationary forest nurseries over shifting
forest nurseries are:

a. Reduced cost of tilling.

b. Reduced cost of fencing.

c. Reduced cost of supervision.

On the other hand, stationary nurseries suffer from:
L Excess of weeds.

2. Higher cost of transportation of seedlings.

3. Large needs of artificial fertilizing.

4. Danger from mice, insects and fungi for which siich nurseries
act as incubators.

For raising ball plants, the shifting nursery is imdoubtedly
best; otherwise the selection between shifting and permanent nurs-
eries depends on local conditions, such as the price of manure
and of fencing, charges for transportation, etc. Seed plantations
made on open ground are often used as shifting nurseries — especially
so in the case of Yellow Pines.

Paragraph XXIX. Permanent nurseries in par-
ticular.

A. Tlie size of "forest gardens" (the German word for
permanent nurseries) depends upon the quantity, the age and the
size of the seedlings annually needed; further, on the presence or
absence of transplanting beds, fallow beds and paths between the
beds. A regular forest management employs forest gardens fitted
with:

I. Transplanting beds, their total size being equal to trans-
planting space by number of plants yearly needed by number of
years which the transplants are left in such beds.

II. Seed-beds, their total size being equal to one-fourth of size
of transplanting beds for one age class by number of years which
the seedlings are allowed to stand untransplanted.

III. Foot paths and roads equaling 30% of I and II.

IV. Fallow beds equaling 100% of I, II, and III, if seedlings

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

and transplants are left for one j'ear in their beds; 50% of I,
II and III, if left for two years; and 33%, if left for three years.

B. Form of beds. Beds are usually four to six feet wide,
separated by paths one or two feet wide, the beds preferably ele-
vated over the paths by from three to twelve inches, so as to
check the migration of insects, mice and moles; and so as to allow
of better aeration of the soil. Sometimes the beds are kept in
board frames, an expensive though useful arrangement.

C. In selecting the site of a nursery the following factors
must be considered:

I. Soil: A sandy loam or marl is best for seedlings. The
correct degree of looseness is secured by mixing sawdust, spent tan,
humus, ashes and weeds with the mineral soil. The soil should have
no stones, in order to allow of proper seed planting and in order
to facilitate the treatment of the plants.

II. Exposure: The best exposure is a gentle northwest slope.
The bottom of a valley is too frosty in spring. Southwest and
southeast slopes are subject to rapid atmospheric changes. Eastern
aspects invite damage by frost.

III. Proximity to water and possibility of irrigation.

IV. Accessibility for laborers and distance from ranger's house.

D. Fertilizing: Stationary forest gardens require continuous
fertilizing. Crops of seedlings exh-aust the soil like crops of grain.

The following table exhibits, in pounds per acre, the amounts
of fertilizing matter annually consumed by Pine seedlings. Pine
poles and crops of rye.

Yellow pine Yellow pine Crop of

Fertilizing matter. one year old. eighty years old. rye.

Phosphoric acid 9.8 lbs. 1.7 lbs. 16.7 lbs.

Potash 20.7 lbs. 2.8 lbs. 24.2 lbs.

Calcium 17.2 lbs. 10.1 lbs. 9.7 lbs.

Magnesia 3.0 lbs. 2.0 lbs. 4.2 lbs.

Sulphuric acid 0.0 lbs. 0.3 lbs. 1.1 lbs.

The following fertilizers are used in forest gardens:

I. Animal manure, which is considered best. Cattle manure
is preferred to horse manure; on clay soil, however, horse manure
is better. Heavy weeds come up from stable manure which has
not had time to fully decompose.

II. Commercial fertilizers: Experiments conducted with super-
phosphate, bone meal and so on have failed to yield conclusive

87

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

results. The best kalium fertilizer seems to be kainit (kalium
chloride) ; the best nitrogen fertilizer is saltpeter.

After Von Schroeder, the following quantities of phosphates,
potash and nitrates are needed to raise 4,000,000 plants on an
acre of nursery:

520 lbs kainit.

60 lbs. superphosphate.

320 lbs. whale guano.

III. Humus, the natural forest manure, is the cheapest fer-
tilizer obtainable in the woods. Mould of Pines mixed with that
of broad-leaved species is best. Mould just one year old is said
to be richest in the bacilli favorable to tree growth, and to be
devoid of filiform fungi disastrous to plants.

The weeds removed from nurseries furnish, through their de-
composition, a valuable humus.

A mixture of humus with street sweepings, kitchen refuse,
loam, burned lime, etc., is often placed in heaps near the nurseries.
The heaps are kept in a rotation so that the heap made in 1913
is used in 1916. The heaps are stirred up repeatedly so as to
be acted upon by the air.

rV^. Vegetable matter other than humus. Vegetable fertilizer
may be obtained by raising, on the fallow beds, during the fallow
year, cowpeas, clover, lupine (the latter on sandy soil) and other
leguminous plants, all to be plowed under in fall.

Leguminous plants increase the nitrogen in the soil.

V. Wood ashes: Excessive use of wood ashes is disastrous to
sprouting plants, especially oh sandy soil. Besides kalium, wood
ashes contain from 5% to 20% of phosphoric salts. Wood ashes
should be used, however, moderately in Yellow Pine nurseries.

VI. Sod ashes are recommended where other fertilizers are too
costly. Sods of grass, of weeds or of huckleberries are dried and the
majority of the dirt is removed. From the sods is constructed a
kiln resembling a charcoal pit, wherein layers of sod alternate
with layers of brushwood, waste, thinnings, etc. The kiln is coated
with sods and wet dirt. Kilns burn, according to size, for from
two days to two weeks. The sod ashes contain all mineral fertil-
izers needed; have great hygroscopicity and are free from insects,
fungi and other bearers of plant diseases.

Sod ashes should be exposed to the atmosphere for a year
before use, and should then be well mixed with tlie top layer of
nursery dirt.

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph XXX. Seed planting in seed beds.

Seedbeds: Prescription for preparation: Plough and cross-
plough to a depth of one foot; mix manure well with soil; heap
the dirt taken from the paths on top of the beds; remove stones.

Seeds are planted either broadcast or in drills to a depth gen-
erally equaling their longest dimensions.

A. Broadcast planting is al\«rays used in commercial nurs-
eries while the sylviculturists use it merely for seeds of small
germinating percentage (Birch, Elm, Beech, Alder and Yellow Pop-
lar) or in case of light grained seeds which do not allow of any
covering.

Broadcast planting is permissible if seedlings are kept in the bed
one year only. Economy in size of nursery and less weeding are
the advantages of broadcast planting.

With the help of a roller or, better still, of a heavy plank,
the surface of the seed bed is pressed down until an even surface
is obtained. Then the seeds are planted, dirt or fertilizer or sod
ashes sifted on top, and the surface of the bed again pressed down
as before. To prevent the formation of a crust, a cover of moss or
leaves is often given, to be removed before the time at which
the cotyledons are expected to appear. Better than moss or leaves
are coverings consisting of Pine branches (exception: on Pine seeds).

B. Planting in rills. The rills are from one -fourth to three
inches wide; made with a "rill board," a plank well seasoned to
which mouldings are nailed. These mouldings may either be square
or triangular in their cross sections'.

The rills are from five to ten inches apart. Double rills are
preferred, lately, in Germany. In order to economize in the use of
fertilizer and in order to obtain a compact root system, trenches
are sometimes made and filled with particularly fertile soil, at
a distance apart equaling that of the rills. These trenches are
made with a special " trench hoe," triangular in shape. The seed
is put in the rill with the hand, with the help of a reduplicated
playing card, a bottle of seed or, better, a stick 2" x 4" grooved on
one side and as long as the ^^adth of the bed, or, best of all, a
hinged gutter into which the seeds are filled by " thimblefuls " or
"spoonfuls," evenly distributed in the base of the gutter. The
gutter is placed over the rill and opened by pressing the two sides
together, when the seeds drop through the "slot." To insure an
even distribution of the seed in the gutter, small niches may be
provided at short, equal intervals at the base of the gutter, the
89

A :\I E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

aggregate size of the cavities corresponding with the quantitj' of
seeds to be planted in each rill.

Hacker's seed planting machine is used, in German forest nurs-
eries, on an increasing scale for the seeding of coniferous seeds,
be it broadcast, or in rows: A wedge-shaped trough receives the
seeds; beneath the wedgepoint is an opening allowing the seeds to
drop into the horizontal grooves of a metal wheel; the grooves may
be closed, and the dropping of seeds into them thus prevented
partiaHy, by a series of brass rings fitted over the wheel; tlie
machine is pushed over the seedbed, the wheel is caused to rotate,
and the seeds are conveyed by the grooves into the top layer of the
soil; two small brushes prevent the seeds from escaping too readily,
and also keep the wheel free from dirt. To the right of the seed
wheel is a small roller, which presses the seeds into the ground, or
else levels the surface of the bed to be planted.

Advantages of rill planting:

I. Economy in seed.

II. Stronger plants of more compact form grown at proper
intervals apart.

III. Economy in manure.

IV. Seeds put at proper depth.

V. The foot of plantlet can be easily covered with moss or
leaves.

VI. Weeding is made easy.

Unless experienced help can be had. rill-planting is certainly
preferable to broad-casting. Undoubtedly, however, insects, mice
and moles following the rills do greater damage in rill than in broad-
cast planting.

The quantity of seed per square foot of seed bed depends on
the number of seeds in a pound; the germinating percentage; the
quality of soil; the number of years which the seedling is meant
to stay in the beds; rapidity of growth. Oak 2% of a quart;
Beech and Chestnut, 4% of a quart; Locust, Ash, Maple, Elm, Birch,
30 grains; Alders, 45 grains; Fir, 150 grains; Yellow Pine, 15
grains; Spruce, 20 grains, 'J'amarack, 30 grains; avoirdupois — all
per square foot.

The figures given are illustrations, not prescriptions.

Heavy seeds (nuts) are usually dibbled in, with a "dibbling
board."

90

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph XXXI. Transplanting in transplant-
ing beds.

A. Transplanting is expensive. It must be done at a time
when forest ■ labor is anyhow fully occupied. Transplanting is,
therefore, resortei to only

I. In case of expensive seeds or seedlings.

II. In case of slow growing seedlings.

III. In case of plants exposed in the open to severe dangers
(drought, frost, game, mice, insects, weeds).

B. To avoid transplanting, the following alternatives are
used:

I. The affspring of very cheap seeds (German Spruce) is "sin-
gled out," weaklings or individuals standing crowdedly being pulled
out by hand, or being cut out by scissors.

II. "Root pruning" is used to enforce a compact root system
by cutting off, with a sharp spade, far-spreading roots, or long tap
roots.

The transplanting distance is, at least, three by six inches and
is governed by rapidity of growth exi>ected and by the number of
years which the transplant is to be left in the transplanting bed.

Transplants are set in clefts in the transplanting bed made
with the help of a transplanting dagger, or are placed into trenches
made with a hoe or spade. So as to regulate the operation, planting
boards are often used, along which the seedlings, whilst pressed into
equidistant slight grooves, are held in proper position.

Professor Toumey's planting board, used in many American
nurseries, catches the seedlings to be inserted between the upper
and lower lid of two timbers, the lids holding the tops of the plants,
with the roots hanging free, as if they were pressed between the
covers of a book.

Forstwart Schlag's planting board holds the seedlings between;
two timbers connected by iron pins. Strong rakes, with oblique
handles, are used to make the trench receiving the seedlings.

Forstmeister Hacker's planting board is similar to Schlag's.

Transplants are often left for but one year in the transplanting
bed, although the act of transplanting weakens the plant tempo-
rarily, thus checking the first year's growth in the transplanting
bed. Conifers should not be transplanted more than once. Hard-
woods are rarely transplanted for forest purposes more than once,
excepting the Ash, saplings of which are used for planting in.
inundation districts along rivers.

91

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Paragraph XXXII. Protection of nurseries.

A. Against drought: Lath covers, cloth covers, branches,
cornstalks, top covering of slabs, laths, etc.; cultivating rows of
plants; watering which must be continued if once begun.

B. Against frost: Same measures as in "A" inclusive of
watering; smoking fires; pressing seedlings lifted by frost back
into the bed; no weeding from September on.

C. Against excessive rain (which washes the plants out, or
splashes them with mud-pants, or incrusts the surface) : Top
dressing of leaves, moss or Pine branches; "combing" mud-pants
off the seedlings; lath or brush covers.

Paragraph XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries.

A. 'Weeding: Weeding is facilitated in nurseries by a regular
arrangement of the plants and by narrow beds. Tools are: Knife,
fork, hoe or special weeding wheels. Weeding should be stopped
a month before frost occurs. The purpose of weeding is not only
the removal of competitors; it is also the aeration of the soil.

Weeding can be dispensed with in dense, broadcast seed beds;
in thinly stocked beds planted broadcast it is most necessary and
most difficult.

B. Cultivation: Cultivation in the transplanting beds of the
commercial nurseries is done by cultivators drawn by a horse.
Cultivation in forest nurseries proper purports to break the crust
forming under the influence of heavy rain. Usually the act of
weeding cultivates the soil as well. Cultivation is most easily
effected by drawing some strong nails driven into a stick along
each rill. This cultivation, at the same time, disturbs and scares
away mice, voles and insects.

C. Carpeting the intervals between rills or rows.
Reversed moss, spent tan, sawdust, straw, hay, twigs (always

of another species), poles (not fresh cut jnne poles, which are incuba-
tors to snout beetles) are often laid between the rills or rows so as to
preserve the moisture, to prevent mud-pants from forming on the
stemlets and to check weeds. These carpets, however, harbor mice
and insects. Large leaves in the carpet threaten to smother young
seedlings if blown upon them.

D. Trimming. The top shoot when killed by early frost or
drought might be cut off. In no other case must it be touched.

92

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The side branches of broad-leafed species and of winterbald coni-
fers might be clipped before or after planting and transplanting so
as to reestablish the previous equilibrium existing between water
sucking power of the roots now checked by transplanting and water
evaporation from the crownlets left unchecked by planting. Species
having a heavy central pith column should not be trimmed too
close to the stemlet (Ash, Catalpa, Maple). Ash and Catalpa are
apt to form for"ks which may be prevented by timely trimming.

Large broad-leaved plants planted in furrows often die, when
shaken loose by winds. They may be saved if cut to the ground
previous to June 15th.

Paragraph XXXIV. Special nursery methods
proclaimed by renowned sylviculturists.

A. Biermans' method: Peel the soil cover from an area four
times the size of the seed bed and burn the sods thus gotten into
sod ashes. Leave them over winter. In spring, mix one-half of the
sod ashes with the stirred-up top dirt of the intended seed bed. Spread
the other one-half pure on top of the bed. Smooth the surface of
the bed and press it with a board. Spread seeds broadcast as close
together as possible, so that the soil is hardly visible between the
grains. Cover seeds with sod ashes sifted on top, and press the
cover down with a board. Transplant the young germs in June.
Shorten the taproot of Oaks by cutting with a sharp knife. Oak
nurseries should be underlaid with impenetrable soil. Yellow Pine
and Larch should be used in the open when one year old; all other
species two to three years old.

This method yields very well rooted seedlings. The use of
sod ashes is, perhaps not an essential feature of the method; fer-
tilizer or manure might be taken instead. The striking point
is the transplanting of germs in June.

B. Von Buttlar method: Von Buttlar wants to raise long
roots, not compact roots, for use in sandy soil. The nursery is
worked to a depth of three feet, the bottom soil being brought to
the surface. Larch, Fir and Elm seed are planted broadcast; all
other species in rills. No transplanting. All species are used one or
two years old.

C. Von ManteufFel method: The plants required by Man-
teuffel must have short, flat roots. Consequently, the best soil in the
nursery should be the top soil, and the ground underneath should
not be worked to any depth.

93

A il E R I C A X S Y L V I C U L T U R E

Remove the top layer of the soil, by peeling, and beat tlie dirt
■out of the peeled sods onto the seed beds. Mix it with the dirt
of the underground in fall. In spring, burn the sods and other
vegetable matter at hand on the beds, mixing the wood ashes thus
obtained with the top soil. Spruce shall not be transplanted and
is to be used when two yeais old. Fir and all broad-leafed species
must be transplanted.

D. Von Ueblagger luetliod: Regardless of species and age
and size, all seedlings are dug from all lieds, hefore the frost sets in,
and are kept in a heeled-in position, duly covered, all Avinter long.
The beds free from seedlings are impregnated and fertilized by the
atmosphere during winter. The seedlings are ready to outplant or
transplant at once in spring. The results obtained are excellent.

Paragraph XXXV. Raising and planting hard-
wood seedlings.

Beech: Usual age of plants fit for use, two to five years.
Transplants rarely used. Ball plants very successful. Bunch plant-
ing best, especially for underplanting. Do not cut stemlet to the
ground and avoid pruning. Planting in open clearings hardly suc-
cessful. Beech best for underplanting. Instruments' used are: hoe,
spiral spade, cleft irons. Almost light demander on poor soil.
Beech is exacting (good soil and moisture).

Black Locust: Seeds should be planted two to two and one-
half inches deep, an exception from the usual rule as to the depth
of planting, considering the small size of the seed. Drills eight
inches apart. Germinating percentage of seeds very high. Seedlings
arc fit for planting when one year old. Usually, however, they
are left in the.seed bed for two years, and are then planted directly
in the open. The planting of stumps and fall planting are strongly
recommended. Plantations liandicaj)ped by twigboring moth
(Ecdytolopha species) and by voles. Locust grown in the open is
inferior to forest grown Locust.

Liinden: Is usually planted in the open as a transplant three
to four years old, or as a ball plant two or three years old. Spring
planting. Good soil required. Pruning of branches a necessity.
Plantations in Biltmore made in '98 on splendid soil, but without
cover overhead, were slow to develop.
94

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Oaks: The nursery treatment differs greatly according to local
likes and forestry authorities relied upon. The treatment of the
tap root is a continuous point of dispute. Manteuffel cuts the tap
root one and one-half inches below ground (just as the voles did
in Biltmore nurseries). Buttlar ties a knot into the root. Alemann
forbids any crippling of the tap root, making an extra cleft
in the planting hole to receive the tap root. Levret prevents the
■development of a tap root by placing the acorns on macadam,
covering them with one inch of dirt. The 'ground underneath the
macadam must be hard.

Large areas of Oak planted in Northern C4ermany witli the tap
root removed prove the success of jManteuffel's method. The hollow
borer cannot be used. Trimming of branches is all right. Roots
should be pruned, after Fiirst, with a sharp spade at six inches
below ground in the second spring. Spring planting is best. Some
planters remove the first germ of the acorn (" off'germing ") with
a view to stopping the development of the tap root. Stiimp plants
do very well, especially in the coppice woods. Usually seedlings
one and two years old are planted. The use of saplings, transplanted
repeatedly, is not advisable. Cleft planting of seedlings on broom-
sedge fields at Biltmore proved unsuccessful; the weeds choking
and the rabbits eating the seedlings. Cleft planting in cutover
woodlands, however, on fairly loose soil is a method to be strongly
endorsed. In France the clefts are made inclined, not vertical;
saplings 20 years old do not show any crooks due to the method.
Planting of seedlings or of young transplants in spade holes, in
furrows or in clefts made between the lid and the pit formed by
reversed sods prove successful at Biltmore. Young plants are not
subject to lifting by frost nor do they suffer from drought. The
nursery should not be worked deeper than one foot while the success
of the final plantation largely depends on looseness of ground at a
greater dej^th. Generally Red Oak is more vigorous in early youth
than White Oak. At Biltmore, Chestnut Oak is the best species for
abandoned fields. The Yellow Pines are valuable as nurses or
ushers, when planted with or in advance of the Oaks.

Chestnut: Soil well worked to a depth of sixteen inches,
potash a necessity, lime disastrous. Seedling planting (plants one
•or two years old) forms the rule; planting of stumps is also good.

Since Chestnut is very sensitive under changed conditions of

growth, ball planting is probably the best method. Seeds are often

kept in the burs over winter, or in layers alternating with layers of

■dry sand. Immediate fall planting, however, is best. Nuts are

95

A :\I E E I C A X SYLVICULTURE

planted in drills two inches deep two inches apart, the rows of
drills six to twelve inches apart. At Biltniore planting of seedlings
has met with continuous failure. Planting under cover or under
an usher growth is probably advisable. Chestnut is exacting, need-
ing atmospheric as well as soil moisture.

Tree Alder: It is usually planted as a transplant three to
five years old. Yearlings are too small; seedlings two years old can
be ball planted. Trimming allowed. Seeds planted broadcast on the
beds, one- fourth inch 5f dirt on top. Sprinkling necessary. No
protection against atmosphere needed. On swampy ground, fall
planting of transplants is best. Since Alder is particularly well
adapted to thrive on non-aerated soil, it should be tried for prairie
planting.

Birch: Seeds very poor in percentage of germination. Seeds
must be covered very slightly or better perhaps, must be beaten
with a shovel into the nursery soil after broadcasting. Formation
of crust over seeds is best prevented by a cover of Pine branches.
Under lath screens, the germs are apt to damp off. Seedlings are
planted either as two year olds, with or without balls, or as trans-
planted stumps three to five years old. Birch is sensitive to deep
planting; is not affected by heat, frost or drought.

Ash: The easiest species among hardwoods to raise, plant and
transplant. Planted as a seedling one year old or transplanted up
to three times. Plants as old as eight years can be planted suc-
cessfully without balls. Seed is placed in rills seven to twelve
inches apart. Where soil is very weedy, large and strong trans-
plants must be used. Planting in noles, on mounds or in furrows.
The cleft spade is also permissible in planting yearlings. Trimming
is not advisable, except to prevent formation of forks. Transplant-
ing of germs, in June, is quite successful.

Elm: Seeds to be planted in summer (excepting Slippery
Elms), just after ripening, in rich nurseries, and to receive very
light cover of sand. Seed beds must be sprinkled, and the forma-
tion of a crust must be prevented. Seedlings cannot penetrate
a layer of one-half an inch of dirt. Usually, transplants three to
five years old are used. Fall planting is preferred. Elms stand
trimming easily.

Maple: Drills three-fourth inches deep, one inch wide, eight
inches apart. Transplanting takes place when seedlings are one
or two years old. Seedlings grow rapidly. Fall planting is pre-
ferable. Planting in large holes is best, since Maple cannot form
96

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

a compact root system. (Sugar Maple planted four years old at
Biltmore on abandoned Helds did very well on North Slopes, in
pure stands as well as mixed with White Pine. Maple is easily
out-planted, and even yearlings or two year olds might be planted
in the open on good soil. In swamps. Red and Soft Maple are
preferable. Sugar Maple requires well drained soil.

YellovT- Poplar: Very poor seeds, hence broadcast planting.
Covering with spent sawdust, instead of dirt, seems advisable.
Seedlings transplanted either as germs in first summer or when one
year old. Very rapid growth in first and second year. Easily
transplanted in holes on suitable soil. Seedlings can be taken in
.June and July from wood roads to the nurseries, with balls of.
dirt. Abandoned fields at Biltmore, planted with four year olds
did poorly except in northern depressions or in mixture with ^Vliite
Pine. Strong soil needed. Compact soil not unfavorable.

Catalpa: The favorite Kansas prairie tree. Very high germ-
inating percentage. Very fast growth in first year. Rills one inch
by one inch by twelve inches. Seedling plants one .year old are
strong enough for planting. Stump plants are preferable. At
Biltmore the top shoot is often killed by frost; it should certainly
be cut off after planting. Catalpa requires wheat soil in order
to form proper bole, and does not answer in a cold climate. Spring
planting in holes or furrows.

Walnuts: The planting of seealings is not permissible except
where mice, squirrels and hogs are sure to get the nuts. Very long
taps make planting difficult. Best soil needed. Small seedlings are
choked out by weeds. Plants one to three years old to be used,
and pure plantations to be avoided. Cover in the nurseries three
inches, distance apart four to ten inches.

Hickory: To be treated like Walnuts; during the first years,
the stems remain very minute while a large tap root forms. Voles
follow along the rows of plants and cut off the roots at a point
about one inch below ground. Loose, porous soil is needed.

Cherry: Planted in rills one-half inch deep and eight inches
apart. Transplants two or three years old, transplanted when one
year old are best for use in the open. Protection from rabbits
peeling the stumps is required. Rapid growth in nurseries. Twig
tips are usually killed by the first frost since the twigs grow
during the whole summer and fall. Pruning required, Black Cherry
does well on abandoned fields mixed with White Pine, Pine, Ash,
Maple.

97

A ]\I E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

Sassafras: Planting of seed in nurseries at Biltmore has been
an entire failure. The seeds lived through the first summer but
did not begin to sprout. Deep cover required, since cotyledons are
kept underground. The removal of the flesh enwrapping the seed
(by malting, etc.), is required before planting.

Paragraph XXXVI. Raising and planting soft-
wood seedlings.

Yellow Pines: Seeds are covered two-fifths to three-fifths
inches' deep. Nursery soil to be pressed thoroughly before and after
seed planting. Planting of yearlings (from 5,000 to 40,000 per acre)
forms the rule. The roots of such yearlings are ten inches long.
On sandy soil, cleft planting is universal (with planting dagger).
On binding soil, ball plants one or two years old are best.

Recently some foresters recommend transplants two years old
which more readily overcome the infantile diseases. No mound
nor bunch planting. On very sandy soil Yellow Pines are planted
deeper (up to first needles) than they stood in the nursery. A
plantation ten years old should densely cover the grovmd.

Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) does very well on the poorest
sand. Very rapid growth. Pinus rigida crawls on the ground dur-
ing the first and second j'ear, putting up a strong stem thereafter.
Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) is the cheapest that can be planted
and the most successful species in the Adirondacks. At Biltmore
it does exceedingly' well on dry south slopes..

White Pine: Quite different from Y^ellow Pine is the ease
with which it is transplanted. Seedlings one year old are very
small and apt to suff'er from leaves smothering them. Seedlings
two years old have been planted at Biltmore on abandoned fields
(in holes) very successfully. Transplants three and four years old
are usually used. Owing to its greater shade bearing qualities
White Pine may be used also for temporary underplanting. Seed-
lings suff'er badly from fungi. White Pine is subject to damage
from too-deep planting. In the Adirondacks, the best and strongest
individuals form a second summer shoot, the buds of which are killed
by early frost, so that no top shoot grows in the ensuing year. At
Biltmore, the second shoot seems to be safe from frost.

Spruce: Nursery rills one inch wide, five inches apart. Trans-
planting distance usually four to six inches. Slow growth at first.
Smallest size that may be used are seedlings two years old. Ball

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

planting best, bunch planting frequent in mountains. Transplants
three to five years old are preferable. Plant in holes, never in
clefts. Badly affected by deep planting. Spring planting forms
the rule except in high mountains. High atmospheric moisture is
a prerequisite for Spruce. Do not trim. Number of plants per
acre from 1,500 transplants to 10,000 seedlings. Picea excelsa might
replace P. rubens (the former being cheaper), if the resistance to
snow-breaks shown by rubens were equalled by excelsa. Planta-
tions twelve years old should fully cover the ground.

Firs: Seed should be planted in fall. Rills close, say four
inches; cover, one-half inch. Early growth very slow; lath screens
very essential, owing to sensitiveness of youngsters to heat and
cold. Transplants five years old are best. Planting on open ground
is dangerous; miderplanting is very advisable. Species most planted
are Abies pectinata, balsamea, concolor.

Larcli or Tamarack: The European and Japanese Larch
are scattering species, doing badly in pure stands. Growth in early
youth is rapid. Seedlings two years old and transplants three years
old are preferred for forest planting. The distance of the rills,
and the transplanting distance must be comparatively wide. Seed-
lings might be cleft planted; but hole planting forms the rule.
Fall planting necessary. Larch permits of heavy trimming. Mulch
seeds for one week before planting. European Larch does well at
Biltmore and in the Adirondacks.

Hemlock: Grows very slowly in youth. Seedbeds require
heavy sheltering (under cloth screens). Transplant the two year
olds, and plant the five year olds under cover in the woods.

Douglas Fir: Seeds are still expensive; hence transplants
four years old are usual, though seedlings two years old are certain
of success. Hot-house treatment of seeds secures early and simul-
taneous sprouting. Plant seedlings in open ground, not under cover.
Plantations made near London, England, lose the long top shoots
by sea winds; in the Adirondacks, they suffer from frost; at Bilt-
more, the growth is strikingly poor, possibly due to the deficiency
in atmospheric humidity. Plants fourteen years old are hardly chest
high; plants eleven years old only knee high. In all cases the
Washington variety is used. Varietas glauca, of Colorado, grows
slowly, and is more hardy.

Red Cedar ( Juniperus virginiana) ; Seed lies dormant for one
summer. Seedlings two years old are ready for planting. High
lath screens in nurseries advisable (Green). Very slow growth.
Shade bearing. 99

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Lawson's Cypress: Stands intense sliade, resists frosts,
sutlers from fungi; is well adapted to underplanting.

Paragraph XXXVII. Results of planting experi-
ments with American hardwoods.

For many years, the governmental forestry bureaus of the Ger-
man States have been examining the merits of some leading Ameri-
can tree species.

Locust and White Pine have been planted so extensively that
they are considered as " naturalized forest citizens."

In a number of instances, the European views fail to tally with
the results of American investigations made with reference to the
sylvics of our leading species.

A. Fraxinus americana: Requirements as in excelsa ; stands
inundation better. Germination in first spring. Plant seeds in fall,
or else in early spring after three days soaking. One year old, one
foot high.

Use transplants two or three years old.

Root is a tap-root wath many side roots.

Mayr does not advocate its propagation anywhere in Germany.

B. Catalpa speciosa: Suffers from short summers, often freez-
ing down to ground. Hence frequently spreading growth.

Seeds of high germinating percentage.
Use either seedlings or transplants two years old.
Light demanding, but fond of side shade.

Mice peel at point of differentiation; all game is fond of
Catalpa.

C. Juglans nigra: ]\lild, fresh soil required, and long Avarm
summers.

When one year old, strong tap-roots over one foot long: root
fibres at end of tap-root tip.

When two years old, the tap-root is over two and one-quarter
feet long.

Height growth: 5 years old, 5 feet.
10 years old, 13 feet.
20 years old, 35 feet.
Decidedly light demanding; fond of side shade in early youth.
Yellow Pine shelter wood is very good: More shade prevents
lignification. in close stands, it is free from branches.
100

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Nuts sprouting late (being dried out) cause shoots to be killed
by early frost: Hence pre-germination advisable.

Frost hard in sapling stage.

No game or mice enemies.

Plant nuts or yearlings on well-plowed ground, and cultivate.
Plant close together, so as to avoid branchiness. Prime none but
lignified brandies, owing to heavy pith column.

D. Prunus serotina: Modest, provided soil is moist.
Light demanding, but does well under slight Pine cover.
Roots many tapped, strong.

Height growth better than tiiat of any European hardwood,
save Ash.

5 years old, 6 feet high.

10 years old, 13 feet high.

15 years old, 22 feet high.

Proof against all effects of frost.

Rabbits cut and peel (also mice) young plants.

Seed-beds: Plant in fall, to avoid lying over, or else soak in
water for three days previous to planting in spring.

Use transplants three years old; plant close, to avoid side
branches.

E. Acer saccliaruiu: Fresh, sandy loam, or fresh sand;
forming stool-shoots on dry soil, and no stem.

Growth quick; light demanding; strong root system.

Forms forks frequently fifteen feet above ground.

Height 35 feet, when twenty years old.

Most frost hard of all Maple species. Game and rabbits ( ?)
despise it.

Seeds mature in June, and can be planted at once, but are
just as well preserved and planted in spring.

Use seedlings two years old, or transplants, four years old.

F. Acer negundo: Requires strong soil; does not do on dry
soil. Growth very quick to start with, in two years up to six feet,
in twenty years fifty feet.

Development of low, branchy crown.
Light demanding, frost proof.
LTse seedlings one year old.
Damaged by game and rabbits.

G. Acer saccharinum: Requires strong soil; not clay.
Growth slower than in other Maples, up to fifth year; 20 years

old thirty-five feet high.
Apt to form forks.

101

A J\I E R I C A N SYLVICULTURE

Sensitive against frost and drought; requires sliade; does best
when used for underplanting.

Use transplanted small saplings.

Avoid planting on open ground.

Mayr recommends it for sugar orchards, not for timber
production.

H. Betula lenta: Avoids wet frost dells and poor dry soil;
forms tap-root on sand and flat-root on clay.

Height in five years five feet; in tAvent}^ years thirty-six feet.

Growth bushy to start with, but soon straight, erect and free
from branches.

Decidedly light demanding, but fond of side shade.

No more frost-proof than Beech. Late and early frost damages
it, especially on wet clay.

Game, rabbits and mice are very dangerous.

Seed-bed should not be dug over. — Peel-off the top cover of grass
and weeds on humose sand, hoe the soil and then use roller. Plant
broadcast, one pound for two square poles; cover by sifting one-
twenty-fifth inch of sand on the seeds and roll again with roller;
keep Pine brandies on the seed-bed until after germination.

Use tall transplants for planting in the open, owing to animal
dangers.

Red Birch is said to do well when planted with Pine on aban-
doned fields, or when planted with Beech naturally regenerated.

I. Hickories: All hickories require strong, deep fresh, soil.
Not on clay.

Pignut is satisfied with more sand, and jMockernut with more
clay.

Butternut requires water, more than the others, and stands
inundation.

All hickories require hot summers but stand severe winters;
continental climate is better suited than sea climate.

Tap-root of yearling one foot long; of two year old plant one
and three-quarter feet; hence transplanting after two years very
difficult.

Height growth begins in the case of Hicoria ovata to set in
from sixth year, and is good then.

Age 5 years, average heiglit 2.4 feet.

Age 10 years, average height 7 feet.

Age 15 years, average height 13 feet.

Age 20 years, average height 20 feet.

Buds open late but shoot is quickly made.
102

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Nuts germinate slowly; hence malting or better repeated
sprinkling with liquid manure advisable; many' nuts lie over, even
for two years. Nuts thoroughly dried lose germinating power.

Malting or ■" pre-germination " advisable.

In the case of Hickory and Walnut, the following recipe for
pre-germination is given:

"Make a ditch three feet deep and wide; put nuts in the
ditch to a depth of one foot; fill ditch with water up to top of nuts;
then add a slight cover of straw; then dirt; then horse manure.

" In this ditch the nuts are kept until planting time ; the nuts
will germinate a few weeks after planting (in May)."

Plant seedlings one or two years old, or else nuts, on plowed
ground. Cultivating advisable.

Late frost is avoided by the late formation of shoots. Early
frosts are bad, if seedlings did not have time to lignify owing to
late germination.

Avoid planting on open ground; shade is endured readily for a
number of years. Straggling plantations often develop after natural
or artificial reinforcing with other species.

Young plants suffer from mice. Damaged seedlings should be
coppiced down.

In Hicoria minima, gro\vth is quicker to begin with than in
Shagbark.

At twenty years, however, Shagbark catches iip.

Wood much poorer than in Shagbark (more brittle).

Hicoria glabra is more modest as to soil than Shagbark
Hickory, and more sensitive as to frost (?).

Hicoria alba is more sensitive than Shagbark; same rate of
growth; does well in the Westerwald, badly in river valleys.

Paragraph XXXVIII. Results of planting ex-
periments with American softwoods.

A. Pinus divaricata: Very modest. Stands frost and
drought and does not suffer from Hysterium.

Root system tap-rooted, many fibred.

Height growth very rapid, several shoots per summer.

2 years old, 8 inches high.

5 years old, 5 feet high.

8 years old, 10 feet high.

Game and hares handicap it; still there is strong reproductive
power.

103

AMERICA>J SYLVICULTURE

Seed one-half pound per square pole; seed has 60% germina-
tion; cones contain fertile seeds from sixth year on.

Use yearlings or transplants two to three years old for the
very poorest soil.

B. Pinus ponderosa: Fails absolutely in Germany, probably
owing to insuilii'ient summer heat.

C. Pinus rigida; Very modest; does well in salty swamps;
suffers badly from snow-pressure.

When 5 years old, 7 feet high.

When 20 years old, 32 feet high.

Growth is very rapid, but from twelve years on P. sylvestris
catches up and then keeps ahead.

Diameter growth better than in sylvestris, too.

Strong reproductive power after damage by insects, game, fire.

Very light demanding.

Cones seed-bearing from twelfth year on.

More proof against late frost, more sensitive for early frost
than sylvestris.

Less shedding of needles due to Hysterium; more danger from
game.

Use yearlings, or transplants two years old.

D. Picea engelmanni : Likes strong but not wet soil — it is
winter frost hard; but sutlers slightly from late frosts.

Eoot system deep, many fibred; not flat.

Dislikes top shade.

Yearling only one to two inches high; two years old four
inches high; five years old one foot high.

Height growth always slow, hence easily outgrown, and i)ure
stands required.

Use transplants, five years old.

E. Picea parrayana: \'erv frost proof, more so than any other
Spruce.

Stands wet soil; not exacting.
No top shade.

Root system compact, fine fibred.
Slow early growth, as in Engelmann's Spruce.
Plantations ten years old average but one and throo-quarter
feet in height.

Animal ])rn()f.

F. Picea sitchensis : Requires moist soil and moist air.
Heat requirements as in P. excelsa.

104

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Soil requirements less tlian in P. excelsa, growing both on sand
and on clay. Not in stagnating moisture, but stands inundation
well.

Does well on seashore and at high altitudes.

Height growth at first very slow; from fifth year on better than
in excelsa.

Short branches, slowly dropped; close stand required, fond of
forking.

No top shade. Side shade welcome but not reqviired.

Frost and drought not dangerous except during first and second
year.

Game does not bother it.

Seed-beds of mild, rich soil to strengthen weak seedlings.

Use strong transplants, five years old.

G. Abies amabilis: Plants five years old are still subject to
damage by direct insolation and by late frosts.
Rate of growth as in A. pectinata.

H. Abies concolor: Spring shoots formed late; resists frosts
and any other climatic attacks well.

Not exacting as to soil, doing well on Scotch Pine soil of second
quality, provided that it be fresh.

Tap-root formed in second year.

Height growth in early youth better than in any other Fir;
plants eight years old have average height of three feet.

On good soil, even Spruce is outgrown by it.

Seedlings two years old are fit for planting; they suffer when
planted too deep.

Seed-bed treatment as in A. pectinata.

I. Abies grandis: Treatment as in pectinata, which it ex-
ceeds in height growth. Soil requirements are the same.

J. Abies nobilis: Frost firm in winter, even unprotected.
Late spring shoots help it to escape late frosts.

Stands dry soil; from fifth year on, more light demanding.
Forms strong tap-root, and sometimes several whirls of branches
per annum. Plantation seven years old is three and one-half feet
high.

Plant seedlings two years old, or transplants four years old.

K. Pseudotsuga taxifolia: Suitable to any climate, frost
proof.

Soil should not be poorer than third-class Pine soil; no dunes;
no swamps.

105

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Root is a tap-root on k'ose soil, is fiat on sliallow or binding
soil, and shows great adaptability.

Height growth marvelous!

Age 5 years height 1.7 feet.

Age 10 years height 12 feet.

Age 15 j'ears height 29 feet.

Age 20 years height 45 feet.

Age 23 years height 53 feet.

Diameter, twenty-three years old, from throe inches to ten
inches, average seven inches; number of trees per acre 350.

Close stand required to clear from branches.

Light and heat demands as in Picea excelsa.

Snow and sleet throw it over, or break top shoot, the latter
loss being quickly replaced by side shoot taking lead.

Game is a bad enemy.

Use transplants three to four years old.

li. Cliainaecyparis lawsoniana: Does splendidly in Germany
especially in the Eifel Movmtains at 1,500 feet elevation.

Frost-proof; but sensitive during drought.

Exacting like Beech, fond of limestone.

Flat-rooted; suifers fi'om snow.

Shade bearing in early yoiith; fond of partial shade later on;
always fond of side shade.

Slow in clearing itself from side branches; forms very close
stands.

Very slow growth to start with; one year one inch high; two
years four inclies high ; ten years eight inches high.

Plant seed-beds broadcast, and cover them completely. Use
transplants four to five j'ears old. Do not plant too deep.

Game are very bad; wood mice peel the stump, or cut the roots.

Suffers but little from late frost because of late sprouting;
more subject to harm by winter frost.

M. Juniperus virginiana: Avoid poor or wet soil.

Seeds lie over; seedlings one to two years old are very small
and tender. Side shade always liked. Suffers from weeds and
grass. Red deer and Roe deer bite and beat it.

Seeds kept in ditches over summer are planted in fall.

Use yearlings and plant in holes.

N. Thuja plicata: Desires good, fresh soil, and avoids
swamps.

Top shade or side shade is well liked; do not plant in open
ground.

106

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Deep root system.

Heiglit growth slow to begin witli, rapid from seventh year on:

Age 1 year; height 1 inch.

Age 5 years; height 41/2 feet.

Age 10 years; height 8 feet.

Age 15 years; heiglit 15 feet.

Age 20 years; height 23 feet.

Slow cleaning of bole; very dense thickets required.

Seed bearing from fifteenth year on.

Subject to damage by frost and drought during first years.

Game does not attack it; mice destroy young seedlings.

Seeds are planted broadcast; slightly covered with, dirt; shel-
tered by lath screens.

Strong seedlings three j'ears old (not transplants) are used
since the root system is comparatively small, whilst the stem sys-
tem is comparatively large.

O. Tsuga lieterophylla: Requires strong soil; demands side
shade, bvit hates top shade. Cannot stand open situations.

Root is a strong tap-root.

Height growth good from third year on.

Tips of the top-shoot are frequently killed by first frost, with-
out any apparent permanent damage.

Use seedlings three years old, raised by broadcast sowing.

Shelter seed-beds well. Avoid deep planting.

Mayr prefers heterophylla to canadensis for planting in
Germany.

Paragraph XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed
regeneration.

Theoretical foresters frequently make the statement that the
axe is the best sylvicultural tool inasmuch as its proper use secures
a good regeneration free of charge. This statement is misleading. It
is true that the density of the stand of the second growth obtain-
able from natural regeneration is frequently better than that ob-
tained from artificial planting. On the other hand, a good stand
cannot be obtained but under favorable conditions and at a great
increase of the logging expenses. While the cash expense of natural
reseeding might be slight, the actual expense consisting in lessened
receipts frequently exceeds the expenses of artificial planting. In
the primeval woods, additional difficulties of seed regeneration in-
duced by man lie in the following points:
107

A M E R I C A X S Y L ^' I C U L T U R E

A. Over-aged trees have poor seeds.

B. Interference ivith the leaf canopy overhead at once
invites danger from fire, increased by the debris on the ground, and
bv the impossibility of battling against fires in the underbrush.

C. In the primeval forest, the age classes are usually mixed
in an irregular manner; uniform measures for reproduction are
therefoie out of the question. The forester cannot generalize; he
must individualize, — a very expensive procedure in the face of low
stumpage values.

D. The virgin forest usually contains a mixture of
species; the best ones alone are removable; the weeds and the
worthless species are left on the ground; and from this fact arise
additional difficulties in the propagation of the most valuable kinds.
To this must be added the difficulty of properly guaging the light
and the shade according to the individualities of the species mixed.

E. The lack of a permanent system of transportation

in America necessitates the operations to extend at one stroke over
large areas, whilst natural seed regeneration requires tne gradual
removal of mother trees from small and restricted areas in imitation
of nature's own way of proceeding.

As a matter of fact, the lack of permanent means of transporta-
tion in primeval woods is the most serious obstacle to the use of
regeneration from self-sown seed by a forester conscious of his aim
and its effect.

F. Natural seed regeneration requires cutting, according
to the occurrence of seed years and according to the development
and the requirements of the young growth. The axe therefore
must be independent from the fluctuations of market or mill re-
quirements,— an impossible demand in the United States at the
present time.

The term " natural seed regeneration " does not preclude the
use of artificial help to increase the cliances of regeneration. The
term merely implies " seeding," or scattering of seed, in the main
unaided by man. Man, however, may carefully prepare the seed-
bed, by plowing or hoeing or digging, or may carefully press the
seeds naturally fallen into the soil; and may protect the seed and
the seedlings, at great pains, against external dangers.

Little help is given, where soil and stumpage are, and promise
to remain, of small value.

108

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Under tlie reversed conditions, the expense incurred for natural
regeneration often exceeds that required for artificial regeneration.

In innumerable cases, natural and artificial regeneration are
locally and irregularly combined.

It might be claimed that the forest has secured its own regen-
eration through many millenia, and that it will continue to do
so unaided by human activity. Why then, it might be asked, is it
necessary or advisable to now offer costly assistance in order to
secure a natural reseeding of and in a lumbered tract of woodland?
-« There cannot be any doubt that nature, barring bad conflagra-
tions or heavy pasturage, will start and develop after lumbering
some kind of a second growth of forest. As a matter of fact, it is
usually at hand, previous to lumbering, in an embryonic or incom-
plete state waiting for the chance to shoot ahead after the removal
of the older trees. This ready nucleus, however, consists as a rule
of inferior or worthless species; of specimens crippled by fire, by
the fall (accidental or otherwise) of nearby trees, by the logger's
axe or foot, by passing teams and loads, etc. In addition, many
members of that nucleus will die when suddenly bereaved of the
shelter (against drought, cold, hail, etc.), previously exercised by
the old trees now removed.

It must be remembered that a crop of weeds usually follows
in the field after the harvest of valuable wheat; in the forest
after the harvest of valuable timber.

Such "weeds" are unable to secure for the owner of the land
a sufficient rate of interest on the value of the soil and an adequate
reimbursement of the taxes due on the soil.

Another point worthy of attention lies in the poor chances
which a grain of seed stands, in nature's economy, to develop into
a seedling, sapling, pole and tree. The probability is that but one
grain of seed — out of millions of grains — produced by an individual
tree during its lifetime succeeds in reaching tree size, replacing its
progenitor on the forest floor. The ecologic incidents bringing about
this result are far from being clearly understood. Still, it must be
the sylviculturist's aim to provide for these incidents, if he desires
to replace the old crop, removed at an unnatural rate of rapidity,
at an equally fast rate by an offspring resulting from self-sown
seed.

If the forester were satisfied to merely remove nature's mori-
bimds, then he might get along with a purely natural regeneration,
entirely unaided by human skill.

109

A ]M ERIC AN SYLVICULTURE

As soon, however, as his axe creates in the forest an unnatural
■rate of deatli, the forester is compelled to also secure, by intelligent
means, a supernatural rate of birth.

Human aid to natural regeneration should be denied where:

a. The danger from forest fire is such as to render investments
in a second growth very unsafe.

b. An outlay incurred for protection from fire is not apt to be
refunded with interest by the value of the second growth.

That much aid and that much money should be, in all other
■ cases, spent for the pvirpose of regeneration as promises, in the
-owner's mind and according to the forester's forecast, the highest
relative revenue on the investments made.

The owner of timberland, intending to secure a second growth
where he removes the first, might set aside a certain percentage
of the net receipts obtained from stumpage annually cut, — say ten
per cent, — for the purpose of raising, by one means or another, the
second growth desired by him. Continuity of action is the main-
spring of forest conservation. Sylviculture cannot be practised
off and' on. Regular appropriations are required to secure regular
results.

Sylviculture and finance are continuously at loggerheads. From
the business standpoint, however, that Sylviculture is certainly best
which proves lastingly most remunerative.

Where and as long as the prospective value of seedlings is
small, none but a small expense can be reasonably incurred on
behalf of their propagation.

Again, seedlings are more endangered by fire than trees. Where,
.-and as long as the danger from fire prevails in the forests of the
United States, investments made for raising seedlings are so risky
as to be inadvisable.

3*ara^raph XL. A^e of trees fit for natural seed
regeneration (enesar).

The age of perfect puberty depends on species, density of
stand, quality of soil and climatic conditions. Generally speaking,
it lies about the eightieth year of flie trees.

Birch, Alder, Larch and Yellow Pines may be seed-regenerated
from their twenty-fifth to thirtieth year on; Oaks, Beeches and
Firs from their sixtieth to eightieth year on. Trees of very old
age, say over 200 years old, often defy natural regeneration if
^occurring in pure, even-aged stands.
110

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph XLI. Types of natural seed regen-
eration (enesar).

A fixed method is applicable in tlie ai'ts only where a fixed set
of conditions exists. Fixed and regular forms exist in primeval
woods but rarely. Hence the impossibility, from a sylvicultural
standpoint, to adopt any fixed European " method " of seed regen-
eration for direct application in American practice.

There might be distinguished, nevertheless, within all woods
on the globe, certain distinct and characteristic " tricks " or aggre-
gates of characteristic qualities and influences typical for the spot
on which they are found, by which Nature secures, with or without
Man's co-operation, a local rejuvenescence of the forest. These
tricks — not methods or systems — had best be called " types of regen-
eration:" Typical conditions are used to produce typical effects.

The word " enesar " is used in lieu of n. s. r., or in lieu of
" natural seed regeneration."

The types of enesar, like the types of animal breeds, or of
machines, may be scrutinized from various viewpoints. We might
differentiate them:

A. According to the relative position of old and new
gro'wtli;

I. The young growth develops underneath the old growth:

a. Whilst the old growth is left intact (natural seed regenera-
tion by advance growth), or

b. Whilst the old growth is gradually reduced (natural seed
regeneration under shelter woods).

II. The young growth develops at the side of the old growth
(natural seed regeneration from adjoining timber).

B. According to the size of the units of regeneration,
Ttrhich may be:

I. Compartments, i. e., a cove, a slope, a top or a coherent
part thereof, comprising from ten to one hundred acres.

II. Strips, i. e., figures of a more or less rectangular form, in
which the length is a multiple of the breadth, the latter not ex-
ceeding 500 feet.

III. Groups, i. e., aggregates of growth of a more or less cir-
cular form, covering 0.1 to 4 acres.

IV. Patches, i. e., areas covered by the crown of an individual
tree, about 0.01 acre in extent.

The figures are meant to illustrate, and are not meant to
define (in this paragraph as well as in the following fifteen para-
graphs). Ill

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

C. According to the degree in ivliicli tlie soil and the
youngest seedlings are directly exposed to the sky:

I. Regeneration without exposure, — by advance growth.

II. Regeneration with short, slight, partial exposure, — under
shelterwood.

III. Regeneration with entire, heavy exposure, — from adjoining
timber.

D. According to the timing of lumbering and of
reseeding:

I. Lumbering precedes reseeding, — natural seed regeneration on
clearings, namely:

a. On vmiformly cleared compartments (cleared compartment
type) ;

b. On cleared strips (cleared strip type) ;

c. On cleared groups (cleai-ed group type) ;

d. On cleared selected patches (cleared selection type).

II. Lumbering coincides with reseeding, — natural seed regenera-
tion under shelterwood, namely:

a. On uniformly sheltered compartments (shelterwood compart-
ment type) ;

h. On sheltered strips (shelterwood strip type);
c. On sheltered groups (shelterwood group type);
• d. On sheltered selected patches (shelterwood selection type).

III. Lumbering follows reseeding, — natural seed regeneration by
advance growth, namely:

a. With advance growth all over a compartment (advance
growth compartment type) ;

b. With advance growth in strips (advance growth strip type) ;

c. With advance growth in groups (advance growth group type) ;

d. With advance growth in selected patches (advance growth
selection type).

E. According to the participation of ligneous weeds

(bushes, seedlings, saplings, poles and trees of a negative value) in
the regeneration:

Totally successful seed regeneration;

Groupwise successful seed regeneration;

Patchwise successful seed regeneration;

Individually successful seed regeneration;

Unsuccessful seed regeneration.

In America, it will be frequently advisable for the forester to

112

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

merely work toward a " groupwise " or " pateliwise " successful
seed regeneration.

F. According to the number and according to the dis-
tribution of standards left in tlie regeneration "area": Natural
seed regeneration:

a. With standards systematically left all over the compart-
ments ;

b. With standards left in strips;

c. With standards left in groups;

d. With isolated scattering standards.

The " compartment " types had better be called " uniform "
types ; the " selection " types had better be termed " patch " types.
Still the terms " Shelterwood compartment system " and " shelter-
wood selection system" having become standard terms of forestal
terminology, it seems unwise to throw them aside.

A number of " pure types " may be, and usually are, combined
into " bastard types." Of course, only types more closely related
allow of bastardizing.

Bastard types frequently found in the old country are:

"Advance growth selection" and "shelterwood group" type;

" Advance growth group " and " shelterwood compartment "
type;

"Shelterwood group" and "shelterwood strip" type;

" Cleared strip " and " advance growth strip " type ;

" Cleared group " and " shelterwood group " type ;

" Cleared selection " and " shelterwood group " type.

Modern forestry abroad begins to despise methodical rules,
gradually returning to nature with her irregularities. Pure,
abstract types of seed regeneration are more and more discarded.

The selection of a method or a combination of methods depends
entirely upon the composition of the growing stock found; on local
dangers; on local means of transportation; on value of stumpage
and prospective value of seedlings.

Wliere all age classes are mixed irregularly, individual selec-
tion is, ceteris paribus, indicated.

Wliere the age classes or the species appear in groups, the
group method is or may be advisable.

In woods simultaneously maturing, the uniform type may
recommend itself.

G. H. S. Graves, in " Tbe principles of handling wood-
lands " distinguishes between the following " systems " — he does not
use the term type — of natural seed regeneration:

113

a:\ierican sylviculture

I. The selection system applicable to stands in which trees of
all ages are represented.

II. The clear-cutting system:

a. Clear- cutting the whole stand (Schenck's cleared compart-
ment type).

b. Clear-cutting up to 75-85% of the area, but leaving intact,
in large blocks up to 25-15% respectively of the original stand.

c. Reserving scattered seed trees.

d. Reserving groups of seed trees.

e. Reserving thrifty standards.

f. Clear-cutting in strips (Schenck's cleared strip type).

g. Clear-cutting in patches (Schenck's cleared patch type).

III. The shelterwood system:

a. Cuttings distributed uniformly (Schenck's shelterwood com-
partment type).

b. Cutting in groups (Schenck's shelterwood group type).

c. Cutting in strips (Schenck's shelterwood strip type).

The systems (viz., types) enumerated under II. a., b., c, d.,
and e., cannot be considered to be a means by wiiich the forest
may be " systematically " reproduced.

The following paragraphs are arranged to conform with the
view point given under "D."

Paragraph XLII. Types in which lumbering pre-
cedes N. S. R.

Where lumbering precedes regeneration, the area lumbered must
be reseeded from the borders of adjoining woods. With increasing
size of the area cleared of timber, the rapidity, the certainty and
the quality of regeneration rapidly decrease. The fact that such
regeneration is possible on a large scale, is readily proven by object
lessons in the primeval woods (Long Leaf Pine; Bald Cypress;
Lodgepole line; Douglas Fir) as well as in second-growth forests
(Wrhite Pine in Lake States; Yellow Pine in the south; Spruce in
the Karpathian Mountains).

The chances for success depend on:

A. The species, which must have light or winged seeds readily
carried about by the wind (many Pines, Spruces, Larches, Cotton-
woods, Birches, Yellow Poplar), and which must not require, during
their earliest stages of development, the presence of a shelterwood
overhead. 114

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

B. The coincidence of the compass diiection in which the
clearing lies from tlie adjoining woods, with the direction of the
wind preferably ojiening the cones and carrying the seed.

C. The local danger from storm which might tear down,
gradually at least, the adjoining seed trees.

D. The condition of the cleared soil and its quality as a
ready seed-bed, influenced by the presence of weeds; by the de-
composition of the humus; by the degree in which the mineral
soil has been laid bare in the course of logging operations; by the
grade of the slope.

E. Fires favorable or unfavorable; pasture favorable
or unfavorable to regeneration, as the case may be.

F. The frequency of seed years, and the possibility of
lumbering during a seed year.

G. The size, the form and the environments of the area
cut over.

H. The possibility of preventing undesirable species

(Gums, Black Jack Oak) and undesirable specimens, like low-
branched weed trees and spreading "wolves," from occupying the
area to be regenerated, and the possibility of regenerating all, a
few, or only one species.

According to the size of the clearing, we distinguish between:

The cleared compartment type (large areas cleared) ;

The cleared strip type (narrow belts cleared) ;

The cleared group type (fair sized groups cleared away);

The cleared selection type (small bunches of trees or merely
single trees cut).

Paragraph XLIII. The cleared compartment
type.

A. The area bared at one stroke by lumbering comprises
between, say, ten and one hundred acres. If the width of the
clearing is less than 500 feer., the "cleared strip" type is reached.
If the acreage cleared is much in excess of 100 acres, the develop-
ment of a second growth is very slow, very poor, very doubtful,
so that the character of a sylvicultural type is lost. A number
(say five) of seed years are required to restock the ground. The
bordering woods, from which reseeding is expected, must not offer
an unprotected front to the prevailing storm direction.
115

AMERICAX SYLVICULTURE

The regeneration obtained is, naturally, very heterogeneous and
contains a great deal of misshapen advance growth as well as of
weed growth.

Weeds trees left on the ground might be girdled if belonging
to an undesirable species (Beech in Galizia).

A few seed trees might be left scatteringly (if Avind firm) in
groups or in strips, preferably close to the roads, also doty speci-
mens without any value.

An usher growth of Cottonwoods, Birches, Sumac, Locust,
Sassafras, etc., frequently precedes the second growth desired on the
ground.

Fires preceding the seeding, and immediately in the wake of
logging, greatly enhance the success of Yellow Pines, Douglas Fir,
etc. Yellow Poplar, on the other hand, is checked by the heavy
growth of weeds following tires. Stock pasture is of advantage,
where it presses the seeds into the soil, and where it checks the

The clearing should comprise, if possible, only one side of a
cove at a time or the lower part of a slope or the bottom of a
cove, so as to allow of greater ease in reseeding.

B. Actual application: This type has been adopted, — not
confessedly but actually — by the Austrian Government in dealing
with the primeval woods of Galizia, consisting of Beech, Fir and
Spruce.

The United States Forest Service has tried to adopt it in
modified form under the name " single tree method " for the Minne-
sota National Forest and in the majority of its business-working
plans (Sawyer and Austin; Weyerhiiuser).

Thousands of acres of abandoned farm land all over the Eastern
States have been reforested in this manner, usually in pines, fre-
quently against the owner's will.

C. Advantages: The cleared compartment type shows the
following advantages :

I. Greatest ease in lumbering.

IL Concentrated operations and concentrated supervisio.i.

III. Few permanent main links of transportation required.

IV. Smallest deviation from the old-time manner of destruc-
tive lumbering.

V. Possibility of temporary use of the clearing for the pro-
duction of field crops benefited by the fertilizing eff'ect of the
humus.

116

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

VI. Ease of artificial reinforcing and possibility of soil prepara-
tion by plowing and by firing; of covering the seeds by pasturage.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Applicability to few species only.

II. Danger of partial or complete failure, especially in clearings
covering 100 or more acres, or in case of border trees unfavorably
situated.

III. Danger from heavy fires where the soil and the hvimus is
baked by the action of the sun, with heaps of debris left on the
ground after wholesale logging.

IV. Second growth consists largely of wolves, and of spreading
advance growth and of poles undesirably ramified. Expensive gird-
ling or cutting of seed-bearing weed trees, belonging to a worthless
species.

V. The annual expenses for protection from fire and for taxes
are, to a degree, independent of the quality of the young growth.
They are relatively high, and hence absurdly unbearable, if that
growth is poor, straggling and very slow to develop, all of which
is apt to be the case in this type of seed regeneration.

Thirty years after clearing, the average age of the young
growth is not apt to exceed ten years.

Soil values exceeding ten dollars — so as to give a figure — per
acre would make a second growth expensive when thus slowly
produced.

VI. Groups of advance growth are almost sure to be destroyed
or to be crippled by logging and by sudden change of environments
(e. g., INIaple and Beech in Michigan).

Paragraph XLIV. The cleared strip type.

A. The width of the cleared strip is from two to five times
the length of the mother ti'ee. When one belt is seeded suc-
cessfully, another strip is cut into the timber alongside the first
belt, and so on.

Soil work is not required, provided the strip is cleared in a
seed year. Usually the soil is torn up sufficiently by the removal
of a large number of logs snaked or rolled or shot along the
strip and over the strip to ihe nearest road.

One seed year is rarely sufficient to secure full regeneration of
a strip. In the Alps, Pine regeneration takes from twelve to thirty
years. On hardwood soil, the weeds are to be dreaded, preeminently
so on fertile ground after fires.

117

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

It is wise to leave a few wind-fiim mother trees scattered over
the strip, notably immature specimens ot the most desirable species.
Less desii-able species on the nearby border might be girdled or
removed by extending the removal of that species into the bordering
forest. In addition, valuable hypermature trees might be with-
drawn from the nearby forest.

The cleared strip type does not require a permanent system of
transportation of great intricacy, the strips themselves forming
the main lines of transportation. The narrow edge of the strip
merely is touched, on the valley side, by a road. According to the
grade of the strip, sleighs, cables, chutes, donkey engines, etc.,
are used to deliver the logs to the road.

At the beginning of operations, the first strip should be made
in sheltered localities so as to allow the forest adjoining leewards
to remain unharmed by storm.

The strips proceed windwards gradually, the next being cleared
when regeneration in the preceding strip is fully secured.

North of the equator, the cuttings should proceed from the
North to the South (Professor Wagner's discovery), since enesar
is most successful on the north side of the forest. In case of species
subject to windfall, the progress of the axe should be directed
from N.N.E. to S.S.W.

The danger from insects and fungi is small. The danger from
fire, to begin with, is great, although not so great as in large
clearings to which tlie wind and sun are freely admitted. Later on
the even-aged character of the strip will help to check fires.

Nothing prevents the owner from reinforcing the strip arti-
ficially if he thinks fit. Healthy groups of advance growth, formed
by desirable species in the belt at the time of logging, might be
carefully husbanded. Natural regeneration will set in as well at
the side of the belt underneath the bordering mother trees. "Re-
generation runs into the old woods." This is a very desirable state
of affairs allowing, in the next belts, regeneration to start in
advance of cutting. (Bastardizing the cleared strip type with the
advance growth strip type.)

B. Actual application: This type of regeneration is locally
used in the Tyrolian and Austrian Alps, for Spruce, Larch, Pine.
The form of the strips need not be rectangular. It depends on
maturity of growth, configuration of soil, danger from storm. The
tj'pe seems well adapted to present American conditions, requiring,
of course, local modifications or bastardations, governed by species

118

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

and market. Its applicability, however, rests on the existence of
some permanent chief arteries of transportation.

At Biltmore, the type is applied, in modified form, for the
reproduction of Yellow Poplar and Yellow Pine.

C. Advantages of the cleared strip type:

I. Applicability to many species, to many conditions and to
many localities.

II. Concentration of logging operations; sylvicultural help possi-
ble; cheap logging by donkey engines, chutes, snaking, etc.

III. Many points of attack, at which the season's cut might
be obtained, are at the disposal of the forester, if he so desires.
Hence great freedom of action.

IV. Comparative safety of the old woods from storm; of the
young growth from fire, drought, frost, insects, etc.

D. Disadvantages of the cleared strip type:

I. If the seeding of the strip is not effected soon after clear-
ing, the soil is baked by the sun, weeds are started and the
ecological conditions are afi'ected in a manner barring the success
of seed regeneration and necessitating artificial help.

II. Border trees are exposed to sun scald.

III. Animals frequent the strips and spoil the young growth.

IV. The soil of the strip — especially of the first strip in a
series — is rarely " in heat," certainly not over the entire strip,
so that the seeds falling upon it have a poor chance of success.
This is the case, preeminently, in the humid mountains where a
heavy layer of raw humus covers the ground. A large number of
years will often elapse, before the next adjoining strip can be
taken in hand.

V. The strips should be cut where the timber is most mature
at the time, — and not in a succession merely dependent on the con-
dition of the yoiuig growth and on the necessity of proceeding
against the prevailing storm direction.

Paragraph XLV. The cleared ^roup type.

A. The groups cut comprise from 0.1 acre to four acres.

The form is roundish, oval, square, etc., as the case may be, usually
coinciding with a geological feature, e. g., a dell, a spur, a spring-
head.

The incentive for group-cutting lies either in the simultaneous
maturity of the trees stocking on it, or in the desire to obtain
conditions particularly favorable to the reproduction of one of the
119

AMERICAN S Y L \ I C U L T U R E

species appearing in the old timber; or the group, previously stocked
with an undesirable species, is to be seeded by a better kind.

B. Actual application: This type has never played an im-
portant role in connection with natural seed regeneration. Sylvi-
culturally it seems well adapted to Yellow Poplar, Long Leaf Pine,
Lodgepole Pine, White Pine, also to Hickory, Hard Maple and Oak.

Where the groups have the shape of long tongues, running
parallel at regular intervals, they are tei'med "coulisses." The
coulisses are usually meant for the regeneration of more light-
demanding species ; the " benches " separating the coulisses for the
regeneration of more shade -bearing species.

In Germany, the space formerly occupied by a cleared group
is termed a " hole." Such holes are made frequently by storm, or
by snow and sleet. Where the groups, after reseeding, are gradu-
ally enlarged, the cleared group-type is bastardized with the shel-
terwood group type.

C. Advantages: The soil of the group, thanks to a sufficient
amotuit of side shade, retains its freshness and porosity. It is
sheltered from severe winds and severe heat. Species too sensitive
for reproduction in larger clearings or strips can be raised in
groups. Wliere the age classes appear in bunches, each bunch can
be harvested at its proper age of maturity. No harm or little harm
is done to young growth during the logging season.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Operations are scattering.

II. Intricate system of permanent roads required.

III. Groups surrounded by tall timber frequently act as " frost-
holes " where yoiuig growth suffers badly from early frosts and
late frosts in clear nights.

IV. Thin barked trees surroiuiding the group, and notably those
standing at its northeasterly margin, suffer from sun scald; flat-
rooted trees suffer from storm.

Paragraph XLVI. The cleared selection type.

A. In this type, individual trees considered matiu'e are
selected for removal, eitlier absolutely singly, or in very small
patches formed by neighboring trees.

The clearings made are so small that only shade -bearing species
will regenerate thereon, unless tlie soil be particularly strong.
120

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The cut is so scattering, that the soil is not sufficiently
" plowed " by the loggers. Hence it will not act as a ready seed-bed
(excei)ting the logging roads).

In mixed woods composed of many species, only the most
valuable kind is usually withdrawn, and the small gaps made are
occupied by shade-bearing and often less valuable species.

Beneath hypermature trees, the soil has frequently hardened
and defies any attempt of seedlings to establish themselves after
logging.

The cleared selection type is almost invariably bastardized with
the shelterwood selection type and with the advance growth selec-
tion type.

B. Actual application:

In the tropics, Teak, Mahogany, Ebony, etc., are cut by selec-
tion, frequently regardless of the ettect which logging will have
on regeneration.

In Europe, the type is found in the Fir forests owned by farm-
ers; in parks; in protective forests at the headwaters of rivers;
on very steep slopes dotted with Larch, in the Tyrol.

In America, Yellow Poplar, Walnut, Cherry, White Oak, etc.,
are cut by way of individual selection, — but with no regard to
reproduction. Also White Pine in the Spruce and Fir woods of the
Adirondacks (also in the hardwood forests of Michigan) where
it never succeeds, withdrawn' alone, to reproduce its kind.

C. Advantages:

I. The water-storing power of the soil is generally Avell pre-
served imder this type.

II. The second growth is never endangered by snow or drought
or frost or sleet; the old trees remaining do not suffer from storm
or sun scald.

III. Small wood lots may yield a steady annual supply of
timber or wood under this type. '

'IV. The type is well adapted to parks.

D. Disadvantages:

I. The operations are very scattering. Indeed, they cover con-
tinuously the entire forest or a large percentage thereof. Diffi-
culty of supervision. Destruction of small trees unavoidable on
slopes.

II. An intricate system of permanent roads is required, since
the axe returns every few j'ears to the same compartment. If the
intervals of years are long — say from ten to twenty years — the

121

AMEEICAX SYLVICULTURE

type is bastardized with the cleared group type or with the shelter-
wood group tj'pe,

IIL The type as a means of regeneration, in its purity, is possi-
ble only where

a. The compartments contain a mixture of all age classes,
with the hypermature classes not too badly prevailing;

b. The species to be regenerated is an intense shade-bearer;

c. The soil is strong enough to allow light-demanding seedlings
a chance at surviving a long period of partial suppression.

IV. The species removed — presumably the most valuable species
— has its prospects of propagating reduced, struggling against com-
peting species, the nvmiber of its seed trees being relatively
decreased.

V. Small chance for reinforcing.

VI. Impossibility of protection against fires under headway.

Paragraph XLVII. Types in which lumbering
coincides with N. S. R.

In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called shelter-
wood types — lumbering and reseeding go hand in hand, both pro-
gressing seriatim, slowly, cautiously. In the pure types, no tree is
removed, unless the removal has a distinct bearing — or is expected
to have it — on the production of a progeny or on its further develop-
ment. Seedlings less than hve years old usually stand within a
few yards of their mothers. This distance is gradually increased —
in the course of up to fifty years — until the youngsters do not
require any more, or rather despise, the benefit of the parents'
presence.

Lumbering operations are carried on — in one and the same
limited lot — during a number of years.

Where the mother trees are very rapidly removed, after re-
seeding, from the proximity of the youngsters, the shelterwood
types approach the types of cleared compartments, cleared
strips, etc.

Where the mother trees are very slowly removed, after reseed-
ing, from the proximity of the youngster, the shelterwood types
approach, or bastardize with, the advance growth types.

A. The chances for success depend on:

I. Sylvicultural talents of the forester in charge and of his
staff, also on the size of the ranges.
122

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

II. Frequency of seed years and time allowed for the entire
operations.

III. Shade-bearing character of youngsters and firmness of
parents.

IV. Existence of a permanent system of transportation.

V. Configvuation.

VI. Danger from storm, sleet, fire, animals, etc., locally existing.

VII. Size of timber, value of timber, percentage of debris and
waste.

VIII. Marketability of all species or of a few, even of one
species only.

B. According to the manner in \irliicli the forester^
selects the nuclei for reseeding, we distinguish the following
types :

I. Uniform type, or pure shelterwood compartment type, where
the nuclei are geometrically and regularly distributed over the
entirety of a large area (say over twenty to two hundred acres),
the nuclei of the entire area being kept, during the entire progress
of regeneration, in or about in the same uniform stage of
development.

II. Shelterwood strip type, where the nuclei proceed, like ad-
vancing skirmishers, in regular military order either from the lee-
Avard side to the windward side of a compartment (cove, slope, etc.),
or else from the North towards the South (Wagner). The nuclei
to the leeward viz., northward are kept in a more advanced stage
of growth than those to the windward viz., southwai-d.

III. Shelterwood group type, where the nuclei are carefully
selected, irrespective of geometrical arrangements, merely on the
basis of the fitness of the individual spot to act as a seed-bed. The
groups are gradually enlarged, increasing in circumference like
waves caused by stones thrown in the water.

IV. Shelterwood selection type, where the most mature indi-
viduals are everywhere in all compartments and continuously se-
lected for removal, individually or in small patches, with a view tO'
the simultaneous reproduction of the species removed by seeds left
on such patches. The patch does not form a nucleus to be en-
larged; it is to be retained for a long time in its original size.

In primeval nature, the shelter, or else the soil conditions

created by a sheltering superstruction for the benefit of the under-

structure, are secured frequently in connection with a change of

species. The understruclure requires a fostermother, rather than a.

123

A il E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

mother, for its best development. Spruce under Fire Clierry, White
Pine imder Cottonwood, Engelmanns Spruce under Aspen are ex-
amples for this phenomenon.

Paragraph XLVIII. The shelterwood compart-
ment type of natural seed regeneration.

A. This type is characterized by the uniform manner,

in which lumbering and regeneration proceed over large areas.

This uniformity is possible only in somewhat even-aged tracts.
Great difficulties are experienced in mixed forests, owing to the
difference of light requirements.

The fixed conditions inviting the forester to adopt this type
are of a rather rare character, almost absent from primeval woods.
'Ihe education value of this type, however, is unparalleled.

B. Actual application: Shade bearers are better adapted to
this type than light demanders. Beech is usually treated under this
type; Maple and Ash frequently so; Oak largely in France, rarely
in Germany; Fir and Spruce in parts of the Black Forest; Pine in
the old country but rarely owing to its demands on light.

This " military " type was created by George L. Hartig, toward
the end of the eighteenth century. It was considered the ideal
type of regeneration up to about 1875. It is now far from being
abandoned, maintaining its role as the most commonly used type
of seed regeneration, although usually bastardized, in modern times,
with the strip and the group type.

C. Advantages:

I. Thorough protection of the soil, of its productive capacity
and its porosity.

II. Small risk of utter failure.

III. Large tracts taken in hand at one and the same time.

IV. Methodical, military manner of proceeding which facili-
tates instruction of the staff of rangers and proper execution of
orders by the staff.

V. Mother trees, standing above the young growth in isolated
position, yield an extra-increment of high value ("light increment").

VI. Young growth is well protected against climatic adversities.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Difficulty of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the
young growth.

124

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

II. Necessity for the entire number of old trees to reach
maturity at or about at the same time.

III. Even-aged forests are formed by this type which are
badly endangered by insects, fungi, storm, snow, etc.

IV. The young growth is badly damaged during the latter
stages of logging operations, especially where heavy logs (not
wood) are obtained and where the road system is deficient; further
on steep slopes.

E. The uniform system, being particularly instructive, de-
serves a most detailed consideration.

To the mother trees is allotted a three-fold task, viz.:

To seed the " regeneration area."

To protect the young growth from atmospheric hardships and
weeds.

To prevent deterioration of the soil during the early stages
of the second growth.

Three distinct stages of regeneration must be distinguished,
viz. :

I. The " preparatory stage," initiated by a preparatory cutting.

II. The " seeding stage," initiated by a seeding cutting.

III. The " final stage," during which the final fellings take
place.

I. The preparatory stage:

a. Purpose: The preparatory cutting intends:

1. To prepare the soil underneath the mother trees for a seed-
bed, by increasing the rate of disintegration of vegetable matter.
The soil is best prepared at a time Avhen no weeds, but a few
shoots of sweet grasses appear here and there. The humus decom-
poses at the quickest rate on limestone; at the slowest rate on
sand and sandstone.

2. To prepare the mother trees for regeneration by allowing
them a larger crown space, thus inviting the development of seed
buds; further by increasing their stability, so that they may resist
the storms when placed in a more isolated position;

3. To remove undesirable species, thus preventing them from
propagating their kind.

4. To reduce the volume of the growing stock so as to facili-
tate the maintenance of a normal growing stock and so as to
have less material to remove when the young growth appears on
the regeneration area.

b. Duration: The duration of the preparatory stage depends
upon the species and the soil. Shade-bearing species found in dense

125

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

stands need a longer period of preparation than the light-demanding
species. On soil rich with lime and in the lowlands, the prepara-
tory stage is much shorter than on sandstone and in the highlands.

c. Area: The area (in per cent, of the entire forest area) to be
prepared depends upon the necessities of the market and of the
mill (equal annual yield), on the prospects of a seed year, on the
frequency of seed years, and on the urgency of other fellings.

d. Trees: The preparatory cutting should remove all sickly
trees and all undesirable species. Further, those which have the
crowns low down to the ground, which will shade the young growth
later on and which now lessen the rate of disintegration of vege-
table matter. No dominant trees should be taken out. Near the
•edge of the compartment it is wise to keep the leaf canopy as close
as possible, so as to prevent the influence of drying winds.

e. Marking: The forester himself should mark every tree to be
taken out during the preparatory stage. When the wood cutters
are not reliable, it is necessary to mark the stumps of the trees
as Avell.

f. Lumbering: Where it pays to dig out the tree by the roots,
it is well to do so, because a better seed-bed is the result. Care
should be taken that only trees marked are felled, and that those
left are not damaged. There is no need to move the firewood and
timber out to the roads, if the regeneration area otherwise allows
of snaking, wagoning, etc.

g. Pasture: Cattle should not be admitted any more for pas-
turage during the preparatory stage. Pannage of hogs will be of
^ood advantage. Mice and insects are eaten by them. Hogs break
up the net work of roots, leaves and moss forming the soil cover
and hindering germinating seeds from catching root.

II. The seeding stage.

a. Time : The best time for " seeding cutting " is a seed year.
The forester should be able to tell from the looks of the buds

whether a seed year is at hand. The frequency of seed years
depends on the species and on the locality.

If there is no prospect for seeds, the seeding cutting should
be postponed, and if a sustained yield is desired, it should be
made up by preparatory cuttings, final cuttings and thinnings.

b. The area over which the seeding cutting should extend
■depends on the area prepared for regeneration, on the length of the
period of regeneration, on the periodical occurrence of seed years, on
the requirements for a sustained yield and on the available market.

126

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The scarcer the seed years, the larger is the area placed in the
•seeding stage when a mast year arrives.

The longer the period during which the seedlings require shelter,
the larger is the area to be taken in hand at a seeding cutting.

c. Trees: It is wise to take the biggest trees first, as their
removal at a later date will result in great damage to the yoimg
growth.

If the forester is sure to be able to remove some more trees
after the lapse of one or two years, a light seeding cutting is usually
"best.

During the first two years of their lives the young seedlings
stand a great deal of shade, even those of light-demanding species,
on fair soil.

The degree of light which should fall on the ground after a
seeding cutting, depends on species, height of trees, form of trees
and locality.

In the case of tender and slow-growing species, the cover should
be close. In the case of tall trees, slight interruptions of the leaf
■canopy are sufficient.

On good soilj where weeds are to be dreaded, the cover should
be denser than imder the reversed conditions. On a southern ex-
posure, the cover should be dense. Fir, Beech and Spruce require a
close stand of the mother trees on strong soil and at high elevations.

Oak and Pine on alluvial sand of average (}uality should be
tapped heavily.

d. The proportion of trees left and trees cut might be gauged by:

1. The distance or space between the crowns. It is very diffi-
cult to give any data as to the best distance of the crowns. The
form of the crowns is so irregular that it is impossible to ascertain
the best average distance.

2. The number of stems which gives a good idea of the cover
■overhead where yield tables are at hand, if the age and the locality
are known.

3. The sectional area of the stems cut and of the stems
remaining.

4. The volume cut and the volume remaining.

e. Preparation of soil: Shade-bearing species maintaining the
porosity of the soil better than light-demanding species often allow
"the forester to get along without any preparation of the soil. Under
light-demanding species, on the other hand, the hardening of the
soil at the time of seed cutting often necessitates the preparation
of the ground so that it may serve as a seed-bed. This preparation
may consist of:

127

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

1. Removal of leaves, weeds or moss.

2. "Working the ground by pasturing hogs.

3. Wounding the soil in open spaces, with a hoe.

4. Breaking the soil with a strong plow.

f. Lumbering. All cutting should be done as soon as possible
after the seeds have dropped so as to bring them into contact with
the ground at once. The wood or timber cut should be dragged to
the roads previous to the germination of the seeds. The heavier
the seed cutting is, the larger will be the percentage of seeds
finding germination. Most of the seeds are imbedded by the steps
of the woodsmen.

Advance growth sliould be removed wherever it appears singly.
Care must be taken that remaining mother trees are not damaged
by lumbering.

g. Covering the seeds: The covering of the seeds is left to
nature or to hazard. It might be advisable, however, to secure a
coA'ering artificially with the help of a rake, or by plowing, after
the seeds have dropped, or by pressing heavy seeds (nuts, acorns)
into the ground with a blunt stick.

h. Fire: After the seeds have dropped, the utmost care must
be taken to prevent fire from running through the forest. A fire
previous to the dropping of the seed may be advantageous, espe-
cially in the case of Yellow Pines. After the seeding, however, it
should be prevented.

III. The final stage.

The removal of the seed trees left takes place during the final
stage.

a. Purpose: By the gradual removal of the mother trees, the
yoimg forest is gradually lead into a life under changed conditions,
imtil it is ready to enjoy the full influence of sunshine, air and rain.

b. Number of cuttings: Tlie more gradual the removal, the
less damage results for the young growth from the logging opera-
tions and from changed environments. On the other hand, it is
cheapest and best, from the logger's standpoint, to remove the
seed trees at one stroke.

c. Beginning: The beginning of the final fellings depends on the
development of the young growth. In the case of poor soil, of light-
demanding species and of northern climate, fellings should start in
the fall following the seeding.

In the case of shade-bearing species, strong soil and southern
climate, the second or third fall should be waited for. The drier
the locality, the quicker must be the removal of the mother trees.

128

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

d. Duration: The duration of the final stage depends on species,
on quality of soil, on success of seeding cutting, on occurrence of
subsequent seed years and on climate. A tender, slow-growing and
shade-bearing species allows of a protracted period of removal.

A few trees left in isolated positions are apt to damage the
young growth by the reflection of the sun's rays from the bark;
this is the ease especially in species having a whitish bark (Beech,
Maple, Birch, Silver Fir).

e. Marking for final removal: Broad-leaved trees should be
marked in summer whilst the trees and the young growth are in
leaf. .

By the first final felling none but small trees shall be removed,
after Hess. From the second fall (after the seed cutting) on, the
seedlings being stronger at that time, it is wise to take the largest
trees.

f. Season: The cutting of the mother trees should take place
when snow covers the ground, so as to do the least possible damage
to the yoimg growth. Fellings must be discontinued during hard
frost. Broad-leafed species should not be cut before leaves are
dropped as they will do more damage to their progeny when felled
in leaf.

Hess is in favor of cutting in fall, claiming that the young
growth at that time is particularly tough and elastic. He does
not attribute much weight to the presence of snow unless it covers
the young 'growth entirely.

g. Stumps and roots: If the trees are dug. out by the roots, the
force with which they hit the ground is considerably lessened.

In coniferous forests, many parasitic insects breed in stumps,
and in that case it may be necessary to dig them out of the ground,
or to poison them.

Where the tree is entirely surroimded by young growth, digging
should be prohibited.

h. How to fell a tree: The tree to be cut should be thrown onto
that place where it is likely to do the least damage — especially onto
" blanks." It is wise to throw the crowns of several trees onto the
same spot so as to centralize the damage. On the other hand, many
sylviculturists prefer to throw the crowns of the trees into the very
thickest young growth, claiming that the damage thereby done is
considerably less, and that many youngsters will be left undamaged.

i. Standards: In many cases, a few trees are left standing for
a second rotation. Such trees are called " standards." Standards
of Oak, Pine and Ash are frequently found. They should not be

129

a:\ierican sylviculture

left unless they stand close to a road, or unless they are certain
to outlast a second rotation.

j. Pruning of mother trees: Low branches which oversliadow
the young growth heavily should be cut.

k. Transportation of wood: All wood and timber should be
moved to the nearest roads as soon as possible after the trees are
cut. Speedy removal is especially necessary in coniferous forests,
the young growth having little reproductive power. A snow cover
might be used to remove the wood on sleds; high-wheeled trucks
will answer splendidly on level ground. The method of " roping "
used in the Black Forest also saves the young growth. All wood
and timber must be removed from the regeneration area •previous
to tlie opening of the buds.

I. Pasturage: There is no need to say that the young growth
should be protected against pasture.

m. Reinforcing: Blanks should be filled only when the mother
trees have been entirely removed. Tlie plants may be taken from
dense places where the natural regeneration is complete or, better,
from nurseries.

Paragraph XLIX. The shelterwood strip type
of natural seed regeneration.

a A. This type bears the same ratio to the shelterwood com-
partment type of regeneration which the cleared strip type bears
to the cleared compartment type.

In the shelterwood strip type, as in the cleared strip type,
fellings and regeneration begin at the leeward side of a compart-
ment (cove, slope) and proceed gradually against the direction of
the prevailing storms, or else from the North to the South.

Heavy-seeded species as well as light-seeded species allow of
the strip type. Distinct light demanders, however, defy it on the
poorer grades of soil.

The nuclei are laid out geometrically in the shape of strips
crossing the prevailing wind-direction at right angles. The most
leeward strip is in the final stage; the most windward strip is in
the preparatory stage; the middle strip is in the seeding stage,
provided that the conditions are normal.

The breadth of a strip depends on species, frequency of seed
years, configuration of ground and so on. At a breadth of over
500 feet, the strip type bastardizes with the compartment type.
130

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

More frequently, the shelterwood strip type is bastardized with
the shelterwood group type (e. g., in the famous Bavarian forests
near Kehlheim).

Regeneration of a cove, slope, tract, etc., under the pure strip
type, is exceedingly slow, unless there are at hand a number of
" series of strips," all triplets, consisting of a preparatory, a seeding
and a final strip.

The first strips are usually made, as in the cleared strip type,
in well- sheltered ravines or gullies; or at the windward edge of
lakes, fields, young growth; or at the windward edge of storm-firm
trees (Oaks), where there is a mixture of storm-firm species with
species endangered by storm.

The form of the strips need not be exactly rectangular. In
the mountains, the strips usually run up and down the slopes — not
horizontal — so as to facilitate the transportation of timber and
wood removed from the strip.

B. Actual application: This type is frequently seen in the
coniferous woods of the European moderately cold zone; also in
Beech woods and Oak woods.

Like the uniform tj-pe, the strip type is not exactly natural.

In the Spruce woods of the Appalachians, where the wind lays
low one row of trees after the other, in the course of many years,
the woods look frequently as if they were regenerated by the shelter-
wood strip type.

C. Advantages: The advantages of the shelterwood strip type
are identical with those of the shelterwood compartment type —
excepting advantage III. It is especially adapted to small pieces
of property, which could not yield steady returns under the uniform
type. Greater security from storm is characteristic for the strip
type. Liberty of action, since there are many points at which the
annual cut may be made, is a further advantage.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Uifficult}' of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the
young growth.

II. Trees at the extreme windward edge of a cutting series
obtain an extravagantly high age, whilst regeneration proceeds
slowly and gradually against them.

III. Tardiness of a complete regeneration of a whole compart-
ment, slope or cove, where there are but a few points of first
attack.

IV. Operations are more scattering than in the shelterwood
compartment type.

131

AMEBIC AX SYLVICULTURE

Paragraph L. The shelterwood ^roup type of
natural seed regeneration.

A. diaracteristic features.

I. Species: All species can be dealt with in a group system;
those endangered by windfall, however, require a modification of
the system, or a sniall rotation, or a regular progress of the groups
toward the storm danger.

II. Beginning: In the shelterwood system, the nuclei for groups
are formed at a time, at which the soil begins to be, here and there,
a ready recipient for seed. In the nucleus, two or three trees are
cut, to begin with, and a few seedlings soon enter an appearance.

III. Continuation: The young growth gradually spreads out,
more or less peripherically, from the nucleus, appearing at the feet
of the nearest trees. These trees, in turn, are gradually removed,
whilst the groups of seedlings continue to enlarge. Finally one
group will flow into the other, and the regeneration will present
a waving leaf canopy. The regularity of the canopy depends on
the rapidity with which the groups could be enlarged.

IV. Means of transportation: The type obviously requires a
finely meshed, permanent network of transportation. The axe
returns to the group under formation periodically, say every three
to ten years, during a period of regeneration comprising from fifteen
to fifty years.

V. Soil protection: The soil is continuously protected from
intensive insolation, and is hence kept in continuous productiveness.

VI. Dangers: Protection from fire is very difficult; protection
from storm diflficult, although easier than in the shelterwood com-
partment type. Insects, fungi, and snowbreak are not to be dreaded
much more than under the selection system.

VII. Lumbering: Mother trees are always felled in a manner
forcing them away from the group. Hypermature trees close to
the group are extracted at the same time. Lumbering operations
are necessarily scattered. The logging expenses and the cost of
supervision range very high. The removal (snaking) of the trees
cut takes place through the benches of trees left between the groups
so that the soil is stirred up continuously within the benches.

The groups should be started, if possible, at the upper end of a
slope so that the logs need not be snaked through young growth.

VIII. Artificial help: To start regeneration of a nucleus, and
to accelerate the enlargement of a group, mosses, weeds and litter
on the ground may be removed previous to a seed year (bastardiz-
ing with advance growth group type).

132

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The so-called " hair-dressing " of groups, by which misshapen
and branchy growth is cut back, and the wave-form of groups is
maintained, may be seen in the Black Forest.

B. Actual application: The shelterwood group type appears
to be a type of regeneration sometimes adopted by primeval nature
in Beech, ilaple. Fir, Hemlock and Pine woods.

As a sylvicultural method adapted to the woods of Germany,
the shelterwood group system has been fathered by Charles Gayer.

It is a modern type of German n. s. r., applied especially in the
natural seed regeneration of Spruce and Beech.

C. Advantages:

I. The type grants the forester the utmost liberty of action,
by offering him a large number of points at which to start and at
which to continue his logging operations.

II. In mixed forests, the system allows of fostering the most
valuable species and of checking the less desirable species or the
weed species.

III. The type does not take any sylviculture chances.

IV. The young growth is well protected against the usual
atmospheric dangers.

V. The good qualities of the soil are carefully husbanded.

D. Disadvantages:

I. The type makes unusual demands on the personal and local
attention of the manager as well as of the staff, necessitating small
ranges and high administrative expenses.

II. JNIother trees at the leeward side of an enlarged group are
subject to dangers from storm; on the northeast side of a group
subject to dangers from sun scald.

III. A large outlay is incurred for logging the trees owing to
the scattering character of the operations and owing to the care
required in felling and transportation, for the benefit of both young
and old growth.

IV. In the case of very large trees, covering by their crowns
as much as 500 to 1,000 square feet, the removal of an individual
tears too big a hole into the forest and enlarges the group too
rapidly at a stroke.

V. The type does not allow of the removal of hyper mature trees
with proper expedition. They are not removed but when the waves
of the group begin to touch their feet.

VI. The soil in the proximity of white barked trees bordering
a group is scorched by reflected sun rays.

133

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Paragraph LI. The shelterwood selection type
of natural seed regeneration.

This type srarcely exists in a pure form. Wliere it exists, it
is invariably bastardized with the cleared selection or the advance
growth selection type of natural seed regeneration.

The pure type would imply the immediate development (or
rather the simultaneous development) of a seedling growth in the
very year (a seed year) in which the individual trees — very irregu-
larly, very scatteringly, on the basis of their lelative maturity —
are selected for removal.

"Wliere the removal leaves a blank, tliere we meet the cleared
selection type.

"Where the removal allows an advance growth already at hand
to fill the gap, there Ave meet the advance growth selection type.

The premises for the shelterwood selection type are identical
with those for the cleared selection type and for the advance growth
selection type.

Paragraph LII. Types in which lumbering fol-
lows natural seed regeneration.

In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called advance
growth types — no tree is removed unless its foot be already sur-
rounded by a young progeny of desirable character which has pre-
viously developed beneath the parent's or step-parent's leaf canopy.

The case of exceedingly fertile soil and the case of step-parents
having a light leaf canopy excepted, none but absolute shade bearers
can be propagated by this type. So e. g., Hemlock, Fir, Beech,
Maple, Lawson's Cypress, Western Red Cedar.

In the Lake States, White Pine is found as a regeneration
formed in advance beneath mature Norway Pines acting as step-
parents (advance growth group type).

In the Adirondacks, Spruce regenerates similarly underneath
mature Cottonwoods acting as step-parents or, on very fertile soil,
selectionwise beneath Beech, Maple and Birch.

Striking it is that species not absolutely shade enduring are,
in many a case, loth to be regenerated, as an advance growth, at
the feet of their actual parents, whilst willing to be suppressed
beneath step-parents of apparently similar density of foliage
(Yellow Poplar at Biltmore underneath Oak or Short-leaf Pine;
Spruce underneath Cottonwoods).

134

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Seedlings regenerating under their own kin resemble altricial
(nidicole) birds; seedlings avoiding parental superstructure might be
likened to precocial (nidifugal) birds.

A. The chances for successful regeneration in these types
seem excellent. Still, the following points must not be lost sight of:

I. Advance growth badly suppressed for a long time is fre-
qiienth so badly crippled that it fails to recover within a reasonable
number of years.

II. The advance growth is badly smashed by and during the fell-
ing operations, unless the mother trees are pruned and lopped before
felling, and unless the timber obtained is carried out either by
hand, or on high wheel trucks, or on a heavy cover of snow pro-
tecting the advance growth. Under any circumstances, fellings
during the period of vegetation must be avoided.

ni. Advance growth suddenly exposed to the full influence of
sun, rain, snow, sleet, etc., is apt to suffer in case of sensitive species.

IV. A minute system of permanent roads is required, the ad-
vance growth usually appearing in groups or patches.

V. If the pure types of advance growth n. s. r. were strictly
adhered to, a regulation of the annual cut according to the condi-
tions of the market would be difficult to obtain. Ilypermature trees
would have to be left everywhere — merely because young growth
is often slow to form on their feet.

In such cases, artificial preparation of a seed-bed (e. g., by
uncovering the mineral soil) seems absolutely required, so as to
expediate the formation of an advance growth.

If the leaf canopy overhead is opened at the same time by
felling operations, the types bastardize with the shelterwood types
of n. s. r.

B. According to the extent of the area covered by an
advance growth of suitable character we distinguish between:

I. Advance growth compartment type of n. s. r., the areas
uniformly covered by advance growth measuring from twenty to
one hundred acres (rare).

II. Advance growth strip type of n. s. r., the areas uniformly
covered by advance growth appearing as strips measuring iip to
500 feet in breadth (very rare).

III. Advance growth group type of n. s. r., the groups covered
by advance growth having an extent of from one-tenth to four
acres (frequent).

IV. Advance growth selection type of n. s. r., the young seed-
lings and saplings appearing in scattered and sma.ll patches (very
common). ,„_

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

By "advance growth" is understood an aggregate (small or
large) of seedlings or saplings belonging to a desirable species and
formed without any human intention or attention, solely by nature,
beneath a totally or partially untouched leaf canopy overhead.

[Misshapen advance growth appearing in bunches or groups can
be doctored up with axe and brushhook and machetes, by an appli-
cation of " hairdressing."

Where the advance growth is not freed, by one single operation,
from the superstructure of parents and step-parents overhead, the
advance growth types are further bastardized with the shelterwood
types.

Paragraph LIII. The advance growth compart-
ment type of natural seed regeneration.

A. The type is applicable where large areas exhibit on
strong soil a uniform advance growth, consisting of seedlings, of
saplings and possibly of small poles.

Previous to lumbering, the leaf canopy consists of two tiers:
an upper tier formed by the parents (or step-parents) and a lower
tier formed by the advance growth. Lumbering removes the upper
tier entirelj' and leaves the lower tier intact — if possible.

In the safety of the lower tier lies the great difficulty of the
system, especially on rough ground, in handling heavy logs of the
superstructure, in dealing with cheap stumpage. in cutting soft
woods characterized by small healing power and in the absence of
an intricate system of transportation.

Where the upper story of trees consists of say 10,000 feet b. m.
per acre, or of more, the ground is literally littered with logs or
boles during the logging operations, and the advance growth has but
a slight chance to survive the death of its progenitors.

B. Actual application: The type is found, in rare cases,
abroad imder the misnomer of a modified " selection system," where
and when the logger returns for a wholesale removal of mature
trees, at intervals of about twenty years, to the same compart-
ments.

The type is also practical where prolific seed years produce,
in mild sites and on strong soil, a uniform advance growth in even-
aged Beech or Firwoods, without any previous human interference
with the leaf canopy overhead (so-called regeneration from a com-
plete growing stock).

136

THE AET OF THE SECOND GROWTH

In the liardwood forests of Micliigan, liglit surface fires tend to
destroy tlie heavy litter on tlie ground, and to produce a wonderful
crop of seedlings (Hard Maple, Beech, Elm), long before the logger
begins to operate. On Star Island, in the Minnesota National Forest,
fire has made possible the development of a fine stand of seedling
White Pine beneath a dense stand of Red Pine. Where the litter i3
raked away, in the Southern Pineries, to be used on the rice farm,
a healthy growth of Pines is allowed to come up, before the axe
touches the trees. The splendid regenerations of Scotch Pine at
Ysenburg, Germany, have been obtained by this type on soil deprived
of its leaf mould.

In the United States the removal of the superstructure, usually
followed by fires, tends to annihilate every vestige of advance
growth.

C. Advantages:

Where the system can be carried through, it offers the follow-
ing advantages:

I. Concentrated logging.

II. Well-preserved productiveness of the soil.

III. Soil never idling, but producing without any delay.

D. Disadvantages:

I. The type is applicable only to intense sliade bearers; and
these shade bearers are very apt to suffer from f^udden changes of
environments.

II. The logging expenses are very badly increased in the attempt
to save the advance growth from destruction.

III. Under any circumstances, the rapid removal of mother trees
inflicts scars upon the young growth apt to serve as entrance gates
for fungi and insects.

Paragraph LIV. The advance growth strip type
of natural seed regeneration.

A. Advance groivth, being a chance product, is rarely
found in symmetrical, long-drawn strips. Where the cleared strip-
type is introduced, however, a strip of advance growth is often and
easily started underneath the border trees joining the cleared strip
to the windward. In that case, the advance growth strip-type is «
bastardized with the cleared strip-type.

B. Actual application:

The type is found but in the bastard form just mentioned.
137

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

C. Advantages:

I. Xo exponso required for ri'j^'oncration (unless weeds, leaves
or moss are removed).

II. Advanee growth is readily saved, where the logs are removed
through the adjoining woods.

III. A road system touching the lower edge of the strips is
sufficient.

IV. Soil is never laid bare.

V. Little damage from windfall.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Scattering operations.

II. Type is not applicable to light demanders.

III. Hypermature trees must be left in the woods until the
strips, after many years, may approach them.

IV. Points of attack from which cutting may proceed are apt
to be lacking, unless the forester, helped by th.^ configuration of
the ground, is able to maintain a large number of narrow cutting-
series.

Paragraph LV. The advance growth ^roup type
of natural seed regeneration.

A. In nature, advance growth, usually appears in small

bunches or in groups, for the reason that there is always a chance-
for many seedlings to sprout and develop on a spot where light,
humidity and soil allow a single individual to make a start alone.
In the primeval Avoods, groups of advance growth formed by shade
bearing species are almost invariably at hand. Even light de-
manders may form small groups of advance growth in spite of a
superstructure overhead, provided that the soil is strong enough to
support them.

Such groups, freed from the trees superstructing them, will
develop one or a number of saplings which in turn and in course
of time may yield one or a few poles promising to grow into trees-
of a loggable size.

Very frequently the groups are formed not under tlie leaf
canopy of the parent species, but imderneath another species acting
as a step-parent.

Indeed, step-parents of a rather selfish kind, inimical to the
children, are frequently encountered in tree life, handicapping and
killing the young progeny thirsting at their feet for light and rain.

The endurance of advance growth living under adverse condi-
138

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

tions is at times remarkably great. Fir, Spruce, Beech and Maple-
may be met grown but six feet high when sixty years old, retarded
by parental superstructure.

The pure advance growth group type is frequently bastardized,,
in Europe, Avith the shelterwood group type when the forester
uses existing groups of advance growth as nuclei to be gradually
enlarged, instead of using spots as nuclei for group regeneration on
which the soil chances to be in a conceptions condition. Further,
when a shelterwood group is forming, advance growth groups are
frequently started, under the influence of side light on seedlings
and humus, at a goodly distance from the shelterwood group, under-
neath an apparently heavy superstructure of mother trees.

The advance growth group type pure and simple, however,-
merely implies the freeing of chance growth from a superstructure.
It has nothing to do with the gradual enlargement of a group by
ringwise cutting around the group.

The " hairdressing " of groups of advance growth is sometimes
commendable.

B. Actual application: Systematically, this type is nowhere
applied in its purity. Accidentally, however, the lumbermen of
America happen to employ it in woods composed of Fir, Hemlock,
Maple, Beech, etc.

Primeval nature employs this type quite largely.

C. Advantages: The advantages of the type are identical with
those given under C, I, II and IV, in paragraph LIV. In addition,
this type may often allow the forester to favor a desirable species
of shade-bearing character.

Under sylvicnltural care, it renders regeneration an absolute
certainty. The trees forming the superstructure frequently happen
to be of a marketable size. The type does not require much sylvi-
cnltural understanding.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Border trees to the leeward of advance growth are subject
to windfall and sun scald.

II. Advance growth groups continue to be badly suppressed^
along the edge of the group, by border trees.

in. The logging operations are scattering, and an intricate
system of permanent roads is required.

IV. Only intense shade bearers can be properly managed^ under
this type; light demanders found in mixture with shade bearers
must gradually disappear from the mixture. The shade bearers will'
form groups of advance growth readily vmderneath light demanders =
but not vice versa.

AMERICAN SYL\ I CULTURE

Paragraph LVI. The advance growth selection
type of natural seed regeneration.

A. This type is usually bastardized ^vitli tlie cleared and
with the shelterwood selection type.

The selection by the forester of trees to be cut might be either
by single trees or by very small bunches of trees underlaid with
a carpet of advance growth covering about one-one-hundredth acre
of ground.

The logging operations, as in all selection types, are exceed-
ingly scattering; indeed, they ought to continuously extend, as a
matter of theoretical principle, over the entire forest.

None but shade bearers, notably Fir, Hemlock, Maple and Spruce,
are well adapted to the type of advance growth selection.

The type, like the cleared and the shelterwood selection type,
renders the construction of an intricate network of roads neces-
sary. Every tree, so to speak — not every strip or every compart-
ment— must be continuously accessible.

Since the cuttings are comparatively light, the removal of the
logs prepares the ground insufficiently for the conception of seed.

An advance growth stands under very heavy shade for many
a year; usually in small bunches of a dozen specimens. Mis-
shapen seedlings and saplings, also those badly damaged during
logging operations, should be cut, or in the case of hardwoods cop-
piced.

B. Actual application:

Wherever the selection type is applied in Europe, it is pre-
eminently applied in the shape of advance growth selection type;
especially so in parks, in small farm wood lots and in protective
forests. Usually, every compartment (cove, slope) contains a wild
mixture of age classes of trees. The axe returns to a compartment
in intervals of from one to ten years.

The Beech, although an intense shade bearer, develops very
branchy stems under such conditions (Beech forests in Bucking-
hamshire, England, or near. Louisville, Kentucky).

In primeval nature, all or practically all scattering and sparse
species are subjected to seed regeneration of the advance growth
selection type. The accidental death of trees in the superstructure
allows a patch of advance growth found underneath to develop into
trees.

Instances: White Oak and Scarlet Oak at Biltmore; Spruce on
hardwood slopes in tlie Adirondacks; Hemlock in the Maple woods
of Michigan.

It is surprising to find that scattering species are regenerated
140

THE ART OF THE 8EC0ND GROWTH

by primeval nature in a type which is considered by the sylvicul-
turist applicable to none but intense shade beareis. The explana-
tion lies in nature's long-lasting patience and in lier failure to be
disheartened when failing in innumerable attempts.

C. Advantages:

I. The type jjrotects the soil, and hence the waters, best of all.

II. It protects the young growth from frost, drought, high
winds, insects, sleet and snow.

III. It is particularly pleasing, from the aesthetic standpoint,
by the unusually large variety of the pictures proffered.

IV. Since every acre of ground continuously retains its leaf
canopy, no sunshine, air and rain go to waste In a second growth
insufiiciently covering the areas laid bare. At the same time, con-
tinuous retention of moisture in the soil allows of greater fertility;
hence the quantity of wood fibre annually produced is greater in
the selection type than in any other.

V. Small danger from windfall amongst parent trees.

VI. Small danger from. fire, since the humus is kept moist con-
tinuously. On the other hand, a fire once broken out is extremely
hard to stop.

D. Disadvantages:

I. Logging operations are very scattering, and hence expensive.
The fall of individual, large trees, amongst the multitude of

their companions is very apt to inflict wounds upon them, through
which fungi and insects enter readily.

II. A minute net work of permanent roads is required.

III. The primeval woods, wherever they represent the selection
type, show a preponderance of mature and hypermature age classes.
Since the type does not allow of the removal of groups of trees at
all, and of the removal of individuals only where they are under-
laid by an advance growth, the owner of primeval woods adopting
this type is forced to bring heavy sacrifices.

IV. It is very difficult to regenerate light demanders by this
type, where they stand mixed with shade bearers.

Paragraph LVII. Regeneration of valuable
species from self-sown seed with, amongst
and into companions of a w^eedy character.

It is a well-known fact that none but a few of the hundreds of
seedlings raised (artificially or naturally) by the forester have a.
chance to develop into poles, trees and veterans.
141

AMERICAN S Y L V 1 C U L T U R E

Dense thickets, consisting of many saplings, are mei'ely re-
quired to maintain the fertility of the soil and to prevent, by
natural pruning, the young boles from growing into brushy and
branchy specimens ("orchard trees").

For the purpose at stake it is immaterial, in a sense, whether
the thickets consist of a " mob " of shrubby weeds mixed Avith a
few " aristocrats " hailing from valuable species, or whether the
'entire thicket consists of " artistocrats." More than that; whilst
the aristocrat may have at best a small value as a sapling or as a
small pole, the " mob " frequently is more conducive to jiroper soil
protection and to proper development of the " aristocracy " into large
poles and standards than a purely artistocratic crowd.

The danger, of course, prevails in mixed stands continuously lest
the aristocrats might be overtopped and killed by the mob.

A. Wherever the mob consists of even-aged seedlings

(not of stoolshoots) of shrubs, that danger is small, shrubs usually
exhibiting a slow rate of height growth (Alder, Dogwood, Hazel,
Witchhazel, Rhododendron, etc.).

Stoolshoots of shrubs, on the other hand, frequently grow so
fast, so dense and so rank that they are sure to o\erpower an
aristocracy of seedlings having the same age.

If the mob promises to easily obtain the upper hand, then it
is usually wise to delay regeneration until the shrubbage shows, at
a much later year, signs of a declining growth (Calmia) ; or else
to wait until the shrubs allow a deadening (Dogwood) ; or to fire
the shrubbage (Blackjack) in heavy seed years of the aristocratic
parentage; or to lumber heavily if the shrubs (Striped ]\Iaple) are
sensitive and if the aristocrats are hard3^

Certain weedy shrubs, e. g.. Bamboo species, offer periodically a
chance for subdual, viz., when death overtakes them gregariously
during their own seed years.

Other shrubs are eagerly eaten (or peeled) by sheep, goats
or cattle, and might be brought to submission, in the winter fol-
lowing the fruiting of the aristocrats, by heavj^ pasturage.

The purpose at stake, in American Sylviculture, for years to
<;ome, cannot consist in homogeneous regenerations of aristocrats
evenly covering the regeneration area; it can consist in but that
form, quality and density of regeneration — usually a partially suc-
cessful regeneration — which the forester considers financially most
desirable (compare paragraph XLI. E).

The extirpation of shrubs by pickaxe and plow is usually
impossible, unless it can be combined with " toungya."

142

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

It is often sufficient for the increase of an aristocratic regenera-
tion to break or reduce the humus formed underneath the shrubbage.

B. The battle against Treed trees trying to propagate
their kind in the forest is usually more difficult to win than that
against shrubs since the progeny of weed trees does not stop to
compete with aristocrats after the thicket stage. The forester must
carefully gauge the chances for a final victory — usually a partial
victory — of the aristocrats, footing on a knowledge of their relative
height growth and their relative shade endurance.

Weed trees might be prevented from successful seeding by:

I. Deadening or stump peeling.

II. Actual removal (unless resulting in rank stoolshoots).
HI. Sudden exposure of young progeny to draught or frost.

IV. Maintenance of a dense humus, or of a dense leaf canopy.

V. Pasturage.

VI. Stopping all logging operations during seed years of the
weed-tree species.

VII. Fire.

Any of these remedies Avill answer on a regeneration area pro-
vided that it inflicts greater damage on the weed trees than on
the aristocrats, and that the sviccess is fully commensurate to the
expense.

A careful choice of the type of regeneration (cleared, shelter-
wood, and advance growth types in compartments, strips, groups
or patches) is, however, the best weapon in the hands of the forester
against mobbish usurpation.

The time may come when the forester will avail himself of
plagues of fungi, vertebrates and insects in the struggle against
weed trees.

Obviously, where the logger, followed by fires, removes every
vestige of the aristocracy and every chance for its reproduction on
deteriorated soil, there the sylvan battle is lost for the forester
before it is begun.

Frequently in nature's economy and ecology a crop of weed
trees (Birches, Cottonwoods) intervenes between two generations of
aristocrats. This " rotation of crops " resembles that of agricul-
ture, and is hard to explain. Attempted explanations are: Exhaus-
tion of soil in mineral matter required by the previous species.
Presence of baccilli, bacteria, fungi, insects, etc., inimical to the
previous species.

143

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE
Paragraph LVIII. Peda^o^ie of the seed forest.

The term " pedagogie " comprises the principles and rules which
pertain to the training of the young.

Forest pedagogie, or forest tendance, the second part of the
sylviculturists' activity, is of little importance in America at the
present time since there are no young forests at hand which might
be trained profitably. Forest protection, usually considered a
branch of forestry, is merely a branch of forest pedagogie.

The following operations are here treated imder the heading
" forest pedagogie."

A. Cleaning ] Indirectly remunerative acts or

B. Weeding f investments.

C. Improvement cuttings 1 Directly remunerative acts yielding

D. Thinning C a surplus revenue.

E. Pruning ] Indirectly remunerative acts or

F. Underplanting C investments.

Tlie definitions of the terms " cleaning," " weeding," " improve-"
ment cutting " and " thinning " are so indistinct that it is often
difficult to dilTerentiate them. Definitions might be based either
on the age of the wood ci-op tended, or on the purpose aimed at,
or on the financial side of the tending.

Cleaning and weeding are applied for the benefit of very young
growth and usually require an investment.

Pruning, thinning and improvement cutting iire applied for the
benefit of thickets or polewoods.

Improvement cuttings and thinnings usually furnish a surplus
revenue whilst pruning succeeds in but rare cases to be directly
remunerative.

Mr. H. S. Graves, in " The principles of handling woodlands,"
applies the term " improvement cuttings " to any and all cuttings
primarily meant to improve, and not to reproduce the forest. His
definition abandons the distinct and restricted meaning given to tlie
term in the English forest literatvire.

Paragraph LIX. Gleaning in seed forests.

Cleaning may occur during the seedling stage and the small
sapling stage. It implies the removal of saplings forming a
shrubby advance growth (wolves) ; or the removal of undesirable
144

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

stoolshoots; or the removal of seedlings and saplings belonging to
a less-desirable species competing for space in a young forest. In
natural seed regenerations, cleaning is particularly desirable. In-
stances: Removing poor coppice shoots which oppress by faster
growth the valuable seedlings of Yellow Poplar. Removing Birch,
Fire Cherry, Thorns and Briars in young plantations of White Pine,
Yellow Pine and Spruce. ^A^lere a regeneration area of strong soil
has been binned previous to planting, the competition of volunteer
growth is frequently such as to make cleaning necessary. The
forester should take care, however, not to extirpate species now of
little value, but possibly of a fair future value.

In mixed regeneration, cleaning offers a good means to regulate
the proportion of the species admixed. The expense incurred for
cleaning must be commensurate to the financial efTect of the opera-
tion. Instruments used are axe and brush hook; also long-handled
cleaning shears.

Occasionally, sheep or cattle allowed to come to pasture in the
woods do more good by cleaning than harm by preying on the
valuable seedlings.

Where the Spruce comes up " as thick as 'the hair on a dog "
the Saxon forester considers it wise to traverse the thicket by
narrow lanes some three feet wide and some ten feet apart.

Paragraph LX. Weeding in seed forests.

A plant, either herbaceous or ligneous, whicli has a negative
value is a " weed." It might be a cripple of an otherwise very
valuable species (fire-crippled Chestnut in Pisgah Forest), or it
might belong to a species having no commercial value (Rhododen-
dron, Witch-hazel, Black Gum, Halesia, Cliinquapin, Alder, Beech).

Weeding implies the removal of large saplings, poles and trees
having the character of weeds. Weeding may take place before
regeneration, or after regeneration has been started. It may act
incidentally as a preparatory cutting, a seeding cutting or a final
removal. It pays but indirectly since the stuff removed has a
negative value.

The purpose of weeding might be the extirpation of sup-
pressors of young growth; or an exchange of unhealthy crooked,
fire-scalded, flat-headed poles for new, vigorous stump sprouts
(Spanish and White Oak at Biltmore).

The term "weeding"' is not found in books on Sylviculture; it
145

AMERICAN STLVICULTURE

forms, however, under present conditions often one of the most
important and most remunerative sylvicultural acts.

Weeds are either girdled (deadened) or cut.

In the case of weeds having a diameter of over six inches,
girdling is often preferable, because cheaper than cutting. More-
over, the cutting of broad-leafed weeds often tends to merely replace
the weed by weed sprouts.

To prevent this, in the case of sapling weeds, crushing shears
might be used.

Some cottonwoods cannot be extirpated by deadening. In that
case, the peeling of a strip of bark three feet long at a point two
feet above ground is advisable. Cutting of weeds in August reduces
the chances of their recovery. In the Adirondacks, the weeding of
Beech overshadowing Spruce might be advisable, because remunera-
tive.

Paragraph LXI. Improvement cutting in seed
forests.

A. Tlie term improvement cutting -wras introduced into
Indian practice by Sir Dietrich Brandis. Improvement cuttings are
cuttings for revenue.

An improvement cutting, in the original sense of the term,
extracts from irregular woods:

I. Hypermature, mature or dead trees still of \alue.

II. Misshapen immature trees.

III. Species of minor value.

rV. Weeds of pole size and tree size.

B. Essential it is for tlie character of an improvement

cutting, that it is intended to result, on the aggregate, in a surplus
revenue. Cuttings, on the other hand, which leave the premises in
a materially decreased financial value, can, of course, not be con-
sidered as improvement cuttings. Again, cuttings made at a
sacrifice, merely with a view to an increased prospective value of
the forest, are " weedings " or " cleanings " which must be con-
sidered as investments, like the expenses spent for regeneration.

I. The purpose of improvement cuttings is:

a. A surplus revenue.

b. Improved financial prospects of the remaining crop carried
about by:

146

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

1. Removal of trees and poles acting as suppressors;

2. Removal of inferior trees and poles acting as competitors;

3. Partial removal of a superstructure on a regenerated area;

4. Removal of less desirable individuals acting as seed-trees,
c. Reduced danger from fire, fungi and insects.

II. Kinds of improvement cuttings are:

a. Improvement cuttings in primeval woods.

b. Improvement cuttings in culled woods.

III. Marking: Trees and poles to be removed in an improve-
ment cutting must be individually marked by the sylviculturist.

Generalizing rules for marking cannot be given; each tree or
pole must be dealt with according to its individual merits and
demerits.

The marking of improvement cuttings by the forester is, con-
sequently, a timetaking affair.

IV. Localities: Irregular, thin woods composed of a multitude
of species deserve improvement cuttings.

The local market must allow of the— at least partial — utiliza-
tion of suppressing, competing, superstructing and less desirable
individuals.

Paragraph LXII. Thinnings in seed forests.

Thinnings proper are applicable exclusively to dense and fairly
even-aged groups or woods, in the thicket stage and in the pole stage
thereof, always under the proviso that a permanent road system
and a nearby market allow of a remunerative outcome of the act.
In Pisgah Forest thinnings are out of the question as the woods
are thin and irregular. At Biltmore, thinnings are made in the
polewoods of Yellow Pine. Up north, from the merely sylvicul-
tural standpoint, thinnings are possible in the Jack Pine woods, in
Balsam thickets, on Black Spruce slopes, in Lodgepole Pine
thickets, etc.

Thinnings are not made to originate a second growth; they are
made within a second growth already at hand.

A. Purposes of thinnings:

I. To develop the log diameter of large saplings and poles at
a time at which the log axis has been obtained.

II. To increase the volume increment percentage. *

III. To increase the quality increment of predestined mess-
mates.

147

A M E R I C A N S Y L V I C U L T U R E

IV. To reduce the danger from forest fires, insect pests, fungi
plagues, wind, snow and sleet.

V. To remove cripples and wolves.

VI. Early financial returns.
Vli. Reduction of investment.

VIII. Shortening of the rotation by feeding a lesser number of
mess-mates on a relatively larger amount of food (viz., moisture,
heat, light, mineral matter, etc.).

IX. Regulation of the relative proportion of the species in
mixed pole woods.

X. Reducing the friction, and the consequent loss of side shoots,
between crown and crown.

B. The season for thinning depends upon local climate,
seasonable prices of labor, advisability of peeling and intensity of
thinning. Tlie season usually selected for thinning in Europe is the
late winter when the main cuttings are completed.

C. The time for thinning. Thinnings should begin in the
late thicket stage and should be repeated, to begin with, in five-year
intervals, say from the year thirty to sixty. Thereafter the
intervals are increased up to the year eighty or ninety. A prepara-
tory cutting, although conducted like a thinning, is no thinning,
since its purpose is regeneration. Thinnings stop at the end of the
pole stage. Where poles are non-salable, thinnings cannot be made.

To raise homogenous timber, thinnings must be repeated at
intervals of four to eight years.

D. The material obtained from a thinning may consist
of firewood, pulp Avood, mine props, fence posts, telephone poles,
hop poles, hoop poles, tool handles, bolts for spokes, locust pins,
tannin wood, etc.

Twigs and stumps and material almost worthless should be
left so as to prevent a deterioration of the soil and so as to stimu-
late the bacterial life in the soil.

In European practice, the number of cubic feet obtained by
thinnings during the course of a rotation per acre exceeds frequently,
now-a-days, the number of cubic feet obtained by the final cut.

The tool used for thinning is tlie axe invariably.

E. Kinds of thinnings. The old doctrine was: "Thin early,
frequently, moderately! "

Tihis rule has been gradually abandoned during the past twenty
years. The method of thinning depends on its purpose. William
Schlich distinguished between quality thinnings, made to improve

148

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

the timber quality of the trees left; and quantity thinnings meant
to result in the maximum production of wood fibre per acre per
annum.

If left alone, a dense thicket grows but slowly, the food being
subdivided among a large number of messmates. Toward the
beginning of forestry, sylviculturists were satisfied with "burying
the dead and moribund poles." Later on, thinnings were extended
into the suppressed classes. The European experiment stations
are now deeply engaged in working out the " best " method of
thinning. Obviously, no method can be best for all sorts of species
and for all sorts of local conditions.

I. The German and Austrian experiment stations distinguish
between :

Grade 1. Light thinnings, removing the dead or dying.

Grade 2. Moderate thinnings, removing the dead, dying and
suppressed.

Grade 3. Heavy thinnings, removing also the condominating
trees, or such of them which are not absolutely essential for the
maintenance of the main leaf canopy overhead.

Grade 4. Very strong thinnings, placing a limited number of
dominating and predominating trees in a free position.

Results so far published allot the maximum volume production
(exclusive of branches) per acre to Grade 3. All these four grades
might be characterized as " thinnings from below " (Eclaircies par
le bas).

II. The French sylviculturists are advocating, on the other
hand, "thinnings from above" (Eclaircies par le haut).

The Frenchmen, as a matter of principle, leave alone the sup-
pressed lower stems, protecting by them the quality of the soil
as well as the clearness of boles Avithin the predestined class. In
addition, they relieve the tension, friction and struggle for food
amongst the dominators by culling out the worst developed domina-
tors, or a percentage of those dominators which stand too close
together, and which have, consequently, one-sided crowns.

The objection to the French method lies in the following points:

a. Material without increment is left on the ground.

b. Weaklings and dying trees left increase the dangers threaten-
ing the forest.

c. Greater difficulty in marking trees to be removed.
However, where quality increment is at stake, the French

method seems highly advisable.

149

AMERICAN 8 Y L V I C U L T U K E

III. European opinions continue to differ widely with reference
to the proper severity of thinnings.

After Martin, the thinnings must leave the sectional area of
the forest constant by withdrawing, from a given age on, periodi-
cally the surplus of sectional area formed by growth.

After Schwappaeh and Wimmenauer, the normal yield of thin-
nings, expressed in per cent, of the final yield obtainable under a
rotation of 100 years, should be for Beech and for Scotch Pine
respectively :

Beech after Scotch Pine after

Soil. Schwappaeh. Wimmenauer.

Best 147% 181%

Medium 137% 145%

Poor 124% 115%

After Fricke, the relative length of the crown and of the bole
free from green limbs is the best criterion of thinnings properly
made. At least 40 per cent, of the entire length of the tree should
be clad in green limbs.

After Heck, no rule can be given the manner and the severity
of a thinning depending on local and even personal factors (" liberty
in thinnings"). No two trees being alike, a lack of a method is
better than a method of thinning.

IV. Radically different from the systems of thinnings hereto-
fore prevailing are the revolutionary views proffered by Borggreve.

Borggreve thinnings interfere or remove none but the pre-
dominators and dominators — the biggest poles — closest to the best
log size. Such thinnings begin but at the year sixty of a woodlot;
they withdraw every ten years one-seventh of the stems which,
being the largest, contain about cme-quarter of the total volume.

Of course, high and early revenue is secured by such practice.
On the other hand, the trees removed are those growing at the best
rate of interest. (From the sixtieth year on 90% of the annual
accretion in a woodlot is supplied by the 40% [in number] of the
largest trees).

The advisability of a Borggreve thinning largely depends on
the reproductive power of a wood thus treated. In the case of
Yellow Pine' and on poor soil, the reproductive power of a wood
seems too small to allow of a speedy repletion of the growing stock
and of its leaf canopy. Much " food " goes to waste after Borg-
greve thinnings. In the case of White Pine and Spruce, the danger

150

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

from storm and sleet must be badly dreaded after Borggreve thin-
nings.

V. Wagener, at the year twenty-five of a forest, makes a
thinning called " crown-isolation," surrounding the crown of each
predestined tree with an air space two and one-half feet wide.
The dominating trees left after the Wagener thinning should stand
seven yards apart. Suppressed trees are not interfered with. Such
cuttings are much heavier than Borggreve's. At the year twenty-
five the bole of the dominators is not fully developed. The domi-
nators left stand in an orchard-like position and show a very rapid
diameter growth. Usually, but one log is expected to be obtained
from the bole; it is obtained, however, within an extremely short
rotation.

Obviously, for coniferous woods exposed to storm and of poor
quality if wide ringed, the Wagener system is out of the question.
The Wagener thinnings, unless they result in a heavy growth of
adventitious branches, might be used to advantage for Black Wal-
nut, Black Cherry and Oaks.

VI. American forestry has not had occasion to adopt a term-
inology descriptive of the various possible grades of thinnings.
We might distinguish:

a. " Rectifications," correcting a previous negligence, to be sub-
divided as:

1. " Burials,' removing the dead and the dying.

2. " Rescues," meant to save from death some valuable mess-
mates.

3. " Revivals," reviving a stand which has been kept overstocked.

b. " Anticipations," anticipating the possibility of future crowd-
ing, to be subdivided as:

1. "Incitements," when the growth is to be incited particularly.

2. " Interferences," when the completeness of the leaf-cover
overhead is purposely destroyed.

3. " Isolations," when the crowns of the individual trees are
purposely isolated.

VII. In mixed forests such species as reach maturity during the
pole stage might be removed from a late-maturing remainder by
way of thinnings; e. g.. Locust and Sassafras from a pole wood of
Yellow Poplar; Hickory when reaching spoke bolt size from a mix-
ture with Oaks; Chestnut when reaching telephone pole size from
a mixture with Oaks, Black Gum and Yellow Poplar.

151

AMERICAl^ SYLVICULTURE "

Paragraph LXIII. Pruning in seed forests.

A. The object at stake might be:

L I'loduction of logs free from knots, — especially free from
dead knots. Live or sound knots measuring one and one-quarter
inches in diameter affect the lumber price but slightly. The pre-
vention of dead knots is, therefore, most important. No topshoot
is formed without side shoots, and no section of a tree bole is
free from branches and free from branch knots. Hence the advisa-
bility of pruning the boles of such species which develop branches
of large diameter and of great persistence when dead. Branches
(excepting adventitious branches) invariably start from the central
core.

II. Increased height growth.

III. The production of cylindrical boles of a large form figure
(Pressler's law of bole formation). Obviously, objects "II" and
" III " are not obtained but by the removal of living branches.

IV. The reduction of the shade falling on u young, promising
undergrowth.

V. Tlie reduction of danger from fire in coniferous woods close
to public roads.

B. Species: Hardwoods suffer less from the removal of
green branches than softwoods, (xreen branches of over five inches
in diameter should not be removed at all, except in case " IV,"
owing to the certainty of subsequent disease.

Oak heals best of all kinds the wound inflicted by pruning;
Ash is likely to split; Maple is slow in closing a woiuid; Birch soon
shows disease; Yellow Pine covers the wound quickly with rosin.

C. Actual European practice:

The practice restricts pruning to the object given under A. I.,
and within that limit to:

I. Dead branches.

II. Polewoods forty years to sixty years old.

III. Two log lengths from the ground.

IV. The specimens presumably predestined to reach the end of
the rotation.

Pruning extends to a height reaching up to forty feet, is done
by help of ladders, of a climbing apparatus (not climbing irons)
or of saws attached to very long polos. The best saw is the
" Alers " construction.

In France, sharp, curved blades are preferred to saws, since
they produce a smoother cut.

152

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The branch is cut off as close to the bole as possible. Large
branches are cut off in sections to prevent the bole from being
scarred. In the case of broad-leafed species and in the case of
live branches, large wounds are always tarred. Tarring in spring
is impossible.

Expense at Biltmore for pruning Yellow Pine to a height of
sixteen feet is two cents per tree.

The best months for pruning are the months at which the
sap is down.

The advisability of pruning depends largely on the prospective
price— difference between clear lumber and knotty lumber.

Pruning at a late date, say twenty years before cutting, is of
no use. Theoretically it is best to remove dead branches in the
year of their death.

Where pruning is practiced, natural pruning produced by dense
planting and hence dense planting itself might be spared, a propo-
sition which cannot be indorsed generally.

Professor Knapp, Eric Forest School, urges the removal of side
buds (notably for White Pine) and of young side shoots.

Literature: Translation of DeCourval by Massachusetts For-
estry Association.

Paragraph LXIV. Underplantin^ in seed forests.

An upper story of higli forest miglit Se underplanted during the
pole stage either artificially or by natural seed regeneration." In
the latter case, weed species may answer the purpose. Underplant-
ing may improve the timber quality of the upper growth. It usually
does improve the productiveness of the soil.

Frequently the purpose at stake in underplanting is that of
fully utilizing the productive capacity of the soil and of the atmos-
phere at a time when it is not entirely used by the upper story of
growth. In that ease, underplanting cannot be considered as a
method of forest pedagogic.

A. The species to be underplanted are, notably, light
demanders; for instance. Yellow Pines; Oaks; Hickories; Larches:
Yellow Poplar, etc. In the primeval woods, Long-leaf Pine, Yellow
Pine, Yellow Poplar, etc., show a natural undergrowth.

In practice, the Avood to be underplanted is forty to sixty years
old. Heavy " tliinnings from below " precede underplanting.'
153

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

B. The species nsed for artificial nnderplanting are

shade bearers and, if possible, soil improvers, notably Beech, Hard
Maple, Fir, Lawson's Cypress, White Pine, Chestnut, Hemlock, etc.

Spruce is now disliked for imderplanting, since it affects the
growth of the upper story unfavorably. Seedlings ona>or two years
old are commonly used for underplanting. Dogwood, Black Gum,
Witch Hazel, Chinquapin, Witch Hopple, possibly Kalmia and
Rhododendron might be used for underplanting where mere soil
protection is desired.

The primeval hardwoods of the Alleghanies are frequently and
densely underplanted with a low jungle formed by Ericaceae.

Paragraph LXV. Key to the forms of seed for-
ests.

That general condition of a forest is termed its "' sylvic form "
which is brought about by its type or types of past regeneration,
hence by its display of age classes and by the arrangement of the
species exhibited.

The treatment allotted to the " form " by the forester, provided
that it is a systematic treatment, is termed its " sylvicultural
system."

The multitude of forms found in primeval nature is innumer-
able, since the " molds " from which the forms are cast, vary
indefinitely with every wrinkle of the topography and every varia-
tion of the climate. *

Man's interference has tended — at least temporarily — to further
increase the multitude of forms.

It is a hard task to differentiate amongst this huge collection
of forms and to arrange the collection into " orders," " families,"
" genera " and " species " composing it.

A priori, two great groups of forms might be singled out,
namely, " primeval forms " the product of unbiased nature and
"second growth forms" the product of nature influenced by man's
interference. This human interference might have been of a char-
acter utterly disregarding sylvicultural ends ("culled forms"); or
human art might have tried, successfully or unsuccessfully, to lend
a helping hand ("cultured forms").

The manner in which the various age classes of the forest are
mixed within the " orders of forms " is of paramoimt interest. On
this manner of mixing depend:

I. The manner and the possibility of remunerative lumbering.
154

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

II. The type and the expense of regeneration and pedagogie.

III. The dangers from insects, fungi, fire, storm, etc., threaten-
ing the forest.

The functions of the mixture are so all-important in forestry,.
that the synthesis of the age-classes must serve as a main criterion
in the construction of a key to the sylvicultural forms.

It must not be forgotten, however, that age d'iflferences of, say,,
twenty years are very conspicuous during the seedling, sapling and
pole stage of the forest; whilst the keenest eye cannot detect these-
same differences in a forest of veterans.

In forests exhibiting a large variety of species the analysis of
the form presents particular difficulties. Such is the case by far
more frequently in primeval than in culled or cultured high forest.
Sometimes a distinct form of a minor, scattering species appears to
be "grafted" upon a distinct form of one or several major, gregari-
ous species {"grafted forms"). Where two distinct forms in mix-
ture occupy more equal shares (not minor and major shares) in the-
aggregate display, we may speak of " icedded forms." " Husband
and wife, though distinct individuals, unite on equal terms for a
life in a household of their own."

Synopsis of "Forms of Seed Forests."

A. Primeval forms of seed forests.

a. Primeval selection form.

, ,, . , ^ 1. pauciveudible

b. Primeval group form.

-r, . , J. J. f' ■'i- multivendible

0. Primeval compartment form.

J T, ■ 1 J. 1 J r- 3. omnivendible

d. Primeval standard form.

B. Culled forms of seed forests.

a. Culled selection form.

b. Culled group form. l. axe culled

c. Culled compartment form.

d. Culled standard form. 2. fire ciilled

C. Cultured forms of seed forests.

^a. Even-aged main forms, emanating from

1. cleared compartment type of n. s. r.

2. short time shelter -wood compartment type of n. s. r.

3. planting

4. underplanting

b. Uneven-aged main forms, emanating from

5. long time shelter -n'ood compartment type of n. s. r.

6. strip type of n. s. r.

7. group type of n. s. r.

8. selection type of n. s. r.

c. Auxiliary forms.

9. standard form

10. t-wo storied seed forest.

155

A M E R I C A \ S Y T. V I C L L T l" R E

A. Primeval forms of seed forests.

I. Characteristic for all primeval forms is a relative preponder-
ance of tlie hypermature age-classes (veterans) ; a relative
defieiejiey of the youngest age-classes (seedlings, saplings and poles);
the presence of a large number of dead, decaying or unsound speci-
mens only temporarily excelled in the " culled forms ; " a large
number of dead corpses of trees spread flat on the ground; irregular
confines of the parts composing the aggregates; irregular composi-
tion of such parts by age-classes and species, many of which may
be Aveeds; usually a heavy layer of humus on the ground; usually
the presence of a few strikingly large and spotless trees overtower-
ing their neighbors; absolute lack of permanent means of trans-
portation.

II. Subdivision of primeval forms of seed forests.

According to the relative share held by species of " weed trees "
in the mixture of species composing them, the primeval forests
might be subdivided into pauci- multi-, and omnivendible forests.
Primeval woods, in which but 10% of the timber species command
a value, might be called " paucivendible "; at 50%, the term " multi-
A'endible " and at approximately 100%, the term " omnivendible "
might be applied.

The vendibility of the members composing the forest, whilst it
controls the possibility and the manner of its sylvicultural man-
agement, does not influence in the slightest degree the actual orig-
inal display of the forest.

It will be best, consequently, to subjoin the viewpoint of
vendibility to the viewpoint of actual composition of the forest
as displayed in the size of its composing parts — notably of its age-
classes.

Thus we arrive at:

a. A selection form, where the age-classes raised are mixed
by trees or small patches — a very uneven-aged form;

b. A group form, where the age-classes raised are segregated
in groups occupying from one-tenth to four acres;

c. A compartment form, where the age-classes raised are segre-
gated in large, coherent areas (coves, slopes) covering from twenty
to one hundred acres — a very even-aged form of forest.

The epideta " paucivendible," " multivendible " and " omnivend-
ible " added to the terms " selection form," " group form "* and
" compartment form " readily explain, in crude lines, the sylvi-
cultural as well as the economic display of a primeval forest.

The groups or the compartments often show a sprinkling of
15G

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

huge trees known as " standards " or " reserves " — the latter term
is used by H. S. Graves — having a much higher age and frequently
belonging to a species different from that or those forming the
main growing stock. Instances are:

Yellow Poplar standards in Beech compartments;

White Pine standards in Balsam compartments;

Douglas Eir standards in compartments of Sitka Spruce;

Yellow Pine standards in Oak groups;

Cuban Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups;

Long-leaf Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups.

Naturally, where the standards belong to several age-classes and
do not form a distinct age-class by themselves, we merely meet a
selection form.

Standards in primeval Avoods are frequent enough to call for
the singling out of a fourth form, namely:

d. A standard form, which might be again subdivided into:

A form pf standards (reserves) over groups;

A form of standards (reserves) over compartments.

A variety of the latter subform found in the Chaparal thickets
of California and in the Calmia thickets of North Carolina might
be termed " form of standards over paucivendible compartments."

The two-storied seed forest is often formed by two or more
distinct species appearing in distinct forms. It had better be con-
sidered as a combination of forms, one form being grafted upon
another (e. g., compartments of Douglas Fir grafted upon the
selection form of Hemlock) ; or one form being wedded to another
(e. g., group form of Long-leaf Pine wedded with compartments of
Black Jack Oak).

The term " two-storied seed forest " properly applies to a
permanent combination of two distinct tiers of trees (representing
one or more species), each tier emanating from regeneration by the
compartment type of n. s. r. It is a compartment form wedded
to a compartment form, never found in primeval nature.

III. Treatment of primeval forests:

The only treatment required is of a protective, not of a strictly
sylvicultural character.

As long as the forest retains its primeval display, unhampered
by human interference, the regeneration of the primeval selection
form is of the cleared, shelterwood or advance growth selection type;
the regeneration of the primeval group form is of the cleared or
advance growth group type; and the regeneration of the primeval
compartment form is usually of the cleared compartment type.

157

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

Obviously, with the beginning of logging operations the
•" primeval forms " are gradually, piece by piece, changed into
"culled forms," the display of -which largely depends on vendi-
bility and on fires.

The cases are rare in which the primeval forest enters at once
or directly into a cultured form (Pisgah Forest of the Biltmore
Estate; Xe-ha-sa-ne park; government forests in Galizia) without
passing through the stage of " culled form." In the large majority
of cases, the primeval woods pass through " culled forms " into
"cultured forms," in the course of generations of men and of trees.

B. Culled forms of seed forests:

I. Characteristic for the culled forms of the seed forests is the
absence of mature or maturing trees belonging to a desirable
species; the preponderance of weeds, unsound trees, undesirable
species and of trees and poles badly crippled by the logging opera-
tions. Only diseased trees or relative small trees of the desirable
species are left to seed the ground.

Advance growth is invariably spoiled where the form is omni-
vendible or multivendible.

Characteristic for the culled forms is, further, the presence of
large amounts of debris and of a parched humus, or else of the
ashes thereof.

As a rule, the culled forms show death and scars due to forest
fires.

Frequently, the culled forest displays an entirely new assort-
ment of the species composmg it, the previously prevailing species
having been removed by logging. It is more " mobbish " than the
primeval forest.

II. Subdivisions of the culled forms of seed forests:

The culled forest is usually more uniform than the primeval
forest from which it emanates, owing to the uniform character of
the logging operations. Still, the compartment form, group form
and selection form originally exhijjited are usually retained.

In the compartment form and in the group form a few worth-
less trees or veterans left standing and continuing to live frequently
recall the " form of standards in high forest " or the " form of
imderplanted high forest." (Compare C, II, b, of .the same
paragraph.)

III. Treatment of the culled seed forests:

Where fires are kept out, the chances for seed regeneration are
good — unusually good — owing to the condition of the seed-bed and
to the unlimited food supply available for the seedlings.
158

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

In the case of Yellow Pines, light fires seem even helpful to.
n. s. r.

Since the valuable species form, however, the minority amongst
the seed- trees, the worthless and less valuable kinds usually prevail
in the young growth formed after culling. Cleaning and weeding
are required to improve the prospects of the minority composed of
noble species. Besides, improvement cuttings are indicated in the
culled forms : " The culled form is the form requiring improvement
•cuttings."

The " aristocrats " removed by the axe return frequently after
a score or two of years, the rash "mob" then acting as nurse-trees
or as ushers.

Wliere heavy and extensive fires have swept the culled forest
originally consisting of exacting species, patient waiting alone can
secure conditions more favorable to aristocratic regeneration. Fires
frequently convert a seed forest of hardwoods into a sprout forest.

The younger age-classes sufl'er more from lire than the older
age-classes. A fire-swept, culled forest is deficient, at least tem-
porarily, in seedlings, saplings and small poles. A few years after
a fire, the culled forest often displays the features of the under-
planted form of high forest (Par. LXV. C. II. b.) or of the composite
forest (Par. LXXIII).

C. Cultnred forms of seed forests:

I. Characteristic for the cultured forms of the seed forests
is great uniformity; lack of hypermature, unsound and misshapen
aristocrats; lack of weed-trees; lack of coppice shoots; complete
•cover overhead; multi- or omni-vendibility ; permanent means of
transportation.

The cultured forest does not require weeding or improvement
cuttings for the reason that cleanings and early thinnings have
prevented the development of weed-trees and wolf-trees, whilst the
hypermature veteran has been removed long ago.

If the culled form is " the form of improvement cuttings," the
■cultured form might be termed " the form of thinnings."

II. Subdivision of cultured seed forests:

a. Main cultured forms of seed forests:

1. Even-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed within
a, compartment differ by not to exceed twenty-five years.

aa. Form emanating from the cleared compartment type of
Ti. s. r.

bb. Form emanating from the short-time shelterwood compart-
Tnent type of n. s. r., the periods of regeneration not exceeding
twenty-five years. jgg

A il E E I C A X S Y L ^ I C U L T U R E

cc. Form raised by planting seeds or seedlings over whole
compartments.

dd. Form raised by underplanting seeds or seedlings over
whole compartments, followeti l>y (gradual) removal of the super-
structing trees within less than twenty-live years.

2. Uneven-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed
within a compartment differ by over twenty-five years.

aa. Form emanating from the long-time shelterwood compart-
ment type of n. s. r.

bb. Form emanating from strip types, either restocked by
n. s. r. or by planting.

ce. Form emanating from group types of n. s. r., or from
planted groujis.

dd. Form emanating from selection types of n. s. r.

6. Auxiliary cultured forms of seed forest:

aa." Form of standards in seed forest, when a limited number
of trees are left to grow amongst and with the young growth for
a longer or shorter number of years.

The standards might be left either in scattering groups or
indiA'idually scattered over the second growth. In the latter case,
none but storm -firm species will answer. It is wise to leave the
standards in the proximity of roads so as to allow their removal
without inflicting damage on the young growth. Species well
adapted for standards are: Yellow Pines, Larches, White Oaks,
Y'ellow Poplar, Black Locust, Hickory, Walnut, Black Cherry.
Shade-bearers and flat-rooted species will not answer the purpose.

It is unwise to leave standards unprepared by the preceding
cuttings for the life in the open. Standards set suddenly free Avill
cover themselves rapidly with adventitious branches, will grow stag-
headed, will suffer from storm and sleet, and will die without yield-
ing the results for which they were left.

Where the standards shade the young growth too badly, it may
be necessary to remove their lower live branches.

The number of standards left per acre does not usually exceed
twenty-five. Very good soil and short rotations allow of an in-
creased number. Standards may be, but need not be, of the same
species which forms the undergrowth.

Where the standards do not belong, approximately, to one and
the same age-class, there the standard form bastardizes with the
uneven-aged forms emanating from the group-type or from the
selection type of n. s. r.

bb. Form of two-storied seed forest, when an upjier and a
lower leaf canopy is maintained in distinctly separate tiers.
160

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Species adapted to form the lower leaf canopy are; Beech,
Hard Maple, Blaclc Gum, Firs, Hemlocks. "The species in the upper
story had better have a light-demanding character. The form is
created by raising a polewood (even-aged) of Yellow Pine, Oak,
Hickory, Larch, etc.; by early and heavy thinnings from below; by
very heavy thinnings after the completion of the principal height
growth (year forty to sixty) ; and bj^ planting at the same time
either seeds or preferably seedlings of shade-bearing species. Should
the undergrowth catch up witn the upper growth, either the one
or the other must be removed. The undergrowth preserves the fer-
tility of tlie soil b3' thorough shading, by the formation of a
mixed humus and by increased leaf-fall. It improves the bole-
quality of the upper growth, the crowns of the lower growth
holding the boles of the upper in close embrace. In addition, it
prevents any part of me timber-producing factors of the localicy
(atmospiiere, light, moisture, soil) from lying unutilized. Usually
tlie undergrowth produces firewood, the upper growth timber.

The so-called " Seebacn's modified high forest " has Beech in
the upper as well as in the lower story. The lower story la
obtained from self-sown seed of the upper story alter very heavy
thinning. Under and upper growth are finally utilized in the same
year or in the same period of years.

III. Treatment of cultured seed forests.

Regeneration in the cultured form of seed forest takes place
in any of the types of n. s. r., or by planting seeds and seedlings.
As a rule, natural regeneration is now combined with partial plant-
ing. Cleaning and thinning are usually indicated, whilst, as stated,
weeding and improvement cutting are not required.

Paragraph LXVI. Critical remarks on the forms
of seed forests.

A. Attitude of the investor:

It is almost amusing to observe the difference of attitudes
which the statesman, the lumberman and the forester show with
respect to the terms " prilneval, ' " culled " and " cultured " forests.

Still, all of these forests are justifiable, at least temporarily,
and usually justified by the economic conditions evolving them.

I. The primeval forest seems to be the " forest in economic
stagnation." Its production is no greater than that of barrens;
it is nil. Still, fortunes have been made by many investors,
161

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

buying and retaining primeval forests for their own benefit and
incidentally for the benefit of later generations of men. With every
parcel of primeval forest destroyed, the value of the balance left
increases in estimation and in actual usefulness.

Sylviculturally, no forest requires a more minute and more
painstaking treatment than the primeval forest, when its conversion
into a cultured foiest is at stake. Still, the small price obtainable
for its products defies any attempt at a remunerative outcome
of heavj^ sylvicultural «utlays. What is the use of safeguarding
or producing a second growth, by sylvicultural acts, which is devoid
of any prospective value, or which is of a value inferior to the
expense required to safeguard it or to produce it ?

Thus, sylviculturally as well as financially it seems very fre-
quently best to leave the primeval wood unattended, unregenerated,
unconverted, for the time being.

When the average acre of primeval forest commands, in a given
locality, a price of $100 or more, its owner can begin to consider
the advisability of logging it with a view to relogging it.

Where the vakie of the preceding growth is at its best, the art
of the second growth is at its best also.

Where the cut of the mature stands yields hundreds of dollars
per acre, the owner is willmg to set aside from ten to twenty
dollars per acre, investing them in a second growth.

Is it not insane to expect an owner to convert a first growth
worth but tAventy dollars per acre into a second growth at an
expense of twenty dollars per acre?

The outsider urges the timberman to do what he Avould never do
himself: To exchange a steer for a calf.

II. The culled forest usually exists in localities where timber
has a higher value than in tlie primeval backwoods.

Indeed, where the culling of the forest has made great progress
in a state or in a county, there the culled forest is getting rapidly
ripe for sylvicultural treatment.

Heavy culling merely proves a high range of stumpage prices,
fostered by a near-by market and by good means of transportation.

Where the forest has been culled only of decidedly mature
trees, there the chances for good results are bright, financially as
well as sylviculturally.

The attitude which the owner of culled forests adopts towards
sylvicultural investments, necessarily depends on a diagnosis of the
future of the lumber industry appealing to him.

102

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

III. The cultured forest is still a rarity in the United States,
and will continue to be a rarity during our lifetime.

Imagine for a moment, that the famous Black forest of Ger-
many were suddenly transferred, with its fine Spruce woods, its
splendid roads and its skilled laborers, into the heart of the Adi- .
rondacks! Would it be wise, financially, to continue its sj'lvicul-
tural treatment as inaugurated in Germany?

It certainly would; the logs salable in the Black Forest are
also salable in the Adirondacks at a good profit. And a network of
splendicl roads would tend to cheapen transportation by exactly
that many cents per standard, which the stvmipage itself would
gain per standard.

On the other hand, that same Black Forest transferred to the
Pacific coast — say into the Olympic mountains — -would certainly
prove a financial and therefore a sylvicultural failure.

The better it pays to cull the forest, the closer at hand is
the time of the cultured forest.

It must be kept in mind, however, that the change from the
culled to the cultured forest requires, aside from a market for the
products obtained and from the willingness of the owner to embark
in sylvicultural investments

a. Investments in permanent means of transportation;

b. Relative safety from forest fires;

c. Time.

Wherever the woods emerge in a decrepit condition from the
primeval stage after reckless lumbering, heavy fires, unlimited
pasturage, theie the ado^jtion of a system will be found necessary
after scores of years breaking entirely with the past and raising,
after thorough destruction of the past growth, by artificial means
a new crop of valuable species.

Large, continuous clearings badly resist reforestation; they be-
have, in this respect, like the prairies, although on a smaller scale.
Extensive, even-aged woods form " incubators " for disastrous dis-
eases; sufl"er from snow, storm, drought, and frost. On the other
hand, their management is greatly facilitated, so that reinforcing,
cleaning, thinning, regeneration and utilization are much cheapened.

B. Selection of form by the forester.

I. The primeval forms of seed forest found by the forester
usually appear unretainable. Whatever the case be, the first stroke
of the axe is sure to remove the mature and hypermature trees,
the preponderance of which belongs to the character of any primeval
form.

163

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

However, when transforming primeval woods into cultured
woods, the forester should endeavor to retain as much as possible
the form originally sanctioned by nature. Such retention is the
safest way to sylvicultural success. Still, it usually necessitates
heavy investments for permanent means of transportation, and
where the owner is vmwilling to make them, cuttings by com-
partments or by strips are required, which in turn lead to th>i
adoption of the advance growth type, shelterwood type, or cleared
type of n. s. r.

The strip form, as mentioned elsewhere, seems to be particu-
larly well adapted to meet American needs.

II. The culled forms of seed forest must be retained by the
forester in the compartment, group or selection form first en-
countered, unless the culling has been particularly light. Impro\e-
ment cuttings are not apt to change the form of the forest. Where
artificial reinforcing is resorted to, the forest will gradually develop
even-aged forms. When after heavy culling the average growing
stock per acre is badly reduced, forms allowing of short rotations
are indicated, so especially selection forms and standard forms.
Frequently in such eases, the high forest is abandoned, and die
sprout forest is resorted to.

III. In the cultured forms, the trend of the times favors uneven-
aged forms, notably mixed group forms and narrow strip form?, on
account of greater safety.

Heavy "thinnings from above" are in vogue, frequently in
connection with underplanting (or underseeding by n. s. r.).

Regeneration is effected either by planting compartments, strips
and groups, with or without a shelterwood overhead, or ly the
various types of n. s. r.

Where the deficiency of the growing stock leads to the adoption
of short rotations, standard forms, two-storied forms, underplanted
forms or coppice-under-standard forms must be resorted to. In the
latter case, of course, the nigh forest form is thrown overboard.

Paragraph LXVII. Seed forest by species.

A. Oaks: The Oaks appear in pure stands but rarely.

I. Primeval woods.. The primeval seed forest exhibits the Oak:
a. As the loAver story planted in groups or compartments under-
neath an upper story of Long-leaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, Short-leaf
Pine;

164

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

b. In small pure groups sprinkled amongst the Bald Cypress
and Red Gum of the southern hummocks;

c. In the selection form grafted upon compartments of higli
forest of other hardwoods, notably of Chestnut, Hickory, Gum
(Ten.) ; or grafted on compartments of Kalmia, Rhododendron,
Chinquapin (N. C).

d. In pure even-aged groups (prairie borders).

e. In selection forests mixed with many other hardwoods also
i:i selection form.

II. Culled seed forests: The culled forest of oak is usually
axe-culled as well as fire-culled, thus partly losing its character
as a high forest.

The n. s. r. of White Oak, Chestnut Oak and Scarlet Oak at
Biltmore proceeds selectionwise or in compartments, notably so on
Indian fields in the Pink-beds; underneath Cliestnut, Maples, and
Oaks on Poplar hill; mixed with Hickory on the lower west slope
of Averys creek and so on.

The Oaks endure shade well for a long number of years, tr.^il-
ing on the ground until freed from superstructure. Coccinea three
years old is only five inches high, being clipped back continuously
by insufficient lignification of its top-shoots.

Even-aged polewoods of Oak are found all over the Blue RiJgo
and the Piedmont Plateau. Examination will usuallj^ prove them
to be fire-culled coppice formed by the fire-killed, younger age
classes of primeval woods (seedlings, saplings and small poles).

III. Cultured seed forests.

The cultured high forest of Oaks in America is still in statu
nascendi. The growth of the Oaks during early youth is very slow.
The soil to be used for it is usually so badly hardened as to require
artificial help to n. s. r. Oak seedlings and saplings are rare In
Pisgah Forest.

The Oaks mingle with the Short-leaf Pine everywhere as an
undergrowth started by n. s. r., or as a companion-growth in Pine
polewoods. Here too, however, the fires have usuallj' converted
seedlings and. saplings into stump sprouts.

In the S. E., regeneration under shelterwood or in advance of
logging (by the group type or by the compartment type) seems
advisable. In the mixture with the Oaks should be encouraged:
Maples, Black Gums, Pines (White Pine retains its branches for a
long time in the mixture), Chestnut,- Hickory, Walnut.

Record of seed years at Biltmore:

White Oak: good in 1899.

165

AMERICAN SYLVICLLTURE

Post Oak: in 1900 the only mast-bearing oak.

Black Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901 in all situations.

Scarlet Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901.

B. Chestnuts:

I. Primeval Forests:

Actually primeval forests of Chestnut seem very rare. The
Chestnut woods of the Appalachians have been ransacked by fires
for many decades of years. The n. s. r. seems to have been of
the selection type. Chestnut seems to avoid limestone-soil and
ceases to occur where limestone appears (Ky; Ten.).

II. Culled seed forests:

The fire-culled forest shows an absolute lack of seedlings, sap-
lings and poles.

The axe-culled forest consists merely of coppice.

Trees beset with dead branches are invariably wormy
(Lymexylon).

Seed years seem to be getting scarce, possibly under the influ-
ence of fires, to judge from the reports of mountaineers. The old
trees are frequently stagheaded and fail to successfully regenerate
their kind.

Seedlings one year old are about eight inches high, when found
in the woods. They appear individually scattering and not in
groups.

III. Cultured seed forests:

The ciiltured forest usually has the form of coppice or coppice-
under-standards. Plantations in the United States are made more
for fruit-growing than for timber-growing. The abandoned fields
at Biltmore seem too dry for successful development. Chestnuts
planted as an undergrowth below Oak and Pine have done poorly,
owing to the ravages of squirrels.

The poles and trees seem to badly resent any sudden inter-
ference with the leaf canopy and with the humus.

Thinnings and cuttings in the shelterwood system should be
light.

The competition of stoolshoots invariably formed after cuttings
reduces the prospects of seedlings simultaneously obtained. Stool-
shoots cannot be entirely prevented by deadening previous to
cutting.

Chestnut prodiices a splendid humlis and is an excellent com-
panion for Oaks, Hickories, Walnut, Black Cherrj% Ash and Yellow
Poplar; also for White Pine and Hemlock. It regenerates in

IGG

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

mixture with Yellow Poplar on small abandoned fields of Pisgah
Forest to a limited degree.

On the mountain tops, where Cliestnut stands in an orchard-like
position, seed occurs annually. Full mast years are rare.

C. Hickories:

I. Primeval forest: The Hickories appear regenerated in the
selection type and in the group type.

II. Culled seed forest: The Hickories suffer badly from fires.
Fires do not kill the poles, but cause the butts to burst subjecting
them to decay. Weeding and heavy improvement cuttings ar-j
beneficial.

III. Cultured seed forest:

From the early pole stage on, the crowns should be placed in
a free position so as to cause the formation of wide rings.

At Biltmore, the boles are apt to be very branchy, the tough
limbs being very persistent.

In the mountains, on stronger soil, the boles clear themselves
readily.

The Hickories regenerate by n. s. r. in abandoned fields in
mixture with Black C4um, Sassafras, Yellow Poplar, Locust, Oaks,
etc.

In the plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, Bitternut
alone promises to be successful. The other species are badly handi-
capped by rodents and seem to be of very slow growth.

The Hickories seem to be immune from damage by frost in
their native country; not so in Germany.

Full seed years are not of record.

D. AValnuts:

I. Primeval forests:

The walnuts appear in the primeval woods invariably in mix-
ture with other species, on strong soil, seemingly regenerated by
the selection type.

II. Culled seed forests:

The walnuts seem remarkably fireproof from the early pole
stage on. Seed regeneration is rare in the woods, but more fre-
quent on old deadenings close to habitations, where the squirrels
were held in check.

III. Cultured seed forests:

Without artificial help, n. s. r. seems very problematic. Under
any circumstances, the rodents must be kept off.
167

america:n sylviculture

Plantations are frequently found and do very well in early
youth, unless the soil is badly hardened and impoverished. The
stands should be dense, whether pure or mixed with Oaks etc.,
so as to produce clean boles. Plantations seem to fail in the
close proximity of old trees.

The plantations at Biltmore have failed invariably in the
woods, owing to the ravages of squirrels; toungya on leased farms
shows poor success, owing to the unreliability of the lessees;
plantations of seedlings three years old failed badly; plantations
of yearlings freeze to the ground annually on all slopes; plantations
of nuts on small fields have done very well, where the ground was
good; and the change from good to bad, brought about by the
undulations of the soil, is very marked. Failures on poor soil are
now doctored up by a nursegrowth of Yellow Pines, — a remedy
promising some success.

E. Beech:

I. The primeval forest exhibits tlie compartment, group and
selection type of n. s. r. The humus is usually very heavy and so
moist that fires have a poor chance to spread. In the South, at
lower altitudes, Beech merely fringes the river banks.

II. The culled seed forest shows many root suckers (Appala-
chians) and stump sprouts, stumps three feet higli forming the
sprouts on the top of the stump.

In the Blue Grass Region, huge park trees are frequently found
in a dense undergrowth of seedlings and saplings. Here the more
valuable species have been culled out many years ago, and the Beech
is left in exclusive possession of the soil.

III. The cultured seed forests of Beech are easily regenerated
in the shelterwood-compartment type. The selection type yields
branchy boles. Beech is the best companion imaginable for faster-
growing species; is splendidly qualified for an underwood planted
beneath aristocratic species; is exacting and sensitive.

Plantations on abandoned fields are out of the question, except
at high altitudes.

In Michigan, the fall of 1911 produced a full mast of beechnuts.

F. Bass wood;

I. Primeval forests:

In the Lake States and in the -.-illeghanies, Basswood exhibits
the form emanating from the selection type of n. s. r., grafted
on the compartment type of White Pine, or of Hard Maple, or

1G8

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

«lse mixed with Hard Maple, Elm, Oliestnut, Red Oak, Yellow
Poplar.

II. Culled seed forests:

The regeneration follows the selection type; fires clip the seed-
imgs and saplings; larger poles and trees seem to withstand well.

III. Cultured seed forests:

Young seedlings develop very slowly; they are less sensitive
than their shade-endluance would indicate. Pure forests are found
only in Russia.

Seedlings planted at Biltmore on old fields, of strong qualities,
Jiave hesitated to develop for six years, growing bushy and crooked.

Linden underplanted below Oaks and Chestnuts after moderate
thinning on North slopes seems to answer admirably, forming long
and straiglit, although overhanging topshoots.

Seed occurs in Pisgah Forest annually. The majority of the
seeds, however, seem to drop immature.

G. Yellow Poplar:

I. Primeval forests:

Yellow Poplar appears invariably in the selection type, or iu
the form of standards.

II. Culled seed forests:

The species attempts unceasingly to propagate its kind by
n. s. r. The heavier the destruction by the axe, the better are its
chances for success. Fires, on the other hand, annihilate the seed-
lings and check the chances for regeneration thereafter, owing to a
rank growth of weeds following the fires. In Pisgah Forest, seed-
lings and saplings were entirely lacking, imtil fires were stopped.

The regeneration on old fields, on the other hand, is prolific
and easy. Cattle press the seeds into the ground and check the
competing weeds. Sassafras, Locust and Pine frequently act as
ushers. The old fields are usually protected from fire by the
owners wishing to protect their fences.

No known species prunes itself so readily from branches as
does Yellow Poplar, the dead branches popping off without leaving
any stumps.

III. Cultured seed forests:

No species at Biltmore is as easily regenerated by n. s. r. as is
Yellow Poplar. In Biltmore Forest, the group type is readily
carried through with the help of three or four mother-trees to
the acre. The companions of the mother trees, notably Oaks

169

A :\I E R I C AX S Y L \ I C U L T U E E

and Cliestnuts, are gradually cut away; spreading Dogwoods are
deadened to preA^ent them from forming stoolshoots.

In Pisgah Forest, regeneration is helped by preceding pasturage
(especially in early spring, before the seeds of Poplar germinate),
and by weeding following in the wake of n. s. r.

The seeds will never sprout in the humus; seedlings born late
in spring (June) and showing the cotyledons still in September are
sure to be killed by frost; also seedlings growing in the shade of
weeds. The logging roads and log yards are real " nurseries " for
Poplar. On steep ground, the seedlings are washed out by the rain.

The growth is very fast.

Seed years are annual: hollow trees are likely to furnish poor
seeds.

Plantations of three-year-olds at Biltmore on poor old fields did
badly; on good soil, especially where a volunteer growth of Locust
has joined the plants, the success is complete. Plantations of
Yellow Poplar alternating with White Pine promise well.

H. Maples:

I. Primeval forests:

Here tlie regeneration follows tlie compartment type (Adiron-
dacks, Missouri valley), the group type and the selection type
(Michigan, Northern Minnesota). Maple usually appears in mixture
with other hardwoods, also with Spruce and White Pine. Soft
Maple occurs in low, moist sites as well as on dry ridges. Hard
Maple demands well-drained and strong soil, preferring Northern
aspects.

H. Culled seed forests:

After culling, the younger stages of Maple are usually left
in possession and develop in dense thickets, preventing more valu-
able species (White Pines) from establishing themselves. In the
Adirondacks, Soft Maple is frequently found on Spruce flats after
windfalls (associated with Yellow Birch).

III. Cultured seed forests:

Dr. Fernow at Axton succeeded in establishing, in places, a
splendid regeneration obtained from advance growth n. s. r. of the
compartment type, removing the parents at one stroke. In Europe,
the shelterwood compartment type answers admirably.

Biltmore Forest is deficient in Maple. Still, Hard IMaple
planted on abandoned fields, pure or in mixture with White Pine,
has done almirably, except on dry'S. W. slopes, dry spurs, and very
moist river bottoms.

170

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

In Pisgah Forest, Red Maple usually appears as a weed over-
shadowing aristocratic seedlings.

The best Maple forests of the world are those of the lower
peninsula of Michigan. Here, old deadenings abandoned some forty
j-ears ago, and old windfalls at the edge of clearings show a natural
second growth so luxurious, straight, dense and perfect that little
remains for the forester to improve.

Where a light ground-fire has destroyed a superabundance of
leafniold carpeting the ground, the regeneration of Sugar Maple-
is prolific after seed-years such as autumn 1909 in Michigan.

I. Ashes:

I. Primeval forests: The Ashes usually regenerate and stand
in patches or groups, occupying the moister sites.

II. Culled seed forests:

Protected by moist ground, the Ashes stand a good chance to
escape the fires. During early youth, the seedlings endure remark-
ably heavy shade. Weeding and improvement cuttings produce
splendid results.

III. Cultured seed forests:

Regeneration in the group type is easy, if helped by cleaning
(Ducker Mountain of Biltmore Estate) and gradual removal of the
obstructing trees. On old fields, on moist slopes. White Ash is
often accompanied by Yellow Poplar and Halesia.

Plantations of three-year-old Green Ash have failed utterly at
Biltmore on dry, hard soil.

Plantations of three-year-old White Ash along the creeks do
very well; also seed plantations on good soil in the gaps of a ridge.

The early growth is very fast.

Seeds are profusely produced from the pole stage on.

J. Red Spruce:

I. Primeval forests: The primeval Spruce woods appear as^
more or less even-aged compartments in the swamps and sloughs
of the Lake States and on the dry, shallow South slopes of New
England; in the cleared group form and in the selection form in
Western N. C. at altitudes exceeding 5,000 feet, mixed with Abies
fraseri (selection) ; in the selection form, grafted upon compart-
ments of Beech and Maple, on the hardwood slopes of the Adiron-
dacks. In the latter case. Spruce never regenerates in the heavy
layer of broad-leafed humus, but selects invariably the half-rotted
corpse of a dead tree (Hemlock) for a seed-bed.

171

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

II. Culled seed forests: In slightly culled forests immune from
:fires, Red Spruce seems to reproduce with remarkable ease. On
fired ground, Birches and Cottonwoods frequently act as ushers.
Its persistence below an impenetrable leaf canopy of Beech or Maple
is surprising. Freed from superstructure, after long years of suf-
fering, it answers the chance for rapid growth almost immediately,

III. Cultured seed forests: Spruce requires high atmospheric
anoisture; is satisfied Avith shallow soil; can be readily reproduced
by n. s. r. as well as by planting.

Seed years: Prolific in North Carolina in fall 1901. The trees,
top heavy with cones, were mowed down by storms.

K. White Pine:

I. Primeval forests: The White Pine of the primeval woods
appears in compartments, almost even-aged, or in groups, either
j)me, or with an admixture of hard Maple, Linden, Elm, Yellow
Birch; or in the form of standards over Red Spruce and Balsam;
or in the selection form, as in the Calmia thickets of Pisgah Forest.
It is flat-rooted, subject to windfalls, in the North not tolerant
of shade.

II. Culled seed forest: The gorgeous White Pine forests of
the Lake States, after culling followed by fires, are invariably
surendered to a shrubbage of hardwoods. Second growth is found
in beautiful groups underneath Norway Pine; individually sprinkled
amongst Jack Pine, Basswood, Birch, etc.; also on old burns in
extensiA'e, even-aged compartments; along roads and at the edge of
clearings; in New England on old fields.

In Western N. C, White Pine regenerates readily on broom-
sedge fields; in mixture with the Oaks on the uplands; in mixture
with Red Maple and Red Birch in the river swamps, etc.

III. Cultured seed forests: At Biltmore, the n. s. r. of White
Pine started by a few seed trees succeeds easily in the group type.
White Pines planted under dense shelter soon require the help of
the axe. Individual trees are very retentive of branches. Planta-
tions on several hundred acres have done admirably. White Pine
is the easiest Pine to plant on old fields, or in groups of the woods
after clearing.

Seed years are frequent at Biltmore, recurring at intervals of
two or three years.

172

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

li. Yellow Pines:

X. Primeval forests: The pure group form (Black Hills) or
the group form wedded with the compartment form of Oaks reach-
ing a lesser height than the Pines seem to be typical. Pine
standards are often left. Pinus taeda, divaricata, and murrayana.
occur in even-aged compartments; P. palustris and P. heterophylla
usually occur in groups.

II. Culled seed forests:

The culled forest is usually visited by fires which gradually
convert an undergrowth of hardwoods, where it exists, into coppice..
Beneath Longleaf Pine, this undergrowth begins to sprout only at
a time when the mature Pine is removed.

Where the pure high forest continues, fire has usually improved
the chances for n. s. r. by preparing a ready seed-bed and by lessen-
ing the severity of future fires.

All Yellow Pines regenerate prolifically on abandoned fields,,
often in stands which artificial planting could not produce equally
well.

III. Cultured seed forests:

The n. s. r. of P. eehinata in the Biltmore woods creates nucleL
for small groups which are freed and gradually enlarged. Heavy
thinnings, fi'om the early thicket stage on, prevent crowding in the
pole stage and thereby check the chances for successful attacks by
the bark beetles. Pruning (dead branches only) 100 decidedly pre-
destined trees per acre seems remunerative at Biltmore.

Standard form of P. eehinata seems indicated at Biltmore.

All Yellow Pines are easily planted when one or two years old
and get along without cultivation in the absence of annual weeds.
Heavy growth of weeds, on good soil, however, is sure to smother
them.

In pure and large natural regenerations, it is wise to leave
some hardwood standards with a view to securing an admixture-
of hardwood seedlings in due course of time.

In mixture with White Pine, Yellow Pine is soon subdued on
good soil, while it retains the lead on poor soil.

Seed years of Pinus eehinata occur at Biltmore every seven
years. The fall of 1902 was a prolific breeder of seeds even in pole^
woods thirtv-five vears old.

CHAPTER III

THE SPROUT FOREST

Paragraph LXVIII. Genesis of the sprout for-
est and its types.

The sprout forest is either the result of stump-shoots or is
obtained from rootsuckers, layers and cuttings.

A. Stumpsprouts (or stoolshoots or coppice shoots).

I. Species: All hardwoods whilst young form stump shoots
when cut just above the callus. Amongst the softwoods, the
Sequoias exhibit enormous stump sprouts. Amongst the Yellow
Pines, P. rigida and echinata, also P. taeda, are capable of develop-

,ing sprouts from stumjis measuring less than six inches in diameter.
"White Pines, Spruces, Firs, Larches, Hemlocks, etc., never form
stump sprouts.

II. Diameter: The sprouting capacity rapidly decreases,
usually, witli increasing diameter of the stump. The diameter at
which the principal height growth is completed usually denotes the
limit permissible for coppice rotations. This rule is particularly
well illustrated by the behavior of Yellow Pine, Birch, Maple,
YelloAV Poplar, Oaks, Hickories, etc. Chestnut and Sequoia do not
seem to follow the rule.

III. Soil: Good soil allows big stumps otherwise unproductive
of sprouts to form stool shoots.

Good soil produces stronger, bivt less sprouts than poor soil.

iV. Life of stumps: The life and hence the sprouting capacity
of stumps repeatedly coppiced is closely connected wdth the resist-
ance offered by the timber to decay. White Oak, Chestnut, Se-
-quoia and Locust are perseverant sprouters, the scars on the stump
being protected from rotting by the antiseptic qualities of the sub-
stances incrustating the heart wood.

The reproductive power of Birch, Beech, and Maple is not sus-
tained for a long time. Ash and Basswood show greater
perseverance.

It might be said that a long-livod species is also a perseverant
:sprouter.

The sprouting capacity is especially good in species capable of
174

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

forming a separate and detaclied root system for the sprout inde-
pendent from the mother stump. This is the case in species forming
sprouts from the base of the .stump (at the root collar).

V. Optimum number of stumps per acre:

The optimum depends on ihe length of the rotation. It is con-
sidered to be: For German Oak coppice, rotation twenty years,
2,000 stumps per acre; for Osier culture, rotation one or two years,
80,000 stumps per acre.

VI. Manner of Coppicing: The use of the axe is preferable to
that of the saw. Stumps should be as low as possible, to begin with.
In case of stumps — notably Beech and Birch — coppiced a number of
times it is better to cut in the new wood. The scar should allow the
water to run off, instead of collecting it like a saucer. The expense
of the genesis of the coppice forest is practically nil.

VII. Season of coppicing:

If the wood must be peeled, the cut should be made in early
spring. Late spring cutting subjects the new sprouts to early
frosts. Coppicing in August is supposed — for similar reasons — to
aft'ect the vitality of the stumps. Where the slioots are not to be
peeled, cutting in late winter is best. Winter cutting prevents the
stumps from bleeding and allows to remove the product cut before
the appearance of new shoots without injuring the stumps.

Cutting in fall subjects the stumps to frost-cracks and to bark-
blistering; it causes the new fleshy shoots to appear early in spring,
at the season of prevailing late frosts.

Accessibility of the locality at the proposed season of cutting
and availability of local labor further determine the season of
cutting.

VIII. Reinforcing: Where the number of stumps is or becomes
deficient, there the owner may plant seedlings or stump-plants to
replenish the growing stock.

B. Root suckers: Cottonwood, Willow, Locust, Alder, some
Elms and Maples, after European experience Liriodendron, also
Beech in the Southern Appalachians, form root suckers, especially
on porous soil. The suckers are increased by locally uncovering the
porous soil. They might be severed from the stump and planted
when two or three years old; but this is expensive. Gardeners
often use pieces of roots, say ten inches long and finger-thick, for
propagating broad-leafed species in good soil. An observer in F.
and J., May, 1904, claims to have found that Fir and Spruce
in tlie Presidential Range of the White Mountains propagate their
175

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

kind by the natural and unaided formation of suckers developing
from long horizontal roots.

C. Iiayers: A low, long branch of a standing tree is partly
buried in a trench one-half foot deep, held in place by hooks, pins or
stones, the end of the branch protruding above ground. The branch
thus embedded forms roots and shoots. The latter are severed
from each other a year or two before planting in the open.

Layering is a gardener's method only locally used in parks. At
high altitudes, under the influence of very great atmospheric
moisture, the low Spruce branches form roots and shoots in a simi-
lar manner.

D. Cuttings: WilloAvs and Poplars are usually propagated by
" cuttings," viz. by pieces of branches one foot long and two years
old, tipped with a piece one y6ar old. The cuttings are inserted
obliquely, the tips barely showing above the ground. Planting dag-
ger or turning plow are the tools used. Care must be taken to
prevent the bark from peeling off. It is claimed that the constant
use of cuttings causes a deterioration of growth. Cuttings of
sapling size taken from strong and long branches are also planted
in good nursery soil for a number of years and planted in the
open ground after catching root. Willows and Poplars allow of
heavy trimming. Among conifers, only Sequoia permits the use of
cuttings. It is claimed that Sequoia-chips sprout successfully in
the moist climate of the Coast Range.

Paragraph LXIX. Peda^o^ie of the sprout
forests.

The sprout forest is tended by cleaning, weeding, and thinning;
also by improvement cuttings and pruning.

A. Cleanings: To prevent undesirable shoots from develop-
ing, the stumps producing them must be removed. Stumps of un-
desirable species (Blackgum, Hazel, Alder) can be removed only by
digging, or by heaping dirt upon them, or by firing heaps of debris
placed on the stumps. Usually, it is preferable to deaden undesira-
ble trees instead of trying to prevent their stumps from forming
sprouts. In some species, stumps three feet high will form poor
sprouts, a quality which might be taken advantage of.

B. Weedings: Misshapen trees or poles of a desirable hard-
wood species, cut level with the ground, will at once produce shoots
of good quality. Poles badly damaged by fires should be cut for an

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

increase in vitalitj'. Trees left becavise worthless should be dead-
ened, unless they belong to the aristocracy, or unless they improve
the goM sprouts as well as the soil in the role of subordinate
companions.

C. Tmnnings : Thinnings are rare in European coppice woods;
in tanbark coppice they usually purport to improve the quality of
the bark. Where made, the thinnings usuallj^ remove the weaker
shoots of a stump for the benefit of the better and stronger shoots..
The rotations of European coppice being short, heavy thinnings
tend to deteriorate the quality (branchiness and shape) of the
shoots as well as of the soil; and light thinnings are rarely
remunerative.

In America, coppice of Catalpa, of Cliestnut, of Locust and
Hickory may invite heavy thinnings where fence posts, telephone
posts, railroad ties, wagonstock, etc., find a ready market.

In case of Hickory, thinnings periodically removing the best
trees (a la Borggreve) might seem indicated.

D. Improvement cuttings: Improvement cuttings are neces-
sary in culled sprout forest emerging directly from primeval hard-
wood forest heavily cut or heavily fired. Such forest is invariably
encumbered with bushy and worthless standards (if the standards
have a value, the forest belongs to the form of coppice under stand-
ards described in Par. LXXIII-Par. LXXVIII) interfering with the
development of the shoots; or with undesirable species left by the
logger. The mob frequently prevails over the aristocrats.

The first final cut at the end of the first coppice rotation usu-
ally answers the purpose of an improvement cutting.

£. Pruning: Pruning is required to prevent coppice of
Catalpa, Locust and Ash from forming forks or heavy brandies.
Naturally, pruning is expensive and dangerous at the same time
since live branches are removed. The danger is particularly great
where the rotations are long, the pruned stump shoots being left
for decades of years after pruning.

In the pollarding form, pi'uning or rather lopping obviously
comprises tiie harvest of the crop.

Paragraph LXX. Key to the forms of sprout
forests.

Altliough coppicing is called a type of natural regeneration, it
is an unnatural measure rarely adopted by primeval nature in the
177

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE -

propagation of the woods. Primeval forms of coppice forest proper
do not exist.

Species propagating their kind, at least partially, by root-
suckers frequently form rootsucker forests closely resembling cop-
pice forests propel- #

Chestnuts, Locusts and many other hardwoods broken down by
storm may form natural sprouts from the stumps. Still, these
cases are probably so scattering as not to deserve the name of
" forms of primeval sprout forest."

Thus there remain two large groups of sprout forests, namely
" Culled Sprout Forests " and " Cultured Sprout Forests." In both
cases we have to deal but witli the large -area form or compart-
ment form of coppice.

Woods seemingly consisting of uneven-aged coppice shoots,
mixed in groups or individually, are treated as "forms of coppice-
under-standards " (Par. LXXIII to Par. LXXVIII), unless the
standards are worthless and promise to remain w'orthless.

A. Culled forms of coppice:

These forms emerge eitlier directly from omnivendible primeval
forms, or else have passed through the intermediate stage of
" culled coppice under standards."

I. Characteristic for culled coppice is:
An even display of growth.

A surprising density of stand.

The presence of some weathered and worthless snags and
stumps protruding from the even sea of coppice.

II. Subdivision of culled coppice:

Uniformity being characteristic for culled coppice, sub-forms can
scarcely be singled out, unless the means of coppicing — fire or axe^
serve as a criterion. Hence there might be distinguished

a. The form of fire-cullad coppice, and

b. The form of axe-culled coppice.

This distinction is not made on the basis of different display;
but on the basis of difference in treatment required by the two
forms.

III. Treatment of culled coppice:

The culled coppice is regenerated by being coppiced anew. In
the case of fire-culled coppice, it is Avise to delay the second cut
as little as possible.

Coppicing in patches or small groups is not advisable, the young
shoots requiring all the light available for rapid lignification.

An insufficient number of stumps may call for artificial
reinforcing. 17g

A lil E R I C A N' SYLVICULTURE

Improvement cuttings convert poor coppice shoots interfering
with their neighbors from above into healthy coppice shoots press-
ing their neighbors helpfully from below.

B. Cultured forms of sprout forests:

Xo form of cultured forest can be obtained more easily and
more cheaply than the form of cultured coppice.

In the European hardwood forests, the cultured coppice of the
past has often served as the forerunner of the cultured seed forest
of the present sylvan era.

I. Characteristic for cultured coppice is an even stand, a dense
stand, absence of undesirable competitors and of tree weeds.

II. Subdivisions of cultured coppice forms are:

a. The simple form of cultured coppice, where all shoots have
the same age.

b. The two-storied form of cultured coppice, where the growing
stock displays two tiers of leaf canopy, viz., an upper and a lower
tier, the age of the tiers difl'ering by half the length of a rotation.

In addition, a form of " high stumps " is usually distinguished,
where trees are cut some six to ten feet above ground and where
the shoots forming on such stumps are cut at short intervals.
This form, adajjted particularly for the production of fascines, is
known as:

c. The pollarding form of cultured coppice.

In this form, rotations of one to five years are usually adopted,
and the " lopping " takes place in the " new wood." The types
of this form are found, in the case of Willows, near the levees;
and in the case of Mulberry, in the silk-producing districts of the
world.

III. Treatment of cultured coppice forms:

Regeneration in the cultured forms of coppice is, of course, by
coppicing, helped by planting stump-plants, cuttings and suckers,
or by layering. Regeneration may proceed against the direction of
the wind which brings the heavy frosts of spring and fall (blizzard-
direction). Cleanings and thinnings are often indicated.

Paragraph LXXI. Critical remarks on sprout
forests.

The sprout forest furnishes small-sized timber, notably fire-
wood and farm supplies, but no or little saw timber. Its production
179

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

is not so many-sided as that of the high forest, and for that reason
not so sure to find a ready market.

On the other hand, allowing of shorter rotations, the timber
investment is much smaller than in the seed forest, and the returns
from " final yields " are more frequent.

A comparatively small area may produce, under a coppice form,
a regular sustained yield.

The soil of the forest is frequently exposed, and shows a thin
layer of humus. Shallow soil is, however, sufficient for the welfare
of a sprout forest.

The water-retaining capacity of the sprout forest is small.

The sprout forest is less exposed to storm, fire, snow and
insects (being broad-leafed usually), and more exposed to late and
early frosts than the seed forest. As a stock pasture, it is more
productive than the seed forest; but also more damaged by
pasture.

The expense of regeneration and of pedagogie is slight. The
species forming shoots from below tlie ground and those forming
root-suckers allow of long rotations usually.

Paragraph LXXII. Sprout forests by species.

A. Oaks:

I. Culled Oak coppice:

Culled Oak coppice is usually fire-culled. The stumps do not
relax and do not refuse to produce new shoots after continuous
firing. Still, the shoots become weak, stunted and bushy-crowned,
and soon refuse to grow in diameter as well as in height.

It is remarkable to find that these worthless shoots may be
replaced by strong sprouts after coppicing with the axe.

The poorer the fire-culled Oak coppice, the greater is the im-
provement obtainable by axe-coppicing.

II. Cultured Oak Coppice:

In Europe, Oak coppice h the form in which Oak bark is raised
for tanning purposes, under a rotation of fifteen to twenty-five
years.

In America, coppiced Oak is used only for charcoal and fire-
wood,— rarely for railroad ties. Rotations yielding ties will not
allow of a ready reproduction under the coppice form, unless the
soil is verj' strong.

At Biltmore, Post Oak three inches through. White Oak ten
180

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

inches through, Black Oak and Scarlet Oak twelve inches through
are unlikely to sprout.

A rotation of not to exceed forty years seems indicated. Such
a rotation might also yield hoop poles, poles for splitwood fabrics
and minor wagonstock.

B. Beech:

Beecji coppice yields firewood, charcoal and so-called retort-
wood for dry distillation.

The sprouting capacity of the Beech invites short rotations.
Strong soil is required.

C. Hickory:

Hickory coppice promises good financial results on strong soil
only. Fires must be strictly kept in check, owing to the heavy
scars which they inflict on Hickory. Rotations of about twenty
years, low stumps and winter cutting seem required.

On Biltmore soil, stumps over six inches in diameter usually
refuse to sprout.

D. Liocnst:

Locust coppice densely planted on old fields seems to be a good
investment, although the poles thus produced consist of sappy wood
undesirable for fence posts. The j^oung shoots suft'er from a
pithboring moth (Ecdytolopha species).

The sprouting capacity is very good, helped by the ready
formation of rootsuckers.

In Germany, wagon stock is obtained in rotations of twenty
years.

E. Chestnut:

Chestnut is the American species best adapted for the coppice
forest. Stumps of ainy diameter emit sprouts. A rotation of
twenty to forty years will yield vineyard stakes, hop poles, tele-
phone poles, posts, rails, ties and wood for the extraction of
tannic acid; a rotation of five years is said to be used for the
production of hoop poles for barrel hoops.

The European complaint does not seem warranted in America
to the effect that rotations exceeding twenty years invite a disease
known as " heart-rot."

In Alsace-Lorraine, thinnings take place in the tenth year;
the cut is made in early winter, and the stumps are sometimes
protected from the influence of frost by heaps of brush. In the
Appalachians, such precautions are not called for. It is unneces-
sarj', if not unwise, to rediice the number of sprouts starting from

181

A jM E R I C A X S Y L V I C U L T U R E

one stump artificially. Sjiiing cutting and high stumps are
objectionable.

On dry and impoverished soil, or under the regime of fires,
Chestnut coppice is hopelessly lost.

F. Cottoii\irood:

The sprout forest of Cottonwood produces match stock and
pulpwood. The stumps have little vitality and will not endure
more than four rotations of twenty years each. Very low stumps
are required to insure healthy sprouts and to encourage the pro-
duction of rootsuckers. The growth is very fast in the first years.

G. AVillows (Osier-culture):

Osier culture is considered a money maker in Germany where
labor is cheap. It is now in vogue in New York and in New
Jersey. The best species are Salix viminalis, Salix amygdalina,
Salix purpurea, Salix acutifolia (caspica). The rotation comprises
one or two years. With the exception of Salix caspica, a moist
soil is required (meadow land in river bottoms) by the willows.

The stumps do not yield a return for more than twelve to six-
teen years.

For tlie formation of an Osier grove, shoots two feet long are
used, of wliich about 80,000 are put in per acre. It is stated that
the more shoots there are per acre, the better is the quality of the
Willow, as branchy stuff" cannot be used for basket making.

Cultivation between the rows is said to be very advisable or
even necessary, especially in the first year. There are many
insects feeding on the leaves and many fungi besetting the leaves
of the Willows.

A one-year rotation is best. After three or foirr years, how-
ever, a two-years' rotation frequently intervenes, so as to allow the
root to develop unhampered. The shoots two years old are used
for the framework of heavy baskets. The cutting takes place in
JuJy and August. Krahe, however, advises cutting in November.

The first cost of an Osier plantation is very high. After Krahe,
the net yield amounts to $32 per acre per annum.

182

CHAPTER IV
THE COMPOSITE FOREST

Paragraph LXXIII. Genesis of the composite
forest and its types.

The composite forest contains specimens having originated from
seeds as well as specimens having originated from sprouts.

The primeval forests found in the Chestnut region of the South-
ern Appalachians, notably on windswept sites, exhibit this form
frequently.

Where the virgin character of the hardwood forest has been
destroyed by fire and maltreatment, sprout-forests and seed-forests
are intermixed frequently.

All over the Piedmont Plateau there are found huge tracts of
Pine and hardwood land wherein the Pines are evidently the off-
spring of seeds, while the hardwoods show the earmarks of sprout
growth.

H. S. Graves, in his " Principles of handling woodlands " dis-
tinguishes between two " systems " of composite forest :

a. Coppice Avith standards, when the bulk of the forest area is
occupied by sprouts cut in short rotations;

b. Pole-Avood coppice, when an even-aged stand of sprouts and
trees from seeds is allowed to grow to pole- wood size (40-70 years
of age), and then reproduced in part by sprouts, in part by natural
seeding.

The form of coppice under (with) standards is the most im-
portant sylvicultural form of the composite forest. It is used
extensively in the old country. It was introduced, in suitable
localities, most successfully on the Biltmore Estate. Its advantages
are such as to commend it particularly to the owner of hardwood
forests in Eastern North America. And it is well worth while to
consider it in detail.

" Coppice under standards " consists of an underwood and of an
overwood.

The underwood is nothing but simple, even-aged coppice.

The overwood exhibits the selection, sometimes the group form
of seed forest, and is supposed to recruit itself from seedlings.

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

A. The under\70od:

I. Species: The species forming the underwood must combine
natural sprouting capacity with shade endurance. On good soil, a
smaller amount of both qualities is required. Excellent species for
underwood are Basswood; Cliestnut; Gum: Hornbeam; Calmia and
Rhododendron; on strong soil, Ash and Hickory; underneath a light
overwood also Oak. ^

II. Purpose: The underwood supplies or may supply

a. Companions for the younger age-classes of the overwood,
causing them to form clear boles;

b. Protection of the soil, enriching it by its humus;

c. Firewood and small timber; also tanning material.

The underwood yields a direct revenue only in case " c." Ob-
viously, where there is no market for firewood or small timber, the
underwood is only indirectly useful.

III. Formation: For diameter, vitality and number of stumps
also for manner and season of cutting, the remarks of Par. LXVIII.
A. (about coppicing) hold good.

B. The oTerivood:

I. Species: The species forming the overwood should be storm-
firm and small crowned. Light demanders are usually preferred.

Yellow Pines produce wide-ringed timber on strong soil and
suffer from sleet. Good species are: ^\^lite Oaks, Red Oak,
Hickory, Walnut, Yellow Poplar, Black Cherry, Locust, Larch, etc.;
on poorer soil Yellow Pines and Long-leaf Pine (over Black Jack).

II. Age-classes: The number of age-classes in a normal over-
wood equals the fraction 3. wherein

R represents the length of the rotation in the overwood, and
r represents the length of the rotation in the underwood.
The normal difference of age between consecutive classes is " r "
years.

III. Normal formation: The overwood is composed of "stand-
ards " regenerated, at the year of coppiced underwood, from self-
sown seed falling from the overwood or, in the cultured forest, from
planted seedlings. The seedlings of the overwood grow up im-
merged and often badly endangered in the new imderwood. When
this is coppiced at the age of " r " years, an improvement cutting
takes place simultaneously removing misshapen or damaged stand-
ards of the various older classes as well as the weaklings in the
youngest class. By this improvement cutting the leaf canopy of

184

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

tlie standards, which has had ample chance of enh^rgement during
the past " r " years, is cut back to a normal limit.

The older an age-class is, the smaller is the number of its
constituents.

C Abnormal formation of over wood and underwood:

A normally proportioned and normally formed overwood is
never found. Deficiencies lie

1. In a lack of one or the other age-class;

2. In an abnormal number of coiastituents per class;

3. In the fact, that the overwood is partially recruited from
stoolshoots and not from seedlings.

Abnormal cojipice over-standards is the usual consequence of the
culling of primeval hardwoods or of primeval pineries forming a
superstructure over Oaks, Hickories, Gums, etc.

The burned slopes and outskirts of the Alleghanies usually
belong to the coppice-under-standard form. The fire-coppiced under-
wood here consists of Soft Maple, Calmia, Rhododendron, Chestnut,
Oaks, Hickories, Black Gum, Sourwood, Halesia, etc., etc., all of
which are usually devoid of value..

Culled and fired forest of Pinus echinata, taeda and palustris
frequently belong to the same form, with Oaks in the imderwood
and the Pines in the overwood.

Paragraph LXXIV. Peda^o^ie of the coppice
under standards.

Coppice under standards is or may be tended by cleaning,
weeding, improvement cutting, pruning and thinning.

Thinnings are applied to the underwood only; whilst the over-
wood alone is the object of pruning.

A. Cleaning purports to eliminate undesirable shoots in young
coppice, or removes desirable shoots liable to interfere with the
development of overwood seedlings imbedded in tlie coppice.

B. Weeding removes weed trees, usually tending to form new
sprouts f)-om the stumps of the weed trees removed. Weeding is
a necessity where a culled forest is to be converted into a cultured
forest, the culled forest containing a large number of %veed trees.

At Biltraore, the weed trees removed are Black Gum over-
shadowing tlie coppice and the Pine seedlings standing therein;

185

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

fire-scalded Oaks or Hickories, bent and low crowned; wolfs of
Yellow Pine; pretentious Dogwoods or Halesias and so on.

C. Improvement cuttings improve the prospects of the over-
wood, remove undesirable members of the overwood and regulate
the number of the constituents forming an age-class of the over-
wood. " The normal cuttings in the overwood ai-e improvement
cuttings."

In semi-normal woods, the oldest class of the overwood is
entirely removed. Class II is reduced to the former membership
of Class I; Class III is reduced to the former membership of
Class II, etc. It stands to reason, that the least desirable mem-
bers of a class should be thus removed. In semi-normal woods,
the improvement cuttings take place at the time at which the
underwood is ripe for coppicing.

The improvement cutting yields timber of all sorts and of all
sizes obtained from the various age-classes.

The improvement cutting does not regularly intend to help
regeneration. Frequently, of course, the stumps of trees removed
by the improvement cutting form sprouts partaking in the coppice-
tier.

D. Pruning: Dead branches of the overwood trees might be
removed to develop timber clear of dead knots.

Live branches of overwood trees formed low on the bole are
removed to lessen the intensity of the shade to which the under-
wood and the seedlings imbedded therein are locally subjected.

The members of the overwood, owing to their free position,
are apt to form and retain heavy branches. The act of pruning
in coppice under standards corresponds with that described in para-
graph LXIII for high forest.

The coppice is pruned only in rare instances, f. i., for the im-
provement of oak tanbark.

E. Thinnings are sometimes indicated in dense coppice in order
to increase the food and light supply of the youngest age-class of
overwood imbedded in the coppice; or in order to increase gradually
the air space surrounding the members of that class, so as not to
subject them to the shock of sudden exposure at the time of cop-
picing; or to obtain the ends of Par. LXII. A., especially where
the overwood classes appear in groups; or to improve the quality
and the quantity of the bark in tanbark coppice.

In all cases, the thinning must yield a surplus revenue.

186

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Paragraph LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice
under standards.

The primeval woods do not contain any form of coppice under
standards. In culled hardwood forests, on the other hand, these-
forms are almost regularlj^ met with.

A. Culled forms of coppice under standards.

I. Characteristics: Primeval hardwood forests are usually
paucivendible only. After lumbering the merchantable species and
sizes, a rank growth of coppice shoots frequently enters an appear-
ance under the assistance of fires, overshadowed by poles and trees
of all age -classes devoid of present value. Many individuals of the
overwood are badly burned; or are hollow, fungus decayed, worm
riddled, etc.

Thus whilst the underwood consists of fire coppice or shoots
sprouting from the stumps of merchantable trees, the overwood con-
sists of vmdesirable species and of immature trees usually crippled
by firing and felling. In addition, there are plenty of weed trees
left on the ground. The younger age-classes of the overwood are
usually absent.

In forests originally composed of a Pine overwood and of a
hardwood underwood — a form once frequently found all over the
Southeast — the lumberman usually removes merely the taller Pines
scaling over ten inches in diameter. The smaller Pines, if fireproof,
henceforth join with the hardwood trees and hardwood poles in
the formation of an overwood. The underwood consisting of miser-
able fire sprouts is continuously clipped by forest fires. The butts
of these " snags " are flattened on the ground, as if liquid wood
had hardened on it. The shoots, weakly inserted on the callus,
can be torn off easily.

If these snags are cut, fresh shoots will form, of much greater
vigor and of greater strength at the point of insertion.

II. Subdivisions of culled coppice under standards:

The number of forms of coppice under standards is particularly
great, owing to the variations occurring in the tiers of forest, viz.:
the overwood and the underwood.

a. The overwood is omni, multi, or pauci vendible, as the case
may be. It is arranged either in groups or in patches (individuals)
imbedded in the coppice. Thus we obtain:

1. The form of culled coppice under standards raised in the
group type, and

187

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

2. The form of culled copi)ice under standards raised in the
selection type.

b. The leaf canopy of the standards covers a certain percentage
-of the ground. This percentage, where high, forces the underwoods
into a minor role; where small, it allots to the underwood the
major part.

The Long-leaf Pine woods of the South, after lieavy culling,
illustrate the latter form; the Shortleaf Pine woods of the Bilt-
more Plateau exhibit the former form. These forms might be
designated as:

1. The form of prevailing coppice under standards;

2. The form of coppice under prevailing standards.

c. According to the means of coppicing, there should be dis-
tinguished

1. The form of fire-culled coppice under standards;

2. The form of axe-culled coppice under standards.

III. Treatment of culled forms of coppice under standards.

Improvement cuttings and, where improvement cuttings cannot
be made, weeding are usually required.

Fire coppice should be cut down, wherever the growth is
stagnant.

An undue preponderance of standards may be checked by the
use of the axe.

Planting of seedlings can usually be dispensed with. Where it
■is advisable to plant seedlings, the coppice must be cut clean to
vbegin with.

B. Cultured forms of coppice under standards:

I. Characteristic for the cultured forms of coppice under stand-
ards is the lack of weed trees and of unhealthy standards; further
the geometric regularity of the figures considered as compartments
and sub-compartments.

The overwood is composed of storm-firm and light-demanding
species.

II. Subdivisions of cultured forms of coppice under standards.
As in the culled forest there should be distinguished:

a. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the
-group type with

1. Prevailing coppice, or Avith

2. Prevailing standards.

b. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the
selection type with

ISS

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

1. Prevailing coppice, or with

2. Prevailing standards.

The standards might be planted in regular rows (Charles
Heyer's idea) or in regular groups or — irregularly — in suitable
places; or they might be recruited from self-sown seed under the
selection type.

III. Treatment of cultured forms of coppice under standards.

The regeneration of the overwood as well as its pedagogic is
difficult, unless the group type is carried through. Individual seed-
lings are very apt to be suffocated in the mass of faster-growing
coppice and require continuous, careful attention. Thinnings are
required to prepare the youngest class of standards immerged in^
the coppice for its future task.

The overwood is sometimes pruned — in this ease of dead as welb
as of live branches.

Paragraph LXXVI. Critical remarks on the
coppice under standards.

The coppice-under-standards forest combines the good qualities
of the high forest with those of the coppice forest. It furnishes
timber of all sizes in the largest possible variety. It requires a
moderate investment sunk into the growing stock and allows the-
overwood to grow into log size at a very fast rate. It is a good,
form for the OAvners of small woodlands desiring steady returns.
It protects the fertility of the soil better than the coppice form.

The logs furnished by the overwood raised selectionwise are
necessarily branchy and wide ringed, with the incident bad and
good qualities of such logs. The trees usually do not yield more-
than two saw logs.

Where the imderwood is unsalable or low priced, stress must
be laid on a prevalence of the overwood. Where it is valuable as
a tanning material or as wagon stock, the underwood is favored.

The danger from fire, since hardwoods are usually at stake,,
is not very great. The density of the brushy underwood, liowever,.
aggravates the difficulties confronting the fire fighter.

In Europe, the forms of "coppice under standards" are more
and more abandoned and restricted to the inundation districts along
the rivers. Here, on strong soil, the undergi-owth endures an enor-
mous amoimt of shade, and the overwood develops fairly long boles,
in spite of a free position.

A :M E R I C A X SYLVICULTURE

The coppice-under-standards form in Europe requires careful,
-niinute and honest management: careful, because the leaf canopy
of the overwood rapidly increases during the rotation of the under-
"wood; minute, because individual trees or groups of trees must be
continuously watched; honest, because an unscrupulous forester or
a thoughtless owner may easily and heavily reduce the capital
of the forest whilst claiming to merely withdraw revenue pro-
duced by it.

In America, in the hardwood forests of the Alleghanies and
in the pineries of the South, the form is destined to play a most
important role. The form exists and will have to be retained for
decades of years to come, owing to its tempting financial merits;
the ease and cheapness of regeneration; the short period of waiting
between remunerative cuts; the variety of produce; the fast rate
of growth; the small amount of growing stock required for
"" sustained " yields and so on.

In the course of time, curtailing the cut of standards or
allowing the coppice to grow into larger sizes, the forester may
gradually convert the coppice-under-standards forest into a seed
forest. The average growing stock, per acre, in the seed forest
■contains about tAvice as many cords of wood as the average grow-
ing stock in the coppice-under-standards forest.

On the other hand, by removing all standards, the form of
simple sprout "forest is readily obtained.

in the Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard forest of Biltmore it
lias been observed tliat the Pine poles suffer less from bark beetles
than they do in the denser polewoods of the seed forest of Pine.

Paragraph LXXVII. Coppice under standards
by species.

By culling and firing, every primeval forest of hardwoods
■existing in the United States is converted into coppice under
^standards. Again, many, nay, almost all two-storied high forests
in the South having Pine in the overwood and hardwood in the
imderwood present the form of coppice under standards in a
modified manner.

The number of constellations of species fit for a place in the
overwood and in the underwood is endless.

A few remarks on characteristic forms must suffice.

A. Chestnut-coppice under standards of Yellow Poplar,

"White, Chestnut and Red Oak, Hickory, Ash, Locust, — the Pisgah
Torest form. 190

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Certain age-classes of the standards (the sapling stage and
the pole stage) are invariably absent, owing to the fires of the
last decades. The number of Chestnut stumps is deficient. The
weed species of the forest (Halesia, Soft Maple, Dogwood, Calmia,
etc.) readily replenish the coppice -stratum. The standards regen-
erate their kind readily where the weeds are not too rank. No
means are known by which to extirpate the tree and bush weeds
preventing n. s. r. of the standards in a sufficiently promising way.
Heavy pasturage in early spring practiced before the Chestnut
.stumps had time to sprout and before the seeds of the standards
(excepting Chestnut, Oak and White Oak) had time for germina-
tion may solve the problem. Such pasturage, whilst it checks the
weeds, presses the seeds of the standards at the same time into
the mineral soil. Other remedies are: Deadening; cutting with
kigh stumps left; bark peeling; removing side branches with a
brush axe, etc. However, entire extirpation of the ligneous weeds
does not seem financially advisable at the present time. Frequently
it might be best to leave the weeds untouched for the time being,
postponing the battle until the undergrowth of seedlings and cop-
pice shoots requires increased influx of light. Then, top, the cutting
•of the weeds will force them to be satisfied with a subsistence below
the level of the underwood.

Chestnut standards should not be left, since the shock of a
sudden change of surroundings causes them to sicken. The adjoin-
ing woods will tend to reinforce the regeneration area by n. s. r.
■of Chestnut, where the compartments simultaneously coppiced are
small or narrow. Artificial reinforcing seems unnecessary although
the planting of Walnuts in suitable places may pi-ove remunerative.

B. Oak coppice mixed w^ith. Hickory coppice under Pine
standards.

This form prevails on the Biltmore Plateau and over vast areas
in Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, etc.

Sylvicultural treatment is impossible unless the Oak can be
removed to a nearby fuel-market.

Rotations for the coppice of thirty to forty years seem best.

Shorter rotations are required where the coppice is badly
•damaged by fires.

In seed years of Yellow Pine, the coppiced area should be as
large as compatible with the market. It might be wise to cut
«arly in fall and to burn the coppice before the Pine seeds begin
to fall. Seed years of Pine at Biltmore occur at intervals of seven

191

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

years. Improvement cuttings should make up the sustained yield,
as far as possible, in years of deficient seeding; or such compart-
ments should be taken in hand, in which the coppice growth is
richly beset with Pine poles and Pine saplings.

In the course of the improvement cuttings, the nuclei of n. s. r.
of Pine require careful attention. Weeds like Chinquapin and
Black Gum are checked wherever they obstruct the underwood;
where they form part of the vmderwood, especially imder groups
of Pine, they should be thankfully accepted as shade-bearing im-
provers of the soil.

White Pine is not adapted to the formation of standards.
During the earlier stages, it retains its branches badly where
isolated in Oak Coppice. During the later pole stage, it is apt
to suffer from windfall. Groups of White Pine standards will
answer better than standards individually scattered.

192

CHAPTER V

PROPAGATION OF FOREST PRODUCTS OTHER
THAN WOOD AND TIMBER

Paragraph LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-pro-
ducts.

In many cases better revenvie is obtained from the by-products
raised in the forest, than from the production of wood and timber.
In backwood sections, closed to traffic, forest pasture often yields
the only means of obtaining revenue. In densely wooded districts,
the combination of agriculture with tree growth is often advisable.
The main products thus obtained and the industries connected with
their production are:

A. Tanbark and raising of tanbark:

The thickness of the bark used for tanning purposes and ob-
tained either under a high forest or under a coppice forest system
is increased by proper thinnings. In Oak bark coppice abroad the
number of stumps per acre is about 2,000, reinforced by stump
planting at each cutting. The healthier the growth of the shoots,
the better are the tanning contents of the product.

In America, at the present time, no difference is made in the
price of old, corky bark and of young, fleshy bark obtained from
shoots but five inches m diameter.

B. Cork industry:

The cork industry conducted in Southern France, Spain,
Portugal and Northern Africa. For America, its introduction seems
highly advisable.

Experiments made in Georgia and in the Carolinas with plan-
tations of Cork Oak ha\e produced very healthy trees; for reasons
unknown, however, the cork production was deficient. Possibly the
wrong species or the wrong variety was selected, or else mistakes
were made in choosing soil, exposure and sylvicultural treatment.

Mayr recommends experiments with Quercus variabilis for the
section of Germany productive of Castanea vesca.

C. Forest pasture:

Up to 1880, forest pasture in the Pine woods of the South
(Cane-brakes) and in the hardwood forests of the Alleghanies, and
193

AMERICAX SYLVICULTURE

also of the Lake States, lias occupied the rank of the most
important forest industry. Nowadays, pasture as indicated on
many a windswept ridge where the growth of timber is stunted,
whilst the atmospheric moisture allows of a luxurious production
of grass. Under nut-bearing trees, liog pasture is highly remuner-
ative. In " strong " coves, the growth of weeds offers splendid
forage for cattle.

The more inaccessible the forest, the less is the value of the
tree growth. Here an industry is advisable which converts vege-
table matter into animal matter.

The advantage gained by pasturage during and previous to
regeneration frequently reduces the expense of regeneration.

Whether the fencing of forest pastures is advisable depends on
cii-cumstances. A two-stringed barbed wire fence costs .$40 per
mile.

Goats, as extirpators of woody weeds (Corylus, Azalea) are
frequently useful on mountain pastures.

Woody weeds damaging the pastures are kept in clieck by
continuous mowing, especially if mowed in August. A limited use
of fire, too, improves the pasture. Forest pastures are invaluable
as fire lanes.

Pasturage of cattle extends in Pisgah Forest from May 1st to
October 15th. Sheep and hogs require feeding only in February.
The revenue made per month amounts per head of cattle, to fifty
cents; of horses, seventy-five cents; of sheep, ten cents.

Where the growth of trees on a permanent pasture is too
dense, deadening or coppicing is required. Where it is too little
or where erosion sets in, the pasture must be abandoned for a
number of years. Dead trees placed horizontalh^ on pastured
slopes safeguard the pasture by terracing it.

In European and in Indian forests, pasture still plays a most
important role, frequently as a prescriptive right encumbering
forests owned by the CroAvn or by the aristocracy.

Relative to forest pasture in the National Forests, see
Schenck's " Forest Policy," pages 155 and 157.

Relative to the protection of the forests against undue damages
resulting from forest pasture, compare Schenck's " Foi'est Protec-
tion," page 12, f.f.

The American public, for one reason or another, has been slow
to realize that the use of forests (by the tax-paying owners) for
pasturage is as correct, as justifiable, as legitimate, as is the use
of a farm for pasturage. Forest pastures, of course, should not be
maltreated any more tlian farm pastures.
194

THE ART OF THE SECOND GROWTH

Unjust and lunvise it is if the commonweal, in non-stocklaw-
countries, permits of the unrestricted use of the woodlands for
pasturage by those who neither own them nor pay the taxes
thereon; and who do not have any interest in their perpetuation.

Forest pasture in the Pine woods of the South and of the
Southwest, in the forests of the Rocky Mountains and of the
Cascades, is of utmost economic importance.

Forest pasturage requires regulation in the following points:
Number of animals per acre; species of stock and of trees; season
of pasturage; remuneration; closed years; firing; responsibility;
supervision; salting; improvements; access.

D. Forest fruit raising:

I. Pecan.

Large investments are being made in Pecan plantations in the
South. Usually seedlings three years old are planted fifty to
sixty feet apart. Payable crops are expected fifteen years after
planting. Cultivation and fertilization of Pecan orchards are re-
quired just as in apple orchards.

II. Apple-trees planted on freshly cutover woodlands (North-
west slopes) are sfiid to be particularly promising.

III. Chestnuts. Chestnuts are either obtained from the woods
where Chestnut trees are grown for timber, or from orchards. In
Pisgah Forest seed years are said to occur every seven years. The
nuts sell at fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. The mountaineers
burn the w^oods to more readily uncover the nuts.

Orcharding combined with grafting of French Chestnuts (Cas-
tanea vesca) on the American species has been tried in Pennsylvania
with little success owing to forest fires.

In Southern France a large revenue is obtained from the nuts
($5 to $6 annually from a good tree).

IV. Acorns. The acorns of the White Oaks are ground as a
substitute for coffee (Postum Cereal 80%). In addition acorns
are of high value for pannage and in game preserves.

V. Berries. The crop of berries growing in the forest is locally
leased to the highest bidder. The huckleberry crop is improved
by periodical burning.

VI. Nuts from Western Nut-Pines.

E. Maple sugar:

The production of sugar depends on the size and on the develop-
ment of the individual trees, influenced by careful thinning. An
underwood and a heavy layer of humus is helpful. Planted sugar
orchards are rare and suffer from sun scald and from hardening
soil. 195

AMERICAN SYLVICULTURE

F. Naval stores:

Xo means are known tending to increase the production of
naval stores. The best yiekl is obtained from healthy, large trees,

G. Rubber and guttapercba:
H. Truffles and cbampignons :

I. Gingseng (Aralia quinquef olia) :

Gingseng grows in the Alleghanies in well-sheltered north and
northwest coves of greatest fertility. The young roots are easily
transplanted into nursery beds. The cultivation of gingseng in the
woods, however, is not practicable.

J. Sumach leaves:

The leaves, nsed for tanning on a large scale, are gathered on
abandoned fields in Virgina. Xo care seems to be devoted to the
reproduction.

K. Pharmaceutical weeds:

A large number of forest weeds have a pharmaceutical value
and might be locally propagated and fostered.

L. Peat bogs:

Peat bogs reproduce themselves where but the top layers are
taken off periodically. Small benches are left between the pits
utilized.

M. Fish and Game:

In the Prussian State forests, twelve per cent of the annual
revenue is obtained from hunting and fishing. Private owners
in the Adirondacks and in the South draw large revenues from
leasing the exclusive privilege of hunting and fishing. For par-
ticulars regarding the raising and nursing of Fish and Game see
lectures on " Fish and Game Keeping."

Paragraph LXXIX. Combination of sylvicul-
ture and agriculture.

As the woodlot belongs to the farm, so does the farm embraced
by woodland belong to the forest.

Strange as it sounds: The forester is charged sometimes with
the administration of more farmland than of woodland.

A fair practical knowledge of agriculture is indispensable with
the administrator of forests. Truly agricultural land within the
forest should be cleared in due course, in pursuance of the maxim
that every acre of ground must be placed under the (permanently)
most remunerative industry.

19G

THE AET OF THE SECOND GROWTH

The forest farm produces victuals for the lumber camp and
forage for the teams and yokes; it yields the best possible fire
lanes.

Under these circumstances it is not to be wondered at that
a local, permanent or temporary combination of sylviculture and
agriculture is frequently indicated, in sprout forests as well as in
seed forests, in cultured forests as well as in culled forests.

A. Reasons prompting the forester to adopt a combina-
tion of sylviculture and agriculture may lie in the following
considerations :

I. Frequently it does not pay to eradicate the " weeds " in the
forest previous to artificial or natural I'egeneration by n. s. r. In
such cases, the forester may take advantage of the fertility stored
up in the humus, using it for a number of years for the production
of field crops and freeing the soil incidentally from competing weeds.

II. Similarly the forester is often at a loss to save his regen-
erations from the attacks of wild or tame animals. Allowing the
plantations to pass their earliest youth in the midst of farm crops
wliich pay for the expense of protection from animals by imme-
diate returns, protection for the plantations is obtainable at a
reduced charge.

III. The fertility stored away in the accumulated humus, al-
though exhaustible within three or four years, frequently furnishes
a snug revenue (especially where farmland is scarce, as in all
mountain districts) defraying the outlay, or part of the outlay,
required for successful reforestation. In a heavy leaf-mould, many
species refuse to regenerate their kind.

IV. In the prairies, agriculture must precede the tree planta-
tion, which will not thrive in soil devoid of porosity. The planta-
tion of trees, on the other hand, will protect the farm from drought
in summer and from high winds during winter; it will shelter the
stock during severe blizzards, etc.

Henry von Cotta, as early as 1819, advocated plantations of
trees in rows twelve feet to fifty feet apart, the intervening spaces
to be used for agriculture. The trees and the rows were to be
decimated gradually, and were again to be reinforced in keeping
with the reqviirements of the farm.

Cotta's plan might be successful where drought is to be dreaded
during summer, scorching the grass meadow and the grain field.

B. Modern application;

I. Field crops intervening between two generations of the forest.
All over the pineries of the South where abandoned fields pro-
duce splendid polewoods of Pine, the woods are cut at the thirtieth

197

A il E R I C A N SYLVICULTURE

to sixtieth year of the trees; the soil is then used for the produc-
tion of corn, cotton or small grain for a number of years and
thereafter allowed to revert to Pine obtained by n. s. r. from adjoin-
ing woods. The same system is followed by thousands of farmers
in the old country.

II. Field crops temporarily raised amongst and together with
forest crops.

a. In sprout forests:

In Germany, the owners of coppice woods, after coppicing, fre-
quently burn the debris on the ground, ploughing the soil roughly
thereafter and using it for small grain or potatoes as long as the
fresh stool shoots do not overshadow the farm crops too severely.

This system allows the farmer to continuously (although inter-
mittently) produce field crops on steep slopes liable to erosion, with
the help of the fertility furnished by the humus and by the
activity of the tree roots.

b. In seed forests:

1. In the early stages of sylviculture, acorns and pine seeds
were frequently planted with barley, oats or summer rye. Compare
Par. XV.

2. Sir D. Brandis has established in Burmah a system named
" toungya " by which seedlings of Teak, planted with rice by native
lessees on government reserves, obtain protection from wild animals
and tires as well as from the Bamboo threatening to suffocate the
seedlings.

3. A similar system has been practiced since 1810 in the German
Rhine valley where splendid polewoods of White Oak have thus
been raised. Here in years past the returns from toungya used to
more than cover the expense of forest planting and protecting. The
field crops shade the Oak slightly and tend to protect it from the
effect of late frosts as well as from the attacks of grub worms
(Melolonthidae). At Darmstadt, Germany, the pineries are often
regenerated by this method.

4. In Western N. C, the expense of clearing the forest for
field crops amounts to ten dollars or twenty dollars, according to
the density of the growing stock and according to the yield derivable
from the sale of timber removed.

On good forest soil a few years of corn crops are apt to refund
the outlay incurred for clearing.

Thereafter the Pines, the Oaks, the Yellow Poplars and the
Ashes of the adjoining woods will quickly produce a superior plan-
tation of trees.

Where the soil is stocked with tree Aveeds, and where immature
trees must not be sacrificed, the system can be strongly endorsed.
198

ALPHABETIC INDEX

A PAGE

Acorns, planting of 60

Advance growth types of natural seed regeneration 134

Agriculture combined with sylviculture 196

Air as an ecologic factor 13

Alder seedlings 96

Alder seeds, planting of 63

Ash seed forests 171

Ash seedlings 96, 100

Ash seeds, planting of 63

Atlantic forests 24

B

Ball planting of seedlings 80

Balsam Mountains 4

Basswood seed forests 168

Basswood seedlings 94

Basswood seeds, planting of 65

Beech nuts, planting of 62

Beech seed forests 168

Beech seedlings 94

Beech sprout forests 181

Biltmore Forest 4

Birch seedlings 96, 101

Birch seeds, planting of 62

Black Cherry seeds, planting of 66

Black Gum seeds, planting of 67

Black Locust seedlings 94

Black Locust seed^, planting of 65

Buckeye seeds, planting of 64

Bunch planting 72

By-products, raising of 193

C

Catalpa seedlings 97, 100

Characteristics of forms of seed forests 157

199

ALPHABETIC INDEX

PAGE

Cherry seedlings 97, 100

Chestnut coppice under standards 190

Chestnut seed forests 166

Chestnut seedlings 95

Chestnuts, planting of 01

Chestnut sprout forests 181

Classification of messmates:

According to age 35

According to size 35

Cleaning :

In composite forests 185

In seed forests 144

In sprout forests 176

Cleared types of natural seed regeneration 114

Compartment form 150

Compartment types (methods) 115, 124, 130

Composite forests, defined 30

Composite forests:

Forms of 187

Genesis of 183

Pedagogic of 185

Systems of 183

Coning the cones 61

Coppice forests 174

Coppice under standards 187

Cork industry 193

Culled seed forests :

Forms 1 54 f .f .

Treatment 158

Culled sprout forests 178

Cultured seed forests:

Forms 154 f.f.

Treatment 159

Cultured sprout forests 179

Cuttings ( osier ) 176

D

Dependent species, defined 31

Density of stand 32

Douglas Fir seedlings 99, 105

Douglas Fir seeds, planting of 70

200

ALPHABETIC INDEX

E PAGE

Ecologic factors of growth 12

Elm seedlings 12

Elm seeds, planting of 96

Enesar, interpretation of Ill

Even-aged woods 36

F

Final cutting in natural seed regeneration 128

Fir (abies) seedlings 99, 105

Fir seeds, planting of 67

Forest gardens 86

Forest regions:

Of the United States 23

Of the world 15

Forms :

Of composite forests 187

Of seed forests 154

Of sprout forests 177

Fruit raising in the forests 195

G

Genesis :

Of composite forests 183

Of seed forests 47

Of sprout forests 174

Grazing problem in the forests 193

Group form 156

Groups, defined 30

Group types (methods) of natural seed regeneration. . 119, 132, 138

Growing space of a tree 33

H

Heat as a sylvie factor . .• 14

Hemlock seedlings 99, 107

Hemlock seeds, planting of 70

Hickory nuts, planting of 65

Hickory seed forests 167

Hickory seedlings 97, 101

Hickory sprout forests 181

201

ALPHABETIC INDEX

I

Improvement cutting: page

In composite forests 185

In seed forests 14-i, 14G

In sprout forests 177

Intermediate species 39

J

Jack Pine seedlings . 98, 103

L

Larch seedlings 99

Larch seeds, planting of 70

Lawson's Cypress seedlings 100, 106

Lawson's Cypress seeds, planting of 71

Leaf covers (canopies) 22

Light as a sylvic factor 13

Light demanders 37

Locust sprout forests 181

M

Maple seed forests , 170

Maple seedlings 96, 100

Maple seeds, planting of 64

Methods of natural seed regeneration Ill f .f .

Mexican forests 26

Mixed forests, defined 31

Mixed woods and pure woods 40

Moisture as a sylvic factor 15

Mound planting 79

N

Natural seed regeneration 107

Compartment types 115, 124, 136

Group types 119, 132, 138

Selection types 120, 134, 140

Strip types 117, 130, 137

Natural seed regeneration, key to the types of Ill f .f .

Methods of Ill f-f.

Types of Ill f.f.

Natural seed regeneration, types:

Where lumbering coincides with rejuvenescence 122

Where lumbering follows after rejuvenescence 134

Where lumbering precedes rejuvenescence 114

202

ALPHABETIC INDEX

PAGE

N. S. E., interpretation of abbreviation Ill

Nurseries 90 f .f .

Commercial 8-4

Cultivation in 92

Famous methods of 93

Fertilizer required in 87

In the forest 85

Planting seeds in 89

Weeding in 92

O

Oak coppice under standards 191

Oak seed forests 165

Oak seedlings 95

Oak sprout forests 180

Osier culture 182

Overwood in composite forests 184

P

Pacific forests 28

Pasture in the forests 193

Pedagogic :

Of the coniposit'; forest 185

Of the seed forest 144

Of the sprout forest 176

Pine seeds, planting of 68

Pisgah Forest 4

Plantations, cultivation in 82

Planting boards for transplanting 91

Planting, geometrical arrangement 72

Planting, season for 81

Planting, results of experiments 100

Planting tools 78

Poisons for seed eating animals 59

Pole wood in coppice 183

Prairies, planting in the 83

Preparatory cutting 125

Preparatory stage of natural seed regeneration 125

Primeval forests:

Forms of 154 f.f.

Treatment of 157

Pri7iciples of sylviculture, Mayr's ■ 42

203

ALPHABETIC INDEX

PAGE

Protection of seedlings !)2

Pruning :

In composite forests 185

In seed forests 144, 152

In sprout forests I77

Pure forests, defined ;j 1

R

Eed Cedar seedlings 99 lOG

Eed Cedar seeds, planting of 71

Regeneration by seeds 107

Root bacteria 22

Root suckers 175

Rotation, defined ' 35

Ruling species, defined 31

S

Sassafras seeds GU

Seed eating animals 59

Seed forests:

Cleaning in 144

Defined 30

Described by species 165

Seed forests, forms of:

Culled forms of 154 f.f .

Cultured forms of 154 f.f.

Primeval forms of 154 f.f.

Seed forests, improvement cuttings in 144, 147

Sylvic forms of 154 f.f.

Thinnings in 144, 152

Underplanting in 144, 152

Weeding in 144, 145

Seeding, cutting 126

Direct seeding 50, 54

Stage of natural seed regeneration 120

Seedlings, age and size to be used 74

By species 94 f.f.

Criteria of quality of 73

Of hardwoods and softwoods 94 f.f.

Number per acre used 74

Planting in furrows 70

Planting in holes 77

Planting of 71

204

ALPHABETIC IiNDEX

Seedlings — Continued. page

Of softwoods 98 f .f .

Protection of 92

Transplanting of 76, 91

Seed planting in nurseries 90

Seed planting machines 90

Seed, quantity per acre used 55

Quantity per seed bed used 90

Eegeneration 107

Tests 49

Years 49

Seeds, extraction of seeds from cones 51

Malting of 54

Of trees 48

Season for planting 58

Storage of 54

Selection form of sylviculture 156

Selection types (methods) of natural seed regeneration. 120, 134, 14/)

Shade bearers and light demanders 37

Shade bearing leaves 13

Shelterwood types (methods) of natural seed regeneration 122

Single tree method 116

Soil as a sylvic factor 17

Soil covers 20

Spiral spade 78

Sprout forests 174, 179 f.f.

Sprout forests defined 30

Sprout forest:

Culled sprout forests 178

Cultured sprout forests 179

Described by species 180

Forms of sprout forests 177

Genesis of sprout forests 174

Pedagogic of sprout forests 176

Spruce seed forests 171

Spruce seedlings 98, 104

Spruce seeds, planting of 67

Standard form 156

Standards in coppice 183

Strip types (methods) of natural seed regeneration. .. 117, 130, 137

Struggle for existence 32

Stump sprouts 174

Systems of sylviculture, see forms

205

ALPHABETIC INDEX

T PAGE

Tamarack seedlings 09

Tanbark, raising of lt)3

Tendance of seed forests 144

Tendance of sprout forests ITG

Thinnings :

In composite forests 185

In seed forests 144, 147

In sprout forests 177

Tolerant and intolerant species 37

Toungya 198

Transplanting in the nursery 91

Treatment of the various forms of forests 1.57

Tree planting in Europe 49

Two-storied seed forests 157

Types of natural seed regeneration Ill f.f.

U

Underplanting in seed forests 144, 152

Underwood in the composite forest 184

W

Walnut seed forests 107

Walnut seedlings 97, 100

Walnuts, planting of C2

W^eeding :

In composite forests 185

In nurseries. .' 92

In seed forests 144, 145

In sprout forests 17U

Weed ti-ees 143

White Pine seed forests 172

White Pine seedlings 98

White Pine seeds, planting of 09

Wind as a sylvic factor 10

- Y

Yellow Pine seed forests 173

Yellow Pine seedlings 98, 104

Yellow Pine seeds, planting of 68

Yellow Poplar seed forests 169

Yellow Poplar seedlings 96

Yellow Poplar seeas, planting of 66

200

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