eg ge ee ee ae rm eens 7 : ae ne ~ nee eee a a ee —— an — — a _ 7 m . * a - — : 7 ae —— . — ——— - — _ ore = = : a a aa ; = _ he ‘ “ + Se % 4 Kors bite HUN HUE: a | I ! “ eh ey Ban eM iva iW \ a ily My | iM | LNT Y ‘I ~~ Ne S h a sae \ mi Vy) sal ain il os Ty if ti Or Y it p = Ne Be ee F & + | : sh) < \ ‘ie Meu We SN | ts ih Tie) Poa # hae i de u Pe Fost ‘ i > ’ 4 hh it ee : ‘ m4 y ¥ 4 oe, : f i \ im, Jn ‘ is : : he e " Gye Nos. 109, 110,111,112 >, @~ July 15, 1965 SERS / no. Deo der TAY St WH ATOLL RESEARCH ~ BULLETIN 109. A preliminary list of the algal flora of the Midway Islands by Richard G. Buggeln 110. Marine algae from Laysan Island with additional notes on the vascular flora by Roy T. Tsuda 111. An annotated bibliography of recent papers on corals and coral reefs by John D. Milliman 112. Atoll News and Comment Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S.A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 109. A preliminary list of the algal flora of the Midway Islands by Richard G. Buggeln 110. Marine algae from Laysan Island with additional notes on the vascular flora by Roy T. Tsuda 111. An annotated bibliography of recent papers on corals and coral reefs by John D. Milliman 112. Atoll News and Comment Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D.C. July 15, 1965 ACKNOWLE DGMENT It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board. It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda- mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past eighteen years. The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract Nonr-2300(12). The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and they do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of the editors of the Bulletin. Editorial Staff F. R. Fosberg, editor M.-H. Sachet, assistant editor Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the above: é Pacific Vegetation Project c/o National Research Council 2101 Constitution Ave., N. W. Washington, D. C. 20418, U.S.A. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN A preliminary list of the algal flora of the Midway Islands by Richard G. Buggeln Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D.C. July 15, 1965 SMITHS: INSTITUTIC A preliminary list of the algal flora of the Midway Islands by 1/ Richard G. Buggeln .Algal collections which have been reported from the Hawaiian Islands are largely based on materials collected from the more acces- sible and most heavily populated islands of Oahu, Maui, Molokai, Hawaii, and Kauai. However, collections have also been recorded from two of the lesser islands in the northwestern part of the Hawaiian chain: Laysan Island (Lemmermann, 1905) and Pearl and Hermes Reef (Howe, 1934). To the author's knowledge there have been no published reports of algae collected from the Midway Islands--two islands situ- ated on one of the last atolls toward the northwestern end of the Hawaiian archipelago. On a trip to the Midway Islands, January 12 through 16, 1962, Dr. Charles H. Lamoureux of the Botany Department, University of Hawaii, collected algae which had drifted onto several of the beaches of both islands after a storm. These algae are listed below. The Midway Islands (177°25' W. Longitude and 28° 15' N. Latitude) are on an atoll located 1300 statute miles northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii. The diameter of this circular coral atoll is about 5 miles. Wide reefs jut out of the water on the northeast side. The two islands, Sand and Eastern, are situated in the lagoon inside but near the southern rim. Around the inside of the rim of the atoll is a wide margin of shallow water which drops off toward the center of the atoll into the depths of the lagoon. Sand Island, the larger of the two islands, is one and a half miles in length along the north-south axis and a mile wide along the east-west axis. The island has a maximum elevation of 43 feet. Eastern Island, located about a mile and a half across the shallows to the east of Sand Island is relatively flat and triangular in shape. The longest of the three sides of the island is oriented in an east-west direction and is about one and a half miles long. L/ Botany Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. wae The collection numbers cited are those of the catalogued serial listings of the specimens in the herbarium of Dr. Maxwell S. Doty, Botany Department, University of Hawaii. The material from Sand Island has the following numbers: 18725 to 18731, and 18739 to 18754; those specimens from Eastern Island have the numbers: 18704 to 18719, 18732 to 18738, and 18754 to 18762. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank both Dr. Maxwell S. Doty and Dr. Albert J. Bernatowicz for their critical reading of this manuscript and for allowing the author to use their libraries during the preparation of this floral list* CYANOPHYTA Lyngbya majuscula Gomont, 1892: 151, pl. 3, figs. 3 & 4. Collection numbers 18756, 18715, 18742B, and 18754F. Masses of long intertwining filaments, 65 microns in diameter were frequently entangled with larger algae. CHLOROPHYTA Ulva sp. Collection number 18719. The specimens, too young for specific identification, were ovoid in shape, 1 to 2 cm in breadth. Boodlea vanbosseae Reinbold in Weber van Bosse, 1913: 70, 12; Dawson, 1956: 29, fig. 6. Collection number 18761. This was a thickly woven mass of filaments composed of cells 150 to 175 microns wide and 2 to 4 times as long. A main axis or axes could not be distinguished by the size of the filaments: They all had a uniform diameter, Frequently, the apical] cell of the filament had developed into a long multicellular rhizoid of slender diameter and anastomosed with another filament through the production of a tenacular cell. The material agrees with that figured in Weber van Bosse (1913). a ages Boodlea sp. Collection number 18755. The material was matted more or less loosely and entangled with and connected with pieces of coral and Halimeda. Branching occurred at random with laterals cut off by a crosswall but not necessarily near the transverse wall of the parent cell. Frequently a lateral of indeterminate length was long and attenuated and had produced a terminal tenacular cell which adhered to another filament. The diameter of the major axis near the basal holdfast was 200 microns and that of the secondary axes above was 150 microns. Microdictyon setchellianum Howe, 1934; Egerod, 1952: 366, pl. 33, fig. 6c-g. Collection number 18719B. This loose to compact clump, 1 cm across, was growing inter- twined with Jania capillacea (18719J). The diameter of the cells was 450 microns with no prominent central axis. _ Struvea anastomosans (Harvey) Picc. & Grun. ex Piccone, 1884a; Egerod, 1952: 359, pl. 31, fig. 4a-h. Collection number 18709. This specimen was growing on a small basalt stone. Udotea javensis (Montagne) A. & E. S. Gepp, 1904; Taylor, 1950: 73. Jollection number 18706B. This small specimen was 3.5 mm high from rhizoid to apex with a stipe of 110 microns and with filaments of 55 microns diameter compos- ing the monostromatic blade. The blade had a width of 1 mm; the individual filaments of the blade were constricted at irregular intervals above the dichotomies. The specimen was referred to this species because U. javensis has been commonly reported from Hawaiian waters. It is possible, however, that the alga might be a juvenile stage of a larger species of Udotea. Codium arabicum Kuetzing, 1856; Egerod, 1952: 382, pl. 34, b. figs. 11-13. Collection numbers 18741A and 18712B. The thalli, 4 cm across, were flattened and closely appressed to the surface of coral fragments. ae OE Codium edule Silva in Egerod, 1952: 392, pl. 35, b, fig. 18. Collection numbers 18740B, 18759B, 18741B, 18712B, 18725C,and 18733. The specimens all displayed the characteristic anastomosing between the dichotomous branches. The longest of the specimens was 10 cm. The branches were frequently anastomosed with the segments of Halimeda incrassata. Codium reediae Silva in Egerod, 1952: 389; pl. 36, fig. 17. Collection numbers 18740A, 18733A, 18725A, 18712A, and 18759A. The collection included specimens of 15, 20, and 25 cm in length. The branching was freely dichotomous with no anastomosing be- tween branches. Halimeda discoidea Decaisne, 1842; Hillis, 1959: 352, pl. 2, fig. 5; PLoS Pelle’ PEs “pl Oe" ries LL, > > Collection number 18705. A single sterile specimen about 8 cm high was identified. The size of the segments was quite variable in both width and length and they were lightly calcified with an average thickness of 1 to 1.4 mm. The largest segment was 2 x 1.25 cm. Two to 5 segments arose from the spical end of each lower segment. In surface view, the utricles were 5 to 7 sides and asymmetrically compact with no interutricular spaces. The outer surfaces appeared smooth with a diameter of 70 to 100 microns. Halimeda incrassata (Ellis) Lamouroux, 1816; Hillis, 1959: 365, pl. 4, "Gig ai-2s pl. 5, fig. 6, fie, 21-24. Collection numbers 18707, 18747, 18738, and 18758. The collections included fragments of larger thalli and one entire alga 6 cm in height. The segments were heavily calcified and of uniform size and shape, 4 to 7 mm in width and 4 mm high. In surface view, the utricles were round to slightly oval and measured 10 to 18 microns in diameter. The utricles were not appressed to each other and interutricular spaces were present, The branching was di- and trichotomous and in one plane. Satan PHAEOPHYTA Ectocarpus indicus Sonder in Zollinger, 1854; Béergesen, 1941: 16, figs. 6-7. Collection number 18762, The fragmentary material was sterile but the method of branching was indicative of the species. The laterals arose from a central uniseriate filament with an acute adaxial angle between the lateral and central axis. The cells in the filaments were quite variable in length. Sphacelaria sp. Collection numbers 18746, 18754D, and 18703D. All of the material, 8 mm high, was too young for certain specific identification. The propagules were knob-like and measured 100 microns long by 70 microns wide at the expanded apex, but it appeared that the divisions at the widened portion were not yet com- pleted. At this stage of growth, the propagules could develop into either those of S. tribuloides or S. novae-hollandiae. Unilocular sporangia with a diameter of 40 microns were borneon short pedicels. The segments of cells composing the vegetative axes had a length and breadth of more or less equal dimensions. Dictyota crenulata J. Agardh, 1847; Bhergesen, 1914:. 56, figs. 36-37. Collection number 18734. The fragmentary material had the distinct small crenulations along the margins which suggested that the 2 cm pieces could be placed in this taxon. Dictyota divaricata Lamouroux, 1809; Taylor, 1928: 120. Collection number 18754. This single specimen measured 6 cm in length, 3 mm broad at the torn-off base, and 10 microns wide at the attenuated tips. The material was fertile and bore mature spherical oogonia 6 to 8 microns in diameter. These were not grouped into sori, although frequently in triads, but were generally evenly distributed toward the tip of the thallus. The reproductory structures were considered to be oogonial rather than sporangial because of the absence of the classical 'tetra- sporic' divisions which are characteristic of the sporangia in this genus. 2 Zonaria sp. Collection numbers 18729, 18745, and 18716. The material was young. In cross-section the medulla con- sisted of one layer of large square cells. The cortex, both above and below, was also mostly monostromatic with evidence of ensuing periclinal divisions. On the ventral surface rhizoids were present. RHODOPHYTA Falkenbergia hillebrandii (Bornet) Falkenberg, 1901; Béergesen, 1910: 199, fig. 17; Feldmann & Feldmann, 1942: 89. Collection number 18751. This sterile material was epiphytic on segments of Halimeda incrassata. Fragments of this species were also commonly found with other small epiphytes. Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Coll. & Herv., 1917; Béergesen, 1915-1920: 352, figs. 347-351. Collection numbers 18742 and 18714. The specimens were 7 to 8 cm high with rhizoidal, creeping bases attached to segments of Halimeda incrassata. Club-shaped spermatangial stichidia, 700 microns long,were borne on lateral branchlets. These had a basal diameter of 74 microns and 225 microns at the apex. Galaxaura cylindrica (Ell. & Soll.) Kjellmann, 1900: 64, pl. 8, figs. 34-42. Collection numbers 18750 and 18736. Two sterile specimens of 7 and 9 cm height were identified by Mr. Gavino Trono, Jr., Botany Department, University of Hawaii. Hydrolithon reinboldii (W. v-B. & Foslie) Foslie, 1909; Weber van Bosse & Fostie,* 1904: 49jafig.« 21, pl. 1 LOpetig ae 6% Collection numbers 18748 and 18749. This coralline crust was growing on coral fragments. The hypo- thallial cells were 15 microns long and the perithallus was constructed of irregularly shaped cells. The specimens corresponded well with the description and figures in Weber van Bosse & Foslie (1904). a ees Jania capillacea Harvey, 1853; Dawson, 1953: 116. Collection numbers 18712, 187193, and 18735. The small alga of 3 mm height was found frequently entangled with larger algae including Microdictyon setchellianum. The diameter of the dichotomously branching axes was 100 to 110 microns. The material was sterile. Hypnea spinella (J. Ag.) Kuetzing. 1849; Bébergesen, 1920: 384, fies J69 Collection numbers 18710 and 18757. Several small clumps 2 to 4 cm in diameter and 1 cm high were identified. These clumps of intricately woven, terete axes with short spiny lateral branches frequently anastomosed with each other and with segments of Halimeda incrassata. The material was sterile. Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.) Harv. in Hooker, 1833; Taylor, 1928: 197, pl. 28, figs. 14-18. Collection numbers 18760, 18737, 18728, and 18706. The specimens varied in height from 2 to 8 cm and fragments were commonly extracted from other algae. Tetrahedral tetraspores were cut off by nodal corticating cells of the uniseriate laterals. The tetraspores, occurring 3 to 5 on a branchlet, tended to be borne on the adaxial surface although they were often produced laterally. Centroceras clavulatum (Ag.) Montagne in Durieu, 1846; Taylor, 1950: 139. Collection number 18763. This material was epiphytic on segments of Halimeda incrassata and also commonly found on other algae. Dasya pedicellata (C. Agardh) C. Agardh, 1824; Hewhens 19375, 326; Dawson, 1954: 451, fig. 56j. Collection number 18743. A single tetrasporic specimen 3.5 cm high, attached to a piece of coral, was identified as D. pedicellata by comparison with Dawson's eeie tion (1954) of a short mature specimen of similar description which he placed in this taxon. The main axes were nude below but densely covered with branching monosiphonous laterals above. The lateral filaments had a diameter of 25 to 35 microns at the base and 5 to 7 microns at the tip. The juvenile stichidia were 230 to 250 microns in length, 80 to 90 microns wide, and lanceolate in shape. The tetra- Spores, the largest with a diameter of 25 to 30 microns, were not yet fully divided. With the exception of the small stature, this specimen agrees with the description given by Taylor (1937). “rae faenioma perpusillum J. Agardh, 1863; Okamura, 1930: Icones 6, pl. 264, figs. 17-19. Collection numbers 18726, 18753, and 18750B. This alga was commonly mixed with the other small epiphytic algae and was easily recognized by its dorsi-ventral habit, terminal trichoblasts at the ends of the erect axes, and the single-celled rhizoid arising from a ventral pericentral cell with no crosswall separation. The diameter of the prostrate filament was 140 microns and the rhizoids, 45 microns. The material was sterile. Herposiphonia tenella (C. Ag.) Ambronn, 1880: Béergesen, 1918: 286, figs. 287-289. Collection numbers 18730, 18707, and 18754A. The creeping, prostrate portion of this small epiphyte gave rise to erect branches 1 mm in height at random intervals along the dorsal surface of the prostrate filaments; rhizoids were cut off from the apical end of the ventral pericentral cells of nearly every segment. The diameter of the prostrate portion was 125 microns and the erect, 60 to 85 microns. The alga was a common epiphyte among the col- lections of larger algae. No fertile material was found. Polysiphonia sp. Collection numbers 18713, 18750, and 18704. These specimens were commonly found on coral fragments, segments of Halimeda, and mixed with other small algal epiphytes. Both the branching, prostrate system and the non-branching, erect filaments had 12 to 15 pericentral cells. The erect axes, born dorsally on the prostrate axes, were separated from each other by one or more segments with no apparent regularity. The pericentral cells were 50 microns long and 135 microns in diameter. Unicellular rhizoids were cut off by a crosswall and arose from the middle of the ventral pericentral cells of the prostrate axes. The tips of the rhizoids were either slightly branched or discoid. No fertile material was found. Polysiphonia sp. Collection number 18704A. The erect axis, 6 mm high, was composed of segments of 4 peri- central cells; each pericentral cell measured 140 microns square. There were no prostrate portions, and the erect filament arose from a basal clump of rhizoids. Above one pericentral cell in each segment was a scar cell. These latter cells were arranged in a spiraling sequence on the thallus. This specimen agreed with one of Dr. G. J. Hollenberg's tentative species, in manuscript, Polysiphonia sp. Collection numbers 18727 and 18704. An erect axis 7 mm long, with 4 pericentral cells was borne from a tuft of rhizoids at the base. The pericentral cells were 140 microns long and 70 microns wide. Prostrate portions were not apparent. Trichoblasts were present only at the tips of the branches with a scar cell present above one pericentral cell in every segment and ultimately arranged in spiral sequence on the thallus. There was little branching except for several major dichotomies. The material agreed with one of Dr. G. J. Hollenberg's tentative species, in manuscript. Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) Lamouroux var. densa Yamada, 1931: 226, pl. 17, fig. c; Dawson, 1954: 458, fig. 61 H. Collection numbers 18708 and 18732. Densely entangled mats, 3 to 4 cm high were identified. All axes were approximately 1 mm in diameter and they were frequently anastomosed with Halimeda. The primary branches as well as the secondary laterals were given off in spiral succession, the latter were slightly tapered at the base and were up to 5 mm long. The cortical cells were approxi- mately 30 to 40 microns wide and 50 to 60 microns long. The outer peri- clinal wall of the cortical cells was about 10 microns thick. Lenticular thickenings were common in the medullary cells. The material was sterile. Laurencia parvipapillata Tseng. 1943b; Dawson, 1854; 458, fig. 61g. Collection number 18754L., This small alga, 1.75 cm long corresponded well with Dawson's figure (1954). Chondria repens Bbergesen, 1924; Tanaka, 1963: 66, fig. 4a-d. Collection numbers 18754C and 18749A, This material was common on small pieces of coral and was frequently anastomosed with fragments of Spyridia and Laurencia. This small alga had both a prostrate portion and an erect system, the latter having a height of 4 to 5 mm. The terete vegetative thallus had a nearly uniform diameter of 210 to 250 microns, Tetrahedral tetraspores 70 to 130 microns in diameter were scattered at the ends of erect, determinate branches. The tetrasporangial branches were broadly clavate when young and became less expanded when older. These mature branches had a diameter of 720 to 740 microns at the apex and 250 microns at the axil. Erect vegetative branches produced secondary laterals sparingly. In cross-section, the cortical cells were more or less the same size as the medullary cells, about 100 microns in diameter. The specimens agreed well with Tanaka's description (1963). se WI vos Bibliography Boéergesen, F. 1913-1920. Marine algae of the Danish West Indies, parts I-II. Dansk Botanisk Archiv. 1-9. 1942-43. Some marine algae from Mauritius, III. Rhodophyceae. Pt. 1 & 2. Kgl. Dansk Vidensk. Selab, Biol. Meddel. RFE5) 2 12799901) S85. Bryan, Jr., E. H. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Tongg Publishing Co., Honolulu, Hawaii. 253 pp. Collins, F. S. & A. B. Hervey. 1917. The algae of Bermuda. Proc; Am. Acad. of Arts. ‘and! Seat? 53/G))*) 12195, Dawson, E. Y. 1954. Marine plants in the vicinity of the Institute Océanographique de Nha Trang, Viet Nam. Pac. Sci. 8(4): 371-481. . 1956. Some marine algae of the southern Marshall Islands. Pac. ' Sci. 10(1)2) 25-66, Doty, M. S., & W. J. Newhouse. 1962. Material for a study of the brown algae of the Hawaiian Islands. (A dittoed manuscript). Egerod, L. E. 1952. An analysis of the siphonous chlorophycophyta (with special reference to the Siphonocladales, Siphonales, and Dasycladales of Hawaii). Univ. of Calif. Publ. in Bot. 25(5): 325-454. Hamel, G. 1938. Phéophycées de France. Impr. Wolf, Rouen. Fascicle 4, 241-336. Hillis, L. W. 1959. A revision of the genus Halimeda (order Siphonales). inst, Mar, Set.) '67%321=405F Howe, M. A. 1934. Hawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff. JL of Wash. Acad. Sete 24 Cri 32-4 2, Lemmermann, E. 1905. Die Algenflora der Sandwich-Inseln. Ergebnisse einer Reise nach dem Pacific (H. Schauinsland 1896-7). Bot. Jarb. 34: 607-663. Tanaka, T. 1963. Studies on some marine algae from Southern Japan. IV. Memoirs Fac. Fish. Kagoshima Univ. 12(1): 66-67. Taylor, W. R. 1937. Marine algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 405 pp. = (ieee Weber van Bosse, A., & M. Foslie. 1904. The Corallinaceae of the Siboga Expedition. Siboga Expeditie. 61: 1-100. 1913. Liste des algues du Siboga. I. Myxophyceae, Chlorophyceae, et Phaeophyceae. Siboga Expeditie. 59a: 1-186. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 110 Marine algae from Laysan Island with additional notes on the vascular flora by Roy T. Tsuda Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D.C. July 15, 1965 Marine algae from Laysan Island with 1/ additional notes on the vascular flora ~ by 2/ Roy Tt lswday. + The Leeward Hawaiian Islands are composed of a chain of nine islands and reefs that extend northwest from Kauai. All of these islands are uninhabited with the exception of Midway, Kure, and French Frigate Shoal. For further details on the separate islands and reefs, see Bryan (1942). Laysan Island, one of the Leeward Hawaiian Islands, is located about 790 nautical miles northwest of Honolulu at 25 42' 14" North Latitude, 171° 44' 6" West Longitude. This low coral island is about one and three quarters miles in length and one mile wide with a large salt-water lake occupying the center of the island. The water in this lake is about twice as saline as "normal strength'' sea water. The west, north, and south rims of the island reach heights of thirty to forty feet before sloping downward toward the central lake, but the south rim is only about ten feet above sea level. At present this island is a wildlife refuge under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Interior. Lamoureux (1963), from which all of the above®description of the island is taken, gives a short résumé of the topography and history pertinent to the vegetation of this island. He presents an up to date listing of all the species of vascular plants, with their dates of collection or observation, that are recorded from Laysan, including those from his own collections. While he gives the current status of the vas- cular plants from Laysan, there are no recent papers on the non-vascular plants. Bryophytes have never been reported from Laysan. This is partly due to the unsuitable sandy substratum that covers the major por- tion of the island. The fungi are another group that has never been reported on, probably because no qualified person familiar with this group has ever visited the island. The author feels that many fungi occur in the soils and in the fecal matter of the thousands of birds that inhabit this island, also that marine fungi may be found near shore. Technical Report No. 4, Hawaii Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. a eh Past published listings of the algae from Laysan are based solely on Schauinsland's collections during 1896-1897 which were identified and published in both Reinbold (1899) and Lemmermann (1905). Schauinsland spent three months on the island and made extensive collections of the algae, particularly concentrating on the phytoplankton. He listed (1899) twenty-three species of marine benthic algae which had been determined by Reinbold (1899). Later, Lemmermann published a very comprehensive paper (1905) on the algal flora of the Hawaiian Islands. His paper lists forty-five species of marine algae based on Schauinsland's collections from Laysan including nineteen of the twenty-three species listed by Schauinsland in his 1899 paper. Also included by Lemmermann are fifty-one species of marine phytoplankton collected by Schauinsland between Laysan and Oahu. The specimens collected by Schauinsland were not seen by the author. In 1918 MacCaughey published a treatment of all the known algae from the Hawaiian Islands which is partly based on Lemmermann's list. In the spring of 1923, the Tanager Expedition visited Laysan for one month. Mr. Edward L. Caum, one of the botanists on this ex- pedition, reported in his field notes that twenty-six algal collecting stations were made on or near this island--twenty stations along the shore of the island, five from dredging stations in 20-40 meters of water, and one station in the salt-water lake. Mr. Caum's original field notes are in the possession of the Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. There is species list of the algae found from these stations in those notes nor in any of the other published works con- cerning this expedition. Forty-three species or varieties of algae from Laysan collected by the Tanager Expedition were found in the Her- barium at the B. P. Bishop Museum. They are included in the present paper. The specimens of vascular plants collected from Laysan during the Tanager Expedition and some of the specimens of Schauinsland's may be found in the Herbarium at the Bishop Museum. In 1961 Dr. Charles H. Lamoureux collected a few marine algae which were not reported in his 1963 paper. To the author's knowledge, no other algal collections were made on this island between the time of Dr. Lamoureux's visit and the author's visit. Past records of algal collections are also available from two other islands in the Hawaiian Leeward Group. Howe (1934) lists fifteen species of marine algae collected by Dr. Paul €. Galtsoff from Pearl and Hermes Reef. The other record is Buggeln's recent paper (1965) listing thirty-four species of marine algae collected by Dr. Lamoureux from Midway Island. Through the courtesy of both the Hawaii State Fish and Game Division under the Department of Land and Natural Resources and the United States Coast Guard, the author was able to visit Laysan Island in December 3-10, 1963, making extensive collections of both the vascular plants and the marine benthic algae. Water samples for salinity analyses were also obtained from the salt-water lake and along the seashore. The main objective of this paper is to provide an up to date listing of all the marine algae collected from Laysan Island, which consists of collections by Schauinsland (1896-1897), Tanager Expedition (1923), Lamoureux (1961) and the author (1963). The en- crusting coralline algae collected by the Tanager Expedition are excluded; otherwise this list, together with Lemmermann's paper (1905), provides a complete listing of all the algae both benthic and planktonic thus far recorded from Laysan. Also included in this paper is a list of the twenty-two vascular plants collected by the author in December, 1963, with some miscellaneous notes pertinent to the terrestrial flora. A brief discussion and records of the salinity data obtained are also included in this paper. Acknowledgment | The author is grateful to Dr, Charles H. Lamoureux, Botany Department, University of Hawaii, who critically read over the manuscript offering helpful suggestions to the author, and who fur- nished the determinations of the two species of vascular plants which were unfamiliar to the author as well as his verification of the author's determinations of the other vascular plants. He is also grateful to Mr. "W'' Jan Newhouse, Dole Pineapple Company, who extended his help on certain algal problems and for his determination of the blue-green algae of the Tanager Expedition. The author is indebted to Dr. Maxwell S. Doty, Botany Department, University of Hawaii, and to Dr. Albert J. Bernatowicz, General Science Department, University of Hawaii, who made their personal libraries freely available to him. At this time he also wishes to thank both Mr. Ronald Walker, wildlife biologist, Hawaii State Fish and Game Division, and Dr. Nixon Wilson, acarologist, B. P. Bishop Museum, who made the trip to Laysan with the author and willingly offered him their help when- ever he was in need of it. He is also indebted to Dr. Llewellya H. Colinvaux, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Ohio State University, who provided the determination of one of the species of Halimeda: to Dr. Francis Drouet, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, who provided the se species determinations of all the blue-green algae collected by both Dr. Lamoureux and the author; to Dr. William J. Gilbert, Depart- ment of Biology, Albion College, who provided many of the species determinations within the Chlorophyta; to Dr. George J. Hollenberg, Professor Emeritus of Biology, University of Redlands, for his determination of the species of Polysiphonia; to Miss Marie Neal, Bishop Museum, who provided the identification of the seeds; to both Mr. Tim O'Callaghan, Botany Department of Hawaii, and Mr. David Hashimoto, United States Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, who analyzed the salinity samples recorded in this paper; to Mr. Jan Chock, Botany Department, University of Hawaii, who prepared the map (Fig. 1); and to Miss Harriet Koyama, Botany Department, University of Hawaii, who typed the final draft of this manuscript for the author. MAR UTNE “AL GA 'E In making the algal collections and observations, the author walked along the shore around the island looking for different types of algal habitats and made extensive collections from each area. Seven water samples were taken in reference to algal collec- tion areas along the shore. The collection from each habitat was placed in a separate plastic bag and preserved with 10% formalin in sea water. The first step undertaken in identifying these algae was to sort those from each collection into the respective genera, giving each entity from each collection a number. The collections made by Dr. Lamoureux are permanently recorded in Dr. Maxwell S. Doty's notebook number 62 with the numbers ranging from 19577-19593; while the author's collections are permanently recorded in his own note- book with collection numbers ranging from 509-609. All of the author's and Dr. Lamoureux's specimens, except those specimens which were sent abroad to be identified, are deposited in Dr. Doty's her- barium in the Botany Department at the University of Hawaii. a SV Other references, aside from those cited in the bibliography, which proved of immense value in the determination of the species within the Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta were Dr. William J. Gilbert's - unpublished field manual of Hawaiian Chlorophyta and the unpublished manuscript on the Hawaiian Phaeophyta by Dr. Maxwell S. Doty and Mr. "W'' Jan Newhouse, The following is a list of the major habitats from which the collections of algae were made. See Fig. 1 for the locations of each of the recent algal collecting stations. The numbers preceding the description of each habitat are the station numbers which are listed consecutively to simplify citation of the habitats in the species list. Other habitats where only one species was found are not designated by a station number since habitat can be fully described under the ap- propriate species. STATION 1 STATION 2 STATION 3 STATION 4 STATION 5 STATION 6 Collections made by Schauinsland, 1896-1897 ' Laysan Island (Schauinsland (1899) and Lemmermann (1905) did not elaborate on the particular area of the island from which the algae were collected). Collections made by the Tanager Expedition, April, 1923 Laysan Island (few habitat descriptions were available on herbarium labels). Collections made by Lamoureux, September, 1961 On coral ridge on south and southwest sides of island (19579-19584). : Beachdrift on the north shore of island (19585-19593). Collections made by Tsuda, December, 1963 On reef, about one meter deep, near shoreline on northwest side of island about two hundred meters south of main boat entrance, Reef flat largely barren and very brown in color. Fig. 3 shows this reef flat during high tide (509-519). On two large coral heads which appeared completely green in color from algal growth of Ulva and Enteromorpha. These coral heads were exposed during low tide (520-521). ee Ti STATION 7 - On slightly wave-washed coral ledge on west side of island. Salinity recorded as 35.01 °/oo (522-533). STATION 8 - Ina long shallow tidepool, about half a meter deep, which runs parallel to the shore at the northernmost point on the large coral ridge (about 250 meters long) on southwest side of island. At low tide, this tidepool is easily accessible, whereas ~t high tide it is almost impossible to reach without being washed over the seaward ledge. Fig. 2 shows this coral ridge during high tide. Salinity recorded as 35.19 °/oo (534-539). STATION 9 - In tidepool on southernmost point of this same large coral ridge as in "Station 8" (540-576). STATION 10 - Beachdrift on northwest shore (577-592). STATION 11 - On wave-washed coral ledge on northeast side of island. Salinity recorded as 35.17 °/oo (593-606). The following is an annotated list of all the blue-green, green, brown and red algae that were collected from Laysan Island by the four collectors cited above. The station numbers and those collection numbers present are cited with each binomial, and will serve to indicate the respective algal habitat from which the collection was made and the person or expedition who made the collection, with the dates. Since the deter- minations of Schauinsland's collections were made many years ago, many of the names of his species are now relegated to synonymy. In such cases the original names which were listed by Schauinsland or. Lemmermann are placed in parentheses under the accepted names with annotations con- cerning the change included. Those species which represent new algal records from Laysan are preceded by an asterisk. MYXOPHYTA Any significant information given in Dr. Francis Drouet's letter to the author is incorporated in the listing below. Since Drouet and Daily,in their "Revision of the coccoid Myxophyceae" (1956), did not have the opportunity to see the holotypes of the coccoid forms determined by Lemmermann from Laysan, they designated them as the types until the specimens could be studied. For the present they place them in a genus or species but tentatively. In the listing below, those coccoid and filamentous Myxophyceae which were not discussed by Dr. Drouet in his letter or by Drouet and Daily (1956) are cited as they appeared in Lem- mermann's paper (1905). . - 7- *Anacystis dimidiata (Kutz.) Drouet & Daily, 1952: 221. Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (in salt-water lake). Anacystis sp. (Coelosphaeriopsis halophila Lemn.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (in salt-water lake). Drouet & Daily (1956) tentatively list C. halophila under the genus Anacystis. Aulosira schauinslandii Lemm., 1905: 622. Local Habitat: Sta, 1 (epiphytic on Turbinaria ornata) Calothrix confervicola Bornet & Flahault, 1886: 349. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on marine algae) rT) Entophysalis conferta (Kutz.) Drouet & Daily, 1948: 79. (Xenococcus laysanensis Lemm. ) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on marine algae) Drouet & Daily (1956) tentatively list X. laysanensis under E. conferta., Entophysalis deusta Drouet & Daily, 1948: 79. (Chondrocystis schauinslandii Lemm.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan): Sta. 2 (in salt-water lake);in lake on southeast side growing with Lyngbya aestuarii CLO57 7): Stae 7 *(531). According to Dr. Drouet, specimen 19577 i's a topotype of Chondrocystis schauinslandii. Gomphosphaeria aponina Kutz., 1836:: 151, Drouet & Daily, 1956: 98. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (intermixed with marine algae). a Se Lyngbya aestuarii Gomont, 1893: 147. (Lyngbya semiplena (C. Ag.) J. Ag.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan): Sta. 2 (in salt-water lake) ; in salt-water lake on southeast side (19577); Sta. 7 (531); epiphytic on Sesuvium portulacastrum on north side in salt-water lake, salinity 64 O/o00 (607); epiphytic on Cyperus laevigatus on southwest side in salt-water lake, salinity 60 °/oo (608). This particular alga as determined by Dr. Drouet was growing abundant Ly as an epiphyte in the salt-water lake. According to Dr. Drouet, specimen 531 is an ecophene (ecological growth-form) usually referred to as Lyngbya semiplena. Lyngbya meneghiniana (KUtz.) Gomont, 1890: 354. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on marine algae). Microchaete vitiensis Asken. in Bornet & Flahault, 1885: 22. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on Liagora coarctata). *Microcoleus chthonoplastes Gomont, 1892: 354. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (in salt-water lake). Oscillatoria bonnemaisonii Gomont, 1893: 235. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on marine algae). Oscillatoria corallinae Gomont, 1890: 356. Local Habitat: Sta, 1 (washings from marine algae). Oscillatoria laetevirens Gomont, 1892: 226. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (washings from marine algae). Phormidium laysanense Lemm., 1905: 619. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on Turbinaria ornata). Beach Schizothrix calcicola (Ag.) Gomont, 1892. (Lyngbya perelegans Lemm,, Lyngbya gloiophila Lemn., (Lyngbya mucicola Lemm.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan) -- all three species listed above in parentheses were listed by Lemmermann; Sta. 2 (in salt-water lake); in salt-water lake on south- east side (19577); epiphytic on Sesuvium portulacastrum on north side in salt-water lake, salinity 64 ~/oo (607). According to Dr. Druoet, specimen 19577 is the topotype of Lyngbya gloiophila Lemm = L. mucicola Lemm. and specimen 607 is the topotype of Lyngbya perelegans Lemm,. Spirulina subtilissima KUtz., 1843: 183. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (washings from marine algae). _CHLOROPHYTA *Acetabularia mobii Solms-Laubach, 1895: 30, pl. 4 (fig. 1); Egerod, 1942: 411, fig. 23i. Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (549); Sta. 10 (586). Most of the collections from Station 9 are fertile. *Bornetella sphaerica (Zanard.) Solms-Laubach, 1893: 92, pl. 9 (fig. 8); Egerod, 1952: 407, figs. 22d-g, pl. 42. Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (546) “Bryopsis peels Lam., 1809a:° "134, fig: la-b, pl. 3; Egerod, 1952, 370, Hue ct Local Habitat: Sta. 5 (510); Sta. 10(579) Collections from Sta. 5 were dark green in color with filaments about 5 cm in length. This species was growing in great abundance at this station while very few were found at the other two stations. *Caulerpa ambigua Okam., 1897: 4, pl. 1 (figs. 3-12); Eubank, 1946: 410, fics a=b, pl. 22. Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (548). Only a few specimens of this species were found along the shore. = |) ee Caulerpa racemosa var. laetevirens (Mont.) Weber van Bosse, 1913: 106. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). The variety listed above is in question, Eubank (1946) says, "T have seen no specimen which can definitely be referred to var. laetevirens." *Caulerpa racemosa var. peltata (Lam,) Eubank, 1%6: 421, figs. 2r-s. Local Habitat: Sta. 2° (laysan)'® Stary “taz3) ; *Caulerpa racemosa var. turbinata (J. Ag.) Eubank, 1946: 420, figs. 20p-q. Local Habitat: Sta. 2. (Lavsan)= Sta, 9% (541) 2 Sta. il. (504). This variety is found in abundance at both habitats. The ramuli appear bright orange in color. Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl.) Ag., 1822: 435; Eubank, 1946: 417. (Caulerpa pinnata (L.) Weber van Bosse sensu Reinbold). Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan). Eubank (1946) believes that what Reinbold called C. pinnata probably refers to C. taxifolia. *Caulerpa webbiana Montagne, 1838: 129, pl. 6; Eubank, 1%6: 415, figs. ld-f and 2d, Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (540). Forming thick mats along the seaward wall of the tidepool with these mats being exposed during low tide. *Chaetomorpha antennina (Bory) KUtzing, 1849: 379, Boergesen, 1940: 38. Local Habitat: Sta. 8 (537); Sta. 11 (595). Forming scattered green tufts at both stations. *Chlorodesmis hildebrandtii A. & E. S. Gepp, 1911: 16, 137, figs. 74-75; Eserod, 1952-377. £16... 9b. pil, ova Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 11 (605B). A short filament found intermixed with Ceramium fimbriatum and Centroceras clavulatum,. ie Dictyosphaeria cavernosa (Forsk.) Béerg., 1932: 2, pl. 1 (fig. 1); Egerod, 1952: 350, fig. le-g. Dictyosphaeria favulosa (Ag.) Dene.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 4(19585B); Sta. 10 (588A). The binomial D. favulosa is now a synonym of D. cavernosa. Specimen 19585B was determined by Dr. Gilbert. *Dictyosphaeria versluysii Weber van Bosse, 1905: 1944; Egerod, 1952: 351, figs. la and 2h-k, Mocall Habitats Sta. 2 Ciaysan):; Sta. 7 (533); Sta. 9 (542); Sta. 10 (588B). *Dictyosphaeria sp. Local Habitat: On coral reef in water about half a meter deep on southeast side of island (19578). This entity is recorded in Dr. Doty's notebook as belonging to this genus with no specific epithet given. It may very well and probably does fall in one of the two species listed above. The specimen itself cannot be found by the author at present. *Enteromorpha tubulosa KUtzing, 1856: 11; Dawson, 1954: 384, fig. 6a-b. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta, 6 (520); Sta. 9 (544); Sta. 11 (596). *Enteromorpha sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 3 (19579). This specimen is recorded as such in Dr. Doty's notebook but the specimen itself cannot be found. *Halimeda discoidea Decaisne, 1842: 91; Hillis, 1959: 352, pl. 2 (fig. 5), pb Clelwi ei pis for Cle. wil) ,eplee7s(itessn9=10), pl. 8 CEles. 5-8), pl. asl: Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan); Sta. 4 (19590); Sta. 5 (509); Sta elOniCs77)s This species is present on all reef flats around the island. Specimen 19590 was determined by Dr. Gilbert and the latter two by Dr. Llewellya Hillis Colinvaux. 2 er ‘Halimeda lacunalis Taylor, 1950: 91, pl. 51; Hillis, 1959: 349, Pl. 1 (#ig. 1), pl. 5 Cite. 6)oply 6 hie. 16, sole Ase cee re PRS Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan). If the author's determination is correct, this species is a new record for the Hawaiian Islands. Halimeda opuntia (L.) Lam., 1816: 308; Hillis, 1959: 359, pl. 2 (fies. 7-8), pl. 5 (figs. 3-4), pl. 6 (Eig. 6), pledu(iie. ga), pice TD, Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 4 (19586). Specimen 19586 was determined by Dr. Gilbert. Microdictyon setchellianum Howe, 1934: 38; Egerod, 1952: 366, figs. 6c-g, phy 33: (Microdictyon umbilicatum (Velley) Zanard.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 4 (19592); Stag*7 9(529) #' Star 29 1¢543)e0 Stag On (583) % Sta. 1 (606): The name M, umbilicatum is now a synonym of M. setchellianum. Specimen 19592 was determined by Dr. Gilbert. *Palmogloea protuberans (Sm. & Sow.) KUtzing, 1843: 176. Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (dredged from bottom of salt-water lake in 5-7 meters of water). This species was determined by Mr. Newhouse. *Pringsheimiella acutata (Reinke) Schmidt & Petrack, 1934: 29; Kenyon & Rice, 1959: 248; Taylor, 1960: 51. Local Habitat: On the molted fur of the Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi Matschie (19593B). This green alga collected by Dr. Lamoureux was readily seen by the author growing abundantly on the faces and bellies of the sub-adult seals. It seems that the younger seals spend more time in the water and coliect a more abundant algal growth. Fig. 9 shows a photograph of the seal on which this species of alga was growing. = te *Ulva fasciata Delile, 1813: 153; Bédergesen, 1940: 10. Local Habitat: Sta. 2-“((iaysan): Sta. 6 (521); Sta. 9 (545); SHeeiep Mike eee es Fronds deeply cleft with the clefts extending most of the way to the holdfast. Ulva rigida Ag., 1824: 410. Local Habitat: Sta, 1 (Laysan). ‘Gilbert (unpublished manuscript) lists this species as occurring in Hawaii. PHAEOPHYTA *Chnoospora minima (Hering) Papenfuss, 1956: 69. Local Habreate sta, 2 (laysan): Sta. Il (593). _ Dictyota acutiloba J. Ag., 1848: 92. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). *Dictyota divaricata Lam., 1809: 331. Eoeal) Habitat.) Sta. 9 (53). PDickyota triabalis Setchell, 1926: “9L pl. 13 (files. 4-7) and pl. 20 Cie. OL hocal Habrigt= “Sta. 4 (19593) > Stas 5 (513); Sta. 7 (G25); Stay, LO, (78). Growing in clumps with fronds prostrate in nature. *Ectocarpus breviarticulatus J. Ag., 1847: 7; Setchell, 1924: 171, Eig. OW . Tocal Habstare’ . sta, 9 (555)s Sta. 12 (602... Intertangled tufts with filaments having distinctly hooked branch- lets. The slightly oblong plurilocular organs are about 40 iu long and 33 yp wide. ~ ie Ectocarpus indicus Sonder in Zollinger, 1854: 3. (Ectocarpus simpliciusculus var. vitiensis Asken.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (epiphytic on Turbinaria ornata). In their unpublished manuscript on the Hawaiian Phaeophyta, Dr. Doty and Mr. Newhouse believe that the variety collected by Schauinsland is probably a small form of E. indicus Sonder. Hydroclathrus clathratus (C. Ag.) Howe, 1920: 590; Dawson 1954: 403, fig. 18b. (Hydroclathrus cancellatus Bory sensu Reinbold). Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (559). Doty and Newhouse (unpublished manuscript) believe that what Schauinsland collected was probably H. clathratus. *Padina crassa Yamade, 1931: 67 and 69. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Padina japonica Yamada, 1931: 67 and 69, pl. 19 (fig. 2). Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (558). Thalli two cells thick throughout with oogonia distributed in concentric rings on the lower surface of the frond. *Pocockiella variegata (Lam.) Papenfuss, 1943: 467, figs. 1-14. focal Habitat: “Sta, 3 (L956): ‘Sta. “9 (550):. *Ralfsia sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan) *Sargassum echinocarpum J. Ag., 1848: 327. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan).. This sterile specimen is tentatively placed in this species. ee *Sargassum obtusifolia J. Ag., 1848: 339. Pocat Habitats “sta, 3 (19580): "Sta. 8" (534, 535); Sta. 9 (552). All of the collections except 534 have long strap-like leaves with the receptacles elongated and appearing warty. Specimen 534 which is sterile has short thick leaves. Proliferations on the primary branches are absent on all the collections. Bladders formed at the apex of short flattened leaves are found on only one of the specimens (535). All collections are about 6 cm high. Although there may be some discrepancy between the description given above and the original description of this species, these specimens will be placed under the above species for the present. Sargassum polyphyllum J. Ag., 1848: 308. Local Habitat; Sta. 1 (Laysan). Lemmermann (1905) also lists S. polyphyllum var. fissifolium Grun, but for the present this variety will be just mentioned here under the specific name. *Sphacelaria tribuloides Meneghini, 1840: 2; Bdéergesen, 1941: 41, figs. 18a-c Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (554). Turbinaria ornata (Turn.) J. Ag., 1848: 266; Taylor, 1963: 483. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (551). Most of the recent collections are made up of juvenile specimens which appear as long intertangled filaments. Only in a few thalli is the peltate apex visible. Zonaria sp. (Stypopodium lobatum Kitz.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (557); Stan OrGe).. The illustration which KUtzing, 1859, Tab. Phyc. 9, pl. 63 (fig. 2), shows of S. lobatum looks very much like the undescribed Zonaria which is found in Hawaii. eh RHODOPHYTA Amansia glomerata C. Ag., 1824: 247. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (572). Amphiroa fragilissima (L.) Lam., 1816: 298; Taylor, 1960: 403, pl. 47 (figs. 1 and 2). Local Habitat: Sta. 1 «(Laysan)); Sta.) 4.¢@1959NA) 3 Stant5 (aL2)3 Sta. 10 (589). *Antithamnion sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 8 (538 - epiphytic on Chaetomorpha antennina); Sta. 9 (562 - intermixed with Ceramium fimbriatum). Central axis about 130 u wide with sessile tetrasporangia forming laterally on branches which are about 5 mm long and 20 u wide. Tetrasporangiun. measured 50 u long and 40 u wide. *Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Collins & Harvey, 1917: 117. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan)+ Sta. 3°(U9583A). Stan9m(543)). Thalli were never found attached but floating in tidepools or as beachdrift. *Centroceras clavulatum (Ag.) Montagne in Durieu, 1846: 140; Dawson, 1954: 446, fig. 54h. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 7 (530 - associated with Ceramium fimbriatum); Sta. 9 (569 - epiphytic on Microdictyon setchellianum); Sta. 10 (585 - associated with Hypnea sp. 2) *Ceramium fimbriatum Setch. & Gard., 1924: 777, pl. 26 (figs. 43-44); Dawson, 1954: 446, fig. 55a; Dawson, 1962: 56. ET iy ae *Champia parvula (C. Ag.) Harvey, 1853; Tab. Phyc. 16, p. 14, pl. 37e-f; Dawson, 1954: 443, figs. 52e, 53. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Chondria sp. l Local Habitat: Sta. 5 (519). Thalli about 1 cm long with a terminal depression present at the apex. Both short and long branches are formed laterally on the main axis. | *Chondria sp. 2 Local Habitat: Sta. 11 (598). Branches present on only one side of the main axis. *Chondrococcus hornemanni (Mert.) Schmitz, 1895: 170. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta. 9 (568); Sta. 11 (601). Collections from both stations were floating in tidepools. *Soelarthrum boergensenii Weber van Bosse, 1928: 473, figs. 207-208. Local Habitat: Sta. 10 (592). Gora tila sandvicensis Lemm. 1899: 299. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Gelidium pusillum (Stackhouse) LeJolis, 1864: 139; Dawson, 1954: 420, fig. -3la=c., Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan). *Gelidium sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Haloplegma sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 3 (19583B). - 18 - *Herposiphonia sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 10 (581). *Hypnea cervicornis J. Ag., 1852: 451; Dawson, 1954: 435, fig. 46d; Tanaka, 1941: 240, fig. 13. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan); Sta, 11"G9s). Thallus is more similar to Dawson's illustration than to Tanaka's. *Hypnea esperi Bory, 1829: 157; Dawson, 1954: 436, fig. 46h-j. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Hypnea pannosa J. Ag., 1847: 14; Tanaka, 19%1: 247, fig. 20. Local Habitat: Sta. 5 (518)! Stay oS G66)s)Stay lG600)i, All of the collections formed clumps on the substratum, *Hypnea sp. 1 Local Habitat: Sta. 7 (526). Fragment about 1-2 mm high with thallus complanate with few lateral branches present. *Hypnea sp. 2 Local Habitat: Sta. 10 (580). Fragment about one centimeter high with no predominate main axis. The majority of the sub-branches are about 2-4 mm long. *Jania capillacea Harvey, 1853: 84; Dawson, 1952: 116; Dawson, 1954: 432, figs. 4la-b. Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (567); Sta. 10 (590B). Calcareous thalli forming clumps with the individual thallus ranging from 66-120 p in width. ayy hohe *Jania decussato-dichotoma (Yendo) Yendo, 1905: 37; Dawson, 1952: 117, pi. w27i(&ieers); Dawson;.'1954:.430;,, figs 40£-. Local Habitat: Sta. 4 (19587). *Jania mexicana Taylor, 1945: 197. Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan). *Jania micrarthrodia Lam., 1816: 271, pl. 9 (fig. 5a-b); Dawson, 19562 49, fig. 42. Local Habitat: Sta, 2 (Laysan). *Jania natalensis Harvey, 1847: 107; Dawson, 1952: 118, pl. 27 (figs. 1-2). Local Habitat; Sta. 7 (522) Thalli about 3 cm high with narrow erect branches. Intergenicula more or less uniform in diameter throughout, with short branches arising from intergenicula. *Jania ungulata Yendo, 1902: 27, pl. 3 (figs. 7-8) and pl. 7 (fig. 8). Local Habitat: Sta. 4 (19589); Sta. 10 (591). Thalli about 3 cm high with flat swellings at tips of terminal branches. *Laurencia corymbosa J. Ag., 1863: 716; Dawson, 1954: 458, fig. 61f. Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (573). Rigid thalli about 2-3 cm high. Laurencia:obtusa (Huds.) Lam., 1813: 130; Taylor, 1960: 626; Yamada, 193 222, pi. le (figs. a-e) and pl. 17 (figs. a=c). Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan); Sta. 4 (19588); Sta. 5 (514); Stan 7 ©24)5 Sta. 9 (564); Sta. 10 (582); Seasick €603)) ; Forming thick red mats completely covering the high coral ledges that were accessible to spray from waves. 4 BOS *Laurencia perforata (Bory) Mont., 1840: 155; Yamada, 1931: 193, Figs. ad=-b, pi. 3 (lee Rp. (Laurencia vaga Kitz.) Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). Yamada (1931),after examining a cotype collected by Vieillard in New Caledonia, says that Kutzing's L. vaga is probably L. perforata. *Laurencia pygmaea Weber van Bosse, 1913a: 122, pl. 12 (fig. 6); Yamada, 1931: 201. Local Habitat: Sta. 11 (604). *Laurencia sp. l Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (565). *Laurencia sp. 2 Local Habitat: Sta. 9 (560). *Laurencia sp. 3 Local) Habitat so Staie 5.46515)» *Laurencia sp. 4 Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Laurencia sp. 5 N Local Habitat: Sta. (Laysan). Liagora coarctata Zanard, Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). *Liagora kahukuana Abbott, 1945: 149, fig. 2, Local Habitat: Sta. 3 (19584). A large male thallus about 14 cm long. This specimen falls within Abbott's description of this species. 2a es ieera valida Harv,, 1852: 138, pl. 314 (figs..1-5).. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). *Liagora sp. 1 Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). *Liagora sp. 2 Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan). Lithothamnion sp. ‘Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan) *Peyssonelia sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 2 (Laysan) Polysiphonia polyphysa Kutz. 1863: 20. Local Habitat: Sta. 1 (Laysan). Menez (1964) says that he could find no specimens of this species in any of the Hawaiian collection. De Toni (1900) believes that this specimen is probably P. ferulacea. *Polysiphonia sphaerocarpa Béerg., 1918: 271, figs. 267-271. Local Habitat: Sta. 81 (539). Determination made by Dr. Hollenberg. *Polysiphonia sp. Local Habitat: Forming deep red tufts on the neck of a sea turtle, Chelone mydas (609), Filaments arising from a prostrate axis. = 22 = *Porolithon sp. Local Habitat: Sta. 7 (528) s9Sta.'10 (S87). White calcareous alga covering portion of reef. *Pterocladia parva Dawson, 1952: 77, pl. 6 (fig. 2). Local Habitat: Sta. 5 (517). Summary of Algal Collections Below is a table summarizing the number of algal species or varieties listed in this paper in each of the major divisions collected by the four collectors from Laysan Island. Collectors Myxophyta Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Rhodophyta Total Schauins land (1896-1897) 10 6 6 10 Shy) Tanager Exp. (1923) 5 14 > 17 43 Lamoureux (1961) 3 i 3) 7 20 Tsuda (1963) 3 15 Wal 28 57 Of these collections, 72 species or varieties are new published records for Laysan. These new records consist of 2 in the Myxophyta, 18 in the Chlorophyta, 11 in the Phaeophyta and 39 in the Rhodophyta. 193 4 WAC Soe Ucn ATR PeLUAUN. TS The following is an annotated listing of the twenty-two species of vascular plants collected from Laysan by the author during his visit there in December 1963. Lamoureux (1963) elaborated on the various vegetation patterns and associations that may be found on the island, From reading this account, the only significant change noticed was that the water from the salt- water lake had risen considerably probably due to heavy rainfall. This rise in water had caused most of the Sesuvium-Cyperus- Heliotropium association near the edge of the lake to be covered with water. In this listing are two species, determined by Dr. Lamoureux, which were not found in 1961. ‘They are preceded by an asterisk. All of the other determinations were made by the author and later verified by Dr. Lamoureux. Three sets of these plants were prepared and deposited respectively in the herbarium at the Bishop Museum, herbarium at the University of Hawaii and the Hawaii State Fish and Game Division. Casuarina equisetifolia L. One tree (Fig. 5) about 5-7 meters high was present on the west side of the island. The Hawaiian terns (Anous tenuirostris melanogenys) were using this tree as a nesting site. Cocos nucifera L. Nineteen coconut trees were present on the island. The twelve trees at the northwest side of the lake (Fig. 10) seemed in fine condition with the water from the lake not reaching the base of the trees. However, the seven trees on the southeast edge of the lake (Figs. 11-12) had about 15 to 30 cm of water around their bases, The older leaves on most of these southeastern trees were wilting. *Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. This plant was growing just south of the campsite (northwest side of island). This was the only area in which these plants were found. All specimens of this weed which could be found were uprooted by Mr. Ronald Walker. a Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Appearing as a thick green carpet on the northeastern side near the edge of the lake. The Laysan albatross (Diomedea immutabilis) were using this area as a nesting site. During the day many Laysan teal (Anas wyvilliana laysanensis) were seen by the author in this area, Cyperus laevigatus L. This sedge was growing abundantly on the outer edge of the lake, as well as in the lake itself (Fig. 13). Numerous albatross eggs were found abandoned on those sedges which had been flooded by the lake. Cyperus pennatiformis var. bryanii KUkenthal This variety is endemic to Laysan Island. It was only seen in a restricted area near the southern edge of the lake (Fig. 7). Eragrostis variabilis (Gaud.) Steud. Growing in bunches (Fig. 6) throughout the island, making up the major vegetation. ; Fimbristylis cymosa R, Br. Scattered bunches occurring throughout the island. Heliotropium curassavicum L. Only one specimen was found on the southwest side of the island in association with Eragrostis variabilis and Ipomoea pes-caprae. No sign of this species was found near the lake's edge, where Lamoureux (1963) had described it as occurring in abundance. This was probably due to the rise of the water in the lake which apparently covered over the area where this species flourished. Ipomoea indica (Burm.) Merr. Occurring in small patch on southwest side of island, halfway between the lake and the beach. This species could not be found elsewhere even though an extensive search was made for it. None of the specimens found were flowering. : 5 2) 5 Ue Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sw. This low creeping vine was found in abundance near the lake. Numerous lavender flowers were present, Messerschmidea argentea (L. f.) Johnston Only one tree (Fig. 4), about 2 meters high, was present on the beach near the Scaevola bushes about fifty meters north of main boat entrance. At a distance this tree appeared dead because only the bare trunk and branches were seen. On closer observation, new shoots were seen arising from the base of this trunk and in the axils of the branches, Nama Sandwicensis var. laysanicum Brand Appearing as flat patches on the beach mostly concentrated on the northwest side of the island. Nicotiana tabacum L. Growing about 1-1.5 meters high, found most abundantly on the western side of island (Fig. 8). Pluchea indica (L.) Less. Forming entangled bushes predominantly on the northern side of the island near the lake's edge. Portulacea oleracea L. Found on the southwestern side of island near the beach. None of these plants were flowering. Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. Abundant near the beach around the island. In many instances the Hawaiian monk seal (Fig. 9) could be seen sleeping among the bushes. Sesuvium portulacastrum L. Most plants of this species were under water at the lake's edge but, although submerged, they appeared to be living. This species is easily recognized by its bright red stem and small lavender flowers. = Shin Sicyos microcarpus Mann Flowering specimens of this species were only found on the south side of the island about a hundred meters from the edge of the lake. It is quite possible that the other two species collected by Dr. Lamoureux in 1961 were also present, because this genus was also abundant on the northern side of the island where Dr. Lamoureux had found all three species. Since no flowers or fruits were found on these northern plants, an accurate species determination could not be made. / Lamoureux' record of S. microcarpus was accidentally omitted from ARB 97 p. 6. Ed./ *Solanum nigrum L, Only two individual plants were found on the trail leading from the beach to the campsite. Dr. John W, Beardsley, Jr,, collected a specimen of this plant on Laysan in 1962. Tribulus cistoides L. Growing as a low creeping plant (Fig. 8) abundant throughout the island. This species was easily recognized by its thorny green fruits and pinnately compound leaves. Seeds The following is a list of the five species of seeds collected on the beach from Laysan with the number of each in parentheses, - They were determined by Miss Marie Neal. Caesalpinia crista L. (1) Cocos nucifera L. (numerous) Dioclea violacea Mart. (1) Mucuna gigantea DC (5) Mucuna urens DC (1) Seed Planting Six species of seeds were planted by Mr. Ronald Walker of the Hawaii State Fish and Game Division near the northwestern edge of the lake during our visit there in 1963. Plantings were made at intervals of ten paces due north from the northernmost coconut tree in the follow- ing order. ee 1. Lepidium o-waihiense C. & S. 2. Cenchrus agrimonioides var. laysanensis F. Br. 3. Achyranthes splendens var. reflexa Hillebr. 4, Chenopodium oahuense (Meyen) Aellen 5. Solanum nelsonii Dunal 6. Lipochaeta integrifolia (Nutt.) Gray All of the above species or varieties of seeds were collected from Kure, September 1961, with the exception of Chenopodium oahuense which was collected from Nihoa, December 1961. Another planting was made forty-five paces due west of photostation C-3 (uarker used by the personnel of the Hawaii State Fish and Game Division for survey purposes) which is located on the northwestern side of the island near the lake's edge. Here the seeds were planted at random. The seeds of Chenopodium, Solanum, and Sicyos microcarpus planted by Mr. R. Kramer in June 1962 apparently failed to germinate as no specimens could be found at the area of the plantings. Savile aN ll US DAC PA Seven salinity stations were made along the shore of the beach while fifteen salinity stations were made in the salt-water lake. White foam (Figs. 11-12) resembling fine soap suds could be seen accumulated all along the southeastern and eastern edge of the lake. At times this foam was over 30 cm deep and was found to be tasteless. According to Dr. Philip Helfrich, Hawaii Marine Laboratory, similar foam also occurs on the edge of the salt-water lagoon on Christmas Island, one of the islands in the Line Group. Riley (1963) describes a mechanism by which such material is formed, at least in part, by adsorption of dissolved or colloidal material on bubbles and other available surfaces. Once formed the aggregates tend to increase in size, either by agglutination or by further adsorption. The wind blowing from the northwestern side of the island caused this foam to accumulate on the opposite shore, s i129 Two of the fifteen samples from the lake were taken within that area designed as "spring" as shown on the map made by the Tanager Expedition, April 1923. This "spring" is supposedly located on the northeastern edge of the lake, which is at present continuous with the main lake because of the rise in water except for the long row of Pluchea bushes partially separating the "spring" from the main lake. The water from the "spring" was found to be less saline than the water from the main lake, probably because of mixing with the fresh water lens in this particular area, It will be noticed that the lake water is much more saline than the surrounding sea water, and that even the "spring" is saltier than the sea. The salinity data obtained by the author are listed below. All samples were taken from the surface in about one meter of water. See Fig. 1 for the location of each of the salinity stations (encircled numbers). I. Water from Ocean (surface samples) 1. Slightly wave-washed bench----------------- 35,01 a0 2. Tidepool on coral ledge-------------------- 55,19" °/oq : 3. Sandy area between shoreline and reef------ 35.14 ~/oo : 4. Calm shore over reef----------------------- 35.20 °/o00 | 9) Wave-wished Shores eee 35/87/60 | 6. Slightly wave-washed bench----------------- CI ye eat Hove) f | 7. Shore off NW boat entrance----<--=- L. S. and E. G. PURDY A Bahamian fecal-pellet sediment: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 27: pp. 126-128. (The gastropod Batillaris minima was seen to produce fecal pellets which comprise a major fraction of the sediment in the Bimini area of the Bahamas. Preservation of the pellets is possible.) 7,5 KORNICKER , 1962 KRAUSS, R. 1960 L. S. and D. F. SQUIRES Floating corals: A possible source of erroneous distribution data: Lim. and Ocean., Vol. 7(4): pp. 447-452. (Some corals are capable of floating; they may float as long as 8 months. This may give considerable error in a sedimentary and ecologic investigation.) W. and R. A. GALLOWAY The role of algae in the formation of beach-rock in certain islands of the Caribbean: Carib. Beach Studies Tech. Rept. No. 11(E), Coastal Studies Inst., L. S. U., 49 pp. (Algae play no direct role in the formation of beach-rock.) MacNEIL, F. S. 1954 McKEE, E, 1959 McKEE, E. 1959 Organic reefs and banks associated with detrital sediments: Amer, Jour. Sci., Vol. 252: pp. 385-401. (Actual coral reef rock may comprise only a small fraction of the sediment in a coral reef complex. In classifying coral reefs, the author adds the term "table reef") D. Storm sediments on a Pacific atoll: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 29: pp. 354-364. (Storm deposits include coarse gravel ridges on the reef ridge, new or augmented beach ridges of gravel, gravel sheets on the islands, and sediment in the lagoon which is coarser than usual. Using these characteristics, storm deposits can be recognized in earlier reef deposits.) D., J. CHRONIC, and E, B. LEOPOLD Sedimentary belts in the lagoon of Kapingamarangi Atoll: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Vol. 43(3): pp. 501-562. (Six sedimentary zones are recognized: the coarsest sediments are near shore, the finest in the deepest parts of the lagoon. Comparisons are made with ancient reefs.) MANNING, R. B. and H. E,. KUMPF 1959 MATTHEWS , 1964 Preliminary investigation of the fecal pellets of certain invertebrates of the south Florida area: Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Carib., Vol. 9(3): pp. 291-309. (The fecal pellets of various invertebrates are described and diagrammed.) R. K,. Mineralogy and constituent particle composition of recent car- bonate muds of British Honduras (abs.): Geol. Soc. Amer., Program, 1964 Ann. Meeting, p. 128. (High-magnesium calcite is primarily Foraminifera debris. High-strontium aragonite content, primarily from coral and Halimeda debris, decreases with increasing distance from the shoals.) -28- Barrier Reef: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 31(2): pp. 215-230. (Close relationships exist between textural variation and physiography and currents. Most sediment is skeletal material; 95% is CaC03.) MAXWELL, W. G. H., J. S. JELL, and R. G. McKELLAR 1963 A preliminary note on the mechanical and organic factors influencing carbonate differentiation, Heron Island, Australia: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 33(4): pp. 962-964. (Mechanical, tex- tural and chemical distributions of sediments in the reef area of Heron Island are related to biologic differentiation.) 1964 Differentiation of carbonate sediments in the Heron Island reef: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 34(2): pp. 294-308. (The dis- tribution of sediments is partially related to the stability of the components, which in turn is dependent on whether the components are calcitic or aragonitic. Sedimentary parameters are examined.) NESTEROFF, W. D. 1956 Le substratum organique dans les dépdts calcaires, sa signi- fication: Bull. Soc. Geol. France, Ser. 6, Vol. 6: pp. 381-390.* NEUMAN, A. C. 1963 Processes of recent carbonate sedimentation in Harrington Sound, Bermuda: Marine Science Center, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Penn. 130 pp. (Abstracted in Geol. Soc. Amer.,- Program, 1964 Ann. Meeting, p. 142.) (Includes bathymetric, hydrographic, ecologic, and geologic studies of the surface sediments. Sediment sources, diagenesis and erosion are discussed.) NEWELL, N. D., J. IMBRIE and E. G. PURDY 1957 Carbonate facies and biotic communities of northwestern Great Bahama Bank (abs.): Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 68: pp. 1774- 1775. (Trade winds have a marked effect on the sediments. Influences of depth and turbulenceare seen near the bank margins. Oolites repeatedly exposed to air show a high luster.) NIINO, H. 1946 An example of reef sediment: Sigenkagaku Kenkyusyo Iho, Vol. 9: pp. 29-35.* PURDY, E. G. 1961 Bahamian oolite shoals: Geometry of Sandstone Bodies; Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Spec. Vol., pp. 53-62. (Most shoals of the Great Bahama Bank appear to be drowned aeolian dunes.) 299 PURDY, E. G. (cont'd) 1963a Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 1. Petrography and reaction groups: Jour. Geol., Vol. 71(3): pp. 334-335. (Sediment samples were impregnated with a poly- ester-resin and thin sectioned. By a point-count method, percentages of various constituents could be estimated. Reaction group is defined as a group of sedimentary constitu- ents that will similarly react in a similar environmental condition.) 1963b Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 2. Sedimentary facies: Jour. Geol., Vol. 71(4): pp. 472-497. (The distribution of the five sedimentary facies, coralgal, oolitic, grapestone, pellet-mud, and mud facies,is related to local current conditions created by the karst topography.) PURDY, E. G. and L. S. KORNICKER 1958 Algal disintegration of Bahamian limestone coasts; Jour. Geol., Vol. 66(1): pp. 96-99. (Boring blue-green algae are among the most important agents in the destruction of the coast limestone.) PUSEY, W. 1963 Recent carbonate shoal complexes in Northern British Honduras (abs.): Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 47(2): p. 367. (Discusses the mud mounds on the shoals in northern British Honduras.) RANSON, G. 1955 Observations sur des facteurs biologiques de la dissolution du calcaire d'origine récifale dans les Tuamotu: Proc. 8th Pac. Sci. Cong. 3A: pp. 979-988. (Activities of organisms are chiefly responsible for erosion on Tuamotu. Wave erosion is only significant at the reef's edge.) REVELLE, R. and K, O. EMERY 1957 Chemical erosion of beach rock and exposed reef rock: U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-T: pp. 699-709. (The marked diurnal changes of the properties of the water probably cause a gradual erosion of the beach rock. Data are given to support the hypothesis.) REVELLE, R. and R, W. FAIRBRIDGE 1957 Carbonates and carbon dioxide: in Hedgpeth, Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology: Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir 67(1): pp. 239-296. (An excellent review of the biogeochemical aspects of carbonate deposition in sea water. Includes a discussion of the different biologic contributors to carbonate detritus.) -30- RODGERS, J. 1957 The distribution of marine carbonate sediments, a review: Regional Aspects of Carbonate Deposition, Soc. Econ. Paleont. and Miner., Spec. Publ. No. 5: pp. 2-14. (Marine carbonate sediments can be divided into deep sea sediments, organic reefs and continental lime muds, and associated limestones. A general discussion follows.) RUSSELL, R. J. 1959 1962 Caribbean beachrock observations: Zeit. Geomorph., Vol. 3: pp. 227-236.* Origin of beach rock; Zeit. Geomorph., Vol. 6(1): pp. 1-16. (The cement for beach rock originates in the ground water, not sea water. Beach rock is thickest where seasonal variations in sea level are greatest. Many Caribbean examples are cited.) RUSSELL, R. J. and W. G. McINTIRE 1965 Southern hemisphere beach rock: Geog. Review, Vol. 55(1): pp. 17-45. (The cementation by calcite is in the zone of water-table migration, and is not related to the perculation of sea water. Beach rock is generally only visible on retrea- ting shorelines. Southern hemisphere examples are given.) ' SCHLANGER, S. O. 1957 Dolomite growth in coralline algae: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 27(2): pp. 181-186. (Algae were the main dolomitized sedimen tary constituents found in the subsurface Eocene limestone on Eniwetok. The magnesium content of the algae is suggested to be insufficient to account for such complete dolomitization.) SIEGEL, F. R. 1960 The effect of Strontium on aragonite-calcite ratios of Pleisto- cene corals: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 30(2): pp. 297-304. (High Sr content seems to inhibit the aragonite to calcite process.) STODDART, D. R. 1964 Carbonate sediments of Half Moon Cay, British Honduras: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 104: 16 pp. (A quantitative study of the size distribution of the sediments. Different type sediments are sharply defined by size and shape, which are related to the organic derivation of the sediments.) STUBBINGS, H. G. 1938 Marine sediments from the islands and reefs of the Great Barrier Reef: Great Barrier Reef Exped. Sci. Rept., Vol. 4(3): pp. 97-104.* =S3ih- STUBBINGS, H. G, (cont'd) 1939 The marine deposits of the Arabian Sea: John Murray Exped. Sci. Repts., Vol. 3(2): pp. 32-158. (Some coral is found in shallower depths; species are listed.) TRENCHMANN, C. T. 1951 Note on a Pleistocene coral-rock in Jamaica, altered into material resembling bauxite or laterite: Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. 107: pp. 443-444. (This phenomenon can possibly be explained by washing with sea water or the growth of algae.) VAN ANDEL, T. H., J. R. CURRAY and J. V. VEEVERS 1961 Recent carbonate sediments of the Sahul Shelf northwestern Australia: Coastal and Shallow-water Res. Conf., 1961. pp. 564-567. (Includes a sediment map of the area. Corals are absent on the banks.) Van OVERBEEK, J. and R. E. CHRIST 1947. The role of a tropical alga in beach sand formation: Amer. Jour. Bot., Vol. 34: pp. 299-300. (Halimeda may not only cement, but may also be an important component in some beach rocks.) WOLF, K. H. 1962 The importance of calcareous algae in limestone genesis and sedimentation: Nues Jahrbuch Geol. Paleont. Monatshefte;: pp. 245-261. (Reviews the types of algal structures found in limestones and their importance as sedimentary contributors.) WOOD, E. J. F. 1962 The microbiology of coral reefs; Proc. 9th Pac. Sci. Cong., 1957, Vol. 4: pp. 171-173.° (A brief discussion of organic precipitation of calcium carbonate on coral reefs.) WRIGHT, T. and L. S,. KORNICKER 1962 Sand transport of marine shells by birds on Perez Island, Alacran Reef, Campeche Bank, Mexico: Jour. Géol., Vol. 70 (5): pp. 616-618. (The Brown Noddy Tern lines its nest with marine shells (mostly pelecypods) and other debris. This causes an accumulation of shells on the beach which may lead to a misinterpretation of the area.) ae II ECOLOGY 1. General Conditions BLUMENSTOCK, D. I. 1961 A report on typhoon effects upon Jaluit Atoll: Atoll Res. Bull. 75: 105 pp. (Living coral on the reef side was up- rooted and deposited on the reef to form offshore bars; there was little erosive action on the coral in the lagoon. The general tone is one of cataclysmic erosion and sedimentation.) BLUMENSTOCK, D. I., F. R. FOSBERG, and C. G. JOHNSON 1961 The re-survey of the typhoon effects on Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands: Nature Vol. 189: pp. 618-620. (Rubble ‘bar on the reef moved landward. Other effects of the typhoon were modified by normal activity.) BURKHOLDER, P. R. and L. M. BURKHOLDER 1960 Photosynthesis in some Alcyonacean corals: Amer. Jour. Bot., Vol. 47(10): pp. 866-872. (Also gives oxygen production rates for Porites porites and turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum.) FOSBERG, F. R. 1961 Qualitative description of the coral atoll ecosystem: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 81: 11 pp. (Discussion of the general"... physical and 'physiological' framework of the coral atoll ecosystem and the equilibrium that is achieved.) GERLACH, S. A. 1961 The tropical coral reef as a biotope: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 80, 6 pp. (The tropical coral reef corresponds to the sublit- toral algal region of temperature zones. Different feeding types are more common in dead coral than live coral; this may be related to the mucus that living coral secretes.) GORDON, M. S. and H. M. KELLY 1962 Primary productivity of an Hawaiian coral reef: a critique of flow respirometry in turbulent waters: Ecology, Vol. 43(3): pp. 473-480. (Points out some of the errors in methods of measuring productivity that have been used by other workers; some corrective insights are offered. A coral reef appears to be non-autotrophic.) GOREAU, T. F. 1959 The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs. I. Species composition and zonation: Ecology, Vol. 40(1): pp. 67-89. (A listing of species present, and the ecologic zonations. Ecologic factors affecting the reef growth are mentioned. Buttresses may be growth forms, not erosional.) ER3 GOREAU, T. F. (cont'd) 1960 1964 On the physiological ecology of the coral Meandrina brasiliensis (Milne-Edwards and Haime) in Jamaica (abs.) Assoc. of Island Marine Laboratories, 3rd _ meeting, 1960, pp. 17-18. (Zooxan- thellae produce very little oxygen, and therefore are probably heterotrophic. The great increase in Meandrina's surface area with increased size appears to be an adaptation for life on unstable, muddy substrates.) Mass expulsion of zooxanthellae from Jamaican reef communities after Hurricane Flora: Science, Vol. 145(3630): pp. 383-386. ("It is believed that expulsion of the zooxanthellae was induced by contact with water of lowered osmotic pressure on the surface of the sea, rather than by sedimentation or fouling.") GOREAU, T. F., V. T. LLAUGER, E. L. MAS, and E, R. SEDA 1960 GRIPP, K, 1958 HIATT, R. 1957 KINSMAN , 1964 KOHN, A. 1961 KOHN, A. 1957 On the community structure, standing crop and oxygen balance of the lagoon at Cayo Turrumote (abs.): Ass'n.of Island Marine Laboratories, 3rd Meeting, 1960, pp. 8-9. (The faunal and floral components of the lagoon community consume about 50 percent more oxygen than they produce. The additional oxygen and food is brought in from the outside.) Ecologie de quelques Madréporaires de la Mediterranée: Vie | et Milieu, Vol. 9(4): pp. 379-411. (Deals with solitary corals from deeper waters. Describes different species and the general modes of life, distribution and biotope formation.) W. : Factors influencing the distribution of corals on the reef of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands: Proc. 8th Pac. Sci. Congr. 3A: pp. 929-970. (Ecologic zonations of corals are described, and influencing factors are assessed, Due to a lack of variable environmental factors, there is no clear-cut zonation in the lagoon.) Denicods Reef coral tolerance of high temperatures and salinities: Nature, Vol. 202(4939): pp. 1280-1282. (Temperatures in the Persian Gulf reef tracts vary as much as Wome diurnally and 20°C annually. Large masses of Porites are seen in water having salinities up to 48 o/oo.) J. The biology of atolls: Bios, Vol. 32(3): pp. 113-126.* J. and P, HELFRICH Primary organic production of a Hawaiian coral reef: Lim. and Ocean., Vol. 2(3): pp. 241-251. (Productivity was measured ale by measuring changes in oxygen content of the water flowing over Kapaa Reef, Kauai. The very high productivity, 2900 grams of organic carbon/meter2/year, of this reef and other tropical coral reefs is due to photosynthesis by benthic algae on the reef platforms.) MOTODA, S. 1940 Environment and life of the massive coral Goniastrea aspera Verrill, inhabiting the reef flat in Palao: Palao Trop. Biol. Sta. Studies, Vol. 2(1): pp. 61-104. (Measurements of air and water temperatures, tides, water depth, pH, light intensity, specific gravity of the water, oxygen saturation, oxygen exchange by corals, sediment in the water, and exposure to air. Comparisons are made with the findings of other workers.) ODUM, H. T., P. R. BURKHOLDER, and J. RIVERO 1959 Measurements of productivity of turtle grass flats, reefs and the Bahia Fosforescente of southern Puerto Rico: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci., Univ. Texas, Port Aransas, Vol. 6: pp. 159-170. (Comparisons are made between reefs and other ecologic environments. Organic production on the reef was high.) RANSON, G. : 1964 Biologie des coraux: III. Rapports des coraux avec leur milieu: Cahiers du Pacif., No. 6: pp. 51-70. (€cologic relationships of coral with water depth, salinity, light, temperature and currents. A good review of past workers.) SALVAT, B. 1964 Prospections faunistiques en Nouvelle-Calédonie dans le Cadre de la Mission d'études des récifs coralliens: Cahiers du Pacif., No. 6: pp. 77-120. (Includes ecologic and sedimen- tologic descriptions of lagoonal areas where biologic collec- tions were made.) SLACK-SMITH, R. J. 1959 An investigation of coral deaths at Peel Island, Moreton Bay, in early 1956: Univ. Queensland Zool. Papers, Vol. 1(7): pp. 211-222.* SQUIRES, D. F. 1958 Stony corals from the vicinity of Bimini, Bahamas, British West Indies: Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 115(4): pp. 219-262. (Coral fauna and ecologic conditions were noted at 15 stations. Faunal assemblages show 2 ecologic zones; bank margin fauna, and bank and lagoon fauna.) = 55 SQUIRES, D. F. (cont'd) 1962 Corals at the mouth of the Rewa River, Viti Levu, Fiji: Nature, No. 4839: pp. 361-362. (Coral increased in number and species away from the river, as salinity increased and turbidity de- creased.) STEPHENSON, T. A. 1958 Coral reefs regarded as seashores: Proc, XVth Intern. Congr. Zool., pp. 244-246. (..."a coral reef is a growth which replaces, in the tropics, certain other low-level growths characteristic of colder regions.") STEPHENSON, T. A. and A, STEPHENSON 1950 Life between tide marks in North America. I, The Florida Keys: Jour. Ecol., Vol. 38: pp. 354-402. (Ecologic distri- butions discussed are mainly confined to intertidal flora and fauna.) STEPHENSON, W. R. E., R. ENDEAN, and I. BENNET 1958 An ecological survey of the marine fauna of Low Isles, Queens land: Australian Jour. Marine and Freshwater Res., Vol. 9 (2): pp. 261-318. (Effects of a cyclone on the reef. General ecology investigated; death of corals owed to heavy-swell and sediment. Massive corals are cyclone-resistant; branching corals are not.) STODDART, D. R. 1962 A short account on catastrophic storm effects on the British Honduras reefs and cays: Nature, Vol. 196(4854): pp. 512-515. (Up to 80% of the reef coral was destroyed in the area of the storm center.) 1963 Effects of hurricane Hattie on the British Honduras reefs and cays, October 30-31, 1961: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 95: 142 pp. (The effects on the reefs were most disasterous in those areas exposed to the full force of the hurricane. Most affected was the slender branching coral Acropora cervicornis; least affected were the massive heads of Monastrea annularis. Most of the cays were partially eroded; some of the smaller ones had vanished after the storm.) : STORER, J, 82 1955 Ecology and oceanography of the coral-reef tract, Abaco Island, Bahamas. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec, Paper 79: 98 pp. (abs. in Dissertation Abs., Vol, 16(2): p. 412.) (Ecologic transects of the Abaco coral reefs. Coral growth and structures are related to different ecologic factors, including waves, light, currents, etc. Many quantitative measurements are given, including population counts.) waGe TANDY, G. and J. COLMAN 1931 Superficial structure of coral reefs. Animal and plant succes- sions on prepared substrata: Carn. Inst. Wash. Year Book, Vol. 30: pp. 395-396 .* VERMEER, D. E. 1963 Effects of hurricane Hattie, 1961, on the cays of British Honduras: Zeit. Geomorph., Vol. 7(4): pp. 332-354. (The waxing phase of the hurricane was destructive; the wanning phase was dominantly reconstructuve. The unstable sand bores were often completely washed away; no stable cay was completely removed.) VOSS, G. L. and N. A. VOSS 1955 An ecological survey of Soldier Key, Biscayne Bay, Florida: Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Carib., Vol. 5(3): pp. 203-229. (Porites, the only common coral, is found only east of Soldier Key, where sedimentation is slight enough to allow a minimal growth.) WHITFIELD, R. P. 1901 Notice of a remarkable case of combination between two different genera of living corals: Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 14 (17): pp. 221-222. (Ctenophyllia sp. was found growing in the middle of a massive specimen of Meandrina labyrinthica.) - YONGE, C. M. 1958 Ecology and physiology of reef-building corals; in Buzzati- Trayerso, Perspectives in Marine Biology: Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. pp. 117-135. (A good review of past literature and suggestions for future investigations of reef ecology and the biology of the coral.) 2. Communities (with emphasis on organisms other than corals) ABBOTT, I. A. 1961 A check list of marine algae from Ifaluk Atoll, Caroline Islands: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 77: 5 pp. (85 species; relative abundances are given.) BARDACH, J. E. 1959 The summer standing crop of fish on a shallow Bermuda Reef: Lim. and Ocean., Vol. 4(1): pp. 77-85. (490 kilograms of fish per hectare, estimated by visual count.) 237 BONHAM, K. and E. E. HELD 1963 Ecological observations on the sea cucumbers Holothuria atra and H. leucospilota at Rongelap Atoll: Pac. Sci., Vol. 17(3): pp. 305-314. (The ecology of the animals is asap Uae GE It is estimated that the Holothuria population, of 5 x 10° indivi- duals, ingests and egests 2 x 10” kg. of sand yearly.) CUSHMAN, J. A., R. TODD and R. J. POST 1954 DANIEL, C. 1949 DAWSON, E. 1955 1956 1961 DOTY, M. S 1957 1962 GOHAR, H. 1963a Recent Foraminifera of the Marshall Islands: U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-H: pp. 319-384. (331 species and varieties are listed; ecologic distribution and abundances are given. Depth and access to the open ocean seem to be the limiting factors affecting distribution.) Encrusting Foraminifera of Krusadi Island: Jour. Madras Univ., 18(B): pp. 27-37.* Ge An annotated list of marine algae from Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands: Pac. Sci., Vol. 11(1): pp. 92-132. (Includes a key to the genera.) Some algae from Canton Atoll: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 65: 6 pp. (A list of the species and ecologic distribution.) The rim of the reef. Calcareous algae occupy a major role in the growth of atolls: Nat. Hist., Vol. 70(6): pp. 8-17.* An enumeration of the hypothetical roles of algae in coral atolls; Proc. 8th Pac. Sci. Congr. 3A: pp. 923-928. (Coral- line algae absorb the nutrient salts that are used in the atoll complex. Algae also are the major decomposers and sediment formers.) Functions of the algae in the central Pacific: Proc. 9th Pac. Sci. Cong., 1957, Vol. 4: pp. 148-155. (The roles of algae in productivity, and "construction and destruction of shores, islands, and reefs" are reviewed.) A. F. and G. N. SOLIMAN On three mytilid species boring in living corals: Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardaga (Red Sea), No. 12: pp. 65-98. (Dif- ferent species of boring mollusks appear to bore in different species of coral. The mechanism of boring is discussed.) Jag: GOHAR, H. A. F. and G. N. SOLIMAN (cont'd) 1963b On the biology of three Coralliophilids boring in pg coral: Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardaqa (Red Sea), No. pp. 99-126. (The general taxonomy, biology and boring pee are discussed.) 1963c On the rock-boring lamellibranch Rocellaria ruppelli (Deshayes): Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardaga (Red | (Red Sea), No. 12: pp. 145- 158. (The general taxonomy, biology and boring mechanism are discussed.) 1963d On two mytilids boring in dead coral: Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardaqa (Red Sea), No. 12: pp. 205-218. (The general taxonomy, biology and boring mechanisms are discussed.) HARTMAN, 0. 1954 Marine Annelids from the northern Marshall Islands: U,. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-Q: pp. 619-644. (Over 100 species of marine annelids are identified, including some that are destructive to coral.) HIATT, R. W. and D. W. STRASBURG 1960 Ecological relationships of the fish fauna on coral reefs of the Marshall Islands: Ecol. Monog., Vol. 30(1): pp. 65-127. (The feeding habits of 233 species of reef fish are described. A surprisingly large number ingest coral polyps. Some relation- ships of the fish to their habitat are also considered.) JOHNSON, M. W. 1954 Plankton of Northern Marshall Islands: U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-F: pp. 301-314. (The plankton fauna are characterized by some species which are endemic to the lagoon. Plankton in the lagoon are about four times more abundant than in the wind- ward portion of the reef, and twice as concentrated as the leeward areas. Vertical and diurnal distributions are also discussed.) MARSDEN, J. R. 1962 A coral-eating Polychaete: Nature, Vol. 193: p. 598. (Hermo- dice carunculata_ was observed on ten occasions to eat por- tions of the coral Porites porites. Nematocysts were found in the worms' fecal pellets.) MARSHALL, S. M. 1933 The production of microplankton in the Great Barrier Reef region: Great Barrier Reef Exped. Sci. Rept., Vol. 2(5): pp. 111-157. (Diatoms dominate and are more abundant on the reef than in the open ocean. Abundance varies with the season.) -39- MOUL, E. T. 1957 1964 Preliminary report on the flora on Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 57: 48 pp. (The taxonomy and the distri- bution of the marine algae are discussed.) New records of Halimeda and Udotea for the Pacific area: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 106: 10 pp. PALUMBO, R. F. 1962 The relationships between atolls and benthic algae: Proc, 9th Pac. Sci. Cong., 1957, Vol. 4: pp. 168-170... (The cccurxence of algae in the atoll system is dependent upon the physical and chemical factors of the water, the form of the alga, and the "biologic factors imposed by the other organisms in the vicinity.") RUSSELL, F. S. and J. S. COLMAN 1934 SPRINGER, 1962 TSUDA, R. 1964 The composition of the zooplankton of the barrier reef lagoon: Great Barrier Reef Exped. Sci. Rept., Vol. 2(6): pp.°159=175. (Mainly descriptive; based on vertical hauls.) V. G. and A. J. McERLEAN A study of the behavior of some tagged South Florida coral reef fishes: Amer. Mid, Nat., Vol. 67(2): pp. 386-397. (Several larger species of reef fish may occupy quasi-permanent homes on the reef.) T. Floristic report on the marine algae of selected islands in the Gilbert group: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 105: 13 pp. WOOLACOTT, L. 1955 YONGE, C. 1963 ZULLO, V. 1961 Coral dwellers: Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc, New South Wales, Vol. 54: pp. 79-81.* M. Rock-boring organisms: in Mechanisms of Hard Tissue Destruction, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Publ. 75, pp. 1-24. (Deals with the nutrition and the mode of life of boring organisms. Although most of the phylla are covered, the bulk of the discussion concerns rock-boring bivalves.) A. A new subgenus and species of coral-inhabiting barnacle from the Gulf of California: Veliger, Vol. 4(2): pp. 71-75. 2408 3. Oceanographic and meteorologic conditions on or near coral reefs BERTHOIS, L., et al, 1963 Le renouvellement des eaux du lagon dans l'atoll de Maupihaa- Mopelia (Iles de la Société): C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 257: pp. 3992-3995 .* BLUMENSTOCK, D, I. and D. F. REX 1960 Microclimatic observations at Eniwetok: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 71: 158 pp. (A year's meteorologic study, including ocean and lagoon water temperatures. Also includes a general des- cription of the topography of several of the islands in the area.) BODEN, B. P. and E, M. KAMPA 1953 Winter cascading from an oceanic island and its biologic impli- cations: Nature, Vol. 171: pp. 426-427. (Studies were made in Bermuda. Winter circulation is cyclonic; in the summer there is less vertical motion. The latter allows for better con- ditions for endemic plankton.) BURNSIDE, R. J. Surf-strength paeeore in reef growth and évelopment (abs.): 1957 Soc. Econ. Paleont. and Miner., 3lst Ann. Meeting, St. Louis, Program, p. 54.* FORD, .W. 1. 1949 Radiological and salinity relationships in the water at Bikini Atoll: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 30(1): pp. 49-54. (Gives some hydrographic measurements; proposes circulation studies using radioactivity as a tracer.) FOSBERG, F. R. 1957 Slicks on ocean surface downwind from coral reefs: Atoll Res, Bull. 53: 4 pp. (Among the explanations given for slicks, is that the reef might frequently emit an oil substance.) GALTSOFF, P. S. 1933 Pearl and Hermes Reef, Hawaii. Hydrographical and biological observations: Bull. B. P. Bishop Mus. No. 107: 49.pp(Discussion of fauna, salinity, water temperatures and tides). JOHNSON, M, W. 1949 Zooplankton as an index of water Leer: between Bikini Lagoon and the open sea: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 30(2): pp. 238-244. (Highest plankton concentrations are in the lagoon; lowest concentrations are on the seaward side. The lagoonal circulation is shown to be semi-closed.) Ey Ai JONES, J. A. 1963. Ecological studies of the southeastern Florida patch reefs. Part I, Diurnal and seasonal changes in the environment: Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, Vol. 13(2): pp. 282-307. (Diurnal and seasonal changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of the water on a patch reef were measured by taking oceanographic stations during 4 different periods of the year, each station lasting about 3 days. Results are discussed.) LAVOIE, R. L. 1963 Some aspects of the meteorology of the tropical Pacific viewed from an atoll: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 96: 80 pp. (Observations made on Eniwetok Atoll. Diurnal meteorologic variations are discussed with the use of a large amount of data.) McCLENDON, J. F. 1918 On the changes in the sea and their relation to organisms: Papers Tortugas Lab, Carn. Inst. Wash., Vol. 12: pp. 213-259. (Includes diurnal variations in oxygen in the Florida Keys reefs.) MAO, H. and K, YOSHIDA 1955 Physical oceanography in the Marshall Islands Area: U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-R: pp. 645-684. (Includes flo patterns computed from dynamic anomalies, directly measured currents, temperature-salinity relationships, and some gencral remarks on oxygen distribution. Particular emphasis is placeal on the areas of large eddies between the North Equatorial Current and the Equatorial Counter Current.) MATSUYA, Z, 1937 Some hydrographical studies of the water of Iwayama Bay in the South Sea Islands: Palao Trop. Biol. Sta. Studies, Vol. 1: pp. 95-135. (Includes pH, chlorinity, temperature, oxygen, and alkalinity. Diurnal and monthly variations seem to affect the plankton. The growth of corals is more directly related to the abundance of plankton, currents and waves, thn to the hydrographic conditions.) MUNK, W. H., G. C. EWING, and R. R. REVELLE 1949 Diffusion in Bikini Lagoon: Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, Vol. 30(1): pp. 59-66. (The coefficients of vertical and horizon- tal diffusion are calculated. Methods, observations and results are given.) OTo2 NORTHROP, J. 1962 Geophysical observations on Christmas Island: Atoll Res. Bull., No. 89: 2 pp. (A marked temperature gradient in a shallow lagoon is explained by the constant inflow of fresh water.) ROBINSON, M. K. 1954 Sea temperature in the Marshall Islands area: U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-D: pp. 281-291. (Annual variations in the vertical and horizontal isotherms are given. These variations seem to indicate seasonal changes in the current patterns of the area.) SEWELL, R. B. S. 1935 Geographic, oceanographic research in Indian Waters. Part 8. Studies on coral formation in Indian waters: Asiatic Soc. Bengal Mem., Vol. 9(8): pp. 461-540.* TRACEY,S roll asd) clin. 1961 Relations of reefs to water circulation: Soc. Econ. Paleont. and Miner. Sympos., Denver.* VON ARX, W. S. 1954 Circulation systems of Bikini and Rongelap lagoons: U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 260-B: pp. 265-274. (Circulation is two-fold: a primary, overturning wind-driven circulation, and a secondary, rotary circulation composed of two counter- rotating components. Tabulations of volume exchange between the open-ocean and the lagoon are given.) ANON. 1963 Bibliographie récente relative a 1l'océanographie physique dans le Pacifique: Cahiers Pacif., No. 5: pp. 127-142. (A rather complete bibliography of recent publications on the physical oceanography in the tropical Pacific.) ere III. CORAL - THE ANIMAL l. Taxonomy of Madreporaria ALMY, C. C., Jr. and C. C. TORRES 1963 Shallow water stony corals of Puerto Rico: Caribb. Jour. Sci. Vol. 3(3): pp. 133-162. (Thirty-eight species of shallow-water stony corals are described, The reefs in the collecting areas, along with environmental studies, are discussed.) BOSCHMA, H. 1959 The species problem in corals: Proc. Intern. Congr. Zool. 1958, pp. 246-248. (Gives specific examples.) DURHAM, J. W. 1962 Scientific results of the Galapagos Expedition 1953-54 of the International Institute for Submarine Research; Corals from the Galapagos and Cocos Islands: Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol. 32(2): pp. 41-56. (Species: are compared to those of the east Pacific coast and the Indo-Pacific Ocean.) NEMENZO, F. 1955 Systematic studies on Philippine shallow water Scleractinians: I. Suborder Fungiida: Nat. Appl. Sci. Bull., Vol. 15: pp. 1- 84.* ; PURCHON, R. D. 1956 A list of corals collected in the vicinity of Singapore: Proc. Linn. Soc. New S. Wales, Vol. 79: pp. 90-94.* RALPH, P. M. and D. F. SQUIRES 1962 The extant scleractinian corals of New Zealand: Zool. Publ. Victoria Univ., Wellington, No. 29: pp. 1-19. (There have been no hermatypic corals in New Zealand since the Miocene; present fauna distributions are poorly know.) SMITH, F. G. W. 1954 Gulf of Mexico Madreporaria: U. S. Fish. Bull., Vol. 55(89): pp. 291-295. (Includes a chart showing location of coral reefs and scattered coral heads in the Gulf of Mexico. The fauna is typically West Indian; species lists are given for both hermatypic and ahermatypic corals.) SQUIRES, D. F. 1959 Deep-sea corals collected by the Lamont Geological Observatory. I. Atlantic corals: Amer. Mus. Novitates, No. 1965, 42 pp. (The corals presented are ahermatypic. Included are photo- graphs of corals, both in prepared specimens and in situ, and measurements of the corals' dimensions.) -4he- STEPHENSON, W. and J. W. WELLS 1956 The corals of Low Isles, Queensland, August, 1954: Dept. Zool., Univ. Queensland Papers, Vol. 1(4): 59 pp. (A resurvey of the area, and a comparison to the survey made in 1928-29. Cyclones do not seem to greatly affect the abundance of corals.) THIEL, M. E. 1941 1. Madreporaria: Résultats Scientifiques des Croisieers du Navire Ecole Belge ''Mercator"'. Vol. 3: 28 pp. (Written in German; contains excellent plates of Porites porites, P. astreoides, Occulina, Lophohelia and Astrangia.) TUTTON, A. K. 1952 Notes on some little-known corals from N. W. and S. Australia: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Vol. 5(12): pp. 975-979. (Includes plates of the genera Plesiastrea and Culicia.) UTINOMI, H. 1956 Invertebrate fauna of the intertidal zone of the Tokara Islands. XIV. Stony corals and hydrocorals: Publ. Seto Marine Biol. Lab. Vol. 5: pp. 339-346. (Corals are very meager in this area; only 15 species were identified.) VERRILL, A. E. 1899-1900. Additions to the Anthozoa and Hydrozoa of the Bermudas: Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. X: pp. 551-567. (Acropora, Manicina, Agaricia agaricites, and other common West Indian species are notably absent in Bermuda. Montastrea annularis and five additional species are listed and discussed.) WELLS, J. W. 1955 Recent and subfossil corals of Moreton Bay, Queensland: Paper Dept. Geol. Univ. Queensland N. S., Vol. 4: pp. 4-23.* 1959 Notes on Indo-Pacific Scleractinian corals. Part I. Oryzotrochus, a new genus of Turbinolian coral. Part II. A new species of Turbinaria from the Great Barrier Reef: Pac. Sci., Vol. 13(3): pp. 286-290. 1961 Notes on Indo-Pacific Scleractinian corals. Part III. A new reef coral from New Caledonia: Pac. Sci., Vol. 15(2): pp. 189-191. 1962 Two new scleractinian corals from Australia: Rec. Australian Mus., Vol. 25(1): pp. 239-241. =45- 2. Biology of Corals A. Physiology GOREAU, 1953 1957 1958 1959 1961 1963 GOREAU , 1955 GOREAU , 1959 Teik ns Phosphomonoesterases in reef-building corals: Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. 39: pp. 1291-1295. (The high pH optimun, generally over 10, is considered as a possible advantage in rapid and efficient deposition of calcium carbonate.) Calcification in reef corals: Rept. on Inter-Island Marine Biol., Univ. Puerto Rico, p. 15. (Abstract of previous and later publications) Calcification and growth in reef-forming corals: Proc. XVth Intern. Congr. Zool., pp. 248-250. (A short paper citing the studies made on coral using a radioactive tracer, Ca‘?; a discussion follows.) The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. I. A Method for measuring the rate of calcium deposition by corals under different conditions: Biol. Bull., Vol. 116(1): pp. 59-75. (Calcium uptake increases with increasing temperature, time exposed, and light intensity. An excellent bibliography is included.) On the relation of calcification to primary productivity in reef building organisms; in The Biology of Hydra: Univ. Miami Press, pp. 269-285. (A summary of work done on the calcium and carbonate uptake of coral and algae. A discussion follows.) Calcium carbonate deposition by coralline algae and corals in relation to their roles as reef builders: Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 109(1): pp. 127-167. (Corals appear to be much more dependent on light for calcium carbonate deposition than do algae. Methods for Ca > and C analyses to determine calcium carbonate deposition and photosynthesis are given.) T. F. and V. T. BOWEN Calcium uptake by a coral: Science, Vol. 122(3181): pp. 1188- 1189. (Coral reaches equilibrium with the calcium in the surrounding water very quickly. Experiments done with radio- active calcium.) T. F. and N. I. GOREAU The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. II. Calcium deposition by hermatypic corals under various conditions in the reef: Biol. Bull., Vol. 117: pp. 239-250. (Growth rates differ with species, individuals, ages, and parts of the same colony.) -46- GOREAU, T. F. and N. I. GOREAU (cont'd) 1960a 1960b 1960c HAND, C. 1956 The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. III. Calci- fication rate as a function of colony weight and total nitrogen content in the reef coral Manicina areolata (Linnaeus): Biol. Bull., Vol. 118(3): pp. 419-429. (The relation of surface area to volume is relatively constant; this is caused by the folding of the surface as the coral grows. This may allow the coral to remove excess sand faster and also right itself. Calcification rates decrease markedly from the young coral to the adult. Zooxanthellae seem to affect the calcification rate.) The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. IV. On isotopic equilibrium exchange of calcium between corallum and environment in living and dead reef-building corals: Biol. Bull., Vol. 119(3): pp. 416-427. (Dead corals have a much higher exchange rate of calcium than living corals. This can be explained partly by the "calcium-proof" living coenosac and partly because the living coral is continually growing and thus adding layers of calcium.) Distribution of labelled carbon in reef-building corals with and without Zooxanthellae: Science, Vol. 131(3401): pp. 668-669. (Includes light-dark experiments which delineate the use of zooxanthellae in the coral.) Are corals really herbivorous?: Ecology, Vol. 37: pp. 384- 385. (A critical look at Odum and Odum's 1955 Ecol. Monog. article which had stated that corals were herbivorous. It appears doubtful that they are. Odum and Odum's reply follows; corals may assimilate diffusable products of the algae.) HARRISS, R. C. and C. C. ALMY 1964 KAWAGUTI, 1944 A preliminary investigation into the incorporation and distri- bution of minor elements in the skeletal material of sclerac- tinian corals: Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribb. Vol. 14(3): pp. 418-423. (Concentrations of magnesium and probably other elements seem to vary with different genera. The distribution of any one element within a coral colony is heterogeneous.) Se On the physiology of reef corals. VII. Zooxanthella of the reef corals is Gymmodinium sp., Dinoflagellate; its culture in vitro: Palao Trop. Biol. Sta. Studies: Vol. 2(4): pp. 675-679. (Zooxanthellae, identified as a dinoflagellate Gymodinium sp., are able to be separated from their host and remain alive in culture in vitro.) iy KAWAGUTI, 1954 S. (cont'd) Effects of light and ammonium on the expansion of polyps in the coral reefs: Biol. Jour. Okayama Univ., Vol. 2: pp. 45- 50. (Day-expanding corals tend to have Zooxanthellae on their tentacles; night-expanding corals do not. Day-expanding corals usually have soft skeletons; night-expanding corals have hard skeletons.) McLAUGHLIN, J. J. A. and P. A. ZAHL 1957 1959 MARGALEF , 1959 RANSON, G. 1961 STEPHENS , 1960 1962 THORPE, J. 1960 Studies in marine biology. II. In vitro culture of zooxan- thellae: Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol., Vol. 95: pp. 115-120. (Isolated zooxanthellae gave rise to forms that were recognized as dinoflagellates. Isolation and nutrition procedures are described.) Axenic Zooxanthellae from various invertebrate hosts: Ann, Nie¥owAead Seis, Vol! Tix prt as-72 7 R. Assimilatory pigments from colonial coelenterates of the coral reefs and their ecological meaning: Invest. Pesquera, Vol. 15: pp. 81-101. (Assimilatory pigments from zooxanthellae may be useful ecologic and physiological indicators.) Biologie des Coraux: Cahiers Pacif., No. 3: pp. 75-94. (Mainly concerns the interrelationships between coral and zooxanthellae, but does discuss the feeding methods of coral. The utilization of the coral's waste products by the zooxanthellae constitutes their primary contribution to the coral.) G. Cc. Uptake of glucose from solution by the solitary coral Fungia: Science, Vol. 131(3412): p. 1532. (Uptake is sufficient to maintain the coral's metabolism.) Uptake of organic material by aquatic invertebrates. 1. Uptake of glucose by the solitary coral Fungia scutaria: Biol. Bull., Vol. 123(3): pp. 648-659. (Uptake rate is dependent upon light intensity.) . E, and P, K. BREGAZZI Experimentations and observations on the corals at Rendezvous Cay: Gen. Rept. Camb. Exped, to Brit. Honduras, 1959-1960, pp. 22-28.* WAINWRIGHT, S. A. 1963 Skeletal organization in the coral Pocillopora damicornis: Quart. Jour, Microscop. Sci., Vol. 104(2): pp. 169-184. (At -48- least 99.9% of the skeleton is aragonite; the organic component being from 0.01 to 0.1%. The process of skeletal formation is discussed.) 1964 Studies of the mineral phase of coral skeleton (hermatypic Pocillopora damicornis, ahermatypic Lophelia pertusa): Exp. Cell Res., Vol. 34(2): pp. 213-230.* YONGE, C. M. 1957 Symbiosis; in Hedgpeth, Treatise on Marine Ecology: Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67(1): pp. 429-442. (The general aspects of sym- biosis are discussed, both as related to corals and other marine animals.) ZAHL, P. A. and McLAUGHLIN, J. J. A. 1957 Isolation and cultivation of Zooxanthellae: Nature, Vol. 180: pp. 199-200. (Motile phases indicate zooxanthellae to be dinoflagellates. Methods of study are given.) 1959 Studies in marine biology. IV. On the role of algal cells in the tissues of marine invertebrates: Jour. Protozool., Vol. 6: pp. 344-352.* 2. 3B. Reproduction and embryology DAWADOFF, C. 1951 Evolution des &bauches blastiques chez l'embryon de quelques Madreporaires: C, R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 232: pp. 780-783.* HAWES, F. B. 1958 Preliminary observations on the settlement of the Actinula larva of the Tubularia larynx: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., pp. 147-155. - (Light affects the settlement more than temperature, but no indication that the larva is capable of selecting a place for settlement.) KAWAKAMI, I. 1941 Asexual reproduction in some reef corals: Palao Trop. Biol. Sta. Studies 2(2): 147-156. (Discusses both intra- and extra- tentacular budding.) YONGE, C. M. 1958 Some genetical problems presented by sessile Coelenterates: in Buzzati-Traverso, Perspectives in Marine Biology: Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. pp. 609-611. (Experiments on planulae are proposed to help differentiate between species and growth form.) =AO- 2. C. Growth rate and colony formation GOREAU, T. F. 1961 MA, T. Y. 1957 1959 MAVOR, J. 1915 Problems of growth and calcium deposition in reef corals: En- deavour, 20(77): pp. 32-39. (Zooxanthellae play a very impor- tant role in skeletogenesis, but not in the actual nutrition of the coral. Possible calcification processes are shown.) H. The effects of warm and cold currents in the Southwestern Pacific on the growth rate of reef corals: Oceanographica Sinica, Vol. 5(1): 34 pp. (The cold current along the China coast both narrows the distribution of the corals and affects their annular growth rate.) Effect of water temperatures on growth rate of reef corals: Oceanographica Sinica Spec. Vol. 1: 116 pp.* W. On the development of the coral Agaricia fragilis Dana: Proc. Amer. Acad, Arts and Sci. Vol. 51(9).* SQUIRES, D. F. 1960 WELLS, J. 1963 Scleractinian corals from the Norfolk Island cable: Rec. Aukland Inst. and Mus. 5(3/4): pp. 195-201.* W. Coral growth and geochrometry: Nature, Vol. 197 (4871): pp. 948-950. (Diurnal growth lines and annual growth increments can be used to approximate the number of days of the year in the geologic past. A further discussion can be found in Runcorn, 1964, Nature, Vol. 204: pp. 823-825.) -50- IV. BIBLIOGRAPHIES CONTAINING ADDITIONAL REFERENCES BALLARD, T. W., R. W. FAIRBRIDGE, and M.-H. SACHET 1958 Selected bibliography on the geology or organic reefs: Reef Terminology Index Project, Circular No. 3. 51 pp. BAYER, F. M. 1957. Recent Octocorals: in Treatise on Marine Ecology, Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67: pp. 1105-1107. (A basic source for references dealing with Alcyonarians.) BURKE, H. W. 1951 Contributions by the Japanese to the study of coral reefs; (Unpublished): U. S. Geol. Surv., Military Branch, Washington, D. C. (Includes abstracts of various Japanese papers, and inter- views with some of the more well-known workers.) DAVIS, W. M. : 1928 The coral reef problem: Amer. Geog. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 9: 596 pp. (One of the classic works on coral reefs: includes over 700 references, all prior to 1928.) FOSTER, H. L. 1956 Annotated bibliography of geologic and soils literature of western north Pacific islands: U. S. Army, Chief Eng., Intelligence Div., Headqtrs. U.S. Army Forces Far East (Tokyo): 897 pp.* GRAF, D. L. 1960 Geochemistry of carbonate sediments and sedimentary carbonate rocks. Part IV-B. Bibliography: Div. Ill. State Geol. Surv. Cite... 509, Urbanay DLL. 55 pp, MOORE, R. C. : 1956 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. F. Coelenterata: Geol. Soc. Amer. and Univ. Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas. PUGH, W. E. (ed.) 1950 Bibliography of organic reefs, bioherms and biostromes. Seismic Serv. Corp., Tulsa, Okla. 139 pp. (Contains over 1000 references, including many concerned with ancient reefs.) RANSON, G. 1958 Coraux et recifs coralliens (Bibliographie): Bull. Inst. Monaco, No. li2a. 80: pp. SACHET, M.-H. and F. R. FOSBERG 1955 Island bibliographies: Nat. Acad. Sci.- Nat. Res. Council Publ? 335: °577 pp.* esq SANDERS, J. E. 1960 Bibliographie des Travaux recents de sedimentologie. Carbonate Rocks: Symposium: Sedimentology and the Oil Industry; Fifth World Petroleum Congress, New York, 1959. pp. 88-109. (Primarily interested in carbonate sedimentation, papers published from 1952 to 1959 are included.) WELLS, J. W. 1957a Annotated bibliography - Corals; in Hedgpeth, Treatise on Marine Ecology, Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67(1): pp. 1089-1104. (Emphasizes the major works dealing with the biology and ecology of coral reefs. About 300 references are annotated; most all also appear in Ranson, 1958.) 1957b Annotated bibliography - Corals; in Ladd, Treatise on Paleoecology, Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67(2): 773-782. ZOOLOGICAL RECORD, Vol. 1 through the present, Under "Coelenterata", Zool. Soc. London. (An excellent source for reference to recent articles.) aBD= Author Page ABDOCt 5.DacP> yo» 14 Abbett ,. Loy » 37 Alldredge, L. R. 4 Alten 3 cn Re de 1D AlmycGesC oe Itee 4A, 07 Armow asl. 14 Asahina, H. 4 Asano, J. 4, 5 Aepas Sie a Baars, D. di. 22 Ballard, .T. We wot Banks, J. Ew. 23 Baraach., Jw Ee « 235.297 Bates, M. 5. BAttistinis, Re + Doe 9 Bayer, EF... Mas 51 Bein, 5. isu 2D Bennet, I. 36 Bergenback,, Rows 22 Berthois, Lar. .9 4 41 Blumenstock, D. IL... 33,5. 41 Boden, B. By 41 Benet, F. 18 Bonham, K. 38 Boolootian, R. A. » Boschma, H. 44 Boschoti, PP. H. yw 5 Bowen, V. T. 46 Boyd, Dis We « LS5 18 Bramlette, M. N. 23 Bregazzi. P. K. 48 Bridge, J. 6 Brooks, H. K. 16 Bulls. He Resp ied FS BYE Me). HcpWis, | Oise 0 Burkholder, L. M. 33 Burkholder, P., Rag” 33.0) .35 Burnside, R. J. 41 Cann, R. 18 Caroll, Diw.23 Gatala, &.° 3 Chapman, V. J. 21 Chevalier, J.-P. 5 AUTHOR INDEX Author Page Christiansen, S. 5 Chronic, Ji e228 Chubb, J.9 5 Cloud ,.°P., EB. ar.) 91) SeaeeniZ> Cole”, W, Sx 6 Colmanys J.1Sn: 3Y , 140 Cox.) De Cay 27 Crossland, @z7- 6 Grozver,W, Ji. 238 Gurray ss oR. 7°32 Cushman y J; #4. 6, 38 Dana, J. Des lL Daniel, C. » 38 Darwin, C. 1 Davis y's H.. §24 Davust, "WM, Bo L Dawadoff, C. 49 Dawson, E. Y. 38 Day; Re We @ 28 DeAndrade, O. 16 De Buisonje, P. H. Ditechels Wid. - 4 Doan, De Be ~I4 Doran, Ee, ir. 73 16 Dorbin, M: Be. er Doty, M. S. 38 Doumenge, F. 7 Durham, J. W. 44 Emery, K.°O./,° 6, 30 Endean, R. 36 Ewing, G. C. 42 Fairbridge, R. W. 1, 7, 30, 51 Faughan, J. L. 23 Ferguson, C. E. 20 Finlayson, Gv Ps 1 22 Fischer, Pi. H. 8 Fleming, Pwd. ©, 28 BPolk> R. i. 24 Ford, Wo i, 42 Fosbpere.: .» Ree? L.se2 1 Scag Gn 24 5 go, 4 lee Sut Foster, Hy a> 5 Fourmanoir, P. 9 =59= Galloway, R. A. 28 Galtsoff, P. &. Al Gambini, A. 2 Gardiner, J. S. 8 Garman, R. K. 24 Gayman, W. R. 27 George, “TT. N.. 25 Gerlach, S. Ay: 393 Gillett, K, . 6 Ginsburg, R. N. 25 Goodell, H. G. 24 Gohar , (H4A, Bo Sa .39 Gordon, “M.S. 33 Goreau, T. F. 47, 50 Goreau, Ni i. 46, 47 Gorsline, Dy Le 26 Graf, Dy Le 265. 51 GressiLe, dsb. 9-8 Gripp,. Ki “34 Gross, M, GC. +26 Grover, 2.6.3 Guilcher, A. 9 Haeberle, F. R. 9 Ham, W. E, 26 Hamilton, EL. 2 Hand, CC, 47 Hanzawa, S,. ° 10 Harriss, &, Cy cay Hartman, 0. 39 Hartman, W. D.* 25 Hass, By 2 Hayes, M. O. 24, 26 Hawes, F.B. + 49 Hold. E, E. 38 Belftrich, 2, +34 Hiatt, RoW. "34, 39 Hoffmeister, J.B. « b7 Hoskin, C.°M, «-L7;" 18 Hurley, Fo J.:° 23 filling, 4, 8% 27 Imbrie, J. 20, 29 iugerson, E, 27 inman, D,..is.. 27 isham, L. B. 25 sell. J, 8, °29 Johnson, C, ©, 335 Johnson, J, H. «10,27 17 On y SOSA, 46, Sir Johnson, M. W. Jones; Ba. is cen Jones, J, Ay a2 Jordana G, fb. . wr Kampa, E. M. 41 Kawaguti, S. 47 Kawakami, I. 49 Kaye, (CP As? by, +6 Keller, F. 4 Kelly, H. M. 33 Kinsman, D. J. J. 34 39, 41 Kohn, “A. oe 7 LOy 94 Kornicker, i, 0" #152 le 275 28, 30, 32 Krauss, R. W. 28 Kuenen, P. H. 10 Kompis Hoske120 Kuperberg, J. 25 Ladd, HS. 2. L0 Lavoe, Re Le 42 LeConte, J. 18 Leopold, E. B. 28 Lewis, J. B. 18 Llauger, V. T. 34 Lioyd. Ry My 25 Lofthouse, J. A. 21 Logan, B. W. 18 Love), Ssh. 20 Low, D. 14 Lowenstam, H. A. 25 Tnndwic lets (Cee elo Ma EV ee 2 ee 0 MeCallum, J,.19. )25 McClendon, J. F. 42 McErlean, A. J. 40 McIntire, W. G. 31 McKee, E. D. 11, 28 McKellar, R. G. 29 McLaughlin, J. J. A. MacNeil, F. S. 28 MeNeilY, Fs° ‘8, ‘TL Manning, R. B. 28 Mao, H. 42 Margalef, R. 48 Marsden, J. R. 39 Marshall, S. M. 39 Mae, E. L. 34 Mason, A. Cc. ‘Il 48, 49 Mathews, R. K. 20, 28 Matsuya, Z. 42 Mavor, J. W. 50 Maxwell, W. G. H. 28, 29 May, H. G. 14 Menard, H. W. 2 Moore, D. Re-“19 Moore. KR. CC. sd. Motoda, S. 35 Moul, E. T. 40 Molter, H.°Ge~ I? Munk, W. H. 42 Nemenzo, F. 44 Nesteroff, W. D. 11, 29 Neuman, A. C. 29 Newell Ne.Diw 2,195) 205729 Niering. Wy A. il Niino, H. ~.29 . Northrup, J. 43 Nugent, L. W. ll Odum HH. Ts | 35 Ottman, F. 20 Palumbo, R. F. 40 Parensan, P. 20 Parker, Goi C.> 20 PEGEINS, 4B. s0Rs. Pichon. Mas «12 Piggott, C.pJic,. 12 Pollard, Di. D. , 13 Pope, EC. 12 POS tA UR crm oo Pratt, R.My 2h Pugh. We. EB... 51 Purchon, R. D. 44 Purdy; By G. 20; 27, 29, 30 PUG oe Seg CO. Pusey, W. 30 Rate, A. Diy. Zt RaLet. Re Ws. -L2 Ralph, P. M. 44 Ranson,.G. »12.,..30,1,3541/48),»5. Revelle, BR... 12,.30,042 Rex. Dis) Fa a REX Rie Was 9 Rezak, R. 15 Rivero, J. 35 Robinson, M. K. 43 Robles, R. 24 Rodgers, J. 3l Russell, F. S. 40 Russell, Rod.” 25, ot Sachet,, M:-H. 2,°3,;"135.02 Salvat, "8. “35 Sanders: .L. E. D2 Scheer, G. 3 Schlanger, S. 0. ll, 13, 14, 31 Schuster-Dieterichs, 0. 20 Schmidt, R. G. 6 Seda, E. R. 34 Sewell, R. B. S. 43 Shepard, F. P. 3 Shinn, E, A. 20 Shipek, C. J. 13 Shoji,)R. 24 Shor, .G. Cl,°Jre, 13 Siegel, F. R. 31 Slack-Smith, R. J. 35 Smith, F, G. W. 44 Soliman, G. N. 38, 39 Springer, V. G. 40 Squires, DO F,...°13,,"21,. 28, 35, 36, 44, "50 Stark. J.T. , 24 Steers, J. Aa. 35. (22 Stephens, G. C. 48 Stephenson, A. Stephenson, T. Stephenson, W. 36, 45 Stetson,,, TI. R. Stewart.) Hibs Ot. vig ee Stockman, K, W. 25 Stoddart, «Ds Re 22, 31, 36 Storr, Ji, (RR. “36 Strasburg, D. W. 39 Stubbings, H. G. 31, 32 Sugiyama, T. 14 . Swartz, J. H. 14 Tandy, G. 37 Tayama, R. 14 hedehert.,."C.. 3, 75-44 Thiel, M. E. 45 Thorpe, J. E. 21; 48 Thurber, D. L. 20 Hoda. KR, 14.38 -55- Torres, C. C. 44 Tracey, J. Lege hs a teal Ao Trenchman, C. T. 32 Tsuda, R. T. 40 Tutton,.A. -Ky .45 Utinomi, H. 45 Yan fncel, -T.28, 32 Van Overbeek, J. 32 Veevers, J. V. 32 Vermecr, DE. 225,97 Vernon, R, O. 20 Verridl Re Bs a 45 Verstappen, H. T. 15 Von Ara, W. S. 43 Voss); G. Ly. 37 Voss, Ni. Ai) y37 Wainwright, S. A. 48 Walton, W. R. 19 Wells, J. We ..15, 45.5, 50,32 Whitfield, oR: P. 3/ Wiens 48. 2 Ss lS Wilson, R, L. ., 22 Welt, K. Hy “32 Wood, E: ci. Fs, 32 Woolacott, L. 40 Weteht, ©. “32 Yabe, H. 4 Yonge, C. M. 4, 37, 40, 49 Yoshida, K, 42 Zahl, P. A. 48, 49 Zaneveld, J..S. 15, 22 Zans, V. A. 22 Zonneveld, J. I. S. 16 Zoological Record 52 Zullo, V. A. 40 Anon. 43 aSib= ADDENDA BALL, M. M., E. A. SHINN, and K. W. STOCKMAN 1963 Geologic record of hurricanes: Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Program, Ann. Meeting, p. 32. CHAVE, K. E. 1960 Carbonate skeletons to limestones:problems: ‘Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci., Series 2, vol. 23(1):pp. 14-24. DAETWYLER, C. C. and A. L. KIDWELL 1959 The Gulf of Batabano, a modern carbonate basin: World Petroleum Congress Section, 1: pp. 1-21. GASKELL, T. F., M. N. HILL, and J. C. SWALLOW 1958 Seismic measurements made by the H.M.S. Challenger in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, 1950-53: Philos. Trans. Royal. Soc. London,Series A, Vom Meme Sjecoe asi GINSBURG, R. N., ed. 1964 South Florida carbonate sediments: Guidebook, Geol. Soc. Amer. Convention Nov., 1964, 72 pp. GOHAR, H. A. F. and A. F. A. LATIF ‘1959 Morphological studies on the gut of some scarid and labrid fishes; Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardagqa (Red Sea))No. 10: pp. 145-190. HOFFMEISTER, J. E., J. I. JONES, J. D. MILLIMAN, D. R. MOORE, and H.G. MULTER 1964 Living and fossil reef types of South Florida: Guidebook, Geol. Soc. Amer. Convention Nov., 1964, 28 pp. LADD, H. S. 1958 Fossil land shells from western Pacific atolls: Jour. Paleont., Vor.) 325) pp. Idé3-198. OSMOND, J. K., J. R. CARPENTER, and H. L. WINDOM 1965 Age of the Pleistocene corals and oolites of Florida: Jour. Geophys. Res., Vol 70(8): 1843-1847. PURDY, E. G. and J. IMBRIE 1964 Carbonate sediments, Great Bahama Bank: Guidebook, Geol. Soc. Amer. Convention Nov., 1964, 66 pp. 2675 ROOS, P. J. 1964 The distribution of reef corals in Curacao: Studies in the pp. 1-51, The Hague. SCHEER, G. 1964a Korallen von Abd-el-Kuri: Zool. Jb. Syst.,Bd. 91, 5. 451-466. 1964b Bemerkenswerte Korallen aus dem Roten Meer: Wissensch. Mitteilungen der Senck. Natur., 45(6): 613-620. STODDART, D. R. and J. R. CANN 1965 Nature and origin of beach rock: Jour. Sed. Pet., Vol. 35(1): pp. 243-247. SWINCHATT, J. P. 1965 Significance of constituent composition, texture, and skele- tal breakdown in some recent carbonate sediments: Jour. Sed. Pet. Vol. 3541)" pp. 71290. ZANS, V. A. 1960 Recent coral reefs and reef environments of Jamaica: Second Carib. Geol. Conf., Mayaguez, P. R., p. 58. -58- ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 112 Atoll News and Comment Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council Washington, D.C. July 15, 1965 ATOLL NEWS AND COMMENT We are very pleased with the response to previous News and Comment numbers of ARB, and with the abundance of items sent in as news, and have included most of them below. We expect to continue this feature as long as readers are enough interested to provide material. Material supplied as signed items will be included in that form or as summary paragraphs by the editors if that seems indicated. Naturally preferred are items that can be used without change or edit- ing. It will be noticed that many of the items referred to in the sections below are in the form of duplicated reports of very limited distribution, either because they were prepared for special purposes, or because the sponsors had made no provision for adequate publication. This seems a great pity when serious work and professional time have been expended, and when interest in information about islands is strong. We would like to draw attention to the fact that the pages of the ARB are open to such material, regardless of its source, so long as the information seems sound and of scientific importance and the manuscripts are carefully written and typed. The ARB exists for the purpose of placing information on atolls and reefs in the hands of those who need it without delay. 5 Current Investigations Central Pacific Ocean Area: Under the auspices of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program of the Division of Birds, Smithsonian Institution (see ARB 108) Dr, C. H. Lamoureux, of the University of Hawaii, and Mr. C. R. Long, of the Smithsonian, are assembling comprehensive collections of plants from the Line Islands, Phoenix Islands, Hawaiian Atolls, and to a lesser extent from the Gilberts, Marshalls, and Wake. Many of these have been collected by the above-mentioned investigators, others by the various ornithologists involved with the other aspects of the program. When this study is completed we should have an excellent knowledge of the flora of these atolls and the detailed distribution and occurrence of the species. Monographic reports are being prepared for various atolls, which should include consideration of the flora as well as the fauna and general ecology. It is hoped that the sponsors of this program will allow these reports to be made generally available as soon as they are ready. ns Eniwetok: Mr. Ernst S. Reese writes (Nov. 22, 1964) that he visited the Eniwetok Laboratory last June where he studied the ecology and behavior of the coconut crab, Birgus latro. He says "perhaps the most fascinating thing was the successful rearing of the young from the eggs. Studying the phase where they emerge from the sea to take up their terrestrial life was most fascinating. The young very definitely live in shells, reflecting very nicely their hermit crab ancestry." Tokelau Islands: Dr. Marshall Laird, of the Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, has kindly sent us documentation to date, for an interest- ing and important experiment that he has started in the Tokelau Islands on behalf of the World Health Organization. In these islands, as well as many others in the Pacific, Aedes polynesiensis, a common day-mosquito, is the primary vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, causal agent of filariasis. The experiment attempts to compare the effective- ness of biological versus chemical control of this mosquito. Coelo- momyces stegomyiae, a fungus parasite of Aedes, was introduced on Nukunono Atoll. Dieldrin-cement briquettes were placed in mosquito breeding places on Atafu Atoll, and the other of the Tokelau Group, Fakaofo Atoll, was left for a control. A first report, by Dr. Laird and Dr. D. H. Colless, of the University of Malaya, has been mimeo- graphed as WHO document MHO/PA/93.59, and describes the experiment, and a popular article entitled The Tokelau Experiment, published in World Health 14: 12-15, 1961, mentions that a second visit has been made to the Tokelaus to check the results. The progress of the experi- ment is described as “encouraging”. We are awaiting further reports with interest. Maldive Islands: Sizeable collections of marine algae, gathered by David Sigee on Addu Atoll (see ARB 108) are being identified by Roy Tsuda at the University of Hawaii. The vascular plants are being worked up by F. R. Fosberg. Lists should be ready for publication soon. In my "Notes on Indian Ocean Atolls visited by the Yale Seychelles Expedition. I. The Maldive Islands, with special reference to the coral reefs,"' published in ARB 102, I neglected to cite a de- tailed discussion of Addu Atoll given by R.B.S. Sewell, "An account of Addu Atoll," John Murray Expedition, 1933-34, Scientific Reports, 1: 63-93, 1936. Sewell also reported erosion on the west side of the atoll and attributed the fact that it was more pronounced than on the east side due to the greater strength of the southwest monsoon. Sewell's Plate VIII gives good photographs taken at a very low tide at or near: YSE) Sta. 25.0 + Alan J. Kohn The research vessel, Te Vega, from Stanford University, California, cruised six weeks from March to May, 1964, throughout the Maldive Islands. Eight atolls from Tiladummati to Addu were visited. H. E. Hackett, graduate student from the Department of Botany, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, participated as phycologist, A paper is being prepared on the floristic and ecolog- ical aspects of the marine algae. Thirty field stations were made including seven dredge hauls. This visit to the Maldive Islands during the International Indian Ocean Expedition was made possible by the support of the National Science Foundation, as a part of the United States Program in Biology, and the courtesy of the government of His Highness Farid Didi, Sultan. H. E. Hackett (See below, Te Vega Cruises--Eds.) Bahamas: John Milliman will, this summer, continue his investigations in the southern Bahamas on Hogsty Reef and Inagua Island. This cruise, leaving on June 7, will include a stop on the eastern side of Inagua, where there is reported a “Lithothamnion-type ridge', an uncommon if not unique feature in West Indian coral reefs. We hope to have from him, in the not-too-distant future, a description of this reef. Morant Cays, Jamaica: Mr. R. W. Smith writes from Kingston, Jamaica, that he is organizing, on behalf of the Institute of Jamaica, a bird-banding program for Jamaica and the surrounding region. This program includes the banding of sooty and noddy terns on the Morant Cays, south of Jamaica. Smith made two visits to the Morant Cays in 1964, on the second of which he banded 2,000 terns. He expects to mark sooty terns with colored plastic leg-streamers, in the hope of getting some records of them at sea during the non-breeding season. Little is known of the wi We habits or even the whereabouts of these birds during the time when they are absent from the islands where they breed. He is also making observations on the plants and we hope that he will make collections of these. Transportation to the Cays is available through the courtesy of the Jamaica Fisheries Department. British Honduras Cays: David and June Stoddart have just returned to Cambridge, England, from a month of investigations in.the Cays off British Hon- duras, with special attention to recovery from the devastation by Hurricane Hattie (see ARB 87, 95). They were able to find very signi- ficant relations between vegetation cover and the preservation of land surface features, as well as making observations on the rate of con- solidation of calcareous rubble in the zone just above high tide. A collection of plants has been received from them for identification by F. R. Fosberg. We hope to publish another of Stoddart's comprehensive reports before too long. Publications Carnival Under the Sea: Dr. Catala's volume was published shortly after we included an announcement of it in ARB 108, p. 4. Both the English and the French (Carnaval sous la Mer) editions are beautiful examples of book- making,with magnificent color plates, black-and-white photos, and drawings. The French edition (68 F postpaid)may be obtained from Editions Sicard, 30 Rue Joubert, Paris 9, France. It is also on sale at the Aquarium de Nouméa, as is the English edition. The latter can also be ordered from the publisher, and paid for through the New York ($15.00 postpaid, registered) or London banks listed in the Subscription Announcement sent to all ARB readers last year. It is also available at the Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, and at the B. P. Bishop Museum Bookshop in Honolulu for U.S. $15.00. The Library of Congress has received and catalogued the English version, and printed catalogue cards may be ordered from its Card Divi- sion. LC Catalogue Card no. 64-66447. Atoll bryoflora: Much of the systematic work on the plants and animals of coral atolls has been of a rather preliminary nature, since both the taxonomy and the collecting have been in an active state, making publications of a definitive nature rather premature. However, the extensive ee collections made in the Micronesian atolls by the Collegiate Rebel Expedition in 1960 provided sufficient material to encourage HY {AY Miller; Hi00. Whittier, and C. E..\B. Bonner to write ,.a truly notable manual entitled Bryoflora of the Atolls of Micronesia (Nova Hedwigia, Beihefte 11: 1-89, 1963). Part I is a brief geo- graphical, ecological and historical introduction, Part II is a detailed taxonomic treatment with keys to the 37 species of mosses, and Part III a similar treatment of the 25 hepatics. Geographical and distribution maps, photos of typical atoll situations, and 19 plates of magnificent analytical drawings of the species are pro- vided. The authors are to be congratulated. Clipperton Island Quoted below is an extract from a letter from Rollo H. Beck, written at sea, enroute to the Galapagos, dated January 1, 1902, published in The Condor, 4: 50-51, 1902, that was not located prior to the publication of ARB 86. The quotation conveys some idea both of the atmosphere of the island and of the personality of this remarkable student and collector of Pacific Island birds. "Around Clipperton Aestrelata phoepygia was frequently seen and the sooty terns wander hundred of miles from the island. The blue-faced boobies found at sea at this season are all young birds, that is, ten or eleven months old. Nearly all that we have seen at sea for the last three weeks have been in this plumage. Within 40 miles of Clipperton adult boobies were common, and of the thousands of blue-faced boobies seen on the island but one was seen in the spotted plumage. "Clipperton Island! How I'd like to spend the month of January there with a good 8x10 camera. The family life of three or four species of birds could be pretty well photographed in that time. Of the blue-faced boobies (Sula cyanops) one can get a picture of one or a hundred or a thousand. Their tameness is occasionally decidedly annoying when one happens to be in a hurry and the nests are close together. It is advisable always to walk not closer than two feet from a sitting bird. With nests scattered around promiscuously it is a regular zigzag trail one makes. Sula nesiotes which is abundant also, does not nest till later though pairs of birds are holding down nesting sites and an occasional young bird unable to fly is noted. "But the land crabs! Why, there are millions and millions of them and the astonishing effrontery of the intrepid thieves! I couldn't stand still two minutes before one would be clawing at my shoe, and from all directions the crabs would be edging toward me with a stealthy, sidelong, intermittent movement, and great, wide-open, bulging, staring Oy a eyes. As an instance of their amazing impudence I laid down three or four bitds in front of me in order to wrap up some eggs. After wrapping three or four I glanced at the birds and an insatiable glutton of a crab had chewed off an eyelid of one while two others were pick- ing at the wings of another bird and yards away other crabs were hurrying forward to participate in the toothsome repast. I scared back the near- est and felt a nip at my foot. There was an old reprobate trying to crawl into a little crack in my shoe, while near at hand came others to reinforce him. I actually had to wrap the birds up before doing any- thing else. "Now if I wanted to give you a distorted version or exaggerate this statement in the least I would elaborate in the manner in which they carried off eggs while I was wrapping birds, but I haven't given you any thing but an abridged condensation of the facts! I wrapped the birds and eggs in a hurry and left the spot. But it is laughable to see a crab seize an egg as they do with boobies' eggs when occa- sion offers. They grasp it tenderly in that long arm and sidle off in a fashion highly amusing. The men on the islands tell me the crabs often take the young boobies from under their parents, and I can easily believe it. They also say but one young bird is reared though two eggs are usually hatched. I cannot recall now having seen two fair-sized young of either the blue-faced or variegated species, though I have seen plenty of nests of both with one young bird and two eggs. "The land crabs are one of the unpleasant features to a collector down here." In several papers on Clipperton, especially in the Symposium on Modification of biotic balance of island faunas and floras (Pacific Basin Biogeography, J. L. Gressitt, ed., Bishop Museum Press, 1963), p. 530, it was suggested that crabs might eat birds' eggs or even young birds. Finding confirmation in Beck's letter offsets somewhat the vexa- tion of having missed it while preparing an "exhaustive" bibliography of Clipperton. Central Pacific and Phoenix Atolls: Canton Islands, made October 1963 by Holmes & Narver Inc. In addition to summarizing known information on these islands, especially Howland, this report presents considerable original data, mostly of interest to engineers, but some of it also of geological interest. Several shallow bore-holes were put down on Howland and Baker, and logs and descriptions of samples are included in the report. Shallow seismic surveys, using a "boomer" as the source of sound waves, were made on Howland and Baker. Colored air photos and ground photos, as well as some black and white photos and maps in some detail, are included. The information on Canton Island is of much less interest than that on the other two. It is hoped that the interest of AEC in these atolls does not presage their total destruction. Although they can- not be regarded as undisturbed islands, even in their present rather modified condition they are of great ecological interest. It would be a great pity if all such islands were regarded as waste land, available for any and all activities, however destructive. It seems clear that a few of these simple ecosystems should be preserved for the purpose, in the near or distant future, of investigating how eco- systems really work. If they are all destroyed we may regret it. Fanning Island: To one especially interested in intertidal erosion on coral islands a paper just received from Gerald J. Bakus, on The Effects of (Allan Hancock Found, Pub. Occ. Pap. 27: 1-29, 1964), is extremely valuable. The author brings together the available information on "fish-grazing" from a wide range of papers, and adds the results of his own experiments carried out in 1963 on Fanning Atoll. The discus- Sion and conclusions of this work are mainly devoted to selective and evolutionary effects on the biota of reefs, but the information assembled is also of great interest in relation to ecological an geological effects of grazing and gnawing by reef fishes. i Johnston Island: Johnston Island probably has the distinction of being, of all the coral atolls, the most thoroughly modified by man. It now may join Clipperton, Arno, Onotoa, Raroia, Kapingamarangi and Ifaluk as one of the most completely known atolls. We have two comprehensive ecological reports at hand, one on land aspects, principally birds, the other on underwater ecology, mostly with reference to ciguateric (poisonous) fishes. The Preliminary Biological Survey of Sand Island-Johnston Atoll, 136 pp., 1964, "prepared by staff Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program Division of Birds Smithsonian Institution" (an unfortunate type of authorship, normally reduced for bibliographic convenience to “Anon."'), very adequately summarizes what has previously been known of the land ecology of Johnston Island,and adds a great amount of information collected by the Smithsonian staff. This,naturally, is largely related to birds, as they are the principal focus of the project. A number of plants, and ay ee doubtless animals, new to the atoll are reported and lists of plants and animals known from the atoll are included as appendices. The plant list would have been improved a great deal if it had been sub- mitted first to a botanist familiar with the plants of the area, —— OO Effects of Dredging, 90 pp., 1965, by V. E. Brock, R. S. Jones, and P. Helfrich, treats the marine environments in a similarly comprehensive manner, but with emphasis on fish. Very comprehensive lists of fishes, and brief ones of other invertebrates are provided, but algae, the presumed sources of the ciguatera toxin, are mentioned incidentally and not by name. Selected habitats are described and illustrated both 7 by photos and by artists' sketches. Much attention is devoted to effects of dredging, and the Randall / Dawson_/ theory of the origin of ciguatera is further elaborated. Both reports are abundantly illustrated with photos, maps, and graphs. Intertidal erosion: One of the most important questions in atoll geology and ecology is the nature and rate of intertidal erosion of limestone. A paper just received from E. P. Hodgkin, of the University of Western Australia (Zeitschr. Geomorph. N.F., 8: 385-392, 1964), reports the results of observations and experiments that suggest an average rate of erosion at near mean low tide level of about 1 mm per year, the rate decreasing toward high tide level. He ascribes this erosion to chemical corrosion plus the rasping activities of marine mollusks. The differential rate of erosion at different levels accounts very nicely for the widely observed phenomenon of notch-formation on these tropical limestone coasts. Deposition and destruction of reef limestone: The work of Tom Goreau on the fundamental processes of deposi- tion of the calcareous skeletons of reef-forming animals and plants has, since we first became familiar with it, impressed us as about the best that is being done in the field. More unusual is Tom's ability to apply his microscopic-scale observations to the problems of forma- tion of massive reefs and to relate these to environmental complexes and geographic situations. Now we are pleased to be able to call attention to two papers reporting aspects of this work. One is entitled Calcium carbonate deposition by coralline algae and corals in relation to their roles as reef-builders (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 109: 127-167, 1963). This goes into some detail concerning the environmental relations of the calcification processes, as well as their relation to photosynthesis, with rather little emphasis on the reef-building aspect. It will long a remain a basic paper, essential to an understanding of reef ecology. The other paper is Control of coral reefs by boring sponges, in Mechanisms of hard tissue destruction, AAAS pub. 75: 25-54, 1963. This summarizes what is known of the mechanism employed in limestone destruction by clionid sponges, and examines in detail the great role these organisms play in the morphology and ecology of Jamaican reefs. We now must learn if these sponges have a similar influence on the reefs of the Pacific and Indian Ocean areas. Reef island formation: David Stoddart has sent a reprint of a paper on Storm con- ditions and Veperet ion ie in equilibrium of reef islands , published — in the Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Coastal Engineering, pp. 893-906, 1964. He discusses his investigations of the British Honduras Cays and the effects on them of Hurricane Hattie (see ARB 95, 104), and formulates a model of reef island formation. In this, in addition to the various physical conditions necessary for the accumula- tion of sediments to form bars, the establishment of vegetation is seen as the critical factor that enables such bars to grow further and become stabilized islets that accumulate additional sediments and may reach 10 feet or more in height, rather than the 3-5 feet possible without this assistance. Alacran sediments: We are delighted to be able to mention a fine addition to the knowledge of Alacran Reef (see ARB 93), a paper on Recent carbonate sedimentation on Alacran Reef, Yucatan, Mexico, by C. M. Hoskin, Publication 1089 of the National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council, 1963. The paper summarizes previous work and work in progress, but mainly reports the author's results during his investigations during the summers of 1959-1961. This comprehensive report is thorough, well- documented, and beautifully illustrated. It would be impossible to summarize it here, even its conclusions. Suffice it to say that many of the processes, both inorganic and organic, at work on coral reefs in the Yucatan area are discussed, and that this paper will be indis- pensable to any future workers interested in these problems and this area, Maldive Atolls: Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., Im Reich der tausend Atolle, R. Piper & Co Verlag, Munchen, 1964. The Xarifa Expedition to the Maldive and Nicobar Islands (1957-1958), under the leadership of Dr. Hans Hass, has been mentioned in several Bulletins, especially ARB 91 and 94, p. 15 (review of Expedition ins Unbekannte). We now have another beautiful book on these and other islands. About half of it concerns the Maldives, and, like Dr. Eibl- Eibesfeldt's volume on the Galapagos Islands (1960), it combines narrative, = “is background information on the islands, and many of the author's obser- vations on reef animals, especially fish, in his role as "animal psychologist.'' This is the type of book of value to the scientist, with index and bibliography, and also of interest to the layman will- ing to take a little trouble and follow Dr. Eibl under the sea. Diving now permits all sorts of scientific work among the coral biota and the author is an able guide. His most interesting studies of animal behavior are illustrated by many drawings and beautifully reproduced photographs in black and white and in color. French Polynesia: No. 6 of Cahiers du Pacifique appeared in June 1964 and, among many items of interest, includes several articles on corals and on the great reef of New Caledonia. The Fondation Singer-Polignac, which organized the New Caledonia 3-year survey and sponsors the Cahiers, will publish a series of technical reports on the New Caledonia and other studies. A "preliminary volume" in this series was issued in 1961 (Forest, J. and Guinot, D., Crustacésdécapodes brachyoures de Tahiti et des Tuamotu, Expédition frangaise sur les réecifs coral- liens de la Nouvelle-Calédonie...1960-1962, Vol. préliminaire, 1-195, Fondation Singer-Polignac, Paris, 1961, 18 plates). Also more and more active is the French overseas research organization ORSTOM (Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer), and especially its Noumea research station, the Institut francais d'Océanie. Its 1963 Annual Report, just received, cites many research programmes and notes improvements in available facilities and increase in staff. In 1963, M. Blanchon (Botany) visited the coral islets Surprise and Huon, and M. Huguenin (Phytopathology) also visited Surprise. In its series of "Mémoires", the ORSTOM has just published an extensive report based on a 1959 survey: Guilcher, A., Berthois, L., Le Calvez, Y., Battistini, R., and Crosnier, A., Océan Indien) Mém. Orstom 11: 1-210, Paris 1965, 16 plates,24 tables. It is lavishly illustrated with charts, maps, tables and plates of photographs, and very detailed. Mayotte is a volcanic island with a barrier reef, and there is also a map and a brief description of the low coral Glorioso Islands, There is a comprehensive 4-page English summary. One might express mild criticism of the typography, the lines of text being too long for the size of the type; otherwise this is a splendid publication. ay Some of the least well-known islands of the Pacific, Wallis and Futuna, are the subject of a monographic treatment in vol. 19 of the Journal de la Société des Océanistes. Unfortunately there is no map of these volcanic islands with barrier and/or fringing reefs. Vol. 20 of the same series has also just been received. In both volumes the extensive bibliography of Oceania initiated by Father P. O'Reilly is continued, Micronesica: The first volume, nos. 1 and 2, of this new Pacific journal (see ARB 100) is now at hand. It contains, among others, two papers on'atolls: The social effects of Typhoon Ophelia (1960) on Ulithi, by W. A. Lessa, and The Crustacea Decapoda (Brachyura and Anomura) of Eniwetok, by J. S. Garth. The editor, B. C. Stone, has now left Guam for the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, but still continues as editor of Micronesica. This issue is a highly creditable publica- tion and gets the journal off to an excellent start. Pacific Naturalist: We are sorry to report that the attractive journal, Pacific Naturalist, has suspended publication. The last number, Vol. 4, no. 3, was issued February 20, 1964. Manual for Tropical Herbaria: The International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature, with the financial assistance of UNESCO, has just published vol. 39 of Regnum Vegetabile, by F. R. Fosberg and M.-H. Sachet, with the above title (132 pp., 16 figs.). The Manual includes extensive instructions on plant collecting which will be of use on coral atolls as well as in all other types of tropical vegetation. Personalia H. A. Miller, authority on bryology of atolls, has spent the second semester of this academic year as visiting professor in the College of Guam. Henry O. Whittier, bryologist, is now located at the New York Botanical Garden, after a moss-collecting trip to Tahiti. Ernani Menez, who collected algae in the atolls of the Carolines on the Collegiate Rebel Expedition in 1960, is now working at the Smith- sonian Dept. of Oceanography Sorting Center, Washington, D. C. es ee Yale Dawson, former editor of Pacific Naturalist (see above), is spending the summer at Humboldt State College, Arcata, California, and will join the Smithsonian staff in Washington at the end of the summer, We can expect a great revival of interest in marine Algae at the National Museum beginning at that time. F. R. Fosberg and Michael Evans, of the Pacific Vegetation Project, will go to Guam in June and will visit as many of the islands in Micronesia as feasible during the next two months. Mr. Evans will remain in Guam to continue collecting plants with as much information as possible on the medical and dietary uses by the local people. Items of General Interest Research Station in West Java: We have heard, indirectly, that the Indonesian Institute of Biological Science is establishing a small research station on Poeloe Poetjang, a small coral island just off the coast of the Ujong Kulon Reserve, near the western tip of Java. This small island, a flat patch of coral sand with a low limestone ridge near one end, has one of the few remaining bits of native lowland forest in Java. This forest has been the subject of study by the botanists from the Bogor Herbarium, especially Dr. A. Kostermans and his students, for a number of years. It has yielded several new trees and specimens of others that have not been seen for a hundred years. The new station should provide facilities for scientists who wish to continue these studies, as well as for those studying the coral reefs and the fine nature preserve on the nearby Java mainland. We wish the Institute well in this new enterprise. South Pacific solar eclipse stations: Dr. Gerald Mulders, of the Astronomy section of NSF informs us that two atoll stations are being set up for investigation of the total soiar eclipse on May 30-31 in the South Pacific. One of these is on Manuae in the Cook Islands, the other on Bellingshausen, in French Poly- nesia, Parties of astronomers from several nations will share these facilities. Perhaps bits of information of other than an astronomical character may result, in addition to their main objectives. Te Vega Cruises: Thanks to Don Abbott we have received copies of the first 18 (minus one not yet duplicated) installments of Dr. Rolf L. Bolin's very entertaining and informative General Narrative of the first seven cruises of the Hopkins Marine Laboratory's research vessel, Te Vega; also Abbott's account of the scientific aspects of Cruise 5. These seven cruises were ae ye es actually segments of a single complicated trip across the Pacific to the Solomon Islands, New Britain, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, the Indian Ocean, Ceylon, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, the Maldives, back to Singapore, Philippines, Rabaul, and the Solomons, including the fascinating elevated coral islands, Rennell and Bellona. Cruise 8 will bring them back across the Pacific to Monterey, with visits to various of the central Pacific atolls. The different cruises were marked by the presence of different guest investigators and different groups of students. Primary attention seemed to be on hydrographic stations with plankton tows, deep-water trawling and dredging, and ichthyological collecting. However, many islands were visited, a few of them atolls, and much collecting was done on coral reefs, especially of fish, mollusks, and algae of the genus Halimeda (by Dr. Llewellya Hillis Colinvaux). The combination of serious research by advanced investigators and work on graduate problems by students, lectures on problems and fields of interest in marine biology and biological oceanography by staff and visiting scientists and guest lecturers, and continuous exposure to the ecosystems under study would seem to provide an ideal system of training for students and stimulus to mature scientists. Perhaps even a few future Darwins might result. It is hoped that investiga- tions of land aspects of coral islands may be included as a part of future cruises, and that papers suitable for ARB may result. Smithsonian Institution: From the Smithsonian Institution come several items of in- terest. One is the establishment of a Sorting Center for specimens of marine organisms collected in the various oceanographic programs now under way, such as the International Indian Ocean Expedition. The U. S. National Herbarium is moving from the old castle across the Mall into new and more spacious and convenient quarters on floors 4 and 5 of the new west wing of the Natural History Museum. An ex- panded interest in ecology and tropical biology is being developed in the Smithsonian. We hope that this will extend to the ecology of coral atolls and islands. Gilbert Islands Study: We have just had the visit of M. Jean Paul Latouche of the French CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), who is on his way to the Gilbert Islands for a two-year stay. He plans to study social anthropology,land tenure and ethnobotany on Abemama, Kuria and Aranuka. Mme Nicole Latouche will be preparing a monograph on the Gilbertese system of Cooperatives. Erratum: Our attention is called, by Mrs. Jane Cooper, to the fact that in ARB 105, pp. 2 and 11, her affiliation is given as 'Depart- ment of Cooperative Societies, Suva, Fiji", while, in fact, she is a research associate of the University of Hawaii. The Suva address is merely her mailing address, as it is her husband's place of employment. We are glad to make this correction. Smithsonian Bird Banding Program: Results from the bird banding and marking activities of the Smithsonian Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (see ARB 108) are already beginning to come in. Large numbers of sea- birds are being marked with bands and with colored plastic leg streamers and released on various islands of the central Pacific. On March 1 we received a letter from Dr. Philip S. Humphrey, head of this program, indicating that cooperation in reporting marked birds and returning bands is enthusiastic in all parts of the Pacific. Excerpts from many letters are quoted. As a consequence of this the Smithsonian has decided to send out an occasional news- letter to such cooperators to keep them informed as to the results. Identification material and colored slides on the Pacific sea-birds are being prepared and made available to schools to encourage people to interest themselves in these birds and to report sightings back to the Smithsonian. We are reproducing here the notice that has been circulated announcing the marking program and requesting cooperation, in case any of our readers have not seen it. ATTENTION! Hundreds of thousands of far-traveling ocean birds of many kinds are being captured, marked, and released on mid-Pacific islands in a widespread study of sea- bird migration by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Although it is known that some kinds of birds perform remarkable annual migrations of 10,000 miles or more over the North and South Pacific Oceans, the regular travels of most species are unknown or poorly understood. To learn more about the migrations of seabirds, Smithsonian ornithologists have captured and marked over 300,000 birds of 28 different kinds in the Central Pacific with standard, numbered, United States Fish and Wildlife Service aluminum legbands. Of these, over 60,006 have been marked with 4 inch colored plastic leg-streamers. Anyone coming into the possession of a banded dead bird in the Pacific Ocean Area is asked to cooperate by returning the band, together with time and place of recovery, as instructed on the band. For live birds, only the band number together with time and place of capture need be sent to the directed address, after which the bird should be liberated so that its further travel may be traced. Anyone sighting a bird with a colored leg-streamer anywhere in the Pacific Ocean Area is asked to cooperate by recording the name or description of the kind of bird wearing the streamer, the color of the streamer, the date seen, and the latitude and longitude or approximate location of sighting. All information on birds with colored leg-streamers should be sent as soon as possible to: Division of Birds Smithsonian Institution Washington, D. C. 20560 EACH COOPERATOR WILL BE ADVISED WHERE THE BANDED OR COLOR-MARKED BIRD WAS TAGGED. --YOUR HELP IS NEEDED-- oideeat pars wing, ‘hee tthe nee bie . +6 thers olny ae 4 506.73 19 f// 75° No. 113 December 31, 1965 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Terrestrial Sediments and Soils of the Northern Marshall Islands by F. Raymond Fosberg and Dorothy Carroll — Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D.C., U.S.A. RE ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Terrestrial sediments and soils of the northern Marshall Islands by F. Raymond Fosberg and Dorothy Carroll Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D. C. December 31, 1965 ACKNOWLE DGMENT It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board, It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the funda- mental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the JU. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs during the past eighteen years. The preparation and issuance of the Atoll Research Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract Nonr-2300(12). The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and they do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or of the editors of the Bulletin. Editorial Staff F. R. Fosberg, editor M.-H. Sachet, assistant editor Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the above: Pacific Vegetation Project c/o National Research Council 2101 Constitution Ave., N. W. Washington, D. C. 20418, U.S.A. Terrestrial sediments and soils of the northern Marshall Tatanden’ by F. Raymond Fosberg and Dorothy Carroll <7 Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey SONV1SI TIVHSHVW NUSHLYON 3HL 4O dW ‘T 3YNDIS 204! 289! < nee < ° ov9i ec9l S ? av1 Yeni Ore avrn 3PLOM> agi NIa WPVM ONvTaen - “3 an {iraw owst OHLOMS wn WAVL 3VNIONITIV fs = HOLIMING MIYLLAY WMlaohone 2) INIMLG Ale dv139NO¥ > | S, . yVyId 4 seji@ OO} ——— SGNV1SI TIVHSUYVA NYSHLYON ISNOVL g i i PREFACE Parts of the information in this paper have been previously included in a U. S. Army Intelligence document (Fosberg and others, 1956) but are presented here in somewhat modified form to be generally available to the scientific public. The present paper was first writ- ten in 1954 for publication as a Professional Paper of the U. S. Geological Survey, under which auspices the work vas done. Extended delay and the prospect of still more finally brought about the decision to publish it in the Atoll Research Bulletin, thus avoiding continued inaccessibility of the information. We apologize for the long delay, and for any failure to take into account literature published after the paper had reached its present form as well as later field work, the results of which have not yet been analyzed. The U. S. Board on Geographic Names has, since the 1956 publica~ tion, issued decisions on Marshallese place names which take up dif- ferent spellings for many of the islet names used in 1956, different names altogether for some, reverse the application of several names, and in at least one case (Jaboero and Jabwelo), adopt variants of the same name for two different islets in the same atoll (Bikar). In order to reduce confusion resulting from place names differing in the two reports, a complete list of the islets of all the atolls for which maps are provided in this paper is given in Appendix III, with parallel columns giving names adopted by the Board on Geographic Names and used in this paper, those used in the 1956 maps (Fosberg and others, 1956), and those from a manuscript list supplied by E. H. Bryan, Jr., of the B. P. Bishop Museum. These latter were compiled by Bryan in consultation with Dr. Leonard Mason of the University of Hawaii, and a number of Marshallese informants from most of the atolls concerned. It is hoped that this will make the present paper intelli- gible to those who have used the Army publication (Fosberg and others, 1956), as well as to Marshallese and others familiar with the names actually used in the islands. The maps (figures 5-15) are adapted by change of islet names from originals prepared by F. Stearns MacNeil for the 1956 report (Fosberg and others 1956, figs. 2-13) which were there wrongly listed as based on Hydrographic Office charts. These maps were based on air photographs. Grateful acknowledgment must be made to Prof. E. L. Stone, Jr., Dr. K. O. Emery, and Mr. Z. S. Altschuler who reviewed and made sug- gestions on an early draft of the manuscript, and many of whose sug- gestions have now been incorporated. The editorial criticism of the present manuscript by Miss Natalie Jones and by Mrs. Wenonah E. Ber- Quist is greatly appreciated. The figures were redrafted by Miss Barbara Geyer. Great credit is due our several typists who have pro- duced the several drafts of the manuscript, especially Mrs. Josephine Q, Barton, who did much of the final version, and to Mrs. Ann Chamberlain, who cut the stencils. J. Anthony Denson gave valuable advice and much help with improved prints of many of the photographs as did Norman Prime. Finally, we wish to thank Dr. Marie-Héléne Sachet, whose assis- tance with the manuscript at all stages has been indispensable. niOoUSs rh ) CLatonep it ik OSL Libost 3 . fevid eaw tegeg eee at 8 .Y. 0d? fo. tee face atxd oh ast ao nei he Teh y Fe 5 oy tyoda. mn ; Liat oie Mi tase to doo uriicos pathioys "ete tite lind: domsenon Llosa rafeb grol ait tc shtgotoga 2a “ oft vette Bera lidig wines sefht tured on ong pre re) ps RO de uid ion Dies T bist Ot Liww esi ret yasasey Hever 3 Leeda, Tiesd tox iii - aot. ~soliduy 3@Qf off souke ,aant some Acten youd 0 “tih qu ated aotdy wv an ath 4 goeetiy sagt Caeral: no Saoretilh Atel wt Deuy esmem tela any To Ye quais [atever to sobteoliqgn ‘eed oer anet | tn agaeiuey dqobe ,fofewdst Epes; reeds } r ( i Yy 1, Erosion ramp Sea level > —__—___—~ Windward Islet Reef rock WW ard rock Leeward islet (south) 4 Soft rock 2. Diagrammatic cross sections of islets on windward and leeward reefs of atolls showing positions of reef rock, unconsolidated materials, beach rock, rock platforms, and erosion ramps. —————————————— PART I: GEOLOGY by F. R. Fosberg The geology of these atolls has been described in several pub- lications (Tracey, Ladd and Hoffmeister, 1948; Nugent, 1946; Emery, Tracey and Ladd, 1954; Fosberg and others, 1956, p. 7-132; and Fosberg, 1957 sili, ah summary of the geology follows. Physiographically an atoll is the upper calcareous part of a broadly conical or irregularly pyramidal mountain mass rising from the floor to the surface of the ocean. Only the top of this is usually considered, geographically, and of this only the part which breaks the surface of the sea need be discussed here. Thus restricted, the northern Marshall Islands are a series of narrow platforms or reefs, usually irregularly ring-shaped or polygonal, commonly enclosing a shallow body of ocean water called a lagoon (pl. 1A). Of these platforms by far the largest areas lie at or just above or below tide level and are called the reef flat. The outer edge of this either falls off abruptly, as on leeward sides, or is elevated in the form of a low ridge, as on windward sides. The inner margins, where not occupied by islets, shelve off into the lagoon. The surface of the reef flat may be relatively smooth or locally quite rough or strewn with great boulders. Scattered along these platforms are areas that rise above high-tide level, called islets (perhaps a better term is the Polynesian word motu, but even this is not completely devoid of ambiguity) (pls. 1, 2). These islets, though forming only an in- finitesimal part of the area and bulk of atolls, are in many respects the most interesting one, and that with which this report is principally concerned. The entire structure of an atoll, except the deeply submerged part of the foundation, is made up of organic limestone sediments, either loose or variously consolidated. Deep borings on Bikini and Eniwetok have given much information on the nature of the sediments making up the part below sea level (Emery, Tracey, and Ladd, 195}; Ladd and others, 1953; Ladd and Schlanger, 1960.) These are mostly unconsolidated material, and extend downward to more than 4,000 feet below sea level. Some layers are consolidated or partly so. Most of the material resembles that deposited in the lagoon today. A few traces of carbonaceous material, with land plant pollen and fossil land and fresh-water shells, suggest that some of these sediments were once terrestrial and supported vegetation. Origin of the reefs Before considering the morphology and structure of the islets, themselves, it will be necessary to give brief attention to the origin and nature of the reefs and the materials of which they are composed. This is, in certain aspects, a highly controversial sub- ject, and for more adequate treatment of it reference may be made to the publications cited above. The limestone is made up of the skele- tons of lime-secreting animals and plants, mainly corals. Foraminifera, mee and those algae which possess hard skeletons (see p. 56-74). These animals and plants add to the rocky structure on which they grow in two different ways. Some of them are firmly attached and cemented onto the rock, adding by the growth of their skeletons to the material of the rock itself, either in the form of crusts or as outgrowths. Storm waves may break these off. Others are either free or loosely attached, becoming free when they die. The loose material so formed, as well as that resulting from breakage, accumulates on the reefs, on the islets, in the lagoons, and on the submarine outer slopes of the atolls. That on the islets comprises the sediments that are the subject of this report. The firmly attached organisms are of many different shapes and grow together very abundantly in the warm seas of the tropics. Attaching themselves to each other, as well as to the rocks, their skeletons form a rigid latticework of limestone, which may be filled in either by growth or by deposit of loose sediments in the inter- stices. Most of the corals (pl. 3) are branched; often they are miniature treelike structures that are rather fragile and easily shattered or torn loose by storm waves (pl. 3A, B). Some of those exposed to direct wave action have more compact growth forms and are more resistant. By themselves, however, most of the corals would not be able to make the stable structure known as coral reefs. The function of cementing and binding these corals together into a mas- sive rock is performed by certain of the calcareous algae (plants) (pls. 4, 5) and by certain colonial hydrozoans (Millepora) (animals) related to corals, which grow with no fixed or definite forms but which make a shapeless hard crust over the surfaces of the other animals, smothering them, filling in the holes and spaces between them, thus presenting a smoother and more resistant surface to the force of the waves. These binding organisms, especially the plants, thrive best in the roughest, most thoroughly aerated water. For this reason the firmest structures of the atolls are on the windward sides where the swells break continuously. Growth of reef-building organ- isms, generally, is faster on the outer edges of the reefs where waves break, thus building up these portions more rapidly than the more protected parts (pl: 5A, C). Usually the most perfect and most intricately branched coral skeletons may be found in quiet places, such as lagoons (pl. 3), or in water below the active turbulence zone on the outer slopes, where they are not smashed by heavy waves. How- ever, the greatest amount of limy material is added on the outer edges of the reefs. This area is also the source of much of the fragmentary material which forms the sediments that fill large parts of the reef structure. It has been shown by the studies at Bikini (Ladd and others, 1950) that loose material detached from the reefs, especially on the windward sides, is carried by currents, waves and winds and deposited in various other parts of the atoll structure to form the sediments of which the atoll is largely composed. Any hole in the latticework, any protected pool or cavity, as well as the lagoon itself, tends to be filled in by this loose material. This debris -9 - may become cemented either by growth of such binding organisms as those mentioned above or by deposition of lime from the sea water, thus adding to the strength of the reef structure, or it may remain indefinitely as unconsolidated sediments protected from wave action by the surrounding rigid framework of the reefs. It might well be supposed that these masses of limestone had grown up directly from their volcanic foundations until they reached the surface of the ocean. This cannot be true, however, because. none of the important reef-building organisms can thrive in water too deep to permit a significant amount of light to reach them. The actual limits of growth of these organisms vary greatly, but there is certainly little material added below a depth of 300 feet, and the important addition is above 150 feet. These facts have been known for a long time and recent investigation has tended to confirm and amplify previous knowledge of these limitations. Therefore, it is clear that other principles must be involved in the presence of enormous masses of limestone below the limits of effective penetra- tion of light into sea water. These principles have been the center of violent scientific controversy for more than a hundred years, and only the investigations of the last 20 years have brought matters to a point where a brief, reasonably convincing generalization can be made of the mode of origin of coral atolls. There now seems little doubt that all reef growth took place in shallow water and that the volcanic foundations of the atolls have subsided with relation to sea level, the relative change in ele-~- vation being slow enough to allow upward growth to keep pace with the subsidence. In this way the zone of active growth would have remained within the levels where light was sufficient. Whether this relative change was due to actual subsidence of the volcanic islands or to worldwide changes in sea level is not certain, but it is probable that both took place. During the glacial periods, especially, there are known to have been considerable shifts of sea level and unques- tionably these have had a profound effect on the present form of coral islands. It is believed, for example, that within the last few thousand years there has been a fall of approximately 6 feet (or 11 feet according to some authorities, especially Fairbridge , 1950, 1952) in sea level, leaving extensive areas of coral limestone reef rock above water. Remnants of these form much of the consolidated part of most of the islets on present-day atolls, the rest of it hav- ing eroded away since exposure took place. The geology of the islets, themselves, may be treated in great- er detail as these structures are largely made up of the sediments to be discussed in the present paper. General features of islets All the northern Marshall Atolls have some dry land in the form small islets (pls. 1, 2) scattered along the reef flats (pls. 6, 8). These range from tiny deposits of sand and gravel (pl.10) almost awash at high tide to flat expanses as much as several miles long and almost » 10 - half a mile wide. Not counted as islets are the rubble tracts (pl. 9) and storm-cast boulders lying on the reef flat (pl. 5D), though some of them may be exposed even at high water. The islets are essentially portions of the reef which lie above the general level of the reef flat. The materials are the same and there is no real difference except that they are exposed above sea level. The surface of most islets lies between 4 and 10 feet above mean tide level but practically no accurate measurements of heights are available, nor have all the islets in the northern Marshall Islands been visited. Areas denuded by storms may lie close to high-tide level or even lower. Some islets have central depressions with bottoms at or slightly above high-tide level. Dunes, beach ridges, and boulder © ridges may rise 6 to 12 feet or rarely even as much as 25 feet or more above mean tide level. A boulder-capped ridge on the south coast of Lae Islet has an altitude of about 18 feet. The highest altitude in the Marshall Islands is believed to be a beach or dune ridge on the ~ lagoon side of Labinwor Islet, Likiep, on the leeward side of the atoli. Some parts of this ridge are more than 25 feet above mean sea level. The islets may be regarded as ephemeral from a geological stand- point. This is shown by such evidences as ancient shorelines, indicated by beachrock, which do not coincide with the outlines of present islets, striking differences between outlines observed at present from those on maps of early surveys, and the relatively youthful character of the vegetation on some islets. That they are reasonably stable from a human standpoint however, is shown by the fact that a distinctive human population has occupied them for many generations; many islets show a well-developed vegetation, as well as populations of land animals, some of the latter unknown anywhere else. Types of islets Examination of a large number of islets shows that they are of three principal kinds: (a) those having a remnant of emerged reef rock, a mass of reef rock not yet eroded away, as a core; (b) those that are simply an accumulation of limestone detritus on the present reef flat; and (c) islets within lagoons. Type (a) islets are the result of a general lowering of sea level in relation to the reefs. This lowering of sea level is considered to have started several thou- sand years ago. Type (b) islets can be observed at present in all stages of formation in the northern Marshall Islands (pls. 9, 10). The three types and variants of them will be discussed separately, as they differ in some important respects. Types (a) and (b) are illustrated in figures 3 and 4. Te s Islets with a remnant of emerged reef rock as a core By far the greater number of islets on atolls in the northern Marshell Islands are essentially platforms of reef breccia or conglo- merate stending above the present reef-flat surface, with associated Sai~'. accumulations of sand, gravel, and larger debris. Most windward islets are of this type, as well as those on south reefs. This type of islet (fig. 3) may be readily identified by the presence of a rock platform (pls. 11-13) above high-tide level, protruding from beneath the sandy or eravelly vegetation-covered part of the seaward side of the islet. The platform may extend beneath the loose material of the islet for as much as a third or even two-thirds the distance to the lagoon beach. More rarely it may extend all the way and protrude from under the sand at the top of the lagoon beach (pls. 11B, 12C). On the seaward sides of wind- ward islets the platform may be of considerable extent (pl. 2A). It presents a rough pitted surface, blackened by the growth of microscopic algae. The rock of which it is composed is generally a highly consoli- dated reef conglomerate or breccia of unsorted, often very angular frag- ments, case-hardened by exposure to air. The highest rock surface observed, excepting the remnants of Bwokwla (Bokla) islet, Taongi (Pokak), was about 5 1/2 feet above mean low tide. Others were from 1 to 2 or more feet lower, having probably been eroded by slow solution by rain water. The pitting of these surfaces shows that this solution process is constantly taking place (pls. 14-16). The suggestion has been made that some islets apparently of this type may really belong to the second type, the platform being simulated by subaerially consolidated sediments. This possibility is hard to eliminate unless reef material in growth position is found. It is by no means certain that such consolidation does actually take place under atoll conditions, but it is possible. Petrographic studies of the type of cementation and recrystallization involved might yield dependable criteria for distinguishing subaerial from intertidal and submarine con- solidation, but we know of no such studies on atolls as yet. At present, degree of consolidation, indications of planation surfaces, and fossils of intertidal organisms in their characteristic growth habitats and positions are the best available criteria for concluding that the appar- ent platforms are of formerly submerged rock. The edge of this platform may be more or less abrupt and ledgelike or it may slope. Commonly a ramplike slope of irregularly eroded rock, a few to many yards wide, extends from the edge or base of the ledge down to the reef flat just above low-tide level. There may be a transitional area Of irregular or roughened rock slightly higher than the reef flat. The ramplike slope has been termed the erosion ramp (pls. 114, 14A, B, D, 15, 16; 17B, D), as it is here that the active erosion of this ele- vated reef rock is taking place. Comparable erosion ramps may also be cut in beach rock (pl. 144A). Several processes were observed which contribute to this erosion. solution, by rain water and possibly by sea water also, is a factor, as is shown by the prevalence of the pitted surfaces characteristic of limestone erosion. The outlines of the animal skeletons of which the rock is composed are often left in relief. Solution basins (pls. 15, 17D, 20C) from about an inch to as much as a foot deep, with straight or slightly undercut sides, are commonly seen. An abundance of small mol- lusks (such as Nerita, Littorina) and other animals that feed on algae in the surface of the rock undoubtedly contribute to abrasion of the af 2B. surface in this zone. Abrasion by rolling back and forth, or swirling in pot-holes, of gravel, pebbles, and even larger rocks by waves leaves noticeable effects (pl. 19C, D). A conspicuous process is the spalling off of slabs of rock (pl. 16) from a foot to as much as 6 feet across, presumably due to sudden chilling of sun-heated rock by the rise of water with the tide. Spall planes cut through coral fragments and interstitial material alike, leaving smooth surfaces (pl. 16B). The constantly moving water of even small lagoon waves tends to cut away weaker beds and areas in the limestone, often undermining stronger rock, which then may collapse (pl. 144, B), contributing large angular fragments to the loose rubble mass lying on the reef flat or erosion ramp. Just how important this process is and just how much of it occurs in normal weather and how much in storms are hard to estimate, but a combination of storm and normal erosion of this sort unquestion- ably accounts for the removal of a sizeable volume of material. Much of this material may be identified in the rubble deposits around the peripheries of the islets. What is probably the most important process of all is the weakening and crumbling of rock in the intertidal zone that result from the activities of boring organisms, especially one or more species of sipunculid worms. In many localities a narrow band of rock on the erosion ramp was seen to be riddled with the burrows of : these worms, usually with the animals still inside. How the sipunculids accomplish the boring is not known, as they do not have boring mouth- parts. They may, of course, dissolve away the limestone by acid body secretions. Other worms, mollusks, echinoids, sponges, and blue-green algae were also observed to contribute to the disintegration and erosion of limestone by boring in this intertidal belt. The total effect of all these processes is the removal of an enormous amount of rock, resulting in planation down to low-tide level, end the production of large quantities of sediments. The extent of present-day reef flats (pls. 1, 2, 6, 8, 9), frequently half a mile to a mile wide, is a measure of the planation that is thought to have taken place since the fall of sea level which happened several thousand years ago. Locally, the erosion vamp may be covered: by beaches (pls. 17, 18) of sand, gravel, or cobbles, or the beaches may be restricted to an area above the edge of the protruding rock platform. The ramp itself is commonly found on the seaward side of the islets and frequently extends along the channels between islets, but has only rarely been observed on the lagoon side by us. Deposits of any sort of material such as sand, gravel, boulders, unsorted rubble, or even large slabs (pl. 20D) may be piled on and around the hard rock core of the islet. They may even cover it completely, in which case the islet may be mis- taken for type (b). The lagoon side of type (a) islets is usually built of sand or small gravel (pls. 17A, 18). Osten there are evi- dences of successive deposits of sand in the form of beaches or ridges which have been added lagoonward. There is a tendency for islets of this type on windward reefs to be strongly convex on the seaward side and somewhat concave on the lagoon side, with prominent angles on the lagoon corners. The islets fs URE = may be widest in either direction but those elongated perpendicular to the trend of the reef have a tendency to broaden along the lagoon beach so that they are roughly T-shaped, with a narrow rock platform extending seaward from a bar of sand along the lagoon shore. Sand horns (fig. 3, pl. 2B) and sand lobes, spits extending from the inner corners, are coni- mon on islets on windward reefs. Sand aprons are broad deposits of material in shallow water just inside the reef, especially windward reefs. Islets formed of accumulations of loose material on reef flats Accumulation of sand, gravel, or unsorted material on the surface of the reef may result from any one of several causes or combinations of them: (1) Storms may deposit tracts of large boulders (pl. 9) on the reef, which are too heavy to be removed by ordinary wave action; later, smaller material may be piled around and among these; (2) The reef may be so wide that the force of normal waves is insufficient to carry loose material completely across and into the lagoon, and it may pile up on the reef; (3) The same thing may result from lagoon waves neutralizing sea waves, causing them to drop any loose materials they are carrying. Bars (pl. 10) formed in any of the above ways may become large enough to resist moderate storm waves which may then pile the material up above the high-tide level, or wind may also pile it up. These bars may become partially consolidated into beachrock (pls. 19, 20), which may survive even severe storms and serve to catch more loose material. Surfaces above high-tide level soon become colonized by plants (pl. 27B) the resulting vegetation further stabilizing the islets. Regardless of how the loose material has become stabilized, these islets are essentially only piles of detritus on the flat surface of the reef. The core may or may not be of large boulders or consolidated material. Some islets which appear to be of this type may actually be of type (a), described above, but with the entire platform or remnants of it completely buried by loose material (fig. 4B). Detrital islets may form on any part of the periphery of an atoll but are usually found on wider parts of the reef. Practically all islets on western reefs, many of those on southern reefs, and some on windward reefs may be so formed. They are of all sizes and shapes. Those on widened corners of atolls tend to be triangular or prolonged in the dir- ection of the angle of the reef. Those on straight or gently curving reefs tend to be elongate in the direction of the length of the reef. Small bars tend to be crescent shaped, with the horns of the crescent downwind, or, rarely, concave toward the wind, but with the tips of the horns recurved in a downwind direction. Such small bars are frequently high around the periphery and depressed in the middle. Finer material is often removed from the surface by wind or waves, leaving a layer of loose gravel. Islets of this sort, at least while small, are more vulnerable to the force of typhoons and lesser storms than those with a hard rock core. Storm waves, if severe enough, can move enormous quantities of loose ote a material, even chunks. They may, on the other hand, add material either from the outer margin of the reef or from nearby islets, or occasion-~ ally, perheps, from sand aprons in the lagoon. Islets within the lagoon In addition to the two main types a few islets exist within the lagoons, especially just inside the passes. Most of these (perhaps all) are composed entirely of sand accumulated on patch reefs at or just below the level of the lagoon water. The sand is piled up in low hil- locks or dunes and may be well vegetated. Such islets occur in the lagoons of Likiep, Kwajalein, Wotje, and Eniwetok, and perhaps one on Rongelap would be in this class. Eniwetak islet in Kwajalein Lagoon, was the only one of this sort examined closely, and that during a very short visit only. It consists of a relatively small flat area of sand 6 or 8 feet above lagoon level, with steep sides, and with one corner at a lower level forming a terrace. It is bordered, at least on one side, by a fringing reef. The origin of these lagoon islets is obscure. They may be simply of sand deposited on the reefs by wind, but this does not explain their being usually located just inside passes. It has been suggested (K. 0. Emery, oral communication) that the sand may have been deposited by currents prior to the fall of sea level; if so, these islets are a special case of type (a). Shores Shores (the strips of lend between mean low tide and the -high- water mark of ordinary storm waves), may be divided into those pre- dominantly of loose or unconsolidated materials, called beaches (pls. 17, 18), and those of hard or consolidated materials or rock. These are not sharply separated, as loose materials may be scattered or spread in various manners over rock shores, rock may be variously exposed by erosion of beaches, and beaches may even become consolidated to form | beachrock. Generally, the two types and obvious combinations of them may be easily distinguished. Beaches Beaches are, within certain limits, continuously and locally veriable and may be classified only arbitrarily. Furthermore, the same beach msy change completely even during the course of a single storm. Therefore, it is possible to speak only in generalities and in terms of what may be reasonably expected in certain situations. As to topo- graphic position, beaches are readily divided into tidal and storm beaches (pls. 11B, 17A), the tidal beaches lying between low-tide level and extreme high-tide mark, storm beaches lying above high tide. In texture both of these may be sand, pebble, cobble, or boulder beaches, any combination of these, or intermediate between them. Beaches 15E commonly (but not universally) slope from the land toward the water, the nature and steepness of the slope being determined by the nature or the detrital material, the substratum on which it is lying, and a com- bination of all the forces of waves, currents, and winds which have acted upon it. The analysis of these forces is extremely difficult, formulation of it is not yet in a very advanced state and our data are not adequate for such detailed consideration. Beaches exposed to the direct force of waves generated by the trade winds, or of frequent southerly storm waves and swells are gener- ally much steeper than those on more sheltered coasts. Lagoon beaches generally are less steep than seaward beaches, except on leeward sides of large lagoons where strong waves may be generated. The slope is usually in the form of one or two shallow concave curves with a break at high-tide level. High sand or gravel beaches frequently have a sand terrace or berm (pl. 17A) at high-tide level between the storm and tidal parts of the beach. Sand beaches (pl. 18A) may be found in any situation on either windward or leeward islets. However, they tend to be both more common and more extensive on lagoon shores than on seaward shores. On the lagoon shores of windward islets the sand is usually finer than on those of leeward islets, especially southern ones, where the beaches are fre- quently of gravel rather than sand. The sand particles of beaches on windward islets are generally much more angular than those of leeward ones, where they are worn and rounded. On islets with an exposed plet- form of rock there is frequently a storm beach above the rock platforn. Where no rock platform is exposed, the beach commonly extends from the vegetation down to the reef flat, or erosion ramp, or on lagoon beaches down to the sand apron with which it merges. If there is a beachrock formation along the shore, there is more often than not a storm beach behind it, either continuous with the top of the beachrock or separated from it by a low escarpment or cuesta. Pebble beaches (pls. 17A, 18B) are common along windward shores of windward islets. They also occur along the channel sides of all islets except those on the western reefs that consist mostly of sand; they are especially common on the lagoon shores of leeward islets on the south reefs. In texture pebble beaches vary from fine to coarse, where they merge with cobble or boulder beaches, and the particles may be well sorted or more rarely mixed in any proportion of sizes. Sand and gravel beaches are commonly white to pinkish in color, particularly where the material is frequently disturbed and worked over by wind and waves. Where beaches are undisturbed for long. periods of time, the color of storm beaches becomes progressively more grayish or even blackish, from the growth of microscopic algae on the upper sur- faces of the particles. Cobble or boulder beaches (pls. 13A, 17C, D) are commonly associ- ated with storm deposits of coarse material (boulder or cobble ridges), hence are more frequently found on southern seaward shores; they may, however, be found in any position, though rarely on western leeward os SO islets. The size of the fragments of rock varies but may be a foot or more in diameter. Cobble size, from 3 to 10 inches, is more common. At times a combination of a storm beach of boulders or. cobbles with a tidal beach of sand or pebbles, or the reverse, may be encountered; more frequently both tidal and storm beaches are of material of similar texture. Generally, the smaller sizes tend to be less angular than large boulders, presumably because small pieces are more frequently rolled around. This, however, is by no means always so. Beaches of such coarse material occur rather rarely on lagoon shores except adjacent to deep passes on south reefs. Even on Taongi (Pokak) where there is a short beach ridge of cobbles along the lagoon shore of Sibylla islet, the beach below it is of sand. Rock shores Rock shores are of two types, those of slanting beds of beach- rock (pls. 19A, B, 20A, B) and those of reef rock (pls. 11A, 12) in which the bedding is obscure or horizontal. Beachrock shores (pls. 194, B, 20A, B) may slope at the angle of the bedding planes, ranging from 5° to more than 30°, or may be trun- cated by erosion to a much gentler slope than the dip of the beds. Fre- quently, where there is a wide series of beds, these may be represented by a series of sharp parallel ridges at or just above high-tide level. Where beachrock is between tides it may be smooth from abrasion by wave- rolled gravel, pitted with large potholes (pl. 20C) and solution basins, or it may be cracked into large slabs or blocks (pls. 14C, 20D). These, as on the lagoon shore of Yeldo (Enejelto) islet on the east side of Wotho Atoll, may be thrown up into an irregular windrow on the storm beach above (pl. 20D). Near and especially above high-tide level the surface may be extremely rough and pitted (pl. 144, B), almost honey- combed, from weathering by rainwater. Here, also, the surface is likely to be very dark or almost black from algal growth. To the casual observer these jagged blackened surfaces may suggest volcanic rock, which is not exposed on atolls. Reefrock shores (pls. 114, 12) are of two principal types, those where a platform of elevated reef protrudes from beneath the vegetation well above high-tide level, ending either in,a ledge or an erosion ramp; and those where the rock has been eroded down to high-tide level or below. The latter type is commonly rather rough and may end in a low cliff if on the lagoon side, or merge into an erosion ramp on other sides of an islet. Both these types may commonly be partly covered by beach deposits. On Bwokwla islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll, the lagoon shore is a platform about 1 foot above high-tide level and is conspicu- ously undercut. An approach toward this condition may be seen on other lagoon shores of south reefs. Where a similar emerged platform pro- trudes onto a reef flat there always seems to be some development of an erosion ramp (plS. 11A, 15, 16). This may be broad, as much as 100 feet wide, and gently sloping, or as narrow as 3 to 4 feet and steep. Steep clifflike shores may also be found lining inter-islet channels where a) the islets are very close together, but still separated by water. Such a situation is to be seen between Anenlik (Enelik) and Jabwe islets, Ailuk Atoll. Ledgelike shores frequently have their erosion ramps covered or partly covered by accumulations of coarse rubble. This is commonly in the nature of a mantle resting on the underlying rock, it is rarely banked up in the form of a beach. This may be seen most often near the seaward ends of passages between islets. The surface of the ramp is usually somewhat :rough and pitted, sometimes extremely so. In other examples the roughness may be moderated by abrasion from wave-rolled gravel, as on some beachrock shores. The transition to the relatively smooth reef flat surface may be abrupt or gradual, in places marked by minor corrugations perpendicular to the waves. A good example of these corrugations is shown by Schlanger and Brookhart (1955, pl. 1). Else- where the edge of the ramp is irregular with many low spurs and reentrants. Beachrock A feature of atoll islets so common and conspicuous as to deserve special mention consists of narrow elongate beds of consolidated sand, gravel, or even larger material, dipping at the angle of inclination of -a beach surface (pls. 19, 20). Such beds may consist of a single layer a few inches thick, or more commonly many such layers superimposed and dipping at the same angle. Owing to the small lateral extent of the single beds the actual vertical thickness or depth of such a series is very small. The total vertical dimension of the series is not more than the distance between mean high and low tides, except where such beds persist from an earlier higher sea level. In such cases, they may extend 1 or 2, or even 4 feet above mean high tide, and if recent beds have been added to the series, down to low-tide level. A continuous series of these beds may reach an extreme width of 20 yards or even more, but usually such a series is not more than 3 or 4 yards wide. The length is quite varied but may be as much as hundreds of yards. Beachrock apparently forms beneath the surface of beaches and when first exposed by wind or wave action may be very weakly consolidated; the particles are cemented by a coating of aragonite needles. Exposure to air tends to harden the rock so that it may persist for a long period, as is shown by ancient beds now above high-tide level that must have been formed while sea level was higher than at present. This is undoubtedly a manifestation of the general phenomenon of ‘'‘case- hardening’ of exposed limestone, apparently due to recrystallization of calcite, which shows in some thin-~-sections of old, hardened beachrock. Long strips of beachrock commonly occur around the peripheries of islets, usually sloping away from the islet, toward either lagoon or sea, in the manner of beaches of loose sand. However, locelly.the dip may be just the opposite of what would be expected, suggesting that the islet may not have always been in its present position. Such displace- ment of islets is also indicated by strips of beachrock found in the « Te « interior of islets and in various positions on otherwise denuded reef flats, between islets, o1 away from them altogether. On some reefs, such as that extending westward from Utirik Islet, Utirik Atoll, there may be a number of parallel series of beachrock beds, the seaward ones dipping seaward, those along the lagoon dipping lagoonward. It is thought that a typhoon may have removed most of the loose material from the reef flat here, leaving beachrock marking former shorelines of the islet. In places, especially near reef angles and the corners of islets, extremely complicated arrangements of beachrock may be exposed, indicating many shifts in former shorelines. A conspicuous example may be seen on the eastern point of Likiep Islet, Likiep Atoll. Marginal ridges Ridges (pls. 21, 22A, B) of unconsolidated limestone detritus are common just inside the margins of islets, especially along the seaward sides. The material varies in texture from fine sand, less than 0.5 mm in diameter, to cobbles and even boulders. The ridges may be inter- rupted or may extend continuously around an islet. Small islets are especially likely to have ridges all around them. The ridges are likely to be highest on the seaward side and the highest ones are on south shores. These ridges may be normal beach ridges, piled up by waves, or by waves with the help of wind; they may be enormous masses of cobbles and boulders probably cast up by typhoons; or they may be dunes resulting from wind-blown sand caught by vegetation. Beach ridges are the most common, existing at the tops of most beaches at least to some extent. They are commonly broad, low, -and rounded in profile, seldom more than 2 to 4 feet above the general level of the islet surface. Where recent and not yet vegetated they may be narrow with sharp tops. Frequently they are double, the front crest sharp and narrow, the back one rounded and broad. In texture they generally correspond somewhat to the beaches that are in front of them, being sandy along most lagoon slopes except those on south reefs and frequently so along seaward slopes of windward islets. Along the lagoon side of islets on the south reef they tend to be of gravel, which often changes from coarse to fine from east to west along any particular islet, ending in sand at the west end. Gravel ridges as well as sand ridges may also be found along the seaward south shores of the islets wnere these are not occupied by storm deposits. The gravel is commonly rather rounded but may be angular in some situations. Many small sand and gravel bars are simple peripheral sien hig surrounding bowl - -shaped depressions. ie The most conspicuous surface features of atoll islets are the enormous boulder ridges (pl. 22A, B), often ‘termed "boulder ramparts", which occur on some islets of most atolls. These are beach ridges formed of large-size material. They are somewhat randomly distributed, being known from coasts facing in almost all directions, and from lagoon 28 well as seaward sides. They are, however, far more frequent along und. ~ the seaward coasts of islets on the south reefs, and least frequent on lagoon coasts and on islets on west reefs. The texture of the material ranges up through cobble to boulder sizes (pl. 22). Different segments and layers in the same ridge often may be of very different average size and have abrupt boundaries between them. The highest known boulder ridge in the northern Marshall Islands is on the south coast of Lae Islet, Lae Atoll. It is about 18 feet high, with the upper several feet composed of huge boulders, a foot or more in diameter. Generally the size range of the material is much smaller than this and the height is between 5 and 10 feet. The rocks are frequently very angular and sharp and the upper layers may have relatively little finer imaterial in the interstices. The profile of the ridges varies from narrow, with the seaward side rather steep, to broad, as much as 100 yards wide, with very gradual slopes. Where the ridge is wide a secondary ridge may fre- quently develop at its seaward margin, this one much sharper and with a steep seaward slope. There is no sharp distinction between the boulder ridges and ordinary beach ridges. Their occurrence in a more or less random dis- tribution, with a predominance on south reefs, and the energy require- ments for moving and piling up such large fragments suggest that boulder ridges may be thrown up by typhoons, whereas ordinary beach ridges are probably formed by milder storms or ordinary high waves in rough weather. _ Both beach ridges and boulder ridges in some situations occur in series, with more recent ones partly superimposed on the older, arranged from older to younger in either a seaward or lagoonward direction, starting from the interior of the islet. This arrangement is thought to result from successive heavy storms, each depositing a great mass of material. The vegetation on such a series may be observed to be more mature on the inner ridges, and the rocks may be more blackened. Islets may be enlerged by such deposition, especially on the lagoon side, but only where shallow water, a reef flat, or a sand apron exists along the original shore. Often the lagoonward third or more of an islet seems to have been built in this way, usually of smaller size material than that found in seaward beach ridges or boulder ridges. Dunes, likewise, may be found in almost any situation, but they are most common along lagoon shores, especially on islets on west reefs and the west ends of those on south reefs. They are also found on the rare islets inside the lagoons. The dunes in the northern Marshall Islands are all small and are mostly stabilized by vegetation. It is likely that the vegetation is principally responsible for their forma- tion by stopping the wind-driven sand and causing it to pile up. among bushes and trees. The presence of pebbles and even some cobbles and boulders in many of these dune ridges shows that storm waves have fre- quently had a part in their construction. o’BOr.« Interiors of islets Inside the marginal ridge an islet may have little relief. It commonly shows an extremely slight slope upward from the lagoon side, with a surface of sand near the lagoon, becoming gradually coarser toward the sea. Boulders and blocks of reef rock, many of enormous size, are scattered over the surface of many islets inward from the see- ward side to as much as 200 yards, or even more. These are more common where there is a well-developed boulder ridge along the seaward coast. The only apparent explanation is that they were carried inland by enormous typhoon waves. Their presence vividly illustrates the powex of such waves, as the largest boulders must weigh tons. Occasionally there are areas, termed block fields, which are thickly covered with such boulders and lerge rubble, even to a depth of 1 to 4 feet. The narrow seaward parts of some windward islets may be composed entirely of coarse, loose rubble. The seaward sides of islets on south reefs may be covered by several feet of boulders and blocks, 6 inches to 3 feet in diameter, extending 200 feet or more back from the beach. This type ¢7 deposit usually but not always assumes the form of a broad low ridge, as described above under boulder ridges. Holes, loose blocks, and 4 tangle of vines may make footing here precarious. Other topographic features may be found locally. Broad central depressions may oecur. On Lado Islet, Likiep Atoll, there are at least two such broad depressions parallel with the long axis of the islet. On long islets there may be two different types of transverse depres- sions. One results from the filling in of the zap vetween two islets, uniting them into one, usually with some indication of the fornuer separation in the form of an inward scallop of the seawurd beach. The depression is commonly very gradual and slight. The other type appar- ently results from partial breaching of an islet by typhoon waves, which sweep the loose material into sea or lagoon. This type of depression is likely to be more abrupt, with sand, rock, or coarse rubble on the bot- tom. The appearance of a reasonably recent scour of this type may recerm- ble thet of a dry stream bed, though of course there are no streams on these islets. The inner ends of both these types of transverse depres- sions ere often filled by a lagoon beach ridge of gravel or sand. Broad flat areas at lower levels than that of the rest of islets are usually either recently filled by wind or storm deposits, or are areas scoured by typhoon waves. More abrupt, smaller, or irregularly winding depressions, from pond-like to trench-like, 3 to 6 feet deep, surrounded by piles of excavated sand and gravel, and usually with mucky soil in the bottom, are ancient taro pits dug by the inhabitants but abandoned many years ago. They are usually found near the centers of large islets or inward toward the lagoon. They are rarely found on atolls north of Ailuk. They are conspicuous on Wotho and Lae. Very rarely, small depressions are found containing tiny mangrove swamps. One such is found at the south end of Pigowak (Bekrak) Islet, Utirik Atoll, another on Jeltonet (Jeltoniej) Islet, Likiep Atoll. i i hE. Islets composed, entirely or in their lagoonward parts, of succes- sive beach ridges have a topography of alternate ridges and furrows parallel with the lagoon margin. At places, as near the north end of Taka Islet, Taka Atoll, there is what appears to be a storm deposit of small sharp rubble rising slightly above a general surface of sand or gravel, well inward from the beach. This may be the result of growth of the islet subsequent to deposition of the rubble. In the interior of a number of islets, such as Utirik Islet, and several of those on Wotho Atoll, are rounded mounds, a few yards in diameter, of small sharp coral fragments. These mounds may rise 2 to 4 feet above the general level of the interior of the islet. There is generally little or no fine material in the interstices, at least in the surface layers. The origin of these mounds is not clear but they may result from the pushing up of rubble by the roots of trees, possibly accentuated by the blowing down of trees by storms. Stages in this process were observed on the islets of Wotho Atoll. They differ, how- ever, from the tree-fall mounds observed in continental forests in that they commonly have no hollow alongside, of the sort regarded as charac- teristic of such features. It may be that there is some other explana- tion, entirely, for then. : we TO .etteq bua noogstienaaeena ra, . wi x - a Abas | geet srantstio to. ‘eek a 2653 a y% att S52 REG 8a earls ta) pee , . rots * Bagh ut aye pr - Sagise ‘ LAd 2O° PISe THE LS WONG H* lor a ae 18 oa +> “ Aaa £0 exe od i! cs abe } fe de a + ‘ i é ; » oh) Kine Po” PRbAWSR babies? eae Catone soul bof S Seki be abasen t. 28908}. _eohangatt’ Laeeeyqtade® ent! Sf odd UO OL 4othd ons UO* Lovbh Tat toh depot ss soo eH Pa aut ih ‘To niohia. perearterrs eid ieee pba To-8 ‘some peers xa akddiirke ‘40 ah Cd uty Oil bay gh Gogads sate SY emir d) HOES (i HAtvOLe ani “WOE -XOTDES YoNT VELOM BioW ts: ave Ler NS 0 & j iid tors ft! eradeo} ietasd it tnee oe Daytona’ abheroxt Fist casts ae tom (ebkagcbin Oriol" ox ewan ly saad ie we Fy Sho aOR va ae yang, | it CON: event nig Monin 4 4 * t eae y ie: ? ati Rhition' sy > “eo va ‘ ye eee) ee ee Bi ee teen LAGOON Beach roc y, WA Hard rock North West Soft rock Y yy ee 2 A) y YY UYU LLU ffi f / GULL YOU igat tise Surge chonnels — SEA LAGOON Consolidated ; rubble or gravel Sue oettctal Reef rock remnant Erosion ramp WW Hoard rock = Soft rock YO ULIULLE LLU Surge channels SEA pa North West 3. Diagrams of typical windward islets showing position of surface features. A, single islet on reef flat; B, two small adjacent islets on reef flat. LAGOON eae AMAL Raa . ». Gravel or sand beach HSS fond ridge (sondier, wapria ‘North WIA Bard cock Soft rock ee TM SO SEA ———_—_——_ North WT Hord rock EA Soft rock LAGOON 4, Diagrams of typical leeward islets showing position of surface features. A, islet on south reef; B, islet on west reef. Plate l. Plate 2. Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Plate 6. Plate 7. Legends of plates Aerial views of Lae and Ailuk Atolls. A. Lae Atoll from the air, viewed from north. Photographed by D. B. Doan. B. Ailuk Atoll, east reef with islets, from the air, viewed from south. Photograph by F. R. Fosberg. Islets on reefs of Ailuk and Taka Atolls. A. Islets on east reef of Ailuk Atoll, viewed from west, showing denuded platform seaward of islet, remnants of platform in channel, rubble tracts in channel, and coco-~ nut plantations protected by crescent-shaped windbreak of native vegetation. B. Eluk islet, Taka Atoll, showing sand horns and beachrock. Photographs by F. R. Fosberg. A, Be Corals growing in lagoon, on reef inside Rua and Ebbe- tyu (Ebeju) islets, Ujae Atoll, depth 1-3 meters. Photos by F. R. Fosberg. A, B. Surge channel through algal ridge, windward reef, Wotho islet, Wotho Atoll. The reef here is composed of colo- nies of several species of the algal genus Porolithon. Photos by F. Stearns MacNeil. Windward reef features. A, B, C. Algal ridge, windward reef opposite Lado islet, Likiep Atoll, composed mainly of several species of Porolithon. Photos by Fosberg. D. Moat or back-ridge trough behind algal ridge, windward reef opposite Lojjairok (South Loj) islet, Kwajalein Atoll. Reef-flat and storm-cast boulders to left in distance. Photos by MacNeil. Details of reef flats... |... A. Detail of reef flat, at low tide, windward reef, Wotho islet, Wotho Atoll. Note small algal colonies and rela-~ tively smooth surface. B. Detail of reef flat, at low tide, leeward reef, southwest of Ailuk islet, Ailuk Atoll. Photos by MacNeil. A, B. Outer margin of leeward reef and reef flat at low tide, southwest of Ailuk islet, Ailuk Atoll. Note absence of algal ridge and prevalence of corals. Photos by MacNeil. Plate 8, Plate 9. Plate 10. Plate ll. Plate 12. Plate 13. Plate 14. Plate 15. Windward reef flat, Taka Atoll, near Lojrong (Lojiron) islet, at low tide, showing solution basins with raised rims. Photo by MacNeil. Rubble tract on reef flat, windward reef, Ujelang Atoll. Photo by MacNeil. A. B. Crescent-shaped gravel bar on leeward reef east of Lotj (Loj) islet, Lae Atoll. Seaward end of gravel bar, windward reef, Ujelang Atoll. Photos by MacNeil. Post-Pleistocene eroded reef platforms. A. B. Post-Pleistocene reef platform with erosion ramp, Taka islet, Taka Atoll. Lagoon beach, Taka islet, Taka Atoll, showing tidal beach, eroded post-Pleistocene reef platform, and storm beach. Photos by MacNeil. Exposure of post-Pleistocene reef platforms. A. B. Ennimenetto islet, Ujelang Atoll. Jabwe islet, Ailuk Atoll. Lae islet, Lae Atoll, lagoon beach. Lojjairok (South Loj) islet, Kwajalein Atoll. Photos A, C, D by MacNeil; B by Fosberg. A, B. Boulder beach and exposed post-Pleistocene rock plat- form with stack and perched boulder. _ Photos by Fosberg. Surfaces of erosion ramps. A. Erosion ramp on Ulka (Ulika) islet, Ailuk Atoll, showing | rough pitted surface and undercutting; storm beach in background. Same, closeup, showing collapse of undercut limestone (width of foreground about 5 feet). Beachrock on Yeldo (Enejelto) islet, Wotho Atoll, being conan and quarried by waves (width of foreground about feet). Closeup of edge of erosion ramp, showing solution features, Ebbetyu (Ebeju) islet, Ujae Atoll. Photos A, B, C by Fosberg; D by MacNeil. Solution basins on erosion ramps. A. B. Solution basins with overhanging rims, erosion ramp, Emejiwan (Enijwa) islet, Likiep Atoll. Photo by MacNeil. Solution basins on erosion ramp, north end of Taka islet, Taka, Atoll, showing chalky deposit in bottom. Photo by Fosberg. Plate 16. Plate 17. Plate 18. Plate 19. Plate 20. Spalling off of erosion ramp surfaces. A. B. Surface of erosion ramp, Erlie (Alle) islet, Ujae Atoll, showing spalled slab and spall plane. Photo by MacNeil. Surface of erosion ramp north end of Taka islet, Taka Atoll, showing spall planes of different ages as indi- cated by different degrees of pitting and discoloration by algal growth. Area 2-3 square feet. Photo by Fosberg. Gravel and boulder beaches. A. B. C. D. Gravel beach on lagoon side of Bik islet, Ujae Atoll,show- ing terrace or berm. Erosion ramp with small storm beach on left, Daisu(Raij) islet, Ujelang Atoll. Boulder beach, Bock islet, Ujae Atoll. Boulder beach, Ujae islet, Ujae Atoll, showing abraded erosion ramp. , Photos by MacNeil. Sand and gravel beaches on lagoon side of islets. A. B. Sand beach, lagoon side, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Photo by Fosberg. Gravel beach, lagoon side, Nelle islet, Ujelang Atoll. Photo by MacNeil. Details of abraded beachrock. A. Be C. D. Beachrock series on northwest corner of Emejiwan(Rikararu) islet, Likiep Atoll. Beachrock cuesta at southwest corner of Emejiwan(Rikararu) islet, Likiep Atoll. Abraded beachro:k, Jemo island, showing abrasive agent. Closeup of abraced beachrock on Jemo island, showing compo- sition. Photos A, B by MacNeil; C, D by Fosberg. Details of beachrock. A. B. C. D. Beachrock series, Rua islet, Ujae Atoll. Beachrock showing anticline-like arrangement, dipping sea- ward (to right) and lagoonward (to left), Rua islet, Ujae Atoll. Potholes in beachrock on lagoon beach, north end of Bokanae-~= tok islet, Woth:: Atoll. Slabs of beachreck quarried by lagoon waves and piled up at top of beach, Yeldo (Enejelto) islet, Wotho Atoll. Photos by Fosberg,. Plate 21. Beach ridges of pebbles and cobbles. A. Beach ridge of pebbles, Ailuk islet, Ailuk Atoll. Photo by MacNeil. B. Beach ridge of cobbles, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Photo by Fosberg. Plate 22. Details of boulder and cobble ridges and other coarse deposits. A. Boulder ridge, south side, Sibylla islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll. B. Details of mixture of boulders and cobbles, boulder ridge, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Large boulder in lower right about 16 inches across. C. Details of coarse gravel, with tern (Procelsterna caerulea) nesting, beach ridge on small bar between Jabwelo (Jaliklik) and Almani islets, Bikar Atoll. D. Details of small gravel on flat, with young noddy tern (Anous stolidus), Daisu (Raij) islet, Ujelang Atoll. Photos A, B, C by Fosberg; D by MacNeil. Plate 1 Plate 2 ——— Plate 3 Plate 4 ee eee PRES Be G 978%1d Plate 7 av ore yi FE, Ey hatey Plate 8 ‘| Plate 9 Plate 10 bat. ome Ie ks pe of ? ee ae es oo fat Plate 13. Boulder beach and exposed post-Pleistocene rock platform with stack and perched boulder. A. Boulder beach with protruding exposures of post-Pleistocene rock platform, and stack with perched boulder. South side of Sibylla islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll. B. Closeup of stack with perched boulder, south side of Sibylla islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll. Photos by Fosberg. Perched boulder _ i a Plate 13 abe | - Plate 15 Plate 16 LI 938Id Plate 18 6T 381d rae al Ne y Ee wee 3 PART II: OTHER FEATURES by F. R. Fosberg Soils The loose sediments piled above high-tide level on atoll islets are composed almost entirely of clastic limestone debris, mostly of organic origin and varying in size from the finest silt-size particles to enormous boulders many tons in weight (pl. 23B). This material is remarkably uniform in chemical nature but diverse in biological origin, comprising skeletons and fragments of skeletons of such lime-secreting organisms as corals, Foraminifera, mollusks, echinoids, and calcareous red and green algae, as well as all sizes of fragments of limestone con- sisting of such skeletons cemented together by recrystallized calcareous and phosphatic materials (pls. 28-31, 33). These are mixed in varied proportions without a regular pattern of distribution. The texture range is extremely wide and the range in sorting is far wider than that described above for the beach materials. They are irregularly strati- fied (pl. 25C), the strata mostly representing stages or events in the deposition of the material. There seems to be little regularity about the vertical or areal arrangement of different grades and mixtures of these sediments, although in general the lagoon sides of the islets are more likely to be sandy in texture, and the seaward sides are more often of coarse material (pls. 21-23). The sampling, unfortunately, scarcely represents the coarser range of these sediments. Previous des- criptions of similar material have been given by Sollas and others (1904), David and Sweet (1904), Cloud (1952), Newell (1954a, 1954, 1956), Fosberg (1954), Tercinier (1955), Schlanger and Brookhart (1955), McKee (1956, 1958), and Fosberg and others (1956). The loose, unconsolidated materials on the atolls are the parent materials of the majority of the soils developed. The soils on the islets fall into five principal types (Stone, 1951a; Fosberg, 1954): . Essentially unaltered sands and gravels. Stony and very stony areas. Shioya series. Arno Atoll series. - Jemo series. WFWWF These are described in. detail in Part IV. Drainage The material of the islets is generally so porous that drainage by percolation down through the ground is perfect and almost instantaneous. There is no running surface water, except during typhoons or tsunamis, ~ Shs when great sea waves may sweep across the islets. Normally there is no standing surface water except where depressions or taro pits extend down to below the maximum water table. An exception to this occurs on islets subjected to intensive military traffic, such as Kwajalein. Here the surface layers become so compacted and, apparently, so cemented as to become more or less impervious. Water puddles may stand in such areas as long as 24 hours after heavy rains. Vegetation fost of the original vegetation of the northern Marshall Islands has been replaced by coconut plantations. This is especially true on the larger islets. Only on Taongi (Pokak) (pl. 24A, B), Bikar, and Wotho Atolls was it possible to study considerable areas of apparently undisturbed vegetation; on Lae, Ujae, Ujelang, and Kwajalein Atolls smaller areas were studied (see Fosberg, 1953, 1955; Fosberg and others, 1956). As extensive reports on the vegetation are to be published else- where only a brief summary need be given here. The coconut plantations (pl. 24c, D) range in density from almost complete cover in more moist areas to quite sparse in the dry northern- most atolls. The ground cover under the trees ranges from grass and other herbs to a thick tangle of bushes, vines, and trees, depending on the climate and on how diligently the weeds are kept cleared. On the seaward sides of most islets a belt of thick scrub and scrub forest (pl. 2A) is left to protect the coconut trees from exces- sive wind and salt spray. On the windward side this tends to be very dense and to slope gradually to the beach. On more sheltered sides this belt tends to be narrower, taller, less dense, and with a more abrupt slope to the beach, both because trees grow closer to the beach and because shrubs and trees are less stuntec by wind and salt spray. On smaller islets, and on areas left undisturbed on larger ones, there are several types of forest--pure stands of giant soft-wooded Pisonia trees (pl. 25), of fantestic Pandanus, of umbrella-like Ochrosia, or mixed stands of these and several hardwood species. These forests comnonly have dense canopies and little undergrowth. Around the edges a dense scrub fringe gives an appearance of impenetrability. On sand spits, bars, and narrow places on islets a sparse scrub of pioneer species (pls. 26, 27) is found, grading into forest. On very small or very rocky islets the woody vegetation may be low and dense, or of irregularly scattered trees and shrubs with patches of sparse bunchgrass and thin low scrub; rock flats may be com- pletely bare of vegetation. Such aspects become more and more pre- dominant as one goes northward in the Marshell Islands, until they eer almost the entire vegetation of arid Taongi (Pokak) Atoll pl. 2Q4A, B). ~ 25 - Principal reef-forming animals and plants Corals, by J. W. Wells The reef building corals of the Marshall Islands include 52 genera of the Scleractinia, 2 genera of the Alcyonaria (Heliopora and Tubipora), and 1 hydrozoan genus (Millepora). The skeletons of all these are aragonitic, analyses showing CaC0., 93.05-99.71 percent; MgCO3, 0.09-1.11 percent; and minute amounts of Sido, (Al, Fe)203, and tracés of CaSO, and Ca3(PO, )o- The texture of the skeleton ranges from porous or spongy in such rapidly growing forms as Acropora, Porites, and Montipora to relatively dense and solid in such relatively slow growers as Favia, Pocillopora, and Heliopora. The protean scleractinian genus Acropora, with a bewildering array of species (298 named, but less than one-third valid), is easily the dominant coral everywhere on the Indo-Pacific reefs except in regions geographically peripheral to the reef zone. Judging from its frequency in reef rock and loose debris, it accounts in many places for three- quarters or even more of the mass. Locally, according to ecological controls, Acropora may be quantitatively secondary to a few other genera: on algal ridges to windward, Pocillopora commonly is almost the only scleractinian, followed by the hydrozoan Millepora. Behind the ridge, Acropora is dominant over those parts of the reef flat that do not "dry" at ordinary low tide. On many Indo-Pacific reef flats, but only rarely in the Marshall Islands, branching Montipora may be locally abundant even to virtual exclusion of other corals. Near shore, especially where the substratum is of shifting loose debris, Acropora diminishes and dominance is assumed by species of Porites or the alcyonarian "blue coral" Heliopora. Lagoon reefs are easily dominated to considerable depths by Acropora, except close to the shore. On Marshall Islands reefs the overall order of quantitative importance appears to be: Acropora, Porites, Pocillopora, and Helio- pora, with Montipora, Astreopora, the faviid genera (as Favia, Favites, Platygyra, Goniastrea, Leptastrea, Cyphastrea, and Plesi- astrea), and all others much in the minority. Foraminifera, by Ruth Todd Four species of Foraminifera are the chief representatives of this group of animals found in the sediments and soils of the northern Marshali Islands: Calcarina spengleri (Gmelin) Amphistegina madagascariensis D'Orbigny Marginopora vertebralis Blainville Homotrema rubrum (Lamarck ) In certain of the sands the four together comprise the bulk of the material and, in some places, Calcarina spengleri (Gmelin) alone ac- counts for most of it. ~ 26 The entire skeletons of these four genera are composed of calcite. All are rather thick-walled forms with numerous interior chambers and consequently they are more resistant to abrasion on the beaches than are the smaller, thinner-walled and more fragile specimens of Foramini- fera that comprise the remainder of the large foraminiferal fauna of the Marshall Islands. So far as is known at present, Calcarina spengleri (Gmelin) lives only on the reef flat. (Cushman, Todd, and Post, 1954, p. 364). Margino- pora vertebralis Blainville lives both on the reef flat and in water of shallow to moderate depths inside and outside the atoll. The larger, thicker and more robust forms of this species are presumed to have lived on the reef flat or in shallow water. Homotrema rubrum (Lamarck) is an encrustation that occurs both on the reef flat and in water of probably only shallow depth. Amphistegina madagascariensis D'Orbigny probably does not actually live on the reef at all, although it is found there in small quantities. Elsewhere, it is very abundant. It probably lives both inside and out-~ side the atolls from shallow to moderate depths, with larger and thicker- walled specimens (such as those in the samples listed below) originating in the shallower parts of the lagoons. Table 1 records the distribution of these major species in three groups of samples. Samples in (a) with mainly fresh and unworn speci- mens, indicate little transport from their place of origin; in (b) with worn and some polished specimens, indicate long transport and (or) pro- longed abrasion; and in (c), with corroded specimens, may indicate attack by acid solutions. Algae, by M. S. Doty In tropical seas certain algae are major accumulators of the material that becomes deposited as calcareous sediment or rock to form the atolls and islands around and on igneous rock bases (Ladd and others, 1953). These algae dominate the atoll reefs and much of the lagoon bottom area. A readily available illustrated resume of these algae has been published by Johnson (1954). Fragments of algae broken from the reef patches and atoll reef edges by wave action or the browsing activi- ties of such animals as the parrot fishes (Scaridae) or surgeon fishes (Acenthuridae) may wash into the lagoon where they contribute to its filling or accumulate as islands on reef tops. Calcareous algae, when ingested by animals such as these fishes, are defecated largely as fine sediment. quantitative relationships of four major constituents of present- day reefs are given in table 2. Among the red algae three or four genera are most Wet etre on the reefs of today, Porolithon, Gonio- - —_ — —_— *guUoulToOeds poysttod [t X X xX xX re xX xX Tie[sueds BUTITeOTeQ xX Messe ss sere: aie 4 X STsuetreosesepem BuTse ST uaMy X X xX eee X eee eco ST TB1q9779A BIOdOUT SIE The WeOl @ COOL SIL). 4 Od = oe Te SIoJTUTMeIOT pepotiod Sutupzeyuos setdwreg (0) d d d d d a, ees eee x eee a eee eee eee Xx eee X eee eee X xX eee eee eee eee X mmignt Bilset7OM0R X eee eee X X X X eee xX xX xX eee xX xX X mG xX x xX ye Tio Tsueds BUT ITBOTe) eee xX D's ¥ 3g X xX xX X xX xX X eee X ese eee X eee X xX STSUoT Leos ey opel @UuTso1S Lyomy eee eee xX eee eee eee y*< eee eee a¢ y¢ x eee eee eee eee eee X xe X STTeiqejieA B10dours.ey Ge Sse bres OO 205 2col Sect. Oct. SEL .GTl “OLl +1012 <9G “cl OL e-aRe 796 - YO Gee Ges -< eee eee ye eee eee eee eee magni BWlo1}Ou0n 4 Kegs xX x xX xX Keg it xX xX X xX De a ie TieTsueds BulTreoTeg X 6 5 Sate xo ee et ate aes xX xX xX Kas Sie xX 4 X StSsueTseosesepen BuTse9S TUGMy xX xX X Ae se X Xe So E xX Yee y xX xX XX xX STTeiqeyien B1odouTs Tey Gig Se 06m 62 S6el S9Gte clr COL co = Gl eeGle 09 = LG —-C4= OT> sht Bias TUTMeIOW BileytuTMerog (UTOMUN) Yseajy Bupupejzuoo. setdueg (*®) ppol uyny :4sATeuy SPUBTSI TTSUSITe UleyZ20U 244 UL ST[OJS UO S{ZUSUITpos TeeXTASEeTI03 JO sodfj SnoTTeA UL Bilas TupMeIoOg--°T eTaqeL oa The genus Porolithon is the builder of sea edges of reefs, it is perhaps the principal organism making up the pink stony crusts and heads that may coalesce to farm the buttresses and ridges of the reef wargin. These buttresses and overhangs are, on occasion, broken off by storms and deposited inland or on the reef flat, often as huge and conspicuous reef boulders. Smaller fragments make up much of the island gravels and sand grains. It is to be noted that some of the huge chunks broken from the reef edge by storms become lodged in the grooves between the marginal reef buttresses and there, after being overgrown, contribute to the roofing-over of the inward ends of the grooves. In the central Pacific the material seen in such areas, often es a pink pevement, is perhaps 90 percent Porolithon onkodes. Goniolithon, another of the lime-producing genera, is a den- dritically branched alga of the more inward reef flats and passes between atoll islands. It does not form large detrital pieces, being frieble, and is most notably a sand producer. Jania and Amphiroa are flexible jointed coralline algae that form patches of branches a few centimeters high and a millimeter or so in diameter. Upon breaking loose from their site of growth on the reef flats they die, and the soft parts of the joints decay leaving calcareous sediment or sand. This red algal detrital material around Johnston Island (Emery 1956, p. 1511) may be the principal lagoon-filling sediment. In many places a green alga, Halimeda, is the principal constituent of the sand that builds the islands, as in the Caribbean and Bermuda, or one of the principal: constituents of lagoon sediments, as in the northern Marshall Islands atolls (Emery and others 1954, p. 58). Halimeda is composed of branches that are made up of heavily calcified, flat, waferlike seg- ments. These segments persist as sand grains of a rather coarse kind after the death of the plant. While Halimeda does grow on reef flats, especially the broader and what we feel to be the older reef flats, it grows most conspicuously in the lagoons where it may densely cover the sides of the lagoon reefs and reef patches and form meadows on the shallower bottoms. The chemical composition of these algae is shown on table 3. Further studies of chemical composition are reported by Clarke and Wheeler (1917), Lemoine (1911, p. 38-43), and Johnson (1954). The high magnesium content of the red algae is to be noted. This may be one of the sources of the dolomitizing magnesium salts in atoll areas. Whereas there are theories that certain phosphorites have arisen under marine conditions upon decay of marine organisms, from the very white color of young fossil material and the low Po05 content, it is unlikely that these marine algae play such a role. Little is yet known of the biomass of these rocklike organisms. From the chemical analyses it is clear that they are mostly inorganic and thus could be regarded as mostly nonliving. * el The oft-referred-to genus Lithothamnion is, virtually, not to be found on reef surfaces. 20) Table 2. - Quantitative Yelationships of the four major constituents of reefs Pearl and V/ Southeastern ° Murray oe Constituents Hermes Reef Florida 2/ Bahamas2/ Australia Algae, calcareous 48.5 25.1 18.0 42.5 Mollusk 17.3 v7.5 12.2 15.2 Coral, madreporarian 16.6 9.3 8.2 34.6 Foraminifera 6: 9.0 17.3 ay Total (percent) 89.2 60.9 55.7 96.4 Constituent ratios Algae/coral 2.92 270 2.20 1 aR Algae/mollusk 2.42 1.43 Lee 2.79 Algae/Foraminifera 7 FO 2.80 1.04 10.03 Mollusk/Foraminifera 2.82 1.94 fai car ge Mollusk/coral 1.07 1.88 1.49 ai Coral/Foraminifera 2.64 1 Ou ole 8.44 Y data from T. W. Vaughan, 1917. | ee Data from Thorp, 1936, p. 52. The results of Odum and Odum (1955) indicated that there is uni- form concentration of chlorophyll (equivalent to between 0.05 and 0.10 em of Codium edule, dry weight) over the reef surface regardless of substratum, whether it be coralline crust, animal coral, or detrital. Sargent and Austin (1949) and Odum and Odum (1955) have shown that there may grow and be deposited as much as 1.4 to 1.6 em of material per year over a reef surface. Under more ideal conditions growth may be much faster. For all practical purposes, reef surfaces are generally in equilibrium with as much material being removed by erosion as is deposited by the living organisms. Thus this increase of about 1.5 em per year times the area involved can.be used as a figure for calculating a ule amount of material depositable as clastics that could become soil. *ST@409 UT PepNyToUT eq you pInoys setdmes peyse ut CQO Lox seanSty su, *“peuTuteyep jou azeA squeNngTysuood 344 TTe se “queored OOT TeI04 WOU HTNOYS savequsozed asouy, :340N "D 90SS 09 WUSTOn UT ssol FZ “WOT IeIIT LOH Aq peuTureqed FF c°n6 OTT £ 5O'. 94 “6:1. — “op 400 oC OF te t° 92 Qg°g aTetyooutnbss 0°96 16° Gacko’e 2Oore c6-TE: = "op ‘op pei oie ras Go eS wOUATTOL0g 96 OTE agi oleee*: cork. chan oop ~~ “OP 99° Q° TT So) ae 96°2 Tileupses cine -O1°T So EOE Seo") oe i. = 0p L9° pares Q9E °. eH € woyATTOt0g O%€6 Te°T E6ee Sel “dace 2a. "6p On’ T 6°21 She Sale a sapoyuo 2°76 €0°T to Oy eee TG AL net 6a fee & oShke, «. =e WOUYTTOLOg T10L oas So@q £05 o8m oe9 foey ots sojdues 194976u /poeytuat : sotoads paetip-iIte odtTues10 q0uU _ ;seTdues TS2tyv Ut satdures ‘ peyse 3INYS TOW ur 6gp. <- UT 400 nS6T ‘uosuyor “TTET ‘autowey ‘J TET “raTsaymM pue ore) :sa0anog — -— - —— 4uJtTan AIp JO yuodored se ocsTe por Dupwaszos-yusuTpes swos JO UOT JTSOdWOD [BoTUSyo Tetyreg--"¢€ sTqey Legends of plates Plate 23. Miscellaneous deposits. A. Dunes on sand spit, south end of Enajelar islet, east side of Ailuk Atoll. B. Large boulder in interior of Kamwome islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll, apparently carried some hundred meters inland by storm waves. C. Mass of pumice pebbles on surface of ground, interior of south extension of Ebbetyu (Ebeju) islet, Ujae Atoll. D. Top of broad boulder ridge, apparently piled up by ty- phoon, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Photos by Fosberg. Plate 24. Types of vegetation on islets. A. Lepturus grassland with shrubs of Sida fallax and scat- tered trees of Messerschmidia argentea, boulder covered with guano, on Shioya soil series, Kamwome islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll. Be. Sparse, half-dead Messerschmidia woodland on cobble flats, Kamwome islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll. C. Coconut grove with thick undergrowth on cleared, disturbed Jemo soil, Jemo island. D. Grassy opening in coconut grove on Shioya soil, Jemo is- land. Photos by Fosberg. Plate 25. Pisonia forest and forest soil. A. Giant Pisonia grandis tree, Ebbetyu (Ebeju) islet, Ujae Atoll. B. Pisonia forest with grassy ground cover, Jemo island. C. Soil test pit in Pisonia forest on Bikar islet, Bikar Atoll, showing buried hardpan layer of Jemo soil series. D. Pisonia forest, Bikar islet, Bikar Atoll, showing dark humus layer on the surface of the ground, Jemo soil series. Photos by Fosberg. Plate 26. Shore and sand-flat vegetation. A. Mixed forest on stony soil, Bokerok islet, Ujae Atoll. Wave- cast log, probably Douglas fir from northwest America, in foreground. B. Scrub forest of Pemphis acidula on rock platform surface, Jabwe islet, Ailuk Atoll. C. Well-developed fringe of Scaevola scrub at top of gravel beach, leeward side, Kalo islet, Ujelang Atoll. D. Darkening of bare coral sand by crust of blue-green algae, open areas on west end of Lae islet, Lae Atoll. This crust may contribute to the nitrogen supply of the soil. Photos by Fosberg. > a «ees Plate 27. Pioneer vegetation. A. Low shrubs of Pemphis acidula on denuded rock platform surface, Jabanngit islet, Ailuk Atoll. Young Scaevola and Messerschmidia plants colonizing gravel bar on south reef of Lae Atoll. Scaevola and Messerschmidia colonizing gravel flat on Kabben islet, Wotho Atoll. Young Scaevola plants colonizing upper part of gravel beach, lagoon side of Bwdije (Breje) islet, Taongi(Pokak) Atoll. Photos by Fosberg. Plate 23 ee *, id V 9¢ 91%Id LZ aed PART III: LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS 'by Dorothy Carroll Unconsolidated calcareous material occurs on the beaches sur- rounding the islets on the atolls, and in the interiors of the islets as sOils. Beach sands have been described from Bikini by Emery, Tracey, and Ladd (1954), Onotoa by Cloud (1952), Raroia by Byrne (in Newell, 1954b, 1956), Kapingamarangi by McKee (1958, 1959), and from various other Pacific Islands by Wentworth and Ladd (1931). The soils on Arno Atoll have been described by Stone (1951a,b), and on Bikini by Stone (in Emery and others, 1954). Fosberg (1954) gave a general description of the soils of the northern Marshall Islands and recognized a new soil type, the Jemo soil. The materials present as beach sands together with larger frag- ments, solid reef materials, and organic matter, provide the parent material for the soils. The sands described here are representative of the finer rather than the coarser materials of the beaches. The atolls from which beach sands were collected and described, and the number of samples from each atoll are: Ailuk 1, Bikar 15, ‘Kwajalein 8, Lae 2, Likiep 2, Taka 4, Taongi (Pokak) 31, Ujae 2, Ujelang 8, Utirik 5, and Wotho 7, a total of 85 samples. The localities are listed in Appendix I and indicated on figures 5-15. A description of 28 of these samples is given in Appendix I. The atolls from which soils were collected and described, and the number of samples from each atoll are: Ailuk 11, Bikar 26, Jemo 18, Kwajelein 5, Lae 12, Likiep 6, Taka 29, Taongi (Pokak) 15, Ujae 16, Ujelang 3, Utirik 22, and Wotho 23, a total of 186. When the samples were collected, a number of pits was dug through the soils so that material from different depths could be collected. Each vertical sequence of samples is referred to as a soil profile. The positions on the islets from which soil profiles were collected (except the Kwajalein profiles) are shown on figures 16, 17, and 18. Field descriptions of the analyzed soils are given in Appendix II. Unanalyzed soils are indi- cated by appropriate symbols on the maps in order to give a more adequate . idea of the distribution of the several Soils series within the islets. Wi, Size distribution To obtain the size distribution of the materials in the sands and soils, all the samples were sieved dry through a set of U.S. Standard Sieves to give grades as originally described by Wentworth (1922). The sizes and sieves are: ; - 32 - Size, mm Descriptive term Sieve No.* above 16 Pebble 16 - 8 Pebble 8-4 Pebble k= 2 Granule 5 Saige Very coarse sand 9 Rik O35 Coarse sand 18 Ox 5) =) Oe25 Medium sand 35 0.25) =) Que Fine sand 60 ~ 0.12 - 0.06 Very fine sand 120 less than 0.06 Silt 230 *Sieve through which sample passed; it was retained on the next finer sieve in the series. In some samples the coarser material, generally coral fragments, was removed with a one-half inch (12.7 mm) or a one-quarter inch (6.35 mm) sieve before the finer grades were sieved. The samples collected by F. Stearns MacNeil were sieved by him through sieves 3, 4, 9, 14 and 35, corresponding to openings of 6.35, 4.76, 2.0, 1.9, and 0.42 mm, respectively. These sieves do not corres- pond to those used for most of the samples, but are sufficiently close not to cause significant differences in the size distribution of the sands. MacNeil's material passing the 35 mesh sieve was not originally sieved into finer fractions, but as a number of these samples contained more than 50 percent by weight of smaller than 35 mesh grains, these were resieved to conform to the remainder of the samples. Biotic composition The beach sands and soils consist of reef organisms and those that lived in the lagoons. The original shape, size, and buoyancy of these organisms determine to some extent the size distribution, sorting, and general appearance of these materials. The admixture of organic matter with calcareous sands forms the soils of the atolls. All the reef organisms, as described by Wells, Todd, and Doty (on pages 25-30) have characteristic sizes, shapes, and habits. Corals and algae of the reefs are massive. Large fragments are broken off by waves and carried to the shores of the islets. Halimeda in the lagoons breaks into fragments about one-half to one cm in length. The commonly occur- ring Foraminifera, Calcarina, Marginopora, and Amphistegina, range from about one-half to 2 mm in size, although some are smaller and a few larger. The detached spines of Calcarina spp. are generally unbroken in the finest fractions of the sand. Sea urchin spines are broken into all sizes from large to small fragments. Zach grade size of each sample of beach sand and of soil was examined uncer a binocular microscope to identify the kinds of organisms present. Estimates were made of the percentages of major constituents - 3 - in each sample. The results were plotted as histograms combining the grain size and biotic composition. The composition of the various grade sizes was found to be: Size, mm Faunal composition Larger than 16, and 16 - 8 Large whole or broken corals, : large fragments of algae; large shells 4 Coral, algae fragments, shells mie Coral, algae fragments, shells iu Foraminifera, broken coral, algae - 0.5 Foraminifera, broken coral, algae - .25 Few small Foraminifera, mostly broken pieces O25 ti. 12 Broken, unidentifiable fragments 0.12 - .06 Broken, unidentifiable fragments Smaller than 0.06 Broken, unidentifiable fragments We oO t The appearance of these materials is shown in Plates 28-30. Mineralogic composition by John C. Hathaway The various size fractions of 19 samples from 6 soil profiles were examined by X-ray powder diffraction methods to determine their mineralogic composition, and to reveal any variations occurring amongst the different size grades as well as within the soil profiles. A sample of each fraction was ground to pass a 230-mesh (0.06 mm) Sieve and was packed into an aluminum sample holder. Care was taken to minimize the preferred orientation of the particles. An X-ray diffrac- togram was then made of each sample, and the amount of calcite and aragonite present determined by comparison of the intensity of the most strongly diffracted lines of the minerals. The interplenar spacing represented by the strongest calcite line, ad (104), was also measured for each sample. The results of the X-ray examinations are shown in figure 19, where the approximate amounts of calcite and aragonite in each size fraction are shown on histograms of the particle size dis- tribution for the individual samples. There was found to be a variation in d spacing of the strongest reflection of calcite (104) in the mater- ial of the size fractions. Inasmuch as the organic materials varied in chemical composition, some samples gave two strong d (104) reflections for "Galette « a The significance of the variation of the interplanar spacings in calcite is discussed by Chave (1952, 1954a, 1954b) and by Goldsmith, Graf, and Joensuu (1955). They have shown that decreases in the d (104) spacing from those of pure calcite are the result of the smaller unit - 3 - cell that occurs when magnesium substitutes for calcium in tne calcite structure, and that the amount of magnesium can be correlated with the amount of shift in spacing position. Goldsmith, Graf, and Joensuu (1955) show this shift to amount to about 0.0029 A per mol percent MgCO3. Magnesium substitution has not been observed in aragonite. In these Marshall Islands samples d (104) was measured to the nearest 0.01 A, which represents increments of about 3.5 mol percent {eCO,. The total variation in spacing found was 0.06% (2.98 to 3.047R), representing about 20 mol percent MgCO.. Magnesium substitu- tion increases upwards in the graphs (fig. 19).~ Conversion of mol per- cent to weight percent is made by using the following formula: 4.33 X mol % MeCo ir 8 Weight % MgC03 = -33 X mol Maco + 100.09 (100=mol vi MgCO3) Figure 20 shows the average particle size distribution for all the samples with the average amount of calcite and aragonite in each size grade. The number of samples in which a given type of material was dominant was determined for each grade size, and the percentage figure for the occurrence of the type is shown over each histogram block. At the top of the graph the average calcite d (104) spacing is given. Figure 21 shows the aragonite content of the different grades as a percentage of the total amount of material in each size fraction. A correlation between aragonite content and type of material is distinctly present in figure 19. Aragonite content is high in the coarse fraction where coral is the dominant constituent, and decreases considerably where algae and Foraminifera make up a large proportion of the smaller grade sizes. The rise in aragonite content in the 0.5-0.06 mm range reflects the presence of coral fragments mixed with fragments of Foraminifera and algae. The relative dearth of aragonite in the 2-0.5 mm grades as shown in figure 19 also suggests that the coral fragments are either less common or relatively unstable in this size. The low content of aragonite is possibly due to the relative instebility of the mineral in fine particles. The wide range of com- position shown by the extremes in the coarser fractions in figure 21 arises from the difficulty of sampling the large coral fragments representatively. The calcite in these samples is high in magnesium as shown by the relatively low a (104) spacings. Calcite of more than one composition is present in 8 of the semples as revealed by double maxima in the region of the d (104) spacing. . A distinct decrease in the amount of megnesium occurs in the less than 0.06 mm fraction of 16 of the samples. This is reflected in the upper curve of figure 20 showing the average d (104) spacings of the samples. A similar, although smaller, decrease occurs in the coarsest fraction. The calcite present may be the fine- grained material low in magnesium that occupies the many small cavities {n the coarse coralline material. Algae in the coarse fractions tend to show high magnesium contents for most of the samples. Only in sample 62 - 35 - (fig. 19) does a low-magnesium calcite occur where algae are important constituents, and there only as minor members of two types of calcite. An alternative possibility for the occurrence of low-magnesium calcite in the coarser fractions is the alteration of aragonitic materials to calcite. In this situation low-tagnesium calcite should not be confined to the coarsest and finest fractions but should be found in the medium grades also, inasmuch as aragonite in the smaller fragments of coral might be expected to alter as readily as it does in the coarser frag- ments. However, “contamination” of fragments by fine-grained, magnesium- free calcite may be minor in the medium grades because the greater amount of working and washing that produced the fragments of these grades might tend to free the altered material. The liberated low-magnesium calcite would then appear in the finest fraction. If such alteration takes place it probably does so before deposition of the material in its present environment. Alteration in a soil profile would be expected to remove aragonite at the point of greatest weathering, presumably near the sur- face. In figure 22, all the profiles except 30 show increases of aragonite toward the surface, suggesting that alteration of aragonite to calcite is not important in the soil-forming processes in the soils studied. This, together with the erratic variations of mechanical com- position at different depths in the profiles, suggests that depositional factors are more important in determining the calcite: aragonite ratio in these soils than is alteration of the materials in place. The deposi- tional factor should be assessed in the light of the low rainfall that prevails in many of the areas from which soil samples were collected. Analytical treatment of grain size distribution data The data for grain-size distribution and biotic composition of all the beach sands were plotted as histograms, and the histogram for each sample is placed on the outline map of the atoll from which it was col- lected in figures 5-15. These histograms show the similarities and dis- similarities between samples collected from different positions on the same atoll and from the same geographic aspects on different atolls. Cumulative frequency curves were drawn for the data so that the median grain diameter, the sorting ccefficient, and skewness could be calcu- lated. Trask's (1932) sorting coefficient, So=VQ3/Q) ; where Q3 is the coarse quartile and @, is the fine quartile of the distribution, and skewness, Q3Q) /Ma® were used. The mean diameter for each sample of sand was calculated by a modification of a formula suggested by Folk and Ward (1957, p. 12), M=f16+ 4 50+ 84 | the modification consisted of using the grain diameter instead of the phi notation. The skewness or asyumetry of the distribution curve of the grain- size distribution is also used to describe the samples. Skewness in sedimentary materials is not well understood, but it has been suggested by Krumbein and Tisdel (1940) thet grain distributions with excess coarse grains (positive skewness) indicate disintegrating igneous rocks, whereas grain distributions with excess fine grains (negative skewness) indicate disintegrating sedimentary rocks. However, the size distribu- tion in the Northern Marshall Islands beach sands is dependent on both the kinds of organisms present and on the sorting by waves and wind to ie which they have been subjected. The skewness figures for these sands are given to show the kind of distribution that occurs. The skewness is caused primarily by the presence of certain organisms; for example, a sand consisting almost entirely of one species of Foraminifera has perfect sorting and skewness. Skewness is, therefore, a measure of the organisms present as well as an indication of their slightly broken nature. The sands appear to have had their finest material washed out. Size distribution of beach sands The results of the mechanical anelyses of the beach sand samples together with the median grain size, sorting coefficient, and skewness are given in Table 4. The size distribution of the beach sands collected on the seaward and on the lagoon beaches of the various islets is similar to that found by Emery and others (1954, p. 38) on Bikini Atoll. The beaches are simi- lar from islet to islet even though the individual samples collected on any beach may vary. In the size distribution of beach sands the fre- quency of the modes (or maximum grades) as shown in figure 23 is as follows: Grain size, mm Percent of total 2-1 al 1 - 0.5 48 0:5: = Of25 LY. In no sample of these beach sands is there a primary mode in the fractions finer then 60 mesh (0.25 mm). Secondary modes, indicating an admixture of different materials have a wider spread and include a few maxima in the 0.25-0.125 mm and the 0.125-0.06 mm grades. It has been observed that well-worn material does not seem to become much finer than 60 mesh (0.25 mm), indicating a lower limit for abrasive action to take place. Finer material has probably been winnowed out by waves and cur- rents. Size distribution of material in soils The results of the mechanical analyses of the soil samples together with the median grain diameter, sorting coefficient, organic carbon, and pH of the soils, are given in table 5. Physically the atoll soils resemble the beach materials. Mechani- cal enalyses show that comparisons between the two can readily be made on this besis. It has been noted by Stone (195la, p. 14) that many soil profiles are composite and consist of alternate layers of calcareous materiel and organic matter. The calcareous materials in which soils are developed are somewhat more heterogenous in size than the beach materials toat were selectively collected as sands. The loose sediments piled above high-tide level on atoll islets range in size from the - 37 - finest silt-size particles to enormous boulders of many tons in weight. Such material is similar to that in the beach sands but it also con- tains massive limestone composed of cemented skeletons of calcareous organisms. The soil materials are mixed in varying proportions with no very regular pattern in their distribution. The texture range is extremely wide, and the range in sorting is far wider than that described for the beach materials. The materials are irregularly stratified, the strata mostly representing stages or events in deposition. There seems to be little regularity about the vertical or areal arrangement of the different sizes and mixtures of these sediments, although in general the lagoon sides of the islets are more likely to be sandy in texture, whereas the soils from the seaward sides are more often of coarser material. The samples of soils collected represent the finer rather than the coarser parent materials. One hundred and ten mechanical analyses were made of soil mater- ials. Forty percent of the soils have the mode (or maximum grade) in the 1.0-0.5 mm grade, and 34 percent in the plus 8 mm grade; that is, such soils consist of large fragments of coral that have not been broken up either by abrasion or by solution. It is noteworthy that there is very little fine material; where present it consists of a mixture of fine organic matter and fine calcareous grains similar to those in the beach sands. Other soils consist of organic matter plus very coarse gravel; in some of these soils the organic matter is the most important constituent. The size distribution of the soil material is given in table 5, where the grade sizes are the same as those used for the beach sands, so direct comparisons between the soils and beach sands can be made. In figures 24k to 28 the data are plotted as histograms, the samples being arranged in vertical sequence as they occurred in the field. Sorting The coefficient of sorting (So) (Trask, 1932) ranges from 1.0 to 2.76, with the majority of the samples, whether from seaward beaches or lagoon beaches, falling around 1.50. The sands are therefore considered well sorted by Trask's original definition. However, many naturally occurring disintegration products that have not been transported or winnowed by waves and wind have a sorting coefficient not much greater. : Sorting in these beach sands is due to two principal factors: (1), presence of calcareous organisms; and (2), movement of material on the beaches by waves, currents, wind, or any combination of these agents. The first factor brings in the size distribution in the sands, and it does not seem possible, until additional observations have been made on beach processes, to isolate either of these two factors. The histograms in figures 5 to 15, in which the major organic constituents are shown, indicate how the size distribution is in part dependent on the material that has been furnished by reef and lagoon organisms to the sands. Similarly, sands having the best sorting may consist entirely of one organism, as in the foraminiferal sands, or of completely comminuted - 3 - fragments that have actually been sorted by waves and wind. Table 6 was prepared to assess the significance of the coefficients of sorting found in the sands. In table 6 the constituents are listed as major constituents ir any one makes up 50 percent or more of the sand. The “mixed assemblaye" category indicates that the sand has two or more constituents neither of which is dominant. The column headed "none dominant" indicates that the sand consists of varying proportions of all the constituents. The columns headed “sorting caused by" are used to assess the principal fac-~ tor in the sorting coefficient obtained from the sieve analyses. Various categories may be recognized, as follows: If one kind of organism is dominant in a sand (Category A) then the sorting is con- sidered to be due to the presence of that organism, although its presence may be due to selective transportation from its place of origin and to removal of other constituents originally present by winnowing; Category B contains sands in which there are two or more constituents of considereble importance, neither of which is dominant in weight percent of the sand; Category C (A plus B) contains sands in which a number of constituents may or may not be recognizable because of abrasion by reworking on a beach. In table 6 there are 21 sands in Category A, 16 in Category B, and 35 in Category C. The average sorting coefficient is: Category A, 1.46 (range 1.10-2.60, median, 1.33) Category B, 1.62 (range 1.10-2.02, median, 1.70) Category C, 1.65 (range 1.00-2.65, median, 1.64) The median figures for the sorting coefficient, 1.33, 1.70, and 1.64, respectively for the different categories indicate that the sands containing the highest percentage of one kind of organism have, on the whole, a more perfect sorting than those containing a variety of organ- isms, or those that are made up of comminuted fragments. However, the fact thet some sands do contain only one kind of organism is a result of proximity to source of supply and of transportation conditions. Skewness of the size distribution In general the sands are skewed positively, that is, the asymmetry of the distribution curve (Sk) is caused by the admixture of coarse material. Seventeen (23 percent) of the sands have symmetrical distri- bution curves (Sk, 0), and there is only one sand that has a negative skewness (T30, table 6). One third of the sands that contain recogni- zable organisms as a major constituent have symmetrical distribution curves, whereas less than a quarter of the "mixed'’ sands (Category C) have symmetrical curves. As these sands all contain recognizable cal- careous organisms, the skewness is considered to be caused primarily by them. The skewness of the frequency curve for sands is reduced by the presence of one: particular kind of organism; for example, Foraminifera that have a small range in size. Calcarina spengleri has a diameter of - 39 - between 1 and 2 mm, so a sand composed entirely of this Foraminifer will have Sk, O and So, 1.0. The presence of a concentration of any one type of organism that can take the place of individual mineral grains in making up a sand will have a similar effect. Sufficient details concerning the localities where the samples were collected are not available, but a few suggestions can be made. Positive skewness occurs in more than three-quarters of the sands examined, irrespective of their situation on the seaward or lagoon side of the islands. Sample T30, from the southern seaward beach of Bwokwla islet, Taongi (Pokak) Atoll, is the only one that has negative skewness, indicating an admixture of fine material. T30 is a well sorted sand with So, 1.45; it has 80 percent of the grains between 1.0 and 0.5 mm in diameter, and these grains consist of comminuted fragments. The fact that most of the beaches examined do not contain extremely fine sand shows that such material, if it was formed from broken coral, algae, mollusks, and Foraminifera, has been transported out to sea. The beach sands were grouped into those collected on the windward sides of the islets, and those from the lee sides. It was found that median, sorting coefficient, and skewness of the windward and lee beach material was: Median sorting .coefficient Skewness Windward shore fit OF, 1.66 + 1.43 Leeward shore BE 1 54 + 1.07 Wear and rounding of grains The beach materials are homogenous in composition but not in shape or in specific gravity. Mineralogically the organisms consist of calcite or aragonite. The hardness of calcite is 3; that of aragonite, 3.5-4. The specific gravity of calcite is 2.71; that of aragonite, 2.94. Most organisms have internal cavities and some, such as Foraminifera and Halimeda, have porous walls. This porosity reduces the specific gravity. Emery and others (1954, p. 65) give the following specific gravities for beach material on Bikini: coral, 2.51-2.62; Calcarina sp., 2.11-2.h6; Marginopora sp., 2.10-2.31, Halimeda sp., debris, 2.47. The beach sand has a specific gravity of 2.57. In sea water the specific gravity of the constituents was lower, an average figure for Halimeda debris being 1.77, and for the sand, 1.79. The comminuted fragments have a higher specific gravity than the whole organisms because of removal of pore space. Coral fragments have the lowest porosity of the contributing material to beaches, and hence have the highest specific gravity. The coarser fractions of the beach materials are generally rounded (pl. 28), but it is difficult to assess the amount of abrasion that has occurred because of the heterogenous original shapes. The constituents are described as rounded if original protuberances have been removed by abrasion, and if the grains have smooth, worn surfaces. « UD = The original calcareous skeletons give the initial shape to the material in the same way that the presence of certain organisms influ- ences sorting and skewness. The shapes are modified by abrasion, partly by grinding of one fragment on another, and partly by splitting and breaking. Pebbles and cobbles of rocks such as limestone, sandstone, and shale, when they become rounded by abrasion, always retain some features of their original shape, which in turn are conducive to the final shape (Raleigh, 1942). Some forms, the corals and algae, are massive, whereas others, the shells and Foraminifera, are hollow and will tend to be less abraded than the heavier, massive forms, when sub- jected to the same amount of wear. However, the massive forms are more susceptible to breakage, although shells and Foraminifera are abraded on a beach. Five stages in the abrasion and rounding of the principal Foraminifer, Calcarina spengleri, in the sands of the Northern Marshall Islands, have been established as a result of observation. The forms are illustrated in Plate 31. The Calcarinas shown on Plate 31 E and F indicate that the sand in which they occur has been subjected to long~ continued abrasion on a beach. Stages in abrasion resulting in rounding are not as easily defined for the corals and algae, although in general the fragments considered to be well worn, particularly coral fragments, can be recognized by their lack of protuberances. These protuberances are commonly more mas- sive than those of Calcarina sp., just as the corals themselves are originally broken into larger fragments than the Calcarina, which are concentrated in the 2-1 and 1-0.5 mm grades as shown in figures 5-15. The larger size of the coral and algae has two effects as far as abra- sion is concerned: (1), such fragments cannot be transported as far as lighter fragments with the same current and wave activity; and (2), when washed up and down on a beach by waves they will, because of their weight and massive nature, be rubbed together more. In other words, once they reach a beach and remain in a wave zone their abrasion must be relatively rapid. Algae may differ from corals in abrasion effects, because some of the algae are originally smooth and rounded in appearance (except Halimeda sp., which is bladelike and hollow). Some calcareous algae are softer than coral. Hence, well-rounded algae may have undergone a lesser amount of abrasion than corals having irregularities of surface. Shells both of pelecypods and gastropods are not a very prominent feature of these beach sands, but they too have been abraded and rounded, the pelecypods more than the gastropods, although the latter, being nollow and more buoyant, generally show more fracturing than rounding. As both calcite and eragonite have good cleavage, one of the results of breaking up of the reef organisms may be the production of angular fragments. Halimeda sp., which consists of aragonite, breaks up into innumerable small laths of aragonite. Corals formed of aragonite may split into angular pieces, which can then be abraded by rolling. Another feature exhibited by some of the beach sands is a high polish that has been attained, it is presumed, by iong-sustained rolling aes abrasion in a wave zone. Such sands are generally well sorted and the elimination of very fine grains has allowed the larger fragments to rub one against another. Size is a factor in the production of this polish, _ as well sorted sands are more polished than those that contain both large and small grains. Plate 28 shows polish in some of the beach materials. Sample 115 (Fosberg) from Wotho is a very coarse sand that shows high polish. Plate 28. Plate 29. Plate 30. Plate 31. Legends of plates Beach sand, appearance of material in the 2-4 mm grade. Sample 11, collected at mid-point of lagoon beach, Ninni islet, Kwajalein Atoll, by MacNeil. Photo by H. C.Starkey, U.S. Geological Survey. Beach sand, appearance of material in the 1-2 mm grade. Sample 11, collected at mid-point of lagoon beach, Ninni islet, Kwajalein Atoll, by MacNeil. Photo by Starkey, U.S. Geological Survey. Beach sand, appearance of material in the 0.5-1 mm egrade(A), 0.25-0.5 mm grade (B) and 0.12-0.25 mm grade (C). Sample 11, collected at mid-point of lagoon beach, Ninni islet, Kwaj- alein /toll, by MacNeil. Photo by Starkey, U.S. Geological Survey. Calcarina sp. showing various stages of abrasion in beach sands. Photo by Starkey, U.S. Geological Survey. A. Spines intact, and the Foraminifer has not been abraded; this indicates little movement from site of origin. Specimen collected by J. I. Tracey, Jr., from reef flat at south end of Ifaluk islet, Ifaluk Atoll, Caroline Is- lands. B. Many of the spines have been broken off. In beach sand from Taka Atoll (Tw 4), collected by MacNeil. C. Nearly all the spines have been broken off, but a few Still remain and are about one-half their original length. In beach sand from Taka Atoll (Tw 4) collected by MacNeil. D. Only the stumps of the spines remain and there is some abrasion of the test of the Foraminifera. In beach sand from Taka Atoll (Tw 4) collected by MacNeil. E. F. Only the test of the Foraminifer remains, and it is well polished; all the spines have been completely re- moved and the test has been reduced in size, but the chambers have not been exposed. In beach sand from Wotho Atoll collected by MacNeil. Plate 28 Plate 29 Plate 30 : _ hte ak 4 7 oy SONVS HOW38 4O NOILNGIYLSIG 3ZIS NIVYD OSNIMOHS TIOLY UuYyIG °9 Jdundl4 ZS 29 BS Sa : - KR WN - : eT 2m : 2 : more : . WWW ye ae _ £ me = mn BS 9 SANDS { Dy yy) EXPLANATION CORAL AND ALGAE ABRADED FORAMINIFERA FRESH FOR AMINIFERA ae MIXED ASSEMBLAGE MMMM ckcanic MATTER CE 134 GRAIN SIZE IN MM. 1 96.35 2 635-4.0 3 4.0- 2.0 4 2.0-10 5 10-0.5 2 6 0.5-0.25 1 7 0.25-0.12 Za 8 0,12-0.06 A 9 (0.06 | . ANN 404 TAONGI (POK AK) wy») Dy 0 ! 2 14 STATUTE MILES ( RN KG KK S\nyy ma KG a“ SK ((( K i 23456789 124 SW\ KK FIGURE 5. TAONGI (POKAK) ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS EXPLANATION WwW <_< oO al < (=) 2 <_< — [4 °o o ABRADED FORAMINIFERA SA, MIXED ASSEMBLAGE n OTN ORDO FIGURE 6. BIKAR ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS EXPLANATION ee CORAL AND ALGAE ABRADED FORAMINIFERA GRAIN SIZE !IN MM. Eneneman Anenoomw Channel I >6.35 2 6.35-4.0 3 4.0-2.0 Marok Channe/ nainwey a 2.0-1.0 5 iO='0:5 Erappu 6 0.5-0.25 Channel Q/Bwokwanmwiokan 7 0.25-0.12 Anejamwaden 8 0.12- 0.06 9 <¢0.06 60 40 Enije 169°S55' Channel 10°15’ 20 / / STATUTE MILES AILUK FIGURE 7. AILUK ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS ERA NAT OW CORAL AND ALGAE ABRADED FORAMINIFERA MIXED ASSEMBLAGE GRAIN SIZE IN MM. 1 96.35 2 6.35 -4.0 3 4.0;— 2,..0 4 2,0) = 1210 5 1.O-0.5 6 0.5-0.25 7 O25 > 0). 12 8 0.12-0.06 9 ¢0.06 | EXPLANATION CORAL AND ABRADED ALGAE FORAMINIFERA %o MIXED ASSEMBLAGE GRAIN SIZE IN MM. i 16.35 6.35 -4.0 4.0- 2.0 2.0-1.0 1.0-0.5 0.5-0.25 0.25-0.12 0.12-0.06 (0.06 To 60 ¢ 2 / A SS poe zh = £ SS a @ ec re o < San! Sone @ a % 7 ® AS -Omelek . e Emmi WieitcikR & ° S Q a ° 0 e ae | J a 9 S OY of -Meck 2 4 aS oo! Legon eal0 Sy @ ore gnann® 67240! SNS mbo & th Am £ » Ss U SS J10, 9,8 Hey ° 4 8 6 VORP OM rs Sige! Channel i n i STATUTE MILES Gehh— 2 9 Ninni— Ennylabegan — -Ebwaj -Ebeye K W A J A LE] N South Pass FIGURE 8. KWAJALEIN ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS J2 M1 ERIAL AW ATION CORAL AND ABRADED GRAIN SIZE IN I »>6,.35 2 6.35-4.0 3 4.0-2.0 4 2.0-1.0 5 1.0-0.5 6 0.5-0.25 7 0.25-0.12 8 0.12- 0,06 9 ¢0.06 Lae Passage FORAMINIFERA MIXED ASSEMBLAGE ALGAE MM. Lotj e@ x 53 5 ° 2 SS E so * ¢€ = = ~WiAJauwebv—7- Hr-~HvnAR es 2 2 re LAE ZLZZZEZA x gm a I 2 3° 4 Ss SCALE ! y; ° \ 2 3 14 STATUTE MILES FIGURE 9. LAE ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS 60 EXPE AN ALalnG: CORAL AND 40 1 >6.35 Be 2 6.35-4.0 3 4.0-2.0 4 2.0-1.0 5 1.0-0.5 6 0.5-0.25 7 0.25-0.12 8 0.12-—0.06 9 <0.06 too} Ronge are ty oe eee, ae tf Northwest Passoge © STATUTE MILES Rongelab-— Y & Boke la n—{y Se LIKIEP FIGURE 10. LIKIEP ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS Mi; | ABRADED FORAMINIFERA MIXED ASSEMBLAGE GRAIN SIZE IN MM N ALGAE SGNVS HOVSd JO NOILNAIYLSIC 3ZIS NIVYD SNIMOHS TIOLVY VHVL IT 4YuNdI4 SITTIN FILNLAVIS Pe, ae ES on a ey Oe Sil A On fi kV NM I hevek aie 7 EXPLANATION AND ALGAE aj < id ° Oo MIXED ASSEMBLAGE SIZE GRAIN >6.35 6.35-4.0 2 4.0-2.0 210 — 0 We a ep (30 — 1075 °o @ 0:5'—'0,25 0.25-0.12 6 7 0.12-0.06 9 <0.06 PPP PNY IMM WW) OOLCy) CCC IEEE (( hy yy yyy) »))))) c(((G MK oe )))) ( yy) NIN (((( HUCK OQ 13 60 40 20 STATUTE MILES APLANATION CORAL AND ALGAE /'ABRADED FORAMINIFERA FRESH FORAMINIFERA -MIXED .ASSEMBLAGE } SIZE IN MM. 5.35 5.35-4.0 0 - 1.0 .0-0.5 ).5— 0.25 ).25—0.12 aa ).12 —0.06 ).06 , 4 “« - iti at eS) a s % 60- 40-4 204 KUM = pe == > \ | # re 24 STATUTE MILES FIGURE 13. UJELANG ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS EXPLANATION GORAL AND ALGAE ABRADED FORAMINIFERA FRESH FORAMINIFERA | MIXED .ASSEMBLAGE GRAIN SIZE IN MM. oO ONO OD pwn >6.35 6.35-4.0 4.0-2.0 2.0-1.0 1.0-0.5 0.5- 0.25 0.25—0.12 0.12 -0.06 {0.06 N Oe ele 7 IN ol ia Xored EXPLANATION CORAL AND ALGAE ABRADED FORAMINIFERA FRESH FORAMINIFERA GRRE wixed ASSEMBLAGE GRAIN SIZE IN MM. | 96.35 2 6.35-4.0 } 3 4.0-2.0 4 2.0-10 5 1.0-—0.5 6 0.5-0.25 7 O25-0.12 8 0O.12-0.06 9 ¢0.06 ‘ \ ‘ . \ 4 Bokanaetok Begin Channel \ ‘ P) out P\ aa Ny & eX Ombe TN eA Ombelim 9 \ XN 1 Channel ‘p> @\Jebenau STATUTE MILES FIGURE 15. WOTHO ATOLL SHOWING GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEACH SANDS | KAMWOME ISLET, TAONG! ATOLL a 1500 3000 FEET (APPROX,) LOJRONG ISLET, TAKA ATOLL 9 500 1000 FEET LADO ISLET, LIKIEP ATOLL (APPROX) ALMANI AND JABWELO ISLETS, BIKAR ATOLL ie) 1000 2000 FEET ed (APPROX.) ° 1000 2000 FEET [ eahet eer) (APPROX.) ERLIE ISLET, UJAE ATOLL Lagoon Fi TAKA ISLET, TAKA ATOLL _- a EBBETYU AND ANUIJ ISLETS, UJAE ATOLL {A XK.) i) 500 1000 FEET ° 1000 FEET ee ) el (APPROX.) (APPROX.) @ #92, 93, 94 91 EXPLANATION WOTHO ISLET, WOTHO ATOLL \" 4 = — Shioya series ‘] @ Amo Atoll'series we = Jemo series ° 1500 3000 FEET Ra (APPROX,) Ra MASE: uM arOLk WOTYA ISLET, UJAE ATOLL asia ti) 1000 FEET ~~~ ~Reef margin ° 500 FEET (APPROX.) —— Outline of islet (APPROX.) FIGURE 16. MAPS OF WINDWARD ISLETS SHOWING LOCATIONS FROM WHICH SOIL SAMPLES WERE COLLECTED | Lagoon JEMO ISLAND LOJ ISLET, LAE ATOLL 5° Sonn Meee 4 Rete” aeaeeierer BOCK ISLET, UJAE ATOLL a Ss ee (______l_____ (°) 1000 FEET (APPROX,) (APPROX.) jibe einen as | (APPROX.) Lagoon Lagoon BOKEROK ISLET, UJAE ATOLL © 600 FEET tea) (APPROX.) KIRINIYAN ISLET, UJELANG ATOLL (0) 1000 FEET heen (APPROX.) UJELANG ISLET (E. PART), UJELANG ATOLL ° 1000 2000 FEET oe) (APPROX.) Lagoon Lagoon 116,117 119 EXPLANATION * Shioya series 4 Arno Atoll series EIREK ISLET, WOTHO ATOLL e Jemo series OMBELIM ISLET, WOTHO ATOLL £ ° 1000 FEET o 1000 FE * — Miscellaneous ———_——__ i (APPROX, ~~~ Reef margin (APPROX.) (APPROX) — Outline of islet A Edge of vegetation FIGURE 17. MAPS OF LEEWARD ISLETS SHOWING LOCATIONS FROM WHICH SOIL SAMPLES WERE COLLECTED Lagoon AILUK ISLET, AILUK ATOLL (Adapted from Arnow) © 200 400 FEET (APPROX,) BIKAR AND JABOERO ISLETS, BIKAR ATOLL Q 1000 2000 FEET ae (APPROX.) \ hata e ot SIBYLLA ISLET, TAONG! ATOLL (Adapted from Arnow) © 1000 2000 FEET ee (APPROX,) Lagoon Lagoon LAE, ENEMANMAN, AND GIBINRII ISLETS, LAE ATOLL (Adapted from Arnow) 1500 3000 FEET (APPROX.) @ 123, 124, 125 UTIRIK ISLET, UTIRIK ATOLL (Adapted from Arnow) EXPLANATION to} 1500 3000 FEET 4 x Shioya series — ee 4 Arno Atoll series (APPROX,) e Jemo series a + Wiseellaneous KABBEN ISLET, WOTHO ATOLL ———~ Reef margin 5 1000 FEET (hee a | —— Outline of islet (APPROX, - Edge of vegetation : J FIGURE 18. MAPS OF SOUTHEASTERN CORNER ISLETS SHOWING LOCATIONS FROM WHICH SOIL SAMPLES WERE COLLECTED TAKA Profile A-14 (0.9 —3.4 ft.) 2 3 4 5 6 (3.4 —4.0 ft.) ARNO ATOLL SERIES n © a d(l04) A 3.00 Calcite LIKIEP Profile (8 a ra) } 1 4 1 nN o @ d(104) A os \ S40 \ +3.00 uv 58 \ G Ni a % 30 x 13.02 = qQ \ o NS i=] 20 \ +3.04 © (0 -1.3 ft.) ° gq 50 298 — Tt S) 40 L3.00 ~ C 3] av & 30: ran C 59 See - G 2 20 Laon = © (1.3 -2 .5ft.) (2.5-3.9 ft.) Percent (2.5 -3.9 ft.) ARNO ATOLL SERIES JEMO Profile 30 LIKIEP UTIRIK Profile 17 Profile 4 LIKIEP oa BELOW Bos Profile 18 SURFACE (Feet) c) “ 60 pase S 404 = 3.00 si 40: 3.00 g bs = : te iN < v0 wae 3.00 ¥) % 304 2 Q 3.02 ~ my 30 3.02 W < S ¢ = 3 ry is w 80 = ¢ 2 ~ & $ Q = 204 é 20) 3.04 ¢ ay 20: 3.04 = ct y 3 4 (0-1.6 11.) We ; Ey 208% (0'-0.67 11.) TAKA = a UTIRIK cj 4G Bol g aa > Profile A-14 *. cee =I Profile 12 3 > 2s = = “< ee Ss = im 3.00 = © 2LSBiS = uw < 3.005, a TT) 5 8 cS) = a ia 69 3.02 © o 300 — in a 6 3.02 © 3 [ = = >I ry s s 3 x 3.04 5 : 3.02 9 Q Shh ts Ss é 3 S 3 (1.6-2.211,) = 3.04 5 S " Ss .~ a ne _— 6 iS 2.98 _ (132.591) 8 (0.9 —3.4 ft.) KA 300 > = x a S 3.02 wy & i (0.6 -1.4¢1.) (0.9 = 1.511.) w [ iS BO; ~ = a 3.04 . re cS) > 8 =. = vs S — © x = 2.98 > s M4 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 Ci @ 8 a = : ’ 3.00 = (3-6¢1.) 8 ry 8 S u ° z NM (2.2-2591) : 8 $ 3.02 8 a 3 2 SHIOYA SERIES Q 3.04 5 = S (3.4 -4.011) 2.98 ~ + ’ 9 2 3.00 = = (1.4-3.0ft) J) ARNO ATOLL SERIES 3.02 (1.5 = 4.3 ft.) 02 » = 60 2.98 3 3.04 8 S Sob 3.00% SHIOYA SERIES 40 3.025 GRAIN SIZE IN MM. . oe J ~ = maT Seuey way ee) a et at Ite USE ARC EL fea PAM S30 3.04 ¥| 1 96.35 (2.5 =3.911) LESS BBs) NS s 2 6.35-40 Calcite Ss s 3 4.0-2,0 SHIOYA SERIES S z ae ae Aragonite ARNO ATOLL SERIES 1,0— 6 0.5-0.25 5 7 0.25- 0.12 (3.0'n +) 8 0.12-0.06 9 0.06 SHIOYA SERIES FIGURE 19. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF CALCITE AND ARAGONITE IN SOILS ON UTIRIK, JEMO, LIKIEP, AND TAKA ATOLLS Percent 3.00 3.02 GRAIN SIZE /N MM. | »6.35 Aragonite Sao to 4.0-2.0 2,0=!.0 OF OF 5 2 &) 4 5 6 0.5-0.25 1h Or2 oi 0). 2 8 0.12 —0.06 9 < 0.06 FIGURE 20. AVERAGE MINERALOGIC COMPOSITION OF SOIL PROFILES EXAMINED FROM THE ARNO ATOLL AND SHIOYA SOIL SERIES AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 19 Calcite Calcite in substitution Increasing Mg 6T JYNDI4 NI GAEGIWOSAG SjAMdOUd AHL NI STIOS 4O S4AZIS NIVYD SNOIYVA SJHL NI SJLINOSVYV GNV SLNANLILSNOO YOFVW “Te AYNDI4S WW NI YFILIWVIG 290° Gel’ Ga SG | rd b s¢9 YALLUAW OINVSYO 0 J9VISW3SSV d3XIW iN VY¥SSININVYOS GaqvyEsv M VYSSININVYOS HS3¥4 za 3v91V QNV 1V¥O09 sd Iwy09 ATLSOW 0) IN390u43d SLINOOVYEYV OO} 61 JYNDI4 NI NMOHS S31Id0Y¥d 10S SHL 4O LNSLNOO J3LINOSVYV ‘ce JYuNOl4 ayluoboiy juadiad O OO| O OO| O OO| O OOl| OG t 4334 Nt HlLld3G Jaqunu e@ij0Jq FREQUENCY OF PRIMARY MODES FREQUENCY OF SECONDARY MODES ‘YJ 50 — F 40 W © 30 x WwW a 20 Te) mw, waru—O als O72 28 ea O90 CO6 MEDIAN SORTING SKEWNESS MM COEFF. SEAWARD BEACHES 1-27 1.66 1.43 LAGOON BEACHES 0.86 1.54 1.07 FIGURE 23. FREQUENCY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MODES IN THE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF ALL BEACH SANDS EXAMINED FROM THE NORTHERN MARSHALL ISLANDS WOTHO Profile 72 GRAIN SIZE FORAMINIFERA [© ¢ | CALCITE SPLINTERS MM oRcanic matter SMALL ABRADED FORAMINIFERA ap a N ASSEMBLAGE QUANTITY »6.35 6.35-4.0 GL = 7210) 2.0-1.0 10-0.5 0.25 -0.12 0.12 -—0.06 i i, 7 “~\ » } Ld i a“ * c? % yepTH BELOW 40 he % te % 66: 5 60: 60 SURFACE (Feet) % 60. 60 = 60 4 © l ] ts F 40 40 8 69 % 40 40 40 firs 133 fq ~ 30 122 97 102 ie 40 7 — zr i 44 iat fa iE 40 1 ee Is4 157 : 20 20 20 20 20 4 20 3 20: j 20 0! ae : atid a FAL, oe ma 1 Fi 23'4'slel7 alg Vatsta's'e'ztetg 1 2'ata's'e'7 e's '2'3s'a's'e'? e's 2iatats'et7 ters itatstalste 7 ats 2 3'a's'6'7 alg 1'2°3'4's'6 7 69 aa 1'2'3'4'5'6789 123-4567 0'1°2'3'4'5'6'7'8'9 1'2'3"4"5'67 89 1'2°3'4'5'6'7'8 9 (2345678 23456 Tatstatstery, TAONGI TAONGI TAKA TAKA Profile 139 Profile 145 Profile II Profile 12 AILUK JEMO JEMO LIKIEP UTIRIK UTIRIK WOTHO WOTHO WOTHO WOTHO Profile 3 Profile 4 Profile A-7 Profile A-8 Profile 69 Profile 72 Profile A-26 Profile 29 Profile 30 Profile I7 EBB corAL AND ALGAE GRAIN SIZE IN MM. FIGURE 24. SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE SHIOYA SERIES SOILS FROM 1 96.35 6 0.5-0.25 ABRADED FORAMINIFERA ¢ ¢ CALCITE SPLINTERS 2 6.35-4,0 7 0.25-01.12 \ 3 40-2.0 8 0.12-0.06 AILUK, JEMO, LIKIEP, TAONGI, TAKA, UJAE, UTIRIK, AND WOTHO ATOLLS Sao tr CRORARIESER = ORGANI GE AGRO eos Skee TAKA TAKA TAKA UJAE Profile !3 Profile 5 Profile A-I6 Profile 104 Ss 1.0-0.5 GES vixeo assemetace SMALL QUANTITY ORGANIG MATTER . aes S - 20 28 SSAA SG SSS Si a Dn i i" iN Dy Profile 153 UTIRIK Proflle5 45% 20: WOTHO AILUK JEMO UJEL ANG UTIRIK Profile A-9 Profile A-23 Profile 27 Profile A-3 Profile | TAKA Profile A-I4 %e 2 UTIRIK Profile 2 BM conn, ano ALGAE CALCITE SPLINTERS CRAIN: oie ea 0.5-0.25 3 ser 1 96.35 6 Le ADED FORAMINIFERA es ORGANIC MATTER 2 6.35—-4.0 T 0.25-0,12 HEAR rr 3 4.0—2.0 8 0.12—-0.06 ESH FORAMI (0.06 NIFERA SMALL QUANTITY Ge -BQS0 S 5 1.0 —0.5 BS aux ORGANIC MATTER ED ASSEMBLAGE WOTHO Profile 70 Profile 1I56 AILUK LAE LIKIEP Profile 38 Profile A-II Profile 18 FIGURE 25. SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE ARNO ATOLL SERIES SOILS FROM AILUK, JEMO, TAKA, UJELANG, UTIRIK, AND WOTHO ATOLLS Profile 164 Profile DEPTH BELOW SURFACE (Feet) %o 50 40 15] 30 MM Wy i | \ : UJAE Profile 83 CORAL AND ALGAE FRESH FORAMINIFERA MIXED ASSEMBLAGE GMM orcanic marten GRAIN SIZE /N MM. I »6.35 6.35 - 4.0 4.0-2.0 2.0-1.0 1.0-0.5 0.5-0.25 O25; =0.12 0.12-0.06 «0.06 oomonrondauFt wh LAE Profile A-IO FIGURE 26. SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF UNCLASSIFIED SOILS \ WON \ ARNO ATOLL SOILS SOILS SHIOYA GRAIN SIZE IN FIGURE 27. 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Table 8 gives the composition of some of these reef-forming organisms. Mineralogically both forms of calcium carbonate, aragonite and calcite, are present, the quantities depending on the dominant organisms. In addition, there is secondary and local enrichment of phosphate in the form of the mineral apatite. Classification of soils Stone's classification of atoll soils, with certain alterations, serves very well for the northern Marshall Islands, as for most other atolls studied so far. This classification was adapted for the northern Marshall Islands by Fosberg (1954) from whom the following paragraph eas well as the introductory paragraphs under each soil unit are quoted. “Areally, four principal units are easily definable on the atolls. They are (a) essentially unaltered sands and gravels; (b) stony and very stony complex; (c) Shioya series; and (d) Arno Atoll series. In addi- tion to these, the Jemo series is widely distributed, though much smaller in area. Minor units are the muck soil found in taro pits, mangrove peat, and one or two local types so far known only from Arno Atoll. Exposed limestone reef-rock or beach-rock is common, usually in narrow peripheral strips and on denuded areas on the windward sides of atolls. This rock can scarcely be considered a soil, though it often serves as a substratum for one species of tree--Pemphis acidula. Where there are small pockets of sand, Portulaca and Lepturus may also clothe some of these bare rock surfaces." Only a rough generalization may be made of the areal distribution of these categories, but the accompanying schematic diagram of an atoll islet (fig. 29) will serve to illustrate the general pattern. All the atoll soils are relatively immature, the Shioya series being little modified from the parent material, the Arno Atoll series more modified, and the Jemo series even more so. However, these three are not necessarily related in a linear developmental series. In terms of profile nomenclature the Shioya and Arno Atoll series are "A-C soils" with an A, horizon (zone of incorporated organic matter) and usually a narrow A3 (transitional) horizon passing directly into the relatively unaltered material, the C horizon. As a group, these two series are a ny. Subsequent observation by Fosberg in 1956 suggests the existence of still another soil series, as yet undescribed and inadequately studied, on two or more of the northern Marshall Islands not visited during the 1951-1952 survey. This seems to be associated with a vegetation made up principally of Cordia subcordata Lam. which is not extensively developed on the atolls visited in 1951-1952. It was observed on Ailingineae end Rongerik Atolls, but time was not available for careful profile description and collection of adequate samples. - 53- tropical equivalent of the "humus-carbonate soils" of European workers (see Stone, 1951a, p. 19). The Jemo series, on the other hand, is an A-B-C soil with an A. (litter) horizon and an A, (partly decomposed plant remains ) eine? directly on a B (deposition or accumulation) hori- zon, which in turn lies on the relatively unaltered material or C horizon. In this investigation chemical analytical data are given for 54 profiles or partial profiles comprising 100 samples. These are distri- buted among different soil types as follows (the proportions representing the different series are accidental and bear no relation to the relative abundance of the series in the field): Unaltered sands 2 profiles comprising 2 samples. No samples. Shioya series {7 profiles comprising 13 samples. Arno Atoll series 10 profiles comprising 28 samples. Jemo series 27 profiles comprising 46 samples. Miscellaneous profiles comprising 11 samples. These six categories will be described individually, with the chemical features summarized in tables 9-14. This will be followed by discussions of atoll soil development and of the chemical characteristics of atoll soils. Locality and descriptive data for all profiles analyzed are presented in appendix II. Profiles sampled but not analyzed are mostly omitted from the appendix but their localities are indicated on figures 16-18. Soil units and series--characteristics and chemistry Unaltered sand and gravel "Unaltered sand and gravel, made up commonly of foraminiferal tests and the pulverized or waterworn skeletons of other animals and calcareous algae, are of wide distribution. They occur as bars on the reefs, spits, and narrow places on the ends of islets, beaches, and areas of dunes, most frequently on the lagoon coasts. They are white to pink, or even orange-pink. A number of kinds of plants grow in such substrata with no apparent inconvenience" (Fosberg, 195!) Representing this are two samples, 39 and 40, both from Ailuk Atoll. Sample 39 is from the center of an almost unvegetated sand-bar on the windward reef. Considerable local variation in texture was observed but was not represented in the sample, which was taken from one spot. Sample 40 is from the windward base of a sand dune on Enejelar islet. The material in both represents only the surface layer of the profile. - 5h - Chemical analyses of major constituents are presented in table 9. These analyses represent, at least in some measure, the parent material and thus can be used as a basis of comparison for soils which may have been chemically altered during soil formation. The soil has a pH of 9.4. There is very little difference in the percentages of the constituents analyzed in the two samples, and the average composition is as follows: Calcium, 36.6 percent; magnesium, 1.8 percent; sodium, 0.3 percent; potassium, 0.03 percent; phosphorus, 0.03 percent; total soluble salts, 0.15 percent of which only one-fourth is sodium chloride. Stony and very stony complex ee OO boulder-flats, which are a conmon feature of most atolls, especially in areas visited by frequent storms. Most of them, but by no means all, are found on the seaward sides of islets, sporadically distributed, but with some preponderance on the sides from which the storm winds most often come. A few such ridges are found behind lagoon beaches. These areas are commonly 100 m or less in width, but some of them may be much wider. Sometimes a whole islet is of this nature. The material is mostly coarse angular or water-worn fragments, sometimes well sorted, often extremely heterogeneous in size. The interstices may be filled with sand and smeli gravel, they may be empty, or they may have a soil that is black, with a high organic content, near the surface. The boulders and cobbles are white, but wherever exposed they become gray to black, owing to microscopic blue-green algae in their surface layers. This stony ground supports a thick scrub or forest, in some places becoming tall and luxuriant. Coconuts may be planted here, but these are usually the last large areas to be planted. The [coconut/ trees seem to do well except where the climate is too dry, as in the extreme northern Marshalls, or where the land is too narrow. Narrow necks and points of land are apparently too saline for proper development of coconut trees’ (Fosberg, 1954). No analytical data are available for this unit. Shioya series” "The Shioya series in the Marshall Islands consists of grayish brown sands or gravels, rarely loamy sands (or even silts), that are only slightly weathered and with a very low organic matter content. It was first described (6)/Stensland and others, 19497 on Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, for soils developed on emerged old beach deposits of calcareous sand; later the term was applied to similar soils on Saipan, and then by Stone (7 /1951a/, pp. 19-22) made to include soils of this nature from Arno Atoll. On atolls the Shioya lacks the considerable percentage of guartz sand found in some of the Shioya sand of Okinawa, but the difference is probably not significant. This is by far the commonest anc most wide-spread soil found on coral atolis. It naturally supports most of the mixed forest, several other forests types, and the = 55 Lepturus grassland vegetation characteristic of atolls" (Fosberg, 1954) This is a well-drained alkaline soil formed principally on cal- ecareous sands and gravels, largely but by no means always medium to fine grained. It is typically marginal on the islets, developed toward ocean and lagoon coasts and on the ends of the islets, much less so and tending to be replaced by the Arno Atoll soils in the central parts (fig. 29). There is a transition zone between Shioya and Arno Atoll series. A characteristic profile of the Shioya loamy sand from Arno Atoll is described by Stone (1951a, p. 20) as follows: (oye (a Friable loamy sand, dark gray (10YR-4/1) in color when moist, single-grained or weakly aggregated. pH 7.6. yet Transitional. 8 - 40"+ Single-grained loamy sand, pinkish white (7.5 YR-9/2), com- posed of Foraminifera and ground shells, coral and Halimeda fragments. pH 8.4. Color names and notations are according to the Munsell system. A Shioya gravelly loamy sand and a Shioya sand have also been recognized and described from Arno Atoll, southern Marshall Islands. They differ from the Shioya loamy sand principally in the size of the calcareous parent material. Although these several textural types have been described from the southern Marshall Islands, and although much textural variation is apparent in the present material and from field observations, for the purposes of the present report no textural types have been distinguished. It is felt that a more thorough sampling would be necessary to give such classes meaning. Shioya soils were observed on practically all islets of all atolls visited, and samples of soil from Shioya profiles were obtained from all of these atolls except Kwajalein (see maps of islets showing sample localities, figs. 16-18; and Appendix II, p. 101). These were not all analyzed but at least some chemical analytical information is available for 13 samples from 7 Shioya profiles. Unfortunately only three reasonably complete profiles are represented by these data (see table 9). Of these three profiles one is from Lado, Likiep Atoll and the other two are from Wotho, Wotho Atoll. In addition, samples of sur- face layers were partially analyzed from profiles from Taka, Taka Atoll. Of the major constituents, calcium ranges between 33.7 and 37.8 percent, generally increasing somewhat downward. Magnesium ranges between 0.8 and 2.7 percent, consistently increasing downward in the profile. Sodium ranges between 0.18 and 0.31 percent. Potassium is constantly between 0.02 and 0.05 percent and phosphorus is similarly low, from 0.02 to 0.21 percent. - 56 - Probably because the islands are exposed constantly to the influ- ence of spray blown in from the ocean, the total soluble salt content is high, ranging between 0.02 and 0.49 percent, on the basis of dry weight. Assuming a moisture content of at least 25 percent in the soils as they occur naturally, this would indicate salt concentrations in the soil solution ranging from about 0.1 to 2.0 percent, varying seasonally. Most of these concentrations, especially the higher ones, would probably have a severe limiting effect on plant growth and might well account, at least in part, for the impoverished flora of atolls, especially the drier ones, as has been suggested earlier (Fosberg, 1949). Curiously enough, the higher sodium chloride contents, calcu- lated from the chloride percentages, are found to correspond to the lower range of total soluble salts. The correlations, however, are not very good and possibly little importance is to be attached to this phenomenon. Few determinations of organic carbon were made for this series, as, in general, soils of this series are low in organic matter and there is no peaty layer. Hydrogen ion concentration ranges between pH 8.06 and 9.67, determinations made on stored material. The only pH below 8.3, normal for calcium carbonate solutions under ordinary conditions, is in a surface layer where organic matter would be expected to have some influence, though in small amount. Higher figures doubtless reflect the presence of magnesium carbonate. Samples 126 and 129, showing the highest magnesium content and the highest pH, contain about 20 percent and 50 percent respectively of fresh foraminiferal tests, some species of which contain a high proportion of magnesium carbonate (table 8). Arno Atoll Series "The Arno Atoll series (7 /Stone, 1951a/, pp. 22-25) is composed of black or dark brown (values 1-4 in Munsell system) loamy sands and sandy loams with usually some increment of gravel. The organic matter content is high 16 to 32 per cent in original analyses by Stone (7 [1951a/, table 2)/ for tropical soils. The origin of these soils is obscure and may well be different in various occurrences. In some atolls the soils of this series seem to be correlated in occurrence with a history of intensive human activity (Utirik, Ailuk, Arno?), but’ in others (Jemo) definitely not. These soils occur in fairly large patches in the interiors of sizeable islets. They usually support coconut plantations at present. Little is known of their original vegetation. In certain areas of this type (Arno, Ailuk) the coconut trees become unhealthy and die early, possibly as a result of nutrient deficiency (8 /Stone 1951b/, p. 11-12) brought about by overcropping of copra (dried coconut meat)" (Fosberg, 1954). This is a well-drained, dark-colored, calcareous soil formed on old beach and dune sands under vegetation in the island interiors. A representative profile from Arno Atoll is described by Stone (195la, p- 22) as follows: - 57 - 0 - 11" Highly organic, granular loamy sand or sandy loam, somewhat plastic when worked. Black when moist, very dark gray (10YR-3/1) when dry, heavily flecked with lighter sand particles. pH 7.5. Earthworms abundant. Re 13% Abrupt transition from above to-- 13 - 21" Single-grained, light-gray loamy sand stained with organic matter, becoming white (10YR-8/2) at a depth of a few inches. pH 8.4. 21-54"4 Friable, pinkish white (7.5YR-9/2) limesand becoming coarser at 40 inches. The above description is of the Arno Atoll loamy sand developed on sand-grade material. A similar soil from Arno Atoll with coarser parent material has been called the Arno Atoll gravelly loamy sand. Types based on texture have not been distinguished in the present report. Soils interpreted as belonging to the Arno Atoll series were observed on Taka, Utirik, Ailuk, Jemo, Likiep, Ujelang, Wotho, Ujae, and Lae Atolls, and samples representing profiles or partial profiles were obtained from all these (see maps of islets showing sample localities, figs. 16-18, and Appendix II). In the laboratory information was obtained on organic matter, pH, salinity, and general chemistry for 28 of these samples (see table 9) but the data by no means are complete for all the samples. Of the major constituents, calcium ranges from 32.6 to 38 per- cent, the surface samples usually containing 2 to 4 percent less than those from the lower layers, as might be expected from the amounts of organic matter present in the upper layer. Profile 27, from Jemo, is exceptional in its very high organic matter and phosphorus and unusu- ally low calcium. It is perhaps not correctly placed in this series, but further investigations on soils in similar situations, in close association with soils of the Jemo series, will be required to clarify the disposition of this somewhat anomalous profile. The magnesium content, from 0.5 to 2.8 percent, increases from the surface layer down- ward. Variation in magnesium content could be introduced by the varied proportions of different calcareous organisms with differing amounts of magnesium carbonate in their skeletons, but the consistent increase in magnesium from upper to lower layers could scarcely be due to this cause. Estimates of proportions of different organisms making up the different layers show no such regular increase downward of those organ- isms known to contain much magnesium carbonate. Such is Calcarina spengleri, one of the Foraminifera common in these sediments, which commonly has ebout 3.5 percent magnesium in solid solution in the cal- cite structure. For example, in profile 1, samples 39 end 40 have similar proportions of different organisms but differ (1.1 compared with 1.8 percent) in magnesium content. In profile 2, the upper layer, containing abundant worn Foraminifera, has only 0.9 percent magnesium; - 58 - in the fourth layer, sample 44 has a preponderance of worn Foraminifera with coral and algae, and 2.3 percent magnesium, whereas in 45, where the Foraminifera are negligible, but also with coral and algae, the magnesium content is also 2.3 percent. In profile 5, samples 48 and 49 each contain about 75 percent Foraminifera, with expected high percen- tages of magnesium 2.3 and 2.5, respectively. Original composition undoubtedly accounts for much of the variation, but the regular increase downward suggests that leaching of magnesium may have been more intense toward the surface. This would not be unexpected. The surface layer contains from 0.14 to 2.00 percent phosphorus (omitting from consideration profile 27, which has enormously more) and the lower layers, 3 and 4, contain from 0.02 to 0.52 percent. Potas- sium ranges from 0.01 to 0.05 percent, excepting for sample 66, in profile 27, which has 0.07 percent. Organic carbon in the surface layer ranges from 2.88 to 6.01 percent (excepting the anomalous profile 27), and falls off rapidly in the lower layers so far as can be determined from the rather few analyses and the lack of dark staining of the calcareous material. Carbon/nitrogen ratios range between 15 and 28 in the surface layers. The hydrogen ion concentration is uniformly lowest in the sur- face layers, from pH 7.30 to 8.35, and consistently increases down- ward, to an extreme of 9.47 in sample 60 in profile 18. Total soluble salts range from 0.03 to 0.85 percent (except for profile 27, with higher percentages which may have resulted from accidental contamina- tion by sea water). The soluble salts are mostly surprisingly high, considering that the samples come from the interiors of the islets. Jemo series This series, described by Fosberg as a result of observations in the Northern Marshall Islands, usually consists of "a layer of organic matter resting on a phosphatic hardpan underlain by loose, essentially unaltered or somewhat darkened lime-sand or gravel" (Fosberg, 1954, p- 101). This, or similar soils, has been observed on a number of central and western Pacific atolls and undoubtedly is what has been exploited as "guano" on many of the more moist atolls of the Pacific. The total area of these soils is not large, but they are of extreme ecologic and pedogenic interest. A typical Jemo profile (from Fosberg, 1954, p. 104) may be des-~ cribed as follows, from an old Pisonia forest in the interior of Jaowelo (Jaliklik) islet, Bikar Atoll (profile 166 of present paper). hoo horizon 6.0 - 5.5 inches Loose twigs and leaves of Pisonia grandis, somewhat guano~ stained. A, horizon 5.5 - O inches Dark-brown, fibrous or spongy rew humus. Transition to B horizon abrupt. - 59 - B horizon QO - 6.0 inches Brown salt-and-pepper appearance, very well consolidated. Transi- tion to C horizon abrupt. C horizon 6.0 + Loose pale sand mixed with rub- ble; depth undetermined. The essential feature of these soils is the existence of an A horizon of a dark-brown to black organic matter, similar to the "raw humus" or "mor'' found under northern coniferous forests and on heath lands, spongy or peaty in texture and lacking visible mineral consti- tuents. Usually this is directly underlain by a B horizon of indurated phosphatic hardpan, but in some variants this is absent or, rarely, replaced by nodular phosphatic material. Under this the material typically resembles a Shioya soil. This soil series seems to be consistently associated with existing or former forests or groves of Pisonia grandis, a common atoll tree. Its existence is interpreted as a direct result of the coincidence of large colonies of fish-eating birds roosting or nesting in stands of Pisonia trees. The humus which eccumulates under Pisonia trees is highly acid, at least compared with the ordinary calcareous soils, ranging from pH 4 to pH 6 in reaction. When the guano, largely com- posed of finely divided calcium phosphate from fish bones, is deposited on the surface of this humus layer and washed by rain down into this acid material, it goes into solution and is carried on down through the organic layer. The high phosphorus figures in the analyses of the organic layers for this series are fair evidence of this. When this acid phosphate solution percolates down into the layer of calcareous soil beneath, it is neutralized and the phosphate comes out of solution as a cement, stained brown by humus, which indurates the loose cal- careous material. As the resulting hardpan is subject to further percolation by the acid phosphate the grains of calcium carbonate com- posing it are gradually replaced by calcium phosphate in the form of apatite. Thus for some samples the analyses correspond to almost pure apatite. Soluble salts were only determined for five samples. Two of these, both from layer 1, contain more than 2 percent total soluble salts, but the content seems to be quite variable, as two others con- tain between 1 and 2 percent, and the fifth only a negligible amount. These few analyses could scarcely give an adequate picture, as even in the same place soluble salts might at one time be concentrated in the surface organic matter by nitrification and evaporation, and at another time they might be leached out by rain water and removed through the porous calcareous material in the lower horizons. Amounts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus are available for five profiles, three from Bikar Atoll and two from Jemo (table 9). At the surface the amount of magnesium and calcium varies inversely with the amount of organic matter present. This is well illustrated by profiles 153 and 166 from Bikar and profile 25 from Jemo. The surface peaty layers of the two profiles from Bikar contain between 7 and 8 percent calcium with about 55 percent organic matter, w Gy whereas the surface layer of the profile from Jemo with only about 35 percent organic matter contains 16.5 percent calcium. The magnesium content varies similarly, but this variation is in part due to the quantity of the different kinds of calcareous organisms present. Some data on chemical composition of the reef organisms forming these atolls are given on page 121 and tables 3 and 8. Magnesium content depends on the presence of organisms consisting of calcite rather than of aragonite. The chemical data obtained for the Jemo soils include spectro- graphic determinations of the trace or minor elements in 31 samples representing 18 soil profiles. These were done in two series reported in different terms, one set including elements not determined in the other. For this reason two tables, 10 and 11, have been prepared to present these results, which have been recombined into a third (table 12) showing the range and frequency of occurrence of the minor elements. Some of these elements are known to be essential for plant growth and the concentrations of some of them are surprisingly low, considering the luxuriance of the vegetation on these islands. It is clear that at least certain species of plants are adapted to securing their require- ments of these elements from soil solutions of extremely low concentra- tion. The most frequent of these minor elements are: boron, chromium, copper, manganese, strontium, iron, and barium. The least frequent are: silver, cobalt, molybdenum, and yttrium. Those with largest amounts are: iron, silicon, and strontium. Those with smallest amounts are silver and cobalt. Miscellaneous soils Analyses of the upper layers of a number of miscellaneous soils thet do not fit well into any of the named soil series show unusually high content of organic matter, when compared with other northern Marshall Island soils except the Jemo series. Determinations of organic carbon and pH are presented in table 13. A rough correlation between amount of organic matter and acidity shows up in these analyses, and is illustrated by the curves in figure 30. It will be noted that the main deviation is in a soil from a coconut grove, where the organic matter is largely from decomposed coconut husks, leaves, and other trash. The acidity in these soils probably may be ascribed mostly to humic acids, but in the taro pits the soils also smell somewhat of hydrogen sulfide, so some of the acidity may come from hydrogen sulfide produced under aneerobic reducing conditions in the muck in these pits. This general correlation of organic matter and acidity, even in a calcareous environment, is in line with the similar relationships shown in the Arno Atoll and Jemo soils (table 9). ! Summary of chemical information From an examination of the tabulations of analytical results pre- sented in tebles 9 to 13, the following summaries were obtained. Certain a ae marked trends are pointed out, but owing to the inadequacy of the sampling no special significance is necessarily to be attached to these. They do indicate areas where future investigations might profitably be concentrated. A summary of the chemical information is given in table 14. This, however, is of limited value except to sug- gest trends, as the layers are not strictly comparable. Shioya soil profiles Organic carbon is usually less than 3 percent (maximum 3.08 per- cent). Phosphorus is 0.2 percent or less, highest in layer 1 and about equal in layers 2 and 3. Averages for layers 1-3, respectively: 0.15; 0.03; 0.03 percent. Potassium content is always low, 0.02 to 0.05 percent. Magnesium content consistently increases downward. Averages for layers 1-3, respectively: 1.09; 1.6; 2.2 percent. Calcium content shows no significant trends. It varies between 33.7 and 37.8 percent with almost this variation within layer 1. If the whole soil were calcium carbonate the percentage would be 40. Total soluble salts range from 0.04 percent to 0.49 percent with no order nor preponderance nor discernible trends. Salinity in terms of chlorides converted to sodium chloride shows no definite trend except that high total soluble salts seem to show low salinity and low total soluble salts, high salinity. We have no explanation for this except the possibility that the high percentages of soluble salts may represent sulfates, lacking in the others, and that the salinity variations may be due to sea spray. Arno Atoll soil profiles Percentage of phosphorus is roughly related to percentage of organic carbon, but layers showing no black staining were not analyzed for organic carbon; these are presumably less than 1 percent. Phos- phorus decreases downward except where there are evidences of buried A horizons, in which cases the phosphorus in the buried A layer is some- what higher than the C horizon layer above it. Except. for profile 27, layer 1 varies between 0.13 percent and 2.0 percent phosphorus. Averages for layers 1-4, respectively, are: 0.63; 0.30; 0.15; 0.04 percent. Profile 38, which is in an area of Ailuk similar to the "laora" areas of Arno Atoll (Hatheway, 1953, p. 60; 1957, p. 1-3), shows 0.34 percent in layer 1, which is not especially low, but 0.04 percent in layer 3, which is quite low. Organic carbon is quite variable in layer 1, 2.88 to 6.01 percent (or 11.0 percent in profile 27), and falls off in lower layers (so far as analyzed and assuming less than 1 percent for uncolored layers). = € < Calcium content is lower in layer 1, but not conspicuously except in profile 27, where it is 23.5 percent. In other layers it is between 35 and 37 percent (except in profile 27, where layer 2 shows 29 percent). The lower percentage of calcium in layer 1 is probably related to high organic content. Magnesium content generally increases downward. Exceptions are sample 81, from layer 4 of an unusual silty material, where it is very low compared with layers analyzed above it; samples 49 and 50, layers 3 and 4, where the percentages are very close, 2.5 and 2.4 percent; and sample 39, where there seems to be less difference in appearance and color than is usual between the layers of the profile. Averages for layers 1-4, respectively, are 1.02, 1.75, 2.00, and 2.08 percent. Potassium is uniformly low, ranging between 0.01 and 0.07 percent. There seem to be no systematic relationships in the percentage of total soluble salts, in the salinities or in the percentage of sodium. Profile 27 shows generally a very high percent of total solu- ble salts and a very high salinity in all layers, but not a strikingly high percentage of sodium except in layer 2. From the percentage of sodium in layers 3 and 4 and the sodium chloride in total soluble salts, there must be chlorides other than sodium chloride present in quantities. Examination of the figures for profile 27, from Jemo, shows that it is aberrant, chemically, in many respects. This profile is either unusually high or unusually low in every constituent for which there are figures in one or more layers, as is indicated in the comments in the above paragraphs. For this reason this profile was omitted in calculating table 14. These considerations, as well as the field- relations, suggest that it would be best to exclude this soil from the Arno Atoll series. As it occurs on Jemo on land presumed to have formerly been occupied by Pisonia groves, and where pieces of phosphate rock are occasionally found, it is probable that this is a Jemo series soil modified by cultivation. It may be significant that the other Arno Atoll series profiles for which chemical data are available are all from inhabited islands. Those from Taka, which is uninhabited, were not analyzed chemically. Jemo Soil profiles Organic carbon in layer 1 ranges from 19.92 to 34.71 percent. Much less is present in the lower layers, but was only determined in one sample of layer 3 where 2.89 percent organic carbon was found. Phosphorus is high, ranging from 1 to 6.8 percent in the raw humus leyer (one sample had a lower figure), much higher in the hardpan leyer, ranging from 3 to 13.4 percent, and generally lower in layer 3, except in one profile where the percentage is greater. The average phosphorus content in the hardpan is about 7.4 percent. The phosphorus figures determined by rapid chemical methods (Shapiro and Brannock, 1956) - 63 - and by spectrographic methods differ markedly; for example, figures of 12 and 10 percent, 5 and 7.9 percent, respectively, were reported for the two sets of samples. For such percentages of phosphorus as are discussed here the rapid chemical analysis method is considered the more reliable. Leaves of Pisonia growing in this soil on Bikar contained 0.2 per- cent phosphorus in dried, and 0.5 percent phosphorus in fresh leaves. These figures, however, may not be significant because of possible undetected spatterings of guano. Calcium content in layers 2 to 4 is between 31.3 and 36.2 percent, which is generally about the content in the more or less unaltered parent material. However, where there are comparable figures in the same profile, that for layer 2 is slightly lower. Probably this would be due to a certain amount of leaching, but it could possibly reflect a somewhat lower calcium ratio in the mixture of phosphates compared with that in calcium carbonate. As the exact composition of the phosphate mixture is not known, this remains purely speculative. The surprising thing is the large amount of calcium, 2.5 to 16.5 percent, average 8.3 percent, in the humus layers. This must be in the form of calcium phosphate, as no carbonate is likely in view of the low pH. However, as the amounts of calcium only roughly parallel those of phosphorus, the variation may be accounted for by assuming variation in the composi- tion of the mixtures of phosphates. Potassium in layer 1 is substantially higher (0.06 to 0.28 per- cent, average 0.13 percent) than in the Shioya and Arno Atoll soils and almost twice that in layer 2 of the Jemo profiles. In general, potassium seems either to be accumulated in the humus layer or to be added in substantial amounts in the guano that is deposited on the surface. Magnesium generally increases downward but not as regularly as in other soil types. In one profile there is no detectable magnesium in the humus layer. In the others magnesium ranges from 0.16 to 0.46 per- cent in this layer. Sodium content shows no discernible trends. Total soluble salts range from 0.11 to 2.55 percent, but only a very few analyses were made. The proportion of sodium chloride is high in the humus layers with high total soluble salts, and lower where total soluble salts are low, but there is no systematic relationship. This is the reverse of the condi- tion in the Shioya series. Iron is present in small amounts, ranging from 0.002 to 0.02 per- cent in layers 2, 3, and 4, but in all profiles the percentage in layer 1 is much higher, ranging from 0.02 to 0.2 percent. This suggests that Pisonia trees possess the ability to concentrate iron in the humus layer of the soil. The percentages of cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, and zinc show a distribution similar to that of iron but in a much more striking fashion. None of these, with two exceptions, were detected in layers 7 2 to 4, whereas they were present in most samples of the humus layer in amounts, ranging from 0.0001 to 0.03 percent. This suggests, again, that Pisonia concentrates these elements in its humus, enriching the upper layers of the soil. It has been suggested that this concentration of minor elements in the humus layer results from digested fish deposited as guano. This is possible, but these elements would probably then show up, also, in the phosphate accumulation layer. The two exceptions ‘noted above were in profiles 26 and 50 where in layer 2 there were, respectively, 0.03 and 0.02 percent of zinc, the 0.03 percent being higher than the amount in layer 1. The 0.02 percent is in one of two analyses of phosphate rock from the same profile, this particular sam- ple being of nodules or fragments of layer 2 included in the raw humus layer. The one of layer 2 proper showed no zinc. Cobalt, molybdenum, and zinc were not detected in two samples of Pisonia leaves which were ashed and analyzed (nickel was not checked in these). The percentages of copper, manganese, barium, boron, and chromium were all low, ranging from 0.01 to 0.00004 percent, but they were always detectible by spectrographic analysis. No systematic relation- ships are apparent. Strontium content ranges from 0.02 to 0.4 percent and is conspicu- ously lower in the humus layer than in the lower layers in all but one profile. Hydrogen ion concentration in the three types of profiles Determinations of pH made in the laboratory on samples which had been dried and stored do not, of course, correspond very well with those made on fresh samples by rough field methods. The laboratory determina- tions of pH show a greater total range and, except for those of the Jemo soils, are generally higher than the field determinations. Available figures for relatively unaltered sands are well above pH 9, but in the surface layers of the Shioya series this figure drops to about pH 8.5. The lower layers of this series have pH readings simiiar to those of the unaltered sands. In the Arno Atoll series, layer 1 has an average pH of 7.9, layer 2, an average pH of 8.6, and in the lower layers, again, the pH is above 9. In the Jemo series the pH of layer 1 is 4.5, layer 2 has a pH of 7.6, and layer 3 has a pH of 8.3. These figures indicate that the increase in acidity is roughly related to the increase in organic matter. Hydrogen ion concentrations of about pH 9 seem to accompany amounts of organic carbon in soils of less than 2 percent, e pH of 8 those with 2 to 4 percent of organic carbon, pH readings of 6 or 7 those with 4 to 6.5 percent organic carbon, and pH of 3.8 to 5.3 those with 20 to 35 percent organic carbon. These figures clearly show a marked relation between the accumulation of organic mat- ter and leaching. The more acid soil solutions resulting from the accumulation of humus are more active in leaching both the calcium car- bonate in the parent materials and the phosphate added later. 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Pre fad we Au Tin a (te £i5 al A + Day LLOMA Oh Ah ead eth mY : Ot ie wrt ere ie Fass on 4 ae! oy ot ‘aie puts pats Keene bite : = vommpninag yf solyerts a 7 © elt aad one i a pane Legends of plates Plate 32. Effects of typhoon on Utirik islet. A. Aerial view of western prolongation of Utirik islet, Uti- rik Atoll, swept clean of soil and vegetation by a typhoon many years ago, and again partially denuded in 1951. The boulder accumulation in the edge of the lagoon just below the dark line of vegetation was presumably swept from the lend surface by the earlier typhoon. The faint darker lincs in the right half of the land area are beachrock. B. Closeun of an area in the left side of the area shown in A, being somewhat recolonized by vegetation. The coconut groves in the background were apparently protected by the broader parts of the islet from the severe effects shown in the naxrow projection of the islet. Photos by Fosberg. Plate 33. Foraminifera in soils from the Marshall Islands. Examples of Foraminifera in various soils, showing changes due to organic matter and to remcval of calcium carbonate. A. Worn Calearina from sample 131, prcfile 29, Shioya soil, rene ie snowing slight adherence of organic matter dark). B. Corroded worn foraminifer from sample 48, profile 5, Arno Atoll soil, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. C. Corroded foraminifer with broken chambers filled with or- ganic matter, sample 204, profile 28, Jemo soil, Jemo island. D. Foraminifer with dull, slightly earthy appearance, sample 48, profile 5, Arno Atoll soil, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. E, F. Foraminifera with earthy appearance due to powdery cal- cium carbonate on the surface, sample 71, profile 30, Shioya soil, Jemo island. G, H. Foraminifera with additional firm calcium carbonate de- posited on the original surface, sample 146, profile 70, Arno Atoll soil, Wotho islet, Wotho Atoll. I, J, K. Foraminifera coated with a mixture of flour-like cal- cium carbonate and fine-grained organic matter. I and K are from sample 204, profile 28, Jemo soil,Jemo island; J is from sample 110, profile Al5, Shtoya soil, Taka Atoll. L, M. Worn end broken Marginopora showing intimate association with organic matter, sample 41, profile 2, Arno Atoll soil, Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Photos by Starkey, U.S. Geological Survey, all X 30 (approx. ). eB | ey \ TIV aBy eV 5 (O€) T =] a ei vu me 2 ie2) et EESEE MO MIMOO WO OlFOUOUIMODINANHNHI NM Oo li 9 0 S 0 ir 0 Ra . . foe) isa) ™ - diner au 0 ° oy E x oO tA 5 = ANT TY MAMNMNIMMMINANMANMIMNOYM © soyies T193V ATAPI ouly 09°T 60 lf 4 i I cL ee ORV we ee Pgs | saqaes C2 alent Un a) Sih. 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Lz: O€* = Cit 7° OF Cee 29°8 Z@ taheT Ly" £0" Gzr £9: + Z0°T Z° HE 70° 88°Z T 204e7T SSAlWaS TIOLY ONUV 91° EO= 1 O€° ED: 0. 7¢ G°9€ as L9°67¢ € taAeT ae WT! 97° £0" 09°T ite /48 "lg 70° 6 Z rAvkeqT oO Be I Gc° Sia 60°T G* Ge vier 4 847°8 T atokeT SSINHS VAOIHS c1°0O €0°0 0€°O €0°0 8°T 9°9€ 66°6 (Tetzeqew Queied) SGNVS CavaLTVNA (jue028ed) (jue0z%0ed) (qued1ed) (quedaed) (qUaddaz0d) quaodazed) (juedzed) uoqieo PTANIOS wntssejz0g unTposg ,ssnioydsoyg wntsousey uNnTtoTe9 otues109 Hd STTOS em = SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This investigation has shown that the islets on the atoll reefs of the northern Marshall Islands are mainly accumulations of calcareous debris, generally formed around erosion remnants of former slightly higher reef platforms, more rarely without such stabilizing cores. Their surface features conform sufficiently to a few patterns that their descriptions may be generalized and consistent terms applied to their common features. On the basis of their origin and position three types of islets are recognized--outer reef islets of detritus accumulated around a solid erosion remnant of a higher platform; outer reef islets composed of detrital accumulations without such a core; and islets built of detritus within lagoons. The calcareous materials are either freshly derived or reworked skeletons or fragments of skeletons of marine plants and animals, or fragments of consolidated masses of such skeletons, and are mineralogi- cally mixtures of calcite and aragonite. Most of the calcite is a more or less magnesian calcite. The.characteristics, both physical and chemical, of the sediments are determined in large measure by the organisms of which they are principally composed. These characteristics, especially the physical ones, are modified both by the amount of weathering and abrasion they have been subjected to and by their posi- tion on the islet, either as constantly moving beach materials or as relatively stable deposits within the islets. The interior deposits, considered as soils, are mostly referable to three previously recognized soil series, of which the Shioya and Arno Atoll series are almost entirely calcareous, differing principally in the amount of organic matter in their upper layers or A horizons. The Jemo series is highly phosphatic, with a raw humus A, horizon and a con-~ solidated B horizon of phosphate rock. Chemically the Shioya soils are deficient in almost every plant nutrient element except calcium. The Arno Atoll series is more suitable for plant growth but is deficient in most elements. The Jemo soil has an abundance of phosphorus and has, in its A, horizon, more of most other essential elements than is general in atoll soils, though the quantities are even so extraordinarily small. The distribution of various elements through the profiles shows certain systematic trends. Interpretation of these is difficult at present and in most respects must await further data. Deficiencies of most nutrient cations, including some of the essential trace elements, are evident in all the soils studied. The ability of certain species of plants to grow in spite of these deficiencies, and the complete failure of others, is noteworthy. The process of phosphatization and hardpan formation in the Jemo series is fairly well understood, being dependent on the coincidence of guano from seabirds and acid humus from Pisonia trees. The chemistry and ecology of the formation of the Arno Atoll series is not well under- stood. Further research should perhaps take the form of detailed mapping of the occurrence of the several soil types on selected islets in atolls with different climates and where as much as possible of the original - EO te OR RE St LY Ti = 66)- vegetation remains. Correlation with vegetation patterns should be attempted. Further and more detailed chemical studies might profitapbly be made on selected profiles in the several series. An attempt shoulr be made to find the origin of the indicated trends in occurrence cf minor elements and to determine the fertility relations of the soils ¢r° substrata for plant growth. Attention should also be paid to the weathering processes going on in these sediments under different climatic conditions. The role of microscopic blue-green algae both /” weathering end nitrogen fixation should be determined, es well as ine. r contribution to the accumulation of organic matter. Finsully, as investigation to determine relative and absolute ages of layers in th.2 sections would be of great interest in relation to soil formation. vlimatic history and sea-level changes. REFERENCES Blumenstock, D. I., ed., 1961. A report on typhoon effects upon Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bull. 75: 1-105. Catala, R. L. A., 1957. Report on the Gilbert Islands: some aspects of human ecology. Atoll Research Bull. 59: 1-187. Chave, K. E., 1952. A solid solution between calcite and dolomite. Jour. Geology 60: 190-192. we een nn-- , 1954a. Aspects of the biogeochemistry of magnesium. I. Calcareous marine organisms. Jour. Geology 62: 266-283. a teatetetetetadal , 1954b. Aspects of the biogeochemistry of magnesium: II. Calcareous sediments and rocks. Jour. Geology 62: 587-599. Christophersen, E., 1927. Vegetation of the Pacific Equatorial Islands. B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 44: 1-79. Cléerke;-i. W., and Wheeler, W. C., 1917. The inorganic constituents of marine invertebrates. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 102: 1-56. Cloud, P. E., dr., 1952. Preliminary report on geology and marine environments on Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands. Atoll Research Bore? Ler A= h3 Cushman, J. A., Todd, Ruth, and Post, R. J., 1954. Bikini and nearby atolls, Part 2, Oceanography (biologic). Recent Foraminifera of the Marshall Islands. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 260-H: 319-384. David, T. W. E., and Sweet, G., 1904. The geology of Funafuti, in W. J. Sollas and others, The Atoll of Funafuti, p. 61-124. Royal Soc. London, Rept. Coral Reef Comm. of the Royal Soc., London. Emery, K. 0., 1956. Marine geology of Johnston Island and its surround- ing shallows, Central Pacific Ocean. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 67: 1905-1520. Hmnerya, Ke) 0.5 Tracey, J. 1., Ire; sand Ladd, H."S., 1954. Geology of Bikini and nearby atolls. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 260-A: 1-265. Fairbridge, R. W., 1950. The geology and geomorphology of Point Peron, Western Australia. Royal Soc. Western Australia Jour. 34: 30-2: a ealatatedetatatate pig ses MAM newerds1on., Pacific se... Cong.,, (th, Proc. 3: 347-358. - 68 « Folk, R. L., and Ward, W. C., 1957. Brazos River bar: A study in the significance of grain size parameters. Jour. Sed. Petrology 27: 3-26. Fosberg, F. R., 1949. Atoll vegetation and salinity: Pacific Science 3: 89-92. wee nn ene » 1953. Vegetation of Central Pacific atolls, a brief sun- mary. Atoll Research Bull. 23: 1-26. ~--------- ; 1954. Soils of the northern Marshall atolls with special reference to the Jemo series. Soil Sci. 78: 99-107. ---------- » 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Narrative. Atoll Research Bull. 38: 1-36. wane ---- » 1957a. Some geological processes at work on coral atolls. New York Acad. Sci. Trans. II, 19: 411-422, woe ------ » 1957b. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bull. 58: 1-37. Fosberg, F. R., Arnow, T., and MacNeil, F. S., 1956. Military geography of the Northern Marshalls. Intelligence Div. Office of the Engineer, Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces Far East and 8th U.S. Army, 320 p. Fosberg, F. R., and Sachet, M.-H., 1953. Handbook for atoll research (second preliminary edition). Atoll Research Bull. 17: 1-129. Goldsmith, J. R., Graf, D. L., and Joensuu, O. I., 1955. The occurrence of magnesium calcites in nature. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, 7: 212-230. Guilcher, A., Berthois, L., Le Calvez, Y., Battistini, R., and Crosnier, A., 1965. Les récifs coralliens et le lagon de 1'Ile Mayotte (Archipel des Comores, Océan Indien).' Mémoires ORSTOM 11: 1-210. Hatheway, W. H., 1953. The land vegetation of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bull. 16: 1-68. ween nnn n-- , 1957. Agricultural notes on the Southern Marshall Islands, 1952. Atoll Research Bull. 55: 1-9. Hoskin, C. M., 1963. Recent carbonate sedimentation on Alacran Reef, Yucatan, Mexico. Nat. Acad. Sci.--Nat. Res. Council Pub. 1089: 1-160. Jenny, H., 1941. Factors of soil formation. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Cos4 201 Wp. Johnson, J. Harlan, 1954. An introduction to the study of rock building algae and algal limestones. Colorado School Mines Quart. 49 (2): hell. - 69 - Krumbein, W. C., and Garrelis, R. M., 1952. Origin and classification . of chemical sediments in terms of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials. Jour. Geology 60: 1-33. Krumbein, W. C., and Tisdel, F. W., 1940. Size distribution of source rocks of sediments. Am. Jour. Sci. 238: 296-305. Kuenen, Ph. H., 1933. Geology of coral reefs. Snellius Exped. 5 (2): 1-125. eT adaatestteletaates , 1950. Marine geology. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. Ladd, H. S., 1953. Drilling on Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. Internat. Geol. Cong., 18th, London, 1948, Rept., pt. 8: 36-43. Ladd, H. S., Ingerson, E., Townsend, R. C., Russell, M., and Stephenson, H. Kirk, 1953. Drilling on Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 37: 2257-2280. Ladd, H. S., and Schlanger, S. 0., 1960. Drilling operations on Eniwetok Atoll. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 260-Y¥: 863-903. Ladd, H. S., Trecey, J. f., Jr., Wells, J. W., and Emery, K. O., 1950. Organic growth and sedimentation on an atoll. Jour. Geology 58: 410-425. Lemoine, Mme. Paul, 1911. Structure anatomique des Mélobésiées. Annales Inst. Oceanographique, Paris 2 (2): 1-213. Lipman, C. B., and Shelley, P. E., 1924. Studies on the origin of the soil of Rose Islet. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub., 340: 203-208. McKee, E. D., 1956, Geology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bull. 50: 1-38. won nn ee nne , 1958. Geology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 69: 21-278. latetastetateateted » 1959. Storm sediments on a Pacific atoll. Jour. Sed. Petrol. 29: 354-364. McKee, E. D., Chronic, John, and Leopold, E. B., 1959. Sedimentary belts in lagoon of Kapingamarangi Atoll. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 43: 501-562. Nestéroff, W. D., 1956. Erosion et cimentation des calcaires dans les eaux tropicales [abs./. Internat. Geol. Cong., 20th, Mexico City 1956, Resumenes de los Trabajos Presentados, p. 267. Newell, N. D., 1954a. Expedition to Raroia, Tuamotus. Atoll Research Bull. sue 1-21. = FO: = Newell, N. D., 1954. Reefs and sedimentary processes of Raroia. Atoll Research Bull. 36: 1-35. eeweenne-- , 1956. Geological reconnaissance of Raroia (Kon Tiki) Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago. Am. Mus. Nat. History Bull. 109: 311-372. onee------ , 1960. Marine planation of tropical limestone islands. Science 132(3420): 144-145. Niering, W. A., 1956. Bioecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands: Terrestrial aspects. Atoll Research Bull. 49; 1-32. werner --- , 1963. Terrestrial ecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands. Ecol. Mon. 33: 131-160. Nugent, L. E., Jr., 1946. Coral reefs in the Gilbert, Marshall, and Caroline Islands. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 57: 735-780. Odum, H. T., and Odum, E. P., 1955. Trophic structure and productivity of a windward coral reef community on Eniwetok Atoll. Ecol. Mon. 25: 291-319. Raleigh, Lord, 1942. The ultimate shape of pebbles, natural and artificial. Royal Soc. London Proc., ser. A, 181: 107-118. Russell, R. J., 1962. Origin of beach rock. Zeitschr. f. Geomorphol. 3: 227-236. wee nnn nne- » 1963. Beach rocki* “Jour / Prop. Geogrs 27's 2h-27. Sachet, M.-H., 1955. Pumice and other extraneous volcanic materials on coral atolls. Atoll Research Bull. 37: 1-27. Sargent, M. C., and Austin, T. S., 1949. Organic productivity of an atoll. Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 30: 245-2h9. Schlanger, S. O., and Brookhart, J. W., 1955. Geology and water resources of Falalop Island, Ulithi Atoll. Am. Jour. Sci. 253: 993-573. Shapiro, Leonard, and Brannock, W. W., 1962. Rapid analysis of silicate rocks. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1144-A: 56 p. Sollas, W. J., and others, 1904. The Atoll of Funafuti. Royal Soc. London, Rept. of the Coral Reef Comm., London, 428 p. Stensland, C. H., and others, 1949. Soils of Okinawa: Map 1:50,000, sheet 7 of 11, 64th Engineer Battalion, base topographic, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Far Eastern Command. Stevenson, I. L., 1953. Microbiological examination of soils of Arno AtO11. Boll. Sel. 7525) 225-233, » 7 « Stoddart," DIR. 1960. The reefs and sand cays of British Honduras: in, The Cambridge Expedition to British Honduras 1959-60, General Report, p. 16-33. eee ee seen 1962a. Physiographic studies on the British Honduras reefs and cays. Geogr. Jour. 128: 161-171. Pel eee ween nee 1962b. Three Caribbean atolls. Atoll Research Bull. 37: weeeen---- , 1963. Effects of Hurricane Hattie on the British Honduras reefs and cays, October 30-31, 1961. Atoll Research Bull. 95: 1-142 ° wee eenn-- 1964. Storm conditions and vegetation in equilibrium of reef islands. IXth Conf. on Coastal Engineering paper 5.7: 1-4. Stoddart, D. R., and Cann, J. R., 1965. Nature and origin of beach rock. Jour. Sed. Petrology 35: 243-247. Stone, E. L., Jr., 195la. The soils of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bull. 5: 1-56. were en enee 1951b. The agriculture of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bull. 6: 1-46. weer nn--- 1953. Summary of information of atoll soils. Atoll Research Bull. DD 1-6, Tercinier, G., 1955. Rapport d'une mission aux Etablissements frangais de 1'Océanie. Fascicule I. Etude des sols--leurs propriétés et vocations. Inst. francais d'Océanie, Nouméa, 1-129. Thorp, E. M., 1936. The sediments of the Pearl and Hermes Reef. Jour. Sed. Petrology 6: 109-118. Gragey, Pio. Sra, AUDCEE, Doh, and Arnow, T., 1961. Natural -history of Ifaluk Atoll: Physical environment. B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 2222) 1-755 PrAcey advil es, Jt, Ladd. He Susvand Hofimeister, J. E., 1948. Reefs of Bikini, Marshall Islands. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 59: 861-2738. Trask, P. D., 1932. Origin and environment of source sediments of petroleum. Am. Petroleum Inst., Houston, Tex., Gulf Publishing Come 32 30% Vaughan, T. W., 1917. Chemical and organic deposits of the sea. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 28: 933-944. Wentworth, C. K., 1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. Jour. Geology 37: 507-522. hes Wentworth, C. K., 1931. The mechanical composition of sediments in graphic form. Univ. Iowa Studies in Natural History 14 (3): 1-127. Wentworth, C. K., and Ladd, H. S., 1931. Pacific Island sediments. Univ. Iowa Studies in Natural History 13 (2): 1-47. Wharton, W. J. L., 1883. Mangrove as a destructive agent. Nature 29: 76-77. L=—. T-11. T-12. T1355 APPENDIX I Data for beuch sand samples collected b: Charles G. Johnson and I. Stearns Macileil 1. Samples collectedc by Charles G. Johnson Taongi (Pokak) Atoll (fig. 5) Sand from small pit in reef 25 feet south of pzssage, on lisoou side, Pit about 3 inches deep, send on jbottom about 3 inches deep. Reach sand from ibout mean tide level on the 1:goon side neuer the middle of Sibylla islet. Beach sand from the windword side and south of the middle of Sibylls islet. Sample was tiken well above high-tide level. Beach sind from sbove high-tide level on the windward side and north end of Sibylla islet. Beach sand from the east end of the pass at the north end of Sityllsa islet. Beach sand from the windward side and north end of Ewdije (Breje) islet. Beach sand from the legoon side and north end cf Bwdije (Brej:) islet. Beach sand from the windward side and south end of Kamvome islet. Sample from ibove high-tide level. Beach sand from ligoon side und south end of Kamwome islet. a Beach sand from the head of 1 small reentrant on the lagoon side of Kamwome islet. of 2 small reentrant Beach sand at the mouth of the north side This reentranc is the scme on the lagoon side of Kamwome islet. agpithathof, T+12. Beach sand from the l:igoon side ind north end of Kamwome islet. Beach sand from the windward side and north end of Kamwome isiet. Reach sand from the windward side of North islet. Beach sand from the lagoon side of North islet. T-23. T-24. e321. Leach islet. Beach Beach Beac! island = ea sand from the windward side and near the middle of Kamwome sand from the lagoon side on south end of Sibylla islet. sand from the seaward side on south end of Sibylle islet. the lagoon side and south end of an unnamed Pokak islet. sand from north of Sand from the middle of a channel halfway between en unnamed island and Pokak islet, Beach islet. Beach Pokak Fine s islet. Sand from = pit in 2 atoll: of sand from the lagoon side and near the north end of Pokal sand from the seaward side and near the south end of islet. sand from the seawerd side and near the middle of Pokak end from the lagoon :bout 10C feet offshore of Pokak smill ligoonsl reef on the windward side Triangulation Station No. 5 is located on this reef, This sample was taken ty one of the boatmen. Sand from 2 pit end of atoll. angula Beack from the seaward side and northeast end of Btokwla seaward side and southwest end of TIwokwle from the leeward side and south Tri- in 2 small reef on This sample smelled of bydrogen sulfide. tion Station No. 12 is loczted on this reef. sand from the windwerd side and neozr the middle of Sibylla islet. Sand from 3 small pit in a and north on this reef. Sand from 2 smell pit in < ward reef in the northern part of atoll. Bor Yugoonal reef on the windward side end of atoll. Triangulation Station No. 9 is located lugoon reef on the edge of the wind-~ Triangulation Station located on this reef. is B-15 B-16 og TBS Bikar Atoll (fig. 6) Sand boar it Survey Station No. 4, northeast pirt of lagoon. Sand at north end, east side of Bikar islet. Sand at middle of east side of Bikar islet. | Sand at south end, east side of Likar islet. Sand at south end, west side of Bikar islet. Sand at middle of west side of Bikar islet. Sand at north end, west side, Biker islet. Sand from leeward reef on north side of passage into lagoon. Sand ber on northwest corner of «toll. Sand from lagoon side of Almani (Alemeni) islet. Sand from windward (southeast) side of /lmani (Alemeni) islet. Sand tar on lagoon side south of Jabwelo (Jalliklik) islet, Sand from hole in Lored platform, windward side, north of Jabwelo (Jalliklik) islet. Sand from north end, windword side, Jabwelo (Jalliklik) islet. Sand from reef side of Jaboero islet. Numter - 76 - ’ 2. Samples collected by F. Stearns MacNeil Locality (figs. 7-15) Lagoon beach of elongate western extension of Utirik islet, Utirik Atoll. Tid- Sample 3 Sand horn at north Isgoon corner of Utirik islet. 4toli position: Islet at southeastern corner of atoll. Sample from atout halfway out on long low horn exposed only at low tide. Horn about 1 mile from windward (E) end of island. Sample from 150 to 200 feet out on horn. Horn oriented rbout W by N. Other deta: The present hcrn is more elongtte and located more in line with the pcesssge becch than wit the more prominently bent horn on tle 1944 phetos whic! is oriented with the legoon beach, curving lagoonward towards the end. Character: Size (mesk) Percent 3 30) A 4) coarse 9 15) os 15) medium F AU 2 35) less then EE i! fine The larger fragments, mainly corels, algae and mollusca are moderately to well worn. The medium-sized particles, about 60 percent forams and 40 pereent other, are worn:to anguler,: cre spiny Foraminifera with spines mostly broken off but discs not worn, and the orbitoids and small mollusk shells not perceptibly worn. Te fine fragments zre mostly sharp and angulzr, consisting of fragments of Foraminifera, corals, zlgue, etc,., with some calcareous spicules. Remarks: PresumeLly the fines sre winnowed out rapidly here, and car- ried into the lzgoon. At te seme time there is a larger amount of coarse- to gravel-sized material accumulating. Sample 4 High on beach at north tip of Utirik islet. £toll position: Islet at southeastern corner of atoll. Sample from highest part of beach at extreme north corner. Located about 1 mile from seaward (2) end of island. piled =t top of beach to a depth of about ayer of medium fine to fine sand of undeter- scattered medium to coarse fragments in fine sand. 2 - $l ~ Chiracter: Size (mesh) Percent surface layer - 211 more than 3 substratum: 4, Trace Oy Trace Yee Trace 55 20 less than 35 30 Material of surface layer consists mainly of worn coral fragments es much as 1 1/2 inches in longest dimension with «= few pieces of coral- line algae end mollusk stells. Materizl of substratum consists mainly of zngular fragments of corals, algae, Foraminifer:, ond mollusks with occasionel whole speci- mens of smaller Foraminiferc, emuryonic g.ustropods and calcareous spicules. Remarks: The nearly complete absence of intermediate-sized particles suggests entirely different causes for the deposition of the two layers. The lower fine zone is similar to fine material in the tidel swirl nearby, althoueh which was derived from the other is difficult to say. The co2rse upper sone is probally a 1 high wave cast zone, probably with the fines winnowed out ind pert:aps ‘settling out. Sample 5 Beach sand near northwest corner of Taka islet on inter-island pcessage side. Atoll position: Islet at southeast ue of, 2toLk, . Reet ca. north of islet trends N-S, and to south of islet trends about NE-SW. Beach where sample was taken is between 0.2 end O. 5 mile from seaward edge and faces about due north or Il. by E. Other Data: A great many echinoid tests were strewn along the beach. Character: Size (mesh) ~ Percent 3 Trace 4, . G.5) coarse 3 Bred ct 35) wise bireies 35 55) . ; less than 35 LS fine Hanser fragments moderately worn with < few fresh angular fragments, ind few fresh mollusk shells, consisting of frpments of corals, algae, echinaide. mollusks snd some orbitoids. iledium-sized perticles more angular, contcsins :zbout 40 percent spined forams with spines mostly broken off but discs not worn, and cbout 60 percent coral, algal, ~i 89. mollusk, 2nd other fraements and numerous fresh orbitoids and small esstropod shells. Fine particles anguler or with only one side rounded, indicating bresking from lsrger rounded particles--consisting of fragments of coril, cslgae, mollusk shells, Foraminifera, etc. Sample o 1 Seawerd windward beach, Ailuk islet. Atoll position: Islet loc.ted at soutlieast corner of atoll. Sample from seaward beach .t aLout center of eistward-facing stretch. Windward reef trends approximately N-S. South-facing reef trends nearly E-!). Beach 100 yards from reef edge. Other data: The send forms crescent-shaped teaches between projections of beach rock 2nd reisecd reef rock. The materials ere washed directly toward the Lecch from the reef flat and merginal zone, much of it being moved across the reef from one minor irresulcrity or depression to the next and finally to the beach. Character: Size Gaesk) Percent 3 20) fy 6) course 9) 50) 14 20) é es medium 35 3) less than 35 1 fine Most materials fresh, angular and unworn, xlthough occasional pieces are well rounded. Coarser sizes made up of corals, algze, mollusks, echinoid spines and plates cand orbLitoids with <« small percentage of crustacean fr2zgments. Medium-sized material more than half spiny forams and orbkitoids, the remainder algze and other fragments. Only occasional coral fragments are present. [Tine materiz] consisting of fragments of algae, corzls (7), Foreminiferz, crlc2zreous spicules and numerous trans- p2=rent fibers not seen in more worn sands. Remarks: All of this material is very little worn and close to its source. Most coral fragments are lzerge, very little having been broken down. The fine material consists of a tigh percentage of originally small orgenisms or small structures of organisms. Many of the gastropods have well-preserved protoconchs. = eo Sampie 7 Seawcrd beach 2¢ west corner of peninsula off northeastern side of Emejiwan islet, Likiep. Atoll position: Innermost of two islets located on lagoonless pro- jection of reef xt northwest end of toll. Samples from seaward (wind- ward) beach 2¢ end of wedge-shaped peninsuls and situ aueed Lehind a tract of raised reef. Beach faces nearly north and is about 150 yards from reef edge. Other datz: The berch is worked. by waves only 2t high high tides and during storms. Ordinary tides do not cover the raised reef platform. Character: Size (mesh) Percent 3 0) ee Tr) cozrse 9 25) i 23) medium 35 50) ich less than oy5) 2 fine Larger sizes consist of moderstely *o well-worn fragments of ccleareous algae, ah sti hydrocorellines, echinoics ond mollusks. Medium-sized. particles Tietude worn pieces of coralline ~lgce and less worn segments of Halimed:, together, with less worn to fresh orbitoids, spiny and other Foraminifera end small mollusks. There is take place at the same rate as the larger sizes is difficult to say. At any rete, there does not «ppesr to be any indication of breakage on larger fragments, <11 of which are well worn. The most likely explana- ion is that the fines were washed up on the lagoon beach from the agoon 2s angular fr2igments. Sample 25 Sand from irregularities on raised rock plitform on seaward side of Maronlik islet, Ujelang. Atoll position: Islet located on windward (northeast-fucing) reef on eastern third of ctoll. Other datz: Sample from one of many sind-filled irregularities on rock platform extending seaward from islet. The spot is located zbout 1006 feet from the seaw.rd tip of the islet ind about 7CC feet from the outer reef m rgin. Character: Size (mesh) Percent 3 2.5) 4 OMA ) co:rss ) Sly) M4 25 ) medium 35 25°) . ess thin 55 De fine The coarser miterinls are mainly fragments of corals snd coralline slgie (Porolithon) with occasion.l echinoid spines, mollusk or Nalimed: segments. The fragments ire moderstely worn, but many are darkened by 2 surface growth of slg-e, showing - minimum of ective wear. Smll colonies of Homotrem2 are ittached to the fragments. The medium sizes sre mide up of similar materials, less worn, for the most prt, thin tle coarse miteriil, and contains in :ddition .bout 50 percent little worn to fresh C.lcirina and Ampbistegin. with 1 scattering of smill Marginopor:. The spines on most of the C.learina are unbroken. The fines are composed of mostly sngul.ir frcogments of the stove and in :ddi- tion there sre i few smill forsms (miliolids :nd cymbzloporids) and calcareous spicules. Remarks: The sind and gravel in the pockets on the raised platform is litcle more than wetted at high tide, only occasional waves welling on to the pl.itform nd sending little strezms 2long its nuitural irregu- isrities., Ttese find the minor depressions ind fill or partly fill them, ind the water eventually disippears within the porosity of the rocks. There is, therefore, very little szbrasion of miteriils in the pockets, ind they ire agitated 2nd moved beichward only during rough weather or storms when waves sweep entirely |2cross the platform. This probably sccounts for the freshness of the Foreminiferz and the algal coits on some of the other fragments. = G5 2 The February 1945 photos show a broad sand beach around the sea- ward end oi this island and an elongate sand spur extending seavard along the center of the raised flat. In 1952 the sand spur had largely disappeared, only occasional pocket rillings remaining, and sand was absent from the seaward tip of the island. A medium-textured boulder beach was partially exposed. Sample 26 Beach along west side of Maronlik islet, Ujelang. Atoll position: Same as sample 25. Other data: Sample from beach facing reef along west side of island. The broad seaward beach and the elongate spur extending seaward from it along the center of the raised rock flat, shown on the 1945 photos, appears to have been redistributed along the sides of the island. There is some indication, particularly from the sharpness of the lagoon beaches and the spurs extending seaward on the 1945 photos, that a storm rior to 1945 steepened the lagoon beaches, and moved island beach sands seawards, producing the seaward-pointing spurs. A subsequent storm removed the spurs and moved materials seaward again along the sides of the island. Bars at the lagoon corners extending along the reef, or possibly deflected a little seawards, were deflected strongly lagoon- wards and distributed more thinly across the lagoon beach. Character: -' Size (mesh) Percent 5 20) h 5) coarse 9 1) = an medium less than 615) ee. fine The coarse material consists of fresh to moderately worn pieces of coral, coralline algae (Porolithon), echinoid spines, and both whole and fragmented shells of mollusks, Marginopora, and Halimeda segments. Homotrema encrusts some of the algal fragments. The medium-textured material contains, in addition, about 60 percent moderately fresh Calcarina and a few Amphistegina. Although the Calearina show little sign of disc wear, most specimens have the spines broken off. The fines contain numerous small forams (miliolids), fine echinoid spine fragments, and an abundance of calcareous spicules. Remarks: For the most part the materials here are cleaner and look less worn than the material in the pockets on the rock flat to the seaward. However, the Calcarina in the sample from the rock flat have better preserved spines than the beach specimens. - 100 - Sample 28 Rock platform at north seaward corner of Taka islet, Taka Atoll. Atoll position: Islet at southeast corner of atoll. Sample from pocket or gravel lodged behind a strip of abandoned beach rock. Character: Size (mesh) Percent 3 4O)_ 4 30) coarse 9 20) 14 5) , 3 5 5) medium less than 35 ies fine Coarse material consists of moderately fresh fragments of coral, coral- line algae (Porolithon), echinoids, mollusks, and Marginopora, and Halimeda segments. There is some darkening, probably due to algae growing on the surface. The medium sizes contain similar fragments and in addition there is 10 percent Calcarina and Amphistegina ranging from slightly worn to well preserved. There is some darkening due to algae on most particles, even the completely spined Calcarina. The fines contain rragments of the same materials plus a scattering of minute Foraminifera (miliolids and cymbaloporids) and calcareous spines. APPENDIX II Field descriptions of soil profiles or sedimentary sections Because of a general dearth of descriptive data on atoll soils it seems desirable to record all information on the material reported in this paper just as it was written down in the field, in the form of descriptions of profiles or partial profiles. These do not correspond exactly, in certain respects, to ordinary soil profiles, as the layering is as much due to depositional phenomena, in other words, stratification, as to soil horizon development. The profiles might equally well be called sedimentary sections. However, there is in all cases some evidence of horizon development. In the Shioya and Arno | Atoll series, layer 1 corresponds to an Aj horizon and the lower layers to a C horizon. In the Jemo series, layer 1 is an A, horizon, layer 2, a B horizon, and the lower layers, a C horizon. Color determinations were made under field conditions, ordinarily on somewhat moist samples, in most cases (except on Taongi (Pokak) and Bikar Atolls) by direct comparison with a Munsell color chart, Infor- mation on structure is only given if it is not the loose single-grain structure normally observed in these soils. Consistence, likewise, is not commonly mentioned, as it seems to lack significance in most of these sandy soils. 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(a) by ebmmbaeds sule: Senieeatt el ema ESS IO ya na sod as.) ee ah caer dee ve et cantor heres eum mm Ee | | : : ; . { APPENDIX III Synonymy of place names Since many of the place names used in this paper, in accordance with decisions issued by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names, differ from those used by Fosberg and others (1956) and especially from those com- monly used by people in the Marshall Islands, the following lists have been prepared. The left-hand list contains all names used on maps in the present paper and are approved by the Board on Geographic Names. The center list is of the corresponding names used in 1956. The right- hand list is somewhat modified from a list supplied by E. H. Bryan, Jr., of names obtained from Marshallese informants. on @ single line apply to the same islet or other feature. In all cases the names Where several spellings were listed by Bryan one has been selected and the others placed in parentheses. Names used in this paper — Taongi Atoll North Island Kamwome Bwdi je Sibylla Pokak Bwokwla Pokak Pass Bikar Atoll Jabwelo Almani Jaboero Bikar Bikar Passage Ailuk Atoll Kapen Eni jabro Amwo Ene jelar Jeloklap Enenpao Bikonmenlok Enekelik Bigen Names used in Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls, 1956 Taongi Atoll North Kamome Bree Sibylla Pokak Bokla Pokak Pass Bikar Atoll Jaboerukku-to Arumeni-to Jaboerukku-to (changed in Errata to Jaboero-to) Bikar Bikar Pass Ailuk Atoll Kapen Enijabrok Amo Ene jelar Jeloklap Enenpao Bikommenlok (2 small islets) Enekelik Bigen Blanks indicate that there is no name in the particular list for the feature indicated on the line. Names used by Marshallese Pokak Bre je Pokak Bokdik Bokla Bikar Jalliklik (Jenilklik) Almeni Jaboero Bikar -——— Ailuk Kapen Eni jabrok Amo Ene jelar Jeloklap Enenpao Bikonmenlok Enekelik Bikon = 148 - Names used in Names used in Military Names used by this paper Geography of the Marshallese Northern Marshalls, 1956 Ailuk Atoll (continued Bwine jrak Bine jrak Bine jrak Eneneman Enemen Enenemman Anenoomwy Enen-om Enen-om --- --- Ajatak Ajeleb Ajeleb Ajillep Ajiddik Ajirrik Ajirrik Anearmi j Enearmi j Enearmi j Anekinge Enenkone Enenkone Abta Ebta Ebta Jabta Jebta Jebta Kabbwok Kabbok Kabbok Mvalok Malok Malok Aliet Aliej Aliej Allirik Allirok Allirok Bwokwanmwvioken Bokanmveokan Bokanmweokan Jerongkan Jirongkan Jirongkan Aneanij Mutokin Mutokin Ane jamwaden Ene jomaren Ene jomaren Bao jan Bao jen Baojen Luu jrik Lujirok Lujirok Bokrak Bokrak Bokrak Biklab Boklap Boklap Anine Enine Enine Bio Bieo Bieo Berer jan Berer jan Bwerorkan Ni Ni Ni Tabu Tabu Tabu Konnon Konwon Konwon Jobeik Jabeik Jebeik Nge Ne Nge Anenkora Enenkora Enenkora Ulika Ulika Ulika Jibanngit --- Jabanngit Maribw Maruppu-to Marib Marme Marme Marme Anenkinge Enenkonge Enenkonge Aneaudik Eneaurik Eneaurik Miemvwa Mienwa Mienwa Ene2o Eneao Eneao Anemvanmwan Enemonmong Enemonmong Jabwe Jabbwi Jabbwi Anenlik Enellik Enellik Ailuk Ailuk Ailuk Enije Enije Eneje Enije Channel Enije Channel Toweje Agulwe Agulue Akulwe Erappu Chennel Erappu-suido Tolap Marok Channel Marok Channel Ton Maluk Eneneman Channel Eneneman Channel Ton Eneman 3 Nemes used in Names used in Military Names used by this paper Geography of the Marshallese Northern Marshalls, 1956 Kwajalein Atoll Kwajalein Atoll Kwajlen Ebadon Ebadon Ebaten Bokan Bokan Bokan Aoj Aoj Aoj --- --~ Enenak (Elenak) Enealo Eneao Eneao (Enealo) Bikrik Bikrik Bikrik Nennar Nennar Nennar “<= --- Tabta Jein Jein Jein Me jatto Me jatto Me jetto Oreba Oreba Keko Bokliplip Bokliplip Bokliplip Geiga Geiga Ene jebro Marsugalt Marsugalt Malik (Boklap) Bok Bok Bok Maj Maj Maj (Mai) Biggerann Biggerann Arbwa Elcharai Etcharai Ejjela (Ejje114) Morenkul Morenkul Morenkul (Mdr6nkul) Oniotto Oniotto Onwot (Wonwdt ) Biggarenn Biggarenn Bikram (Bekram) Bigi Bigi Bikren Bokkumaruchi Boknaruj Bokmaruj Boggerik Passage Boggerik Pass as Boggerik Boggerik Errob (Errop) Boggerlap Boggerlap Boklab_(Boklap) Mellu Pass Mellu Pass Milu /pass/ Drenaenae Drenaenae Drenaenae (sand bank inside pass) Mellu Mellu Milu North Pass ' North Pass --- Ennuebing Ennuebing Enibing (Enebin) Roi Roi Ruot Namur Nemur Nimur Ennugarret Ennugarret Enekoran (Enek6ren) ae Sas Bokanlabirka Ennumennet Ennumennet Enemanet mate --- Bikenwot Ennubirr Ennubirr Enebon Bogeri Boker Boker a aw --- Bokabelbel Obella Obella Obel (Wobel) Begeraburappu ic vie Edgigen Edgigen Ajkan Debuu Debuu ° Tubwuj Nemes used in this paper - 150 - Names used in Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls, 1956 Kwajalein Atoll (continued Ed jell Gagen Gellinam Omeliek Kwadack Eniwetak Meck Bigej Bigej Channel Ningi Gugegwe Ebwaj Loi Lojjairok Ebeye Ebjapik Worbab Kwajalein Enubuj South Pass Ennylabegan Gea Gea Pass Ninni Gehh Torrut; Menn Jokou; South Ambo Channel Edjell Gagen Gellinam Omelek Kwadack Eniwetak Meck Bigej Bigej Channel Ningi Nonge jokenen Eowaj —_— Loi Lojjairok Ebeye Ebjapik Worbab Kwajalein Enubuj South Pass Ennylabegan Gea Gea (Kio) Channel Ninni Gehh Torrut j Tongle Tarwoj Mann South Anibo Channel a Names used by Marshallese Ejel Kowakkan Tahemujokan (Tokamujken ) Kirenen Komle Kwateb (Kuatab) Eniwetak Meik Bike j Bikej / pass/ Ngenge Nonge jOkenen Ebwaj (Ebwoj) (3 islets above form Gugeewe ) Bi jinkur Loj jaiong (Guieueeconiy) Lojjairok CS ion) Ebeye (Ebeje, Ebe ja) Ebjapik (Ebja drik) Viorbab Kwa jlen Jittaken (N arm) Jittoen (SW curve) Enebuo j (Enibud j) Enelapkan Kio (Kiio) Kio (Kiio) fk pass / Nini Ka Bok Tongle (Tengle) Tarwo j . (Tarwojion, Tarwo jirdk ) Man Jokouj (Jokouij) - 151 - Names used in Names used in Military Names used by this paper Geography of the Marshallese Northern Marshalls, 1956 Kwajalein Atoll (continued) : Ur Gye; (Ole eT het Legan Ambo Channel Eller Legan Ambo Channel Bller Amboirok and Amboidng (2 islets joined) Ellep (Alep) Eller Passage Eller Pass --- Ennugenliggelap Ennugenliggelap Enekanliklal (Enekanliklol ) Burle Burle Murle Onemak East Passage East Onemak Pass --- Labo Labo Labo Onemak Onemak Onmak Onemak West Passage West Onemak Pass ~-- Illeginni ~ | Shee iniad Likijjine (Likijina) Wojejairok Ujajiirukku-to6 Wo jejairok (Wojejarirok) Wojejairok Pass Ujajiirukku Pass --- Wojejaiong Wojejaiong Wo je jaiong Jiee --- Ja ae are Rebweiu (Drebwin) --- --- Jerak Nell Nell Mel (N61) Nell Passage Nell Pass --~ Bikennel Bikennel Bikennel Ennumet Ennumet Enmat —a- Sie Bokalum (Bokaliom) —-- ee Enero (Enuero) Jakeru Jakeru Ene jore Gurer Gurer Jakrout Eru Eru Ero Gegibu Gegibu Kuror Boggenat jen Kijin-bwi Kijin-bwi Ere Ele Ele Bokanauj jor Boggenat jen Bokanaujjor Lobon Ere Lobon (Lobwom) Yabbenohr Yabbenohr Jabonwor ( Japonw6r ) Tabik Channel Tabik Channel =i Tabik Tabik Jabok Lae Atoll Lae Atoll Lae Ribong Ribong Ribon (Ribin) Nabon Nabon Nabon Bigilapi j Bigilapij Bikelabet (Bikelabot ) Bui Bui Bwi (Bwe) Leip Reipu Lep (Leep) Bigenaj Bikenaj Bikenaj - 152 - Names used in Names used in. Military... Names used by this paper Geography of the ee Ne Marshallese . Northern Marshalls, 1996 Lae Atoll (continued) Lwe jap (Loe jap): Luisap Luisap Enemanit Enemanet Ene jelto (Enijeldu, Ene jaltou) Ene jalto Enejelto Enemanet: Eonbi ji Eonbe je Honbe je Nokkweie Nokkweie Nokkweie Gibinrii Gibinrii-to Enen-bao 1 Enemanman Enenannan Enemanman (Enemonm6n ) Lee Lae Lae ; Rarime Rarime Rama, Drame Bokanaetok Bokanaetok Bokanaetok (Bokanatok ) Bokankiren Bokankiren Bokankiren Boklimairek Boklimairik Boklimairik Boklulu Boklulu Boklulu Lot j Lot j Loj Lae Pass Lae Pass --- Likiep Atoll Likiep Atoll Likiep Mwaat Mat Mat Jenokae Senegai Senegai Malle Melle Melle Eme jiwan Rikuraru-t6 Emi jwa Rere Rere Rere ae Pokon jieij Pokonjieij Pokonjieij Aej Aij Aij ; Kekeron Kekeron Kekeron Kidenkan Kerenegan --- Anenaan Eninon Eninon Ene jelol Ene jelol Ene jelol Ane jae j Ene jeij Ene jeij Kaben Kaben Kaben Anenemmvaan Eneneman Eneneman Enruk Enruk Enruk Mek Mak Mak Jeltonet Jeltonet Jeltoniej Bikinming jaiing Bikirkir jeiong Bikirkir jeidng Bikinmingjairik Bikirkir jeirok Bikirkirjeirdk Boguraburabu Boguraburabu Boklaplap Anerukkan jaiing Enerukanjeidong Enerukon jeiong Anerukkan jairik Enerukan jeirok Enerukon jeirok Kijjen Koj jen Kojjen Tamwol Tamol Tamol Kabwolbwolkan Kabelbelkan Kabelbelkan Didi Riri Riri Bwokwankowak Bokankowak Bokankowak Najbwol Najbol Najbol Eniiecchi Eniiecchi Eniej Killommwar Melemmer Melemmar Names used in this paper Likiep Atoll Meron Jibal Kile Anekira Anearme j Biebe Mwikil Lado Likiep Nalab Nadik Anenanuun Aneloklab Biketokeak Biketolong Atotak Agony South Pass Entrance Island - 153° - Names used in Military Geography of the. Northern Marshalls, 1956 continued Meron Jebal Kole Enekura Enearmi j Biebe Mukil Lado Likiep Nalap Narik Enenuen Enenloklab Biketokak Biketolon Atolak Agony South Pass Entrance Island (inside pass) Etoile Etoile Lukunor Lukunor Anal Anel Tokaen Tokaen Matten Matten Kapenor Kapenor Bokelan Bokelan Rongelab Rongelap Northwest Passage Northwest Pass Rongerik Rongerik Taka Atoll Taka Atoll Waatwerik Watourikku-t6 Lojrong Logiron Taka Taka Eluk Eluk Bwokwen Boken Taka Passage Taka Pass Ujae Atoll Ujae Atoll Enylamieg Enylamieg Biginnigar Biginnigar Erlie Erlie Names used by Marshallese. Melang Jebal Kole Enekura Enearmi j Biebe Mukil Aujare j Lato Likiep Nalap Narik Eneruen Enenloklap Biketokak Biketolon Atolak Aekone o— = Eotole Lukonwor Anel Tokaen Matten Kabinwor (Kabinwod) Boklang Ronglap Rongrik Taka Bok (coral patch) Elluk (Allok) Lojiron Toke Watwerok (Waitwerok, Wotwerok ) Bokeny) Poker /pass/ bse. JOjakikikan /pass/ Ujae Enelamo j Bikenkar (Bok6nkar ) Alle (Arie) - 154 - Names used in Names used in Military Names used by this paper Geography of the Marshallese Northern Marshalls, 1956 Ujae Atoll (continued Bikku-t6o Bokarik (Bok) Bik Bik (Bok) Ebbetyu Ebbetyu Ebeju (Ebaju) = ae Letko (reef to west) Anuij Anuij Anuij (Anus) Rua Rua Rudt Wotya Wotya Wojia (W6jjak) Langeba Langeba. Longba (Langba) Naenlap Naenlap Naenlap Ujae Ujae Ujae Bokerok Bokerok Bokerok (Bd6karok ) Bock Channel Bock Channel Bok /pass/ Bock ‘Bock Bok ime --- Latarbon (reef patch inside channel) Nanmera Nanmera Nanmera Bokankiru Bokankiru Bokankiru Todrik Pass Todrik Pass Todrik (To Rik) Tolap Pass Tolap Pass Tolap Tonjure Pass Tonjure Pass Tonjure Ujelang Atoll Ujelang Atoll Ujelang Pyokon Pyokon Bikom a os es Bok (sand. spit) Boggelininlapp Boggelininlapp Bokonenellap Seroko Seroko Jerko Pokon Pokon Bokan (Bokanjuakak ) Bokanibop Bokanibop Bokanibwiebiong Bokanibwiebirok Bokanibwiebirok - Bokanibwiebirok Kilagen Kilagen Kiloken --- --- Bokan joio Bokankeme j Bokankeme j Bokankeme j Bokanalap Bokanalap Bokanalap Maronlik Maronlik ' Madromedik Maron Maron Madron Enetobal Morina Enetobal Daisu Daisu Raej Bokanwor Bokanwor Bokan wor Ujelang Ujelang Ujelang --- -<- Enekonge Eneraj Eneraj Eneraj Burle Burle ‘ Bieto Narrow Pass Narrow Pass “—— Nelle Ronm Nelle Wide Pass Wide Pass qin Einmlapp Einmlapp Enellap (Einmlapp) Names used in this paper Names used in Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls, 1956 Ujelang Atoll (continued) “aor a Ennimenetto Kiriniyan Kalo Utirik Atoll Pigi Allok Pigowak Nalab Utirik Addibkwan (penin- sula) Aneareme j Bwokwarme j Menetoon Aon Utirik Passage Wotho Atoll Medyeron Worrbar Mokeromok Enerikan Wotho Boker Boklabunlik Bokanaetok Lo jan Jebenau Udit; Ennimenetto Kiriniyan Kalo Uterik Atoll Pi je Elluk Pigowak Nalep Uterik Adropkan Eneormi j Bokarmi j Ajanen Aon Uterik Pass Wotho Atoll _Medyeron Worrbar Mokeromok Enerikan Wotho Boker Boklabunlik Bokanaetok Lojan Jebenau Edit; Names used by Marshallese Enimoni (Enemanet ) Kiriniyan (Kirenen) Kalo Wutrok Emijwa (sand bank) Bike Elluk (Allok) Bekrak (Bekrdk) Nalap Naja Wutrok Adropkan " /peninsula/ Eneormi j Bokarmi j Ajanen Aon (Awan) Kobbar Rereti Likkirukan Korikrikloken Bukilaen Borankwet (the 4 above are small patches on the W reef) Wotto Me jurwon (Ma jurwon ) Enebarbar Eneobnak Enerikan Wotto Jitninean (N part of Wotto) Jitrokean (S penin- sula of Wotto) Boker Boklabunlik (Enedrik Kan) Bokanaetok (Bok6naetok ) Lo jwa Jibnao (Jibnau) Utiej (Wutiej) Names used in this paper - 156 - Names used in Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls, 1956 Names used by Marshallese Wotho Atoll (continued) Erot jeman Yeldo Kabben Birek Ombelim Channel Ombelin Begin Channel Begin Medyeron Channel Erot jewan Yeldo Kabben Birek Ombelim Channel Ombelim Begin Channel Begin Medyeron Channel . Iroijeman Ene jelto Kaben Bneairik (Eneaidrik) Ombelim J (Anbwilen) /pass/ Ombelim iy ( Anbwilen) Biken (Bikien) Loase/ Biken (Bikien) Me jurwon (Majurwon) /pass/ Nos. 114, 115, 116, 117 March 31, 1966 JS Ob. 73 Ael P/| 2I7 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN 114. Northern Marshall Islands land biota: Birds by F. R. Fosberg 115. Marine benthic algae from the Leeward Hawaiian Group by Roy T. Tsuda 116. Reef studies at Addu Atoll, Maldive Islands edited by David R. Stoddart 117. Atoll News and Comment Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S.A. b mY i J ' i a: ¥ i * r ) . Pi HY) » \ rh a ‘

. Padde oryaivora 8. Pluvialis dominica Pokak Atoll Pokak Atoll is even more aria than Wuke and has somewhat the same aspect, but with Jower'trees and far fewer species. Rats and lizards are common, but because the island has never been inhabited and presents landing Gifficulties, it is one of the finest sea bird rookeries in the central Pacific. When a ship whistle was sounded off Kamome Islev in 1951, the sky was literally blackened above the islet by the birds that flew up. These were probably mostly Sooty Terns, but many other species were also present. The atoll was visited November 25, 1961 (examined only from ship); March 25, 1952 (examined only from ship): and July 20-27, ioe. Sine Weck sven e Gr Enissatoll in July 1052, “by-C.-Gy Jonnson and me, was probably the first scientific investigation to be made there. Birds observed were: 1. Diomedea nigripes 11. Arenaria interpres (offshore only di a eeu ES Pact els i Numenius* tahitiensis ———— 13.. Heteroscelus incanum — >. FPhacthion lepturus i) Sterna Junata 4. Phaethon rubricauds aU SNe Sterna fuscata 2. Sula dactylatra 16. Thalasseus bergii Oo. Sula leucogaster alii Procelsterna cerulea fe. SULa sulla 18. . Sula dactylatra le. Sterna lunata 4. Sula leucogaster 15. Sterna fuscata Sula sula . 14. Thalasseus bergii en Fregata_ minor ; ». Procelsterna cerulea 7. Pluvialis dominica 16. snous stolidus &. Arenaria interpres 17. Anous tenuirostris ¢. Numenius tahitiensis 18. Gygis alba Kwajalein Atoll This ic an enormous atoll, one of the largest in the world in total area. Its larger islets are among the most cotipletely altered of all islands in the Pacific. It was the scene of heavy fighting in World War II and has been useG as an American base ever since. Some of the smaller islets are still relatively uncisturbed, and have bcen remarkably little explored considering how close they are to a major stopping place of trans-Pacific planes. Some of them, as seen from the air, have good native forest, though most are planted to coconuts or covered by installations of one sort or another. One islet, Eniwetak, inside the lagoon rather than on the reef, is covered by magnificent Pisonia forest, perhaps the finest still to be found enywhere. Here are great numbers of birds. It is probable that this islet was reserved as a bird sanctuary in pre-European times, protected by taboos, and through some miracle, perhaps a lingering fear of the taboo, has remained in a virtually primitive condition. Q >- The, etoll wasyyisited 2 number of times but with littlc, eppertundt, for serious study; January 15.26, February 24 and Merch 15, 1Sve. February 2-12, 1950; and several briefer stops on other dates. Considerable numbers of birds persist on the atoll, and a few uf them have even accommodated themselves to the presence of men in grias numbers. Here, also, is the only naturalized exotic bird in the marskells, theomynahb;; Speciesseen: were: 1. Sula leucogaster O. Sterna sumatrana 2. Fregacta minor 10. Sterna fuscata 9. Demigretta sacra ll. Thalasseus bergii 4. Pluvialis dominica 12, tAnous: stolaidus >. Arenaria interpres 15. Anous tenuirostris 6. WNumenius phaeopus 14. Gygis alba (. Heteroscelus incanum 15. Acridotheres tristis 8. Limosa lapponica (7) Rongelap Atoll This is a large atoll, inhabited, but with conditions. so severe that it is about on the limit of habitability by a Self-contained culture, “Une Larce islets in the southern part, esc lly Rengeleas islet, aré largely planted to coconuts,» Those to the north are smalier ana aré still largely wooded or partly grassy, es or them having only a few coconuts, and many of these in poor condition or dead. Pisoni de wOres v) dis; Stidu nather. common, on these, telets.,, The, poor. conc ition of the vegetation of this atoll is described in ARB Cl: 1-11, 1959. The atoll was visited February 7-9, 15, 1556. Very few birds were seen, both in species; and actual numbers. -Those seen were: i. Gallus. gallus 5. Anous stolidus 2. Pluvialis dominica 6. Anous tenuirostris >. Arenaria interores (: « BYBLS, alba 4. WNumenius tahitiensis Rongeril evile Atoll A fair- sized atoll, elongate north and south, with the largest islet, Eniwetak, on the east reef, Rongerik has been shown to be just too severe an environment for present- ‘day Marshallese habitation. I’. has not been inhabited in historic times, except when the Bikini people s ~O- were moved there for a short time in 1946. This move was unsuccessful, end the people were soon removed. Pisonia and Cordia forests ure common, but there has been much disturbance oy construction crews in connection with weapons testing in Bikini and Eniwetok. In 1956, the Cordia forest, especially, showed severe dieback at the tips of the branchlets, 2 years cfter it hac been heavily sprinkled with radioactive fallout. There was very little opportunity to study this atoll, only a short visit to Enivetak Islet on February 11, 1956 (see ARB 61). The very few birds in evidence included the following: 1. Numenius tahitiensis >. Anous stolidus 2. Heteroscelus incanun 4. Gygis alba Ailinginae /.toll This is a rather small atoll, uninhabited, with one islet, Enibuk, largely planted to coconuts; the others are mostly wooded, several of them Aas sincll numbers of coconuts and some grassy land with scattered trees. There was doubtless an abundance of birds, but little opportunity was spbbesen to observe them. One short visit was mace to Sifo Islet on February 10, 19,6. Birds seen were: lL. Arenaria interpres he, Anous tenuirostris 2. Numenius tahitiensis 2. Gygis alba >. Anous stolidus Taka Atoll This is a small atoll, moderately dry, but able to support coconuts, which are planted on about one-third of the largest islet, Taka. The rest is covered by a scrub forest, in 1951 oppearing quite battered by a recent typhoon. The atoll is aninhabe4 ted; hence bircs are abundant, especially on the small brushy Wetwerok Telet, which is," in Pos more open parts, «= vast rookery of Sooty Terns. Lojiron is another small islet where there vere abundant birds, especially Gygis alba, nesting in a small grove of Pisonia trees. The atoll was visited December 5-9, 1951. Birds seen wei 1. Sula leucogaster 5. Anous stolidus 2. Arenaria interpres | 6, Anous tenuirostris ). Numenius tanitiensis {- Gygis alba 4. Sterna fuscata — eee = lif Utirik &£t011 This populated atoll has one principal islet and four smaller ones. The, larger islet, Utirik, is planted! to coconuts,-except for a long westward projection, which has been swept bare of vegetation and cven of soil by typhoons, and a strip on the northeast side which has an enormous boulder ridge and some scrub forest and meacdowlike open ground. Birds were not plentiful’on Utirik Islet, but more so on Haluk Islet, a small islet to the north, where the native scrub forest still exists. The atoll was visited November 23--December 4, 1951, end February 15, 1950. Not much time was spent in observation of birds on this atoll. Only the following were seen: 1. Phaethon lepturus oO. Numenius phaeopus 2. Cairina moschata 7. Wumenius tahitiensis 4.0 (Gad lws jgalibws 8. Heteroscelus incanum 4. Pluvialis cominica 9. Thalasseus bergii >. Arenaria interpres 10. Gygis alba Likiep Atoll This is a large atoll, almost completely planted to coconuts, and heavily populated. Our visits were December 11-18, 1951 and February 4 and 14, 1950. Little time was spent studying birds, which were not abundant on the islets visited. The species seen were: 1. Demigretta sacra 5. Anous stolidus 2, Gallus gallus 5. Gyeis alba 55 Pluvialis cominea (. Eucynemis taitensis 4, Arenaria interpres Jemo Island Jemo is a single small islet on a linear segment of reef. Although small, difficult to land on, and uninhabited, it has been mostly cleared and planted to coconuts. A strip of rather fine forest still remains along the south and west sides, part of it of huge Pisonia grandis trees. It was in this forest that the association between Pisonia trees, sea birds, and phosphate rock was first noticed, and a theory of atoll phosphate rock formation was first formulated. A part of the coconut plantation, that next to the Pisonia forest and growing on dark soil, is in luxuriant condition. This area was probably under Pisonia forest before clearing. The other half of the plantation was, in 1951, in poor condition indeed, with trees dying before they reached a great ay height. The soil here is pure coral sand. On the windward side of the islanc is a broad, noticeably winc-sheared fringe of Scauevola taccada. Birds were seen in some abuncance, especially in the Pisonia fe forest. What looked like two owl pellets were being chewed by hermit crabs. Our visit was December 13-22, 1951. The birds seen were: 1. Sula leucogaster ¥» Pluvialis dominica 2. Sula sula &. Anous stolidus 5. Fregata minor (. Anous tenuirostris +. Gullus gallus 8. Gygis alba Lae Atoll — ———— This is a medium-sized, fairly wet atoll, populated, and with the largest islets plantec to coconuts, but in 1951 some of the smaller islets were still covered at least partially by natural vegetation. Pisonia forest, Ochrosia | forest, and mixed forest were well developed. Lae was visited January 6-10, 1952. Birds were fairly common, in spite of the presence of humans, though nowhere abundant. The species seen were: 1. Demigretta sacra 6. Heteroscelus incanum 2. Gallus gallus {. Thalasseus bergii 3. Pluvialis dominica 8. Anous stolidus 4. Arenaria interpres 9. Anous tenuirostris 2. Numenius phaeopus 10.) Gyeis. alba Ujae Atoll Ujae is a fairly wet atoll, elongate east and west, and has many islets; some of them had considercble native vegetation left in 1952, partly replaced by coconut plantation. Mixed forest, Pisonia forest, and Ochrosia forest are all well represented here. According to the people here, they eat all birds that they can catch except the Reef Heron. One method of catching birds was observed. A fire was built at the base of a huge Pisonia tree in which were many nests of the White-cappea Noddy. This smouldered for a couple of days; then the tree crashed cown. Young but fully feathered noddies were thrown from their nests in large numbers. They could not yet fly and were partly stunned. Five or six dozen birds were gathered up, their wings chopped off, and they were cooked. The etoll was visited February 16-23 and March 2-13, 1952. The following birds were seen: 1. Sula leucogaster 8, Numenius tahitiensis e. Sula sula 9. Heteroscelus incanum 3. Fregata minor 10. Sterna sumatrana 4. Demigretta sacra 11. MThalasseus bergii 2. Pluvialis dominica 12. Anous stolidus 6. Arenaria interpres 13. Anous tenuirostris 7. Numenius phaeopus 14. Gygis alba Ailuk Atoll Ailuk is an elongate atoll extending north and south, with a great number of islets along its eastern reef and only one on the western side. The largest, Ailuk Islet, on the northern end, has a considerable population and is almost entirely planted to coconuts. Most of the smaller islets to the north have at least some coconuts, but many of them still retain at least a strip of native vegetation along their eastern, seaward.sides, protecting the coconut trees from excessive wind. A few birds were. seen on Ailuk Islet, many more on the smaller islets to the north. The etoll was visited December 24-51, 1651. The birds seen were: 1. Fregata minor (. Sterna sumatrana 2. Demigretta sacra a. Sterna fuscata on an ilus eel lus G. nous stolidus 4. Pluvialis dominice 10. Anous tenuirostris 9. Arenaria interpres Il. Gygis alba 6. Numenius tahitiensis Wotho Atoll Among those of the northern Marshall Islands with fairly abundant rainfall, Wotho had in 1952 the smallest population and the largest area of native forest. In fact, it was possible here to gain some idea of what the original vegetation of these islands may have been like. Even the larger islets had only been partly cleared and planted to coconuts. Ochrosia forest, possibly the climax vegetation of atolls in this rain- fall belt, covered a larger area here than in any other atoll visited. Some Pisonia forest and large areas of mixed forest were found. Coconut crabs, Birgus latro, were more common-here than any other place where they were seen. The atoll was visited February 12-16 and March 13.22, 1952. Birds observed were: lL. Sula leucogaster QO. Numenius tahitiensis e. Fregata minor 10. Heteroscelus incanum 3. Demigretta sacra 11. Sterna sumatrana 4, Cairina moschata l2. MThalasseus bergii 5. Gallus gellus 13. Anous stolidus 6. Pluvialis dominica 14. ) 1O>2, Charles. Frey, engineer, reported sceing a Black~footsd Albatross flying near the atoll on our arrivel early in whe morning. None were seen actually on the islets, or flying nearby during our longer July visit. Puffinus pacificus | Wedge~tailed Sheerwouer Shearwaters were seen at various times at sea, but could not be identified with any confidence. However, on Pokak Atoll, a short distance inland from the lagoon shore of Sibylla, Breje, Kamome, ran North Islets, there is an extensive series of rookeries of what seem to be Wedge-tailed Shearwaters, ‘though even with the bird in hand it could not be made tu fit, exactly, any of the cescriptions in either Mayr's “Birds of the Southwest Pacific’ or Alexander's "Birds of the Ocean." These birds nest in burrows that go straight down about a foot, then horizontally for the same distance or more. The roofs often give way when stepped on. In fact, walking over these sandy areas resulted in caving in a burrow every few steps. The burrows are very abundant wherever the soil is sandy, as close as 5 feet apart. The mouths are marked by low, wide accumulations of sand that is whiter than the general ground color. This results in a most peculiar appearance on air photos of closely spaced white dots. Where there is too much rubole in the soil or the sand is too shallow, the burrows are merely sligrt depressions concealeu by tufts of grass bent over them. One acult bird stays in the burrow curing the day. The other ieturns and takes its place at dusk. The burrows contained, at the time of our visit, eggs or nearly grown young in various stages of feathering out, up to those almost ready to fly. When the brooding adult bird is cither pulled or frightened from a burrow, the egg is often clasped between the fest and is broken when the bird emerges. The egg is white. When the bird is frightened from the burrow, it flutters across the ground before taking flight. The birds are seen flying near the atoll in smell flocks or singly, but not far out at sea. % was hard to estimate the numbers of these birds, but there must have been many tens of thousands. It is quite possible that other shearwaters or petrels vere present, as some of those seen flying at sea were noticeably smaller, but all seen nesting were the same kind and size. ~le Phaethon lepturus White-tailed Tropicbird or Bos'n bird This beautiful bird is not at all common in the northern Marshalls. One was seen flying on Wake Islet, Wake Atoll, near Flipper Point, September 1961 (Sachet), and two were seen flying on sn Wilkes Islet, Wake REGAL, on March &, 1903. One wes seen flying at sea one-third of the way from Wake to Pokak Atoll on July 15, 19ve. Another was secn flying over the seaward side of | Sibylla Islet, Polak, several days later. One was seen flying over the lagoon of Utirik Atoll on December 4, 1951. In the interior of Bikar Islct, Bikar Helle, in openings in dense Pisonia forest 5 or hk were seen at a time, flying ‘round and round, making harsh » protesting noises. Finally a nest was located about / meters up, in a hole in a large Pisonia trec. This could not be reached with the equipment at hand, but birds, were seen to enter the hole. Phaethon rubricauca Red-tailed Tropicbird Red-tailed Tropicbirds were only observed on Weke, Pokak, and Bikar. On Wilkes Islet, Wake Atoll, two were seen flying on March Oy MOSS :« They were pure satiny white with a red mark near the cye, and black feet visible along body when flying (Sachet). On Pokak Atoll they were seen fairly commonly, flying over all the islets during the week of July 20-27, 1952. They were nesting in small numbers ond incubating eggs on all islets except those west of Sibylla. They are extremely tenacious at guarding their eggs. They scream at anyone who approaches but will not leave their eggs, even when their red spike-like tail feathers are rudely pulled out. The eggs are laid on gravel or sand in open brush. A few almost grown young were seen. They have black-and-white barred feathers on wings und back, Similar to the markings on a barred-rock chicken. Their beaks are black at this stage but red in the adult birds. On Bikar Atoll, during the week of August /-11, 1952, small groups of several to a dozen birds were often seen flying, pepe tiles over the north end of Bikar Islet. Here they would fly round and round, making harsh noises. What this was about was not evident. Possibly they wanted to use this area as a nesting site but were disturbed by our camp. One of the attractive features of the Red-tailed Tropicbird is the roseate sheen to the white parts of the plumage that can be seen as they sit on their eggs. Sula dactylatra . Masked, or Blue-faced Booby This was the least frequently observed booby on the atolls visited and was seen only on Wake, Pokak, and Bikar. It was seen mostly on the ground, either nesting or resting. Its beak, here, was a dull yellow, shading to dull bluish or greenish st the base. The young are very white anc have deep cown that makes them look like animated balls of cotton. On Vike Atoll, October 22-25, 1953, a very few were seen flying with i frigatebirds and Brown Boobies over Peule Islet. In the sea around Pokak Atoll, Masked Boobies were observed flying and fishing with both other kinds on March 25, 1952, in small numbers. In July, these birds were seen singly or in pairs almost anywhere on the atoll except South Islet, always sitting on the ground or flying. They apparently fish at least partly during the day, as they were seen fishing on Merch 25, and in July one was observed to arrive and feed her young in the early evening before sundown. On Bikar Atoll, March 24, 1952, a few were seen fishing with buth other boobies, noddies, and Peay Terns. In August (7-11) small numbers were resting on the ground, especially on the seaward sides of the islets, particularly Jaliklik. There were quite a few young in all stages of Gevelopment. The old birds are very stubborn about leaving the young. They nest on the ground, using practically no nesting material at all. Sula leucogaster Brown Boob, This is the most common of the boobies, generally, and was seen on more atolls than the others, but was not seen nesting except on Wake Island, where it nested on the ground. It was most often seen flying, either going and coming, from land, or fishing. Near Pokak euglt on March 25, 1952, large numbers of Brown Boobies followed the ship, diving at trailing fish lures. Several were caught. They were seen fishing with Masked Boobies. In July also many Brown Boobies were seen. It was hard to get an idea of their numbers and behavior as their habits seemed almost the opposite of those of the Red-footed Booby. During the cay most of them were seen flying, especially over seaward beaches and’ reefs. They seemed to be the favorite victims of piracy by frigatebirds. When seen sitting, they were practically always on the ground or on rocks. On Bikar Atoll, March 24, 1952, they were seen commonly, flying about, especially around seaward beaches, and fishing in company with both other boobies as well as noddies and Fairy Terns. Three of them made passes at the flag fluttering at the masthead. On August 7/-~-11, many were seen flying and resting on trees on low branches and stubs, as well as on the ground. None were seen nesting, although several times birds behaved as though trying to draw attention of intruders away from nests. One bird was frightened off a nest about + meters up in a Pisonia tree, but identification was not certain, and it may well have been a dark phase of the Red-footed Booby. The color of the backs of these birds is a dark sooty~brown, rather than chocolate-brown as described by Mayr. On Jemo Island, one Brown Booby was positively identified flying, December 120, . 1951. . On Kwajalein, also, one was seen flying with frigate birds on January 25, 1952. Three were seen flying over the lagoon at Taka at 8:30 a.m., December 7, 1951. At Wotho Atoll, one was seen at Biken Islet, one at Ombelim Islet, and an immature one at sea in March, 1952. On Ujae, about 50 were seen on the evening of March 1, 1952, returning to Bokerok Islet after a day's fishing. One each was seen on Bikenkar and Ujae islets (by T. Arnov). ee On Wake Island, October 22-25, 1953, a few were seen flying with frigatebirds on Peale Islet. On March 9, 1463, about 20 pairs of Brown Boobies were nesting along the lagoon side of Kuku Point, on the ground just back of the shore in the low vegetation. ‘All had young, either in the downy condition or with wings somcwhat feathered out. The adult plumage was dark recaddish-sooty brown on the back. Sula sula Red-footed Booby Red-footed Bocbies were seen in numbers on the uninhabited northern atolls, but scarcely at all on the inhabited ones. This is to be expected, as their nests are commonly in low trees, readily accessible to the Marshallese, who eat sea birds of all sorts. The white plumage, bright-red feet, and blue beak readily identify these birds in the adult stage, but identification of immature ones is much less certain. On our first visit to Pokak on November 25, 1951, many boobies were seen, but not distinguished as to species. On March 25, 1952, Red-footed Boobies were definitely seen, fishing offshore in company with Brown and Masked Boobies. In July (20-27), 1952, large numbers were seen on Pokak. The Red-footed seemed to be the most common boobies on the atoll, at least during the daytime. They were found scattered, roosting in the trees in all parts of the islets where Tournefortia or Pisonia trees occur, but were less common on Pokak Islet than elsewhere. During the day they were seen much more often sitting in the trees than flying, so it may be that they do most of their fishing at night. Judging from the guano accumulations, each bird must have a particular branch that is his favorite roosting place. They do not seem to be gregarious in the sense that they congregate in groups. They may be approached closely, only attempting to fly when actually molested or, sometimes, when a person is within a few feet. One, when disturbed, disgorged half a dozen fair-sized squid. A very few young birds were seen, and one bird was incubating an egg on a nest in a tree. On our first visit to Biker, on Noveinber 26, 1951, several Red-footed Boobies were seen flying. On Murch 24, 1¢52, considerable numbers were seen near the atoll, fishing with both other species of boobies, noddies, ana Fairy Terns. Many were roosting in trees. During the period August 7-11, lurge numbers were to be seen at ulmost any time of day, roosting in Pisonia trees, or flying about when disturbed. A few nésts were spotted, usually high in Pisonia trees, with old birds sitting on them, or with almost mature young. On Jemo Island, Red-rooted Boobies were nesting in numbers in the Pisonia trees, contributing greatly to the formation of phosphate rock beneath. On Ujee Atoll, a single dead Red-footed Booby was seen on the outer beach of Rua Islet on February 25, 1952. On Wake Island a few were seen nesting on Peale Islet, April 21, and one flying on July 18. ~-1'- Nests were seen in September 1901 (Sachet) with well-grown young in Tournefortia forest back of Kuku Point, Wilkes Islet, Wake Atoll, an¢. at the same place in March 1963 about 10 or 12 nests were seen, mostly with full-grown young, wings fully feathered out. The nests were in the same trees us those of frigatebirds. Birds were sitting on several nests which may have contained eggs, but the eggs were not visible from below. Fregata minor Great Frigatebirc or Man-o'- War Bire This is one of the most magnificent of sea birds and a characteristic Sight in thé uir over many atolls. They soar for hours, often in one place, apparently for the sheer joy of it. During storms their soaring ability is shown off to the best advantage, when they seem to be playing in the wind. The amount and distribution of white on the females ana young birds vary a great deal, and all attempts to perceive @ regular pattern failed. The mature males are entirely black, except for their scarlet inflatable pouches. The Marshallese name for the frigatebird is ‘aak" (Ujse, Ujelang). On November 25, 1551, many frigatebirds were seen flying around Pokak Atoll, as many as 25 at a time. On March 25, 1¢52, 8 or 10 followed the ship and fished with the boobies. In July (20-27) an enormous population of frigatebirds were nesting here. The nests are in Tournefortia. trees, and are small for the size of the birds, usuall; not more than 2 dm across. On.a foundation of a few twigs, the nest. is built entirely of the dried stems of Ipomoea tuba. It is soon cemented into a sturdy flattish structure by the accumulation of guano after the young bird hatches. At the time of our visit there were eggs and young in all stages of development. The partly grown young have blackish feathers On wings and back and white downy breast, neck, and head. The heads of immature birds vary from definitely rust colored to white. Both males and females sit on the eggs. Nests are scattered over all except South Islet but are most numerous on Sibylla and Breje Islets, with many also on the wooded part of Kamome. They seem not to be especially concentrated in any one or few restricted spots, but to be fairly generally distributed where there are suitable trees. When approached the young rattle their bills furiously and scream at the intruder. Older birds usually fly away when an intruder gets to within a few feet, but occasionally they will disgorge fish first. When a small boat crossed the lagoon and made a landing on Sibylla Islet hundreds of these birds were in the air at once circling over it. Normally at any time of the day thcre were a few in the air. Occasionally they would snatch fish from the surface of the water, and now and then, €specially toward evening, it was possible to watch them pursuing boobics to pirate their day's catch of fish. It is a rare sight to watch these superb fliers in an aerial contest. Contrary to the general opinion, it was observed that the boobies often escaped without disgorging their fish. el On Ailuk, December 26-27, 1951, a single frigatebird was seen flying between Eneao and Mienwa Islets, two over Baojen Islet, and one over Enenkonge Islet. On Jemo, December 15, 1951, at least 15 were seen flying at one time. On November 26, while approaching Bikar Atoll, we were met by 6 frigatebirds. On Nerch 2h, 1952, many were rere roosting in the trees, scared up in great swarms by blaxtis of the ship's whistle. During the period August 7-11, they were seen in large numbers, roosting in trees and flying over the atoll. were seen in a flock on the outer reef of Bock Islet; a -flock of 7 or & was seen by Ted «zrnow, and one of 5 was seen by Fosberg on Ujae Islet, outer reef; 4 were seen on Rua Islet, one in a grassy opening in the interior; e flock of 10 was on the lagoon beach and one of 5 on the -weaward rect flat, Bbeju. Tslet; a flock of (, .with plovers and curlews was on the outer reef flat on Wojia Islet. On Ujelang Atoll, February 3- -8, 1952, a flock of 11 was seen on the seaward reef of Enimoni TSslec.. won the lagoon beach of Enellap Islet, 6-10 on the seaward reef and passage beach of Bokan Islet, . onja sand flat in the west passage on Kiloken Islet, and on Ujelang Islet, $ on the lagoon beach and a large flock was on the seaward reef flat. On Wotho Atoll, small flocks of 2 to 5 were seen on most islets on beaches or reef flats, often with plovers and tattlers, February 12-16, 1952. On February 7, 19 60, 3 were seen on the seaward etch of Rongelap Islet, Rongelap Atoll, and toward evening 2 were flying over the lLaoon. A few were seen on Sifo Islet, Ailinginae, on February 10, 1956. Eight were seen on the south beach of Utirik Is let, Utirik atoll, and another flock on the open part of the long west Spit of this islet, back of the lagoon beach ridge, February 14, 1956. Numenius phaeopus ~ Whimbrel I found the Whimbrel to be very difficuit to distinguish with confidence from the Bristle-thighed Curlew. What I took to be Whimbrels were brown birds with no rufous cast and with no chestnut on rump, that appeared, when flying, to be slightly shorter, stockier, with a somewhat more curved beak, rougher flight, and with a rather distinct note when flying: "“dee~dee-dee-dee-dee.' Such were seen flying, one on Wotho, Enearik Islet, on March 20, 11.52, One on Ubirik Aboll in the interion of the long southwest spit on Utirik Estet, ‘on February 13, 1956, and two on Lae Atoll, one by Arnow, one by me, January 6-10, 1952. Two were seen on Us jae “AtOLL, Ujae Islet separately, possibly the same individual; one was seen on Rua pole and two were seen on the reef seaward on Ebeju Islet, March 2-15, 1952. Two curlews, Whimbrels judging from their notes, were seen on the Kwajalein airstrip in the sun at 4:15 p.m., October 19, 1960. Numenius tahitiensis Bristle-thighed Curlew These large shore birds are fairly common in the northern Marshalis and were seen on most of the atolls visited. Their note when flying is "kiwee, kiwee." They are seen in the interior of brushy islets as well as on the shores and reefs, and they must eat Scaevola ae among other things, as their droppings are often seen to be packed with Scaevola stones. They are called by the Marshallese "Kowak" (Ujae) or “Kuwak" (Ujelang, two informants). aie One was seen on Taka Islet, Taka Atoll, on December 7, 1951, and one (December 26) on Ailuk on the seaward denuded area of Enejela Islet at low tide where it would not flush but kept walking ahead of me, keeping a distance of about 15 meters. Two were seen on Sifo Islet, Ailinginae, February 10, 1956; one on Eniwetak Islet, Rongerik, February 11; and one on the east shore of Gegen Islet, Ronpelap Atoll, February 15. The last bird was very tame. On February 13, 1656, three were seen in the interior of the spit on the west end of Utirik Islet, Utirik Atoll. On Ujae Atoll they were common, February 10-21 and March 2-11, 195d. Two or three coula be seen at almost any time on Bock Islet, probably the same ones. They were usually walking around the outside of the islet, but one wus in a rocky opening in Scaevola scrub; 4 or 5 were seen several times on Rue Islet, 2 on the seawara reef of Ebeju Islet, 2 on Wojiau, with plovers and turnstones, one on Enelamoj Islet, 5 on the south passege beach, Bikenka Islet, und several, one with plovers, on Alle Islet. On Ujelany Atoll, February. 3-0, 1452, one was seen on Jerko Islet, 3 on the seaward reef of Enimoni Islet, 3 on Kirinyan Islet on séoward reef, one was on lagoon side, one was on Morina Islet, anc or © on Kiloken Islet, on the seaward reef, the passages, and in grassy Openings in the scrub. On Wotho, Februar, l2é-lo and March 16-22, 1b52, they were commonl,,; Seen, Singly, in pairs, or 3 or 4 together, on the beaches and reer flats of most of the islets. Here they were quite tame, allowing one to approach to within 3 to 5 meters before flying. On Wake Island, one was seen in September Llyol near a little inlet on the lagoon side of the south arm of Wake Islet (Sachet). On March 7-°, 1903, several were seen near the pond in the angle of the runways on Wake Islet, and several were heard on Peale Islet. The ery wes heard as "ti-tehi ti-rwhi” (Scchet). On Pokak «toll, July 20-27, 1952, Bristle-thighed Curlews were seen more commonly than on any of the atolls visited. They were mostly on Sibylla, Breje, and Kamome Islets, 2 to 5 seen at a time. One morning at 7 o'clock a flock of 15 flew over our camp on Sibylla Islet at a rather low cltitude. They were generally very tame. One pair, on Kamome picked uround on the beach to within 3 meters of where I was sitting. Another group of 5 spent a half hour simlessly wandering sround within 1» meters of where I was eating lunch, also on the lagoon shore of Kamome. They did not seem to be eating anything. One was panting, with its bill somewhat open and quivering; the day was very hot. Single individuals, two, or three at a time, were commonl, scen on Biker atoll, sugust o-11l, 1%2, on rock flats anc around beaches. They were quite tame, allowing onc to approach to within 10 meters before walking or flying away. Heteroscelus incanum Wandering Tuttler This is a trim, dark gray bird, white beneath, seen on many islands but séldom more than 4 at a time, almost always on the reef flats or beaches, mostly on the seaward sides of the islets. They are somewhat more wary than the other shore birds, flying up when approached, circling 1 out over the water or reef flat at low altitude and back, alighting 100 meters or more away along the shore. When they fly up, they sound a rather rapid high note "dee dee dee dee...." The Marshallese name is "kirij" (Ujae). Which subspecies was seen was never determined. All looked very uniform, except one smaller bird on Pokak Atoll. On Kwajalein, January 15, 1952, several were seen on the outer reef flat; January 19, 8 were seen at once, and others before and after, at low tide on the outer beach; two were seen near the outer beach on February 2, 1956. On Lae, January 60-10, 1952, a few were seen, no more than 2 on'an islet, usually on the outer beach or reef flat. They were seen on a number of islets on Ujae Atoll, February 16-25 and March 2-11, 1952, usually on exposed reef or rubble flats on the seaward side. On Bock Islet, 4 were seen in a flock on the outer reef flat, 2 together on a rubble flat on the lagoon side; and one to 5 were seen on each of Ujae, Rua, Ebeju, Alle, Bikenkar, and Enelamoy Islets. On Enclamog, they were in a flock with turnstones. They usuall,; flew low over the reef or the sea just outside it. On Wotho Atoll, February le-lo and March 18-22, 1452, one or two were seen at a time, usually on outer bceches, ‘reef flats, or passage beaches, on most islets, often in company with plovers or turnstones, or, more rarely, curlews. Seven were seen in a flock on February »'on outer reef flats at Ujelang Atoll. On Bikar Aioll 1 to 3 or rarely 4} Wandering Tuttlers were occasionally seen on beaches and reef flats, especially on seaward sides of islets. They were commonly seen, as many as 4 at a time, July 20-27, 1952, in the passages and reef flats of Pokak Atoll. On Wuke Island, one was on the lagoon bea.h April 20, 1952, one was seen October 22, 15 and several on March 9, 1903, these around the pond in the intersection of the runways. They were very wary and hard to recognize with certainty, even with binoculars. Two were seen on Eniwetak Islet, Rongerik, on February 11, 1950. One was ‘on a rubble tract along the spit extending from the west end of Utirik Islet, Utirik Atoll, February 13, 19 bo. Limosa lapponica Bar--tailed Godwit (7?) A large bird was seen on February 2, 1956 at the southwest end of Kwajalein Islet, Kwajalein Atoll, in weedy ground. It was brownish, with dark patches in wings. The neck was long and when on alert was held very erect....the head and throat with a large dark patch on each side. It flew off over the sea and circled around to land again on the other side of the airstrip. The rather reddish-brown color, the size, and posture suggest it inay have been a Bar~tailed Godwit. Sterna sumatrana Black-naped Tern This is a delicate little tern, found in small numbers on most of the northern Marshall Islands. They were mostly seen on gravel or sandbars and horns on the inner or, more rarely, outer, corners of islets. Their eggs are laid on gravel at the bases of these horns or spits, with no nest at all, the eggs blending in prefectly with the gravel on which they are placed, fle They were first scen on Ailuk, where a flock of 10 was sitting on @ sandbar with several noddies at St the north end of Kappen Islet on December 26, 1951. They were pearl-~gray on the back, and hada black band around the head, continuous with the black bill. The black band was more conspicuous than in Mayr's plate. They seemed reluctant to fly. When approached closer than 15 meters they would fly a short distance, then settle down again. Finally, after doing this 8-10 times, they flew away, flying low over the water. On Ujae Atoll, on February 18, 1952, one was seen flying over the south end of Bock Islet. Seven were observed on Rua, on the inner south sand spit of the islet, on February 22. Two nests were here on bare gravel at the base of the spit, just above high-tide level. There were two eggs in one clutch, one in the other, very well concealed by their resemblance to their surroundings. They seemed identical in size, shape, color, and markings to the eggs of Gygis alba, 58 mm long, gray ground color with scattered brownish markings. Four birds were seen on the inner southwest sand spit of Alle Islet on March 10, 1952; one clutch of eggs was laid on a small collection of pebbles on otherwise bare sand, just above high-tide level. The eggs were very well concealed, only the frantic protests of the birds calling my attention to then, even though I had been walking around them for some minutes. Then I had to look carefully before locating them, These were exactly as described above. As long as I was in the vicinity, even during the time I ate my lunch sitting on a rock 1)-20 meters away, the four birds protested noisily, "yak, yak, yak," "yip, yip, eep," “aa,” "yak, yak,, yip." On Ujelang Atoll, February 16-23, 1952, three terns were seen on Kiloken Islet, and two on the east end of Ujelang Islet, flying and making a harsh low croaking note. On Wotho, February 12-16 and March 18- 22, small flocks were seen on the inner corners of various islets, invariably on or over sand horns or beaches om inner corners of thu vei On Enearik Islet there were 8 on the cast corner and 4 on the west corner. On Ombelim there were 10 on the inner beach-.-the islet is too short for corners to be distinguished. Six were seen fishing over the lagoon near Wotho Islet at 6:50 p.m., and one was with a flock of other terns near Majurwon at about 4 p.m. On February 5, 1950, two were seen flying over th: lagoon side of Ebeye Islet, Kwajalein Atoll. On Bikar toll, August j~11, 1952, small groups of 3. to 10 of these birds were seen “Flying over or resting on open gravel bars and beach rock, especially between Almeni and Jaliklik Islets, Sterna lunata Bridled Tern or Gray-backed Tern One bird seen flying over the north end of Bikar Islet, Bikar Atoll, August 7-11, 1952, was identified as this species. On Pokak, mall numbers of Bridled Terns were seen, only on North Islet, where they were flushed with some reluctance from their resting places on the ground in the interior of this barren rocky islet. They circled around, protesting violently, with harsh noises, at the intrusion. They were medium sized, gray above, with a black crown, black feet, and a forked tail. ~25- The species may have been present elsewhere, but we did not see it except on these two dry northern atolls. There is some discrepancy between the treatment of this species and §. anaetheta in Mayr's book and Baker's "The Avifauna of Micronesia, " p. 160, 1952. As Mayr's was used for identifications, and as Baker does not describe these species, the bird observed is named in accord with Mayr, though the distribution given for S. anaetneta by Baker suggests that species rather than S. lunata. Sterna fuscata Sooty Tern Sooty Terns are usually seen near their rookeries during the breeding season, and seldom at other seasons or places. They are extremely gregarious birds, laying their eggs on the bare ground, very close together; in the Marshalls in open or almost open areas, not necessarily so elsewhere. No nesting material is used, and when the eggs are on gravel or coarse sand they are very hard to see. They are variously colorea, from grayish to brownish, variously mottled and speckled with brown or dark brown. Our first. sooty Terns were seen on Taka Atoll. A few were flying around Tuka Islet, on December 7, 1951, but it, was on Weutwerok Islet, where I spent the night of December 3-9, 1951, that I became really conscious of the enormous numbers of terns that inhabit a single rookery. On the seaward side of the islet the ground was literally black with Sooty Terns. Between the first sparse row of Tournefortia bushes the ground was scattered with their eggs, laid on the absolutely bare gravel and sand. Walking through this area it was hard to avoid stepping on the eggs, because they were so numerous and hard to see. When approached the birds rose in the air by the thousands with a deafening clamor. I camped on the lagoon side of the islet, and at about 6:50 p.m. a great horde of Sooty Terns came circling over my camp, screaming and squawking, and they kept this up continuously until after 7 a.m. On Ailuk Atoll, on December 26,, LO51, a stray Sooty Tern was seen over the lagoon near Bikon and another at the north end of Kapen Islet. There was no evidence of a colony of them on this atoll, however. On Ujelang a considerable number of Sooty Terns and eggs were seen on Jerko ko Is} let, February 4, 1652, but only one or two birds at a time at rare intervals elsewhere in the atoll. The Marshallese gether and eat the eggs Ted Arnow sav one Sooty Tern on Eniwetak Islet, Kwajalein Atoll On Jantar esi Lome Sooty Terns were seen commonly flying almost anywhere on Bikar Atoll, August 7-11, 1952. On Jaboero Islet, a small gravel bar only very slightly above high tide, vegetated only by Portulaca lutea, is a rookery of thousands of pairs. There were hundreds of eggs not yet hatched, and thousands of newly hatched chicks, which were small, gray-~brown, not at all feathered out yet, and very active; quite a few were dead. On rock flats seaward of Almeni and Jaliklik Islets were scattered eggs and shells, and on the northeast extension of Jaliklik was a small rookery with many young birds with wings feathered out. Little or no guano was seen on any of these sites. =Po~™ The great concentration of Sooty Terns, as of other birds, in the northern Mershalls is on Pokak Atoll. On November ey, 1951, only one pair was seen definitely, flying around the ship near Pokak. On March 25, 1652, numbers of them were seen fishing together with other birds. Four were seen at sea, on July 19, between Wake and Pokak. On our visit from July 20-2;, this was probably the most abundant bird on Pokak Atoll. They could be seen at any time flying over the lagoon and neighboring ocean, graceful and sure of themselves. At about sundown numbers of them could be seen in any part of the atoll, flying toward their homes on Kamome Islet. The rookeries were on Kamome, where large areas of ground were occupied by myriads of these birds. The actual parcels of land used as nesting sites and resting places by this gregarious specics vary in size from an acre to several acres. They may lie in sparse Tournefortia scrub, but are more commonly in the open part of Kamome Islet, in places sharing ground with shearwaters. Usually in the center of such a rookery the Sida shrubs tended to be suppressed and the bunch-grass (Lepturus) favored. The ground was definitely not noticeably stained with guano, although both adults and young in all stages occupied it in such numbers as to blacken the sir when they flew uo. A few eggs were seen, lying on the bare ground with no nesting material whatever. The young birds swarmed over the ground in all stages of development from actively running chicks with only their wings feathered to full-grown birds perfectly able to fly, differing from their parents only in plumage. The young had feathers on back and wings tipped with white, and the under parts more or less dark, except for whitish anal region and undersides of wings. If the behavior of the Soot;y Terns at Pokaek is at all typical, it does not seem likely that Sooty Terns contribute materially to guano accumulations, though a gradual alteration of the lime sand over long periods of time is entirely possible. On Weke Atoll, April 20-21, 1952, there was a considerable rookery of Sooty Terns on Peale Islet near the LORAN Station. The young were in various stages from pin-feathers to almost full grown. No eggs were seen. In the pin-feather stage the young were sooty brown on the back and sides, light gray downy beneath. Many were seen flying on July 18, 1952. C. G. Johnson reported that the colony at the LORAN Station on Peale Islet had eggs on that date. A small flock was seen near the west tip of Peale Islet on October 22-25, 1955. This was said by LORAN Station personnel to be the new nesting site, selected after they were driven off the old nesting place near the LORAN Station. Nesting was said to have been finished in July, but éround this spot still lingered a number of almost fully grown but more or less crippled young ones, as well as some dead birds. In September 1961 M.-H. Sachet found that the Wake Island colony had moved to ijilkes Islet, just back of Kuku Foint. There had been considerable cleuring of vegetation in this area, said by local people to have been dore to provide nesting space for the birds. However, certain installations had been put in part of the cleared area. A few Sooty Terns were observed on the boulders on the reef at Kuku Point on September §, — but no great concentrations were seen. On September 15 the same »olace was visited after dark, and the colony had evidently returned, as cries from many birds were heard. as Be On March 8-9, 1905, this colony was again visited. Thousands of birds were present, with fully grown young, still in dark plumage, but able to fly up when approached. One was caught. It spit up a piece of fish (Sachet). A few adults were also seen on Pevle Islet. Thalasseus bergii Crested Tern This is the mon of the Marshall Island terns, and it is easily spotted by its heavy yellow beak. Its crest is not very obvious, but may at times be seen. It is not one of the more abundant sea birds in the Marshalls. There are usually a few pairs on an atoll, and they may be seen flying and hovering over lagoon reef flats, looking for ‘small fish - On February 25, 1952, 6 Crested Terns were fishing in the lagoon near the pier (and sewer noua) on Kwajalein Islet, Kwajalein Aver! Three or four could be seen almost any time during January 56, ircling over the lagoon beach near Lae Islet, Lae Atoll, diving and ee At Ujae Atoll on March 8, 2 were seen over "the © lagoon, Ebeju Islet; on Merch 9, >» were seen on Bikenbar Islet and one over the lagoon in the north part of the atoll; on March 10, 8 were seen over the seaward reef flat, Alle Islet;-and on March 15% one was flying over the lagoon near the windward reef about 2 miles north of Ujae Islet. They are here called "he'er" (name tied to this species only by description by native,as no bird was seen at the time). On Wotho .tol1, February 16-25, 1652, the Crested Tern was rare, possibly only ore or tworpairs. “One wee seen at séa west Of the atoll and. 2-on Ombelin Tstet, ~On'Ujelang, February 3-5, one was seen over the midcle of the lagoon, four commonly patrolled the lagoon beach near the east end of Ujelang Islet: and one was on the lagoon side of Kiloken Islet. On Utirik one was seen flying over the seaward side of Utirik Islet, February 13, 1950. On Bikar; August’ -115' 19 52, pairs or single birds were seen occasionally flying over reef flats, making harsh grating noises. They were commoner on Pokak than elsewhere, July 20-2;. Atv any time of the day from one to 6 of these ungainl, birds could be seen patrolling the sallow water, diving recklessly for small fish. Their disagreeable screaming or squawking was one of the most frequent sounds. Procevecerna-cerulea Blue-gray Noddy This igs not a common bird in the northern Marshalls. We found it in small numbers only, yust on Bikar and Pokak, of the 156 atolls visited. A beautiful little bird, Procelsterna seems rather closely associated with open, unvegetated gravel ridges, against which its blue-gray color affords astonishingly 00d protection. «28. It is commonest on Pokak Atoll, where the following extract from my notebook was written, dated July 20-27, 1952: ‘This delicate little bird, not seen elsewhere during this survey, is smaller than the fairy tern, and of exactly the blue-gray shade of the boulder and cobble ridges and flats so characteristic of Pokak landscapes. Small numbers of these birds are to be seen almost anywhere. Their curiosity is as well developed as is that of the fairy tern, and they seem even less afraid. On the more wooded islets, as Sibylla, Breye, Pokak, they seem to prefer the scaward side, though by no means staying there only. Possibly the greater prevalence of blue-gray stony ridges and flats on the outer sides is the reason for this. On North Islet, and Kamone, they are much more abundant and more persistently curious than elsewhere, and one can go nowhere on these islets without a constant accompaniment of their "Whirrrrr, Whirrrrr.' When caught and held in the hand, one of these birds disgorged an astonishing quantity of partially digested dark blue fish. “Although their behavior suggested that they might be nesting, no eggs or joung were seen. One bird was flushed from a small empty nest, merely a slight accumulation of grass stems and feathers in a slight depression sheltered by 2 rocks on the boulder ridge on the seaward beach of Breje. This was probably one of their nests, and their color would suggest this as their normal habitat. It may be noted that, on Pokak, the web between their toes is a dull orange, rather than canary yellow. On Bikar Atoll, in August 195e, 5 solitary individuals were seen, flitting over gravel bars and flats on Jaliklik Islet. A single bird was sitting on a nest with an egg, on the lagoonward end of a gravel bar between Almeni and Jaliklik Islets. It left the nest with’ no great reluctance when approached within 1 or 2 meters, but did not jo far. The egg was whitish with a few dark speckles. The nest was only a few grass culms in a very slight depression in the gravel, very effectively camouflaged, especially when the bird was sitting on it. Anous stolidus Common Noddy The Common Noddy is one of the common widespread sea birds in the northern Marshall Islands. Curiously, it was not seen on Utirik Atoll. The Marshallese call it “pijuak'" (Ujac, Ujelang) or “bijuak” (Ujelang), and use it as food when they can catch it. It nests on the ground, in bushes, and in the crotches of trees. Its nest is an untidy collection of small twigs, often 30 cm across or more but never more than 5-10 cm hish. Usually a number of nests are found in the same area, but it is not a conspicuously gregarious nester. Several birds may be seen flying together, but large flocks are scen only when fishing, possibly just accidental aggregations. attracted by schools of fish, and when resting on sand spits or bars. They were frequently seen fishing during the day in the lagoon or in the ocean near an atoll. 20. Many were seen on Watwerok Islet, Taka Atoll, December 8-9, 1951, nesting on open webble flats on the east end of the islet and in trees generally. On December 16, 1451 several were seen on the seaward side of Likiep Islet, Likiep Atoll. They were quite common on Jemo Island, December 16-22, but not seen nesting. On ALluk a few were seen on Konwon, Tabu, Enenkonge, Eneljar, and Enijabrok Islets, December 26-27, 1951, and perhaps some of those scen fishing and sitting on sand spits and bars were this species. On Kwajalein toll, January 15, 1952, Common Noddies were quite plentiful generally on Lojjaiong and Lojjairok Islets. One or two were obviously gathering nesting material. Many were seen at Enebuoj Islet, on January 1%, especially on and over the outer reef flat. A few were seen on Eniwetak Islet on January 25. On August », 1952, one Common Noddy was the only sea bird seen near Enelapkan Islet. Common Noddies were plentiful on Lae Atoll, January 5-10, 19°%e, and were seen over practically all islets and all parts of the lagoon Visited,,in numbers,up to a dozen at,a.time., ;On.Enejelto Islet, quite a few were nesting high in Ochrosia trees, and on Bikalabet Islet a flock of 20-50 were sitting on a sandbar. This bird was seen at least occasionally on all islets visited on Ujae Atoll, February 16-23 and March 2-11, 1952. Some were seen gathering nesting material in the forest on Bock Islet.. Hundreds were seen on Bokerok Islet, and quite a few,on Rua. Islet, February 22, where three nests were found .in a Terminalia samoensis tree on the seaward side. On Wojia Islet 6 were seen pursuing a Fairy Tern with a fish in its beak. The tern escaped. On March 9, 1902, at low tide an enormous flock of hundreds or even thousands of noddies blackened a long sand spit uncovered at low tide. They seemed to be holding the usual ‘conference’ so characteristic of Common Noddies. In the afternoon at high tide many were flying over the islet. One nest with an egg in it was found in a bush about 2 meters above the ground. The egg was white with brown markings. The old bird protested and flew around™close by, trying to drive me-off. Many were seen flying about Enelamoj Islet, and they were abundant on Alle Islet. Here one was nesting in a big crotch of a Pisonia tree about 5 meters above the ground. The nest in this broad depressed crotch consisted of very little material, a few twigs and leaves, not at all typical for this species. On Ujae Islet wh-re the people live, only © noddies were seen, March 15, 1952. On Ujclang Atoll, February 3-8, Common Noddies were also abundant. The Marshallese gather and eat the eggs in large numbers, and also eat the fully feathered young birds. The birds' habit of sitting in large numbers on beaches and reef flats was very noticeable on all islets where they were common. Hundreds were seen on Bikom Islet, the last islet on the windward reef to the west, where they were nesting in Pemphis acidula trees. Fewer were seen on Ujelang Islet, where the village is located, than on the others. On Nelle Islet hundreds were seen sitting in crowds on the beaches and flying overhead. Large numbers of wings were lying on the ground around a temporary native camp. There were quite a few nests here on the ground, with young of various ages. Hundreds were also seen on Bieto Islet, some nesting, mainly in trees. These were white when very young, soon turning dark gray. When pin- ~30-. feathers heve appeared on the wings and tail the white forehead has developed. On Bokan Islet they were nesting on the ground. They were very abundant on Jurko Islet, nesting on the ground in the seme area as the Sooty Terns. Most of the nests there have eggs. On Ujelang they used rather little nesting material. On Wotho Atoll, there were usually some to be seen flying overhead, Februsry i2-10; 1952. There were a considerable number along the seavard beaches, small or moderate numbers over the lagoon and sea, and a few on the larger islets. Many were on Enejelto Islet, and many birds and several nests on Enearik Islet, the nests with downy young. One bird scared up there flew with difficulty, as it had Pisonia grandis fruits stuck over its feathers. There were several nests on Biken Islet, and many birds were seen on Bokanaetok Islet. Some birds and & nest were on Eneobnak Islet, the nest in a Guettards speciosa tree. WNoddies were commonly seen in the middle of the day in groups on the beaches. On February 15, 1952, F. Stearns MacNeil saw one pick up a neritid snail from the reef, fly high in the air with it, drop it, and follow it down and eat it after the hard shell was broken. Fragments of these shells are common on the reef rocks. Three Common Noddies were seen, February 7, 1956, on Rongelap Islet, Rongelap Atoll, flying out to sea; toward evening 2 were seen over the lagoon. north, east, and south sides of the, atoll. August 7-11, 1952, were spent on Land on Bikar Atoll. Fairy Terns were common generally, hundreds of them on Almeni Tose ye | flying everywhere, especially over Pisonia trees. A few downy young were in the trees. Pokak Atoll is the home of great numbers of Fairy Terns, just as of other species of sea birds They flew around our ship duriny our abortive visitson November 25, 1951, and.March 25, 2952. . Duning July 20-27, 1952, they were to be seen at any time on any of the islets, over the lagoon, and over the nearby ocean. During the hottest part of the duy they tended to rest on the branches of trees; or, less often, on the ground or on rocks. They hovered in swarms over anyone walking through the woods or bush, venturing almost within arm's reach. Their eggs were found, occasionally, almost anywhere in Tournefortia trees, and very abundantly in Pisonia in the groves on Kumome Islet, balancec, in the usual fantastic manner on any horizontal limb, on a fork of a tiny branch, or in a slight depression anywhere. One was seen on a large boulder on South Islet, where there were no trees. The eggs on Pokak toll have ebout the same range of color variation as seen elsewhere in the Marshalls, but here the small end is much less pointed tnan seen elsewhere. In fact, it is almost the same shape as the larger end. The birds are induced to Leave their eggs only with some h:sitation. The way they daintily back away from the eggs when leaving is pleasant to watch, also their careful way of approachin, and settling down on the egg when chey return. The Fair: Terns here seem to have 2 more pronounced blue basal half of the beak than those seen elsewhere. several were seen flying on Wake Atoll, Wake Islet, April 20-21, 1952, and others around Pisonia trees on Peale Islet, October 22-25, 1955. A few were seen in and over the Tournefortia forest both on Peale and Wilkes Islets, on September 4, 1961 (Sechet) and March 7-9, 19D. Eudynamis taitensis New Zealand Cuckoo Ths only indigenous passerine species in the Marshalls was only seen once, flying over the seaward beach and into the trees on Likicp Islet, Likiep Atoll, on December 14, 1551. This may be the second most northerly record for this bird. It was collected on Bikini by J. L. Morrison in 1945 and 1547. It seems commoner farther south, as two were seen on Jeluit «toll in 195d. Acridotheres tristis Indian Myneh Several pairs were established and very much at home on Kwajalein islet, Kwajalein Atoll, in 1952, but none were seen on February 2, 1950, or in 1958 or 1960. Padda oryzivora Jeva Sparrow or Java Finch A cage of the attractive small finches with large conical red bills, commonly callec Java Sparrows, was seen on Wake Island in a HONSEYTOn April 2S, 1952. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I am happy to express my appreciation to the members of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, Smithsonian Institution, for critically reviewing the manuscript and for typing the stencils. Ps pis tame var boa cr Se , wded 3 a fy sone ae “4 os vey Cee 1 RAE t ek my Hats, sa | i ‘et titstce’ a nerod ah hen in t 1 le em } Nn “s. ial and sit” “abs Lng ye Boe he ye a ha a ae ed as i tn nee e soma oe oars & bined oie ‘gh 33 he af) “f 6 nt Aeteed eee ta) aye es at: git: one to diedas on ty 1 ot melt hid | Wi pert fin! Somuhd Samet mit ne et re sh aa eee, =, 5 ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN Now tis Marine benthic algae from the leeward Hawaiian group by Roy T. Tsuda Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D.C. March 31, 1966 ‘uo pojJiodei spue{TstT ey} JO yoes Jo uoTRTsod sATIeTeI VY. BUTMOYS spuUeTS] UeTTemMeH 343 Jo dem °T *3T¥ 1 | NVAWH ‘| 3MV OOH Pe Siivnyi eo *TIVHOTOW | ' | ran ‘ae ae | at Twn fers el 7! — = =. i | + oo | TV OHINS 1 SANDS © __STWOHS aLvoI4 HONSHS INV a at j_ j | | | SATOWNNid YANOYVS «| | | | “UNVSAVT® | spaile TIMSNVISIT ¢ | 3338 S3WYSH ONY sua “1 AVMOIN $ ae —— Marine Benthic Algae from the Leeward Hawaiian Groupl/ by Roy T. Tsuda2/ The following is an account of all the marine benthic algae accu- mulated by the author from various coliectors from six of the nine is- lands in the Leeward Hawaiian Group ( Nihoa, Necker, French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Kure). The islands comprising this group (Fig. 1) consist of remnants of nine former high islands which at present make up low volcanic islands, reefs, and atolls. They extend approximately 1300 miles northwest from Kauai and are located between 23° 05' N. and 28° 25' N. latitude and 161° 58' W. and 178° 25' W. long- itude. For further information on the geography and history of each of these islands, see Bryan (1942). Past published papers on the marine algae concern only three of the nine islands. These are Schauinsland (1899), Reinbold (1899), Lemmermann (1905), Tsuda (1965) on Laysan Island; Buggeln (1965) on Mid- way Island; and Howe (1934) on Pearl and Hermes Reef. The fifteen species of algae reported in Howe (1934) on Pearl and Hermes Reef and one species of Turbinaria reported in Taylor (1964) from French Frigate Shoals are incorporated in this present paper. Except for them, all species listed represent new records. The recent algal collections made from Laysan Island by Mr. C. R. Long in September 1964, are excluded since no new records were found. Any name which is now rel- egated to synonymy is cited with the currently accepted name. Also included in this paper are the corrected specific epithets of three species of Liagora and one species of Halimeda which were reported ay aa from Laysan Island (Tsuda, 1965) and Midway Island (Buggeln, 1965). Below is a list of the islands with the collectors, dates and specimen numbers as available. The initials within the parentheses iden- tify the specimen numbers of Dr. Maxwell S. Doty, Dr. Charles H. Lamou- reux, Mr. Ronald Walker, and the author. NIHOA ISLAND (23° 05' N. Lat., 161° 58° W. Long.): E. Christophersen, July 1924; R. Walker, March 1964 (RW 2). NECKER ISLAND (23° 10' N. Lat., 1640 41' W. Long.): E. Christophersen, July 1924; C. R. Long, September 1964 (RT 938-955). Technical Report No. 7, Hawaii Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii. 2/ Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. aa FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS (23° 50' N. Lat., 166° 15' W. Long.): C. T. Crocker, December 1936 (in Taylor, 1964); R. Rogers, March 1961 (MSD 19476); C. R. Long, September 1964 (RT 931-937). LISIANSKI ISLAND (26° 02' N. Lat., 173° 59' W. Long.): S. C. Ball (Tanager Expedition), April 1923; A. L. Young, August 1964 (RT 637-645); C. R. Long, September 1964 (RT 920-928). PEARL AND HERMES REEF (27° 50' N. Lat., 175° 50' W. Long. ):; P. C. Galtsoff, Summer 1930 (in Howe, 1934); E. C. Jones, June 1956 (MSD 13346); A. L. Young, August 1964 (RT 613-633); C. R. Long, September 1964 (RT 899-919). KURE ATOLL (28° 25' N. Lat., 178° 25' W. Long.): C. H. Lamoureux, September 1961 (MSD 19573-19576, CHL 2778); A. Anderson, March 1965 (RT 980-986). In the following annotated list, the specimen numbers are listed with the species and by their use the collectors can be determined. MYXOPHYTA Species determinations in this group are contributed by Dr.Francis Drouet. Lyngbya. aestuarii (Mert.) Lyngb. French Frigate Shoals: RT 937 (East Island - on reef flat). Lyngbya majuscula (Dillw.) Harv. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 914 (North Island - on reef flat), RT 916 (is central lagoon); Kure Atoll: MSD 19576A (Green Island - on reef flat). Oscillatoria chalybea Mert. Necker Island: RT 938 (west point of island). Schizothrix mascarenica Gom. Kure Atoll: CHL 2778 (Green Island - forming crust in sand about 5 mm thick on edge of dune facing lagoon beach). -3- CHLOROPHYTA Bryopsis pennata Lamx., 1809a: 134, figs. la-b, pl. 3; Egerod, 1952: 370, fig. 7. Necker Island: RT 950; Lisianski Island: RT 736 (on reef flat). Caulerpa racemosa var. clavifera (Turner) Weber-van Bosse, 1898: 361, pl. 33 (figs. U=5). Necker Island: Christophersen (det. by Dr. W. J. Gilbert). Caulerpa racemosa var. imbricata (Kjellm.) Eubank, 1946: 423, fig. 2w. Necker Island: RT 944. Caulerpa racemosa var. laetevirens (Mont.) Weber-van Bosse, 1898: 366, Bivto tries, 16-22 Je. | Necker Island: Christophersen (det. by Dr. W. J. Gilbert). Caulerpa racemosa var. peltata (Lamx.) Eubank, 1946: 421, figs. ar-s. Necker Island: RT 943. Caulerpa serrulata (Forssk.) J. Ag. emend, Boergesen, 1932: 5, pl. 1 (fies: 2). Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in a meter of water). Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Ag., 1822: 435; Eubank, 1946: 417, figs. 2f-g. Nihoa Island: Christophersen (det. by Dr. W. J. Gilbert). Chaetomorphs, antennina (Bory) Kitzing, 1849: 379; Boergesen, 1940: 38. Necker Island: RT 953. Chlorodesmis hildebrandtii A. & E. S. Gepp, 1911: 16, 137, figs. Th+75; Egerod, 1952: 377, fig. 9b, pl. 3ha. Lisianski Island: RT 644 (small filaments about 2-3 mm in length attached to coral ye Cladophora sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 627 (Bird Island - entangled mass of yellowish-green Pilaments with spongy texture). Codium arabicum Kiltzing, 1856: 35, pl. 100 (fig. ITI). (Codium coronatum Setchell) Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in 3 meters of water). Egerod (1952) —_— - relegates C. coronctum to 8} synonymy under C. arabicum. Codium edule Silva in Egerod, 1952: 392, figs. 18a-c, pl. 35. French Frigate Shoals: RI 932 (Trig Island); Lisianski Island: RT 927 (on eastern beach). Dictyosphaeria cavernosa (Forssk@1) Boerg., 1932: 2, pPRIOL Cet elo Ls Egerod, 1952: 350, fig. le-g. Kure Atoll: RT 982 (Green Island - beachdrift). Distyosphaeria versluysii Weber-van Bosse, 1905: 14+; Egerod, 1952: 351, figs. 1a and 2h-k. Lisiane’i Tsland: RP 642; Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 903 (Southeast Isiaad - “peachdrift). Enteromorpha tubulosa Kiltzing, 1856: 11; Dawson, 1954: 364, figs.6a-b. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 91il (Southeast Island - on rocks on west side of island). Enteromorpha sp. 1 Lisianski Island: RT 645 (on coral); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 628 (North Island - on coral). Enteromorpha sp. 2 Kure Atoll: MSD 19576D (Green Island - small thallus branching profusely from base). Enteromorpha sp. 3 Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 913 (Southeast Island - in shallow pool). -~ 5 - Halimeda discoidea Decaisne, 1842: 91; Hillis, 1959: 352, pl. 2 Pine. ol. 5 (rig. 11), pl. 6 (fig. 11), pl. 7 (flee. 9=00), pl. 8 (figs. 5-8), pl. ll. Lisianski Island: RT 638, RT 922 (on eastern beach); Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe, as H. cuneata Hering (in a meter of water). Hillis in her monograph of the genus Halimeda lists the specimen identified by ‘Howe as H. cuneata Hering under H. discoidea Decaisne. Halimeda opuntia (L.) Lamx., 1816: 308; Hillis, 1959: 359, pl. 2 ores), plo itive ser), pl, 6:(fig. 6), pl. 7 (figs 3), ple 10. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (small segmented form in about 7 meters of water); Midway Island: MSD 18707, MSD 18738, MSD 18747, MSD 18758 (as H. incrassata (Ellis) Lamx. in Buggeln, 1965); Laysan Island: Tanager Expedition (as H. lacunalis Taylor in Tsuda, 1965). The author in an earlier (1965) paper had listed H. lacunalis Taylor as occurring on Laysan while Mr. Richard Buggeln listed H. incrassata (Ellis) Lamx. as occurring on Midway (Buggeln, 1965). After a more thorough study of these two specimens, Mr. Buggeln and the author agree that both are juvenile forms of H. opuntia, with this decision later verified by Dr. William J. Gilbert. These two specimens each have a single distinct holdfast, while anatomically the central filaments at the internode are fused in pairs and the utricles fall within the size range as specified in Hillis(1959). Microdictyon setchellianum Howe, 1934: 38; Egerod, 1952: 366, figs. 6c-g, pl. 33. Necker Island: RT 954; French Frigate Shoals: RT 933 (Trig Island); Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in about 7 meters of water), RT 618 (Bird Island - epiphytic on Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) Lamx.), RT 624 (Bird Island), RT 902 (Southeast Island - beachdrift); Kure Atoll: RT 986 (Green Island - beachdrift). Ulva fasciata Delile, 1813: 153; Boergesen, 1940: 10. Necker Island: RT 92. PHAEOPHYTA Colpomenia sinuosa (Roth) Derbes & Solier, 1856: 11; Dawson, 1954: 402, figs. 16a, c, d. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (epiphytic on Halimeda opuntia ew, Lamx. In about 7 meters of water). «Ga Chnoospora minima (Hering) Papenfuss, 1956: 69. Necker Island: RT 947. Dictyota friabilis Setchell, 1926: 91, pl. 13 (figs. 4-7) and pl. 20 (fig. 1). Necker Island: RT 948 (fragments); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 617 (Bird Island - epiphytic on Laurencia obtusa (Huds. ) Lamx. ) Dictyota sp. Kure Atoll: RT 981 (Green Island - beachdrift). Hydroclathrus clathratus (C. Ag.) Howe, 1920: 590. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in about a meter of water). Pocockiella variegata (Lamx.) Papenfuss, 1943: 467, figs. 1-14. Lisianski Island: RT 640 (small prostrate thallus adhering to coral); Kure Atoll: RT 985 (Green Island - beachdrift). Sargassum echinocarpum J. Ag., 1848: 327. Nihoa Island: EW 2: Necker Island: RT 941. Sargassum obtusifolium J. Ag., 1848: 339. (Sargassum vulgare var. linearifoliumJ. Ag. ) Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in about 7 meters of water on coral and sand, probably unattached). Howe (1934) places a question mark after this variety, but says that this specimen agrees very well with Yendo (1907). At present, Doty & Newhouse (unpublished manuscript) places this variety under the species S. obtusifolium J. Ag. which is circumscribed to include all round and smooth stemmed Sargassums from Hawaii. Sargassum piluliferum (Turn.) C. Ag., 1821: 27. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (floating in 2 meters of water), MSD 13346 (floating in 3-k meters of water), RT 915 (in central lagoon). Specimen RT 915 is very light brown in color, with proiiferations on the main axis, narrow leaf-segments, and numerous air vesicles on short pedicels. -~ 7 - Sphacelaria tribuloides Meneghini, 1840: 2; Boergesen, 1941: 41, figs. ak AC e : Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 633A (Bird Island - on coral). Turbinaria ornata (Turner) J. Ag., 1848: 266; Taylor, 1964: 483. French Frigate Shoals: (reported in Taylor, 1964); Lisianski Is- Vande. RI 9a (on eastern side of island); Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in about a meter of water), RT 620 (Bird Island), RT 099 (Southeast Island - beachdrift); Kure Atoll: MSD 19573 (Green Island - beachdrift). Zonaria sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 613 (Bird Island); Kure Atoll: MSD 19575 and RT 980 (Green Island - beachdrift). ~~ RHODOPHY TA Acrochaetium sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 622 (Bird Island - epiphytic on Turbi- Sa NE naria ornate (Turner) J. Ag.). Amphiroa fragillisima (L.) Lamx., 1816: 298; Taylor, 1960: 403,pl. 47 : (Figs < 1-2 ° Lisianski Island: RT 641, RT 926 (on eastern beach). Bangia fuscopurpurea (Dillwyn) Lyngbye, 1819: 83; Taylor, 1960: 293. French Frigate Shoals: MSD 19476 (as a tuft near high tide line on La Perouse Rock). Det. by Dr. Maxwell S. Doty. Centroceras apiculatum Yamada, 1944a: he. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 629 (Bird Island - on piece of coral), RT 908 (Southeast Island - beachdrift, epiphytic on Microdictyon set- chellianum Howe). Centroceras clavulatum (C. Ag.) Montagne in Durieu, 1846: 140; Dawson, 1954: “Wié, fig. Sn. Necker Island: RT 955; Kure Atoll: MSD 19576E (Green Island). Cie Ceramium gracillimum Griffiths & Harvey in Harvey, 1846-1851, pl. 206. French Frigate Shoals: RT 936 (East Island). Ceramium mazatlanense Dawson, 1950b: 130, pl. 2 (figs. 14-15). Lisianski Island: RT 643 (epiphytic on Amphiroa fragillisima (L.) Lamx. ). Falkenbergia hillebrandii (Bornet) Falkenbert = sporophyte generation of Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Collins & Hervey; Feldmann & Feldmann, 1942: 89; Dawson, 1954: 414, fig. 251. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 623 (Bird Island). Gelidium pusillum (Stackh.) Le Jolis, 1864: 139; Dawson, 1954: 420, figs. 3la-c. Necker Island: RT 952; Lisianski Island: Ball (tuft on coral), RT 920 (on east beach); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 626 (Bird Island - juvenile forms covering small piece of coral). Goniolithon frutescens Fosl., 1900: 9. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (in a meter of water). Griffithsia ovalis Harvey, 1862, vol. 4: pl. 203; Abbott, 1946: hho, pl. 1 (figs. 1-4); pl. 2 (figs. 1-2). Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 910 (Southeast Island - beachdrift, epiphytic on Microdictyon setchellianum Howe). This sterile bead-like thallus about a centimeter long is tentatively listed under this species. Haloplegma sp. Kure Atoll: RT 984 (Green Island - beachdrift). Herposiphonia sp. 1 French Frigate Shoals: RT 934A (Trig Island). At present, Dr. G. J. Hollenberg is studying all of these specimens of Herpo- siphonia from the Leeward group and will report on them later. Herposiphonia sp. 2 Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 625 (Bird Island - epiphytic on f SEER e a Microdictyon setchellianum Howe). Herposiphonia sp. 3 Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 906 (Southeast Island - beachdrift, epiphytic on “Microdictyon setchellianum Howe), RT 912 (on rocks on west side of island). Hypnea, pannosa J. Ag., 1847: 14; Tanaka, 1941: 247, fig. 20. Necker Island: RT 945 (forming entangled clumps). Hypnea sp. Lisianski Island: RT 925 (epiphytic on base of Halimeda discoidea Decaisne on eastern beach); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT iid (central la- la- goon - epiphytic on Sargassum piluliferum (Turn.) C. Ag.). Jania capillacea Harvey, 1853: 684; Dawson, 1952: 116. Necker Island: RT 951 (epiphytic on Sargassum echinocarpum J. Ag. ); Lisianski Island: RT 923 (epiphytic on meee ornata (Turner) J. Ag on eastern beach); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 907 : RT 907 (Southeast Island - beachdrift, epiphytic on Microdictyon setchellianum Howe); Kure Atoll: MSD 19576 (ee Island - epiphytic on Turbinaria ornata Cramert J ole)» Jania ungulata Yendo, 1902: 27, pl. 3 (figs. 7-8) and pl. 7 (fig. 8). Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 621 (Bird Island - epiphytic on Turbi- naria ornata (Turner) J 7. Mey Laurencia galtsoffi Howe, 1934: 39. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (on sand and coral in 3 meters of water). Laurencia obtusa (Huds. ) Lamx., 1813: 130; Yamada, 1931: 222, pl. 16 figs. a-e) and pl. 17 (figs. a-c). Necker Island: RT 940; French Frigate Shoals: RT? 931 (Trig Is- land); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 616 (Bird Island), RT 904 (Southeast Island = beachdrift), RT 917 (in central lagoon); Kure Atoll: RT 983 (Green Island - beachdrift). oO = Laurencia sp. 1 Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (on coral sand in 7 meters of water). Laurencia sp. 2 French Frigate Shoals: RT 935 (Trig Island). Laurencia sp. 3 Kure Atoll: MSD 19576B (Green Island). Liagora ceranoides Lamx. f. ulverulenta (Cc. Ag.) Yamada, 1938: 20; Abott, 1945: 156, figs. 0-9 Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 900 (Southeast Island - beachdrift). Male thallus about 11 cm in height, determined by Dr. I. A.Abbott. Liagora farinosa Lamx., 1816: 240; Abbott, 1945: 163, figs. 14-15. Laysan: MSD 19584 (determined as L. kehukuanaAbbott in Tsuda, 1965). This specimen was sent to Dr. I. A. Abbott for verification and according to her, it is not L. kahukuana Abbott but falls within the circumscription of L. farinosa Lamx. Liagora kahukuana Abbott, 1945: 149, fig. 2. Laysan: Tanager Expedition (as Liagora sp. 2 in Tsuda, 1965). Determined by Dr. I. A. Abbott. Liagora valida Harvey, 1852: 138, pl. 3la (figs. 1-5); Abbott, 1945: 160, Ligse Leds, Laysan: Tanager Expedition (as Liagora sp. 1 in Tsuda, 1965). Determined by Dr. I. A. Abbott. Liagora sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 901 (Southeast Island - beachdrift). Upon examination of this male specimen, Dr. I. A. Abbott reports that it is very close to i. valida Harvey in internal structure but differs ex- ternally. ) Lithophylium sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (on broken corals in 1-2 meters of water). ow Polysiphonia simplex Hollenberg, 1942: 782, fig. 18. French Frigate Shoals: RT 934B (Trig Island). Species determina- tion by Dr. G. d. Hollenberg. Polysiphonia villum J. Ag., 1863: 941. Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 633B (Bird Island - on piece of coral). Det. by Dr. G. J. Hollenberg. Porolithon sp. Pearl and Hermes Reef: Howe (on broken coral in 1-2 meters of water). Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf. ) Harv. in Hooker, 1833: 337; Dawson, 195}: hi, fig. 5k. oe Lisianski Island: RT 928 (on east beach); Pearl and Hermes Reef: RT 615 (Bird Island - epiphytic on Zonaria sp.). Acknowledgments The majority of the specimens reported here were eollected under the auspices of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, Division of Birds, Smithsonian Institution, by Dr. Charles H. Lamoureux, Mr. C.R. Long, Mr. Alan L. Young, and Mr. Alan Anderson. The specimens are in the pos- session of the Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, with a second set being sent to the Smithsonian Institution. The author is grateful to Dr. Isabella A. Abbott, Hopkins Marine Station, for her determinations of Liagora; to Dr. Francis Drouet, Aca- demy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for providing the- determinations of all the blue-green algae; to Dr. William J. Gilbert, Albion College, for his verification of H. opuntia; and to Dr. George J. Hollenberg, Pro- fessor Emeritus of Biology, University of Redlands, for the species deter- minations of Polysiphonia. =""8"% Summary of Algal Collections Table I summarizes the number of marine benthic algal species or varieties in each of the major divisions thus far recorded from each of the eight islands in the Leeward Hawaiian group. To date, no algal col- lections have been made from Gardner Pinnacles. By observing this table One can see the discrepancy between the number of algae from Laysan Is- land as compared to the number of algae from the other islands. More work on algal floristics is needed on these other islands, since Laysan is the only island on which a thorough collection has been made. Table I. Number of marine benthic algae from the Leeward Hawaiian Group | , | | _Myxophyta | Chlorophyta | Phaeophyta | Rhedenbate | Total Nihoa Island Necker Island French Frigate | Shoals | Reef Kure Atoll -13- Selected Bibliography Abbott, I. A. 1945. The genus Liagora (Rhodophyceae) in Hawaii. Occ. Pap. B. P. Bis. Mus. XVl11(10): 145-169, figs. 1-16. Bryan, E. H., Jr. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain. Tongg Publ. Co., Honolulu. 253 pp. Buggeln, R. G. 1965. A preliminary list of the algal flora of the Midway Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 109: Il-ll. Egerod, L. 1952. An analysis of the siphonous Chlorophycophyta. Calif. Univ., Publ., Bot. 25: 325-454, figs. 1-23, pls. 29-2. Eubank, L. 1946. Hawaiian representatives of the genus Caulerpa. Calif. Univ., Publ. , Bot. 18: LO9=432, figs. 1-2. Hillis, L. W. 1959. A revision of the genus Halimeda. Inst. Mar. Sei. VI: 321-403, pl. 1-12. Howe, M. A. 1934. Hawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 24(1): 32-he. Lemmermann, E. 1905. Die Algenflora der Sandwich-Inseln. Bot. Jahrb. 35: 607-663. Reinbold, T. 1899. Meersalgen. Ergebnisse einer Reise nach dem Pacific, H. Schauinsland 1896-1897. Abhandl. Naturw. Verein, Bremen. 287-302. Schauinsland, H. 1899. Drei Monate auf einer Korallen-Inseln. (Laysan). Abhandl. Naturw. Verein, Bremen. 1-104. Taylor, W. R. i964. The genus Turbinaria in eastern seas. Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 58(374): 475-487. Tsuda, R. T. 1965. Marine algae from Laysan Island with additional netes on the vascular flora. Atoll Res. Bull. 110: 1-31. whom, cork Levak. och, Drtare apnenten ‘ cy “ER ae ere agit 5 é : ; s7yrigooyaqoioLaD ay vonnderte: oe ‘tc. ne aid [| ww . ‘ Sd-OS .OL¢ wESad spe kt. ae s88. “tom } ; - -eqreluay) suis ait “to nevis siaeabaqet oatauat P| snk get SE COF Ske GS he «lari Sik aui alt a P , Ob ial ‘ TOM thats phaist Lath, Any ,o atronsiad 9 Luet svi yl hetveltos - SSE trys scot Rotetld ents sien ' atoenl-tolvbak® woh pao ltaes . / Mm we ‘ hol coan saben -tertto Linivaei’ ee waited ..fiasdda) . TBicdw erg ogi fence ead ; ash ns angen veent-asifersd bak sie oh ae one beni ROBE POIAL - .srememt citegey ee ee & aaa fT “cont anor cet il elias cn las ey 1 “cl Ee E pr rv. im liibie nifw fable emo ort: aay ts coat oi ~ 5-2 OLE whkatt sina es vi wartot ad Heat jee ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 116 Reef studies at Addu Atoll, Maldive Islands Preliminary results of an expedition to Addu Atoll in 1964 Edited by David R. Stoddart Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Washington, D. C. March 31, 1966 ud hovesl , ia Gsaoa SoWsIo@ OOM SHE ioavod Astasted Isnotte¥i~-aeone tot Ro ymebsok CONTENTS Page dee Introduction ee .2 es e es * . ° * * . © o s e e ° * e . ° s e il II. Climate and marine environment .......«. ea ea ee a -ITI. Geomorphology of Addu Atoll, by Dd. 2, Stoddart, Pe spencer Panies andi wctalieltiniquin’ ~atagmon, . . . . 13 IV, Preliminary list of stony corals from Addu Atoll, by J, We, Wells and, P. Spencez! Davide, 4994 494°¢ .. ., 43 V. Vegetation and flora A. A brief history of botanical observations and col- lections made in the lialdive Islands, Indian Ocesnarby ElsWeoSreveso. Jigoga.t¢ o4-7OR7SPE4. aos 57 B. Preliminary account of the land and marine yecetationcotsAddu atolls iby DeoCyoSigee?.- 3°24. 3 -e 61 C. List of Addu vascular plants, by F, 2. Fosberg, BE. Weo@edves, andipy Consiese ey po. eles - oF. sos 75 D. ilarine benthic algae from Addu Atoll, lialdive Islands, by Roy T. Tsuda and jan Newhouse ..... $3 Vie Addu Atoll in 1836 e e s e ° ® ° e e 6 ° * e e e e e e e e e103 VIL, | Bibliosraphyicfsthe Maldive ‘Islands ez). ov igo ym eR", 657107 Illustrations Facing page Figure, 1, The Maldive Islands, after Farquharson (1936) ..... ii ey Weaw Atoll, based on Admitalty Chart No. 2067 . .. « » 2t Followins page es Mean monthly wind directions at Gan Island, 1960-1964 wonng+ 5". Pies se © ae 8 ow em ws lip) eae te Monthly temperatures at ean, October 1957- Septenbes ESE299) FesAewe a ae cs st Ms ee se ke a5 Range of rainfall and mean monthly rainfall at Gan, OetebersiSSJ) Variation in temperature and salinity over the lagoon reef flat in transect I during one tidal cycle, after moderate rain with light wind from the north. Readings taken at surface and at bottom at inshore, mid-flat and reef edge locations at LWST and HWST on 23 August 1964. 0200 BES, oRVES Temperature Salinity Zone Sample ale _ 2/00 surface water 27.0 33.8 — bottom (2 ft below) 27.5 33.8 surface 28.0 34.8. Want pottom (3 ft below) 28.0 BLT surface 27.5 34.7 Reef edge bottom (6 ft below) 28.0 3h. b eae ne 1500 hrs, HWST Temperature Salinity Zone Sample Oc ©/00 surface 28.0 33.9 a bottom 28.0 33.9 Mid-flat surface 28.0 34.1 bottom 28.0 34.1 Reef -edge surface 28.0 34.1 bottom 28.0 34.1 These data show a slight salinity gradient across the reef flat from land to sea on the lagoon reef. A higher gradient was found on the seaward flat, particularly after heavy rainfall, as shown in the following determinations by Dr. Davies. They may be compared with normal sea salinities of 33.8~34.4 %o0 in this area, determined by H.M.S. Owen in 1962. Sample (100 metre intervals Salinity °/oo from shore to seaward edge) Shortly after Following LWST heavy rain au 26.3 16,7 2 Sha 31.5 3 30.8 315 ut 31.2 31.5 3 31.0 31.6 6 30.8 eames qT 341 32.0 8 34.3 33.8 9 34.4 34.7 10 34.5 34.7 11 (reef edge) - 34.7 *suyeo e8equedied 0} Jeyer soinsTy °ueD fS0TALES TBOTSOTOIOSIOW aya Aq pettddns ejep uo peseq *496T-096T ‘pue[s] ued 2e suOTIOSATp puTM ATYIUOU UPA Sco "srt leas ddd Gs tae 02 Ol fo) SESS | 8-¢ ¢-zl 6-¢l Y3EN3AON w3adO150 waENaid3s ¥W3EW3030 : : 8-v AVN 2-SI isnonv G-dl 2 AyuWnuGss AYUVOANVE pLHIGHEST MAXIMUM . MEAN MINIMUM A DATA FOR OCTOBER 1957- SEPTEMBER 1962 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Fig. 4. Monthly temperatures at Gan, October 1957-September 1962, based on data supplied by the Meteorological Service, Gan. INCHES J E M A M J J A S) 0 N D o MONTHLY TOTALS OCTOBER 1957- JUNE 1964 4 MONTHLY TOTALS FEBRUARY 1944 - FEBRUARY 1945 Fig. 5. Range of rainfall and mean monthly rainfall at Gan, October 1957-June 1964, based on data supplied by the Meteorological Service, Gan. '2345 6786 90 2 13 14 15 6 17 1B 19 2021 22 23:24 25 26 27 2829303) | 234 567 8B YF ION) 12 13 14 15 6 IT 18 19 20 21 2 Z 24 2 26 27 28 2 30 AUGUST SEPTEMBER Fig. 6. Predicted tides for August and September 1964, based on data supplied by the Marine Craft Section, Gan. =, Vay III. GEOMORPHOLOGY OF ADDU ATOLL by D. Re Stoddart, P. Spencer Davies and A. C. Keith A. General description Addu Atoll, latitude 0°38' South, longitude 73°10' East, is the southernmost atoll in the Maldive Islands, separated from the next nearest atoll to the north, Huvadu or Suvadiva Atoll, by the 45 mile wide Equatorial Channel. The next nearest atoll to the south is Salomon Atoll, Chagos Arthipelago, 320 miles distant. Addu itself (Fig. 2) is one of the smallest of the Maldive atolls, measuring 28.4 km (17.6 miles) in maximum dimension (NW to NE points), and 16.5 km (10.2 miles) in the transverse Girection. The atoll may be termed semi-circu- lar or- triangular: the south-facing reefs are broadly convex, the north~ ern reef concave. The shape may be approximated to that of a triangle, apex southwards, with a base of 28 km between the northwest and north- east points, and sides of 25 km. Shape measurements by several methods give values for Horton's F number of 0,604, for Miller's Circularity Ratio of 0.754, for Schumm's Elongation Ratio E of 0.895, for Boyce and Clark's Radial Line Index of 28.54,-and for the Ellipticity Index of 1.3 (Stoddart, in press). The total area of the atoll is approximately 60 square nautical miles, or 6.5 on Haggett's G scale (Haggett et al. 1965). Of this, no less than 41% consists of reef flat and islands. The peripheral reefs of the atoll are broad, ranging from 700 metres on the north side to 1900 metres on the southwest; maximm widths of up to 2900 metres are found on the northwest projection. The reefs are continuous except for two gaps in the centre of the southern reef (Gan Channel, Wilingili Channel) and two in the centre of the northern reef (Kudu Kanda Chan- nel, Man Kanda Channel). Gan Channel, which is buoyed, is 950 metres wide with a sill depth of 9-10 fathoms; Wilingili Channel, 750 metres wide, has a sill depth of 21-31 fathoms. In the north the channels are narrower: Man Kanda, which is buoyed, is 350 metres wide with @ 13-18 fathom sill; Kudu Kanda is 250 metres wide, with a 13-19 fathom sill. All the peripheral reefs are of simple linear form, and lack the ring-shaped faros so well developed in the northern Maldives. Lit- tle is known of the detailed topography of the atoll slopes. The John Murray Expedition ran a profile from the northeast corner of the atoll, recording a depth of 1000 fathoms within 4.5 miles in the easterly direction (mean slope 14°10') and within 5 miles to the northeast. Their soundings also indicated a ridge extending northeastwards towards Fua Mulaku, shown by soundings of 590 and 654 fathoms (Farquharson 1936, Plate 6). H.M.S. Modesta, sounding out of Gan Channel in 1956, recorded 1069 fathoms 1.5 nautical miles southeast of the Wilingili reef edge, giving a mean slope of 35°, a UR a The atoll lagoon is elliptical, with its axis trending ENE-WSW. It has a maximum length of 11.7 km and breadth of 9 km. Unlike the northern Maldive atolls, such as North Male and Ari, there are few knolls or patch reefs in Addu lagoon. The two most conspicuous patch reefs are near the lagoon centre, named Medagala and Aruhal, on which waves break even in calm weather. Medagala and two smaller patches near the west side of the lagoon are buoyed. Small reef patches and Knolls are more profusely developed in the extreme northwest and northeast corners of the lagoon, but elsewhere the lagoon reef Slope falls steeply to the lagoon floor. The maximum lagoon depth is 3 fathoms, comparable to that of the much larger Huvadu Atoll and con- siderably deeper than that of the larger atolls in the northern Maldives (cf. Biewald 1964, 354). Islands occupy approximately 20% of the peripheral reef flat of the atoll by area, and no less than 65% of the seaward reef edge is backed by land. The only extensive reef sector without land is the concave northern reef. There are large villages on two of the islands, Midu and Hitaddu, and the settlement formerly located on Gan Island has been relocated on Fedu following the 1960 Agreement between Britain end the Maldivian Government. An airstrip was operational on Gan Is- land during the Second World War, when the deep channels and lagoon of Addu proved of naval value (the Queen Mary has anchored here). Follow- ing the Agreements of 1953 and 1960 the Maldivian Government has made certain scheduled territories (Gan Island and part of Hitaddu Island) available for use as a Royal Air Force Staging Post. Development of this Staging Post has involved the construction of a new runway and facilities, with personnel quarters on the northwest side of the is- land. : The population of the atoll was 4664 in 1931 and 5686 in 1946 (Didi 1949); in 1963 it was 8235. For a fairly detailed general account, Stn To aid in location an arbitrary 1000 metre grid was laid down on the Admiralty Chart (No. 2067) of Addu, related to the earth gra- ticule in that the 0°40' S latitude line and the 12 km S grid line, and the 73°10' E longitude line and the 12 km E grid line are coincident. This basic 1000 metre grid shown in the figures in this report may then be subdivided to give locations to the nearest 10 metres, easting before northing in each point reference. The grid, with a 100 metre interval, was also superimposed on an enlarged vertical air photograph of Gan to aid location referencing in the field. All reef flat and lagoon loca- tions were obtained by horizontal sextant angles on fixed island points, and then reduced to grid coordinates. B. Peripheral reefs The most detailed descriptions of the Addu reefs are those of Sewell (1936a, 69-72, 87-92), who divided the reef area into reef plat- form, outer reef and inner reef. Gardiner (1903, 317-321, 416) briefly gn ae comments on the reefs, stating that "the coral growth, taken as a whole, in Addu lagoon is most extraordinary, and in vigour quite sur- passes anything in my experience elsewhere either in the Maldives or in the Pacific Ocean" (1903, 319). Most of his remarks on reef chara- cteristics, however, are phrased in general terms. Agassiz (1903, 148) doubted whether the coral growth on the lagoon reef slopes of Gan was as vigorous as Gardiner implied. Kohn (1964a) gives a brief des- cription of the reef flat and reefs at Hitaddu and Gan. Eibl-Hibesfeldt (1964, 38-39) gives a schematic section of the reefs of a Maldivian atoll, and his zonation is followed here (Fig. 7). Figure 8 gives in diegrammatic form cross-sections of the peripheral reefs at Gan (B) and Hitaddu (A) Islands, to show contrasting conditions at these two loca- tions. Peripheral reef characteristics are treated under the following headings: (i) seaward reefs and slope, (ii) seaward reef edge (algal P atform), (iii) seaward reef flat, (iv) northern reefs~--Midu side, v) lagoon reef flat, reef and slope. (i) Seaward reefs and slope Little is known of the seaward reefs of Addu, except from air photographs, though Davies and Keith inspected the seaward reef slope by diving at Gan and Bushy Island. ‘The 1958 aerial photography shows spur-groove formation well-developed along the reef front along the whole of the convex southern reefs from Hitaddu to Midu, but not along the northern reefs, the lagoon reefs, or in the channels. Along most of the southwest reefs the lineations are approximately 100 metres long, or less; but off Wilingili they reach 250 metres, and off Mulikadu, north of Wilingili Channel, they reach a maximum length of 300 metres. The depth to which the lineations extend is unknown; Davies and Keith report no apparent trace of lineations on the seaward slope off Gan in depths of 7-16 fathoms. They also report a fairly gentle bottom Slope, suggesting that at some point, perhaps 400-500 metres outside the breakers at Gan, the bottom slope increases rapidly and falls to great depths. Air photographs indicate that the reef front outside the breakers is steeper.or the reef front terrace narrower round most of the rest of the atoll perimeter than at Gan. There is no data on the area immediately outside the breakers, which Wells (1957, 618) terms’ the innominate zone. : Hass (1961, 60) and Bibl-Eibesfeldt (1964, 37) describe an | abrupt increasé in bottom slope to form a "reef wall" at the foot of the more gentle reef slope outside the breakers on the seaward sides of Maldivian atolls. Undercutting at the base of this reef wall forms "Grotte" or: "HBhle" at depths of 25-135 metres (14-19 fathoms). Hass ascribes this undercutting to low~level marine erosion during a Wim glacial low sea level at -30 metres (16.4 fathoms). Main Wirm sea levels, however, were probably in excess of -100 metres (Donn, Farrand and Ewing 1962), and stillstands at the -30 metre level may be connected with the Allerdd or similar oscillations. Whether these brief Holocene stillstands (Fairbridge 1961) were long enough to cut Hass's features is debatable. Similar undercutting was unfortunately not observed during the 1964 expedition. a” Te < An attempt was made by Davies and Keith to investigate the struc- ture of the seaward reef slope at Gan at a distance of approximately 150 metres from the reef edge, using SCUBA apparatus, but the high bottom surge made working conditions too dangerous for more than a brief examination. Here the depth was approximately 35-10 feet and the seaward beginnings of the surge channels were discernible. Corals, perticularly massive palmate Acroporas were present on the areas cor- responding to the base of the spurs and reached a height of no more then 4 feet above the general level of the bottoms of the groove areas. In the bases of the groove channels there was a continuous back and fore surge corresponding to the passage of each wave above, of approx- imately 15-20 feet. Coarse sand and fine gravel are kept in suspension in these areas, often rising to heights of 4-5 feet above the level of the floor of the surge channel. The backwards and forward motion of the bottom water was discernible to depths of approximetely 70 feet on the seaward terrace. At a distance of 200-250 metres from the reef edge a more thor- Ough examination of the structure of the seaward reef slope was made. At this point the seaward terrace had a depth of 40 feet and sloped gradually seawards at about 10°. At a depth of 70 feet there is a slight increase in the steepness of the slope to 30-409, extending to & depth of 130 feet and the bottom then appears to flatten out again. At 200-250 metres from the reef edge, there is little trace of the groove and spur system. The corals nevertheless appear to be in bands of approximately 10 feet wide, normal to the reef edge. Between the bands ere areas of dead coral fragments, rounded and largely covered with calcareous algae though still mobile. Sand is present in places emongst the dead coral. The living coral is of three dominant types 1) a meh branched twig like Acropora similar to that growing on the lagoon reef slope at Gan, 2) Echinopora and 3) a massive palmate Acropora whose growing points all pointed in the direction of the reef edge. Occasional small colonies of Pocillopora were present but there were few encrusting corals. This was in marked contrast to that seen at equivalent depths on the lagoon reef where encrusting corals were common. The calcareous alga Halimeda was to be found, particularly amongst the first mentioned type of Acropora. At 60 feet coral growth gave way to a zone of Alcyonarians often forming masses of up to 4 x 5 feet in area. There was no sign of any banding of corals and the few small coral colonies present were ran- domly dispersed amongst the Alcyonarians, with areas of sand and small coral fragments between. There was no evidence here of any cementing action by calcareous algae. At a depth of 120-130 feet the bottom flattens out and is comprised largely of gravel and sand. =17-< (ii) Seaward reef edge Seaward reef edge features at Gan are comparable to those de- scribed in the Marshall Islands (Ladd and others 1950). ‘The outermost zone, between the reef flat and the breakers, is formed by a platform of encrusting and nodular red and purple calcareous algae, forming a rough and irregular surface. Unlike some areas in the Marshall Is- lands, where the algal zone forms a high ridge, at Gan it is less distinctive topographically, forming a zone 30-50 metres wide, rising O.5-1 ft above the level of the reef flat immediately to landward, * and drying at extreme low water but not at other low tide stages. Be- tween islands, where the level of the reef flat is lower, the relative height of the algal platform is correspondingly greater. At low tide stages, waves break outside the algal platform, where its crest be- gins to curve down towards the reef slope, and each breaker sends a sheet of water over the platform, the higher parts of which remain ' emerged. At higher tides the platform may be covered with 3-4 ft of water, and breaking of waves takes place over a wider area on the platform itself. In places the seaward slope lineations extend through the break- er zone into the algal platform. At Gan, long sectors of the reef edge lack algal-platform channels, and often poorly and irregularly developed channels can only be seen where the platform descends be- neath the breakers at low tide. At certain points, however, as at 093150 and particularly 115161, the channels cut back into the plat- form for 25-35 metres, forming deep, steep-sided gullies, with vertical or overhanging sides and floors 6 ft or more below the level of the intervening ridges. The channels are narrow, often less than 2 metres wide, and the ridges are wider. The sides of the channels and the intervening areas are covered with encrusting nodular and papillose brownish-red algae and other non-calcareous colonial organ- isms. Small colonies of Acropora are found on the channel walls and are exposed at low tide during backwash, when water level in the chan- nels may vary vertically 3-5 ft with each wave advance. During backwash the channels act as drainage lines for water on the reef flat, which cascades over the channel lips and attached small corals; during swash, water surges up the channels and spills over the brim onto the flat, where it joins with the slower water flow over the platform sur- face to form a translating wave 1-2 ft deep. No signs of channel roofing or tunnel formation were seen, and no observations were made on the channels during higher tidal stages. The Gan reef edge may be compared with that in the Northern Marshalls described by Emery, Tracey and Ladd (1954, 24-26), except that reef blocks lodged by extreme storm action are not found. At Gan the reef edge falls into the Northern Marshalls Class I, strongly grooved, Sub-type A, ridge low and uncut by grooves. In this type the algal zone is described as forming "a broad arch, sloping gently seaward and rising only 6 inches to 1 foot above the main reef flat. With rare exceptions, the grooves, though well developed, are limited to the seaward slope beyond low-tide level" (Emery, Tracey and Ladd (1954, 25). Their Type I-B, with an algal ridge 2-33 feet above the io Ve reef flat and deeply cut by surge channels, is apparently absent at Addu. The northern reefs at Addu, not investigated in detail, appear to belong to their Class II, grooves weak or absent, Sub-type A; reef edge straight or smoothly scalloped. (iii) Seaward reef flat Precise levelling was carried out on the seaward reef flat, from Fedu to Gan Channel, a distance of 5 kms. Landward of the algal plat- form is a deeper area, or moat, 20-70 metres wide, and generally 9-12 inches lower than the highest part of the algal platform. It lacks encrusting red algae of the reef-edge type, is floored with rubble coated with filamentous algae and occasional massive Halimeda,with oc- casional flattened coral colonies. This moat carries a few inches of water even at lowest low tides. Landward it is succeeded by a rubble zone Of small boulders, usually less than 1 ft in diameter but excep- tionally up to 3 ft, and smaller rubble. This zone is as high as the reef edge platform and is exposed at lowest low water. Gravel and cobbles form irregular tongues extending lagoonward from the rubble zone across the reef flat, with maximum lengths off the southeast shore of Gen of 250 metres. Generally these debris tongues are about 50 metres long and only a few inches thick, fingering out lagoonward; there is some indication in vegetation patterns on the flat of the existence of tongues of several ages, suggesting that they may be mainly formed periodically during storms. The reef flat itself (Fig. 9) is a rock platform thinly veneered with sand and some coarser debris, partly in transport and partly held by vegetation. The width of the reef flat varies widely round the atoll, and the width of the seaward flat depends largely on the relative loca- tion of islands on it. At Gan the total width of the reef flat is 1500- 2000 metres, and of the seaward flat 600-750 metres. Most of the is- lends are situated closer to the seaward reef, and between Hitaddu and Hankeda and Mahera and Mulikadu the seaward. flat is 50-300 metres wide; the mean width of the whole reef flat round the atoll is approximately 1000 metres (cf. Section E below). The flat also varies in height. Off the central part of Gan (115-120 easting), where the flat is 750 metres wide, it stands at a relatively high level, is thickly covered with marine grasses, and dries completely from the shore to the algal platform at lowest low tides. Between Gan and Fedu, by contrast, the flat is at a lower level, carries 1-3 ft of water even at lowest tides, lacks a vegetation mat, and is covered with sand in transport. These reef flats on the southern side of the atoll differ considerably from those on the north side, and may be distinguished as windward reef flat types. They differ from many described elsewhere in the Pacific and the Caribbean chiefly in the lack of coral growth on the seaward flat itself (cf. Emery and others 1954, 27; Wells 1954, 396-398). ‘This apparently results from the high level of the flat and its regular dry- ing. Where the level is lower on the Gan flat, growing corals are found. This occurs in three main areas: (a) the Gan-Fedu channel, (b) the lobe-shaped inlet of deeper water at the reef edge at 106158, and . Fs = (c) on the flat near the Gan channel (130153). A few very small and scattered corals are also found in the moat and in deeper parts of the algal platform round the reef edge. These consist mainly of corymbose Acropora and small nodular Porites, tightly cemented to the flat, to- gether with small patches cf Heliopora. In the three deeper areas, carrying at least 1 foot of water at lowest tides, the dominant corals are widely scattered colonies of Heliopora and Porites, the latter forming "micro-atolls" the top surface of which often supports a grow- ing mass of Turbinaria. In the Gan-Fedu channel, where coral growth is scattered in spite of adequate water depth, coral growth is probably restricted by the amount of sediment in transport across the flat into the lagoon: in the case of many Porites colonies this is indicated by senuring on the upstream face and construction of a sand tail on the lee side, which creeps up the face of the colony killing the polyps which it buries. At Hitaddu where the seaward flat is narrower and thus more char- acteristic, the seaward edge is also formed by an algal platform, but the seaward flat itself is rocky, 100-200 metres wide, and 18-24 inches deeper than at Gan (precise comparison is difficult in the absence of a common dstum). No part of the seaward flat dries at any time. From the algal platform to within a few metres of the shore the flat is covered with coral rubble and blocks, with scattered small colonies of Heliopora, Porites and Acropora. Heliopora nowhere reaches the, impor tance described at Funafuti and Onotoa Atolls (Cloud 1952), but it is certainly one of the more successful colonisers vn shallow seaward flats at Addu. (iv) Northern reefs - Midu side The northern reef flat at Addu is quite different from those deseribed above. It is likely that it carries 1-2 feet of water over almost its whole extent at lowest tides, and circulation of water is not inhibited by the presence of islands. Considerable coral growth is found both along the seaward edge of the flat, and on the lagoon side, and the sand-Floored area between is patterned by growing corals. Similar conditions are found on the flats at the northwest and north- east corners of the atoll lagoon. The patterns of coral growth on these flats resemble at a small scale those deseribed by Kornicker and Boyd (1962, 643) at Arrecife Alacran, Gulf of Mexico. This reef flat type may be termed the leeward type. Lagoon reefs (approximate grid ref. 045130) The northerm reefs are considerably narrower than those at the south end of the atoll and differ in morphology and species composi~ tion of the corals. The lagoon reef slope is less steep and has an estimated angle of approximately 40°, merging with the lagoon floor st a, depth of approximately 80 feet. The cessation of coral growth is not so distinct and patches of coral growth are found to depths of 100 feet on the gradual slope of the lagoon floor. Chute formations were ae ye not observed. The reef edge does not form a distinct zone and the outermost area of the reef top merges with the upper area of the lagoon slope, being dominated by palmate Acroporas, although some Pavia, Galaxea and Porites are also present. The reef flat or reef top is characterized by the very low growths of coral which rise no more than 1-1.5 feet above the level of the surrounding sand. The area between corals is typically com- posed of a coarse sand rather than of coral fragments. The area occupied by living coral decreases towards the centre of the reef top and in some areas 90% of the surface of the reef is covered by the sand. Corals of the genus Acropora are dominant and comprise an esti- mated 95% of the total coral population. There are probably five or six species of this genus present, all tending towards a rather heavy, massive growth form. Other corals observed included Millepora, Pocil- lopora but Echinopora and Goniastrea did not appear to be present and massive cerioid and meandroid corals were not found. Seaward reefs(approximate grid ref. 037133) The centre of the reef top was not observed directly but aerial photographs indicate that there is little or no coral growth and that this area is carpeted with a layer of sand. Towards the reef edge, coral growth increases in abundance. Acropora spp. are again the dom- inant corals, particularly A. palifera and a branching species resembling A. formosa. Altogether there appears to be about six or seven species of Acropora composing this community but occasional colonies of Mille pora and Pocillopora eydouxi are also present. The only common alga is a species of Halimeda. There are very few massive or cerioid corals. The area between corals is again filled by sand which here shows evi- dence of sorting and is typically of large flake-like form, from 1 to several millimeters in diameter and probably derived from the breakdown of Halimeda. Towards the edge of the reef the corals form a very close commmity with very little non-living areas between the colonies. Where these are present they are filled by small Acropora fragments cemented together with encrusting calcareous algae. The dominant corals here are A. palifera and a massive bracket type of Acropora. These corals are actively growing and probably do not break surface at low water spring tide. The reef edge is not distinct, but at a depth of approximately 10 feet the zone of luxuriant growth gives way to a barren zone which is characterized by the lack of vigorous coral growth. Here, instead is an area of broken coral fragments cemented into a stable structure by the growth of encrusting red calcareous algae. Very small colonies of Acropora and Pocillopora of 6-9 inches diameter make up 10-15% of the bottom cover. This zone slopes gradually seawards to a depth of approximately 20 feet and then gives way to a steeper sloping zone (slope epproximately 30°) of very luxuriant coral growth. Acropora species are again dominant but Favia spp, Seriatopora, Millepora and occasional fungiids are also found. Occasional maséive upgrowths, = 21 - rising up to 20 feet above the general surface of coral growth were observed and these provided ecological niches for the establishment of several encrusting and nodular form corals which were not other- wise in evidence. At a depth of approximately 80 feet a break occurs in the slope, forming a fairly distinct edge and from here the reef falls away at a slope of about 50-60° to the depths of the Equatorial Channel. Be- ginning at depths of 40 feet in the zone above, the area between corals is filled by a coarse sand similar to that on the seaward region of the reef flat above. The relative area occupied by the sand increases with incressing depth as the number of corals and coral species decreases. At a depth of 150 feet there are very few corals still present but small Porites colonies are of sporadic occurrence. The hermatypic corals are gradually replaced by large branching colonies of Dendrophyllia and by large gorgonian sea fans and sea whips. Algae are still present at depths of 150 feet, attached to the larger coral fragments. The northern reefs were visited at a time of year when the pre- dominant wind is from the southeast so that the seaward reefs were therefore in the lee of the atoll. At midday, depths in excess of 150 feet were visible from the surface and water clarity was greater than that experienced in any part of the lagoon or on the seaward reef at Gan. Morphologically the seaward reef of the northern reef system dif- fers from that of the southern reef in: a) the absence of a distinct reef edge breaking surface at low tides b) absence of a groove and spur system ¢) the absence of a 10-fathom terrace although it is possible that the barren calcareous algae zone is the morphological equivalent of this d) the presence of delicate weak-framed corals and gorgonians e) the almost total domination of the surface reef by species of Acropora, including species which were not observed at the south of the atoll. The windward reef flats at Addu are further distinguished by the presence of areas of relict "reefrock" standing (at Gan) up to 4 feet above the general level of the reef flat. In the Gan-Fedu channel the largest of these patches are found 300 and 4OO metres respectively from the reef edge, and measure 140 x 30 and 140 x 60 metres. Smaller ‘patches are found up to 700 metres from the reef edge near the Fedu shore. At Hitaddu similar rock platforms outcrop at the foot of the seaward beach, at a distance of 100-200 metres from the reef edge. The distribution of this rock and its origin are discussed under Section G below. - 20 -« At Gan there has been considerable human interference with the condition of the seaward flat. Several of the areas of exposed reef- rock have been damaged by military vehicles and by excavation, and areas of the reef flat near the Gan shore have been used as a source of reef- rock for construction purposes, particularly in the construction of the runway, leaving a pattern of excavation hollows; the approximate extent of these is given in Figure 9. (v) Lagoon reef flat and slope Like the seaward flat, the lagoon reef flat varies widely in char- acter in different parts of Addu. At Gan it is narrow (100-140 metres wide) and slopes from the shore to the lagoon reef edge. Most of the flat carries more than 1 ft of water at low tide, and except for the tips of some corals none of it dries. It is divisible into an inshore Sandy zone with breaking waves, a zone of rubble and dead coral from 25-60 metres from the shore, and a zone of living reef from 60 metres to the edge and down the lagoon slope. ‘The break of slope marking the edge of the flat has depths, between coral heads, of 10-15 ft at Gan. At Hitaddu the leeward flat is much wider (reaching 1000 metres), has a depth of 1-2 fathoms, and for most of its width is sandy, covered with marine grasses, and lacking in growing corals. ‘The reef itself appears to be similar to that at Gan. It is possible, especially at Gan, that military activity has led to increased sediment disturbance on the lagoon reef flat, with the death of nearshore corals; certainly the extent of coral growth, while comparable to that on Caribbean reefs, falls short of Gardiner's description. Detailed transects were made on the lagoon reef at Gan, and some geological aspects of these are dis- cussed in Section D below. The lagoon slope at Gan has a gradient of 60° from the reef edge to a depth of 14 fathoms, and is coated with growing corals. At 14 fathoms the slope angle decreases to less than 10°, and begins to merge with the lagoon floor. Coral growth in this zone is restricted to patches of Leptoseris, together with scattered Alcyonarians. The nature of the lagocnward reefs is subject to modification be- tween islands, where water flowing across the reef flat carries a con- siderable load of debris. Thus between Gan and Fedu, Fedu and Maradu, Maradu and Hankada, and elsewhere, through-flowing currents have incised deep channels into the upper part of the lagoon reef edge and slope,con- centrating flow across the reef flat into narrow streams with speeds of 2-3 knots, and resulting in the growth of sand deltas at the foot of the lagoon slope. C. Addu Lagoon Lagoon topography Information on lagoon topography is derived almost entirely from Daugleish's 1923 survey, in which the density of soundings exceeds even that at Eniwetok (Table 1). Since location-finding methods were less - 23 - refined in 1923, however, and since the soundings were all lead-line soundings corrected for tide and not reduced from echosoundings, the accuracy at Addu may be less than in the Marshall Islands. Table 1. Sounding density in selected atolls Lagoon area” Number of soundings” Soundings i EOL) _Sg.miles per sq.mile Addu 30 18,000 600 Eniwetok 360 180,000 500 Bikini 259 38, 000 146.7 Rongelap 396 14,550 36.7 Rongerik 57 1,640 28.8 1. Emery, Tracey and Ladd 1954. 2. Estimated from sample counts. The Daugleish chart has been supplemented by ten echo~sounding pro- files made with a Marconi Ferrograph Offshore 500 echosounder in 1964; these have been replotted.on rectangular coordinates in Figures 12-15 end the location of the echo-sounding tracks is shown in Figure ll. The Daugleish chart has been contoured and redrawn to include land top- ography derived from aerial photography and included on Admiralty Chart 2067 of 1964; it is included here as Figure 10. Addu lagoon is deepest in the east and northeast, and shoals to- wards the north and southwest. The 30 fathom isobath delimits a basin of irregular outline, which includes a number of isolated deeper basins and a few upstanding knolis. The lagoon reef slopes are steep (Pro- files 1-4, 6-7, 9-10) and extend from the lagoon reef edge at 5-15 ft to the lagoon floor at depths of 85-100 ft, where the slope angle de- eréases and the slope becomes a flatter apron. Chart inspection suggests that much of the lagoon floor is fairly flat at depths of 25-29 fathoms, particularly in the south and northwest parts of the lagoon, and this is also suggested by several of the profiles. Pro- file 1, between Gan and Man Kanda Channel, shows a distinct level at 20-25 fathoms, with deeper central areas down to 33 fathoms below this level. Similar features are shown in Profile 9. The deepest parts of the lagoon (more than 40 fathoms) lie in the south-central sector, where nine small areas fall below this. level..--.-Most-of these are narrow and aligned east-west on Daugleish's chart, in the direction of sounding, suggesting systematic variation in sounding accuracy between successive lines of soundings. Hence the absolute depths of these basins may be unreliable. The maximum charted depth is 43 fathoms (258 ft). BS. To determine the reality of the apparent floor flattening between 20 and 30 fathoms, Daugleish's chart at 1:18,360 was contoured, and the areas between successive contours were measured using a Stanley Precision Disc Planimeter. The areas of reef flats and islands were obtained in the same way from the published Admiralty chart at 1:25,000, in which these features are plotted from aerial photography.. The results of these measurements are given in Table 2. Table 2 Depth Area Cumulative Per cent Gielen tte Per cent fathoms sq. yds area shallower area, deeper shallower | deeper Islands 13,419,197 Reef flat, O-1 fathom, 65,987,766 inc.islands Reef flat, O-1 fathom, 52,568,569 exc.islands 1-14 12,110,207 12,110,207 13.20 91,750,231 100.00 15 - 20 11,815,554 23,925, 761 26.08 79,640,024 86.80 21 - 2h 19,085,942 43,011, 703 46.88 67,024,470 - 73.92 25 ~ 29 22, 353,011 65, 364, 714 71.24 48,738,528 53.12 30 - 3 14,153,743 79,518,457 86.67 26,905, 517° 28.76 335 = 39 2 Se 8 ge Pe 91,071,590 99.26 12,317 43.33 ho - 43 678, 641 91,750,231 100.00 678, 641 Oo75 Total lagoon area, inc. Zaps 91, 750,231 Total atoll area 19 (313997 The data in Table 2 are plotted as a histogram in Figure 16, which shows the large area of reef flat and also the dominant lagoon floor area at 25-30 fathoms. The hypsometric curve for the whole atoll (bounded by the outer reef edge) in Figure 17 gives a graphic idea of the wide shal- low reef flats, the steep lagoon floor slopes between 1 and 15 fathoms, the = AS on slope foot apron at 15-21 fathoms, the wide flatter area between 21 and 30 fathoms, and the smaller extent of deeper holes in the main lagoon floor level. A percentage hypsometric curve may be constructed for the lagoon data only, and directly compared with percentage hypsometric curves constructed for the better sounded lagoons of the Northern Marsh- all Islands (Fig. 18), where the curves were obtained by cutting out and weighing depth zones on contour maps. The similarity between the curves for Eniwetok, Rongelap and Bikini Atolls and Addu Atoll is striking, at depths shallower than 28 fathoms, though Addu lagoon floor reaches great- er depths than those in the Marshalls. ‘The curve for Rongerik is of different form, and a curve for Johnston Island published by Emery is not really comparable because of the absence there of an enclosed lagoon (see Emery, Tracey and Ladd 1954,55; Emery 1956). the infilling controversy Srmeehthtiles eee ee rae SON SL EY, Using Daugleish's chart it is also possible to resolve the contro- versy between Agassiz, Gardiner and Sewell over possible aggradation or degradation of the lagoon floor. Gardiner (1903, 317-321), comparing Moresby's 1836 chart with the soundings made by his colleague Forster Cooper, argued for "a decrease in depth of from 1 to 8 fathoms, the gen- eral reduction being 2 or 3 fathoms" on the lagoon floor proper, at the Same time as the encircling reefs were growing rapidly into the lagoon. He concluded that "in the 65 years between. Moresby's visit and my own there has been at the least a decrease in depth of 2 fathoms over the whole area of the lagoon proper, i.e. about 15 square miles....To suppose , therefore, for the 60 odd years since the survey, a deposit or filling in by coral growth of 2} inches a year over an area of 22 square miles: does not seem to me to be excessive" (Gardiner 1903, 320). Lagoon infill- ing was the reverse of the process which Gardiner thought was general in the Maldive Islands lagoons: in the case of Addu he attributed lack of solutional deepening to the landlocked nature of the lagoon, its small Size, supposed lessened rate of water circulation through the reef gaps, and high rates of coral growth. Agassiz (1903, 148) questioned whether Forster Cooper's soundings were close enough to Moresby's to allow Gar- diner to draw any conclusions, and emphasized the difficulty of accurate location within the lagoon. Subsequently Sewell made several more sound ings (Sewell 1936a, 64), and calculated that while the "average depth of the lagoon, excluding shoal areas, was on.Moresby's chart 24.4 fathoms and on Cooper's 21.5 fathoms, Cooper's and Sewell's soundings together made it 24.5 fathoms. He hence concluded that no change had taken place. Sewell's contoured chart bears a tolerable resemblance to Deugleish's, _ from which the median depth read from the hypsometric curve (including .. Shoal patches) is found to be 25.5 fathoms. ‘The maximum depths in the -. lagoon were charted by Moresby as 36 fathoms, by Cooper as 32 fathoms, i and by Daugleish as 43 fathoms. Subsequently Gardiner (1931, 141)ceased . to stress the supposed infilling of Addu lagoon. As Sewell observed and Daugleish demonstrated, the bottom topography of the lagoon is sufficient- _ ly complex to require precise sounding location before conclusions on depth changes can be made. Lagoon reef patches and knolls By comparison with other atoll groups, and with the northern Mal- dive atolls, there are few reef structures within the Addu lagoon. Arbitrarily defining a patch reef as a structure rising more than 10 fathoms above its base and capped with wave-breaking corals, Addu lagoon patch reefs total 3. Defining knolls as structures rising 10 fathoms or more above the floor, denoted by two or more closed contours on the bathymetric chart, but failing to reach the surface, Addu lagoon knolls total 22. The total of 25 lagoon reef structures may be compared with nearly 2300 at Eniwetok, over 900 at Bikini, and 700 at Glover's Reef, British Honduras. Daugleish's density of sounding was such that it is unlikely that any major structures were unrecorded. The knolls and patch reefs are located and given index numbers in Figure 19. Two in the centre of the lagoon, Aruhal (13, at 137084) and Medagala (14, at 136094), have living reef caps, and are normally marked by breakers, peaking up to 6 ft in height even in calm water. Of the rest, numbers 3, 23 and ah., on the west side of the lagoon, have growing coral on their summits and reach to within as fathoms of the surface; num- ber 4, reaching 4 3/4 fathoms, also has growing coral, but Davies and Keith report much dead coral also. Whether any other lmolls support grow- ing coral is not known. Chart inspection suggests that of the knolis which fail to reach the surface there is a dominant summit level at 15-25 fathoms. The Stan- ley Precision Disc Planimeter was used to measure the basal area (lowest closed contour) and summit area (highest closed contour) of all 25 Imolls and patches: their depth-area distribution is shown in Figure 21. Apart from Aruhal (13) and Medagala (14) all of the patches which reach within 10 fathoms of the surface are small and steep sided: the mean ratio of basal area and summit area is 7.6 and the median 4.6. None of the other knolis rises above 12.5 fathoms; six reach to between 12.5 and 17.5 fathoms; and five to between 20 and 25 fathoms. With one exception (21) the knolls rising to 12.5-17.5 fathoms all lie in the northeast part of the lagoon (numbers 7, 9-12). Those rising to 20-25 fathoms all lie in the centre of the lagoon. The mean ratio of basal to summit area of Inolls rising to 12.5-25 fathoms is 24.4 and the median 9.1; the mean ratio for Aruhal and Medagala is 14.6. Of the knolls rising above 20 fathoms some show apparent terracing at the 20-25 or 25-30 fathom levels, as in numbers 12 and 21. Comparison may again be made with the Marshalls.. At Eniwetok the greatest frequency of knoll summits is at 16-20 fathoms, with few rising to 0-8 fathoms. At Bikini the greatest frequency of summits is at 4-12 and 20-24 fathoms (Emery, Tracey and Ladd 1954, 96). ‘The concentration of the larger Addu knolls at similar depths, and the contrast between these and the smaller, steeper surface patches, suggests that the deep knolls have not been formed by reef growth in the Holocene. The echo- sounding profiles of two different types of knoll may be compared in Figure 15 (number 24) and Figure 12 (number 20). ‘The apparent bevelling of the lower knoll summits may possibly be correlated with the apparent a OF « lagoon floor flattening shown by the depth-area histogram, and with the reported erosional undercutting of the seaward reef wall described by Hass and Eibl-Eibesfeldt, both at 25-30 fathoms. It is possible, as shown by the distribution diagram, Figure 20, that the knolls fall into two groups, one rising to about 12.5 and the other to about 20 fathoms. If these knolls are indeed older features, then they may have lost both height and steepness during karst erosion at the time of glacial low sea levels: it would be extremely valuable to have data on the nature of the knoll surfaces, and whether coral growth occurs on them. The small size of the sea-level patches (numbers 1-4, 6, 22-24) may indicate that they are wholly Holocene reef construc- tions. Of the larger knolls only Aruhal and Medagala reach the sur- face, and it is possible that they have been the only older knolls on which Holocene reef growth was established, and that the fairly small area of surface reef growing on much larger foundations represents an amount of Holocene reef growth comparable to that of the other near- surface patches. Such interpretations must be speculative until more data are available on the knolls themselves. Notes on the structure of "Five Fathom Shoal" (995095) Underwater observations were made on the leeward, northwestern side of this structure (no. 4, fig. 19) to a depth of 140 feet. The surface of the knoll lies at a depth of approximately 30 feet, is flat topped and is characterised by almost complete lack of coral growth. There are occasional small colonies of Pocillopora, Porites, Galaxea and Acropora but most of the surface comprises loose, uncemented skel- etons of a branched Acropora with individual pieces of up to 2 feet in length and of plate-like fragments probably derived from Echinopora. The whole is carpeted with a fine leafy alga. Below approximately 45-50 feet on the northwest side, the dead coral is replaced by fine sand and the slope is very steep to a depth of 80 feet. The sand is very tightly packed, cannot be scooped into with the hands and superficially resembles a soft sandstone. Occa-~ sional coral colonies are found in this area, with a density which rarely exceeds one per 10 square metres. A loosely branching bracket form of Acropora is the most common of these but Favia and Porites were also observed. Below a depth of approximately 80 feet the slope begins to level off and at a depth of 140 feet the bottom is almost flat. Between these two depths reef building corals are very infrequent although one large colony of Porites was present. Small colonies of Dendrophyllia and oc- casional gorgonian sea whips were observed. wie D. General Reef Characteristics The main reef work of the expedition was concentrated on two lagoon reef transects at Gan (locations: 108140, between the jet- ties, and 113143, east of the oil jetty). Recording and collection of corals and algae in 10 feet quadrats from the shore to the foot of the lagoon slope was carried out continuously along a steel chain laid on the sea floor. Within each quadrat an effort was made to collect a specimen of every species of corals and marine algae pre-~ sent, and estimates were made of total percentage cover and of rela- tive importance of particular species. Details of these transects wiil be published when all the determinations are available, but certain features are of geological interest and are discussed here. Figure 21 shows relative abundance of corals across each transect in terms of total number of species per quadrat; the species them- selves were separated in the field and their identity will be sub- ject to revision. Figure 22 shows the distribution of these species roughly classified by growth form. In both transects coral growth begins at about 30 metres from the shore, though scattered small colonies may be found closer, and rapidly increases to form a rich reef association at about 70 metres from the shore. From here to the reef edge at 112 metres, the abundance of species increases (Figure 21), from about 10 species per 100 sq. ft. to about 20 spe- cies per 100 sq. ft. From the reef edge to the foot of the lagoon slope the number of species remains approximately constant (10-17 per 100 sq. ft. in Transect I, 12-29 per 100 sq. ft. in Transect II). Abundance of species itself is not necessarily of geological impor- tance, however, for many are small and often insignificant reef builders. A rough division was therefore made into species of the genus Acropora, those of the family Fungiidae, and the cerioid corals (those with adjoining polygonal calices such as Favites ). Both transects show regularity in the distribution of these admit- tedly rather diffuse groups. The cerioid corals are important on the reef flat, forming 25-35% of the species present, but are less so on the reef slope, particularly with increasing depth. The fungiid corals wig = are not important on the flat, but form a minor constituent on the slope. The Acropora spp. form one of the most important and cosmopolitan groups, generally accounting for 25-50% of the species present on the flat, and continuing to the base of the reef slope. A rough classification of species was also made into growth form (Fig. 22), distinguishing foliaceous corais (e.g. Pachyseris and Echiro~ pora), meandroid corals, branching corals (e.g. Acropora, Pocillopora, Euphyllia, and the superficially meandroid Lobophyllia), and the non- meandroid massive corals, many of cerioid form (e.g. Astreopora, Favites, Hydnophora, Porites, and many others). The contribution of the massive corals appears exaggerated, for many of the species represented form only small colonies. Attention may be drawn (a) to the importance of branching corals over the whole transect, and (b) to the importance of foliaceous corals on the outermost flat and particularly on the reef slope. Estimates of cover of different corals give a similar picture, particularly reinforcing the importance of reef flat Acroporas: on the outer part of the flat many quadrats show 50% of the area of living coral to be Acropora, and one shows 85%. By comparison with Caribbean reefs there are certain major dif- ferences, with geological implications, in these reef assemblages. These may be summarized as: (a) the virtual absence in the Maldives of the massive meandroid frame- building corals, such as the Diploria spp., and the greatly reduced sig- nificance of other massive frame-builders corresponding to the Caribbean Montastrea and Siderastrea species. (b) the greater diversity in species and the greater area covered by Acropora. Branching and plate-like Acropora spp. are the most important corals on the Addu lagoon reefs, and most of the species present are of light and open growth form, rather than heavy and massive. On lagoon patch reef 24 the diversity and luxuriance of the Acropora, especially the flat, plate-like species, is remarkable, compared to the abundance of other species and to the Atlantic Acropora. Massive Acropora, com- parable to the Atlantic A. palmata, are less common. (c) the importance of foliaceous corals, particularly Echinopora on the slope, and of other open-branched, weak-framed, and often unattached corals (such as Fungia, Herpolitha and Halomitra) in similar situations. It is probably reasonable to conclude from this that the Maldivian lagoon reefs are formed of much faster growing species than the Carib- bean reefs, but that the reef framework formed is less rigid and more unstable than that in the Caribbean. There is, as a result, evidence of reef instability at Gan. The lagoon slope is exceptionally steep, and must approach the limits of cohesion of weak-structured corals. On the Gan lagoon slope coral growth is frequently interrupted by dead areas of broken coral and rubble, often extending from the top of the slope to the bottom, which are clearly slide scars. At times small scale sliding was seen taking place down the slope, raising turbid clouds of finer material. The reef structure, as Hass (1962) observed, is certainly a +20 fragile and delicate one, at least near the surface, but the conclu- sions which Hass d@rew from this on the question of atoll origins misconceive the space and time scales involved. It is also possible that some at least of the larger slides have been triggered by military activities at the Gan Staging Post. Nevertheless, the evidence indi- cates major differences in the nature of reef growth between the Mal- dives and the Caribbean, and the implications of this might well be explored further. E. Islands Types of islands Twenty per cent of the reef flat area at Addu is covered by is- lands, and the proportion would be higher if it were not for the almost island-less northern reef. The three largest islands are Hitaddu, Gan and Midu: six other islands have areas in excess of 100,000 sq. yds. The planimetric area of the islands is given in the following table: Table 3. Areas of Addu Islands Island Area, sq. miles Hitaddu 1.3943 Gan 0.8711 Midu 0.7913 Maradu 0. 3118 Heratera 0.2965 Wilingili 0.1989 Fedu 0.1583 Abuhera 0.1399 Mahira 0.046, 15 small islands Os tala Total 4. 3222 Many of the islands have only been sketchily studied, but fairly full accounts exist for Midu, Hitaddu, and particularly Heratera (Putali), and Gan and Hitaddu were visited during the 1964 expedition. The char- acteristics of the islands vary with size and with position on the reef flat. There are two extreme cases of island types: those formed close to the seaward reef edge, and those formed close to the lagoon reef edge (Fig. 8). (a) Seaward-edge islands. The seaward beach of these islands characteristically “pry U5 — 180 metres from the algal platform, and may adjoin the rubble zone. The seaward beach is steep and high, and generally built of coral de- bris coarser than gravel, though in more protected areas it may be largely or wholly sand. According to Gardiner (1903, 146) raised reef- rock outcrops on the seaward beach, underlying beach sediments, where- ever the shore lies within 230 metres of the reef edge, though this is -31 - by no means a general rule (Section G below). At Wilingili the sea- ward beach lies only 90 metres from the reef edge, is built of shingle, and was reported by Agassiz (1903, 146) to be "the highest in the Mal- dives". At Hitaddu the seaward beach is sandy with patches of shingle at a distance of 180 metres from the reef edge, and rises 10-12 ft above the flat; but at Abuhera, 45 metres from the edge, the beach is built of shingle and is steeper. The lagoonward beach on these islands may be 450-1000 metres from the lagoon reef edge, and is usually low and sandy, with vegetation reaching close to high tide level. (b) Lagoon-edge islands. In this class the island lies close to the lagoon reef edge, and correspondingly farther from the seaward reef. The distance between the lagoon reef edge and the lagoon beach ranges from 45-180 metres, and between the seaward reef edge and seaward beach from 180-1000 metres, Beaches facing the wide and often high-standing seaward reef flat are thus relatively more protected than those facing the narrow lagoon reef flat. At Gan, which falls in this class, the seaward beach is flat and narrow, and the lagoon beach high, steep and wide. Gravel and coarser debris is rare on both seaward and lagoon beaches, which are mostly sandy. The characteristics of the larger islands thus depend to a con- siderable extent on relative location on the reef flat, and this varies in a fairly systematic fashion round the atoll rim. Smaller islands such as Bushy and Mulikadu are simple ridges of coral shingle and sand lodged on the reef flat by waves, and they do not show the more complex features of the larger islands. The following table classifies the Addu islands into three types: A, seaward-edge islands, B, lagoon-edge islands, and C, intermediate islands, and gives distances measured from air photographs between the seaward and lagoon reef edges and beaches. Table 4 Island total width of reef width seaward width lagoon Island flat, metres flat, metres flat, metres type Hitaddu 900-1350 90-180 900 + A Abuhera 820 45 64.0-900 A Maradu 10hL0 600-690 180-320 ¢ Fedu 1130-1350 600-1350 160-180 B Gan 1350-1800 550-690 70-90 B Wilingili 730 90 460-550 A Midu 300-400 90-180 - A Heratera 820-1260 70-90 550-900 A Firhidu Hera 900-1000 90 730-820 A Kalu Hera WLAEO) 90 1000 A Mulikadu 450 135-275 90-180 @ - 32 - Island beaches 151 beach profiles were surveyed at Gan Island and 30 at Hitaddu, using a tripod quickset level and staff. Profiles were carried from the beach crest (or where vegetated the outer edge of the vegetation hedge) to a point 15-30 metres seaward of the foot of the beach. The foot of the beach is defined on most profiles by a sharp concave break of slope where the beach face meets the horizontal reef flat. In the field it is delimited by a more or less abrupt transition between white beach sands and the rocky, vegetated flat. Beach profiles may be slightly convex or concave, but most are straight with a summit convexity, ex- cept where erosion has led to scarp formation at the beach crest. A distinction may be made between (a) rough water beaches, where the foot of the beach forms a step up to 1 ft in height immediately below low | tide level, often with an area of strongly rippled sand to seaward, and (b) calmer water beaches, where this step is absent. Beach profiles were measured over a period of weeks, but always at similar tidal stages, i.e. during the 4-5 days of exceptionally low low tides occurring at fortnightly intervals. Gan profiles 1-5 were also repeated at a medium high tide (profiles 6-10). Considerable differences were found in beach angle in areas with different exposure to wave activity. At Gan the profiles were grouped into beach sectors (Fig. 23), separated by areas unsurveyed because of human interference or other reasons. Jithin each sector, beach angles tend to be tightly clustered about a mean value (except on the east shore, where values are more widely scattered), but there are considerable differences between beach sectors. Mean beach angles for Gan beach sec- tors are as follows: Table 5 Beach sector Number of profiles Mean angle Bast shore 10 Be (Oe North shore (east) 10 7.95 North shore (centre) 56 8.30 North shore (west) 15 8.07 West shore | 14 4.18 Southwest shore 36 Beat Total and Mean Loe. Te OL These beach angles correlate directly with exposure. Wave activ- ity is most intense on the lagoon shore between the two jetties; it is high along the whole lagoon shore, and much less on the east and west shores where the reef flat is wider and shallower. On the southwest shore the beach is rather more exposed to waves in the wide and deeper Gan-Fedu channel, and beach angles are correspondingly higher. ‘The steepest beach angle recorded at Gan is 11.5° in profile 58. ‘The south shore of Gan, facing the exceptionally wide seaward flat, is most pro- tected from wave action: the beaches are low and flat, and vegetated a ae almost to high tide level; this, together with the fact that this shore has been used since World War II as a rubbish dump for military debris, made profiling impossible. At Hitaddu similar contrasts are found in beach angles, again co- relating with wave energy, but whereas at Gan the steepest beaches are on the northern lagoon shore, at Hitaddu they face the narrow sea~ ward reef flat, and the more protected lagoon beaches are lower and flatter. 4 Table 6 Beach sector Number of profiles Mean angle Seaward shore 19 9.59 Lagoon shore Lt. Tee The steepest beach angle measured at Hitaddu was 13° on seaward shore profile B9. Inspection of the Gan profiles shows that the width of the beach tends to be fairly constant between the sectors measured (not includ- ing the south shore): width averages 1-16 metres, and varies extreme- ly from 7 to 23 metres. The height of the beach above the immediate offshore flat (i.e. above the concave break of slope at the beach foot) is more variable, and is directly related to beach angle. On beaches with a mean angle of 5° or less, the height of the beach is 5 ft or less. On steeper beaches (angle greater than 8°) beach heights are greater than 5 ft and range up to 10.5 ft. Steep, high beaches are built in exposed areas where rapid swash builds the beach face above still high-water level. The most sheltered beaches have heights ap- proximately equal to the tidal range. Median beach heights for dif- ferent beach angles at Gan are as follows: Table 7 Beaen dhicie - desl) Boulp NS. age Ty Be o 10 hedien heient)” fhe R etl ee es 8S Ge 7 8 Similarly at Hitaddu, the width of the seaward beach averages 15 metres, varying from 13 to 20 metres, and that of the lagoon beaches averages 13-14 metres, varying from 10-15 metres. Main variability is in beach height, which again directly correlates with angle: Table 8 Beach angle, deg. 5 505 8 9 10 co 23 Median height, ft. } 4 7* 4 7 8% 10* (* single cases only) : Plotting median height and height range against beach angle in Figure 24 indicates the range and variability of these beach character- istics; the regression line is fitted by eye. - 3 - Interior topography Most of the Addu islands consist of seaward and lagoonward ridges, separated by a lower area, in places occupied by water. The eastern islands. consist of a rocky seaward ridge and sandy lagoon ridge, separated by freshwater lakes or kuli (Willis and Gardiner 1901, 78). Air photographs show a large interior lagoon at Hitaddu, but this could not be visited. Much of the central part of southern Hita- ddu was covered with standing water 6-24 inches deep in August 1964, under a vegetation of sedges and Pandanus thicket. At Gan the interi- or topography has been considerably altered by construction work, but in the centre of the island the soil is black and mucky, with the water table at or within an inch or two of the surface. Excavation at sev- eral places showed a clear distinction between soils derived from per-~- ipheral sand ridge sediments, and those formed under high water table conditions in the centre of the island. Unlike many Pacific and Carib- bean islands, mantles of coarse sediments ("rampart wash") in the in- teriors of islands, resulting from exceptional, storm activity, seem to be absent at Addu. The height of the water table is such that after heavy rain fresh water may stand on the island surfaces for several days, and in places permanently. This is the case at Gan, where levelling of the surface has added to drainage difficulties, but also at Hitaddu. Gar- diner described similar conditions at Maradu (Willis and Gardiner 1901, 60). Rainwater replenishment of the Gan freshwater lens is sufficient to supply all freshwater requirements for the R.A.F. Staging Post es- tablished there. Minor changes in Addu island topography The records of 1836, 1900, 1934 and 1964 show that some features of the Addu islands are subject to minor alteration, particularly where gaps between islands are narrow and shallow. Islands charted as sepa- rate by Moresby and even by Gardiner may now be joined; and some small islands may have disappeared. Sewell has chronicled the changing num- bers of small islands off northwest Midu: 6 in 1836, 7 in 1900, 5 in 1934 (Sewell 1936a, 73-74); in 1964 there were three, two small, and one (Mahira) long and narrow. Heratera and Firhidu Hera were separate in 1836, joined in 1900 (Gardiner 1903, 318), separate in 1934 (Sewell 1936, 74), and joined in 1964. Wilingili, charted as two islands in 1836, had become one by 1900 (Gardiner 1903, 418), and remains so. In 1836 Abuhera was continuous with Hitaddu, and remained so in 1900 (Gar- diner 1903, 415). By 1934 the two were separated (Sewell 1936a, 8), but were again joined in 1964, by a sandy area with continuous vegeta- tion cover, standing 3.5-4 ft above the level of the reef flat immed- lately to seaward, with a seaward sand and shingle ridge 2.5 ft higher (Profile B19). The series of small islands on the seaward side of Fedu and Maradu, uncharted in 1836 but recorded by Gardiner, were probably omitted in error by Moresby; they are discussed by Gardiner (1903, 419) and Sewell (1936a, 80-81). The scrub vegetation described by Sewell has now been replaced by coconut thicket with trees 45-50 ft tall. = 35 = According to Agassiz (1903, 147-8) and Kohn (1964b) the lagoon and southwest shores of Gan are being eroded, while Sewell (1936a, 80) inferred aggradation. Evidence for beach retreat is given by the beachrock at the northwest point, which is now being actively under- cut by throughflowing water in the Gan-Fedu channel; by the exposure of cay sandstone on the beach face on the southwest, west, and to a lesser extent the northern shore; and oecasional undermining of trees at the eastern end of the north shore. Retaining walls have been built to stabilise the shore on parts of the west and north shores. For details of the beachrock and cay sandstone exposures, see Section G(iii) and (iv). Local aggradation is taking place at the northeast point of Gan, where a fresh sand spit extends 60 metres from the main beach crest. F. Sedimentary environments The main aim of the geomorphic work was the sampling of sedi- ments in a variety of atoll environments, to demonstrate (a) how sediment characteristics varied between environments within the depo- sitional framework of the atoll, and (b) how sediment characteristics (mechanical and organic composition) vary on the beach face and the immediate nearshore area in a number of beach sectors subject to dif- fering wave intensities at Gan and Hitaddu Islands. The main sedi- mentary environments sampled were (1) island beaches, (2) reef flat, (3) lagoon reef slope, and (4) lagoon floor. On beaches sampling was carried out at the same time as beach profiling, on a total of 250 beach profiles. Samples were collected at 5 metre intervals on each profile, measured from the beach crest, and the profiles were general-~ ly spaced at 25 metre intervals along the beach. Generally 5-6 samples are available per profile: the profiles are located in Figure 23. The total number of beach face and immediate nearshore samples collected at Gan numbered 950, and at Hitaddu 99. Sampling of reef flat environ- ments was carried out on the seaward flat at Gan, and in the Gan-Fedu channel, concurrently with levelling. Location of the reef flat sam- ples, totalling 127, is shown in Figure 25. On both beaches and reef flat sampling was carried out with a simple scoop sampler holding ap- proximately 300 grams. On the lagoon reef slope 5 samples were col- lected by Keith using SCUBA apparatus. On the lagoon floor sampling was carried out using a bronze grab sampler which closed automatically on striking the bottom. Recovery of samples was poor because of fre- quent malfunction of the release, and the total number of samples collected was 42; their location is given in Figure 26. Processing of these samples for machine computation of mechanical characteristics is continuing, and this section simply records some gross characteristics of reef flat, beach and lagoon floor sediments, on the basis of pre- liminary data for 350 samples. As measures of sediment characteristics, cumulative percentage curves were drawn from sieve data and used to de- rive phi median diameter (¢M,) and sigma phi (of), the latter giving a simple measure of sorting ( 3 [G8 Uogte7/ e° te Using these parameters clear distinctions may be made between reef flat, beaches and lagoon floor environments (Fig. 27). In the reef flat sediments as a whole the mean PMa is about 0.5, a coarse sand, - 36 - with a range from -1.3 to +1.7 ¢ (very fine gravel to medium sand). Tak- ing the Gan beach sediments as a whole, mean OM, size is about 0.85, a less coarse sand, with a range from -0.2 to +2.1 @ (very coarse sand to fine sand). The lagoon floor sediments are highly variable in size com- position, ranging from less than 1.0 to more than 4.0 @Mq (coarse sand to coarse silt). There is therefore some distinctiveness in size range between the three environments (note that no attempt was made to sample beach sediments coarser than fine gravel, such as the shingle or rubble sediments on the seaward beach of Hitaddu). Taking median size charac- teristics alone, however, there is considerable overlap, particularly between reef flat and beach sediments. Sorting is more discriminatory. Although the sorting measure used here is rather inefficient and was chosen for ease in calculating, it is clear that considerable differences in sorting exist between environments. Beach sorting values are almost all less than 1.0, except where the sediment sampled is obviously bi- modal; the peak frequency of beach sorting values is 0.5-0.6, i.e. beach sediments are very well sorted. By contrast, reef flat sediment sorting values range from 0.7 to 2.1, with a mean value of about 1.5, i.e. sort- ing is much poorer. Lagoon floor samples have similar or higher sorting values than those on the reef flat. Plotting of median size against sigma phi in Figure 28 shows that reef flat and beach sediments are clearly distinguishable in terms of size and sorting; data are too few to accurately define the range of lagoon floor characteristics. In sum- (1) beach sediments are moderately fine sands and very well sorted; Na reef flat sediments are coarser and poorly sorted; (3) lagoon floor sediments are coarse to very fine, and poorly sorted. There is in addition considerable variation within the major en- vironments. The beach sampling programme was designed to assess chang- ing sediment characteristics normal to the shore, particularly in the light of Miller and Zeigler's (1958) model of beach sediment character- istics. Preliminary results indicate that sediments are coarsest at the foot of the beach, at the “step” on rough-water beaches, and become finer in median diameter both to seaward of the beach foot and up the beach face. Sorting is also best in the lower part of the beach,, and. decreases to seaward of the beach foot and up the beach face. Much work needs to be done on the data, however, before conclusions can be drawn. Similarly on the reef flat, a distinction can be made between flats backed by islands and channels, since considerable sediment transport and sorting occurs through the Gan-Fedu channel, by comparison with more stable conditions on the vegetated flat south of Gan. G. Lithified sediments Lithified sediments of various types have been described from the Maldive Islands by Moresby, Gardiner, Agassiz and Sewell, and Gardiner in particular has used the present distribution and height of lithified sediments on the atolls as evidence for considerable shifts of sea Level in Recent times. In many discussions of lithified sediments, genesis - 37 - has been deduced only from the gross topographic characteristics of the outcrop, and it has then been assumed that similar outcrops have a sim- ilar composition. Few discussions of atoll rocks consider lithology and mineralogy as well as topography and distribution, and many of the earlier deductions on rock origin and its implications in terms of geo- morphic history are purely speculative. Gardiner (1903) and Sewell (1935a, 500-512) distinguished three main types of rock on atolls: reef rock, beach sandstone or beach- rock, and cay sandstone. All these types are found at Addu Atoll, but a further distinction must be made between reef rock underlying the modern reef flat, and raised or relict presumed "reefrock" of uncertain status. This account is purely descriptive, and no attempt is made to describe the mineralogy or origin of the rocks, or their bearing on at- oll history at this stage. (i) Reef rock Wherever investigated the reef flats of Addu atoll consist of a more or less regular rock platform, veneered with loose sediment. This is particularly so south of Gan, on the wide seaward reef flat, which is wholly a rocky feature, lacking any considerable relief, and giving no indication of subsurface structure in the form of either curvilinear fracturing or of truncated and relict coral heads described from such flats elsewhere. Samples of reef rock were obtained by blasting on the seaward reef at Gan, location 115159, through the courtesy of Mr. J. Woodward. The rock is a toughly cemented rock of coral fragments in a limestone matrix, with abundant Heliopora fragments which have lost their blue colour and turned brown. The constituents indicate a reef community similar to that now found on deeper flats than the present Gan flat. It is difficult to see how such rock could form at the present level of the flat off central Gan. Gi eRetict’ "reef rock" Several of the seaward-edge islands have low rock platforms at the foot of their seaward shores. Gardiner (1903, 416) described this as occurring wherever part of the island lies within 230 metres of the sea- ward reef edge; at Hera, north of Midu, he described emerged reef-flat rock masses standing up to 6 ft above high water and 10 ft above the flat. At Midu, rock is described along the east shore, reaching 5 ft above high water (Gardiner 1903, 417; Sewell 1936a, 73, Plate lii). Sea- ward-beach rock masses are also described at Heratera (Sewell 1936a, 75, Plate 3ii), Firhidu Hera and Kalu Hera (Sewell 1936a, 79), Mulikadu (Se- well 1936a, 79), and Maradu (Sewell 1936a, 82). Sewell also describes it between the seaward shore and the reef edge at Maradu, forming "coral horses" (Sewell 1936a, 83, Plate 31), and in the small islands between Fedu and Maradu (Sewell 1936a, 81). "Reef rock" of similar type is present on the seaward shore of Hitaddu, where it was surveyed in beach profiles Bl, Bl2, BL and BL5. - 33 - In profile Bl the highest point of the reef rock outcrop, which is in metres wide, reaches 4.3 ft above the general level of the reef flat, but only 3ft above the level of the flat immediately seaward of the rock. It outcrops at the foot of the beach, which here rises 6 ft above lowest low water, and the rock itself dries at least 1.5 ft at this stage. Other profiles show similar characteristics, except that the beach face above the rock is only 3-4 ft high. In places the up- per surface of the rock shows a distinct seaward gradient (4.5° in Bl, 3° in B12), but this is clearly erosional: elsewhere the surface is rough but horizontal. The structure of this relict rock is not easily discernible, but at places on the southernmost part of the Hitaddu sea~ ward shore and the northernmost part of Abuhera the coral slabs forming the rock are clearly imbricated, dipping seawards, which might indicate a subtidal reef flat rather than a beach environment. Several patches of rock, mentioned by Gardiner and Sewell, are found in the reef flat embayment between Gan and Fedu Islands, and on the wide reef flat to the south of Gan. The patches are as follows: - (1) A rock platform marked on charts as Addu Island, south of Gan,1lo- cation 1048/1536-1550, measuring 140 x 30 metres, the highest part ris- ing 5.1 ft above the deepest part of the seaward flat between it and the reef edge, and 3.45 ft above the level of the reef edge algal plat- form. (2) A large patch 800 metres to the northwest, 220 metres from the seaward reef edge, location 0958-0966/1486-1500, rising at its high- est 4.3 ft above the surrounding reef flat. (3) Two small patches of rock, the largest 35 x 23 metres, approximately the same distance from the reef edge, with a similar height, location 091143. (4) A small patch of rock standing 3 ft above the reef flat approximately 30 metres to the northwest. (5) A much larger patch, the first of a series, lo- cation 089142, which continue towards the northwest and form the basis of several of the small islands on the seaward side of Fedu, as described by Sewell. (6) Two small patches, location 095139, close to the south-~ east shore of Fedu, drying up to 2 ft at low water, marked on the Admir- alty chart as "drying 4 ft." In all these cases the rock surface is deeply pitted and eroded, and in cases 1 and 2 it has also been damaged oy military activity. The rock is formed of coral fragments in a coral sand matrix, and in places is dominantly sandy. (iii) Cay sandstone The Maldive Islands form a classic area for the description of cay sandstone. Moresby (1835, 398) described subsurface induration of sands at a depth of 3-4 ft, forming a layer 2 ft thick overlying unconsoli- dated sands, at the freshwater table, at Miladumadulu Atoll. Sewell (1935a, 502-3) described a similar occurrence at Maradu Island, Addu At- oll, and also figured a section at Fehendu Island, Goifurfehendu Atoll (cf. Sewell 1936b), where a Layer of sandstone 14 ft thick underlies 2-3 ft of surface sands and soil, well above high water level. Cay sandstone is well exposed on the west and southwest shores of Gan, where it forms a nearly horizontal ledge or platform several feet wide on the upper pert of the beach. The rock is generally 1-2 ft thick: > Sect its base is dry at low water, but its upper surface is covered by swash at high tide. Its seaward edge forms a vertical or overhanging scarp- let, which is being eroded by transverse gullying, by local undermining and wave action, and by the dislodgment of sections several metres long because of longitudinal fracturing. Inland the rock passes under the beach, and at one point outcrops in the eroded beach face to a height 2 inches higher than the platform, suggesting that the upper surface of the rock may itself be erosional. The rock is poorly bonded and may generally be crumbled in the fingers at fresh sections; at the outcio> it is casehardened and tougher. It lacks internal structures in beddirz or grain size sorting, and is essentially horizontal. Cay sandstone outcrops on the west shore, as recorded in beach p”o-~ files 76, 77, 78 and 79. These are all low-angle beaches (gradients 1 in 10 to 1 in 15), the beach crest rising 5 ft above the immediate off'- shore flat. Cay sandstone outcrops 1.3-2.5 ft below the beach crest, forming a platform 2.3-5.6 metres wide, and 1-1.5 ft thick. On the scwih- west shore, cay sandstone outcrops are shown in beach profiles 92, °3,9, 98, 99 and 100. Beach gradients here range from 1 in 5 (where there fas been considerable steepening as a result of erosion) to 1 in 16. ‘The height of beach crests above the flat ranges from 5 to 9 ft. The sand- stone outcrop is 1-6.4 metres wide; it passes landward beneath unconsoi- idated beach sands which form a vertical scarplet up to 2.5 ft high. The outer edge of the rock platform forms a scarplet 0.5-2 ft high. ‘The height difference between the sandstone platform and the beach crest de- pends on the amount of human interference with the latter: at its greas- est, where the erosional sand scarp is highest, the platform is 3.3-4 ft below the beach crest. Elsewhere it may be only 1-2 ft. Profile 99 shows the rock with a maximum thickness of 3.4 ft; generally it is 0.5-2 ft. The surface of the platform is often tilted slightly seawards, but at i very much smaller angle than intertidal beachrock. No outcrops of cay sandstone were seen at Hitaddu, but Sewell de- scribes outcrops of similar rock on the lagoon beach at Heratera (Seweil 1936a, 76, Plate 4iii). (iv) Beachrock Intertidal beachrock has been classically described from the Mal- dive Islands by Gardiner (1903, 341-346, Plate 16), and its character- istics are now well known. Gardiner insisted on its intertidal char- acter (1903, 343), and this appears to be a useful field criterion for beachrock identification. Beachrock is uncommon on Addu beaches, where it must not be confused with outcropping beach sandstone on the upper beach face, exposed by beach retreat. Outcrops of beachrock are found in two places on the Gan beaches, the largest being at the northwest point (1014/1367). Three lines of beachrock continue the trend of the north shore towards the deeply scoured Gan Channel. The rock is eroded and discoloured by algae, the outer line blackened, the inner lines grey and brown, but by contrast with the Caribbean, larger algae such as Tui- binaria are absent, doubtless because of the high tidal range. The beachrock is shown in beach profiles 72 and 73. The lowest seaward put - ho - of the beachrock stands 1.5 ft above the level of the lagoon reef flat, at this point a hard planed rock floor; the highest landward part of | the beachrock stands 4 ft above the flat and 3.5 ft below the beach’ crest. Low tide level approximates to its lowest extent, and the rock is submerged at high tide. The three lines of beachrock all dip sea- wards: the innermost at 3°40', the second at 5936', and the outermost at 6°30'. They are separated by scarps 1-1.4 ft high. At its western- most extent the beachrock is being undermined by current scouring in the Gan channel, and several slabs have been broken transversely and have fallen into scour holes. At the end of the beachrock the channel floor lies 4 ft below the beachrock surface, and as a result of this scouring there is a secondary longitudinal tilt in the exposure. Possible massive beachrock outcrops on the north shore of Gan, (a) immediately west of the marine jetty (1060/1394), where it has been much altered by man, and (b) in four small patches at the eastern end of the north shore (124144), where it is difficult, however, to distin- guish it from possible cay sandstone on morphologic grounds. Similar difficulty is also experienced with some of the outcropping rocks fig- ured by Sewell at Goifurfehendu Atoll (Sewell 1936b). Unmistakable beachrock was not seen at Hitaddu, though a lagoon beach exposure south of the jetty may be so classed. Gardiner also reports beachrock on the’ seaward beach at Midu (Gardiner 1903, 417). The Gan beachrock consists of sedimentary particles similar to those of the adjacent beach, showing vertical sorting into distinctive layers dipping seawards, which helps to differentiate it from cay sand- stone. The constituent particles show evidence of solution, and the rock has been secondarily cemented to an extremely tough and hard char-~ acter. ; Problems The problems posed by the Addu lithified sediments may be briefly stated. The nature of the relict "reef rock" is of critical importance in the geomorphic history of the atoll. Gardiner and Sewell supposed it to be a true submarine reef rock exposed by relative elevation, but it is also possible that it has been formed by lithification of coarse is- land clastic sediments at its present elevation and exposed by beach retreat, as Newell suggests in the Tuamotus (Newell 1961). Bearing on this problem is the generally unsorted nature of the constituents and the imbrication of coral slabs at Hitaddu. Even though there is no evi- dence of corals being found in the rock "in the position of growth", as ~ Gardiner observed at Minikoi and elsewhere, this seems to indicate a subtidal origin, implying a relative shift of sea level. The widespread nature of similar exposures elsewhere in the Maldives and in the Indian Ccean generally (Sewell 1935a, 474-479; 1932, 1928) would also lend sup- port to a negative eustatic shift in explanation of these raised features. It is interesting in this connection that Shepard (1963, 5) has obtained — & radiocarbon date of 2990 + 220 yrs B.P. from a raised reef 2-3 ft above low tide level in Ceylon, although comparable Pacific and Austra- lian features have yielded considerably older dates. At Gan the rock has -li - been subject to considerable alteration by erosion, and is probably un- datable. However, samples of reefrock underlying the present flat should give significant results: if near-surface samples are very old, they may indicate antiquity and subsequent planation of the flat, from which the higher fragments of reefrock rise as erosional remnants; but if young, it will be difficult to attribute the relict rock to any major eustatic shift of sea level. The nature of the cement in the cay sandstone and the intertidal beachrock is of interest. If, as seems likely, the cay sandstone is a freshwater rock and the beachrock marine, the primary cements should be calcite and aragonite respectively (Stoddart and Cann 1965). In the case of the Gan beachrock, however, solution may have gone too far for the primary cement to be determined. Alternatively, if the beachrock cement is calcite, this will add further evidence to Russell's theory of beach- rock origin at the freshwater table under beaches (Russell 1962). A major problem is why rock of one sort is developed on a particular is- land, rather than another. At Gan, cay sandstone is the dominant lithi- fied material, whereas at Cocos-Keeling Russell and McIntire (1965) report massive beachrock. be : SN a e . AG » birth Sa lY- treeosy ‘wae see tabity duo’ an! ot a Bho arretete nolquie soca sie y 7 Mi) dole mot tart emir = Mee this Lap rep! 2 AGO Gueh caditnemint! 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Addu Atoll lagoon echosounding profiles 9-10; for location, see Figure 11, 9: Jy-J; 10, Kj-K. Horizontal scale approximately 1:27,000 Fig. 15. Echosounding profiles of lagoon patch reef 24: (A) from profile 7, (B) from profile 8. For location, see Figure 11, A: G,-G; B: H-H,. The diameter of the summit is approximately 220 metres. FATHOMS ADOU ATOLL HISTOGRAM OF AREA/DEPTH DISTRIBUTIONS O 0) 20 30 40 50 60 MILLION SQUARE YARDS Fig. 16. Histogram showing area-depth distributions in Addu Atoll lagoon and peripheral reefs. FATHOMS 20 10 +O 10” 20)" *30) 40" "50" "GO" 70" “809 490) 7100" 110" 120 sO iad PLANIMETRIG AREA MILLIONS SQUARE YARDS Fig. 17. Hypsometric curve for Addu Atoll lagoon and peripheral reefs, DEPTH FATHOMS . 18. PERCENT IO “20 ~30°°"40"™ 50 GO 70 730) eos RONGELAP ENIWE TOK BIKINI RONGERIK Percentage hypsometric curves for Addu, Rongelap, Eniwetok, Bikini and Rongerik Atolls. Data for the Marshall Islands from Emery, Tracey and Ladd (1954). *(€Z6T) YSteT38neq hq JaeYo ay UO paseg *Sutpunos FFuuins Pepslooed wnuUTUTU sy} ST SJeyOeIq UT sInBTF [Tews eyZ °1nojUos PesoTS seMmoT ITeyi Aq peutyep ‘sTTouy pue szae1 yojed uoo8eT TIOIV NPPpV FO sXoqumuU xepuT pue UOTIeDO0T 6, °3T¥q SIA WOLOVN w ee (21) oo I? be, (0) D wal iD O28 i (vz) — PE of ee Q} Ss C2ue be 6l fe te S02) (0) ° (oz)® 2) d\ a7 C} Oi . Ny Gls.) (0) cl y (PIE \ Osa : és (€ } 9 (i) i \ ° G (0) \ ° v i (@1) m> 4 7 Dy 17 ‘ \ “ / I ( iH (§:1) I TENS é oa Se (>) ”) oaks a) 4 x | r ) ~~ re Fi {) MW 7] wo / / \ / mS 4 Hi i \ ca : | Gate le 4 Le ~ X i 10 Ses ae Deca" 5 lee cies é “s / \ Pata 5 “sTTOuy pue syzeert yojed uoose, nppy Jo uot3nqtaqstp eore-yqdeq °0Z °3Ta eS ee SWOHLVS 30 25 TRANSECT I IO FT QUADRAT O 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 25 TRANSECT I NO. SPECIES PER 20 (0) | soe Le (0) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 FEET FROM SHORE Fig. 21. Distribution of number of coral species across Gan lagoon reef transects I and II, based on field determinations of species collected in 10 ft quadrats. o°o oc 27090 096 FS 8 Oe Oo 8 OS Se eS Oe ee rR ONS SO Cnn eu cn en or OaQ ac caiee o2ow wv AN ODD PMHAFMNNK DHDWAOONWSFMAN eK CKHMDKAOONAMNA & HRorwontnne a a | NAN NANA N NUN NNN NNN N WX Ww 3Wwn37n3nrnV37r37r er | es as oem 3 Se iene Soe Oe eS == po saee ae Df Ml, Yj, ian oy a. x) Bens pT at B oy Nye!) B, LLL iy | ee ip ML Be/og oo Berese Szodereres Dy yy Y “Ceol VW My ae oe TO Bi) oY Al MAD WUE, Uf SASS cee _Sunaeqeaneea Hf HY Uf an” By, via NS massive TRANSECT 2 Bee 5/78 ia Lp v 7) Bee 3 = ° LUZ wpe OocecOrvg cocoons S3Zes gaESoOL2 axe & = oO uJ w CZ c= @ jug (= Lagoon Reef Flat GAN mean high water GROWTH FORMS Distribution of growth form of corals across Gan lagoon reef transects I and II. Riges22 BEACH HEIGHT NORTH SHORE (WEST) ~~_PROFILES 57-75 NORTH SHORE (CENTRE) PROFILES |-56,149 -154 oo nae —- _— = amas + | NORTH SHORE (EAST) ~~ __ PROFILES 115-124 =~ EAST SHORE \ SOUTHWEST PROFILES 128-137 | SHORE PROFILES 90 - 114, 138 -148 Fig. 23. Location of beach sectors and beach profiles at Gan Island. e GAN : MEDIAN HEIGHT AND HEIGHT RANGE + °HITADDU : MEDIAN HEIGHT Fig. 24. Relationship between beach height and beach angle at Gan and Hitaddu Islands, from profiles on seaward and lagoon beaches. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ul 12 13 14 MEAN BEACH ANGLE epue[Ss]I ued *jeTJ Jeet paemees “suoT ies Sut[dues jUSUTpes °cz °STa . °TTOIV nppy *‘z00TF uooseyT ‘suotje}s BSuT{[dwes jUoUTpes “97 (PST OZ! O¢l O60 OSO O10 NO a ND oO (e) 2 S pe © rs ro) oO (e) oO rs) *(seTSuetiz) TOOT uoose, nppy pue ‘(sessoi9) JeT}F Jeet preMess ued *(sjop) seyoreq ued worz se,Tduwes juewTpes uT SUTIIOS pue ezIs UeTpem ueMqeq dtysuotje Toy °9z °3ta G PW G-z+ O-g+ Sei+ O-l+ S-0+ 0 S-0- *seTdues quewTpes 100[J uoose, nppy (9) pue *3eTJ Joo premees ued (Gq) SyoReq ueD (vy) 103 seAano Aouenberzyz eaT}eTNUND aTdues *1Z °3Ta - 43 - IV. PRELIMINARY LIST OF STONY CORALS FROM ADDU ATOLL by J. W. Wells and P. Spencer Davies During the course of the quadrat transect surveys on the lagoon reef at Gan (see p. 28) a collection of corals was assembled. ‘The methed adopted was as follows: Each coral specimen removed and re- corded from each quadrat was given a number to form the nucleus of a type collection. Subsequent corals were then compared with the types and assigned the relevant number. Any showing morphological dif- ferences from the type were given a new number and incorporated in the collection; this involved some duplication and the assemblage of a num- ber of what later turned out to be growth forms and varieties of the same species. In this way it was possible to pinpoint the distribu- tion of ali corals collected along transects from the shore to the base of the lagoon slope. Collections were also made in a non-systematic man- ner whenever any corals were recognized as being not represented in the type collection. The collection therefore includes a few species which were collected on a shoal in Addu lagoon (no. 4, fig. 19) and on the seaward reef slope of the reefs to the north of the atoll. Distribution has been related in the list to the reef terminology adopted by Tracey et al. (1955). On the lagoon reef flat, the area of living coral (which commences approximately one-third of the distance to the reef margin from the shore) has been divided into three arbitrary zones, viz.: inner, mid and outer. ‘These have no ecological significance and are used solely to | give greater precision in describing distribu- tion. Subclass ZOANTHARTA Order SCLERACTINTIA - Suborder ASTROCOENT INA Family ASTROCOENTIIDAE Subfamily Astrocoeniinae Genus STYLOCOENIELLA 1) Stylocoeniella guentheri (Bassett-Smith) Lagoon slope, Gan. 20 to 80 ft.depth Family THAMNASTERIIDAE Genus PSAMMOCORA 1) Psammocora nierstraszi v.d. Horst Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) P. (Stephanaria) folium Umbgrove Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. ~ Gh 3) BP. (Stephanaria) togianensis Umbgrove Lagoon slope, Gan. 20-70 ft. depth 4) BP. (Stephanaria) sp. cf. P.(S). digitata ME. & H. Lagoon reef flat, Gan. 5) BP. (Plesioseris) haimeana M.E. & H. Outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Common. Family | POCILLOPORIDAE Genus STYLOPHORA 1) Stylophora pistillata (Esper) Mid to outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) Stylophora mordax (Dana) Seaward reef slope, off Bushy Island, N. Addu. 3) Stylophora subseriata (Ehrenberg) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 70-80 ft. Genus SERIATOPORA 1) Seriatopora angulata Klunzinger Seaward reef slope off Bushy Island, N. Addu. Not recorded from reefs at Gan. Genus POCILLOPORA 1) Pocillopora eydouxi M.E. & H. Lagoon reef margin, Gan. Common. 2) Pocillopora meandrina Dane var» nobilis Verrill Depth 20 ft. Depth 20 ft. Outer zone of lagoon reef flat and lagoon slope to 60 ft., Gan. Very common. 3) Pocillopora damicornis (Linn. ) Very common over whole of lagoon reef flat, Gan. One of the first corals found on the landward heal of growing coral on the reef flat. P. sp. cf. P. damicornis (Linn.) - Stunted growth form. Inner zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. 4) Pocillopora ligulata Dena Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 10-90 ft. 5) Pocillopora acuta Lemarck Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 0-90 ft. - 45 - Family | ACROPORIDAE Genus ACROPORA 1) Acropora convexa (Dana) Found over whole surface of lagoon reef flat, Gan. Particularly abundant at lagoon reef margin. A. sp. cf. A. convexa (Dana) mid zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) Acropora intermedia (Brook) Mid zone lagoon reef flat, Gan. 3) Acropora humilis (Dana) Very common on whole of lagoon reef flat and to 15 ft. on lagoon slope, Gan. Also found in shallow pools behind algal pavement seaward reef flat, Gan and Hitaddu. 4) Acropora hemprichi (Ehrenberg) Lagoon reef margin and to depth of 20 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Common at depths of 20 ft on seaward reef slope of Northern reefs, Addu. 4a) Acropora abrotanoides (Lamarck) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. 5) Acropora formosa (Dana) Very common. Forms a distinct zone between mid and outer zone of lagoon reef flat. A similar species, tentatively identified as Acropora sp. cf. A. formosa is dominant over large areas of the lagoon slope, between 20 and 70 ft. Gan. 6) Acropora hyacinthus (Dana) "cytherea" form Lagoon reef margin, Gan. 7) Acropora forskali (Ehrenberg) Lagoon reef margin, Gan. 8) Acropora palifera (Lamarck) Not recorded on Gan reefs but abundant, in places dominant, on reef top and seaward margins of Northern reefs, Addu. 9) Acropora eurystoma (Klunzinger ) Mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 10) Acropora variabilis (Klunzinger ) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50-80 ft. 11) Acropora corymbosa (Lamarck) Lagoon reef margin and lagoon slope to 50 ft. Gan. 12) Acropora syringodes (Brook) Lagoon reef margin and lagoon slope to 80 ft. Gan. - 4b ~~ 13) Acropora sp. cf. A. conigera (Dana) Outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 14) Acropora rotumana (Gardiner) Outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 15) Acropora hystrix (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 80 ft. 16) Acropora squarrosa (Ehrenberg) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 30 ft. 17) Acropora n. sp. ? "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 70 ft. Genus ASTREOPORA 1) Astreopora myriophthalma (Lamarck) Lagoon reef flat and lagoon slope to 35 ft, Gan. Also recorded from "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 50 ft. 2) Astreopora ocellata Bernard Legoon reef flat, mid zone to reef margin and to depth of 20 ft on lagoon slope. Gan. 3) Astreopora listeri Bernard Lagoon siope, Gan. Depth 15 ft. 4) Astreopora sp. cf. A. gracilis Bernard Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 65 ft. 5) Astreopora sp. cf. A. incrustans Bernard Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 40 ft. Genus MONTIPORA 1) Morthirora sinensis Bernard Lagoon reef margin, Gan. 2) Montipora danae ME. & H. Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 90 ft. 3) Montipora pulcherrima Bernard Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 90 ft. 4) Montipora sp. cf. M. foliosa (Pallas) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50 ft. Suborder FUNGINA Superfamily AGARICIICAE Family AGARICIIDAE - 47 - Genus PAVONA 1) Pavond gardineri v.d. Horst Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 15 ft. 2) Pavona clavus (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 20-60 ft. 3) Pavona varians Verrill Widely distributed. Mid to outer lagoon reef flat and lagoon slope to depth of 80 ft. Gan. var. "repens" Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60-80 ft. 4) Pavona (Polyastra?) acuticarinata (Umbgrove ) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50 ft. 5) Pavona (Polyastra) sp. cf. P. (P.) planulata (Dana) Lagoon reef margin to 80 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 6) Pavona (Polyastra?) ponderosa (Gardiner) Seaward reef slope, Bushy Island. Depth 30 ft. 7) Pavona (Polyastra?) n. sp. Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50 ft. 8) .Pavona (Polyastra) sp. ~~ Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60 ft. 9) Pavona (Pseudocolumnastraea) sp. cf. P. maldivensis Gardiner Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60 ft. Genus LEPTOSERIS 1) Leptoseris gardineri v.d. Horst Forms large colonies in sand at base of lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 90-100 ft. 2) Leptoseris incrustans (Quelch) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60 ft. Genus PACHYSERIS 1) Pac _yseris speciosa (Dana) Lagoon reef margin and lagoon slope to 60 ft. Gan. 2) Pachyseris levicollis (Dana) Lagoon slope Gan. Depth 40-70 ft. 3) Pachyseris valenciennesi M.E. & H. Lagoon reef margin and lagoon slope to 30 ft. Gan. oe Family SIDERASTREIDAE Genus COSCINARAEA 1) Coscinaraea monile (Forskaal ) "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 50 ft. Mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Superfamily FUNGIICAE Family FUNGIIDAE Genus FUNGIA 1) Fungia scutaria Lamarck Lagoon reef margin to 50 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 2) Fungia repanda Dana Lagoon reef margin to 90 ft on lagoon slope. Gan. Common. 3) Fungia echinata (Pallas) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 70-90 ft. 4) Fungia fungites (Linnaeus) Very common on whole of lagoon reef flat, Gan, attached stage commonly on Acropora formosa. Not recorded from lagoon slope. Genus HERPOLITHA 1) Herpolitha limax (Esper) Lagoon reef margin to 60 ft-on lagoon slope, Gan. Common. Genus POLYPHYLLIA 1) Polyphyllia talpina (Lamarck) | Lagoon floor at base of lagoon slope, depth 80-100 ft. Gan and Northern reefs, Addu. Tentacles extended during day. Genus HALOMITRA 1) Helomitra philippinensis Studer Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50-90 ft. Common. Superfamily PORTTICAE Family PORITIDAE Genus GONIOPORA 1) Goniopora, minor Crossland Lagoon reef margin to 80 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. - ho - 2) Goniopora sp. aff. G. planulata (Ehrenberg) cf. Klunzinger Seaward reef slope, Bushy Islend. Depth 30 ft. Genus PORITES 1) Forites solida (Forskaal) No distribution data available. 2) Forites lutea M.E. & H. Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 10-100 ft. 3) Porites lichen Dana Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 90 ft. 4) Porites sp. cf. P. alveolata Outer zone, lagoon 1 reef flat, Gan. 5) Porites (Synaraea) monticulosa (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 15-90 ft. 6) Porites (Synaraea) n. sp.? aff. P.(S.) horizontalata Hoffmeister ~ Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 70 Sts 7) Porites sp. (cf."P. mauritius 5" Bernard) Seaward reef edge, Gan. Genus ALVEOPORA 1) Alveopora sp. cf. A. viridis (Quoy & Gaimard) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 70 ft. Suborder FAVIINA Superfamily FAVTICAE Family FAVIIDA& Subfamily Faviinae Genus CAULASTREA 1) Caulastrea furcata Dana Mid zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) Caulastrea tumida (Matthai)? "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 50 ft. Genus PLESIASYREA 1) Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck) Lagoon slope, Gane Depth 80 ft. "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 70 ft. a Genus FAVIA 1) Favia valenciennesi (M.E. & H.) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Lagoon reef flat, Gan. Favia rotumana (Gardiner) ~~ Gagoon reer flat, Gan. Favie stelligera foena) Lagoon reef margin, Gan. Favia favus (Forskaal) ~ gnner zone of lagoon reef flat to 40 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Also mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Favia pallida (Dana) Mid zone of lagoon reef flat to 30 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Favia hululensis Gardiner Mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Favia speciosa (Dana) ~~ Lagoon reef flat, mid zone, to 80 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Also at depth of 60 ft on "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. F. speciosa Dana "clouei" form Lagoon slope 80 ft, Gan. F. sp. cf. F. speciosa Dana "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 60 ft. Genus FAVITES 1) 2) 3) Favites melicerum (Ehrenberg) Mid zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. Favites halicora (Ehrenberg) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50-80 ft. F. sp. cf. F. halicora (Ehrenberg) Lagoon reef 1 margin and to 80 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Favites ehrenbergi (Klunzinger ) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50-60 ft. Favites hemprichi (Ehrenberg) Mid zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. Favites complanata (Ehrenberg ) Lagoon reef margin, Gan. Favites pentagona (Esper) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 80 ft. Favites abdita (Ellis & Solander) Mid and outer zone of lagoon reef flat and to 70 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 2 oye 8) Favites flexuosa (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 15-90 ft. Genus OULOPHYLLTA 1) OQulophyllia crispa (Lamarck) Lagoon reef margin, Gan. Genus GONJASTREA 1) Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck) Middle to outer zone, and reef margin of lagoon reef flat, Gan. One of the commonest massive corals on this reef. G. retiformis (Lamarck) var. parvistella (Dana) Mid to outer lagoon reef flat and to 20 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 2) Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 15-80 ft. Also recorded from "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 50 ft. Genus PLATYGYRA 1) Platygyra lamellina Ehrenberg Outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. P. lamellina Ehrenberg forma sinensis (M.B. & H.) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. P. lemellina Fhrenberg forma rustica (Dena) Mid to outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. P. lamellina Ehrenberg forma astreiformis (M.E. & H.) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, Gan. Genus LEPTORIA 1, Leptoria phrygia (Ellis & Solander ) Mid zone tc reef margin of lagoon reef flat, Gan. Very common. Genus HYDNOPHORA 1) Hydnophora exesa (Pallas) : Mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) Hydnophora microconos (Lamarcix) Outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Subfamily Montastreinae Genus DIP.OASTREA 1) Diploastrea helipora (Lamarck) Lagcon slope 60 to 106 ft, Gan and Fedu. Forms massive sheets at base of lagoon slope. (ne such mass measured approximatcly MS sereO Wis “ 5a Genus LEPTASTREA 1) Leptastrea transversa Kiunzinger Mid zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. 2) Leptastrea purpurea (Dana) Mid zone, lagoon reef flat to 30 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Genus CYPHASTREA 1) Cyphastrea microphthalma (Lamarck) Mid zone, lagoon reef flat to reef margin and to depth of 90 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Genus ECHINOPORA 1) Echinopora lamellosa (Esper) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat to 40 ft on lagoon slope. Dominant coral in places at lagoon reef margin at Gan; less frequent at Fedu. see 5 Family OCULINIDAE Subfamily Galaxeinae Genus GALAXEA 1) Galaxea fascicularis (Lamarck) Mid to outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. "Five Fathom Shoal”, Addu Lagoon, depth 40 ft. 2) Galaxea clavus (Dana) Mid zone of lagoon reef flat, reef margin and lagoon slope to 80 ft, Gan. Very common. Genus MERULINA 1) Merulina ampliata (E. & S.) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat and to 90 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. M. sp. cf. M. liata (E. & S.) (M. regalis Dana?) Lagoon reef margin to 40 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Family MUSSIDAE Genus ACANTHASTREA 1) Acanthastrea echinata (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60 ft. Genus CYNARINA 1) Cynarina lacrymalis (M.E. & H.) Lagoon slope 80-100 ft, Gan. - 53 - Genus LOBOPHYLLIA 1) Lobophyllia corymbosa (Forskaal ) Outer zone of lagoon reef flat to 20 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 2) Lobophyllia costata (Dana) Lagoon reef flat and to 30 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 3) Lobophyllia sp. cf. L. hemprichi (Ehrenberg) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 100 ft. 4.) Lobophyllia sp. cf. L. fistulosa (M.E. & H.) Genus SYMPHYLLIA 1) Symphyllia radians M.E. & H. Mid to outer zones of lagoon reef flat and to bo : ft on lagoon Slope, Gan. 2) Symphyllia sp. cf. S. nobilis (Dana) Mid Zone of lagoon reef reef flat and to 40 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. 3) Symphyllia valenciennesi M.E. & H. Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 90 ft. Family PECTINIIDAE Genus ECHINOPHYLLIA 1) Echinophyllia aspera (E. & S.) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 20-90 ft. Genus PECTINIA 1) Pectinia alcicornis (Saville Kent) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60-80 ft. rar OXYPORA 1) Oxypora lacera (Verrill Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 15-80 ft. Genus MYCEDIUM 1) Mycedium tubifex (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50-80 ft. Suborder CARYOPHYLLITNA Superfamily |§CARYOPHYLLIICAE Family CARYOPHYLLIIDAE Subfamily Eusmiliinae Genus EUPHYLLIA- 1) Buphyllia glabrescens (Chamisso & Bysenhardt) Mid to outer zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. - 54 - 2) Bupbyllisa fimbriata (Spengler) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 60 ft. Genus PLEROGYRA 1) Plerogyra sinuosa (Dana) Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 30-90 ft. Suborder | DENDROPHYLLIINA Family DENDROPHYLLIIDAE Genus DENDROPHYLLIA 1) Dendrophyllia micrantha (Ehrenberg) In sand at base of lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 100-110 ft. Genus TUBASTRAEA 1) Tubastraea aurea (Quoy & Gaimard) Beneath overhangs, in shade on dead boulders, lagoon reef margin, Gan. 2) Tubastraea diaphana (Dana) Similar distribution to T. aurea. Genus TURBINARIA 1) Turbinaria peltata (Esper) From wrecked ship, Addu Lagoon. Depth 110 ft. "Five Fathom Shoal", Addu Lagoon. Depth 90 ft. 2) Turbinaria n. sp. ? Lagoon slope, Gan. Depth 50 ft. Subclass ALCYONARIA Order COENOTHECALIA Family HELIOPORIDAE Genus HELIOPORA 1) Heliopora coerulea (Pallas) var. meandrina Dana Inner reef zone, lagoon reef flat, Gan. Class HYDROZOA Order MILLEPORINA Family MILLEPORIDAE Genus MILLEPORA 1) Millepora latifolia Boschma | Outer zone of lagoon reef flat, and to 20 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. - 55 - 2) Millepora tenera Boschma Lagoon reef margin and to 80 ft on lagoon slope, Gan. Order STYLASTERINA Family STYLASTERTDAE Subfamily Distichoporinae Genus DISTICHOPCRA 1) Distichopora fisheri Broch In shaded areas on dead coral boulders, lagoon reef margin, Gan. - 57 - V. VEGETATION AND FLORA A. A brief history of botanical observations and collections made in the Maldive Islends, Indian Ocean % by E. W. Groves * Although the earliest known account of the Maldives is that given _ by the Moorish traveller, Ibn Batutah (1829, 1853-59) who was in the islands in 1343-44 end briefly mentioned pomegranates (Punica granatum L. ) in cultivation there, it was not until nearly 300 years later that the first description of any of the vegetation was made. ‘This was recorded by a Frenchman, Pyrard de Laval, who whilst travelling to the East In- dies in the barque "Corbin", was shipwrecked on one of the northern islands of the group during July 1602. He stayed on in the Maldives from 1602 to 1607 and it was during this period that he made notes for an account of the islands which he subsequently published on his return to France (Pyrard, 1679). His references to the vegetation were, how- ever, confined to describing plants that he had noticed either in cul- tivation or being put to some domestic use. The first collection of plants, albeit somewhat fragmentary and few in number, was made by H.C.P. Bell, a Ceylon Civil Servant, during the first of his visits to Malé (the capital of the Maldives) in 1879. ‘The few specimens he brought back from this trip were examined by W. Ferguson of Colombo. Bell incorporated Ferguson's determinations along with other of his observations on plants seen in cultivation (amount- ing to 39 species in all) in his excellent account of the Maldive Islands and its people which was published by the Ceylon Government a few years later (Bell, 1883). : . Capt. A. C. Christopher, serving in a British Naval warship, visited Malé in 1888 making a collection of flowering plants (bota wild end cultivated) amounting to 73 species of which 44 were new to Bell's previous list. A few more additions were discovered later by a Mr.Haly, at that time Director of the Colombo Museum, visiting the same island in 1893. Both collections were reported upon by Henry Trimen (1896). In 1896, Mohammed Ibrahim Didi, then Prime Minister to the Sultan of the Maldives, despatched to the Peradeniya Gardens herbarium a collec- tion he had made of some 174 numbers including many cultivated species. These he had collected probably all from Malé or Funadu islets, both On Malé. atoll and included 100 species new to the Maldive list. Three further brief visits to the same atoll were made during the next few * Dept. of Botany, British Museum (Natural History), London - 58 - years: the first by J. J. Thorburn in Aug. 1901 when he made notes of some of the economic plants under cultivation there; the second by Capt. Simons of the British warship "Pomone" who recorded another three new species; and the third by F. Lewis of the Ceylon Forestry Dept. who visited Male and two adjacent islands in Oct. 1901 and was able to add yet a further seven records. All these additions were taken into account in the Willis and Gardiner paper mentioned below. The first widely gathered botanical collection was not ma, in the Maldives until the visit of the J. Stanley Gardiner expeditio to Min- ikoi and the Maldives during 1899-1900. In the course of this-expedi- tion, the primary purpose of which was to study the reef formations and their associated fauna and flora, collections were made on 19 atolls from Ihavandifulu in the north to Addu in the south. About 212 different species including flowering plants and ferns were collected and presented to the herbarium at Peradeniya Gardens, Ceylon. The marine algae that were collected were brought back to England and presented to the herba- rium at Cambridge University. They were determined and published upon as follows: the calcareous algae 9 species belonging to . genera were dealt with by M. Foslie (1903) and the remainder which included 4 species from Suvadivan waters and 2 species from Addu Atoll were written up by Miss E. Barton (1903). The vascular plants were determined in Ceylon by W. de Alvis and J. C. Willis and were written up, along with those smaller collections mentioned above, in an excellent account by the latter in con- junction with J. Stanley Gardiner (Willis & Gardiner, 1901). Thus by the end of 1909 the vascular flora list for the islands had risen to 28h Species. Although a few visits were made to the islands between the two World wars the only known reference to any plants is that given by T.W. Hockley in his book (1935) which gives an account of his trip, to Male in particular, in 1926. He mentions some of the species grown or used economically but all of these had already been mentioned by earlier au- thors. During World War II the present author (E. W. Groves) was sta- tioned at Addu Atoll from 1943 to 1945 during which time he made a small collection of flowering plants and some notes of some of the species seen growing on Gan and a few on Fedu and Hittadu. Owing to insect ravage two specimens only survived to be determined but these together with those identifiable from his notes amounted to 18 species of wnece7 spe- cies were new Maldive records. These were Canavalia cathartica, Commelina suffruticosa and Cyanotis axillaris, all from Gan island. % ~ J. S. Gardiner was a Fellow of Cambridge University and his expedi~ tion, consisting of himself as leader, with L. A. Borradaile from June~ July 1899 and C. Forster Cooper from Oct. 1899-April 1900, was under patronage from the Royal Society and the British Association. kal fe of Canavalia cathartica were brougul back to England in 1945 and taken to the CheT»ea Physic Garden, London. These were germinated in 1946 under tropic heat and by that midsummer two vines at least were trailing along beams of the glass house for about 15 ft. Unfortunately a countrywide fuel shortage the following winter prevented the stoves being maintained at the necessary temperature and the Canavalia, along with many other plants that were in the tropic house at the time,perished. - 59 «- In April 1956 F. R. Fosberg paid a short visit to Malé atoll and whilst there made a good collection of flowering plants both on Male island itself and on two adjacent islands (Kudos Bados and Furannafuri). In addition notes were made of species identified in the field but not actually collected, especially of plants in cultivation in gardens on Malé, A later assessment of specimens both collected and identified on sight indicated a further 44 species not already know from the Maldives. These were listed together with a detailed ecological account of the islands visited in a paper published by Fosberg (1957). W. W. A. Phil- lips who was in the Maldives first at Malé, Nov. 1956-Feb. 1957, and then on Gan islend, Addu Atoll, May 1958-April 1959, made a small col- lection during his first stay which he sent for identification to A.S.A, Packeer (Asst. Warden, Dept. of Wild Life) in Colombo. The list of 12 species was included in Fosberg's paper just mentioned. During Sept. and Oct. 1957 the Yale University Seychelles expedi- tion en route there from Colombo visited North Male, Fadiffolu, South Mahlosmadulu and Addu atolls. At a prior request W. D. Hartman, one of the zoologists on the expedition, collected as many different Pendanus spp. as he encountered and as a result a small but excellent collection was brought back to the Arnold Arboretum herbarium for Dr. H. St. John to study. After evaluation 4 species new to science and to the Maldive list were described (St. John, 1961). As far as known, the next and most recent collections made in the Maldives are those of the 1964 expedition, reported upon below in parts C and D. h Sat uaa arin y “gations "ey pdr Baas «art Ai Rote! eopasth ARIE) abuatex tad b; eit aya | burtesanbe mses ae ¢ ten: te arabia chon tty —— “iS. Woah at (ani aes aks atta ews Seton UM halal. am ~_ soevitieM add mov? oot yoaedla fon Me a at Y Te Premise rode Parecr ‘petiates On. its L} yyretaot® yo Sedakre i ‘ sheen ato tae farce “fx EL rego pat Ye “okt vB od Uh iit) ef! vottbflso «2 Sy BLEW bey va bobs ute heanal sede ie aawile en ere tt ator on bebe | \ Sa reat Sly RAtpOs OR ng ih Jae i) Sait Tora R ER isk ag datoorio”, IST COILS he a Mhroalion tae Loewe’ te Ce ‘e Pvast np ta"h Fou aids PET, AE wT arena here i ee oath ade OF 8 a} fA i aren ; Y DPR » ’ a i 7? al _ * r ‘ ” ha pl.-1ey Habitat: below 25 fathoms and on hard bottom outside atoll, Barton, 1903; A, B; 5 F, H, Sigee 2a, 3, 4. These thalli are about 4-5 cm high with no specific holdfast present. The medullary filaments are fused in twos but occasionally may i be seen in threes, with the points of fusion about 1-1.5 times as long as the diameter of the filaments. The primary utricles adhere to each other even after decalcification. These individual utricles are about 17 u in surface diameter. Neomeris mucosa Howe, 1909: 84, pl. 1 (fig. 5) and pl. 5 (figs. 1-14); Dawson, 1956: 42, fig. 30c. Habitat: F, H, Sigee 102. Of the seven species in this genus, these thalli agree with the description and figures of this species as described in Howe (1909). Tydemania expeditionis Weber-van Bosse, 1901: 139; A. & E. S. Gepp, 1911: 66, fig. 153-154; Taylor, 1950: iy Die, 20 Aiea he Habitat: B-D, J, Sigee 32, Only the distinct glomerular form of this species is present in this collection, Udotea orientalis A. & E. S. Gepp, 1911: 119 and 142; Taylor, 1950: 74, Die so rue. 2), Habitat: A-F, H, I, Sigee 15. The thalli are small, about 3-4 cm high including the stipe, and anatomically similar to the description in Taylor (1950). Valonia utricularis (Roth) C. Ag. 1822: 431; Taylor, 1950: 41. Habitat: F, H, Sigee 103, 111. The vesicles are irregularly shaped with no organized pattern of branching. a Valonia ventricosa J. Ag., 1887: 96: Eeerod, 1952: S47, ple 29s Habitats B-D, I, sigee 52, These vesicles are solitary, about one centimeter in diameter, Phaeophyceae *Dictyota bartayresiana Lamx., 1809: 43. Habitat: in passage below 25 fathoms and on hard bottom, Barton,1903. Dictyota friabilis Setchell, 1926; 91, pl. 13—@figs.4-7)—and-pi,—20 (fier 1). ; Habitat: A-F, H, J, Sigee 5a, 70. Both collections form prostrate clumps, with the thalli about 1-2 em long. Most of the thalli of No. 70 are less than 2 mm broad, whereas the thalli of No. 5a are about 5 mm broad. For the present, both of these sterile specimens are tentatively listed here. Dictyota sp. Habitat: A-F, H, J, Sisgee 5b. This collection consists of prostrate clumps with the thalli up to 3 cm long. The margins of the thalli are serrated as in Dictyota patens hs Ag., but do not conform to the growth habit and size of this species. Hydroclathrus clathratus (Bory) Howe, 1920: 590; Taylor, 1950: 96, Habitat: E, F, 1, Sigee 45. Padina commersonii Bory, 1028: 144; Okamura (Icones VI): 89, pl. 295. Habitat: A, B, E, G, Sigee 17. These thalli are about 5 cm high and arise from a common hold- fast. The thalli are two to three cells thick, about 90 y in thickness at the apical portion and enlarging to 120 » in thickness below. The oogonia are in concentric rows on the upper surface above every hairline, with no inducium present. Pocockiella variegata (Lamx.) Papenfuss, 1943: 469, figs. 1-14. Habitat: B, D-F, H, Sigee 50. The thalli were growing prostrate on fragments of coral. Al- though the anatomical sections as well as habit are similar to those des- cribed in Papenfuss (1943), there is still some doubt as to the legitimacy of the seneric name. Sphacelaria sp. Habitat: A, B, Sigee 20. These thalli are about 1-2 mm high. Since all of the thalli were without propagulae, no specific epithet can be designated here, Turbinaria ornata (Turner) J. Ag., 1848: 266; Taylor, 1950: 101, pl. 53 (fies 2) and pls 55 Chlee 2) Habitat: 3B, F, H, I, Sigee 20. Rhodophyceae The melobesioid corallines of the present collection are not re- ported here because of the authors’ unfamiliarity with this group, How- ever, two species described in Foslie (1903) are listed here. Antithamnion sp. Habitat: B, C, F, Sigee 25. The branches on the main axis are either opposite or verticil-~ late with the terminal branches tipped with a single acute shaped cell. *Archaeolithothamnion schmidtii Fosl, Habitat: below 25 fathoms of water in lagoon, Foslie, 1903, Botryocladia skottsbergii (Boerg.) Levring. 1941: 645; Dawson, 1956: 52, fig. LE. , Habitat:. A-C, F, Sigee 23. Ceramium fimbriatum Setchell & Gardner, 1924: 777, pl. 26 (figs. 43 & 44); Dawson, 1944: 317; Dawson, 1950: 123. Habitat: G, Sipee 105. The mature portions of the thalli are approximately 70 u in dia- meter, with the corticating bands divided into two distinct parts at about the lower third. Short thick apically rounded, unicellular hairs are pre= sent at the nodes. he tetrasporangia are involucrate, Ceratodictyon spongiosum Zanard., 1873: 36; Okamura, 1909 (Icones II): pis. 51-52. Habitat: I, Sigee 69, The thalli are very sponge-like in appearance. Champia parvula (Ag.) Harvey, 1853: 76; Boerg., 1915-20 (Danish West Indies): 407, Habitat: A, Sigee 122a. The thalli ‘are intertangled and form small clumps about 2 cm across. Champia salicornoides Harvey, 1653; Taylor, 1950: 491, pl. 61 (fig. 5). Habitat: A, Sigee 122b. The thalli are about 3 cm high and appear erect from a basal disk, Anatomically, the walls of the thalli consist of a single layer of large cells, 25-50 w in diameter, interspersed with smaller cells about 7-14 u in diameter. ce medullary filaments are seen running throughout the length of the thalli, The sessile pericarps are conical in shape and scattered on the thalli. Dasya sp. Habitat: H, Sigee 112. Dictyuxus purpurascens Bory in Belanger & Bory, 1546; 170, pl. 15 (fig. 2) aylosy, 19507 143, ple 70 (fig. 1). Habitat:’ B, Sigee 24. This collection is similar to the description and photograph in Taylor (1950). Pane aaeneeae Sa ae eee] 77, Tab. 20 (fig. 44). Habitat: B, C, Sigee 104, The thalli axe composed of flattened branches throughout. Ter- minal cells of the cortical filaments are spherical in shape, Galaxaura marginata (Ellis & Solander) Lamx., 1016: 264; Kjellman, 1°C0: Galaxaura rudis Kjellman, 1900: 43-44, Tab, 2 (figs. 1-9) and Tab. 20 Cie. ili Hagreacs "AS-B; Dy Fy(Sigee 2a, The thalli are 3-4 cm high and are bushy in appearance. Ana- tomically, the thalli consist of long assimilatory filaments with swollen cells at the basal portion of these filaments. Gelidium divaricatum Martens, 15¢6: 30, pl. &; Tseng, 1936: 36, figs. 18a=-b, pl. 4. Habitat: A-D, F, a, Sigee 72, Griffithsia sp. Habitat; C, Sigee 60, . The thalli are sterile and about a centimetex long. Herposiphonia sp. Habitat: 5B, D, Hy sieee, 1B. These thalli were growing as epiphytes on Halimeda opuntia. eG Hypnea spp. Habitat: E, Sigee 91; E, F, H, Sigee 93; A, B, E, F, Sigee 18; B-D, Sigee 12. Four species are represented in these collections of Hypnea, Due to the taxonomic difficulties encountered by the senior author in this genus, they cannot be named at present but are listed separately above with their respective habitats. Jania capillacea Harvey, 1853: 84; Boerg., 1917: 198-199, fig. 188. Habitat: A-F, H, Sigee 11. The thalli appear as intertangled masses, with the branches seldom forming obtuse angles at the dichotomies. The diameter of the branches is approximately 120 u, with the length of the segments 6-8 times as long as the diameter. *Lithothamnion fruticulosum (Kutz.) Fosl. Habitat: below 40 fathoms, Foslie, 1903 (cited as an uncertain determination). Lophosiphonia villum (J. Ag.) Setchell & Gardner, 1903: 329, Habitat: B-D, F, H, J. Sigee 29, 98. Polysiphonia ferulacea a ee in J. Ag., 1863 (Spec. Alg. II): 980. Habitat: A=C,.E Sigee 35a. Species determined Fay a fe Follenbers. Spyridea filamentosa (Wulf.) Harvey in Hooker, 1833: 337; Taylor, 1950: 139; Dawson, 1954: 444, fig. 54i. Habitat: E, Sigee 97. The main axis is similar to the illustration in Dawson (1954). The determination branchlets are tipped with a single spine. Tolypiocladia glomerulata (Ag.) Schmitz in Schmitz and Hauptfleisch, 1896-97: 441; Dawson, 1954: 452, figs. 59b-c. Habitat: B, C, Sigee 44, Vidalia serrata (Suhr.) J.\Ag.,, 1863: 1125. Habitat: B, Sigee 19. The thalli are about 2 cm high with the stichidia present on the blades, just inside of the marginal serrations, FRESHWATER AND TERRESTRIAL ALGAE Nostoc commune Bornet & Flahault Habitat: Terrestrial, Gan Island, Sigee 119 This blue-green alga was reported to be especially evident in wet weather. Pithophora oedogonia (Mont.) Wittrock, 1877: 55, pl. 6 (figs. 1-6); Collins, 1909: 363. Habitat: Freshwater, Gan Island, Sigee 114. The filaments of this green alga are branched with cells about 60 u wide and the cell length about ten times as long as the diameter, Both intercalary and terminal akinetes are present. - 101 - Summary of Algal Collection Excluding the four tentative species of Hypnea, this paper lists 63 species or varieties of marine benthic algae from Addu Atoll, 58 of them reported here for the first time from this atoll. These new rec- ords consist of 7 in the Myxophyceae, 25 in the Chlorophycege, 7 in the Phaeophyceae, and 19 in the Rhodophyceae. One terrestrial alga and one freshwater alga are also included in this paper. It is of great interest to note that the species represented here from Addu Atoll in the Indian Ocean are very similar to the marine flora that occurs on many of the atolls in the Pacific Ocean. Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to Dr. Maxwell S. Doty,who critically read the manuscript and who gave them free access to his personal lib- vary. They are also indebted to Mr. H. E. Hackett, Department of Botany, Duke University for his unselfish help in furnishing the authors with the necessary references to past literature on the marine benthic algae of the Maldive Islands; to Dr. Francis Drouet, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, who provided the determination of Hormothamnion enteromor~ phoides Bornet & Flahault; to Dr. George J. Hollenberg, Professor Emeritus of Biology, University of Redlands for his determination of Polysiphonia ferulacea Suhr.; and to Mr. Gavino Trono, Jr., Department of Botany, Uni- versity of Hawaii, who helped with the determinations of the two species of Galaxaura. Selected Bibliography Barton, E. S. 1903. List of marine algae collected at the Maldive and Leccadive Islands by J. S. Gardiner, Journ, Linn, Soc., Bot. 35: 475-482, pl. 13. Boergesen, F. 1915-20. The marine algae of the Danish West Indies. Pt. 3. Rhodophyceae. Dansk. Bot. Arkiv. 3: 1-504, Collins, F. S. 1909. The green algae of North America. Tufts College Studies, II(3): 79-480, 18 pls. Dawson, E. Y. 1944. The marine algae of the Gulf of California. Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 3(10): 189-454, 47 pls. » 1950. A review of Ceramium along the Pacific Coast of North America with special reference to its Mexican representa- tives. Farlowia 4(1): 113-138. Cea . 1954. Marine plants in the vicinity of the Institute Océanographique de Nha Trang. Viet Nam. Pac. Sci. 8(4): 373-469, 1 map, 63 figs. - 102 - Dawson, E. Y. 1956. Some marine algae of the southern Marshall Islands. Pac. Sci. 10(1): 25-66, 66 figs. » 1957. An annotated list of marine algae from Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands. Pac. Sci. 11(1): 92-132, 31 figs. Egerod, L. E. 1952. An analysis of the siphonous Chlorophycophyta. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 25(5): 325-454, 23 figs., 14 pls. Eubank, L. L. 1946. Hawaiian representatives of the genus Caulerpa. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 18(18): 409-432, 2 figs., 1 pl. Foslie, NM. 1903, The Lithothamnia of the Maldives and Laccadives. In J. S. Gardiner (editor). The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes. Vol. I. Cambridge Univ. Press, 460-471, pls. 24-25. Gardiner, J. S. 1931. Coral reefs and atolls. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., St. Martin's St., London. 181 pp. c Gepp, A., and E. S. Gepp. 1911. Codiaceae of the Siboga Expedition. Siboge Expeditie. Monog. 62: 150 pp., 22 pls. E. J. Brill, Leiden. Hillis, L. W. 1959. A revision of the genus Halimeda. “Inst. Mar. Sci. VI: 321-403, 12 pls. tit Howe, Mie Ae 1909. Phycological. studies IV. The genus Neomeris and. notes on other siphonales, Torrey Bot. Club, Bull. 36: 75-104, 8 pls. Kjellman, F. R. 1900. On Floridé-slugtet Galaxaura dess Organografi .._ och systematik.. Svenska Vetensk., Acad., Handl. 33: 1-110, 20 pls. Newton, L. M. 1953. Marine algae. Scientific Reports. John Murray Expedition 1933-1934, 9: 395-420. ah ae Papenfuss, G. F. 1943. Notes on algal nomenclature. II. Gymnosorus J. Agardh. Amer. Jour. Bot. 30: 463-468, 15 figs. | Taylor, W. R. 1950. Plants of Bikini and other Northern Marshall Is- lands, Univ. Mich. Press.° xv & 227 pp., 79 pls. - 1960. Marine algae of the eastern tropical and sub- tropical coasts of the Americas. Univ. Mich. Press. ix & 870 pp., 14 figs., 80 pls. 39 At 40 41 - 103 ~ VI. ADDU ATOLL IN 183€ The following text is taken from an unpublished manuscript by Com- mander R. Moresby, "Nautical directions for the Maldive Islands", written following the first hydrographic survey, and preserved as MS 55 in the India Office Records, Gampgor wealth Relations Office, London, by whose per- mission it is reproduced, Excerpts from Moresby's work have been pre- viously published (Moresby 1835, 1844), and his officers also published early descriptions (Christopher 13841, 1844; Young aad Christopher 1844), but Moresby's full memoir has not previously been published, though Dar- win (1842) drew on it, and it is briefly mentioned by Gardiner. The original forms a volume of 98 manuscript pages, of which pages 39-46 deal with Addu Atoll. Addoo Atoll Addoo Atoll erroneously called by former Navigators Phoohah Moloque Atoll, this Atoll being rich, well inhabited, and available for Ships,much in want of supplies; I shall be particular in describing it. This Atoll terminates the South extreme of the Maldive chain of Islands, is the small- est of all the Atolls; being only 10 Miles from East to West. and 7 miles from North to South, it is of a half Moon Shape, the concave side facing the north, and the convex side the South. The MI Point is in Lat*© 0935' South. Long’ t 73°6% East. The NE Point in La%® 0°35 South and Long? 73°10% E. “there are nine larger and several smaller Islands; the two prin- cipal felande lay, one on the MW point; the other on the NE" point; that on the NW" part of the Atoll, is named Hit-ta-doo. and extends to the SSE 3 miles, its breadth from % to & of a mile; next to the South of it is / is Merra-doo, about one Mile in extent; then Faidoo which is smaller, next to the south is Gung, which is 14 Mile in extent, and is the most South- ern and centre Island of the Group; all these Islands four in number, lay on the Western side of the Atoll, and are connected by a barrier reef. of coral, dry at low water, with no Soundings outside of them. There are four Channels leading into this Atoll; two in the Centie, on the North side, and two in the centre on the South side; the Southern channels are the largest, and may be used at night time; the Northern ones are not so broad; yet are safe. and available for vessels coming from the North* with northerly winds, or leaving the Atoll with Southerly winds. a vessel could not work through the Northern Channels, but with a fair tide it could be don through the Southern ones; the best way is to adopt that channel through which a vessel will have a fair wind; the Northern Channels are not easily seen by a vessel coming from the Northward./as the Northern barrier at some distance appears like one unbroken Reef; on a nearer approach and almost in the centre of this barrier, between the East and Western Islands, lay the channels; which will be known by a small bushy Island and a high Bank of Coral Stones; both on the Same Reef; on 1/ ‘ iene salts Ye : ag — Unpublished Crown-copyright material in the India Office Records transcribed in this chapter appears by permission of the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations. _ ~ 43 4b, - 104 - either side of them is a channel leading into the Atoll, the eastern Channel is the largest being 4 or 500 yards broad, having not less than 6 & 7 fms, its direction NW and SE"; the Western Channel is narrower yet longer, and its direction North and South, the depths are from 10 to 12 fms; in both these channels the tides and currents are strong. as also in the Southern ones; the Flood tide sets into the Northern Channels; the Ebb sets into the Southern ones, rise and fall of the tide about 4 feet, nigh water at 1 hour full and change of the moon. The Southern Channels lay on the East side of Gung Island the Southern Island of the / the Atoll; this I shall call Gung Channel and is formed between Gung Island. and two small Islands to the ENE of Gung, called Willing-gilly Islands. Gung Channel is half a mile broad, having no dangers in it. and the depths are from 13 to 17 fms. it is convenient for any Ship entering the Atoll. The other Channel I shall call the Willing-gilly Channel is on the East side of the Willing-gilly Islands, formed between them and the South Point of the dry coral reef bounding the East Side of the Atoll; this channel is one mile broad and has from 17 to 20 fms water in it; deepening as a Ship enters the Atoll; the direction of this Channel is about NW’& SE about one mile inside the entrance, on the NE side, there is a small Coral reef, and as a Vessel proceeds on to the centre of the Atoll, 3 coral patches will be observed on which the sea breaks at times; but these are easily avoided by a common look out; the deepths in the centre of the Atoll are from 25 to 35 fms sand and clay; the most convenient anchorage for com- munication with the Natives is near the Islands on the West side all / all of which are inhabited; from the Willing-gilly channel round the WE" Side of the Atoll; to the Centre on the North side, is one continued barrier reef, on which are several Islands, the only large one of two miles in extent, is on the NE™ part of the Atoll this is well inhabited and an in- teresting Island it is called Mee-doo and Hoo-loo-doo from two villages situated in its Centre. This Atoll, is clear of Reefs except in the Centre, the three small patches as formerly mentioned; end which are easily avoided; 30 & 35 fms is the depth of water in the Centre. Wear the Islands on the East and Vest sides, are 20 & 25 fms. a vessel may Anchor as Most convenient, ac~ cording to the Seasons; during the NE" bonsoon on the north or Weather side, and in the other Monsoon on the West side. The Islands afford @ few Supplies, of Fruit - limes. Poultry Eggs. Water and Firewood in abun- dance, the Natives are very civil and obliging, and will exchange their articles either for Money or Rice, Biscuits, Sugar. Salt. Onions. Garlic. they are extremely lazy / lazy and indolent and very timorous fearful of strangers, and will not be induced to assist a Ship in Wooding, and Water- ing, unless paid for it, and obliged to work; they are under the Govern- ment. of the Sultan at ifale, or King's Island; and the Atoll-Warree or Chief of the Atoll is the person Strangers ought to apply to, for assis- Cance in getting Supplies; Some of the Natives speak the Indostannee language; their principal occupation is making cotton Cloths, of White, Red, and Black colours mixed; all of which they dye themselves. and sel! at a good price in the other Atolls; they are not allowed by their Govern- ment to trade with Foreigners, not even with the English their Allies;all this produce must be sold at the King's Island Male. They seldom visit Ships passing, from fear of molestation; and it would be wrong any Ships 44, 45 45 46 - 105 - stopping at these Islands; to allow their Crew to intrude into the privacy of their houses, among their females, or wantonly and without permission to take their fruit. coconuts. fowls &c. they are poor, and inoffensive, and have reason / to regret the visits of some Merchant Ships; in Religion they are all Musselmen. the Atoll contains about 500 inhabitants and in appearance they are like the Natives of India on the Malabar coast. There are no soundings outside of this Atoll close to the barrier reef. and being to the South® of the line or Equator. is almost without the influence of the Monsoon: the Winds and Weather being very variable. subject to Squalls. and Rain. The NE" Monsoon is felt in Jan™/ Feb’ & March, and Westerly winds more in July August & Sept*. the currents F about this Atoll are very Strong, for six months they set to the West and then back again to the East© according to the Monsoons, but are sub- ject to checks from variable winds. They commence to set to the West about January and to the East? about June. their velocity from 40 to 50 Miles per day. decreasing considerably in strength 40 or 50 Miles from the Islands, there was in 1836 no variation of the Magnetic. I have been thus particular as so many Ships pass this place on their way to & from India. / I have also recommended it as a Coal Depot for Steamers. oh er 63 Naas ; junds Ry Gro phased x6) pdtoney us , YOor din VS” ee rhyot | cay sme dotet shoe Le SSTAT neds tenet O05? sGode anzssie> Ttowh st3 ,oxpéh eek aut a3 ao aitnt “Yo sovtien dnd gatt $38: ‘xeta sane A | . , ai isis at uM f . pitts a ets ‘oa Beals Diem ekay To abe a s ce & & Be f ee 3 OD E| , Y ¢ ; ison. a ¥2 Gio at + 20 1 folio * p bit th mal A ve tov. vue Mashed soda +7 ead? 0 , “Hey S“et nc Pisa oP. kooediht “Mer eV adi) ‘oo 220" Ton $f he Litwe' S42 ad phere eons ons Gs: cpiytoone = Y SagH ERE tS 1208 23 ‘ednDie05 ela: Vee vataniean® ni Ba Lost yadoobae \ekedie) ean aie ai / { VS) ee boy OA ne itty Ag: Hiss it prrinenieaec mre : a=} ) ON eR pay his Ye adisaeeew on" weg pth ‘ 4 ee . \ ree OLR ¥ feat 7 ‘ Pid Lbay 20208 adi wo pon aegergriet incting. Kak Valier yt! Bib | arate at: “Seaperh tad by *s ‘oa “ssbramnae Caw 4 4 a Ries 1 & a ea ee a 0 . " { | ; i more J Al | 4 y { . i earned dak is rt: hoa He wh Miao r thee: Te ae ae icc bh i hes sith! , hi percent | § Ba ] +» ‘a . "Ly Fy ' - Ot 4 7a heck eRe OT G an va BD Past a, i, he Tel won wre < f Rone 8 she kh hea, pokes ] = j t ‘ ~ 107 - VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS This bibliography covers the reefs, islands, zoology, botany, and peoples of the Maldive Islands. A basic source is the bibliography by Sachet and Fosberg (1955), together with the references listed by Haas (1961) and Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1964). Dr. Sachet verified or corrected some of the entries, and added a large number from her unpublished bibliogra- phies. Her help is gratefully acknowledged. The bibliography also includes some items not specifically concerned with the Maldive Islands, but referred to in this report; these are noted with an asterisk. Agassiz, A. 1902a. An expedition to the Maldives. Amer. J. Sci. 163: 297-308. we eennnee- 1902b. Scientific expedition to the Maldives. Ceylon Observer, 24 January 1902. leleaataatetatetata! 1903. The coral reefs of the Maldives. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. 29: 1-168, 79 plates. Alcock, A. 1892. Report of the surgeon naturalist for the year ending lst March 1892. Adm. Rept. Marine Surv. India 1891-92: 5-18. wm ecneenn 1906, Marine crustaceans. XIV, Paguridae. In Gardiner, 1903-06, 2: 827-835. Allen, G. M. 1908. Notes on Chiroptera. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. 52: 25-62. SR eS oe oe mom 08 1936a. Type specimens of mammals in the Museum of Comparat- ive Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. 71: 227-289. wwe eee n--- 1936b. Two new races of Indian bats. Records Indian Mus. 38: 343-346. Audy, J. R. 1949. =F No date (? 1822). Memoir on the isles in the Indian Ocean (Manuscript). London, India.Office, Records Departmen, MS 51: 1-70. Se iar ay No date (? 1837). Nautical directions for the Maldive Islands (Manuscript). London, India Office, Records Department, MS 5s) 1-98. Moresby, R. and Powell, F. Te 1838-39: Trigonometrical survey of the Maldeeve Islands by Commander R. Moresby and Lieut. F. T. Powell, Indian Navy, 1835. Sheet 3, 10 December 1839. - 118 - Nambiar, K. G. 1921. Coconut cultivation in the Laccadives and Minicoy Islands. Madras Agr. Jour. 9: 233-246. Narayana, G. V. and John, C. M. 1949. Varieties and forms of the coco- nut (Cocos nucifera Linn.). Madras Agr. Jour. 36: 349-366. *Newell, N. D. 1961. Recent terraces of tropical limestone shores. Zeitschr. £. Geomorph. Supplementband 3: 87-106. Newnham, E. V. 1949, The climates of Addu Atoll, Agalega Islands and Tristan da Cunha. London, Meteorological Office, Prof. Notes, no. 101 (Vol, 7, a7: 1-20, Newton, L. M. 1953. Marine algae. Scientific Reports. John Murray Expedition 1933-34, 9: 395-420. Nicholas, D. E. S. 1950. Fascinating Ceylon. Colombo. 1-92. Owen, W. F. W. 1832. Geography of the Maldiva Islands. J. Roy. Geog. Soc. 2: 81-92, Palmer, Ge 1958. Some observations on the fauna of the Maldive Islands. V. Fishes. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 486-489. Perera, A. 1905. A note on Maldivian history. Indian Antiq. 34: 25l- 252. Phillips, W. W. A. 1958a. Some observations: on the fauna of the Maldive Islands. I. Introduction. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 1-3. aie ee eet a asm 1958b. Some observations on the fauna of the Maldive Is~- lands. IV, Amphibians and reptiles. ._J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 217-220. Sm om 1958c. Some observations on the fauna of the Maldive Islands. VI. Insects. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 489-492. le hata 1958d. Notes on the nesting: of the Blacknaped tern Sterna sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann in the Maldive Islands. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 567-569. “seen e me 1959. Notes on the occurrence of Bulmer's Petrel (Bulmeria bulmerii) in the Indian Ocean. Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club 79: 100-101. soresnneee 1960. The Maldivian tangle. J. Roy. Commonwealth Soc. 3: ~----=--=- 1963. The birds of the Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 546-584. Phillips, W. W. A. and Sims, R. W. 1958a. Two new races of birds from the Maldive Archipelago. Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club 78: 51-53. Wane wen nnn 1958b. Some observations on the fauna of the Maldive Islands. III, Birds. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 195-217. «1592 - Pocock, R. I. 1906a. Arachnida. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 797-805, herleaan pe oaladeag 1906b. Chilopoda and Diplopoda. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 1041-1045. Pratt, E. M. 1906. The Alcyonaria of the Maldives. II. The genera Sarcophytum, Lobophytum, Sclerophytum and Alcyonium. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 503-539, Punnett, R. C. 1903a. Nemerteans. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 101-118. cwne-e- «--- 1903b. Cephalochorda. II. Note on meristic variation in the group. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 361-367. wecece---- 1906. The Enteropneusta. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 631-680. Pyrard, F. 1679. Voyage de Francois Pyrard de Laval, contenant sa Navigation aux Indes Orientales, Maldives, Moluques, et au Brésil .. Paris, fourth edition, 1: 1-327; 2: 1-218; 3: 1-144 (first edition, 1611, entitled: Discours du voyage des Frangois aux Indes Orientales .. ated ale --- 1887-1890. The voyage of Frangois Pyrard de Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas and Brazil. Translated into English from the third French edition of 1619 and edited with notes by Albert Gray .., assisted by H. C. P. Bell. London 1: 1-452, 1887; 2: 1-287, 1888; 3: 289-572, 1890. Radford, C. D. 1946. Larval and nymphal mites (Acarina: Trombiculidae) from Ceylon and the Maldive Islands. Parasitology 37: 46-54. Ranasinha, W. P. 1882. The connection of the Sinhalese with the eae Aryan vernaculars of India. J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Ceylon Br. 7: 234-254, Rathbun, M. J. 1902. Crabs from the Maldive Islands. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll. 39: 121-138. Regan, C. T. 1903. On the fishes from the Maldive Islands. I. Dredged. II. Freshwater. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 272-281. wr eee en-- 1908. Report on the marine fishes collected by Mr. J. Stan- ley Gardiner in the Indian Ocean. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Ser. 2, SOOk F412: 0217-2556 Rosset, C. W. 1886a. [Remarks on the Maldive Islands]. Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1886: 295-296. Si pa 1886b. On the Maldive Islands, more especially treating of Malé Atoll. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. 16: 164-174. PASE chs 1886c. The Maldive Islands. The Graphic 34(88): 413-416. wr eeeennn 1896. Die 1400 Malediven-Inseln. Mitt. Geog. Ges. Wien B92 507-637. - 120 - *Russell, R. J. 1962. Origin of beach rock. Zeitschr. f. Geomorph, N. F. 6: 1-16, *Russell, R. J. and McIntire, W. G. 1965. Southern hemisphere beach rock. Geog. Rev. 55: 17-45. Sachet, M.-H. and Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Island bibliographies. Micro- nesian botany. Land environment and ecology of coral atolls. Vegeta- tion of tropical Pacific islands, Washington: National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council Pub. 335: 1-577. St. John, H. 1961. Revision of the genus Pandanus Stickman, Part 5. Pandanus of the Maldive Islands and the Seychelles Islands, Indian Ocean. Pac. Sci. 15: 328-346. Scheer, G. 1959. Die Formenvielfalt der Riffkorallen. Ber. Naturwiss. Ver. Darmstadt 1958/59: 50-67. aieletatatedeteheted 1960a. Der Lebensraum der Riffkorallen. Ber. Naturwiss. Ver. Darmstadt 1959/60: 29-44, ween nnn- 1960b. Eine neue Rasse des Teichreihers Ardeola grayii (Sykes) von den Malediven. Senckenberg. Biol. 44: 143-147. ean an-- eae 1960c. Viviparie bei Steinkorallen. Naturw. 10: 238-239. wet enennn- 1961. Twilight brightness and its measurement on some islands in the Indian Ocean. Jena Review no. 3: 111-116. Seitz, A., editor 1927. The Macrolepidoptera of the world. IX. The Indo-Australian Rhopalocera. 1-1197. Stuttgart. ; Sewell, R. B. S. 1928. A study of recent changes of sea level based largely on a study of coral growths in Indian and Pacific seas. Int. Rev. der ges. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie 20: 89-102. waannen--- 1932. The coral coasts of India. Geog. J. 79: 449-465. ---------- 1935a. Studies on coral and coral formations in Indian waters. Mem. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 9: 461-540. os i eine ona 1935b. Introduction and list of stations. John Murray Expedition 1933-34, Sci. Repts. 1: 1-41. salen 1936a. An account of Addu Atoll. John Murray Expedition 1933-34, Sci. Repts. 1: 63-93. alton 1936b. An account of Horsburgh or Goifurfehendu Atoll. John Murray Expedition 1933-34, Sci. Repts. 1: 109-125. Shams-ud-din, A. T. 1882. Note on the "Mirada Kantiri" festival of the Muhammadans. Jour, Roy. Asiatic Soc. Ceylon Br. 7: 125-136. Sharp, D. 1906. Coleoptera. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 972-974. - 121 - *Shepard, F. P, 1963, Thirty-five thousand years of sea-level. Essays in marine biology in honor of K. 0. Emery 1-10. Shipley, A. E. 19032. Echiuroidea. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 127-130. lalallala 1903b. Sipunculoidea, with an account of a new genus Litha- crosiphon. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 131-140. aa oath lacla 1906. Notes on parasites. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 846. Smith, E. A. 1903. Land and freshwater mollusca. In Gardiner 1903-06, 1: 141-145. weeren---- 1906. Marine mollusca. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 589-630. Sonnerat, [P.] 1776. Voyage A la Nouvelle Guinée ... i-xii, 1-206, Paris. weet nna 1782. Voyage aux Indes orientales et a la Chine ... 1774... 17S 1h otis « tt pbaxv, ibn LBe: 2s, Lavieid «= 298 . Paris. Stebbing, T. R. R. 1906. Marine crustaceans. XII. Isopoda, with des- cription of a new genus. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 699-721. Stephenson, K. 1935. Indo-Pacific terrestrial Talitridae. Occasional Papers Bishop Museum 10(23): 1-20. Stoddart, D. R. The shape of atolls. Marine Ecology, in the press. *Stoddart, D. R. and Cann, J. R. 1965. Nature and origin of beach rock, J. Sediment. Petrol. 35: 243-247. Thomas, E. G. 1860. Report on the management during Dusli 1268 of the five Laccadive Islands... Madras Jour. Lit. Sel. 21, n.s. 5: 248-264. Trimen, H. 1896. A preliminary list of Maldive plants. J. Botany 34: 3-6. Van der Horst, C. J. '1922. Madreporaria: Agariciidae. Trans. Linn, Soc. London, Ser. 2, Zool. 18: 417-429. wae eenn--- 1926. Madreporaria: Eupsammidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Sees. ZOOL. 192 43-53. Vanh8ffen, E. 1901. Bericht ueber die bei der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedi- tion beobachteten VSgel. J. f£. Ornithol. 49: 304-322. Villiers, A. 1957. The marvelous Maldive Islands. Nat. Geog. Mag. 111: 829-850. Walker, A. O. 1906. Marine crustaceans. XVI. Amphipoda. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 923-932. - 122 - Warren, Nathaniel 1682-84, Journal of a voyage in the Charles, captain: John Preston, to Bombay and Surat and back, with a description of the Maldives, 25 October 1682-5 August 1684 (Manuscript). British Museum, Marshall MSS, 1-66. Watson, G. E., Zusi, R. L., and Storer, R. E. 1963. Preliminary field guide to the birds of the Indian Ocean. Smithsonian Institution, 1-214, Wells, A. J. 1945. The weather of the Maldive Islands. Weather 3: 310- Sis. “Wells, J. W. 1957. Coral reefs. Treatise on marine ecology and paleo- ecology, v.1, Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. 67, 1: 609-631. *Wiens, H. J. 1962. Atoll environment and ecology. New Haven and London, 1-532. Willis, J. C. 1901. Note on the flora of Minikoi, Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya 1: 39-43, ialelatetatetatatel 1949, The birth and spread of plants. Geneva, 1-561. Willis, J. C. and Gardiner, J. S. 1901. The botany of the Maldive Islands. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya 1: 45-164. Wolfenden, R. N. 1906. Notes on the collection of Copepoda. In Gardiner 1903-06, 2: 989-1040. Yentsch, A. E., compiler. 1962. A partial bibliography of the Indian Ocean. Woods Hole, U. S. progres in Biology, International Indian Ocean Expedition, 1-398, Young, A. and Christopher, W. 1844, Memoir on the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands. Trans. Bombay Geog. Soc. from 1836 to 1838, reprinted from the edition originally issued 1: 54-86. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN No. 117 is | Atoll News and Comments Issued by 4 THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences~-National Research Council Washington, D. C. March 31, 1966 pi ote ji ne nik 4 Se ad ea yn ae me AES a ‘d i wihe he ae ; , a fs i My y g 5, 4 , te Ht Ene, * Silondl j OG FB OTTIIAT cE ce Ber ua! , Mh) { oer on ah BN he c j locoticti- eyuneks® Yo saebrsd {ano} 264 Rea ATOLL NEWS AND COMMENT Future of the Atoll Research Bulletin For J5 years, with the support of the Geography Branch, Office of aval Research, we have been able to distribute the Atoli Research Bulletin gratis to scientists and institutions interested in research on atolls and reefs, to agencies concerned with administration of coral islands, to schools on islands, and to a considerable number of libraries geograpni- caily situated so that the Bulletin would be reasonably accessible to most people who might be occasionally interested in consulting it. Unfortu- nately the ONR finds it no longer possible to continue this support, and we have not yet found another source of funds to carry it on. The National Academy of Sciences was approached with a proposal to continue publication ef ARB on a subscription basis, but gave us no encouragement. Hence, this will be the Last issue under the present auspices, and, unless we can find another sponsor and at least a certain amount of financial backing, it will be the last issue published. We are sorry, as the ARB seems to be useful and appreciated. We are seeking other sponsorship and funds, and if successful, hope to resume publication in the not too distant future. However, there seems little hope that ARB could again be distributed gratis. ‘Je will have to aim to put it on an eventually self-supporting basis, which will mean sub- Scriptions, If we su¢ceed you will hear from us, and we will ask you to eubscribe, Please wish us luck, Any expressions of interest or sugges- tions as to possible sources of support will be gratefully appreciated. The editors have recently transferred their main activities from the U. S. Geological Survey to the Smithsonian Institution. However, all mail concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin and the Pacific Vegetation Project should continue to be addressed to them c/o National Academy of Science~ National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20413, USA. Demise of Unesco Humid Tropics Researca Programme It is distressing to have to announce the demise of what seemed to be a very promising scientific effort, the Unesco Humid Tropics Research Programme, This program was somewhat patterned on the Unesco Arid ‘Zone Programme, which was,in general, a very successful effort. The chief tangible accomplishments of the Humid Tropics Programme were a number of very interesting symposia, nine of which have been published; two more were not, though it is still planned to publish one of them if possibhes The Programme was placued by administrative difficulties and lack of ade- quate funds to do anything very impressive. The most effective single activity, perhaps, was the Visiting Committee for Tropical Herbaria, set up to help and advise the herbaria located in the tropics. The Manual for Tropical Herbaria (see ARB 112, p. 11) was prepared under its aus-~- pices. This committee is theoretically still in existence, but the money intended for its activities during the current biennium was spent fox ther things. We hope it will be picked up again in 1967. One cannot = 2 « help having the feeling that a factor of critical importance in the fail- ure of Unesco to continue support for the Humid Tropics Programme was the policy, achered to by the International Advisory Committee on Humid Tropics Research, that the task of Unesco scientific programs should be fundamen- tal or basic research, and that they should not encroach on the fields of the practical specialized agencies like FAO and WHO. The underdeveloped humid tropical countries, that should have rallied to the support of this program, were apparently not able to realize that the benefits of applied science mostly result from previous basic science. Atolls for Science A proposal, put forward by Gene Wallen, director of the Smithsonian's oceanography program, to acquire one or more atolls to be preserved as re- serves for scientific study is under serious discussion. Coral atolls,as is of course obvious to ARB readers, are among the most remarkable natural phenomena. ost of them have already been seriously altered by man, but 2 few unspoiled ones remain, and others ave not so far gone that they will not preserve or recover their essential character if they are protected from the more destructive sorts of human activities. It is hoped that the means may be found to set aside a small number of representative atolls, and that an effective way may be found to administer and protect them, both their land areas and their under-water features. This proposal is,as yet, in the dream stage, but worthwhile dreams may sometimes be the pre- cursors of realities, and this one should certainly have the backing of all ARB readers, Caroline Atolls Last summer, during July and August, F. R. Fosberg and Michael Evans were privileged to visit many of the atolls in the Yap District of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, travelling on the last “field trip” of M.V.Roque. Ulithi, Lamotrek, Satawal, Woleai, Ifaluk, Eauripik, and Faraulap were visited, also the raised atoll, Fais. The visits were all too short for more than the hastiest work to be done, but extensive collece tions of vascular plants, with much ethnobotanical data, were gathered, Some of the specimens were, unfortunately damaged by mildew before they could be dried. The island of Satawal was the jewel of the lot. It has remained more isolated, because of difficult landing conditions, and as yet has no tin roofs and rather few of the other signs of western culture. The people are friendly, healthy, and alert, and have not yet forgotten their old ways in favor of: foreign substitutes, as have so many others. On Ulithi we visited Jim Boykin, principal of the high school on Fal- alop Islet, where students from all the atolls of the Yap District come for their secondary school training. The school occupies the abandoned U.S, Coast Guard Loran Station, and a substantial new building is undex construc- tion. Boykin is a biologist and is inculcating in his students an interest in and respect for theizx heritage of plants and animals, We certainly wish him every success in this effort, a ae Evans spent December in the Truk District, Central Carolines, and was able to visit Namonuito, Nomwin, Murilo, Nama, and Losap Atolls, and ‘make collections of plants and ethnobotanical data, This year's work, sponsored by the National Institute of Neurolog- ical Diseases and Blindness, NIH, has thus filled in some of the most conspicuous gaps in our knowledge of the floras of the Carolines. ‘This leaves only a few of this group from which we have practically no knowl- edge. An expedition that was not dependent on Trust Territory "field trips", made for other purposes, but which had its own boat, could round out this floristic knowledge, with luck, in one season, Carolines, Woleai Atoll Di. William H. Alkire, ethnologist currently of the Bishop Museum Expedition to the Carolines, spent the past year on Woleai 4toll, a veal tropical paradise, and was due to leave in January. He is studying the relations of the Woleai people with their atoll environment, living as one of them, and gathering further data bearing on his theory of inter- island socioeconomic ties. The editor had the pleasure of an all too - brief visit with him last summer. He has kindly sent us a collection of specimens of the plants of Woleai, with invaluable ethnobotanic informa- tion on them. Ue previously spent a year on Lamotrek Atoll, also in the west central Carolines (see below). Original Observations Chaschus Island, Persian Gulf* The tiny island Chaschus lies aboyt 20 kilometers northeast of Dharan, Saudi Arabia. It was visited briefly on November 15, 1957, by courtesy of the Arabian American Oil Company. It is a cay of coral sand with a central pond and resembles a min- iature coral atoll. It lies in a complex of coral reefs which are mostly submerged 1-3 meters. The island is elongate in a north-south direction, parallel to the coast, and has low beach ridges along both sides, the east one slightly higher than the west. They enclose small sand flats and the small, elon- gate pond. This pond is mainly shallow but has a deep pool at the north end. At the south end is a shallow channel with a tiny stream of water running out, going sinuously southward and finally cutting through the east beach ridge and emptying into the Gulf. */ These observations are scarcely sufficient to justify a separate number of ARB, but seem worth placing on record. - & a In the pond were a few individuals of a curious scypho-medusan, Cassiopeia andromeda. This animal rests on the bottom, its mass of short, thick slightly branched tentacles directed upward, gray brown and well camouflaged against::the sandy bottom of the pond. It appears more like a sea anemone -than a medusa, but is not attached. It moves very slowly over the bottom, and when turned over in the water it pul- sates like a medusa; then turns over and sinks to the bottom. The greater part of the land area is bare of vegetation, but the inner slopés of the beach ridges and the enclosed sand flats have an irregular sparse stand of yellowish fleshy low shrub, Suaeda aegyptia (Hasselq,) Zohary and a few mats of terete blue-green Arthrocnemum glaucum (Delile) Ungern-Sternb. Along part of the east shore of the cay is a discontinuous expo- sure of thin beds of very soft, friable beach rock. At the south end this is dark gray-brown, the grains covered by a slimy dark organic matter, The remnants of the top layer are pale. It becomes harder to~ ward the north, and the beds ‘curve outward and fork, away from the present beach, into shallow water. South of this, along the channel leading out of the pond, are two tiny strips of very soft beach rock, only about 2 centimeters thick, and cipping very slightly toward the channel. The presence of this poorly consolidated beachrock suggests that the island has more stability than would be expected of what is essen- tially a loose, double sand-bar, thrown up by currents and wind. The fact that it appears on charts and has_a name also suggests some sort of permanency. it also hints that perhaps - ‘severe storms that might complete- ly sweep away such an island are not a common occurrence in the Persian Gulf. 2 ae F. R. Fosberg Publications. Hogsty Reef, Bahamas In the Christmas, 1965, number of Sea Frontiers (vol. 11, pp. 342- 258) John D. iilliman and William iis Stephens present, under the title, Rare Atlantic Atoll, a brief popular account of theories about atoll formation and a short but very interesting account of their visit to logsty Reef, a true atoll in the Bahamas, aboard the Research Vessel Gerda, last June. This is a tiny, but practically undisturbed atoll. Theiz description gives just enough information to make us hope they wiil write a more extensive account, and we will try to talk them into this if ARB solves its current problems and stays alive. Je must especially con- gratulate lir. she cea on his marvellous photos that illustrate the art~ icle,. flew Caledonia We understand, although we have not yet seen a copy, that the first volume of Memoirs on lew Caledonia reefs published by the Fondation Singer- Polignac (see ARB 112, p. 10) has recently issued, British Honduras A preliminary account of the results of the re-survey of hurricane effects on the British Honduras reefs and cays has been published by David Stoddart (Nature 207; 509-592, 1965)(see ARB 112, p. 4). This deals with changes in geomorphology and vegetation that have taken place since the survey made in 19€2 (ARB 95), and resulting economic adjustments. Bird populations are said to have returned to normal. It is estimated that recovery in areas of major reef damage may take 25-30 years. Effects of differences in vegetation are indicated. In another paper,‘'’British Honduras cays and the low wooded island problem’ (Inst. Brit. Geogr., Trans. and Pap. 36: 131-147, 1965), Stod- dart has discussed the mornhology of reef islets, using the British Hon- duras Cays as examples, in terms of their exposure to different wave- intensities and hence to different energy environments. He compares them with the similar cays on the Great Barrier Reef. The conclusion is that “As long as fundamental requirements of size, shape and depth are satis- fied, the island type depends solely on available wave energy." Beach rock That the beach rock problems are not all solved, despite opinions expressed in some marine geological circles, is suggested by the appear- ance of a paper on Nature and origin of beach rock, by D. &. Stoddart and J. R. Cann (Jour. Sedim, Petrol. 35: 243-247, 1965), and of an Essai c'explication de l'origine des grés de plage. Cas des grés de plage coral- liens, by J. Trichet (C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris 261: 3176-3178, 4469, 1965). R. F. McLean has also gone into some detail in an unpublished thesis on liechanical and Biological erosion of beachrock in Barbados, West Indies, submitted to McGill University in 1964. Very probably pertinent to this subject, also, is a paper on Organic matter in recent and ancient saa si stones and its role in their diagenesis, by D. J. Snearman and P. A. d't. Skipwith (Nature 208: 1310-1311, 1965), though in this paper there is no mention of the beach sock problem as such. The ideas expressed in these papers, and in the recent ones by h. Je Russell, are by no BENS 4% © in complete agreement. In reading them one gets the feeling ener BL enEe there are several distinct phenomena lumped together as beach rock be- cause of similar end products of different processes, or that there is a principle involved in all that has not yet been isolated and understood and that the explanations so far advanced are all only partial, or even erroneous, solutions to the problem. Pacific Bird Observer We take this opportunity to welcome the newest addition to tne 2 . 7 * . eo . « L so of me = - Ss tor r list of serial publications carrying inirormation on the natural hi nus of the Pacific Islands, the Pacific Bird Observer. This is a bimonth y ‘Mewsletter of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, Smithsonian Institution, ‘Jashington, D.C.’ (see ARB 112, p. 14). It is distributed 7 3 " aT pee ee to collaborators of the program ‘in order to promote the understanding of birds and their velation to man in the Pacific", The first sagen , : oe Lane numbers have appeared and are attractively printed by offset, with drawings ik a and excellent photos, There are many short articles of all sorts, mostly On aspects of the program, personalities, accounts of returns from band- ing, and in number 3, a description of Enderbury Island, Phoenix Is, We wish the newcomer a long and vigorous Life. Wake Island birds We are happy to call attention to a very creditable short account of the birds of Wake Island, by Erin Casey (Elepaio 26: 63-64, 1966). 23 species of birds are listed, with some notes on their occurrence and abundance, It is of especial interest to note that the author is in the seventh grade at Punahou School, Honolulu. We hope that she con- tinues and develops her interest in coral atolls and their birds. Pendulum Gravity Measurements at Sea 1936-1959 This book by J. Lamar Worzel (John Wiley and Sons, 1965, $28.00) is essentially a compendium of basic data and as such is an important publi- cation. It includes principal facts for the nearly 3000 pendulum gravity observations made by the Lamont Geological Observatory during the period between 1936 and 1959, All the information is provided about data reduc- tion, base ties, etc, that anyone will need who wishes to make use of the data in the future. A good summary interpretation of the data is also provided along with a complete set of anomaly charts, The work reported here has made a major contribution to our understanding of the oceans and especially the zones of transition between continent and ocean. The first chapter gives descriptions of the principal base stations, information on the methods of correction for temperature and air density, information on data reduction and a discussion of the accuracy of the ob- servations. The second chapter consists of a brief description of each cruise including instrumentation changes, data reduction constants, the results of pendulum standardization at principal bases, and ties to secon-— dary bases, The third chapter is a table giving the principal facts for all of the stations. . The fourth chapter is devoted to interpretation and gives a general discussion of the significance of the results and brief discussions of par- ticular traverses, supplemented by cross sections, Much of this material has been published elsewhere, but it is valuable to have it collected in one place (especially the cross sections) with a summary of the conclu- sions. Most of this discussion is devoted to continental margins, oceanic trenches, and mid-oceanic ridges. Islands and sea mounts are. allotted only three pages, The book will still be of interest to those concerned with coral reefs and islands, however, because of the general information it gives on the ocean basins as a whole and perhaps also because of the data given on the accompanying charts. A series of appendixes gives track charts for the cruises, charts of the secondary base stations and summaries of the observations at such stations. There is also a list of references to other sources of sea pendulum data, Finally, two sets of charts are given, one for Bouguer anomalies and one for free air anomalies. All the available pendulum data rey ak from the literature is included along with the Lamont results. The charts show the anomaly values superimposed on bathymetric contours. The Bouguer charts also show generalized anomaly contours. As pointed out by the authors, submarine pendulum gravity measure- ments will probably be supplanted in the future by surface-ship gravi- meter measurements. The pendulum data will be useful, however, as a con- trol network for the surface observations, and this volume provides the information necessary for that purpose, William B. Joyner, Geophysicist Regional Geophysics Branch U. S, Geological Survey Scientific and technical personnel in oceanography ICO Pamphlet 21: 1-49, 1965, compiled by the Interagency Committee on Oceanography, of the Federal Council for Science and Tech- nology, U.S.A. This is a curious document, At first glance one would assume that it was a directory of people engaged in or concerned with oceanography. The foreword states that a survey of oceanographic personnel was under- taken and completed in 1964, reporting 2,649 individuals engaged in this work in the U.S. On page 6 is a definition of oceanography: ‘Ocean- ography is considered to be the scientific investigation of the world ocean, its living and non-living contents, boundaries, properties and processes." Following this, the 2,649 oceanographers are classified, des- cribed, discussed, and analyzed in about every way possible. But nowhere is there a list of who these people are or where they may be addressed, So the publication is, for most interested people, chiefly of academic im- portance. Undersea vehicles for oceanography ICO Pamphlet 18: 1-81, 1965, Interagency Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for Science and Technology, U.S.A. This well illustrated and lucidly written paper may be of interest to students of the deeper water aspects of coral reefs, While SCUBA diving is clearly the most flexible method of studying these formerly in- accessible levels, more extended observations may be possible from some of the new submarines developed for undersea research. The current status of development of such craft is very well presented here. To childhced readers of Jules Verne, the absence of any mention of the Nautilus, proto- type of these vehicles will be a wee bit disappointing. Lamotrek, Caroline Islands 'Tamotrek Atoll and inter-island socioeconomic ties", by William H. Alkire (Illinois Studies in Anthropology 5: 1-180, 1965) has just come to our attention. This is a handsome little volume and, although primarily a work of social anthropology, is also an important contribution to atoll ecology and geography. In the anthropological field, in addition to placing ay Qn record a substantial amount of information on the day-by-day activi- ties, environmental relations, and social structure of the Lamotrek, Eiato, und Satawal societies, Alkire brings out, clarifies, and formu- lates a theory on the inter-island relationships in the atolls and is- lands in the Yap snhere of influence in the central Western Carolines. This is related to the size of the resource base and the vulnerability of the atolls to environmental vicissitudes, especially typhoons. This theoretical framework undoubtedly represents a major contribution to our understanding of the history and human geography of these islands, as well as to the strictly socioeconomic relationships. Of perhaps greater interest.to the readers of ARB is the information on Lamotrek and its satellite atolls contained in the chapter on the Set~ ting, and that on Economic Activities. These atolls have been relatively little studied and this work will certainly be consulted as the basic source of information for some time to come, Since the author's main in- terests were in the social anthropological field, readers interested in ecology, geography, and even material culture are likely to be rather dis- appointed that data on the physical and biological environment and on actual products and methods used in material culture were not more syste- matically collected, or at least more adequately presented, if more infor- mation was gathered, Especially unfortunate is the author's dependence on previously published works, almost entirely applying to other atolls, for most of his basic environmental data, It would seem that, in 15 montns spent on an atoll with less than half a square mile of land area, time might have been available to amass oxviginal information on the substratum, fauna and flora, rather than relying on accounts of other atolls and assum- ing that Lamotrek would be similar. There is, of course, considerable information from the author's own observations, but this must be carefully sorted out from the rest, in order to be sure that what is said actually applies to Lamotrek, The book is abundantly illustrated with photos, maps, and diagrams. jn index would have been welcome, as would, even more, a vocabulary of the local terms used rather abundantly and explained only the first time (though the author says “The use of native terms in this work is kept to a minimum), The lack of a list where such terms could be looked up readily seriously lessens the clarity and usability of the work as a .. whole, ee In spite of these shortcomings, the appearance of a comprehensive work on Lamotrek is of great interest to all people interested in Microne- sia and in atolls generally. The Shane of Atolls David Stoddart (Marine Geol. 3: 369-383, 1965) attempts to demon- Strate, by statistical methods, some sort of consistency or homogeneity in the shape of atolls, an aim that would seem foredoomed to failure at first glance. He samples 99 out of 425 known atolls, and tries out a num- ber of methods. {ie understand neither his basis for selection of the sample nor the significance of the methods chosen, Nor do we see how the study has “demonstrated the fundamental homogeneity of atoll shapes‘; in fact, we cannot see that there is any such homogeneity. This is probably due to our lack of appreciation for the subtleties of the statistical ap- proach, certainly not to any lack of diligence in applying it. a ee J > 4 we Uy RS er % ie sie | ri Le dy ii % ae te "G, & j S a tl y \ | ' ny AMIE : ay i S : = i & ATE 3 9088 01375 3652