eVeinmmmre a fee + ayn Woy eevee eso nan | Were A a sh a ag Nos. 1, 2 ge: a September 10, 1951 Asst 10, Sy J ae 4 (2 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Edztorzal Introduction 1. Basic Information Papers 2. Symposium on Coral Atoll Research Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD 350435 National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S. A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Editorial Introduction Published by PaCIFIC SCIENCE BOARD \y National Research Council Washington, D. C. August 15, 1951 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval, Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board, including the launching of the Atoli Research Bulletin. It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundamental infomation on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research _ programs, CIMA and SIM, during the past five years, of the second of which the Coral Atoll Program is a part. The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from contract no. N7-onr-291-Task order IV. Ja HSON/4X Feo Lae Atoll Research Bulletin '. Editorial Introduction The Coral Atoll Research Program of the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council has developed the need for a formal means of placing on record the data accumulated by the field teams for the use of widely ee participants and prospective participants. een ae Eventually, of course, much of the more valuable information now. available in a few copies will appear formally in various . scientific journals, but it may be years before this happens..._., Meanwhile the information, even in a preliminary form, may be ex- tremely ] in Maecbuncad stages of the program. To make more yadely available such preliminary information, . as well as occasional summaries or reviews of certain aspects of atoll knowledge, the Atoll Research Bulletin is being inaugurated. It will consist of a numbered series of issues, to facilitate bibliographic reference. The numbers. will appear at irregular intervals as papers are ready and funds become available. These processed bulletins will be distributed to a list of institutions, selected on the basis of know, or probable, interest in this sort of problem, geographic location, and institutional stability. The selected list is appended below. In addition this bulletin will be sent to a small list of individuals concerned with program or known to be interested in some phase of research on coral atolls. In any general ecological study, information from almost all branches of science may be required. Often satisfactory elucidation of ecological processes and clearness of understanding of ecological situations are in proportion to the breadth and fullness of knowledge of all aspects of these problems that are available. The only limitation on subject matter acceptable for publication in the Atoll Research Bulletin is that it must have a definite bearing on coral atolls, but in general the information published will be that accumulated in the course of the Coral Atoli Program of the Pacific Science Board. Nevertheless, if suitable material from other sources is offered, and funds are availabie, it will be carefully considered. Decision as to what articles shall be published will be the responsi- bility of the editor and the advisory group. Editing of contributions will te limited to minor grammatical corrections. If serious changes are needed, either in content or expression, a paper will simply be returned to the author for rewriting before acceptance. iz OCT 1 6 195) Iliustrations, maps larger than page size, or graphs or diagrams that are costly to reproduce will only be included if, in the opinion of the editor, they will effect a saving in text equivalent to the cost of reproduction, or if funds are secured by the author. The Atoll Research Bulletin is not to be considered responsible for publication of all reports resulting from Coral Atoll Program activities or expeditions. Funds are necessarily limited and will be used for the papers which, in the opinion of the editor, are most essential to further development of the Program. If an author is desirous of having a paper issued out of order, or for which funds are not available, and it meets the editorial standards of the Bulletin, it will be issued at once if the author can supply the necessary funds. Correspondence concerning the Atoil Research Bulletin should be addressed to: cS cet bis F. R, Fosberg, Editor Atoll Research Bulletin 1530 P Street, N. W. Washington 5,-D. C. ii Atoll Research Bulletin Mailing List Institutions Washington, D. C. Pacific Science Board National Research Council Library Office of Naval Research Library of Congress U. S. Geological Survey Department of the Interior, Pacific Division Department of State, Intelligence Acquisition Division U. 5. National Museum U. 5S. Department of Agriculture Pacific Vegetation Project National Geographic Society New York American Geographical Society American Museum of Natural History New York Public Library New York Botanical Garden Cornell University United Nations Secretariat Columbia University Institute of Pacific Relations Wenner-Gren Foundation Massachusetts Arnoid Arboretum Museum of Comparative Zoology Clark University, Geography School Pennsylvania Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Biclogical Abstracts Connecticut Yale University Library Yale Area Files Institute of Human Helations Maryland : Isaiah Bowman School of Geography, Johns Hopkins University iii Florida University of Miami Alabama Air University, Maxwell Fieid Illinois Chicago Natural History Museum John Crerar Library Michigan University of Michigan Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Missouri Missouri Botanical Garden Louisiana iulane University Texas Southern hiethodist University University of Texas Oregon University of Oregon Washington University of Washington Caiifornia Stanford University University of California, Berkeiey California Academy of Science Scripps Institution of Oceanography Pomona College Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California Rand Corporation, Santa Monica University of Southern California iv Mexico National Museum of Anthropology Hawaii Pacific Science Board B. P. Sishop Museum University of Hawaii Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association Experiment Station Micronesia Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Ponape Experiment Station aia: Office of High Commissioner of the Western Pacific Department of Agriculture New Caledonia South Pacific Commission Institut Frangais d'Oceanie Canada Royal Ontario Museum New Zealand Auckland Memorial Museum Deminion Museum Australia University of Sydney National University, Canberra National Library, Canberra Japan Pacific Island Surveys, U. S. Geological Survey University of Tokyo Kyushu University Philippines National liuseum Malaya Raffles Museum Indonesia Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor Organization for Scientific Research University of Indonesia Ceylon Peradinya Botanical Garden India Bombay Natural History Society France Musée d'Histoire Naturelle Musée de 1'Homme UNESCO Belgium a International Union for the Protection of Nature Sweden Riksmuseum, Stockholm Botanic Garden, Gothenburg England British Museum (Natural History) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Royal Anthropological Institute Colonial Office Oxford University Cambridge University Netherlands University of Utrecht Rijksherbarium, Leiden Flora iWelesiana Cuba Harvard Botanical Garden, Soledad Germany Geographical Institute, Bonn Switzerland ‘Institut Ripel, Zurich Botanical Garden, Geneva Vi ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 4 Basic information papers on coral atoll ecology Published by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. August 15, 1951 @ bedding ONS UN autoe SaS eee / Iii. VII. VIII. Contents of No. 1 Introduction eae H, cis Coolidge eeeeeeeeen eoseene eeeeeene ee ere peomomae Development of Coral Islands jisscessysecretnncvcce Ecological Research on Coral Atolls -- F. R. Fosberg ....... Geological Studies of Coral Atolls -- J. I. Tracey, Jr. .... _ Pacific Meteorologic Problems -- Luna B. Leopold ........... Soils — Earl L. Stone, Jr. scene Mik Seem Ac CEE Flora and Vegetation of Coral Atolls -- F, R. Fosberg ...... fa) Fungi = D. Pe Rogers i ee i ee ee ee rr ee Atoll Research in Zoology, Land and Marine -- fs Be P, WGreeson. so cics « - (a) Notes on Needs for Entomological Research on Coral Atolls -- E. C. Zimmerman .........6- (Gl) Sarda —= Rh. C. lnrphy aad B. Mayr ’..is.sbeece se see aa eine ae he, HOSS tngGhackdbeweanceeec tes Peon Coral Atolls and Man -- Alexander Spoehr ....ccccscoevveccses (a) ..keeieulture == Harl L, Stone, Jr. ee esky, to jt 8 he Breatdas © gretie Honk. ta: ebay Len, ult ei pilaf first aul ad, d mbested rab ie cmt we bade ower Xo weakens, vimodoti woods alli «ed torres bicth phiecinete fe). GaN ewe tink ea tat *e vitah at eiiaae dev it & fer bata eines o anu ieee * is Shae, tort gape Ne er ; greeny tia Baird aerate ut nee 7 dap aglitiog ee ee cael igh tceemort hinge eetaly end) thei. cont: idee ve eel jos PS a9 Battt Gasol oe weed dt die- Mek Saki ert wa rons ul tel Sapnnuttior ak "Uaraucobs baredl aa se ea Bley Wes eiitadi nfoweh. Later Leniras oil ye Wad rian so aid next ane ty mrt coal ‘canis een te i. . o ¥ faker | iy i kwpmes wae es EERIE sg 2 Ni ate peste et wey, Do Stem a Rive we : foe iin: raft ; Sia! eS i ‘gaty as Be x! ‘, ‘. Ne Brat) hy “ses «bo SEALs FGA) Keath tite All oe a i : vi, " 4 ae? Ut BY 4 i; ah a “ ot a PER | tke aE Pacific Science Board Coral Atoll Symposia National Research Council Bi 12 Janvary 1951, Washington Washington 25, D. C. - .§ end 6 February 1941, Honolulu VIII. LITERATURE ON CORAL ATOLL In any serious research | project an ddsaittall and unavoidable task is to become familiar with what is already knom on the subject. The reasons for do- ing this are not merely to avoid pointless duplication of effort, put to estab- lish a basis for comparison of results, to build a framework of esteblished information into which to fit new findings, to avoid the errors end blind alleys of past work, and to give breadth nove to acquire understanding as well as accumulating information. In the past it has ean heh possible for any individual to dena on his om efforts in becoming acquainted with old literature and keeping abreast of current work. In recent years, however, the sheer volume of publication is such that:in a field of any breadth a worker's full time could be spent doing. nothing but studying the work of others. Various solutions to this probiem ere available. a Ignoring the work of others is so limiting that it need not be considered. Narrower and narrower specialization is the commonest path chosen, but the evil - effects of this in limitation of understanding and complete loss of over-all sig-: nificance of work are all too evident. Division of labor along another line is also being more and more resorted to with considerable success. This path lies in the preparation of annotated bibliographies, subject indices, and cote sherasies reviews and digests of findings in broad or restricted fields by certain workers whose breadth of background and natural inclinations make them fitted for it. Though, since the days of Agassiz': dictum "Study Nature, not books", there has. been a certain stigma attached to. bibliographic work and a oe aiean about money — spent for it, there is no question that the realities of the situation are forc- ing Scientist: to make more and more use of the work of the professional bibli- ographer. The success of such reivew journais as Botanical Review, Quarterly Review of Biology, and various industrial scientific journals, as well as the existence of a haif-million dollar contract between the U. S. Navy ana the Library of Congress to review the results of research sponsored by the Navy alone are ample evidence of the truth of: this. : For several reasons” the bibbiographié work of the atoll ins got off to a slow ‘start. However, during:the-past four months.a truly notable amount of work has been accomplished, at ne to. the efforts of my vhoaeing assistant, Miss Sachet. : On logical, as well as practical grounds, the bibliographic work on atolls divides itself into four major segments. These may be concisely termed marine geology, marine ecology, land ecology, and anthropology. Our efforts, up to the present, have been concentrated on the third of these major divisions. It is felt that the monumental bibliography brought together by W. M. Davis in his volume on The Coral Reef Problem, in 1928, together with the unexcelled 23 bibliographic services of modern American geology, largely eliminate the need for any intensive work on marine geological bibliography. Marine ecology and anthropology are such extensive and important fields, in themselves, and with such enormous literatures, that the resources of the present bibliographic phase of the project would be dissipated without significant results if an effort were made to include them. Furthermore, it is felt that in fields of such great practical and popular interest it smuld not be very hard to secure funds for comprehensive bibliographic studies if the workers in these fields feel the necessity for them. The field of land ecolcgy has been construed as broadly as is necessary to cover the entire literature on atolls that is left after the other three seg- ments have been removed. It includes the geography, the land geology, the cli- matology, the water supply, the soils, the vegetation, the fauna and flora, the economic plants, the agriculture, and the uses made of the natural resources by the people. nook The bibliographic work on this divides itself naturally into two parts, the location and evaluation of the literature that exists, and the abstracting and organization of the part of this that seems significant and useful. The first part results in an annotated bibliography of all the litera- ture known on atolls, with annotations describing and evaluating the content of the papers sufficiently to enable the user to determine which papers he shovld consult for his own purposes. This includes a subject cross index to make it easily and efficiently used. This bibliography is nearly complete, though there will be many papers that will turn up that we have overlooked, especially in the field of systematic zoology. It is hoped that we have the most important ones. The total number of papers has turned out to be about twice as many as we esti- mated at the beginning. We hope to be able to find a publisher for this work to make it available generally. Meanwhile, a preliminary manuscript is being typed which will be deposited in the Pacific Science Board offices in Washington and Honolulu, and the files are being kept open for additions and for consulta- tion, by the Pacific Vegetation Project. For the second part we have set up a series of filing folders, classi- fied in every way that we can think will be significant. Into these we are putting information abstracted from the papers that seem to be of enough interest to be worth abstracting. Copies or cross references ere inserted for each item in every folder where it is pertinent. A copy of the abstracts is sent to the Honolulu office so that a duplicate file may be kept there. A visit was made to Yale University, where all material fitting into this scheme in the Cross Cul- tural Survey files was copied for insertion into this system. In addition, un- published field notes are included wherever available. Though much information has already been inserted, an enormous amount remains to be done on this part of the project. It is contemplated that, as time goes on, digests may be made and issued of the information accumulated on specific fields based on this abstracted data. It may be possible, after the greater part of the abstracting is done, to prepare 2h, such digests to order to meet the needs of individval workers on the project. This wovld save much preliminary work for those engaged in the various espects of the project, and might well save them from overlooking important information, and might direct their researches into important fields that could be over- looked otherwise. It is felt that with another year of work, this bibliography and abstract file will be an extremely effective aid to atoll research. It also may serve as a model for similar work in the other major divisions of the atoli field. '.F, R. Fosberg 25 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 2 Preliminary papers for a symposium on coral atoll research Published by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD Natione<. Research Council Washington, D. C. August 15, 1951 et Dente Lied He Mi | GRADS COMET: TIO oy Ligneod dogseaiit uno poat thse VA, atieetngenhidigesntl : } oe ARE RE teak Contents of No. 2 I. Economic Development of Coral Atolls -- H. G. MacMillan............. II. Geology and Ground Water of Atolls -- D. C. Cox, D. A. Davis, and C. K. Wentworth.. tie Marine Heology == Rs Wi Hiabbesesuccsvseweeeesscons delta Joteiiavareiale ee as IV. Land Ecology and Coral Atolls -- F. R. Fosberg....... Bieri epeimceinuar ay alatars V. Man in the Culture-invironment Relationship -~ L. Mason..........06. VI. Coral Atoll Bibliography -- E. H. Bryan, Jr....... ig eh eal a wwiala a a laere erate meses amen aS These papers were prepared as bases for the discussions in the Symposium on Coral Atoll Research, held by the Pacific Science Board at the University of Hawaii, February 5-6, 1951. 12 ‘Pane ¥ ee “x eam Peete tn ee oy ys) ‘ ioe a ; Sar yh 2 ay eee ts pene = f fi u ve sf 3 * a re t yi ag i ae: a ee R wae Pe ee ee ee or ae es as i hy SY Re eae See ES eS A pee: MOBIC Sitiaws ait vd Bled | fom af A bedi ee fees ieee ‘ os i hy ; ede ; =~ if ie. cater ra eee j i f iy ty 4; | i P ‘ ui"; f aul ' ; é / ; tebe i i 7 ee, / = > st : r H i r vi 4 i i Ay f ' a i 5 : ‘ Pacific Science Board Symposium on Coral Atoll Research National Research Council Honolulu, 5 and 6 February 1951 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF CORAL ATOLLS At the first meeting of the Research Council of the South Pacific Commission in May, 1949, the limited, precarious resources of the low islands native people of the 5.P.C. Area were recognized, and a plan out- lined for their economic improvement. In almost any instance the island population is running close to the limit which possible production has dictated, We are not here concerned with those few, temporarily successful islands where phosphates have given present security. It is the atoll of sharply limited production which we regard as the most deserving of assistance in agriculture, and in economic security. It is the wish of normsl people everywhere to be self sufficient, ‘The atoll people are like that. It is only out of the surplus they can take from their subsistence needs that they acquire money and can participate in the goods the world has to offer. aAs a general rule their cash comes from copra, from mats or other fibre products, or from shell. Economic development implies a train of improvements, There is first the greater production in island grown food; the coconut, the breadfruii, taros, sweet potatoes, vegetables and fruits; in swine and poultry. This means increased production per plant. There are no more acres to be added, no more rainfall to be secured, no more earth to be developed. ‘The improve-— ment lies in the biological sciences and the arts of agriculture, To do these things we must know much more about the conditions as they are, the potentials of plants and soils, of animals and feeds, and how to control waste. The first plan was to study the economic situation in a representative atoll or group of atolls. The island of Tarawa (1930'N., 173°00'E.) was selected in the Gilberts and Ellice Colony for this pilot project. For administrative reasons the work did not get under way in 1949, The second meeting of the Research Council in August 1950 reviewed the plans, confirmed the original intent, noted the interest of the South Pacific Conference which requested the Commission to give all possible priority to this project, and recommended a budget of £2,800 Sterling. In December 1950 Dr. Rene Catala and Mme. Catala were employed by the Comission to undertake the economic survey of atolls in the Gilberts. A small agricultural station is »nroposed which will have a continuing status under the control of the Fiji Experiment Station. Dr, Catala is experienced in tropical agriculture, is an expert in marine ecology, and understands and is sympathetic to the life and necessities of the atoll people. He has obtained leave of absence from the Institut Francais d'Oceanie for this undertaking, The time is short and the financial resources of the Commission are small. +he survey is the beginning of what must be a long program of research and improvement. We are attempting to do for the atoll people in a short time what they cannot immediately do for themselves, but we must extend no false hopes, and make no promises we cannot abundantly keep. H. G. tiacMillan Ne Sa ea ern =p dae i ‘gehitpctatned jott 29 Ootod wink. on oie anode s kalo aul, Beqeieveb od. Od. Cae aio: re? * sid en MERE 28 Gaels ibace nit syndy iteteneed Clova fang: fre rib el i SI8L Mette 8 baad iliz HRaOR . ; ef ot th eeotnene) | i : ern matey Siew: j encatRey deead, edt abet uat: Nits Dene ey AE) Ae eel woksonibers: sldluaog hatte stun nero Mi twersumsd “eet. 68 ont oe tt Se ilove SG0 er ot. chad iva hwawng jonny Deck ee vxeaph bast oy ba e407) lohines vie tien “ad. ee penn at Rett eyed aan yuids wales: ditt Do Mei Stay ‘gilt az aborted? nea PRS bra oR eish we fr ee: cui eaniee: aces siBe a Lae fasene'y hae a: ‘erout ne seas > aber : ie idgthbuers @A4 ,2eneDer gi ‘hale an mike Mitivod dns enkve at jorigt ob. ak otto lus % te: aig oh aaahe sie. yednaw- feredoae. ‘od, wot on ah ok Dan |e Eamets fies ay orbtatanaenmey ax a sat Of Gates Dae HTD Cae Castano er z. eM OBEL ‘eneang ne Poe Deets eel - pM o Lore POL ka ve: ee: veo tol ath donee. WAT poe OPHl Ot Yaw tebow tua ton Deh ae Soir i Tao RL wt bateiven ofe¢ Fa vgys pia fakin sasers ned oft, det Ripa ee Se Sapaaiias male: Bie aoe ekad ef MV ise bug: OLE 2s ae Oe Ata ary Lips) Fics bet Mf wine Binet a ie rt) hy Sii2. ed nantes Beg aT pc Mea Ay BANE Ee id. ‘sleltan: okt Pid MORO Oe AL ei Leva 4. ; ia oy . OS) peeege vie hho de’ a bere okies beotuiacee a? airs tte ehytota seliod rag sani en saosin af aide KOT wines ws «i fat ort soften irae Y. gs Fh ps eae ie! ne ie Mah he in on tangas Te gusiortir stk! a aN | Hell Hii 2a cari en oy ose, BARD Ea | tea wd dol j pee 07h tad bette ahy: ps, demas: a Piet WARE ah A ae i ‘We ? PS ee hat ety shah ss f Pat AP Pa? Site ‘yey ry" ar & arte Oo wek Pacific Science Board Symposium on Coral Atoll Research National Research Council is Honolulu, 5 and 6 February 1951 GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER OF ATOLLS The geological problem of the origin of coral resfs and atolls has been one of recurrent interest and great durability, commencing with the famous subsidence theory of Darwin (1837). Both geologists and biologists in the century since Darwin's publication have accumulated facts according to their opportunities and contributed to the discussion. Several divergent theories have been developed including Semper!s lagoon-solution theory, Daly's glacial-— control theory, and the antecedent-platform theory invoked by Ladd and Hoffmeister, with the greater number of workers supporting either the subsidence or the glacial-control theory. In recent years it has become apnarent that for the various observed conditions no single answer may be sufficient, and that the merits of the leading hypotheses vary according to the age of the atoll and its location, ' Of necessity the earlier work was largely limited to individual deductions based on the sea-level plans of atolls, very incomplete knowledge of their submarine slopes, and deductions only as to their structure, Increase in the number and accuracy of soundings, both around atolls and over the seamounts that appear to be closely related, has come through improvement in sounding © techniques, particularly with the development of the sonic method. There has been increasing emphasis on the ecology of the reef-forming organisms and the environmental aspects of the various processes of erosion and sedimentation. Drilling on Funa-futi, later on the Great Barrier Reef and Kita—Daito—Zima, and last on Bikini has contributed data on the local structure but has not resolved the problem. Various geophysical techniques have been the most recent to be applied, as particularly at Pikini, Until recently comparatively little attention has been given to the details of structure in the sections of the atolls above and at small depth below sea level in their relation tothe ecology of the subaerial organisms including man. Three chief lines of study need to be continued: 1. Deep drilling and other crustal sounding investigation by geophysical techniques and bottom coring, under both atolls and seamounts; 2. Geological mapping, both subaerial and submarine, combined with analysis and evaluation of processes; 3. Kcological studies on the islands, on the reefs, and in the lagoons and oceans. The results of all three must be combined with contemporary tectonic and paleogeographic knowledge to promote understanding of coral reef origins, Present knowledge of the ground-water hydrology of coral atolls is limited to a few scattered spot observations and a detailed but short-period series of ine@asurements on one island, Apparently with sufficient rainfall, the larger islands of an atoll are capable of maintaining lenses of feesh ground water, generally of the Ghyben-Herzberg type, though subsurface structure may in some cases introduce complexities in their functioning, Recent studies indicate an important control of vegetation and human ecology by ground-water composition, Research considered desirable inthe grovnd—-water hydrology of atolls may ; be outlined as follows: 1. Shallow subsurface exploration to determine in detail the rock types and structure and the shape and nature of the fresh-water lens on enough islands to indicate the expectable range of conditions; 2. Long-term observations on islands with a variety of climates to determine the reaction of the lenses in size, shape, and salinity to tidal and other sea-surface fluctvations and to short-term and seasonal changes in rainfall; 3. lLong-tefm measvrement of rainfall on enough islands to indicate the distribution of rainfall over the ocean, and compilation of available rainfall data; 4, Pumping tests to determine the safe yield of fresh ground water from atoll islands; 5. Checking and extension of the studies on the ecological controls made by ground water, Doak C. Cox Dan A. Davis Chester K, Wentworth Pacific Science Board Symposium on Coral Atoll Research National Research Council Honolulu, 5 and 6 February 1951 MARINE ECOLOGY For purposes of discussing and planning coral atoll research in marine biology the field may be divided into four categories, each highly significant when standing alone but inextricably associated with the others. These are 1) marine biology in relation to native welfare, (2) conservation of marine resources, (3) commercial exploitation of tropical Pacific marine resources, and (4) significant biological problems related to coral atolls. The first, welfare of native populations, should hold the ranking position in planned investigations of coral atolls. High population densities, infertile soil for agricultural activities, absence of adequate naturel resources, and lack of technical knowledge among indigent natives focus greater attention upon the renewable resources available in the marine environment. To this end information should be obtained on native uses of marine products as subsistence or food resources, as implement and decorative resources, and as export or income resources, With respect to subsistence or food resources the following major items must be considered: species used, catch statistics, analysis of marine food requirements per person, methods of collecting or fishing, means of prepatation and preservation of marine products, use of marine organisms for fertilizer or as food for domestic animals, poisonous species, conservation practices, comparison of inhabited and uninhabited islets in regard to the abundance of desirable species, etc, With respect to income resources a broad survey of the abundance of exportable items should be made and then followed up with an economic appraisal of costs of production, available markets, and transportation problems, From the standpoint of conservation the marine environments are in 4 healthy condition generally. However, should certain commercial activities ensug, there would be definite need for studies basic to conservation. We need not dwell long upon this subject as pertinent items are considered under other headings, Commercial exploitation of marine resources is inevitable, indeed, a rather good start in this regard was made by the Japanese prior to 1941. Many problems arise which shovld be tackled ahead of extensive commercial developments while time is available to legislate conservation measures, rather than to follow with ineffective remedial action in the wake of overexploitation. Studies on the relation of atolls and other mid-oceanic islands to concentrations of tuna and tuna-like fishes, on baitfish species and their abundance in the }agoons of all atolls, on the biology and population characteristics of baitfish, methods of catching baitfish, and possible native participation in a baitfish fishery, on poisonous commercial fishes, on the abundance and biology of trochus and other shells of commercial importance, on the abundance and biology of spiny lobsters, etc. Coral atolls in particular and the tropical Pacific in general are con- sidered to be the finest natural laboratories for a legion of fundamental bio- logical and oceanographic problems. Important among these are (1) the effect of atolls on the surrounding oceanic environment, from the standpoint of vertical water movements, concentration of nutrient salts, biotic effects of the dispersal of larval forms produced by inshore or lagoon organisms, and phyto- and zoo- olankton production, (2) systematics and accompanying zooge°graphic interpre- tations of the Indo-Pacific faunal complex, (3) effects of steady climatic conditions on annval or seasonal rhythms, (4) biology of corals, (5) landward progression of marine species via ocean beaches, (6) ecological aspects of coral reefs, (7) comparative studies on lagoon vs. oceanic plankton, etc. The foregoing synopses provide a general idea of the nature of marine biological problems of immnortance to coral atoll research. Since time does not permit a full discussion of them all, those placed on the agenda are con- sidered most timely and stand the best chance of success at the current time with present facilities. Stress should be rlaced on worthy problems for investigation, rather than on the detailed methods of accomplishing the task, Agenda Note: those marked with an asterisk can be accomplished by members of an atoll research team during summer veriods. Native welfare *1, General inventory of useful species. *2. Use of marine products for subsistence and income resources. *3. Methods of collecting and fishing, Commercial fishing *1, Baitfish resources. *2. Reef fish and shellfish resources. 3. Abundance of economically imnortant pelagic fishes in the vicinity of atolls. Biological problems *1. Ecology of coral reefs. *2. Systematics and zoozeogranhy. 3. Animal rhythms in the tropics. 4, ffect of atolls on the oceanic environment. Rit Wan Biete Pacific Science Board Symposium on Coral Atoll Research National Research Council Honolulu, 5 and 6 February 1951 LAND ECOLOGY OF CORAL ATOLLS Ecology is rather an approach than a subject-matter, Factual information from almost all other sciences makes up the raw matefial utilized by the | ecologist, and, in its highest expression, ecology is an integration of all of these subject-matters around the central idea of their interrelationships, with special emphasis on those involving living things. __ . A natural consequence of this diversity of sudject-matter is a tendency for the vast accumulation of information to swamp and obscure the basic patterns of relationship, and to delay the emergence of principles. At the same time, without the enormous amount of information, the actual true patterns of relationship cannot be determined or verified, and the essential complexity of natural situations is not realized. To lessen this dilemma, it may be useful, as ecological information and thought on a given area or situation develops, to construct, from time to time, tentative or theoretical patterns of relationships and processes embodying and expressing what appears to be likely from the information actually at hand. These patterns can form frameworks around which new data may be assembled as they accumulate, and which may be modified, torn down and reconstructed as the facts demand. They serve to keep the basic relation— shins in their proper place of importance as information p¥les up and the picture becomes more complex. One of the most outstanding examples of this was the formulation of Darwin's theory on the formation of coral atolls, This, though dealing largely with a geological subject-matter, was one of the out-— standing ecological generalizations of all time. It has been assailed mightily, modified as new data were secured, but has provided a framework for the thinking in an important segment of both marine geology and marine ecology, It is proposed here to outline briefly a tentative historical ecological approach to terrestrial problems on atolls, Arbitrarily, because it provides a satisfactory geological framework, simplifying the time relationships to where they do not obscure the problem, and because it provides an automatic solution for certain otherwise difficult biological problems before they can even be raised, one of the several alternative geological theories on the origin of land on atolls is adopted. ‘This does not imply acceptance of this theory or loss of sight of its purely tentative nature, and if it were to be abandoned, the only aspect of the pattern here proposed for the land ecology that would have to be modified wovld be the time relations. Certain other problems, also, would then arise and need solution. This geological framework postulated, during the vost-glacial xerothermic period, an all-time maximum sea-level two or three meters higher than the present one. Postulated also, as a logical consequence, is a wide distribution, in tropical seas, of sea-level banks, living reefs, awash, with no permanent land, excepting possibly occasional isolated dry—land atolls resulting from local elevation. It postulates, also, a subsequent world-wide lowering of sea-level to the present one, possibly coincident with the ee ee of the Coser ele and Antarctic ice-caps,. 7 This would have produced a large series of relatively uniform examples of a new habitat, the atoll islet, available for colonization by plants and animals and for primary vegetation development. The outstanding characteristics of this habitat were as follows: physically it was flat exposed reef-rock, probably partially covered by rock debris, foramniferal sand, and shells of mollusks, Its drainage was practically perfect down to sea level, its relief very low or none at all. It had a high instability of substratum under influence of wind, storms, and waves, an extremely high insolation, and high surface temperatures. Chemically it was very saline, calcareous, basic, low in iron, high:in magnesium and nitrogen, with a little organic matter but no humus. This makes up, on the whole, a highly inhospitable environment for most organisms. Immediately upon emergence from the sea certain processes commenced which gradually altered this habitat, the alteration being more marked or more rapid in some examples than in others, depending on the climatic and geographic area in which they were situated. ‘The more obvious of these processes may be itemized, with remarks on their effects: 1. Leaching out of the salinity by rainwater, but its continual renewal to some extent by spray and storm waves, as well as diffusion from below sea- level. The more this process PRore eps the more species of plants are able to gain a foothold. 2. Piling up of clastic material on seaward sides of islets by storm waves, 3. Piling up of foramniferal sand and finely divided fragments of all kinds of organic calcium carbonate on the lagoon Rees and their shifting by wind. pat 4, Establishment of individuals of the most extremely halovhytic of strand plants from seeds cast up by waves or brought by seabirds - such species as Scaevola frutescens, Messerschmidia argentea, Inomoea pes-caprae, Boerhavia difiusa, irivmfetta procumbens, etc, 5, Visits or .gea birds, augmenting the smiosahoms and nitrogen content of substratum. ni a. Colonization by land-crustacea with planktonic larvae. 6. Gradual bvilding up xf a thin lens of fresh or brackish water in the substratum. 7. weathering of rock by solution and by physical abrasion, resulting in some compaction of soil, Materials exuded from roots of plants, or released by their decomposition might augment this process, as might the actual physical penetration by the roots of porous fragments. 5 HOR Ee &. Accumulation of fine wind—-blown material, caught by plants, resulting in the formation of small dunes and in the gradual assorting of the material from coarse fragments on the windward side to finer and finer sediments to the lee or usually the lagoon beach, 9. Formation of "beach-rock" by cementation of sediments under influence of fresh water, resulting in increased stabilization of substratun. ‘6 10. Development of simple plant mmmunities by increase of first colonists and the addition of others with time, possibly several grasses, Fimbristylis, Pandanus tectorius, Suriana maritima, Tribulus cistoides, Wedelia biflora, Ipomoea tuba, and in wetter atolls, Pisonia @randis, Ochrosia parviflora, Barrinetonia asiatica, Terminalia samoensis, etc. liost of these are current borne, but the grasses and sedge may be carried by wind and Pisonia certainly by sea birds, These would bring abovt:increased stability of the substratum, which would, in turn, permit increased integration of the communities. 11. Occasional arrival and establishment of ter: -estrial animal colonists, also fungi, with consequent slow development of a soil biota, and terrestrial biotic communities. 12. Production, over long neriods of time, of depressions in the centers of islets, possibly by solution and removal or redeposition in finer form of coarser calcareous material by rainwater and tidal and temperature fluctua- tions of freshwater lens, If the tidal fluctuation is slight and the Material fairly compact, the depressions are muddy; if the fluctuation and water movement is greater, they will be clear and rock—lined. 13. Development and multiplication of the plant communities and their gradual integration into a vegetation, This involves the modification of the environment toward a more stable and more favorable type, also the arrival and establishment of additional species, particularly those whose existence is made nossible by the operation of the various processes that help modify the environment, and environmental factors tnat are dependent on these processes, Some of these are the addition of humus, shade, accumulation of sand, accumulation of guano, stirring by land-crabs, decrease of salinity, protection from wind, formation of muddy depressions, etc. Community develop- ment would culminate, theoretically, in the establishment of a more or less mesophytic forest of Pisonia, Ochrosia, Ficus, Calophyllum, Guettarda,. Pandanus, Hibiscus, with epiphytie and terrestrial herbs, ferns, mosses, and wood-destroying fungi. Ve Development, under influence of mesophytic forest and soil biota, of a brown forest soil, 15. Gradual development, under the influence of varying salinity, slight variations of surface and elevation, gradation-of size of materials from seaward boulder—rampart inward, and distribution of wet. depressions, of a pattern in the arrangement of the plant communities that, while subject to mach local variation, as well as regional variation due to climate, is rather characteristic of atoll vegetation, The development of a normally complex flora and .fauna, and consequently, of a normally complex vegetation and mosaic of biotic communities, is drastically controlled by a series of limiting factors inherent in the atoll environment and situation. These may be enumerated, noting such of their effects as may not be obvious, | 1. Barrier of sea water and distance from sources of suitable species. This wovld vary in intensity with location, but wovld certainly be at least somewhat of a retarding factor to every group of organisms except sea birds and land crustacea with planktonic larvae. 2. Proximity of sea, with consequent high average hevel of salinity. A great mary organisms simply cannot tolerate, physiologically, this condition, 9 3. High temperature, preventing much humus accumulation except under saturated conditions. The soils take a long time to become fit for the growth of most plants. 4. Uniformity of topography, original substratum, and early biotic colonization, limiting the numbef of ecological niches available. 5. Iron deficiency, dve to high pH and possible lack of iron in original material. Wany plants cannot thrive withovt more available iron. 6. High average incidence of typhoons and hurricanes with attendant destruction of biotic communities and frequently destruction or severe alteration of the substratum itself, 7. Probable short length of geological life of any given land surface, This lessens or eliminates the gradval accumulation, with time, of suitable species by chance, and greatly lessens the chance of local endemic species developing. 8, Relative youth of this habitat as a whole. This, also, would preclude any complexity that is dependent on great lengths of time. The next era in the history of atolls started with the arrival of man, He came needing food and space in which to live, as well as materials for his arts and manvfactures. ‘These had to be supplied by the environment. A certain amount of direct alteration of the environment was inevitable. With him came rats, lizards, flies, coconuts, breadfrnuit, ilorinda, Evgenia, taro and taro-like plants, and possibly Tacca, and, at least in some regions, pigs and dogs. The introduction of these dependents of man undoubtedly resulted in the rapid destruction of many colonists which were precariously near the limits of their tolerance of this environment, or which were the natural prey of the animals, as well as the possible increase of certain ones for which the conditions were improved by the changes, There was a gradual destruction of the most mesophytic vegetation on the most fertile soil, and substitution for it of forest of coconut palms or of a coconut—breadfrvuit forest with a sparse understory of Pandanus, iiorinda, etc. Taros were planted in the muddy depressions, and gradually these were enlarged and elaborated into excavations. The sea bird popilations were reduced by the rats, hogs, and dogs, and their breeding areas were restricted to certain islets. This resulted ina reduction of the flow of phosphates and nitrogen to the soils of most islets. As populations increased, the taro excavations were enlarged and their muddy soil turned into a muck by throwing in coconut refuse and other organic materials to increase the humus content. Other plants are brought to the atolls from nearby high islands and cultivated in these swamps. They become, in many regions, a basic part of the food supply, though in drier atolls, this method of taro culture did not nrove feasible. The popu'ations tended to increase and exert pressure on the environment, but there was much fluctvation because of wars, typhoons, and other disasters. LO Many of the driest atolls could not support a human poprlation and were never successfully colonized or were later abandoned, The arrival of European man brought on another era. Human diecases and disease carrying insects were introduced, and the native populations decreased rapidly in most areas. More aggressive species of rats were intro- duced, resulting in further reduction of native biota. Insects that attacked coconuts arrived in some places, There was a rapid increase in coconut plantations and destruction of the native forest on the less fertile soils. Both this forest and the native coconut plantation were replaced in many areas by more orderly and efficient Commercial plantations. The practice of burning organic refuse was introduced in some places, resulting in a less fertile soil. “he diet and requirements of the natives began to undergo a change, with substitution of foods that could be bought with the proceeds of the sale of copra for those produced by the people or caught in the sea. The same occurred to an even greater extent in articles manufactured for other uses than food. The series of world wars accentuated these tendencies in some areas, retarded them in others, and on many islands converted large areas into barren, unproductive air-strips or bases. Ecological relationships on atolls are now in the midst of changes whose direction and probable effects must be studied to be understood. This generalized picture of atoll ecology, from a historical slant, suffers most seriously from underemphasis of the regional differences resulting from variation in amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall and from distance from large land masses which serve as a source of colonizing plant and aniimal snecies, These differences may be epitomized by saying that in drier regions the development of communities cannot go on to the stage attained on the wetter atills, that the faunas and floras are much smaller, the vegetation sparser and more scruoby, human influence is usually less or negligible, sea birds are much more numerous; the farther an atoll is from large land masses the smaller will its fauna and flora be in comparison with otherwise similar atolls that are closer to such land areas. Though the picture presented here may seem to some to represent adequate knowledge and understanding, it must not be forgotten that it is purely theoretical, based, to be sure, on observations on many atolls, but on no direct historical evidence. Research is needed on all points of it to confirm or alter the propositions made here. ‘The most urgent needs seem to be more compiete inventories of the biotas and. descriptions of the vegetation of most of the atolls, and a few strategically placed detailed and thorough studies of all aspects of atolls of widely different typss and geogranhic areas. It must be reiterated tnat atoll ecology is dependent on data fron allv other fields of atoll research, and that deficiencies in the information on any other aspect will reflect themselves in less reliable understanding of the ecology. F, R, Fosberg ever etd Dtew SHR aL oe te is ; ; vy + 4 apeasila aids care 4 it ee DAGLE nlviteg-etl rar oie. Hie ah “PII wr6% gear oo: ‘apios: sad ee pore Si aged | * 4 adty yk be.’ ‘ ‘ean ii cr F- uu aedeiale Cee, amie tee ca Bagi abs dois" a nde up aa rk sass his “4 7 os ihe: 23 tonev’ ahha meee paring Peet aS ob reeks eh <6" duet vitnway of Sorta ARES ; ie weet” bige't min’ SP as., Bi sacs, | ye erodes, bball od Menem oF ee wed fs epee oe adhahin’ Sala eed ‘et 4 nti een Le fee til: y Riek Atog ie ei Pasi Gwe oy toy aa Peat Bh’ tit "ao Mt, ne: ae i Gs ai ROR tee pana id ten ney he: in. FER low ay: ‘ai ea | “Fora: Ake Bereni RT PS" Peat ay A Sag oes 4 te. Rohe oe lieeseis Me Te eieiie ahs Sat S tay | sect Voy MD tes ay ty Fa ci wi vi \ My Hh ‘ ae are ae Tsuna tes) Tae si oh rectal Rn ‘algh Dust sido LS eS Pacific Science Board Symposium on Coral Atoll Research National Research Council Honolulu, 5 and 6 February 1951 MAN IN THE CULTURE-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP Coral atoll research may be related to the problems of human existence in a practical sense or in a theoretical sense. The practical approach is con- cerned with short-term studies of specific island communities under stress conditions which, in the Pacific, may be due to (1) the need for rehabilitation in areas disrupted by the war, (2) the limitations of food and other resources where populations are increasing beyond the capacity of the local environment to support them, and (3) the changing cultural and environmental conditions as provoked by the encroaciment of Western civilization. The theoretical approach may result in significant contribrtions to a more complete under- standing of the interaction and interrelationships which exist between man, his culture, and his natural environment. Some general prirciples may be formulated about the processes and dynamics of human adjustment to environmental conditions. Coral atolls are notoriously small in land area and poor in natural resources. (eine birds in a mangrove ay with an old nest). As in- dicated in my previous ee, Noddies ae large milling flocks on bait fish scared up by tuna. They scoop these fish from the surface as they hover or partially speaios the surface. They follow the movements of the tuna to new schools of bait fish, so they are always there vhen the spray begins to fly. Another entirely different type of foraging _is indulged in individually - birds patrol the shores scooping small fish out of shallow pools. They thus cover vast areas in their feeding. This species is more abundant than stolidus, being overshadowed by the larger form only at the eastern tip of the atoll. Seven specimens were ae taken; the food is Stolephorus delicatulus and small tide-pool fish. | Parasites found were mallophaga, mites, louse flies, nematodes in the stomach, possible larval tapeworms? in the intestine, and flagellates in the caeca. Only individuals with large caeca have the flagellates. Gygis alba, Fairy Tern, Mejo.- These were found in pairs se ame groups around conspicuous broad-leaved trees where they roost at various times of the day and night. Their behavior is indeed tee and never once did I see them feeding. Shortly after dawn I would see in- dividuals and small sroups coming in from the ocean. They were often seen carrying fish around as a display, but they seemed we spend all day calling, chasing and fluttering and roosting around inland breaareuit trees. One specimen was taken; it was carrying a dried 4-inch flying fish, Exocoetus volitans in its bill, and had in its gtarien paee of ‘another flying fish and a hard shiny seed, which it may Hues picked off the water. The only parasites were mites. Though there was fuel) Wiastas, calling and bearing of fish tokens, there was no evidence of nesting. Ducula oceanica, Micronesian Pigeon, Mule.- For the distribution a ERE pigeon, see the accompanying ee ee absent from many suitable Ancaelt but it might visit them at other seasons or other years in following the breadfruit crops. However, the natives knew of no such movements, and recognized them as present on Arno, Ine and the eastern horn of the atoll, and nowhere else! Some, but not all, of the individuals were definitely breeding during the summer. A nesting pair was observed incubating from July 1 - 18, but failed in its efforts and Be ee ted the site by July 21. One bird would pick off coconut leaflets from dead fronds high in the trees and would pass them to the brooding bird, which would then incor- sure porate them into the nest under her, in the axil of a coconut frond. > There was very little such nesting riety cea ae from. the coconut cloth that naturally would be found at the base of the frond,. for none projected into view. Pigeons travel long distances from one breadfruit grove to another, and fy Ped island to Puta. From July 10 anet tne end“éf ijenst, about 10 birds were daily seen devouring preddenees in a tall tree in King Tobo's yard. They Patveiied ston, ie ite tree, but passed over adjacent Reeees In pen te bread ee were noted eating AVlophy2 us fruit and papaya blosicns.. Call-nctes were to be heerd as early as 5:45 a.m. aid the birds are eee in the breadfruit tree. until about 6:30 p.m. Some are pie as pete by the people; they are recognized = being good to LA oe with the iene of guns, they are rarely a ever taken for that purpose. They ober et nee een the various pew ae he xe ae aes pee were taken, and their only parasites were bird-lice. Eudynamis taitensis, New Zealand Bsc Udrej.- This solitary species Spends its "winter" here and breeds in ‘Wiew Zealanc. Sin gle birds were seen ‘43 viene in various parts of the iy always in densé ‘Porest. gan was seen in the same area twice in “suecession, and it is likely that they roam over eeae cence nee is a rather set pattern of activity: a bird is usually first seen flying straight and swiftly through the tress; 3 it ; alight on a aya npee Gead coconut frond, walks swiftly up it, eats ince stall oon a Pee time, then leaps fon frond to frend, piel ria hotea into the crown of the tree, sda finally flies oft to another tree. Twice they were seen near the peeanee where ‘they vould have to go in order to catch Ground Emoias. They display great agility in Miele leaping around in trees, as well as extreme stealth and secretiveness. A single specimen which was preserved nad eaten a four- or five-~inch Brown Emoia, 5 green katydias, and a roach. Flagellates were present in its long caecum. “Delphinus roseiventris, Porpoise, Ke.— The same school of about 20 incividuels piayed for hours on sunny mornings off the edge of the Ine ancrprege reef on various days from June 23 to August 22. Another (or DOuSae a the seme) school was seen off the edge of the ocean reef at the western part of Ine Island. Slate colored individuals with pink bellies caught by natives at Pikaareji had apparently been criven into the lagoon. Dr. Hiatt has a complete description of the fantastic manner in which they are taken alive. They are much prized as food, anc verious sewing devices are mace from the jaw bones. I saw no porpoises inside tne Arno lagoon. I noted a different type with a light patch on the back, half-way between Arno and Majuro on August 9. I have furnished Dr. Remington Kellogg of the U. S. Netional Museum with the skvli and all my notes in the hopes that he will be able to identify for us the various kinds. Two specimens were examined for parasites, and I found only tapeworms; one large kind with head embedded in the lining of the rectum, and a second smaller kind in the duodenun. Pig, Bik.- Pigs are eaten only/special occasions, Vhere they are not penned in, they tear up everything including the flagstones that mark the roads, and ali the smaller vegetation. This destruction was seen at the southeastern portion of Ine. Usually they are kept in little log pens at the edge of the lagoon beach, and must be fed scraps and coconuts. Gime A great abindance of parasites were found in the nine stools examined: the protozoans Entamoeba, Trichomonas and Balentidium, and numerous nematode worms, not all identified yet, but including several pathogenic species as well as Trichuris. (These Trichuris ova had a somewhat dif- ferent shape from those found. so commonly in humen. , and doubtless rep- resent a different species.) Cat, Kuj.- “Strange to say, I found no feral cats‘ out in the woods, though I did see them stalking rats out along the treil at the! west: edge of Ine Village. A femele brought two rats within en hour to her nest under our house. They also eat breadfruit and coconut meat, and stand*sround ‘waiting their turn when ‘the chickens and other animals are ‘being fed ¢ocontts in the evening. They seem to be’on friendly terms with the chickens and dogs and pigs. They are common pets, and apoear to be of great use in Ine Village because they catch house rats. All are rather thin and scramyny, and the lighter colors predominate in their mixed stock. ats ) ephigk : Dog, Kiru.- Abundant around houses; none eed. pee fron human com— panions. The dogs at Arno were of robust construction, and were all pretty much the same in form, and were mostly short-haired varieties. They find cocl places to lie, preferring the soft sand dug up by crabs along the shady eaadseuere they spend much of the day, each in its ‘ov favorite couch. There were very few females around Ine Villaze, and naturelly each rare entrance 6f one caused a sensation! Also there were few pups in evidence ~ most of the ‘dogs there were old battle-scarred veterans who lived in the hopes and expectations over their daily battles. ANB) Théy are friendly but rather indenendent. One particular large one vas @ companion of the group of children who used to bring us specimens. He would bark and hunt with them, circling through the undergrowth when they were out nunting lizards and rats. He often scared away the herons that I was studying, and delighted in chasing birds along the beach. These dogs eat coconut meat along with the other domestic animals, and do not catch much of their own food. On Majuro, however, they roved in packs along the beach and were said te corner and catch fish cooperatively ’ from tide-pools. Rattus rattus, Eouse Rat, Kijirik.- found this rat only in and neer Ine Village, but it is Said to occur on a Saas of islands between Dodo and Tagelib. These are the only ieee where green adeontite are cut into and eaten by rats; since the Polynesian Rat is found so vate danaly all over the atoll in places where green nuts are not eaten, this is another line of evidence to acuit the dainty Rattus exulans of ol ae I trapped owas rats on the ground, and Bice shot ee from ccconut trees at night; beneath these aes the ground was strewn with areen coconuts in which a eae Rea been gnaned permittins the rats to enter end clean out the inside nest. rnoese stated that this species had been ratner recently introduced by the Japanese, snd thst before that time, no green ruts were hater, iy House Rat specimens are of diverse ence ee, one being dark grey, i indicative of admixture of native (?) isiand stock and Black Rat stock, the renee erababily introduced from ships. These ae did considerable damage to stored copra and food in ne Ine store and warehouse, and may be a contributing reason for the fact that the copra vas always shipped out to Majuro as often as aoe possible. Tvio nests were found a few inches apart in a down rotten coconut log; one contained 6 young, the other, 3, identified as this species by their size. The nests and their location, however, were exactly like those of Rattus exulans, and the house rats either "copy" exulans in this respect, or have appropriated these nests from their . rightful owners. Two unoccupied nests were found near the tree workings; _ they also resembled the nests of exulans. House Rats were sometimes seen out in the daytime; an indication that their numbers are great. None were found in my transect area about a half mile from the village. They are caught by cats in town, and some of the people set traps for Vaheme ts seule ee easy for the boys to kill them by placing husked coconuts (opened at oe end) near their holes, waiting for them to © enter the nut, then crack down on them with a club. Four specimens were preserved and sent tS the National Museum. Stomachs contained Laswotiank meat and green plant material. Two rats shot from trees in Hoen bad Ha ectoparasites, but others had mites and lice, but no fleas. Were Were abundant tapeworms and stomach nematodes and flagellates an tae caecum. Rat tapeworms sometimes eee humans, but I found no eydedee 28 rages in the human stool survey. We leis oe ee coconuts is a serious one indeed, and ad silvondy ne ee of some concern to the people. (Coconut Crabs - op Dr. Hiett's report - and Polynesian Rats eat only old fallen nuts, ee ae Grom Che Cones eee leet on the ground because the people by mats means Woes ali the available nuts for copra. ‘In’ fact ‘they work the “eapre in a sphradie and rather dleiieerceted coed. | ee eee be easy te eeadicate this rat from the few places where it nes become SeeADMShGd UF poiacd oF trapping or by running them down with dogs whenever the piles of old coconit husks are burned. At least, those -24- whose ‘trees are being damaged could easily contrive simple guards around > the trunks. Rattus exvlens, Holaneeian Rat, Kijirik.- This little rat is abundant and generelly ae eines ares on some of the Aietee islets. So meny aden: bomterne nimbiy across Pie ent by day indicate ppousadotig aan bers. They can aiso be seen climbing up and dom trees, and poking around in the interior of the piles of coconut husks. The nest, a globular mass of soft dead leaves of whatever plants are hendy (Pandanus, Poiypodium, coconut cloth) about five inches in diameter is found inside of rotten logs, stumos, among the hanging dead leaves of Pandenus, and two were found each inside of a coconut husk. The rets are ceught by eats. Near the nests, or on favorite eating places in Pandanus trees, eaten seecs of Triumfetta procumbens. accumulate in piles. As determined by a microscopic comperison cf stomach contents and coconut blossoms, they est cocenut blossoms, and are often seen at night climbing in the flowering stalks. Their main food is fallen coconuts. In spite of ’ their abundance they have little if any influence on the copra production for only a smail pers of tne available nuts are ever harvested. My Ine friends, vith whom I travelied to several islands, in an effort to be of help in my lofty researches: and deliberations, would -entice tnese tame little rats out from the piles of husks by strewing freshly opened nuts around. Within a minute or so the rets would come out, attracted by the smell, to be greeted with a rain of blows upon the -head. My friends would then come to me, triumphantly beerirg rats whose heads were reduced to puip. No amount of explanation sufficed to get them to change their aim; apparently a block is involved, for when HOG. they try to hit the rat elsewhere, they miss altogether. - Thus I got . measurements 17, and saved only 7 which had good skulls (trapped or | shot at night). These specimens had mites and lice, flagellates in the caecum, whipworms threaded in the stomach lining, larger nematodes in the stomach, tapes in the intestine, a abundant ova of tapeneene and nematodes signee. droppings. No biting ties Bae (such ve commonly carry blood diseases of rats) were found in the nests. Homo sapiens, Man, Armij.- The predominant vertebrate on land, but far outnumbered by several species of lizards and by the Polynesian Ret. Sins of his activities are roads, traiis, piles of defunct coconuts (the most important habitat of the smaller skinks, geckos and rats), arti- facts such as baskéts washed up on the beach, steps cut-on coconut trunks, houses, etc. Man's main influence on the rest of the land animal. and plant world is the clearing of undergrovth to facilitate coconut growth, and the burning of this trash. Thus the inhabited islands are very open (below the coconut'and-breadfruit canopy), en extreme of which is seen at Dodo, which is just like a park... Dodo also has the most modern type of cwellings and is the principal sea-port. The thing that impressed me most about these people, aside from their friendliness, courtesy and generosity, was their intelligent in- terest in our orojects. Uniike many native people in other areas where I have collected birds, they did not stand around and gawk at oo we were doing. They actually understood what was going on,. and furthermore, knew all the animals. and plants, ' not merely by name, but in considereble detail as to natural history. Concerning parasites, the following is the result of the Whidbey Survey at Arno and Ine Villages, Mey 2 and 3, 1950, respectively: Arno: 126 stools, 110 negative, 9 hookworm, 6:Trichuris, 2 Giardia. Ine: 127 stools, 98 negative, 2 hookworm, 12 Trichuris, 1 Interobius, 9 Giardia, 2 Trichonomas, 7 Chilomustix. My own survey of 100 stools from Ine Village was conducted with the assistance of Dr. Abija, who collected the samples. I examined a direct smear and a salt flotation of each. I preserved 40 slides of. protozoa for further and mcre exact determination. The following re- sults then are final for ne helminth ova, but may be amended later for the protozoa. Only 36 stools were negative, thus indicating fairly extensive contamination of food by human excrement (indirectly of course). Frequenciés: of verious ‘parasites and harmless inmates of the human in- testine follow: small flagellates (100 Trichomonas yap: Giardia (cysts al7) A abi ot a | small amoébae dod, wd Lorne Entamoeba not yet identified 10 Entemoeba histolytica | ; 12 (of which they were eating red blood cells in only three) Entamoeba ae 3 Enterobius 1 (usually not found in stools, so this.is not an indication of its actual prevalence) hookworm leet 5 Trichuris is 26 ey Only the three people vith E. histolytica ingesting red blood cells would be idebbeghoene symptoms or impairment of health (amoebic dysentery). Enterobius. of course causes severe itching, but the hooks were nat numerous enough to cause symptoms, Giardia and Trichuris are usually harmless, and the rest of the list is always harmless. All that these results show is that, the mechanism for trans— mission.of intestinal parasites is well entrenched at Ime, end that there is a reservoir af hookworm anc. amoebic dysentery which could spread if there would be a further lapse in the maintenance of senitary conditions. i vis gi a mes eas ‘To summarize in another nay, only, 8 people out of, the 100 had . potentially pathogenic parasites,.in the following combinations: Lieonbed: Trichomonas, E. histolytica, hook, Trichuris. Aikujs E. histolytica with red blood celis, Trichuris, small flagellates. : Tortas hook, Jrichuris. Lini: E. histolytica with RBC, hook, Trichomonas, other flageliates, small amoebae. Wotocriks Entemoeba coli, E. histolytica?, hookworm, Trichuris. Kijeia: Enterobius. Lawl: E. histolytica with RSC, Trichomonas. Overton: KE. mintelytnen?, nook) (eemnic, Generel Remerks on Perasites — senerat nemerks on eras. ves No protozoan or helminth parasites of the blood were found in any of the land vertebrates. - There are fewer kinds of. intestinal parasites here than in most tropical areas. The cause is doubtless the paucity of 28 animal life as compared with larger land areas,.resuiting in few or no intermediate or reservoir hosts, necessary in the life cycle of meny parasites. The parasites thet were found are almo: t all of the sort that -need no intermediate host, and are passed directly from one infected per- son or animal to the next. ‘The reason that there are few human parasites on Ine, in addition to: the above reasons, is that the people by custom defecate out on the reef where tile tide carries away this excrement. There are certein well established customs and teboos dictating who goes to what part of the reef and with whom - certain relatives can go together, even if of dif- ferent sexes, others cannot be seen in the act by certain relations, etc., etc., as probably expounded in Mr. Mason's report. However, our presence at the village vpset this hygienic system. I was guiity of this as much or more than the others for I was always out along the edge of ' the island early in the morning locking at Reef Herons, etc. The people are very modest about being seen by us "civilized" folk, perhaps thinking that we would sneer eat them for not using modern flush toilets! Consequently they would sneak out to the edge cf t..e beach and defecate under cover of Scaevola and Pandanus. trees, in places where the tide would not reach, and where the hookworm larvae possibly might be able to develop in the soil, and infect others who stepped there. Also the proximity of this material to places where:food is being prepared would facilitate the contamination of food by cysts of E. histclytica through various agencies. Conseauently my recommendation for preventing a general outbreak of intestinal parasites on Arno is that we stay away from the villages as much as possible, that we try not to interfere with and try Ripe ‘to encourege the maintenance of the venerable customs of these people. There are some difficulties’ here because the people‘ are envious of certain of the trappings of our civilization. But 1 think it is easy to convince them to have a aeepents for their own customs, especially in this matter of sanitation, as I have tried to do, actually, at Ine. I do not mean to imply that we shovid’ turn back the clock and attempt to shield‘ these people from our influences. “That is impossible. "Civiliza- tion", for better or for worse, (mostly, in’my opinion, the latter), has reached them and has been influencing them for a long time. But as an immediate practical measure on Arno (facilitated by its distance from a ‘ hotbed of western civilization at: Majuro), is to encourage the people to continve their ovmm sanitary customs. The ‘few stiz>zing privies that the Jananese built at Ine will soon ‘fall from’sheér weight of termites anyway; they are little used. Lest it be thought that this is all idle speculation and worry over ‘nething, permit me to dwell upon the situetion at Majuro, that is, ‘the islend upon which the navel bas- is situated. Hookrorm’ and pinworm (Enterobius) are rampant there, to such an extent that the naval doctors were actually considering mass‘ tréatment for hook. ‘The dependents of naval personnel ‘sre almost all infested with pinworm, “and have constantly to be treated for that as well as for hookworm. I believe that in ad- dition, ‘some Ascaris has turned up there. There is a large native population: there, unusuall (for the Marshall Islands} crowded. There is not enough privacy for them to indulge in’ their traditional practices of defecation, nor, apparently, are there enough facilities and/or knowledge of their use, to accommodate them according to civilized standards. The result, jucging from what the doctors said about the Laie incidence of hockworm and ‘pinworm, is just about a complete breakdom of sanitation, and immanent probability (if not already) of building vp enough hookvorms in people to cause actual symptoms of the disease. This consideration touches close to home, for Ine Village is only a day's sail from Majuro. In fact, I judge that the Ine people who have hookworm probably picked it up.at Majuro or some other island, because the situation at Ine (except during our stay there) ic absolutely contrary to the interests cf the hookworms. Termites I found three species of termites at Arno. They occur in tremendous abundance, and play a most imporsent and extensive role in breaking down all wood, dead branches and trees, stumps and logs, on the way towards its final réincorporation into the soil. It is practically impossible to find a piece of dead wood that is not. riddled with termites. If you need vood for most any purpose you have to cut it hte di It is of interest here that the earthworms also operate on the wood, though at a stage subseauent to the termite work. Taking coconut stumps as an ex- ample, the termites vork in it while it is still sound and dry, a dif- ferent kind of termite works in the damper portion and eventually the whole interior becomes damp and punky and rotten from the activities of a host of organisms. The worms work in this sc:t punky mass, where they are found in tremendous numbers. Of course the damp Gaga of Arno promotes the cecay of wood by rons tenet» pret age the termites open it oD to facilitate this ee, of the three species found, one is a very large Soin which is found in ‘ery oo above ground, such as dead branches of Scaevola. A small, Pestana wind is in damp wood i at the ground level, and may even work at 2 bottom of piles of. coconut fronds. A small, slow-moving species, a miniature of the first, is found in the most sound wood, particularly erect coconut ... snags and buildings. ieee species was more than Dr. Kirby eoneened to be found here. I made numerous slides of the flagellates in their hind gut. The community or "faunule" of various :pecies of flagellates is different for each kind of termite, and thus comprises a useful in- dication of the course of evolution of their termite nests. It is the action of these flagellates, either aione or perhaps in conjunction with associated bacteria, which makes Mossibie the digestion of cre eee in the termite.;. Without them, the termite starves. An additional note on the earthworms: these are. much more active or muscular than those with which we are familiar at home. They can twist and squirm so violently when disturbed that they can actuelly - jump several. inches into the air. I watched a Golden Plover trying to Kill one and the bird had great difficulty in keeping its grasp on the Large worm, and could hardly subdue it. Ground Emoias eat the worms, for I saw @ Black,one with the end of a large worm projecting _from its mouth. .(Long worms must be swallowed gradually, es fast as digestion at the other end-will permit.) Time ¢ ae dstivity Rain is very Precuent here, one does” not impede the fonaesna activities of most We the eninals, except a, The parca fabs of sicinks definitely preferred tae sun. haces was seetinen ee in great Apitontehy in the rain, at other times a sudden shower would send en all’ into hiding. I hate considerable data on the time of appearance me in the morning of the various birds, of which I submit this record of saad August 4th as a representative example: (Ine Ancorage) ' 6:15 a.m. Pigeons barking. in breedfruit- tree (getting light) 6:20 and 6:45 Brown Emoias still dozing on their roosts 6:30 Pigeon in flight, Plover flies across the island 6:40 Tattler foraging on reef 6:50 Two Fairy Terns coming in from ocean, a small Noddy patrolling the shore. 7200 - 7:10 Crested Terns, Herons, Golden Plovers and Black-naped Terns now feeding. 6:25 p.m. Brovm Emoia and three Dasias roosting 6:30 Polynesian Rat ran across trail before '7:00 Two House Geckos out — 7:00 (getting dark, turn on flashlight and shine:) Big Geckos on ail palms, Rock Geckos and House Geckos. Noddy Terns fly around their roosting areas all night,. shrieking and snarling; the shore birds call and fly on moonlit nights, and probably also feed (the Plover has a relatively large eye, permitting activity at night). Usually the shorebirds are the first animals to be heard in the mornings, their calls beginning at 6 a.m. when it is just barely light. Seasonal Behavior The shore birds and the Ghclioe are seasonal i oh Ada and do not breed in this area. The Terns are undoubtedly permanent residents, but no Bredeaee of breeding at this season was found. Old Noddy nests were seen, and some of the terns occasionally engaged in display flights. (In 1944 I found Nodays of both species nesting in large colonies at Eniwetok in October.) The only birds actually breeding during the ere summer were Reef Herons and Pigeons, but a a few pairs were involved; the bulk or these populations probably breed at other seasons. Recently ‘there has. been intense interest in breeding cycles of oceanic birds, stimulated by Richardson and Fisher's work ‘at Qahuy,, and well summarized in the most recent number of the American Scientist (1950, vol. 38: 613 - 616). Unfortunately, my data. from the limited avifauna of Arno is negative evidence only; it would require a longer zeriod.of residence there to round out the story, which I might aad. would be very worth- while. The lizards ‘and rats breed probably continuously once they achieve iduldhbed. Ripe eggs and-embryos (respectively) and young were seen all during the summer. All fully 0 pav2ly sy | 49 e Q a 2 Lua Uy purr) JON e CMe a5 SWI OL (7 m™ au eg yy ae Hiro jn = aS + y \ayoeu su =] eri DUBIN (esas yas ba) 920 paieis PM siasy ; S —— ape Ihoapw ! 4D 9\5\ \ Se yi Our UO le a 5 CN ot ral Va % + eee 2 eC oF A WD ip ee . / { a i a ay $O uotymatagsii ap. psebi le \ 3 \ . 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Net Qe \ la} —_——— ee ae A : id % a Z Dp » Af sd . ae er 2) 2) a ‘S) ! } 1 ea { | eth as * iis Me. Net Op thE ae iit Path Wes les iy: axe ie ld a eae a a ee ee Ds 1 H } / me a See ee | VN ae WD > hee ee @ | JON a a Megs Laan ae x Va ‘ A ets 5 ea y fe f Yi is ¥. gs Oe: IK by ; co C4, “h ae D rip : 17 ‘ of 4 | ~ y | ( w y Q : ace Wy es) | | yah i Savas ) G3 ~~ gx Gy | Ee ce AR a: @ fos i eg 3 a? = ' Sp es eee a ee 2 Mar GPE al a ss . a : | ; ee i \ CSN Pi Ce ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Published by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D.C. . Octcter 15, 1351 | gS acre ¢ ks VY fa ery! Diy aun heh ih abe ee Vor L rvs ae i rf j il MARINE ZOOLOGY STUDY OF ARNO ATOLL, “ WARSHALL ISLANDS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESIA Pacific Science Board National Pesearch Council . Robert W. Hiatt, assisted by Conald Strasburg University of Hawaii Honoivlu, Hawaii December 1950. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this report was a participant in the 1950 SIM (Scientific Investigations in Micronesia) Project of the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council, and this report covers field work for the period 13 June ae September, 1950. This project is supported by funds pened ee the National Academy of Sciences by the Office of Naval Research, and the field work was carried out with the active assistance of the Navy Department, the Military Air Trans- port Service, and the officials of the Civil Administrative Staff of the Trust Territory (Navy). Especially helpful in numerous ways were Commsnder Kenney, Ensign Dodds and Mr. Ben Kessler on Majuro, and Commander Avila on Kwajalein. The many ways in which Miss Ernestine Akers, Honolulu secretary of the Pacific Science Board, assisted in arranging for this project were greatly appreciated by the entire personnel. The University of Hawaii through its Pacific Islands Research Fund provided generously for all the equipment and supplies for several members of the group, and is now providing technical help in working up the mass of data accumulated at Arno. To all of the ae ho contributed to making the research de- scribed in this report poesia I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation. TABLE CF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS NATIVE USES OF MARINE PRODUCTS Subsistence or Food Resources Species Used Catch bististics . Methods of collecting and fishing Methods of preparation of marine products Use of marine products as fertilizers for agricultural crops Use of marine products as food for domestic animals Tuna baitfish resources Poisonous species Use of uninhabited islets as a source of merine products Importance of marine products from the reefs and lagoon as compared with the oceanic reaim Implement and Ornamentai Resources Sponges Shell Jewelry Other uses of shelis SURVEY OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT MARINE RESOURCES Fish Turtles Invertebrates Plant Resources GENERAL IMPRESSIONS i . ; * , iN cr ae r Yo: SOTROn eee adele By ema" yest edt wort atom tl . a Lio: spiaeeo Ble te, Baa ie . " pearinah Gaarae NATIVE USES OF MARINE PRODUCTS Subsistence or Food Resources Species Used Approximately 175 species of fish and invertebrates are used for food by the Arnoese. The exact total may reach 200, oh the most im- portant species involved eld included in the 175 which were seen and identified both by their scientific paras and by the local Marshallese name. Frequently, sip fepsdecs between Radak and Ralik names were noted, so to avoid confusion a policy was established to adhere only to the Redak name. Lists of these species wiil be presented in the technical reports. : Very few of the species usec are of seasonal cccurence. This re- sults, in part, from the nearly total lack of fishing for pelagic fish with eae eoeey habits such as the tunas and spearfishes. The fish and invertebrates usvelly taken are present in the lagoon eemenoat the year, although lunar eee tides and spamming season do influence fishing activity for certain species. : There is 4 surat sine lack of conservation measures and tabus re- lating to the marine species. In times past certain fishes, e.g., the mole (Siganvs rostratus) were reserved for the iroij, but such practices have been largely discontinued, except for certain choice parts of some fish. No seasonal‘restrictions or minimum size limits are invoked. The absence of such restrictions’ most certainly stems from the abundance of food fishes available. No species are reserved for special occasions, although the fishing methods involved preparatory to a large community celebration largely de- termine the species which will be caught and consumed. In general, it appears that "occasions" arise following a very successful fishing opera- tion, rather than before the fishing activity. Catch statistics As was noted in the initial Field Progress Report, eek statistics as such are imposes bile iy secure because fishing isa family enterprise and is not SESS E into connercially on Arno Atoll. The only opportunity for detex mmining the catch was to keep several typical families under ob- servation to ascertain the amount of sea food consumed per person. Data of this sort are extremely difficult to secure ety tes of the variable fishing activity between families and with time, coupled with the fact that interviews on such subjects eigrink from satisfactory. Some data are available from the Anthropologists of this Project who lived for periods with native Pavia! The eee available Laat se set forth in the technical report. It suffices here to men en that is ise in general, a staple food item, and, if available, is eaten. reap every meal. The con- sumption of sea food probably averages one pound per day for Sach person. Methods of collecting and fishing ~The fin fishery on the lagoon reef is by. far.the most important to the Arnoese. A rather complete’'description of all the gear and its use has’ been compiled for’ inclusion in the technical reports. . Stone traps erected on the lagoon reef or on. reef passes between is- lands are frequently met. The position and construction of each trap is “designed for certain fish species. Their production varies from place to place, but in general the traps are very successful. The village of =p AY t Lonar, for example, maintains a series of five traps which supply the population of 50 to 60 persons with ail the fish needed. Wooden stick traps of the type used generally throughout Micro- nesia are, set out on the reefs by individual families. Aside from its use in throw nets, fiying fish nets, the square ukonjabuk net and bonbon net, regular cord netting is seldom used. Most of the seining methods are accomplished with coconut fronds built into leaf sweeps of various kinds and dimensions. Seven different, methods of using leaf sweeps were recorded in detail, and the chief fishes taken with each have been listec. Some trolling for tunas and carangid fishes is done with wooden plugs to which chicken feathers are tied so as to resemble the common feather Jig used by sportfishermen. In times past | trolling lures were fashioned from the shell of the pearl oyster, but this is virtually a lost art; only a few of the old Arnoese remember how to make these lures. One built on our request will be described in de- tail in the technical report. _ Many Arnoese are excellent spear fishermen and this method is one of the chief ones empioyed to provide fish for individual families. Spearing is done on both the seaward and lagoon reefs. Unlike American speers which are barbed and shot from an air gun or a rubber sling, the Arnoese spears are barbless and have firmly attached, siim wooden handles with a short rubber sling fastened to the handie. A long spear about 12 feet in length, a shorter spear abou’ 6 feet in length, and a long gaff about 4 feet in length are carried by each spear fisherman. Fishing poles made of wood from the Premna corymbosa tree are used without reels. The short line is attached to the tip of the pole. These se. are used at the edges of channels and at the outer edge of the reef where the line can be let down into deeper water. Most hook and line fishing is done from small paddling outrigger canoes, usually at the outer edge of the lagoon reef or over coral mounds rising near the surface from the iagoon floor. Other fishing metnods to be described in the technical reports include the ikaidrik (for Elegatis bipinnulatus), the jibke (for porpoise), the jaibo (for huge sipunculid worms), the erdroe (hand groping), the kaikikit (groping with a stick), the kawor (treading),. the kabwil (treading at night with a torch) and fish poisoning in muddy swamps by hydrogen. sulphide and by the crushed fruit of the Barringtonia tree. Except for fish hooks and some twine all the ‘ear used in fishing is hand made by the Arnoese. A real lack in present fishing supplies is twine for fishing lines and for weaving nets. No special fishing vessels are used at Arno. The small paddle canoes are essentially just hand line ‘boats, whereas, the larger sailing canoes are chiefly for transportation, with fishing operations secondary in importance. Whiie-meny canoes are in. operation on Arno, they are in ‘short supply. Lumber from breadfruit trees and skilled canoe builders are not plentiful. It was not vossible to ascertain the catch per unit of effort because the time spent in fishing and the fishing trips were very erratic. The fin fishery in the ocean is relatively wmimportant to the Arnoese. Some trolling for tunas and some fishing for flying fish is done, but the total catch is insignificant. There is no sea turtle fishery on Arno. The Green Sea Turtle-is not common and the catch at infrequent intervals occurs. by chance. A fer ey turtles have been seen to de,.osit eggs on the sandy beaches, but. the observations are rare. wnt = Among the invertebrate fisheries the molluscan species are the mast important to the Arnoese. Certain gastropods of the families Strombidae, Turbinidas, and Neritidse are sought for food while cowries (Cypraeidze) are collected for the making of jewelry and for‘other ornamental purposes. Anon the pelecypods the most important is Asaphis Geflorata which is esteemed as food, and the shell makes a most useful seraper for various activities in tne preparation of food. . The giant clams (Tridacnidae) are not usec extensively for food, but the small attached species Tridacna crocea and T. elongata are frequently gathered to fertilize the breadfruit trees. Native opimion on the use of the giant clams indicates pen they are less desirable than fish for the table, and that the abundance of agricultural crops (breadfruit, etc.) at Arno makes it unnecessary to ex- ploit all available subsistence resources on the reefs. Land crabs, both brachyuran and the enomuran, Birsus latro, are caught and eaten frequently. An intensive study of the ecology of land crabs was made and will be presented in the technical report. Holothurians are not used at Arno for any purpose although the reefs, typical of the tropics, abound with many species, The tremendous popula- tion density of Holcthvrie cinarescens on the lagoon reefs was investi- gated in detail and will form the subject of a special technnicel report. No use whatever is ade of the algae on the reefs. Uniike Polynesians, the Micronesians do not consume sea weeds, nor do they use it as ferti- Lizer. Methods of preparation of marine products Tne methods of handling various food fishes for immediate consump- tion or for storage were recorded in detail. Large tunas and porpoises are butchered according to a stereotyped plan, the various cuts are given names, and the iroij portions are designated. A 11 these observa- tions will be described in considerable detail. Of note is the fact that the porpoise caught at Arno may well be a new species according to prelim- inary reports from Dr. David Johnson of the U. S. National Museum. The author has furnished photographs and ecological notes to Dr. Johnson. No marine species are prepared for export. Use of marine products as fertilizers for agricultural crops The only marine organisms used for fertilizer are the tvo small species of giant clams, T. crocea and T. elongata. These are used to fertilize breadfruit trees; the methods will be detailed in the techni- cal report. Use of marine products as food for domestic enimals The sole uses of marine products to feed domestic animals are fish for dog food and ghost crabs (Qeypode) which are fed to sows to increase ) Lactation. Tuna baitfish resources Since baitfish resources may become the most significant marine income item to natives on atolls, a thorough survey was made of the baitfish avail~ “able. Data were gathered on species present, popu_.ation density, dis- tribution about the atoll, ecology, and length frequencies. Several large Bios . schools of cusumierids and clupeids were poisoned so that an examination of the reproductive condition, food nabits and length freguencies could be een ni sie it may be stated here that baitfish resources are vela~ ele ease Arno Atoll. Schools were frecuently eS anceren which aie supply oO 200 scoops of bait. Poisonous species Through interviews with natives approximately 15 species of fish were found to be poisonous. These eluded’ many of the fishes imown to be poisonous in tronical waters such as Ctenochaetus strizosus, several species of Tetraodon, Canthigaster ard DiodGon, some scorpaeonids, oynancea verrucoss, BEaratn, certain mureaenid eels, and cavtean baltee tids. No seasonal differences in poisonous properties was apparent, but certain species poison on one side of the atoil were not poison on the other... Fig Use of uninhabited islets as a source of marine products General observations showed that natives did not venture far avay from their home island to fish, and the fish populations, as seen during long pnericds of skin civing with face plates, along the shores of vnin- habited islets were definitely greater. It was apparent that tne fish populations around inhabited islets, although sparser than around vnin- habited islets, were still adequate to provide the necessary fooa fish in the time aveilable for fishing., This, it is not necessary for the natives to go to uninhabited islets to fish. The fish resources around: these uninhabited islets are definitely under-—exploited. mas Importance of marine products from the reefs and lagoon as compared with the oceanic realm As stated previously, the-reefs and lagoon produce virtually all the marine products utilized. The paucity of passes through the reefs, the location of all dwellings along the quiet lagoon shore and the dis-— tribution of canoes on the lagoon beaches preclude any extensive use of oceanic waters. Implement and Ornamental Resources Sponges Sponges of commercial types are scarce at Arno, and, except for limited household use by the natives, are not harvested. Shell jewelry The Arnoese have never made shell jewelry for export. Some cowries were collected by parties of Japanese during the Mandate for use in jewelry, but no commercial exploitation occurred. Other uses of shells The use of pearl oyster shells for fishing lures has been mentioned previously. The shell of the pelecypod, Asaphis deflorata, is used as a scraper for many household uses, viz., scraping charcoal from baked breadfruit, scraping soft coconut meat from drinking nuts, and scraping bark off mangrove sprouts for the preparation of dye. The shell of the helmet conch, Cassis cornuta, is used as a scraper for cooked Pandanus fruit on a device termed the beka. No shells have ever been exported from Arno for commercial purposes. He SURVRY OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT MARINE RESOURCES Rather than make a very general survey of the resources over the entire atoll, our study was concentrated in a small area typical of much of the atoll so that a thorough ecological account of life on an atoll might be obtained. Coincident with the detailed observations, a few field trips were taken to other important areas to view the resources and to discuss tiem with the inhabitants. ‘Thus, a fundamental basis for A Aen of other areas visited with our intensively studied area was afforded. For this purnose three transects were laid out, one across the sea reef, another across the lagoon reef and a third across Ine Island from the sea beach to the lagoon beach. Plots were marked off at 50 foot intervals on the sea reef and 100 foot intervals on the legoon reef and across tne land. Thorough collections of the animals present in each plot were made. Temperature and salinity were determined for each section under varied conditions, and tne contours of the reef and coral tops were nisdeured: The fish present in each section were pottee ted by poisoning with roterione so. that a quantitative study of their abundance and distri- bution in relation to environmental factors could be made. Species of corals present were collected and estimates of tneir abundance were made for each section. Drawings of these transects have been mace showing the type and distribution of dominant corals present in each section. The vegetative cover and surface contours have been draim for the land transect to show the ecological features significant in the ecology of land crabs. Fish As this report is written 310 species of fish have been identified and several additional species will result from more detailed examina- tion of a few of the more difficult families. .One or more specimens of each species collected has been returned to Honolulu for subsequent check on identifications. and for use as a named collection to aid subse- quent studies in the Trust Territory. .This collection combined with the duplicates of fish species taken during Operation Crossroads at Bikini which were sent to the University by the United States National Museum and the collections made throughovt the Hawaiian and Line Islands by staff members of the University and of the Pacific Oceanic Fishery In- vestigations provide what is probably the best fish collections for the Central Pacific. These collections will be made available to any quaii- fied scientist workingin the area. The 310 species now listed represent 60 families (following the classification of Berg). A total of 1197 fish representing 146 species were examined for their food and feeding habits. These data will provide the most comprehensive account of biotic inter- action on a coral reef yet made. The gonadal development was noted on all fish opened for stomach examination. Thus, for approximately 1200 fish we have aed soil on their standard iength, sex, and gonadal develop- ment. Such data will be of great importance in estimating reproductive seasons and the age and size at maturity for fish in this latitude. Considerable information on larval and juvenile development of reef fishes was obtained. Several series showing growth and pattern metamor- phosis were taken, preserved and returned for study. For each species ecological notes were recorded to indicate its niche in the biocoenosis, SVO- Se its dgarupest fopdine, and ae behavior patterns. Careful notes were taken on aggregating habits of many species. Except for certain species of clupeids and aicumierine sureenle for tuna paners arene other food Pi Shes were taken in converte abun- dance to afford analyses by length frequencies. Consequently, the ef- fects pict i at, 8 on the size and age structure and abundance of most species was not ated? However, all eeenred commonly utilized for food were ee. ee in abundance and in all sige ranges known for the species. It is bs nahent from these observations vhat fishing intensity at Arno is not Lpesetin’ the structure of fish populations in any way. Generally dat ee all food fishes are being ey rather than overfished and the reef end lagoon fisheries could be increased several fold without aeciuge. he the yield per wit of fishing effort. For the baitfish, Stolephorus delicatulus, Harengulia ovalis and Atherina ovalava, several large collections were made with rotenone so that length frecuencies could He studied. From these data we are able to indicate the age groups in the population, the size range available in a baitfishery so that Sie sizes may be computed, and the abundance and location ap lets iter, These data are of great importance to any conten- plated tuna exploration in the Central Pacific. Turtles The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas L.) was the only species ob- served at Arno and this species is too scarce. to be of any importance. commercially or otherwise. The hawkshill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata ©. L., undoubtedly occurs at Arno but it is rarer than the green turtle. Se There is no fishery for turtles, although the natives frequently catch them in the stone fish traps. Invertebratés . ~ Invertebrates of importance to the natives have been listed previous- ly in this report. Plans had been laid to analyze species of the giant clams for size and age for the purpose of evaluating the effects of fish- ing on them. However, it was discovered that the most abundant’ species in the Northern Marshalls, Hippopus hippopus, was not ‘Common at ‘Arno, while the largerspecies Tridacna squamosus and T. gigas were rare or, as in the latter case, not present at all. Such anomalies in the cistribu- tion of such common species which occur so abundantly both north ent south of Arno Atoll are inexplicable at present. Thus, one of the significant differences between natives of the Northern and Southern Marshalls is the great dependence upon these clams in the north and the almost total disregard of them in the south. Spiny lobsters (Panulirus penicillatus and P. japonicus) are present _ in considerable quantity on both the seaward and lagoon reefs. Frequent fishing trips are made, usually at night with a torch, to secure these lobsters. Many young lobsters were observed in small holes in coral heads. Perhaps the most’ frequently sought marine invertebrate is the "leked" (Canarum luhuanum luhvanum) a gastropod belonging to the family Strombidee. These occur on ue Lagoon reefs by the thousands, and at each low neap tide the women and children Flock onto the reef to bier s: them. in spite a what appears: ie be one of the nae intensive of all the native —s eries, yen: pales? salve seem oR: withstand the fishing mortality. ee Plant resources Like most coral reefs, the algae is sparse except for the Lithotham- nium at the windward reef edges. Toward shore on the wide windward lagoon reefs algae grows more abundantly than elsewhere. The Arnoese make abso- lutely no use of the algae as either food or fertilizer. General Impressions The reefs and lagoon of Arno Atoll are exceed gly productive of organisms. In general the fauna and flora resembles other coral atolls of the Central Pacific, but certain differences are striking. While the author believes that studies on one atoll may serve as a sound basis for regulations on and interpretations of others, it is certainly obvious that real and important differences do exist. Causes of such differences are not readily apparent, but detailed studies on ocean currents, upwelling, end life histories of organisms will shed much light on variations in species and population densities and overall productivity. In selecting sites for future programs of investigation it would be well to choose areas in different oceanic environments so that nee may be compared with previous studies in regions of different environmentai conditions. Suca comparisons may enable one to associate variations with know environ- mental differences. Once these differences were related to environmental changes, generalizations for all atolls within certain defined environ- mental conditions could be made. The marine environment at Arno is of great importance to the people but it is underutilized by the present population. This is a significant fact because Arno is considered to be a heavily populated atoll. Shovld the present level of population be the result of natural forces rather than that imposed by unnatural phenomena, viz., birth control, disease, emigra- tion, etc., it is not the supply of marine resources which exerts the regu- latory effect. y ae PALL ye smn Ea orks baal Fons cad is ‘8 avis pubardat ey Bt al inns Lerten recite eeddoadys mugs ~ fat ‘aot we # einistaio: a ae, Poomaze? Eth | #9 ae sorta naa te io Ched ht idda BEI ao me ust eek enatse? ee hcl aE rena untiesiaa nt .yedty How borg ih enon “rT ee woda’ GF Ltaa. oc ——_—- = “A a J . i <. - ra rine ine ws vr Si Oe Detacron as wad werk tans , - ih i | a 7 a! ‘ ‘! R s uv has 4 a hey *e Bieys We | ey ath esc Fs ad FS 2 ar nee ": ; hi eet pare om Mirco ittiy maolial tay: ef etesuis oo ant, eistects | se ‘i Letaoommctvne of batelex aren esortriwtLib ovinndd sort , ty }) i. . by Pe Maa Spy ete ar Bs el ee ON ae r enothine Hbegltab ararws risdiw oe £ takes he 4 elLecan mil af samaltounl Jaen Ko we col ws 5 } i b * F t t bs mer Heat, - wis ,. { it 4 | a. i * fy MM. uf Cae LW 3 R a it ne rete al “pss t~ a ou i . bog ~ re te ~~ ~ - % = tw ic & » “ & -~ ped! “oitark seer? Lencdan to 4 Seana.) Re tect nets Pataveg He Tig ek i}, P Sige ~ & iggy» chi % hee é aay, eee yveutaree ay als Levontacne wi ; Ge nex eft etude doles -eotee did bedside Da Lapin soil oe, uso fn Aofi () 5Nos. 5, 6, 7 November 15, 1951 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 5, The Soils of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. 6. The Agriculture of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. 7. The Plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S. A. | ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN “Issued by | “PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. November 15, 1951 NOV 1 6 1951 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Foard, includ- ing the launching Bea Atoll Research Bulletin. % is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundamental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's Soutn Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shom by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research pro- grams, CIMA, SIM, and ICCP, during the past five years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SIM. The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from contract no. N7-onr-291, Task Order IV. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 5. The Soils of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. November 15, 1951 _ shit cet Ce DORE STATO Ge i Pat BREA ie Gore TW Nt) cab [ pedir y THE SOILS OF ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALI ISLANDS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONEST Pacific Science Board National Research Council Karl L. Stone, Jr. Cornell University Ithaca, New York February 1951 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer participated in the 1950 SIM (Scientific Investigations in Micronesia) Project of the Pacific Science Board and the following report covers field work for the period 13 June - 5 August 1950. This project is supported by funds granted to the National Academy of Sciences by the Office of Naval Research, and the field work was carried out with the active assistance of the Navy Department, the Military Air Transport Service, and the officials of the Civil Administrative Staff of the Trust Territory (Navy). Members of the Civil Administrative Staff at Kwajalein and Majuro were exceedingly helpful in many ways. The assistance of Miss Ernestine Akers, Honolulu secretary of the Pacific Science Board, greatly facilitated arrangements during our brief stop over there. I am indebted to Dr. John W. Wells for an introduction to atoll geomorphology and for many stimulating conversations during the preparation of this report. eo INTRODUCTION In preparing this field report I have had in mind the meager knowledge of atoll soiis presently available and a realization that subsequent reports to technical journals are mich more likely to be found and comprehended by soil scientists than by the laity. Therefore, the first section has been given over to a generalized discussion of soil formation on unraised atolls. The secorid section, the field report proper, is an account of the summer's work on the soils of Arno. Part II, Agriculture of Arno Atoll, has already been prepared and because of this slightly illogical sequence a certain amount of overlapping and some minor discrepancies may be found in comparing the separate reports. "The soil is fairly productive. Its larger islands are covered with grass, fine groves of coconuts, with magnificent breadfruit, Pandanus and Pisonia, and the usual belt of low growing vegetation growing upon the summit of the beach" -- Alexander Agassiz, of Arno Atoli in 1900. ~~ pee aN ne i ¢ i begup’ " siti oe OGL ak lode = CONTENTS GENERAL no sreGnr we Destruction FORMATION DESTRUCTION GROUNDWATER Soil Formation PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE PARENT MATERIALS -: PHYSICAL FACTORS Solution Cementation Soil Movement and Burial Shore #rosion and Storm Damage BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Organic Matter Nitrogen Fixation Seabirds Man S O00 S200 F ACR i © TYPES AND MORPHOLOGY A. Soils Developed on Sands and Gravelly Sands 1. Shioya loamy sand 2. Shioya gravelly loamy sand 3. Shioya sand 4. Arno loamy sand 5. Arno gravelly loamy sand 6. "Ltangar gravelly sandy loam" sta pases) a HY 19 B. Shallow and Stony Soils and Land Type 7. Phosphate rock complex 8. Dark shallow soils over sandstone 9. Stony and very. stony complex C. Peats and Mucks 10. Mangrove peat ll. Mangrove shailow peat _and rock complex 12. Mangrove muck ~ | 13. Coconut--pandanus peat 14. Taro pit muck D. Miscellaneous Land Types SOME CHEMICAL PROFERTIES pH. een ead ae Salt Content Organic Matter and Nitrogen Phospherus » Manganese, Tron and Aluminum SOME EFFECTS ON PLANTS DISTRIBUTION Maps Notes on Land Conditions APPENDICES A. SCIENTIFIC NAMES B.. DESCRIPTION OF PROFILES SAMPLED C. REPUTED EFFECTS OF MANGROVE MUCK D. DISPOSITION OF PLANT COLLECTIONS. iv 27 29 GENERA Land Formation and Destruction FORMATION Land formation can Be Wasted as fhe culminating process in atoll Hepalonneat or as a minor consequence, a superficial collection of fragnents that happens to protrude peore sea Rewel In terms of mass the land is but an “A nec gl fraction of the atoll and occupies only a small part of ie area. In discussing the sors of the atoll we pare ong el incline to the i view that Zane Zor ae on is Meee auLnnebine process but we will aces: it heme only to the atont t necessary for an understanding of one soils. | There is no evidence that the present atoll surface has been uplifted. (See report of the Geologist.) For our purposes we will assume that the land haa teens GH a platform of consolidated material having an eleaeien at or slightly below mean lew tide. Ordinarily this platform will be sonselidsted: | reef rock but occasionally it may be cemented sandstone or "conglomerate". The nature of this platform can be seen on the iychéen swept areas where land formerly existed and in exposures in the interior of Tinak, L'angar and Bikerei j Islands. Although doubtless permeable to some degree this platform is Loneideyea much less so than the materials subsequently deposited upon it. On Arno there is no evidence that land has formed over unconsolidated materials and this possibility will not be considered further here. Even the most cursory eee daa of the wider islands reveals that two major Bebe of materials have entered into their composition. Over the greater part of the atoll the seaward side of the land is composed iargely or entirely of rock torn from the reef. Often these fragments have been rounded by wave action before deposition but again the pieces may have more or less of = 2 their original jagged contour. Most of the rocky land appears to have been formed by the progressive outward building of a rampart composed of these coarse materials thrown up by storms. The younger age of the seaward side of this land is peer ai recognized and in fact rampart formation is in progress along much oer conce, Since it owes its formation to storms the surface of the rampart tends to mark the highest level to neh the largest waves can eee coarse material. Thus this level is ee on the more exposed coasts _ Subject to Croce ee such as on L'angar Island, and it is lower ieee where. Occasional great a such as accompany typhoons may heap tock well beyond the edge of the Pammave, Sen ber yan eee surfaces. In either case, Snetaried with the ae is a greater or lesser amount of sand and gravel ground from the rocks. Je the stony land slopes downward slightly away from the coast, possibly because of weai feria. of the older materials. it is not se Ssalaiee to say with certainty that the ‘rampart is always the first formed and but in Test cases it is difficult to peed te othamuse. uate by the a the quieter waters of the’ lagoon pile sand against it and the See fieaas eae shelf often widens more rapidly than the outbuilding rampart. This process is particularly effective where the reef and hence the rampart, forms a sharp ees As is Sete G along coasts, such embayments are more re adily filled by wave-worn sediments and are protected from along-shore spent The Bees widening of Arno Island, although now slow, is Segoe to the people there because inland and parallel with the gee they find rows of pumice pebbles fete as occur along the present beach. Beach sands are not lames to the 1 ascent Side of the land, ‘although mich more common there. On the seaward side the occurrence is most probable on lee coasts and again in cemannent aoniedye towards the sea. The narrow land just northwest of Ine village has a sandy seaward beach and in places the -3<8 soils immediately back of the beach show signs of having Been veneered with sand during storm periods. Although at first thought the height of sandy lands would seem limited to high tide level, wave action during storms shatieues to throw up sands and accumulation is doubtlessly aided by the effect of vegetatim in reducing the outward drainage of waters. The major element involved in raising the height of land, however, is ‘the formation of sand dunes which are common along the windward lagoon shores. Dune formation proceeds most rapidly where a sandy beach is uncovered at low tide and exposed to the northeast trades. On Arno the maximum dune height observed was perhaps twelve feet above high tide though much higher dunes are known on other low islands in the Pacific. Occasionally small dune areas occur on the seaward side, as at one point on Bikareij Isiand where a small section of the low rampart has been buried. When supplies of sand are ample the speed of dune formation may be very rapid as exemplified by the high dune northwest of the wide part of dehy formed and vegetated since the typhoon of 1918. The three processes involved in building a rampart, sand shelf and lagoon dune may combine to give a land high on both shores and lower in the center. Such an orderly process of formation is far from common, as the cross- sections and soil maps reveal. Even apart from catastrophies, the vagaries of wind and storm bring cycles of addition and removal, often transferring hia materials from one point to another nearby. Dunes are often cut away or some- times left inland when a new cycle of beach building tekes tase? Unfilled areas may be cut off from the sea by ramparts or dune ridges, giving rise to swamps or wet soils. A single minor storm may sweep away the accumulation of months or, again, heap fine materials on coarse or coarse on fine. The cross- sections of Figure I are diagranmatic sketches of conditions actually found. It may be emphasized that nearby all of the inland basins and low interiors of the islands of Arno are obviously structural; they heave ‘been.formed in the course of island building, or rebuilding, rather than by solution. Fige 1. DJAGRAMMATIC CROSS SECTIONS OF SOME ISLAND TYPES SEA ee i LAGOON — RAMPART | va SAND SHELF (a) Wide sandy island, RAMPART - . DUNE a 2 = 24650 50 ge SAR ioe le H SS SS a * OMe TOS Pee eas. eae b SS ge Pa sae — HeTe ae Rates ‘ - Pa OS FRE TOSS yg oO" FOOSE Ses ee : Aon : : fee (OR ye) es Se a ae Oran (b) Island with low stony interior. RAMPART matt? DUNE arr a) a era a os coon ' - Swamp pan) Bag + —_" Rise ae Jey, s fons bee ee SS sh Be eweon cS MR rag tats JAR ————EEe “atari ty Rive. Ci 0b Ghent ueneainE (c) Island with enclosed basin. Recent Sana (d) Narrow island, -h is Aithough the ‘developing land is subject to the. sea there are stabilizing influences that tend to protect its integrity. The slow outward and: upward growth of the reef gradually reduces the violence of; the waves which beat upon “--the land. Ramparts and dunes shelter the interior from all but the largest - storms and as the land widens there is less likelihood that storm waves can ~ sweep. across it. Moreover, the shore itself comes to be underlain with a sand- stone or conglomerate formed as outward flowing waters saturated with ealcium bicarbonate cement the beach materials. The beach sandstone or conglomerate offers no absolute protection as many offshore blocks of these clearly show, but rapid formation helps to defend additions made to existing lands. The ground ‘water may bring about cementation elsewhere than on the beaches and locally phosphatic cementation may stabilize loose materials. 1/ The stabilizing effects of vegetation are obvious. The root mat binds . the surface soil. and the tops.of plants both large and small reduce theviolerce — of surface flow by wind and water, idecreasing erosion and encouraging depositiax - The stabilization is probably. important in: protecting ramparts and dunes. but it is easy to overestimate the importance of vegetation; land also forms on dry atolls where the vegetation today is too sparse and small to have major effects. | DESTRUCTION | Despite ‘the eebet Tang influences aber! the narrower lands cannot be “made st secure against destruction by ne JOF storms; datas on a 2 geological time 3 seale ; ns dene ol have a somewinat ephemeral "Epdebence: Vigehone are con- peered pacqinliged rare in the southern Marshalls ie are well known. Those of 1905 and igi have been well documented ty the epee and Japanese then 3 resident. oe. an old man of Ine wiles, pecans. four typhoons in his Lifetime, including the above ae and knew of anouhee | in ee days of his grand- parents. For se of the four he described the windshifts and an intermediate 1/ Current hypothese of beach rock formation scem to rule out the simple assumptions made here. ee a period of calm that indicate the passage of a stmt center. Thus, it seems that typhoons and their attendant effects must be considered normal in the sequence of land formation, On Arno the typhoon of 1905 was clearly the most destructive in a period of perhaps a century. Along the entire east coast of the atoll there was the ~ ‘long island of Namej (the Terranova of Agassiz), an unbroken land from the pass near the east end of Ine island to the tip of present aay L'angar Island. When the storm ended the wider portions of this island lay as isolated fragments,,. their centers intact. Much of the narrow land had been washed over by the great waves -that cut away the land margins and replaced the former surface with primitive rock and sand. Other land had disappeared entirely, leaving the reef platform bare, vernaps as much as it had been before the land formed. In the subsequent 45 years this area has rebuilt to a considerable degree, with sand ‘spits linking the individual islends and a rampart again manteling part of the - bare platform. “The same typhoon is said to have caused extensive damage on. Ine island; the narrow land. between Ine Village and Jab'u was reduced in width and the effects. are plainly visible in the condition of the narrower parts of the island from Jab'u west to Lukwoj. The 1918 typhoon was less destructive but left some effects. The small island of inen* edrik 45 said to have been separated from the southern end of fine Teiand by nae storm. The sibaorr and northwest of Jab'u was reputedly washed over for the second time by this typhoon nd at a point where the sea- ward reef is indented, the land was again eee through to the reef rock Bulow, | Here is deneratrated one way in cee eo a the land surface: The Waves coming across the land from the bids as fe side “Ee under= cutting at the lagoon shore; the dense root mat of coconuts presumably held the surface layers but the sand below was readily washed away and thus a = 6 = shallow "waterfali" retreated across ‘the island. For the most part this water- fall cut only about half way across the island and remains as a deeply scalloped escarpment, 3 to 4 feet high. The individual "scallops" are the "washout pits" that can be recognized elsewhere on Ine Island. This area, like Namej, indicates rapidity of rebuilding; the channel has _ vanished entirely although its surface and that below the escarpment are lower ‘than the former land. Along the lagoon shore a high dune has been buiit and now supports a young coconut grove. GROUNDWATER The groundwater is discussed in detail in the report of the Hydrologist and it is ‘sufficient here to mention its existence. The classical Ghyben- ie oe would picture a lens of fresh water floating in and on the salt water, both within a matrix of unconsolidated coral detritus that prevents eearane mixing. It is evident thet this view must be altered somewhat if we consider that the fresh water overlies a more or tees impermeable platform eas The salinity of the praundeeten 46 snfluenced by rainfail, of course, and so is subject to possible seasonai changes. Other obvious factors are distance from the shore and subsurface permeability, and the latter, in turn, is affected by the relative coarseness of the salle composing the land. The hydrological Laima ayia ll on eng by DLC.) Gone (Atoll Research Bulletin 8) indicate that the reef platform must have ie poreciable per- meability and thet a well developed Ghyben—Herzberg lens is present. ~ 7 - Soil Formation There are many different rainfall regimes throughout the Pacific and in consequence there are "wet" islands and "dry" islands, as well as others subject \ to periodicities of rainfall, either annual or at irregular intervals. It is quite obvious that moisture influences vegetation and leaching processes. In addition, the intensity and distribution of dry periods regulates soil salinity and the possible concentration or precipitation of dissolved. substances. Thus it should be kept in mind that in the foilowing we are principally concerned with a "wet" atoll having an annual precipitation of some 120 inches with a short and only "relatively dry" season. Throughout the worid there are areas of limestone resembling the atolls in chemical composition but uplifted for various etal aH The aaa deweloped on these indicate the course through which the atoll soils would pass if they eee abn the sea for sufficient time, In the oldest such areas the calcium and magnesium carbonates, which make up Suck a large part of the present ‘ atolls, have been entirely dissolved from the surface layers and often from a considerable depth; the soil then. consists a combinations of aluminum, silica, iron and other constituents originally present as only small percentages. The time , Fequired for such fommah aon is Beeae and the solution of several feet of limestone may yield only an inch or ae of lst ‘In contrast the present atoll soils are extremely youthful and are classified as lithosols and regosols. fi. The surface layers have been darkened by addition of organic matter and there has been some solution of carbonates but in the main the materials of the soils have been little altered. oh Lithosols "An azonal group of soils with little or no horizon differentation ... if deeper, consisting largely of rocks and stones" Regosols "An azonal group of soils with little or no horizon differentation, deep ... over bedrock, and generaly non-stony, con=- sisting of materials such as loess, marine and lacustrine sediments and sands." = Game PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE PARENT MATERIALS 8 0 has been mentioned that much of the sea-derived material is eoamad eit weet ete ee 4s a varying aaeer Cat of fine gravel and sand. 2 Here and there are beaches made os entirely of ne finer materials. Many of the cobbles and pony 8 bee ets are made up Oe Bcptitncria porous corals which hold appreciable amounts of moisture and are penetrated by roots to some extent; thus they are more favorable for plant eeden. fant wether more susceptible to disintegration than size alone would Boeee oe. | | The beach deposits formed along the lagoon shores vary in particle size from medium to very coarse sands, often with an admixture of fine gravel; locally they may ‘consist of gravelly sands. The dune sands are finer and relatively uniform in size but mixtures Pets ei dune sands are reworked or ; washed over adjacent land. Soils Ce from Heoral mud" were not found at Arno but have been reported elsewhere. a , ' The coarse materials are tg composed of stony corals and Lithothamnion rock, whereas the lagoon sands pes, ae a high proportion of Foraminifera tests and Haiimeda PEACHES 5 as well as ground up coral and shells. Several investigators of "coral" reefs have betnved out that calcareous algae and other organisms often cout riuwee. more aeewial oO the reefs than the corals themselves; thus Mayor suggested that Rose Atoll was properly a "Lithothamnion atoll". PY aanad 40 hes sy arty ie These distinctions become more significant when the results of chemical analyses of various. organisms are compared (Table I). The inorganic parts of the reef building corals consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate, whereas some of the Lithothamnion group contain as high as 25% magnesium carbonate. 72 The U.S. Bott ee ee delimits particle sizes as follows: stones (irregular) and cobbles (rounded), 10"-3"; coarse gravel, 3"-1/2" ; fine gravel 1/2'-2 mm.; very coarse sand 2 mm.-l mm.; coarse sand, 1lmm,-0.2mm. ree Another alga, Halimeda, however, contains only about 1% or less of magnesium carbonate. Moreover, the two minerals species of calcium carbonate, calcite and aragonite, which differ somewhat in solubility, are characteristic of different. organisms. Some organisms that contribute little mass to the reef are nevertheless sources of certain eiements, such as phosphorus, needed for plant growth. Table I Range in Inorganic Composition of Some Marine Invertebrates After Clark and Wheeler (U. S. Geol. Surv. Frof. Paper 124, 1924) and Twenhofel (Principles of Sedimentation, 1939). ~~ Cal03 MgC03 Si0, Ca3P205 (AL jo % % st 2)203 CaSO), p zé ia " g 2) Aleyonarian corals 73-99 .25-15.7 O.4-1.7 Tr-8.6 TrelsQ | Tes Dale, Madreporian corals 98-99 + OF 1.1 5 0-1,2 O-Tr O-0.7 0° Saat Foraminifera 77-90 1811.0 Tr-15 Tr Tr-5.0 fe) Echinoderms 78-93 9,0-15.0. 0-10.0 Ur-1.9 0.1-5.2 Tr=-4.2 Mollusks 94-99.9 O-6.0 0-2 .2 0-0.9 0.4-1.9 0 - 0.2 Crustaceans 29-83 3.7-16.0 O-3.8 8.7-27.0 106-8.9 Te = So _ Calcareous algae 7-99 .02-25.0 02-2.1 Tr-0O.4 .O0Ltal.6 .03tol.4 Soils formed by weathering of consolidated limestones er tiGE ‘common on Arno and presumably this is likewise true of other atolls that have not been uplifted, since the pia zone of cementation is near tide level. The composition of cemented limesands and conglomerates resembles that of the un- consolidated material's but the former are obviously less suitable for soil and plant development. Such rock is usually permeable to some degree and roots and percolating waters soon develop numerous deep fissures and pockets of soil material. - 10 = Brown phosphate rock occurs on many low islands; this is formed by phosphate leaching from guano deposits into limy materials beneath and there forming insoluble calcium phosphates. The calcium carbonate is replaced wholly or in part by the phosphate and thus (excepting peat Bo tis) acid soils, ae feone at all, occur on phosphate areas, e.g. Holei Islet, Palmyra Island, as reported by Christophersen (Bishop Mus. Bul. Lh, 1947). During the replacement process the material is deve cemented if not already ‘sO, hence BREGESnE the same mechanical limitations to iene growth mentioned aoate, The three smali areas of phosphate oe Gbserged on Tees however, were nighiy Piscuved and contained pockets of qieeusailacated sand. ' Wave ‘drifted punice has been found on Basia low islands and locally its mass may be great enough to affect the soil or alate growth (c.f. the Funifuti gael On Arno, except to provide MEP BOPeneS for tne natives, its signifi- cance is probably nil; even where it sated ‘nost abana aint its. weight per unit land area is ee ‘Low islands near voleanic areas may gets from ash deposits put Arno is penate from Broke. i” : By the nature of atoll fommatien alee rocks and minerals weutd not be Saag except neh those naneronted by man or a rare erratic drartved ashore endlesed in tree Hodes: This expectation is not aiways a sare. one: The sweep ing conclusions concerning ‘soil eee apaun by Tene and ego (Carnegie inst. chante 34,0:201-208 , 192k) rani analyses ‘of a 2 single set of samples from Boge Atoll are entirely vitiated by ‘the discovery of poet poe ments in 1 the reef. Basalt had se reported by the Wilkes Expedition and by eee long thefoes, put chests reports were considered erroneous by Mayor (Carnegie Tet. Publ. 3L0:73-79, 1924) who aeeeea the material analysed. SubeeaueHis eel lection by L. P. Shultz (Personal communication) has verified the presence of basalt. Likewise David and Sweet (The Atoll of Funafuti, Sect. V, jo LN ew 1904) present a soil analysis but note that a little of the soil from the sample locality had been brought in as ballast from Samoa. PHYSICAL FACTORS Once exposed above the sea the land materials are subject to the con- tinuous action of atmospheric and biological agents. The first rains dilute and then rinse out the salt left by the depositing waves. On wet atoils this is repeated when salt is again added by storm waves, spray or evaporating brackish waters whereas on dry atolls the rainfall may be insufficient to remove the salt from the surface layers. Other substances, calcium and magnesium carbonates and the small seu see of other elements that occur with them or in the dead organic materials, are much more slowly dissolved by rainwater. ‘Solution Nevertheless solution is tne dominant physical process acting upon the tand. The carbenic acid released by roots and organic matter decomposition or pantie into the soil by rainfall converts calcium carbonate to the soluble bicarbonate which then moves into the groundwater. Some of this precipitates along the shores, cementing sand and rubble <5 tecchroex, ud it is lost from the island interiors. We may calculate 2 that carbon dioxide dis- solved in rainfall before it reaches the soil is alone sufficient to reduce the land level about 1 ay per century. This rate may be increased by a few to several-fold by the effects of living organisms and their decomposition products, The estimates of Sayles (Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. 66:380-467, 1931) on the weathering of pence iaaked windblown limesand in Bermuda indicated reduction of the land surface at the rate of 6.1 cm. per 100 years. This is little or nothing in one man's span but in a geological sense the process is rapid. Thus LB 120" rainfall per year, solubility of calcium .52 millimols/liter at 25°C and .0031 atm. CO5, assumed density of the sand 1.8. Me sit appears that as an:island widens with time so does its interior lower and a -few millénia of such-:weathering would bring its surface to the level of the water table. There-is no evidence that this has taken place on Arno atoil but ,: the consideration again demonstrates the youthful condition of the land surface. Solution progresses rapidly in the upper layers. The innermost margins ihe Of: the belt:.of stony land are much less coarse than the outer beach for as they weather the large fragments give rise to smaller. The gravel-sized particles ' found within the upper organic horizon of the older soils are often soft and _} easily crushed, and frequently are penetrated by roots. Similarly, the sand -. particles are most disintegrated within this zone. On Arno the most highly weathered soils often contain much more gravel in the surface horizon than immediately below. Although otherexplanations are possible, the general con- currence of this suggests concentration of the gravel by solution of the finer particles. - Cementation Except for tio hidosiataseneiion » Cenciaabamanbyomeedblibatath of dissolved ‘carbonates in the upper few feet .of soil is not of consequence under Arno condi- - tions. Occasionally slight cementation of sand particles in’ the immediate vicinity of decaying roots was observed and in one instance slight cementation was noted throughout the sand overlying a buried organic layer near the ground- ‘- water level. There are, however, no."hardpans" or illuvial horizons within the soil proper on Arno nor would there be expected under the prevailing conditions -, of rainfall and parent .material. Oh Re et | In a few profiles. examined:lagoon laid sands rested conformably on un- weathered strongly cemented sandstone at a depth of 40" or more; likewise several wells penetrated to sandstone. In no case.were these layers uncovered. sufficiently .to determine whether they lacked the slope’ characteristic of beach- rock and hence it is uncertain whether they originated at the time of land formation or later. Near the boundary between Lukwég and Kinajong on Ine Island is a soft, relatively fine textured sandstone well above high tide level, This is thought to have formed in the lower part of a dune and subsequently been exposed by storm action. in a sense cementation is merely an incidental consequence of secondary lime deposition and can be expected wherever water saturated with calcium bicarbonate evaporates or loses carbon dioxide, as by warming or escape of excess acquired under the higher carbon dioxide pressure in the upper soil. | In regions of scanty rainfall or frequent alternation of wet and dry periods cementation near the soil surface is possible. and may account for the "hardpan" observed in the soils of. Christmas and Fanning Islands by Christophersen Baas Becking's ("The Soils of Coral Atolls", Preliminary Notes on Project E-6, South Pacific Comm., 1950) interpretation of such hardpan, however, suffers fro some misapprehension as to the processes involved. One common mode of formation: (eng. the caliche of subhumid soils of the western United States) is through limited penetration of the scanty rainfall, the periods of wetting being folowed by drying which causes precipitation of carbonates. Under particular climatic conditions such "hardpans" may be normal but their beeaneeaes elsewhere ought not to be assumed. Cementations by phosphates leached from guano deposits has been mentioned in the previous Sen Considerable care is necessary to distinguish between "hardpan" or in- durated layers formed in the normal course of soil development and somewhat similar layers that originated otherwise and later, by exposure or burial, came to occur beneath a shallow soil horizon. For -example, on Palmyra Island Christophersen described a profile with 10 cm. of "mold" overlying a 10 cm. me ty as thickness of Lisophatie “nardpan" which in turn rested on coral sands; almost certainly this is more truly seen as a eon highly organic soil layer developing debe tein bed of phosphatic rock. The rock, rather than the sand below, is the parent ee et of the soil and antecates it. Similar soils are found on Arno over deeper beds of phosphate rock which can in no sense be regarded as "hardpan". Soil Movement and Burial — Likewise, burial of an ans de soil, as by the debris thrown up in great _ storms, followed by soil development on the new material can give rise to an anomolous protic: Such a buried soi). with a black horizon at the surface end a second dark horizon at some depth was found on Ine Island (Profile #4). A somewhat similar profile was described, aithough apparently not recognized as such, on Palmyra Island by Christophersen. Two profiles on Ile aux Canards described by Baas-Becking are aimost certainly due to burial of a pre-existing soil, though he curiously regarded the dark layers at depth as illuvial horizms. Unpublished descriptions, photographs and analytical data from profiles taken on Canton Island by Dr. L. H. MacDaniels indicate that two of these have buried organic horizons. In addition to burial of well developed soils small periodic additions of wind-blow or wave-fiung sand on a vegetated area may result in a very consider- able depth of "surface" soil colored by organic residues. The importance of dune formations in raising land height has been referred to previously. Apparently there is little movement of sand inland beyond the dune under the usual Arno conditions where dunes are soon vegetated, thus in- creasing their effectiveness in trapping sand. Since windbreaks diminish wind velocities for some little aeeeeges to windward, as well as to leeward, it may be that tall vegetation, such as the palms, limits dune height. 1G Despite their texture, newly formed or See vegetated dunes are subject to considerabie stipe meee Hen Henkes rains. Uke send ersded as the steeper slopes is deposited as the meter sinks into the a (Pro- ‘file #27) and in fact a ffente a marked Piebesnies of the inland dune slope. This process is intensified by clearing and burning in the conus groves but the mixture of beach and dune oenae found in etapa aed soils near olcer dunes suggests that it has been of general occurrence. it is probable that rapid washing of sand excavated from the taro pits brought about the very gentle slopes of their sev (ese rims. Apart from slope washing, eal nogenene inland is of negligible pro- pone eee near village areas where rain is pence reed in the hard- packed walks. The resulting See ede bien of sand a low places nearby is of no consequence in soil development but numerous sand pits dug to resurface the walks provide excellent nel ceracurase Shore Erosion and Storm Damage | aie ndadtton tho the aeeetae tyFhoon damage already mentioned, there may well be additional effects no longer obvious, such as saturation of organic exchange complex with sodium, etc. Unusual storms or a cycle of shore erosion May cut away the land to such an extent that soils of the interior are exposed along the beach and ultimately modified by the attendant changes in vegeta- tion and environment. In consequence of typhoons and cycles of cutting and deposition, Ee Plena ngs of micro-relief and soil distribution and oc- casional profile anomalies must be considered "normal", BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Organic Matter From previous paragraphs it is already apparent that living vegetation and its disintegrating products contribute greatly to the solution of calcium «= 16 = carbonate by, their production of.carbonic acid. Through penetration of roots this process may occur slowly even well within large pieces of porous coral. Baas-Becxing has called attention to the abundance of algae which on Arno, as elsewhere on the moist tropics, mantle’the surface of rocks and even the sand in. open groves. -Apart from the effects on solubility the organic matter itself is of ‘great significance in soil formation. In the absence of the more profound changes that mark mature soils, the presence of organic matter is the principal feature characterizing the atoli soil. It is obviously the principal source of cation exchange capacity. Further, the accumulation of nitrogen parallels that of well decomposed organic matter ("humis") for there is a fixed carbon- nitrogen ratio of approximately 10 or 12 to l. The breakdown of organic remains is carried on in large part by micro- | organisms but earthworms are often abundant, and small snails locally so, in the darker soleee The earthworms are présumably significant agents in mixing the surface matter with mineral soil although root growth and decay provides another means of incorporation. Dead woody tissues -are generally broken down _by termites. In localized areas burrowing crabs accomplish very ‘considerable mixing. . Where excessive moisture prevents normal oxidation of organic materials. these accumulate giving rise to peats and mucks, the distinction being the higher inorganic content of the muck. | - Nitrogen Fixation Baas--Becking has stressed the possible role of algae as nitrogen fixer and from soil samples collected by him a new group of nitrogen bacteria, | Beijerinckia, has been isolated by Derx. Azotobacter has. not. been reported in atoll soils but would be expected in this habitat. /t, Collections of thése were made by Dr. LaRivers. ete On Arno legumes are common aie nodules were apdereea on Vigna marina, Sophora tomentosa and Canavalia sericea. On ‘ine latter hey occur on the smaller roots at some distance from the root crown and Ree ae may be easily missed. The Vigna seems particularly important for it forms thick masses in the open groves and extends aggressively onto sand beaches, old dwelling sites and burned ae The two species of Canavalia, though less abundant, are vigorous vines lightly shaded areas. Intsia bijuga is the only leguminous tree but its durkuce in the original forest cannot “ estimated accurately now. Seabirds Throughout the dry ‘uthande of the Pacific nesting seabirds have created Cee deposits and highly nitrogenous soiis. Under wet conditions such accumula= tions do not remain tong but the numerous areas of phosphate rock are generally considered to have originated beneath such guano areas. As aentsoned, the phosphate was precipitated as the insoluble calcium salt when carried into the calcareous material ee whereas the soluble nitrates were washed away. The resuiting product is usually well cemented although unconsolidated brown sands may occur with the rock. Phosphate rock, guano, and soils strongiy influenced by guano occur only where faite numbers of seabirds Sails a for long perioc® Even away from these areas, however, the birds must have a very considerable effect on the soil. They are common in oe numbers on many islands where they roost and nest (see report of the oer feeding along the beaches and at sea ai are the only significant agents adding to the — from the cieatctaiinad of the sea, Man Native man himself is einssl ogee agent although the activities of the island inhabitants a century ago were more locaiized than now. Many of the soils that originated in dense native forests now support open coconut groves; it is evident that such changes must profoundly alter soil properties but the extent of this cannot be weil estimated. The taro pits are an obvious disturbance and the area influenced can be approximated grossly, but there is no way to recognize areas influenced by old house sites and fires, | | Man aoe) has an effect on the fertility levels of the soil which in the Marshalls, ues least, is cupsousey counter to that of the seabirds. As the sirietbaaih, have noted, the Marshallese went to the tidal beacn or reef to defecate. This ie as nowever commendable as a sanitary measure, has meant continuing loss from peuieaa of most of the nutrient elements contained in the dick. In Holland the soils about dweiling sites occupied for centuries have in some cases been colored by iron phosphates which accumulated through a concentration of peoSEneuus from the surrounding areas cropped by man and his are se, It seems probably that the reverse has been occurring, in - Se sections of Arno and its possible importance is greater because of the very limited land area occupied and the relatively dense population. A recent source of nutrient losses is through the export of copra; for example, each ton carries away the phosphorus equivalent of 25 pounds or more of superphosphate. ~ Hos SOILS OF ARNO The soils of Arno atoll have developed under a uniform temperature of about 81° F. and a rainfall approximating 120 inches per year, rather well dis- ‘tributed except for a drier period that usually occurs from January to March. As mentioned, the well drained soils are regosols and lithosols and even those called "well developed" are relativeiy primitive. in terms of profile nomen- clature they are "A-C soils" with an A, horizon (zone of incorporated organic matter) and, usually, a narrow A, (transitional) horizon passing directly into the relatively unaltered parent. material, the C horizon. As a group these sails are a tropical equivalent of the "humus-carbonate soils" of the European workers. The soils of Arno were classified into series and types on the basis of common properties, particularly those relating to profile morphology. Complexes - are recurring associaticns of. various soil and land types that cannot be readily described or mapped as separate units. TYPES AND MORPHOLOGY A. Soiis developed on sands and graveliy sands. 1. Shioya loamy sand: This unit was first described on Okinawa and subsequently has been mapped on Saipan and several islands of the Pacific. It is a well drained alkaline soil formed principelly on lagoon iaid sands. The profile consists of a surface horizon 5 to 8 inches deep darkened by organic matter to a light gray, gray, or brownish gray color, resting on light-colored limesands. It is typical of the younger but not recent lands and is widespread particularly along windward lagoon coasts and on narrow lands; it is usualiy absent from the seaward coasts and wider island interiors. A characteristic profile is as follows: - 20 « 0-7" Friable loamy sand, dark gray (10 YR Lf) &. in color when moist, single-grained or weakly aggregated. pH 7.8 7 - 8" Transitional. 8 - 40"4 Single-grained pinkish white (7.5 YR 9/2) loamy sand composed of forams and ground shells, coral and Halimeda fragments. pH 8.4 On wider ciieeeenenevee often a transitional zone betneen this unit a and the Arno lee sand inland. As mapped, the unit contains some areas of the Shioya sand, particularly along bedi coasts. oa The present vegetation of this unit is usually open coconut grove although small areas are in the ja oes serub forest fsck Part II). Scaevola, Messerschmidia (Tournefortia), romdaanand Guetearda often form a dense under emo in eee maintained groves. — The ae cover ‘depends to some extent on the degree of shading and aici on salinity aitnough this was not aheeued in the field. Wedelia, Pinbeesepaltce Vigna, Triumfetta, Tacca, Centella and the grasses, Thuarea, Eleusine, Lepturus and Paspalum vaginatum are often } common in open groves. Under present conditions coconuts are certainly the most suitable crop for this land. | 3 ae groundwater underlying this gaan may Be fresh or brackish but it is doubtful whether the surface soils are normally ever very saity. Exposure and pastas Oe salinity affect the ebdabathion at hanes together with eh deter- mine the relative deveilamnent of the shen artena rl oe type. dees favorable conditions their BevEtouNEHET ape inta - bogs eae swept ae the 1905 typhoon and subsequentiy weli ect were mapped as ee ie this unit, although ee you than the modal pEotaue, Chieeeedetesent d descriptions, "sand of a Lightish pray boom on Washington Island, the "grayish. brown: soul" of the coconut plantations on ia The color:names and the notations for hue, value and chroma are according to the Munsell system. Unless otherwise noted, they apply to dry samples. Fanning Isiand and "lightish gray brown coral sand...mixed with root fibers, but still with a low percentage of organic matter." on the beach crests of Palmyra Island appear to place these soils with either this unit or the Shioya sand later deseribed.* 2. Shioya preven Tp loamy sand: This type differs from the preceding chiefly in its content of gravel-sized fragments which may be of either lagoon or sea reef:origin. Small areas of stony loamy sands are included. Most of the unit occurs on the narrow islands and part of it shows evidence of old typhoon damage. The profile is similar to that of the loamy sand although sometimes more _ irregular because of the coarse materials. The vegetation is largely open coconut grove with vigorous invasion of Scaevola and Messerschmidia from the shoreline when clearing is neglected. 3. Shioya sand: The Shioya sand differs from the loamy sand in its lighter colored and generally-shallower zone of organic incorporation; the textural distinction does not always exist. As recognized in the field this type includes dune sands, and medium and coarse beach sands, all of recent origin. Small areas of gravelly sand were not separated nor could a salty phase be recognized with certainty in the field. The largest areas of this unit are recently vegetated swept lands and sands formed after the 1905 and 1918 typhoons: A belt of this type is eohmorly found between the sandy beaches and the Shioya loamy sand inland but is often too narrow to map. A typical profile of the Shioya sand follows: O - 3 - 6" Single-grained pinkish gray (75 YR 6/2-7/2) (moist) sand or loamy sand, recognizably a mixture of de- composing organic matter, brown roots and white sand. pH 8.2. Changing abruptly through a nerrow transi-. tional zone to: 3 = 6 -30% White or pinkish white (75 YR 9/1 - 9/2) limesand. - 22 = Areas of Shioya sand adjacent to the loamy sand usually have been planted to coconuts; elsewhere the characteristic vegetation consists of Scaevola and Messerschmidia, occasionally with Pemphis or Suriana, along the coast, and a mixture of young trees, such as Calophyilum, Guettarda, Terminalia Morinda and Pandanus. . Triumfetta, Fimbristylis and the grasses Thuarea,Hleusire, and Lepturus, and Vigna are characteristic ground cover plants. in the main this type is regarded as a juvenile stage of the Shioya - ioamy sand. Its development varies with that of the vegetation it supports which, in turn, is restricted by salinity and lack of fertility. Development is most rapid when the soil adjoins older land and shares its outflowing ground- water, leaf litter and seed supply. 4. Arno loamy sand (tentative serice\: This is the well--drained, dark-colored calcareous soil formed on old beach and dune sands under the . vegetation of the wider island interiors. This soil differs from the Shioya loamy sand in the dark color and very high organic matter content of the surface horizon (Table came Tt is literally a black-and-white soil, with extreme contrast between the well defined surface horizon and the light. colored limesands beneath. This unit occurs in the interiors of Arno, Tinak, Kilange, Bikareij and the several wider sections of Ine Island. A representative profile is.#25 from Arno Island: Surface Scattered twigs and breadfruit leaves. O-11" Highly organic, granular loamy sand or sandy. loam,. somewhat plastic when worked. Black when moist, very dark gray (10 YR 3/1) when dry, heavily flecked with . ..-; lighter sand particles. pH 7.5. Harthworms abundant. 11 - 13" ees transition from above to oe 13 - 21" Single grained, light gray loamy sand stained with organic matter becoming white (10 YR 8/2) at a depth of a few inches. pH 8.4. 21 - 54" Friable, pinkish white (75 YR 9/2) limesand becoming coarser at 40". =» 22 Since the texture of the surface soil cannot be determined in the field ech eer ee eS organic content, the textural class is based on the under~ lying soil. Size of the sand fraction in ienes ofl origin, the beach deposits being coarser or ae well sorted than the dune sands. The exact thickness of ; the dark ereisee layer and the thickness and color of the transitional zone varies; vee combined depth may range Son 7 to 20 inches in the profiles observed. The eee es are usually found near the lagoon shores where ris te passes into well developed Shioya ioamy wana or near the margins of os pits. Where nek at is present it is often much more abundant in the sur- face layer and is there highly ‘pis ten and frequently "rotten". Its greater abundance may result from the more rapid solution of the sand. The presence of relatively unweathered surface gravel can usually be related to former house sites. " Included as this unit as mapped are small areas of associated less well drained soils with similar profiles as well as a few areas of the Arno gravelly loamy sand and transitions to the Shioya loamy sand that were too small tc be separated. In — all cases the EF ounhaber beneath this Uae is fresh or nearly so and the taro pits are located in areas of this type and the related Arno gravelly sandy loam. The peat or muck of the taro pit bottoms and the varied soils of the excavated slopes are also Je pe bee, as this unit as mapped. The "spoil" from the pits forms at most a scarcely discernible bordering vridee and the profile resembles that of the surrounding areas, although often shallower. This unit and the following also form a major part of the "breadfruit zone", Individual trees or small groves mixed with tall ¢oeconuts are character- istic although not always present. Pandanus is usually common and even in well cleared groves small trees or sprouts of Allophylius, Morinda, Guettarda and = Qh as Pipturus are abundant. Untended groves are occupied by secondary forest, composed of the above species with others such as Fremna, Intsia, and on Arno Island, Ixora. Wedelia grows as a rank herb in openings and with Ipomoea tuba climbs liana-like in areas of secondary OR CSE The three ferns, Polypodium, . Asplenium and Nephrolepsis are usually present, prangapal ts: near the palm bases and on fallen palm logs; mosses are eben abundant on Pheer sites as well, Other ground cover ee vary with Light intensity; under demae oo the ground may be quite bare or Cpoewiere Spapnety. vegetated rae dee seedlings, Oplismenus, Ipomoea littoralis, small Tacca and scattered enemas and other grasses. in openings Tacca, Vigna and tine grasses grow sicisne nein, The » vegetation of the less well drained areas differs chiefly by the presence of Hibiscus tiliaceus and through the effects of dense shade. Excepting the small areas of phosphatic soils, the Arno series with its less well drained associates are a most fertile soils of the atoll. The . breadfruit grows rapidiy here and bananas, papayas and limes grow fairly ous although severe iron. chlorosis and probably other deficiencies retard their development when grown in cleared areas, as around eis haces, Coconuts | usually grow well on these Arno soils but on Arno Isiand itself a malady lead- ing to early barrenness and death of the palms is associated with a orton of the unit. although not with its marginal occurrence or the berdesne: ne soils. In consequence, much of the interior there is now in breadfruit a secondary forests. According to the people this area was well populated for a long time prior to 1900; the malady was also present at nat time and mene ) coconut was maintained only by pga ee PePlontang: | The development and Pe nena) exhibited by the Arno soils are evidence of their oes teh aes age. They were formed under a nerve mixed eel oe forest that was rertaeed in part by the “ee shies Ieepieulture and more or less «a 5% completely by "copra culture". Thus, their development cannot be related to the existing vegetation. The generalized profile descriptions given by 0. C. Rogers and by Alexander Spoehr for adjacent Majuro Atoll are essentially the same as that of the Arno loamy sand. C. 5S. Pearson, who has examined my photographs and samples of the Arno soil, states that it is the dominant type on Los Negros Island in the Admiralties. 5. Arno gravelly loamy sand: This unit resembles the prio aes eieae for the most part it has formed on coarse gravelly beach sands. These are usually of lagoon origin but some areas of highly fragmented outside shore deposits have also given rise to this type. The unit is usually associatedwith the Arno loamy sand in the wider island interiors but except on L'angar Island, is of much smaller extent on the islands mapped. It will probably be found more abundant in the chain of smaller islands around the windward rim of the atoll. The profile is similar to that of the loamy sand except for the abundame of ‘gravel, particularly in and on the surface horizon. Much of the gravel thore is very rotten and readily crushed but the soil is always calcareous. The gravel of the deeper horizons appears little weathered. Included with this unit as mapped are small areas of stony or coarse gravelly soils derived from mixed rampart materials but having a profile similar to the type. On Namwi Island a phosphatic soil resembling the Arno gravelly loamy sand in morphology (Profile #21) was not separated from it during the reconnaissance of that area. The vegetation and uses of this unit are identical with those of the loamy sand except as it may occasionally overlie somewhat brackish groundwater. The presence of coarse material presents obvious difficulties in the use of hand tools. - 26 = 6. "Ltangar gravelly sandy loam": This name is used largely as a matter: of convenience for the area of this unit actually observed is too small to warrant “proposal of a new series. As the name suggests the unit occurs on L'angar Island where the type locality is marked by a protruding mass of old beachrock associated with a legend concerning discovery of the banana Jorukwor (see Part Tc A typical profile of this area follows: O- 20" Very gravelly moist granuiar sandy loam, plastic when worked, with only a moderate content of organic matter. Surface dark gray when moist, gray (10 YR 5/1) when.- ; dry but superficially appearing 6/1 because of the abundance of lime particles, changing to light brown- - . gray (10 YR.6/2) near the bottom of the horizon. pH of dry samples 7.7 - 7.8. The larger gravel is softened and much of the smaller (less than 1") is porous or - rotten. 20 - 35" Very gravelly sandy loam appearing lighter colored : than the above but with a moderate content of organic matter. When dry, light pinkish gray (75 YR 6/1) in. color; pH 7.9. The lower part is heterogeneous, con- sisting of dark soil material mixed with roots and coral. fragments. Bottom of profile not reached. _ This soil. has a more loamy texture in the deeper layers than any of the weli-drained soils examined. As borne out by the analyses in Tabie II, the organic matter distribution of ‘this soil differs from that of the Arno series in the relatively low (6.5%) content of the surface layer and a surprisingly high (4%) content of the organic matter at the 30" depth. The mode of origin of this soil is not known but its inland position and the highly weathered gravel indicate considerable age. It is tentatively regarded as a down-drainage associate of the Arno gravelly loamy sand that cecurs around it. | The present vegetation consists of abundant Hibiscus tiliaceus with a few tall palms and volunteer coconut seedlings, Pipturus, Morinda and a few bananas. Ipomoea tuba and Wedelia are ee as climbers. According to the people this area is the "best place" for bananas and Soreness many were grown here. = OF & B. Shallow and Stony Soils and Land Types. 7. Phosphate rock complex: Three small areas of brown phosphate? rock occur on Tak-lib, Namwi and L'angar Islands. The soils formed directly on such rock are usually very shallow, ranging from 2-10" in depth. Both rock outcrops and pockets of deeper soil are common. The soil properties vary; in the center of Tak-lib the shallow soil is highly organic and appears sates hes wet whereas on Namwi and L'angar Island the soil is granular and contains con- siderable brown phosphatic sand. A characteristic shallow profile from L'angar Island is: O- 4" "A Black, highly organic granular sandy loam. 4 = 6" Dark brown, granular loamy sand consisting of organic matter mixed with coarse phosphatic foram sand. 6 = Brown phosphatic rock containing large unaltered fragments of coral. The shallow soils comprise most of the phosphate one! complex but RT eso with them are: (1) small areas of unconsolidated brown phosphatic sand, (2) adjacent limesands with the surface layer enriched in phosphorus, and (3) east sands or gravelly sands with an admixture of phosphate throughout . the profile. So far as observed, none of these three were sufficiently wide- pared on the atoll to warrant separate mapping and because of their affinities they are here considered as a part of the phosphate rock complex. Characteristic profiles of the latter two follow: reg Profile #12 - ee Island) limesand with surface influenced by adjacent phosphate deposits: O-10" Gravelly loamy sand, high in organic matter, granular, black when moist, very dark gray (75 YR 3/1) when dry. pH 7.4. Very possibly not conformable with the under- lying sand.- neki the 10 - 20"4+ White or pinkish white limesand free of ee This profile was observed when traveling with a group of the L'angar people and its relationship to the adjacent phosphate area was not investigated = Powe further, Profile #21 - (Namwi Island) "Namwi gravelly irik gga a gravelly iimesand sleeitenyee cli Jar oa by phosphate rock: anit 0 - 6-9" Well aggregated, very aac Toamy sand or sandy ew igs | loam, high in organic matter. Color very dark brown when moist, when dry dark reddish brown (5 YR 3/2) with particles of 5 YR 3/3 and 4/3 and some coarse white sand. pH 7.20. Earthworms abundant. F men 15" ‘Light brown (75 YR 6/3) loamy sand, less gravelly than above, consisting of white and brown stained foram sand mixed with organic matter. pH 8.1. 16— 25"4 Pinkish white (75 YR 8/2) limesand with some rounded corai gravel. pH 8.1. In appearance this latter soil is very similar to the Arno loamy gravelly sand and, lacking chemical data, the small area on Namwi Island was included with yyfeoow te Arno soils. The very large. content of extractable phos- phorus (Table oe BOETer indicates that this soil shovld be distinguished as a phosphatic phase or as a separate series. “The phosphatic area on ‘Tak-lib Island supports a much battered remnant of oie original aeceat Spperoneie ie only such on the atoll. A few large Pisonia, Cordia and Intsia were noted here, as well as peendincit and the intro- wanecd kapok, Geiba setae On the other ae areas ce een does not serear to differ from the secondary Foret teand nearby and on Arno Island. | omall trees of Pipturus and Morinda are Beda clone with Allophylius, Pandanus and large breadfruit and coconuts. Ground vegetation is sparse in the Bree shade but the ferns, Aspleniun, and = eee al and the climber, Ipomoea tuba, were hobed near the profiles. | The people accompanying A on Namwi Toland Peeae aed that the deeper ven of the complex are favorable for plant growth and stated that ee bananas were grown sill aie ania fers tefore the war. The complex should be favorable for coconut and breadfruit wherever the roots can reach a sufficient volume of soil. a Oe Samples of phosphate ee from each of the three areas were ccllected and will be analyzed. The deposits Ane ne Limited in a and depth to have appreciable commercial significance but the softer materials could be used locally as fertilizer. _8. Dark shallow soils over sandstone: The only area of this un- named anideadedas in the aenies of Bikareij Island. Because of the rock beneath and its closeness to the water table, this soil is only moderately well drained. A characteristic "profile" is as follows: owe Gn Highly organic, black, somewhat plastic sandy loam or. loamy sand. 6" Calcareous sandstone, similar to that now found in the very shallow waters along the northwest shore of the ae _ island. | | . Elsewhere the soil depth CEES co ae A retting pate oe "tou", quarried in the sandstone (perhaps as a well) at the we of this area shows a 6-inch layer of sandstone overlying Bea 6 nels of unconsolidated « or oatr material, which in turn rests on hard savidetieind it is pee epee the roots reach the intermediate layer through enenicesd After heavy rains the water in this pit was fresh to the taste but is said to 2 usually slightly eis! This is probably characteristic of the area in view of the elevation and Location. iy The. unit as mapped ss small areas of Poe ee soil, one of which ee peaupied by a tangle of Clerodendrum. The remainder of the unit is Sh ipor in 7 poorly kept coconut groves with an understory of secondary forest species, Allophyllus , Morinda, Guettarda, Pandanus and, in less dense areas, volunteer coconut seedlings. This area appears en only for the culture of en and pandanus. 9. Stony and very stony complex: This term is used to designate the belt of the soils and land materials formed by the outward building of a rane _= 30 a marked beach rampart on the seaward side of the land. Also included are similarly sedaniaaig areas covered with weathered irregular fragments of coral ey ~ and very probably - deposited by ancient typhoons. A "typical" ree cross-section from the windward beach inland, the synthesis of many observatians , would appear as foliows: (a) Present beach rampart; recently deposited: coral cobbles and rounded plates with anezae gravel and sand mixed in the lower parts; surface commonly ; six to ten feet above high tide. | (b) Twenty-five feet inland from (a); surface of rounded cobbles as at (a) but darkened by weathering ; vegetation is tall Scaevola passing into Scaevola-Pandanus or Scaevola-coconut mixture inland. (c) crete dee oat ne from (a); cobbles markedly weathered and : covered eA many have lost their smooth and rounded surface. Vegetation is coconut plantation with Polypodium, small Wedeiia and sprouts from cut stumps: of Seaevola, ebaetithe and | Morinda. (a) Two age feet inland from. (a), near junction with sandy soils. Rounded cob pies" are no "Longer recognizable; ground surfaced with very irregular weathered fragments of coarse gravel and small stone dimensions, heavily coated with black aigae. Dark soil visible between fragments. Vegetation is coconut plantation, soubote eee ied breadfruit. Polypodium, Nephrolepsis, and Asplenium are Botta ae around the bases and moss-covered lower trunks of the palms. Other Pediat plants are chiefly sprouts and seedlings of Morinda, heii and Pipturus. The land surface is commonly two to three Pee Me uaevEet aot Cy), The profiles corresponding to the above stations show a progressive in- crease in the amount Bgl Sa acs matter and, content of the finer particle sizes, associated with increased disintegration of surface rock. The change from (a) = — ee ist aoe eens to (b) is slight, principally the addition ath small amount of organic matter between the coarser particles, At (c) a black organic gravelly loam occupies the space between the weathered rock and all of the porous fragments are well coe roma by oe At (a) the snubs soil approaches that developed from ay Saag sud lagoon oe aenones the deeper HERES are not much altered. The coarser soe has broken down to weathered gravel and the percentage of sand and finer fractions have increased. Organic matter makes up 20% or more by weight of the material less than 2 millimeters in siz, eines he meee into epee Dis ig vse Eorede of eer outbuilding, of stabilizat ion or of beach erosion, as well as the overwhelming affects of infrequent typhoons, may disrupt any such orderly sequence and the “typical” prosdesagtien above is less common than various Seapicall forms. ‘This unit appears Ee well adapted ba coconut culture although the outer margins are often obviously less suitable than the remainder. In, many cases the palms would probably benefit by retention of the surface organic. i matter and by effective windbreaks along the beaches. sean Gs “Peats and Mucks. : . | i w 10. Manetenis peat: ‘This is a samen fibrous woody peat, Meter at el well elageulerae and saline, formed under Bruguiera conjugata. . When moist, it is dark red in color, drying to dark reddish brown G YR 2/2, 3/2)... The odor of hydrogen sulphide is present in. ue deeper layers. The fresh peat - domaine, has a pH of 7.2 to 7.4 but this changes to pH 5.6 to 5-9 upon drying. This type is usually less than 2 ft. in depth but the center of the large deposit on Ltangar Island is deeper than 40 inches. The shallower areas are often somewhat more devomieeee sd may contain lime fragments... Limesand particles 1 to 2 mm. in size effervesce very slowly with hydrochloric acid, « 926 indicating a considerable degree of weathering, The groundwater fluctuates with tidal changes but is usvally 1 to 2 ft. below the surface, The principal areas of occurrence are on L'angar, Tinak, and Bikareij Islands. The vegetation is unusual, approaching a monotype of Bruguiera, Along the margins Lumnitzera,; Pandafus and the shrubby Clerodendrum may occur but transition from the upland is. ordinarily abrupt and, except for a few epi- phytic Asplenium, the interior vegetation is wholly Bruguiera. More than one age class may be present but the youngest, forming a low ground cover, is ap= parently Sucrtclived in the dense shade, The forest is otherwise quite open Peaceth the canopy and presents a quite unusual aspect with SC anenerahis crabs scuttling about the roots and "knees" that protrude through the cushiony reddish peat. This type is useful only as forest. The Bruguiera is a mao value, strong and durable in contact with the soil and the younger stems ete long straight poles. — aie Mangrove shallow peat and rock complex: This unit sometimes borders areas of liangrove peat and occupies the smaller salty Beprecsions- The most common occurrence is a peat over and in the interstices of coral rubble or fissured rock; small areas of rock outcrop and of peat and muck mixed with encet etre, are also included within this type. The organic ees if peate like, pegenbled the Mangrove peat described above; the mucks, however, are blacker, more decomposed and perhaps less. saline, The principal areas of ‘occurrence are L'angar Island and Tinak Island and the borders of the north inlet on Bikareij Island, out small patches of an acre or less are met with elsewhere, hi The dominant species is Bruguiera which may occur in pure stands. On Bikareij and Namwi Islands only, Sonneratia may be mixed with the Brugulera. Elsewhere Lumnitzera and, on the margins, Pandanus are minor associates. ‘The only use of such areas is as forest although retting pits are often located -~ 336 within them, 12. Mangrove muck: This unit is properly a land type rather than a soil and occupies too small an area to°’warrant much comment. It consists of finely divided organic matter principally derived from Bruguiera, or Bruguiera and Sonneratia, mixed with limesand; it is saline, has a high water content and is flooded or nearly so at high tide. Mangroves grow only on the "drier" margins of the unit but the roots of Sonneratia penetrate outward in it for some distance. The only appreciable area of this type occurs in the deeper basin at the | south end of the north inlet on Bikareij Island. A portion of this is reputedly "bottomless", meri having thrust sticks tied together to a depth of 75 feet Front a canoe without reaching bottom. This had a familiar ring and our investigations. showed a depth of some 4 feet of gel-like muck overlying rock in the enter of the area. This is covered by perhaps six inches of water at. low tide. On exposed margins where the spike-like Sonneratia "knees" arise the muck is two feet or so thick over sand. Muck from beneath this surface smells very strongly of hydrogen sulphide. A sample taken from the center was dull red in color when removed but although | tightly compacted soon turned gray throughout the entire mass. This area is | noteworthy chiefly because of reputed effects of the muck on human skin (Appendix C). 13. Coconut-pandanus peat: This unit occupies an inland swamp on Ul-en' Island and is the principal type found in the old taro pits on Arno Island. The peat is shallow, usually 1 to 2 feet deep and fibrous, the more decomposed portions bound together by a mass of living and dead roots. A description of the typical profile (#24, Arno Island) is: O - 24" Well decomposed peat with many root fragments; pH 6.5 at time of sampling, 5.4 after drying. Color after drying and grinding is brown to dark brown (7.5 YR 4/3). Water level at two inches at time of sampling following heavy rains; it stood much lower on a previous visit. 2h" + Mucky limesand. ee as) Conductivity measurements on the dry samples indicate that both the Arno and Ul-en' occurrencés' are fresh-water peats, although it is possible that the Ui-en! swamp may occasionally be subject to flooding with somewhat more brackish water. Included with the unit indicated on the map of Ul-en' is a small area of euavive, Blade muck at the southeast margin of the swamp. In addition to woody sprouts, Wedelia, Colocasia and Cyrtosperma were growing at this point. People “stated that. these taros could not be grown elsewhere in the swamp although the water had "not very much salt". | : On the remainder of the Ul-en' swamp the vegetation is coconut grove with an abundant undergrowth of pandanus. Wedelia and sprouts of Morinda and Allophylius occur on the slightly higher rises. The peat offers poor footing for the coconuts; fallen logs are numerous and most of the standing trees are curved. Geegaie ocas enous on the margins rather than directly on the surface of the taro pit peats of Arno Islarid but the pandanus is in both positions. Here, too, Hibiseus bidisceus is often a bordering tree and other secondary forest species around the margins contribute some-organic matter. In both areas mosses and ferns, Polypodium, Asplerium and Nephrolepsis are abundant on fallen logs although the ferns perhaps ‘do not reach maximum development here. Dryopteris gogpilodus, the "kinnen menuel", forms dense colonies in the Arno pits but was not seen ereceiene Similarly Eleocharis geniculata was observed only on tl-en! Island where ie, was fairly common on the peat surface near profile #26. It is not iawn whether these peats can be abi azed for taro culture. Both areas are erpseet to immersion after hear rains | and bras ee that an abate to replant some ae fed pits failed because the small plants were covered with water. The potential alge e of the peat is high and cultivation, exposure to sunlight, etc. > would: gradually change ‘the peat to the well decomposed muck in which taro normally grows. ‘Palms. are apparentiy growing well in the - 35 = ; Ul-en' peat although the yields are unknown. The possibility of excavating this | peat for gardens is mentioned later. As nearly as can be determined, the Arno pits were abandoned very early in the century and thus the rate of peat accumulation appears to have been . extraordinarily rapid. According to Ralph McCracken, peat develorment in phos- phate mining excavations on Angaur Island, in the Palaus, proceeds at a similar rate. | | 14. aro pibumucks:, If the area involved were more extensive a taro pit complex might be recognized. The steep inner slopes of the taro pits have been subject to slope wash and other disturbance from human traffic and the rooting of hogs. Not uncommonly coconut husks, fronds and brush from grove clearing are thrown over the edge and usually incompletely burned. The pit bottoms are usually artificial mucks created by long continued sdaie tors of organic matter for taro cuiture. The mucks vary considerably in the 2 of mineral material and in relative "wetness". The groundwater is fresh and its level fluctuates with the tide, the maximum often Beane with a. foot or less of the surface. After heavy rains many of the pits are shallowly flooded for a few days. As noted above, coconut-pandanus peat has formed in the long abandoned Arno pits. Elsewhere abandonment has been less complete or the water level unfavorable for peat accumulation. Taro culture continues in some wits: | . | A typical profile of a Lt mack (#5, Ine Island) follows: Surface Scattered breadfruit alas and seedlings of colocasia and a grass. 3 O - 10" Mucky limesand with some coral gravel less than 1 inch in diameter. Matrix very dark gray flecked with light lime particles. pH of.moist sample 7.6. 10- 32"4 Light gray changing to white sand, the organic matter content diminishing gradually with depth. pH 7.4 at 30 inches. Strong smell of hydrogen sulphide at 30 inches. Groundwater level at 28 inches when sampled but the following day, with the rising tide not yet full, at 15 inches. - 36« Except on-Arno Island the abandoned pits are often occupied by woody vegetation, such as breadfruit on "drier" sites and Hibiscus tiliaceus. One or two pits on Ine Island were completely dominated by Cyperus odoratus. The mucky pits could be readily returned to taro culture if the people wished to do SO. -In their present. condition the drier mucks and pit margins are well suited for bananas but are utilized to only a limited extent for this purpose. D. Miscellaneous Land Types. These include the beaches, limesand drifts, and embayments or inland "flats" of sand, mobile Ge cemeneed neck. Since the fragmentation of the long ee | by the 1905 typhoon much Ps: the remaining land has been reconnected and augnented by wave “heaped sands; the same process can be seen elsewhere as well. Where the pace of ones rises above tide level it is vegetated by ct A fepeeeecnmicia and "coconut peedlnee. all often chlorotic in the early stages. In the course of land formation or repair low areas of the island plat— form are sometimes cut off between ‘the rampart or gravels thrown up along the seaward coast and the existing land or sand‘drifts on the lagoon side. This is the probable origin of many of the existing mangrove ‘wamps and certain interior lowlands, such as that near Kinajong. Rampart formation following: typhoon damage has cau Preis small basins on Aljalttien’ Matol-en' and En¥raen' Islands; these are not yet vegetated. The larger "flats" of Namwi and Bikareij Islands seem to ‘hie been enclosed by extension of existing’lands: As long as such areas are epen to thé sea the higher tides bring in sediments and occasionally rework the surface. Sand banks formed along the margin are rapidly stabilized by vegetation and thus young soils may come to occupy the interior as well as the periphery of an ‘oianae ; iy teh orca ; Not otherwise described is the buried soil found 260 feet inland from the sea-beach near Ine Island (Profile #4, Appendix B). The present surface soil is acy ae characteristic of a moderately well drained associate of the Arno gravelly loamy sand but extending from a depth of 35 inches to over 58 inches below the surface is a dark horizon dorettads organic matter. According to Lijommar of Ine, a typhoon in the ntime of his grandparents" threw up rock along the coast at this point and conceivably burial of the original profile occurred at that time. If Lijommar's statement ifs es literally, however, the maximum age of the present surface profile could scarcely be greater than 125 sit | which appears too slight for the development noted. SOME CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ~~ The pee of some chemical analyses. of the mineral and organic soil samples from Arno are given in Table II.: Descriptions of the profiles, identified by numbers, are given in the preceding section and in Appendix B. The material taken for analysis was that passing a 2 mm. sieve except for the organic samples of profiles #16 and #24 which were ground. »pH was determined by glass electrode, soluble salts by conductivity measurements, total nitrogen by Kjeldahl, organic matter by the rapid microchemical methods of Peech (Soil Science 59:25-38, 1945), and the "readily soluble" amounts of other elements by the methods of Peech and English based on the use of Morgan's extracting solution (Soil Science 57:167~195, 1944). pH, Calcium and Magnesium | As expected, the mineral soils are all slightly alkaline in reaction ranging from 7.2 to 7.5 in the highly organic surface soils to a maximum of pH 8.7 in the unweathered material lacking appreciable organic matter. These soils all effervesce with acid and hence analyses for available calcium were not made. Dried samples of the organic soils have an acid reaction whereas in the field, using indicators, reactions vary from essentially neutral to slightly alkaline. Thus for the same samples: STt 4 T 4 SS OO0T (Ge ov 0S "°T 92° c0* 06°L GE-62 < rae) S 1g S S47 056 a4 ov 0S Colt iey 16 °S og" O¢—TT pueTs] 1esue,T 64 S iE g LS Ook zz St Ad) a 2$°9 OL°L 9-0 pues AweoT ATToaera sedue)T TT OL S 1 8 86 O¢TT $4 OL OTe 9°6T 66° °) Sod GO a A 8-0 *sT aedue,7] eweoT Apues ouldy Jo 94eTO —osse peouenTjuy eyeydsoug eU Ag 4 T S Te 0006 ce OT 082 L0° es° OT*S Ge-0z LS S 1 S St O08e tz 0z 00% oe° Val ae 0S°h 9T-OT pueTsT puuey 0T S it 9 gse o2tt S17 08 098 69°06 «= 9° THEOCm ae Ocek l-O upues AveoT ATTOACIS TameNy, Te gE S iG S S47 022 Se g 8 Gre 18°C ce°k 9-8E iA S Tt 4 €@ 009T gT 8 02 80° 08° s0°s 8e-02 pue[s]I euy pues AueoyT ATTeaeuz AOA CUTY JO aqyefoosse 97 S 12 <4 GET 0S 45 $2 4 Tec. cL" 88°9T SS°h 8-0 peuterp Tem ATezeLepoyy 4 ct 4 T S 8T 000S 0z S 0€ 0° ge" se°s 9-02 TL S if 02 08 OSL 4] O17 Sz dal YA 0) Pad MA Ag O'¢ OS*Z eL9 pueTs— oul OT 4 T SZ €0z 008T 0S OOT OnE 7°92. 91" 1 76°CE O7°L 9-0 pues AmeoT ATTeaesg ouly 9 12 S ie 4 ST 0005 ad 4 09 90° U (dud 0S*3 9E-0€ ie S Te S van 000% 4 S 0S 40° 0z° 07°98 1-81 pueTs] n,qer SY S it roy) 9eT 056 St 02 O2ZT -- 9° Tes se" 0°6T 0S°L 9-0 pues AweoT ouly 62 ST 4 © S (4d 00S% GT S S% So° OT° 07°83 9€-0€ 02 4 T S 61 OOOE ST rs) SZ so0° 02° Ge°s 8T-ZT pueTs— oudy "WL S i ) €9 0S Ge 09 OT o°€z = 86” 81°ez SS°L 9-0 pues AeoT ou1y €@ LT 4 T S ST OSLE 02 8 Ov 10° Miles c9°8 o€-7z 6T 4 1 S 8T 0005 gT 8 SZ 110° ge" o7°3 6T7T 69 S He g €9 S27 07 o€ oz 260.655 ze Tr So°h TI-9 pue[s] culty 08 S T 8 CTt OS O77 OOT 08 0°6T 989° 89°9T S7*L 0 pues AueoT ouly Se SOuoUuy PH TW ed uN cN cN Tes HN ON N/HO N zeqyqen SH jo uot, eustseq zo edfy [TOS “ON SIQn TOS = ans ace a GAO AeCLepmnog — = ke TeV OL oTuesi9 uydeq OTTJOLd TIOLY ONUV WOUd STIOS WIOS dO SUSXIVNV TVOINHHO “Ii STQSL 4 re i i Cer ey " weh uc Be OE So We BPR gee ‘ 1h sl RE ' Raia: Cae aeigee Soa 4 “) ‘ : * ‘oui y ey SiC S T 4 OTE OOTT O0ee GT Ooze $6 °% 047°S 8-0 pueTs] ousy ‘yeed snuepusd—ynuoocos 4td ore], 12 Sz S T S 9€7 0002 O6T o€ 08¢ 09°C G2°9 8-0 *s—T ,ue-TN Sneed snuepued—jnuo0s09 92 OO00£ 4 T S OOvT O006T O€T ST O9L c8°T $9°S 9-0 pueTSsI yeuty, ‘yeed saordsuey ST OOOE S ils 9 QOcIT O009T OOoT ST 00eT 1° C GL°S Co-9T OOLe S T S 946 000eT OET GE OO09T TS°T 06°S 9-0 pueTsy{ azesue,T ‘eed eaoizuEy 9T LT S 1 S cL OO0E 8T S $2 0° 80° ol°8 O¢-9T 02 S iG S 6T 0004 GT OT Se 80° OL° G2°8 T-0 pueTsT n,qer 8T Se. -T S Sz 0007 02 8 Sz g0° 41° Gord). S-c/-tec uepanqiero quedez uyI™ puss efoTUS LZ 62 S T S Te ose Ge 02 02 9T° c8°T G6°L L-0 pue[s— Jesue,7 *pues efotyg vag seyourt Olu ty od UW cn ——N Fi EES HN ON N/NO N ray4em «= Hd jo uot} eustseq 10 edé4 [ToS ON Spanpos, = dio Jad spunog TeVOL oTUeZIO yzdeq eT Told ee ________ EEE (penuyzzuo2) TIOLVY ONY NOYd SITIOS BIOS 40 SHSKIVNY TVOINHHO “IT °Tq@L ae h Ne 38 rs e br i oe - * oo a Ey af Pee wn eal diel Ace abe ii wrume here 2 peyeey: 4 * 5 ti Fe) &: “ee . 4 oa 7 : A gs 2 a iS fe : : »® $ ise & a? at ‘ Sonne QSVEKGas ’ SS ee i a 98 Profile , pH # Fresh Dry 26 6.8 52> tA ott 7.2-7.4 5.65 2h 6.5 5A Changes of this magnitude or greater upon drying in mineral soils con~ taining sulfur have been reported and are attributed to oxidation of the he reduced forms to sulphates. This sequence is a very likely ch amy Ge samples and probably accounts for the increased acidity noted. The two samples of coconut-pandantis peat, #26 and #24, are the only soils on the atoll that rere acid at the time of collection. : | , i As might be expected from the discussion of parent material, readily soluble magnesium is relatively high in all soils. 3 Salt Cofitent hae “ The content of soluble salts is expressed as specific conductance, K x 10° at 25° C, of a 1:2 soil:water ola (by weight). Asa SEekS for comparing the samples of mineral soils from Arno, unfertilized a enened soils of the humid regions commonly have K-values below 15 whereas heave gemtacea greenhouse soils may range from 100 to 200. A K-value of about 200 is about the maximum permissible for salt sensitive plants and values preater than 300 result in severe injury to common greenhouse plants. High eae matter coe tents raise the critical level at which injury occurred. mee Gaile @ieodce with sea water the critical K-value is 100 for sensitive plants eee the toxicity of a single salt is greater than that of mixtures. Thus values for mineral soil in Table II fall within a range well below the level of plant injury, The higher values of the dark pire) conic) Ge the Arno and similar series is due in part to the content of soluble Aces calie: The allowable levels mentioned above do not apply te the eerie soils because of their very high moisture contents. The two samples of coconut- = 37 = pandanus peat fell well within the ere range of "fresh water" peats. The mangrove peats, of course, are highly saline. Organic Matter and Nitrogen The extreme color contrast between the surface and subsoil in the Arno | series and its associates is paralleled by the contrast in organic matter “content. That af the surface soils is surprisingly high, ranging from over 16 to nearly 33% Bere eurtace six inches. Where thas Horizon is sufficiently deep for a second sample aBoue the traneeaen zone it, too, is high. Thus the average content of organic matter - a depth of eterna Aone - in profile #25 is 14% and 26.7%.to a depth of twelve inches in profile #6. These values do not take into account the gravel excluded in sample npaparetion | Organic matter decreases very abruptly through fe enero transition zone and the white lime- sand beneath contains only a fraction of 1%. The notable exception is profile #4, where increased organic matter and nitrogen indicate a former soil surface reel since buried by the mabeniellen Geaen the present soil developed. Total organic matter as mass per faa ares cannot be eden aad Venue dare on bulk density and excluded matter, but ee seem to be of the order of 200,000 fhe boojnde ibe’ ker akee, | : As pilebee cea the L'angar gravelly loamy sand has a relatively a ae content of organic matter in the surface horizon but the deepest Samples taken still contain some 4%; again these values are on a gravel—free basis. The two samples of Shi ova Gand contain Low amounts of organic matter. In mineral soils total nitrogen eee eee gee ere matter with the ratio between the two indicating the degree of decomposition. The OM/N ratios calculated do not depart far from 20, which is usually considered ee eee of well decomposed "humus". As might be expected, the amounts of “available ammoniacal and nitrate nitrogen are moderately high in the dark surface soils and low in both the deeper horizons and in the Shioya sand. A Keyed Organic matter in the peat samples will be determined later but may be expected to exceed 80%. The total nitrogen contents are high, ranging up to eae 3% for a sample from a taro pit on Arno Island. Of the available ‘nitrogen forms, ammonia dds sn i excess of nitrate. Phosphorus | | Ratanakion of readily soluble phosphorus is an empirical procedure at — best and the extractant used (pH 4.8) is not well adapted to calcareous soils. Thus the data presented characterize phosphorus status to only a limited degree. _ The low organic limesands of the subsoils and Shioya soiis usually fall within a range of 20 to 30 lbs. P/acre (= 10-15 ppm) whereas the content of the dark sur- face layers is usually much higher, the notable exception being the 0-6" sample of profile #23 from the area of short-lived coconuts on Arno Island. The samples from profile #21 and #12, adjacent to phosphate deposits contain relatively large amounts of the element. The quantity present in peat is generally several-fold greater than in mineral soils but by humid temperate region standards the phosphorus levels of the Arno peats are high. Potassium As with phosphorus the low organic limesands yield a minimal amount of potassium to the extracting solution. This value is about 15-25 lbs. per acre whereas the range in surface soils, having much higher exchange capacity, is commonly 50-200 lbs. per acre. These levels would be considered adequate for plant growth if they can be sustained but information on the reserve, potassium ‘is needed. The mangrove peats are very high in potassium, reflecting the influence of sea water, and the coconut—pandanus peats are reasonably high. Iron, Aluminum and Manganese The constant amounts of iron and aluminum in Table II are the minima reported by the procedure used and thus any lesser variations are concealed. A much greater range is shown by the manganese'‘contents; the minimal amount, less than 5 lbs. per acre, characterizes the low organic limesands, the peats, and the high phosphorus soils but the remaining surface soils contain 5 to 49 lbs. per acre. SOME EFFECTS ON PLANTS No field megaeure determinations were made but some obvious relationships may be noted. ‘The moisture sources of importance are soil water, held by capillary forces throughout the soil, and the ground water, pee is of unusual importance here because of the proximity to the surface and is ecu salt content. ‘Shallow rooted plants and those growing some eer ee Sihigies the! Geen water: as on dunes, must depend exclusively on watér held’ in the soil; only an actual examination of the root system will reveal to what extent the deeper rooted plants normally reach the region affected by the age water. it is. quite possible to have a considerable depth of soil containing seks “free py water overlying brackish groundwater. * The moisture holding capacity ef the coarse textured soil is danas assumed to be low but in the surface layers this property is sees by the content of organic matter. The possible moisture capacity of porous coral oe already been suggested. During our stay on Arno, the longest period without | rain was not more than a few days and the soil in excavations was never bosgactila dry. Some plants exposed in openings showed detyece wilting ee brief periods of dry sunny weather but recovered overnight. Thus, to judge by mere observation, soil moisture was not a direct factor in plant survival, other than for seedlings, during the June to August period, although it certainly may have LS as influenced plant growth and competition. Observations in the drier months, nedeTar’ might well reveal critical soil moisture levels. ; : In many areas the ground water level is closer to the surface and here, ‘the problem is obviously not water but salt. Although the conductivity aged in Table-II indicate how well rainfall removes adit salts from the upper soil layers they do not fairly represent conditions for plant growth on a considerable part of the atoll. Many areas of Shioya sand and loamy sand, and the outer parts of the stony land complex undoubtedly have brackish ground water. We ncbetey | groundwater salinity often increases during the later peer de adecon. in this environment salinity, like soil moisture, should be considered a eee ane soil property for the critical levels that determine plant survival may Cae ee ‘for only brief periods. - ; . Ae The question of "atmospheric salinity" is not considered here although it is fairly obvious that salt spray can influence plants near ean eee and under unusual storm conditions. As Mr. Cox has pointed out, water samples from the wells of Ine and Arno Islands and from cistérns on Ine have : very low chloride content indicating no appreciable spray contamination on those leeward islands. | : Apart from variations due to the seasonal rainfail differences, it is evident that the pattern.of groundwater salinity will be affected by permeability of the substrate and by the land width, height, etc. Some Sonesta a tetencs may grow almost to the shores where..the outward. flowing sheets of fresh water prevents movement of salt water inland.. Thus breadfruit, which is not considered salt tolerant, has been observed within 35 ft. of a low beach on Ul-en! Island. . The several. considerations mentioned above and the very considerable dif- ferences in soil fertility levels suggested by Table II indicate that salinity, important as it is in controlling plant distribution, should not be overstressed. - 13 - Thus a plant species or community growing in an area of limesand or Shioya sand may well be exposed to atmospheric and groundwater salinity but these soils are also characterized by low nitrogen, exchange capacity, potassium, etc. Thus the presence of the plant or community.elsewhere may suggest low fertility levels, ‘salt content, or both. In a similar vein, the occurrence of certain plants in the island interiors only may be a response to the higher fertility levels there as well as to the salt-free groundwater. The yellow leaved. palms seen on several areas were attributed to excess salinity, largely on.the basis of.land position, although the possibility of “nitrogen derieuseet cane be excluded. A surface soil sample from one such ..area showed little salinity, a not unexpected finding considering the high rain- fall of the period previous to sampling. Another coconut malady affects:an.appreciable area in, the interior of Arno Island. As already noted, a. surface soil sample from a badly affected pak there is unusually low.in readily soluble. phosphorus: - Considering the long occupancy of the land and‘the relatively high: phosphorus demand of. the coconut, the possibility of phosphorus deficiency on the area must be. considered. On Mokil, Bentzen (Pacific Science Board CIMA Report, 1949) found, an area in the center of each of the three islets composing: the atoll on which coconuts “were no longer productive. The largest, on Urak Island, is known to’ have grown breadfruit prior to 1890 when it: was cleared and pianted to palms. - For some years it produced well but yields declined after 1913. and by 1925..it. was. given up as a commercial venture, although the palms still ‘stand. -Inasmuch.as Bentzen mentions neither dead trees nor foliar symptoms this'‘condition appears to differ from the Arno syndrome, at least in severity. Both, however; occur on island interiors, cropped to coconuts and in both areas breadfruit trees still grow well. It seems likely that similar maladies will be. found on: other atolls. © ao Li ow J As might be expected, iron deficiency is common on Arno in village areas and clearings or wherever organic matter additions are lacking. Some of the sensitive exotics such as banana, lime and hibiscus become striiingly chlorotic but more or less severe symptoms were noted in fourteen other genera, native and introduced. Experimentally, this condition in the banana was overcome by suit- able applications of iron to the ieaves but a more practical means is through organic matter additions and mulches. This deficiency may influence piant competition on areas of exposed limesands since Thuarea, Vigna, Tacca, and Centella are at least moderately affected. Under closed forest conditions symptoms are rareiy ioted. Mr. Anderson sent a variety of vegetable and flower seeds with our party | as a gift to the Arno people. The resulting plantings observed were largely : failures either because of cuitural or soil difficulties. A small "garden" was established in Ine Village with the hope of detecting soil factors affecting plant growth. The area had been long ienibacyiema hence presumably did not correspond to similar areas of Arno loamy sand under donee Onions, radishes, lettuce and tomatoes failed after germination and slight initial growtn; pole beans, corn and curcurbits were stunted and their eventual failure appeared certain. Growth was not greatly affected by applications of nitrogen (as ammonium sulphate), potassium or boron. Iron chlorosis masked other symptoms in the tomatoes and curcurbits; the remaining species did not display characteristic phosphorus deficiency Symptons . “ahees considerations. together with the prevailing alkalinity and the data of Table II suggest minor elements, other than boron, and possibly phiosphorus as the limiting factors for growth. Coconut-pandanus peat from a taro pit on Arno Island (Profile #24) was potted and sown to tomatoes, lettuce and onions. A photograph by Dr. LaRivers a | few weeks later shows that tomatoes and lettuce grew rather well in the peas. ie ge fertilized with ammonium sulfate, potassium chioride and crushed phosphate rock, © whereas the onions, a sait-sensitive crop, erew much better in the unfertilized material. Wherever peat deposits occur near village areas they could re excavated to surface seed beds and very small Barden sears for eee ‘i readily grown otherwise. . | On the basis of observations thus far there is no reason why a pee: number of exotic plants cannot be grown on the atoll soils under garden condition. Alkalinity of the mineral soils will exclude several but the neutral peat can provide a medium ‘for some of these. In the absence of specific information on limiting elements "complete" fertilizers including minor elements seem necessary, or in their stead, heavy applications of organic matter incorvorated with the soil or as mulches. Under the conditions of Arno the latter is the only feasible means. In addition to soil factors other cultural réquirements, such as adapted varieties, pest control and protection of small seedlings against rain, wind and -drying must be considered... Recommendations for the peasant style er eeeaee of Arno necessarily must be very different from those employed under a sea ee agriculture. DISTRIBUTION Maps soil Hietribution was Soe in detail on the detper islands. In some | instances mapping was limited oe cine or heavy rains a has been i apeneeeee, by notes and sketches made a peice enue with the local citizens. The attached maps have been prepared by Pe voheeetne field aheske and notes to base maps enlarged from 1/30,000 aerial photographs. Unfortunately the photographs were not available in ane to be of use when most of the field mapping was done and subsequent interpretation from them has been limited aig their scale and quality. In some cases the mapping precision is not commensurate with the relatively large scale of the maps. = ChE ND FOR SOLi, MAPS SOIL AND LAND TYPES Light colored soils of Si Shioya loamy sand narrow lands and shores Sg Shioya gravelly loamy sand Ss Shioya sand Dark soils of the island Al Arno loamy sand interiors Ag &rno gravelly loamy sand LL L'angar gravelly sandy loam Undifferentiated soils and P Phosphate rock complex land types Ts Dark shallow soils over sandstone ; SeCo Stony land complex Peats and mucks Mp Mangrove peat Msr Mangrove shallow peat and rock complex Mm Mangrove muck Cp Coconut=—pandanus peat OTHER SYMBOLS Timesand shore deposits eee Dune m998 Beach rampart and juvenile phases of stony land complex eas Vee Ph? Beach sandstone === Reef rock, conglomerate and sandstones ie Depression sta Hrosion escarpment Bw Well TP Taro pit area () GIF a x) 0 0 60 cs © »%° 0 °0 0° 6 () Oe 2, 009 0 Qo °° % 0° S¢ i oS. 0? By ; 20 & sa , J: a °° 80° ee 3 ‘ 5° ” 1 Lt) mie j x oot 00? 7 s Sirs , ‘e 200 / i ; 3 ? Scie M4 no (Shame Ane Sita z A og \ flo00eb AREA S ce 3 i) LY) C Ne ~“ ‘Ma 0 \ Bice a | \ Oe Sy C) Q \ 7 aS. ( Oy TPSs0 ' SOc 4 A 4 0° Sf C) 0 Al o »? ) B 4 9 SY 4 0° a ‘5 o x 4 () re Ke ae 0 7 he hr 4 he 4 ) UT nN uy a Ty] 0 fa Wy U} U ae ian few iyln i esos eM~e 4 a“ a“ o 4 7) u og u 7) 4 4 " "4 Ow gt ” r t ED 06 oo ¢ 4 ® ® , w AV vo d v 1y = = 7 <— d (Approx) is Ssznno7 na 0) 200d: JO VIAW. O° @o° ao PS SO6g0 2 J oe 2a %0 S54 8 0%0 o ea L'ANGAR oo co o ° o © o Fe eae I Os z L-3 com fas o - 3 oa 29 ° ‘o ° c-) me) ° o a S s — Se = ° 4 \ °° ar] 2° r) 39 So ° [=] c A r) wn Soak bk [= Ox) (<— SS. Yq = SSS a 00? Sa i= a ° ‘o ~ JE, 9 Se s ° °o Soe ° = SS iS | bs s OoNK & = oe ] & ‘ . a c- @ Se ev x 0 SENS =\ » 7% ME \ YU AN Ti) Oy ° N N é ‘ s 8 S TINAK 2000 1000° 1:1S00 500° SCALE 100 LS: NAMWI| 2000 a Notes on Land Conditions to Accompany Maps ARNO ISLAND - This, the largest island on the atoll, occupies a sharp curve in the reef and extends aiong it in either direction. A belt of the stony complex margins the sheltered sea coast but its center seems to have been ‘much disturbed. Areas of Shioya loamy sand occur here, the sand sometimes clearly overlying or mixed with the coarse material below. The wide interior is occupied by the Arno loamy sand and its inclusions, and a narrow belt of the Shioya loamy sand fringes the lagoon coast. The boundary of the "poor" coconut zone can be recognized at several points. The groundwater is fresh under most of the island and wells ‘are common near the lagoon coast. A small extent of inland dune occurs on the southeast limb of the island, affording a site for one of the two graveyards on the island. Near this a sane an channel, apparently swept by storm waters at one time, crosses the island. The southeast tip of the island is composed of recent sands; a sandspit, covered at high tide, connects with Enen'edrik Island which is said to have been continuous with Arno Island prior to the 1918 typhoon. An indentation in the reef at this point apparently allowed breaching; it also provides the local. anchorage. Enen'edrik Island follows the general pattern with rubble on the seaward side and sand along the lagoon but most. of the soils appear quite immature. js , BIKAREIJ ISLAND ~ This island may 8g éhgudht of as composed of five’ major divisions: (1) A narrow strip of stony land’ fringes the entire poe Side and extends in an arc to the northeast, forming’ a long narrow peninsula.’ (a) A central lowland is composed of the saline interior sand flat in the ‘ecith, the deep, mangrove-fringed inlet in the north and a low sandstone belt between. (3) A large area of Arno loamy sand makes up the center and western side of the island and (4) a very small area of this type occurs south of the western open; ang to the interior flat. (5) Less well developed and presumably younger — ‘Shioya soils occur between the Arno soils and the lowland. ‘It is evident that the history of land dévelopment has exon. eae The off-shore beachrock and the exposure of the Arno soil on the very edge of the western coast suggest that considerable erosion has taken place; the. southern, occurrence of this soil may well have once been part of a larger area. Away from the beach, the southern part of the stony complex appears older than the northern arc and is fringed with the Arno soils. The western side of the | ‘peninsula rests on sandstone which affords footing for a few stunted Bruguiera on ee ‘corroded ‘surface. pameeies ‘ieee are now pie Aa in piaces along the sides of the interior sand flat and an appreciable area of younger soils surround the flat, suggesting centripetal filling. A zone of soils intermediate in character between the Arno and Shioya loamy sand occurs north of the flat. Similar soils grading into the Shioya series occupy a large sector west and northwest of the north inlet. Where ‘this sector borders the inlet is'a narrow belt of recent sarnd deposits; here and for some ‘little distance west the burrowing of crabs has disrupted any profile formation. Between the inlet and the southern flat’ is the low area’ . deseribed as having-dark soil shallow over sandstone. . It ‘seems ‘probable that this sandstone is continuous with ‘that ofthe inlet exposure and the rock under- lying the southern flat. ee The small northwest island of Bikonele consists of Shicya soils and sto-y soils equivalent in age. A considerable quantity of pumice "pebbles" were founa on the soii surface inland but their total mass is negligible. KILANGE ISLAND - The western half of the island occupies an unique position. on a reef flat that separates two narrow lagoons. Although somewhat protected by the broad reef to the north it has stony belts on. both sides of the land, The northern belt ends near the lagoons but the southern one is continu- ous along the seaward coast. Most of the remainder of the island consists of Arno loamy sand and gravelly loamy sand, but an irregular: pelt. of Shioya soils occurs along the northeast coast. Although not eS Ie located, its inland boundary coincides in part with a low (3 to 4 ft.) escarpment that merges with the seaward rampart as the land narrows to the east. Presumably the escarpment and the younger soils are the consequence of the 1905 typhoon. Only three fresh water wells were reported on this island although many more could and may exist. One near the fork in the main trail is some 5-1/2 ft. deep in beach sands and was dry at mid-tide. Another near the western end of the wide land is eae, fresh." The third well is at the bottom of a large deep (8 to 10 ft.) depression at the inner edge of the rampart. A reported jofi swamp proved to be but a small mucky depression with two Bruguiera trees. L'ANGAR ISLAND - The seaward coast of Llangar is fully exposed to the northeast trades and it is fringed with a high coarse rampart for its full length. Vegetation rises as a wedge with the flattened Scaevoia at the rampart edge becoming a talier Scaevola-Messerschmidia scrub which, in turn, mixes with and gives way to pandanus trees. The tall pandanus, with occasional broadleaved trees, taper upward to the barns anand 3 the whole const tite an excellent windbreak. oi es For convenience the island may be considered in three sectors although the soiis in all are similar, for the most part very gravelly or stony with con- tinuous sands near the lagoon coast.only. The wide northern sector is in densely overgrown coconut groves and secondary forest, and the features inland were not weli located. Clearing of the groves is in progress but at no rapid rate. A tangle of Clerodendrum on moist soils west of the lagoon path provided the only truly impenetrable thicket encountered on the atoll. The phosphate deposit and area of "L'angar gravelly sandy loam" have been described. An appreciable area of Shioya sand (Profile #23), mapped from the aerial photos, is associated with a coconut malady that has "always" been present. Seedlings are yellow and the mature trees soon cease bearing, become sparsely leaved and die. A well 250 ft. iniand from the rampart is reputedly the only fresh water well on the island. The bottom, some 9 ft. below the surface, was dry whefi seen because of sand fallen from the sides. Inside the rampart the middle sector is made up of Arno gravelly loamy sand with a fringe of sand along the lagoon. The large southeast sector, contains several taro pits lying back of a broad dune ridge area of Arno loamy sand. The taro is said to have been killed when the pits were last flooded by salt water during the 1918 typhoon. Waves of the 1905 typhoon swept over the southern end of the island and the boundary of wave.action, as recalled by the people, corresponds with that of the younger ato Shioya soils. The stony complex occupies a large fraction of the sector and the remainder seems to correspond with the Arno gravelly loamy sand. This sector also contains three mangrove swamps; the easterly has a brackish pool in exposed beachrock which is another of the local marvelse NAMWI ISLAND = Like iil-en! Island, Namwi was seen only in a wandering tour with our hosts of the.day. The island consists of four divisions: (1) About three-fourths of the western half is older land and contains the phos= phate rock. (2) East of this is an extensive saline flat which is now closed off from the sea or nearly so by (3) a rampart and young gravelly land along the south and easte. (l;) The northern quarter or third of the island also has younger soils, chiefly Shioya gravelly sand and loamy sand. The older land may once have extended further to the west for the mar= ginal rampart is very narrow and highly weathered. The phosphate deposit was roughly estimated to be at least an acre in extent; at one point where the rock is exposed along the coast it shallowly overlies unaltered coral con- © glomerate. As noted, the dark phosphatic soil, "Namwi gravelly loamy sand", adjacent to the pee nate deposit was not distinguished from the surrounding Arno hat cad loamy sand. “The interior flat is said to be flooded 5 or 6 inches deep by high water at the bimonthly spring tides. Only the lowest parts are barren; the slight rises have a sparse growth of small Scaevola, Messerschmidia and’ very yellow sprouting coconuts. Along the margin are two omait saline pools, the larger fringed with Sonneratia and Bruguiera. Approximately in the center of the northern division is a shallow fresh water well. ‘The ‘young planted ‘coconuts north of the well exhibit some yellow= ing but no severé symptomse” 7°" TINAK ISLAND ~ The wide Ka epinbides With a ane PONT of the reef. The coastal stony belt is markedly higher than the expanse of Arno soils which extend from it almost to the lagoon beach. A low dune ridge now fronts the lagoon and a cross-section from the rampart to the lagoon would show a slightly undulating surface, suggesting a series of old beach lines or ridges. Two mangrove swamps occupy depressions. The only existing well is in an unusual natural basin, perhaps 100 ft. across, and some 8 to 9 ft. below the surrounding land surface. The "well" is a pool about 5 x 9 ft. and 3 ft. deep in reef rock or beach conglomerate. It is never dry and at high tide the fresh water rises nearly to the rock surface. Within the depression and per- haps 2 feet higher than the rim of the well is a patch of shallow mucky soil that serves as a hog wallows water seeps into this at high tide. Elsewhere on the island ‘two former wells are now filled. The Shioya soils which fringe part of the lagoon coast come to border the rampart at the narrow neck of land where Tinak Island passes into Enéraen Island. An included low area of Shioya sand in young palms was flooded by high water in 1917. Further to the northeast is a small inland flat cut off between land that survived the 1905 typhoon and a rebuilt rampart. we EO For part of its. lengta tne gooseneck peninsula extending to the southwest shares the soil pattern. of the wide island. The lower eo oat a has been washed over and the soils are of younger age. UL-EN' ISLAND - This island Bohbaeee of a belt of stony aad sine the seaward coast with lagoon sands, chiefly mapped as Arno loamy sand, making up most’ of the remainder. The northwest tip of the island, which borders the. channel separating the next islet, shows numerous narrow overlapping iayers of beachrock that mark successive minor advances and now a minor retreat. Thus this edge has been relatively stable. The southeast point of the easterly bulge, however, is composed of younger soils and people recognize that it is building out, and further south the beach is said-to have eroded about 12 ft. in the past 30 years. The extreme southern tip is again composed of younger sand. The unigue swampy areas. were seen in a circuitous route and hence ‘are not precisely located. The area of coconut-pandanus p peat has been described. Nearby, but apparently separated from that swamp, is another containing a narrow pool, some 10 x 50 ft., surrounded by peat about 16 inches deep and mucky sands; the water is sufficiently fresh that soap can be used. West of the ‘pool is a low area flooded at high tide; the sandy soil has a darkened surface crust but no profile development. Necaeene to this area and extending towards the higher rampart, is.an immature gravelly soil with "yellow" caqconuts. The syndrome resembles that observed on. L'angar Island, although less severe, and suggests soil salinity. Further north a small mangrove swamp occurs in a depression in the’ rampart. ‘ha ras it Four of the five wells of the islend are located on the map. All are in sand near the lagoon shore and are said to be never dry or salty. Oddiy, the one closest to the beach, 150 ft., apparently has the least tidal fiuctuation. “t oop a ne et APPahOR A SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS REFERRED TO BY GENUS. (According to lists kindly supplied by R. Fosberg and D. Anderson.) Ailophyllus timorensis Nephrolepis acutifolia Artocarpus altilis Asplenium nidus. Ochrosia oppositifolia © Osplismenus compositus Bruguiera conjugata: Pandanus tectorius Calophyilum inophyllum Femphis acidula Canavalia microcarpa Fipturus argenteus ut sericea Fisonia grandis Centella asiatica Polypodium scolopendria Clerodendrum inerme Fremna integrifolia Colocasia esculenta Cordia subcordata Scaevola frutescens Cyrtosperma chamissonis Sonneratia caseolaris Suriana maritima Eleusine indica Tacca leontopetaloides Fimbristylis cymosa Terminalia samoensis Guettarda speciosa Thuarea involuta Intsia bijuga Triumfetta procumbens Ixora casei Vigna marina Lepturus repens Lumitzera littorea Wedelia biflora Messerschmidia (Tournefortia) argentea Morinda citrifolia ¥ m * “pbsatouan, ; _ et eae ee oa yt et meet i - 52 « APPENDIX B ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF PROFILES SAMPLED FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSES ‘(Table II) (See also descriptions of numbered profiles in text.) Profile #23 - Arno loamy sand. From area of poor coconuts, interior of Arno Island: O- 6" Black (10 YR 2/1) granular organic loamy sand or sandy loam, - » heavily flecked with limesand: particles. 6 = Sy nus transition from iii dark grey to light gray ‘limesands. 8 - L8"4 Single grained loamy sand containing some coarser Samanen very pale brown (10 YR 8/3) becoming pinkish white (7.5 YR 9/2) at depth. Soil moist at 30-36" but no water encountered. Profile #29 - Arno loamy sand. Wide portion of Jab'u (Ine Is.). surface. Two-thirds covered with decomposing breadfruit and Guettarda , leaves. O- 8" Very dark gray (10 YR 3/1), highly organic, somewhat plastic. sandy loam or loamy sand containing some gravel and si aig stones. lHarthworms present, 8-12" Transitional. 12 - 36"} Single grained loamy coarse sand, pinkish white (7.5 YR 9/2) becoming white (5 YR 9/1), containing some gravel and. small stones. Profile #6 - Arno gravelly loamy sand. bee Island, southeast of biibes O- 1/4" Theomplete cover of pandacuc and coconut leaflets, ete. O = 15" Very dark gray (10 YR 3/1 or 2.5/1), coarsely granular, highly organic gravelly loam becoming sandier near the bottom. Earthworms abundant. Much of the hail ceernt of id diliga is rotten and: can be (ete i 15 - 18" ri pieeer gh 18 - 56"4 Pinkish white (7.5 YR 8/2), single: grained limesands containing some gravel. Slight localized cementation around coconut root at 36" but no Bee cementation. Profile #4, - Moderately an. detned eee wii the Bho series cider oped over a buried pyetite. Ine pera southeast of hicagncane 0 - 8-12" "es Led eral feel pray (10 YR 4/2); somewhat disetde | organic loam flecked with light sand grains. lEarthworms abundant. Gradually changing to oe $12 ~ 15-20" Heterogenous transitional zone consisting of mixed limesand - ora pure foram sand flecked with black from decaying coconut roots and with tongues of organic matter venetrating from above. EHarthworms still abundant in this horizon. 16-20 - 28" White (5 YR 8/1) loamy sand. 28 - 35" Transitional. The loamy sand becoming grayer and slightly cemented. 35 - 58"4 Gray (10 YR 5/1) loamy sand heavily flecked with white sand grains. Many roots occur in this horizon and large stones are found near the bottom of the profile. Groundwater level at 58" near the high tide peak. Profile #14 - Shioya sand. Area of poor coconuts in interior of L'angar Island. O- 10" Pinkish gray (7.5 YR 7/2) single grained loamy sand. 10 - 36"4 Pinkish white beachsand appearing quite fresh and unweathered. Profile #27 - Shioya sand with surface deposit. Narrow land revegetated after the 1918 typhoon, Jabtu (Ine Is.). $4" - 0 Gverbutden of sand washed from dune above. White (10 YR 8/1) with some varicolored fragments, single-grained, already well penetrated by small coconut roots. 0 - 6" Light gray (7.5 YR 7/1) limesand mixed with some coarse gravel, densely penetrated by coconut roots. - No worms present. Becoming somewhat lighter and coarser without the gravel at the bottom of the horizon. 6 - 70"+ Gradual transition from above to pinkish white (7.5 YR 9/2) limesand somewhat spotted with decaying coconut roots in the surface six inches and locally below. Coconut roots common to at least 36", Groundwater level at 42 inches after heavy rains. = Profile #18 - Mangrove peat. Tinak Island. O- 8" Fibrous woody peat from Bruguiera. Dark reddish brown (5 YR 2/2) crumbs mixed with a large mass of small rootlets. Fine coral fragments present. 8-16" Similar but with fewer roots and more coral fragments. Ground- water at 15". Profile #26 - Coconut=-pandanus peat, Ul-en' Island. O - 26" Very fibrous woody peat consisting of dark organic crumbs mixed with a mass of root fragments, many of them hollow. Water level at 8" below surface when sampled, 3-8" above the next morning aiter heavy rains. « By APPENDIX C ' EFFECTS OF MANGROVE MUCK FROM BIKAREIJ ISLAND The following is an account of the reputed effect of the muck on human skin as given by several people on this island: At high water during the spring tides, schools of a desirable fish, "Beleo", enter the inlet and can be prevented from leaving as the water falls by a stone weir. On special occasions, formerly designated by the King, this area is "fished." By custom the entire village is required to go as a group. At low water the men wade about in the muck, churning it until the mud "soaks up" the surface layer of water. Thereupon the fish stick their heads out of the ooze and. are caught or speared, the catch inimeaae very large, "more than a thousand! by Marshallese arithmetic. If a man remains in this mud for as much as "three hours" his body below the point of immersion will swell greatly. For four days he will suffer head- ache, fever, loss of appetite, etc. On the fifth day these symptoms subside and the smali blisters on the skin, resembling those of heat rash, break. The old skin can be peeled off "like a glove," exposing new epidermis beneath. An exposure of two hours has some effect so the general rule has been to limit exposure to one hour. (All time intervals as given by Kieotak.) The details of this malady and its occurrence were clear and consistent in the accounts given by different people. A Japanese who visited the island to investigate this phenomena gave no explanation and only suggested swabbing with Lysol solution after exposure. It is clear that prolonged exposure is required for injury and that this is superficial. The cause can only be conjectured but there are two likely agents: (1) sulphites or sulphides in the alkaline slurry and (2) (suggested by Dr. Steven Kliman) tannins derived from the mangroves. In addition to its external effects the mud is reputedly toxic if it accidentally enters the mouth when one is tired. A small amount’ (= "one finger joint") is sufficient to cause dizziness and unconsciousness. Two persons are said to have been lost in the mud after having been so overcome... Wading waist _ deep in the viscous slurry is a very fatiguing task, however, and it is possible that these latter effects might be due to over: exertion. APPENDIX D DISPOSITION OF PLANT COLLECTIONS Since Mr. Donald Anderson had collected the higher plants of the atoll just previous to the visit of our party, my collection of these was largely for orientation, Fertile material of Dryo pteris goggilodus and Oplismenus compositus and two additional plants, Nasturtium sarmentosum and Sleocharis geniculata believed not coilected by Anderson have been placed with his col- lection; the remainder of my partial collection will eo to the herbarium of the Botany Department and the Bailey Hortorium at Cornell. The few lichens were sent to Dr. Joyce H, Jones of the Universit oy of iiichigan Herbarium who has Be es then as follows: 10h); » Pannaria mariana (Fr ries) Mull. Arg. 1065 = Physcia picta (Sw.) Nyl. _ 1081 - no spores found fants a a eee Ohara Nery 1119 = gray wider lobes - Coccocarpia-cronia var. isidiosa (ifll.Agr.) | c Vainio, greenish gray - Physcia integrata var. sorediosa Vainio 1120 = Parmelia corraloidea (Mey. & Flot.) Vainio 1115 = erustose - no spores found 21150 «= Physcia picta (Sw.) Nyl. a, b and c. are the same “1151 = found no fruiting bodies 1152 = Coccocarpia cronia vars isidiosa (MU11. Arg.) Vainio 1157 - Leptogium sp. - found no fruiting bodies. A few collections of terrestrial algae were sent to Dr. R. H. Thompson, Department of Botany, University of Kansas. A number of fungi were turned over to Dr. Clark Rogersen, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology who has sent the Basidiomycetes to Dr. Don Rogers of N. Y. Botanical Garden, The mosses and hepatics were identified by Professor A. La Andrews of Cornell, 1154,(a) 1040 1041(d) 1154(b) 1155(a) 1155(d) The above workers will retain material for their own herbaria and in MOSSES AND HEPATICS FROM ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALL IS., 1950 Mosses Calymperes thyridioides Broth. Ptychocol.eus pycnocladus (Tayl.) Steph. Ectropothecium sandwichense (liook. & Arn.) Mitt. Leucophanes smaragdinium (Mitt.) Par. Trichosteleum hamatum (Dozy & Molk.) Jaeg. Ectropothecium sandwichense (Hook. & Arn.) Mitt. Meiothecium papillosum (Broth.) Broth. Hepatics Riccardia fuscescens (Steph.) ? Lejeunea sp., (Subgenus Cheilolejeunea) Lophoiejeunea subfusca (Nees) Steph. Drepanolejeunea Riddleana Stenh. Lejeunea sp. accordance with the National. Academy of Science agreement duplicate collections will be sent to the National Museun. will go to the Bishop Museum. Any additional material We i i yyy it is ] i, uk : Hire aa tnencltita, Mant A PR a Pe me Ce SMa ee CU LLCS Tabtotce Laembt tua Minh Witte ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 6. The Agriculture of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. November 15, 1951 0 ekeraeee | (0 Lid hvehbapenetnate Fig ren i | { THE AGRICULTURE OF ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS The General Agricultural Scene Hl Physical Setting al Agriculture Z Plants and their Utilization 3 Coconut, "Ni" 3 Culture 3 Copra Production 5 Uses as Food 7 Other Uses 9 Factors Affecting Production 10 Breadfruit, "Ma" 12 Culture LZ Uses as Food 1h Other Uses 15 Factors Affecting Production 15 Pandanus, "Bop" By Culture Ly Uses as Focd 18 Other Uses 19 Factors Affecting Production 20 Taro and Other Araceous Plants ‘ 20 Colocasia 20 Cyrtosperma: Culture 20 Uses as Food 22 Cyrtosverma: Factors Affecting Growth 22 Alocasia ve 23 Polynesian Arrowroot, "Makmok" 2h Banana 25 Culture 26 Use cae Factors Affecting Production 27 Papaya and Lime . 28 Other Introduced Food Plants 29 Other Introduced Plants 30 Indigenous Plants of Value us Livestock 32 Poultry 32 Swine 3h Wood Supplies and Requirements 35 Forest Situations 35 Species and Uses 5: Construction Requirements 38 Future Measwes BIS) Food Supplies and Nutrition Fle) Summary of the Agricultural Situation 3 RAGRARE To the ecologically minded the low islands appear as a unique habitat for man, an environment not harsh but marked by lack of diversity and, in many respects, iy monotony. Here is a climate so equable that the average temperature for ee departs not abe sha a degree from the early mean, a land restricted in size and relief, dominated by the sea, and made up almost entirely of one material -- caicium carbonate. Upon this are soils uniformly calcareous and differing chieriy a texture and degree of maturity. Distance, soils and the sea salt have sharply restricted the nowber of land dwelling plants and animals, and so limited man's choice of foods and materials. THE GENERAL AGRICULTURAL SCENE Physical Setting: the climate, hydrology:and soils of Arno Atoll are described in other reports but may be summarized ’as background thus: The mean annual temperature presumably is almost identical with that of Jaluit, thst is 80° F., with monthly means deviating about + 1°. Rainfall ig some 120 inches, possibly higher, rather’ well distributed but with a tendency ? for a dry period between January and March. High numidity and high degree of cioud coverage augments tne effects of rainfall, whereas the more or less constant winds, coarse textured soils and short term (e.g. one week) periods of dry weather sometimes lead to a moisture stress in plants. Since the ground water commonly occurs three to six feet below the soil surface its salinity is a major factor controlling the distribution of deep rooted vegetation. Shallow rooted plants, however, draw upon the rainwater held in the soil. Agricuiture | Like peace aspects of the Atoll, the a eetieul tae is foe by See ae ‘There is no sharp een eine das fe cpescp acciaw non~ pestis fients and, to Western eyes, erie ae a somewhat phat affair at best. “At first Blance the taeonut deamaves the agriculture as it does the landscape but there are ner components to oth. A shrub belt Pines the seaward shores and takes possession of lands ine saree or too new for other Tenetation: in the interiors of me Gadee Deranae are breadfruit, sometimes in groves or often eateerea with a variety of other plants beneath. iat ae zone, too, are the old excavations made to provide suitable growing conditions for taro for here the groundwater is largely free of salt. Mixed with the breadfruit aoe la coconut palms and these form extensive groves around the zone and along the narrow lands adjoining. Various writers fave @eseeened the agriculture of the atolls as consisting of tree and root crops -- coconuts, breadfruit, pandanus-.and bananas, together with taro and Polynesian arrowroot. In a pemeieel sense this is true but on Arno the taro has lost most of its former importance. Sweet. potatoes are a rarity adnan tropical root crops absent. Further, poultry and,:to a iimited extent, pigs are part of the casual husbandry. Fish and seafoods provide the protein the land does not. Over the years copra traders, missionaries and former German and Japanese residents have introduced a large number of plants but of these the weeds and ornamentals. have been most persistent. Although the introduced plants have not greatly influenced the basic agriculture, the prolonged emphasis on copra production has. Well.before. . the beginning of "German times," traders made copra a commodity of value; under German and, later, Japanese administrations people were "encouraged" - 3< to continually increase the area of coconuts. Ultimately this extension . eliminated the native forest that once covered the unused lands and reduced the number of breadfruit and pandanus . Other changes occurred during the early period of missionary activity and German contact: Old men now living say that the population diminished greatly then, although this is unsupported by other evidence. Certainly a Spee shift occurred, with people moving to lagoon shore and abandoning . . the igus Geeaeaete house sites on tye seaside and island center. The culture of taro, once a staple, diminished , very probably because the introduced hogs.. pecan _— LA ts and devastated the taro pits. The copra brought goods from the outside world and these gradually became essentials. Under the sng fine of trade, outside authority, and religion the established culture changed, and the transition from old ways to new is still in progress. PLANTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION Coconut, uN Although Waving palms are almost syrionymous with atolls, the extensive coconut groves are as artificial as orchards and will not persist without man's care. Under the influence of the copra trade, "native" vegetation gave way to palm plantations’ wherever growth conditions were suitable; much of this occurred within the memory of men still living. Culture ~' There has been little varietal selection and most of the palms bear nuts of mediocre size, although the people’ recognize differences such as nut color and edibility of the mature meat. Under Japanese instruction "diseased" trees -- présumably scale infested -- were cut, possibly reducing the number of susceptibles. A large fruited coconut has been introduced and is found in small numbers but there seems to be no concerted attempt to increase this variety. The culture of the coccnut is simple but continuous. Planting consists of removing a square of sod or the dlete rocks if necessary and placing the sprouting nut. The large amount of stored material in the nut gives rise to a large seedling and area in gees rubble the roots reach down to establish contact with cad moisture. Competing vegetation is kept down and trees are said to reach bearing age in about five years. Present planting is largely a matter of filling in wecasional cpenenes but in several areas the palms are oxerenture and replacements should be considered. The coconut, of course, tolerates considerable salt, possibly even benefiting from it, and palms have been planted over the eneiee salinity range, from the wide island interiors to areas eal eanee for natirraei growth, ‘The groves require canta weeding See g laeae variety of woody species soon spring up beneath the a abe unchecked compete with them, as well as making nut gathering aimost impossible. Near the coasts and on narrow lands Scaevola, Messerschmidia, . Guettarda, Ochrosia and "wild" pandanus are aggressive invaders whereas inland Allophyllus, Morinda, Pipturus, Pandanus, as well as some of the above fill in beneath the palms. In plantations left unharvested,: particularly those of the interiors, sprouting nuts soon make a solid mass of undergrowth. Periodic cutting is the only means of controlling this vegetation. . Once well cleared an area can readily be maintained but when abandoned for a long period, as many plantations were in the later stages of the war, strenuous efforts are required. Often the coarse herbaceous vegetation, such as Wedelia, is also cleared. Usually the brush is burned, together with the fallen fronds. Sometimes the piles for burning are placed over stumps or against undesirable trees so fire supplements the machete. Quite frequently, however, palms and we other useful trees are scarred by careless burning. When the emptied husks and fallen ede are heaped together burning is often incomplete and the lightly charred heaps dere naturally. Except for these, the signs of fire disappear rapidly. woody and herbaceous sprouts soon mantle the soil and the profound effects of the clearing may go largely unappreciated by the casual each gy wien observer. Copra Production “"""The major export product, of course, is copra. According to Lajiblok, 4 who hae largely transported the crop, the monthly production for the atoll is about 53 tons but sometimes drops to only 30-40 tons. These figures should be goteuie oun have not been otherwise verified. So far as could be learned eee en on production is not seasonal. At the current price of $80 per ton the BPA drigome fren aut eide sources is much greater than might at first aba : | Supposing the averege monthly production to be 50 tons and estimating © that this is produced from 2,000 acres (roughly 5/8 of the total atoll area) of coconuts worked for copra, the average yield would then be 0.3 tons per ‘acre per year, not a high figure. Further, if we assume that 2,500 acres is the maximum average available’ for palm groves and 0.5 tons per acre per year Re the neccmun average yield likely to be obtained, we find that an annual Hpraduction of 1,200-1,300 tons of copra is about the maximum expected output of the entire atoll under foreséeable cultural practices. Copra production is slow and tedious business but less so when made a group activity as it often is. The fallen nuts are thrown into heaps, often using a sharp tipped "pickup stick," and husked on a flat pointed husking stake. This is of any hard wood, sometimes shod with a Japanese- made hollow steel tip, and set firmly in the ground. Later the nut is ~ 6 = cracked into pieces and the meat pried from the shell. All the copra manu- facture observed involved artificial Moe ay deast in the re a pee The shells are excellent charcoal source eau eae is somewhat inefficiently made by burning off aie enone matter, prhen in an oil drun. ie charcoal is then burned beneath the rack ee eae the thinly spread ieee meat, the entire rack being more or less closed to conserve neat and regulate the draft to the fire. With skill, little scorching of the copra occurs. Further drying is generally by.exposures to the sun, either in racks or on mats, etc. spread on the ground. The sacked copra is transported to concentration points for later a ence ) en There is a wide variation in the efficiency with which different individuals ma copra but the average is low. Some of the demsapen Gem ni are obvious: (1) Asa rough estimate, perhaps one-fourth of the area SOn oe bearing age palms is too thickly peeebebed ioe effective nut collection. Examples of this may be seen on L'angar, Bikareij and the denies portion of Ine Island as well as on Ul-en' and Namwi Islands where reclearing is now going on. On an additional area the vegetation is dense enough to interfere vo some degree. The population shifts and disturbances caused by the war are at least in part responsible for this but reclamation has been slow. The pattern of land "ownership" sas leads to neglect of the areas remote from the major "operator." Bringing all suitable areas into normal production could easily increase the atoll's copra output by one-third. (2) Although the better producers are aware that sprouted nuts yield less copra, the majority seem untroubled by a high percentage of sprouting. The succulent tissue fill- ing the cavity oe We sprouting nut, "iu," is ee but it is an expensive food in terms of copra. The mass and respiration of the external aprout itself represent sheer waste of copra without any reduction in the amount of labor ot necessary to extract the remainder. Periodic gathering of the nuts and storage on sheltered racks to allow absorption of the milk and prevent -sprouting is a practice long recommended elsewhere. By this means alone an increase of perhaps 10% in copra could be obtained without proportionate increase in labor. (3) of the trunk. On Arno the fresh sugary liquid, “jekara," - drunk fresh or occasionally boiled down to 4 syrup having a characteristic flavor. In the latter form it can be kept for long periods, by occasionally reheating, and serves as a sweetening. According to Spoehr, on Majuro jekara. ts consumed in quantity but casual observations on Arno suggest that the average consumption . here is quite low. The. sap ferments very rapidly and, of course, provides one of the principal alcoholic drinks throughout the range of the palm. The Arnoese, although they may jest about this product "jemanin," are reluctant to concede that it might be produced by anyone on the atoll. This is understand- able, if not altogether credible, for both the missionary influence and the Mandate terms have worked against demon rum. s Other -Uses © . _ The meat from both copra and drinking nuts is often fed to chickens and pigs, either as scrap or as supplementary feeds. Surplus "iu" from copra making’is also fed to pigs. “ _ Both the husks and the large leaves of the:coconut rate as major products. The dried husks, convenient in size and in abundance, are the major fuel particularly in the well settled places or where the groves are kept free of other vegetation. The husks are also the source of twine (sennet) and rope. The long vascular fibers are freed by retting the husks for at least one.or two ‘months. If let stand for only the minimum time the husks must be pounded to free the fibers whereas with longer retting the fibers can be rubbed free of the decomposed husks in seawater. The retting apparently takes place satisfac- torily in salt, brackish, or fresh water for all three are used. Husks may be buried near the high tide level on stable beaches usually along the lagoon side Inland are retting pits, "tou," dug below the groundwater level, either fresh or brackish. Often the tou is located in a natural depression and it may be only a muddy spot in an oid taro pit or brackish. swamp.although, according to legend, a tou on Ul-en! Island was conveniently excavated by a star. The washed and dried fiber or coir is made into a-two strand twine, sennet. Hach strand is formed endlessly by repeatedly adding groups (15 to 25) of the long parallel fibers’ to its untwisted end, each addition and its juncture being twisted by rolling between palm and thigh. The additions are made alternately to the two strands and between additions the strands in turn are - rolled together to form the twine. The product is a tough cord that may be used for lashing, as on canoes and houses, or braided into a strong and durable rope. » - 10 = The palm leaves likewise provide a fiber although of much less importance tnan sennet. The epidermal layers of the flat upper surface of the frond midrib are stripped free of the. coarse tissues below to give a strong, somewhat brittle, strap several feet long. This is chiefly used on the spot, rather than as a permanent rope, but finds consiaerable use. Epidermis peeled from the individual leaflets twists into long flexible fibers used chiefly for fine . weaving. The flat leaflets of the frond are readily woven and from a palm leaf an Arno resident of any age can usualiy produce a basket of aimost any proportions. The leaflets are left attached to the portion of the midrib which serves as a rim of the basket. Aithough considered much inferior to the pandanus, coconut fronds and stripped leaflets can be quickly woven into matting or panels for temporary house construction. The dry matured midribs are stiff and are some- times used as rafters in house construction. The trunk is only occasionally used in house construction. It was once common to chop a cavity in the palm base to catch water flowing down the stem. This "emmak" was further enlarged by decay and ultimately contributed to the destruction of the tree. Although these cavitiesare stili found.on older palms they have long since been suppianted by cisterns and oii drums. The: juice squeezed from the green husks is considered of value in reducing the irritating properties (presumably.caused by calcium oxalate crystals) in the prepared roots of Alocasia. If the juice is indeed effective this cannot be due to its acidity, for samples tested were above pH 5.5. Factors Affecting Production As mentioned, the red coconut scale is present as well as a leaf spot but we saw no severe infestations of either. More serious pests, such as the rhinoceros beetle, are absent. Effective quarantines would minimize the likeli- hood of introducing major pests found elsewhere in the Pacific, but it is nis doubtful that native shipping can ever be well sigeaped Areas of "poor" coconuts are found on the islands of Namwi, Ul-ent, L'angar and Arno, On Ul-en' a portion of the affected area'is’adjacent to an inland salty pool, and is said to be flooded by the highest tides. Excessive salinity also probably accounts for similar symptoms observed on the younger portions of Namwi. On L'angar a malady locally attributed to the presence of -demons causes at Monae poor fruiting and early mortality on a tract of perhaps five eshiat ids the interior. The presence of excessive salinity is perhaps as likely as that of demons but the soil samples have not yet been analyzed for either. In traveling, small areas of yellow palm foliage have been noticed on other islands but, on the whole, salinity is only a minor problem in the coconut groves and certainly one not readily remedied.: A tract of several-acres in the interior of Arno Island is characterized by early barrenness and gradual death of. thé. palms. According to the Headman of the village this condition has always existed in the same area, the coconuts being maintained only by continuous planting. There are no visible evidences of insects or pathogens and the characteristic leaf symptoms differ from those “observed in saline areas.’ Breadfruit trees growing among the dying palms: appear _ tobe unaffected. The appearance and depth of sandy soils do not differ from adjacent aréas where palms are normal but the long persistence of the malady within definite boundaries suggests some soil relationship. These soils are relatively removed from the shore and seem to be among the oldest on the atoll; nutrient deficiency is at least a possibility and forthcoming analyses of soil samples may help clarify this problem. The exact acreage affected cannot. be well eieniad Senmcbnia siete interspersions of breadfruit groves. and secondary forest; these, however, are said to be so abundant because of failure of the palms. The loss in coconut production is to: some degree compensated for by oipe: growth of such other species and the simplest solution is to give up trying to grow coconuts within this area. Attempts to discover the cause of the malady would be worthwhile, however, for it may well be found on other atolls, and its amelioration may not prove difficult. © Some comments on copra production have already been made. A further need is a replacement program to eliminate older trees past the peak of bearing. If varieties superior to those now in’use can be found, their establishment would logically be coupled with such a replacement program. The introduction of large fruited strains might help reduce the labor in- volved in copra manufacture even though no yield increase resulted. The possibiiity of finding higher yielding wanietses is worth exploring fully but the limitations of the atoll soils and their dissimilarity from those of most commercial planting areas should be borne in mind. _Breadfruit, "wa" ifijceestem ade origin, the breadfruit, like the coconut, is well adapted to the atoll habitat. The breadfruit is characteristic of the interiors of the wider lands although it may grow almost to the beach when conditions are’ suitable. It is the common tree along walks and settled areas. Its distribu- tion is almost certainly related to the salinity of the groundwater (see report of Hydrologist) and it is not found in the narrow lands or obviously salty areas Culture At least six well-recognized varieties are grown on this atoll. Fruit characteristics seem to be most dependable criteria for: identification although leaf form is indicative except for occasional inconsistencies. No differences in tree form are associated with variety, according to the Arnoese, and there are only minor differences in season of fruiting. Two or three varieties have seeds the,..remainder are seedless. Examples of varieties with seeds are the Mattata, ods. which has leaves cut almost to the midribs, and the Majwan (Mijwan) with large, 3-5 lobed leaves, the lobes limited to the distal half of the leaves. Another type of the Majwan has entire leaves. The Bataktak is the preferred -seedless variety with a large, solid fruit. It has large 5-lobed leaves, the lower lobes extending for perhaps two-thirds the length of the leaf. By contrast, the Makinono is named for the resemblance of the 7-9 narrowly lobed leaves to those of the kino fern. Its fruit is globose and regular, turning light yellow when reba ) eine the older trees young breadfruit arise from seeds and root suckers so replacement planting is often unnecessary... Trees blown over usually sprout vigorously from the root crown and stem. The idea of vegetative repro- duction is finaheeasa and suckers from desirable varieties are taken to estab- lish new trees. meee this, varieties said to be less desirable are still abundant. | The culture of the breadfruit is even more simple than that of the coconut. Vegetation directly competing with the young trees is cut although _the plant tolerates a fair amount of side shade from taller trees and is often started in small openings. The tree grows rapidly, particularly if a sprout from an existing root system, and its own dense shade soon eliminates much of the vegetation below. Thereafter no care is given except as the expanding on comes into competition with less desirable trees which may, in the course ‘ of init be removed. nie form is greatly influenced by density. In the open or with con- tinuous removal of side competition breadfruit tends to branch low and form a massive crown. When crowded in youth the lower branches shade off and the tree has a smaller, often ragged crown and a tali columnar trunk. Such differences in older trees have interpretive value in revealing growth conditions at an earlier period. The peak of the breadfruit season is from May to July but the trees continue to bear in decreasing amounts until December. Individual trees vary 1 duration of yield but there is little varietal difference. As might be expecte the large crowned trees tend to be more fruitful but are not necessarily more Boe auerceeea, 0 "pick" the fruit a man climbs the tree, often using a rop to reach the first branch. Most of tne fruit is reached with a picking pole some 20 ft. biel wetaan a Y-shaped end to thrust against the fruit. With it, or by hand, the fruit is detached and falls to the ground. In narrow crowned nen most of the fruit is readily seen and can be reached with the pole from the central trunk, whereas in large spreading trees much of the fruit can be reached only beam more hazardous positions midway out on the larger limbs. The | fruits suffer much less than might be expected from the 30 to 60 foot fall: but fone are marred by exudation of the gummy latex into bruised areas. Needless to say, when the trees overhanging walks are being picked the local traffic either halts or detours. Used as Food | During the season of fruiting breadfruit is the single most important food on the atoll. For most purposes the green fruit is preferred and the most common means of preparation, particularly for the preferred Bataktak variety, is | baking over charcoal. After cooking the pineapple-sized fruit is scraped clean and is then ready to be eaten or carried. The fruit may be cooked in a large number of other ways, suggesting the use of both potatoes and bread. Ripe brea fruit is somewhat sweeter and has a definite fruity taste; it is prepared some-— what as a delicacy. The rather large (3/4.- 1") seeds of the seeded forms are ee with the cooked fruit but are not usually gathered for that purpose when freed by natural decay of the fruit. ae Although the breadfruit is perishable it is preserved by methods analogous to ensiling. The green latex-containing epidermis is scraped away, the fruit. sliced and soaked in seawater. Upon removal the material is packed tightly into leaf~lined pits and covered with leaves which are changed regularly. Before use the starchy paste is thoroughly washed in seawater to remove the fermented taste, considered undesirable by the Marshallese. Although the method produces an acceptable foodstuff and is recognized as a means oe Ge parse for the lean months before the next. breadfruit season, it does not seem that very large quantities are stored in this way. Other Uses Near the houses the freshly fallen breadfruit leaves are often gathered for wrapping fish, breadfruit paste, etc., prior to baking. The milky latex that flows abundantly from bark wounds was once used, after hardening, as calking for canoes; it is now used only when prepared materials are not avail-- able. The latex can also serve as a bird iime although this is of little consequence to present-day people. The wood of the breadfruit is moderately soft, durable and withstands alternate wetting and drying. Further, it occurs in long pieces of relatively large diameter and so.is the universal choice for _— construction, Smaller diameter pieces and, occasionally, hand worked timbers ae used for house construction. Factors Affecting Production So far as observed the tree itself is free of major pests. Only occasional instances of heart rot. were observed and the few dead trees seen were all past maturity. A malady affecting the fruit, resulting in a partial decay and premature drop, was reported on Arno, Ine, and L'angar islands, but not on Ul-en'. According to Kotiel of Arno and Loban of L'angar, the malady was first observed about 1948 and affected a large number of fruits during the following two years, becoming less severe in 1950. Examination of fallen fruit shows a portion of the surface blackened with rot extending inward. . When the _.. stem or the central axis is weakened the fruit falls prematurely. The nature j of this malady and its seriousness require a thorough investigation (see: repo of the Entomologist). As mentioned, the distribution of breadfruit is certainly related to ground water: salinity although little is actually known concerning depth of rooting. . Generaliy the tree reaches maximum development in the sheltered interior of wider islands but large open-grown trees are found in settled orca and occasionally very close to the beaches. It is evident that salinity in the ‘rooting zone will be affected by permeability of tne underlying materials, depth of soil above the ground water and conditions controlling the outward flow of ground water, as well aa by mere distance from the beach. In some areas (e.g. the southern part of. Bikareij village) the trees reach fair diameters but appear stunted in height and show dead wood in the tops. Their appearance and location suggest salinity as a cause, perhaps acting through recurring injury or root restriction during dry periods rather than by continuous exposure. In this connection readfruit on tne lower rainfall islands of the northern Marshalls is said to: be much shorter than in the south... Salinity problems are generally beyond man's control and affected areas can only be avoided... The quantity of breadfruit in the atoll appears to be more than adequate for average needs during the seasonal peak, although additional vigorous trees would increase the late season supply. In addition to establishing more trees, replacement of less desirable varieties with better, and judicious thinning in crowded groves, as on Arno Island, would augment production. Young trees not required for food production, however, might well be kept in somewhat crowded stands to improve stem-form for later utilization. et a In any comprehensive -work with breadfruit selection for fruit character- » istics and season of fruiting would be as important as for total productivity. . . Introduction. of other varieties of Artocarpus altilis, as well as other species of the genus is certainly worth trying. The present method of harvesting the fruit appears satisfactory to ali concerned but small experiments in pruning young trees to a low spreading shape would not be altogether out of place. Artificial fertilization will probably. be out of the question for a long time except with locally available phosphate. As is true also for other crop plants, the native culture of the bread- fruit includes no fertilization practice. Among the store of local medicine _ are at least three procedures for increasing the yield of:breadfruit but; what- ever their effectiveness, the materials used are in much too small quantities to affect soil fertility. The course of. civilization :has apparently .eliminated one threat to the breadfruit for black magic is no longer considered an effec- tive-means of destroying the tree, aithough our informant believed it was - successful in the past. - Pandanus, "Bop" Culture | Anderson considered ali of the pandanus on the atoll to be varietal selections of P. tectorius and listed 16 ett seise. Of these one, Bop in = .Kabilin, with white margined leaves: was-reputedly introduced from the Carolines (Kabilin) and is found only as an ornamental. ‘Another, Edrwan, apparently includes the straight-stemmed. smali-fruited "wild" types rather than being a definite variety. The remainder are recognized as established varieties, distinguished principally by fruit characteristics which the writer never mastered. Fruit shape and, particulacly, the shape of the nutlets and their aggregates seem to be the significant features. Fruit size, other than Edrwan is not; the largest fruit is borne on young trees. Likewise leaf characterist change with age. Certain varieties, such as Anberia and Joibeb, are recognized as outstanding for eating out of hand nit our informants seemed uncertain aboutll other specific choices among the varieties. The pandanus season begins in October, attains its peak in November and December, and fails off after January but a few fruits mature throughout the year. There seem to be no certain varietal differences in time of maturity. The varieties are reproduced vegetatively, using the iong prop roots as stock. Seedling clusters from fallen ‘or discarded nuts are common weeds in coconut groves. These volunteer pandanus are hacked down in clearing groves although ‘larger straight stemmed trees are often left. Plantings of the pandanus are scattered.as isolated trees and small groups along paths and near houses as -well as on the lagoon shore or dune, as in the interior. The pandanus seem to have a considerable tolerance for salinity and the wild form is often found in abundance on the beach rampart of the windward coasts between the Scaevola—Messerschmidiia serub and the coconuts. The wild forms are also common on dunes and back of sandy shores bordering the lagoon but here as elsewhere they are often replaced with cultivated varieties. Culture of the latter consists of removing competing vegetation. Uses as Food Among the more colorful sights of the atoll are brown-faced youngsters chewing on chrome-yellow pandanus segments. in the uncooked form these serve as does sugar cane elsewhere in the tropics, albeit more flavorful. Upon baking the flavor tends to change but the non-fibrous portion is more readily extracted. This somewhat mucilaginous material is also scraped free and dried; in this form it. can be stored without spoilage as an emergency food. The small nuts can be ‘extracted and cracked for the contents although this is not a very te |: ee rewarding task. The pandanus season follows upon that of the breadfruit and during its seasonal peak it is the major food but its over-all importance is considerably less than that of the breadfruit. Other Uses The leaves of the pandanuis were once perhaps fully as important in the ~. native economy as the fruit. The plain mats used as bedding, floor covering, etc., as well as decorative mats and items almost forgotten by the present generation are woven principally from pandanus leaves. The long leaves are stripped or are gathered from the ground, trimmed, rolled so the recurved cross section will be flat and stored indoors. Later the spiny midrib is removed and the blade split into segments of desired width. Color contrasts are obtained by using leaves that have cured to various degrees, by dying, and by introducing tors other fibers that are colored or readily dyed. : Pandanus leaves also provide the thatching material for roofs and sides of the traditional house, although to an extent this has been superceded by introduction of corrugated iron roofing under the Japanese and,:temporarily, by discarded American construction materials brought from Majuro. For use the pandanus leaves are assembled into panels mace by folding the leaves over a long slender support, usually a split pandanus prop root, and stitching them in place. These units, often.5 or 6 feet in width, are overlapped as shingles and tied.to the house framework. Such thatching makes a satisfactory roof for about. three years or so but lasts much longer as walls. According to a legend this method of using pandanus was brought to the Marshalls long ago by ‘wandering -Gilbertese; before this, the Marshallese had used the flat ledves of the fern, Asplenium nidus. The wild pandanus, Edrwan, is also valued for its tall straight trunks, sometimes used as supports in house construction. Factors Affecting Production No major pests were observed. A great many varieties of this fruit are — found throughout the Pacific and it is possible that varieties superior in some respect to those now present on the atoll may be found. Production can easily be increased simply by planting more trees, however, so the objectives of any introduction should be longer bearing period and additional fruit characteris~_ | las Taro_and Other Araceous Plants The native taro of the Marshallese is Cyrtosperma chamissonis, laraj. _ The more widely known Colocasia esculenta was apparently introduced by the missionaries and its native name, Kotak, came from Kusaic, probably with the plant; it is also called Hawaiian taro. Both green-stemmed end purpie-stermmed | colocasias are present and there probably are other varieties not observed by the writer. Two other araceous plants are here considered with the taros although definitely not included under that name: Wot in Kabilin is a species of Xanthosoma recently introduced and is of little significance to the present agriculture. The native Wot is Alocasia and, according to Anderson's check list, another species may be included with A. macrorhiza under this name. The introduced Hawaiian taro is valued only for its starchy "root" which by some is considered superior to the native cyrtosperma. In keeping with the Marshallese disinterest in leafy foods the edible leaves and stems are not utilized at all. im general the culture and use of colocasia are similar to those of the native taro discussed below but a few piants, possibly an upland variety, were observed growing on the well-drained soils of the island interic Cyrtosperma No varietal differences are known. The entire piant increases in size with age, however, and the huge leaves, 8-10 ft. tall of old plants may not be - 21 = immediately identified with those of the more common smaller plants. At. one time, Iarej (Iaraj) ranked with, or perhaps exceeded breadfruit and pandanus. Today the evidence of its declining importance is clear for perhaps less than one-tenth of the pits prepared for its culture are growing significant amounts of taro. These pits were excavated to the ground water level in the sandy island interiors where the water is free of salt. The pits vary in size and shape but are commonly oval or oblong with flat’ bottoms’ 20-40 ft. long and 10-20 ft. wide. Presumably the builders made use of such natural depressions as existed but it is apparent that the pits were largely man-made. Aithough weathering has softened the outlines, the outer rims of the pits are commonly raised somewhat above the surrounding land, marking where the excavated material was dumped. Soil profiles on these rims are shallower and younger thm those adjacent. .On Ul-en' Is. taro is grown in the mucky margin of a large natural depression but cannot be extended over the somewhat brackish peat that occupies most:of the eeu Elsewnere ‘the pits are concentrated in the interiors of the wider lands such as parts of Arno, L'angar and Ine Is. where constant, fresh water was assured. Within these areas some pits are immediately adjacent so the spoil forms a high wall between; others. are well separated. The separate pits.and such random occurrence suggest no orderly construction. Certainly each pit was an undertaking of considerable magnitude, involving ‘the excavation of one- to several hundred tons of sand with crude tools and baskets. Labon, a very old man of Arno Is., recalls that a pit was dug in the early 1900's. but it seems probable that this was the last or among the last. constructed on the atoll. No one else has any recollection of excavation and the condition of all observed suggests very considerable age. According to Lijdmmar:‘the pits on his land at Ine village were there at the time of his grandparents.: A legend states that the pits on Arno Is. are the footprints of a man who walked across i1/Later analysis (Part I, Table II) shows the Di-en' Island peat to be free of salt. _,,boiled or baked. Other preparations (Jukjuk) are made by baking mixtures of the land. Klsewhere in the Pacific newly excavated taro pits are prepared for use by placing quantities of organic matter in the bettom. Presumably this was also true on Arno and organic debris is still added to the pits in use. In consequence the bottom:soils are calcareous mucks with the water level lying close to the surface. After heavy rains the water may stand to the depth of ..several inches in the pit for at least a few days. Other than planting and _ harvesting the principle cuiture of taro is weeding. Such plants as the _ Vigorous Wedelia extend outward from the pit margins and woody species spring -there also. There are relatively few plants, such as Cyperus, the fine-like . Clerodendrum and Hibiscus tiliaceus, that grow directly in the wet muck. The principle reason given for not growing taro now is tnat its culture involves too much work, aithough the prepared food is preferred to rice by some. Use as Food During the breadfruit season taro is rarely eaten but is saved for the months after the pandanus peak. The larger corms are harvested as needed and the cooked root with sugar and coconut cream or banana. At the present level _of cultivation the Cyrtosperma and colocasia together rate as a rather minor component of the diet, although important to a few families and as a general reserve. Factors Affecting Growth No major pests were noted. The typhoons of 1905 and 1918 were said to have kiiled taro by flooding the pits with salt water but such storms are rare. Young taro (Cyrtosperma) in pits on Arno Is. is reported to have been killed by immersion, probably complete, in fresh water following heavy rains. ~ Oh = Without observation. elsewhere .on the Marshalls it is somewhat. hazardous _ to speculate on the reasons for the decline,of taro from its former position as a major food crop.. Dr. Mason has. pointed out that with a decrease in the absolute powers of the, Iroij, brought about by missionary and German influences, went a gradual lessening of the landholders! responsibility to his rulers. This may well have led to the neglect of the more difficult or less rewarding tasks. It was during the same period, however, that extension of. the coconut groves took place; under the stimulus of the copra trade land clearing, care of coconuts and copra manufacture required.much more labor than previously. Yet another factor was involved, perhaps the decisive one: the pigs introduced by the missionaries thrived and multiplied until on Arno Is., according to Labon, teue ana arrowroot were almost eliminated and new coconut plantings were damaged. Probably urged by the Germans the residents in "about 1900" declared an open season on all pigs at large, an action that reduced the depredations. Nevertheless, the taro crop had been wiped out for a period. A similar story is told by Lijommar ; Pigs ruined the taro near: ine and the pits were abandoned and remain largely so to this day. The destruction of taro by pigs at a time when the native agriculture was already Beavis may well. account for. the conditions noted, apart from other factors. Elsewhere in the Marshalls taro continues to be an important food and its culture might well be encouraged on Arno, particularly since it is already well accepted and the: pits are present. Alocasia Although sometimes found with the Iarej this plant is more common on protected and fertile well-drained soils. Cultivation is largely negative, consisting of not destroying it when other plants are cut. The Wot is an emergency food, used. when others are not available, as following the pandanus aah season. The corm is peeled and baked a few hours but even then may be too irritating to eat because of the minute caicium oxalate crystals. Juice of the green husks of the drinking nuts is believed to lessen the irritating | principle but even after treatment the root may still be inedible. There is all velief that some people know what part of the root is responsibie for the | irritation and hence have more success in its preparation, but there is no botanical reason to suppose this is true. Since Wét provides an acceptable food when free of the irritating principle, some attention might be given to taxonomic and varietal differences and to methods of preparation for elsewhere in the world some highly irritating plants of this group are rendered edible by sufficient treatment. Substitution of introduced Xanthosoma may be much simpler. The large leaves of Wot and probably of Iarej as well are used for wrapping fish and other foods for baking. The flowers of Wot have been used - for perfuming oil. Polynesian Arrowroot, '"Makm6k" Tacca leontepetaloides, the "arrowroot" of the region, exists as a semi- domesticated plant, flourishing with little care wherever the soil is salt free and only moderately shaded. It is spared when other vegetation is siasned in the groves and benefits from this weeding. In densely shaded areas, such as the interior of Arno and the wartime abandoned groves on L'angar, tacca is soon eliminated as a crop; this was well recognized by the people of L'angar in explaining tne smail amount of tacca now found there. Propagation scarceiy offers any problems. The small rootstocks are left when the larger ones are harvested; moreover, the plant fruits abundantly. The potato-like rootstocks are sometimes stored for a short time in the pits along the beach but soon sprout. Although it is possible to eat them baked, - B= usually the starch is extracted. For this the clean roots are grated raw and placed in a coarse cloth bag. Water. is,.poured through as the mixture is stirred, thus washing out the starch and leaving the fiber in the bag. |The starch is collected and dried, yielding a white high quality product that can be stored. Although not present in. quantity on all islands the makmok-is sufficiently abundant on the atoll to constitute an important emergency food source in addition to its normal use. Observations suggest that the latter use is limited more by the labor involved in harvesting and preparation rather than by available supply. Inasmuch as this plant is-adapted, productive, and.can be successfully grown beneath the coconuts, at least in the better soils, some attention might be given to devising simple equipment that would facilitate starch extraction. Bananas On Ltangar there is a legend of how once during a period of starvation a man in chase of a rat carrying away a pandanus nut discovered a grove of bananas. This is reputedly the origin of a variety, Jorukwor, regarded as indigenous, and the exact spot.is marked by the sleeping man -- a massive piece of protruding beachrock. There .are.other versions of the story but discovery of this banana is common to all.- The deep moist soil of this spot is regarded as the best for bananas, and probably is, but very few grow there now. Nowhere on the atoll does the banana grow-wild and it is probable that even the Jorukwor was an ancient introduction. Most of the present bananas are known to have been introduced and often the Be te ee eed to. the, introduction are remembered, as on:Arno Is. where two weeds were reputedly brought in with the soil attached to bananas introduced by German Catholic missionaries early in the century. - 26 Culture The varieties of bananas now present on the atoll were not catalouged but they seem to be few. One or two cocking bananas are grown as well as one or more edible sorts; presumably all of these can be classed as varieties or sub-species of Musa paradisiaca. The Chinese banana, M. nana, is recognized as desirable because the dwarf plants are much less subject to wind injury and it would be more widely planted if seedstocks were more abundant. The banana is propagated by means of the large offshoots. Since the number of these is usually not great under Arno conditions and one or two are often left as repiacements, multiplications of seedstocks is slow. Its growth, of course, is limited to the salt free, somewhat more foniade areas protected from the wind. Bananas seem to be planted in three general areas: (1) In the house courtyards, (2) in the groves adjacent to the house, and (3) on the sides and bottoms of the taro pits. The graveled courtyards are kept free of organic matter and leaves of the bananas ere generally chlorotic because of a deficiency of available iron. Young plants, particularly, are occasionally almost completely yeliow but usually survive and become greener, generally accumulating iron during wet periods when the. saturated soils favors its availability. Severe deficiency increases the time required for fruiting and, of course, reduces yield. For optimum growth and yield the banana also requires moderately high levels of soil nitrogen, ordinarily not found in the courtyard locations. Occasional plants are vigorous with large dark green leaves but these exceptions suggest only that the family sanitation tp urea with the Marshallese standards. Planting sites in the second group are only arbitrarily separated from those in the first but in general have greater shading and somewhat better soils. Acute iron deficiency is rare, although sub-acute symptoms are often ~- sit DP at seen. Commonly pits are dug and filled with organic refuse before the shoots are planted; similarly, sand pits dug for the maintenance of walks are often filled with household rubbish, then ciosed and a banana planted above. Several of our soil profile pits were left past upon request. for the. same purpose. Such preparation is considered good practice ing the more alert growers and obviously is an excellent, albeit iaborious, means of providing the fertility needed by this crop. The method is used in probably no more than 25% of the plantings made. In some soiis no marked benefits would be expected and in one instance detrimental effects from this method were reported. . On planting sites of the third class, bananas-usually grow weil with occasional weeding as the oniy culture. On the lower slopes and mucky bottoms of the taro pits nutrients are in fair supply and moisture abundant but most of these areas are too heavily shaded for a maximum growth... Use Writing of conditions on nearby Majuro delle Spocas suggested that perhaps bananas figured more as -food :gifts for visiting Americans than in the local diet. On Arno the banana seems -to be a well-liked fruit and is suffi- ciently well-regarded that many people, though not all, are willing to give it the necessary minimum culture. Though children and honored visitors occasimally | monopolize the available supply, this seems to be due more to generosity and a desire to please rather than to indifference towards the fruit. The present plant numbers and yields do not seem great enough for the fruit to be of much nutritional significance for the average person: but it: does provide some variety in the diet.. Factors Affecting Production No major insects or diseases were evident. The-fruit is usually gathered green to avoid. theft and damage by rats. - 28 = The effects of iron and nitrogen deficiencies have been mentioned but there is no doubt that these could be avoided or overcome. Applications of soluble iron to very yellow leaves in Ine village produced a rapid greening but such treatments are neither feasible nor necessary. Maintenance of a deep | surface mulch of organic matter would eliminate deficiency of iron, as well as | supplying the nitrogen and other peerrent elemerits required in quantity for rapid growth. Such a mulch, if composed largely of low-nitrogen material like coconut husks, might lead to temporary nitrogen deficiency through microbial tie-up of this eiement but the condition would be only benpatde, ome herbaceou or leguminous material were included in the mulch even such temporary tie-ups | would be unlikely. el | Production of bananas cou!d be increased many fold simply by further plantings on the soils known to be most favorable, such as the phosphate areas, taro pits, etc., and on other soils using muich fertilization. The principal | Limitation to sdeh mulching is the jeer involved in carrying the material; by scattering the plantings throughout suitable areas, rather than concentrating them, the distance to available materials can be kept very low. Around the house areas, where surface organic matter often shelters certinedes and scorpions, pits filled with organic matter would continue to be tine best insurance of satisfactory growth, Papaya and Lime It is probable that the papaya was introduced on the atoll very early it) the century but it is nownere abundant. It is usually found as a somewhat neglected tree near the dwelling places and persists as much by reason of its heavy seeding as by deliberate pianting. The tree often suffers from a sub- ¢ acute iron deficiency. The only variety observed has a mediocre fruit and the | plant is usually allowed to grow too tall. Unless picked green the fruit is me I damaged by rats. There are nebHed dina’ exceptions ag generally the "cane is of very minor importance. ne : Present ie candied in the fruit does: not warrant much attention to it. Introduction of batter i Na ote and provision of mace ees about their culture and vegetative propagation are the Sa needs and might bring eaeeEe further Be gentadce of the fruit. , . Large lime trees are relatively scarce Dae gumestae saunmer plants were observed. The common planting ee ae the shaded interiors or on taro pit slopes. Trees planted near the houses often suffer from a severe chlorosis caused by iron deficiency. The auantdiy of fruit produced is much Pg anal for any significant effects on the ibamin C intake of the average individual but the lime aes with the kino Bs as the major aeeing agents used on the atoll. ‘Mulching or incorporation oe organic matter beneath the young trees as suggested for oe banana are the obvious cultural recommendations. The single variety is of good qualit ty and cued propagated by seed. Introduction of ead neal varieties is much less important | than introduction of other citrus ee ee alle ieae y, Other an roeuees Food Plants The Chile pepper (Capsicum frutescens) is eae grown near Honees for its foes akk are used, though sparsely, in cooking. In a few se (e.g. ie enalainey soil on Tak-lib Is.) an introduced pumpkin grows as a pout iooul plant; its occasional fruits Beal uch Two ee en eee potatoes, | "Bitato", were observed but this crop is grown only rarely and is of no signifi- cance in the general diet. A small ciump of sugar cane, To! ©, was found growing in an old taro pit near ine but apparently no effort is being made to increase this despite a general liking for sweets. The presence of ue cee = 30 = aan Xanthosoma, was noted under the discussion of taro. A small-fruited fig, Tobro (Ficus tinctoria) introduced from Jaluit, is found oneaes onaller on the atoll and does not appear to have spread beyond the original planting some years ago. The firm marble~sized fruits are boiled, mashed and mixed with grated coconut; thus it provides occasional variety for few individuals. A single tree of Kurak (Inocarpus fagiferus) grows and fruits in the pi of King Tobo in Ine village and a single mango tree was planted on Arno Island after the war. Other Introduced Plants Neglecting horticultural varieties, roughly 40% of the species now recorded on the atoll have been introduced in historic times. In addition to the introduced food plants mentioned previously and a few weeds of foreign olen several of the other exotics have some importance for the people of Arno. With their fondness for flowers they have welcomed ornamentals and Here; -as throughout the Pacific tropics, hibiscus and frangipangi (Plumeria) are conspicuous. Oleander, Croton, and Bougainvillea are present but rare, the latter represented by a single plant on Arno Is. Acalypha and species of Polyscias are hedge plants in [ne village, presumably by reason of Japanese introduction. Much more widely distributed are two species of Pseuderanthemm; they are usea as hedge plants and the fleshy leaves of P. atropurpureun, Tirosbin (= pink tearose), are gathered as pig feed. The herb Ocimum sanctum is used for scenting coconut oil. The small pink fairy lily, Zephyranthes, blooms periodically in the graveled yards where it seems to thrive. The much larger Hymenocallis littoralis, Kiop wau (= Lily of Cahu) was presumably brought | by Hawaiian missionaries but is now naturalized in the open groves. Several other garden flowers are found in smaller numbers, presumably the hardy remnants | of successive waves of introductions. Similariy, a few plants of cotton, Gossypium barbadense persist though uncultivated. Another plant called "Kotin" : a Fie is‘the kapok tree, Ceiba: pentandra; ‘its floss is i AAt AO ld used fod Srltows: “According ‘to Felix, seedlings Merete eo aa in 1915 by a oman living on Pee e eee Maron aha e ear of ERE TD ter” they have flourished and spread mete eee seaet found elsewnere on ese evil Bede oF fontive aad wearerne ton ao tweri ae chose “oF a hunber ce aera flowers were brought to the atoll as a gift to the people ae Mr. Anderson. Observations on these plantings, as weil as on a smali parden established by the writer, indicate a very high percentage of failure. The use of artificial fertilizers, composts or mulches wili be maps. Sam for successful growth of most. common garden crops. In this connection, the shallow fresh water peats of old taro. pits may be used to surface smali garden spots for a few preferred plants such as the tomato. fz tas tenet ... Indigenous Flants of Value Virtuaily all the indigenous plants figured in the native materia medica and many had other uses. The loo, Hibiscus tiliaceus, is a fiber plant of value. In habit it resembles a gigantic bush and is found singly or in very small groups in moist soil and abandoned taro pits. Although here considered | _Andigenous , its limited occurrence and lack of aggressiveness suggest that very possibly it, too, is an ancient introduction. The. tall straight poles arising from the old horizontal branches are stripped for their tough inner bark. This , +8 used as cordage or as an easily dyed fiber for mat weaving, etc.. The inner bark of arme, Pipturus argenteus, was relied upon for. fish lines and is still used when imported lines are not available. The bark of Triumfetta provides a colored fiber for weaving. The grasses, Thuarea, Elusine and Paspalum, and especially the ubiquitous legume, Vigna marina, provide much of the feed consumed by ge The ieaves of Ipomoea tuba are gathered for pigs. In addition to the uses of its tough wood, the fruits of the mangrove, Joi, Bruguiera conjugata, is a source of the black dye used for decorating mat fibers. Teese. roots of Morinda provide a yellow dye. The fronds of a fern, Kino, Folypodium scolopendria, are widely used for the flavor imparted to fowl, etc., baked in its ieaves. The nuts from the two species of Terminalia are used occasionally but the supply is verge limited. Barringtonia fruits are used as fish poison but only by children. , The wood of Guttarda was used for fire plows, not much in demand at present. Prior to cooking, octopus is covered with leaves of Messerschmidie and _ pounded. Tests of the dried leaves (by J. B. Sumner, Cornell University), however, show no appreciable amounts of protein-decomposing enzymes. LIVESTOCK Other than dogs and cats and occasionai pet pigeons and reef herons, the only domesticated animals now on the atoll -are pigs and chickens, first introduced by the Germans and missionaries. Turkeys and ducks are said to have been present prior to-the war. -- Poultry Old men still remember that before the missionaries came the jungle fowl | lived in quasi-domestication on these islands; they were valued for the cockpit. | Itself an ancient immigrant, brought in some forgotten canoe, the jungle fowl was absorbed by the introduced chickens aithough some of the plumage character— istics are still seen. ‘The present population has resulted from a mixture of breeds, mostly now unrecognizable except for the feather pattern of the Frizzles, said to have been introduced by the Japanese. The Arnoese do not = ; eggs and the chickens are kept only for meat. Body size is usually quite small f sete eh eae brite Die el laeig es Ilr irate eee heer Pao eres. The chickens are kept penned only rarely and their food consist of: grasses, eee , & seeds (particularly of Vigna), insects, etc., discarded coconuts and the meager er ee household scraps. Young chicks are sometimes fed grated coconut or coconut and chopped grass. The hens "steal" their nests; they are good mothers and commonly bring off broods of from 12 to 15 chicks. Subsequent mortality is high and three-week-old broods seldom avmber’ mote than 6 to 9. Food, weather and disease doubtlessly account for many of these losses’ put predation by cats is probably much greater than the people concede. Despite these hazards the chickens are abundant and of some importance as a protein source, although the use seems to be limited to special occasing, They could be more important for there is additional poultry range outside of the well populated areas. Improvement of the existing stock and practices is quite possible but only within certain limits: (1) There is no reason to emphasize egg production until the time when peopie accept eggs’ in their diet. (2) Feed supplies will continue to be much as described above, with an ample native range and only limited supplemental feeding. Additional coconut could be fed as in the Philippines, but other supplements are not in sight. Hence, feed will probably continue to limit growth. (3) Early mortality could be » decidedly decreased by confinement and supplemental feeding of the chicks. Other changes in present practice cannot be expected, except possibiy within the villages, for the chickens must range widely to feed: The hardiness, disease resistance and foraging ability of the present stock are necessary attributes. Thus, the only practical recommendation is introduction of males of some vigorous, fertile, medium-weight breed such as the meat-type — New Hampshire to upgrade’ the native stock. The Civil Administration native school at Majuro has recently Unported ducks. Various eas. inciuding the Muscovy, should be tried for ducks are worthy of thorough trial in view of their previous presence and the possible food supply of the shallow beaches. - 3h = o 5 The. rapid increase in numbers following introduction and the cons equent disastrous erfects on agriculture early in the century have been mentioned in connection with taro culture. in the more populated areas pigs at large are still prohibited, although enforcement is not always strict, and there an occasional family pig is kept in a stone walled pen. In a few ste pigs range at will with consequent destruction of all edible plants. A very rough estimate of the total number of pigs in the atoll would be between 100 and 150. . Their numbers were greatly reduc ed during the war and some of the Guam breed were brought in during post-war rehabilitation efforts. Crosses of this adapted breed with the runty local animals have resulted in some upgrading but the effects do not seem very marked. In two instences _ second and third generation animals, still with 25 or 50% Guam blood, approached the local breec in size. This directs attention to the nutritional status of the animal. Con- fined animals aimost certainly receive a very low energy ration, unless deliberately fattened, for leaves, nousehold scraps, etc., can seldom te fed as sufficient Ginnbawsles. Coconut is virtually the only concentrate and it is not usually fed in quantity. except to pigs fattened for lard production. Pigs at large appear to fare somewhat better but unless their numbers are small in relation to erea ranged they scon wipe out the planes that supply their feed. It is obvious that protein intake must be minimal. Of the minerals , calcium should be adequate because of the leafy feeds and incidental ingestion of soil. The sources of phosphorus are limited aithough they may suffice for the low energy retion. Thus it appears that both animal nurbers and attempts to improve the breed will be restricted by the nature and amount of food available. Increasing = 35 = the area of "open range" would provide more food but would eliminate the possibility of growing tacca, bananas, taro, etc., there. Pork is a highly desirable food, providing animal protein and edding much needed variety to the diet, and the lard is valued as well. A moderate increase in the swine popula- tion is feasible but under present conditions anr considerable increase would be at the expense of other foodstuffs. WCOD SUPPLIES AND REQUIREMENTS As pointed out, much of the extension of phe coconut groves was at the expense of the original forested area. Thus the Pisonias which Agassis comment ed on when he visited the atoll in 1900 are-nowhere abundant now. Today there is little to show the nature of that forest at nae best; the "jungle" areas in the interior of Arno and L'angar is. are clearly secondary forest. The only wooded area that may have some affinities with the original). forest is on the atypical soils of Tak-1ib Is. Here are a few large Pisonia, Cordia, Intsia (Afzelia) together with other species, but the introduced Ceiba suggests a very considerable disturbance. Forest Situations Apart from the above it is convenierit to recognize four "forest situations," although these are not valid ecological units. (1) On exposed shores and recent lands the shoreline brush is composed largely of ae sprawling Seaevola with a variable amount of Messerschmidia. On sandy lagoon shores and interior saline flats Pemphis, or rarely Suriana, is more likely to daminate. Bits tyes is of value as a windbreak and some of the woody stens are used. (2) Merging with the above is the mixed brush, consisting of Scaevola and Messerschmidia together with tree species, such as Pandanus, Guettarda, Ochrosia, Ochrocarps , Terminalia, Morinda, Intsia and occasionally, Barringtenia and Calophyllum. The trees are young and the species present depend on the ~ 36 ~ degree of salinity and seed supply. Such mixtures often represent stages in the vegetational succession following disturbance by storms or plear ap Thus, without periodic cutting the trees would gat le dominate. Oceaatanata one | finds small stands of older Ochrosia, Soulamea, Guettarda, or various mined | where this has occurred. Elsewhere the mixed brush pec are pe ee) & mixture with Pandanus predominating is ae found on the die | pea tapering in height from the outer shore ielage to groves inland. The nine: | brush types are widely distributed and provide a variety of different woods and shapes for local use. | (3) Secondary forests on the dark salt-free satis of the interior con- sist of Allophylius, Prema, Morinda, Pipturie and Guettarda, together with the | wild Pandanus and sometimes Intsia or young Artocarpus. lIxora is locelly abundant on 4rno Island, and Hibiscus iiiianele may occur in moist spots. Ail of the areas of such forests are relatively young and usually they have , . originated as an understory, in abandoned coconut or bread ait Rae A high | proportion of stems tend to be rather aisle but the stands are suf ficiently dense to largely overcome this. The relatively long, small Aaya poles ere | well suited for framing thatched houses and are readily cut and handled. ~~ Hence this forest is of value but its occurrence is limited to a few isiands and there largely owes its existence to neglect. Several of these species ee good timber trees elsewhere in the Pacific but on Arno the pete Oe: of young trees and, the sprawling form of older relics suggests this is not bonie on the atoll habitats. Breadfruit (Artocarpus) is the noteworthy Paes 4 (4) Several small areas ae edeners swamp peu chiefly in relia depressions. Bruguiera is the nanan ball species, forming Hee stands on ; the shallow brackish peats and rocky depressions of L'angar, Tinak and other islands. Elsewhere it occurs with Lumnitzere in small brackish basins. The we ee young poles are Shane bat the older trees tend e be crooked and seldom exceed ten inches in diameter. On Piierend ana Namwi Is. Bruguiera forms small _pure stands along the pene op eeane flats and inlets as well as mixing with Sonneratia. The inland mangrove areas are eats valueless for agriculture but are of decided importance to nearby residents as a source of tough poles and curable wood. ther sources of small diameter poles are the woody invaders of coconut and breadfruit groves but their abundance is in proportion to the intensity of clearing. Large trees of Pandanus, Calophyllum, Ochrosia, Terminalia and eae are occasionally found as isolated individuals along protected shores or in Bee yerds. ee are usually too large to be utilized with available tools, oon time to time the large breadfruit die and decay without utilization for the same reason. feoe suckers of erst aa say form colonies that occasionally, as on the Arno Ts., take on the aspects of a forest stand and are excellent sources of straight workable trunks. Species and Uses A jist of woody species used by the Marshallese would simply be a alas of those occurring for almost all are utilized. The durability of reders. Lumnitzera and Intsia in contact with the soil, as tsi as the tovgh= - ness of these, Ochrocarpus and Calophylium are known. The wide use of bread- fruit for canoes has Peon tener oned and it is worked in many other ways. Although less abundant than now formerly, Cordia, workable and tough, serves for the end-pieces of small canoes, and is made into paddies, platform boards, pounding bowls, hatblocks and for similar incidental carving. In addition to the breadfruit Soulamea provides support beams for canoe outriggers and curved pieces of it, as well as the stems of Scaevola, are used for the arthed braces to the outrigger float. The very hard Pemphis is spliced on as mast tips and ~ 30 =. onto sail poles as a bearing frog against the mast; it is also used as the protective keel. Pemphis, Randia and Ixora are meade into cage-type fishtraps | and Premna, Allophyllus and Lumnitzera are the preferred woods for fishing poles | Net floats have been made of the very light wood of Hibiscus tiliaceus. Straight. poles or posts of almost any species are of vaiue for house building but differ- ences are recognized, thus Barringtonia is considered a very poor wood. Cocomt is occasionally used for heavy posts but is not durable in contact with the soil | Construction Requirements The discontinuance of the wartime base on Majuro provided a bonanza of construction materials that still has its effect on the architecture and con~ struction of Arno. The abundance of frame and frame-thatched hybrid dwellings tencs to obscure the fact that housing of sawn lumber is simply not compatible | with the present average income of the Arnoese. Barring other bonanzas, most of the people will go back to living in thatched houses as decay and obsolescence claim the present shanties. The few pre-war frame buildings were largely Japanese houses or stores and copra sheds. it is easy to calculate that | at present-day prices there will be very little construction, even of Marshallese-size houses, with As lumber. Hence the need for pandanus thatch and smail diameter poles for framing is likely to increase ee the fireuren | Since rainfall stored in cisterns provides the main fresh water source for the village areas, the demand for metal roofing is a reasoneble one and will con- tinue strong. Boat construction will continue to require wood, either solid breadfruit logs for outrigger canoes or sawn lumber for the more conventional small boats. _ Because of the considerable difficulties of ieGnaueee nae wood some _ individuals or groups may lack but, at present, there are ample supplies of wood and thatch for building on the atoll. Continued clearing and better maintenance ofthe groves will automatically reduce wood supply. Future prospects are for diminishing supplies and somewhat higher demands. Future Measures Suggested measures for improving wood supply depend to some degree on education or supervision and hence are not practicable under existing circum- stances. They are: (1) Education in and encouregement of simple care of woodland areas not in conflict with agricultural use. Thus the productivity of the mangrove swamps, in terms of useful material, could be increased by simply cutting or girdling oversized and crooked trees. Breadfruit is potentially the most valuabie timber tree and its planting should be encouraged beyond the need for the fruit. Se RG A doubt rau that any introduced species would be superior to - breadfruit in rate of growth or general utility but Casuarina and the bamboos have special merits. The Casuarina is a strand tree, occurring on coral shores eisewhere in the Pacific and might succeed in the beach zone. The form of the tree is fair to good and the wood hard but subject to splitting. The bamboos . are so generally useful elsewhere that they are worthy of extensive trials. Mr. Kessel of the Civil Government School at Majuro reported that a planting of bamboo made there has failed. There are several genera and species of bamboos, however, and these should be tried on a variety of planting sites, especially the old taro pits and, moist soils of the interiors, and on the ree areas of phosphatic soils. (3) The possibility of a small portable sawmill serving one or more atolls should not be overlooked, although admittedly a project of the future. Presumably tnis would entail cooperative ownership, and operation would require -mechanical skills but these problems have already been met with some success in the acquisition of atoll-owned ships. The capital investment required would PY. amount to, say, one-fourth to one-half of the sum represented by the atoll's copra production for a single month and hence is by no means prohibitive. The | real problems involved are satisfactory transport of the mill from place to place and of the logs to the mill, as well as rigorous control of cutting. The | source of logs would’ be very largely breadfruit and coconut, the latter yieldire. "porcupine wood," suitable for use if kept dry. Obviously such cutting could not be permitted to reduce production of food or copra and it need not. A re- . placement program for overage palms and removal of over-mature or crowded breadfruit would provide a continuous supply of sawn lumber from material now largely wasted. FOOD SUPPLIES AND NUTRITION The appraisal of po6ar saepal and nutritional significance can be in only the most general terms for the writer has no estimates of productivity and con- ‘sumption, nor are there nutritional data for many components of the diet. | ‘Further, our observations were for a limited period in the season of abundant food. Nevertheless, there are ample signs’ that at present this atoll is well supplied with food, so far as total quantity is concerned. The sustained pro- i eaeeten of copra is an obvious guarantee against near=starvation levels. The unused supplies of arrowroot, breadfruit and alocasia, the decrease in fishing and taro culture, and the rather minor attention to food storage suggest that such food shortages as occur are far from critical. There may well be times when the diet is limited to the less desirable foods or those obtained more laboriously -— to "fish, crabs and copra" as was said on L'angar -- but the actual calorie intake can be maintained. Further than this, some food is imported, although primarily for the high income families. Nutrition is one of the fads of our time as well as a subject for sober investigation, and some of the recent reports on the Pacific areas contain om me facile sudaienbe on the adequacy of native diets. Without oe evidence of deficiency or detailed appraisal of diet, supplemented with analyses, such judgments can scarcely be more than apindin: To begin with, from all accounts the Hameln lade thrived fairly well on their original island diet which contained no leafy vegetables, only pandanus and possibly bananas as fruit, and certainly no milk, Rather than the original diet it is the subsequent modification of it that beeiaee ne for concern. From considerations in other paragraphs it is evident that ne ‘agricultural pees isoe of von atoll in terms of calories far preGade present dietary apie fs although large von owe of this is in the form of copra. Thus it may readily be calculated that about one-third (ca. 15 to 16 tons per month) of the present copra production would alone fully supply the energy requirements (2500 calories per eee per day) of the entire population (1200). Although the idea of such a diet is fantastic pas eure demonstrates the importance of the coconut as a reserve and points out that the amount veal consumed is aly a fraction of that prepared for export. In fact the contribution of coconut to the average calorie intake is probably greater than CMe ee ea for although the mature nut is scarcely eaten when other foods are available the consumption of the soft flesh of drinking nuts and of iu (cavity se ey is very appreciable. Much of this is eaten ae of the reguiar meals and often away from the ey It seems likely that coconut ranks near breadfruit and Bemdeates as major calorie sources, with the protein foods, tacca, tae etc., and imported foodstuffs ranking well below. | There is reason to believe that fahting is carried on to a lesser extent than formerly but the principal protein sources are still fish and apinoade Pork and poultry can make but a small ene atoat en to the average requirement. Breadfruit and taro are considered low protein foods but, according to available = )12 w analyses, if eaten in sufficient quailty to satisfy the daily Bae a inighan | ment they Supply from chess ouee: to one-half the established protein, require- ments of the normal adult, although the quality ef this protein is unknown. Analyses of dried pandanus flour and he ee i breadfruit from ee ete (kindly supplied by C. D. eters H. Penning and. A. ‘Bauer of the University of Hawaii ) show the dried pandanus , and hence presumably the original fruit, “to be | a poor protein source. Flesh of the imei coconut may have a much nighew protein-calorie ratio than the maha UAE Dleas Although concern has been expressed over the starchy diet of breadfruit and taro the Hawaiian workers fare demonstrated that these foods are, in fact, much superior to white as and rice in respect hye ine B vitamins and aloha The ee calcium poneenee in araceous plants Hey | be of no es Dees because of the pres ence of oxalates. Breadfruit is conoidencd a fair source of vitamin C, even when cooked, and this may be of consseeranie significance in view of the quantity consumed. pops of the ee Kapingamaranet foods bear out these results, and suggest that the pandanus is a fair source of vitemin Ori Although fluid from the drinking nut contains relatively small ¢ amovnts of accessory substances, the quanta ky (consumed must be considered in evaluating its contribution. Fish, crabs and other seafood proweee deve =e and ndieibien of te vitamins, as well as proteins, in proportion to the quantity consumed. Vitamin D is presumably of little concern except for infants and some women continuously sheltered from the sun. 8 | | These considerations suggest that the adequacy of the native diet may have been maligned unduly, although | estimates of the calei sun, cet and vitamin C status are weak. But two unhealthy trends in the dietary habits are appearing: The substitution in part of ee flour, sugar and rice for the local carbohydrate sources, and the reputed reduction in payee pines of Soi me i tesaaneies are most marked in the Ine village area because of the higher income and greater foreign contacts, and are of lesser importance in the more remote portions of the atoll. Extension of these tendencies will inevitably lead to deterioration in quality of the diet for the lack of leafy foods, fruits, and additional protein sources leaves but little margin for safety. Yet increase in purchasing power encourages such extension and it probably cannot be avoided, barring actual controls. Suggested positive measures are mandatory enrichment of flour, at such time when its potential use is sufficient to warrant this, improved fishing methods (see report of the Marine Biologist) and diversifica- tion of the present subsistence agriculture, adding new foods while encouraging use of the old to provide both variety and nutritional quality in the modified Prdiet. © 4 “It must be pointed out that the foregoing estimate is largely based on “impressions and a few analyses. Data on the actual consumption of food, both local and imported, as well as nutritional assays and related evidence, aré necessary for accurate evaluation and prediction. Fie, oa eae Sn ALOF THE AGRICULTURAL SITUATION’ Map, ‘hye The aaeaendis® of the atoll is thus seen to have two aspects, subsist- ence and export. The present subsigtente agriculture is derivative and still rests largely upon the original food plants, cultural methods and uses of native vegetation. -- Introduced plants navé had only minor effects on the subsistence agriculture and diet. originally, agriculture and fishing were complementary subsistence activities atid to a large extent still aré. The relatively small contribution of introdudéd animals to the diet arises from their limited number rather than vedi advapbarde. Some of the changes occurring in the past half century or so aré digplacement of taro as a major food, a great increase in the cultivated aréé and consequent elimination of the original vegetation, greater dépendéneé on imported goods, and the beginnings of substitution of imported for oe local foods. The pattern: of land holding (see report of the Anthropologist) does not always favor fullest use of the land, particularly for subsistence crops. None the less, the subsistence agriculture is largely adequate and capable of expanding to support a considerable increase in population. The export agriculture is concerned wholly with copra, which is the product of an indigenous tree cultivated with practices that are only modifica- tions of those employed in the native agriculture. By those concerned with the economics of such areas, increases in export agricultural values are often looked upon as the most promising means of providing the goods and services necessary for material improvement of the people. We have already estimated very erossly that for Arno about a two-fold increase in copra production is about the most that can be hoped for under existing practices. Such an increase is a worthwhile objective but a limited one, even when combined with moderate increases in quality and production efficiency. Further, prices for copra in the world markets have been subject to wide fluctuations in the past and may be in the future. Such considerations lead to the question of producing other export crops in order to increase the total income of the area and minimize the risks inherent in a single-crop agriculture. Unfortunately the present prospect of ‘any considerable gains by such means is exceedingly dim. In the entire Marshalls the total area of protected land suitable for such crops is small and it is scattered piecemeal, precluding any large single developments or mechanization, and complicating production and shipment. Taking Arno as representative, even in favorable rainfall regions the inherent productivity of the soils for most such crops is very low. The calcareous soils precivde some crops and without measures for maintaining or increasing fertility the success of others would be foredoomed. Finally, were a crop decided upon, discovering varieties and ot bp ‘eultural methods adapted to the area, the almost certain likelihood of pest. control and fertility problems, and the considerable task of adapting the people's folk ways to the new crop would together require sustained skilled effort and supervision. — ‘ | “These and additional causes for pessimism are set forth by J. C. Rippertm in his 1946 report on Some Agricultural Aspects of Micronesia, yor. L7Mor*the USCC. Economies Survey of Micronesia. They are also implicit in the. perceptive statement of Project No. E. 6, "Economic Development of Coral Islands" prepared for the South Pacific Commission Research Council. The one possible exception, suggested by Ripperton, is the production of fruits, truck crops, spadien areas near American bases to supply garrison forces. Although localized in importance such markets are lucrative and this possibility should be developed fully. The price incentives, if combined with production guidance, would acceierate agricultural change in the areas influenced. In the’ subsistence agriculture it is clear that many gains can readily be made and that, in addition, there are many possibilities that offer enough prospect of success to warrant some investigation. Improvement of the existing crops and crod types, cultural methods and utilization, are realizable objectives. Introduction of additional useful plants, of which there are many in the tropics, is an obvious and attractive prospect. The same considerations mentioned for new export crops apply to such introductions, however, and numerous failures are to be expected. Yet the choice is great, the investment involved is small, and a number have already been tested in part by former introductions of low islands. But even though successful, mere introduction is without value unless the plant with its culture is accepted by the people and fills an existing or created need. Moreover, plant introduction should be looked upon largely as a means of supplementing, not making over, the present adapted agriculture. = 6 ~ The limitations of agriculture have been mentioned. Some general and specific changes in the export and subsistence aspects:have been suggested. Yet what is clearly needed for substantial improvement in this region is a long | time program of on-the-ground investigation linked with education and demonstra tion. Both activities can be -on.a small scale if properly supported and staffed. At this stage, by making use of relevant information accumulated | elsewhere in the tropics, well conceived emperical investigations could pay off handsomely for a time. The.results wil] -be of little value, though, without demonstration and education to-bring about acceptance. Such extension activities necessarily reach beyond the questions of production to influence utilization and consumption. Thus, they-might well be fitted into a larger program of education and assistance, embracing other aspects of native... industry and welfare, but this is a question of administrative policy: +’ — The people of Arno are extremely receptive to new ideas, even though subsequent retention and execution are rather less than outstanding. American, — technical capacity is highly regarded becausei.of the war-time contacts, the Bikini tests and the medical successes against yaws, venereal diseases, etc. People would readily accept an extension program modeled after the familiar agricultural extension and-home demonstration: activities of the U. S.'; but adapted to their needs and level. Yet all extension work is presumptuous: to some degree, implying the greater wisdom of the newer knowledge, and if such a program is not to disturb the values and the sense of security in the existing order it must be guided by anthropological as well as technical considerations. Summarizing, for Arno Atoll: we find that productive capacity in terms of value of agricultural exports is below maximum at present but this maximum is definitely limited. In terms of subsistence agriculture, the land, supplemented. by the sea, is capable of. sustaining’ a considerably higher population than is now present, provided the meager resources are used fully and intelligently. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 7. The Plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. November 15, 1951 Lee, A bene Any eh 7 RON. Sry ‘fh fi hers wad ey : f enya oe * ‘ v shine te 4k ‘ 5 ‘ bendyrah Ste ) Py ie THE PLANTS OF ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS by Donald Anderson SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESIA — PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD — 30 June Une This is a preliminary saree on field work in botany during the period May 5 - 30, 1950, on Arno Atoll in the Marshall Islands. 1. To make possible the definite determination of species of plants referred to in Marshallese plent names. 2. To make as complete a collection as possible of Arno atoll plants. ae To collect the Arno version of the Marshallese name of each plant earn | and variety collected. 4e To mite tentative determinations ae each species collected. 5 “la eoprolate the Marshallese and the botanical names with each numbered herbarium specimen in order to make possible a careful study and check of the field identifications. 6. To furnish the other members of the'study team with as much of. this information as possible prior-to their departure from Honolulu en route to Arno Atoll ge their: field work. : The ‘nelaleae portion of the collecting was done on the island of Ine because of the easy access from Ine Village where the laboratory and quar- ters were established. -Ine-Islend, which is situated on the south side of the lagoon, is thirteen mi} les. in Length and fairly characteristic of Arno Atoll floristically. | Several species of Arno Atoll plants are Perens este) Ine Island, however. ee The total’ collection on Arno Atoll was 169 herbarium numbers. Of « these 134 numbers were collected on Ine Island. On a three day canoe trip © to the north and west sides of the lagoon 35 more numbers were collected. . Collecting during this trip was limited to species not collected in fruit or flower on Ine Island, or not occurring there at all. There were sixteen additional species collected on the trip, one being seen later on Ine. - 2S Additional fertile specimens were also collected which pre- viously had been collected only without fruit or flower on Ine Island. In collecting information regarding local plant names care | was taken to ascertain the accuracy of the informants in giving | Arno Atoll names rather than names from other atolls. An at- tempt was made to use exclusively locally born informants. The people of Arno showed keen interest in the work and exhibited rather accurate knowledge.as to localities in which each species could be found. They informed me prior to the canoe trip across | the lagoon that there were a dozen more species to be found on these windward islands of the atoll, none of which was to be found on ne island. Tals. was borne out,in,bhe, coldeeting,: For there were fifteen additional species which were not seen or collected on Ine. Though only two additional species were collected on Bikarej Island, the mangrove swamp there was quite different from any seen on any other island visited. Sonneratia caseolaris was one of these two species. The other species was not a man- grove species but Portulaca samoensis, which was growing in the roadway. (Only two sterile plants were seen.) There is an aberrant form of Pemphis in the salt swamps, however. Pandanus | was and still is an important food plant. Sixteen named varieties were collected on Arno Atoll and there are more varieties that were not collected. The Arno. informants claimed that the seeds produced by these varieties do not produce the same variety but that the common wild variety usually results. They said it was necessary to piant a pranch from the variety desired in order to increase a givén variety. This seems to indicate that the varieties are merely clones. It is my opinion that there is. but.one species of Pandanus there and that pyr ea Pandanus tectorius. Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, also had a number of varieties. According to the informants there are six varieties of seedless and two varieties of seed breadfruit. Of the seed varieties two named varieties are easily distinguished by the leaf shape. "Matete" variety has deeply incised leaves while "Mijwan" variety has entire to shallowly incised leaves. The initiated can distinguish the fruits by taste. Attached is a list of species collected on Arno Atoll with Marshallese names and herbarium numbers. Ecology The outer shores of the windward islets are generally rough- er and wider than those of the leeward islets. ee The vegetation fringes of..the seaward shores on the wind- ward islets differ somewhat from those of the leeward islets. Working towards the lagoon from the sea on the windward islets the species are generally encountered in the following order: Scaevola frutescens, Messerschmidtia argentea, Pandanus tectorius, then Guettarda spechoss, Intsia bijuga, Ochrosia parviflora, Allophyllus timorensis, Terminalia Titorelis, Pl Pisonita grandis, with Polypodium scolopendria on tne forest floor. in places where the shoreline is being eroded by wave action Barringtonia asiatica, Hernandia sonora, Cordia subcordata, and Calophyilum inophyllum overhang the shore. The seaward shore vegetation fringe on the leeward islets of the atoll differs from the above pattern. Scaevola frutescens forms a nearly pure stand from the sea inland three to ten meters with scattered trees of liesserschmidtia, Guettarda, Pandanus; then these species are accompanied by Cordia ‘subcordata, Ochros parviflora, and an occasional Intsia bi jure” or r Terminalia litoralis. -.Pemphis acidula is common in areas where salt water washes across to the iagoon side at high tide. In such places they sometimes form pure stands. 7 ae In the central portion of the islets the soil improves in humus content. The soil is gray to black with varying composi- tion of.sand, coral fragments and black humus. This area is the cult ivated portion as a rule. Breadfruit, bananas, papayas, “\iakmok" or Tacca leontopetaloides, and coconuts are grown. Here the deep pits for growing taro are located. Two species of taro are to be found: Cyrtosperma chamissonis and Colocasia esculenta. Limes are usually found erowing oO on the edges of the pits. On many of the islands there are saline swamps in the cen- tral portion of the island. Clerodendrum inerme is commonly found on the margins of these areas with Bruguiera the dominant tree, though occasionally Lumnitzera littorea is associated with Brupuiera conjugata, as is the case in the easternmost end of Ine Island. Sonneratia caseolaris was also found in a saline swamp on Bikarej Islet. There were less than a dozen old Sonneratia trees seen there, growing on the side of the swamp bordering a saline lake. The opposite shore of this salt lake was fringed with pure stands of Pemphis, The lagoon shore vegetation fringe is largely planted to coconuts; however, there are areas in which the natural vegeta- b10n still exists, In the drier lagoon shores Pemphis acidula, Suriana maritima, and Sophora tomentosa are growing in association with Scaevola * frutescens, Messerschmidtia arpentea, and Cordia subcordata. Suriana is found on the beach where the salt water washes the roots ~at high tide. It was only. seen in ee ee of situation. Se on the lagoon‘ shore, Calophyllum Nee aragets Pandanus tectorius, Meier neal Litoralis, and the same. elenents mentioned above are found an. ‘various combinations. . Acknowledgments: I wish to acknowledge vith sincere’ gratitude the assistance so generously given which made this field work possible. ‘Thanks are due the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Coun- eri.o the Orff ice: of Naval Research, the Navy administration of the Trust Territory, both in Pearl Harbor and the Marshalls, and the Military Air Transport Service. Special thanks go to lir. Harold J. Coolidge, txecutive Secretary of the Pacific Science Board; Miss Ernestine Akers, Honolulu Secretary of the. Pacific Science Board; Dr.-F. R. Fosberg; Cantain Cecil Gill, Governor of the Marshalls; and Commander R. ‘i. Kenney, and their staffs. King Tobo and Lajibli, Chief Magistrate of Arno Atoll, for their un- tiring eff@rts in my behalf deserve special mention, as do all the peopl@.of Arno Atoll. Thanks also go to LCdr Frank Avila at Kwajalein, and Nr. Robert P. Owen, Staff Quarantine Officer for Guam and the Trust Territory, for their generous help in many WaySe Donald Anderson Honolulu 50 June 1950 BOTANICAL NAMES WITH MARSHALLESE NAMES: OF Herbarium NO. 53761 SOLD 5635 Botanical Name Acalypha wilkesiana Adenostemma lavenia Allophyllus timorensis Alocasia macrorrhiza Alocasia species Amyrillis species _ Angelonia salicariaefolia Artocarpus altilis Asclepias curassavica. Asplenium nidus Barringtonia asiatica Boerhavia diffusa Bougainvillea glabra Bruguiera conjugata Bryophyllum pinnatum Caesalpinia crista Miacaiaiars pees Calophyllum inophyllum Canavalia ensiformis Canavalia microcarpa Canna (indica?) Capsicum frutescens Cardamine species a PLANTS ON ARNO ATOLL . Marshallese Name Bwilbwilikkaj Kitak Wot Wot Kiop (?) Jab Meloklok Ma, This particular variety - Mijwan. Kappok, Ialo Kartob — Ocb Marmillin Ikdrelel Joh Kibilia KALiklik Jeimata Luwe j Joko, Manen, Marlap Marlap 5668 5664 3662 3737 5648 5636 3680 35617 None 5682 3637 3705 5649 5638 3717 5685 ef (15S) 5666 5674 3616 3718 o761 3760 3650 5601 Carica papaya | Keinabu Cassytha filiformis Kanon Catharanthus roseus Ran non ran | Ceiba pentandra Kotin Cenchrus echinatus Lellik Centella asiatica ‘Madriko Citrus sp. Laim Clerodendrum inerme Ulej Cocos nucifera Ni Codiaeum variegatum Kroton, Loimjikitok Golocasee esculenta Kotak Cordia subcordata ~~ Kono Crinum bakeri (?) | Crinum macrantherum Kiop wan (white flower) tt " Kiop wan (flower ma- roon and white) Cucurbita pepo Banke Cycas circinalis of Lokok Cyperus kyllingia Cyperus rotundus Tuteoneon Cyperus sp. Bukor Cyrtosperma chamissonis Taraj Dryopteris dentata (sterile) Kinen mennuel Duranta repens Jab meloklok Eleusine indica Kate juk juk . Eragrostis amabilis Ujoij = tae 3675 Eragrostis ciliaris (?) UO7oL 7 er ee ee ee 3640 Buphorbia chemissonis Bedrol 5612 Euphorbia heterovhylla om S651 Euphorbia prostrata 5602 Ficus tinctoria Tobro 5604 Fimbristylis cymosa Drolijman 3614 FPleurya ruderalis Weénkotkot 3622 Gomphrena giobosa Ebolastin 5685 Gossypium barbadense Kotin 5641 Guettarda speciosa Wut 5686 Hecyotis bifrlora Kino j 5754 Hemigraphis reptans Uhat lamjen 5764 3681 Hernandia sonora Bifbizi 5644 Hibiscus tiliaceus Loo 3659 Hibiscus hybrid Ros S711 Hibiscus species Am Hippobroma longiflora uxtremely poisonous (no local name). 3667 ---s- Hymenocallis littoralis Kidp in wau 5705 Intsia bijuga Kubdok 5724 Inocarpus edulis Kurak 84) i etees ane Biteto 3625 ones gracilis - Walikok 5622 Ipomoea tuba Marbele 3704 Ixora sp. | Ka jdro = et 35689 5699 5630 5694 5695 S701 3726 5688 Jussiaea suffruticosa Lepturus repens Lumnitzera littorea Messerschmidia argentea Mirabilis jalapa Morinda citrifolla Musa cavendishii Musa paradisiaca Nephrolepis hirsutula Nerium oleander Ochrocarpus excelsus Ochrosia parviflora Ocimum sanctum Oplismenus species (sterile) Pandanus tectorius (Varieties follow under this heading) Pandanus tectorius variety - iv = Wut i Lurlep Ujoij Kimeme Kidren Emen auo Nen | Kabran, Binana Kabran, Binane. This. particular variety- Moakadkad Anomkadredre Olianta - ITjoo Ki jbar Katrin Baidrik Bop Ajbwirok -Allorkon Anberia Antoklonar Benuk Bopiroij Bop in Kabilin Bukor 3624 - Pandanus tectorius variety Paspalum conjugatum Paspalum vaginatum Pemphis acidula Pemphis sp. ee oN Physalis eee . 2) Phylianthus ‘mires Pipturus argenteus Pisonia grandis Plumeria rubra (7?) Polypodium scolopendria Polyscias fruticosa Polyscias suilfoylei “Polyscias guilfoylei: var. Bolyseias sp. £ Portulaca (lutea?) Rdrwan Edwanenannelu Jabonbok Joibeb Lerro Loarme Le jokdrer Lonlin No local name known Kate jukjuk Kone Kei jor Drebijdreke pee did Fino a0 Arme Kanal Meria Kino Ornamental hedge (shrub) Large leafed hedge planbd,—- no local name known No name known 5754 Portulaca samoensis ; Bujon | 5 3709 Psilotum nudum (?) Ban 3661 Pseuderanthemum atropurpureum Tiros bin | 3660 Pseuderanthemum reticulatum(?) Tiros pilu | 5714 Randia graeffei Kielomar 3621 Rhoeo discolor Kiop (7) | 3712 Saccharum officinarum To'o (sugar cane) | 3609 Scaevola frutescens Kolaeme (Purple | SAM Sel: Veale ahah flowered form) 3610 tt " Konnat, Marilik (common form) 5150. Silda) Paliics Kieo | 3672 Solanum nigrum | ‘Name unknown. Only ond plant seen. 3748 Sonneratia caseolaris = ~ + ~Bulabol 3708 Sophora tomentosa spon: Kille B1BT Soulamea amara | “Keinwe 3608 Suriana maritima | “Nidne Bate Tacca leontepetaloides Makriok 3710 _Terminelia catappa Kotel 3642 Terminalia litoralis ealeon: 3643. +=‘ Thuarea He! Re iy ers 5623 Triumfetta procumbens “_ ‘ Atat ' 3614 Vernonia clnemeal lend) Janailin Nonailin 5659 Viena marina - Markine jojo 5665 Wedelia bifliora Marjej, Markwbwebwe 3716 Xanthosoma sp. Mee Wat in Kabilin (re- cently introduced) =- vVi-<- 5756 Ximenia americana No name O eeenes erent eT 3620 Zephyranthes rosea No name known (small lily) 3723 Fungus - unidentified Wutiabowt 3734 I " Jijabirbir 5755 Seaweed - unidentified No name Distribution: Pacific Seience Board Memoers Washington Office Honolulu Office Navy Department Office of Island Governments Office of Naval Research - vii - mee ee ye December 15, 1951 A 2TiL75 ATOLL RESEARCH ~ BULLETIN 8. The Hydrology of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands 9. The Coral Reefs of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D.C., U.S.A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences -— National Research Council Washington, D. C. December 15, 1951 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It isa pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant nas made possible the continuation of tne Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board, includ- ing the launching of the Atoll Research Bulletin. It is of interest to note, nistorically, that much of the fundamental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, uncer the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shorn by the support for the Pacific Science Boara's research pro- grams, CIMA, SIM, and ICCP, during the past five years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SIM. The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from contract no. N7-onr-291, Task Order IV. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 8. The Hydrology of Arno Atokl, Marshall Islands Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences -— National Research Council Washington, D. C. December 15, 1951 beaeehat LO - ne : i THE HYDROLOGY OF ARNO ATOLL MARSHALL ISLANDS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESIA Pacific Science Board National Research Council Doak C. Cox Experiment Station, H.S.P.A. Honolulu, Hawaii March 1951 (Date of origin) ct Mae Petit ea cee CONTENTS page Acknowledgements Lt = aligd Climate 3 Tides 5 Rain catchment 6 Ground-water “4 Notes on geology pertinent to ground-water occurrence 8 Principles of ground-water occurrence on atoll islands 10 Ground-water observations on Arno 18 Seasonal changes in ground-water 22 Utilization of ground-water 23 Appendix 27 Rainfall measurements on Arno Atoll | 27 Bench marks at Ine Viilage 28 Tidal data for Ine Island 29 ILLUSTRATIONS vofiles and ground-water graphs of two section across Ine Island. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author of this report participated in the 1950 SIM (Scientific Investigation of Micronesia) Project of the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council, and the report is based on his field work on Arno from July 8 to August 5, 1950. This project was supported by funds granted to the National Academy of Sciences by the Office of Naval Re- search, and the field work was carried out with the active assistance of the Navy Department, the Military Air Transport Service and the officials of the Civil. Administrative Staff of the Trust Territory (Navy) . Par- ticularly to the latter officials, too numerous to list individually, the author is indebted for assistance in obtaining and transporting equipment used in the work and for previding climatic data for Majuro. | Miss Ernestine Akers, Honolulu Secretary of the Pacific Science Board assisted erestiy and has shown more than official interest in the study. The author's participation was possible because of a leave granted from his regular duties at the Experiment Station of Hawaiian Sugar Planter's Association. For the opportunity thus provided to join the project he is very grateful. Dennis Lee, of the Experiment Station, has PSSneesd ay Re preparation of the accompanying ground-water diagram. Several government agencies furnished special equipment that was invaluable in the stucy. Tiae gaging equipment was loaned by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Survey has worked up the basic tidal Gata. The J. 5. Weather Bureav loaned the meteorological ecuipment, and the U. S. Geological Survey loaned a water-stage recorder. The author is indebted to the other members of the Arno group who assisted in the collection of data, particularily to Gerald Wade who was aca in principai charge of the metcorological work, and to the interpreters, especially Konto and William who helped make surveys and dig wells as well as provide information and interpret the information of others. Finally, thanks are due to Jokon, the scribe at ine, who (ue been con- tinuing se ai: meteorological and hydrologic measurements since the partyieft, and to Jonn Tobin who has been forwarding these data with com- parative data from Majuro. se. ROLOGY OF ARNO ATOLL RT re NS ote Sage ane CLIMATE The field investigation of the climate of Arno consisted of daily measurements of rainfali, maximum and minimum temperature, and humidity, and continuous recording of temperature and humidity. The principal weather station was at Ine Viliage on Ine Island on the south side of the atoll. Irregular rainfall measurements were also made on Bikarij Island and Arno Isiand. Due to shipping difficulties receipt of the meteorological equipment was delayed, and measurements were not started until July 2. Ali measurements were continued until the first week in Sepb amber when the last of the party left Arno. Most. of the records, therefore, cover a period of not quite two nena s. The Ine raingage was left in place, however, and Jokon, the scribe at Ine Village agreed to eontimae the daily measurements, sending the results monthiy to Honolulu. As required, he will be assisted by William, the Ine school teacher. The various measurements made so far constitute, by themselves, a hopelessiy incomplete record of the Arno climate. ‘The shorter periods of measurement wiil not indicate the changes even through 2 single sea- sonal cycle, and even a year's measurement of rainfail will give no indication of the limits oD annuai variation. However, they may be correleted with fragmentary but longer term records on the neighboring island of Majuro and with other records for Marshall Is., so that rough but useable definition of at least the nydrologic factors in the climate of Arno may be obtained. pa ee The rainfall measurements recorded from July through November at Ine are tabulated in the appendix. The mean monthly rainfall has been 17 inches, equivalent to an annual rainfall of over 200 inches. As the record includes more Summer? months than winter months and as winter is reported to be the dry season, the actual annual rainfall will probably be somewhat less. During the same period a mean monthly rainfall of 20 inches was recorded at Majuro. Most of the rainstorms are of small diameter, per- haps 10 miles across at the most. it is to eu egpected, ‘theretene. that short period measurements at staticns 10 miles or more away from each should show very poor eeppelal ins. Longer vericd totelee however, in which tke effects of individval rainstorms are less important, should show greater correlation reflecting the movements cf large air masses. The difference between the the rainfall and that of Arno, therefore, may well be a significant one. A long ter estimate of the mean rainfall of Arno can probably be made ee more complete eeconaa for Majuro and other Marshail Is. records become available and have fece enaloaee. During a 24-day period the rainfall on Arno Island totalled 14 inches. The total for Ine for the same period was 16 inches and that at WMajuro was 18 inches. Tais is ae EA because the Arno station lies roughly between the Ine and Majuro stations yet its rainfall is ee ee mediate between that at Ine and Meiruss but lower than either. The qif- ference for the short period may, however, not be ei and fe one Only four days rainfall in July were recorded at piesa 7 Afterwerds the gage could not be visited until just before the party ieft Arno, when -5~ it was found to be overflowing. As the totel rainfall in the interim had been nearly 30 inches at Ine the overflow was to be expected, and the recorded contributes Werke bite. Daily rainfall during the period ranged from nil to over 4.14 inches. ‘Most of this rain came in sudden intense rainstorms. No relation of rainstorm frequency to time of day was noted. The temperature during the period of operation of the weather sta- tion ranged from 73° to 90° F. with a maximum daily range of 19° and a common dailv range of 10° to 12°. The morning humidity readings ranged from 78% to 100%. The hydrothermograph records have not been analyzed, but casual inspection snows that the humidity usually dropped during the daytime, and that the humidity was generally between 80% and 95%. TIDES The tides of Arno were studied in some detail because of the im- portance of the elevation ‘of. the water table of the fresh ground-water bodies of the islands above mean sea level, and because of the importance of the tidal fluctuations.in the fresh ground-water bodies of the islands. The shipning delay resulted in the loss of valuable recording time in. this study also. One tide gage was established on the ocean side of Ine in the second week in July: and a second was established on the lagoon side in the last week in July. The gages were kept in operation until just before the party left. ’ An analysis of the tide’.records by the Coast and Geodetic Survey indicates that the mean tide range in the ocean is 3.8 feet and the spring range is about 4.1 feet. The mean water level in the lagoon is ~-6- about the same as that in the ocean, but the mean tide range is 0.1 feet greater than that in the ocean. The explanation for this increase in tide range in the lagoon is not knom. A number of bench marks were established to facilitate leveling be- tween tide gages and wells. Their description and elevations are listed in the appendix. ‘RAIN CATCHMENT There is no ramet! of the rainfall from the Islend of Arno. At the most the water may ne) few ee feet on the packed surface of the main trails. Most of the rainfall seeps very quickly inte tee Wey per- meable eed Artificial surface catchment of rainfall He however, i important. It furnishes the entire supply of caer fon cooking and drink- ing in Ine and Arno villages and by far the major supply for those pur- poses generally. The best catchment structures are corregated iron roofs. In Ine Village’ perhaps half of the houses have such roofs, totalling about 12,000 horizontal square feet of catchment surface. Of this sur- ‘face not quite 6,000 square feet is actually used, the water being led by troughs to concrete cisterns or discarded oil drums. In Ine Village there are 22 cisterns totailing about 69,000 gallons storage volume. Of these, however, only'17, totalling 53,000 gallon capacity are actually in use. With the barrels the total water storage capacity in the village is about 54,000 gallons. This is the equivalent of nearly 150 inches of rain on-the tributary catchment areas. However, the ratio of the catch- ment areas to the capacities of the’ cisterns and barrels they feed is extremely variable. On the one hand.some cisterns are fed only by the whe roofs thet cover ee and on the other some lerge roofs feed one or tro drums. Domestic water eee reported recurrent during dry seasons, could probably be sian avoided if existing catchment areas were all connected with nearby existing cisterns in such a manner that the ratios of cistern volumes and repective tributary catchment areas should be as nearly a uniform as possible. In the outlying districts the crowms of vandanus and coconut trees are used as rain catchments, the water being led by way of a prop root or a stick from the trunks of the trees, down which it runs after being concentrated by the funnels of the unper whorls of leaves, to an oil drum. Nearly every house or small group of houses that does not have a cistern pa iee and Arno Islands has cae tiled rigged for a rain catchment. The rain water contained 3 to 9 parts per million chlorides at Ine Guring July and Aveust. This smail quantity is undoubtedly due to the solution by the rain of salt crystals resulting from eveporation of sea spray. At times of low rainfall the salinity of the rainwater may in- crease somewhat. It is probably higher on the windward islands than on Ine. GROUND-WATER The groundwater observations made on Arno can be intelligently dis- cussed only if they are considered in relation to the shellow geological structure, and can be understood oniy when some of the principles of ground-water occurrence as they relate to atol! islands are know. ‘There follows, therefore, first a discussion of shallow geological structure, second a theoretical discussion of principles of ground-water occurrence Be in atolls, and third the discussion of the Arno observations as a confir- mation, evaluation and expansion of the principles. Notes on geology pertinent to ground-water occurrence @ The islands on an atoll are mere heans of sand and “wl ers 7 "reef platform", the top of the reef that characterizes the atoll. Their position and the character of the materials within them are determined by shape, size, and exposure of the sections of the reefs on which they are developed. J. W. Wells' report on the Coral Reefs of Arno Atoll de- scribes (p. 4) the boulder ramparts characteristically surmounting the beaches on -the ocean sides of the islands. The ocean beaches themselves, though not composed entirely of boukers like the rampart, contain a large proportion of boulders and cobbles and very littie fine sand. The lagoon beaches, on the south side of the lagoon at leest, are composed princi- paily of sand, much of it very fine. Becavse the islands are the result of accretion of beach materials, generaily on both shores, the materials appearing on the beaches on the:two shores of the islands shouid be rep-. resentative of the materials composing the islands as a whole. The permeability of the coarse ocean-beach secimeats should expectably be much higher than that of the fine lagoon-beach sediments. Wells also describes the beach rock commonly exposed along the shores. In this material, whether derived from send or beacn gravel, the original pores and very largely filled with cement so that the per- meability is very low. The small dashed lines in diagrams A ee E of the accompanying figure indicate the depths at which gravel and hard rock watt encountered under the sand as indicated by wells along two prefiles across Ine Island. The Zoe lower small dashed-line represents the top of well consolidated rock, . either as seen in the bottom of large welis, as exposed on the surface, - or as estimated from the limit to which drivepoints could be simply churned dow, or the top of gravel exposed in wells or on the surface. The long dashed line represents a projection of the reef surface beneath the islands. — It will be noted that under the narrow part of the island shown in diagram A, there is no consolidated rock above the level of reef plat— form except on the lagoon beach where there is beach rock. This section was drawn across a canoe portage where a channel had been washed out . across the island in a hurricane. The beach rock extended on surface only to the west edge of the portage and was found by probing to extend only part way across the portage, so that a few feet east of the section shown there was no beach rock. The whole section of the islend except for the face of the lagoon beach and a smail lagoon beach ridge or dune ' were composed of coarse sand and gravel. In the wider part of the island there is apparently hard rock to ‘two or three feet above the level of the reefs but not above mean sea, level except where beach rock was formed on the ocean beach. This hard rock. might represent merely boulders too large to crack with the drivepipe under most of the wells, but it was evidently a continuous layer under well B. No’ beach rock was exposed on the lagoon beach at this section, and there is room for only a very narrow beach rock zone at the most between the beach surface and well P. “The structure and texture are not so obvious in the underlying reef as are in the overlying sediments. It will be noted in Wells' discussion aay |p of reef zonation (pp. 11-16) that along the ~~ side of Arno Atoll the Teoh reefs are covered with aitenkinve patches of sand that are absent or at least nee prominent on the ocean reef. nether he surface condi- tions sre typical of the underlying materials devends on whether the present environments are typical of those prevailing while tne reefs were being built. Unfortunately our knowledge of the history of coral reefs is sores aint ents ee is no general agreement as to the conditions of their development. All that can be said, therefore, is that there ap- pears dt Be a pecs ae for the development of asymmetry in the per- meability of the reef itself. As will be shom in the sees ground-water measurements such asymmetry ceirscaiesiesth saveioseit indice Ine Tslend. Principles of ground-water occurrence on atoll islands Most of the rainfall on atoll islanés, all that is not caught on and evaporated from the plants and the surface of the ground, seeps quickly into the ground. A part of this seepage is held in capillary openings in the soil and remains available to shallov-rooted plants. In most regions of the world this soil water is the most important source of weter for plants, which witharaw it and transpire it to the atmosphere. It is un- doubtedly a very important source on atoll {alands and probably the main source for many plants, but the low ground elevations probably permit other plants to prea water also from asta accumulation to be dis- cussed. The excess beyond the capillary capacity of the soil generally filters dow through the sala to a foot or so above sea level, where it joins and maintains a body of more or less fresh water saturating the ey lg Bea rock .and sand. From this body of what may be called basal ground-water it mey be lost by withdrawal and transpiration by deep-rooted plants, by withdrawal from wells, and by underground flow laterally to the shore- lines, both ocean and lagoon. Salt water is censer then Peeee water. Providing a volume of fresh water is somehow confined so that it cannot mix with.the salt water, it wili float on salt water, displacing the salt water just as a lump of ice or a stick would. The densities of fresh water and ocean water of usual salinity are such that approximately one unit of fresh water above the ocean water level will be supported by every 40 units below. A porous rock, partly submerged in ocean water, though it does not absolutely con- fine the water that saturates it, provides a restriction of flow that may reduce mixing sufficientiy so that if fresn water is introduced into it, an integral body of fresh water will be maintained, floating on the sait water in the rock with its surface 1 foot above the level of the salt water for approximately every 40 feet of depth of fresh water below the _ Salt water level. This principie, known as the Ghyben-Herzberg law after its first discoverers, applies in coastal areas, including islands, under- ‘lain by porous rocks in many parts of the world. Fresh water introduced by rainfall forms a basal fresh-ground-water layer wnose depth below sea level is approximately 40 times the head or elevation of its water table above sea level. It is-a well established principle, called Darcy's law, first that the amount of ground water flowing through a sand of given Cross section will be proportional to the hydraulic gradient, which, in a ground-water LU body with ‘ Mathers tehts that is not too steep, may be ee by the fh loss in elevation of the water veils per unit distance ence in the direction of fiow, and oe that with the same Haale! apadient in the same system but with sands of different sizes and deeress of eoapaee tion the amount of water eieigi’ through a given cross section will be proportional to a factor eaten ene permeability of the sand, which may be thought of as agree aoe capacity to Peamenee the water. ngubline the cross-sectional area, aoapinae the Pedeae gradient, or doubling the permeability of a system will double the rate of Flow of water Saneueh it. Disregerding the sich caps uniaeenn from wells, negligible on most atoll islands, the Sake. of revere introduced into a basal ground- aes body of the Ghyben-Herzberg type over the amount of water withdraw Gea lderbey beet ene badeaccnapeitast veaeh tie body only by flow to its margins at the shoves! Tiviey Muopacen be induced only by a hydraulic gredient toward the shores, and by the Ghyben-Herzberg law the higher heads iniand must be balanced by greater depths of fresh water inland. Assume for a moment that the permeability is constant and ihe rainfall, or rather its excess over erica ane and ee on, is uniform both in space and time. ‘Through the shore eee ine ee fresh water body all of ge rainfall excess over the whole island eee be flowing. Yet the heed is low near the panuer and the thickness of fresh vater small. By Darcy's law, the combination of high rate of flow and small cross sec- tional area must be balanced by a high shoreward hydraulic gradient, and “rapid increase of both head and depth of fresh water inland. In sections of the island nearer to the center the head and depth of fresh water are ay i: greater, and the amount of rainfail excess, being the part derived from the central part of the island only, is less. The hydraulic gradient must be smaller, and the rate of increase of head and fresh-water thickness inland is smaller. The fresh-water body, therefore, has a lenticular shape with a bow-shaped water tabie that is convex upward and with a lower, salt-water contact that is similarly but exaggeratedly convex dorn- ward. In any island of ee permeability the maximum head and thick- ness of fresh water will be greater if the rainfall is greater, smaller if the rainfall is less. If the rainfall is not uniform but varies sea- sonally there will be a seasonai change in the head and thickness of fresh water. Even the effects of daily variation in rainfall may cause variation in the head, although the effects of short term variations will lag behind the original variations and are not 8s great as the effects of long term variations of the same amount. The lag and damping are even greater in variations in the depth of fresh water than in variations in heac. In two islands of tne same size end rainfall, the one with the lower permeability will have the higher head and the thicker fresh-water lens. in two isiands of dissimilar size but having the same permeability and re- ceiving the same rainfall, the larger island will have the higher head and the thicker fresh-water lens. Because of the change in shapes of the fresh water lens with change in size, the relationships of rainfall rate, island size, and permeability to the thickness of the fresh water lens are complicated and not those of direct proportionality. The sea level, which controls the position of the fresh-water lens, is, of course, not constant but has tides. The loss of water from the olde fresh ground-water lens is, therefore, controlled not by a constant bese level but by 2 variable one; the hydraulic gradients throughout the lens and the rate of loss are, therefore, variable. As a consequence, the al- titude of the eround-water table itself is variable, showing a tidal fluctuation much like the ddan but smaller and with a time lag. ne lag and the degree of damping of the tide in the fresh water bedy are de- pendent on the distance from the coast, the permeability and depth of the aquifer, and the porosity of the section alternately saturated and drained. “The greater the distance, the smaller the permeability and depth of aquifer, and the greater the porosity, the greater are the tidal damping and Tere Fresh water resting upon salt water in the open will, cf course, quickly mingle with ya dae by diffusion and by mixing through turbu- lence accompanying any wave motion. In the medium of a permeable rock the rate of mingling is greatly Pa aBfl! Diffusion becomes an unimportant process, and there is no ordinary wave motion except at the extreme mar- gins of the lens. However, the tidal movement of the lens and the alter- Of Latte and shrinking of the lens by increases and decreases in the ogee of ugipey: ite comparec. to loss by withdrawals by plants and flow to the — result in raising and lowering of the salt—fresh contact. As the Ree ae raised, some fresh water is left in the rocks below the contact to mingle ee the invading salt water, and as the contact is oe heey some salt water is left above to mingle with the fresh. Conse- quently, the contact is not a sharp one but a gradual transition. Where the spread of salt water into the fresh-water zone is larger than the downward component of the movement of the fresh water in response to recharge, the zone of mixture will extend clear to the top of the lens, Pay ee and if the rate of mixing is large enough or the recharge small enough, the water even at the top of the lens may be too brackish for drinking, or even for utilization by most plants. Sea water contains roughly 2 per cent chloride ions (equivalent to about 0.2% NaCl). Drinking water should preferably contain no more than 0.03 per cent chlorides and cer- tainly no more than O.1 per cent, or one twentieth the amount in sea water. The rate of movement of salt into and up througn the fresh- water zone is depencent on the amount of climatic and tidal fluctuation of the theoretical salt water-fresh water boundary, on the vertical salt- content gradient, on the nature of the porosity (the mixing effect probably being heightened in material of variable pore size), and on the vertical component cf the salt-content gredient (the transfer of salt being most rapid where the change in salt content with depth is highest). At the center of an island the tidal fluctuation is at a minimum, and the depth of fresh water is at a maximum, so thet the rate of salt trans-— fer is at a minimum, ard there may be a tow salt content and comparatively little change of sait content with depth near the top of the Ghyben- Herzberg lens. Near the coast the tidal range is greater in the ground-— water body, and the total depth of fresn water is less, so that the salt eradient is steeper and the freshest water more brackish. At the shore the tide range is at a maximum ana the depth cf fresh water is at a minimum. Furthermore, at high tide there is a reverse hydraulic gradient carrying salt water into the island. Consequently ail of the water emerging at the shore is brackish, and the change in salt content with depth and time is complex. ° The average salinity at any point in a Ghyben-Herzberg lens in a smail island is, therefore, complexed controlled by the size of the island, poe ~ 16 the horizontal location of the point on it with: reference: to the coast lines and the vertical location of the point in,the lens, by. the. aver-. age recharge (that is the average excess of rainfall over transpiration and evaporation losses) and by the variability of the recharge, by the ‘permeability and porosity of the rocks, and by the tidel range in the sur- rounding water. The salinity at the point may be at-a particular time ereatly different from the average salinity at the point. Near the sur- face of the lens, except at the shore, the salinity will depend princi- paliy on the time elapsed since the last rainfalls and the magnitudes of those rainfalls in relation to the porosity and permeabiiity. Soon after ‘a rain the salinity will drop fairly quickly and then return gradually to 2 normal value which will be cetermined, like the salinity deeper in the lens, principally by seasonal changes of recharge, again with relation to the permeability.: As has been already indicated, the salinity at the shore will be greatly influenced by the tides. In the discussion so far, the rocks of thé island have been assumed to have uniform permeability. That this assumption is unrealistic has been shown for Ine Island in the precéeding section, and the conseauences of some of the expectable variability of permeability will be discussed here. The difference in origin and texture betwéen the reef problem and the islands on top of it constitutes perhaps the major‘source of a possible difference in permeability, but the permeability of each is highly variable, and no offhand guess can be made as to which has the larger overall per- meability. If, on the other banas the reef platform has a considerably lower permeability than that of the sediments. of the cverlying island, the ny a Ghyben—-Herzverg principle might apply so far as the depth of the fresh- water lens, but the part of the fresh-water body in the island sediments would function very nearly as if it were an independent body on an im- permeable layer. The tidai response would be considerably jess than if the reef platform had equal permeability, but the fluctuations of head with variations in rairfall would be much greater. There would be much less oprortunity for mixing, and the ground-water would be much fresher. If, on the other hand, the reef platform were much more permeable than the island sediments the system would function very much as if it were uni- formly as permeable as the reef platform. The predominance of boulders, cobbles, and coarse sand in the ocean beach ana the predominance of fine sand in the lagoon beach a strongly a greater permeability in the oceanward parts of the Ine Island than in the lagoonward parts. This difference may apply in other is- lands. The difference in wave intensity on the two sides of the reef may result in making one side of the reef platform more permeable than the other. The effects of asymmetry in the permeability of the reef platform should be much more important than those of asymmetry in the permeability of the overlying sediments. Any asymmetry in the distribu- tion of permeabilities would resuit in a lower water table, a thinner fresh-water layer, a greater tidal effect, and a greater salinity on the high permeability side than on the low permeability side. The beach rock found on both ocean and lagoon shores is much less permeable than the uncemented sediments. Where there is beach rock at the shore, either on the surface or buried under new sand, it should serve as a barrier to outflow of the fresh water. If the reef platform is permeable aie. the effect of this barrier should be small, but if the reef platform is impermeable the beach-rock barriers might serve almost like the sides of a tank, effectively sealing off the fresh water from the ocean and causing a high head, very little tidal effect, and low salinity. Beach rock related to old shore lines and buried now in interior parts of the islands might make similer barriers within the islands re- sulting in the separation of two or more independent fresh-water bodies if the reef platform were impermeable. Such layers of beach rock might also result in the perching of thin bodies of fresh water above sea level. Ground-water observations on Arno The accompanying diagrams summarize the most important part of the observations on ground-water concitions on Ine Island. The ground-water conditions are shown across the island at a point east of Ine Villege where it is nearly 1400 feet wide and at a point west of Ine Village where it is only a little more than 300 feet wide. The conditions can best be discussed as they confirm, evaluate and expand the previously discussed principles of ground weter occurrence. The relationship between the head and the distance from the shore- lines is shom by diagram A, a cross-section of the wide part of the island with a great vertical exaggeration. Three water-—table positions are shown, the upper and lower being the tidal limits of the water table and the middle one being the mean position. Each slopes continuously toward the shorelines from a high point about a third of the way from the lagocn to the ocean shore, except where high-tide water table slopes in- land for a short distance at each shore and also slopes toward the lagoon for a short distance near the center of the island. The probable .— — = By io explanation for these deviations will be discussed shortly. The variation in mean head with distance from shorelines is shown with stiil greater vertical exaggeration by the two solid lines in diagram C. The heavier of these lines shows elevations of the mean water table for one day above long-term mean sea level. The lighter line indicates elevations of the mean water table for the same day above the mean sea level for that day. The latter line is protably more directiy meaningful, becavse the heads may be expected to be very largely adjusted to tices of periods longer than a day. Diagrams E and G indicate that the head at the center of the narrower part of the island is less than ‘the head in the wide part of the island shown in diagrams A and C. Diagrams E and G do not show well the shape of the water table because there was only one measuring point in the nar- row section of the island. Diagrams B and F indicate the undistorted theoretical shapes of the Ghyben-Herzberg lenses in the cross sections of the wide ana narrow parts of the island respectively. The depths of the lenses nave merely been computed from the heads above mean sea level for the day on which they were measured, assuming that the heads were fully adjusted to long period tides. The lower limits show may be regarded as the approximate levels of water half as saline as ocean water. Much of the water above these levels is too salty for humans or even plants to use. That there is a greater effective permeability on the ccean side of at least the wide part of the island is indicated definitely by the rela- tively low head inland from the ocean shore and relatively high head in- land from the lagoon shore asshorn in diagrams A and C. The same asymmetry Gs in permeability probably exists in the denne eaten too, but cannot be proved with only ‘the one central measuring station. The difference in permeability is also indicated by the greater damping and lag of the tides as they move in from the lagoon shore than as the move in from the ocean shore. In the tidal graphs, diagrams D and H, the damping and lag of the two principal tidal components, semi- diurnal and diurnal, are shown separateiy. Consideration of the tide as a whole would result in confusion, because the periods of the components are effective as well as the characteristics of the aquifer in determin- ing the damping amd lag, ana he two components do not, therefore, behave as a unit as they move into the aquifer. The quantity e/x is a parameter cescribing the tidal progression as a whole and the values plotted were averaged from values obtained from both phase lag and damping effects in ooth semi-diurnal and diurnal Eommenevte, Attention has eslMeae been calied to the landward slopes of the near- shore parts of the water table at high tide. Such a reversal of slope is expectable in most Ghyben-Herzberg lenses discharging without restraint to the sea. Because of the large range of the tide at Ine as compared to the maximum head the ocean and lagoon levels are actuaily nearly three feet higher than the highest part-.of the ground-water table at high tide. Because of the lag in the inland progression of the tide, the two lines representing the high- and low-tide limits of the water table do net re- present two respectively contemporaneous positions of the water table. At times of high tide in the ocean the tide in the ground-water bedy is still rising toward the high-tide limit shown, and the landward siope is even more extreme than is showmm. The lagoonward slope cf the high-tide water Be) Re table near the center of the island probably results from the ground-water in the nigh permeability, oceanward part of the island acting itseif like the sea in controlling the discharge of the ground-water from the low- permeability, lagoonward part of the island. This behavior suggests a rather sharp discontinuity in the permeability near the center of the is- land. As a result of the lower heac and greater tidal fluctuation in the oceanward pert of the island than in the lagoonward part, the water at the top of the lens is freshest in the lagoonward part of the island, as shown by the dashed line in diagram C which represents the salinity of samples dramm nearly simultaneously from the severai wells across the wide part of the isiand and plotted on a logarithmic scale. The water in well S contained 8 ppm. chlorides, the same concentration as in the original rainwater, and an amount astonishingly low to anyone accustomed to the range in salinities to be found at far greater distances from the sea in the Ghyben-Herzberg lenses of voicanic islends like Hawaii. Water of 250 ppm. chlorides or less could be found within 70 feet of the lagoon shore but not closer than 750 feet from the ocean shore, and water of 1000 ppm. chlorides within 60 feet of thet#2°) shore but not closer then 400 feet of the ocean shore. The selinity at the center of the narrow part of the island at the same time was 5500 ppm. as shown in diagram G, indicating the very great importance of the width of the island on the minimum salin- ity in the Ghyben-Herzberg lens. The permeability of the near-surface sediments may be estimated from the hydraulics of the shailow wells and from the characteristics of the material, that of the zone occupied by the Ghyben-Herzberg lens ey be estimated from the gradients of the water table, and that of the much deeper =e. zone affected by tical flow from the tidal lag and damping. The theories linking permeability with these various igaerabite bff datna es: unfortun- ately, poorly worked out, but the rough approxina tions possible provide some very useful. Pepa. ie deter “tati, gradients on the two sides of Ine Island indicate an Cemteries permeability ten times 6b mace greater in the zone occupied by the Ghyben--Herzberg lens on the ocean side than on the lagoon side. The permeability coefficients computed for this zone are much greater than those expected in the kinds of sediments found near the water-table, indicating that the reef platform must be a permeability discontinuity below which the jaendeBatey is oeudtoe than above. The ? tidal apreets indicate that the high permeability continues to a depth ie es than that of the Ghyben-Herzberg lens. | | These observetions, with a number of scattered observations of tidal fluctuation, salinity, and hardness of water not fully TOeieedh ae wots in- dicate that on the wide parts of the islands of Arne Atoll, and probably on wide atoll isiends with a similar climate generaily, there is a well Heebed Ghyben-Herzberg lens with a maximum head of earth fest abeye mean sea levei containing fresh water in its upper part. The highest head and freshest water is to be found toward the side of the island under which aye. aoe permesbility is lowest, which on ire and Arno at least, and probably a commonly, is the lagoon side. Toward thi ocean side the lover head and 2 greater tidal fluctuation result in greater mixing of the fresh water with the underlying salt water. seasonal changes in ground-water The field observations on Ine were all made during the rainy season in the Marshalis. The heads measured should, therefore, be expected to be Log. near the maximum to be found during the year, and the salinities measured, therefore, near the minimum. It seems certain that the patterns of head and salinity differences over the width of an island will not differ sig- nificantly at any season from that noted, but the spat of decrease in head and of increase in salinity cannot at present be predicted. Monthly measurements of head in a key well are being maintained through a year by the scrite of Ine, so that considerably mcre information will be available on this point. The data received so far will not be listed here, because they have not yet been corrected for tidal effects and are useless until so corrected. Native reports indicate that the salt content at the freshest wells on Ine and Bikarij rises enough to be noticeakie but not enough to make domestic use of the water impossibie. Utilization of ground-water The Marshaliese draw directly only a small cen tanet of ground-water. There are no wells in the densely populated part of Ine Village, and the whole water supply there comes from rain catchment. In the more rvral areas of both Ine and Arno there are a number of dug wells used almost en- tirely to supply water for washing clothes. Even where there are wells, the water used for other purposes is rain water. In view of the probable ease of biological contamination of the ground water under such a low, previous terrain, the failure to use much ground water for drinking is probably fortunate. Two of these wells sunk in comparatively high ground were lined with blocks cf beach rock. Most were sunk in low places and lined with oil drums with the ends cut out, two oil drums, one on top of another, being used in some. Oil drum wells were seen also on Bikarij by Squires. None of the wells extend more than a couple of feet into the water. weg Posides the wells used for wash water there are a number of pits excavated to a foot or two below the water table for use in retting coco- nut husks. The husks of copra nuts are merely piled in these pits, covered with leaves and trash, and alloved to decompose for a few months, after which the fibers are easily separated for use in making cordage. There is aseanee: no important salinity control on the retting process, some of the retting being done in’ pits excevated in the beaches or merely in piles covered with rocks on the beaches. The retting pits in the in- tericr of the islands are sions located there merely to be conven- jient to the source of nuts. The smell direct draft of ground-water is no indication SF the over- all importance of the water that seeps into the ground. As has already been discussed, the water in the unseturated part of the soil is probably primarily responsible for supporting the heavy vegetation cf wet atolls like Arno, but some of the plants are wholly or vartly cependent on ground- water from the saturated zone. Conscious use is made of ground-water in taro culture by the Mar- shallese. The wet-lanc forms of taro will grow only in soils saturated with water, and also, it is believed in Hawaii, only where the water is in movement. With no surface streams, the Marshallese have been eble to meet the requirements by excavating pits from the surface of the ground 5 or 6 feet or more Hany penetrating the water-table. Taro is grown in orgenic’ muck, accumulated by rotting vegetation in these pits. The sur-- face of the muck is generally at about mean water-table, so that water stands.in the pits about half the time. The tidal fluctuation of the water-table apparently induces sufficient movement of the water. The area iB occupied by taro pits on Ine island corresponds to the distribution of the freshest ground-water in the lens, that containing 20 ppm. or iess of chlorides at the time of sampling. The taro pits on Arno island oc- cupy 4 corresponding position, uncoubtecly because cf the same control. Taro is known in Hawaii to be rather intolerant of salt. Ground-water apparentiy plays an additional important part in sus- taining breadfruit trees. Breadfruit is not generaily regarded as a phreatophyte (plant utilizing ground-water from below the rater-table) and on high islands it is clearly not a phreatophyte. However, the dis- tribution of productive breadfruit trees corresponds so closely with the pattern of salinity of the ground water thet some ground-rater con- trol seems certainly effective. It is possible that the control is exercised only during the dry season when vadose water (that held in the unsaturated soil cbove the water-table) is inadequate to maintain growth, or itself reflects the salinity of the underlying ground water due to capillary rise. In general, the breadfruit trees are limited to a zone including the taro pit zone and extending beyond to a position corres- ponding to perhaps 200 to ACO ppm. chloride content in the underlying water at the time of sampling. There are a few breadfruit trees growing on Ine Island seaward of this limit, and a few on Arno that probably are also. None of these seaward trees are as large es many of the trees in the center and lagoonward parts of the islands, anc it is noted by the Marshallese that they fail to bear or are at best poor bearers. There are no breadfruit trees on narrow parts of the islands. It should be remembered that the limits of a few tens of parts per million chlorides for taro and a few hundreds for breadfruit are wet-season limits. Un- doubtedliy the dry-season limits representing the real control are con- siderabl; higher. -26- The distribution of settlements and wees close to the lagoon shore on nearly all of the islands of Arno Atoll, is probably very closely the result of the breadfruit and taro distribution. ‘Banane and papaya trees show distributions similar to that of taro, but more limited, probably as a result of limiting plantings close to settlenents. No other economically important plants seem to be limited Nor by the availability of fresh ground-water. 2 APPENDIX Rainfall’ measurements on Ammo Atoll 1950 lu July hid July August Septy Geter’ Nov, day Ine Arno Bikarij Ine Arno Bikarij Ine Ine Ine 1 0.50 - _ OnALiwn O25 L0000.'7'7 Zz 1.60 1.30 ~ LoL? ote: 0.07 3 ease WeO! - sty Ces 0) aw AG) 4 0.58 or - ? mel 0.39 | 0.60 9,81 - 0.82 O55) |) 425 6 O87) Ol7 - 2.40 E. 250m Oat if Mi 6 i Se - 220 705, 0.04 8 a rvemanOuZy ss Bs09 - 0.55 1.90 tr 9 0.37) 2.26 - 1.66 OR AiO .03 10 0.66 .Os21 = 0.34 el Peer tO. 64 A 0.07 Ooo: 0.28 = 0.89 O87 O.4S 12 Os 35 Oni OeGs - 0.27 er 0.CO aes O232 Gea) Meee - GORE 0.00 0.00 ona OaLY O30 Depo. GE - 0.02 0.COn. 0.00 15 0.03 Ones 122) 0.68 - 2.16 Orde tr 16 0.23 @. 14, 0.81 - 0.32 OeA7" (0.00 by 0.43 0.92 0.06 - eng 0.00 Oe 18 LE al - 0.80 - 0.50 O02) 4) 0203 19 LAL ht - OaZy - ers id 0.08 0.23 20 O77 - O12 = 0.23 00) OEE el LO - 0.31 ~ 0.57 @. Sean OneS 22 tr ~ 0.03 ~ 0.59 0.69 0.00 23 ie 0.07 - 0.18 = 0.07 Ox6i 0.00 24 0239 PnOn7s - O222 - 0.01 2807 OFC. 12 25 1,36 0.98 - 0.87 ~ 0.01 O:44> 1.88 26 Pune Dek ~ OL2 7 - 0.48 OL1O)) One9 27 On A OSL, - 0.19 - Opi 0.62 0.54 28 Oo 50" eS - 0.09 - tr Ae BsO3 29 0.00 0.66 - 0.35 - 0.00 ©,.o0 Orde 36 0.00 - - Ae dh ~ Oats: 0.91 0.00 31 C.03 - = 0.59 overitlowing OLEZ Total it S67 6.652) ibe) 20.35 7.0L He, Boy 53) 12 AS 17.10° Mean 0.55 0.66 0.61 OPW Oe ae tr Trace Not read. Rainfall included in succeeding reading. No record. May be incorporated in succeeding days' catch. Incomplete. Estimate based on partial record. oo ~ I ~28- Bench Marks at Ine Village Bench mark 1: The top of head of galvanized spike driven into north side of coconut palm tree about one foot above ground. Tree is nearest to ocean on southeast side’of trail leading to beach from point on main trail about 75 feet northwest of northwesternmost houses of Ine Village, and about 450 feet northwest of main trail intersection at church. Elevation: %.71 feet above mean sea level at Ocean. Bench mark 2: A small cowrie shell filled with cement and set into top of unused concrete foundation post on south corner of concrete plat- form around house on north corner at trail intersection at church. Elevation: 8.27 feet above mean sea level at Ocean. Bench mark 3: A circle chiseled in beach sandstone on lagoon beach at foot of trail leading lagoonward from church. Flevation: 4.39 feet above mean sea level at Ocean. Bench mark 4: A circle chiseled on edge of east corner of concrete cistern, 30 feet northwest of trail from church to lagoon a point 125 feet from intersection at church. Elevation: 6.74 feet above mean sea level at Ocean. Bench mark 5: A circle chiseled in south corner of concrete foundation of northwest concrete post at entrance to Ine Council House. Elevation: 8.80 feet above mean sea level at: Ocean. Bench mark 6: A circle chiseled in northwest side of concrete sill around Iroij Well, about 140 feet south of main trail at on 75 feet southeast ae Council House. Elevation: 8.14 feet above mean sea level at Ocean. Bench marks established July 1950. Mean low water elevations and reduction to mean sea level at ocean computed by U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. AL]. elevations Mean Half Mean Mean Mean Mean low water puted by U. S. -29- a ce re ee referred to mean sea level in ocean. At ocean high water 1.90 tide level 0.00 sea level 0.00 low water -1.90 low water springs -2.75 elevations and reduction to mean sea Coast and Geodetic Survey. At lagoon 1.93 -0.02 -1.97 —2.82 level at ocean com-— ar 5 ‘ u iat Eau Fy Aon thc va ire hal ‘ Hic t x % ¥ 1 , ie, i ff ri F ; He , ‘ ye ; Dt Birt ‘ y f F ee nue “4 : are \ + A i , Pet Oey 5 Th ANG Na / ‘ tt ; t Bk i i ~ . th ar ean re 1 ‘ +1) : ‘ hire i} he! Vite « f 1 aD | LAD aaayype Vag e aay anag A Oe a ee es ‘ $+ Ocea Reef a ee — 7 = ~~ 4----------4 | ene ae 71 | ae x ~ behind ocean tide. n above au E : For diagrams ea Unconso beter | l° | °*] Boulder Elevati or with( consollid VEDOL—— . VLAD : CROSS 3.CTION 10X10 = 1 INCH CHARLES BRUNING CO MADE IN USA. - : = SS yp it Pe a a = ile — ~- = = ‘aa + : Lagoon} Beach Ridge Boulder | | aly . and Dunes IRamport. SI K. CROSS SECTION PAR INE} 1SL : - ENDLOGIG AND |HYDR@LOGIC| CONDITIONS. | VERTICAL EXAGGERATION | 10X. High Tide 9/1 2 = Ok igh Ti 3 = an Seo Lev@! 8/1 PLL a ar al : - Ly eve co a gu Tide 8/1 Low Tide | 8/1 + = : : | c : ax — z > d eS i a a Fresh Water a2 = a po Salt Water 2d | = =f = { see |e Aer a 5 vis ca elise ~ es | ao Se 10,000 p.p.h. = | ‘. si Head apave Meda Sea _Levol. =| eer all zg OOO ll 2 lobove > al = a EI S V OEE PA URaY 30. atee sulaen. = oe he ey Mater ae SS SSS SS 10 5 Ss l er erry, 2 6 r a a a = * Pe: en 4 wie Behind tide. N : yvuge efi eae tide. a fis ospemasteh fie 87 wee : 7 air ie = : ° * st ee ae 277 piuenp a ar eae as + | hat 9 S : — _ = PES Ke, TEED DoaaneG = te eis rere een . sere UME crn eee TN lie Lagoon Beach| || Bamng — —— —_ ~—____1. RRO PART [OF INE ISLAND SHOWI LLOW idge: © OLOGIG) COND}TIONS, VERTICAL EXAGGER 10X. : g High Tide 9/1 ea eet High Tide| 8/1 3 ae ee = 5 Mban Sea Level 61 rable Recent eva ate { el eral et lm | ee |e ee Gees es Se eee f 5 Te a a [tow Tidelen | = . 7 7. j | For| diagrams A@&&#. Lagoon Reef f w OW] PART OF INE ISLAND SHOWING TOTAL Aerie 4 : an a : e F GHYBEN-HERZBERG UENS. TRUE $CALE Saas Se eK Lemke cont ent om . D or wifhout sand, or partly Reef 24 Consolidated sediments. SSS Sree SSS SS ecm ia Lagoon Reef Salt = ia +50 a i=} i OF GHYBEN= 4 : vane Sf a —teeteet AReeW ed OF INE ISLAND. == == === FAS Aide_conrdny 7/30 of WEE a a000%en = | Fo RS | 3 feo E IL | {00 | = 100 © [ 4) PoE Meg, 2 10 esd = Book 87) Sea bey, 10 S eon Q Mt el. = +| ee ee Rese ter ee Teas =| Se eee Sees Je eeeeclemany ok ae cal N BIEN - HE 8 LENS u SRuiiea wes Maapen Scacaaleae ee INE | ISLAND sack ieee Do > 3 — Ve clacpel 2), | Ree Se 4 oiyfngh 2h eeet0ece, sae | bcococcsdacscoccedzccegseuter ~~ cemidiutnal fas*Z2ree. ze sail in == ja | CROSS SECTION IOXIO +) INCH CROSS 2.CTION 1010 > + INCH CHARLES BRUNING (0 CHARLES BRUNING CO - — MADE IN USA” MAOE iN USA 2 : a a et | a bps ae ati se amelie tb oh tae ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 9. The Coral Reefs of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences ~— National Research Council Washington, iD ee December 15, 1951 WA GOT So s i ‘ 4 yo pee ay te Ch ty cert: ae ‘¥ teas THE CORAL REEFS OF ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALL -ISLANDS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESIA - Pacific Science Board tad Hb An atoll has a top that's flat And featureless extremely. Corals and algae make a mat Where mountains are not seemly. (R.H.F., 1949) John Wh. Wells Sornell University December 1951 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this report participated in the 1950 SIM (Scientific Investigations in Micronesia) Project of the Pacific Science Board of the . National Research Council. This project was supported by funds granted to the National Academy of Sciences by the Office of Naval Research, and the field work was carried out with the active assistance of the Navy Department, the Military Air Transport Service, and the officiels of the Civil Administrative Steff of the Trust Territory (Navy). To all of the above who helped to make possible the research described in this report I wish to dxonbee my gretitude and appreciation. Special thanks are due to Mr. Donald F. Squires (Ccrnell '50) without whose able assistance in the field much less would have been accomplished. IV. VG iprvesithel legals) wees tee ee ye ce A. B. Gis Structure and Physical Processes A. B. C. D. E. i A. B. keef Temperatures Appendix: CONTENTS Lagoon Coliections General Statement eee we we ee eS eer ee eee Page Sm eee ee tt ft Structure of the Atoll Islands ---- 3 Surface Processes end Changes Reef Types Lagoon Reefs - Coral Knolls -------- Reef Zonation Seaward Reefs 1.- Type IA --------- 2. Type IB --------- 3. Tvpe IIA -------- Lagoon Reefs 1. Leeward Type 2. Windward Type List of Coral 22 ee ee ee ee ewe eS a me re ee ee we we ee Lipliner 9 eee ew a ee ae ee ee ° | . x : } | yf at : Va = ae “a 4 = ; ie re FIGURES Map of Arno, showing distribution of reef types Physiographic diagram of Arno Cross-section of Arno, true scale Detail map: North Horn, 1:8000 Generalized section of island end reef Section of island swept by typhoon Typhoon destruction, and reconstruction, at Arno Deteil map: Section: Section: Section: Section: Section: Section: Vicinity of Ine Villege, Ine Island, 1:8000 seaward reef, type IA, Hast of Ine Villege seaward reef, type IB, Taxlebd Island seaward reef, type IIA, Ine Anchorage lagoon reef, lagoon reef, lagoon reef, leeward type, Takleb Islana leeward type, North Horn windward type, Ine Villiage Maximum-minimum serial temperatures of water across Ine Anchorage reef, June, 1950 High and low water temperatures along Ine Anchorage reef, at inner margin of Acropora Zone iii |) ORAEIAY att Te oe fmt dodaa® Vee > fink | Sip WHT § al dake? arelt dicot ony! breath eae oper rawete ; eens beret ORES, pat I. Field Work A. . Reefs | The coral reefs were the main object of study during the field period, and ail types of reefs represented at Arno were investigated in more or less detail: Ine Island - Seaward-leeward reef; windward-lagoon reef. A three~mile stretch on either side of ine Viilage was mapped in detail on a scale of 1:8000. Takleb Isiand —- Seaward-windward reef; leeward-lagoon reef. Mapped. Aotle and associated islets - Seaward-windward reef; lagoon reef. Mappec. East Horn (Maiel to Lonar I.) - Seaward-windward reef; lagoon reef (enclosed lagoon). ' Mapped. North Horn (Eneman-Bikarej-Namwi) - Seaward-windward reef; seaward- leeward reef; enclosed lagoon reef; reef "dam" at north end. Mapped. Studies were made of the water temperature fluctuations on the reef tract on the seaward side of Ine Viltlece. Be Lagoon Following the arrival on 19 July of dredging gear from Washington, dredging was carried out nearly every day until 1 August, when the gear was re-packed for shipment. Earlier attempts to dredge with a crude crecge made from meterial at hand produced results, but were less than satisfactory. The regular credges were more successful, put the great difficulties in operating from sailing outrigger canoes emphasize thet systematic dredging, a necessary part of any scientific study of an atoll, is possible only from a sizeable powered boat. Nevertheless, as a resuit of Mr. Squires' per- sistence, a number of bottom semples and zoological specimens were obtained from some 25 hauls in the lagoon, even though nearly half of them were dry runs. C. Collections Corals. About 600 specimens, mostly cured, of reef and lagoon corals were coliected. Other. Insofar as possible, with only 2 gallons of alcohol, specimens of mollusca, echinoderms, alcyoneriens, foraminifera, crustaceans, etc., were coilected for the U.S. National Museum, as well es some dried material. A number of specimens were preserved but later had to be discarded or dried because of lack of sufficient preservative. Ten gallons of alcohol requested from Majuro late in June was finally delivered at Majuro on the return journey. ee Some was added to the one tank, _but be rest by that time was of no use and was returned. 18 In all/wooden packing cases were filled, weighing about 1000 pounds and shipped back by surface transport. The Gorate ere still being studied, ana & complete list at this time is impractical, but it is estimated that over 100 species representing about 45 genera of scleractinian and hydro- zoan corals were procured, with ecological data. A list of these genera is appended. About 350 photographs (Kodachrome) were taken, mostly of reef phenomena, including a number of underwater views. Five hundred feet of 16-mm. color motion picture film were exposed, again mostly of reef features above and below water, with unexpectedly good results. The motion picture camera and tripod were a loan from the Navy through the Honolulu office of the Pacific Science Board, and grateful acknowledgment of this is here made. II. Structure and Physical Processes A. General Statement Arno Atoll, in the southern Marshall Islands et approximately 172 deg. E. and 7 deg. N., lies in the northeast trade wind belt and in the north equatorial current. The iatter is deflected northwards during the summer months by the equetorial counter current. It is in that part of the Pacific where the surface water temperatures do not fluctuate more than 1 deg. above or below 28 deg. C. — the warmest part of the Pacific. The temperature, clarity, and egitation of the surface are at the optimum for reef coral development, but the planktonic food supply, on the other hand, despite the seasonal reversal of oceanic currents, is lower then in areas farther to the southWest and coral growth is below the maximum. Arno, like many atolls, departs from the common idea of circular atoll shape, being roughly rectangular with two extensions or "horns", one ex- tending to the north about 5 miles from the north corner of the rectangle ("North Horn"). The other extends about 7 miles northeastward from.the east corner ("East Horn") (Figs. 1 and 2). Both horns are peculiar in that each encloses near its tip a small secondary lagoon separated from the main atoll lagoon. The total area enclosed by the seaward reefs and lagoons is about 147 sq. mi. The surface reefs cover about 16 sq. mi. and on them 133 islands and islets form about 5 sq. mi. of dry land. The main lagoon encloses about 125 sq. mi., the secondary lagoon in the Fest Horn about 4.5 sq. mi., while the little enclosed lagoon of the North Horm hes en area of only 1.5 sq. mi. (Fig. 4). The seaward reefs extend continuously around the entire atoll, except where they are broken by Tutu and Takleb Passes, which have threshold depths (15-25 fms.) nearly equal to the lagoon depth, three shallow (4 fms or less) passes east from Takieb and one shallow pass into the northwest part of the East Horn lagoon. The total peripheral extent of the seaward reefs is about 65 miles, and except for minor pass into the East Horn lagoon, all breaks in the reef are in the 6-mile windward stretch of the northeastern face of the atoll extending southeasterly from Tutu Pass toward Namej Island. NW) The seaward slopes (Fig. 3) of the outer reefs are steeper to lee- ward than to windward. No precise data are available, but it is obvious from an inspection of aerial photographs of. Arno, and indicated by H.0O. Chart 6005, that there is a decided difference. At Ine Anchorage a depth of 200 meters is reached about 15C meters out from the reef margin, a slope of 55 deg. At 1700: meters the depth.is 1000 meters, about 27 deg. Thus the profile from reef edge seaward is concave and steeper near the reefs, and gentler with increasing depth... On the seaward side to windward off Tekleb Islend the depth 400 meters out from the reef edge is only 40° meters, a 7 deg. slope. In the next 350 meters the depth increases to 200 meters, a slope of 25 deg., nearly-the same as the downward slope from 200 meters on the leeward sice. At 3500 meters from the reef margin a depth of 1000 meters is reached, a slope of 19 deg. from 750 meters. This slope is essentially convex near the reefs, thence gently concave. The presence _ or absence of a 10-fathom terrace like that at Bikini is not determined, but comparison cf aerial photographs of corresponding parts of the two atolls Suggests strongly that it is developed on the windwerd side of Arno. The material of which the reef and islands of Arno is composed is wholly coral reef limestone and its derivatives: boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, and finer silt-size particles. . Small patches of phosphatic limestone occur in the interior of a few of the larger islands, but rock materiel other than limestone is very rare and accidental. Early in the 19th Century Chamisso © noted that the natives in the Radack chain (eastern Marshalls) searched the beaches for stranded tree trunks with tough rocks tangled in their roots, for tools. Stranded trunks from North America are actually not uncommon on the Arno beaches, presumably carried in by the California and North Equatorial Currents. Two in particular were noted in 1950, one a huge cut fir log 5 x 55 feet, the other a redwood trunk in the roots of which were several sizeable chunks of 4 tough quartzitic grey-green sandstone. The only other stray "foreign" rocks on Arno are bits of pumice renging in size from small pebbles to rounded pieces the size of one's head, found both high on seaward and lagoon beaches and inland. B. Structure of the atoll islands. (Fig. 5). The beaches of the seaward sides of the atoli are everywhere bordered, with very few exceptions such as Ine Anchorege and stretcnes of low reef tract on which islands are not yet developed, by boulder ramparts. These are ridges of boulders and cobbles of water-worn coral carried by storm waves from the outer slope and ridge of the reef over the reef flat. The rampart is 6 or 7 feet high on leeward sides of the atoll, but to windward it is often as much as iC or 12 feet. Boulder ramparts or ridges are the first stage in tne development of islands. In their lee accumulate finer materiels, stray boulders, pebbles and sand, carried over the ramparts and eround their crescentiform ends, spread out on a gentle slope toward the lagoon. Where the rampart is fairly stable, chinks between the larger pieces become filled in with sand and pebbles from the beach zone, and between tide-marks it may be consolidated by cementation into solid strata of beach conglomerate with initial dip toward the reef flat to which it is welded. Beach conglomerate is often expcsed where a slight shift in wave apnroach removes loose surface material and stands with the 3 rampart as the second line of defence behina the reef margin. Where the seaward reef flat is broad the inner part near shore may be covered by a rubble tract or sheet of large irregular coral blocks to a thick- ness of as much as 3 or 4 feet. Since they lie between tice marks 5 these sheets | may here and there be consolidated into a tough horizontal stratum. All | gradations from fresh, more or less angular rubble through rubble conglomerate to old conglomerate, corroded and decayed to the point of being mere remanants more or less “stoutly welded to the reef flat, can be seen. The beaches around 1 Sends are relatively nerrow, en to 4 feet neh: and Lidl between low tide level and the highest point ordinarily reached by the waves at high tide. Their slope is adjusted to the normal weve action in their area. On seaward side of islands they are steep and narrow, with slopes up to 20°. -On | lagoon sides they are wider with slopes of 59-10°. A few inches beneath the | surfaces of most sand beaches bordering the lagoon are patches of beach sand- stone with initial dip corresponding to the beach slope, developed as a result of cementation between tide marks, and often welded by their lower edges to the reef flat. Beach sandstone, like beacn pometemererG, is an important facker in anchoring islands to the reef. Another peat aet feature is the sand dunes developed-on the lagoon sides of some islends where there is a sand beach facing the wind. The strong trades sweep over the beaches exposed at low tide and move particles of sand 0.2-0.7 m. in size up the beach and drop them at the top, in much the same manner as dune are built on other windward shores elsewhere. The dune sand is composed of more © uniformly-sized particies than beach sand. The dunes form more or less continuous, ridges < to 5 feet above the top of the beach. Behind them the island surface slopes gently toward the interior of the island where the wind-carried sand mingies with the material spread in the opposite direction from the boulder ram- © part. Such a dune ridge extends almost continuously the length of Ine Island. In places it is dcubie, the outer one being lower and newer than the inner one. At one point, about a mile east of Ine Village, the ridge is nearly 15 feet above the beach (Armo's mountain) and 50-100 feet broad. The interiors of islands are 6 or 7 feet above low tide level, and consist of more or less horizontal leyers of material derived from the seaward boulder rampart and lagoonwerd dune ridge or beach, often more or 1ea8: consolidatec into. island or cay sandstone. Figure 5 shows a generalized cross-section ofan island on the lee side of Arno Atoll. . a In summary: the islands and islets represent constructicnal work of wind and wave with materials derived from the living reefs. They are accumulations of loose materiel partly held together by « patchwork "endoskeleton" or frame- work of beach congiomerate to seaward, beach sandstone lagoonward, and interior island sandstone. They are seen in all stages of development on Amo, from lone- ly little bits of rampart with a single sprouting coconut to broad islands sufficiently old to have small patches of phosphatic limestone in their interiors. They are not, at least on Arno, as some would have us believe, the remains of old reef flats raised above sea-level by the more or less recent 5 or 6-foot lowering of sea-level coincident with the accumulation of the Greenland and Antarctic ice- caps. Evidence of this eustatic shift is suppesed to be widespread in the Pacific but no features at Arno need be ascribed to it. Speculation that the 4 old reef surface elevated by eustatic change has been completely piened away at Arno seem unnecessary. Emphasis by some observers that isolated messes of reef rock welded to the present reef flat is evidence of an older, now eleveted reef flat overlooks the possibility suggested here that they are remnants of old cemented rubble tracts. A Ls ‘ GC. Surface precesses and changes. Everywhere on Arno evidence can be seen of moderate change due to shore- line processes, and here and there vest changes cue to occasional great typhoons. The former are more obvious on the lagoon side, the latter on both lagoon and seaward sides, and both are most apparent on the iee side of the atoll. The thirteen-mile long lagoon shore of Ine Isiand hes a nearly continuous send beach. In places this beach is being aggraded, as at Ine Yiliage. Some of the slow sand increment is carried in from the lagoon reef flat, and some is shifted along shore by waves from another part of the beach. From Ine Village westward for some miles stretches of gravel-cobble beach alternate with stretches of beach sand. The gravel beaches develop in places where waves are strong enough to agegrade, leaving concentraticns of coérse material. This alter- nation coincides with the alternately concave and convex parts of the reef end island with respect to the lagoon. Degradational gravel beaches occur along the salients, aggradational sand beeches in reentrants. The lagoon reef is not yet wide enough to stabilize the shoreiine - the geomorphologists' Nirvana, a shoreline of equilibrium, is far from reached. Active degradation of a’ sand beach is seen at the east end of Ine island, where for the last few miles the beacn is narrow and the dune ridge is strongly undercut so that turf overhangs the top of the beach. Coconut paims have toppled onto the beach in an almost even row and are slowly dying. About a quarter mile west of Ine Village, approaching a convexity in the island, uncer- cutting has proceded so far inland that the dune ridge has almost disappeared — and a 3-foot cliff of island sandstone is now being cut into. At this site the island is unusually narrow, less than 100 feet, and the initiation of the present slow undercutting is the resuit of washing awey of most of the dune ridge and old beach sandstone by typhoon waves. The beach sandstone that lay under the old beach is now exposed at the water's edge at low tide. More striking, however, than the normal shoreline changes, are the effects of the typhoons that strike the Southern Marshalls four or five times a century. Records are rare and older natives are the only source of eye- witness information, but their recollections are naturally vivid of such disasters and are confirmed by the physicai traces of typhoon effects which can stiil be seen. One oid man, Lijémmar, remembers four typhoons during his life- time, those of 1905 and 1918 being the last two, as he related to Dr. E. L. Stone in 1950. These are remembered by others and their dates seem fairly certain. Thet of 1905 was the most violent. Previous to 1905, according to Lijémmar end others, all of the islands now scattered along the reef from the eastern tip of Ine some 18 miles to L'Angsr Island at the tip of the Hast Horn were one continvous island, with only one canoe passage (portage?) between the west end of Ine and L'Angar, apparently 5 apparently a mile or so north of the present east end of Ine (Fig. 7,A). | The typhoon of 1905 swept away long stretches of this island (Fig. 7,B) so | that where there wes a single long island there are now ebout 40 (Fig. 7,C), the smaller ones having been built up since the typhoon, the larger ones being remants of the criginal islend. Confirmation of this extensive change is found on a small chart, corrected by officers of the old "Albatross" from a German hydrographic chart, published in 1903 by Alexander Agassiz (M.C.Z. Harvard, Mem., vol. 28, fig. 4, p- 228),. which shows a continuous. strip of land from L'Anger to the west end of Ine, broken by a pass near the present east end of Ine and enother about 5 miles west of Ine Village. If these passes existed, they must have been merely canoe passes over the reef, or possibly portages, for no break in the reef -can be seen at or near these places on aerial photographs, and Agassiz himself did not see them, saying- w,,..there are said to be several boat passes on the southwestern face of the lagoon." At any rate, two years after the corrected chart was published, it was obsoiete. . The déstructive effects of typhoons on atoll islands can be seen at many places on the leeward side of Arno. Mention has been made of the washing away of a stretch of lagoon beach just west of Ine Village, exposing island end _ beach sandstone. About 2 miles farther west beyond Jab'u, the island narrows to less than a third of its normal width and in places is scarcely 30 feet wide - (Fig. 8). For half a mile the dune ridge is very much lower end between it and ‘the boulder ridge on tne other side of the island the sand seems to have been scooped out into miniature box canyons with steep heads toward the rampart. About 50 feet from the beach remnants of the old beach sendstone can be seen at low tide on the lagoon reef flat, indicating the former greater width of the isianad. This change was the result of water piled up on the leeward side during the 1918 typhoon washing completely over the island into the lagoon, carrying . away lend, dune, and lagoon beach. Since then a new beach, underlain by -freshly- formed beach sandstone, and a new dune ridge have developed. Similar washouts were seen at the east end of Kilange near the base of the East Horn. On the next island west, Malel, are large numbers of prostrate breaedfruit trees, still alive, which were downed by the same storm. Fastward from Ine Village extend two old paths bordered by beach sand- stone slabs, one paralleling the lagoon beach, the other swinging south and paral leling the seaward shore just inside the boulder rampart. Beyond Stony Point, as one approaches the next "point", tne beach swings inward crossing the trend of the path which ends abruptly es if cut off. For several hundred yards beyond, the southern part of the island has apparently been carried away by a typhoon to the extent that on the next point the old island sandstone core is now exposed at the edge of the reef flat. The 1905 typhoon washed away parts of the former long island between L'angar and Ine and left long stretches between with only the bare bones of former land, -- a low ridge of beach sandstone on the legoon side, a rubbly band in the former islend intericr and a new seaward boulder rampart (Fig. 6). Over the lagoon reef opposite these places are strewn masses of rubble, now corroding, the finer materials having been bypassed into the lagoon. Dark lines of old beach sandstone, marking the site of former beaches and land, show well on aerial photographs end can be traced nearly continuously between islands from L'Angar almost to Ine. The amount of land lost during this typhoon on this part of the atoll was about 160 acres, only 5% of the total land on Arno now, but nearly 25% of the area of the former island, Typhoons and destruction of land on Amo will occur again and again. The forces tending to construct new land are slowly Lut steadily operating, but in the 46 years since the last great storm, they have not replaced the land lest then. It has not been possible to determine how many of the small isiends in the aree of major destruction are remnants and how many ere re- piacements, but certainly less than 10% of the lost acreage hes been made up. The typhoon:of 1918 vrobably destroyed part of the gain, ard that of 1950 may have washed away still more. The long narrow islands of Arno invite typhoon damage, for they act as barriers to the heightened tides and waves of the storm, ana the only egress for the piled-up waters is over the land. From these observations it would appear that the windward side of etoils in the Southern Marshalls are safer and less susceptible to damage than the leeward. Typhoons in this region come from a southerly direction and the normally leeward side bears the brunt of the shock. The leeward reef, its islands, and the iagoon absorb and weaken the rush of water, and waves in the lagoon can hardly rise as high as the open sea waves. The windward islands suffer meinly from the high winds instead of being overwhelmed by water during a great storm. Unfortunately, most of the land on Arno is on the lee or typhoon weather side. Littie, if anything, can be done directly by man to lessen, much less prevent, loss of land or soil by typhoon damage. This should be kept in mind if attempts are ever made to increase soil productivity on atoll islands. Greater soil productivity leads not necessarily to higher or better standards of living, but to larger populations. Well-intentioned attempts to improve the lot of tne native populetions of atolis thus might weil jeopardize more lives than ever when the inevitable typhoon sweeps in, and leazd to appalling drops in population and lower living standards than now obtain for the survivors. True, the Indian Ocean atoll of Cocos—Keeling nes been almost completely devastated several times in the last century by typhoons and still comfortably supports a yery Much denser popuiation than any Pacific atoll. But Cocos has capital wealth obtained from other sources than the atoll soil and is populated by a highly energetic group of people under a strong patrierchy. D. Reef types. The seeward reefs at Bikini Atoll in the Northern Marshalls were recently classified by Tracey, Ladd, and Hoffmeister (1948, G.S.A. Bulli., vol. 59, p. 870), largely on the basis of the character of the reef margins, as follows: I. Strongly grooved. A. Litnothamnion ridge low, uncut by grooves. B. Lithothamnion ridge prominent, cut by grooves. 1. Room and pillar structure developed. 2. Algal mounds and biowholes developed. II. Grooves weak or absent, A. Margin smocthly scalloped. B. Margins made irregular by erosion. (two subtypes) © The distribution of these types at Bikini is. shown on Figure 3 of the paper cited. Application. of this classification to the Aro reefs is - shown in Figure 2 of this report. Comparison of the two shows one striking . difference and a number of similarities. . The difference is the almost complete absence of reefs of Type II, in which. the grooves down the upper... part of the slope are weak or absent, at Arno, whereas gt Bikini they are characteristic of the leeward stretches. According to Tracey, Ladd, and > Hoffmeister, where reefs of this type are developed there is no evidence of a terrace.«. At Arno there is no evidence of a terrace on the leeward slopes, but a strongly grooved, steeply sloping reef margin of Type IA, with : low algal ridge, is developed. A typical profile of oun a eure reer of this type at Aro is sheyn amy PEs 9, ; er, ' - Reefs of | Type “IB., aon strongly develoned ayer aabes are , found at corresponding windward sites..at both atolls, alternating with Type 1A which is developed on stretches less exposed to the northeasterly and easterly trades. At Arno there does:not appear to be the close relation between islands and Type IB reefs and stretches between islands and Type IA, observed at Bikini. In areas where there are islands or islets on the reef, open spaces between islands are narrow end water flow across the flat is impeded by rubble. At only one site at Arno is a reef of Type II (grooves weak or absent) developed. A stretch of about 300 meters northwestward from Stony Point on the seaward leeward side at Ine Anchorege in a shallow bay between two crescentiform swellings of Ine Island best fits Type IIA. Grooves are absent and the margin slopes very steeply, practically vertically at first, less so below about 10 meters, with an average slope of 55 deg. to 200.meters. There are more or less regular re-entrants 3? to 10 meters deep, < to 10 meters wide, with sandy or rocky floors. One or two of these are interconnected by open channels, isolating flat-topped piilars, but there is no evidence of collapse due to erosion. Wind waves ere negligible at this site and the strong swells from the east are reduced | by the projection of Stony Point. ee ao went ee E. Lagoon Reezs The lagoon reefs ere not so continuously developed es the seaward reefs although banks on which reefs might exist are continuous. They are best developed along the windward legoon side of the west, south, end north sides, where there is little or no wesh of sand and other detritus from the seaward reefs. The only | development of leeward lagoon reefs on the windward side cf the atoll is in the vicinity of the two threshold passes, Tutu and Tekleb. The sand banks developed on the lagoon side of the windward reefs from wash from these reefs are rapidly extending into tne legoon. They slope steeply downward toward the lagoon floor at about 35 deg., the normal angle of repose. | x In the enclosed lagoons of the North fue Fast Horns the reefs are dis- | triovted as in the main lagoon but again coral growth is patchy owing to the sand ] cover of the flats and lagoon slopes. In the North Horn (Fig. 4), which has no pass whatever to seaward a special situation has developed. On all sides excent the north, the seaward reef flats || are built up either with islands or thick rubble to a level above low tide level. : On the eastern side the rubble arees between islands are penetrated by sand- | floored chennels from the lagoon side, usually with a moderately rich growth of corels, but about halfway to the seaward margin they become very shoal and choked 8 by rubble which often is more or less cemented. Except to the north this rim is 1 to 2 feet above low tide level, but is 2 to 3 feet below high tide level. When tide level falls below the rim level the excess water flows north- ward and part of it escapes over the lower rim between the ends of the windward and leeward reefs. The rest of it flows cutward through the channels onto the seaward reef flats. Formerly most of the excess fiowed out by the northern out- let, whica was covered or crossed by a reef flat built to within about a foot of low tide level. This rapidly moving water, however, supported a profuse growth of corals and calcareous algae which have now grown up ecross the opening, forming a low, broad, convex rampart, one edge of which slopes steeply into the lagoon, the other gently down into the scattered microatolls around the embay- ment in the northern end of the horn. At present this dam has a uniform crest of at least 2 feet above low tide level on the seaward side, and over its entire surface there is a steady but diminishing outflow of water as the tide ebbs. Coral growth is rich but the depth of water on the spillway slope at each low tide is now hardly more than an inch and broed. stretches are exposed, and coral colonies ere low and spreading. Thus the water level in the enclosed North Horn lagoon never falls as low as the level reached at low tide on the seaward reefs. This enciosed North Horn lagoon is much shallower than the main lagoon or the enclosed East Horn lagoon, and soundings shown on the H.O. chart indicate a maximum depth of 10 fathoms. Coral knolls are numerous, end the legoon is pro- bably filling rether rapidly. Because of the absence of even a shallow pass in- to this legoon circulation of the lower levels of water in it must be restricted, but unfortunately it was not possible to obtain bottom samoles bearing on this point. F. Coral Knolis. These characteristic structures of atoll lagoons, often loosely referred to as "coral heads", are abundant in all the Arno lagoons (Figure 1 shows only a very few of the knolls). Some of them are sufficientiy developed as to be awash or even exposed 2 to 4 feet at low tide. In the main lagoon there are six areas where they are concentrated: 1) in the area at the base of the North Horn generally west of Fneweto Island, 2) a large cluster fanning out from the break in the reef south of Jarkul Island, 3) across the inner end of Tutu Pass, 4) halfwey across the lagoon between Takleb Pass end Ine Village, 5) in the south- east corner of the legoon, and 6) in the secondary embayment at the base of the East Horn. The distribution of the knoll clusters seems less than fortuitous. Three are in corners of the lagoon, and two are associated with threshold passes. The remaining one, the large Jarkul cluster, is probably also of the second group. The broad break in the reef southeast of Jarkul (2 miles northwest of Tutu I.) suggests a filled-in threshold pass. The absence of a strong seaward reef at this point still enables the wind waves and sweils to sweep in and transport large quantities of sand which are building a "delta" into the lagoon over the site of the former pass. Around this "delta", within a radius of about 1.25 miies there are at least 65 knolls visible on aerial photographs in addition to two large shoals. The cluster around Tutu Pass is smaller - 22 - «und none is visible in the immediate vicinity of Takleb Pass. The latter is shallower than Tutu and less to windward, but the large cluster in the lagoon to the south, beginning about @ mile from the pass, may be related to it. Are these knoll clusters related to the developmental stage of the passes with which they are associated? 9 A somewhat similar distribution of knolls may be found in: the: si pe of ani Atoll, suggesting an interesting minor research problem. os III. ree : Zenation A. Seaward Reefs ‘As indicated above, three reef types of the tracey-Ledé-Hof fmeiater | classification are developed at Arno: IA, IB, and TIA. 1. Type IA. This is’ the dominant erie at Arno, aia extends almost uninterruptedly : from the west side of the North Horn southward around the lee side of the atcll to the eastern end of the East Horn. A typical section of this:type of reef, strongly grooved with a low algai ridge uncut by the grooves, is snown in Figure 9. The broad rock flat, seemingly barren, supports no coral growth except in occasional depressions where. small patches of Porites lichen and a few other forms grow feebly. At practically all sites, however, except on open : stretches unbroken by development of islands (Hey NE.of Kilomon, E. of Takleb),. there is:an:extetsive overgrowth of a curly, disreputable-looking brown alga(Mievo- | 2 Hemuvas the fronds of which live vast numbers of -Calcarina.: Associated with these are ..“mMany individuals of the large, ail iN a nel ye pelecypod Chama which resemble projections 6f ‘rock about the size of one's fist. This is the Calcarina-Chama | zone. This zone is truly barren only where there are prominent convexities in © the reef (Fig. 8). Where this flat begins to slope gently down as the "algal i ridge" toward the upper ends of the grooves, low and broadly adherent colonies E of Pocillopore are usually dominant, (with fewer specimens of Acropora, ! ! t Sap Lie AP ASIDE AL at se A Astreopora, Porites, etc.), on the weak encrustation of lithothammion,- the Pociilopora zone, at the outer end of the waves of translation at low tide. Beyond this, in the surf zone, Pociilopora is replaced by Acropora (A. pectinata, A. digitifera, etc.), forming a zone extending well down into the upper’ part- of the grooved area. Other common genera in the Acropora zone are: Astreo ora, ——— Millepora, Favites, etc. ab ye "Type IB. This seaward reef type, with relatively high, prominent elgal ridge, is characteristic of the exposed windward reef tracts, and is replaced by Type IA only where some protection is afforded by concavities in the reef margin. The usual zonation of this type is shown in the section, Figure 10. The rocky flat is usually less richly endowed with the alga-Calcarina—Chama association and the ridge is not 4 place of vigorous coral growth. The surge channels are usually shallow, rarely roofed over, and often pertly filled with coarse boulders. Occasional small colonies of Acropora cuneata are found, but iess commonly than in the corresponding zone on reefs of this type at Bikini. Nowhere is this reef as broad as at Bikini, and no trace of an inner Heliopore zone was noted. ee ee eS ee DR 3. Type ITA. As previously noted, this type is found only in a limited area at Ine Anchorage (Fig. 8). It is distinctly zoned by corals 2s shown in the section, Fieure li- Following an inner barren zone, exnosed for long periods at practical every low tide, is a broad tract thickly settled by extensive colonies of Montipora ramosa, -- 4 nearly exclusive society, here and there replaced by patches of ‘Acropora hebes or alcyoniid "soft corals"(Lobularia). Occasional colonies of Synaraea, Leptastrea, Porites (especially P. superfusa), and Pevona, also occur. At low tide the depth is from zero to about fifteen inches, and the water is practically undisturbed by swells or waves of transletion. The outer limit of this zone is at about the inner extent of the ordinary low tide waves of trenslation, where it is succeeded by a zone dominated by Acropora, especially species of the corymbose A. pectinata type, which extends to the reef margin. Fungia scutaria is common in this zone. It is the zone of richest variety of corals end other reef animals, Calcareous algae are relatively very unimportant. Species of at least 33 genera of scleractinians and hydrozoans have been collected in the zone, but Acropora accounts for around 90% of all colonies.* Over’ the reef edge and in the re-entrants along the edge the next zone, marked by the pedestal colonies of A. reticuleta, begins sbout 6 feet be- low low tide levei in water only slightly agitated by the constant but low swells, and extends down to about 30 feet, where ccral growth becomes very sparse. Fungie scutaria, F. fungites, and F. concinna are very common. B. Lagoon Reefs Two main types of lagoon reefs may be Cistinguished at Arno. One is found on the leeward side of reef tracts on the windward side of the atoll, or on the leeward side on long stretches where islands are not yet developed. The other is developed on the windward side of the island-flecked reef tract on the leeward side of the atoll. 1. Leeward Type. The first type is developed in the enclosed lagoons of the North and Fast Horns (Fig. 13), and in places along the sheltered leeward side of the reef tract between the horns (Fig. 12). The immediete substratum is primarily the sand washed into the lagoon margin from the outer reefs, either across the flats or around the passes. These sand tracts slonve steeply (35 deg.) at their inner edges, which may be from a very few to several hundred feet out from the shore, down to the lagoon floor. On this insecure base iuxuriant corel patches are scatteringly developed, rising with more or less abrupt sides from depths of a foot or so, often very close to the beach, to 12 or 15 feet. The spaces between them are fiat and floored with sand on which few corals grow. The charecteristic coral of this zone is Porites andrewsi, a ramose form found in the same environment at Bikini and other northern Marshail etolls. Also common in this zone is Acropora palifera which often forms huge colonies in shallower parts of the sandy interspaces. Fungia is common. The zcropora reticulata zone, found below about 6 feet on the Type IIA seaward reef, extends es might be expected on these protected lagoon reefs weil into the P. andrewsi zone, in as little es 2 or 3 feet of water at low tice. It does not appear to extend downward much below about 20 feet. 2. Windvara Type The second type of lagoon reef at Arno, exemplified by the secticn, Figure 14, extends from neer the southeastern corner of the lagoon along the ‘windward southern side of the lagoon the entire length of Ine Island to Arno aa -- of the legoon at 15 or 20 fathoms. Coral growth over’ this type of reef is ~ Island, about 13 miles, end beyond. It is the broadest of Arno reefs of any i type, averaging about 1500 feet from beach to margin. The flat consists of a ; patchy veneer of sand and silt on an uneven, corroded reef rock flat which lies | from 6 inches to 3 feet below low tide level. It is shallower near shore, ‘ deepening to about 3 feet at the midpoint, then shoaling near the margin, which ~ in a few places is exposed at low tide. Beyond this low ridge the rock surface, often quite bare of sediment, slopes gently at about 10 deg. to the sandy floor sporadic and nowhere rich and flourishing. The width and depth of the trect enable the wind waves to proceed well in toward. shore where they keep the sand and silt well stirred at high tide, inhibiting the growth of all but a few colonies of such hardy forms as Porites lutea and Pocillopora damicornis. Hippopus is common in this inner zone. In the deeper water beyond and neeriy to the margin, Astreopora is abundant, forming massive heads up to 5 feet across. Many large dead colonies of Acropora palifera and A. gemmifera, occasional. large Pocillopora, and discouraged Porites andrewsi also occur. - On the bare, pitted and irregular marginal slope is is found the widest variety of forms, but no one species appears domine nt. Especially common are several species of soft alcyoniid corals (Lobularia and Lobophytum). Fungia is absent. Lithothamnion is only occasional and not flourishing. From a depth of about 5 feet down the slope, Acropora reticulata is dominant, often forming huge spreading brackets 3 to 8 feet across. This zone extends nearly to the lagoon floor into the Acropora formosa habitat. re | A third type of lagoon reef, with an algal ridge and zonation similar to that of seeward reefs, is shoei ead at Bikini around’the western end of the lagoon, where wind waves developed. over a fetch of about <0 miles produce a strong surf. This type is not found at Arno where nowhere do prevailing winds have a fetch of more than 10 miles. IV. Reef Temperatures | For mid-Pacific reefs there is, so far as the writer is aware, only one detailed record of water temperature variations across a definite reef tract. In i918, A. G. Meyer published (Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, pp. 31-34, fig. 9) an account of the temperatures on the Maer Island coral reef, Torres Straits,—- a fringing reef about 188 feet wide. In general he showed that while daily temperature changes at the seaward margin havea narrow range (3.5 deg. C.), the range increases toward shore to as much as,12.5 deg: (C.), and concluded that the high temperatures experienced during part.of the year must be sufficient to kill all corals within 450 feet of the shore. - During the month of June, 1950, a number of temperature traverses were mace across the Ine Anchorage Peef along the. section line of Fig. 1l, at various © times of day and states of tide. The temperatures were measured at the height of coral growth, usually about a foot from the bottom, at 20-foot intervals across the 450-foot width of the reef. The results are summarized in the chart, Figure 15 and presented in the game form as Mayer's cited above. On the basis of Mayer's results end theoretical considerations, the results obtained at Arno might have been predicted. The least range is found et the seaward edge, the greatest nearest shore, regardless of the state of the tide. Coral growth on the reef is closely correlated with this. It is richest at the reef margin where the temperatures are more constant, end weekest or ebsent near shore where temperature ranges are greatest. This correlation, of course, is not exclusively due to 12 temperature control. Agitation and water movements are greatest near the edge; salinity fluctuations-due to heavy rainfall are greatest in the very shallow water near shore, among other controlling factors. The fluctuation is diurnal. Early in the morning, before the sun shines on the reef flat, temperatures across the reef are nearly uniform, usually a degree less nearer shore than the normal 28 deg. C. at the reef margin, but within a few hours temperatures near shore, even at high tide, are much higher than at the margin. Of particular interest are the two sets of serial temperatures graphically analyzed in Figure 16. These were run at 50-foot intervals along a line 1000 feet long and parallel to the reef edge and about 200 feet from shore, approximately on the boundary between the Acropora and Montipora zones. At the east end this line cuts across the transverse section line of serial temperatures shown in Figure 16. At high tide (10:30 a.m., 24 June) the water along this line was about 3-4 feet deep, and little variation in temperature was expected or found. With this depth of water the swells are little impeded end broken by the reef margin and no cause for fluctuation is developed. But at low tide (4:00 p.m., 23 June) greet variation was found: from 28.2 to 30.9 deg. at more or less regular intervals along tne tract. The highs were about 200 feet apart and aiternated with the lows. These represent wedges of cooler water extending into the shoreward band of warmer water, or contrawise. The separation of these wedges is striking. At one spot a temperature difference of 1.5 deg. was found in e distance of only 25 feet. The explanation of these wedges of warm and cool water at low tide is not hard to find. There is a close correlation between the wedges and the re-entrant channels in the reef mergin. The cooler water wedges are opposite the re-entrants, the warmer wedges extend outward opposite the salients. At low tide the constant swelis from the southeast, refracted arcund the easterly side of the atoli from the northeast, are slowed by the salients but move un- diminished into the re-entreants. A wave of translation forms at the head of a re-entrant and is reinforced by refracted swells from the salient on either side. This drives a mass of cooler water onto the reef flet at each re-entrant. Rip currents moving outward onto the salients then shift the displaced warmer water toward the salients. V. " Appendix:, List of Coral Genera Occurring at Arno A. Scleractinia Acanthastrea Acrhelia Acropora &iveopora Anacropora Astreopora Coscineraea B. Aleyonaria ~ Heliopora Tubipora . Hydrozoa . Disticho ne : Millepore Culicia Bnsindy a ee OT Styias ver Cyphastrea bik aid oar hac Echinopora | i i Favia a Favites Fungia = Goniastrea Gonicpora Helomitra Herpolithe Hydrophora Levtastrea Leptoseris Leptoria — Lobopnyllia Merulina Montipora Mycedium Pevona. ; ianey ne (Polyastra)~*" " (Pseudocolumnastraea) Platygyra Plesiastrea Pocillopora Porites " (Synareea) Psammocora " (Plesioseris) i (Stephanaria) serietopora - Stylocoeniella © tylophoré eymphyllie Ulophyllia a ans ae FIGURE |. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 STATUTE MILES DISTRIBUTION OF REEF TYPES, ARNO. LONAR fais Pe Gea ed ‘ ee a ed € hom oh ie * 4 PWS SSS a ‘ We . ie SG | “fn fa ISSO ~~ Zl WS S pe A rN 2 > ANG Z Wy I, 2) fi ! WA * i A) MS hee Drea ie SOO \ TT FIGURE 2. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIAGRAM, ARNO ATOLL. =r ‘tenant AIT aay Anh Wal ‘T10LV ONY *NOILOSS SSOND 3IVOS 3anYL ‘€ 3NNdIS SY31L3W 000SI 0000) 1 L 000s See OUYMONIM NoOoOSv1 QuvM337 ‘WOOO! ———— 1 eae dam ee a ae aN Boulder Ramport. eg Ins meni acer ae pers 0/0 Waters) Sa Ba Elevation above ane Chloride ~ behind =9 ag 2 Amplitude For] diagra or wi consoli ae Unconsolidated} sand. emits Bae Fala cee CROSS 3.CTION (0X10 ~: INCH CHARLES BRUNING CO MADE It U.S.A. = Lagoon| Beach Ridge a and Dunes HPS, S. ECTION OF WIDE PART Of INE| ISLAND SHOWING SHALLOW | ; ; rare ep Pe - al IL LOGIG AND |HYDRQ@LOGIC | CONDITIONS. VERTICAL EXAGGERATION | 10X. High Tide g/t Ae a ie Well } Wel ane ° g 2. M@an Seo Lev@l 8/1 : 2 u i == 0 - 2 g te High Tide yah Tobia Les ae ee __|High Tide 3 Pwmridemelt = 5 ——_ aae ses = = == o Mean Woler 2 : c Lagoon Reef Zi Ca Ye Vi 7? Vie ; 8 z we OF TNE + : fee [ rr DEPTH OF GHYBEN-/HERZBERG LENS. TRUE SCALE. Lagoon Reef ee ie == al ars Wrresn|) (water Capea ~ — Salt Water é SRAPH BEAD OF INITY OF |GHYBEN - ‘= = a HERZBERG LENS IN WIDE PART OF INE |SLAND | | FOU Ty fo St pee re 1000 Se lean Head 8/\labove Medn Sea Levd) Meo i : 100 > = over e/t Sea a f = = te ~Lhldride cont Eats 3 10 Mfa!_7/30 at Water Surface..— —— y= = ee | é | GHYB = L TN a a : Ses haute 8 3 anche WIDE| PART|OF INE ISLAND. ae on L pobivsnal tage, Seen | : 3 1 tp — | — at Ea saat Sl Zt ~) = = 6 < Rei ln cereal Ecce ala | cca IE Soo [aao==--f ------fe--295 fe eee emidivrngl ag’ ani “Senn pattteses nasssseedones Boulder | L Beach SECTION [OF NARROW | PART [OF INE ISLAND SHOWIN SHALLOW |‘? | SRI Seaal A GEOLOGI6 AND) HYDROLOGIG, COND|TIONS.| VERTICAL EXAGGERATION |10X. eae g High Tide 8/1 So Fae heel voter: ie o/h High Tide] 8/1 ° Mpan Sea Leyel 8/17 2 Megn i I Yee ae Mean Sea (evel 6/1 iS Expllanation: Loy ta slawter Ww Tide = "TTI INS Z i ie $ For| diagrams AGE. b Lagoon Reef nt ue I] Uncong$olidated| sand. — GROSS SECTION| OF NARROW | PART |OF INE ISLAND SHOWING TOTAL 7 al are DEPTH OF GHYBEN-HERZBERG LIENS. [RUE $CALE. ees aleeeee heutsi or pot WS Reef | consolidated sediments. | z= 2 * a ———————— ; E| Salt Wat =< | Lagoon Reef dhe 34 Fy (=) OF AND” SALINITY TW PARTI-OF~ 6HYBEN= ane easier ie ene nas a a HSA ide_Contgny 7/30 a Hy 10,000 p.p.{n. 190 HERZBERG LENS IN INARROW PART OF INE ISLAND. F | {000 oO 1,000 c Horizontal Scale — af |b + S o IL 100 co 25 100 ° bo) le ao J 10 <4 Se Ss 3 F uss SES AL ae Se | } a e © SSS To tide. T 1 | | | Bo Teale le eee | a | PROFILES AN G 1. GRAPH OF ae peel NIN} GHYBIEN= A LENS TN) F SemtaiurnplAmpliude 6/1 SK Lea aan GRAPHS OF TW ARR RT OF| INE | ISLAND. SSN apes 8 | SEAS Peas hee L ACROSS} INE} ISLAND, AR ee ie | ae meat ATOLL, |MA < ? yal piuinel debeeerecede., | + Ip 0.0.0.0.6.0.040.00,0,0,0.0.0990.0 2,992 SE" "Semidivlnal [ag “g F229 o.ole-co-00-0-0-to-v-20-0-0-0+ 6 eo oe 1 CROSS =.CTION 10X10 -4 INCH Cea ae CHARLES BRUNING CO eS re fica MADE It USA a ee nee = = ong! 417 NOOSVv1 “333u GNV GNV1SI JO NOILOSS G3ZINVYSN39 ‘Ss { yo0u [ 333u f_ = SS = 3yndis 39014 3NNa fc a [See ese epee yan é og Beads aoe flesh SSD SNe SS ONV1SI = 39018 4307N0s OyvMVa3aS — 1H Ld PC : / 4 “NOOHdAL AG 1Ld3MS OGNVIS!I JO NOILOSS “9 3YNDIS & 2 4 © . ok a EO”. OC ¢ eX oe ei = eS 7 ah, ee OS61 sO6| £061 ‘ONUV LV “NOILONYLSNODO3Y GNV ‘NOILONYLS3SG NOOHdAL Z 3UYNDdIS ~ “Poci lepe 4 MILE ~al ve Be LAGOON N) apes eee Alge! ead SEAWARD REEF MARGIN RUBBLE TRACT BEACH | SS. OR CONGL. FIGURE 8. DETAIL MAP, PART OF INE I., ARNO. 1t8000. ‘1 o3ONI ‘VI adAL “3334 GYUVMVESS ‘6 S3YNSIS SS Y = 3NOZ ! anoz Ni 3NOZ VNIYVOIVO - VWVHO vVu¥0d011190d | yvyOdOu0V ‘s i oe \S m4 oS \\ WG \ \ WHOM SEES bs 2 SS WIVQW GT WY WG sams =e NSS > HOV 38 1vV13 3334 SVISNNVHD 39YNS ‘| @37WVL “BG! 3dAL “433YN GYVMV3S ‘Ol 3YNNIIS | 3NOZ NI¥yuVE 1 ,00€-,00I 1v13 4338 3NOZ VLV3NNO ‘Vv EAE 390l¥y 1V91V Ni ws yell ¥ ‘ Mlb ; EB LAbE 18 . eer SEVMYED & vrevr wIDeE . KIGNKBE 10’ Ge 4 “SOVYOHONV ANI ‘WII adAL ‘Jay 31V9S IWLNOZIYOH 0 os ‘Ld OO1 31V9S VWOILY3SA ‘14 Ol | N3yuYyVE 3NOZ VYOdILNOW Wn DIINTHH HOO" MOMMY HOV3IS8 1V13 4338 QYVMVSS ‘Il 3YNSIS "SWI 06 OL 3d07S 6 --02\) 3NOZ vwuOdONdV ‘ \\ re UMW MMV PTET] 3d07S QYVMVAS AL ‘| G37IWVL “S3dAL GYVM3537 ‘333yN NOOSVI ‘zl 3yNdI4 WSS SSS RSS SSS We SS SKE aa 7p \ oa SN “ 3NOZ ViVINOaY ‘Vv SN DS a a ae ree ee ae ome fee ee re NSS S SSN A S RSS Beeb SSS, TAD eA ISS zy 3NOZ ISM3YONV d SS a “VET KS | | | H | NOOOVv7 | HOV 36 3334 ‘NYOH HLYON “NOOSV1 G3SOTONS ‘J333Y¥Y NOODVI ‘eI! 3yUNdIS "SW4 OI OL \S NS ad01S S¢ w ws ae} Seni So" KS WY; 3NOZ ISM3YXONV d aw ONV WY QO LE LEAS : SS rea HOV38 Iv13d 3334 3d01S$ NOOSV1 ai AOULH HOBU’ SOuE ADSEA2! arose reso 3NOZ SINYOOINVOG | w¥0d011190d ‘| ANI | | — S3L18Od | “3dAL GYVMGNIM ‘“333uY4 NOOODVT ‘+I 3NOZ S \\ \\ ae Se SS ,00SI —,00S 1V13 3334 V¥Od03NLSV \ 1 S SES ES SPPIY s1904 Urx44DgG snonulpyUorsig \ \ N Syndis 3NOZ ‘i VLVINDILIY ‘Vv WS Wy \ SS 23a \ SS oa Seis | | | 3d01S NOO9SVI ! WS eg ial we + r r¥@OOU BEER’ MIADMWED LAbE VeivEODOuY OM 2FObE’. 0 \ bs ww era jie ae et ee 29 2 ih EEE 2 35 C. 34C. 33, 32C. HIGHEST WATER TEMPERATURE SIC. 30 C. 29, 28 C. LOWEST WATER TEMPERATURE 27 C. 450FT. 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 REEF epee | ACROPORA ZONE MONTIPORA ZONE BARREN BEACH ROCK FLAT, EXP. AT L.T. FIGURE 15. WATER TEMPERATURES ACROSS INE ANCHORAGE REEF, JUNE, 1950. ae “nen Tt am eae re RRA TAR ET wOT : agThy Tesnew apUtaagavay \FaTAw YesWwes Te eee 1 ami leu lin lenient scan feldiaintei aden sm} oy + es mt OOH yi " @EAnee 5. AROS He : AST WOOK Fi a) 8ho Yet) .2WuL' WIA BeAROHONA 3M) eeOROA ‘eRRQrAAasMat aTAW —B) Sauer “SNOZ V¥OdOYNOV JO 3903 YSNNI 3335Y SJOVYOHONV JNI ONOIV SSYNLVYSdWSL YSLVM ‘91 SYNDIS J333yY SSO¥DV 3NI1 GW3l 1VIN3S <_< LS O00! SaaS eee 982 tH Oa RE a ee ee SSG Seen See eh ee epee = eee eS pe ee ee ee eee ee ee "0 62 ‘Oo O€ ster] ‘0 le ; i ” i ; 7 } “s . - ve ‘ig Leet : : ee 7 fee Nos, 1Oy 1 September 1, 1952 5OG. PS tAZ Pit7s ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN gle Gecaphy Study of Arno Atoll Marsball Tdands by LEONARD Mason ANY TSUN Wy OCT 15 1892 yy € LL. Land Tenure in the Marshall Islands by J. E. Tosin Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D.C., U.S.A. _ ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Research Geuncaal Washington, D. C. September 1, 1952 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board. It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundamental information on atolis of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs, CIMA, SIM, and ICCP, during the past five years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SIM. The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract No. N7-onr-291, Task Order IV. ee ee ee ee we ee ee The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or the editors of the Bulletin. a eee ee Editorial Staff F. R. Fosberg, editor M. H. Sachet, assistant editor. Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the ahove c/o Pacific Science Bozrd National Research Council 2101 Constitution avenue, N. W. Washington 25, DoiC.j3°0s 7S. A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIW —— ee ee Moe | dg) Anthropology-Geography Study of Aro Atoll, Marshall Islands _by Leonard Mason Issued by THE PaCIFIC SCLENCE BOARD National Research Council Washington, D. C. September 1, 1952 TABLE OF CONTENTS Land and Water Pcopuzation Natural Resources affects of the War Arno - a study in Contrasts Communication between Arnoese and Americans Commercial Enterprise Political Authority Land Miscellenecus Marshallese Phonenes and Orthography (by S. H. Elbert) FIGURE Map of Arno Atoll (facing p- AN THROPOLOGY—GEOGRAPHY STUDY This report covers the field activities of the anthropology- geography section of the Coral Atoll Froject at Arno from June 12th to September 13th, 1950. Transportation, living accommodations, and facilities for this work were made possible by a grant from the Office of Naval Research through the Pacific Science Board {National Research Councii), and with the generous cooperation of the Office of Island Governments, Tepartment of the Navy, and the Civil Administration staff, Marshalis District, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. The Univer- sity of Hawaii very graciously contributed funds to support the making of a comprehensive photographic record of Arno anthropology and geography. Within the framework of the Arno Atoll Project, the problems of human relations and of certain cultural adjustments by Arnoese to their physical environment were investigated by the author, vith the aid of two assistants, Mr. John Tobin (anthropology) and Mr. Gerald Wade (geography), both graduate students from the University cf Hawaii. Tobin and V.ade were part of the first contingent of the expedition which de- parted from Hawaii on June 10, 1950. Due to another commitment, the author was not able to join the group until July 3rd at Majuro. Tobin remained with us at Arno until August 9th, when he left for Majuro to assume his new duties as anthropological. adviser to the Civil ese trator, Marshall Islands. Wade and the author were among the last to leave Arno, and returned to Honolulu on September 15, 1950. One of the reasons why Arno Atoll was selected as the site for the Coral Atoll Project wes because of its relative accessibility, as com— pared with other possible sites in the Trust Territory. In most cases, sey) FPS 1952 nN team members arrived at Arno within two to five days after departure from Hickam Fieid, Hawaii. The Navy furnished air transportation from Hawaii to Majuro. Flight time via MATS (Military Air Trensport Service) planes from Hickem to Kwajaiein is approximately twelve hours, that from Kwajalein to Majuro vie the PBM air logistics service is less than tro hours. Surface transportation from Majuro to Arno, about eleven miles aivline distance from Majvro, required varying periods of time, depend- ing on winc, weather, and type of shipping. Primary dependence was placed by the team on sailing craft, either under contract from Mar- shaillese omer-operstors or 2s a service S| by the Civil Adminis- tration school facility at Majuro. Some trips were as short as three hours, the longest was three days. Daily MATS schedules from Haweii and weexly logistics flights within the Marshalls, together with almost weekly freighting trips be- tween Arno and Majuro, provided members of the expedition with a fairly regular mail and supply service. With few exceptions, communication with the outside world was most satisfactory, and the success of the project will depend in no small part on this factor. Land_and jeter. | The index map of Arné Atoll, which accompanies this renort, shows a land area of approximately five square miles, divided into 133. islands of varying size and for which there are 196 ites duet see names. The spelling of these names follows the new orthography which is being worked out in cooperation with Dr. Samuel H. Elbert, University of Hawaii linguist, anc the Trust Territory administration. A key to Te pronunciation is presented on the rap itself. The author proposes that this place-name terminology be usec by members of the Coral Atoll Project wher submitting their final revorts for publication on their respective areas of interest. Copies of this map are being distributed to other members of the project. Some of the islands are little more than rises of sand above the coral reef, svunporting only beach scrub and perhaps a few coconut trees. Other islands, such as Arno or Ine, are severai miles long, as much as half a mize wide, and heeviiy forested in the interior. Although ali land in Arno Atoll is omed in eccordence with Marshallese custom, just one-third of the islands are permanently occupied by Arnoese. The re- maining two-thirds are visited for short periods to harvest coconuts in the production of copra. The main lagoon and the northern and eastern enclosed, smalier lagoons, all of which total approximately 130 sauare miles of surface area, provide adequate fishing grounds. The lagoons are also utilized as the primary area for ccmmunication by outrigger canoes operating between islands within the atoll. Fonulation. According to the mid-i950 Civil Administration estimate, Arnoese numbered 1,155. Census samples taken by us during the summer, however, indicate the probability cf = somewhat smaller population. The probiem of determining accurate totals is rendered difficult by the Marshallese custom of constant migration from one landholding to another in the routine of copra production or for visits to relatives for varying periods of time. A not insignificant movement was aiso noted between oe: igi &rno and the nearby atolis of Majuro and Mili. Limitations of time restricted us to detailed population surveys at only three islands: Arno, Ine, and Jab'u. When the results of this work ere compared with the atoll scribe's official register, discrepancies in the latter re- veal that a feirer estimate of Arno's present population might be eround 859. The atoll register still includes rames of war refugees from other Marsnall atolls who were temporarily resident at Arno curing 1944 and 1945. Nearly all of these transients were repatriated in 1946 by Military Government, except where ties of friendsnip, adoption, or mMav~riage bound a few of them more permanently to Arno. Available statistics on births and deaths at Arno since 1946 in- Gicate a preponderance of births in a ratio of 3 to i. It eppears that this trend will not provoke eny serious problem of overpcopuiation at Arno for many years to come, if we are to accept statements from older Marshallese regarding the more densely populated character cf the atoll several generations ago. TYinen the team's analysis of Arno's present food resources, toth agricultural. and marine, is completed it is certain that additional support for the above statement will be forthcoming. The Arno people today are scattered in many groups of Less than 150 persons each throughout the larger islands of the atoll. The greatest concentrations occur at Ine and at Arno Islands, others of lesser size are at Matol-en, Tutu, Bikarej, Tinak, L'angar, Maiel, Kilange, Jab'u, and Ul-en. ‘The anthropology-geography section of the team visited, for varying periods, the islands of Ine, Matol-en, Jab'u, Kinajong, Lukwoj, Arno, Tutu, Tekleb, Tinak, Kilange, and Malel (one month was spent at Arno Island, one to three weeks each sat Ine, Tinak, and Jab'u). Tutu Passage on the northern side of Arno's main lagoon is located at 7° 7! N. latitude and 171° 4i' =. longitude. Thus Arno is well within the tropics. Its position in regard to the equator and the tradewind area ensures that the atoll is well supplied with rain throughout the year. kx vedition members experienced some difficulty toward the end of the summer in scheduling outdoor work due to an increasing number of rainy days. Although the soil of coral atolls is generally not good, the vegetation picture et Arno is encouraging, especielly in the larger islands, where more than enovgh food plants grow to meet the subsistence needs of the present population. The range of food-producing florae ineiudes coconut, pandanus, breadfruit, bananas, some papaya and limes, arrowroot in great cuantities, a little taro-like Cyrtosperma, end small plantings of sweet potatoes. For use in fiber handicraft manufactures, there are adequate reserves of pandanus, hibiscus, coconut, and the beach creeper Triumphetta procumbens. While the sovthern Marshalls do not constitute the best stccked fishing area in the archipelago, there appears to be sufficient marine life to support several times the present Arno population. Reef,, lagoon, and deepsea areas at Arno are not utilized by the local inhabitents to the fullest extent possible. The customary land and sea birds of eastern Micrenesia are found at Arno, but play no important role in the sub- sistence economy of Arnoese. Rats and mice, practically the only wild mammalian life, provide somewhat of a pest problem. Insect life in- cludes the annoying mosauito which we found a nuisance in most islends = (Gre both night and day. Numerous dogs and cats serve the people more as scavengers than as pets. Pigs and chickens are raised in a haphazard manner as a primary source of meat on festival oecasicns. Detailed studies of the natural resources of Arno were made by other members of the expedition, and will be reported by them elsewhere. Apart from the general collapse of export-import trade and shipping, Arnoese suffered only minor disturbances during tne war. Such was not the experience, for example, of Marshailese at Mili, to the southward, where a large Japanese-garrisoned airbase was bombed continueliy by American planes in the last year or two of the war; Pe nearby Majuro, where the establishment of an important American forward area activity resulted in considerable disruption of another order for Majuvro Mar- shallese. The one outstanding incident of warfare at Arno was the crash of a four-engined American bomber in the lagoon off Jab'u Island, at which time several of the crew were killed, and others imprisoned by the Japanese. Arnoese buried the crash victims and tended their graves until 1946 when Americans exhumed the remains for more permanent interment in the United States.. The plane still rests on the lagoon reef, a tragic reminder of the war, but a Soueee of valuable metal for coconut-grater blades, husking-stick points, and numerous other Arnoese artifacts. Both Arno and Tutu Islands served as relocation areas from 1944 to 1946 for Marshallese refugees whom American night raiders had spirited away from the by-passed, Japanese-held atolls of Mili, Jaluit, and Maloelab. Some dislocation of Arno community life was occasioned by these temporary residents. Increasing contact with Americans and with a es Mershailese from other atolls brought Arnoese out of their previous isolation, and contributed notably to the Western orientation observed today in certain segments of the population. Arno - 2 study in contrasts. At Arno Atoll we hed the opportunity to observe a remarkable Zyradation of population groupings, each of which in a way represented a development in the cultural history of Arno during the past centvry. Among the islands visited by vs, the inhabitants of the eastern horn (kmom to Arucese as Beranailingin - "head of the atoll") constitute one extreme in this series. Here, the small communities of L'angar, Tinak, Kilange, and Malel, now neeriy tro hundred people, have through decades of geographic isolation continued to maintain a profound respect for ancient Marshallese tradition. Greater regard for persons of nobility, stricter observance of tabus in behavioral relationships between cer- tain kinfolk, less concern ahout exactness of land boundaries, end similar prehistoric emphasis combined to impress us with an atmosphere. of anticuity. This primitive provincialism was at once refreshing for its anthropological interest, but at the same time distressing becavse of the disadvantages met by Baranailingin pecple in their transactions with more acculturated Arnoese in other parts of the atoll. The other extreme was observed at Ine village where more than 150 people live in ciose proximity, in Japanese-style houses antedating the war and in Marshallese constructions remodeled with boards, plywood, and corrugated iron sheeting scrounged from American military bases at set Majuro and Kwajaiein Atolis. In its shenty—-tomm aspect, ine recalls the impoverishment of slum sections in many of our larger cities. The diet of Ine inhabitants includes more of rice and tinned meats than is the cese elsewhere in Arno. Ine is the political and economic center of the etoll, as well as the primazy pors for small boats operating between Arno and Majuro. Even the mission is established at Ine, thus making that villege the sviritual focus of ‘the pre- dominantly Frotestant nopuylation of Arno. It was natural enough that Ine served us as expedition headquarters from which sporadic survey trips were underteker to the cuter islands 60% sampling purvoses. fkrno Island, the richest in natural rescurces and supporting the largest population of all islands in the atoll, assumes an inter- mediate position with respect to the cultural extremes noted at Berenai’ingin and Ine. Arno inhabitents depend more upon local foods than do those at Ine, and build their houses more often of thatch and local timbers. One observes at Arno a fair degree of cultvral aware- ness of the West -- not es prominently as at Ine, but daiteauntebent from the relative lack of sophistication in the eastern horn. As a result of decades of contact with traders and missionaries, who divided their lebors between Arno and Ine, tne social life of Arno Islanders is interwoven with that of Ineans. However, culturel equi- librium at Arno Island is well maintained, and appears likely to con- tinue in that manner for yeers to come. Not-so-at Ime, where the population as a whole seems committed to a new life oriented toward the West. =. 9g & As the above situation is viewed in its atoll-wide aspect, with speciel reference to economic and political affairs, these cultural differences combine with personalities to present a confusing or- genizational scheme replete with conflict and intrigue.* Since 1944, American administration contacts with Arnoese have been concerned with ramifications of this conflict. We devoted much of our time to en analysis of the situation, realizing thet as long as it persists a more complete utilization of atoll resources and manpower cannot be attained. Vie trust that our observations will be of assistance to Civii Administration officials in their future relations vith the Arno people. Communication between Arnoese and Americans. Paes The presence during the summer of twelve American scientists at Arno afforded the islanders: considerable diversion from their usval routine. At one time or another most of the villages were visited by small parties from our headquarters at Ine. (Quite cbvious on these occasions was a geneval lack of understanding of American custom by Arnoese, for they eagerly scught opportunities to iearn from us more about America end Americans. We communicated with the people almost entirely through Marshallese interpreters, although one or two members of the expedition acquired sufficient facility before the summer's end to converse in limited manner in the vernacular. Only eight or ten Arno residents understood English well enough to speak with us easily. We hired one local man as regular interpreter, while two others * A meee dcbatled description of the economic, sical end land administration of this situation is presented in subsequent sections of this report. a (school teachers from Ine and Arno Islands) were teken on for short periods when their teaching duties permitted. Majuro provided two aaditional fuiltime interpreters for the first part of the season. All interpreter nersoanel was under the supervision of James Milne, a Marshellese and official interpreter loaned to us by Kwajalein Navy officials. Without Milne's assistance the anthropology—geography work oi the expecitioa could not have been accomplished in the three months available. Ordinarily, Arnosse have aimost no contect with Americans in their om atoll. Official field trips visit Arno (either Tutu or Ine Islands) only four times each year, for a period of several hours on each occasion. Field trip parties normaily include representatives from the Political Affairs, Medical, and Education Departments, and from the Island Trading Company. Time ashore_is too limited for adequate discussion of problem areas.. The inability. of the people to speak English and a comparable lack of Marshallese facility by Americen officiais (recently, there are one or two important exceptions) re- quires that practically ail ecntacts be effectec through interpreters. Some difficulties in the conflict situation noted in the previous section of this report have emanated from the fact that certain official interpreters at Majuro are Marshallese from Arno, or otherwise pre- judiced in favor of one Arno group or. another, and fail to be impartial and objective in their interpretation of the situation to American officials. The short distance to Majuro and the small boats now aveilable for Td — trips from Arno have provided certain Arnoese with greater opportunity to present their own problems at Majuro where, with more time and with their ow interpreters, more satisfactory communication with Civil Ad- ministration is achieved. Even the latter course, however, does not necessarily provide a fair presentation of the Arno situation. It must Le obvious that before more adecuate comprehension of the Arno conflict can be attained, American officials must learn more and better Marsheliese or else exercise greater caution when depending upon Marshallese interpreters. Furthermore, the complexity of the Arno conflict is such that it cannot be understood by any one in the course of four short field trips each year or through casual conversations with Arnoese visitors at Majuro. From 1944 to 1947, enaade produced large quantities of fiber handicraft (fans, doilies, mats, belts, cigarette cases, and cup coasters) for sale to traders of the U. S. Commercial Company (USCC), the predecessor of Island Trading Company (ITC). Later, as shipping improved and copra production was revived, handicraft declined in favor of copra as the primary source of money income for Arncese. Present income from handicraft is almost nil, due to an ITC policy whereby handicraft purchases are being restricted until surpluses of USCC stock are moved. In the year beginning July 1, 1949, Island Trading Company at Majuro, the only buyer of Arno copra, purchased approximetely $40,000 worth of copra from Arno producers, averaging about $50 per capita. We collected considerable data on copra production by the month, by dis- trict, and by shipment to Majuro, and on distribution of copra income wo 92's among the Arno population according to a complex social stratification and lend ownership system. A more detailed analysis of this material will be forthcoming in the nesr future. Retail stores are maintained at Ine, Arno, Tutv, and Malel Islands. Storekeepers ecquire — goods through the Arno Wholesele_ Company et a retailer's discount which enables then to make some profit on sales: to the Arno consumer. The Arnc Wholesale Company is. an organization built on a capital investment by twelve Arno Marshallese, who control ali trade imports to Arno (with the recent exception of mail order purchases from U. S. meiniand firms on direct order from Arno consumers). The Arno company. buys its supplies at wholesale prices from ITC Majuro. Until recently, prices at wholesale, retail, and consumer levels were controlled by Civil Administration order, but nov only certain commodities remain in this restricted category. in practice, the Arno Wholesale Company continues to dictate retailer and consumer prices to some extent at Arno. Storekeepers sometimes act as copra brokers, buying from the Arno producer and shipping at their om expense to ilajuro for resale there at a better price. Many Arno pro-. ducers, however, prefer to deal directiy. with ITC Mejuro because of alieged malpractice in weighing and grading by certain Arno storekeepers. This involves shipping at the producer's expense, but appears to be profitable in view of the number who -eontinue to follow.this course. Since outrigger canoes are not suitebie for shipping heavy cargo between Arno and Mejuro, some groups and individuals at Amo have built or acquired larger boats for wie a was 40a keer wi eiatel elem a eaten malas olen 15 Bwaj aw Aje — Imeagic - Divided Land ... is. csesasstewaneeenaermns 16 MIP STON 5:5 cleo wie avoln 6.0/9 a Ww simi jel BIR oo lotmial ilaie aie acoans ie eae ee 32 EA STUREATA y5 inin ie "el Sino Biswas Ser-es a. B'nai alee ok Stain, Sisa ksi ph Oo mA ene er 33 Berbera Ure “CIE 5.41 oe a iw a5! olichatalo sim tue, 5a) era's) pla eilelienmnel siete iaiieMenmievaneminee 35 BAISVUD AE i sia. p's la’e.in @ am Salus! Sal wioiw 'e oai/o. » Ani's elk wale beam imei ie eens were 3 Dh FIGURES fae, 1 Map of the Marshald) Eslands ..i..sd.e0 ape aha Siuade : ou iS) NV.LAMING 9 — Mouzon G : Fann intura uvyta & (IONOVL) sVI0g & :. o CIN Voi cL Tey Hess vow ay, bates | Ny ea. te a PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION The typical Marshallese Land—holding or wato consists of a strip of land stretching from lagoon to ocean and varying in size from about one to five acres in extent. Each wato has its ow name and history. Sometimes the wéto may be broken up into two or three wato(s) with transverse boundary lines. The boundaries, kotan wato are marked off by lilies, red shrubs, or frequently by slashes on on coconut trees. These markers are called kakolle. The extended family (bwij) members may live on the_wato or merely make copra on it and use its food resources: coconuts, breadfruit, pandanus, arrow root, taro (mainly in the Southern Marshalls) and fish from the ad- jacent marine areas, if they possess more than one wato as is usually the case. On most of the islands, the people live on their wato(s). The structures found are usually a cook house, one, two, or three sleeping houses, and a copra drying shed. The houses are mainly constructed of native materials with sheet metal and salvage lumber used in varying degrees throughout the islands. The sleeping house area is covered with small coral stones from the beach-- jionle in Kalik, jole in Radak. These serve as drainage and prevent the area around the house from becoming a morass during the rains. This per- meable covering is renewed regularly by the women of the household. This was the typical household arrangement prior to the coming of the foreign regimes. When on Germans and later the Japanese set up their capital at Jabwor in Jaluit Atoll, people from all over the Marshalls were attracted to the "Big City" for various reasons. Those who did not have land or relatives in the atoll were forced to live in large "guest houses" each of which accommodated as many as sixty people, i.e., Arno house, Wotje house, Namu, Ailinlaplap, etc.--almost all. the atolls. These were of wooden con- struction--ca. 40! x 60' in dimension. The traditional pattern of living was changed by this congregation of people from different atolls in large population centers. Although the beehive metropolis of Jabwor was destroyed by American bombers, the "guest house"~-communal quarters type of dwelling, was per- petuated on Majuro Atoll which became the new seat of government under the American regime. Here, two large former Japanese army barracks are used by the Arno Atoll people and the northern Radak people respectively. Another large house is know as the Mille house and used by the people from that atoll. Still another group composed of individuals of mixed Gilbertese- British-German-Marshallese ancestry, in varying combinations, occupy a group of houses knowm as the "Gilbertese Village". The "villages" on Majuro and Kuajlen constructed by the Naval Ad- ministration for its employees represent another change in the traditional pattern of life. The household routine remains relatively unchanged in the new type surroundings except that living is done in closer proximity than before. Cook houses, bath houses, and benjo(s) are shared by all who live in the communal houses and "CivAd Villages". = The CivAd / Civil Administration_/ center of Majuro is atypical also in that a "squatters'" tow has arisen on Jarej (Rita), one of the islands adjacent to the CivAd center. Many Marshallese, attracted to the adminis- trative center by much the same motives that attracted people to Jabwor in the Japanese period, have occupied abandoned quonsets or have built houses of their ow or salvage material. A small quasi-"shanty town" has arisen on the island, perpetuating the Japanese acculturative influence of Jabwor. Spoehr gives an excellent account of an acculturated Marshallese community in Majuro. (2).* Aside from a few atypical communities, the pattern of land usage remains as it was before the advent of foreigners except, of course, that the large villages have added stores, council houses, dispensaries, and church buildings. The system of land tenure and usufruct has changed but slightly despite the acculturative forces of three different regimes. LAND USE Members and associated members of the bwij (lineage) work the land, Clearing it of underbrush and performing other tasks necessary for the simple type of agriculture practiced in these low-lying coral atolls with their limited resources. In some instances people will be allowed to work land not belonging to their lineage and when lineage members do not require its use, i.e., when they have more than enough land for their ow needs or want to help some less fortunate person. The head of the lineage (alab) is in charge of the land and workers on the land, and a share of the food produced on the land as well as a share of the money received from copra sales is collected by him. The alab represents his or her lineage in their relations with other members of the so: society, the aroij, and, today, as a member of the atoll council, vis-a-vis the vepresent— atives of the American administration. The iroij (paramount chief) also receives a percentage of the money received for each pound of copra produced on land in which his suzerainty is recognized. x This share varies, ranging from 11/2 mills in part of Ralik to 1 cent in the Racak chain depending upon the amount of copra potential of the atoll or island and the attitude of the people toward their iroij. "First fruits" and a share of the food taken from the land and sea are also presented to the iroij, formally and informally. In Radak where the position of iroij erik (little chief or king) still exists, the iroij elap gives that subordin- ate - intermediary a regular percentage of the money he has received from the alab in return for services’ rendered as his representative over a certain area. * See Bibliography : *%* Except on Ujilan Atoll, home of the displaced Fnewetak people. The pattern is different here in that each of the two_iroij lablab has an island and a wato of his own which he works with the help of the kajur. He does not receive income from any other land. This same pattern was followed on Fnewetak. ee Here we have a system of land use roughly analogous to the feudal system of medieval Europe wee a stratification of individuals with reciprocal duties and obligations as well as privileges, MECHANICS OF DIVISION OF COPRA SHARE The cash crop, copra, is sold by the individual producers to the copra buyer on the atoll or island or more often to the local general store which is usually a cooperative enterprise owned by all or a large segment of the atoll population, After the iroij share (which varies) has been withheld by the alab, his share, usually 30% of the total cash, is retained and the remainder turned over to the dri jerbal ro (workers), The senior dri jerbal under the alab may keep all of the cash and give the other workers spending 1g money, clothes, food, etc, whenever they need it, or he may distribute the cash on a per capita basis to those who have aoa made the copra. The former is the general method of division of proceeds from copra sales. Sometimes the alab may keep all of the proceeds less the iroij share and allow the workers to Jo the same thing with the next copra sale. The workers may also follow the same procedure rather than attempting to divide the money up regularly with the alab, this DELS especially advantageous when there are a large number of workers on a small piece of land. Although there are some deviations from this pattern, the recognition of the interests of iroij and alab are manifested by the general adherence to the payment of the share, DEVIATIONS FROM THE GENERAL PATTERN 4 The most notable exception to the general pattern of land tenure is the atoll of Likiep owmed in fee simply by the descendants of tio European advent- urers who purchased the entire atoll from the iroij lablab of Northern Radak (JURTAKA) in 1877, with all rights and privileges appertaining thereto. The land is worked by these "mixed-blood" descendants and a larger group composed of descendants of the original inhabitants of the atoll and others brought in from neighboring atolls. This latter group produced copra on a share=-crop basi.se Relationships between the two groups have been strained for years, the "owners" complaining of absenteeism and non-production and the workers com= plaining of peonage and oppression. Investigations were made of this situation, and a working agreement was negotiated early last year. Conditions seem to have been ameliorated; however, as was anticipated, complete mutual satisfaction and accord do not prevail on Likiep today. This is a salient example of the problems created by the intrusion and implementation of foreign concepts of land tenure into an indigenous system. Before the tum of this century, the twenty or more inhabitants of Ujilai Atoll were forced to leave their atoll forever.,to make room for a German copra plantation. They went to Jaluit and Pnewetak; their descendants are dis~ persed throughout the Marshall Islands todaye 5 Large scale alienation of lend occurred again during the post-World War II period when the inhabitants of the atolls of Mnevetak and Bikini were required to leave their atolls which became testing grounds for atomic warfare. The Enewetak people, transplanted to the wminhabited but much smaller atoll of Ujilan, have been able to make a fairly successful adjustment to a less- favorable environment and have modified their traditional land tenure system in their new home. (See APPFNDIX). The Bikini people, on the other hand, have not been able to make a successful adjustment, dre principally (in the opinion of this observer) to unfavorable ecological conditions. Kili, their new home, is a small island, limited in land area and lacking the natural. resources afforded by a lagoon environment. “ili is isolated from ‘tthe rest of the Marshalls many months of the year dus to heavy surf, another factor for discontent. The iend terure pattern on Kili differs markedly from that which pre- vailed on Bikini. A comumal type of land tenure prevails in which the former iroij lablab (king, of Bikini is not recognized. The traumesic exodus, the limited land area, the personalities of the iroij involved and his aeir, ili-advised statements by outsiders, and errone- ous press releases, were some of the factors responsible for discontent and change in the socio-economic pattern. The general attitude of everyone concerned at this writing is one of insecurity and dissatisfaction. This unfortunate situation aside from its obvious aspect of a transplented group in the throes of adjustment to a new environment is another excellent example of sudden change in a socio-economic system brought about primarily by external forces. For a detailed report on the removal of the Bikini peopie, see Mason, L., (1). INHERITANCE PATTERN The Marshallese system of inheritance of clan membership and of land rights (all of la@moren-xabijukinen land and most types of burij in aje) is matrilineal. Lineage (owij) members trace descent from a comuon ancestress (alab) for the purpose of claiming land rights. The original lineage normally has been split into associate lineages or bwij descended from sisters. These associate bwii are known as the older bwij--owij errito or jiob, middle bwii-- bwii iolab (all intermediate bwij are known as bwij jolab no matter how many there are), and younger bwij--bwij erikxiok, etc., according to the relative ages of the common ancestresses who belonged to the same clan (jowi). Initially the senior sibling in the bwij--bwij eritto is alab or bwij leader followed by all of her surviving brothers and sisters in chronological order. After all of these siblings have been alab, the next generation, person- ified in the oldest child of the eldest female, becomes alab and is in turn succeeded by his or her siblings in chronological order. This pattern of succession continues in one maternal line of descent until the line becomes extinct; in this case, the next associate bwij in order ef seniority will in- herit the "alabship" and rights in a particular piece of land or lands. Every Marshallese is, as may be seen, a potential aiab. Aaa oR soli THE IDEAL INHERITANCE PATTERN OF LAND RIGHTS BWIJ EO (THE LINEAGE) IV LTE II I #5 #h #3 #2 Bwij Bwij Bwij Eriklok Iolab Errito Nejin Bwij Eo or Ajri #6 acting alab #7 #8 (Children of if younger) | Errito Eriklok the Bwij) Ajri B. A. #10 #9 II, III - Lineages will inherit land rights in succession - "in toto" if the "bwij" senior to them becomes extinct - "bwij eo elot". B) -- Cross hatch -- maternal line of descent of a lineage. Figure 2. i Although theoretically, relative age is the determining factor in succession to the position of leadership, actually a younger brother will assume all of the duties and responsibilities of the position from an older sister who by virtue of seniority is alab. He will become alab "de facto" but she will remain alab "de jure" and will be respected and deferred to as alab. Her brother will bring her the alab'(s) share of the produce of the land bit will relieve her of all of the burdensome duties connected with the position, e.g., iroij Kabua Ket of Rélik has three older sisters, tut he assumed the alab position because he is a man. After he dies, his older sister remaining will assume the position of alab, followed by her eldest child, in the pattern previously described. : Males assume this trusteeship position; are alab first unless the women are very strong or have no male relatives to take over for then. If the male who inherits the alab position is too old, feeble, or otherwise incompetent, the next jin line of succession will assume the responsibilities of the alab; will be in effect, the representative or regent for the alab. The alab will be recognized and honored as such by his ow people, however, if the whole bwij (maternal lineage) becomes extinct (bwij elot) which has happened, e.g., Ralik iroij, the alab or iroij positions may be inherited patrilineally for the one generation, from fathers to sons and daughters in chronological order as described previously, after which they pass in metri- lineal line of succession. This is the ideal pattern of inheritance and is recognized as the mantin ailin kein (the Marshallese custom) and is followed in the main. However, as in other cultures, the custom is sometimes honored in the breach. Deviation from the accepted custom is the basis of disputes, several of which are burning issues on various atolls today. .. PATRILINEAL USUFRUCT RIGHTS Although land rights, with \ very few exceptions are’ inherited through the maternal lineage, individuals are not excluded from usufruct rights in their paternal lineage land. Even though an individual may never become leader alab on his father's lineage land (unless the entire paternal bwii and all associated bwij become extinct), he does have the right to live and work on his father's land. These use rights are inherited patrilineally by succeeding generations, each of which has a descriptive name. (The same terminology is used for titles of individuals of iroij descent to indicate the amount of royal "blood" possessed by the individual title holder.) 1st generation of ajri (children) of the paternal bwij-bwirak 1! " W " v and generation lajibjib 3rd generation " " " Might jibtok 4th generation " " " Mae) walt jibiok 5th generation " " " Mate! Bint! jibbotto — 6th generation " " " Baar, gaunt jibbinaretto 7th generation " " " ee Un oe tibjer The ajri are allowed to live on and use their paternal land if they are cooperative and do their share of the work. Shirkers and trouble makers and those who do not give the alab his copra share or refuse to make ekkan, etc., may be removed by the alab of the particular land involved, however. These rights may be extended to include the seventh generation, tibjer, but are usually taken advantage of only as far as the fifth generation; the ajri rights become weaker with each succeeding generation and are absolutely concluded with as the seventh generation, tibjer , which translated means "depart from glory". Individuals usualiy forego their usufruct rights on the paternal land before many generations have passed. They are usually satisfied with the use of their maternal: bwij lands and their spouse's lineage lands. This system operates to equalize land rights, prevent over—crowding and serves primarily to strengthen the in-group feeling among relatives. ADOPTIVE RIGHTS Adoption of children or kOkajiriri {v. and nh (rough translation: "look out for the child") has always been a common practice ian the Marshalls. Adop- tion here, however, does not mean alienation of the child from his biological parents as it usually does in our culture. The Marshallese child becomes a part of enother extended family group but also retains his ties, emotional and otherwise, with the biological parents and other bwij relatives. The child. may resice with either the foster or biological parents, or with both at different »neriods, as is usuaily the case. ‘This pattern of extended relation- ships obviously makes for a greater degree of emotional security as far as the adopted child is concerned. : An adopted child, kékajiriri, is also described as kanni lujien (rough translation: "stomach food"), i.e.) the child will be eating the same food as his foster father and from the same land; i.e., he is intimately connected with his foster father. Adopted children are allowed the right to work on and enjoy the benefits derived from the land with the permission of the alab and the bwij. Kokajariri may remain on the Land after the foster parent dies. The children of the kSkajariri also have rights in the land which become progres-— Sively weaker with ensuing Sonate wrens: These rights must also be confirmed by the alab. ! The adopted child possesses mach the same rights as the biological child- ren except tnat he may only become alab of land of the bwij into which he has been adopted upon the extinction of all bwij relatives. A case is now pending on Majuro in which an adopted son of an alab now deceased, the last of her bwij (bwij eo elot), claims to be alab of his foster mother's bwij lands. His claim has been contested by other relatives of the deceased alab. In addition to the rights acquired by adoption, the kokajariri also re- teins his birthright in his bwij land. The adopted child is also under oblig- ation to his foster parents and regards them as jemma (father) or jinod (mother) as the case may be, giving them the same respect and loving care in their old age that is owed and given the biological parents, e.g., "A" was adopted by "B" and his wife when he was a small child, in 1899. The biological father and mother of "A" went to another island in 1904 and remained there for eight months; during this time "B" cared for his adopted son. The father of "A" built a house nearby his ow home for "A" and his foster parents with whom the latter lived most of the time even after his father and mother returned from their trip. He was not alienated from them or any other.of his biological relatives, however, but retained a close relationship with them. gu In the ensuing decades, "A" and "B" maintained a close father and son relationship. "A" recently brought his now aged foster father to live with him on Majuro and has assumed the responsibilities for his care although "B" has four grown children of his ow. This one example shows the differences in Marshallese and Western concepts of adoption. . Individuals who posséss the inherited rights in their bwij land have un- questioned usufruct rights and may even become alab. Ajiri or those who possess paternal wights are considered to have less right in the land. Koka- jariri, adopted children, are considered to have fewer rights than the members of the bwij or the ajiri. USUFRUCT RIGHTS ACQUIRED BY MARRIAGE Residence after marriage is neither strictly patrilocal or matrilocal, nor is there a regular periodic bi-local residence pattern as in parts of Mela- nesia. A man may live and work on the bwij land of his spouse or vice versa. Matrilocal residence, however, is considered more desirable in view of the fact that the interests of the offspring are bound closer to the maternal bwij land, where someday they may become alao and where they possess "real" dri jerbal rights. Marshaliese have been marrying into other atoll groups for centuries. This process ‘has become progressively accelerated with improved transportation and communication. Opnortunities for marriage outside of the home atoll have increased tremendously and today many Marshailese possess land rights in wide- ly separated areas throughout the Marshalls. This, of course, has done a great deal to break down atoll ethnocentrisn. If a married couple should reside on the wife's bwij land and the wife should pre-decease her husband, the husband has the right to remain on the land providing there are children; in that case, the widower may not be evicted even if the alab should so desire. The offspring (who have a vested interest in their bwij land) look out for their father's welfare and help him to remain on the land. ) ' If there are no offspring, the widower does not have a real claim and the alab may evict nim or allow him to remain at his discretion. ‘The latter course is usually followed unless the widower is a trouble maker or shirks his res- ponsibilities. Informants heve never heard of a widower or widow being evicted from their deceased spouses’ bwij land. in most cases, the in-laws want them to remain. If a widower should remarry to someone outside his deceased wife's bwij, they both may remain on the land, at the discretion of the alab, but this is not usually done. WILLS—- KALLIMUR (WILL OR PROMISE) In pre-contact times the iroij would, if they felt that their demise was imminent, call their people together and name their successor, normally following the accepted custom of inheritance. -9-- The German government started to register wills and the Japanese govern- ment insisted that everyone, jroij end kajur alike, should make a properly registered and documented will. This edict was complied with in the main during the Japanese occupation but fell into abeyance after the Japanese were expelled from the Marshalls. Since that time only a few individuals, mostly iroij, have executed written wilis. RENTALS The concept of rental of and or houses was non-existent aboriginally. This concept was introduced by foreigners who wished to acquire sites for their commercial ventures, and who did so. Transactions of this type involving Marshallese alone have been very rare. In fact, only one suca case is operative today. This case occurred very recent- ly and has political motivations rather than a mere desire for monetary gain. The Land invoived had been rented previously to a Japanese entrepreneur. Interestingly enough in the recent dispute, the alab involved, in pressing her claim for rent, made the distinction between land used for business purposes (bakery and store) and that part of her land being used for dwelling purposes. Rentals were demanded for land falling in the former category only. An individual who has obtained the alab'(s) permission to erect a house, etc., not on his own bwij land may from time to time voluntarily bring food to the alab of that land. However, the concept of rent "per:se", is not implied.* ENCLAVES TREES (kan) individual trees may be given to a person outside of the bwij by the alab. Nearly every wato on Majuro has trees (coconut mostly) that have been set aside for Protestant Church use. There are aiso many gifts of this kind on Arno and Ebon and other, but not all, of the atolls. Many of the government schools have received trees also. Trees are called ni kan (coconut tree) or ma kan (breadfruit tree), etc., depending on the type of tree. The affix kan means tree or stump. Only the recipient may use the produce of the tree involved. He may give the elab or others permission to use the tree in his absence, however. A gift of this sort may revert to the donor upon the demise of the recipient, (it is considered a transaction between two individuels) or the recipient may be allowed to retain the kan at the discretion of the alab. * See ADDENDUM 10s TARO PATCHES (sing. bwil; pl. bwil ko) A bwil or taro patch within a wato may be given to individuals outside of the bwij or it may be retained within the bwij, at the discretion of the alab. An example of the different categories of bwil which may be found on one vato may be seen on Eram wato on Ebon Atoll, one of the southern Marshalls, where the largest amount of taro is to be found. Viz: 1. One bwil is assigned as iroij bwil (bwil an iroij). It is tended and cleared by the dri jerbal but is not harvested except when the bwij makes special ekkan (ar makie)-"our (bwij) alone", to the jroij. The bwil produce is not used for any other pur- pose, and bwil, an iroij are inherited by the heir of the iroij. 3 2. One bwil assigned to "A" who is a kokajariri (adopted child); she tends the taro patch and harvests the taro for the use of herself and family. The alab will not touch this taro patch; if he should do so (cultivate it, etc.), it would imply that he wished to evict the person to whom it had been eeened (This is also true of land in general). A new alab will subtly signify his approval of previous assignments to bwil and will il ratify same by saying to the incumbent: "I would like a basket of taro from your bwil." 3. Another Ewil wes assigned to "B" and his brothers. Before the turn of the century, "B" had been born into a lineage holding Eram wato. At that time, uiale and female twins were considered as being incestuous, having spent the pre- natal period in juxtaposition--within their mother's womb. "B" was, unfortun- ately, one of these. According to custom, his twin sister was allowed to live ("to become alab") and "B" was buried alive. He was eximmed immediately, how- ever, by a pitying neighbor who reared him as her kokajiriri (adopted child). When "B" had grown to young manhood, "C", his female cousin, invited hin back te the bwij lends. She had attended the Protestant Mission School on Kusaie and disapproved of the rejection of "B" by their lineage. "C" was the senior female in her lineage and next in line to be alab, consequently very powerful and much respected. "C" allocated ¢ bwil and the dri jerbal rights in two of their bwij wato(s)to "B". Although "B" could never become alab because of the "incestuous" circumstances of his birth, he was tacitly accepted within his bwij by the other bwij members. ‘When "B" died, his bwil was inherited by his son who holds the use rights to it today. 4. There are six other bwil or Uram wato, the taro of which is used by the dri jerbal of: the wato. hn a. alab may reserve all of the bwil for himself to be used for ekkan. In this case the dri jerbal will not use the produce from the taro patch un: unless the alab gives them explicit permission. This is not the case on Eram wato, however; th the alab allows the dri jerbal free access to the bwil which was not true of some ‘of his predecessors. 5. Another type of bwil is that which is exchanged for another bwil or a good breadfruit tree (ma, kn), This is usually done to cement ties of friendship and marriage, e.g., about thirty years ago a bwil on Eram was given to "C", a man wio had married into the bwii, in exchange for a breadfruit tree located on "c"ts bwij land. The taro from this particular bwil was considered to be the property of this individual and respected as such. Conversely, the fruit from the particular breadfruit tree was considered to be the exclusive property of the alab and people of Eram. About nine years ago, "C" commenced "stealing" the breadfruit from the tree and later signified his desire to regain his former property by climbing the tree and openly stripping it of its fruit. This angered the people of Eran, By hi who felt that "C" had broken tradition and affronted them by taking bread- fruit from the tree while continuing to use the bwii and then seeking the return of the tree (which was a very good one). . 6. Temporary usufruct rights: a section of a taro patch may be. allocated as a source of food for people who are visiting an island for a short while (this is not an outright gift), e.g., Namrik Atoll people visiting their children wno were attending the Japanese Government School at Ebon were afforded this privilege. 7. Gift, as kitre to one's wife: taro patches may be given by a inan to his wife as kitre. There are some instances of this on Ebon, Likiep, and Mejij, etc. Permission of the alab and bwij must be obtained before a bwil may be given as kitve. Failure to do this may cause serious disputes, e.g., on Mejij, an iroiji who had worked a taro patch without any assistance from his relatives gave the bwil to his wife as kitre three years before he died. This was done without consulting his bwij. After he died, his bwij contested this gift. The dispute was finally settled amicably a few months ago. The bywii agreed to allow the childless widow to use the bwil until she dies, at which time it will revert to the bwij. The bwii may allow the decendants of a woman who received kitre to retain possession of the taro patch involved. Non-Mejij Marshaliese who heard of this case stated that the woman's bwij is entitled to possession of this bwil according to custom. REEF RIGHTS Throughout the Marshalls the reefs were claimed by the iroij as emo or personal property if the fishing was good around them. The iroij would declare: "War in buruan." (My ow reef) or else "Wur in iroij" (reef of the iroij). After this tabu was instituted, no one else was permitted to fish that particular reef on penalty of death or expulsion from his land. In 1934 the Japanese authorities "broke the tabu" by declaring the reefs open to everyone. From then on everyone © who so desired has utilized these once forbidden fishing grounds. These reef areas were usually near the entrance to the lagoon where fish are especially plentiful, e.g., within Arno Atoll about one half mile from the shore of Malel Island lies a reef called "Moen". This reef is the habitat of many tuna and other fish which feed around it. The tabu described previously applied here also. The reef fishing on Ebon is very good, several isolated reefs are the habitat of a large fish "ellok", whose flesh is considered par- ticularly good. There were five war in iroij here: Tokainbarao, Wodrenlap-- (translation: big reef), Tokimkil, Buruan Lewoj--(translation: Lewoj, an old Ebon iroij, wants the reef), and Naminaujedr. These choice fishing spots were reserved for the iroij lablab alone as previously described. Other people were afraid to disobey the tabu until it was lifted by governmental edict. Small islends were also occasionally tabooed, e.g., Kaben, a small island with a few trees on it on Wotto Atoll, was taken by the iroij for his personal use because of the abundance of coco- nut crabs on it. ; On Likiep Atoll a stretch of beach on the main island extending from the site of the Catholic Mission to the Northern tip of the island, a distence of about 2000 meters, was forbidden territory. It was emo to fish within thirty ealfuetocs ' yards of the shore along this area, which is the habitat of large schools of tou (mackerel). The "owers" of Likien considered themselves as iroij and instituted this prohibition in German times. Here again the tabu is not enforced today. Emo (forbidden) fishing sites were in existence on every atoll. FISHING RIGHTS According to custom, the property rights extended out to the area where people stood, usually waist deep, in order to fish with a pole. Momo and rijo were the fish commonly sought. ‘These rights belonged exclusively to the lineage, bwij, whose land holding, wato, bordered the marine area. This custom continued until 1934 when the Japanese authorities declared that all marine areas, up to the high water mark, belonged to the Japanese government. Marshallese informants believe that this change was made in order to allow the Japenese to claim logs, barrels, lumber, and other items of flot- sam and jetsam. These objects were highly prized in this area where heavy timber was scarce and especially so in pre-contact days when metal was only obtainable from the above mentioned sources. The iroij lJablab of the particular area into which these materials drifted claimed exclusive rights to them. The loss of royal prerogatives and attendant revenue was, of course, resented by the iroij, who were powerless to prevent it, however. This break with tradition has continued under the American trusteeship and is apparently accepted by everyone today. GAME RESERVES--"BIRD ISLANDS" The Northern Radak atolls of Bikar, Bokak (Taongi), Toke, the island of Jemo, and the islands of Erik and Iuij in Erikub Atoll have been used from time immemorial as game reserves. These areas are the habitat of myriads of sea turtles and nesting fowl. Periodically, turtles and turtle eggs, birds and their eggs were taken, as described later (see emo). Due to the scarcity of water supply, these islands have never been regularly inhabited. The Germans used this fact to justify the seizure of the atolls of Bikar and Bokak as government property. The Japanese took them over with all the other German government properties. They were not exploited by either foreign power, however, and the Marshallese from Northern Radak have continued to utilize their resources. Lafimoj, the iroij lablab of northern Radak, whose ancestors owned the two atolls, claims personal title to Bikar and Bokak as mo land and has stated that the German claims were invalid. This writer agrees with the Marshallese position that land used as a source of food supply, etc., should not be alien- ated from its owmers merely because it is not regularly inhabited and cultivated. It is recommended that the United States Government withdraw all claims to Bikar and Bokak in favor of the Marshallese who feel that they have never legally lost their rights in then. sha. INDIGENOUS ATTITUDES TOWARD THE LAND Land is considered to be the most valuable asset to the Marshallese who are so dependent upon it for their day-to-day existence. Land disputes have been and still are the cause of almost all family schisms. People are always plotting to obtain more land, by marriage today and by warfare, marriage, and black magic in the past. Black megic, ekabel, was sometimes used to kill off the older members of the lineage, particularly in the case of the iroij bwij: "Rubrub non ro nejin" (destroying the obstacle to her children), i.e., removing the obstacle (person) to her children's succession to land rights. A non-relative is always asked to make the magic. It is believed that the illness or death sought for the enemy will "boomerang" and also afflict the person who performs the magical rites if he or she is related to the proposed victim of black magic. According to informants, ekabel, is sometimes performed today. Land is regarded as sacred "something to fight for and die for" and has been, as far as may be ascertained, sold or given away to outsiders only because of fear of either physical or moral force. A salient example of this attitude was observed recently et Majuro. A rumor had been circulated to the effect that the United States Government was planning to reimourse the owners of the land upon which the administration functions are located by giving them pieces of ~~. former German-Japanese government lands Located in Majuro and nearby atolls. This rumor created a tremendous amount of anxiety, insecurity, and distrust on the part of the individuals concerned. This writer was deluged with queries as to the validity of the rumor. The concensus of opinion of the Marshallese in- volved was: "We will never willingly accept any other land in exchange for our lineage iands." They will not willingly accept complete alienation of their land. The individual Marshallese is fully aware of the particular categories into which his lineage lands fali and what rights he possesses in them. Genealogies, both royal and commoner, are traced back in some cases ten or more generations and many of them have been written aow, are carefully preserved by their owers, and used as evidence to support claims in land disputes. The younger generation of Marshallese, nowever, those under thirty or so years of age, as a whole are not fully cognizant of the less basic concepts and customs of iand tenure. . CONCEPTS OF LAND OWNERSHIP In the pre-contact period, the iroij lablab (the senior ranking member of the senior lineage of the ruling clan (jowi) was the acknowledged ower of all the land end moveable property in his realm in a socio-economic systém roughly analogous to the feudal system of medieval Western Europe or closer at hand, to the social system of pre-contact Polynesian cultures with the reciprocal rights and obligations of ail classes within the framework of the society. The sub- jects of the iroij could not be evicted from the land without good reason, how- ever, (mainly for offenses against the iroij himself), and their rights were as a rule, respected by the iroij. The more commoners (kajur ) an iroij had in his Be realm, the more power he possessed--a large reservoir of human beings to draw upon for labor and warfare. (The word kajur itself means power). It was there- fore manifestly incumbent upon the iroij to treat his subjects with consider- ation and retain their loyalties. A regular channeled tribute system, ekkan, was adhered to by the sub- jects of the iroij. In the letter part of the nineteenth century with the development of copra as the cash crop, the share of the iroiji and the people who produced the copra was established. (See LAND USE) The concept of jiroij ownershin of the land apparently continued and was unquestioned until Japanese times, prior to World War II. At that time the Japanese introduced the concept that the iroij owned the land and the kajur owned the trees growing upon the land. This was probably done to facilitate acquisition of the land needed for military bases and installations. Some informants believe that the new concept was a result of Japanese misunderstanding end jumping at conclusions. It is alleged that when the Japanese officials queried as to who planted the trees, the Marshallese replied: "The kajur did? The Japanese then supposedly assumed that the trees were the roperty of the kajur who had planted them. As a corollary, we may logically assume that the iroij upon being questioned, informed the Japanese that the land belonged to the iroij, as per custom. This foreign concept of separate owership title to the land and of all of the trees growing upon the land was implimented by the Japanese officials © who paid some of the iroij and alabés) involved for land end trees respectively. The foreign concept of division of ownership plus the fact that the foreigners beginning with the Germans had supplanted the iroij as the supreme authorities were undoubtedly contributing factors to the gradual shift of orientation which has continued to the present time and which was accelerated by the social dis- ruption attendant upon World War II and the American invasion and occupation of the Marshalls. The concepts of "liberty", "freedom", and "democracy" were free- ly disseminated by the new rulers without, it is believed, adequate definition or explanation. This further contributed to change in attitude in regard to socio-economic concepts on the part of a segment of the population especially, as might have been expected, on the younger element who were in closest contact with the Americans. The general attitude today in regard land rights (as far as this writer has been able to determine) is one of joint ownership of land rights with the iroij possessing certain rights and the kajur possessing other rights in the land, holding these rights as a member of a lineage (bwij) in common with the other bwij members. The general concensus of opinion seems to be that the Japanese concept ‘was an artificial one and that the trees cannot be separated from the land. The concept of joint owmership of land rights is stronger in Ralik than in the Radak Chain, probably because the true iroij have become extinct with a few ex- ceptions in Ralik while the true iroij still flourish throughout the Radak Chain. The prevailing opinion was exemplified by the actions of the last "Marshallese Congress", where representatives of the mass of the population, —15- the "House of Assembly", met with the ivoij, "House of Iroij". At that time, this matter was debated at length. The iroij declared that they owned all of the land and were upheld by a small percentage of the older kajur. However, the majority, young and old, disagreed, stating that the land is owned by everyone. A small anti-iroij sentiment exists today, largely composed of younger men most of wnom have been closely associated with Japanese and Americens. These individuals (none of whom are organized as a group) are anti-iroij only in the sense that they are opposed to deferring to certain individual iroi}. They are not against the institution of iroij per se. In fact, the desire to retain the economic prerogatives of the iroij for themselves is the principal motivation for taeir deviation from the norm. At the other end of the pole are, of course, the iroij and their ad- herents, most of whom are the older and more conservative element. It is anti- cipated that the iroij position, "where disputed" will become correspondingly weaker as this older and more conservative element dies out. It is hoped that the administration will continue the "laissez faire" policy insofar as possible in regard to the land rights situation. Any dis- agreements may be brought before the District Court if the disputants them- selves fail to reach an amicable agreement. (This is the current available mechanism for settlement of land disputes of which there are many.) However, at this writing, only one case invcelving land rights has been brought before the District Court. Apparently the Marshallese are wary of legal processes © that are outside of the local culture pattern and are reluctant to bring the highly important problem of land rights before an outsider. This writer has personal knowledge of many instances where land disputes have been channeled hrough to the traditional authorities rather than through the alien imerican mechanism for handling these problems. The administration should not support one group or the other involved in land disputes; but should remain neutral offering advice to all sides if requested. This obviously requires a great deal of "tight wire walking", so to speak, but it is absolutely necessary if the governing authorities are to have the confidence of everyone and accomplish their mission. ‘The Marshallese are watching every move that the Administration makes regarding land matters. Any ill-advised move by the administration might very weil upset the present balance, causing any of those who may be uncertain end wavering in their attitudes to follow the administration's lead. It is, therefore, obviously necessary for the administration to treat all situations involving land rights with the utmost discretion. These problems should be worked out by the Marshallese people themseives with the minimum of American interference and that only when absolutely necessary. CATEGORIES OF LAND Land is divided into three general categories: A. L&moren or Kabijukinen (rough translation: old "family land"). B. Ninnin (literally: "nurse from the breast")--land allocated by a parent to offspring. py C. Imonajie (burij in aje)--(Literally: "divided land"). The terms lamoren and kabijukinen are applied to the same type of land, the ancestral land hoidings of the maternal bwij; however, there is a shade of difference of meaning in the two terms. Lamoren (literally: "old stone", from the ia--Bbeach. stones", pebbles;, placed around the home site, inside and out) refers to the ancestral land (earth) itself, while kabijukinen or birbir (foundation) as it is sometimes called, has a poetic connotation of deep | affection and sentiment and is used in much the same way on a larger scale, as the Japanese sometimes desciibe their homeland by the word "Yamato" rather than the more commonly used "nippon" or as the Irish refer to "the ould sod", the Russians to "Mother Russia", etc. The majority of land holdings in the Marshall Islands belong to this category. Buri j in aje (imon aje) is the descriptive term for land that was given by the iroij for outstanding services in war and peace time. Many types of land are included in this general category each with its ow descriptive name. With the end of local warfare (during the German period) gifts of land resulting from warfare, i.e., marujinkot, waenbwe, etc., ceased. Other burij in aje such as rewards for magic, medicine, and navigation, etc., are made very rarely today. Ninnin (land given by a parent to an offspring) is still made occasionaliy today, however. | BURiJ IN AJE - IMONAJE - DIVIDED LAND Tonaje (Ralix and Radak) is land given to a person who helps the iroij by nursing, bringing food, etc., makes medicine, etc. The iroij may give food, mats, rope, etc., instead of land. This is imowm as mweien kalotlot (goods for nursing) or mweien tiriamo (goods of sorrow) end is given by the iroij only, to anyone. The iroij may make imonaje to a kajur, either alab or dri jerbal; no one else may do so. In the old days two men remained with the wife of the iroij at all times in the capacity of watchmen or body guards. One remained outside at all times-- escorted the iroij's wife, brought food to her, etc. This functionary was called dri jutak joto (translation: "man who stands by the iroiji's room). _ These men received imonaje land for their services. They were related to the iroij on the fatner's side; they were last in succession and least likely to try to. kill the iroij to gain his position; therefore, the most trustworthy. An informant acted as dri jutak loto for the late iroij lablab Murjil of northern Radak ca. 1916 to 1919. He is a cousin to the said Murjil on the | paternal side. His food was given to him by the iroij. He carried a knife with him at all times but was never forced to use it. Informant stated that he had to stay awake on guard against possible attack many nights because of trouble between two iroij--Murjil and Tonuia, iroij of Airok (Maloelap). This trouble lasted for about one year. The person nursing the iroij as a baby is known as the dri-jutak lomalal; this person belongs to an jiroij bwij, one of whose members has the honor of ‘being the dri-jutak lomalal. The dri-jutak loto position goes to a brother or son like regular paternal inheritance, in order of seniority. The iroij always oh Yes chooses the woman he wants as wet nurse for his children from his bwij or | that of his father, whether iroij or not. | Land was always given for these services; informant received land for | his services. He became alab and receives the iroij erik share now but is not a real iroij erik, and he is not called by that title. There are no positions or title of this kind now, dri-jutak, etc. After iroij Murjil died (during the middle phase of the German occupation), these positions became extinct. The offices were continued during the life time of the incumbents, from youth until their health failed and they were unable to discharge the duties of their positions. t+ that time, the iroij instructed the outgoing dri-jutak | loto or dri--jutak lomalel to name the successor-~someone he trusted in his | bwij or on his paternal side as the case might have been. Burij in aje is also used to describe land given by the iroij to refugees from an area devastated by typhoon, drought, tidal wave, etc. The iroij or leroij might allocate land to their respective spouses as burij in aje. Inheritance Pattern: The recipient of burij in aje, imon aje may either assign it to his bwij or to his children, as he so desires. In the latter case, ali of the children will share in the use rights of the said land. The eldest of the children will become alab as per the customary matrilineal inheritance pattern. The decision as to future disposal of the land may then be made by the ajab in the succeeding generations. The land may be retained within the bwij or divided again between the siblings. It is alleged that in most cases, the land is retdined within the bwii. Siblings usually cooperate with each other in this matter "because they all shared the same breast". Jikin Kolotlot--Imon Kolotiot--Jemlok (The Ending) is land given for nursing or caring for iroij or alab when ill. Given on death bed usually or prior to death when person is becoming old. Gift must be approved by the iroij elan. The recipient may be a medicine man (dri uno) who nursed the donor of the iand, e.g. 7) when iroij Tobo was ill on Arno in 1950, many people gathered about ham as is the custom; some of them brought.food to him, carried him to the outhouse, bathed him, etc. His dri uno remained near him at all times dvring his long illness. This functions as a sort of "sick care insurance", Land of this type is passed down tnrough the bwij. During the German period, Kwier Island on Kwajalein Atoll was allocated to Leanmo as jikin kolotlot by iroij Jeimata and his half-sister, Libetok, upon the death of the former iroij lablab Leit. (See NOTE). : Saemmmmmeinedad NOTE: 1. Men in kolotiot is personal preperty; clothing, fish hooks, money, etc., not belonging to all share holders of the land. The money, etc., is given to the eldest child to divide among the siblings. Adopted children are not included. Money may not be given to an outsider "because this creates disputes" as informants have explained. A man may leave a house, cistern, etc., to his (NOTE continued on p. 18) "IMON AJE", "BURIJ IN AJE" "TROIJ LABLAB" A (Original Recipient) Alab (Eldest Sibling) ie Bwij of B Children of B "IMON AJE' "BURIJ IN AJE" (divided land) may be allocated to either "bwij" (I) or children (II). Figure 3. ) ie v7 | Hee er wi a hae aude pian ee - ad Linea wie i re fs lesion he ay ‘ 10 if ane ie ee i » Siang , ink 4 Aa esiing ; hake: ie aan Ue da ado Gat pleeeae ; Me ‘had Teas: eae Ty vetde ahi oy, yoalnbabipy: Searheink PER. 5 Me yf api ‘tani, atl i pe vat ae Y "_ f pare et. Wey ae ck ~18= Imon Ato (Ralik), Montutu (Radak) (come ashore to get land)--land, not an island, given to a person who adopts, nurses, guards, and cares for the enild of an iroij, gives him special anoiniment (kokabit) with coconut oil, etc. The guardian (kwor) may be either a man or a woman and his or her bwij become kwor also. Any member of this bwij may correct the child of the iroij when he misbehaves, by beating him and pulling his hair (usually very tabu) and may stop him from fighting; i.e., they are in the position of parents to the child of the iroij, whom theii bwij member has nursed. The iroij provides food for the child and the guardian. When the child has grow up, his iroij father gives the land to the guardian (kwor). Someone other than the wife of the iroij nursed the children of the iroij. People vied for this respected and lucrative position. Enen Tutu--an island given for the above services. The person who receives this type of land may allocate a portion of it to his children who wili have dri jerbal rignts only and may not become alab unless their father's bwij becomes extinct. These dri jerbal (worker) rights are inherited by their children, but the land (enen tutu and montutu) as a whole belongs to the bwij of the original recipient and is passed on through this bwij. Jikin In Kokabit--land used as a special place in which to give magical medical treatment. it is forbidden land (emo), a restricted area. The bwirak (noble) children of the iroij use the area, not the iroij. This is one of the devices used to enhance the prestige of the bwirak; as an informant explained: Everyone knows who the iroij is; he does not need as much mo as his bwirak offspring." The jikin in kokabit is usually a small island, but it may be a small piece of land. In either case, the land area is not large enough to till. This land may belong to any individual but may not be used or even walked on by the "owner". The purpose of these tabus is to prevent people from seeing the magical treatment. ' The bwirak were annointed to make them strong and attractive and brave in war. Sexual intercourse was forbidden--sometimes for as long as six months following the treatment. If the treatment did not prove fruitful, people (NOTE continued from p. 17) son if he has built it himself. It will be very difficult to do this, however, if his brother, uncle, or other bwij members helped him to construct same. 2. Incorporeal property such as knowledge of magic, medicine, navigation, etc., is traditionally guarded jealously and transmitted within the iroij group or to individuals whom the iroij may designate. Possession of this secret . knowledge has served to enhance the iroij position, adding to their prestige and bolstering their position as leaders of the society. This was especially true in the pre-contact period and immediately following, before an education (reading, writing, etc.) became available to all. “19. would say, "He spoiled his kabten"(head anointment), i.e., he had indulged in the forbidden sexual intercourse. ‘These sites are still tabu aithough it is not certain whether or not the magical medical rites are still practiced. It is said they were up to the end of the Japanese regime. Waliej Lap (big grave)--the plot of land in which the iroij are buried. This area is forbidden (emo) to anyone not of the iroij ancestry, with the exception of the guardian bwij, kwor. It is believed that supernatural sanctions will automaticaily operate against those who violate the tabu. This writer recently visited the wwliei lap on Meijruirok Island, Jaluit Atoll in which lie the remains of Jitokwa, Lajutok, and other Ralik iroij. Two Marshallese vouths, one a member of the field party and native of another atoll (Kwajaleim) and the other a local resident, refused to get within 150 feet of the small piot of ground in which the iroij are buried. The grandson of Litokwa, however, visited the graves with complete unconcern, explaining that he had the rizht to do so. Winnin (v. and n.)--land given by a father to his children; it belongs to the bwij. A man's daughter and son will only have dri jerbal (worker) rights. The bwij may not take these rights away from then. ‘The senior bwij member is always the alab. If the alab should try to take away the land right, the iroij will intervene and prevent it. The dri jerbal rights are passed down from parents to children from then on, but alab rights go down through the bwij. Alab and iroij may allocate this land, not Gri jerbal.. A dri jerbal may never ailocate alab rights to another kajur. He may, however, allocate dri jerbal rights to his children--real or adopted. He may ninnin only if the j agrees. The elab himself may not assign bwij land away unless permission is granted by the bwij. The alab has authority over division of food and work assignment, etc., but on land division matters, he must consult with his iroij and his bwij. He cannot do anything on his own accord in land division matters. This is true today and was true in the past, i.e., the alab is not the final authority or autocratic leader. He must consult with his lineage on these important matters. He does not have the exclusive rights in the land, e.g., an alab on an atoll in Northern Radak recently expressed the desire to evict the children of his. mother's younger sister from the bwij land because they had been "too haughty", refused to bring him food (ekkan), etc. He complained to his iroij who told him that if he evicted the cousins from the land, he would be violating the custom (manit eo). The dispute was then settled amicably. If the bwij does not concur with the desire of the alab or dri jerbal to ninnin to his children, the children may remain on the iand as ajiri in bwij. They will work for the alab's successor and have practically the same rights as the dri-in-bwij (people with matrilineal dri jerbal rights). The difference lies in the inability of the ajri to become alab (unless the entire bwij and associate bwij become extinct). Everyone must have the alab's per- mission to cut trees, build houses, etc. — . After the recipient of ninmnin dies, his or her children may be allowed to remain at the discretion of the bwij, i.e., the iroij or alab gives ninnin to one generation only, his son or daughter. 20 A lesser chief, iroij erik, may make ninnin to his kajur (commoner) son but he cannot leave nim all his iroij erik Yights and title. These must go to someone of iroij blood. If the iroij erik has no relatives left, the kajur chiid may take the iroij erik Se amcy ee the title. "He is not a freal! iroij erik," Cases were cited by informants where iroij erik have given a Lens child part of aos lands as ninnin but not the Loty erik erik rights. “The ninnin goes down oe the children and their children. The iroij lablab may make ninnin of special land. parcels (wato) to his children, but the bwij members are not excluded. Ninnin as may be seen is a mechanism by which a father in this matrilineal society may provide for his children. One informant stated, "Everyone likes to make ninnin because they help out their children and everyone likes to receive nimin because they get more Land," This method of land division often creates problems; on Mejij, for example it has been cause of disputes since German times. Some of the people who nad received ajri rights refused to pay tribute or ekkan of produce from the land to their a‘ a-ab(s) on the ground that they had ninnin rights and did not have to recognize their mcles! authority; conflict ensued, Sometimes the alab made the division before his death so each of his children had rights in a portion of land. The recipient genération of ninnin and their female children have dri jerbal rights in the land. The male descendants of this generation have ajri rights only. There is much of this today; especially on Maloelap, Aur, and Wotje. Ninnin land is always given by the father to his children. The donor may be such a strong personality that he is able to go against the wishes of his bwig relatives to allocate the land outside of the bwije There have been instances of this deviation from the norm, Most types of imonaje may become ninnin. Morjinkot (Ralik), Bokman Mare (Radak), ("take at the point of the spear") --land given by iroij to a warrior for bravery in battle. After the battle was over, victorious iroij always called the od erik and ners, "the ones who know more than the others", together to tal ik it over. They sat and listened to the iroij. He would on call the men to his house and would say, "I give you (such and such.a land holding)--morjinkot. Then he would pass the word to the assembled people who had come to honor him, bearing ekkan, Morjinkot was always given by the iroij only to kajur. ‘Whenever land was given as morjinkot, the people living on the land might be allowed to remain on the land as workers for the new alab or they might be sent away and new people placed on the land. The iroij told the original dwellers on the land where to go. The recipient could give the land to his children or to his bwij. It was not supposed to be given to anyone ‘but a‘relative. The permission of the bwij had to be obtained in order to give’land to son. If the original re- cipient gave it to the bwij, it followed the custom through the bwij. Once the land is. passed dow through the bwij, it must continue this way. It is up to the first recipient to decide: "He is a very important man", If it should start through the paternal side, it must continue this way; may not be changede ae This is very important but is sometimes violated and causes trouble. Sometimes, a man would give the land to his wife; this was "wrong", and was done very rarely. When land was given to the wife and from her to her bwij, much trouble started. Usually the first man who received morjinkot from the iroij gave the land to his bwij rather than to his children. A man receiving morjinkot could by-pass his brothers and sisters. The recipient would tell. the iroij how he wanted to dispose of the land he had received as morjinkot. The iroij then informed the iroij erik and alab(s) of the disposition of the land. The jiroij could prevent the man from disposing of the land if he thoughtit was not right. If the wan's bwij had fought hard in the war, the iroij would instruct the man to leave the land to the bwij; or if the man and his son or his brothers were good fighters, the iroij might favor the paternal side, i.e., dependent upon actions in the war; wiich group fought the hardest. If the man had no brothers, sisters, chilaren, or relatives on the paternal side, the land went to the bwij. Although this land is given to an individual, the bwij is included--pateinal relatives also. Recipient conferred with his uncles, ana they all divided the land. A man usually had to confer with his alab for disposal of morjinkot (after he received it) even though the alab had no part in the wer. The land was divided among the recipients and his siblings, only to clear and work, not to keep. The siblings were assigned to different wato(s) if more than one wato was given by the iroiji, e.g., Lanar Island, Arno after the intra-clan (dri Mweijor) war of Tawij vs. Ujelan. Maternal relatives and paternal relatives both used the land. Maternal relatives have a "real right" in the land. Paternal relatives could get food from the land but did not have "real" rights in the land. After the senior bwij member died, the next senior person in the bwij became alab. The land usually went to the whole bwij when the iroij made a morjinkot grant. All of the fighting men, Gri terinae, were accompanied into battle by their female relatives who acted as "supply and. hospital corps", carrying water and food for their men folk, usually in a coconut shell container. The women involved were ealled dri bok boka (person who brings a water or food container). The saying was, "They are following us to take care of us when we are hurt." The auxiliaries did not carry weapons but remained a little behind the warriors, watching and waiting for a male relative to fall wounded or dead at which time they would rush to his side to succor him or carry. away his body. The warrior's uncle would be alab on the land whether he went to war or not. The warrior was under him. After the old alao died, the alab title went to his siblings according to the cu customary matrilineal system, and after them, to the warrior's older brothers and sister, in order. In a case like this, the man who received morjinkot could never become alab until after his senior's demise, i.e., the benefit accrued to the bwij rather than the individual. ees Ninnin could, however, be made in the first instence. The alab could make the division ajej for ald of his children. This may be done generation after generation. This has been done on Mejij Island (as previously imentioned). There one mey see small wato(s) with only fifteen trees. This caused much friction. The alab divided up the land among ail of the bwij members. This was last done during Japanese times. The Shere people realized iiow iupracticct tals Ws (nd have stated that they believed: the practice of ninnin has been the cause of much trouble. The chiidren usually work the land together, and it is inherited like lamoren land through the bwij. A man could not allocate the land to his son alone; the bwij had to share. It was impossible for the land to be given to an outsider. On Wotje, land was given (in one case) to relatives of the mother due to extinction of the bwij. ‘the iroij elap Jortaka turned the land over to the oldest of the mother's relatives. Informant never heard of a man giving land to anyone out- side the bwij. The troij would become angry." The land will automatically go to the next senior bwii when the oldest bwij becomes extinct, as has occured during time of war. Saienbwe--lend given by the iroij as a reward for forecasting the future. A divi bubu (aagician) was attached to the iroii'(s) court.and advised him as to the appropriate time for going to war, building e new house, going fishing, etc. But land wes given for giving advice on war only; food, mats, etc., were given for prophesies not connected with werfare. A dri bubu was given land one time only by the iroij for past, present, and future propnésies. The dri bubu was and is a highly respected person and many tabus were and are still a attached to his activities. Informant's father learned magic from Bouliej, iroij lablab of Northern eee Ra ho taught his sons and grandsons. He was very proficient at bubu. In the past, the iroij kmew more about magic then anyone else. However, the restrictions, especiaily sexual, caused the iroij to maintain a magician in his entourage. This imowledge, according to legend, was taught by two demi- gods, Lewij and Laniej, who came down from heaven and lived at Buoj Island in Ailinlaplap Atoll for a while, teaching tatooing as well. Waienbwe was a reward for personal services and could be ninnin to the recipient's children or could be passed on through his bwij at his discretion. The recipient becomes alab whether he is the senior member of the bwij or not. He may have an uncle or brother who is senior to him end his alab, but this man will be alab on the bwij land only. The recipient of weienbwe or kworaelem dand will be an alab himself on this land. Kwodraelim--iand given by iroij to a man who sailed with him and bailed out his outrigger canoe (very hard work end necessary to keep the canoe afloat and enable it to keep underway) in war time and peace time. This type of land could be passed on through maternal or paternal side--son or daughter at the discretion of the recipient--like waienbwe. The reward of kwodraelim could be deferred until a later date. it -was like waienbwe in that it was given as a reward once to an individual and was inherited like waienbwe. Anburo (older word: kitre)--general term for presents of food, clothing, etc., given given by aman to ea woman before and/or after he marries her. Anburo (literally: "of the heart") and kitre ("out in the open") as opposed to to bonerik (something one hides to buy the heart of the girl one loves). Kobwojbwoj is the new slang expression for the latter type of gift. An analogy is draw by «29. informants, with two sailing canoes in a race. ‘The paddling done by the men in one of the canoes which gives the extra advantage and wins the rece is like the kdbwojbwoj (gift) given by one of two men who ere courting the same girl. The word has a slightly ribald connotation. Taro patches are sometimes given as kitre. Katleb--land allocated by the iroij lablab to a kajur. The word was derived from katleb (large plenting), i.e., the iroij plents (trees) people on the land. "Plant the whole tree", i.e., "Plant the islend, ail of it, with people". - Katleb means ail former inhabitants were cleared off the land, no one retiainirg on. it at time of the gift. Whenever lend was given as morjinkot (reward for. bravery) efter a war, the inhabitants might be sent away if any survived, or they might be allowed to remain as workers for the new omer. if the people were thrown off the land because one of their »wij had offended the iroij (collective punishment), this iroij would not take care of their needs for land. However, another iroij, hearing of this expulsion, might invite the dispossessed ones to his side and would settle them on his land, thus gaining more adherents. Katleb does not necessarily imply punishment. If the iroij moved people off the land merely to »rovide land for others (not to punish transgressors) , he would find land for the people whom he hed dispossessed. Ee usually "con- fiscated" land from a bwij thet had plenty of land. Some katleb land had:no people on it when it was "planted", due-to a naturel disaster, e.g., lend on Ebon where eli peopie had been kilied by a typhoon about 150 years 2gO« Katleb is always given to an individual, not to a bwij. The individual may call the bwij in if he wants to. He may give it to his children as inform- ant's encestor did 100 years ago. Ketleb land may be given away to outsiders, but informants have never heard of this happening. "A man naturally wanted to take care of his kin folk or children." Only the original recipient cculd give it to whomever he wished, but after that it followed the regulir custom through the bwij. Katleb is then inherited throvgh the mcternal side (bwij) like lamoren land. Mo lend, Kotra (Ralik «nd Radek), Juluburin Ne (Radak only)--personal land of the iroij. tach iroij lablab had iend called mo. He might say, point- ing to an island or a parcel of lend, "That is my mo." From that moment on, that particular lund was forbidden to anyone but the iroij or people to whom he gave ssecial permission. The word emo itself means forbidden or tab. When an incividucl is being treated for certain ailments, he is mo. Sexual intercourse is forbidden both to himself end the dri uno (medicine man) who-is treating him during the period of treatment. This term is derived from Jemo, an isl.nd in northern Radak, which according to tradition is the residence of Lawi demo, the spirit or ekjab of an iroij lablab of long ago. It was believed that Lawi Jemo, the high iroij of Jemo, dwelt in a huge kanal tree from which he sometimes emerged to walk around the island. On these occasions he is said to have appeared as a tall, strong, handsome man "because he was an iroij." aah Jemo is the home of myriacs of turtles and birds whose flesh and eggs have been a valuable source of protein for the veonle of the neighbor- ing atolls. Stylized ritual was connected with the first food gathering expedition of the year which occurred in the summer time (rak). aA fleet of canoes would sail from one of the neighboring atolls under the command of the iroij. The kakollol (or navigation aid used to fix the position) of Jemo is said to be a large flock of birds that fly out to meet the canoes about ten or fifteen miles from the island. When the birds were sighted, the helsmen would exclaim: Droror timaej or Droror mej (eyes down), as a sign of honor and rescect to Lawi Jemo. When the canoe of the expedition came in sight of Jemo Island, the women in the party had to hide under mats in the canoe; otherwise, bad iuck in guther- ing flesh and eggs was certain to foltow,.so “it was believed. As soon as Jemo was sighted, it was emo to use ordinary Marshallese--the laroij language was mandatory. When the canoes were Sere heuled uo on the beach, special roro (work chants) were used: "Rubrub kane in madren e wulik "Break up firewood, firewood, Karouron ie jiton, So that we will be able to rest by the fire, "Jitoni rik jiton." Charred wood, a little charred wood." This waS followed by: "Rubrub jitofi in ib jen ko karofrof ie jiton. Jiton rik jiton." "Break up charred firewood so that we shall gather strength at the charred firewood." These canoe chants were used on cll of the "bird islands". They were used as late as July, 1949, on Jemo. "To make the people stronger." Several elderly informants on Ailuk and Wutrok (nearby atolls) expressed their belief that Lawi Jemo gives them strength to haul the canoes up on the beach when tney use these chants. The iroij and ali of the expedition went ashore. The iroij had to lead the first trip of the year, and he was the first person to step ashore. Before the party commenced their search for eggs, etc., divine sanction was requested. Everyone assembled on the beach before proceeding inland and cut a leaf of coconut frond. With the iroij leading the way, they walked toward Lawi Jemo (the kanal tree) in single file, each individual carefully steyping in the footprints of the person in front of him so that only one set of foot- oie SS epperetas if only one person had been there. Women were required to hold mets over their heads while on the island so that they could only see the ground well enough to gather eg.s, etc. They were forbidden to see Lawi Jemo. Strict Silence was observed on “the way to worsnip Lawi Jemo. =2 5= When they reached the tree, each man placed his coconut leaf over a branch of the tree and then sat down in front of the tree «nd Waited for a breeze to come and blow the leaf off. When this occurred, the kebbwi in bwil (ritual name for the iroij on this occasion) would say: "Wurin" {we are are lucky). If some branches also fell, the same word would be re repeated. This kind of ritual (kab) is called katobar. Lawi Jemo had signified his eporoval. Everyone then proceeded (not in single file) to a special plece where marutto, a small, rare plant, grew. The iroij made medicine by pounding the marutto plant. Three yellow leaves and ce green leaves were pounded together, and the extracted juice was drunk by all. This was done to prevent anal bleeding sand diarrhea which might result from the unaccustomed meal of turtle and birds! eggs. Kirin leaves Were made into a medicine using the seme recipe if inarutto extract proved: in- effective. (This treatment for diarrhea is still used today throughout the Marshalls; sometimes the leaves are merely sucked.) After taking the pre- ventative medicine, turtle eggs were gathered independentiy. Before eating, eveyone reassembled before the sacred tree to resume the ritual. The iroij or a senior aiab whom the iroij had apsointed stood before Lawi Jemo and commenced chanting: "Jej jar um"-twe start to pray." "Jelbo i jeibo, jelbo I lip ke kijen Lawi Jemo-"we worship, we worship, we worsimio--these eggs fed to Lawi Jemo." "Ikri, ikbi ean co, Lajibwinenon"-tmove it, take it, to the north for Lajibwinemon is the iroij of the north. "Von rak Lorok"-—"to south for Lorok is the iroij of the south." "Non rear Lokbea"-"to east for Lokbea is the iroij of the east." "iion kabilon Lokabilom"-"t6 the west. for Lokabiton® is the iroij of the west." ‘As each direction was Renee four eggs were thrown out in thet direction as an offering to the exjab. The eggs were then recovered and the princiyel in the ritual consumed all of them. The remaining egss were Givided up and eaten by the others in the purty after the leader had eaten the sacrificial egés. A special chant, roro, wes used to obtain siigcmaedeuea aid in oulling turtles esnore: aia "Bwiii erdok ki"- "push, rolling on shore." "Erok ki, erok ki"-"rolling on shore, roliing on shore." "Eraror wan tepeo"—"roll the food-bringing turtle. This roro is stili used by som some of the older northern Radak people who believe in its efficacy. abe While on the "bird island",. sexuai intercourse was forbidden and as previously mentioned, the use of everyday liarshailese was forbidden. It vas believed that supernatural punistment, mij i l&roij (sickness of the liroij) © would strike the transgressor in the form of dysentery accompanied by severe anel bleeding. The laroij language (stone, la, or foundation of the iroij was mandatory at all times. This ritual language (which is still knowa today by some of the oider people) may have been the ancestral tougue of the Marshallese, modified by centuries away from the homelend; it may have been an exclusive chiefly (iroij) language or an archaic courtesy language. At any rate, it may provide a clue in comparative linguistic studies today, e.g.: A. B. ee ENGLISE COLLOQUIAL MARSHALLESE LAROIJ LANGUAGE (FORBIDDEN) (MANDATORY) man emman - ari kabbil woman kora maar bey ladérik laberik, naberik pandanus bop karkar breadfruit ma waerar coconut ni kebcor preserved pandanus mokon wairik ird bau bebelber octopus - kwet werak shark bako ninnin sting ray jemjo jejanjor come itok jekabun go ilok jekeabunlok child ajari nabdri ship wa. jiton eges lip uanin rat kijrik kilukor sand bok jetakiki fire kijeek - mejwar turtle wun wa When the expedition was ready to depart from the island, the dri meto (navigator in charge of sailing) would order: "Jen rvbrub, (let's sail!), ekwe, rube jiton kone" (put the boat in the water). After all was ready: "Wuj jiton kane" {anchors aweigh!). All these orders were given in the laroij tongue which was used until the canoes were half way home. A special roro was continuously chanted by the helisman to remind people not to use ordinary Marshellese: "“Ainana - nana - ini = nene ene"......repeated (meaning unknown). This ritual and special language was used on all of the "bird islands" each of which had its particular ekjab, all of whom dwell in trees with the ex- ception of the ekjab of Bokak, Jo Bokak, a red bird (mum) who has been seen recently. ~27— After this initial trip made by the iroij or senior person in the hierarchy, anyone else could make ensuing trips during the rest of the year. This ritual was avparently a method of conservation. Rather than allow people to swarm all over the isiend, possibly frightening away nesting fow! and egg- laying turtles, the iroii and senior people led the way and the food gathering procesdec in an organized, methodical fashion. The early migsionaries successfully used their prestige and persuasive powers to discourage the worship of Lawi Jemo and tae other eljab. This kabun (ritual) was last performed at Jemo during German times, according to a reliable informant, shortiy after which the tree, Lawi Jemo, was cut dow for boat timber. Today people gather turtle eggs and birds' eggs, etc., at any time of year and waik wherever they wish on Jemo. None of the tabus are observed es far as may be determined. This is true for the other bird islends as well. This religio-economic pattern clearly illustrates the close affinity of the aboriginal Marshallese religion to the ecology. Mo or kotra land (Radek and Ralix), juloburin ne (Radak only) is land belonging to the iroij elap alone. When the iroij saw an island he liked, he had three tabu signs made and placed on the land (usually very good land), one on each end and one in the middle. These "signs" are called itsiju or jabne (no foot), i.e., no foot but the iroij'(s) may step here, and were made of a pleited coconut frond tied to the end of a stick (informant mede one for illustrative purposes). The word kotra itself meens the leaf (coconut frond) that makes lana mo (tabu). The itkiju were placed in position one time only and were not renewed...."people imow about it." Magic (bvbu) was made on the itkiju. It is believed thet if any un- authorized person takes food from the island or ever sets foot on it, he will get sick and/or die. Permission to go on the land had to be obtained from the iroij. if any people had been living on the land, they were forced to leave. An uninnabited islend was usually chosen, however. When the iroij died, the peopie could return to the lana unless the new iroij continued the kotra. The iroij appointed special temporary workers who had no real workers! rights and who shared the proceeds from copra sales or the produce of the land with the iroij. This land may be passed from father to son or it may remain within the bwij. ‘he iroij way do what he wishes with it; it is his personal property. If tne jroij shouid Leave no close kin, the workers on the land may have it. The next iroij may not recover any of the mo land that his predecessor may have given away. An informant's father received two pieces of land’on Wotje Atoll this —.- way. His father was iroij erik in Norther Radak. His father, Jibunemon, wes.~ paternai uncle to Murjii, the iroij lablab of Northern Radak. ‘The informent's father had the itkiju (tabu) signs placed on the two parcels of land, and the land was inheritea by the informant who is in possession of it today. In- forment is a member of the noble class. ————EOoeoeoeoee ee -28- There are otuer parceis of kotra or mo land in Ebon, Ailinlaplap, Majuro, and other atolls, viz: MO LANDS OF TROIS KABUA KABUA Agjlinlaplap Atoll: Islands Wato ko (pieces of land) Toleon Bato Edridr Bardnelknouij Enekanloto Lolinmak Tobo Unbar Matton Kokomonmcn Kaiuikan Otojome Kimemekan There are no alab(s) or people. with real dri jerbal rights on these lands. Jaluit Atoll: Ebon Atoil: Islands Islands Arbwe - Eneor Moneak There were alab(s) and people with real dri jerbal rights on these lands before iroij Neiu took them over as imo in German times. An agreement was made whereby the proceeds from the copra produced on these lands was divided on a 50-50 share basis. This division is still in force. In Japanese times about 1921, Lobareo, iroij elap of northern Radak, had_ a juloburin ne (translation: sole of foot / of iroij only may touch this land_/), island in Maloelao Atoll on Taroa Island, Drinjen wate, which he had inherited from his uncle, the previous ircij elep, Murjil. He used to take all of the money from the copra proceeds--iroij erik and iroij elap share, alab and dri jerbai share. This is the richest land on Maloelap. The iroij may give juloburin ne land to his children or to his bwij. Royal "blcod" is a prerequisite for holding this type of land. If there are no royal descendents left, the iroij elap tekes the land back. Lobereo later turned Drinjen wato over to his son (Laibwij) who inherited all the rights except iroij elap rights which were inherited by Jajua, the next iroij elap of northern Radak. There are no permanent workers on Drinjen today and no alab. Informants have never heard of iroij juloburin ne are passed down from alab to alab; however, there are no permanent workers either, only iroij elap and alab. aS. Metak in Buro (pain in heart)~-land given by an iroij to his cast-off wife as "her husband", i.e., a sort of alimony.* This done at the discretion of the iroij. One informant lmew of a case like this at Votje atoll. Meta in buro land remains in the bwij. The cast-off mate was tabu sexually to other men forever after unless the Zroij told a man that he could take her sexually. This latter usually happened. A woman who had sexval intercourse without this oermission was sometimes killed end the lend was con- fiscated by the iroij- When a kajur husband was cast off by a leroij, he did not receive metak in buro land. He also was tabu sexually at ail times. ‘Women avoided him for fear of being killed for having sexual relations with hin. His illicit sex partner was the only one killed. Lowid--land that had never been used before because of heavy uncerbrush. There were many of these creas in the old days. There is no lowio land today. If a kajur wanted lend, he asked the iroij permission to ciear a ra parcel of lowid land to have rights in it. If the individual cleared the land by himself, he could leave it to his desired heir. If his bwij helped clear the land, the bwij inherited the land. The iroij might do the clearing with nis ow workers ind he would keep the land as his personel land. This last happened during eariy Japanese times, e.g., on Majuro Atoll on Ajeltak Island, Mwonbat wato has an iroij and temporary workers cnly today. Dalap, ilonworwor vato is in the same status but now occupied by an air strip. On Ronron Island, Enlen wato, iroij Lanian cleared it himself in 1912 and changed the name from Tur (a geographic term) to its present neme. Dri jerbal were put on this particular land permanently and are working it today. Lowio by an iroij may mean that the land may have been used by a kajur but not worked or cleared by nim. The iroij cleared the iand and the kajur "lost" their rights in it, i.e., a sort of punishment for not carrying out duties and obligations. Erenteb-—"something, i.e., a gift, to put your shavings (from the canoe) in." In the old days canoes were very importent in the economy and in the frequent wars. In the absence of metal tools, canoe building was a difficult and time-consuming tesk. When the iroij wanted a new canoe, he sent hundreds of his people out to cut a huge breadiruit tree for the huli and other trees for the supports of the outrigger, the platform, etc. Only a few men in a few lineages knew how to con- struct a canoe. Special knowledge of measurements was and still is handed dow Witain the lineage. Folded pandanus ieaves were used to "blue print" the canoe. Two of these skilled men were usually in charge of the building of a huge canoe for the iroij. These men were rewarded oy the iroij with gifts of mats, rope, food, etc.—- never land. The other workers received nothing from the iroij but food while they were working on his canoe. One informant saw the iroij Murjil's canoe built and land was not given. Informants have never heard of land called erenteb. * Nets, mats, boats, clothing, etc., given to 4 cast-off wife by the iroij are celied mweien tiriamo (these goods- things - of sorrow) or jemlok (the ending). 4 f a oa The man or men in charge of the canoe building was forbidden to have sexual intercourse while the canoe was being’ built. A dri bubu made magic to.aid in building a good canoe. Bola was used before the canoe was built to find an auspiscious time. A canoe should be made when there was no danger of surprise attack that would prevent completion or allow capture of the canoe. Enen-Kojou .{land-of-make disgrace), Jou-Mij (die without land)--the iroij never took land away for adultery if just kajur were involved. However, if an iroij or ieroij were involved, he or she would get land from the erring husbend or wife. If a kajur male was married to a ieroij who had sexual relations with another mon, the kajur. might have complained to the iroij elap who would say iroij loman (iroij custom), i.e., the iroij may do anything they wish. However, if a leroij had a kejur nusband (known ag iroij emman both in Ralik and Radak) who committed adultery, she confiscated the land of her husband's sex partner. She did not have to consuit the iroij elap about it. She possessed enough power herself . The leroij could tear her rivai's vagina. open es additional. punishment if she wisned; this was done many times according to informants. “A kejur male who nad sexual, intercourse with the iroij lap'(s). wife was described by a special term, lafi ebunti (the heavens will fall upon the people / concerned _/). The offending male was always speared to death by an iroij erik or byirek-tek (lesser royalty). The offending wife could be cast off without metak in buro or killed, at the discretion of the iroij elap, but her land was not confiscated. The iroij confiscated the lend of his wife's lover, koj jou (throw away). His whole bwij was thrown off the land end told: Jou mij (you will die because you have no dend) . The land was then called enen koj jou. Informant told of a case of this type that occured in Wutrdk Atoll in pre-German days. A kajur inale who had sexual relations with the wife of an iroij was killed and his land was given to an outsider, usuclly the person who executed him. His whole bwij was then, evicted from the land. Presumably this idea of collective punishment for individuel trans- gressions of one member of the lineage wes designed to prevent commoners from violating the iroij sexual rights and to accentuate the exalted position of the iroij class and évérything pertaining to it. The iroij could dispose of the confiscated land as he pleased. In the cese of a kajur woman who committed adultery with the husband of a leroij, the offending woman was often taken to the ocean and drowned by all the leroij. An informant had heard of this happening in pre-European times. In one case, during Japanese times, according to an informant, a kajur male had sexual intercourse with the kajur wife of a bwirak iabiab (son of an iroij iablab father and a libwirak--lesser Se other) When his crime was dis- covered, the offended husband and all of the iroij erik and bwirak beat hin into unconsciousness. The husband then forgave his wife and continued living with her. abe All of the iroij were tabu sexually to kajur except on invitation of the iroij or leroij. ‘the land of the offading mate leroij (if he was a kajur-- iroij emman) could be confiscated by the leroii. If so, all of his bwij was evicted and another bwij put on the land. The evictees would move to the domain of another iroij, as in the case of lend alienation of the iroij'(s) bwij. This land was passed on through the j. of the new occupants and was then classified as kotleb. The offenders: jJeroij'(s) mate and the woman involved, were either killed, beaten, or had their land confiscated, any of the three; however, they had no choice of punishment. The leroii sometimes ordered her husband's death and sometimes her rival as well but usually had them beaten. The most usual punishment was confis- cation of land. If the iroij'(s) wife was of iroij "blood", she could sleep. with another man and not be subject to punishment by the iroij. He could only "eet revenge" by sleeping with another woman or he might merely scold his wife. "Both iroij and leroij have the same pover sc they cannot punish each other." Conversely, if an iroij offends his (leroij) wife, she may obtein revenge by sleeping with another man. This metnod of "paying back", as it is called, is often practiced today by Marshallese of all clesses. The Leroij'(s) kajur lover could not be punished according to custom and neither could the kajur sex partner of the iroij. An iroiji who had sexal reiations with the wife of enother iroij from the same area could not be punished. The wife, if a commoner (Lijela) could be throw out after being beaten ~ her land was not confiscated. If a leroij was offended against by another leroij, the same thing applied as in the case of the two iroij. Informant laughingly told of an iroij who slept with the lijela (commoner wife of an | iroij lablab). When the cuckold found out about it, he became angry but did not © do anything about it. "A kajur would have been killed." This incident occured shortly before World War II. However, for example, if an iroij from the Ralik Chain came to Radak and trespassed sexually on a Radak iroij'(s) wife, war would ensue. This almost precipitated a war on Majuro more than one hundred years ago. A bwirek (lesser iroij) who slept with a lijela would have his land con- fiscated but not killed; presumably because he was a member of the royal class. The lend confiscated by a leroij from her rival could be given to the husband of the adultress. This was oniy done occasioneliy, and this land was passed down ~ through the man's bwij. Land of this type was called mveien tiriamo (goods of . sorrow). The land of a man who slept with the lijela (commoner wife of an iroij) was never given to his wife but was kept by the iroij. Kaamnak--(not a land titie; verb) "to put someone on the land, house, etc. Similar to kotleb land; it may be any type of land. It has often been land given by one iroij to another, e.g., Jebrik Lokotwerak, iroij lablab of one-half of Majuro Atoll during Japanese times, gave an island on Majuro Atoil to Litokwa, an iroij from Eton Atoll in the Ralik Chain. Litokwa had promised to kaammnak land to Jebrik in return. He did not keep his promise, however, so Jebrik took the land back. This type of land is used by the iroij recipient, and after his death, it reverts to the iroij donor. Kotra land, iroij personel land, has been given as kaamak. Kaamnak provided the iroij with a place to stay when they visited outside their owm atolls, e.g., Toemein iroij of northern Radak, had lend of this type in Jaluit Atoll in the Ralik chain during the Japanese times. a i While the iroij is awey from his kaamnak land, the money share from the land is given to the original iroij. Food is given to eny of the recipient iroij'(s) workers who may be on tie lend, e.g, workers of iroij Toemein on his kaamnak land on Jabor, Jaluit Atoll. The usufruct rights in keamnak may be transferred to a third party, €.g-, during the Jepanese period, iroij Jebrik Lotokwerak of Majuro gave Jable, a piece of land on Majuro, to iroij erik Lanian of Majuro as kaamnmek. The letter had a boat made by a half-caste, Joachim de Brum, and turned this lend over to him for his use in payment for the boat. He predeceased his half-caste friend, and the iand reverted to the original donor. Workers of this type of land will remain on the land, make exkan, and give the copra share to the new iroij when he is there. ‘This individual will inform the original iroij who wili reply "keep it" (money end ekkan), i.e. temporary tenure is recognized by everyone involved. CONCLUSION Tae Marshallese system of land tenure has been modified in certain respects due to the acculturative influence of the bearers of western culture. Warfare has been eliminated from the pattern cf culture and consequentiy Land owmezship does not fluctuate as radicaily as in the cays of inter-clan and famiiial strife. With the introduction of foreign administrative authorities and foreign concepts, the authority of the royal (iroij) class has progressively become Weaker. However, as was stated initially, the system of inheritance and usu- fruct has been retained elbeit modified in regard usufruct and is operating to- day with no overt indications of overall disintegration and with ail indications of continuance. Whether furtheraecouitiretim and exposure to the concepts of the American socio-economic system will cause a breakdown of the present Marshallese system of land tenure remains to be seen. % is strongly recommended that the program of returning the former Japanese government lands to the former Marshellese owners and the payment of claims against the United States government for occupation and damage to land be expedited. It is further recommended that the land shall never be allowed to pass into non-Marshallese hands. This is the explicit desire of the Marshallese people and was presented in a joint, unanimous resolution in the meeting of the second "Marshallese Congress" in August of this year. As such, it deserves the most serious con- Sideration by the powers that be. This is particularly important in view of the steady increase in population due to the superior facilities offered by the American medical program witich has almost entirely eradicated venereal and other diseases that have prevented large population increase in the past. There is no serious population oressure at the present time, but the time may come when it will become necessary to utilize every piece of land to the maximum extent as in the Southern Gilberts. This eventually should be anticipated and prepared for. -33- ADDENDUM A possible future trend was seen only this week in the request of an. a@lab on Jarej Island, Majuro Atoll (adjacent to the Administrative Center) .to - collect cash rentals from various individuzls whose bwij lands are in other areas end who have built retail stores and eae eS on this individuel's bwij land. GLOSSARY A brief resume of terminology used in ecennection with land rights follows: SEBUM aia we a ss 5 oie bjs. a wiale\nialeala, bint aets atoll Rimes Ce sdck et crore sae aces wea aberatig “ehrae™ os" Use met eae to & verson liv-ng and working on his father's iand. FIAD. wiceneacweseoctcaceuuseecsics the Senior member Of the wags she moe ran or woman of a wato or groun of vato(s). Boda. eis oe ee ed A A eaavination by’ means’ of stones Yeounted out in series). Eure se see he os vee cee ener. Land” (noun)? BWiasusvts@esicccesccsssanccasse Literally “navel"=> the extentee tae ih group or lineage; used to refer to the - matermal lineage primarily but is elso ‘used to refer to the paternal lineage, e.g., "that is my father's bwij land." Pwii is sometimes used as a synonym for jowi (clan). Bwij 20 Glot...scceceeeececooses means that the bwij has become extinct; all the lineal descendants of the Pounder of the bwij have died. BWANA Ke ecccsssteuccwdecnsenevese bible Of Lesser forth ee libwirek--feminine. Dri jerbal..csccccsccceececceeee Literally "work people"; everyone who works on the land with the exception of the alab. This is & comparatively new term that came into usage with the intro- duction of a cash economy with copra as its base. The people who have the indis- putable rights in a particular piece of land are those who might possibly become alab through their matrilineal lineage. The ajri or children of the male alab form another category end yet another consists of those individuals who are ‘real outsiders, being neither paternal nor maternal relatives but who heve been allowed to work on the land. CICCATA SS Goa ous a ena io ar hte te BURIa a Ore dee tribute paid to the iroij: food, mats, etc. 3h EMO. cescccccerancccecscevesesecs forbidden, tabu. ENE s eee eececeeececesvcseececens island. PoMeHec ts a nee re deste eet ake tlie main island. LYOL] CMMAN.sscsceceeceeseceeeee ,commoner husband of a leroij. Iroij eiap or irojj lablab...... king or paramount chief; the alab of the senior royal bwij; ieroij-- queen or chiefess. de iL) Cole ssaas teed ssecauscnten, Jivorarty "little chet"; secondary chief; used in the Radak chai only. IIMs ean spapedvsksepeagescsse place, (noun)s referring, toa piece of tand. Jikin kwellok. eoeceeeeoveereseaneeee place or assembly; village Jikin jemeir............s+.es--- land of paternal relatives; 3rd person p.urel. d2RID JANCIE ccusevsauaccsasoasis Land of maternal relatives; 3rd person plural. POUL eee assetatencnesenercosseve Clan, matrilineal and strictly exo— gamous with one exception: jirikrik, "because there are so many jirixrik". Kequpeeie ee. Bore, ate Se, 0k Commoner. - Kok ajiriri....ccsecscoceeeserees acopted child; literally: "to rock and fondle in one's arms", i.c., to "look out" for a child. PCE Gan isinis Wiaiaielaie a nieces sidimaniaee \COHNONeT Wile OL ah drory. fF MEMOrEMs.ssrssaee sss cccreosesss a, We perma nephews or nisces. Menoren 1oboren...sececsscoosoee Eldest female manoren (the most important . because her children will eventually become alab). MMe a eels sails s ounces pace en Pelabives, paveimal nd maternal. eee ee eaten tae easter! chain Of eapolis and iclandse ; Bokak, Bikar, Wutrok, Ailuk, Wotje, Erikub, Maloelap, Aur, Majuro, Arno, Milie, Toke, Likiep, Narikrik, Jemo Island, and Mejij Island. 35 RaQie. Wc seecevsssssccteecacs oases Weabern Chain of atolls ond islands: -—- Rofilap, Wottc, Lae, Ujae, Kuajlen (Kwajalein), Ellip Island, Nam, Ailiniaplap, Jaluit, Namrik, Ebon, Kili Island, Ujilafi, Ailifiinae, Konrik, Inewetak, Bikini, and Jabwot Island. Rarok...... UeGisadsestevscceaacs) Sedands (ene ko} or wato(s) (Gare ka) used for making copra but not regularly inhabited; also used to Gescribe waste land, full of coral boulders and sand left by a typhoon; area of poor soil. Usualiy the S. cr S.&. portion of an atoll. Calied eean when on N. or N.W. and liklai when in the western portion. Rukorea (Ralik), \leba (Radak). maternal uncle. Dialectical diffezences in terminology (Ralikx and Radak chains) are noted where existent in this paper. Diacritical marks: a--as in back, sack; O--approximately as "u" in murder; n--"ng" as in sing, Icing, etc. LITERATURE CITED 1. Mason, Leonarc, The Bikinians, A Transplanted Population; Human Organization: Volume 9, Number 1, Spring 1950. Z. Spoehr, Alexander, Majuro, A Village in the Marshall Islands; Pacific Science Board, National Research Council, Fieldiana: Anthropology Volume 39, Chicago Natural History Museum: November 1949. APPENDIX MODIFICATION OF THE LAND TENURE SYSTEM ON UJILAN BY THE DISPLACED © ENEWETAK PEOPLE When the former inhabitants of Fnewetak were re-located on Ujilan, the naval authorities allocated one-half of the atoll to each of the iroij lablab Johanes and Abream, foliowing the pattern that prevailed on Inewetak. In 1949 each iroij then divided the land allocated to him, among his people. Each individual (from the youngest child to the oldest adult) received a plot of lend some of which support less than ten coconut trees. The alab does not receive a share of the dri jerbal copra nor (as previously stated) does the iroij.- =36- As may be seen, this new pattern of allocating individual iend holdirgs is a drastic mocification of the traditional Mershaliese lend tenure systen. \hether this change was vrought about by accuituration from the neighboring Ponape District within which Ujilan wes incorperated administratively during the Japanese period, or whether it was a result of suggestions by American administrative authorities is not clear at the present time, due to lack of Geteiled information. Further investigation is needed here. iguhial bast, rag eget bt GL) MO. 0 edule. eed taal oe fearar OTE pebirdip tan wits: heel addicests getauh plewcho alias: bes wba repormoa yd atolinogger tO S47. ‘Qo ahel ot eat jortd, Faenatiy, i wietal -' Ree: Hater 3 506, 9 ae FITS Nos. 12, 13, 14 December 15, 1952 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 12. Preliminary Report on Geology and Marine Environments of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands by PRESTON E. CLoup, JR. 13. Preliminary Report on Marine Biology Study of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands by A. H. BANNER and J. E. RANDALL 14. Description of Kayangel Atoll, Palau Islands by J. L. GRESSITT ZastHSON gs “DEC 30 1952 Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S.A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN ee meee ee eee wae 2p Preliminary Report on Geology and Marine Environments of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands by Preston E. Cloud, Jr. 135 ‘Preliminary Report on Marine Biology Study of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands ., by A. H. Banner and J. E. Randall 14. Description of Kayangel Atoll, Palau Islands by J. L. Gressitt f Issued 28 THE PACIFIC SCIEN ich BOARD National Academy of eeieneestatatibnat Research Council Washington, D.C. December 15, 1952 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board. It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundamental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes, The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs, CIMA, SIM, and ICCP, during the past five years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SIM, The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract No. 47-onr-291, Task Order IV. et Ge om os ese os ee ee es ee oe The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or the editors of the Bulletin, ee GD a ee Oe ee ee eee ee ee Editorial Staff F. R, Fosberg, editor M. H, Sachet, assistant editor Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the above c/o Pacific Science Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W,. Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A. NOTICE The editors of the Atoll Research Builetin are engaged in compiling bibliographies covering several phases of the science of coral atolls as well as the vegetation of high islands. They will greatly appreciate having any papers mentioning atolls or low coral islands brought to their attention. If readers of the Bulletin care to send in copies of their ow papers, this will make it more certain that they will be included in the appropriate bibliographies, cnd the papers will be ‘availabie in the Pacific Vegetation Project files for use of those interested. It may be possible, from time to time, to issue reviews of papers thut are sent in, especially if they have a direct bearing on the work of the Atoll Research Program, or of the Pacific Vegetation Project. Such papers should be addressed to: The Pacific Vegetation Project c/o National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Washington 25, D. C., U. 5S. A. cee we eee we we oe eee ERRATA In maps accompanying several of the earlier numbers of the Atoll Research Bulletin, especially nos. 5, 9, and 10, ratio scales, e.g. 1: 10,000, 1: 7500, were inadvertently left in the maps when they were reduced for publication. Reduction, of course, makes these inaccurate. They should be deleted or disregarded. On the title page of Bulletin no. 10 should be added after the author's name the following: (assisted by John Tobin and Gerald Wade). e wails of ED ob ‘ets ) ied & ear sah oe 3 ses om mit et F ie i pei ed = Tae ey Mest cae ih ne eg ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 12 Preliminary Report on Geology and Marine Environments of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islenas by Preston E. Cloud, Jr. Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D. C. December 15, 1952 6) iB Renee stint wo: Lato Eiattinm Preliminary Report on the Geology and Marine Environments of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESIA Pacific Science Board National Research Council Preston E. Cloud, Jr. U. 5. Geological Survey Washington, D. C. June 1952 ACKNOVLEDGMENTS This report presents preliminary results of geological field work done in 1951 wnder the Atoll Project of the National Research Council's Pacific Science Board. The project is supported by funds granted to the National Academy of Sciences by the Office of Naval Research, and the field work was carried out with the active poe erence of the U. S. Navy Department, Coast Guard, and Army. Special thanks are due for help received from Wir. Harold Coolidge, Miss Ernestine Akers, and irs. Lenore Smith,,of the Pacific Sci- ence Board, and from Lt. M..E. Katona and Kns. Lee Nehrt, of the U. S. Coast Guard cutter "Nettle." My associetes in the field were Dr. E. T. Moul, Dr. W. H. Goodenough, Dr. A. H. Barner, Mr. D. E. Stresburg, and Mr. John Randall. The field work of the Onotoa Party being in the Gilbert and Ellice Is- lands Colony, we were the guests of the British Government, then represented by Acting Resident Corrissioner R. J. Keegan, who took a most helpful per- sonal interest in our work. Special courtesies and favors were also received from Mr. E. C. Cartland, Mr. Stanley Silver, end Mr. Alan Hart, of the Tarawa Government staff. ‘The then Colony Lands Commissioner and Administrative Officer on Onotoa, Mr. Richard Turpin, and his wife befriended and helped the entire field party > in every conceivable way--to have them as "guardians" was a great help in carrying out our work among a people whose language and ways were remote from ours. Finally, I must thank the people of Onotoa themselves, who welcomed us to their island and helped us as much as they could. PI ne nn Or a CONTENTS ashe Gh ee ee ee eee ineroouet lon ee ee es eee General setting and climate —------—--_—-_..-___.___ [EXT Bio) ey giugno eee re General features of the lagoon ---—-~--~---~-——--~- Principal ecologicaand sedimentary subdivisions -- Islands ~~-~-~----~-~-—~-----~~---~~----~-~---- Intertidal environments except reefs --~----- Outer reef -----~---------~--~--~-~-----~----- Intertidal to lagoonal environments -~------- Environments of the lagoon and leeward shelf Origin of beachrock --~----~---—--~---~--~-—~-~-----~-- Hydrology ------------------~+----+-~—~~-+-~---~------ ‘Ground water ——-===+—=--=—--—-__-+--—_-__------.— Shallow sea and tide pools --------~------~--- Flow of water over the windward reef -+--~---- Origin of reef-front grooves and surge channels -- Building and erosion of atoll islands ~---~---~—--- Shifts of sea level and their effects on modern Tee) Sut Appendix A -— List of reef building corals and hydrozoans -~~-------—--~-----~~----~---~-~-—-~ Appendix B ~ Description of sedimentary and ecologic field units --------—------~---~-~—-------- Islands -~--~-.-------~——-----~--—----—~.-+--------- Dune limesands -~---~--~----~-~-------~----- Limesands other than known dune deposits BSH =) Se he SG Caliche ----~~-----~~--~----~-——---~--—-+~--- Land hound areas of permanent brackish . weter --~~-—---—-~-----~-——--~--—~---------- “Intertiaal environments except resis —------- jaconeeeeeed beach =e Sa Rocky PeaCh oka ae Enclosed intertidal flats hardiness cA Mainly intertidal flats adjacent to i2goon proper -—-------------~—---+-+---= . Bars and spits ---~----~-----~---~--~---- Cu ter reef Fae ea ee Cn a Intertidal to lagoonal environments ---~~---- Environments of the lagoon and leeward shelf OO ILLUSTRATIONS Tables 1. Rainfall at Government Station, Onotoa atoll 2. Rainfall at Betio Island, Tarawa atoll 3. Properties of ground water on Onotoa 4. Variations in pH of shallow marine and beach-zone waters 5. Temperature, chloride content, and hardness of shaliow marine ana beach-zone waters Figures 1. Index nap, showing location of Onotoa 2. Generalized geology and marine environments of OGnotoa - Island profiles, Onotoa atoli - Properties of shallow water in near-shore lagoon - Properties of shallow water in flow over windward reef flat - Properties of water in low tide pool of windward reef flat - Properties of water in high tide pool of seaward beach - Temperature and pH of spray pools a} : DEC 28 1852 ny 4 i) aoe M Ay % Lis hee ED ae oO Hi axe, Pee i ) noueetriid asbihon Saw iG f hi ; a TO LOT weet ¥ PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE GEOLOGY AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS OF ONOTOA ATOLL, GILBERT ISLANDS 1/ By Preston E, Cloud, Jr. 2/ ‘1/ Publication authorized by the Director, U0. S. Geological Survey. 2/ Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. ABSTRACT Onotoa is a "dry" atoll just south of the equator and west of the inter- pation date line. Its yearly rainfall averages only about 40 inches, droughts occur periodically, and ground cover wesedation ae sparse. Island deposits are almost exclusively unconsolidated calcium carbonate gravel and sand, the gravel mainly toward the sea and the an mainly lagoonward. With- in this permeable material and the permeable reef-rock beneath, ground eaten: floats in hydrostatic balance with sea water below. Toward the center of islands more than about 1000 feet wide this water is generally potable. In narrower parts of islands, however, it becomes brackish at times of drought, resulting a the death of breadfruit, taro, and even coconut trees. Soils are simply the calcium carbonate sediments, with a humus layer not exceeding about 10 inches and an average pH of about 8.1. The shape of the lagoon bottom is derived from echo sounding and direct observation. It comprises three shallow basins (maximum depth 8 fathoms) hat are separated from one another and from the sea beyond by still shallower water, the whole with numerous small patch reefs that rise to or near the surface. The near-surface framewrk of the Onotoa reefs consists primarily of the blue alcyonarian Heliopora, a genus that is not extensively developed there among now living corals. Fish are shown to be important in the produc- tion of lagoonal sediments. , The sediments, soils, and surface waters of the island areas of Onotca, and the ecologic zones and Gepcsits of its shallow marine waters, are here provisionally described and classified. Preliminary identifications of coral collections indicate them to include about 26 genera and 50 to 60 species. Limited observations on the chemistry and movement of some of the shallow marine waters show a diurnal variation in pH and an out-flowing gravity current Sane ahs naveea reef flat and es benched reef slope. During the ney pH rises and precipitation of eee precsuia occurs in very shalter Bing At da ooe oH ? favoring solvtion of — jn intertidal environments. Dominance of solution eareeet in the shore zone is - believed to result from conatant oe of precipitated procucts. , The out—fl ORTH cigaicd ned vs is ose an important Ba aees in origin of offence. prseves and surge pa ea through abrasior by det bris in ‘vensit seaward at times of rab ne | troneation. | | rt is argued that piisuerees cedinen and meatier medic Mises 9 clgee ¢ are important in formation of beachrock, presumabiy both bapieza bonding of successive surface Layene and through interstitial precipitation of 2003. Atoll islands are built on Suse tee wide rect foundations Be or near the surface of the sea at a daistance from the yas foons determined by. local force of storm waves and ‘to a width h determined & by time and sel! of ‘Sedinieate First a gravel ridge or rampart is erected by storm waves on ne reef flat. On the lagoon side of this gravel rampart the sandy postions of the iglanas grow by longshore drift of reef flat debris and by wind action. Erosion occurs mainly at times of storm by breaching or complete removal of islands. Onotoa provides additional evidence in support of the now weil—documeited 6-foot eustatic fall of sea level that began probably more than 4000 and less than 7000 years ago. The evidence consists of elevated Heliopora flats se elevated cobble stripes such as are know to form only on the reef flat. The superficial appearance of modern reef surfaces in the tropical belt is at- tributed primarily to whether they were within 6feet of sea level when this recession began. INTRODUCTION This report presents some of the preliminary results of an integrated program of field studies on the terrestrial and marine botany and zoology, geology and enthropology of Onotoa (0 no! to Eye a wary" atoll in the aha Gilbert Islands (the Kingsmill Group of early records) - These studies were made = a field team of the Pacific Science Board during late June, July, and August of 1951. : | Tae Gilbert Islands (fig. 1) straddle the equator just west of the inter- Eta nail date line, and the position of the anchorage at the west side and toward the noeen end of Onotoa was determined by Ens. Lee Nehrt of USCGC Nettle" as 1°47'33" S., 175929130" E. (U. S. Hydrogrephic Office, 1950, p- 51; states "northwesvern end in AC LENT Sh), 175°20' S."). Onotoa is the most southerly atoll of the group, though tvo "reef islands" (‘Tamana end Arorae) lie still farther south. Operations were carried out from a temporary pase camp adjacent to the Government ‘tation on the more northerly of the two main islands of Onotoa (fig. 2). Materials and eaviprent for camp and technical operations were assembled at Kwajelein and transported to Onotoa by the U. S. Coast Guard Cutter "Nettle," under command of Lt. M. EB. Katona. All botanical aames used in this report were supplied by Dr. E. T. Moul and represent either his provisional field identifications or my extensions of them. All titrations for salinity factors were made and computed in the field by Mr. 0. E. Strasburg, my assistant in the geologic field studies. Preliminary identifications of corals were provided by Dr. J. W. Wells, of arthropods by Dr. F. A, Chace, and of mollusks by Dr. H. A. Rehder and Mr. R. T. Abbott. Ne) Tr ah Has he ee ee GENERAL SETTING AND CLIMATE The general setting of Onotoa with reference to currents, winds, and geography is shown in figure 1. This atoll lies between the west-flowing south Bete ea current and the east-flowing equatorial countercurrent. A local north-fliowing current is suggested by the fact that during our stay there a marked eaett from the south produced strong surf on exposed lee reefs that face the south (fig. 2). At the same time surf was weak along the stretch of lee reef north from the anchorage around the nowt end of the atoll to the large northern island (fig. a According to the map on which figure 1 was based, Onotoa lies at about the northern limit of the southeast trade winds. During late June, July, and August of 1951 the wind blew almost steadily from a little south of east to nearly due east, with the exception of recurrent vinds from the west on June 24 and 25 and of occasional squalls from the southeast to south-southeast. On one occasion winds of gale or near-gale velocity blew intermittently from the east and southeast for the better part of a day. The British Colonial Office (1950, p. 39) has reported that "For most of the year there is a steady easterly trade wind, but feo! GeEAnEE to March...occasional west and northwest gales occur. The wind in these gales does not reach hurricane force." An exception to the rule is found in the record of a hurricane at Butaritari in the northern Gilbdeta, variously dated as December 1927 and January 1928 (Sachet, in Pac. §cei.'Bd .,\1951, pp. 3-9). i The climate of Cnotoa ne wera bea even. For es Colony as a whole, the British Colonial Office (1950, p. 39) reports a temperature range of 80° to 90° by day, with a minimum of WO, at night. Our party maintained no systematic 10 records of air temperature, but 1: observed a midday high of 87° to 90° F. Poane noon and 3 p.m. om Several occasions in cay end RUBS Ys and on one occasion the alanine temperature: stood at a gees of 6° am" following a period of gale and eee velocity winds. % night the desc ierce fell into the t 70's, to as low as 72° betreen midnight and b am. A summary ye epasterti data fon pee Colony « as SU gives by the ae Coloniel ee ee (1950, p: 39) as ‘follows: ! NRainfald varies esl celal ets Ty not only betieen the islands, bob also from year to year.. In an average year the annual rainfall ranges’ from 40 inches in the vicinity of the equator to 100 inches in the ex—_ treme aorthern Gilberts, with something around 120 inches in the 3 Ellice Isiands. In the Phoenix Islands between 40 and 60 inches is a good year's figure, while the Line Islands' rainfall varies from 30 odd inches at Christmas Island to.150 or more at Washington Island. Ocean Island, the central and southern Gilberts, the Phoenix Islands and Christmas Isiend are subject to severe droughts lasting many months, wnen the annual rainfall may fall to less than 20 inches. These droughts are said to have a rough cycle of about seven years. In normal years the wettest months are December to February and the driest from August to October." About 40 inches may be taken as a round Pa puma (ae the average annual rainfall of Bape oer Painfall records s locally available were kept at the Government ota ion on the norton main island by aii Megeedes tee for 1938 and tron TEE 1944, through August 1951 coger 1). "These ce an average of AL. 2 inches per year. The yearly Re oy for the per ae 1924 to 1930 was 28 ane according to E. Ha Bryans Jr. (Pac. Sci. Ba... 1951, Ba 20s Available records from meet eoreueR 1934 lec Miss Sachet (Pac. Sci. Bd., 1951, Pp. 16) to an seni plete of BL .4L inches. ‘The ee oe table 1 show 1946 as the Be eee vear, with oy 1 inches, and rage as the arises with only 6.6 inches. nil venuary averages the motte? ener with 8.6 inches, and October the aves witha) a!aenes?’ (the wettest month’ on record waeaemuary 1929, Gath 25.4 inches, and zero rainfall has been recorded for every month in the year except July, August, September, and November. In 1950 no rain at all was re- corded from January 1 through June. . 1. 20° Hawaii SS 2 tas : Je MAR SHAE ce nr a ISLANDS Kwajalein: , : Mdjulro- «Arno . ee EAatotial! ee ‘goptnegst WO Bee Boimyro quatoria : a wins é Counter Current | Butaritari (Makin) Northern. eT of | Northeast Trade Winds == evar ee eS a ce m fae? CILBIERT: ee & 0° ISLAINDS aanawa - PHOENIX Christmas ls. Pa “| Tabiteuea’. (eG ot ISLANDS S Tamana : Fearn Canton. - yy oe) . 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OT* dian! 19° CS =< OT TT 496°9 OCT 647°S4 L6°TE 90°62 * eencir Z6°S¢ 26°22 9z°6L = TeqOL we a mw me em ee te erm mt a ne em me me mmm am ee ee em, Be te ee le we me ee ee wee a me oe a = ee Se eee wee ee : CIT gael gs 19 Pipe 86'S Wiese Hee GO Ge team BE ot. €L°6 CLC O8'T (0e°T o00°€ 65°0 67° 67°O L9°0 ST°O LTO ASaO) O0S6T eee et eee = se eG Gt Sot Jo’e toe aie Deere ore es ae eee = oto eC CGS eet -GE*G = Tete. een ech eee OU. LLY Lee SO (Vavie ec 61°8 L6°6 A nS ce°ty 60°€ 647° ST Lt76T pen We Cb Oo ecro 6.5 95 °% zee 89° ET é é ae oe ts é 976T deo, “on “AGN "900 “4Qdec”™ -*anv anu = “omp .” (Athy se ‘ 74 Nanntabuariki s ing 9 \ i> LN esos 3s \ ev vy Wad b APPROXIMATE MEAN DECLINATION 1951 ANNUAL MAGNETIC CHANGE 2° INCREASE EXPLANATION Limesand Notural depression aoaq oo0 gaoa Green alga zone of windward reef flot reeee eerer Red algo zone of windward reef flot CLL rere etre A Leeward reef flat (Green algoe lagoonward, red algae and sturdily oronching forms of the corals Acropora and Pocillopora seaward) 9 aa Po%o'oo Dead reef surface,generally with grovel veneer fe sei veNe t | Foraminiferal flats (Living Galearina and Marginoporg matted in soft algae) ceccce ° ° ° ececce Reef area of abundont living coral of few types Reef oreo of scattered living coral of many types (Voried coral types scattered on bottom of dead coral-algal rock thot is veneered with limesand and limegravel) Tidal inlet Tide flats ond shoal water areas of sand, gravel, dead coral-algal rock or ony combination of these (Locally with patches of turtle grass Thalassia, green algal growth and sparse living coral) High tide line POA NOD Margin of wove-breaking reef EN OH Ty oo, Front of submerged reef area Boundaries between Intertidal ond related shoal units gee Number and’ guide line to geology-soils profiles ————+ Designation ond course of fathometer traverse Fe ENE Approximate location and depth in fathoms be- low mean ow low tide of generalized under - water contour line. (Haotchures Point toward closed depression, Surface Indicated is general- ized bottom surface - above this rise numerous Patch reefs, some awash at low tide) X G28, XS-7, X L-2 Selected collecting locolity of PE Cloud Jr S sediments, L lithology B-| to 8-8 Collecting localities of A.H. Banner Ttox Fish collecting localities of John Randal} >>>>> Tronsect A a Maneabo (village meeting house) i Church 1 bev S.S.W. beachrock ¢ eget Fbr 1000! Nast 700' gop sate es Sass NINE. inner__subzone middle _subzone outer subzone subzone of Jania back ridge trough coralline ridgs and urge channels _ | green algo zone ————________,_ _______red giga zone coralliferous outer bench (to 9 fthms) reef flat —> Profile 2 i230eees Tare el ulelelale rate ejela]siels[a[s|sl=slalelelale are Profile 4 veneer Gp f¥ on Sc subzones middle outer Jania trough BR —— green algo zone ———_—__—_— red algo zone ~~ coralline ridge’ 8 surge channels! coralliferous outer bench (to 9 fthms) —_——___— reef flat —____— Profile 5 Profile 6 Vertical Scale r— 200 feet Profile 8 fi EXPLANATION Se Colcarina \imesand eis6 S Undifferentiated limesand Sw Limesilt grading to limesand DSy Younger dune sand Ge Very coarse coralliferous gravel) together Gp Coralliferous pebble gravel ears Gpe Profile || Bs Sand beach Bg Gravel beach Irae: Bb Boulder beach BRn Non-concordant beach rock BRe Concordant beach rock N.W. S.E. Bls Bonded limesand BR Some combination of BRn, BRc, & Bls >SS_ceef flat M Mangrove flat I-50 E Enclosed tide flat 1 Fs Limesand tide flat Profile |5 Fbr Beachrock ribbed tide flat r Reb Cobble and boulder veneered reef flat b RR Elevated reef-flat rock L HaAnnoats Datum is level of inner edge of reef flat Le eae Highly diagrammatic boundary gap-600ft. of E deleted oe ey | pe Profile |7 FIGURES: ») ISEANDS PROFILES, (ONOTOA, YAROLE (Vertical exaggeration 5x. Minor and man made irregularities eliminated or generalized. Location shown by number on Figure 2) Horizontal Scale fo} 100 200 300 400 500 1000 feet (aa SST ESS =I ey 0) tain mtef) Z ' : 4 ae bias oem J es a val !s “Saebroeti petit iy ; : seaeboits amt yaa : : oye ee ver - wd, taal PRO LON’ ‘ ng SH Ry Beeps Kets atinas } t a Fone - + vn H ‘ i i f “abe |! We ert i = er, eval mene : r Cho Seem Yh aa he OS ey OC aan anand wnt wong ‘9 hae eat aie jak GoM P Uhly wOe Ay ,%, , Prats j oi A Ca i alt Fs ae nie a PY ac lai 1a take ret aapfigee et | ae sta raring wih ¢ ‘. , ae Cah ay at , A clear record a Hesse cd, ee bon es dvathe of 200 feet a the outer aes slope fee Hg shoal eee Ong eter ae ramate correction coe tide conditions and depth Pelee ane aa the transmitter-receiver fish, this record was seve ae as the basis for contouring the bottom of the lagoon and’ upper reef slopes. . : Fipure 2 ghana thar ae legoon is very shallow, its maximum depth of 8 fathoms ee beced on two hand-lead soundings at and near locality C-55. The general bottom topography (excluding ihe numerous small patch reefs) con- ists of three shallow basins. The south basin is the largest and deepest, generally deeper than 6 fathoms in its central part and attaining a maximum of 3 fathoms. The central and north basins connect and night be thought of as a: single long narrow basin generally exceecing 3 fathoms in depth and attenuated in the middle. The central basin proper, exceeds 4. fathoms, over a fairly large area and 5 fathoms locally... The norta basin has only a small | area that is deeper than 4 fathoms. All three basins are separated from one another and from the outer deeps by shelves of 2- to 3-fathom depth. In the passes through the outer reef the depti nowhere much exceeds 2 fathoms. Be- tween the. many patch reefs the lagoon bottom is everywhere floored with calcium carbonate sand, silt, or gravel. 20 PRINCIPAL ECOLOGIC AND SEDIMENTARY SUBDIVISIONS Systematic studies of the plants and animals, and chemical and mechanical analyses of the sediments end rocks of Onotoa are stili in progress. Until these are completed it seems preferable here merely to mention some of the more general or interesting facts and inferences about the principal habitats and deposits of this atoll. As a possible aid to those engaged in comparative studies of atoils, brieit descriptions of ecologic and sedimentary units as recognized in the field are given in Appendix B. Islands The land area of Onctoa ig given by Leonard Mason (In Freeman et al., 1951, p. 274) as 5.2. square miles and the abeaen area as 21 souare miles. The land surface is mostly unconsolidated sand and gravel (fig. 2). Solid rock is rare. The sand, gravel, and rock ‘are entirely of calcium carbonate (except for the generally small magnesium content of some algae and shells), a little humus, man-carried debris, and minor amounts of siliceous pumice that has been washed up from distant volcanic eruptions. As they are thus all- limesands, limegravels, and limestones, the prefix "lime" (used by geologists to signify CaCO) should be understood where not actually used in the follow- ing pages. | if Onotoa were paeees an extensive land area, probably no geologist would make finer distinction of its sediments than that between sand and gra- vel. Because its land area is small, however, and because Cetails of sediment distribution may be helpful in understanding processes, effort was made to cistinguish, and in a general way to map as many different kinds of sediments as couid be recognized. For soil classification and vegetation relationships it seems also likely that only a few main types of soils should be recognized: (1) loose limesands with a well-marked humus layer; (2) loose limesands with- out a humus layer (younger dune sands); (3) tight-packed, low-lying, generally damp and brackish limesiits and very fine-grained limesands; (4) indurated, phosphatized (?) limesands (old dunes);.(5) coarse gravels; and (6) pebble exayenen The properties of the finer pebble gravels at places approach those of the loose limesands, and impinging units ordinarily show gradational re- lationships. Soil profiles were run at five localities on loose limesands, at a sixth locality on pebble gravels, and at a’ seventh on limesilts; and depth of humus was observed at many localities. Tests with a standard Truogg soil testing kit gave a pH of 8.1 for the surface layer of all profiles except that on the demp limesilt, ard this had a pH of 8.0. There seemed a slight tendency for pH to increase a little with depth, to as high as 8.3 well below the thin soii layer in fresh parent limesands, but no reading above pH 8.3 was made at any depth. It is difficult, however, to be sure of Truogg index colors as closely as the foregoing suggests, and the difference between 8.0 and 8.3 might be imaginary. Maximum recorded thickness of a well-defined humus layer was 10 inches, but $) teis inches was commoner. At most places in the limesands a zone of slight organic staining extended eneenes 10 to 19 inches beyond the humus iayer. Roots aes common to depths of 2 to 3 feet and have been encountered at depths pis great as 4 feet below the ground surface in freshly dug pits. As will be brought out by the botanist's report, vegetation zones show a general relation to soil types, especially in certain elements of the ground cover. However, an overriding effect is exercised on vegetative pat- terns by exposure to wind and salt spray, by the nature of the ground water (related to width of land, distance from sea or lagoon, and height of land), and by artificial factors. Intertidal environments except reefs Under intertidal environments are included beach sreas, flats that are mainly intertidal, and bars. Reefs, and areas that range from intertidal to lagoonal are considered elsewhere. The Po of the beaches, tide flats, and bars is generally distinctive. Sand beaches support little in the way of a megafauna--only ghost crabs (teyeeds sv.) and, at some localities on the lagoon side (e.g. C-38), closely packed layers of a smell edibie pelecypod (Atectcdea sp.) an inch or two be- low the surface of the sand in the mid-tide zone. On rocky beaches, on both seaward amd lagoonward ee a neritid snail close to Nerita plicata Linne se commonly very abuncant, end a high-spired littorinid probably referable to a species of MleLaraphe is locally abundant. On rocky and gravelly seaward beaches the common tropical Pacific scavenging crab Grapsus grapsus (Linné) is abundant. Sand bars are very nearly devoid of a megafauna, but burrowing sipunculids may be found. The intertidal flats display a wide biotal varia- tion ee ed not be discussed here, but some ehements of which are noted in Apnendix B Outer reef An atoll consists of a ring-shaped outer reef and a central depression or lagoon. In plan view the outer reef is generally irregular in autiaee end is interrupted and divided into seemenee by passes. In modernseas is- lands are commonly ligeaped on the reef nhateen The aloes rage contains small patch reefs of a variety of shapes, and, in some places, ree marine benches jie beyond the crest of the outer reef. By definition the lagoon of an atoll can contain no pre-existing land, but this would not ex- clude islands thet might be founded on patch reefs. The ring-shaped outer 23 reef is the essential anc most conspicuous feature of an atoll and the sub- ject of the immediate discussion. Patch reefs will be considered under a following section on environments of the lagoon and leeward shelf. A conspicuous feature of the outer reef, especially in the Gilbert Is- lands, is the difference between windward and leeward sides. With the ex- ception of Buterd tari hoe een, My ean) and pie the atolls of the Gilberts “ae Bee ye aching reef and almost continuous land on their windward (east) sides. Their leeward (west) sides are characterized by ee outer reefs and few or no sclnads, All passes into their ae lagoons are to Leewerd. The windward reef flat of Onotoa (also observed ies of abet and Badan is generally exposed at low tide and is veneered with algae. The leeward reefs are commonly submerged for a few feet over most of their area, even eae tide. At many places they show relatively vigorous eocell growth—-Locally pis continuous veneers of closely packed © iiving coral. A feature of some Gilbert Island atolls, Pete RE ished for @notes but also noted at observed parts of Tarawa and butaritari, is that at least the upper part of the reef freme was buiit primerily by the blue coral Heliopora, an alcyonarian, and not a typical stony coral or scleractinian ‘(see also Finckh, 1904, p.. 136). That this may be commonly or even generally true for the Gilbert and Ellice Islend groups is further suggested by the observations of David and Sweet.(1904, pp. 66-70) at Funafuti. Here Heliopora was the frame biuilder'to a depth of 40 feet below high tide in the main bore and occurred in the cores to’depths of at least 100 feet. The ecologic niches of the ovter reef may be grouped into those of the reef slope, the reef front (with corailine ridge and surge channels), and the reef flat, the greatest variation being in the reef flat environment. 24 The relationships of the most persistent recognizable units are show on figure 3 (profiles 2 and 5)--these being the green alga zone, the red alga zone (including back ridge trough), the coralline ridge, and the benched reef slope of the windward reef. Intertidal to laeagnes environments At Onotoa, flats and shoals with extensive growth of the marine grass Thalassia, as well as generally barren rocky flats and shoals, overlap widely from the intertidal to the lagoonal environment and are thus separated from both. Coral veneered rocky shoal bottom is strictly of the shoal lagoon, but it is so clogeiy related to adjacent sparsely coralliferous rocky flats and shoals that it is included with the entertige! te lagoonal environments as a matter of convenience. It is also convenient to include under this heading certain enclosed inlets which, although ennan ently count dese and Similar to iat ace a units, are separated from the lagoon proper by ex— tensive tide flats. Fnvironments of the lagoon and leeward shelf The area here referred to as the leeward shelf is that which extends north and south from the anchorage, beyond the main passage between lagoon and anchorage (see figure 2). Ecologic zones and deposits of the lagoon and leeward shelf may be roughly delimited according to variations in areal in- portance of patch reefs or veneering coral growth as contrasted with lime- sand bottom. They may also be further broken down on the basis of .differ- ences in the dominating reef-building orgenisms. The probable nature of the formerly luxuriant growth of Heliopora is well illustrated in the present lagoon by areas of Heliopora patch reefs and limesand. The effect of certain fish in the production of lagoonel sediments is of special interest. Darwin observed that fish browsed on coral, and Couthouy (1844, p. 97) was aware that lagoonel sediments might "partly arise from the excretions of certain fishes." Safford (1905, p. 90) and Newell et al. (1951, p. 13) also observed fish nibbling on coral, but Pinckh (1904, p- 141) states that "although a large number of kinds (of fishes) were watched in the neighbornood of coral, in no instance were they seen to browse on it." There is ae doubt, however, that fish do browse on coral, and they probatly are important contributors to the sediments around reefs. The scarids (parrot fish), with their parrot-like jaws, and the acan- thurids (surgeon fish), chaetodontids (butterfly fish), and pomacentrids ' (damsel fish), with their fused comb-like teeth, appear to be primarily browsers on soft algae. Significant to sedimentation is the fact that, in course of feeding, fish from these families scrape off thin layers of the dead calcium carbonate ieee This was verified by examination of their gut contents. These fish are so numerous and active that they probably pro- duce a fairly constant rain of this fine Cac03 debris, and, indeed, schools of scarids commonly defecate great pioede of it when startled. In course of time this must represent ea considerable contribution to the lagoon sedi- ments. A coarser sedimentary product is added by the balistids (trigger fish) and monocanthids (file fish), which are armed with a massive dentition of grouped biting teeth, and by the tetraodontids (puffers), which have parrot- like jaws similar to those of the scarids. Their stomachs contain the fresh tip ends of branching corals up to 5 by 10 millimeters and some have yielded chunks of crustacean tests and spines and plates of echinoids, as well as 26 algae. They have been observed actually tq bite off the tips of coral branches, and the fresh pieces of ‘coral in their guts are free of fleshy parts. Doubtless these fish provide a significant part of the coarse frac- tion of lagoonal sediments. . It is believed that fish are more important in the production and tri- turation of lagoon sediments than either echinoids or holothurians, the two groups that are most frequently cited as organic sediment producers.. In making this argunent I mean, of course, to emphasize a commonly neglected or unrecognized factcr in lagoonal sedimentation, not to deny the significance of other factors. The calcareous joints of the green alga Halimeda locally bulk large or even dominate in lagoonal sediments (e.g., David and Sweet, 1904. p. 65), and Foraminifera and coralline algae contribute significantly to these sediments through their dead shells and joints. The spicules of gorgonians and other alcyonarians (Carey,.1918, 1931) and the tests of ostracodes are likewise contributing elements. Detrital products strictly due to abrasive wave action and derived from both outer reef ana patch reefs also contribute to the lagoonal sediments, but probably do not bulk as large in their overall mess as might be supposed. The foregoing and other matters related to the ecologic zones and de- posits of the lagoon and leeward shelf will be considered more fully and critically when laboratory ‘studies are completed. For the present it must suffice to note that the obvious variations in the shallow Llagoona’ environ-— ment comprise differences in density of concentration of patch reefs. Patch reefs are very abundant and locally almost continuous toward the leeward reefs and passes and gradually decrease in :number toward the island mantled windward reef platforms. Linear to irregular areas of bare limesand alter this gradational sequence only locally. a7 ORIGIN OF BEACHROCK Beachrock results from lithification of beach debris in the intertidal - zone owing to factors not fully understood but apparently peculiar to seline waters that are saturated with peiicinm ecrhandte It is ones on tropical sea beaches. It characteristically has the Fees ee eens ET composition _ of the constituent beach materials, eter ods may be. Beachrock is men tiotied in’ most ee ae discuss the hime leuane geology of tropical islands arid ‘has been discussed at length in several papers. A recent summary is by Emery (in Pac. Sci. Board, 1951, p. 34). It is evident that cementation of _ beach sands to make beaclrock results from interstitial precipitation of cal— cium carbonate in the intertidal zone, but the mechanism of such precipita— tion is not egreed upon. The ensuing discussion will emphasize the importance of algae in beachrock formation. Onotoa is an almost ideal laboratory for the study of beachrock, for hard beachrock and bonded limesand occur there over large areas. Bonded limesand, considered to represent incipient beachrock, was Fouad on lagoon beaches, in tide pools and spray pools, and as broad carpets in tide flat areas. It was not found anywhere on the seaward beach at Onotoa. On some tide flats the penetration of fairly solid beachrock by numerous burrows of a small red-clawed fiddler crab (Uca sp.) strongly suggests that the burrows were dug prior to induration of the rock. Everywhere that bonded limesand was found on Onotoa it was observed to be encrusted with Living blue-green algae of several genera and species (see descriptions in appendix B). These algae apparently bind the beach and tide flat sands at the surface and, through their biolcgic activities, may cause or accelerate interstitial precipitation of calcium carbonate beneath. Some samples of the supposed incipient beachrock show successive alga-capped layers or laminae, and it 28 looks very much as though the algae play the important function of holding the sands in place until they can be indurated. I am satisfied that the formation of beachrock in protected localities is brought about by, or greatly accelerated by, the activities of blue-green algae and hope to document this fact more fully in a later report. It is dif- ficult, however, to see how ordinary blue-green algae could have a significant effect on the bonding of congiomerate beachrock on an expcsed seaward beach. Perhaps the answer is that beachrock does not form on exposed beaches except in protected places or during times when wave action is very weak. A sample of firmly bonded gravelly sand containing numerous brass cartridge shells was collected on a seaward beach at Tarawa, but this had formed in a pocket behind ledges of older beachrock and was encrusted and ramified with soft algae. If any given locality were free from strong wave action only long enough for algal bonding of beeen detritus to get a good start, cementation might continue when the locality again was exposed to more vigorous wave attack, HYDROLOGY Hydrologic cnlcryations made were limited by time, facilities, and staff. Several samples of ground aan and one sample of sea water were taken for chemieal analysis (not completed); some observations of movement of dyed water across and beyond the jews reef were made; and diurnal variation of pH, temperature, and chloride ion concentration was observed at selected localities. In addition, some determinations were made of total hardness, Suesiin hardness, and magnesium hardness, all "as Caco3," and of calcium and magnesium ion concentrations. Chloride was determined by titrating with silver nitrate and potassium chromate, and hardness factors were determined with stock hardness indicators and sodium hydroxide as described by D. L. Cox (Pac. Sci. Bd., 1951, pp. 22-26). Observations of pH were started with a Gamma electric meter using glass and celomel electrodes, but, owing to battery failure, it was necessary to complete this study with a Japanese- made (Mitamura) set of cclorimetric indicators. Colorimetric indicators, unfortunately, are neither as reliable nor as finely calibrated as the elec- tric meter. In the ensuing discussion the term "chlorinity” refers to the concentra- tion of the chloride ion (C17) in parts per million of solution. Ground water ranma water in the permeable medium of an atoll island occurs as a lens of fresh water floating in hydrostatic balance on salt water below. As fresh and salt water are miscible, a zone of mixing occurs at the contact of the fresh-water lens with the sait water below. Various irregularities in the shape and integrity of the lens may result from openings, passageways, or ) Ww variations in permeability of the island foundation that accelerate or retard mixing A ground per wore of this sort is els the eae patie lens, after two of its early propounders, aid a is succinctly discussed by te worth (1947). | The source of fresh vater in the lens is rain. Given adequate rein and eee ane pemeability, the thickness of the lens sanende on its areal di- mensiious os the aout OR loss through exapor arson or artificial ean. As a result of the aafferonee in density between about 1.000 for fresh water and about 1.025 for sea water, the thickness of the balanced lens, assuming no mixing, should be 40 times the height to which the balanced fresh water ex- tends above sea level. In small fies or very narrow parts of long Sete the fresh-water lens will be relatively thin and brackish. In large islands of medium and consistent permeability, assuming adequate rain, the lens will be thick aud the water potable. In time of drought this fresh water, in parts of islands wide enough to have a reasonably thick lens, would be lost only slowly by diffusion, mixing, and outflow. Heavy draft without recharge, how- ever, leads to salt-water invasion. Bey _ Ample cemonstration that the ground water of Onotoa comprises 2 — of the Chyven-Herzberg type is provided by observed diurnal variations oe ne level of ground water at site C-2 (center of island, shower well at eS! This ee fluctuated igs 164 inches with a ae range at the time of “stout us Sto) Sis As feet, and its high and ioe stands followed the nie and low tages with a ee of 2 to 37 hours. obviovely, the fresh water is . affected by the tides and oe be Bae we on agers ye sea water in the perneable sediments and rocks Badenene Eight ground water samples were studied from an area about + mile square and centering on the Government Station and our campsite (figs. 2, 3). This 31 area was selected for study partly as a matter of convenience and partly be- cause the islend at this place approaches the probable minimum width (1000 to 1400 feet) required to maintain a fresh-water lens continuously through drought periods of recorded duration. Results of field tests on this a ahete water are given in table 3. Sam- ples 1 to 5 were from wells dug and maintained prior to the arrival of the American field party. Sites C-l1, C-2, and C-3 (fig. 3) were dug mainly to obtain eeeand water samples and geologic sections at regular intervals across the island. Sites 1, 2, 3, 5, and C-2 were about at the center of the island, whereas sites 4 and C-3 were talfway from center to lagoon beach, and C-1 was halfway from center to seaward beach. Of the five wells testec, the two--l and 2--that showed lowest chloride concentrations and total hardness were at the center of the island, but one well toward the lagoon beach (4) provided potable water. Well 3, relatively high in chloride content, total hardness, and dauraetin, and not good for drinking was also at the center of the island and only 225 feet south of well 2, a good well. The data of table 3, in combination with taste tests of other wells, indicate that eet toward the center of parts of the larger ee that are qotiee than about 1000 feet has a good chance of producing a fairly continuous supply of potable ground water under the normai draft of the native population. Wells in nar- rower land cr near the beach are apt to be brackish. According to the prin- ciples of hydrostatic balance in the Ghyben-Herzberg lens, as the land is wider, the lens is thicker, and the chances of a sustained supply of potable water are better. Irregularities in fresh-salt boundary relationships in the lens due to openings in the reef-rock foundation are to be expected, and the relatively (qusTU Ye TTeF pTmoys eesTe yytm s{Ttem jo yd ‘sanoy yyustTfep sutinp epeu aiem sSutpeea yd tre 4eu9 240M ) BoZ0UN UO AeyemM puNoIs Jo seTytedorg °¢ eTaR] = == 3s ne == L°L a = €-0 @ = -§ 3 2.7 @ = 3 Pe ee = 2 4 Ez = em eS = == = el Tp 9% we 9 Fro, & _atg og — it OS 18 SL CES €€9 ae Lek 2 Sa F BS cLL ee, Z €69 ca eo = : € Es eee oe oe ees eer ee a2 ov 86 ST? o9e aa =" 99°L, i = 2 (udd ) Eqge0 of © Bae ontTq a Boe et Oe, (udd (udd ) se ssou (udd) Touxyy Toueyd BUUed IO * dway, it +80 “prey [e240] eptuzoryo Hd Hd qd TTOM 33 ‘high chloride and megnesium content of well 3 is possibly due to such an opening or passage. It is possible to predict the location of such openings only by methods that are prohibitively expensive with reference to the ease and cheapness of digging a shallow well. The practical way of meeting the problem of ground water supply in the Gilberts is to locate wells intended to supply drinking and cooking water at or toward the middle of islands more than 1000 feet wide and at least several thousand feet long. Some wells so located will encounter brackish water in any event, but they should be pro- portionately few. Shallow sea and tide pools Observations were made on diurnal variation of pH and temperature of water from a high tide pool and a spray pool on the windward sea beach, from a tide pool on the windward reef flat, from flow over the reef flat, from immediately offshore in the shallow lagoon, and from a spray pool with bonded limesand on the lagoon beach. The last mentioned, though a spray pool at neap tides, is a tide pool at times of spring tide. All sites observed were adjacent to the field camp south of the Government Station on the northern main island. In addition to pH and temperature, the concentration of calcium, magnesium, and chloride in parts per million was determined. The beach zone pools at Onotoa mostly have flat bottoms, a large popula- tion of fixed algae, and a few snails (Nerita) and blennies. The tide pools of the inner reef flat have smooth, shallow, rounded bottoms, commonly elongated normal to the shore and with algae growing between rather than in them. The beach zone pools are considered primarily attributable to solution. The reef flat pools are probably in part abrasion features. Emery (1946) gives results of similar but more complete studies of tide pools at ha Jolla, California, and provides references to previous publications on the subject. 34 The results of the observations at Onotoa are shown graphically in figures 4 to 8, and critical variations in hydrogen ion concentration are. . summarized in table 4. From these data it is clear that, excluding ex- traneous factors such as affected the high seaward tide pool.of figure 7, temperature, chlorinity, and pH all show the same general pattern of diur- nal variation. This pattern is a recumbent sigmoidal curve, rising to a peak. during the dsy and falling to a.low at night. Moreover, samples tested for Cat* and Mgt* show that these properties vary directly with chlorinity. The batteries of the electric pH meter gave out toward the end of the first set of 24-hour reedings, but sealed water samples had been taken for all hours read and these samples were immediately checked with a Japanese-made (Mitemura) set of fluid and paper colorimetric indicators. These indicators showed consistent results following a diurnal variation curve similar to that _of the electric meter but generally reading 0.3 to 0.5 unit higher and tending to flatten the curve slightly toward the peak. This check makes credible the general range of readings subsequently made with the colorimetric indicators, but also suggests that the colorimetric curve circadian be scaled somewhat ese than it actually reads. Data from the shallow lagoon (fig. 4) and water in flow over the windward reef flet (fig. 5) may be taken as an approximate measure of the limits of normal variation in the very shallow marine waters of cess These show a range in chlorinity of 18,080 Syne just before daybreak to 20,680 ppm C1™ during the day. The pH (meter measured) ranges from 7.63 at midnight or early _ morning hours to 8.80 in midafternoon, and temperature ranges from 23.5° C just before daybreak to 34° C at midday. The lowest pH recorded electrically was 7.03 for water in flow from beyond the outer reef over the reef flat at midnight, and the highest was 9.05 for water in a then stagnant reef flat tide pool at midtide and midafternoon. 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O96T | ODZT | OOTT | 0050 pT} plemputm yeTH Ser =eer | ales GOS ear eles S* ke od Siseleni Pa ee } oY O0st | 07 O°€ee 00S0| S°€z 9 *sty ‘tood . O02T ePpT} PIEMPUTM MOT | | meee 0050} S*€z | .G “STS Stee { | | eure | | | | | 0090} Og0‘'8T co} 07 089 ‘0g 0090 26Tt | ose a 2 ‘Toad pleMpUTH : | Joe Set (SS. es |S EA cee te e eeeeet S Ltet | 984 | | 3 04 074 os9‘o% |. O€S0; Oss°ST! O€ZT} ore O€t0| S*€éz 7 °3TI 992T | 8014 ‘uooseT MOTT RYS re pheie lean °X Cul OWT *xX eu See goueleyed ainSty | | | (wdd) SsoupaeH | | pue otdures (udd) eptaoTy9 Jo ainyetedua, by Emery (1946, p. 221, fig. 12) in a southern California tide pool with a temperature range of 14° to 26° C. A pH reading as low as 7.4 was recorded colorimetrically in a high windward spray pool at 6 a.m. and one as high as 9.4 in a lagoonside spray pool at 3:30 p.m. Importance is attached to figure 7, representing a high seaward tide pool, because it shows an essentially regular diurnal variation curve of pH (colorimetric) through a period of fluctuating temperatures and dilution by rain (2.05 inches rainfall in 24 hour interval recorded on figure 7). Concen- tration of Cl” in this tide pool fell 6000 ppm during hard rains from 3:15 to 5:15 a.m. However, it jumped back 45CO ppm with the first flushing wave of the high tide after the rains stopped and was kept at this concentration as long as the tide pool was reached by an occasional high wave. Concentra- tion fell 15,000 ppm during a day of rains but jumped from 2,000 to 19,000 ppm as the tide reached peak and flushed the pool again. Chlorinity fell off markedly again at 9 p.m. as the tide receded and the pool was beyond reach of waves, but this drop must be explained by dilution from accumulated rain water seeping and trickling dom from the irregular rock surface above the pool, for there was no rain at this time. Concentration in ppm of Cal03, Mgc03, Catt, and Mgtt varied directly with Cl”, and none of these concentra- tions showed any pele ion to temperature of pH. Clearly, the pH of this tide pool is not significantly affected by or related to either temperature, chlorinity, or any of the variables that change with chlorinity. However, pH, temperature, and chlorinity do vate together in other situations (figs. 4 - 6, 8), and it looks as if they may vary in re- lation to some common factor. Sunlight provides a suitable common factor for temperature and pH, but its possible relation to the measured variations in chlorinity is mot clear. Rain and aes in outflow from the fresh water lens with the tides are probably more a ee in accounting for chlorinity variations. 38 The general periodic variations of pH from eslatinels high during the day to relatively low at night is well brovghtout by table 4. During hours of sunlight marine plants (both attached and planktonic) use up CO in photosynthesis, causing relative, acidity, .as measured by hydrogen ion con- centration, to decreuse, and pH, the inverse measure of hydrogen ion concen- tration, to rise. The reverse is true at night, when plants are not using C05 for photosynthesis, but both plants and animals are producing C05 through respiration. The COo content of the water increates, hydrogen ion concentra- tion rises, end pH falls. This is true of the high seaward tide pool, with- out regard to the extraneous factors that affect chlcrinity and tempereture, presumably because the veriation in pH is organically controlied. Emery 1940, p. 221, fiz. 2) clearly shows that diurnal variation of pH in tide pocls at La Jolla is inversely related to CO concentration. At the same. place, he notes that variations in partial pressure of C05 from greater than in air at night to less than in air during the day indicate a larger renge in CO5 actually released and used than is indicated by nieasurements obtained. Special interest in the diurnal cycle of pH variation derives from the part that tropical marine watérs appear to play in solution and precipita - tion of Cal03. On the one hand, it is now common knowledge that such waters are normeaily saturated or supersaturated with Cal03 end therefore not capable of taking it into solution. On the other hand, the physical eeiiones of pitting and undercutting of tropical Limestone shares is convincing to gee (including myself) tiiat normal Reopi cal marine waters, under some conditions, can dissolve CaCO>. Data obtained at Onotoa een rate the conclusion al- ready reached by Emery (1946, pp. 225-226) that these condi Zions are related to diurnal variation cf pH in intertidal or very shallow waters with a high biotic density. During the day, CO5 in shallow waters and tide pools is 7 wo - being used in photosynthesis, pH rises toward a maximum of 8.6 tc 8.8 or &8.9™ in open shoal water and 9.1 to Se oe tide pools and spray pools, and precipitation of CaCO, should take place. At night, when the CO content of these same waters is increasing, pH falls toward a minimum of 7.6 to 8.37 in \S3) Highest readings colorimetric and probably in the range of 0.3 high. both open shoal water and tide pools, and it is probably at times of lower- ing of pH below about 7.8 to 8.0 that solution occurs. Emery (1946, pp. 222- 225) has made the necessary calculations to show for similar data, though in a temperature range about Lore Lower, that solution at night and precipita- tion during the day is in fact possible witnin the observed range of pH. In arriving at the foregoing figures, data from the windward spray pool of figure 8 are discounted, because this pool was found to contain decaying flesh that doubtless accounts for its low pH. Of course, such things are common in tide pools and spray pools and would account for accelerated solution there. That the effects of solution in shore zone areas are commonly more in evidence then precipitation is explained by the susceptibility of the minute aragonitic needles of the precipitated CaCO, to being flushed away by waves—— or even blown away by wind at low tide from parts of the reef and tide flats that are exposed long enough to dry. Precipitated Caco. in and near the shore zone of Onotoa appears to be preserved only on the elevated rims of certain tide pools and probably as part of the white encrustations on the surfaces of sediment—binding algae. Naturally, rain water, both as solvent and as flushing medium, accentuates the process cf pitting and formation of tide pools and spray pools, and the effect of decaying organic matter is also im- portant. However, neither rain nor decaying organic matter can have much 40 effect on the production of the undercut notches that are so common around limestone: islands of the tropical seas. Flow of water over the windward eee The movement of powdered fluorescein marker dye was observed at several places over the reef flat, in surge channels, and over the benched reef slope seaward of the reef front along re vee ins onli ses near Government Station. Observations were made during a rececing tide at a time of moderately strong Sura. and all tine intervals and quantities of dye. were estimated. &bout midway of the reef flat, which is about 800 feet wide here, a patch of dye about 20 feet in diameter on application spread out to about 80 feet wide by 100 feet long (elongated normal to shore, and moved altogether past the point of application in about 30 seconds. It then surged inward and out- ward with onshore surge and recession of waves but sinking as it moved and with dominant movement seaward along the bottom. , Within about 10 minutes after application the dye was foaming in the surge channels of the coralline ridge. About half a cupful of the powdered dye was epplied just behind the coralline ridge and then observed from a raft anchored abcut 110 feet beyond the ridge on the benched reef slope. Traces of this dye foamed in the upper waters of the surge channels for a leng while, but the bulk of. 3 continued to sink and Grift Benard for about 30 minutes. It gracuaily worked down to a basal layer of water and streamed out over the seaward sloping bencn. Dye was acded to surface water about 50 feet seaward of the coralline ridge and surge channels. This dye worked outward and dommward, streaming to tne bottom at about a 30° angle in about 5 minutes. Within about 15 minutes it was all seaward of the shelf. Al About three-quarters of a cupful of powdered dye was released at the bottom of a 6- to 8-foot-wide surge channel near its midlength, in about 10 feet of water. This dye surged up and dom and areca to adjacent grooves, 36 it stayed in the surging waters for about 10 to 15 minutes before begin- ning to stream definitely seaward. It then aopeaned outward and domward across the sioping bench. : The foregoing observations show that there is a definite outward-moving bottom current in the shallow water over the reef flat and upper reef slope, at least at times of receding tide. Time did not permit repetition of the observations with an incoming tide, but I would expect the same pattern--the water that runs onshore at the surface because of the breaking waves must move offshore at the bottem. The fact of most importance is that this cur- rent is downrard as well as outward, literally dragging the bottom, and at times of outflow between swells at the reef margin its force is memorable. Moreover, as this movement is perceptible even beyond the reer front at times of oniy moderately strong surf, it is probably considerable during storms. This is of importance im connection with the origin of reef front grooves and surge channels. Ad ORIGIN OF REEF-FRONT GROOVES .AND CURSE CHANNELS The fronts of most organic or leneaicns BeBee that, ape eeee eae te the sea conewbeme show 2 comb-tooth pattern of closely spaced grooves that are separated from eae inte by. PoCey buttresses. The parts of these grooves that transect the Sie Zone (end He aeeniline ridge if one is present) are called surge channels (Tracey et al, 1948, p. 867). | The origin of these eeove ane ean eeeeee systems isa vexing question, for they oney cen erees attributable to both Bidpenie cone beict ten and me-— chanical erosion. eae and others (1950, p. 413) have emphasized the import- ance of outgrowth of algal spurs to form the buttresses at Bikini atoll. They believe that aithough there probably "is mecnenical abrasion during periods oF exceptionally heavy weather, .stHas does not seem adeauate to = plain the grooves as erosional figures." David and Sweet (1904, p. 31) ex- peed them by a hypothesis of combined setae aad erosion factors and Kuenen (1933, p. 80-81) beleved thet they were mainly constructional. Newell et al (1951, p. 25), with reference to the Bahama Islands, in- eiined to the view that "the grooves are cut," and to Fiabe from the fact that the grooves observed by them "are incised in odlitic country rock they evidently are erosional features." Before learning of Newell's views, studies of grooves and surge channels on Onotoa and previous observations of Similar features on Guam, Saipan, and elsewhere had lead me to recognize ero- sion as important in the formation of the grooves. I have also seen, but not studied, grooves similar in plan to more conventional surge channels in the face of a basalt-floored bench just west of Haena point in northwestern Kavai, of the Hawaiian Islands. In my opinion the grooves in many places are initially cut by outflowing undercurrents that carry tools of abrasion not available to the more spec-— tacular inrushing surf. This produces the webiete beast it redial pattern of gravity fiow. It is further suggested that most of this cutting followed falis of sea level, when reduction of bench surfaces provided maximum quan- tities of detritus for Eoeaeees Under proper light conditions air photo- graphs of some shores {e.g., north Saipan) show several levels of offshore and even elevatec grooves, not closely matching at their boundaries. These indicate groove-cutting at successive stands of sea level ocd to bench formation. Once a bench is reduced to equilibrium level, however, growth factors become relatively important. The abraded upper sides and crests of spurs then become veneered with growing coralline algae and corals, and the grooves may be masked over and generally closed or partly closed at the sur- face. This produces wider-reef caverns and blowholes. Growth of algae and corals subsequent to groove cutting may be so extensive as to mask completely the evidences of abrasion, but eae ee and surge channels are ound at so many places, and the radial pattern apes like the normal gravity pattern found on rilled rock beaches and elsewhere, that abrasion by ouvtflowing gravity currents probably det cmabhed the basic pattern at many places where organic growth is the prevailing modern Geran: Many grooves and surge channels observed om Onotoa and elsewhere are undercut at their basal sides and floored with gravel, and many on the lee- ward coast of Saipan end in submarine potholes containing coarse gravel. The grooves are ordinarily most abundantly developed on windward reefs, but they have been observed in all quarters of the wind and at places are common on leeward reefs. Their degree of prominence is believed to be controlled by strength of outflowing current, ‘and thus surf, and by quantity of abrasive materials in transit. On the other hand, there are places where growth alone may produce the comb-tooth patterti.'” Both mechanical ercsion and organic — erorth must be considered important in the origin of groove-and-buttress sys- tems, the part played by each probably varying according to local’ conditions. -' On Onotoa the grooves of the windward reef are slmost limited to the surf zone and are thus synonymous with the surge channels, but traces of them run across thé benched siove of the upper reef, masked by coral growth and debris. The front of the reef at the landward side of this bench is about > 12 feet high and from the seaward sice looks like the truncated spur-and= canyon topography of a steep-fronted and flat-topped mountain range or plateau. The surge channels range in length from about 50: to 80 and rarely as much as 120 feet. They are about 6 feet deep at midlength, and deepen gradually to about 8 feet at the reef front, with a dowmmward dip of another 2 to 4 feet as they pass beyond the wave-breaking front of the reef. They range from 2 to $ ‘feet in width at the reef front and are undercut up to 1 foot on each side at their bases. Living algae and corals are abundant only at the crests and upper sides of intervening buttresses. The surge channels are floored with very coarse, mostly slabby gravel. At the reef front above this gravel during a period of relatively strong surf (swell measured 6 feet high, combers averaged an estimated 8 feet), the only movement experienced was an up and down with the swell. Dow in the lower part of the channels, however, the swimmer is carried back and forth with the surge for as much as 15 to 20 feet at a time. Under these conditions only small pieces of the gravel were observed to move, the maximum size observed in movement being a slab about 8 inches in diameter that rocked gently back and forth without being transported from its original position. Slabs this size and larger, although well rounded, are mostly 45 coated with a fairly luxurious felt of living green algae, and it is evident that their rounding occurs only at times of storm or very heavy surf, with plenty of time between for growth of algae. Whereas there is apparently enough movement of the boulders and smaller gravel and sand to prevent growth of coral and corailine algae on the floor and lower parts of the surge channeis (except locally at their mouths), the grooves are probably not being signifi- cantly enlarged at the present time. Lt is suggested that most of the groove cutting in the reef front at Onotoa occurred during beveling of the present reef flat after the recent 6- foot eustatic fall of sea level. 46 BUILDING AND EROSION OF ATCLL ISLANDS - On Onotoa, evidence for Recent lowering of sea level of the order of 5 or 6 feet is found in remmants of an elevated Heliopora reef flat that occurs up to about 23 feet above the inner edge of the reef flat, both on the beach and in wells (e.g., profile 5, fig. 3). ‘The imer edge of the reef flat, in turn, is estimated to be 2 to 3 feet above present mean low low tide. At pre- sent the upper limit of living Heliopora flats is about at low tide level. Similar oceurrences of relatively elevated Beliopora flats are also found at Funafuti (Sollas, 1904, pp. 21-24; David and Sweet, pp. 67-68 and plates). Further evidence of a fall of sea level of about 6 feet at eis is provided by elevated cobbie stripes of a sort that I have observed only on reef flats. These cobble stripes rise about 2 or 3 feet above a surface of cobble gravel that is about 6 or 7 feet above the present reef flat at the northwest end of Onectoe and are separated from the lower-lying present reef fiat by e gravel rempart. As a Recent world-wide 6-foot fall of sea level may be amply documented, the evidence on Onotoa is only part of the broad picture. The higher stand from which the present sea has receded is provisionally attributed by Stearns (1941, p. 780) to the postglacial optimum temperature cycle of 5000 to 7000 years ago, when water previously and now tied up in the polar ice caps was in the ocean. Fall to present sea level probably took place in two steps, the : first a 3- or 4-foot drop and the second 2 or 3. Evidence for the second drop consists of a bench about 2 or 3 feet above the present reef flat at Onctoa and elsewhere (sce Kuenen, 1933, pp. 66-70; Dana, 1872, pp. 333-346). No at- tempt will be made nere to summarize the large literature on the question of recent eustatic falls of sea level. AT Atoll isiands characteristicaily consist of unconsolidated debris rest- ing on a solid foundation. This foundation must be broad enough and high enough so that this unconsolidated debris can accumulate beyond the reach of strong wave action and be preserved there. The foundetion may consist of a reef that has grow to the surface of the sea, or which, having grow to the surface, is left somewhat above normal sea level by recession of the sea. On a surface which is exposed between tides, lime-precipitating and beaenent pind ine green and blue-green algae flourish, and even coarse clastic materials are quickly and firmly bonded together by interstitial calcium car- bonate. This is demonstrated by the cementation of blocks in the stone-ring fish traps on the outer reef flat and by firmly welded bars of boulder con- glomerate at Aonteuma and at the northwestern extremity of the atoll. Upon such an intertidal surface, also, debris tossed by the waves ‘has a good chance of remaining in position at a distance from the reef front that varies with the transporting power of storm waves. The first step in: the building of an atoll island, then, is the erection by storm waves of a ridge or rampart of coarse gravel on a living reef flat or wave-cut bench. -Seaward additions may, of course, be made to such a ram- part by subsequent storms. However, evidence that the structure is essentially stable along -a given line and under prevailing strength of waves is found in the fact thet the gravel rampart is a single ridge at most places. Building of land on the lagoon side of this rampart is harder to under- stand. That much of the work is done by wind is evident from the prevalence of dune sands at many places, but from where does the sediment come? In the sands of Onotoan islands it is clear from the abundance of the reef-flat dwelling foraminifer Calcarina that much if not most of the sand is derived LE fron the reef. The tests of Calcarina and other Foraminifers that inhabit the algal mats of the ree? flat apparently were washed across the reef and drifted erovnd tne ends of anc along the lagoon side of the gravel rampart by local currents. ‘The washing of water across the reef through breaks in the rampart is a sufficient explanation of the currents, but they may be locally empkasizec or negated by other factors, such as wind. In the job of island building these currents will be aided by wind-borne sand from tide flats or from bars proJluced oy the currents along the groving shore in the the of the gravel rampart. The island should continue to grow in width as long as there is a base for it to spread lagoonward on and a supply of sediment for building. The latter is providec by Foraminifera end clastic particles of Cal03. Eventually, if the process continues, and currents do not keen the lagoon swept free of sediment, the lagcon must fiil up and « large land area develop, as at Christ- mas Island, in the northern Line Islands. ‘he seight of an atoll island, insofar as it is not attributable to fall of sea level or to rampart building, depends on the height to which wind can boild dimes on the base provided and from material at iiand. Most atoll islands are relatively narrow and low, seldom anywhere exceeding 12 to 18 feet above the reef flat. In my opinion this indicates thet they are aise reiaeavery modern phenomena. Several au- thors have suggested that the building of atoll isiands has been accelerated by and perhaps dates from the Recent 6-foot eustatic fall, and such an inter- pretation wouid help to explain much of what is known of these islands, their biotas, and human migration in the Pacific. This recession of sea level would have resulted in an apparent elevation of near-surface reefs, providing excel-— lent bases for land construction of the type the atoll islands show. a The common presence of a lengthwise depression or depressions within atoll islands is explained by the outlined manner of growth. In the early stages of the process the currents from the ends of the islands would tend to swing a little away from the gravel rampart and build a longshore bar on the lagoon side. Subsequent additions are made mainly to the lagoon side of this longshore bar, and sediment is added to the depression areas only as it may blow in or wash over bar or seek] cee. On Onotoa the inner depression is only locally present. However, the process that results in an inner de- pression is perhaps exemplified at both ends of the atoll islands by the arcs of land whose sendy extersions curve around tidal.inlets (fig. 2). The general pattern of distribution on Onotca of sand toward the lagoon and gravel toward the sea, and of islands mainly to windward, also is consistent with the patterns of other atolls and with the process suggested. Storms that either washed across or broke through the gravel ramparts or swept in gravel from the lagoon may be called upon to explain gravel deposits lagoonward of a rampart. Stages in island se according to the scheme outlined, seem to be illustrated by the longitudinally paired island strips of Marakei Atoll in the Gilberts (Agassiz, 1903, pls. 149-150) and by the filling since 1900 of lakes in the central depression of Putali Island on Addu Atoll in the Indian Ocean (Sewell, 1936a, p- 77). Sewell also shows (loc. cit.), by reference to pumice lines, that "the inner beach of the island has advanced toward the lagoon by some 10 yards" between about 1885 and 1934. The gravel rampart itself is commonly capped and at places completely concealed by a veneer or thick cover of fine-grained younger dune sands, blown ashore from the reef-flat area so recently as to show no humus layer, or thiniy to veneer a humus layer below. his sand contains few Foraminifera and | 50 is thovght to be mostly cerived at times of low tide from the fine Calo. particles that adhere to the drying surfaces of the green and blue-green algae of the inner reef flat. The probability that even extensive windward beach-zone dune belts cap gravel ramparts seems strong enovgh to warrant the showhig of inferred ramparts beneath such dunes on the island profiles of - figure 3. Tf the islands of Onotoa were mainly built on a platform residual from the 6-feot stand of the sea, and if this stand of sea is properly correlated vith the postglacial optimum, ell of these land-building events have taken “place in about the last 4,900 to 7,000 years. Atoll islands appear to be eroded primarily at times cf great storms by breaching of islands cr by the compiete removal of islands and other sediments on stretches of the reef flat. If'-at least the seawerd portions of the uncon- solidated atoll sediments rest on a bench surface at a higher level than the reef flat, as at Onotoa, destructive processes should bé retarded. Remnants of beach rock on denuded reef flats and buried ‘or outercpping beech rock within land areas provide the best basis for reconstructing stages in the building and erosion of atoll islands; once given a foundation. onl SHIFTS GF SEA LEVEL AND THEIR EFFECTS ON MODERN REEFS The reef flats of Onotoa on which islands are situatec are truncated surfaces. Green algae thrive on the inner reef flats. A few corals and abundant red algae are found on their seaward portions. Evidence that this surface has been truncated is found in the elevated Heliopora flat that dips under the islands. This surface is continuous, at places observed cerefully, with an old, truncated Heliopora flat that runs across the present reef and is merely veneered with elgeae and the sediments which they bind and cement to rock. Evidence of a former stand of the sea about 6 feet above pnresent sea level is found in the elevated area of reef-flat cobble stripes at the northwest end of Onotoa, and also in the elevated and truncated surface of the old Heliopora reef. At Arno Atoll, in the southeastern Marshall Islands, coral growth flourishes at least on many parts of the reef flat. Of this atoll Wells (1951, pp. 4-5) has stated that there is no evidence of fall of sea level, and the same is commonly reputed to be true of atoll islands. On the other hand, evidence of fallen sea level has been recorded at Bikini (Ladd et al, 1950, pl. 4, p. 413), Funafuti (David and Sweet, 1904, p. 67-68), and Hors- burgh atolls (Sewell, 1936b, p. 121). Regardless of the fact that indepen- dent confirmation cannot everywhere be found, there is widespread and impressive evidence not only of a recent 6-foot eustatic fall of sea level, but of a very recent fall of roughly 14 to 3 feet and of one or more former sea levels in a range of 16 to 35 feet above the present one (Daly, 1920; Daly, 1926, pp. 174-179; Kuenen, 1933, p. 66-70; Stearns, 1941, p. 779-780; Stearns, 1945). The 16- to 35-foot zone is obscure, and its effects on modern reefs can only have involved shoaling preparatory to later events cf By more significance to their present aspects. The izg- to 3-foot fall seems best considered as a temporary stand in the lowering of the sea from the 6-foot level. There have also been iccal and perhaps eustatic positive move- ments of sea level, but positive eustatism for any given level is hard to demonstrate and relates only indirectly to the question here considered. The evidence at hand suggests that the present superficial aspects of reefs are related to vhether their surface was within 6 feet of sea level at the time of the 6—-rfcoot eustatic stand. If they lay below 6 feet, the drop in sea level would not have affected them markedly, and, if not sites of islands, they would presumably be flourishing organic reefs today. At such places ne eviaence of eustatic fell wovld be found except, in an indirect wey, isiands themselves, the ccnstruction of which would be facilitated by the shoaling of their potential foundations. If the surface of a reef were within 6 feet of sea level at tne time of the 6-foot eustatic stand, it would be abraded and truncated with fall of the sea. It would be an area poor for grov:ith of corals and crustose coralline algae, and veneered with clastic debris and soft algae or articulate corallines. Such reefs are-found at Onotoa, | Taraw, and Butdritari in the Gilbert Islands as well as in many other parts f the Pacific. In my opinion they are in themselves evidence of recent fall of sea level. Of course, it is to be expected that nontruncated reefs will be found in areas of truncation, for it is highly unlikely that all reefs of a given area or ali parts of a given reef wovld have grorn to uniformly shoal depths prior to the 6-foot fall. A second feature of interest in connection with the Recent 6-foot fall of sea level is the already discussed development of grooves and surge chan- nels in the present reef rim. It is here considered that such features at many or most places originally result from abrasion by gravity currents flowing 52 outward ecress the reef and equipped with abrasive tools provided by trunca- tion of a relatively elevated reef flat. When such a reef flat is reduced to a stable level, or before, if conditions are favorable, growth of coralline algae and corals at the beveled reef margins is accelerated and eventually masks or even eradicates evidences of abrasion. The east end of Tarague Beach, at north Guem, is believed to exemplify an elevated bench in process of such reduction. For some unknown reason it, alone of all reef-flat areas seen cn Eee preserves numerous remnants of the older level between grooves that extend across the entire reef flat--as, of course, they should do wntil sucn time as lateral cutting processes reduce them to a generai level. A corollary of the contention that the 6-foot eustatic fall exerted a controlling influence on the superficial aspects of modern organic reefs is that one should be able to state, from the nature of its surface, whether or not any given reef area was within 6 feet of sea level at the time of the 6-foot eustatic stand. If it is sparse in living coral and veneered with green algae and clastic debris, and particularly if it is also a relatively smooth surface, it was probably truncated. If coral growth is vigorous and the surface irregular, it was probably not within 6 feet of the old sea level, r else it has grown up from a very severely beveled reef margin. APPENDIX A--LIST OF REEF BUTTLDING CORALS AND HYDROZOANS For the following preliminary identifications of corais and reef build- ing hydrozoans from Onotoa I am indebted to Dr. J. W. Wells. The list given is composite for ail localities and environnients collected. Altogether it includes 26 genera and 50 to 60 species of corals and 2 genera and species of hydrozoans. Scleractinia Acropora humilis (Dana) ‘Acropora spp. Astreopora sp. Coscinarea columna ‘Dana) Culicia Cyphastrea micropthalma: (Lamarck) ‘Echinophyllia aspera (Ellis and Solander) Echinophyliia sp. Echinopora lamellosa (Esper): Favia stelligera’ (Dana): Favia spp. Favites sp. Fungia concinna Verrill Fungia scutaria Lamarck Fungia valida Verrilli--a new record Goniestrea pectinata (Ehrenberg) Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck) Halomitra philippinensis Studer Herpolitha limax Esper Hydnophora microconos (Lamarck) 5) Hydnophora rigida (Dana) Leptastrea purpurea (Dana) Lobophyllia sp. Merulina sp. Montipora caliculata (Dana) Montipora foveolata (Lamarck) Montipora verrucosa Lamarck Montipora spp. Pavona clavus (Dana) Pavona varians Verrill Pavona sp. Platygyra rustica (Dana) Platygyra sinensis (Edwards and Haime) Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck) Plesiastrea sp. Pocillopora caespitosa Dana Pocillopora damicornis {Dana) Pocillopora danae Verrill Pocillopora elegans (Dana) Pocillopora meandrina Dana Pocillopora mcdumanensis Vaughan? Pocillopora spp. Porites andrewsi Vaughan Porites lichen Dana Porites lobata Dana Porites lutea Edwards and Haime Porites superfusa Gardiner Porites spp- Psammocora (Plesioseris) sp. 56 Seriatopora hystrix (Dana) Tubastrea Alcyonaria Heliopora coerulea (Pallas) Hydrozoa Millepora tenera Boschma Stylaster sanguineus Edwards and Haime APPENDIX B--DESCRIPTION OF ECOLOGIC FIELD UNITS Recognition of contiguous ecologic field nite within a given general environment amounts to designating segments of a continuously variable se- quence. Such units in large part express real central tendencies, but their boundaries are mostly indefinite, and to draw boundaries at all may be mis- leading. How to define the particular continuous variables in question aad express them suitably on a map without recognizing suites of intergrading units ie problem yet to be satisfactorily solved. Pending such solution, or a reduction of categories on completion of laboratory studies and re- evaluation of field data, the following descriptions may give the interested reader a more particular idea of the ecology of Onotoa. Islands Dune _Limesands Younger dune sand. Mostly fine- to medium-grained, anguiar Caco, sand. Humus layer incipient, thin, or absent. Older dune sand. Similar to "younger cune sand," but with humus layer weakly to moderately well domedeneae In part rich in tests of foraminifer Calcarina. Indurated dune sand. Indurated phosphatized (?) older dune sand. Limesands other than known dune deposits (Gravel intervals locally included in all types. Generally comprising most arable land and supporting thickest vegetation on Onotoa.) Younger limesand. Fine- to coarse-grained sand, with humus layer thin or absent; locelly includes gravel and wind-blom sand. According to local reports, the area of younger limesand and gravel on the point at Tabuarorae has been built since 1900. — 58 Calcarina limesand. Sand of which 50% to 99% of the individual grains are tests of the foraminifer Calcarina. Generally with well-developed humus layer. Forms loose, well-drained soil with good capillary system. Favored for taro pits and breadfruit where ground water is sufficiertly fresh. Gravelly limesand. Sand with less than 50% Calcarina and with intermixed shelly gravel (abundant smell Cardiun, etc.) and small-pebble gravel. Undifferentisted limesan?. Fine- to coarse-grained sand with generally well- developed humus leyer, with less than 50% Calcarina, and with little or no shelly gravel. Limesilt gracing to limesand. Mapped only in low, permanently damp areas. Generaliy wet snd stiff. Humus layer poorly to moderately well developed. At places encrusted with celiche-like hardpan. Supports sait-tolerating shrub Pemphis (As well as poor coconuts, spars2 Pandanus, etc.). Favored for retting pits because generally brackish rater lies close to surface. Limegravels (Intervals of mostly angular sand locally included in all types) Elevated flat-cobble stripes. Low ridges or stripes of cobbles oriented normal to beach line, similar to ridges that develop on modern gravel—veneered reef flats. No humus, few fines. Stripes are about 3 feet high, and bases of troughs eewunees them are about 6 feet above present reef flat (hand level data). This Ae taken as evidence of a recent relative ele- vation of about 6 feet and correlated with the now well-—dcecumented Recent world-wide 2-meter eustatic fall of the sea. Coarse coralliferous gravel. in part composed of large meandriform and astreeiform coral heads. Has little or no humus ano few fines. Grades to "coralliferous pebbie gravel." 9 Coralliferous pebble gravel. Fragments of branching Acropora conspicuous—- also includes Heliopora and other corals, corraline algae, end mollusk shells and fragments. In coarser range grades to "coarse corailifer- ous gravel" and at many places includes areas or intervals of such gravel. In finer range grades to sands by increasing proportion of fines and reduction in size of gravel, and in such places approaches seil and vegetation characteristics of limesands. Caliche Caliche. Caliche-iike limestone, not similiar to beachrock. Found at one locality about 3 feet above reef flat level and behind sea-facing boulder rampart (north end of northern large island). Very thin crusts of ealiche also occur at the surface of.the enclosed Pemphis flats near this locality and in low places that are floored with wet limesiilt. Land bound areas of permanent brackish water Brackish water ponds. Meximum depth 3.10 4 feet, blue-green algae abundant. Blue-sreen algae flats. Areas of very rine Calo, sediments rich in moderate- iy to slightly brackish water cover nowhere exceeding 1-foot depth at normal tide level and in places barely enough to keep the ground wet. Covered with caulifliower—shaped nodules or mats of sediment-binding and lime-secreting blue-green algae. Intertidal environments except reefs Unconsolidated beach Includes sand beach, pravel teach, sand and grevel beach, boulder beach, and outer beach. Outer beach. Sand beach off lagoon side of southern main isiand that extends beach proper beyond normal tice range and is exposed only at low low tides. Similar to "limesand flats" but narrower and sloping Ela a Ae Rocky beach Some units described here also occur inland and above normal tide range) Concordant beachrock. Conformable with present beaches and certain tide flats. In large part little eroded, but commonly rilied and pitted with tide pocls. Comprises limesandstone with dips 5° to 7° lagoonward on lagoon beaches and nearly horizontal on protected tide flat areas. On sea-facing beaches is linesandstone or coralliferous and elgel conglom—- erate dipping 7° to 10° seaward. Nonconcordant beachrock. Greater age than "concordant beachrock" suggested by occurrence at abnormally high levels, marked unconformity with pre-— sent beach orientation, or unusvally high degree of solution pitting in well indurated limesandstone. As mapped, probably in part includes Nelevated reef—Tlat rock." Bonded limesanas. Weakly tc strongly bonded limesands, commonly with a sur- face felt of sediment-binding (and lime-precipitating?) blue-green algae. At places consisting of successive lavers separated by thin films of chlorophyll-rich sand that mark former exposed surfaces. Genera of algae provisionally identified from bonded limesands in the field by Dr. Edwin Moul are Chroococcus, Gomphospheria, Gleocapsa?, and other genera of the Chroococales, as well as Lyngbya and Scytonema. At places the bonded limesands show aberrant dips, some up to 30° landward, where they apparently have formea as depression fiilings or perhaps slumped into cavities by collapse from beneath. 61 Eleveted reef-flat rock. Old Heliopora~flat rock or rock consisting of frag- ments of coral and coralline algae in limesand matrix. The matrix may be partly or entirely a beachrock, but it lacks din, is unbedded or very obscurely bedded, and is thus more Shoes ee of indurated reef-flat: detritus. Inclosed iimesaid, Jimesilt, cr limemud 1 ta de filets. Fiddler crab (Qea) bor- ings abundant, and odor of H28 commonly strong in freshly expcsed sedi- ments. Permanently damp and saline, but flooded only at highest tide. “Mud" is used provisionzily and in the sense of probable grain size only; it has not yet actuaily been determined that any of tnis material is a limnemud. Pemphis filets. Similar to "enclosed limesand, limesilt, or limenud flats, " _but with cover of the salt-tolerating shrub Pemphis. Found at shore- ward margins of "enclosed flats." The shrub Pemphis, of course, a.so grows upon the land itself, at the edge,of the beach or even inland in low places that are subject to periodic floodiag or where the ground water is bracxish. Mangrove flats. Similar to "enclosed limesand, limesilt, or lLimemud flats," but with cover of the mangrove Rhizophora. Generaily flooded at. same stage of all tides, but mostly "dry" at lowest low tides. Sediments generally in the limemuc to limesiit size range, and high in HS. Mainly intertijel cies adjacent, + to laa _propsr (Units under this heeding grade to lagoon, reef, and ee units) Coral-alzal rock flats. Dead coral-algal bottom veneered to a large extent with limesand and with local pockets where the sand is thick. Displays 62 occasional concentrations of the turtle grass Thalassia (and mostly un- attached Microdicsyon) and in areas of standing water, sparse living coral that consists mostly cf stubbily branching Acropora, Pocillovora, and smallish, hassock-like Porites. Coral-algai rock and sand flats with Zoanthus. Similar to "coral-algal rock flats" just described, but with sand veneer somewhat more conspicuous and supperting extensive ee Oaene of the colonial anemone Zoanthus as well as considerable numbers of varied green algae. Limesand flats. Relatively "clean" sand-covered tide flats, with generally sparse megafauna of burrowing sipunculid worms, ghost erabs (Ceypode sp.), anemone Zoantnus and the common holothurian Holothuria atra Jager. Plants are scarce, but algae occur locally on erratic rocks, and Enteromorpha has been tentatively recognized. Zone extends beyond beach proper to the zero fathom line (mean low low tide) or slightly deeper. Send and gravel flats. Tide flets of calcareous sand end gravel with green algae resembling Cladophora and Cladophoropsis, Dictyosphaeria, and Valoniopsis abundant in portions that remain wet at normal low tide. A fev; living corals are present locally. Sand and gravel flats with corai. Similar to and gracing to "sand and gravel flats" just described, but with scattered living coral, chiefly hassock- like Porites. Invariably wet when seen, and presumably water-covered except at lowest low tides. Cobble pravel flats. Ccbble—veneered areas mostly lagoonward from reef flats, inclucing dene: cae boulder or pebble fee bipWie: Components mostly angular. Onit also includes indurated cobble conglomerate flats, adja- cent to or continuous with reef flats (as adjacent to Aonteyma and at north end of reef flat beyond this islet). 63 Se ——————E===i__———~CSO”—~S”—~—”——CC CN FF Pebble gravel flats. Areas veneered mainly with pebble gravels, but with some cobbles. Individual coarse fragments primarily angular. Beacnrock ribbed tide flats. Low ridges of old beachrock interspersed with dirty limesand flats, incipient beachrock. patches, and circular patches of Thalassia (and Micrcdictyon). The common sea cucumber Holothuria atra Jager very abundant locally in pools and permanently wet depressions. Bars and spits (Continuously exposed or inundated only at highest high tides) Includes sand bars and spits, penne gravel bars and spits, boulder pravel bars, ana bars of sand and pravel. Outer reef Grooved reef slopes. Upper slope ae either leeward or windward reef front marked with conspicuous ra ounetnoraa be peek front and separated by eee veneered with living coral. Papillated 1 feet slopes. Upper slope of leeward reef front papillated with scattered, but nore or less linearly arranged, patch reefs of living coral and coraliine algae. Benched reef slope. Upner slope of windward reef front, comprising a bench that slopes about 15° seaward from a depth of about 2 fathoms to the upper part of a 30° to 40° undersea slope at about 9 or 10 fathoms. Bench generally veneered with a mat of living and dead coral, the pre- dominant types being stoutly Peenened Pocillopora elegans (Dana). Reef front. Coralline ridge and surge channels prominent on windward side! but ridge is weak or absent on Deenard side. The coralline ridge is lor, purplish-red in color, and thickly crowded with tedes and crusts of coralline algae such as Porolithon and Goniolithon. It runs along the 64 surf edge of the reef, is exposed at low tide, and is intersected by numerous channels through which surges tne white water of the breaking surf. Presumably it was casual view of this reef front that led Setchell (21928, p. 1849) to state "the atoll of Onotoa...1vas composed, so far as visible, entirely of nullipore...largely if not entirely...Porolithon craspedium (Foslie) Foslie." Red alga zone of windward reef flat. A permanentiy wet area of red algal growth landward from reef front. The outer nart or subzone, an area of permanent stancing water and locus of tidal fish traps, is called the back ridge trough. Here sre scattered cabbage-shaped and branching masses and crusts of corailine algae sich as Forolithon and Goniolithon and scattered large living heads of astraeiform anc meandriform corals, as well as stubbily branching Acropora end Pocillionora. The green al- gae C Ceulerpa and alameda are found locally and SG5 in the back ridge trough. The inner vart, se Jania subzone, of the red alga zone Slopes up and grades to the green alga zone of the inner reef fiat, their point of juncture being approximately defined by the inner edge of the fish traps. Biota of the Jania subzone dominated by articulate coral- line Jania, with living Foraminifera of the genera Calcarina and ieee opora locaily abundant. At places Jania subzone shows scattered, rolled oY coral boulders up to 16 inches in diameter, these boulders probably being broken loose within the back ridge trough. Green alga zone of windward reef flat. Inner reef flat characteristically matted with green algae. Commonly tees oe into ovter, middle, and imner subzones. In the outer subzone the red alga Jania is an abundant holdover from the red alga zone, but green algae predominate. The intermediate subzone is one of flourishing green aigae, and the inner cp nh subzone is one wherein the green algae are whitened by encrusting bonded sediments or at places absent from the bere dead coral-algal rock belor. At a distance these subzones deem sharply defined because of color dif- ferences, but they actually intergrade over rather wide intervals. Characteristic genera cf algae throughout the green alga zone include Cladophora or Cladophororsis, Valoniopsis, and Dictyosphaeria. At many places this zone is strewi with scattered, rolied meandriform and astraeiform coral heads up to-16 inches in Ciameter, these boulders probably being derived from the back ridge trough of the red alga zone. Leeward reef fiats. Lagoonward portion generally dominated by green algae; seaward portion characterized by abundance of articulate corailine Jania, crustose corsilines, and scattered sturdily branched Acropora and Pocillopora. Gravel and sand veneered reef-flat areas. Deed or decadent reef flat veneered with angular gravel of pebbles, cobbles, or boulders, and with a conspic— uous fraction of sand. Living corals few. Cobble and boulder veneered reef-flat areas. Dead or decadent reef.fiat veneered with cobbies and boulders. ‘Sand inconspicuous. Flat—boulder veneered reef-flat area. Chaotic corallifercus flat—boulder gravel on windward reef flat. Gravel veneer on dead reef—-breccia. Rough, angular, coralliferous cobble- pebble gravel with some boulders. Veneers surface of ccral debris breccia that presumably represents old reef flat. At places old reef- breccia is bare, with no veneering gravel. Mostly covered only at high tide. Developed primarily between the two main islands. 66 Calcarina-Marginopora reef-flat areas. Protected reef-flat areas matted with living Foraminifera of the genera Calcarina and Marginopora, and with green algae, the Foraminifera commonly entangled in the algae. Seattered boulders and cobbles are common locally. A few specimens of the common black sea cucumber Holothuria atra Jager are found in perma- nently wet pockets. ! Heliopora reef zone. Living Heliopora in essentially continuous and generally thickly arborescent reef growth, with Acropora and Porites secondary and other coral types minor. Porites reef zone. Living reef area dominated by large flat-topped heads of Porites. Irregular coral growth on bobion having depths of several feet at low tide. Acropora~Pocillopora reef zone. Living reef area of varied coral types dominated by varieties of Acropora and Pocillopora; corals thin cut from reef flat toward lagoon or tide flats with increase in area of limesand bottom. Varied reef zone. Reef area of abundant to scattered living coral growth of varied types on bottom of dead coral-algal rock that is at places exten- sively veneered with coral-algat gravel and limesand. Dominant living coral types are Acropora, Porites, Orbicella, and meandriform genera. Heads of coralline algae and pavement-type corallines locally abundant. : Depths less than 1 fathom at low tide. | Heliopora flats. Living Heliopora scattered over and rising 1 to 2 feet above . limesand bottom. Upper tips of Heliopora barely exposed at low tide. Minor gravel patches occur locally. The sea cucumber Holothuria atra Jager is common. Echinoids recorded include a large poisonous Diadema and the harmless Tripneustes cf. TI. gratilla. 67 Decadent ae flats. pee scragely truncated ae a Few other species of coral, “ane green algse, interspersed on surface aE Limesend | | ‘and gravel. | : | : ; Dead Heliopore flats. -Hlevated, truncated, dead fet Topore reef flats. Es- _ sentially the same as the foregoing, but inundated only at high tide and thus with no tae Heliopora. Boliandia: Paid tea reef zone. Living reef area, mainly Heliopora, in large flat-topped heads crusted with Porites and crustose corallines. Sandy reef zone. Mostly clean limesand with occasional living and dead coral - at lagoonward margins of extensive leeward reef areas. Intertidal to Tego onal environnents Thalassia flats and shoals. Pee pe upsand with clusters or - continuous peeieeee oe the turtle grass Thalassia. ( Commonly me with moch of the green alga Mieradnet on, ie teeter nostly ‘matteched. The sea cucumber _ | “Eolorhiria atra Jager is locally very, abundant. ‘i agen ‘flats and shoals. Botton penis of dead 1 ooral-algal rook patchily : Neneered with gravel and sand. Beat ened but fair representation way "ine coral dominated by stubbily branching keropora and EOC ees and locally by hassock-like Porites. Circular aan of the marine | grass Thalassia and the green alga Microdictyon occur ocally at the beachward margin in the inner lagoon, and the brown alga turvinaria is abundant at places. Holothuria atra is Lore) ser aoe | Coralliferous rocky shoal bottom. Bottom similar to thet ena) ae rocky flats and peste,” but with feirly ebundant Living « coral patches wherein stubbily branching Ree omne ane Eeeispora are dominant. 68 Enclosed inlet. Area walled off as pair of fish ponds. Supports thick growth of turtle grass Thalassia and many fish, including small sharks and an unknown fish that is much feared by the natives (apparently not a barracuda, to judge from the eseraption. but was not seen by our field party). This area was not explored or sounded, but it is reported by the native, Kane, to be generally under 4 feet and nowhere more than 9 feet deep at low tide. Environments of the lagoon and leeward shelf The following wnits comprise a continuously variable sequence with more than usually indefinite boundaries: Limesand bottom. MWostly clean TEMAS bo thon at depths greater than 2 fathoms, living coral present locally. - Conspicuous lagoon patch reefs. Patch reefs of varied coral types and subor- dinate Sane algae, over 200 feet in diameter. Reef symbol on figure 2 used to indicate parts that are awash or nearly awash at low tide. Limesand with scattered patch reefs. Mostly clean limesand floor, above which rise small scattered coral-—algal patch reefs and pinnacles. Purely ar- bitrary and grades imperceptibly ko laneseas and patch reefs. Limesand and patch reefs. Small patch reefs of varied coral types and sub- ordinate coralline algae abundant but ereeiie exceeded by limesand floor. Grades to "varied patch reefs and limesand," "Heliopora patch reefs and limesand," and "limesand with scattered patch reefs." Varied patch reefs and limesand. Small patch reefs of varied coral types and subordinate coralline algae very abundant and only narrowly separated by areas of limesand floor. 69 Algal patch reefs and limesand. Abundant patch reefs of massive coralline algae and varied coral types presumably rising above limesand floor (bottom between reefs not observed or sampled). Heliopora patch reefs and Jimesand. Abundant patch reefs consisting mainly of Heiiopora in tree- anc candelabra-like growths that produce a forest- like underwater scenery. In part the Heliopora patches are extensively masked by overgrowth of otner coral typec, and locaily the patch reefs are of varied coral types. For the most part, intervening limesand bottom only narrowly sevarates indivicual patch reefs. Varied bottom with scattered larger patcn reefs. Subcircvlar patch reefs 100 to 300 feet in diameter scattered on bottom of limesand and iimesilt with irregular low patches and small patch reefs of Jiving coral and locally with abundant Halimeda. Depths Letween vatch reefs mostiy more 7 than 3 fathoms, ranging to more than 7 fathoms locally. At shallow margin are several ridge-like patch reefs up to nelf a mile long. qa oral pientations. Coral and subordinate coralline algae essentially con- tinuous or intimately intermingled with areas of dead coral on irregular bottom. Acropora the cominant genvs in ereas observed. Limesend patcnes in corsl plantations. Extensive areas of limesand and minor a al NN rte A ee patehes of coral within coral plantations. 70 REFERENCES Agassiz, Alexander, 1903, The coral reefs of the tropical Pacific, Mus. Comp. Zool. Mem., vol. 28, 410 pp. British Colonial Office, 1950, Report on the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony for the year 1949, B. C. O., London, 52 pp. Carey, L. R., 1918, The Gorgonaceae as a factor in the formation of coral reefs: Carnegie Inst., Dept. Merine Biol., vol. 9, pp. 341-362, pis. 100-105. ee | Carey, L. R., 1931, Studics on the coral reefs of Tutuila, American Samoa, with special reference to the Alcyonaria: Carnegie Inst., Papers from Tortugas Lab., vol. 27, pp. 53-98, figs. 1-14, pls. 1-7. Couthouy, J. P., 1844, Remarks upon coral formations in the Pacific; vith suggestions as to the causes of their absence in the same parallels of latitude on the coast of South Americe: Boston Soc. Nat. History Journ., vol. 4, pp. 66-105, 137-162. Daly, R. A., 1920, A generel sinking of sea-level in recent tine: Nat. Acad. Seis ProCug Ole, 6 Now,.5s) PP, 240-250. __, 1926, Our mobile earth, Chas. Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 342 pp. Dana, J. D., 1872, Corals and coral islands, Sampson Low & Co., London, 398 pp. David, T. Vi. E., and Sweet, G., 1904, The geology of Funafuti: Royal Soc. London, Rept. of Coral Reef Comm., The Atoll of Funafuti, sec. 5, pp. 61-124, pls. B~E in text, pls. 1-19 in separate portfolio. Emery, K. 0., 1946, Marine solution basins: Jour. Geology, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 209-228, figs. 1-15. Finckh, A. E., 1904, Biology of the reef-forming organisms at Funafuti Atoll: Royal Soc. London, Rept. of Coral Reef Comm., The atoll of Funafuti, sec. 6, pp. 125-150, fig. 19. yal | Freeman, 0. W., et al., 1951, Geography of the Pacific, Hoh Wiley & Sons, Ine., N.¥-3 Chapman & Hell, Ltda, , Londen, 573 pp. Kuenen, P. H., 1933, Geology of coral reefs: The Snellius Exped. (Eastern Neth. E. Ind. 1929-30), vol. 5 (Geol. Results), pt.'2, pp. 1-125, figs. 1-106, pls, 1-11, Kemink Im Zoon, N. V. Utrecht. Ladd, H. 5S., et al., 1950, Organic growth and sedimentation on an atoll: Jour. Geology, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 410-425, figs: 1-2, pls. 1-7. Newell, N. D., et al., 1951, Shcal-water geclogy and environments, eestern Andros Island, Bahamas: Am. Mus. Nat. History Bull., vol. 97, art. 1, pp. 1-2, figs. 1-5, pls. 1-8. Pacific Sei. Board, 1951, Handbook for atoll research: mimeogranhed, numerous small units by various authors, Nat. Res. Council, Washington, D. C. Safford, W. E., 1905, The useful plants of the island of Guam: U. S. Nat. Muis.5 Contribs from UL 8) Nat.’ Herbarium, vol’ 9, 416 pp. Setehell, W. A., 1928, A botanical view of coral reefs, especially of those of the Indo-Pacific region: Third Pan-—Pacific Sci. Congress, vol. 2, pp. 1627-1843. Sewell, R. B. S., 1936a, An account of. Addu Atoll: British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), The John Murray Exped. 1933-34, Sei. Repts., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 63-93, fi seal, qollsiy Yess Sewell, R. B. S., 1936b, An account of Horsburgh or Goifurfehendu Atoll: British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), The John Murray Exped. 1933-34, Sci. Repts., Voller dg. 55, \op5) 1092125) uaa pls, a6. pollas, W. J., et al., 1904, The Atoll of Funafuti: Royal Soc. London, Rept. of the Coral Reef Committee, Harrison & Sons, London, 428 pp., i9 pls. in separate portfolio. Stearns, H. T., 1941, Shore benches on North Pacific islands: Geol. Soc. America Buil., vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 773-780, figs. 1-2, pls. 1-3. » 1945, Eustatic shore lines in the Pacific: Geol. Soc. eee ee America Bull., vol. 56, pp. 1071-1078. Tracey, J. I., Ladd, H. S., end Hoffmeister, J. E., 1948, Reefs of Bikini, Marshall Islands: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 59, pp. 861-878, igs. 1-8, pls. 1-11. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1951, Tide tables, central and western Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean: U. S. Dept. Commerce, Coast and’ Geodetae Survey, Washington, D. C., 243 pp. U. 8. Hydrographic Office, 1940, Sailing directions for the Pacific Islands, Yol. II: U. S. Navy Dept., Hydrographic Office Pub. No. 166 (Onotoa, Be SSO) u.uber pp. U. S. Hydrographic Office, 1950, Supplement to Hydrographic Office Pub. No. 166, U. S. Navy Dept., Hydrographic Office Pub. No. 166, U. S.. Navy Dept., Hydrographic Office Pub. No. 166-S, 85 pp. Wells, J. W., 1951, The coral reefs of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands, Nat. Res. Council, Pac. Sci. Bd., Atoll Res. Bull. No. 9, 14 pp., RO) Lies), Wentworth, ©. K., 1947, Factors in the behavior of grouad water in a Chyben- Herzberg system: Pacific Sci., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 172-184, figs. 1-4. We ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 13 Preliminary Report on Marine Biology Study of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands Gari it by A. H. Banner by John E. Randall Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences=-Natioiual Research Council Washington, D. C. December 15, 1952 A EN oft NTs Cesena Fig lian Lumen Rm Gr otal Lane sil haoka BN cil Anal AN PRELIMINARY REPORT ON MARINE BIOLOGY STUDY. OF ONOTOA ATOLL, GILEERT ISLANDS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN MICRONESTA Pacific Science Board National Research Council Part I Dr. A. H. Banner University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii February 20, 1952 Port) LE Mr. John EB, Randall University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii March 4, 1952 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This field work was carried on in connection with the Coral Atoll Project of the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council and was supported by funds granted to the National Academy of Sciences from the Office of Naval Research. Generous cooperation was received from the Military Air Transport Service and the United States Coast Guard in assisting with transportation, the University of Hawaii in supplying much needed equipment, the adminis- trative officials of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. The author is particularly grateful for the assistance extended by Miss Emestine Akers and Mr. Harold J. Coolidge of the Pacific Science Board. Thanks are also due to’ Dre Preston E. Cloud, Jr., the leader of the expedition, for the use of the map he made of the island, and to Re Tucker Abbott of the U. S. National Iiusevm for the identification of some of the molluscs. PREFACE The marine biological work on Onotoa is divisible into five portions: 1. The investigation of shallow water ecological associations, re= ported herein: A. The ecology of the windward reef. Be The ecology of the lagoon reefs and shores. 2. The investigation of the deeper water ecological associations, to be reported by Dr. Preston E. Cloud, Jr. 3. The investigation of the marine algae, to be reported by Dr. Edurin Moul. he The investigation of the ichthyofama, reported by Mr. John Randall and appended to this report. 5. The native use of the marine invertebrates for food, reported herein. lily portion of the study, the marine invertebrates, was severely limited by an attack of blood poisoning and a subsequent attack of influenza that resulted from attempting to do field work when not fully recovered from the first illness; as a result of these two illnesses, over five of the ten weeks spent on Onotoa were lost and the investigations made were neither as thorough nor as extensive as planned. The following reports are preliminary, and should be take to show merely the extent of the work done. The identifications are rield identifications and must be confirmed by experts, with the exception of some of the molluses which have already been identified by R. Tucker Abbott of the U. 5. National Museum; and no conclusions are incorporated in the reports. When these reports are published the deficiencies will be corrected. upal aber PART TI I “WINDTARD REEF TRANSECT The trindward reef on Onotoa is fomd along the northern, eastern and southern shores of the atoll, presenting an almost wnbroken barricade against the force of the prevailing wavese It varies in width from three or four hundred feet to over a quarter of a mile and is more extensively developed around the southern island than around the rorthern. As it is of quite miform height, structure and biotic zones, a single transect across its surface was deemed to be indicative of the general ecology of the reef. Conditions 3_of the Reef _ The inshore border of the reef is composed either of consolidated peti eroded coral rock or moderately fine sand with the uoper edge extending to the maximum height of the storm waves and the lower edge varying but usually about the 2,0 to 2.5 foot tide Level. sevend this steep shoreward area the reef flat extends to a uniform area of slight slope, with freauent small to large shallow pools of water left at low tide. The reef flat in the transect studied was 650 feet broad. Seavrard of the reef flat is a depression, the vackeridge trough, between 50 and 100 feet wide and ranging in depth from about, the # 0.2 to the - 1.5 foot tidal Level The final edge of the reef is the coralline ridge (or He tkenelee ridge by previous waileenen a rampart Ae 1.0 and 2.0 feet above the zero tide and 50 | - 100 feet broad. ts shoreward “e presents an eee continuous front of rediish coralline algae, but on its seavard side soon develop deep fissures or surge channels at right angles to the shore that fal 4e six or more feet below the surface of the reef and that are of varying width, widening as they reach seawarde The seaward edge of the coralline ridge thus separates into a series of separate and depressed fingers that finally slope rapidly dow to the growing reef surface below. The outermost reef or the reef shelf is relatively narrow, about three hundred feet wide, and slopes rather rapidly from about ten feet deep on the shoreward side to over thirty or thirty five feet deep on the seaward side; it consists of living coral growing in irregular momds with areas between the heads streim with dead coral fragments. Beyond this reef shelf the botton drops Sree ae away, ata eee of perhaps nore than 15° _and soon iesegass in the ae waters $ ae ste zone was not explored at all. | The windward reef facing the trade winds sustains the almost continuous beating of the waves. At low tide the waves one eoleon against the coralline ridge and only slight waves are felt in the backridge trough. However, when the tide is nigh, only a portion of the strong waves is expended against the coralline ridge Buel tne adjacent trough and eee sized waves sweep across the reef flat, Saas enough energy to move coral. rocks a yee oF two in diameter e . ie | The reef flat from the coralline ridge back is the evident result of the consolidation of a living coral reef, chiefly of bag eee. coralline algae; in almost all areas the old Heliovora is campleeery dead and covered with the algae to make an aliost table=like oe This top, Reece is pitted with small to large depressions, and in many SAE) poe by burrows leading dowm among the old coral frondse Animals living upon ane flat are subjected to many biological vicissitudes in addition to the action of waves. In the Reese Gran eencesalia ne reer flat is exposed to the air for several hours at a time at the lower low waters, and feelin aaa that cannot migrate to the shallow pools must be able to withstand this period of dessication. Those animals in the pools, as well as those exposed to the air must also be able to withstand ereat changes in 4 Seago hee salinity of their environment, for the high tide has the normal ocean salinity, while the low tide may expose them to torrential rains which would lower the salinity of the topmost layers at least to almost zero. However, because of the difference in specific gravity and the absence of agitation in these small bodies of water it is likely that the bottoms of the pools and the burrows in the rock especially maintain their normal salinity. Probably the tiost pronoummced physical change the animals are subjected to is the change in temperature for the dark reef surface on low tides is exposed for long periods to the tropical sun. At these times the water in the inshore pools become hot to the touch (studies on temperature made by Strasburg will be renorted by Cloud): yet with the flooding tide the temperature will drop perhaps 15° in a few minutes. Previous studies have. sho:m that the oxygen content of the water over the reef at high tide and in the pools at low tide is always near if not above its saturation value. But as the temperature rises this saturation value, in grams of oxygen per liter of sea water, decreases rapidly, so the reef inhabitants must be able to adjust to less than normel oxygen. Tio biological conditions of the reef flat should be mentioned as ine fluencing its ecology. In the first place the reef surface not in the small tide pools is covered in most areas by a dense algal mat that affords both food and Boece tes for the inhabitants; this was particularly true in the middle and outer portions of the reef flate Secondly, while fer larger predators and scavengers like larger fish, lobster and crabs were found while the survey was conducted at low tide, they moved onto the reef at high tide. Methods and Limitations of the Study: The objects of the investigation were to find the transition of dominant forms over the reef surface, and, if possible, to designate sharply delimited -3- zones on the reef through a Gusneatrye study. On the main reef flat the study was conducted by laying out a series of continuous stations, twenty feet wide and fifty feet long, and within then areas extending the length of the station one or tuo feet wide, ‘Within the smaller saciid) animals were collected and cowmteds; the larger area was then inspected for larger but less common animals like the larger snails, sea cucumbers, etc. Then SE ci the same tidal zone adjacent to the studied | area were superficially exartined to see if the zone selected tas typical; it ‘vas found so in all CaSeSe Ti the inshore beach area, in the backridge trough, and over the offshore shelf a quantitative study was attempted Beene of difficulty in obtaining either enough animals in a typical area or because of the difficulty in laying | out an area for study and boidettne it (as in twenty to thirty feet of water). Poense of poor tides and poor weather conditions when it was possible for me to do field work, almost no study was made on the coralline ridge at all. The limitations of the study are: | 1. The study is limited to macroscopic invertebrates; no microscopic forms of life nor any fish are considered. Ir. Randall did a varallel study on fish and till report it separately, 2, Concerned as it is with the dominant animals, this study omits the more rare animalse 3. All identifications of animals are but field identifications, and will be corrected upon the identification by experts. he. The study is limited by necessity to the more superficially occurring animals; it wes impossible to explore the tubes reaching dorm from the con- solidated surface of the reer. 5. No statistical checks have been applied to the quantitative results, and they should be accepted merely as rough indications rather then accurate statistics; in other words, a similar section two hundred feet away might give different figures, but would show the same trend. Transect | Area A-O3 elena ‘se The well-denart:ed beach extends from about 2.5 feet to about 8-10 feet above the zero tide zone, It is divisible into tyo different habitats, the sand beach composed of loose and shifting sand, and the rock beach consisting of consolidated coral and beach rock, eroded and with some small tidal pools. The sand beach is the habitat only for Ccypode ceratophthalma, the "chost crab" that lives in deep burrows by day; also at night terrestrial hermit crabs migrate south to the upper zones of the beach. The rock beach is inhabited by Grapsus grapsus in fair numbers, some identified hermit crabs, and large numbers of *Nerita plicata (species marked * indicates the identification has been confirmed by R. Tucker Abbott.) Areas A=1 to A=1). These stations covered the reef-flat and presmt roughly the same type of substratee The surface is relatively smootn, being built up by the con- solidation of the individual heads aid fronds of coral by: coralline algae, Its surface is pitted tith small shallow depressions in which water stands at low tide; these are usually less than a square foot in area and not over about three inches deep. The exposed surface of the coral and in some areas the tidal pools, are usually covered trith a more or less dense growth of algae (to be reported by Dr. Moul). The exceptions to these generalizations are in the back-ridge trough (areas A-13 and A-1),) where the surface is below the level of the lowest tides. Areas A-7 and A-8 and A-9 were at least in part covered by a single extensive tide pool; in these areas a few living Pieces of Heliopora were still growing uncovered by coralline algae. iss TRANSECT, WINDWARD REEF FLAT Stations A-1 to A-1)) ee ee eee eee ee oeaaaee: wo In the tabulations below those animals not quantitatively estimated and those animals that are rare, scattered or very irregular in their occurrence (as would be those fomd only in the occasional loose coral boulders) are in- dicated by P for present. salooe Labi ia hos Wie Ee Mages tow noe ome m, T i i Retr ie ' 1 I 1 ' ' ' ' ! ' ! Station «df. setsiciGe cide shiewe Gr: pro 160 lone ero samt hime) ak | 1 1 1 ! 1 t i 1 t t ! 1 Distance Ox150—1100=1150=1200—1 25061300=1350=100-1i)50 '500- ' 550—1600-'650- from beach 5011001 150: 200: 2501 3001 350! co: )501 500 ' 550 * 600! 650! 700 : . ivr, ee i 1 A 4 1 t 1 t s es 1 i ! ' ! ' ' 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 mada nt Sil GoReh eee eo Dae 7 “TF T D Height P11 2.212.0 1 1,81 1.6" 1.8 1,2! 2Of 1.0) 028 © 0,6" Oh ogee 2 above 0.0 : 1 pis bein Gag lee gt 1 Reps tLe to! to tide zone 1 1 mci 1 ' t 1 ' 1 140.2'alelt 1 t a i ' ! ' 1 ' t cif b hat amber) t 1 1 1 7 i 7 1 i 1 1 1 Approxi-~ 1 ! ! t ! 1 ' ' ' cia Bu: ' mate per- t 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 t 1 1 1 ! centage fun aot Ha ketnt 1 1 1a ! tend 3% ! Ka ee a covered 70%130%130% '50% ' 30%! 30% 80%1100%! 90%! 70% ' 60% ' 70% '20% '100% by tidal ! 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ant hentia pools. 1 t t 1 1 I 1 1 1 ! 1 1 ! ! 1 1 1 1 1 ee Sy) ! I dy tte SDA co a ae a ae ee ae t ' 1 hosp menl “T TTR RE eam : PORIFERA t a | t 1 1 ie 1 I Be Page 1 1 Black Sponge -! = = =! 2 80 20t)0 SO .%1 21 120 ea iene i] ! 1 Sine 1 Purple Sponge 6111 3 #1140100 O01 = oe lad aa 4 1 Rp 1 | t T 1 ! es q t 1 ma 1 1 1 i ie COELENTERATA . ' 1 1 ' 1 ites: t ! 1 t 1 Heliopora spe=-t - = =1 = = =!2P 5p ea AR uae as ie QO 1 t 1 q if Zooanthids Be | ae ea em tel ea Rak ae =. ee a ep hy ; : 1 Ae : 1 t | Sea Anemone 60P! = = -=1 = = -=t = = EAE TSO OO, Aa EN rt i] 1 t | 1 ae CC nme oye 1 1 Forives: lobata=9 2 7 = Se toe et ae Pe 20 | 100) 120 21.0 Pot we 1 a | 1 q q Porites 1 ! ! 1 ! (pacilliforme! = 2 =e = -2t = = Rags gps ats Sel Be y 0 |) 1 1 Ye Poci.llopora 1 7m 1 ! Secale Tegin shaadi a PSE, tie oi oa i La aa ' ' 1 1 I ' r an 1 Daft peceitode OTR DN ee A RT| Deore) Spe pak ae me Ne) ee Ree -~ tt - = - '10 1 { Y q ari Orbiceila — 1 = = = ' = = ou t —_ = a ft owe a P ! Pp * i 1 0 1 i 1 Goniastraa = te =-= m= t- ea aT eas WAP aera snes car DO) Pe eg ‘ 1 1 1 t EL [urs cone crn limes sae 7 Platyevra ! 1 : ! 1 rustica i = Sa ian ea rea a eT oe we resten We| 2 ae ' t ! 1 h a PLATYHELMINTHES ' ' 1 Bi eagle cae 1 H t ins 1 Polyelada x ‘ = ' = 1 a 1 = = oo 1 as = P 1 P a an t ry t q q 1 ! | 1 | f | t 1 q 1 q 1 { q 1 { Hermit crabs 800187 689 150 1 do aiid 8 Re eo Oe ee t I 1 1 ' NEMERTEA | t 1 re t sf ies 4 i 1 t 1 Nemertine - f = = -1 = = -t - - '- ~ = 1 FF ! ' 1 t i 1 ANNELIDA ti ea ia ' 1 1 ! 1 ! ' ' Eurythroe spe- ! P = ot = = a-t ~ P.3.0P* Pp ~~ t= i ! 1 1 1 Other aaserai ! ' ; ' Brrantia Se ley Saino ass Sales 2 Nes Jags 8 2 P =! = P ! eo 120P - ' Pp : 1 1 1 : 1 1 Tubeworms ! t 1 ' ' with fora- 1 ! 1 - « ! miniferal — ' ! ! ! ! tubes a BaP P =i i= COP jipt, 2 P - 1 = - nS Ge t 1 1 t 1 Se peur she I Sasi, i aot T T 1 Sipunculus 1 emma ! ae ! SP. - ! Pp P a P “ZUR I a = Pt = = - t= 1 t Cae } ! 1 CRUSTACEA 1 ' ' ' ! 1 1 t 1 1 Stomatopoda - 1! P = EAE OEP - = 1 = P t Pp 8Op - l« (Pseudosquilia ! 1 1 ! ' ciliata)(?) 1 ! r ' ’ 1 { Pai tere 1 ! : Crangon spo = ' P 17P 7Op'120P - 20P'20P Pp Pp thOP10OP Pp 'hpP 1 i] 1 1 Tit 1 Tete 1 1 t 1 i Synalpheus spe. t=, = =f = & Stee Ci ta wD” Ge ae t t 1 1 ! ‘ Shrimps, other=! = - -' 3P ~ ~ ')0P - =-t = - -! 1 ! t 1 t Callianassa spe ' = oe Pe = =! = - = t - - '.« 1 ! r nll - ' 4 i ; 1 Paribaccus spe ! = - - = - oh = ‘o - - - '-« ; 1 1 1 t Dremia spe - 1 Pi Thalnri.ta ' : “edwardsii =-1 = oe f ; , 1 Trapezia a eo ete ' t Grapsoid crabs =! = = _1 1 1 t 1 Lybia tessa- 1 ! “lata -1 = - -1 t 1 Crabs, other i‘ . ' | GASTROPODA ; i‘ ' 1 Pupslioida sp, a « = ie) © = = Patella 1 . stellaefor- t : ee ee = { “Nerita “plicata 50, 00016000: hh: 1 *Cerithium 1 concisum 11001 200 28: Po , "Cerithium ! obeliscus er =~; 20 nh [@) —= — se me we es se fae lll le *Cerithium U 5 1 columna - 19000 120 1.0001 { eee ! ; ° *Nautica sp. a PAE OF ! ! ‘*Monetaria t | moneta 6 *RanuLlaria muricina ee ee ee *Cymathi. um t ; 1 chlorostomun -! wa a ae ’ Bursa bufonia -! - “ =! 3P 1 hop. Ort aP iy Pu ine) ie) | j bo Oo. (hit i 50: 1h0 160, t i t a Hy { i} t - t — , - = < - 680P s <5 < Spe -=- =< = s c8* se oo ot oo : -= hy 79} ‘7d = ine) (SS) , ‘0 ba) a) i i I ho Oo td t i H i 8 vo} Sac) I I i I 4 i i j a t s I i t I J t J f { —- = ss eo of = = SB oS oo -— = —= swe ~~ =e = se et lll le - - Ly J I { { I i i I t DO (@) t = = —s = = = ss =e ot oo —-— = —= = «se = owe le I t t = = I ox = -< i i HOWE LEO, 200° 80g Bi aye i 1 : g q ' g : 5 RR. OFEORMAO 9 LO ~ 10pm —- «ce mmerg = i == oO = On je) i ~ - “| = 1 A, a 1 J = 1 , ix 1 " 1 1 ; I 1 1 1 1 1 t — em & sete cs a elm lee lll Ce ee ee ee es . i ee} r= — -— 1 a 1 1 1 I 1 1 I ! 1 Ay 1 ! 1 Y ! a) 1 al ri : 1 NI (@) ! oO 1 (@) | J Se 1 =) 1 ad e 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . Ps 1 ro} ro) ! 1 ' ro) 1 ' al 1 2 8 1 o 1 aor rl 1 \ I ro} 1 1 1 ro) (2) 1 1 i I 1 ran] 1 ! 1 ' [a she rij: eat ca ! On I ! 1 ro} 1 I ' ’ ! 1 St ©, 1 1 1 ' ' 1 N WN eo) 1 1 1 So 1 1 1 1 ' ' ao oe oo ' 1 1 1 a a. a a oO = f- sc @ fe& je es ces sec @& G@ & «5 = S@ ee ce & Ss ce ew oe fe ce @ =e ses coc oe a oe 1 I 1 (o) oO F I I (o) 1 Q fo} ! I Oo 1 1 1 1 1 No) ! rN) ! oO } ==t ! 1 t 1 ro} 1 ro) i. oS ro) ' t ar \O (aN) foe) [au] 1) - un I real ! fo} | j (S} i 1 = 1 oO -A } ic Ss ro) 1 or NG) et at a a oo} = 2 om we we ew fee we me lle ele | ee ee ee ee es ee eS ge ee oe” ae ee es ee ee ee ee es ee ee ge ee ie ew ee lee ea ee t Oo ro) ! ro) ! fo) 1 1 No) Oo a 5 1 aS) ro) 1 rat] rat] fo} | — rat] (Sy hes ro) a : WwW | WN Gaik : cn 1 No) I ron | i ci os ! ' 1 nu | c =p a | ia i i (oe) : | ; ae ol: 1 ~ ! oat | ! co a ! re) ! ado 1 1 1 | ' : (ce) (on) (oe) co ’ Pay 1 (oe) Ww Oo t 1 (a) (o) aN} { 1 | I ci nN t WwW Wy aia) Ww N 5 A | ci n : n a) a cs ee 5 : Poesia eae | ny g 3 a z} | 5 @ Pairs a S 9, o} BY} cb: a ! € - OB. re) a we} alo eit 20) 4 me oe} af oO rit $4 3 o 3 C ow rf a= a | ‘ola, rc al | el Cl] & oO; (3) cj Na (3) Ss Gy 2 re; Gin il W w Oo] a d - Of ) : o her} a os! alo n 4 lool 43) — be ny 2, nm}, Bye ob J4> ny rol apa ae iO} Gs Et. 1a wl wf ste 2 Oi u ta Ble ges bl sal Sie Al ‘SIs al Sioial mt ost alee rr BSI 4 grcdt tmlo} “Blal | Bl Cadal . als eal mie ym SUI om Bile ad | = Bl = Sq = be iS ; | ft Ps ajal sol aie ra j[ 87” Rye Ola opal Sst s S| Sl Sal = OF = < ;' me Na j Se * 3 5 fe SC Se x K ec ee ee ee PELECYPODA *Barbatia tenella Volsella auriculata *Isognomon perna *Gafrariun _ pectinata ECHINODERMATA Teipneus ves gratilla Echinometra mathaet Diadema paucispinus Distichopis sp.- eee Ophiocoma brevi.pes Other brittle stars Holothuria atra Actinopyga mauritana Other Holo- thurians CHORDATA Ptychodera sp. l 125P ine) ww i= bt ine) Ww { =m >= —- = se ss oo = =e =e =o os | i t = — ss = = w= = |8 ssf =e -@ sm = =e == ce se =e se se sei se ss =e em@ oS == ow seo a { ine) t 1 ~ =} ine) (ee) a) f = tay 1 t -—_ = -_> -_ - - - -_ = t = ae | 49} -—- ss = =e = = = ioelie Bags iS -! 20P = 360 —- = =—= «= = = +o oo = =< me es fs es es ep ew ss = om oe 390 100 720 oe BOK a60 I 4 I — ~~ =< = = 3 oS oe ss se o8 oo fF =< ce se ce ot = = oo Ly 8,0 260 IP I t L} f L} —- —@ —~ « se of = =e ss ee so ot fm sll Ul lll Cl ~~) a] —-— = = se —= -= ws S&S ee ee ee ee en ee ee et eS ee ee te Cer em 1 DO oO ee ee ee ee er ee ee ee ee) : | —-— = - -« = —- Ss wie om ew ell oo ee | y y os = Se Coralline ridge. The topographical features of this ridge are described above, Unfor- tunately tides and waves did not permit an examination, neither quantitative Lat ar : nor qualitative, of the fama of this zone. The relatively smooth surface of the coralline algae did not offer any” protection for aninal life; the shifting rocks at the bottom of the surge channels offered less. However, reaching into the mass of the coralliné algae were numerous ‘openings, and within the ane 4 were chambers in which many animals cveds In this habitat were found such animals as Echinometra mathed , Heterocentrosus SDe, and several species ad xanthid, crabs. Reef. Shelf, ‘Se r “This stea, lying beyond the outer edge of the coralline rye estinated..to be about a feet wide, from 8-10 feet deep at-the eoralline ridge to about feet deep where the bottom begins to drop ay, sheeirstee In this. area no invertebrates other than corals were observed, a Bnd no facilities vere available to transport heads of coral to shore for Sore oa “7 examination; however, numerous holes ee noted in the coral floor where crustaceans, worms and other forms eouia have lived. The coral on the shelf was roughly zoned, with the domnant mee the shallower water near the coralliné ridge being Pocillopora meandrina, and in the deeper Taber of the pacels. ani outer shelf, species of Acroporae In the middle and Sues genus. cE the shelf massive heads of Porites iobata were conspicuous. iatoae ane other corals fomd in this area were all of | those reported froii the backeridge beouen and some Seal specimens of Stylaster growing én the indersides of sever heads “in” Gwenty feet or more of water. Large areas of the bottom were covered with dead, loose fronds of ‘ Acropora. -~ 12 « —— ~ a a Inshore Shallow Water MARINE ASSOCIATIONS ONOTOA, GILBERT 1S. | fathom line *. 10 fathom line ;~ (approx.) Explanation ii Windward Reef = Leeward Reef Heliopora Flats Coral Shingle Mud Flats Incipient Beachrock Sand and Beachrock Fo hore Sand Flats GY Lh Turtle Grass Decadent Coral Reef (Qpprox.) ~~ 2 Miles Adapted trom map made by PrestonE. Cloud dr. A.H.Banner ut ny ie Neen f Meg, gt wa, Cipor oh en. ACen the av i mals Sa (avaatbag, any. SHALLOJ ITATER LAGOON REGIONS AND ADJACINT AREAS | AREAS NOT IN LAGOON. | Tl. Leeward Island Reef. This area lies to the me of the ends of the ‘gies, west and northwest of Tabaurorae and its soutien ReCie The ree ne famistically approach the windward. reef but on then there is not a well-developed : reer flat and no backridge . Aone or oor gne ridge whatsoever, but instead oe ae Places quite abruptiy into conditions similar to tne reef shelf off the vindvard SE niles water of moderate depths -- two to five feet -- the major “clenents of the f fauna are the same as the Sel gcc vs trough on the nayaed reef. The major exception to these generalities lies in the region northward of the Heliopora flats off Antena; here, the conditions are stn Late to the area iithin the reef to the rest of Lbenecnec ietend (to be described by __.Dr. Cloud). ., dt. Heliopora Flats. The areas desimnated as HeLiopora Hats are found in 2 a “protected region behind the vaneward reer at hee south end of the eed island ana. northwest of the tip of the north islands The southern _Heliopora flat consists of an extensive tide pool avout 800 feet in diameter, protected on the oceanside by a coarse coral Lins boulder ridge, and by elevated sand and boulder Mion reefs on the Bie sides. The bottom of the pect is estimated to be about the 0,0 tidal level, and the water stands Boga twelve to eighteen bches deep. The bottom is sand, The dominant animal is Heliopors , with one head about every square yard; Porites sp. is perhaps a tenth as plentiful. Other corals, all infrecuent, include ai Ye Orbicslla, Pocillopora, Leptoria, On the exposed sand bottom no animals ex-~ cept Holothuria atra are conspicuous. Other invertebrates are found in two habitats. A. Under coral heads. Here are found stomatopods (Pseudosquitia ciliata), Tethys, two species of tmicates, four species of holothuroids, “Thais hippocastanum, and several species of brachyuran crabs. B. In coral’heads. Here the dominant forms are crangonid shrimps and small xanthid crabs. Encrusting sponges of various types are Sok black colonial twmicates are plentiful; one head only showed enone ome sea anemones. Annelid worms, both Errantia and Sedentaria, are ee COMMON » ‘Several species of’ clams, including «Isognomon spe and *Barbatia tenella, are found between the inner bratiches of the coral. | The northern Heliopora flat is famistically similar to the southern, with the same population. However , it shows the transition, on Pe aang side, between a typical Heliopora flat as described above with infrequent heads of Heliopora reaching from the sand bottom, through a condition where the Heliopora is growing thickly and the top ends were being wear by ;coralline. algae, to a consolidated condition like that described in section _ A-8 of the windward’ reef. In the labyrinthian passages below the surface con= solidation are numerous small fish. ( the outer edge “ike fee gradually change in. a moderately deep water coral association ou passages between the coral six or'more feet deepe vil III. Shingle Flats. These areas of shingle -- flattened and mavceom ‘coral rocks lie in regions where the waves and the currents are strong enough to sweep Sey the sand, These conditions are found in the passes between the islands, as in “ths three passes between North Island and South Island, and the two passes west of Sovth Island. The size of the rocks varies with location, being large ie ie where there is an unbroken sweep of the water, as betireen the windward side of the Abenecnec passes, and graduaily changing into fine gravel on the more protected extensions of the current, as to the west end of the southern -. tip of North Island, which in turn is replaced by the fine sand characteristic of the lagoon, All shingle areas inspected were above the 0.0 tidal zone, and in places extended up to the edge of the terrestriai flora. In some portions LP “of the passes there were developed broad shallow tidal pools, with a bottom of finer roeks or sand. \Without exception these actual pass areas were found to be devoid of larger animals; even the tidal pools appeared lifeless, However, where there was slight protection either from islands or from bars, there was a feeble fauna developed, :rith some xanthid crabs, a few sponges and heads of Porites in the tidal pools. In the fine gravel zones, transitional between the shingle and the lagoon sand, some life was found in the levels near the zero tide zone. Burrowing into the dead coral reef wmder these areas were found sipunculids and annelids; in the small shallow tidal pools were found occasional brittle stars, solitary zooanthids and small crabs under the scattered loose boulders. LAGOON ARZAS IV. Sand Foreshore. Along the lagoon side of the island the foreshore, from about the two foot tidal level up alternates cess fine sand and consolidated Teaen rock gh more areas of Heeanie ce off the northerm island and more Veone off the ge Gas nea hohe. | pee of the islands and around smaller islands like lakers, and Abenecnec are these tuo characteristic beach (aesctione replaced by coral shingle. The sand for reshore is deve of life sine ahs for occasional ghost crabs Ocypode ceratophthalma the same species Pree is found much more - 16 - plentifilly on the windward sand beach, V. Beach-rock Foreshore. Alternating with the sand foreshore are areas vhere the elevated beach- rock of the islandis base is exposed by wave action, This slab is. eroded on the top surface into the typical cupped pattern, and often is mdercut along | the lower edge by wave action and possibly solution by fresh water from the island lense At places, especially in the lower tidal zones, the-undercut ting has proceeded far enough so thet slabs up to several feet or more long have broken off from the base rock and lie free on the substrate of either beach- rock or of sand. animal commmities in this habitat when the tide is out are subjected to dessication and heat, to rain and especially to the: flowing fresh water, common all along the shore; when the tide is in, to moderate uave action (except, possibly during periods of storms from the west when the wave action would be vigorous). 3 7 te Sih ie | | The rocks can be subdivided into four associations: -. Ae The higher peach=rock aréae This°is above about the .2.5. foot tidal gone and is almost devoid of life except for*Nerite plicata and Greapsus grapsuss neither as common as on the ea: rocks on the windvard side of the islands | Be LoweT beach-rocs areas rocks lying on solid ees or Peadeeant solid rocke These rocks lie between the 0.0 and 2,5 tidal zonese In them are found burrowing sipmevlid menos near the edges of the rocks are numerous — Holothuria atra and less po are Holothuria monoceria, some colonies of colonial tunicates and some eo umder them are numerous ees of at least four species, ses or more aoe hue erangonid Least very few hermit crabs, and no wormlse hy ae C. Lower beach=-rock, rocks lying on sand. These are in the same zone as B above, but lie with the base imbedded in the sand, About their erlges is the conmon Holothuria atra and clusters of zooanthids; in burrows under them in the sand are numerous large worms of the genus Eurythoe and three species of crangonid shrimpse De Lower beach-rocl:, suspended rocks, These, lying with one end on other rocks, leave a large surface widerneath open to free circulation of water or air, and protection from the sun and rain. On this surface, hanging dom, are hydroid colonies in profusion, and some colonial tmicates, a few spongese VI iiud Flats. In a short-narrow area along the middle of the North island, below the foreshore and behind the incipient beach-rock (VII) there is a mud flat. ~The height of the mud flat is slightly above the zero tide level, The mud is soft, so that a person walking cover it would sink betweon' ankle and knee-deep; slippery with little admixture of sand, and rich in organic matter whose” decomposition gives it thé characteristic odor of hydrogen sulfide. In this mud flat proper is only one species visible, the brilliantly colored fiddler crab, living in burrows. In areas transitional between the mud flat and the sand are found some burrows of stomatonods, There iere-no traces of annelid burrows or of other macroscopic lite, ‘VII Incipient Beach-rock ‘A small area off middle of the northern island, bouded inshore by the mudflats (VI) and off shore and at the ends by sand flats or turtle grass s composed of beach=rock in the process of formation, according fede CVECE ane 1) é to Dr. Cloud, ‘The rock is as firm, or aliiost’as firm as the typical elevated beach rock (V) but its surface, near the zero tide zone, was roughly eroded like the more exposed rock (IV-A). eh In protected areas’ in the rock, as in deegee ane in fissures and under the occasional loose rocks are the following snails: “Thais hippocas- tanum; “Mitra virgata and “M. litterata;*Cymathium chlorostomum and “Conus hebraeuse Under the rocks are numerous hermit crabs. Burrowing into the rock were sipunculoid worms and sea anemones were Samay de brimheoten loca= tions where they were living in shallow pits thatoppeeieeme fitted the basal portions of their colwms. In shallow but rather long burrows that they have either excavated or talen are the large acdc crabs and fiddler crabs; at the entrance of these burrows were vast suniibene of Collembola. VIII Sand Plats. ‘The most extensive habitat in the ‘iapeok is the sand flat. These flats ru from the inshore beach along the three major islands extending as a broad, almost level, flat from the inshore beach outwards for several hundred feet wide to a half wile or more. On the outward edge they either continue as the sand bottom of the lagoon or are covered by turtle grass (Ix), or are de-=- marked by a decadent coral reef (X). The portions of this area described below run from about two feet above to several feet below the zero tidal Zone. ‘The sand varies from less than an inch thick, pepesaie old coral reef, to at - least several feet thick. ‘4 ss he fama of ‘this gone varies with the dani in the tidal zone, the fine- ness of sand particles, the amomt of wave action, and with the ant of the ‘sand. The differences in the fama are not well demarked and nost often are quantitative rather than qualitative -~ the same species present in most areas, but varying in relative abundance. Of course, with the difference in depth the fama changed markedly; for example, in the highest portion here considered (some tidal pools in the middle tidal zone off Anteuma), the only elements of a, 10) the fauna left were the Enteropneustan, Ptychodera, and on the other hand, be- Low tiie ~1.0 tide level solitary heads of coral would reach up above the sur- rounding Sande i : u These solitary heads of coral in this area, like those in the Turtle grass area, constituted microenvironments markedly different from the surrounding sand, For that reason they are considered as a separate subdivision belowe A. Sand area Shope. fauna: Poiveras Purple sponge, black sponge (two kinds), orange sponge. Coelenterata: Zooanthids (corals considered below). Annelida: Tubeworms with leathery tubes and with sand tubess two species of Errantias small and giant sipunculids, Crustacea: -Lysiosquilla maculata; Callianassids, Calappa sp. Mollusca: (Note: remarkably few traces of living mollusca were found, although dead shells were seen in some areas; this may be attributed to the fact that most of the sand flat molluscs . are esteeried as food by the Gilbertese.) Clams, various species including “Cafrarium pectinata, “Tellina crassiplicata, BS hy *“Tellina sp., “Nautica sp., various species of Mitra, Terebra, Cymathiun, Trochus. : Echinodermata: Holothuria atra (extremely common in some areas, counted at 5-15 per square yard). Chordata: Be Isolated coral heads, fauna: Porifera: same as above. - 20 = Coelenterata: Porites sp. (dominant); Pocillopora damicornis$ Acrépora servicornis; Orbicella; other corals in lesser numbers e Penneariae ee a Amelida: Tube worms in liny tubes; sipunculids - Crustacea: Crangonids, various species; brachyuran crabse Mollusca: Cyprea Srosa, *onetaria moneta, “Barbatia aiygdalumtostum.e Chordata: Colonial tunicatese Ix. Turtle Grass Large areas in she northern part of the lagen and portions of the southern lagoon are dominated by Ee Grass (Thallasta spe) —— extends over the sand bottom fron nehoes spout at ce Zero tide Line or a little above to six or ten, OND) below the surfaces “The “Durtle crass, which makes a dense stand like the northern oel-grass ostera)s seldom arene over a foot or more highs its creeping rhizotries eee a dense interwoven mat in the sand substratee In the southern portion of the Lagoon less area is adaptable to the growth of the. plants ang. in cenopad a: is limited to a relatively narrow gone near the Bee of the island; in the middle of the lagoon, off the passes betizeen mes North and South Island and the adjacent areas, and off Tabusreras and the — southestermios® portion of the lagoon there is no metic, Ge Grass “whatsoever e The Turtle Grass proper is relatively devoid of 3 invertebrate life. the fronds of the grass are found black colonial tunicates and occasional sponges of several types; about the bases of the grass are more sponges of the same type and, most abundant in Tay areas, a papillose green-black holothurian. It was impossible, once digging vas started, to dig out the few burrowing abattds detected because of the clouds of fine silt that rendered underwater vision impossible. The burrowing animals, however, are few in number and appeared to be limited to a small squillid (Lysiosquilla) and some burrowing worms, In the deeper portions of the Turtle Grase beds, especially in the area off the northern island, there apnear solitary and separated coral masses, like islands in a sea of grass. These isolated masses are rich in lite, boun o2si and invertebrate, They evidently are made p primarily of Porites, but they are covered in a large extent by other corals like Acropora, Pocillopora, Orbicella, etcese The invertebrate fama is in general similar to the fauna of coral heads in the gand beach area (VTII-B). Xe Decadent Coral keef,. In many areas the sand flats srade gradually into a region of dead coral reefs that lie between /# 1.0 and = 1,0 tidal level, These areas appear to be those where the wave action and current action is stronger, sweeping the veneer of sand from tne narder substrate, Thev are found to the southeast of Anteuma; off the southern portion of the North Island and the northern portion of the South Island and the-passeges between: and they are extensively de- veloped off Tabuarorae and in the southwestern portions of the lagoon. The decadent to dead coral recfs present a variety of hebitats for in-= vertebrates: on the hard coral there are places of attachment, protected and unprotected, for sessile forms; in naturally occurring spaces and in burrows in the coral there are places for the smaller invertebrates to hide; in the areas between the heads of coral, either broken off as the reef was growing or subsequently eroded from the reef surface are pockets of sand and gravel to accommodate burrowing forms; these pockets, some of them many feet ~ 22 = long, retain water when the tide is out and provide a tidal pool for the protection of its inhabitants. For this reason the fama of the _— is nore diverse than any other area of the lagoons; however, with few exceptions, no elements of the fama are exceedingly common: Poriferaz Yellow to red encrusting sponges, several species Moderately common Black, rounded spec | : Uncommon Orange upstanding sponge _.. , Uncommon Coelenterata: | Pennaria _.. Common on undersides of coral overhangss Porites, living re “- Uncommon Pocillopora damicornis Uncommon Annelida: Tiorms in Limy tubes, two svecies as Uncommon Burrowing Errantia, 1 specimen | _ Uncommon Sipunculus Spe ot , _ Common Crustacea: Crangon, and other genera Uncommon ‘Brachyuran crabs (other than Portwmids) Uncommon (Portunids ) _ (Moderately common ) Hermit Crabs ie | Rare Gastroncdas ‘i “Conus lebraeus me . Uncommon Conus flavidus Te eR Rare *Vionetaria moneta sh Moderately common “Nautica spe Rare “Mitra virgata | Rare ‘ \ Nudibranch : Rare Pelecypoda: AS as Barbatia amygdalumtostum “Isognomon perna *Pinctada vulgaris *Tellina sp. “Tellina crassiplicata “Echinodermata: Chordata: | ‘Brittle Stars (as in A-2 windward reef) ‘Linkia sde © Holothuria atra Papillose sea cucumber (as in IX above) Ptychodera Encrusting compound tunicate, three species Uncoranon Common Common Rare Rare Common - Rare Abundant in tide- pools at inner edge of area (60 in one pool of about 60 square feet); other- wise raree Rare Rare - Rare to common, ,according to the species. ITT GILBERTESE UTILIZATION OF INVERTEBRATES One of the important phases of a study of a native peoples ‘is the study of the food resources available to the people, and of their utilization of these resources. This is especially true of the inhabitants oeNe eorall atoll, where one fo 58 resources at best are somewhat Limited, and where, on a small dry and overpopulated atoll like Onotoa, these resources may be the deciding factor . social eee and even of life and death. On Onotoa the population had available three sources of food; the con- ventional Meer edauce, plant and animal which obviously ias inadequate to support the ends population, especially in times of drought; the marine fisheries, apparently the chief source of protein in the native diets and one of the main sources of calories; and finally, the marine invertebrates, which appeared to be at best merely a supplementary source of food, gathered primarily either when fortuitous occasions arose, like low tides.at night for the BbAtheek on of lobsters, or to serve as mere (mene 36) Oh usual diet of epebipendaiie ae However, this study will give some indication of the extemt that the Onotoans are utilizing most of the available resources as food. Methods anc Limitations of the Study: This study was carried on to large part when I was immobilized by blood=poisoning. A native assistant was assigned to help me when he was not busy with other jobs; he was willing and cooperative, but the study was inhibited by his most imperfect English and my total lack of Gilbertese; at times an interpreter was used to bridge the gap. as Bites ~ The study, in its original phases, consisted of looking at pictures in illustrated books of marine life, Later, uvon finding that that system was inaccurate panels of the inability of natives to interpret correctly the illustrations, all information was gathered by showing the natives actual specimens, specimens that were either collected for us by our native assistants or by ourselves. The study has Fld ich yoo limitations and sources of inaccuracies. rirst ie the probability that we were unable to find all of the foods of the Beeps because we had Sse ae illustrations nor specimens of them, and our informants did not discuss them because of the language limitations. Second because of their Nillingness to please" the natives included animals that possibly were not eaten, or shat were eaten only under extreme famine con- ditions, To Pe: tie SeseaSalaes several natives were checked, one against another, in as many instances as possible, Third is that not all individuals or family groups utilize the invertebrate foods as much as others -- like in our own society some families eat crabs but others would not consider them. Perhaps my split es were not among those who knew and utilized all of ‘the foods found on the reefs and shores of Onotoa, I did observe on some of the ‘food species that there was no agreemat as to the native name; for example, 1g Peaaiged tnoree native nemes for the snail Quimalea pomums This would seem to indicate that it was not a common article of food, Systematic Accomt Scientific Name Notes Native Name 1. Coelenterata-Scyphozoa ke These large (10-12") scyphomedusae (Caryodea alata Reynaud) i occurred at a moderate tide slightly Te Baitari before the full of the moon; reportedly Boe. ae “Cdsasgig ete a a g54 sidas Taps Sag LGh Thos GER TES NCE SEIT ET Sad SE aSa7g Ta TESS ENTE see -B0C8 S592 5G GARG SATTIAEE GAA AARIAED TSANG PABDDBES OSES DSRS DS rSaRNS See Tree ee .. Annelida~Sipunculoidea 2. Sipunculus indicus Peters Te Ibo ga BP oe they occurred at similar phases of the moon throughout the year. They are gathered on the windward.reef by wading women and children who either put them in baskets or string them on pandanus fibers, In preparation the outer layers of jelly are stripped off, the oral and aboral ends removed and only the remaining material -- the muscular’ coat of the gastro-vascular cavity is saved. . The cleaned material is thus’6~8.inches.long, .13 inches ‘broad ‘and: about 1/8 inch thick, It is reported that this is boiled to form a rather sticky, !soup". r Suir “These are found burrowing in sand flats of the lagoon, They are one to tio feet long and the diameter of a man's ‘little finger. . When the native, usually a man, finds a hole and casting made by the worm he probes he sand behind it with a flexible and sharpened youmeg HdtivebuA pan- danus; this, when hitting the vertical portion of the vorm burrow follows down the tube, When the yor is touched Arthrapoda, Crustacea-Stomatoncda 30 lLysiosguilia maculata Te Waro by the tip of the probe, it is thrust with vigour and penetrates with the. introvert into the anterior body pockety securely holding the worm, The worm is then dug from the tube. The probe is jerked out, rupturing the anterior body wall of the worm. Then the orm is Sead by the back end and snapped like a whip, completely eviscerating it and leaving nothing but the thick muscular coat. This is washed and eaten raw, peenea by boiling or dried for future USCe This large stomatopod (about 1 foot long) is found only burrowed in the sand in the lagoon, It is caught by both men and women by placing a spear in the sand so that it is in line with the holes; a piece of fish is placed at the entrance of the burrow as a lure, a noise is made to attract its attention, and as the stomatopod comes to the mouth of the burrow to strike the bait, the spear is thrust home. The animal is cooked and all except the viscera mder - 268 « he Psevdosquilla ciliata (and other species) Te Waro (as above) Decanoda 5. Crangoa strenims (Dana) Tenitrarowaro 6. Panulirus pencillatus (dliver) Te Ura the carapace is eaten, All smaller stomatopods when captured 3 are eaten; they run from one to four | . inches long, The principal source of these stomatopods is mder rocks on the windward reef flat, where they are gathered by hand or by small scoop nets together with shrimps, etc. They are gathered principally by tromen. Method of preparation as in 3 above, (Note: this Gilbertese name evidently includes other genera and species of chelate shrimp and lobster~like crustaceans but the only form observed was Crangon strenuus). These range in size from one inch to fourteen inches long and are caught by all members of the family near the back=ridge trough of the windward reef in small nets when torch-fishing. They are boiled and both the cephalothorax and abdomen are eatene This lobster runs from six to eighteen inches longe It is caught along the windward reef by men and women either during the day when the tide is out or it 29> a To 2» 10. Parabaccus antarcticus (Iumd) Te Mnawa Bireus latro Te ALi Geocaroides Spe Te ilanai | (Terrestrial Hermit Crabs) Te ilakauro over the reef surface at night, ‘when torch fishing. Dip nets are used for its capture. It is boiled and the abdomen, portions of the cephalothorax, and legs are eaten. The sand lobster reaches the length of nine inches; it is caught, prepared and eaten in the same way as in 6, These coconut crabs are entirely terres- ‘trial and are fomd by day in burrows. They are dug out only by men, When boiled the abdomen and legs are eaten. These lerge lend crabs are found only on the Iiorth ends of both major islands of Onotoa, They are caught by men and women at night by torch light in the the island. They are boiled and eaten like other crabs (see below). These are small terrestrial hermit crabs that live in the shells of Turbo; etc. 1 They are caught either by day or by nicht, the latter time by torch light. Only children were observed gathering them. They are boiled and the abdomen alone is eaten. » BOnc ll. "i126 lhe 15. Calappa hepatica (L.) Tennonno These sand crabs reach the breadth of about 3", They are captured in the sand of the lagoon when the tide is. out by ~ feeling for them wmder the sand with the hands or feet. Everyone helps in their capture. They are boiled and the legs alone are eaten. Charybdis erythrodactyla (Lamark)These crabs are six to eight inches Tentebarereki Carpilius maculatus (L-) Te Iba Taburinai (Unidentified crab) - Te Nikarewerewe (Red-cyéed crab) ' Tentababa -. -~31- broad across the carapace and found both on the windward reef and in the lagoon. They are gathered by anyone finding them and boiled; the legs and the ventral portion of the cephalothorax is | eatene These crabs are found only on the windward reef when the tide is out by day or at night by torchfishings only adults catch them, either by nets or by hand. They are boiled and eaten as aboves These crabs’:aré:about 6~7" across the carapace, and their habitat, mode of capture and preparation are the same as 13. These crabs are found high in the intertidal zone on both windward and leeward beaches, underneath beachrock3 they reach the carapace breadth of - about 3 inches. Anyone may catch them, and they are gathered by hand and prepared in the same fashion as aboves 16. Ocypode ceratophthalna (Pallas) These "ghost crabs" are fomd high on Te Kauki _ the sand beaches on both shores of the islands where they Jive in burrowss they reach the breadth of 3". Anyone may capture them, either by digging by day or by torching at night with a net. They are boiled and portions attached to the ventral half of the body are eaten, 17. Zozyinus aeneus Lo These crabs are fomd at night on the .' Te Kukua Obs " “windward reef in torch fishing; they are reputedly extremely poisonous in all parts of the body, causing rapid death when eaten. They are never used as food. : Mollusca, Gastropoda 18.:: Trochus, all species These are fomd along the windward reef; a) Baraitos they are gathered by all members of the family, boiled.in the shell and the meat is pulled fron the shell for eating. a eae 19. 20. 23 6 2h. 25. Turbo, all species Te Nimatanin Cerithium, all species Te Bukikakang Lambis, all species Teneang Nautica spe Te Tumara Monetaria moneta cay? Te Burerewa . These are found along the windward reef where they are gathered by all nenbers evel cipand ie they may be prepared or the shell may be broken irl the aed een oa Late These are found in the sand of the Beco uhenvene Gaede ac outs they are pened ay everyone. The snail is ; cooked in the shell and the meat re~ moved after cooking; the shells are used for ornamental bands on dancing belts, etco : These snails are found on coral in the outer portions of the lagoon, in waist deep or deeper water. (ly the men gather the snail; it nay be eaten raw after breaking the shell an ae may © be boiled intact with the meat subse- esneinrbilsy removeda These are found a few inches mder the sand in the lagoon; they are cavght by everyone, boiled in the shell and the meat subsequently removed. These are fowmd in both on windward reef and in the lagoon; they are gathered by everyone. The snails are 39 val 29-6 306 Cyprea, various snecies Te Kabaua Amphiperas ovum Te Bure Nerita vlicata Te Kaban ~ Cymathium sp. Te Wiaau Bursa bufonia Te Kamanging used only for shell ornaments; they are first boiled and then buried in the sand for two to four weeks, and finally washed in fresh water. These also are not eaten, but gathered to be used as shell omaments. The larger species of cowries are not used at all, Method of preparation is the saire as Monetaria moneta (L.) (25). These shells are not found on Onotoa, ‘but are imported from Abemama to be -'. used as ormmaments for the bow and stern of the outrigger canoes, and for decorations in the Maneabas. ‘These snails are found high on the rocks on the windward beaches and to lesser ‘extent on the lagoon beaches; they are gathered by everyone and cooked in the shell, These are found on the lagoon beaches at low tide only near Aiaki (the middle of “South Island); they are gathered by everyone and boiled in the shell, These are found only on the windward reef flat, where they are gathered hy everyone; they are boiled in the shell before eatings iL ow 31. Charonia tritonis _ This large conch or triton is found along Te Tauu | | mM £9) the oyter edge of the lagoon on coral in waist deep or deeper water; it is _ gathered only by men. It is considered poisonous and not eaten; however, the ell is used as a trumpet to announce meetings in the commumity hall, and the shell, hung upside dow, is used as a flask to store coconut oil (the oil is poured out of the syphon, from which it emerges in a small and easily cone trolled stream). 32. Tonna perdix This snail is fomd in the lagoon in Te Tau water two fathoms or more deep, on corals it. is gathered only by men. ane Before. eating, the animal is clad alts in the shell (one old man informed me it was the young of the conch (31) and had the same name). 33-2 Quimalea pomum _ This snail is found in the saie habitat Te Makauro-n Tari and prepared the sae way as Tonna perdix (32). 3h. Vasu ceramicun These species are all found on the wind- Thais appdeaseeeenn( i) ward reef flat, where they may be Morula granulata Tee fi gathered by men, women or énitarans! Te Nimakaka ay they are cooked in the shell. All are known by the same name. = 35 - 35. Conus; "all ispecies Te Nouo 362 Pollia undosa Te Wikakang 37. Mitra, all species Terebra, all species Te Kabinea 38. Melampus, all species Te Kokoti These species are fond variously on the ocean or lagoon side of the island in shallow or deep water; primaril women and children gather them on the windward reef, while only m@m gather them in the ceeper water of the lagoon. While Conus striatus, one of the poison cones, is among those gathered, the Gilbertese seem to have no knowledge of its "sting", All are boiled before eating, ama then the shell is broken to withdraw the meat. Another informant called them "Te Nuo Nuo", These snails are fommd only on the windward reef flat and gathered by everyone. They are cooked and the meat is tha pulled from.the shell. These snails are found only buried one to tio inches deep in the sand of the lagoon whem the tide goes outs: they are gathered by all members of the family and boiled in the shell. Both genera have similar habitats and bear the same Gilbertese name. — These species are found only high on rocky beaches on the northwestern and - 36 = oe LO. (Nudibranch) Nei Kamanging (Mudibranch) Neireurekia Mollusca; Pelecypoda Mle 2. 13» Pinna atropurpurea Te Raun Streptopinna saccata Te Bere Pinctada marginifera southwestern islands, where they are gathered only by women and children; the snails are not eaten but the shells are used as ornaments on articles of clothing, This four-inch nudibranch is found on the middle section of the windward reef under rocks; it is gathered by anyone finding it; before being caten it is boiled for two or three hours, This is essentially the same as the nudibranch above (39), except before being cooked the visceral mass is re= novede Found only in southern part of lagoon, tio fathoms or more deep, partially buried in sand. It is gathered by men only, and boiled before being eaten. This "clam" is found along lagoon shores in sand, one foot or more deepe Evidently it is not used for food or ornamente The pearl oyster is found only on the sand bottom of the southwestern lagoon : ‘in three or more fathoms of water. It + Ba i. Hippopus hippopus Te Nei Toro = small individuals Te Aubuna - large - individuals is gathered by men only, The meat is © removed from the shell before it is boiled. Some pearls are found and the shell can be sold but there is no established pearling trade on Onotoa.s The shellis used also by the ma for ornaments on belts, for earrings and for canoe decorations. This giant clam is found on both lagoon and ocean reefs from three feet deep to about two fathoms. All sizes, from two or three inch specimens to those about three feet across, are gathered by men for eating. At times they are eaten rawe ‘hen fresh, their meat is boiled with water or coconut milk; they may also be dried with salt and kept several months. The large shells are often used as wash basins. Some families make small holding pens of coral along tne beach in'front of their houses and keep small specinens alive wmtil they grow larger, or wmtil the family is ready to eat theme One family had a pen about four feet square that held ten clams ranging in size from three to twelve inches across. Lae ie Ube 6. 7. 48. 9o Tridacna cumingi Tridacna elongata Te Were Tridacna squamosa Te Vere Makai Carcium spe Te Tuai or Te Tacrake Cerdiun (Trachycardiun) flavum Te Nikarikiriki Gafraum tumidum Venus clathrata Te Koikoinanti . These are the same as Hippopus above (4) excepting for their smaller size ~~ up to nine inches across in lagoon, _three inches across along the ocean. These are the same as Hippopus above (lh); size up to about fourteen inches acroSSe These cockles are found in the lagoon only slightly umder the surface of the sand, in intertidal zone. They are gathered by everyone; the clam is boiled for food and the shell is used as a coconut meat scraper to make baby food. These cockles are found near the sur= face of the sand in the intertidal zone along the southern island only. They are gathered by everyone and . boiled in the shell before being eaten. These- are both found in outer lagoon on _ corel.and not in sand, in about one . fathom of water. They are gathered by -- both men and women diving from canoeSe They are removed from the shell before boiling. Both species are referred to by the same names - 39 «- 50. Pitar (Agriopoma) japonica Both of these clams are fowmd along Mesodesma striata islands buried one to two inches deep Te Katura in the sand high in the intertidal zone. They are gathered by everyone and boiled in their shells before eatings 51. Protothraca staminea This clam is found low in the intertidal Te Koumara zone along the legoon only near the end islands buried up to six inches deep in the sand. It is gathered by women and children and may be either eaten raw or boiled in the shells, 52. Tellina crassiplicata This clam is found buried eight to Te Nikatona twelve inches deep in sand in lower intertidal zone off the south and north island and off the south island. It is reported to be about "fished out". It is dug the year around by anyone. It may be eaten raw, boiled after removing from the shell, or salted and dried, 53- Asaphia dichotoma .. This clam is found in lagoon sand in Tei, Koikoi . lower intertidal zone buried about one foot deep all along the coast except off the middle of the southern island.e Tt is dug only by women and children; it may be eaten raw or boiled in the shell. me HO) ons She Te Kika This clam is found only at Abemama Island but not on OQnotoa nor any other islands; it is found low in intertidal zone in sand of the lagoon. Abemama it is dug by everyones; it may be eate raw or bioled’ and is reportedly of excellent taste. “The shells were imported to Onotoa to be used as fishing sinkers. The octopus is one of the principal dnverthnrete foods of the people. It is caught: on both sides of the island in holes mder rocks when the tide is out by spearing with short hocked spearse Men, women and children all capture it. All parts of it are eaten except the ink sac. Several methods of preperation are used with it: It can be pounded on a stone without additional salt until soft, and then either boiled in water or coconut milk for several hours; or it can be saited and dried to be kept for at least several mmthse Before the dried octopus is eaten, it is washed and boiled. -lhi- DISCUSSION It is remarkable that these people did not use certain supposedly edible animals of their regio. For example, Crem (neg aenace showed no evidence of the use of sea weeds, of sea urchins (quite common around the Sere ar ee Ucar ice end eatond ticim: All three of these constituted relatively important foods for the peoples of Hawaii and Sanioa.s In addition several other foods used by other peoples were not used on the islands, like the sea anemones eaten by Samoans; however, no large sea anemones were seen about Cnotoa. several foods on their list, on the se hand, possibly are not too wide spread in their use; this is especially true of the scyphomedusae, the sipunculids (although these are eaten in tee Marshalls) and the supposedly poisonous cone shells, The lagoon reef is not very productive of the edible molluscs; in all of the field work in the intertidal areas of the teeodn no evidences of living clams or edible mails were seen, While it is likely this condition stemmed from overfishing by the concentrated population, it may actually be the result of low productivity of the Onotoa lagoon reefse Soars. PART IT . INVESTIGATION OF THE ICHTHYOFAUNA OF ONOTOA, GILBURT ISLANDS Qnotoa is a small atoll with a relatively high population density; it is quite dry and subject to extended drought. Few food plants can be growm, and even the coconut crop fails at times. Thus, for the Gilbertese on Onotoa, there is a very great dependence on the sea for foods | The methods of fishing are many and varied and involve men, women, and children alike. Fishing is widertaken largely by the men, however, and centers around the use of the native outrigger canoée Lacking suitable trees for dugouts, the ovtriggers in the Southern Gil- bert Islands are constructed from Australian plank lumber obtained froin Ocean Island. No metal darts are used, the planks and outriggers being lashed in place with a native cord made from retted coconut husk fiber. The outrigzer itself is 4 solid niece of trcod and usually made from driftroode Not every man oms a canoe, but nearly every family has one or access to one. in the village of Iaala teks are 370 people and 82 canoes.* Fifty- eight of these are good-sized sailing canoes and can be used for trolling outside of the lagoon. The fisherman who omms a canoe will usually have the faliceine items of fishing gear: a few fishing lines of verious sizes, a small assortment of hooks, leader wire of flexible galvanized tyne, a large shark hooky, one or two handmade lures, a flying fish net, a pointed metal rod ‘nth a wooden handle for gaffing large fish, a Inife, and swim goggies. ilost of the fishermen own a fish svear with rubber sling. Many families have eel traps and small nets for torch fishing. Some have eel snares, fish traps, beach seines, and fine-= mesh nets for small fish. #This information, as well as certain other facts in this report, was supplied by Dr. Ward Goodenovgh. - 13 - i A cooperative store is located on the atoll and is supplied infrequently - from Tarawa. It usvally has hooks and fish line for sale. WNormal-sized hooks are quite inexpensive, ranging in price from + to 13 pennies. The large shark hooks, when in stock, cost 2 shillings 6 pence (30¢). Heavy fishing line, of sufficient length for one trolling line, costs 5 shillings. The Gilbertese can earn very little money; hence they can buy very few of the preferred manufactured items of fishing gear. Copra and various items of native handicraft made from pandanus leaf fiber are the principal sources of income. Fach year about 60 men from Qnotoa are taken to Ocean Island where they work as laborers and by their standards are well paid, On their return they customarily bring with them such things as wire, old inner tubes, metal rods, pieces of lead, and glass, all of which are importent in their making of fishing gear. There are many different kinds of fishes which serve as food for the Gilbertese, and frequently special methods of fishing are utilized for certain species or groups of species. Usually these methods are standard from fisherman to fisherman, but some individual variation does, of course, exist. In some cases a family or individual may have an efficient mean of catching fish which is kept secrete The description of the various methods as given below represent the standard ways of procuring food fishes on Cnotoa. Trolling: Sailing canoes are used for trolling which may be undertaken in the lagoon, but the usual site is in deep water just outside of the west reef of the atoll, especially the region where there is a large westward projection of this reef, At most anytime, but especially in the morning, one can see numerous sailing canoes trolling back and forth beyond the reef, These canoes may be seecaded by a single man or by two persons. If there are two persons, they are usually of the same family, as father and son, Women may help their husbands when troliing, but this is not a common occurrences aby Trolling speed is hishly variable depending on the crind, but generally ro difficulty is had in attaining speeds sufficiently. great with these fleet craft. In. fact, it would geen Unet too often the contrary occurs; thet is, that good trolling speed is exceeded. The lures which are used are commonly of three types. A hook may have chicken feathers tied directly to it. Such a lure is used for smaller fish such as the small tuna, Euthymus yeito. There may ve a lure consisting of a piece of metal, usually lead, in which there is a hole through which the leader wire is run. The back part of the metal is notched for the attachment of feathers. The hock is attached to the leader itire and is always single. The third type ..of lure is made from an elongate, well=polished piece of pearl shell, The hook is attached directly to the piece of shell, and feathers may or may not be addede The use of whole fish for trolling is a common practice, mullet and flying fish being the usual bait species. Mullets are netted: in-vonds or close to shore in the lagoon, and flying fishes are takm with dip nets at night. The bait fish is attached to the hook by locating the eye of the hook in the mouth and the barbed end up through the. back so it is just exposed on the dorsal surface. The eyes of .the fish are then removed, and coconut nie fiber is used - to lash through the orbits to the eye of the hooke Fishes which are taken when trolling et the surface in deep water are: Euthynnus. yaito, Acanthocybiun solandri, Istiophorus gladius, Elagatis bipimulatus, Katsuwionus pelamis, Neothunnus macropterus, and at least one other unidentified species of tma. Swordfishes are occasionally caught. The dolphin, Coryphaena hippurusy, is rarely taken, Nearer the reef, species of Caranx and Sphyraena are caughts -)\5 7 When large-sized fishes are hooked, they are gaffed and their heads beaten with a wooden club Wetons being brought into the canoe, Spearing: Formerly a long wooden spear with a metal point lashed at one end was employed. This was jabbed at fish while swimming mderwater. Now, the common method involves a simple elastic sling device and a steel rod of about = inch diameter and five or six feet in length. The sling consists of a piece of truck tire inner tube or a section of bicycle inner tube to which a loop of sturdy cloth is tied at one eee a loop of cord at the other, The metal rod has a notch at one end and is sharpened to a point at the other. There is no folding-type barb, but there may be a small oblique cut made in the rod near the point and the section of metal avay from the point bent slightly outward. The thumb of the left hand is placed through the loop of cloth and the notch of the spear engaged in the cord. The notched end of the spear is then draim back with the right hand, bow and arrow fashion, and the spear is guided as it is laumched by the thumb and fingers of the left hand. The svear-fisherman wears small goggles which he makes for himself from local wood and glass obtained from Ocean Island, The goggles are tied on behind the head with heavy string. The final item of spearing accouterment is an optional one and consists of a piece of cord on which the fish ere strung. The fish are suspended from the back, the cord being tied around the waist. In swinming the frog kick is used and the fish are approached very cautiously, all sharp movements being avoided. A spear can be shot for a horizontal dis- tance greater than 25 feet but is not very effective beyond a distance of 6 feet or so because of reduced accuracy. Spearing is wndertaken in both the lagoon and on the sea side, Generally the lagoon is ;referred for there is no heavy surf with which to contend. In the lagoon the fisherman usually al Syne sails or paddles his canoe out to a suitable area. It is anchored -rith a heavy stone or tied directly to a coral lmoll. A paddle or piece of buoyant wood is tied to the anchor line below the surface to prevent the line from catching on coral and chafing. . Svearing fish is a very important method of fishine. Jt is utilized mostly by the younger men, some of whom prefer it to any other means of ob- taining fish. mong those fishes most sought are members of the following genera: Caranx, Scarus, Lutianus, llyripristis., Holocentrus, Acanthurus (especially A. nigricans and A. triostegus), Ctenochaetus, Gynmothorax, Cephalopholis, and Epinephelus. Shark Fishing: Very strong line, -rire leader made from smaller strands of wire crudely twisted together, and a large Heavy hook conprise the usual tackle for shark fishing. The hook is usuallya purchased commercial product, but it may be made by hand from steel rod, in «shich case there is no barb but the tip of the hook is strongly recurved. Fishing may be engaged in from canoes drifting vell. out at seas ‘hole fish is the usual bait, the favorite ee the small tuna, Zuthynnus yaito, which is caught by trolling imiediately prior to the actual fishing for sharks. If the bait fish is alive, ee hooked carefully through the gill openings; if dead it may be tied securely to the hook with coconut husk fiber in a variety of ways. The line is paid out to windrarc and remains near the surface. Often several heavy shells (Lambis truncata) are tied.to a second line which is lowered a few feet below the surface and kept in constant motion. The noise of the shells knocking together supposedly attracts sharks, Some fishermen cut fresh fish into fine pieces end disperse this in the water whereupon the much-discussed power of blood to attract sharks is brought into operation. This surface fishing often -h7- - results in the taking of large pelagic fishes such as swordfishes, wahoo, and yellowfin tuna, as well as sharks. ilore commonly shark fishing is wndertaken over shallow reef areas with a weighted line. ‘Whole fish or cut fish is the usual bait. The sharks taken in reef areas are smaller species, generally, such as the white tip and the black tip, The flesh of the shark is highly esteemed by the Gilbertese, many of whom actually prefer it to twa and other fish. It is usually prevered by slicing into sections and roasting in a pit in the gromd. Sometimes the flesh is salted and dried in the sun and ultimately eaten without cooking. Still other times it is boiled in wen water a Night Fishing for Flying Wish: The sailing canoe and at least two persons are. eeoied Sn fishing for flying fish. If there are but tio persons, one holds coconut frond torches while the other steers the vessel and vorks a dip net, Fishing is done ovtside tne reef wnile moving at ordinary sailing speed. There are usually about eight or ten torcnes at hand, made from cried coconut leaves lashed in bundles about seven fect long. The first torch is lighted with matches or by striking flint and steel over dried coconut husk, Each subsequent torch is iighted from the previous one just as the latter is about to burn out. The helmsman (and fisherman) generally wears a woven coconut hat to shade his eyes from the torch light. is dip net is elliptical in shape, about two feet in its greatest diameter, The wooden handle is at least twelve feet in length. The flying fish are attracted to the torch light and skitter about the canoe, some striking the side of it quite resomdingly. The fish are usually caught at the surface but occasionally are picked right out the air by an alert fisherman. ‘When the fish are on the surface the net is dropped directly over them instead of scooping from the side. Usually the netting =-Lee operation takes place on the leeward side of the Sane (the side without the outrigger), but the more skillful fishermen extend their range to the water to the stern and the windward side aft of the outrigger, The only flying fishes observed taken at the atoll were of genus Cypseluruse Ilost of these were of good size, reaching a maximum of about - 15 inches in length, Occasionally some half~beeks were netted, Hook and Lines The Gilbertese fish with hook and line from canoe, from ahha’ or while standing in shallow water. A pole may or may not be employed. No use of set lines of any sort was observed. Usually the fisherman handles but a single line which contains but one or a very few hooks due to the great chance of loss of tackle on coral, ! Tishing from a canoe takes place in the lagoon but usually over reef ae or wesis large coral heeds. Instead of having a sinker permanently atlached to the line, a stone is often loosely tied witn a slip imct and the Line is then lowered to the desired depth where the stone is released by a sudden jerk of the line. A great variety of fishes are take but predominantly lutianids , labrids, carangids, serrvanids, balistids, and scaridse en fishing fron shore on the lagoon side of the atoll, the fishermen (ee ee es case women and children) generally wade well out into the water. Their catch usually inciudes small Caranx spp.- and Cerres sp. and oocatt kant lutianidse At low tide fishing with hook and line may be carried on in the surge channels of the reef on the seaside of the atoll, Here a pole is a great asset to the ops These vay be made from bamboo obtained from Ocean Island or fromalocal plant, Guettarda. The pole varies in length from 5 to 12 feet. The usual bait is land hermit crabs which have been,removed from their gastropod shellse No sinker is used. The fishes thich are most often -h9- taken are Cirrhitus spe, Thalassoma sppey Halichoeres spe, Abudefduf sppasy and Lutianus spe These are small carnivorous fishes wiich occupy the special surge channel habitat. No deep water hand line fishing was observec, but interviews with fisher- men revealed that a few apparently fish to a depth as great.as 100 fathoms rom a canoe outside of the reef. The average Gilbertese does not have sufficient line for this or would not want to risk the loss of so much lines The fish which is most sought from the deeper water seems from native descripticn to be the oil fish or escolar (ivettos preticsus). Torch Fishing: The equipment for this means of catching fish consists of coconut frond torches of the tyre cescribed for flying fish fishing, a basket woven *rorl coconut leaves, and either a short-handled dip net or a long knife. One mai does the fishing, but customarily is followed by a second person who carries extra torches, Fishing may take plece in the lagoon or on the sea side on the reef, The preferred site for torch fishing is the back ridge trough, and for this, low tide is a necessity. The water in the back ridge trough ab this time is about waist deep. As the fisherman walks along he carries the torch in one hand, the Imife or net in the other, The basket for the fish is slung from his shoulder and hangs at his side. Light from the torch is quite bright and fish are readily seen for the water is clear except ven an unusually heavy surf is rmning. Usually a fish can be anproached without difficulty and either scooned up with the net or cut with a rapid downward stroke of the Inife. fishes commonly caught by this method include: Cirrhitus spe, Lutianus spe, Monotaxis grendgculis, Acanthurus triostegus, ilyripristis spp., Holocentrus spp., Parupeneus spe, Gymmothorax spp. belonids, and mugilids. They are ordinarily eaten immediately after the fishing operation is completed; they are roasted without cleaning in beds of hot coals. -50- Nets: The simplest type.of net is the dip. net such as: employed in torch fishing. This net may also be used in a fishing. operation during the day at low tide. The location is a surge channel. At Onotoa the surge chamels are narrow, irregular indentations into the reef averaging about six feet in width and ten feet in depth. The water in these channels is in constant motion, and visibility from the surface or in the channel is poor because of the foam from the breakers. One man uses a coconut frond to drive fish in the channel tovard a good vantage point where a second man keeps his dip net in the water. Both men stand on the reef teside the channel. This method of fishing is not a common ones Small seines of about two fathom length and four or five feet in depvth are often used. A seine inay be operated by just tuo persons, each holding a vertical pole at each end, but usually several other persons assist by Criving fish tovard the net. Trequently a woven line of coconut fronds serves as an extension of the seine from one or both ends. At low tide on the reef the back ridge trough is a region which is commonly seined. One such operation was closely observed. A man, his wife, and two boys were the participants. Fh . The fish they hunted was a good-sized scarid which comes up into the shallow water on the reef in small schools. The.fishermen endeavored to get between the fish and the open.sea. Sometimes this involved actual running twith the seine in the shallow water; at other tines slow cautious movements were neces- sary. When the fish were'cut off and tried to. elude the seine, they were herded by the boys touerd the net ith coconut palm fronds 2nd by splashing i 7.4 and thro-wing stones. lMany lerge parrot. fish were caught and some surgeon fish (Acmthurus triostegus) and damsel fish (Abudefduf sp.) were taken. The fishes were rendered inactive by biting the dorsal part of the skull and were strung ~5L =: by -cord..through the eyes to one of the poles of the seine. This one fishing operation lasted several hours and covered a distance of about tyo miles, In the lagoon small seines are used over shallow sandy areas and the fishes caught include Gerres spe, small Caranx spe, mullets (Mugilidae), md goatfishes (iIullidae). Here the seining is very often the work of women and children. Small seines may be imported cotton procucts or may be made from local material. Some large beach seines are owned Bo lilo eit by entire villages. Hach village usually has but one such seine. However, the largest village, Aiali, is divided into two sections and each owns 2 seine. These are made of coconut husk fiber and-may be as long as tiirty fetnoms. Shells are used as weights on the foot rope and nieces of a local ~sood (Sezevola) strung along the float dinee These seines are used only in the lacoon, 2nd their operation involves many individuels. One is designated the leader, and he directs the operation by hand signals, for noise is kept to a minimum. Cne end of the seine is srorked out from shore in a large semicircle wmtil it is again brought to shore at which time both ends are hauled up on the beach. The same fishes are caught with these large seines as listed above for smaller seines in the lagoon plus a few others such as iutianids., At night more larger fishes are caught, including small sharks, One other type of net is used for a very special kind of fishing. This is a fine mesh netting (generally noscuito netting) with a slight bag and supported at four comers with poles. The net is suspended horizontally in the water between tio canoesy mien or women from one canoe holding two of the poles vertically in the water while those in the other canoe handle the other two poles. The area over the net is chummed with bits of fish. Small fishes -5o - of genus Caesio are caught when they swim over the netting by a rapid pulling up of the four poles. These fishes occur in the lagoon in numbers great enough for such fishing only once every ten years or so. They tend to form small schools over coral heads in the lagoon, They are dried on coconut or pandanus mats out in the su and stored in tight-lid containers, where they remain well-preserved for many years. The flesh is red in color when dried and considered a great delicacy. Traps: Tuo types of traps are eae from lashing small sticks together. The most comion in use is the eel trap. This consistently has the configuration of a house (rectangvlar with a sloping roof), roughly three feet long and a foot and a half wide. At one ada hole of three-inch diameter can be seen. This extends, cylinder-like, toward the middle of the trap there it is narrowed by side Pete 48 woven coconut fiber. This trap is beited. It is set by lowering with a line from a canoe in water up to ten fathoms deep. The species of eels taken are mostly of genus Gymnothorax. A small trap door in the "roof" affords a means of removing the eels. the second tyne of trap tiie the appearance of a small quonset hut. Size S: more variable than the eel trap, but it is generaily rot more than three Feet icin It is set by diving in water up to about three fathoms in depthe by AS ae in such a manner in the coral that it can be concealed by addition of a few stones or pieces of coral, The entrance to the trap, which is similar to that of the eel trap, is kept free. This trap is not baited and is designed to capture reef fishes which tend to seek refuge under rocks or Ledges seneonsli, These include a nunber of epeeremeis like Ctenochaetus ae eae seid, nolce ones and lutianids. A covered opening on the oposite end to the trap entrance is used to remove the fish. Such fish traps do not seem tobe utilized very frequently. ie 53 sa ‘nother type of fish trap which is of considerable importance is the stone trap. These are found in the lagoon, on the reef, and in shallow passes between islands. They are constructed by piling stones into a long, low wall which encloses a large, roughiy rectangular area, The wall is usually about a foot and a half high ancwell covered by water at high tide. As the tide lowers the top of the wall is exposed thus isolating a body of water within the trap. ‘ith further lowering of the tide the water within the trap decreases and the fish are concentrated to an extent where they may be seined or picked up by hand, The same species are taken by stone trap as were mentioned for the lagoon and reef seining operations except for mullets which escane by jumoineg over the val]. On the sea side the wall is occasionally broken in places when surf is heavy, and must be repaired. Here, however, red coralline algae tends to cement stone of the trap together and must greatly reduce the maintenance of the trap well. Tide Pool Fishing: Three means of collecting fishes from very shallow water are included here. First there is the collection of small tide pool fisn by hand which is usually the task of women and children. By far the most imvoortant fish taken is the young of Epinephelus merra which are very abundant in tide pools and in shallow water lagoon areas. These are dried in tne sun and eaten without cookings | A species of moray eel, Cymnothorax picta, occurs well up on the reef flat on the sea side of the islands of the atoll. A method for capturing this species was observed. At low tide the fisherman walks over the reef, equipped with a basket with a lid and tio metal rods ebout two fect long. One is sharpened and the other is hooked at the end, Boulders are rolled over and every likely hole in the coral is inspected with the rods, and the MOLAYS then located, are pulled from their holes with the hooked rod. Another method for catching eels is a simple snare device. A stick about tvo feet long is baited at the end with a piece of fish. x We stick has a noose which may be drawn tight. a This is placed around a hole which looks like a likely dwelling for a moray. The bait is held just outside the noose. As the moray lunges for the bait the noose is pulled tightly around his body behind the head. This is a very old fishing method but still used today. Usualiy it takes place on the reef flat. at low tide in the surge channel area. The same method may be used -in the lagoon in deeper water by diving. Pisciculture: The milkfish, Chanos chanos, was at one time epee reared in ponds, especially one fairly large isolated body of water in the complex of tiny islands in the southern part of the atoll, The young of this species were periodically seined fron outside areas and transferred to the ponds, since adults will not breed theres Such a practice has been more or less discontinued for some yearse } Poisonous Fishes: Numerous interviews with groups of natives concerning the presence of fish in the atoll waters irith poisonous flesh were undertaken. The only fishes which were god de ates Sorc: this time were the puffers and then only the internal organs, especially the gonads, were toxic. In view of the prevalence of poisonous forms throughout the whole Pacific area, it was hard to believe that there was no BOR ay Ondtos. The natives were observed catching, preparing, and eating many species imoiwm to be poisone ous elsewhere, Interviews did reveal, however, that a certain section of the reef near the northern part of the atoll harbored poisonous fishes for several years but for the last two years fish taken from there have not been toxic. Fishes with poisonous spines do occur in the area, notably sting rays, - 56> = siganids, and certain scorpaenids like Pterois. The stone fish, Synancea verrucosa,was not collected but very probably occurs on Onotoa.e It is re- ported from Taratae 7 Attacks by Sharks: Several discussions with natives were initiated in respect to this suoject. Only five cases of attack by sharks on men were recalled = even by the older Gilbertese. These involved large sharks and not the comion smaller forms near the reef, The natives swim around these smaller sharks without any noticeable fear, Sufficient information was not secured to identify the larger, dangerous species of sharkse Fishing Regulations: Before the white man came to the Gilbert Islands sections of the reef flat and water areas of the Lagoon were oimed by men who retained exclusive rights to fish in these areas, A man who fished in enother iian's region risked violent omitive meesures by the ormer. liissionaries arrived in the Gilbert Islands sround-1850 and tended to break up these holdings, When the British took over the islands as a Protectorate in 1892, the systen of oming reef and lagoon areas was soon completely eliminated. Today by native law cone regulation of this sort exists. No man can fish in the vicinity of another weno aire fish trap at or near low tide. One other interesting law exists, On the rare occasions when Caesio sp. (the special fishing method for this fish was previously described) occur in the lazoon in large nuibers, no flying fish pvenine is alloued. Tt is be~ lieved that the light from the Horneiiee| pa! frighten Ce away. A fine of three shillings is inposed on any man caught fishing for flying fish during this time. | No restrictions ivere noted eodceanine size limits. As far as know no species of fish were ever reserved for special individuals or occasions. - 56- Preserving of Fish: Most of the fish is eaten fresh, the fisherman usually catching only enough for inmediate family use. “hen more is caucht, it is cut into thin pieces and dried in the sun, It may be cooked prior to drying. Usually it is not salted, and rarely is any of the catch smokeds Abundance of Fish: No collection of catch stavistics nor direct measurement of fishing effort was made, but the fishing effort on Onotoa, by atoll stend- ards, seems high. This is due to the relatively hizh populetion and the emphasis on fishing. Nevertheléss, it is doubted if any serious depletion of fish stocks has taken place, even for reef fishes. There are, howéver, more ®eef Fishes to be seen by underwater observation in outlying parts of the atoll atiay from usual poe Sn ae in other atolls with smaller netive popu- lations. Al SO, in the latter regions the fishes may be approached much more readily when strimning undervater,. Still, today, the Onotoan fisherman cen obtain all the fish he needs in a relatively short period of tine, at most tio or three hours. FISH COLLECTION CN ONOTOA The majority of fishes which were collected ci wenn stay on Onotoa were taken with powdered cubé or derris root conle ee mo. the active poisonous ingredien%. Ten successful port stations were executed with the two hundred pounds of cube root which was on = Nearly 120 species were added to the pelier ei by + spears ishing, though many of these turned up in sede stations as weile Sain is a highly se- lective means of getting fish and useful in obtaining fishes such as parrot fishes (scaridae) which are not easily poisoned. But this method has the ob= vious Gisadvantage of mutilation of specimens, and one usvally fails to obtain a sufficient number of specimens of any one species in this way for ordinary = oF = taxonomic purposes.e Considerable difficulty was experienced in proediene fishes from the Gilbertese which they had caught and which were destined for their dinner tables, This was especially true when the natives peseeed that most of the fish which was purchased from them did not end up as a component of the. expedition's diet. Fish, they must have reasoned, should be one to Ne one use, food. Nevertheless, some valuable additions to the fish collection were made through purchases and trading, particularly with the children. Very oeerat aad was obtained from the natives in recovering fishes at poison stationse A few fishes were caught ith hook and aine, with nae of nets, and by hand in tide pools. Field work was dominated by making the collection of fishes, since description of the fish fama of a nev 2s necessarily precede ecological studies; nevertheless, soile eco.ogical work was ones A description was made oi the areas where fishes were collected. This, coupled with extensive mder- water observations, made it possible to identify a type habitat for many of the. species. Of course, specific habitats are difficult to delimit for marine fishes, and even when one manages with fair assurance to pinpoint a fish in a certain environment, it often pops up in an Aisa doe dLapecane Onee Analysis of the stomach contents of aedsen was mede when a surplus of specimens was available. Such data were obtained for about fifty speciess however, there were usually insufficient numbers of any one species exami ned to demonstrate total variability or food habits. Food studies which were made on fishes taken by poisoning were complicated by an manticipated factor. liany of the fishes which are normally non