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AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS.

NUMBER 1.

SS66S

The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN,

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS. 1898.

Be / "ESSE SESS SES ESS ESSEC ESSER ESSE SESE SESE SESE SESE SESSE SESS SSS SS ES SSE SSSE SESE SSS SSSS

Ae iy ‘ ;

AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS.

NUMBER 1.

The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN.

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS. 1898.

CONTENTS.

Page. COR TOR NTT SIDAINO NY BAIT Ne p5n355000q0000600800002000000019 0000000000090 000 0c DO DOO ROUSE DEGODGOBHREOROGEAGOEO 5 JULY) CHRANTTILS jcocnn5q9n88e0000d SoDaDDODOsOCORNESoACAODASHCOsHOCEEaCDNodODACOSHEADHSoTaNaIAoDboceu000006 7 IDI RLTSTNTINE: SVAININ)59.4500500000600050600000000900000000000"0060000000000006 C9 NOTOSOOOCUBOR IE SOOCOIOUOIIB000 9

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ID WAKE) EINE! 4.50¢0ens0a000a50506a000000 From New Boston, Ill......

» Michigan City, Ind ese

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Mheyproplemnoteth CM OCSs sacar sc cee acs wcesnccoecco tacae= setae cosstses soscdesscessteas secuce ss 67

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The great lightness of the air, when compared with water, and the comparatively high velocity of its currents will necessarily render any materials it may carry and deposit somewhat different in composition and structure from those which are laid down in water. They are as ‘a rule finer, they exhibit a different bedding and are more eapriciously placed. These characteristics are familiar in a general way. It is here desired to present more exact information on this subject, particularly as to the me- chanical composition of these deposits; and to show how this changes under varying circumstances of deposition. It is hoped that this may lead to a more certain identifi- cation of wind sediments, wherever they may be found. The inquiry seems to be of special importance in connec- tion with the study of superficial deposits.

Samples of different kinds of materials moved by the wind have been collected from different places of desposi- tion and from the atmosphere directly for this study. Each of these has been separated into grades of different coarseness and the per cent of the weight for each grade *)

*) The particles ranging between two successive separations will here be re- ferred to as agvade. In the analyses these separations were made in a uniformly decreasing series of diametrical dimensions, the diameter of the largest particles in one grade having twice the length of the diameter of the coarsest particles in the next finer grade. The coarsest grade consists of rock fragments with diameters ranging from 16 to 8 millimeters, the next from 8 to 4 mm., and so on, down to

particles measuring from 54, to 54; mm. Below this size no separations have

6 GENERAL STATEMENT.

in each sample has been determined. It appears that all of these samples and presumably the greater part of such materials as owe their present position and arrangement to the action of the atmosphere may be referred to some one of four categories. These may be characterized as 1) lag gravels, or coarse residual deposits in the rear of

been made, particles so minute constituting only a very small proportion of eyen the finest atmospheric sediments. In general, when the finest grades have been found in a quantity amounting to only a small fraction of a per cent of any sample, they have been neglected. For the sake of convenience the following de- signations of the different grades will be used in this paper:

COMBE BOER excecocne diameter from 8 to 4 millimeters. (CRDBM secsoaocaeaas 2050 o Soe A ere cces 2) i Fimé gravel,............. es ea us COBPSE STAD vrr-ncmcccoon « ate ie gee te Medium sand... re eaten P: VEOHO SH rence cried Be ae ie Be a Very fine sand “poo a a COUPSO HOH onrscnosroere RS “ : Medium dust............ a “a “ at - LEGO WIT opsoccrnoonoasoooer : Ne ae | Se Sra # Very fine dust.......... us “ste ott "MS

Down to the particles measuring of a millimeter all the separations were made by sieves, and below this the per cent of the weight of each grade was de- termined by microscopic measurements and by calculation from the number of grains counted in each grade. In nearly all samples which haye been examined, there is a medium grade, which is present in greatest quantity, while the other erades diminish in bulk the more the size of their particles differ from the medium gerade. The latter will here be called the chief ingredient, or the maximum, and {he two decreasing series on either side will be referred to as the coarse and the fine admixtures.

In this connection I desire to state that I am under great obligations to Pro- fessor Milton Whitney, of the United States Department of Agriculture, from whom I received much valuable information regarding the mechanical analysis of super- ficial deposits, in examining a series of Illinois soils some years ago. Down to medium sand, the grades here adopted correspond to the coarser grades in the scale which he has adopted for soil analysis. Below this size I have found it ne- cessary to make use of another scale. In the analysis of soils it is of particular importance to determine the quantity of “clay” consisting of particles below the size of >4, mm., while in an investigation of the nature of the sorting effected by different mechanical forces, all the grades present in any considerable quantity are of equal significance. In the separations here made the sizes of the fragments in the suecessive grades increase uniformly in a geometric ratio.

LAG GRAVELS.

sand dunes; 2) drifting sand, constituting the familiar dunes in dry and sandy regions; 5) fine sand, which is soon dropped by the wind in the lee of drifting dunes; +) and dust, which only slowly settles out of the air far away from the place where it was raised.

Numerous observations on known eolian deposits in the field and on the mode of action of the wind have also been made to supplement this special study of the mechan- ical Composition of wind sediments, and these will be drawn upon in the discussion of the other data.

LAG GRAVELS.

In many places where atmospheric erosion is going on, streaks of gravel are to be seen, partly covering the eround. Most often this eravel forms a thin veneer which partly protects the ground from further erosion. Though the present position of this material is due to the action of the wind, it is quite evident that it has not been transported very far. The deposits from which it has been derived may lie close by, and they are never far off. Commonly it is a bank of sand, part of which has been removed. The finer grades have been blown away, expo- sing these larger fragments to the force of the wind, which apparently moves them by undermining and rolling. They sometimes occupy the hollows on the eroded ground. It is evident that the coarseness of this gravel renders it much less subject to the action of the winds than the finer materials. Occasionally it may be found partly or wholly covered by finer materials, but on the

8 LAG GRAVELS.

whole it is continually left im the rear of these, which follow the winds with greater promptness. Only ten samples have been examined. These were collected at eight different localities in the central part of the United States, as given in the table of analyses (Tab. I). It is not likely that these few samples adequately represent the composition of similarly formed deposits in other locali- ties. The largest rock fragment in the lot measured only a little over eight millimeters in its longest diameter. It was part of a sample consisting of flat chips of a hard shale. Pebbles over four millimeters in diameter were pre- sent in four of the samples. All the other, with one excep- tion, had pebbles over two millimeters in diameter. The different grades are rather indiscriminately mingled, in a manner determined by the caprices of the wind. Five of the samples have two maxima each. The chief ingredients vary from fine gravel through coarse and medium sand to fine sand. In three of the samples ninety per cent of the weight is distributed among five different grades; in six, among four grades; and in one, among three. In an average of all ten samples ninety per cent of the weight is distributed among five grades. The highest maximum in any grade is sixty-eight per cent and the lowest is twenty-five. The average height of the highest maxima is forty per cent.

The lag gravels are the most heterogenous of all the wind deposits. They are generally distinctly stratified. The fine admixtures are sometimes present as an original constituent of the eroded ground, but they may some- times also be deposited with the gravels by the lighter winds. Compared with water-bedded materials of the

DRIETING SAND. )

same coarseness, the layers are more irregular and thin- ner. Pebbly layers as much as an inch in thickness are extremely uncommon. On the whole gravels of this kind form very insignificant deposits, where they have been seen. This circumstance does not render it unlikely that lag gravels may have a greater development in regions long exposed to the actions of the stronger winds.

DRIFTING SAND.

Lag gravels graduate imperceptibly into coarse drift- ing sand, which in the field always lies in front of the eravels, following the direction of the prevailing winds. Farther in this direction the coarse sand becomes in turn finer and finer, until the main deposit is reached, where it always consists of grains of a more uniform size. In fact the main bulk of all sand drifts, large enough to be called dunes, have been found to contain only subordinate pro- portions of sand grains measuring more than one fourth or less than one eigth of a millimeter in dia ineter.

Sand coarser than this is present as a maximum in- eredient only in superficial layers of no very great thick- ness, which lie on the rear slopes of dunes. It forms an intermediate series between typical dune sand and lag gravels, and it is capable of being rolled rather than lifted by the winds. This is indicated by the circumstance that it is often the main ingredient on the crests of wind ripples, being heavy enough to remain resting in this exposed position, while the finer dune sand is lifted to the upward slope of the next ripple. It differs from the lag

10

Table I. Mechanical Composition

Length of diameter in mm.

1 z 3 4 | 5 Chips of shale From a From a From rear of from Edgemont, “blow-out,” “blow-out.” From north of | qune, Michigan

| |

Mineral, Ills.

of Lag Gravels.

6

2

8

9

1]

Rottom of a From rear of From wind- From rear of From a ‘“‘blow- | Average. “blow-out,’”” dune, Michigan eroded ground, a dune, out’, | Alliance, Neb. City, Ind. Ardmore, S. Dak | New Boston, Ills Alliance, Neb. | sodnoge) aN BeoeaeNe 7) ntl Bearsrnse iy ke ania (Gere en Ue x0) sBonGad).. © vil decacuet Gemuhln. [unl hctcetrsa iri tal Rael (es a aa ere 1.6 5.9 4.2 ee aly Be eeu | insane 12.6 1.4 28.0 41 26.1 11.5 23.8 23.5 GES 15.0 62.6 68.5 25.11 30.7 15.2 33.5 19.3 8.5 16.9 34.6 31.5 24.9 14 8.5 16.1 4.2 A ORG Wee ces 2.0 3.5 OTe alte AB Ou iy gh wullscxce |, cee 2 Spahad:,. = —. Mb iléoddoan a ncer P&L) bib) Sood Ober Miia mie lny (merci canal tian leer rope Jececees Sadoadp me sediladocepns) = Mecl|laccGbrc 6): teienInS Coote) a inal are oer lesonone of Rolling Drift Sand. 16 17 18 19 20 Rear slope of a | Rear slope of a | Rear slope of a Sand Drift, Sand drift, Average.

dune,

Griggs co.,

Hooppole, Ills. Hooppole, Ills. Hooppole, Ills. N. Dak. N. Dak. eer MEM EnMssote Ws ) ailennnet 5) Youth iedascics itis yaad | Gene | Geen eG le Rae a eect 3 ao Qa 6.2 19.3 14.0 27.8 44.4 39.2 45.2 2.9 133.5 40.7 29 4. 30.7 eo) 125.3 4.0 23.4 2.4 2.5 5.5 3 1.2 A 1.8 mo) 118, 3 tr.

12 DRIFTING SAND.

eravels in being light enough to be rolled up a gentle slope, and to be moved without any undermining taking place. Eleven samples of such rolling drift sand, asit may be called, have been collected and examined (Tab. II). Its composition is much more uniform and regular than that of lag gravels. The proportions of the different grades arrange themselves in all the samples in two de- creasing series on either side of a maximum, which in three cases consists of coarse sand and in eight cases of medium sand. In one sample the maximum grade consti- tutes eighty-five per cent of the whole sample. The small- est maximum is thirty-four per cent. All the maxima average fifty per cent in the eleven samples. Ninety per cent of each sample is distributed among only three erades in nine of the samples and among four grades in the other two. By different sampling, no doubt some- what different results might be obtained. But these an- alyses indicate that there is a rapid increase in the power of the winds to roll quartz grains, when these begin to be less than oue millimeter in diameter. The same is also indicated by the sudden decrease in several of the analyses of lag gravels in the percentages of the grades, when this limit of size is passed. (See analyses no. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, and 7). The rock fragments which exceed one millimeter in diameter, are too large to be rolled up the rear slope of a dune and are left in the ‘‘blow-outs” as a characteristic ingredient in the lage gravels, but they are, as may be seen in the analyses, only very sparcely mingled in the sand which is rolled up the rear slope of a sand driit.

The sand which constitutes the main body of dunes has been found remarkably uniform in its mechanical

Ww

DRIFTING SAND. ile

composition. Thirty-eight samples have been analyzed, coming from eleven different localities. These it will be well to briefly describe, together with the sand from each place.

On the north side of the Mississippi river at New Bos- ton in Illinois an ancient terrace is blown up into a sand ridge about a mile in length. From all appearances the

Table IIT. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from New Boston, Ills.

21 22 23 24

ees - : R 1 f a a ranleniaraiine Dune sand. Top of ripple in| Front slope of a sand. dune sand. dune.

NG Siem cer woe cere eee oo! Week inte 8—4 Ae PISS esety oe meine Section elena Reerers zl! 4—2 ESS eee es Cem Baers Hl ts a 2—1 2.0 aL Se ol Eee ye eae Ne ee 5 f= |E99 26 29.6 3.6 11.4 11 |30.4 31.8 56.0 30.8 37.2 eee 4708 64.4 1G 63.6 47.3 ji || 5.0 6 2 2.0 1.9

ie ZN We ela 1.0 3

ati

sj—taze. |boecocs—iS*«idif DD. «== | Ic || eg

at —— at

iin |eosese’ ~—(t=<“‘«‘“‘«~*:*é‘*i GD —i(i‘;*‘*i tcc «Sf

Set

Sto is |psocose’ = (it*t=‘«*é‘éi@i sfc cect fp

sand in these dunes has not yet travelled a half mile. The materials in the original terrace are quite heterogenous in composition (Tab. I). The coarse grades have not yet had time to be quite left behind but appear in a small quaprtity in some of the dune sand (no. 21). One of the samples (no. 23) was taken by skimming the surface on the crest of a ripple. This is unique among all the anal- yses of typical dune sand in having medium sand as its

14

Table lV.

DRIFTING SAND.

Michigan City, Ind.

Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from the Shore of Lake Michigan,

25 26 27 28 29 Length of dismeter in Upper rear slope Dune sand. Typical Near the crest of) From the crest of dune dune sand. a dune. of a dune. gt ate eee I mney Ci aio | at 8—4 prea hal ee ene wee Gees ahe eh olidduenee coats -lbseendc 4—2 4.1 Pie ry eaten tee yee ka ela te nar ag nae e 2—1 7.4 nfs See Le ta ae De Vital a It 14.1 8.2 9 6.4 | & 1 DOA 25.1 20.7 13.8 6.0 4—t 45.3 64.0 76.8 65.2 92.6 aL 5 1.2 1.0 1.8 6 Shea Tyla, Bh Sra TU Sued lh teat Banas Me ie arI—yze —ileasdoco, sca stSt*s«i lt 00 «© =<“ ti“ sl SSDS ga—ihs 9000000 §—- = —‘Wieoo00c0G = § Wiogn0e00 § ~ £ijicnadgdcen - «=. jloeoqq00 Sen Te a lle sooo (cg Sco Sloot con Table 5. Mechanical Composition of Drifting Table IV. (Continued. ) Sand from the River Bluffs east of Cordova, III. 30 31 Length of Average. diameter in From the top s of a dune. cae soe Sua Ree TE eoocoe souseee tre! 8—4 fh... Boaaass Mi 4—2 Ao sine 3.4 2—1 10.5 3.4 5.5 ee ARO 12.9 17.5 a 1S 2) 73.1 169.5 tt Do 8.7 2.3 i 5.0 netistis we, 2 wee ane

DRIFTING SAND. 15

maximum ingredient. Had it been taken a little deeper, it would have been more like the rest, for the coarser grains are least easily dislodged from this exposed posi- tion and remain, while the finer sand is blown away. Some coarse dust is still mixed in the sand at this place in one instance (no. 24). All taken together and com- pared with sand from other places, these samples may be said to be imperfectly sorted, owing no doubt to the recency of the inception of the wind action in this locality.

The dunes on the south-east shore of Lake Michigan have furnished the materials for six analyses (Tab. IV). These sand hills have been recently formed and are largely made up of sand that is freshly supphed by present wave action on the shore of the lake. In this place also the coarse grades occur with the typical dune sand in small quantities on the very top and front slope of the hills (see nos. 25, 26, and 28). But there is practically no coarse dust to be seen, presumably because no such fine material is present in the beach sand. This locality and the previous are the only ones that furnish instances of dune sand having a second maximum in the coarser grades (no. 21 and 28).

The bluffs facing the bottom lands of the Mississippi, east of Cordova in Illinois, are here and there being eroded by the northwest winds. Some sand taken from a small drift only a foot in height exhibits imperfect sorting like that observed in the sand from New Boston and Michigan City (Tab. V).

In Rice county in the central part of Kansas there is a tract of sand hills extending many miles along the little Arkansas river. These are derived from underlying late

16 DRIFTING SAND.

tertiary beds. Their extensive development shows that the wind has been at work here for some considerable time. The sand is correspondingly uniform, and rock fragments of either extreme size are absent (Tab. V1). One of the analyses exhibits the mechanical composition of a single thin lamina in the dune (no. 34), evidently laid down under a uniform wind velocity. It is interesting as

Table VI. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Rice County, Kans.

32 33 34

Length of ]

Di t t Ave lometer in From thefront | Fromtherear | See nore | pee

slope of a dune. | slope ofa dune. | (9 single seam)

indicating, when compared with the other analyses, the range of variation in the coarseness of the sand due to differences in the velocity of the wind. Evidently this is not very great.

At Folly’s Cove in Massachusetts some beach sand is driven inland by the winds. The absence of fine particles in this sand is no doubt partly due to washing on the

beach (Tab. VII).

DRIPTING SAND. 17

Some sand has been collected from small and freshly formed drifts on plowed fields and on the open prairie in the eastern part of North Dakota. Two samples of this have been placed arbitrarily with the rolling sand, but these differ only slightly from those given here. The rather large amount of dust in all of these analyses is evidently due to the fact that the wind has just begun its work on

Table VII.. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Folly’s Cove, Mass.

35 36 Length of diameter in Average. mm. Dune sand. Dune sand.

DG To}e: 5 lebcogoct Al UM ecactecam tt agman (eee SAN ieeemen (| levesarne tl 3) int sshens AN ieeccrce a, MUIR (Soe oe meme mn ete 2 eee Al WP; i 6.8 4.3 5.5 en KES 19.0 23.4 a GSts 714 67.6 1—j. Si 4.0 2.4. / 1S rs

FING ee S0oce all ti 5 U Hl

32 (ize —«-: |joggo090" ooadog st OG0N0

aie ed

64 128 epacgoqq = {jooonceo = — fF} aoo0n0e

jeg |

Tes 256) opcoc0pg — —4ioopacogo — = 4] eoqcoone

surface deposits, which contain fine materials in some abundancé (Tab. VIII).

Scattered dunes occur in the basin of the Green river in Illinois. Though the superficial deposits here are but little affected by the action of the atmosphere now, the topography of several sandy belts in this valley indicates earlier deflation by the atmosphere. The sand is moder- ately well sorted (Tab. IX).

= (oa)

DRIFTING SAND.

Table VIII. Mechanical Composition of Drifting Sand from

Some years ago a drift of sand was blown up in a field near the city of Lindsborg in the central part of Kansas. The soil in this place was composed of a sandy alluvium, which held very little fine material. No specially note- worthy feature appears in the mechanical composition of this sand (Tab. X).

The most extensive sand-hill region in the United States is probably found in the western part of Nebraska. Here the winds have been at work for a long time rearranging, shifting, and sifting extensive beds, which were formed in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time. Entire counties are covered by extensive ranges of sand hills sometimes ex- ceeding three hundred feet in height. The bulk of the blown sand in this region largely exceeds that of any other locality from which any material has been collected. The lag gravels are conspicuously absent in the samples

DRIFTING SAND.

North Dakota. Table 1X.

River Valley, Ills.

19

Mechanical Composition of Drifting Sand from Green

42 43 Warnes, Length of a ae glameter te Dune sand Dune sand ESISEES SD: from Tampico. from Hooppole. teeciat 16—8 |....... Siaeens Pere baat 8-4... enna ee snaetts 4—2 fh... Poses sears: tr. 1 2—1 PL alll eae wie, 0 9.2 it iA 2.5 6.9 20.3 ee OR DD) 5 27.4. 58.9 ia WA 61.7 56.5 9.9 ii. | 3.9 14.0 8.9 13 Ee he 1.0 5 3 SMES a extent me unure Hill Rok day 6 [heaiee simu it Mes thas etoosee eats ete aa ee elke =a leasoose aes ee : ‘ Table X. Mechanical Composi- examined, nor do these contain tion of Drifting Sand from Linds- : 2 . borg, Kans. more than a trifle of dust. It may 3 be said to be the most uniformly a4 y Length of sorted of all the sands described Seer as patie eanal (Tab. XI). Two of the samples (nos. 47 and 48) were selected to 1G eee represent the extremes of varia- 8-4 Jw. ° : Ea): tion among a series of layers 4-2 |.

. : DEAS 1 eoacere which were seen in an exposure as 5.1 | with well defined bedding. One RL 93.3 was taken from the coarsest seam t—1 69.1 which could be seen and the other Aneta) eno

: one ae A from the finest. The difference pubes 5 i LiDaaZS._—| | aosodan in texture was quite apparent to Hoe, Babe | eee the eye, as the seams appeared aepcte dene

20 DRIFTING SAND.

in the natural exposure, but it seems rather insignificant in the analyses.

South of the city of Moline in Illinois there are some drifts of sand in a remnant of an old terrace. It rises like an island in the bottom lands of Rock river. The bulk of the assorted material in this elevated land is quite free from coarse ingredients but there is a considerable admix-

Table XI. Mechanical Composition of Dune Sand from Western Nebraska.

45 46 Az 48 ] Length | paca Dune sand, Front slope of onme See | Pea eee) eee Alliance. dune, Alliance. Hyannis. | | Hyannis. | 1G=80. (eee. > eee. ee ee ee peas or ae Prem eee ty eae AI \oeetog Vt iiberede 1) |btease | bcceane Woo. oes Ai errae Me l beerecs Ne Baie Mea Soo Th || De tet 2.8 1.9 | 4.4 a gee 16.2 10.2 6.6 12.5 1-1 170.5 80.3 71.3 78.4 75.1 fo || Oy 1.9 15.3 12.8 | 9.9 tt eeces = | Baan Eee | tr.

ture of fine fragments. Some of these are yet retained, it seems, in the drifting sand, which has not been carried farther than two or three hundred yards (Tab. XII).

In the southern part of Henderson county in Illinois there is a range of sand hills which follow the bluifs of the Mississippi river. In their topographic features these hills resemble sand dunes, but the activity of the winds seems to have come to a standstill at present, except in a

DRIFTING SAND,

Table XII, Mechanical Composition of Sand from a small Dune, south of Moline, Ills.

Length of diameter in mm,

49

50

it ro]

From the rear slope of the dune.

From the top of the dune.

Fiom the top of the dune,

Lower frout

| slope of thedune,

Oy is ee | ee ay ea Fe Ik ual Soak beast eee hes i= 2.6 | 3.2 ese | 22 1-f 124.3 15.6 15.9 14.7 Hea GSet 72.0 65.7 66.9 ta OG 7.2 [12.0 12.8 a I 7 3.0 2.0 2.4. ssp r a2, ween & 2 1 i $4 128 ecceese = =—“i«‘“WL ww ee h0LULUmUmUmUClCUCmClCUCCC——Csd ww tee 0600 —idf ww —|___—_ al Ie 356 peceooo OBOE [eceeeee ee tenes Table XII. (Continued.) 53 54 55 56 cas Ton of the Upper front slope Top of the | Lower front AGREES dune. of the dune. duue. ea of theduue. esas pae8Go8 aceooae oodoeda aaccee 1 152 Dell 8) 2.1 12.9 11.0 10.7 10.0 14.0 74.6 73.9 TLD 66.0 69.9 10.6 12.4 12.5 23.7 112.7 6 6 ell 5 1} Saas eal Dbl Perceee 2 Leweees aul

22 DRIFTING SAND.

few places on the summits of the ridges (Tab. XIII). Two samples from this locality show a remarkably perfect sorting, though one of them (no. 58), which was taken from a drifting cultivated field, carries the usual quantity of fine grades present in driiting soils.

It will be noticed that in all these samples of dune sand, excepting the one collected by skimming the ridge

Table XIII. Mechanical Composition of Blown Sand from Henderson County. Ills.

57 58 Length of Mar” |Gogadaeea) Eopesae |e IL BOM Ti 5.4 Hs Lae 4 3.5 84.6 81.4 83.0 8.6 8.0 8.3 2 5.0 2.6 eae 2.0 1.0

of a ripple, the maximum ingredient is fine sand. In one instance ninety-two per cent consists of this grade, while in three cases it forms over eighty per cent oi the bulk. Where lowest it forms forty-five per cent, and it averages sixty-five per cent in all the sand examined (Tab. XIV). In three of the samples ninety per cent is distributed among four grades; in twenty-two, among three grades; and in thirteen, between only two. Here also the admix-

DRIFTING SAND. 23,

tures arrange themselves in two series decreasing on either side of the maximum. The coarse admixtures form a less rapidly decreasing series than the fine, the former extend- ing over five grades in the general average and the latter over only three grades. The extension of either is di- minished by prolonged wind action, which results in more pertect elimination of grains near either extreme.

The occurrence of the maxi- pay. xry, General Average of

mum at the same or nearly the the Composition of Dune Sand r (based on the averages for each

same point in nearly all the dune {ocality where samples have been

sand taken at many different lo- eien): calities, challenges our special . C 5 Length of notice. The size of a particle ca- diameter in Average, pable of being transported by the current of a fluid varies as 16—8 the sixth power of the velocity of s—4 tr. ' the current. The diameter of the 4—2 2 ° . = particles, therefore, varies as the 4 ] a : =} a) square of the velocity. If the Here Ms abe : j—1 (20.8 velocity is doubled, the diameter fei ass 4508 0 of particles transported may be J | 62 increased four times. The range SEE ae 4s : spe al of velocities of dune-making ue ik $f i283 stew eee winds, as usually measured, cer- et eet Oks

tainly exceed a doubling of their speed, and it might be expected that the bulk of the sand, in some place atleast, should consist of grains many times as large asin others. It may be that sometimes there is a scarcity of such sand for the wind to work on, but this will not alone account for the uniform composition of the dune sand. Wind velocities are usually measured some

24: DRIFTING SAND.

distance above the ground, but the dune sand is moved only by the very lowest layer in the atmosphere. Now it is known that the velocity of the current in this lower- most layer is increased at a very slow rate with an increase in the speed of the layers next above it. The velocity in the layer next to the surface of the ground probably never reaches three miles per hour. It is this comparatively inert layer, which alone comes in contact with the resting sand and first causes it to stir. As veloc- ities much lower than this will not move sand at all, the range of variation of the velocity of the currents which impel dune sand, is most likely quite limited. Another circumstance aids in bringing about the same result. Any load which is picked up, has the effect of retarding the current in which it is carried and the greater the particle which is moved, the greater the retardation will be. In an element of such lightness as the air this retardation must be considerable.

Another significant feature in the analyses of the dune sand is the more rapid decrease in the percentages of the finer grades than in the percentages of the coarser grades, in the opposite direction. Evidently the law which goy- erns the separation of the fine admixtures from the dune sand is different from the law which determines the separation of the latter from the coarse admixtures. A little reflection makes this clear. Materials finer than dune sand are wholly lifted up into swifter currents, which promptly remove them. The dune sand itself, on the other hand, is partly lifted and also partly rolled, just as the grains of the nearest larger sizes. Working in this last manner the transporting power of the wind varies

DRIFTING

SAND.

25

more nearly in approximation to its erosive force than to

its lifting force.

With changes in velocities the latter

varies as the sixth power, while the erosive force varies as

the square.

It is therefore much easier for the coarser

ingredients to be rolled along with the dune sand than it

is for the dune sand to be picked up and carried away

with the finer ingredients.

Table XV.

The wind much more rapidly

Mechanical! Composition of Sand heaped up by Incipient Drifting.

59 60 61 62 63 peeneth on = aaa aritting fel, Orne ate Baltimore: Md. |st. Peeeeariencts Gannan, Tis. TG Oem eee eae © ps UAE E aie Ula aint ee NEA dy Yall

SAE eae Oise bd | Sess | Pay plaltsosetoetties teea tet) IG ee Ae A ine eee Eee lta wiles aul eet 2-1 ise... leet a esate) aed all Pane cs Mca Ml Sores ie 38 5.7 6 tr. 16.8 Ai 5.7 36.3 2.6 3 29.6 GOS 53.5 50.2 97.0 514 ii. (209) 26 44.6 2.9 8 ti, | DS 1.0 BAe pele ee tr. ! ssp Bye! ifedeaeae soul seca e = SMe ae ULES AS aaa | Renae fe eg eLnamm beets erate a Le Pee teem eae Wh Maleate |wmcbil a SETHE agi Ccacee Ai) y jan

ceases to lift sand grains exceeding one eigth of a milli- meter in diameter than it ceases to roll grains which be- come larger than one fourth of a millimeter. The opera- tion of this principle is more or less evident in all the samples, but it is best seen in such as have been taken from the surface of the highest ridge and the rear slope of a dune. It is most conspicuous in the general average of

the averages of the sands from each locality.

26 DRIETING SAND.

Though it is not supposed that all dune sand is as uni- form in composition as are the specimens described here, it seems probable that the wind forms drifts mainly of grains which measure from one half to one eight of a milli- meter in diameter. How promptly it selects just these sizes for drift-building, may be seen in the composition of some specimens of sand collected from widely distant places, where it has just begun to work on materials of quite diversified composition (Tab. XV). In the following table one sample (no. 59) was collected in Kansas in a bottle placed about a foot above the ground in a drifting cultivated field, where the soil held gravel as well as clay ; one (no. 60) was taken from the surface of a snow-drift in Maryland, where the deposit had blown from an exposure of Potomac sand of somewhat heterogenous composition; one (no. 61) is from a gutter in the city of Baltimore and was sifted out by the wind from the dust on a paved street; one (no. 62) is from the beach at St. Augustine in Florida where such sand is reported to be tossed about by the sporting wind with particular ease, owing to the fact that the water has already affected a most favorable sorting; and one (no. 63) was collected in a small recept- acle placed on a drifting railroad bed in the western part of Illinois. The chief ingredient in these sands is alike in all and is of the same grade as that found in dune sand.

nN “]

LEE SAND.

We have now to see what becomes of the rock frag- ments that are finer than the maximum grade of the dune sand, a small part of which only are retained in the drifts. Right in the front of the dune drift, and confluent with it, there is generally a smaller rippleless drift or bench of

Table XVI. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Sand Dunes In Rice co., Kansas.

64 65 66 67 Tengen Average of ji of diameter (ire GO FEM From six feet in | From 15 feet in From 24 feet in in mm. p Lee drift sand. front of the lee front of the lee | front of the lee drift. drift. drift Gea Sire accecee gi Tuyleere eee Mie siae te Se Te ce OY LP Meeeay Saba issssy 0 qliitezesea fy ieeteees | py Meat 10. + ES, A Dalene a IE Ginecrt ae Ae) eeaoriee mer Olathe | f Las eos Oia tree rem, [Kec UNDG I enc UN elec Oy [eo ' it |) ae D5 2s Fo an ice A It BL @ 16.5 4.6 1.5 jit ee Gas 72.0 60.0 72.3 62.0 LA || De 7.5 31.0 23.8 32.1 ali | Mectonen 7 21 3.4 d= 1 gy eee ee Se ene Ge MUI A), Neale. 6 li GE aT eocosco(:t*«sic | coca SS oscodcg «= lb — lt TSE BIF -co0e00 «= —t—<—t*~i‘s‘*i ss SCs gcc «= (tS fcc

sand, which has settled in the eddy in the lee of the larger drift.*) The sand in the lee drift, as it may be called, is found to be a little finer than the dune sand proper. Its grains have been lifted a little higher, and that is the reason why they have been carried a little farther. But the difference is very slight and consists merely in a

*) See Die Denudation in der Wiiste ete., Johames Walther, p. 172, fig. 89.

28 LEE SAND.

change in the proportions of the percentages on either side of the maximum.

It is evident that the finer grains, which may have been present originally or which may have been produced by trituration afterwards, are carried still farther away. Just how far each different grade may be carried from the place where it is first taken up in the wind, has not been made out satisfactorily, but there can be no doubt that the different grades in the fine material are let down at successively greater distances according to their coarse- ness. Some inferences with regard to these distances may however be drawn from the examination of some sedi- ments, which the writer has taken occasion to collect somewhat promiscuously.

Four series of wind sediments have been taken from successively more distant points in front of dunes and sand drifts in Kansas, Hlinois and North Dakota. The analyses of these series show that the grains which approximate nearest to the dune sand in size are not car- ried very far. The samples from Rice county in Kansas and those taken near Moline in Illinois exhibit merely a decrease of the coarse admixtures and a corresponding increase in the fine for increasing distances within a range of two hundred feet (Tab. XVI and XVII).

The maximum ingredient still consists of fine sand. While this rate of change is not very rapid, it is such as to indicate that the maximum ingredient in the drift sedi- ments in this direction would change to very fine sand a few hundred feet farther out.

In distances less than two hundred feet the percentage of the fine ingredients increases from eight in the dune

LEE SAND. 29

Table XVII. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Sand south of Moline, Ills.

V1 12 73 Length of Average of diameter a the dune sand. 10 feet in front 100 feet in front 160 feet in front ‘ of the dune, ofthe dune. of the dune. AGS Sys maleeewn yar ieee cet mae ses AN TAY ease 8 (CON |e ac ae I ON er cm Rete a or A ae eeeete, Me ten Gtecdeed Matin) aller | Aaa. aes I ee ee TL | is OU SIST IVAN LI cate me ie ag cea ae oi HL 4.2 2.6 1.9 1-1 69.9 55.6 58.5 51.8 ia Lay 34.0 28.8 32.0 ai IL 5.6 9.0 37 Se ali 1 3 4 3 ti WZE sey |ecocono = loaog0o pooh ago = TE RSG levees eweeeee nee ee nee eee

Table XVIII. Mechanical Composition of Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Fields in North Dakota.

74 75 Beets ucts lot Dust in a house Dust in a school- cue drifting fold, | drifting Bela. MGS a cl eecerena. ce ollanseanta ho a oteaas SSA emer ule Mister 0) I) bbilleoaese NSO a seconde lucie Mull Neaesneee Ma aie mel seine 2—1 AGB ON Wears ans 1 1 9.2 5 be A (0). 1.0 3. 11 58.9 5.0 4.6 ee ORG 19.8 22.8 de—slr 18 58.9 60.9 dail 3 1 9.4 ihe | Mecca 13 fy ee Wen! tr or. it

30 LEE SAND.

sand to forty-one in the lee-sand. The series taken in front of the sand drift at Lindsborg changes more rapid- ily, so that only fifty feet away sixty-five parts in a hundred consist of very fine sand (Tab. XIX).

The dune at this place was much lower than the other, and this partly accounts for the more rapid settling of the fine sand, which here had a much shorter distance to

Fig. XIX. Mechanical Composition of some Sand taken in the Lee of Drifting Sand near Lindsborg, Kans.

fall. The samples from North Dakota were taken in buildings and are not strictly comparable to the other, but the small amount of fine sand and even of very fine sand which they contain, indicates that most of the for- mer grade, at any rate, had already settled (Tab. XVIID.

As the houses were about four miles away from the place of active drifting, it seems safe to infer that this

LEE SAND. 51

distance exceeds that over which fine sand is generally lifted in single leaps. And this quite likely also applies to the transportation of the next finer grade. It should also be noticed here that only a very subordinate percen- tage of particles smaller than one thirty-second of a milli- meter in diameter settles within the distance observed.

We may infer that the grades of rock fragments which range in diameter from one eigth to one sixteenth of a millimeter in diameter are mainly deposited, together with some coarser and some finer ones, in front of drift- ing tracts as a thin apron, which becomes finer in com- position with increasing distance to the leeward. There is little doubt that the change in the texture of this apron deposit is most rapid at first and more slow farther out. Its deposition results from temporary lulls in the wind, which allow the coarser grains to fall to the ground. Go- ing down the scale of diminishing particles a size will at last be found, which is capable of almost indefinite sus- pension-in the changeable currents of the atmosphere. Material of this kind is scattered over wide distances and the change in the texture of the deposits formed from this dust progresses with extreme slowness from one place to another.

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

To determine the size of the particles that may readily be transported such long distances by ordinary winds, it is only needed to examine the nature of the loads which these winds generally carry. I have collected a number of samples of such dust by different methods, under dif-

32 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

Table X X. Mechanical Composition of some Dust collected in Running Railroad Coaches.

76 77 | 7s 79 Length of dameter 2 Sandstorm in From southern | From Nebraska From Arizona. Minnesota. and Kansas. New England. NG=8i Ree) eee Ee | Pea oe SI om | erred MM | err = as AD [eee te |e Nee) St Ee ee Bribe Wire Oy Beckers 1-4 see Mee oh Pile tr. 2 1-4 6 1.0 5 ie een TeO 14.0 12.0 12.0 14 44.5 32.8 17.2 32.0 fai poo 41.0 52.6 49.0 5.5 9.8 12.5 4.0 6 12 13 5 Table XX. (Continued). 30 31 s2 83 84

From N. Dakota From Rocky Mis. From Utah. From N. Dakota.) prom N. Dakota. and Montana. | and Cascade Mts.) Speed30 mi.prh.) afterastorm.

12 0)| > Sele ine tr.: tr. 5

4.0 3 4. 11.0 5 3.6 15.8 19.0 67.2 5) TI 35.5 29.7 34.0 19.7 39.7 56.8 38. 29.0 er | 7.0 3.9 iB !

ih

f= tO

o).a

pein as a my te) o ta

Ww

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. De

ferent conditions of deposition, and from different local- ities.

Before discussing the composition of these samples it may, however, be well to note the nature of some wind- borne sediments which have been carried by the atmos- phere under more than ordinarily favorable circum- stances, and in currents of more than ordinary strength.

Such is the sand and dust stirred up from the roadbeds by running railroad trains. Quartz particles considerably larger than fine sand are here moved nearest the ground. But the material which is lifted high enough (five or six feet) to come in through the windows and doors of pas- senger coaches is much finer.

Among thirteen samples of such material collected in coaches in different parts of the United States only one

Table XX. (Continued).

$5 86 87 88 From Western | From Eastern | From Kansas. | From{dao ana] ©T°"O8% Cosby oe Ci ssSatotes fe Pe Ae ne Wk oe ter ink. ' ee a sree lars et 3 2.0 1.0 6 BS 6.4. 49.0 22.8 36.8 54.8 36.6 43.1 65-2 57.0 41.6 42.9 4.9 10.2 4.6 3.3 10.3 5 5 5) 1 2.9 appease hd tua. milldeuetetos onl.) cemwtl PenScyatm lam [eae ae 32

34 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

had as much as seventeen per cent of fine sand, and one had less than one per cent (Tab. XX). In five of these samples the maximum occurs in the grade of very fine sand, which is next in fineness to the maximum grade of the dune sand; in seven of the samples it occurs in the coarse dust; and in one it is in the next finer grade. The small percentages of the coarser grains is no doubt in part due to the reduced veloc- ities of the currents entering the

Table X XI. Mechanical Compo- sition of some Dust taken from a Window Sill in a House in Yuma,

Arizona. coaches. Analogous causes may have affected the perfection of the arene tor 0) sorting in these samples, which mm. 4 5 5 varies considerably, ninety parts ee in a hundred being distributed OH | eosooac 2 a eno ‘ al ete among four grades in some in- APES) Mme Il) stances and between only two in Dee See. some. But the differences in the le : . iS 2 speed of the trains and the dil- PS .6 ‘ : aes 75 ferences in the mechanical compo- 4 8 % . . u u . jas LL sition of the surface deposits 8 16 s qs—s «36.4 along the railroads must also be d fey BS arf : a 32” 64 fe taken into account. Nor was the Sais 8 . ord . See ae sampling uniform. In some in- DiS imeia16

stances the dust was taken after heavy winds and in others during calm weather, some- times it was gathered up from the window sills and some- times from the seats in the coaches. Some of it was brushed from the wearing apparel of a passenger. Taking all these modifying circumstances into due consideration and remembering that the currents of wind which follow a running railroad train are quite as powerful as the cur-

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 35

rents next to the ground in the heaviest wind storm, the composition of this dust may be said to indicate that fine sand is too heavy to be effectively kept from settling in such winds, that very fine sand and coarse dust are just on the limits of the size which is subject to effective sus- pension, and that particles which have a diameter less than one thirty-second of a millimeter will not readily settle from the atmosphere in a strong wind. It may be inferred also that dust of the kind taken in railway coaches must be capable of being lifted up into the atmos- phere by moderately strong winds. This is also indicated by the composition of some dust gathered on a window sill three feet above the ground in a building at Yuma in Arizona (Tab. X XI).

Volcanic dust forms another class of atmospheric sedi- ments which are transported under unusually favorable conditions. It is launched from great heights, to which it never could have been raised by the convection currents of the lower part of the atmosphere, and it is carried by the upper currents, where transportation is much more swilt than below. Nearest the voleanic outburst there is no maximum limit to the size of volcanic fragments which may fall, but beyond the distance of the influence of the projectile force, which seldom, perhaps, exceeds a dozen miles, their size is determined by the sorting action of atmospheric currents and hence will be a true exponent of the nature of this action.

Seven samples of such volcanic dust have been exam- ined (Tab. XXII). Five of these are from quaternary deposits on the western plains, one is from the Lahontan sediments in Nevada, and one is from a recent shower on

36

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

Table XXII. Mechanical Composition of Volcanic Dust.

90 91 92 93 Length of diameter i EF ¢ . mm. layer, McPherson | From MePherson|| | Erom_ | Eromszow in POSB7 vilkisse i Vegeweegoc 0) 1 SRE PS Sanath ete Baa tee Meee: ae Elbe hate eg | eee qe ere Me A eee ee NM ae! AUN ill at Fea eer ton (ora etre ee el (Lee ho ee aia eee ball eee coe Hint arte tol 5 2 8 tr. G10 28.8 37.4 10.0 foe 5210 24.8 36.4 42.0 aL LG) 33.4 21.7 42.0 Be DUE NM 111 1.6 5.2 1 EibASr eee 1.2 Do i Spee 1 ee. Nee Sa teen in BS Table XXII. (Continued.) 94 95 96 e F Average. : rom iE ee, Nebr. TSR SUNT Orleans, Nebr. 21 W1SS6 0k tiene «| \Seeesan oll 0 alk o Geetha ain | Sacer oil, 0 7.0 2.4 a2 \18.8 51.0 32.4 19.4 36.8 37.2 40.1 51.0 32.3 3.4 20.2 23.4 9F2 2 5.4 EZ 1.8 saeteoes 6 .2 nit 0

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 57

the coast of Norway, following an eruption in Iceland. The coarsest one forms the bottom layer in a deposit in Kansas, where the material settled in water. It contains only the coarsest fragments, which first settled on the bottom under the water. The other sample from the same place represents more nearly the average of the same shower at that place. The dust from Golden in Colorado is the second in coarseness. It fell nearer the place of the eruption, which propably was somewhere in Colorado. The Norway dust which was carried a dis- tance of eight hundred miles, is of about average fineness, compared with the other samples. The materials from Nebraska and Nevada are finer. The variation in compo- sition is quite remarkable in these samples, but it is largely due to secondary sorting in water.

On comparing the average of these analyses with that of saud and dust taken in coaches, the latter are seen to be slightly finer. This appears hardly possible, when we think of the great distances the volcanic dust has been carried, but there are three circumstances which combine to keep the volcanic dust in suspension longer than any other atmospheric sediments. Most of its particles are in the form of flakes, tubes, or hollow bubbles. The flakes may be twenty times as long and as wide, as thick. Such material floats easily in the air. Besides, other sediments have first to be raised by the lower and weaker currents of the air, as already pointed out, while the volcanic dust is thrown up to great heights by an explosion. And then the dust itself is about one fifth lighter than ordinary quarts. We must hence infer that ordinary dust, which is capable of being transported several hundred miles by

38 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

the atmosphere, is finer than volcanic dust, most of which consists of particles ranging from one eigth to one thirty- second of a millimeter in diameter.

Somewhat similar inferences may also be made from the nature of some dust taken close to wagon roads, where it was raised by passing vehicles and sifted as it fell by gentle winds. In some dust of this kind, which fell

Table XXIII. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected close to a travelled Wagon Road.

= 1 4-1 6.7 38 tr. ! |) Oe 2.0 ist BR 3.5 14 3.0 7.9 oe 2G 31.3 29.2 9.6 24.0

So BD 48.6 45.1 58.0 14.2

sa |) ays 14:8 23.1 aL ee

ot |) he Pi 5 4 2.4

ek 1 ——e 6 ie ae 6 S

five feet from the road, twenty-three per cent was fine sand and eleven per cent cwas omposed oi still coarser grains (Tab. XXIII). In some other dust, which fell ten feet farther away, there was only a little over four per cent of the coarse grades. In this sample very fine sand forms thirty-one per cent. Ten feet still farther out this grade is represented by less than ten per cent. These grades evi- dently easily settle out of gentle atmospheric currents.

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 39

Of particles which are less than one sixty-fourth of a millimeter in diameter, there are only small quantities, presumably because such particles tardily settle even in ordinary low winds.

Some dust which was swept by the wind from the banks and the bottom lands of the Minnesota river and lodged on the ice in its channel close by, shows about the same composition as the average of pila es ek Ba Nt the last samples (Tab. XXIV). position of Dust taken on the Ice

7 - inthe Mi ta River. The dust from the railroad sake yer had

coaches, the volcanic dust, the ate

dust from the wagon roads, and “Ea ion this last sample from the ice of

the Minnesota river may be said 1@=8 ho. to indicate that particles, which Say i eee: are capable of suspension in ae oo strong winds, must have a diam- a Rik eter less than one sixteenth of a my % millimeter in length, and that eh 6.1 particles with a diameter of less tis [16.6 than one fourth of this length 13 ee are hindered from promptly sett- ety cs - ling out of such winds. The lat- Preeti Hades

ter part of this statement must however be made with a limitation as to the quantity of the load which is carried. Should this be increased be- yond a certain limit, flocculation will take place, and then even finer dust will soon be brought down.

Fifty-six samples of dust capable of prolonged suspen- sion in the atmosphere have been studied, and will here be described under three divisions: 1) dust collected

40 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

directly from the atmosphere by means of some appara- tus; 2) dust which has settled out of the atmosphere on suriaces more or less elevated above the ground, as from leaves of trees and from house-roois, and 3) dust which has settled out of the atmosphere on snow, on ice, or on other surfaces nearly on a Jevel with the ground.

DUST COLLECTED DIRECTLY FROM THE ATMOSPHERE. One of the devices used in collecting dust directly from the atmosphere consisted of some whisks of broom-corn, smeared with glycerine, and suspended from a pole ninety feet above the ground. The observations were made on a bluif overlooking the Mississippi river at Rock Island

Table XX V. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from ihe Atmosphere by means of Whisks of Broom-corn smeared with Glycerine, March, 1895. *)

*) The method used in making the analyses given in this table was somewhat imperiect and the proportions oi particles ranging in size from a diam. of 4 to; cS ;

of a millimeter is too large.

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 4]

in Illinois. The whisks were taken down once a day and washed in water which was allowed to stand until the dust had settled. This was then removed, dried, and ignited. One series of such samples was secured during the month of March in 1895. These ware taken daily and mixed into five larger samples, each of which repre- sented days with maximum hourly wind velocities rang- ine between certain limits as indicated in the table of analyses. The range of these velocities during the month was from twelve to thirty-three miles per hour, and the quantities of dust taken were quite proportionate to the sixth power of these velocities, ranging from one tenth of a gram to fifty grams. The analyses do not indicate that there was any decided increase in the size of the par- ticles transported during the days having the strongest

wind,as might have been expected

Dable XXV. (Continued). (Tab. XXV). The maximum in 106 each of the samples occurs in the Maximum Average: medium dust and the samples hourly velocity, pea taken on the calmest days appear

to contain the largest proportion ae ab. S: of coarse admixtures. There is,

however, a small decrease of the

eyoasno, ese fine admixtures in the dust taken eee onl during the most windy day, when

the highest hourly velocity was

tr. iP, 14.2 12.2 thirty-three miles. 21.3 18.7 In June the same year mate- oes 43.7 rial was collected in the same way 12.4 D7 : it 1.0 DS and at the same place, daily, for

one week, and a separate analysis

42 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

Table X XVI. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by means of Whisks of Broom-corn smeared with Glycerine, June 16—22, 1895.

107 108 109 110 Length of diameter in Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum mm. hourly velocity, hourly velocity hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 9 miles. 9 miles. 12 miles. 13 miles. NGS Bee” beg lease an my ee [pero Bet ees we 9 iltectccec Oe wells: leaceeee ASD Nive. Vp ae lage, 9) eg ecm ieee eee 2 nek tS 5 SMe oe ee {scoot em a. ihe eset PEEAU, oye g? yo hed rca Dea TAGS Eon ee eee hee eerie | Limpconce a) Tlisceeacs 0 Netcong i Wits tr. ! iHr, 0 tr. ! 17, | 6.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Lil BIG [32.4 44.0 35.0 a; (43.9 43.0 44.0 40.0 a MOS 19.0 7.0 19.1 se | 1.0 1.0 4 1.2 Table XXVI. (Continued.) 111 | 112 113 Maximum Maximum Maximum Average. hourly velocity, hourly velocity | hourly velocity, 19 miles. 22 miles. | 22 miles. aesq0e , po0deod loeeeees |Jcooocs: | LS) Ee em Boece tr. ! } Wins & 5.7 i | 2.7 3.3 22.9 2325 27.3 31.9 50.2 45.9 49.1 A451 20.0 26.7 ILS) \17.3 2.2 2.3 & 13

ATMOSPHERIC DUST, 43

was made of each catch. The maximum hourly velocities of the wind for each day ranged from nine to twenty miles. In this case also there was a correspondence be- tween the wind velocities and the quantities of the dust caught, but on examining the analyses, it it seen that the coarse admixtures rather decrease than increase with the speed of the wind. The fine ingredients are quite as

Table XXVII. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by means of Muslin, smeared with Glycerine, July, Aug. Sept., 1895.

114 115 116 117

Length of diameter in From the flagpole Top cloth on flag- | Bottom cloth on Average, mm. during June and Under trees pole, Aug. 19, flag pole, July, 1895, in a grove. 1895, Aug. 19, 1895,

SIG Shean seeentempn mn MIM a [Reecevtanh ua) ns NHI Ca Te Pig ae NSS pas a Meaitiae

Wane ean [temeeveriele ey L Tm Well ieccy Roum eal Mary ile ue, 2 wer, 9 tr. tr.

4.9 3.9 1.0 ALA

40.7 19.0 24.6 29.1

41.5 47.2 45.1 44.4.

11.5 26 6 28.7 19.5

9 3.0 1.1 1.7

well represented for the days with high winds as for days with low winds (Tab. X XVI).

Some dust was collected at the same place and at the same height by suspending two pieces of muslin held horizontally on a frame. The muslin was smeared with elycerine, to which the dust adhered. This was secured by washing and allowed to settle as before. One sample

44 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

consisted of a mixture of daily catches taken during part of June and part of July in 1895. These were thoroughly mixed before the analysis was made. Two samples which were taken, one on the upper cloth and one on the lower, on the nineteenth of August the same year, were sep- arately examined, as was also some other material col- lected in the same manner under some trees in a e@rove about a quarter of a mile from the pole previously referred to. The dust taken in this way resembles per- fectly that which was caught on the broom-corn. The percentages of the several grades correspond almost to within two percent in the two averages (Tab. X XVII).

Tt will be noticed that the composition of the mixed sample for June and July is very much like the average for the dust taken on the broom-corn in June, but it is somewhat coarser than that taken on muslin in August. The dust taken under the trees in the grove is also a little coarser than the latter.

Another devise for collecting dust from the atmosphere consisted of a hollow cylinder, with apertures on the side for receiving the wind, and with strips of muslin suspended inside. These strips as well as the inner surface of the cylinder were washed once a week, and adhering particles thus secured. Eight samples were taken by this method during the months of July, August and September in 1895 (Tab. XXVIIT)). The cylinder was suspended at the same height and from the same flag pole as the broom-corn and the muslin previously mentioned. In this series of samples, also, there was a correspondence between the wind velocities and the quantities of dust caught, though not so well marked as in the other in-

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 45

Table XX VILT. Mechanical Composition of Dust collected directly from the Atmosphere by Means of Slack Wind in a hollow Cylinder, July, Aug., and Sept., 1895.

118 119 120 121 Length of | diatueter in Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum mm. hourly velocity, hourly velocity | hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 14 miles. 18 miles, 18 miles, 19 miles. INGO Seavey yt. ini alcrde et a ore er ea Ae SE ie eee AAP le Mera coiled al Masser ORS Ni ctoeicc, LM Ol BES Reeeen Ie, IER |\CSetUe ian a PEER eer REIL si Nasco, yh el sal OsaeeSea elem eee ariie amen Tater TS lea Si. Shl ea ee came ne Ca ae CO oat More ~=S«dioopooos ogee | Woopeneo HG opa5on Ai 5 1.0 1.0 5.0 4—7, 11.1 32.0 18.7 20.0 i BRA 40.0 51.4 44.5 € 7 lof teas (13.3 7.5 8.2 7.3 Table XXVIII. (Continued). 122 123 124 125 Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Average. hourly velocity, hourly velocity hourly velocity, hourly velocity, 20 miles. 21 miles. 23 miles. 24 miles. tr.! EOC he ee enans on oo yleeeenss 1.0 6.8 18.7 8.5 9.5 15.6 47.6 51.4 52.9 38.1 44.9 35.4 19.8 27.4 34.9 27.0 9.5 8.2 10.2 15.9 10.0 2 6 2 iL 9

46 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

stances referred to. On the nineteenth of February in 1896, when there was a high wind and much dust in the atmosphere over the Mississippi valley, one more sample was taken in the cylinder, this time suspended only ten feet above the ground (‘Tab. XXIX).

All of the dust caught in the cylinder, excepting two samples, is coarser than that which was caught on adhe- Table XXIX. MechanicalCom- Sive surfaces. The maximum Hee neta aasNaie ue Meckect grade consists of coarse dust in

Slack Wind ina hollow Cylinder, the former, while in the latter it peu S 08: is medium dust. It appears that

126 the slack wind was not retained

diameter in Yaletown, in the cylinder tong enough to allow the fine particles to settle.

1@-8 Lo. In this way the maximum has 84... been transferred toward the 4-2 Jere coarse grades. If then, as we may oy pr suppose, the dust carried by the ca alee air was of the same average com- pa tr. > position in both instances, the sis | 28 rate of decrease from grade to is eee erade on either side of the maxi- ia mum ought to be more nearly be 2 equal in the dust caught in slack

wind. Such is also the case, as may be seen from the averages of all the analyses of each kind (Tab. XXX). It is quite probable also that some of the coarse grains were shaken off from the adhe- sive surfaces. An average of these two averages may be taken as representing the nearest approximation to the composition of dust carried in the atmosphere at the

place where these observations were made.

ATMOSPHERIC

DUST.

47

It may be

collected in low winds as well as high, and though it

appears to be slowly settling, its general presence indi-

cates that it is easily held in suspension.

Table XXX. Average Mechanical Composition of Dust caught on Adhesive Surfaces and in Slack Wind.

Length of Average dust Average dust diameter in caught on adhe- | caught in slack General mm. sive surfaces. wind, Average. GSS) Pulieeoaseee my teak Heeesacunn) Oneal bPacees Saas yy iRexteumy ) Slze ee A Doma Beets By [hero ot) | llaneotes SAAN Soe sae eae em en Sarno RNNle | labo ca iti Uhm ana Dee a an Ue EM Nttr an Pee tr. cei een 9 4. eaten Ge 14.2 10.3 tt (70 42.8 34.9 ee WN 30.1 37.3 tie (OG 10.4 15.0 oe | 1G 9 1.2

DUST TAKEN ON NATURAL SURFACES ABOVE THE GROUND.

Several analyses have been made of dust found adher-

ing to surfaces of objects more or less elevated above

the ground (Tab. XXXI).

Eight such samples were

washed from the foliage of trees, on which appreciable

deposits of dust may always be observed. The maximum

erade in this material is medium dust, but the lesser

weight and the smaller size of the particles smaller than

this renders them less subject to dislodgement by the

wind and by occasional shaking and rubbing of the

48 ATMOSPHERIC DUST:

Table XX XI. Mechanical Composition of Dust Collected from Surfaces elevated some Distance above the Ground. (Unless otherwise stated the collecting was done at Rock Island, III.)

aii 427 ml 128 129 130 131 Length of diameter in Shaken from the} Taken in rain From rain water From Taken in rain Ge Pee Seu” | aacaeGs || “ eataos | Bae DU oy to al Mercere RN emo renee IRE cereale tlc lanaarte | 4) laanot Bee isenbeale Samy Ware eeeene ft / A ese ern mee BE cre | eee AM seamee A) amc! ug). eel sae saete aeaae | y c rEO Peal Wane! eta a Me |e ream Rcemsarioet Sc lbereair ta lbcncaus 1s tr. * DEOMI A elise UPS 0 4.0 $—} tr.» LESS (Gate once tr. 3.0 4—+ 3 2.2 iP, wir, ? 5.0 i. | 6 Wit 4.0 29 TB A (A) 36.0 42.0 38.5 25.6 it M0 36.0 43.0 41.3 47.9 j=. | OG 14.1 9.7 19.2 6.0 at || 2 1 | eae (La a

leaves against each other. When collected in the early part of the summer this dust is therefore found to be coarser than it is later on, owing to the more frequent removal of the coarser particles and the more persistent adhering of the finer. In some dust which was washed from the leaves of some oak trees in the months of May and June in 1895, there was about twenty per cent of fine dust (Nos. 186, 137), while in two samples taken in August and September, there was a little over thirty per cent of the same ingredient (Nos. 138, 139), and in another sample, which was washed from leaves remaining on some trees in February, the fine dust was the maxi- mum ingredient making nearly forty per cent of the whole sample. Four of these analyses are of dust taken on the bark of some trees, and two are of dust coming with rain

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

Table XX XI. (Continued).

132

133

134

135

Washed from the trunk of an oak

Washed from poplar leaves.

Washed from the leaves of a

Washed from the leaves of an oak

tree, hickory tree. linden tree, tree, June 95. Rr enim ReMi cia” REECE tl). A. ilceeeeet ae gu all Relea BOI] Thos a ge seem ote mila Peete Sim tN ni Ieee ze tr. 6.2 wip, 9 tr. § tr. 1 13.0 11.0 2.0 By 2.0 20.1 17.0 23.0 17.8 13.0 30.1 34.0 42.0 58.7 60.0 26.0 33.0 30.0 21.9 17.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 aS 8.0 Table XX XI. (Continued). 137 138 139 140

eee [Gaon ae ose) Cee |

tree, May ’95. at La Salle, Ill. | New Bedford, Ill. Feb. 1895. RaSDE COUN Jeet naman) (Geneaeets tr. 4 Maa Jy ates tr. oly 5 A

or oll Oo Wee 1.1

2.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 4.6 16.8 Wot 17.0 20.0 24.7 57.2 40.8 44.0 27.0 43.4. 22.0 31.7 32.0 38.5 21.7

3.0 8.8 CB Qa 3.4

50 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

water from a house-roof. Such rough surfaces as these give a secure lodgement to grains of sand as well as dust. From the analyses it is quite evident that some coarse material is moved even by the gentle winds of the Missis- sippi valley. It may be that many of these grains are raised by the aid of lighter objects to which they adhere, such as bits of straw and leaves. But their abundance in these last samples is best accounted for by the action of occasional strong convection currents and by the in- creased chances for larger grains to find lodgement on rough surfaces. This may be inferred from two analyses, one of which gives the composition of some dust collected from the trunk of a small tree by striking it repeatedly with a hammer (No. 127), while the other shows the ingredients in the material which remained on the bark after this procedure and which was secured afterward by washing (No. 132). The former has a small and the latter a large proportion of the admixtures on either side of the maximum ingredient. Aside from the greater pro- portions of the extreme grades, which may be accounted for by the diminished proportionate chances of the grains of the maximum ingredient to find and maintain a secure lodgement, all of these samples resemble those collected on surfaces rendered adhesive by the application of glycer- ine. The averages of these two series of samples corres- pond closely for each grade. Both are perhaps, on the whole, slightly finer than the dust which is constantly floating in the air over the central part of the upper val-

ley of the Mississippi.

ATMOSPHERIC DUST, 51

SHOWER DUST.

Deposits of an impalpable dust are sometimes observed over this region, especially during winter, when it is apt to fall on the snow and discolor its surface. It generally appears after strong westerly winds, which have been

ealled dust storms. Eighteen samples of such dust have

Table XX XII. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen west of the Mississippi River.

141 142 143 alemenannt mim | wanes irate. | Atttowg, | Alte Foye, AG Sea Peeet a, ay euiekune fallen s EU 8 ie melo MP i delle meh 2 ee eaea eereretp Ase tol striae age Sac 2 estenn td een g(a eames aie, a ae ee eae vate ee ect ie Sil a tee penl Puen ont 6 ila Ot ire laces Lai vy, 1.6 ey ii | 86 aS 4.0 i= |bOS 58.2 46.0 tat Dae 28.0 42.0 eee na eng 2.7 7.6 i= | 6 3 Gi

been examined, and these represent six different storms. The coarsest fell in Kansas City in the summer of 1890. Nearly sixty per cent of its weight consists of coarse dust, and less than thirty per cent is medium dust (Tab. XXXII). Two samples taken near Alta in Iowa come next to this in coarseness. An average of the two ana- lyses has fifty-two per cent of coarse dust and thirty-five

52

ot the medi

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

um. This was collected during and after a

heavy wind in the early part of June in 1895.

Thirteen samples were gathered from the surface of ice

and from snow at Rock Island in Ilinois and these repre-

sent three d

ifferent showers. One such shower occured in

the latter part of November in 1894 (Tab. XX XIII), one

in the latte

Table XX XIII.

r part of January in 1895 (Tab. XXXIV),

Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ills., November, 1894.

144 145 146 | Length of | diameter in Takenonthe | Fromtheiceof | From the ice of Average.

a Salar sane | encariaieya taal eancesierio meee]

| | 1628. checks —* (esa (eae ee eee St ite => Ueto 2 oceans | eee AOS | eet, AS an ale | cere teen ees 2 Na eee Perens Mal sey reas pe alleen! | | iL eae 1—4 20 GE any ew aleene se sit i—1 2.5 aa me il eiesexe 1.0 i=! 6.4 3.4 10 3.6 1A 113.5 15.0 8.9 (12.5 qe—aiz [90.0 133.0 33.4 38.8 a— A, (25.6 43.0 46.8 38.5 fi | 4.3 8.9 47 Tiss eo 7 5. | A

and one in February in 1896 (Tab. XXXYV).

The selec-

tion of these samples was made with a view to find out

not only the average composition of the sediment from

each shower

but also the range of variation in composi-

tion which might be due to changes in convection currents

in the atmosphere and to the admixture of local material.

Dust gather

ed on the ice close to land contains compar-

ATMOSPHERIC DUST,

Table XXXIV. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ill., January, 1895. 147 148 149 150 Length of diameter in From the ice of From the ice of From a crack in |From the ice of the ee fg eee (aac orate LG Ogee ent anna dle cbmc | peb ce Side I aasapsela |” el eAgorce. 50 iit | Ges eee ann ere CD | GsGiasEG MeL ey. MUISCRRADES IRR Rect seems mi late | Seae HL ON RP Palomba POR LRN Ny Tesco le 2k lie fleets (eon ame Alcorn helps WIRING Ra ek lah ih. Gan 4—}t tr. ! 2 SMM Ullaseeece 2h 2.0 10.9 1.4 7 ti §.0 13.8 15.2 9.0 a—ay [32.0 41.5 44.6 36.3 it TO 29.8 34.0 36.3 ga aiss 9.0 3.9 AT al Si eee Fhe ml oes 3 1.8

atively large quantities of coarse admixtures, evidently derived from the ground close by (Nos. 144, 145, 147, 148, 151), and the same is the case with some material which had accumulated in a long crevice in the ice, across which the wind had been drifting

alter the deposit had settled (No.

149). The dust taken near the center of the channel of the Mis- Sissippl river has less of the.

coarse admixtures, as does also that taken on snow (Nos. 146, UO; Iz), Iss}, aleyb IL 156).

~~

55,

Table XXXIV. (Continued).

151 Fromthe tee of | AVeraSe- near the bank, wie, 0 8) 1D, 3.3L 11.2 13.0 30.0 36.9 49.0 B72 7.0 7.9 i .i 8

54

Table XX XV.

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust fallen at Rock Island, Ill.,

February, 1896.

| 152 153 | 154 | 155 Length | of diameter F tax} in mm. From snow in er aes just | From snownear | From snow close | timber. o pre tpenier | arayine. to a tree. | uffs. | NG=8> Alea” lee | Ee eee Sf. cilsoies, set). gg ee lee AO ees cess a lier eae ea he. ee eee: ees uae ortcase Me mu Cmere Seat re bocce Jesesosa sls ose snc — O) 2 11 & ; 8 12 tr. | _ « 1 lees 4.4, 3.2 47.9 140.7 43.9 38.2 44.0 46.5 | 6.3 eS 5.6 2 A 3

Tuble XXXV. (Continued). 156 | From snow on an | Seas e: open field. | tr. 3 | .4 1.6 4.4 30.9 42.6 54.3 44.4 11.4 > Ce A ieee

Over level areas, as out on the ice of the river away from the banks, and on an open field, a greater proportion of fine dust is notice- able (Nos. 146, 150 156), due most likely to a more even pro- gression of the atmosphere per- mitting more of its load to settle, while near places where timber or topographic contours had set up conyection currents, less of the finer dust seems to have been able to come down ( Nos. 144, 152, 1L553))- of these three showers the me-

In the averages from each

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 5D

dium and the fine dust are present in nearly equal proportions and constitute from seventy-four to eighty- seven per cent of the whole. In the samples collected on the ice, there is nearly three times as much of the two grades of sand as in those taken on snow, owing, it seems, to the greater quantity of local drift raised by the wind

from bare ground along the banks of the river.

Table XX XVI. Mechanical Composition of Shower Dust, Averaged for five Localities.

157 158 dlameter 1a Kansas City, Mo. a Bae pus mm, Chicago, Tll. Maysville, N. Y. GSR Om era mamta | ONES CT I r Wehr Se alle acter | ry Me bela ksey es an mf ACRE tt eo rem tl (eae Bh) NS Nee Sg teas Ullscen ena Annie Serer ar Meee erates umn, | Aete cr) ll eel (eee ame Bellin seee | eect Steet Me cee i ligase jm, teats tr. SOP an TA Hee team Apo Uisarame ey lleasenee A 3.0 9 | #-1 ae 1.6 2.1 5.5 9 +i 6.6 6.1 9.6 7.8 41 qe—sy (59.5 52.1 39.5 31.5 16.0 so—pe «(27.7 39.0 40.3 36.2 53.6 grits (| 43 Si 6.9 14.1 22.0 aoe ae 6) 5 5 1.5 2.0

A sample of dust was taken just west of Chicago, soon after the shower which occurred in the latter part of Feb- ruary in 1896 (Tab. XXXVI). It contains a considerable admixture of local coarse fragments, but aside from this it is Shehtly finer than the average deposit from the same storm at Rock Island. Still another sample was collected at Maysville in New York, after this storm. This also contains a small quantity of sand, but it is otherwise the

56 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

finest of all the samples of the shower dust examined, having a larger percentage than the rest of all the grades containing particles less than one thirty-second of a millimeter in diameter.

The common belief that this shower dust is brought from distant places receives some support from the wide

Table XX XVII. Mechanical Table XXXVIII, Average Composition of Storm Dust; (an Mechanica! Composition of 57 average for eighteen samples). samples of Atmospheric Dust.

Length of Length of diameter in Average. diameter in Average. mInm. mm.

16—8 _....... NG} |esooone SA ecene 8—4 BD Nene 4—2....... Qe ness Fl a eee tt tr. i “il 4 I 5 tt 2 i—t 21 1+ La 1—_5 8.6 oe 7.9

i532 40.3 io 32 33.1

3262 39.5 320 40.4

ez_ize | 0.8 seizes [14.9

12 B— 356 6 128256 1.6

areal extent of the storms which bring it. The prevailing westerly direction of the winds in these latitudes, taken in connection with the gradual change exhibited by these samples (see Tab. XX XVI) from coarse in Missourito fine in New York, may belooked upon as supporting the same view. This change in the deposits may be the result of a slow sifting out of the coarser particles during transit

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 57

from west to east. But with only a single sample from three of these places and only two from another, this evi- dence is of little weight. Again, it seems quite certain that part of the shower dust is local material. This is indicated not only by the sand it contains, but also by the color of the deposit. When collected from regions where there is a rich black soil, it is apt to be dark, and when observed in the lee of sandy and less fertile lands, it is brownish or reddish. It appears most probable, that part of the shower dust comes directly from distant places, while a part is picked up from the ground nearer to the place where it falls, or from the surface of plants, on which it has previously lodged. Som other obser- vations indicate that there is a constant migration of dust particles in the lower part of the atmosphere. These are apparently picked up and let down unceasinely by the wind. Just what proportion of the deposits which settle from this migrating dust at any particular place or time, is local, and just how much of it comes directly from distant places, is difficult to say. That coarse dust is capable of being transported lone distances in the atmos- phere can, however, under no circumstances be doubted. It floats along in considerable quantities even on the calmest days when the maximum hourly velocity of the wind does not exceed ten or fifteen miles. It constitutes from twenty-two to forty-four per cent of the totals of the dust caught on such days (Nos. 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 118), and the smallest proportion which it forms in any of the fifty-seven samples of fine atmospheric sedi- ments I have examined, is thirteen per cent (No. 136). It seems sate to conclude that dust, which is present in such

58 ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

quantity in the atmosphere, even in calms, cannot escape being carried a hundred miles or more in a strong wind. Medium dust must be capable of being transported still farther and fine, and very fine dust evidently settle with great slowness even in perfect calm, unless present in such quantity that flocculation will take place. This probably seldom occurs except near places of active wind erosion.

li we now take a review of all the analyses of atmos- pheric dust here presented. that artificially collected as well as the storm dust, we notice that the maxima are scattered over three grades. In sixteen samples the maximum occurs in the coarse dust, in two it is right be- tween this and the medium dust, in thirty-eight of the samples it occurs in the medium dust, and in one it is in the fine dust. This one sample was collected from dried foliage exposed to the winds for several months, during which time a large proportion of the coarser particles had. no doubt, been dislodged. In all the cases where the maxima consist of coarse dust (except perhaps nos. 152, 155). special conditions of collecting account for the greater quantity of coarse materials. The diversity in composition of the atmospheric dust is hence more apparent than real. In two of the samples ninety per cent is distributed among five different grades; in seyen- teen samples, among four; in thirty-six, among three grades, and in one sample it is divided between two. The average position of the precise maximum (as we may designate that length of diameter. which, if taken as a limit for separation, would divide the bulk of the dust into two equal parts) appears to be a little below but not far removed from the limit between the coarse and

ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 59

the medium dust. This in part accounts for the low percentages of the maxima, which never exceed sixty per cent of the entire weight of each sample and which range down to thirty. The decrease from the maximum to either extreme ingredient is uninterrupted, except in two samples collected from rain-water, which came from the root of a house. In these the coarse sand is present in ereater quantity than the medium sand. The slope from the maximum toward the coarse admixtures is more eradual than that toward the fine admixtures in nineteen of the samples. Most of these were taken near the surface of the ground in places favorably situated for the admix- ture of local material, as from the trunks of trees, from house-roots, from ice near river banks, and from snow near bare patches of ground. In thirteen samples the decrease is, on the other hand, rather more gradual to- ward the fine admixtures. Such is nearly always the case when the dust has settled in slack wind, as in the hollow cylinder, among the trees, or under shelter. In twenty- five samples the two slopes are about equally steep. These include most of the dust caught on surfaces smeared with e@lycerine and some of the shower dust. In an average of all the samples, owing to the large admix- ture of local coarse materials in a few instances, the slope is more gradual in the direction of these admixtures. But the difference is slight (Tab. XX XVIII).

The significance of this last feature is quite evident. The elimination of the sand from the settling dust follows the same law as the separation of material which is still finer, from this dust. The greater vertical components in the wind near the surface of the ground are able to keep

60 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

the dust in suspension, while sand is dropped, and in the same way lesser vertical components higher up in the air mostly retain particles less than one sixty-fourth of a millimeter in diameter, while particles larger than this are slowly settling. Where no exceptional conditions prevail, the two slopes should therefore be symmetrical, since both are determined by the velocity of the atmos- pheric currents.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

While the wind-borne materials which were collected for these analyses may not represent the greatest extremes of wind work, such extremes were sought in their selec- tion. Even if more extended observation should show, as it hardly can fail to do, that pebbles considerably larger than any seen in these samples, may be moved by the wind, it is evident that atmospheric transportation is confined to rock fragments of comparatively limited range of sizes. The largest pebble found in any of these analyses, measured less than eight millimeters in diam- eter. In the opposite direction infinity is of course the extreme limit, but in the dust collected for this study the quantity of particles measuring less than one two hundred and fifty-sixth of a millimeter in diameter prob- ably in no case amounted to as much as one per cent of the whole, and generally it constituted merely a _ trace, when at all present. It was therefore neglected in the analyses.

The limited range of coarseness of wind-borne mate- rials is, of course, due to the lightness of the air. Within

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 61

the same limits of velocity a lighter medium will not move such large fragments as a heavier. Water currents dislodge masses immensely greater than the largest pebble in these samples. As a result of this restriction on the work of the atmosphere, its deposits are necessarily less diverse in their mechanical composition than those of water.

Another circumstance, which increases the uniformity of atmospheric sediments, is the great effectiveness of the atmosphere as a sorting agent. In different media the sorting power increases with the decrease of the carrying power. It is a familiar fact, that moving glacier ice can effect no sorting. In the same way a highly viscous liquid is a bad sorter, for its motion is slow, and the small particles it carries are not brought sufficiently far ahead of the larger ones.

In a current of water the velocity is greater and the different grades of fragments are farther removed from each other in a horizontal direction, before all have time to sink. In the much lighter air this separation is still wider, owing to the higher velocities which obtain, and still more perfect sorting is the result. Whatever the air lacks in viscosity and weight must be made up by veloc- ity of its currents, if any material at all shall be trans- ported.

It might be inferred that this great sorting power of the atmosphere should produce diversity rather than uniformity in the deposits.*) Such is indeed the case whenever the load, dropped during each transient period of somewhat uniform velocity, is sufficient in amount to

*) See letter from Prof. Dana, Journal of Geology, Vol. III, p. 342.

62 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

appear as a distinct layer in the deposit. But this prob- ably never occurs except in the drifting dunes, and near them. In dune sand the most perfect lamination is often to be seen, even when the actual difference in the coarse- ness of the separate seams is very small (Nos. 47, 48). The deposits which accumulate nearest in the lee of drifting tracts may also sometimes become more or less stratified, when coarse layers from exceptionally heavy storms are thick enough to remain separate. This does not always happen, for rains and growing plants are effective agents in mingling successive laminae, when not too thick, into a homogeneous unstratified mass.

But the lulls which occur even in the strongest winds. soon cause the coarser particles of their load to fall out, and after a while only the finer ones remain suspended. This is plainly indicated by the composition of the sam- ples of sand, which were collected in front of dunes (Nos. 64, 75). As the wind travels away from the place of loading, its many convection currents, turns, and wind- ings cause it to disperse vertically and horizontally, and the load is pari passu dispersed and thinned. From such an atmosphere sedimentation is very slow. From each transient current, marked off by cyclonic, diurnal, or shorter irregular periods, deposits are laid down, which no doubt are different from each other in mechanical composition, but the quantity from each is never suffi- ciently great to form a separate lamina. Hach deposit is. thoroughly mingled with that which has settled before, either by the settling of the particles of the latest deposit in the interstices of that laid down before, as this is not thick enough to completely cover the ground suriace, or

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, 63

else by the subsequent superficial mixing effected by various forces. Such mixing results from the direct action of the winds; indirectly, from the action of the wind on various objects which are caused to move on the surface of the ground; from rain; from frost; from the works of insects and other small animals; and from growing plants. All these agencies acting together can hardly fail to prevent any sub-aerial deposit of dust from acquiring such a fine lamination as is often seen in silts and clays, which are deposited under water and which have accumulated much more rapidly. Eolian loess is never markedly laminated, and the primary cause of the absence of this structure is the great velocity of the atmospheric currents, which scatter the materials in sus- pension over so wide areas that the deposit from each passing current becomes too small to remain as a dis- tinct layer.

These analyses plainly indicate that atmospheric sedi- ments are rendered uniform also by the elimination of the finest particles, such as measure less than one one-hundred- and-twenty-eigth of a millimeter in diameter, and even to some extent the particles of the next coarser grade. It will be noticed that the very fine dust in but a few cases exceeds three per cent of the total weight of each sample examined. The fact that this fine material is not spe- cially abundant in the dust caught on the calmest days indicates that it is easily held in suspension. This is no doubt the kind of dust which follows the wind around the globe. It is carried everywhere and must be settling everywhere in exceedingly small quantities, inversely pro- portionate to the greater area over which it is being

64 : GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

spread. Falling on the land it will be washed away by erosion or enter as an inconspicuous component in the coarser atmospheric dust, and falling in the sea it will be lost among the more copious aqueous sediments there. unless places exist where these are absent. On account of this slow settling oi the finest dust we cannot expect to find it forming separate laminae in eolian deposits, for over regions where these are built up, the wind will never remain quiet long enough to permit a sufficient quantity of only fine material to settle and form such layers.*) It appears therefore that the finest wind sedi- ments, which may be laid down in such quantity as to form appreciable deposits, consist in the main oi particles ranging from coarse to fine dust, and do not have any markedly laminated structure.

SUMMARY.

The work of the atmosphere begins with erosion. This erosion is confined to much smaller areas than atmos- pheric sedimentation. One such area of erosion may be regarded as one oi the corners of an isosceles triangle, pointing against the wind. Between the two equal sides of this triangle transportation and sedimentation is tak- ing place. The quantity of work performed is greatest. near the area oierosion. In this area materials of varied coarseness are moved, up to pebbles which measure at least eight millimeters in diameter. Deposition of the coarsest material. such as gravels, takes place imme- diately. They are leit as a thin veneer on the surface,

=) It is interesting to notice that separate layers of such fine material are seldom absent from the silts and clays deposited in waiter.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 65

and this tends to prevent further erosion. The coarser grades of sand, those containing grains from one to one fourth of a millimeter in diameter, are dragged along a greater distance, but they are unable to keep pace with dune sand, which is mostly finer. When present in suffi- cient quantity in the eroded terrane, the medium and the fine sand, and especially the latter, are heaped up into the dune drifts. These may creep over considerable distances in course of time. The sand grains which measure from one half to one eight of a millimeter in diameter, do not seem to be lifted very far in a single leap by the strongest wind, probably seldom as far as a few hundred yards, and much more often only a few feet. The very fine sand, which is next in texture, appears to be mostly dropped before it is carried many miles. Course dust remains much longer in suspension. Most of it probably settles before it is carried two or three hundred miles. The gen- eral presence in all kinds of winds of medium dust renders it likely that much of this may be carried as far as five hundred or a thousand miles before having time to settle. Dust finer than this is no doubt carried stillfarther. It must be largely scattered around the globe and is perhaps often kept floating, until it is brought down by rain. It should be understood that these estimates are for such winds as prevail over the continents. Ina tabular form they may be stated thus:

Table of Approximate Maximum Distances over which Quartz Fragments of Different Dimen- sions may be lifted by Moderately Strong Winds in Single Leaps. Gravel (diameter from 8—1 mm.)..................A few feet. Coarse and medium sand (diam. 1—} mm.)..Several rods. Fine sand (diam. 4—4 mm.).............:222- cesses Less than a mile.

66 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

Very fine sand (diam. 4—; mm..).................. A few miles. Coarse dust (Gig—ss MM.)).........-c06..-0ceseseeeceeees 200 miles. Medium dust (4,—@e MM:)..............-000eeeeee eee 1,000 miles. Fine dust (#4; mm. and less).........--..0ccceeeeeees Around the globe.

It is evident that the place of greatest deposition is never far from the place of greatest erosion, when the eroded terrane consists of coarse as well as fine materials. It is generally marked by the accumulation of dune sand. From this point deposition decreases, owing to the trans- versely horizontal and the vertical dispersion of the load by spreading winds and owing to the previous settling of the coarser particles. A limit is sooner or later reached, where aqueous erosion is more rapid than the accumula- tion of atmospheric sediments. Beyond this limit the latter will of course not appear.

It is also evident that the different grades of materials are so tar separated from each other in the direction ot the wind movement, that even with considerable changes in velocity, the principal area of the deposition of sedi- ments of one grade will not far encroach upon that of the deposition of materials much coarser or much finer. Gravel or coarse sand, for instance, will never be carried to the region of the main dust deposit, nor will the fine sand. For any particular locality a wind sediment will hence be quite uniform in composition in a single triangle.

In nature we must, however, expect to find a mul- tiplicity of these triangular areas of wind action, wher- ever the conditions are such that erosion by the atmos- phere may take place. They must be found overlapping and inclosing each other. The sediment in any particular place may hence be found to contain grains of varied

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 67

coarseness, within the limits of the transporting power of the air, and the proportion of the different ingredients will be determined by the position of the place of its accumulation with regard to different areas of erosion. Small areas of erosion are found almost everywhere, and local material will therefore seldom be absent from any wind deposit. Should places of erosion be numerous in any particular region this may itself be regarded as the windward angle in a great triangle with a great area of deposition to the leeward.

THE PROBLEM OF THE LOESS.

It seems probable that the Western plains and the Mississippi valley maintain the windward-leeward rela- tion to each other. Dust which is stirred up over the plains must be carried east by the prevailing winds, and a part of it no doubt settles over the great central valley. The loess and surface silts, which are spread over most of the territory in this valley, resemble atmospheric sed- iments considerably in their mechanical composition. *)

It is generally finer in the east and coarser in the west, and it decreases in thickness from west to east. The ques- tion whether it is, in the main, aqueous or eolian, cannot be considered as yet settled. It seems doubtful if the deposition at present exceeds erosion over all of this area, but a very slight change in elevation or in climate may lately have reversed the condition in this respect. The question of changed conditions is a very complex one.

*) See Report on the Examination of Some Soils from Illinois, by Milton Whitney in the Report of the Illinois Board of World’s Fair Commissioners; also Prelim- inary Report of the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley, by Chamberlin and Salisbury.

68 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

The following statements, which were made in a letter written by Professor Dana just before his death, set forth certain objections to the eolian hypothesis. “With regard to the eolian work along valley plains, I think great caution is necessary because eolian work is of a fitful kind. ‘The more powerful winds blow in gusts or rather a succession of them, and each of the gusts is of a rather narrow limit; and in each gust great velocity is succeeded by a decline in which the depositions vary accordingly as to fine and coarse and limit. Making loess — unstratified — by the winds would require a steady breeze sufficient to move the light earth or sand long in a common direc- tion, but too near unvaryving in force or velocity to pro- duce alternations from coarse to fine. It is an even kind of work that winds are not often fit for.”*) In the last edition of Dana’s classic Manual the correctness of Richt- hofen’s theory of the Chinese loess is regarded as improb- able owing to the absence of winddrift structure (lamina- tion)**). Possibly the absence of such structure was Dana’s chief objection to an eolian hypothesis of the origin of the American loess. His argument that the deposit from every changing gust of wind must vary in coarseness according to the velocity, expresses a general law which certainly is true, but it seems that there are some special conditions which supervene, as explained above, and that these will necessarily modify the results of the operation of this law and limit its application to such deposits as are accumulating rapidly near places of atmospheric erosion.

*) See Journal of Geology, Vol. 3, p. 342. **) Manual of Geology, p. 195.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 69

Other objections to an eolian origin of the American loess have been made. These refer especially to some geographical features, which cannot be considered here, but which will nevertheless have to be taken into account in a full discussion. of the subject. Some distinguished American students of this puzzling formation appear in- clined to suspend judgment or to ascribe its genesis to sey- eral distinct processes. Though the eolian hypothesis has been more or less considered by all geologist who have had occasion to study the loess, it seems that the nature of the work really performed by the atmosphere is too imperfectly known to admit, as yet, of any thorough dis- cussion of the efficiency or inefficiency of the wind as a loess-maker in America. A study of this work should precede a final verdict on the origin of this formation, and this thought has been a stimulus while pursuing the studies whose results are here recorded. Further studies of this kind coupled with a careful examination of the loess and associated silts in all their varied phases promise to aid in the eventual solution of the “problem of the loess’’.

An

Old Indian Village.

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, 1900.

PRINTERS.

Ai ‘4, Hh

!

PEPAR IE tLe

| SOT OAM Mus euy TVTITAR WES Pan

A piece from a chain mail, found on the old village site on Paint creek, McPherson county, Kansas.

_

An Old Indian Village.

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS, 1900.

CONTENTS.

Frontispiece ae 2 Contents

(BI@UNIEX1Sioreqoouas econ as cecoseeeoedd dcbodads -Sca0s0n du oc ba gon oa DEM aro nBOsbados hoger Seog ses0.c0005

Notched bone

Flakers..

Hairpins ?

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BS SKOXOWMISH CYSTITIS ope seque ad ven doooedd ae a aaondone areca aden A nBSna doearsconcne Acad goer AcenensoHog 19 POTTERY « 2

Forms and kinds of vessels................- 23,

Methods of fastening the handles 2

Ornamentation 28 JAIN OTOTS: AIGA} OL? C1E0 141 Gono nasbngodddbodonsnondeadocoLos soadoncodsaddbensosodarosedacroooadenD 31

SYGI OTT AVeT HS aeccnapecdapaocbnconsneaconcsonGon indoden boTasod atocceancecca acca esoqeocandkacnacoodcanas 31

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Flint knives

Atrrowpoints..

Spearheads....

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J DUIS ce copoockenaon caesorano asboc a not ee sce Onc HCE ABoe: bila Sos cuPcHonTaSaaoeconceeGacmac map RCnce sats

Hand hammers ARTICLES MADE: FROM SANDSTONE

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ARTICLES MADE FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. Stone mallets “0 ARGON ATE HSI OIOVET IY ada cancasansoosdacaosddende-acdodaddesudsdecconnGedbeseroabaadonAacHDaOco 64

SIN JOROO TUE NAIC: THE) I Csceebqodseqoseccoosonousebabbodecodsusdecsocsoces DedeueRBcHeaECRcEecoooC A PIECE OF AN OLD ARMOR PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE

TDS)DEX 56 copane BGSCEOSOS aE CoE ROTOSORC CR CaBCOET EDO COnenG dedusaemmencenusaesces neinngcisosohannbocicoccnanosoand 79

AUTHOR’S NOTE.

I! the fall of 1881, while engaged as instructor in Bethany Academy,

now Bethany College, at Lindsborg, Kansas, one of my scholars called my attention to some mounds south of the Smoky Hill river, where various an- tiquities had been picked up by the settlers. I visited the locality and saw that it gave promise of interesting finds of aboriginal relics. Here was some- thing worth taking care of. During the subsequent seven years I frequently went to the place, sometimes in company with fellow teachers and with students.

The contents and the structure of the mounds were noted and their locations

.

were marked on a small plat of the land. In course of time a collection of

relics accumulated. This is yet intact tn the possession of the institution in whose service Iwas then employed, and additions are still being made by my successor Professor J. E. Welin.

At the Emporia meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science in 1886 Imade a brief report of my observations on these antiquities. But it was impractic- able at that time to present the details. It seems that these mounds and their relics are of more than passing interest and in a way are representative of the archeology of the state. Before I parted with the material which had been secured up to 1889, I concluded to write an account of the collections then on hand. This account has served as a basis for the present paper.

In preparing the following pages I have deliberately had two objects in view. I have sought to present some brief and correct descriptions of a collection strictly limited to one single locality. Thais is done in the hope that the descrip- tions together with the photographic reproductions jpresented in the figures and plates may prove serviceable to science. The author is, however, no archzxol- ogist. This will be his last as well as his first paper bearing on topics of this kind, wnless, perchance, he should again find his residence in the front yard of some prehistoric domicile. I have also sought to write these few pages in such a way that they may prove profitable reading to such of the general public as are interested in the study of Indian relics. It is believed that the material

lends itself to such a double purpose.

8 AUTHOR’S NOTE.

The average American has a scientific instinct, which he is fond of cultivat- ing wherever he be. Many farmers, merchants, and professional men in the

West are making small collections of Indian relics. Should this paper come

into the hands of collectors or students of this class, [hope that it may whet their appetite for more and better literature of the same kind. I also hope that it may aid and encourage them in their efforts to study and to take care of the antiquities found in their own immediate vicinity. Tv do this is at the same time their particular privilege and their special duty to the cause of science.

To former pupils, fellow teachers, and others who aided in making the ex- plorations on Paint ereek I extend my thanks and my greetings of most pleas- ant recollections. In particular I keep in grateful remembrance the kindly in- terest, aid, and valuable advise always freely bestowed by the venerable pioncer and scientist Dr. John Rundstrom, formerly of McPherson county, Kansas. For special aid in preparing the paper I am under obligations to Dr. C. A. Swensson, president of Bethany. College, to Professor Frank Nelson, Superin- tendent of Public Instruction of the State of Kansas, and to Professor J. E. Welin of Bethany College.

The photographs for the illustrations were, with one exception, made by Mr. B. G. Grondahl of Lindsborg, Kansas, and figures 6 and 27 were drawn by Professor Olof Grafstrém of Rock Island, Ii.

PALE.

Augustana College, May 1st, 1900.

INTRODUCTORY.

The monuments left by prehistoric races in the United States are much more numerous in the eastern part of the Mississippi valley than over the Western Plains. This is plainly shown on a map issued some years ago by the Bureau of Ethnology and prepared to exhibit the geographical distribution of prehistoric works east

sk

of the Rocky Mountains.* From the Mississippi river and eastward, the localities of mounds and other pre- historic works appear numerous and crowded, while west- ward from the great river they are few and scattered. Evidently in prehistoric times as at present the more fertile and more richly watered eastern plains afforded a more congenial environment to the inhabitants than the less favored western country. In another respect, also, the monuments of early man in America bear wit- ness to a comparatively small population in prehistoric times westward from the great river. On the Western Plains we find none of those magnificent earthen struc- tures, that were erected by the prehistoric people of the Ohio valley and by those who dwelled near the Missis- sippi. The conditions of existence in the west evidently did not result in the development of such powerful com- munities as could spare the energy needed for the con- struction of great mounds.

* Catalogue of Prebistoric Works east of the Rocky Mountains, by Cyrus Thomas, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., 1891.

10 INTRODUCTORY.

But the greater observed frequency of antiquities east of the Mississippi river is to some extent due to a less complete knowledge of the western territory. A number of explorers have been at work in the eastern territory for more than three quarters of a century, while comparatively few have paid any attention to archeological explorations on the west slope oi the great central valley. and this for only the last few dec- ades. This region has only tardily received the atten- tion it deserves. There can be no doubt that future work will bring to light many more localities in the west where prehistoric man has left traces of his exis- tence. Some recently made discoveries give decided promise that this will be the case. In the last few years Mr. J. V. Brower has located some sixty hitherto unknown sites of aboriginal villages in the eastern part oi the state of Kansas,* and others have re- ported similar localities from the region north of this state.

From such explorations in Kansas as are known to the author of this paper, it appears that the antiqui- ties in this state are associated with two distinct types of mounds: burial mounds and elevated dwelling sites. Many oi the latter. perhaps the greater number, are no mounds at all but merely the flat suriace oi the ground where the dwellings of an earlier race have once been standing. These would never be noticed, were it not for the relics of household art, chase, and warfare scattered about the place. But frequently there occur

* Memoirs of Exploraitons in the Basin of the Mississippi, Vol. Il, Harahey, by J. V. Brower, p. V., St. Paul, 1899.

INTRODUCTORY. 11

together with these relics heaps of earth a foot or two high and perhaps a rod wide. These village sites, as they have been called, do not occupy any conspicuously high places, but usually lie on or near some flat and fertile lowlands as on the border of an alluvial plain. The burial mounds are different. They are higher and somewhat less flat on top. Frequently there is a pile or a layer of rocks within them, and under this, some human remains. ‘They are usually built on high bluffs or on upland hills overlooking some extensive lowlands. They can almost always be found on bluffs near the junction of larger streams and their size is somewhat proportionate to that of the confluent waters. Mounds of this kind have been reported from near. the mouth of the Kansas,* near the junction of the Big Blue and the Kansas, and near the junction of the Republican and the Smoky Hill.** The author has seen some along the Smoky Hill river west of the latter locality and on several of the high buttes in Saline and McPherson counties, and he has opened: two in the latter county. One of these is on the summit of the highest butte of the Smoky Hills and the other is west of Gypsum creek near the northeast corner of McPherson county. Both mounds were partly built of rocks, under which there were charred human bones and some roughly chipped flints. In the present state of our knowledge of the antiquities of Kansas we are hardly justified in making any conjectures as to whether these two types of mounds

* Traces of the Aborigines in Riley County. Prof. G. H. Failyer. Trans. of the Kansas Acad. of Sci., 1879—1880, p. 132.

** Kansas Mounds, F. G. Adams. Trans. of the Kansas Acad. of Sci., 1877 —1878, p. 51.

12 THE PAINT CREEK MOUNDS.

are the products of two different people or whether they have been made by the same race for different purposes. In either case there is little doubt that the burial mounds served some purpose in connection with some mortuary or religious customs, or possibly military practices, among entire tribes or nations, while the dwel- ling sites merely mark the place of the abode of some household or clan, occupied in ordinary and peaceful every day pursuits.

THE PAINT CREEK DWELLING SITES.*

On the west bank of Paint creek about a mile and a half south of the Smoky Hill river in McPherson county there is a group of some fifteen low mounds which must be classified as dwelling sites in an aborig- inal village. They are scattered over the southeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section twelve in township eighteen south -and range four west of the sixth principal meridian. For the most part the group occupies a gentle slope to the southeast and east, which extends from the left bank of the creek. The mounds do not seem to be arranged in any particular order, but the distance separating them is, in most cases, about 125 feet. or a multiple of this distance. (Fig. 1). This left a convenient space beeween the dwel- lings. A line running through the outer members of

* These are the same mounds that Mr. J. V. Brower has called the Udden Village Site in his Quivira, Vol. I, Memoirs of Explorations in the Basin oi the Mississippi, p. 55. Itis from no disregard for the distinguished explorer that the present author prefers to here retain the designation above used.

THE PAINT CREEK MOUNDS 13

Fie. 1. Plat of the mounds on the old village site on Paint creek in McPherson county, Kansas. The plat covers the southeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section twelve, township eighteen south, range four west of the sixth principal meridian. The dotted lines are contour lines, with ten feet intervals.

the group would inclose an area of about twenty acres. The site may have been chosen with regard to con- venient access to water and fuel. There are some good springs in the creek a short distance to the south and there is some small timber along its banks. In other respects the choice seems to have been equally fortunate. To the south and west there is a gravel containing boulders of chert, from which darts and scrapers could be made. The southeast slope of the ground would tend to modify the severity of the northwest winds in win- ter. Fishing was profitable in the Smoky Hill river near by to the north. The surrounding hilly slope of the upland and the river bottoms to the north afforded a variety of game at all seasons. It was an ideal vil- lage site for a savage tribe.

14 STRUCTURE OF THE MOUNDS.

STRUCTURE OF THE MOUNDS.

Each mound is circular in form and has a diameter of from twenty to twenty-five feet. None are more than three feet high. The average height is somewhat less than two feet, and some rise only slightly above the ground. The material of which these mounds are com- posed is principally loose soil or mud, which is heaped up on the surface of the prairie. On digging down the material was found to be soft until the original prairie level was reached, when the ground became hard. Below this it had apparently never been disturbed. Through the upper loose soil there were all sorts of relics, mostly broken. There were also broken bones of animals, pieces of pottery, here and there bits of charcoal, pock- ets of ashes, flint chips, various kinds of arrowpoints, scrapers, and knives of flint. Occasionally small blocks of sandstone or limestone were met with, which had been subjected to the action of fire. It was not possible to detect any order in the arrangement of the contents of the mounds and there were no buried human remains. Just how the mounds were built seems uncertain. The mud perhaps accumulated inside the dwellings during a repeated residence of the natives, which occurred at some certain season of the year. All the materials found imbedded, were such household goods as may be supposed to have become useless to the inhabitants, or such as may from time to time have been lost. Most of them were broken. The pockets of ashes occasionally found may mark the site of the places where fires were

ANIMAL BONES. 15

Fie. 2. Toe, made from a shoulder blade of the bison.

’

Reduced about 44.

16 ANIMAL BONES.

made. Possibly the ground was built up for the pur- pose of keeping the run-off away during rains. If such was the case, additions must have been made from time to time, for discarded household articles are found in the lower part of the heaps as well as in the upper. Evidently the mounds were not completed all at once. The bones found in the upper part are not as far ad- vanced in decay as those found near the bottom. In- deed it seems possible that the mounds may have been built up from wind-blown dirt and sand settling in dwellings which were left vacant during some season by a nomadic tribe which occupied them during only a part of the year.

ANIMAL BONES.

The abundant presence of animal bones testifies that the people who lived here secured a great part of their sustenance by hunting. The meat of the bison must have been their staple food. The long bones o7 this animal have almost always been broken. Evidently the marrow was eaten. Considering the great number of these long bones there was a noticeable scarcity of skulls, ribs, and vertebras. This circumstance may be taken to indicate that the hunters were in the habit of leaving in the field such parts of the bison as did not furnish the most suitable food. Bones of the antelope, the wolf, the wild-cat, the skunk, and the wild turkey were also observed, as well as the vertebras of various fishes. and the valves of common river clams.

ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. 7

ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL.

Bones were manufactured into various kinds of imple-

ments. The shoulder blade of the bison is frequently found beveled on the verte- bral border in such a way as to suggest that it has been used as a spade or as a hoe (Fig. 2). From the fragments of the long bones gouge-shaped tools were pre- pared by beveling one end on the concave side (Fig. 3). About a dozen of these gouges were found, two of them entire, the others being more or less fragmentary. It seems probable that such tools may have been useful in the preparation of hides, or for digging in the ground. One piece of a bone, about eight inches in length, evi- dently a part of a rib of a bison, was marked by a num- ber of transverse grooves. This may have been some sort of a record or calendar (Fig. 4). Three specimens

Fic. 3. Gouge-shaped tool made from a long bone of the bison, Reduced about 44,

ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL.

of clavicles of some animal were cut off at both ends and smooth- ened and polished as from wear. It has been suggested that these may have been used as hair-pins (Fig. 5). One specimen of the lower jaw of a bison had the teeth worn down straight and smooth to about half their length, as if rubbed against a concave object. The lower end of a tarsal bone of a prong-horn antelope was detached by a circular groove running around the entire bone. There were three tools of bone shaped with one smooth and rounded end, very much like the handle of a tooth brush and marked by irregular ~ transverse cuts near the other end (Fig. 5). These were perhaps used as flakers in shaping flint tools, for they can still be applied so as to detach small flakes from flint chips. This is described by some ethnologists as being done by hold- ing the flaker firmly in one hand and pressing it against the flint, which is placed between the bone and the thumb and held in the other hand (Fig. 6). In his paper on Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and

ARTICLES MADE FROM BONE AND SHELL. 19

Knives of Prehistoric Times Dr. Thomas Wilson has mentioned some similar objects, which are believed to have been used in this way. He says they are usually

Geneon anne ade or deer horn and ake “short

witiie bone !took and round with a point like one’s little finger”. It is difficult to see for what other pur- pose such bones could serve.

A few long beads, made from bones of birds, were picked up (Fig. 5), as were also some bear’s teeth.

Two large unioshells were found, which had been ground round on the edges and care- fully polished so as to resemble spoons.

os

These were in a far

ot, - ge advanced state of de- Fic. 5. Figure to the left: hairpin? made of bone. Middle

A figure: bead made from the bone of a bird. Figure to the cay and fell to pleces right: Flint faker? made from bone. All slightly reduced. before they could be properly cared for. It may be of interest to note that these shells, as near as the author could ascertain, belonged to a species which in-

habits the water of the Smoky Hill river,

POTTERY.

20

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POTTERY. 2%

we

POTTERY.

All through the material of the mounds there was a great number of broken pieces of earthenware, several hundreds of which were gathered up. This earthenware is made from a clay which is mixed with sand, ground shells, or bone. It does not show any great skill on part of the workmen. Most of the vessels have been made with little care. This can be seen in the varia- tions in the thickness of the broken pieces and in their uneven edges wherever these follow the upper rim of the vessels. Finger marks are often to be found on the surface of the sherds. The inferior quality of the work- manship is also evident in the method of attachment of the handles and in occasional rude attempts in de- coration. The burning also seems uneven and imperfect. Only one vessel was found in nearly entire condition, and the workmanship of this was greatly superior to that of the rest.

Forms and Kinds of Vessels. It is not possible in every instance to make conjectures as to the real shape of the vessels that are thus found only in broken frag- ments. Some are large enough to indicate the general

.

y

Fie. 7. 1) Large jar. 2) Smaller jar. 3) Bowl. 4) Cup.

Various forms of earthenware.

POTTERY.

24

‘

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iw)

7

POTTERY.

form. The greater number appear to have been large jars, about a foot in diameter and from eight to ten inches in height, with an opening more narrow than the widest part (Fig. 7, nos. 1 and 2). The upper rim was either vertical or more or less abruptly flaring. One fragment indicated a form quite similar to that of the modern tea-cup (Fig. 7, no. 4). Another must have been a part of a wide elliptical bowl (Fig. 7, no. 3). Methods of Fastening ‘the Handles. Handles were attached to the rim of all large pots. There were two methods in use for fastening these to the vessel. One was that of perforating the sides of the vessel and in- serting the ends of the handle into the perforation and then bracing it by placing a ring of clay around the inserted ends (Plate II, figs. 4, 5, and 7). The other method consisted in merely plastering the ends of the handle to the outer side of the vessel (Plate H, fig. 3). In some cases the two methods were combined and the upper end of the handle was stuck on the rim, while the lower end was inserted into a perforation (Plate I, figs. 1 and 2). When the handles are stuck on, there is also often a bracing ring applied to make the joint stronger. The first method was used in larger vessels as a rule, and the latter method was more common in the case of the smaller ones. In many cases when the handle is stuck on, it is too small for the insertion of a finger and may have been used for the purpose of sus- pending the vessels by means of a thong or string. Near the place of attachment of the two ends of the handle, there is often a protruding knob, which may be absent, however, either above or below (Plate I, fig.

28 POTTERY.

6, Plate I, figs. 3, 4, 6). All of the handles observed, with one exception, were placed vertically. In the case of the exception it extended laterally in a horizontal plane, about one inch and a half below the upper rim of the vessel.

Ornamentation. The style of ornamentation occa- sionally seen on the common pottery is particularly crude and consists mostly in the placing of linear and

dotted indentations on the

handles, or ears, and on the upper rim of the vessels. (Plate Il). These indentations are arranged in the simplest kind of patterns, such as single, | double, or triple lines. No at- tempts to represent animate objects have been observed on

any specimens. The convex

Fic. 8. A potsherd with partially obliterated indentations of some plaited surface ot a few sherds is

fabric. The impressions are on the outer

(convex) surface. Slightlyredueed. Hqginted red. On many pieces there were some shallow indentations suggesting partly obliterated impressions of some coarse plaited fabric (Fig. 8), which indicates that the vessels were moulded in some sort of plaited form. This is known to have been a common method of moulding clay among the Indians. On the sherd from the bottom of one vessel there was a circular raised ring (Fig. 9). This seems to be too small for increasing the stability of the vessel on the ground and was perhaps rather intended to secure its equilibrium when placed on the head, where Indian water carriers are in the habit of supporting

POTTERY. 29

Fie. 9. A potsherd with an elevated ring, forming the base of the vessel. Slightly reduced.

them. In one of the mounds there was found, standing in an upright position, a broken fine vessel of large size, not far from fourteen inches in diameter and about a foot high (Fig. 10). The sides of this vessel were quite thin, only little exceeding an eighth of an inch in thickness. The upper outer surface was decorated by straight parallel lines forming V-shaped patterns. Be- low the widest part of the vessel the outside was smooth. A number of ears adorned the outside of its upper rim. Parts of the upper rim as well as of the bottom were wanting.

30 POTTERY.

’ In its imperfection of manufacture and in its crude ornamentation the pottery gathered from the mounds is related to that of the aboriginal people in the north- ern Mississippi valley.* From the tempering it appears

Fig. 10. A piece of a broken ornamented vessel. Slightly reduced.

that the potters were familiar with the use of ground shells, which is found in the southern pottery, as well as with the use of sand, which was commonly mixed with the clay for the same purpose among the prehis- toric people in the north.*

* See Ancient Pottery etc., Holmes, Rept. Bur. of Ethn., Smithsonian Insti- tution, Wash., D. C., 1882—1883, p. 426.

ARTICLES MADE OF CHERT. 31

ARTICLES MADE OF CHERT.

Chips and. implements of flint are found all through the material in the mounds and are scattered on the surface on the ground between them. Some of the chert contains silicified fusulinas. This was perhaps brought from the region of the cherty limestone farther east in the state. Other material resembles that found in the Equus gravel and may well have been taken in the surrounding country. It was manufactured into a va- riety of objects such as scrapers, knives, arrowpoints, spearpoints, awls, drills, hoes, spades, tomahawks, and hand-hammers.

SCRAPERS.

The scraper was the most common tool made from chert. They are found everywhere. The author col- lected some two hundred specimens and many have been carried away by others. These implements average one and three-fourths of an inch in length and one inch in width. It is triangular, with a rounded point at one end and a convex wider base at the other (Figs. 11, 12 and 13.) The scrapers occur in all conditions of per- fection of workmanship and in all stages of wear and hard usage. There are great variations in size. The length runs from seven-eighths of an inch to nearly four inches; the width, from one to two inches; and the thickness, from one eighth of an inch to two thirds.

OE nema a BA

am

a EE SSE

32 SCRAPERS.

Fie. 11. Typical scrapers. Natural size.

The method of making this tool seems to have de- termined its form. It is always a flake with one flat side showing no chipping. On this side it was evidently detached from a larger piece of chert. Then the edges were trimmed and straightened by small flaking on the outer convex edges. This was the easiest and quickest way of making an edged tool from chert. Some flakes have been put into service without any finishing what- ever, as is evident from their worn unchipped edges.

SCRAPERS.

Tic. 12. Chert scrapers. Typical forms. Very slightly reduced.

But the scrapers that are well finished show the most wear. In two hundred specimens which were carefully examined, one hundred and twenty-two were rounded on the left edge and one hundred and_ thirty-three showed wear on the right edge. Twenty-six of these specimens were also worn on the edge of the base. In this whole number only fifty-two specimens showed no signs of having been blunted by wear. Of thirty-five roughly finished specimens, twenty-three showed no signs of wear. This indicates a preference among the users for finished tools. Some of the specimens indicate

34 SCRAPERS.

that the edge, after having been worn round, subse- quently was again sharpened by chipping.

The uses to which such scrapers could be applied were no doubt quite varied, such as removing meat from bones and scraping the bark from the shafts of arrows. It seems to be an instrument that was capable of being made very generally useful in primitive indus-

tries. It appears to have been held between the thumb and the forefinger when in service, the flat side no doubt preferably being turned against the thumb. If the users were right-handed, it ought to follow that the average wear of the right edge of the scrapers ought to be greater than that of the left edge. Such appears also to be the case.

Fic. 13. Typical scrapers. Natural size.

IRREGULAR FORMS OF SCRAPERS.

Some scrapers had a lengthened and sharpened point and an irregular base, which did not seem to have been shaped for the hand (Plate III, fig. 5). These did not exhibit any wear of the edges and may have had

vt

IRREGULAR FORMS OF SCRAPERS.

Fic. 14. 1, 2, 3. Thin chert flakes, fashioned to knives with sharp edges. 4. Broken specimen of the same kind. 5. Entire knife, finely finished. 6. Roughly finished scraper or knife. 7. A scraper with a rounded spoon-shaped termination. 8. A broken scraper or knife. All natural size.

some special use for which the sharp point was designed. They would be effective instruments for flaying a rabbit or for opening a fish or a fowl. Several scrapers agree in being fashioned with a rounded spoon-like termina- tion instead of a point (Fig. 14, no. 7). The edges of these are well rounded and worn. Nine specimens were long and narrow and had only been chipped on one

EXPLANATIONS TO PLATE III. ae =

Fig. 2: a A yery even- ly chipped thin and small knife

Fie. 1. A form of flint

tool intermediate a : Whe es 29 between a scraper A typical Enife. . F and a knife. chipped very * ale smooth.

Fic. 3. A small flake knife only slight. chipped. :

| ‘Fic. 7. 2 The largest scraper

Fie. 5. Fic. 6.

: _ found. The reverse flat ‘ A long and pointed _ _ A typical flaked side of the specimen scraper. 2 Enife. hasa concave flexure of

-1875 of aninch in the direction from point to

All figures are the natural size.

PLATE III.

wy

7.

FLINT KNIVES. 39

edge, the other edge being a fracture inclined at a high angle to the flat side. Only three of these had the

chipped edge worn; one of them was broken. The form

sugeests an adaptation of an accidentally formed chip for easily obtaining a tool with a long edge.

FLINT KNIVES.

Some of the flint imple- ments which have a partic- ularly sharp edge, may properly be called knives, as they were probably used for cutting. Thesearemade of thin flakes which are more straight and usually longer than the scrapers (Fig. 14, nos: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.and Plate III, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4,6). In a lot of fifteen none exhibited the rounded blunted edges commonly seen among the scrapers. By proper effort and care they can yet be used to cut off stems of shrubs and small branches of trees. One of these knives shows a considerable amount of skill and care by the

40 ARROWPOINTS.

maker (Fig. 15). It is nearly five inches in length and measures almost two inches in width and not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness, with an even, sharp edge all around. Another flint which was sharp enough to be used as a knife, showed no finish whatever.

ARROWPOINTS.

Forty-five arrowpoints of flint were found, and of these only ten were entire. The rest were more or less broken. The greater part are so called bird’s arrow- points. These are about three quarters of an inch in

Fie. 16. Arrowpoints. Natural size.

length and a little less than one half of an inch in width and very thin (Fig. 16). Near the base they are quite thin, and have a triangular form, without any barbs or notches for attachment. Only three of them had such notches (Fig. 16, no. 5), and these otherwise per- fectly resembled the other specimens. Another type of arrowpoints was somewhat larger, being a little more than one inch in length and slightly less than one inch in width, generally with notches above a narrow base. No points with true barbs have been noticed on the village site, as far as the author knows.

SPEARHEADS. 41

Flints of this kind are among the most common of prehistoric relics, and the number found in this locality seems rather small in comparison with that of the scrapers. It should be remembered that they are of small size and not quite as conspicuous in the field as the scrapers. Nor is it likely that scrapers were as well taken care of as the arrow-points, which were more difficult to make. Arrows were used and lost on the hunting grounds rather than in the village, beyond the limits of which the scrapers may not so often have been taken.

SPEARHEADS.

There were also found thirty-two chipped flint imple- ments, which are supposed to have been used as spear- heads. Only six specimens were entire. Ten were broken- off points, six of the fragments had the base entire, and ten had both the base and the point broken off. Three different types may be distinguished in the lot. In two of these types the left edge has been beveled upward and the right edge downward in such a way that when thrown the spear would tend to rotate from right to left (Plate IV, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6). In the other type the chipping is equal on both sides of each edge and the edge itself is sharper (Plate IV, fig. 5). There are two kinds of the beveled spearheads. One has a base which is separated from the point by wide notches, evi- dently intended for strengthening the attachment (Plate IV, figs. 2, 4), while in the other kind the base is drawn

EXPLANATIONS TO PLATE IV.

Fie. 2.

Tite. il A narrow, Fie. 3. eee probably sever-

al times re- chipped bevel

A broken, prob- ably re-chipped

A large bevel edged spear- head with a flat base. Not

much used. edged spear- bevel wee spear- Them aan pee with a flat notched base. 3 Broken. | 1 | Fie. 5. * A spearhead with a flat base and equally Fie. 6. Fie. 4. much flaked on A bevel edged : A broken bevel edged the two sides of the spearhead with flat spearpoint with a notched | edges. The pointis base. Made of dark base. down and the orig- yellow flint. inal photograph is somewhat imper fect. «

All are nearly the natural size.

PLATE IV.

; i s

SPEARHEADS. 45

out into a flat point without any notches (Plate LV, figs. 1, 3, 6). Most of the specimens seem to be of this latter kind. The users of these spearheads were prob- ably in the habit of sharpening them by chipping off flakes on the beveled edges, whenever these would be- come blunt, for in some of the specimens that seem to have been much used, the point tapers very slowly at first and then rapidly toward the base, the whole edge presenting a concave outline instead of a convex one (Plate IV, figs. 2, 3). The edge may originally have been made straight, and sharpened by flaking ‘after- ward. The same is also indicated by the nature of the edge itself. The largest of the spearheads were four inches in length and one and three quarters of an inch in width.

Archaeologists have found it difficult to establish a precise distinction between arrowpoints and spear- heads.* Some of the above described specimens may have been used for large arrows. The chief difference in the use of the spear and the arrow was that the former was thrown from the hand while the latter was impelled by the bow-string. Both were used in warfare and in chase. The spear was probably also used in fishing.

Dr. Thomas Wilson, who has made a special study of the bevel-edged spearheads, states that in their dis- tribution these flints are confined to the interior part of the United States and to the South. He also regards it as evident that the beveling was intended to make the missile rotate in its flight, and notes that this

* Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and Knives of Prehistoric Times by Thomas Wil- son, An. Rept. Smith. Inst., 1897, p. 889,

46 AWLS.

might have been more easily effected by twisting the feathers on the shaft. It should be remembered in this connection that if the point were not also twisted in a rotating spear, its penetration would no doubt be less, as the cutting edge would be made to traverse a plane which would always be more or less oblique to the plane of the point itself.

AWLS.

About a dozen implements of flint were of such form as to suggest a use like that of the awl, for making perforations through hides. These had an extended sharp point from half an inch to an inch in length,

Fie. 17. Awls made from flint. Very slightly reduced.

about three sixteenths of an inch in width, and almost the same thickness, extending from a base of variable shape (Fig. 17). In one instance this base showed that the implement had been made from a scraper. These points can readily be used for making stitches through leather and, if proper care be taken, for boring small holes in soft wood.

LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWKS. 47

DRILLS.

Related to the awls, there are some carefully chipped drills, which differ from the awls in being thicker, longer, less sharply pointed, more straight, and more uniform

Fie. 18. Drills made from flint. Very slightly reduced.

in width (Fig. 18). These have no widened base to be used as a handle. Most of them show considerable wear on the edges and the nature of this wearing is such as to suggest that it may have been produced by turning the instrument in a hole. ‘The drilling observed in some catlinite pipes, described farther on, may have been made by means of these tools.

LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWKS.

Quite a number of large chipped flint pieces were found which may have served as hoes or spades for cultivating the soil and for digging in the ground (Figs. 19, 20). Only two of these specimens were found en- tire. One was six inches long, three and one half

48 LEAF-FLINTS AND TOMAHAWES.

Fie. 19. Hoe(?) made of flint. Fic. 20. Hoe(?) made from flint. Reduced to about % of the natural size. Considerably reduced.

inches wide, and three-iourths of an inch thick. Some of them must have been about a foot in length, perhaps six Inches wide, and about an inch in thickness. They are oval in shape and are chipped to an irregular edge all around. They resemble the leaf-flints common in the mounds in the Mississippi valley. One large flint is evidently a tomahawk (Fig. 21). It is nearly five inches long, and has a wide constriction, produced by flaking around the middle, dividing it into two lobe-like ends. This constriction is worn smooth and polished by the handle to which it had been fastened.

HAND HAMMERS. 49

Fic. 21. Tomahawk made from flint. Somewhat reduced.

HAND HAMMERS.

Some irregularly shaped flint pieces were perhaps raw material for the manufacture of implements. Others were rounded and battered and have probably been used as hand hammers, as balls in games, or as nut crackers (Fig. 22).

A aD

50 ARTICLES MADE FROM SANDSTONE.

ARTICLES MADE FROM SANDSTONE.

Grindstones. Several kinds of useful implements were made from sandstone. The most important of these were perhaps the grindstones, or metates and pestles (Figs. 23, 24). These are sandstone slabs some eight- een inches long, ten

inches wide, and from two to six inches in thickness. They have a shallow concavity on one of their flat sides. This hollow was evi- dently produced by wear in grinding. The upper stone, or pestle, as it may be called, was about eight inches in length,

three and a half inches

in width, and about two Fe. 2. Battered hand hammer made of flint. sane aa thickness. It Reduced to about four-fifths of the natural size. was convex on both sides, but more flattened on the side which was applied to the lower stone. Three entire and several broken lower stones have been found on the site of the mounds, and more than a dozen pestles. Prof. J. E. Welin has kindly furnished the following measurements of these stones.

GRINDSTONES.

MEASUREMENTS OF METATES.

51

Naiiben CONDITION. LENGTH WIDTH | THICKNESS in inches. in inches. in inches. 1 Entire (Wig 23). .......... ...... 21. 14. 6. 2 Entire (Fig 24)................... 18. 9.2 3. 3 13) (LON loneendoooseenadecas-ceecraeernacd: 16.5 10. 3.8 4 Much worn, and broken..... 10.5 155 5. 5 IDIOT) Geqgnapooscdoucnee wonascsodseoed 14. 82 1.5 6 1D) AO CO loqnsasequeuolbsaaedoancoee eaaae) 95 5.5 1.6 7 Broken at both ends .......... 5.5 9), 2.2 MEASUREMENTS OF UPPER OR HAND GRINDSTONES. Number. CONDITIONS. revcens Wrintaeies l0 dariuctee. 1 1 OL ee aenesaan even bose RoR orCE EEE 10. 38 26 2 IBM GING hes Sayskeeceas saaee csteceneness 9.2 3.7 2.9 3 13) 010) 0 Xo eaceonetascrocaccsecaaeneannencor 8.7 3.6 1.8 4 GINO nrea-t te seanene nore eset 8.7 3.8 1.7 5 1 DIM ob Reyes coRabaonaetesatoneeseecraora 8.2 3.6 2. 6 d DIR GTA aes aaeedhodonesecenscenaaeeare 8. 3.5 2.2 7 Entire, much worn............ 7.2 3.5 1.4 8 1D) TTA Ue once sadonecdoseeneCbYConaeSeAcanc 7. 2.7 1.6 9 (LO) TILES WS) aeepecobaouacemnadee oaecasemacd 6.5 3.3 1.7 10 1D} OLA aaceeocodesbercoac see aceneeencen 6. 3.2 1.4 1 Fimtire yee oi taae ood 6.2 2.8 1.6 12 I nhineseeaccocescctoss tecccee ee 6.2 3.7 1.7 183 nine eee eee eee 47 4.1 1.4 “i {Entire, but changed TavO)| i a mallet by cutting a 5.7 3.7 3.2 \groove around the middle| TIS ATH Fan Adah ces a aneerecmann coat Narra eae 5.2 3.3 1.7 16 Imperfectly shaped............. 8.2 4, 1.9 17 Possibly a broken metate... 6.7 3.6 1.7 18 IBPOKenseee tee ssesre ee 5.5 3.6 1.7

52 GRINDSTONES.

Much worn large lower grindstone, or‘ metate, with a hand grindstone, both made from sandstone. The metate is twenty-one inches long.

Fig, 23.

ARROW-SMOOTHENERS.

On Co

Most, if not all, of these grindstones are made from the Dakota sandstone. Specially indurated blocks have been selected. The metates have not all been dressed to their present form. <A few appear to be merely broken, oblong, irregularly rectangular blocks, worn smooth on one side. More pains were taken with the hand grinders. Some slightly worn specimens of these show the pick marks of the dressing tool, whatever that may have been. Other ones have been further smoothened by special grinding or by wear in use. Several specimens bear the mark of long continued ser- vice, aS do also most of the metates. A thickness of nearly two inches has been ground off from the upper face of some of the latter, and from the form of some of the hand stones we must infer that these have been reduced by nearly half of that thickness. There can be no doubt that these stones were used for grinding corn. Their number and condition testify that this grain was an important part of the food among the natives who used them. It is quite evident that these people must have had some knowledge of agriculture.

ARROW-SMOOTHENERS.

Thirty-five specimens of arrow-smootheners were taken up out of the material of the mounds (Figs. 25, 26.) These were all made from Dakota sandstone. Only five seem to be entire specimens. Of thirty broken ones quite a number show unmistakable evidence of having been used after they were broken. In one instance two

amenities his ED CA he a a Sa LAL FE -

“YQSUGT UL SoYOUT ToazYSlo SoANSBOU O1O}S TAMOT OL, “YB ULOA Tooeq SUT OLA ‘ooVs TOMOT OY MOYS 0} 8B Os ‘10A0 PoUINy Sf OUOSpUIT puULY OY, “[BMoyVUL OWS Jo OUOJSpUTAT puBY IITA ‘oUoyspuYS WOAZ opTIU ‘ouOYsSpUuyAs 10 ‘oyWMIOTY “FZ “ONT

GRINDSTONES.

54

ARROW-SMOOTHENERS. 55

such pieces were found to fit together endwise by their fractured surfaces, while one of them had its sides con- siderably more worn than the other (Fig. 27). These implements are pieces of sandstone of suitable size and

Ite. 25. Arrow-smootheners made from sandstone. The upper specimen shows the typical form. The lower specimen is perhaps a piece of an arrow-straightener. The grooves run out before reaching the end of the stone. Slightly reduced from the natural size.

shape for being held in the partly closed hand. They have one or more longitudinal grooves on one or several sides. It may be that the arrow-shafts were not the only objects ground on these stones, for the grooves are not always round. Some of the grooves have deep-

56 CUPPED STONES.

enings, widenings, and turns, and such stones cannot have been intended for use in smooth- ening a straight stick. The greater number of forms of this kind were probably used in straightening crooked arrow- shafts, as has been suggested in a recent paper by Dr. Thomas Wilson. Some specimens which seem well adapted for such a purpose, are wider than the rest and have on one side two or three parallel grooves, which terminate before coming to the end of the stone (Fig. 25). In the straightening process the crooked part of the shafts are supposed to have been pressed into these grooves. The stone was probably heated for the purpose of temporarily soft- ening the wood. Such a proce-

Fic. 26. Arrow-smoothener, made from sandstone. Reduced to % of the natural size.

dure would account for the fact that nearly all the stones of this kind were broken across the middle.

CUPPED STONES.

Some pieces of sandstone of irregular shape had cup- like cavities on their flat sides. These cups were about an inch or an inch and a half in diameter and had a

CATLINITE PIPES. 5

depth of a little more or less than a quarter of an inch. It is believed that these may have served as

mortars for preparing paint used in personal de-

¥ Fig. 27. Broken arrow-smoothener. Left fragment coration. worn after breaking. Reduced to 35.

CATLINITE PIPES.

In the collection are four fragments of catlinite pipes (Fig. 28). Three of these were from very finely finished specimens, which, it may be supposed, had been used for some time and then broken by accident. One of them was the elbow of a pipe which had never been finished. Its outer surface showed the coarse scratchings made in grinding it into shape. The polishing was perhaps left until after the drilling of the holes, and in this case the drill went too far to one side so as to - break through, thus causing the specimen to be dis- carded. The nature of the ends of the perforations show that the drill was not a hollow reed, but solid and somewhat pointed. One of the fragments was ground on the fractured surfaces and may perhaps have been earried about as a totem. Two small pieces of catlinite appeared to be chips struck off by the workman in roughly shaping the pipes. On a farm southwest of the site of the mounds, several finished and entire pipes have been picked up and also a piece of pipestone about three inches square and one inch in thickness. The

58 CATLINITE PIPES.

pipes are about two inches long, with a short bend near the end for the attachment of the stem. They are not

Fie. 28. Uppermost figure: Small catlinite pipe. Lower left hand figure: Piece of worked catlinite. Right hand figure: Fragment of a broken pipe (unfinished). All slightly reduced.

much more than five eighths of an inch in their great- est width, and the perforation is about three eighths of an inch in diameter. The piece of catlinite must have

STONE MALLETS. 59

been a stone in the rough intended for the manufacture of pipes. Pieces had been taken off from three of its edges by cutting grooves on both sides and then break- ing along the grooves. On one side the groove is crooked, as if the part brdken off had been intended for an elbow pipe. The two flat sides were somewhat con- vex and smooth and polished, as by wear. It was no doubt brought from the pipe-stone quarry in Minnesota and kept as a precious article by some native, who finally lost it. The small pieces taken from the mounds on the old village site, indicate that those who lived there had communication with the same distant place, either directly or through the channels of primitive trade. All of the pipes found, broken as well as entire, belong to the Siouan type as defined by McGuire.*

ARTICLES MADE FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS.

Stone Mallets. Several implements taken on the site of these mounds must be classed as mallets, or large hammers. These consist of cylindrical or slightly quad- rangular rounded stones having a groove around the curving surface midway between the two ends (Plate V). Most of these implements were made from brown or red, strong sandstone, but two were of limestone. One consists of a highly ferruginous and tough sand- stone or quartzite, with a bright red matrix. The sand- stone in this specimen and that in some of the others does not resemble any of the local modifications of the

* Ann. Rep., Smithsonian Lostitution, 1897, p. 571.

60 STONE MALLETS.

EXPLANATIONS TO PLATE V.

Fie. 1. Fic. 2. Imperfectly shaped small mallet, made Perfectly formed mallet, made from a hard ferruginous sandstone of un-

of local Dakota sandstone. known locality.

Fie. 4. Perfectly formed mallet, made from a

Fie. 3. hard ferruginous sandstone or quartz- Taree, Ol! endl wenn melliet, mele ot ite. Probably not much used. Pick- limestone. marks are still to be seen on the sur-

face.

Reduced to slightly less than one half the natural size,

PAT EM Vic

ee sa Le

ARTICLES MADE FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS. 63

Dakota rock in this vicinity, known to the author, nor do they resemble the usual form of the Sioux quartz ite. The rock has no doubt been brought from some distance, and its presence here gives further evidence that aboriginal art was not limited to the resources of its immediate surroundings in the raw materials which it employed.

As to the particular purpose fer which these imple- ments were prepared it is difficult to form an opinion. The author must leave this to the conjecture of the reader, and to students who have more material for comparison and a better knowledge of the arts and customs of the prehistoric races. When in use they were perhaps attached to wooden handles. These may have been bent around the body of the stone, following the groove, and-the bent end tied to the main handle, this mode of attachment being used in the case of stone axes similarly grooved. Mallets of the same size and shape are known to have been in use, probably as ham- mers or clubs, by some of the Sioux Indians in the region of the Yellowstone.* Such a weapon might be useful in hunting the buffalo or in warfare. The smallest ones are light enough to be thrown from thongs or ropes and to be used like the bolos of the Indians of South America.

Prof. Welin of Lindsborg has made the following measurements of the mallets now found in the collection. Linear dimensions are given in inches.

* See note by I’. W. Putnam, Ethnology, U. 8S. Geogr. Surv. West of the 100 Mer., Vol. VIL., p. 206.

64 THROWING-STONES.

MEASUREMENTS OF STONE MALLETS.

| I

1 | Ends flat; hard sandstone........ 63. 43 3.6 3.3 2 Rounded ends; hard sandstone 43.5 4.5 45 4,

3 | Flattened; hard sandstone....... 53.5 | 4.4 3.6 3.

4 | Irregular in shape; limestone... 51. | 5. 3.9 3.5 5 | Hard sandstone 36 AAD Sail 3.2 6 | Hard sandstone 28 5 3.6 3.2 2.9 (|| SHlard sandstone tess. sesso eee 24.5 3.6 3.4 2.8 8. | Broken; limestonei------------e ee 2 2 2 2

THROWING-STONES?

Ten disc-shaped or wheel-shaped stones were found (Fig. 29). These measured about three inches in dia- meter and from one inch to one and a hali in thickness. The most carefully shaped specimens of this description have the circular surfaces flat and the round border straight. In several instances the border is convex, as is also to some extent the flat sides. In some cases there was only a rude approximation to this type. Two specimens were broken in halves. Some were made of limestone and some of sandstone. It is to be inferred that the texture of the rock was of no consequence in the use to which these stones were applied. Perhaps they represent some instruments in games. Their size permits them to be thrown from the hand with com- parative ease, and they may then readily be caused to roll for a considerable distance on the surface of the ground.

= sa ar It

A PROBLEMATIC RELIC.

Fic. 29. Dise-shaped throwing-stone. Reduced to 5; of natural size.

A PROBLEMATIC

REEIC:

A piece of white quartz, carefully worked and _ pol-

ished, is a relic of somewhat uncertain character (Fig 30). It may be described as a circular piece of rock an inch and a half in diameter, with one side convex and drawn out in the center into a blunt and rounded protuberance about half an inch in height. The other side is concave with a depth in the center of about three sixteenths of an inch below the

Fic. 30. Convex (anterior) side of

a cupped piece of quartz. reduced.

Slightly

66 A PIECE OF AN OLD ARMOR.

rim (Fig. 31). The convex surface of this specimen is very smooth and almost polished, while the concave surface is less nicely finished. The edge of the disc is a fractured surface. The writer has seen no similar relic described anywhere trom our aboriginal races. Its use seems, indeed, enigmatic. The concave side may have served as a paint cup, but this will not explain why the convex side has been so well finished. It has been suggested that the specimen may have served as a weaning-nipple. If such

2 : c ire. Fig. 31 Ontline ofa diametral is the case, it is easy to understand section through a disc-like pets aoe : There is a protean like a

why the convex side, with its protu- nipple on one side, and a : : Slightly reduced.

berance, has been finished with such Se

great care. It quite perfectly resembles the human nipple. This theory also explains the concavity on the opposite side. The suggestion is mentioned for what it is worth.

A PIECE OF AN OLD ARMOR.

One of the relics found has a special historical in- terest. It demonstrates that this village was inhabited by Indians after the European race had come over to this continent. In one of the mounds located near the center of the group, there was found at the depth of six inches below the surface, a piece of chain-mail made of iron (Frontispiece).* It measured about two inches square and the size of the oval rings was a little less

* This relic was dug out in the author’s presence by Mr. C. A. Hven, now of Garfield, Kansas.

‘ os

)

A PIECE OF AN OLD ARMOR. 67

than one half of an inch in length. The metal had suffered much from oxidation and the spaces between the rings were filled with rust so thick that the whole specimen was almost a solid mass. Unfortunately the precious relic was lost. The author took the precau- tion, however, to have it photographed soon after it was found. So far as the author is aware, the object itself was seen by only two parties who had a knowl- edge of antiquities of this kind and who could be con- sidered competent to identify it as a piece of chain - mail. It was shown to Dr. J. A. Enander of Chicago, then on a lecturing tour in the west. He is regarded as one of the best authorities in America on the antiq- uities of the Northmen. This gentleman stated that the metal fabric had a close resemblance to that of a Swedish brynja, the coat of mail used by the vikings. It was also examined by Dr. John Rundstrom, an accomplished gentleman and naturalist residing near Lindsborg-at the time. He is well informed on European antiquities since the time of his residence as a student at the University of Lund in Sweden. In his judgement the relic was a fragment of a piece of chain mail.

On the surface of one of the mounds there were picked up one or two perforated beads of blue glass. Lying out in the open field on the opposite side of a creek from the nearest farm house, built and occupied by a lone bachelor, these beads are not likely to have been lost by recent settlers. More probably they once belonged to some inhabitant in the old village. It is needless to say that the beads were made in Europe or in some European colony in America.

68 PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE.

PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE.

In describing these products of aboriginal art it seemed desirable to classify them as to the nature of the material from which they were made. If we wish to study the people to whom the relics once belonged, their mode of life, their habits, and probable tribal relationships, it will serve our purpose better to make our classification on the basis of the known or probable uses for which the relics once served. It is not the pur- pose of the author to say much on this phase of the subject. But a few remarks quite naturally suggest themselves in this direction also.

It must be remembered that the uses of some relics are uncertain. Notched bones (see page 18) have been variously regarded as records,* as instruments used in making bowstrings, and as appliances used in weaving. Recently Professor Starr has shown that some Indians use bones of this kind for producing rattling noises in certain dances. To do this another bone is drawn across the notches in rhythmic strokes that accompany the movements of the dancers. **

Disregarding such uncertainties we may, nevertheless, take into consideration the number of each kind of different relics and make a sort of inventory of the stock in hand, and thus draw some conclusions as to the occupations, customs, and wants of the original owners. Such an inventory is presented in the following table.

* See ‘“Marked Human Bones from a Prehistoric Tarasco Indian”’, etc., Vol. X, Balletin of the American Museum of Natural History.

** See Notched Bones from Mexico, by Prof. Fredrick Starr, Proceedings of the Dayenport Academy of Science, Davenport, Ia., Vol. VII., p. 101,

PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE. 69

INVENTORY OF THE VILLAGE RELICS.

KINDS OF RELICS FOUND. NUMBER. IMPLEMENTS USED IN DOMESTIC WORK .............0000e00e0 eee 240 S CLAP CUS Sere sc cn coc stecmsesccnene ss lates ce sent ena ach Geant asec cuteness seesing 200 Kmives............... Bee ee Aaa Ne Behe en een OR cata amiaeee tects 15 FEVNTN ZONTTTS cp beeen ee et 25 | HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS 54 | Earthenware jars (number estimated) .................. 50 Spoons, made of shells 2 Bowl (earthenware) ................ 1 Cupm(earthen wae) he. ....s.ccsc sce feces sc sasecsessbansesscevexs ce 1 AGRICUL DURATS IMPTEEMEN TS rce-coecoracceceescaccoseeseaneseseseccesess=: | 16 Hoes and spades, made of flint.......... .. ..... aa 10 Hoes and spades, made of bone..... .............ececeee eens 6 IMPLEMENTS OF CHASE AND WARFARE...........-0-ce-cecceececees 87 ATOM P OLNEY cveses cores bs ones sooo tee doce owes ae an onoee seateeatetees a7. 45 SpPearheads re. civcccc2. cose cose cases Soedosteacvias<Sehodaee coves ccuses: | 32 Stonewallete? ee cee. ca, eve vec sec sseeeceewns de seereeesooeeeeece 8 ROTI AN KS iercse-ccesecuuceceecwuessassstesssectesisedevncten<bsssteoas 9) MOOLSTESEDELNG SE FICLAULMLUADIESS Seeceseaecseen ae eee nee eeeee aac eee 56 ATT OW=STMOOLNENETSeorcr.s. seooe esto seaeesoha tues sreace ee sense eases | am, 30 BAC y 1S eesti renee oe eee Ne Ad, Myre aa ntanrcnns 3 Sal 12 Hand-hammers (for ebipping flint ?)..............0......... i) HENS Fesesase oes Seeeaie as ces ocak oie ss reseees oa Soaatiae oust oc cues Puowemeeeaen 6 iniGh akersh (DON) estates eect sce eeeee eects eee 3 OBJECTS RELATING TO PERSONAL ORNAMENT AND COMFORT 10 | Paint mortars? (cupped stones)............-......2.0ecee0ee a 3 | Gablinibeipipes ce s25-cescce sc eo esos coos bs sh esee sect or wena eee 2 Bone beads........--.:-<2-c-.c0--0+ BA rs Noe oasae ten cea teneeers acs 2 DEV AUTTDIM Soper ee eeccac ce ace tess ane eee eee ue ena os 2 IWiEANIN Snip Pleeeiie rs. ctesceses sec se eee secre sc ce seceteeetceescse- 1 | OBECTS USED IN SPORTS AND GAMES)?... _10 MihTO win SAS CONES teeetae ee cees co scnsedavec este yeecsenswenescGees 10 MNO ball Caren tere nsew teeesbecec ee ceeens 473

It will be seen that there are nearly five hundred objects represented in the collection. About half of the number consists of implements which have been used in

70 PROBABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBE.

domestic work. This is quite natural. Things used about the dwellings would also be lost in their imme- diate proximity. The scraper is particularly abundant. It was a tool easily prepared (Fig. 27). Its manu- facture required no particular skill. When lost it was easily replaced. By far the greater number of the scrapers are entire. They have not been thrown away. They have been lost. With the knives it is different. These were made with greater care and apparently also selected from fortuitously well adapted flakes; such as were thin and straight and had an even grain. There are only two or three entire knives. The others are broken and have evidently been thrown away only after becoming useless. <A flint knife was a precious article, worth searching for if lost, and so we find a less number of them now. The many potsherds testify that these people took some pains in preparing their food and perhaps their drink. It is difficult to estimate to what extent they engaged in agricultural pursuits. The small number of implements adapted for tilling the ground seem out of proportion to the number of stones used in grinding the crops. Possibly wooden implements were used in this primitive farming. Or the cultivated land may have been at some distance from the village site and the hoes and spades may have been left and lost out in the field. Or it may be that the natives lived in the village only during the cold season and took up their abode at some other place during summer. The relative abundance of tools useful in primitive handicraft, such as arrow-smootheners, awls, flakers, and also scrapers, suggests that the inhabit-

BPLMNIC RELATIONSHIP. 71

ants were engaged in such work to a considerable ex- tent, during the time of their stay on these grounds. The colder part of the year would seem to be specially conducive to such occupation.

These people do not seem to have been a warlike tribe. There are only two flints in the collection that resemble tomahawks. Their arrowpoints and spearheads seem better suited for the killing of small game than for the battlefield. But few of the relics can be regarded as implements of war. This may perhaps be taken as an indication that the inhabitants were a peaceful race, who quietly subsisted on the natural resources of the western plains, before the strife had yet begun which was a result of the encroachments of civilization from the Hast.

ETHNIC RELATIONSHIP.

A guess may perhaps be warranted as to the ethnic relationship of the tribe. We have seen that some frag- ments of catlinite pipes picked up with the other mate- rial were of the so called Siouan type and that the stone mallets are of a kind that is known to have been used by some tribes of the Sioux Indians of the west. The Sioux Indians were to some extent an agricultural people. They raised corn. So did also the inhabitants of this village. They possibly belonged to some tribe of the great Siouan family. But if such was the case, they lived on the outskirts of the Siouan domain. To the south and the west there were other Indians. Those of this village seem to have ground their corn on

Hie

74 ETHNIC RELATIONSHIP.

mills that are more like those of their southern and western neighbors. Stone metates are more common in the southwest than in the territory to the north. The beveled form of spearheads seems also to be a feature of their rude art, which they had in common with the Indians of the south. Tribes of the Ponca family, as the Wichitas and the Pawnees, have at different times lived on the Arkansas, the Kansas, and the Platte rivers in the central part of the Western Plains. They seem to have migrated occasionally both north and south. Mr. Hodge says that the ‘‘Wichitas shifted their settlements from time to time as necessity demanded and that more than one time their settle- ments were on and north of the Arkansas river.”* At an early time their home was farther south. In a border tribe there would inevitably be some mingling of arts and customs of the neighboring nations with those of its own. ‘The use of ground shell as well as sand for tempering the earthenware may have such a significance. Captain Marcy, who visited a Wichita village near Washita river in 1852, says that their “lodges were about twenty-five feet in diameter at the base’, and consisted of a frame-work of poles placed in a circle in the ground, bound together with withes and thatched with grass. He also states that they raised corn and other vegetables, using hoes for culti- vating the soil, but depended on the chase for their sustenance during the greater part of the year.** It is

* Harahey, J. V. Brower, St. Paul, 1899, p. 72. ** Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in the year 1852, by R. B. Marcy,

Ute

p-

A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS.

=~) oo

quite probable that the Indians occupying this old vil- lage were Wichitas or perhaps some of their relatives, the Pawnees. On the basis of the character of the mounds and their relics alone, however, an inference as to their tribal relationship must be regarded as but little more than a guess. But it is none the less in- teresting to note in this border land of ancient nations a mingling of northern, southern, and western features of primitive industry and art.

A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS?

The finding of a piece of chain-mail with the other relics makes it certain that the village was occupied by Indians at least as late as after America had been dis- covered by the Europeans. At the Emporia meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science in 1886 the author suggested that this relic might have come to the In- dians from Coronado’s expedition to this region in 1542 and called attention to Col. Simpson’s study of the route which this explorer followed in traveling from Tiguex to Quivira showing that he probably passed through the central part of the state of Kansas.* Several old Spanish documents relate the adventures of Coronado. They all state that he marched east from _the mountains in New Mexico and across the plains for more than a month. Then selecting forty men he left his main army and marched with these few followers

* Coronado’s March in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola,” by J. H. Simpson. Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution, 1869, pp. 8336—340.

74 A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS.

first north, and then northeast for another month or a little more. Here he discovered a country called Qui- vira, and remained in it for twenty five days, visiting several villages and exploring the country generally, possibly going as far north as the fortieth degree of north latitude. Most of the students of the Spanish papers seem to agree that Quivira was located in the central or in the eastern: part of the state of Kansas. Simpson has mapped the probable route that Coronado followed in going out and in returning. On his outward route he is supposed to have entered the present bor- ders of this state somewhere near its southwest corner (Fig. 32). From there he is supposed to have pursued an easterly course over the country of the Cimarron, turning to the north from a point fifty miles or so west of the site of the present city of Wichita and returning from the northwestern part of the state by a more southerly route.

A. F. Bandelier, a well known archaelogist and stu- dent of early Spanish history in the southwest, believes that Quivira is to be sought in the central part of the state of Kansas about a hundred miles north of the Arkansas, but he thinks that Coronado’s route of march was for most of the way in the territory south of Kansas. *

More recently Mr. G. P. Winship has made an ex- haustive and critical study of the Spanish accounts of

Coronado’s Expedition.** This author doubts that

* Wray Juan de Padilla, by A. F. Bandelier, American Catholic Quarterly Re- view, Vol. XV, p. 551. Also The Gilded Man, New York, 18938.

** The Coronado Expedition, 1540—1542, by George Parker Winship, 14th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethn., Washington 1896, Part I, pp. 8329—613.

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76 A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS.

Coronado, after leaving the main army, ‘‘went much beyond the south branch of Kansas river, if he even reached that stream.’ Qnuivira should then have been located to the south and perhaps a little east of the centre of the state of Kansas.

The latest contribution to the history of this expedi- tion is made by Mr. I’. W. Hodge,* who is inclined to the opinion that Coronado, after having turned north, crossed the Arkansas river on its south bend not far from the place where Dodge City now stands. It was probably from this point that he marched (according to the Spanish chroniclers) six days to the northeast, following down the right side of the stream, and finding the first native village on the Great Bend. From there he continued to the northeast and “either followed down the Smoky Hill or crossed that stream and also the Saline, Solomon, and Republican forks, reaching Kansas river not far from Junction City.” ‘After learn- ing what they could about the province, the Spaniards then .... retraced their steps for two or three days, where they provided themselves with fruit and corn for the return journey .... This place was probably but a few miles from the present Salina” (Fig. 32).

It will be seen from the above that the Paint Creek dwelling site lies in the region which Coronado visited. It is recorded that during the twenty five days he and his forty followers remained in Quivira, he sent out captains and squads in varions directions to visit dif- ferent villages, of which, he says, there were not more

* Harahey, by J. V. Brower, St. Paul, Minn., 1899, pp. 29—73.

A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS. Gel

than twenty-five.* Taking all of this into consideration it is quite possible that the piece of chain-mail may have been obtained by the natives of these villages, in barter or otherwise, from Coronado’s soldiers. Col. Henry Inman has stated his positive opinion that it came from some soldier either of the command of Ca- becga de Vaca, Coronado, or of De Soto,+ most likely the latter. But our best historians doubt that De Soto’s expedition came as far west as Kansas. }

The archaeological evidence perhaps to some extent supports the view that it came from Coronado’s expe- dition. The accounts we have of the people which he met in Quivira characterize in some respects the resi- dents of the old village, as we know them from their dwelling sites and from the relics which these contain. In the anonymous Spanish document [elacion de Suceso we learn that the inhabitants of Quivira lived in houses built of straw. There were several villages of these houses. The inhabitants raised corn and made bread. This bread was cooked in fires under the ashes. || In Jaramillo’s narrative we are told that the straw-houses were round and that ‘the straw of the walls reached down to the ground like a wall’. People who have lived on the Plains will realize that in such a shelter the prevalent sandstorms would deposit drifts of dust and sand. In course of time there would then be a

* Winship, op. cit., p. 582.

+ The Santa Fe Trail, New York, Mac Millan & Co., 1897.

t Narrative and Critical History of America, Justin Winsor, Vol. II., p. 296 Also History of United States, Geo. Bancroft, Vol. I., p. 52.

|| Winship, op. cit., p. 578.

o)

Be ic

A VISIT FROM THE SPANIARDS.

¢

mound. In Coronado’s own letter to the king of Spain he relates that these people used skins for clothing, and that they wandered around and hunted the bison. Such appear also to have been the habits of the In- dians who lived on Paint creek. But other tribes did the same. At the best this evidence is not conclusive. The piece of chain-mail may have come from some other source. Future researches of the historian, the ethnologist, and the archeologist may eventually throw more light on this subject.

INDEX. -

Page. Academy of Science, Kansas 7, 11, 73 AUC euInTS RI reseaseonsetocorccnescsee scene 11 Agricultural implements.............. Animal bones.............-..-----s0+-s+8 Antelope........c.2.---2+- s+ Arkansas river...... seqpg nsadc0eONDaGeED JET SITAYGY Osos e persone ecRIa boa NAOGODEO HOSE RCOBOSCES ATTOWDPOIDtS...........c0eeeceee ee Arrow-smootheners..............2-0++5 Articles made of sandstone.......... Articles made of chert.................- 31 AU OLA OLE seerenceseeeceeresececeeeeee 7 NN Sag pecod codec LOD SBOOHOURCDOHGEDUSHORECOCED 46 BancrolitiGeO:; cccc.cecccssssevedesoscees 0 IB am delice pAV Be vereccnsceee-eresseielseeses 74 Beads of bone................seeeeeeeeee ee 19 Bethany College...............se0eceeee 7 Bevel-edged Spearheads............... 41 TBS FR TBS) TNE Paoceoannocnqaccqaeqnadde0neG0 11 Bones and shells..................0e000+ 17 JBXO Ny | senescence cocnasonanaooadacoacacerbecess Brower, Mr. J. V IBYP\ AN) FP aoasoscodsoocoaanoAcnonse JAMIA DMO coos cocosnoansenqsaqca00 Cabeca de Vaca..........2....cssceseeeers 17 Catalogue of Prehistoric Works... 9 Cadinitempipestecscscsscee-eeeseeceereeee 57 Chain=m'ailes nese cccs-ceseereee wiececaene 66 Characteristics of village tribe...... 68 (ON3 Reapsen anocceadcuea snocascdoscseCetna 13, 31 (CHMMATAROM TEP cosenoaoccoocean900009000 74 Coronado’s march.................. 73, 76 Cup, earthenware.................2--2++ 23 Cupped|Stones re... -..cccse-cecoeee ences 56 Dakota sandstone.................0..008 52 Davenport Academy of Science.... 68 De Soto, Ferdinand..................... 77 Dise-shaped stones..............2200e-+ 64 IDY@GKERS) (CHU Gosdoacoacossnososceqeadacboas6d0 7

Page lo@mMGler, IDYe, do Mes csconscosenosceecons 67 Ethnic relationshiy....................- 71 Failyer, Prof. G. H........ .... Westone 11 Flakers...... Reenceen seecocterec aaaereees 19 Flint knives 5 ey) Forms of earthenware................. 23 IELTS, COE sconcnon.donssenagespocaHCe 31

Games, instruments for

Gouge-shaped tool...........

Gravel with chert............... GreatsBendeccscnctern tsctcscceseee see (GiRHINGIEHOMOE| sacosagscodoneoseaannnoceocase GND ORES Koesoconconcoscsosencodecoasee

16 [Ge] 0101s BaseaaccosoounecReeaaeeccneesbeBeene 18 Hand grindstones...................000 51 Elan diheminterstessseseeeteseeeereeeeee 49 Handles, earthenware................. 27 lanaheypecccesscoes-ceesesenortee ... 10 Hodge, Mir. EF. W..,..-....0-..20.0s. 72, 76 HO e8 sb ONE reccse cweecsceseceesseveneeseses Hoes flint 225.250: -se0--0sceecsecsee see ce Holnves)) Profs Wr His ssseec- Household utensils ..................05 ) EvenssMir sl oA ycetcccccrcvecsecccs esse 66

Implements of chase and warfare 69 Implements used in domestic work 69 Mninn'ain) Cols Henmtyaccece-pecesereseere ess

Introductory Inventory of Village relics...

Irregular forms of scrapers.......... 34 BINA KonanooascaqsoeoobebencoxEcetoUReSEONaneCOS 23 Juan de Padilla

UWACTIO@ I (Ciiteyconcocossscasocoostoeasuoscc

Kansas Academy of Science 7, 11, 73

LINENS) TA@WING 3h seccoconpsoceqcenesecacas 10 ISEMNSEAE) THI/C1Psbonescocnooosososnqecosnncdd 11 Kkinds of vessels............cccscecseeesee 23 Kenivesto titlinittescesmenesneeeeeescreeeres 39

80 INDEX. Page.

Leaf-flints and tomabawks.......... 47 Scrapers....

Shellgin.cisccstereseesccseces baee IW EN ELS poencencccanecocopecocco osconsnenonees 59 SimpssOM, Cole Ue Blegcoseconcceenccemeecee a3 Marey, Uapt. R. B.,........00. ce 72 SHKOUENN J) 021s soocnoodedeadcseacceocansoccs0 59 Me Guire, J. D.,.....2-2-20000-sesseseeere 59 HOUSE JIG HAS coosnnosncesenssoce~ose 63, TL McPherson County .......-..--.-+ee00+ 11 SODDS OLA Oracnoenesenncossopscseosece 63 Measurements of mallets .... ....... 64 Sites of dwellings............-.-2:+ «--+- 10 Measurements of metates..........- ~ OL Sktinkes stat ntee to ee ees WIG beosc0sco0e9ac0000000000 i tidosd eaess 50 Smoky Hill river... Methods of chipping flint............. 19 Smoky Hills.......:0:---es------ Methods of fastening handles....... 27 Spearheads........-.c00. eee. Mounds in Kansas.............-....++- 11 Spoons seme reae tee tet eee

Sports and games...... Nelson, JPRON, LATED Kk osscqsstcocososcac00 8 Stienm iva ivedik INGIYS} OIC cuondascaonecipsosacodoesdces gasege0 - 65 HU ESI INIT eee ee Notched bones...............-- ee 18, 68 SPAR ELIE MORON Guid ate eee Objects relating to ornament....... 69 Swensson, Dr: : A.,.-.....--c---------- 8 Ornamentation of earthenware.... 28 ;

< Meethioibisonees sees ee eee

Oroamented vessel............ 306 200 30 :

Tempering of earthenware Paint Creek mounds...... .....-.-...+- 12 Ahomas sy Cys ren censeon caesar Painted pottery..................-.- «.-- 28 Throwing-stones... Pawneellndianss eee 1, 1083 Momalhanwiks secs e-vsecessesnee se 47, 49 Pipes cose: cet eee eee 57 Tools of special trades...............-. 69 Pipestone........ccs.00--0:- 59 Murkeys.cs cosas theese ee nee see 16 Plat of dwelling sites... 13 Ponea family 72 Udden village site.............-.......... 12 TEOLEREDA yacocconscocec: 23 (Winiojshellyeecsssccsress-esssnesseeeee te 19 Problema tinellee Sencar. 22 WCAG? TNS} DO. cescocosccoecconoccnacns 65 QUIT ccoscoocsecoos000c8s0c6c00" 12, 74, 76 Wear of scrapers................-..00-. 32

Welin, Prof. J. 1... , 63 Relacion de Suceso.... TT Wichita:...------ sisson ca atasce erenute acer 74 Republican river.... a Seviuth Wichita Ludians......... .. 02. TS Ribmnobehed sess sce aceeseeeees 17 Waldo cartseeseeseeeseeee Rvaskeeteaece 16 Rileyacoulityeeeseceess sce seee ees eaceeaaee iit Wilson, Dr Thomas,.......... 19, 45 56 Rundstrom, Dr. John,.............. 8, 67 \WansIoo; Wie, Cre IP ccoccoonocececesscasoe T4

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AUGUSTANA . LIBRARY . PUBLICATIONS NUMBER 3.

STUDIES IN

THE IDYL IN GERMAN o> LITERATURE

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL.

GUSTAV ALBERT ANDREEN.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTER

1902.

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WUSEUM BAIR Rie i SEL ELL WET EY A

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AUGUSTANA . LIBRARY . PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER 3.

STUDIES IN

Pe TDN GER MAN LID ede UGE

GUSTAV ALBERT ANDREEN.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. LUTHERAN AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1902,

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ohh aay iad \: TO MY WIFE ; THIS STUDY j meat 1S LOVINGLY DEDICATED. anid , i

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. Inrropuctory: THe Ipyt In CLaAssic LITERATURE.

The four great periods of Idyllic literature. The Idyl in Greek Literature. Theocritus. The Idylin Latin Literature. Vergil.

CHAPTER II. Ipyiuic LIteRATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ,

The Idyl of the Court of Charlemagne. Idyllic Literature in the Middle Ages in Germany. The Idylin the humanistic movement in Germany.

CHAPTER III. PaAsTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

Introductory: The Renaissance; Pastoral Literature in Italy. State of Literature in German at the Beginning of the 17th Century. Opitz and Weckherlin.

The imitators of Opitz.

Sprachgesellschaften.

Tendency toward Marinism.

Reaction against Bombast.

Literature descriptive of Nature.

Brockes, Haller and Kleist.

The Influence of Gottsched; Critische Dichtkunst and Atalanta. Patriarchaden.

Writers of Idyls immediately preceding Gessner.

CHAPTER IV. GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IpyL.

Life and works of Gessner.

Characterization of Gessner.

Gessner and Theocritus.

The imitators of Gessner; Kleist and Bronner.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V. Tur ReAListic Ipyu.

Advance in the Theory of the Idyl; Mendelssohn, Herder. Storm and Stress.

Maler Miiller.

Works and Characterization of Miiller.

Johan Heinrich Voss.

Life and Works of Voss.

Der Siebzigste Geburtstag; Luise.

CHAPTER I. InrRropuctory: THE Ipyt In CuaAssic LireRATURE.

The purpose of this dissertation is to set forth the origin, de- velopment, and character of the idyl in German literature up to the time of the publication of the Luise by Voss,in 1795. This in- cludes three main parts: 1, idyllic literature in Germany before Opitz; 2. the development of the pastoral idyl depicting an ideal existence and its culmination in Gessner; 3. the reaction which followed, resulting in the realistic idyl of Maler Miiller and Voss.

In this thesis the term Jdy/ is used in the sense of a small “Genrebild,” complete in itself, which pictures simple life in close

communion with nature, as over against the more Definition of complex conditions of an advanced civilization, Tdyl. especially of city lite.1 This Genrebild or Idyl may depict real life (as in Theocritus and Voss), or idealized existence in an imaginary Golden Age (as in Gessner).

1 This definition of the idy] proper is based mainly on the full treatment of the theory of the idyl in Herman Baumgart’s Handbuch der Poetik, p. 268, f., and p. 346, ff.

Koberstein’s definition of the idyl (Gesch. d. Deut. Nat. Lit., V. 63) better fits the idyllic epos, than the shorter Genrebild or idyl proper, showing that he must have had Luise or Herrman und Dorothea in mind. Hesays: “Die Idylle— diejenige Dichtungsart, welche die Mitte zwischen der streng epischen und der mahlerisch-beschreibenden Gattung hilt, indem sie die Erzihlungsform—die aber auch 6fter durch die dialogische vertreten wird—weniger auf die Darstellung yon Thaten und Handlungen als auf Schilderung von Zustiinden und Hreignissen anwendet.”’

Cf. also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theokrit, p. 4.

10 THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE.

In the literature of the world idyllic and pastoral poetry has flourished especially during four periods. It first appeared in the third century before Christ in the idyls of Theocri- The Four Great tus, followed by those of Bion and Moschus. Then Periods of Idyl- in the first century before the Christian era, Vergil lic Literature. laid the foundation of his poetic fame by wri- ting his allegorical idyls, in which he found many imitators. The third period has its roots in the Italian Renais- sance, which eventually produced the allegorical pastoral drama and romance, affecting and moulding the literature of all Europe, especially of the other romance countries and of England. In Germany, where the Reformation completely absorbed all other interests, it did not assert its influence before the beginning of the seventeenth century, when Opitz introduced the shepherd drama, and Weckherlin the pastoral idyl. the influence of Opitz being paramount in German literature for a hundred years.

The fourth great period in which idyllic literature flourished belongs especially to Germany. During the latter half of the six- teenth century this literature again took the form of the idyl proper, bursting into bloom in the works of numerous authors. In Gessner the idealized pastoral idyl reached its culmination; a reaction necessarily followed, and the idyls of Miller and Voss came back to a realistic portrayal of actual life, as is found in Theocritus. The circle was complete.

These different periods have, of course, organic connection with each other. Hence it seems necessary to give a short sketch of the characteristics of the preceding periods as an introduction to the main subject.

During the great classical age of Hellas, the Greek, ‘‘the most versatile man the sun ever shone on,” as Gosche! says, had seem-

1 See the excellent article by Dr. Richard Gosche in Archiv fiir Litteratur- geschichte, Vol. 1. (1870). pp. 169-227: Idyll und Dorfgeschichte im Altertum und Mittelalter.

THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. 11

ingly exhausted all the forms of literature. Then

The Idyl in came the non-productive and critical Alexandrian Greek Litera- era, no longer believing in the gods, and subjecting

ture. Theocritus. the old heroes to historical criticism. New motives

and styles of poetry were sought for, and with an advanced civilization came a surfeit of city life, a dissatisfaction caused by complex social conditions.!| The idyls of Theoecritus, grounded in this general feeling, were hailed with joy. These idyls led one away from the bustle and hollowness of over-refinement back to nature, to ascend the mountains, to listen to the rustle of the brook, walk over the meadow covered with pasturing flocks, and rest in the shadow of the tamarisks.

But this description of nature, beautiful as it is, was not the most important part. It served after all only as the background for those who peopled it. These characters, simple, natural, in full accord with their surroundings, far away from the disordered state of Greece and Heypt, in Sicily ‘rich in flocks,” pipe and sing, talk in dialogue or soliloquy so naturally that we really seem to hear them. They lay bare before us the primary and common emotions and passions of the human heart. All is fresh and has the flavor of reality; like the shepherd’s skin in the sev- enth Idyl: “The smell of rennet clinging to it still;’’? or, like the bowl in the first: ‘‘Smacking still of the knife of the graver.””*

Idyllic elements are found in literature before Theocritus.* But Theocritus stands before us as the creator of this form of litera-

1 This thought is also brought out by E. C. Stedman in his Victorian poets (Boston 1876) in the chapter entitled Tennyson and Theocritus (p. 201), in which he shows the similarity of these two idyllic authors and of the periods in which they lived. He claims the superiority of Tennyson over the Syracusan “because his thought and period are greater’! (p.187).—Cf. also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus,p.11,and Lang’s Theocritus, p. XX XVI.—Cf. Gosche 4 LG., L.. p. 184, ff.

2 Idyl VII, 15: veas tapicoro rotécbov.

3 Idyl I, 28: ere yAvpavo.o rordcbov.

4 Even the Iliad (XVIII. 525) shows us Hephaestos inscribing on the shield of Achilles a pastoral scene. The Odyssey has more of such elements, as in the story of Nausikaa, or Polyphemus, or the description of Calypso’s cave. Further- more, the satyr-drama, comedy, and mimes have material of idyllic nature. See Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 5, fi.—Gosche, p. 183, ff.

12 THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE.

ture,! and his idyls have ever been the model to which all later authors are obliged to return, like the works of Homer and Phi- dias, unsurpassed, perhaps unattainable. Three qualities espe- cially mark the work of Theocritus: power of depicting genuine emotion and passion, love for nature, and the ability to give to his characters the backgronnd that most harmoniously blends with their disposition and state of feeling.

In the next century Bion and Moschus? followed in the foot- steps of Theocritus. But we appreciate keenly the greatness of Theocritus as soon as we compare his work with that of his suc- cessors. For with all their grace and skill, there appears already in them, especially in their treatment of love, a tendency towards sentimentality and trifling, towards rhetorical ornamentation, which became so prominent characteristics of later pastoral poetry. The idyl was on its way to Vergil.

The eminently practical Romans had a less keen sense for poetry per se than the Greeks, and with all their love for outdoor

life,t they saw nothing in pastoral life to arouse The Idyl in their admiration or to celebrate in song. Only Latin Litera- when the shepherds became the mask for promi- ture. Vergil. nent personages did this added spice make the idyl

acceptable to the palate of literary Rome. This allegory and personal allusion, which in Theocritus had been mere episode,’ became rule and aim in Vergil’s eclogues.* The shep-

1 Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 1, 11.

2 So in Idyl I, Simaetha endeavoring to reconquer her lover by magic, does it under the moonlit sky, some distance from town and within the sound of the sea. Cf. also Idyls I1., VIIL., ete,

3 See Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 23.

4 This, as well as their practical tendency, is witnessed by their rich literature on agriculture.

5 In Idyl VII. Theocritus refers to himself; in XIV. to Ptolemy.

6 Ci. Les Oeuvres de Virgile par E. Benoist (Paris 1867), p. LIII; also Fritzsche-Hiller’s Theocritus, p. 23. Also History of Rom. Lit. by Teuffel and Schwabe, Vol. I., p. 430. In the very first eclogue Vergil, under the mask of Tityrus, praises Augustus for restoring his land to him; in III., VI., X. he praises and flatters his patrons, and so on.

THE IDYL IN CLASSIC LITERATURE. 13

herd’s dress became but a mask, the pastoral poem was to be allegorically interpreted. Vergil’s influence in this respect was of lasting importance, determining for more than seventeen cen- turies the character of pastoral literature in the Romance coun- tries, in England and in Germany, until nature and healthy real- ism again asserted themselves in the idyl of theeighteenth century. Classic Latin literature, however, has given us at least one perfect idyl, some say only one: the Moretum, of unknown authorship. *

In the third century, when the classic era was nearing its close,? Greek literature produced one more work of enduring power, the shepherd romance Daphnis and Chloe, attributed to Longos.? It has all the healthy enjoyment of simple life that we find in Theocritus, and is of importance as being the great model for the later pastoral romance.

CHAPTER II.

Ipytuic LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ.

As we enter the Middle Ages, when the classics fast became a sealed book, the idyl as a literary form almost disappears. We

1 W. Hertzberg in the Gedichte des Virgilius (Stuttgart 1856), p.93, speaks of this, calling it a ‘“‘literarisches Unicum’’—Cf. Gosche, ALG., I., 205.

2 Of the followers and imitators of Vergil may be mentioned: Calpurnius, the gross flatterer of Nero; Nemesianus, Ausonius of Bordeaux, the first Christian writer of eclogues, the best being Mosella, a description of a journey along the rivers Mosel and the Rhine (before 375).

3 Gosche in ALG., I., p. 211, says: The old Greco-Roman world completed its idyllic poetry in these three stages: The great Theocritus, the unknown au- thor of the Moretum, and Longos.

4 Its place is, perhaps, supplied by Christian legends and stories, some of which, especially those of the hermits, contain idyllic elements. But these are few, as the very seclusion of the hermits was to show in what utter contempt

- they held the outer world.

it IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ.

do not meet it again till the beginning of the ninth The Idyl at the century, at the German court of Charlemagne. Court of Here a renaissance movement had led to the form- Chralemagne. ine of an academy ior scientific and literary

study. The study of Latin authors soon led to the cultivation of the idyl, especially under the influence of Vergil and Calpurnius. Most of these poems® possess no value apart trom their historical interest. They teem with classical phrases and allusions, oddly mingled with Christian views. *

One idyl, however, written by some member oi the circle around Charlemagne. deserves our special attention as being “‘the first real eclogue of the Middle Ages,”+ namely: Conflictus Veris et Hiemis. Wt is full of dramatic movement, representing Spring and Winter as vying with each other in song. Spring greets the cuckoo, while Winter threatens the bird in order to drive it away. until Palaemon bids him cease (Desine plura, hiems), and wel- comes the cuckoo (Salve, dulce decus. cuculus, per saecula salve).* The winter described is the winter of Germany, not the mild win-

i This circle chose names from antiquity, biblical and classical. in odd confu- sion. Charlemagne was David. Aleuin (oi England) Flaccus, Angilbert Homer. and other court dignitaries bore the pastoral names oi Menalkas and Thyrsis. See Wattenbach: Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (Berlin 1885). Vol. I.. p. 147.

2 These poems are iound in E. Dimmler’s collection Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini (Berlin 1881) Vol. I.

3 Angilbertus, in the academy called Homer, wrote an Ecloga ad Carolum Regem (David) in which he offers fulsome praise to the king (Diimmler’s Poetae Latini, 1. 360). There are several refrains, each repeated nine times, which in themselves show the character of the poem. These are:

Surge, meo domno dulces fac, fistula, versus.

David amat Vates, vatorum est gloria David.

David amat Christum. Christus est gloria David.

Surge meis caris dulces fac. fistula, versus. In an ecloga by Naso (Diimmler’s Poetae Latini, I. 385, #.) a youth and an aged man converse of song, after which follows a description of nature and out- door life.

_ + Gosche ALG, L.. p. 213.

3 In a later idyl by the Anglo-Saxon Alcuin (See Dimmler’s Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, Vol. 1.. No. LIX.). who possibly wrote the Conflictus, too, a simi- lar theme is treated (beginning: Nance cuculus ramis etiam resonavyit in altis) . A description of spring is given in which Phoebus. Bacchus, and Cupid are men- tioned. It closes, however, with an admonition to praise Christ: “Dulcisunu Christum resonuantis semper in ore.”

or

IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. alt

ter of the south; and the cuckoo as harbinger of spring also be- longs to Germany.! This idyll is of importance, too, as being the origin of the Streitgedichte,? so popular during the Middle Ages, and which may be traced down even to Hans Sachs. In the history of the development of Germany, the Dorf occu- pies a very prominent position. Around this cluster the first be- ginnines of the Dorfgeschichte (Tales of Country Idyllic Litera- _ Life). The Latin poem Ruodlieb? is one of the ture in the Mid- first to contain elements of this nature. We find dle Ages in these elements, too, in such works as Gudrun‘ Germany. and Parzival,® and more especially in the lyrics of Neidhart von Reuenthal.. But the oldest Ger- man Dorfgeschichte is Meyer Helmbrecht* by Wernher der Gar-

tenaere. It is a social tragedy—a warning to peasant sons not to leave their sphere.

During the followmg centuries contempt for peasant life as-

1 See article by Adolf Ebert: Naso, Angilbert und der Conflictus Veris et Hiemis in Zeitschritt fiir deut. Alt XXI1I., pp. 328-335.

2 See W. Scherer: Geschichte der deut. Lit. (1884), p. 53. Also Adolph Ebert, ZfdA, Vol. XXII., p. 333.

3 Ruodlieb, a rhymed Latin poem of the eleventh century, is really a romance of chivalry; the third and fourth fragments, however, describe the arrival and stay of Ruodlieb in a small village, and his intercourse with the shepherds.

4 Especially Horant’s song (See p. 86, ff., in Martin’s Kudrun, Halle 1872).

5 In the third book of Parzival, Wolfram sets over against the world of chiy- alry the life of Herzeloyd in the wilderness Soltane; in this idyllic world Parzival’s childhood is spent.

6 His summer and winter songs, dances, etc., describe the peasant world in a realistic manner. See E.T. McLaughlin’s Studies in Medieval Life and Litera- ture, p.71.

7 Written before 1250. It describes a peasant’s son, who, despising his father’s occupation, enters the service of a robber-knight. After a year he returns home, and by his swaggering manners, grieves his father, who laments the decay of court life. The wayward son induces his sister to run away with him and become the wife of one of his companions. At the wedding the rest of the robbers are caught, but he escapes, though maimed. At home he is disowned by his father, and later hanged by peasants whom he had robbed. Cf. Studies of Medieval Life and Literature (N. Y. 1894) by E. T. McLaughlin, who speaks at length of this work (p. 102).

16 IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GERMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ.

serts itself more and more.! We see it in the very words: vilanus becomes villain, Dérfer degenerates into Télpel. The awkward- ness and stupidity of the “boors” is the never-ending subject of jests, fables, and Fasnachtsspiele; especially in these carnival plays is he made the butt of rough and obscene ridicule, always drubbed, drubbing being one of the most indispensable parts of old German comedy.?

During the fifteenth century, in spite of the oppressed condi- tion of the peasant class, the peasants began to feel more and more conscious of their own worth.? Others, too, placed their hope for the future in them. We find some echoes of this in litera- ture, especially in the Meistergesang.* When this feeling culmi- nated in the uprising of 1525, even Luther was terrified, and attacked the peasants most bitterly. The revolt was put down with much bloodshed, and the condition of the peasants was worse than beiore.

To sum up: The idyllic element in early German literature had ever been but a small rivulet; we find now and then along its course some inviting idyllic spots; but finally itis lost in the swamps of contempt for rural life, and blindness to the beauties of nature.

1 Little or no influence was exerted on German literature by the French pas- tourelle, oi which the drama Robin et Marion by Adam de La Halle was a development. Cf. Gosche, ALG, I., 219. ii.

2 This feeling is expressed in the old couplet;

Der Bauer ist an Ochsen statt Nur dass er keine Horner hat.

3 (i. Bezold’s Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (Berlin 1890), p. 142. ff. See also A social Reformer of the XV. century, a paper by Frank Goodrich, in Yale Review, Aug. 1896.

+ Rosenbliit, who wrote from 1431-60 at Niirnberg, turned from court poetry to sing the praises of the lower classes:

*Tche lobe dich du edler Bauer fiir alle Kreatur fir alle herrn auf Erden - Der Kaiser muss dir gleich werden.” Hans Sachs in his Gesprdch zwischen dem Sommer und Winter (Ci. Streitge- dichte, p. 6), shows a deep appreciation of nature and simple life; yet he, too, made the peasant and his foibles the object of his jests.

IDYLLIC LITERATURE IN GHRMANY BEFORE THE TIME OF OPITZ. il'7¢

The humanistic movement in Germany did not produce any idyllic literature of enduring value, or any that inspired later writers. The Bucolicon of Eobanus Hessus ap-

Theldylinthe peared at Erfurt 1509, containing: twelve eclogues,

Humanistic the second edition of 1528 increasing the number Movement in to seventeen. They were written in imitation of Germany. Vergil’s allegorical eclogues. The ease with which

Hessus composed made his style vague and full of rhetorical bombast.!- He also made a translation of Theocritus into Latin verse.

In the year 1580 the gifted Nicodemus Frischlin? delivered at Tiibingen a speech, De vita rustica, as introduction to his lectures on Vergil’s Bucolics, in which he bitterly attacks the inhumanity and corruption of the nobility and the court,? and lauds the honest simplicity and occupations of rural life. But the appeal died away like an echo, unnoticed or soon forgotten.

Humanism in Germany led to no real idyllic literature, and what little there is entirely lacks originality in thought and form, and left no trace of influeuce upon succeeding literature. Other countries, especially Italy, were meanwhile producing the literary ‘models, which for a century and a half were to determine the form and character of pastoral literature in Germany.

1 See Allg Deut Biog. In his Carmen or Song of praise of Niirnberg 1732 (Noriberga Illustrata, edited by J. Neff, Berlin 1896), are idyllic traits, especially lines 387, ff., and 601, ff., which contain a description of a woodland fountain.

2 See Alg. Deut. Biog. Many of his plays contain idyllic elements, especially one Der Weingiirtner, 1576, setting forth the conditions and feelings of the peo- ple; but unfortunately this has been lost.

3 This speech and his views on this matter lost him his position, his liberty, and finally his life.

18 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

CHAPTER III. PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM Opitz TO GESSNER.

When the classic studies again began to flourish in Italy, Vergil Was at once enthroned as king of poets, and became the pattern whom all imitated. Lyric, romance, and dramatic

Introductory: literature alike were soon influenced and con-

The Renats- trolled by his pastoral allegory.

sance; Pastoral The allegorical eclogue was first re-introduced Literature in by Petrach? and Boccaccio: the latter also wrote Italy. a pastoral romance, L’Ameto. The pastoral was

first developed into the shepherd drama by Polizi- ano in the shepherd-play Orfeo,? 1471, which had for its subject the descent of Orpheus into the lower world. The pastoral romance Arcadia, by Jac. Sannazaro,? occupies a most important place in popularizing the pastoral element and fixing it upon later literature. It electrified all Italy; and was published more than sixty times during the sixteenth century.* Influenced by the great popularity of this work, Tasso wrote his shepherd-play Aminta, which in turn was imitated in Guarini’s famous J] Pastor Fido (1585). The character of these works is to a great extent determined by the fact that the scene is laid in the Golden Age® of which

1 On account of the allegorical element, Petrach had to give a key to his poems, in order to be understood.

2 This was the first theatrical representation which differed from the so- called mysteries. See P. A. Budik: Leben und Wirken der vorziiglichsten lateinischen Dichter des XV.-X VII. Jahrhunderts.

3 He always celebrated Vergil’s birthday by a feast. He wrote Latin eclogues which show the influence of Theocritus, whose first seven idyls had been trans- lated into Latin hexameter by Phileticus in 1483.

4 Arcadia was first printed 1502-4. In it Sannazaro describes, in prose and verse, the hardheartedness of his mistress. his wanderings and misfortunes. la- ments the death of his mother and of his shepherdess. disclosing to us the secrets of his life and the history of his time.

° In Pastor Fido. end of act IY.. a chorus sings of the Golden Age and the Guilty Age:

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 19

even Theocritus had sung. The accepted name of the home of this ideal existence is Arcadia,’ which was inhabited not only by shepherds and nymphs, but also by all the divinities of the an- cients, and by allegorical figures of all kinds.? Into this ideal world the poet was ever introducing the characters of contem- porary men whom he wished to praise. With these incompatible elements (shepherds, gods, allegory, and contemporary men), how could incidents ever seem real, or characterization be any- thing but vague?’

The pastoral literature of Italy was admired and imitated in the other romance countries and in England. In the year 1558 Montemayor published his great Spanish shepherd-romance, Diana. Upon this, as well as upon Pastor Fido, the Frenchman Honore d’Urte, modeled his allegorical pastoral novel, Astree (first part 1609). These works ushered in a long series of imi- tations, which were even more unreal and turgid than their mod- els. In English literature the eclogues of Alexander Barclay, Spenser’s Shepherd’s Calendar (1579), and Faery Queen (1590-6), show this pastoral influence. Of especial importance for us is the famous Arcadia® by Sir Philip Sidney. This is not a mere imi- tation of Spanish and Italian models, as Sidney describes scenes not only from pastoral life, but also, with equal skill, from hunt- ing and chivalry.

The seeds of this pastoral literature were now wafted into Ger- many, where they sprang into luxurious growth, producing fruit that was abundant, though not of superior quality.

At the beginning of the seventeenth century German poetry had reached its lowest ebb. Not only the upper but also the mid-

1 Vergil in eclogue VII. speaks of Corydon and Thyrsis as Arcades ambo.

2 Cf. Jacob Burckhardt: Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, p. 349, fi.

3 So Boccaccio makes one of his nymphs a good catholic. Cf. Burckhardt, p. 350.

4 A clear presentation of this whole subject is given by Homer Smith: Pas- toral infineuce in the English Drama, in the Publications of the modern lan- guage association of America, 1897, Vol. XII., No. 3 (New Series, Vol. V., 3).

>» Arcadia became the model of the Hercynie by Opitz; see p. 21.

20 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GHSSNER.

dle classes held the German language in contempt; State of Litera- everything was to be written in Latin. The glori- ture at the Bee ous era of German poetry during the Middle Ages ginning of the seemed utterly forgotten. What poetry did exist

17th Century. in the Volkslieder of the time did not interest the -Opitz and educated. It was the example set by the neigh- Weckherlin. boring countries of using, cherishing, and develop-

ing their own language, their vernacular, and making it a fit vehicle for their literature, that also turned the attention of the Germans to their mother-tongue. This was done in the first place by translations of foreign literature into Ger- man. The pastorals occupy a most important place among these translations,! especially as they to a great extent determined the character of German literature for the next century and a half. The two most important poets who usher in this era are Weckherlin and Opitz.

The author who, more than any one else, established the su- premacy of this foreign and pastoral literature in Germany was Martin Opitz.2 But as he did this by translations of foreign models into good German, he also stands at the head of the movement whose special aim was to cherish and cultivate the German language. In his first important work, Aristarchus, sive de contemptu lingue Teutonice,* 1619, he praises the German language, claiming that it is just as capable of producing a litera- ture based upon the models of antiquity, as Italian, French, or English. This work, and his Buch der Deutschen Poeterei (pub- lished seven years later), opened the eyes of the educated to the importance of cultivating the German tongue.

1 We notice the following: Bergeries de Juliette by Nicholas de Montreaux, transl. 1595; Guarini’s Pastor Fido, 1619; D’Urie’s Astree, 1619; Sidney’s Ar- cadia, 1631.

21597-1639. Opitz was born in Silesia; early distinguished himself by the ease and grace with which he wrote Latin poetry; this accomplishment opened to him the doors of famous scholars and of princes, whose fame he sang. Dur- ing the greater part of his life he was in the service of Silesian princes.

3 It is characteristic of the times that this work, in defence of German, had to be written in Latin, so as to attract the attention of the educated.

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNDR. 21

There now follows in Opitz’s life a period of translations, or paraphrases, of foreign works, whose importance consists in the fact that they created the literary diction of Germany, and be- came the standard for succeeding writers. !

In the year 1627,” Opitz introduced the pastoral opera into Germany by his translation of the Italian opera Dafne.’ This was followed by the most famous and most original of Opitz’s works, the pastoral drama Hercynie (1628). It seems to have been suggested to Opitz directly by Sir Philip Sidney’s Areadia,* which he was at this time translating.* The influence of Her- cynie on subsequent works, both in diction and form, was so wide- spread and lasting, that its place in the history of literature, even though its intrinsic literary value is small, is of the greatest im- portance. The action of the story is given in prose, while the lyric elements are reflective.

Some idea may be gained of this kind of literature from the

1 “Die erste (Schiiferei) in Deutschland, gleichwie auch die edelste, ist Opitz- ens unvergleichliche Hercynie”’ says Birken in Teutsche Rede-Bind-und Dicht- Kunst (Niirnberg 1679), p. 301. So HarsdGrfier (see Tittman’s Opitz, p. 57).

2 Previous works of Opitz also contain pastoral elements: The praise of rural life, 1625, based upon a similar poem by Fischart, both a paraphrase of Horace’s Beatus ille-—Pastoral echoes are also found in his Oden or Gesédnge, in Zlatna oder Getichte von Ruhe des Gemiithes.—For Fischart’s poem: Fiirtretfliches artliches Lob des Landlustes, etc., see Goedeke’s ed. of Fischart (Leipzig 1880), p. 251.

3 The pastoral drama had developed, or from a literary point of view, deteri- orated, into the Opera (see Introduction, p. LX XIV. of Opita’s Ausgewéihlte Dichtungen, edited by J. Tittman). The opera Dafne was first given at Florence 1594. The court at Breslau, standing in intimate relations to Florence, obtained it to enhance the festivities at the marriage of Prince George. Opitz in translating it into Alexandrine verse, added much of his own invention, whence the court musician had to write new music to it, the nature of whieh is not known. Dafne has five acts, each concluded by a chorus (of shepherds and nymphs). Apollo, after slaying a monster to the great joy of the shepherds, is himself overcome by Cupid, for having twitted him on his bow and arrow. He falls in love with Dafne (a mortal), who flees his advances: When he is about to overtake her, she is by her own prayer changed into a laurel-tree.

4 See Friedrich Strehlke: Martin Opitz—eine Monographie (Leipzig 1856), p. 185.

5 This translation was published 1631, followed by a second improved edi- tion 1638.

22 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

plot of the Hereynie, which is as follows: When the scene opens, the poet (Opitz) is wandering over hills and fields. While carving a poem on a tree, he is joined by other shepherds, who converse with him of love! and travel. Near a fountain they meet the nymph Hercynie, who conducts them into the cave of the nymphs. from which cave flows the source of the fountains of the vicinity; she delivers a lengthy panegyric upon the ruling family of the country.? of whose genealogy she shows an intimate knowledge. After the disappearance of Hercynie, the poets praise the land- scape before them, the effects of winter and spring, sing sonnets to the fountain and in honor of the ruler of the country. The author recites the concluding song, of which the burden is, that the Muses alone bestow immortality.

This work created a pleasing German style, which at once be- came the standard for succeeding writers. But they also adopted and carried to the extreme elements which were detrimental in their effects upon literature.

The pastoral Hercynie, like his works in general, show that Opitz possessed neither great originality nor power of imagina- tion, as they were all based upon foreign models. But the very fact that he stood so little above the level of his contemporaries, and was so intelligible to them, made his influence the more imme- diate and extensive. He broke down the sway of the Latin lan- guage among the educated; the German language was again cherished and cultivated, so that eventually the literature could, and in the eighteenth century did, penetrate into and permeate the nation as a whole. In this sense he may still be called the father of German poetry, or with Paul Fleming* one may say:

1 One of them (Niissler) says in words which only too well characterize the writings oi this and the following periods: “It is the manner of poets in repre senting love to make no concessions to nature, but to invent things which never have been, nor ever will be, and which he himself has never experienced, nor in- tended to perform.”

2 This panegyric is really the heart of the play. Much of it is in Alexandrine verse.

3 Fleming in a wedding poem of 1631 surpasses his model Opitz. See Ge- dichte von Paul Fleming, edited by J. Tittman (Leipzig 1870), pp. 36-44. also Barthold: Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft, pp. 210-12.

bo

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

“Die sch6nen Pierinnen Die nun durch Opitzen auch hochdeutsch reden k6nnen.”’

The other important Renaissance poet, Georg Rudolph Weck- herlin,’! possessed greater power than Opitz, and may claim the priority in having introduced the Renaissance style into Ger- many.” He Yelt keenly the contempt in which German poetry was held at the German courts, at the same time appreciating its inferiority, when compared with that of France or England. Harly he determined to become a regenerator in this respect, and to make German poetry ‘“‘presentable at court.” In imitation of foreign models he began to sing the praises of princes in Hof-ge- dichte, which lacked great depth, and teemed with mythological allusions. They were received, however, with pleasure by those in whose honor they were sung. In these Hof gedichte he was imitated by Opitz and other seekers aiter courtly favors.

Among Weckherlin’s best works are his six shepherd-poems or eclogues,* published in 1648.° These show, especially in form, the influence of Opitz; but as idyllic literature they are superior to anything that Opitz wrote; in fact, they surpass any pastoral poetry written in Germany during the seventeenth century. They sulfer, to be sure, from the ordinary faults of the allegorical pas- toral, with its conceits and trifling sentiment. Yet by introdu- cing into these idyls himself (under the name of Philidor) and his wile (under the name of Myrta), to whom he was exceedingly de- voted, he has infused into some of this poetry a glow and affec-

1 Weckherlin (1584-1653) was born thirteen years before Opitz; after travel- ing through Germany, France, and England, he obtained a position at the court of Wiirtemberg. He was married to an Englishwoman, Elizabeth Raworth of Dover; in 1620 he settled down in England, rose to the position of Secretary of Foreign Tongues (1644), was superseded by Milton 1649, later becoming Milton’s assistant.

2 He was the first to introduce the sonnet and the Alexandrine verse in Ger- many.

3 Ina poem of 1610 he could boast that German poetry was no longer de- rided: even the gods (the members of the court) were delighted with it.

4 Hiirtengedichte, given in Weckherlin’s Gedichte, edited by Herman Fischer, Tiibingen, 1894.

5 The first eclogue had been published in 1641.

24 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

tion, and hence a genuineness, that we miss in other pastoral poetry of this period.

The first eclogue is written in praise of his wife! and of mutual love. Eclogues II-V* sing of the four seasons.? The contents of the VIth may be summed up in the couplet:

“°Tis better to haye loved and lost Than never to have loved at all.”

Though Weckherlin’s works show more originality and power, his influence was entirely overshadowed by that of Opitz. This is explained in the first place by Weckherlin’s residence in Eng- land during the last thirty-three years of his life; in the second place, by the fact that Opitz, through his translations and para- phrases, which were excellent in form and style, introduced the ereat pastoral works of other languages, which were the literary fads of the time. From now on the pastoral element enters into and controls all the various kinds of literature, romance, dra- . matic, didactic, and lyric, for more than a hundred years, till finally the sound of the shepherd’s flute dies away at the end of the eighteenth century.

The flood of pastoral literature which followed Opitz came in two large waves: the former, the smaller wave, reaching its high-

est point about the middle of the seventeenth cen- The Imitators tury. After a subsidence this was followed by a of Opitz. Ten- larger wave, reaching its highest point about the dency Towards middle of the eighteenth century (see table No. 1)- Marinism. The former period and the earlier part of the lat- ter with all their pastoral poetry did not produce

1 Philidor expresses his joy at having won “this crown of the island of Al- bion.”

2 Tn the third eclogue, as in no other, Weckherlin gives free play to silly tri- fling, both in form and contents, using diminutives and dallying expressions ad nauseam. So Chloris says in verse 106, ete.: “‘(wie selig bin ich)

Dass den Taublein gleich wir uns einander schnabelen,

Mit Kiissen Nektar-gleich begabelen, erlabelen.” Eclogue LY., though containing some conceits, gives a good description of a har- vest festival, in which occurs a vigorous responsive song; the shepherds celebrate Bacchus, the nymphs Cupid.

3 They remind one somewhat of Thomson’s Seasons, even to the occasional incidents.

4 See Scherer’s Gesch. d. deut. Lit., p. 320.

=e

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 25

an idyl proper. Hence, only a brief survey and characterization of this body of literature is necessary for our purpose.

The influence of Opitz and of pastoral literature in general was greatly furthered by the Sprachgesellschatten, which were founded all over Germany. Their chief purpose and aim was to cherish and cultivate the German language, and to preserve German cus- toms. The first and most important of these societies was Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschatt, or Palmenorden,! tounded 1617, of which Opitz later became a member. Most prominent of those that sprung up in imitation of it was Die Gesellschatt der Pegnitz- Schéfer, instituted 1644 at Niirnbere by Harsdo6rffer and Klaj. Especially did these Pegnitz-shepherds recognize Opitz as their chief model,? and they imitated him in numerous shepherd-plays. But they “‘outheroded Herod” and went far beyond Opitz in the introduction of allegory and metrical conceits into their works; so that compared with their plays the Hercynie of Opitz really seems a work of superior merit.

The ascendancy of foreign literature which Opitz mtroduced soon showed itself in numerous romances and pastoral dramas. The romances? imitated Hercynie, with its alternating prose and

1 Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft was founded by some princes and no- blemen the very year that Opitz wrote his Aristarchus. See F. W. Barthold’s Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1848.

Other similar societies were Die aufrichtige Tannen-gesellschatt, Strasburg 1633, Weckherlin being one of its members; Die Teutschgesinnte Gesellschaft, Hamburg 1643; Der Eibschwanenorden, founded by Johann Rist 1660.

2 Siegmund yv. Birken (1626-1681), for some time ‘‘Oberhirte der Pegnitz- schiifer,” in his Deutsche Redebind und Dichtkunst 1679 (p. 301), in speaking of the pastorals says: “Die erste in Teutschland, gleichwie auch die edelste, ist Opitzens unvergleichliche Hercinie: massen auch er der erste und edelste Teutscher Poet ist.”

3 Up to 1640 the following pastoral romances were published: Theatrum Amoris 1630, Schéfferey oder keusche Liebesbeschreibung 1632, which went through eight editions, Wintertags Schiifferey by Dachsdorf 1636, Filamon und Belliflora by Neumark 1640. (For full titles see table No. 2).

These romances also imitated Hercynie in the use of alternating prose and poetry; the action was carried on by the prose, while the lyric parts were reflect- ive.

te

The Idyl in German Literature.

26 PASTORAL LITERATURE PROM OPITZ TO GESSNER,

poetry, while the pastoral drama took Guarini’s Pastor Fido and Tasso’s Aminta’ for its models. All the stress was laid upon form. The attempt to be original, however, led to conceits and fantastic metrical schemes of the most varied kinds. As to the contents, the poet was not supposed to express his own feelings in his writings; everything was conventional. In the words of Bir- ken: ‘‘Das Herz ist weit von dem was eine Feder schreibt.’’? Another characteristic, too, inherited from Opitz, added to the conventionality of the pastorals: they were usually written in honor of the powerful and wealthy, and hence thrived mainly by the favor of the courts. To become a Hofpoet was the aim of every writer of verse; every prominent man, every court festival (births, marriages, deaths, namedays, return from journeys, etc. ), was celebrated in highsounding poems, Gelegenheitsdichtung in the worst sense.2 It seems as though this personal element

1 One of the first is Daphnis u. Chrysilla by Schere, Hamburg 1638, the in- terludes being mainly in low German. Five pastoral dramas treat of the close of The Thirty Years’ War, the stress of the times naturally turning the thoughts and longings toward an ideal happy world. The authors were all members of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft. Birken and Schottelius were also Pegnitz- schdfer. These dramas were (for full titles see table No. 2):

1. Lamentatio Germaniae Expirantis, by Schottelius, 1640.

2. Das Friede-wiinschende Teutschland, by Rist, 1647. It wentthrough four editions.

3. Teutschland Kriegs Beschluss u. Friedenschluss vom Schafer Flor- idan, Birken, 1650.

4. Margenis, das vergniigte, bekriegte und wieder befriedigte Deutsch- land, by Birken, 1651.

5. Das Fridejauchzende Deutschland by Rist, 1653.

2 Se also note 1, p. 22

3 Even Hereynie was written in honor of a court (see p. 22). Of the num- berless poems of this kind we may mention the following of those that were pastoral in form (for full titles and persons celebrated see table 2):

Der Elmen-Nymphen Lust.-Gebiiu by Glaser, 1750.

Der getreue Hiirte by Geller, 1653, Verlibtes Gespenste by Garahing, 1660, Pegnesische Gesprichspiel-Gesellschaft, by Birken, 1665; Jauchzende Cupido by Cronpusch, 1669; Der unbegiliickte Schiifer by Reich, 1686; Etliche Schéfer- gedichte by Wernicke, 1701; Schdifergedicht by Konig, 1730; An Friedrich II by Lindner, 1741; Schiéifergedancken by Neukirch, 1742 (?); Schéferspiel die Herbstfreude by Neuberin, 1753; Idylle auf Marien Charlotten by Regel- sperger, 1768; Der begliickte Friihling by Rautenstrauch, 1770. To show the extent to which this tendency was carried may be mentioned the poems of Joh.

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 27

ought to have imbued their poems with some life; but all realistic tendencies were entirely smothered by other elements: 1. the de- sire on the part of the authors and those whom they celebrated to withdraw as much as possible from the crude realities of life;1 2. the thought of a Golden Age, an ideal shepherd world, which colored the character of the productions, even though in many of them the shepherd garb was but a mask;? 3. the introduction of the gods of Greek and Roman mythology; 4. the personifica- tion of all the affections and qualities of man; symbolism carried to the extreme. a

What made this ideal shepherd world so general in the litera- ture of the time was the fully accepted belief that it once had really existed. In portraying scenes from an ideal pastoral existence the poet felt confident that he was going back to the very source and origin of poetry. This Arcadian life, however, could furnish but few character-types, as they were all to be good and virtuous, or, at least, not vicious. Hence the same charac- ters and motifs keep recurring continually. There is a dreary sameness in all these pastoral works, brightened by only an occa- sional flash of individual genius.

Many of these pastorals were after the model of Opitz’s Dafne,

Ulrich v. K6nig. In his works published at Dresden, 1745, there are 98 poems of which 82 are Gelegenheitsdichtungen in the sense mentioned above.

1 The founders of the Blumenorden in the preface to the Pegnesische Schii- fergedicht state that the description of actual peasants’ conversation and real boorish manners would be more disgusting than entertaining, and that the shepherds who appeared in their works denoted ‘‘durch die Schatfe ihre Biicher, durch derselben Wolle ihre Gedichte, durch die Hunde ihre von wichtigen Studien miissigen Stunden.” (See Koberstein Il 193—4).

2So in Hercynie, under the mask of the shepherd dress we are expected to recognize the poet himself, or some one he wishes to celebrate, or even the person- ification of some quality.

3 Cf. Sealiger, Poet. 1:4.— See Birken’s Teutsche-Redebind und Dicht- Kunst (Niirnberg 1679), especially the Zuschrift and Vorrede. The first sentence of the Zuschrift reads; ‘Dass die Dicht-Kunst in Feldern und Waldern gebohren und erzogen worden, erscheinet aus deme, was in niichst folgenden Vorrede hier- von gesagt worden. Sie ist eine Tochter der ersten giildenen Zeit.” — And page 293: “Die Poesy hat das Feldwesen zum Vatterland, und die Hirten zu ersten Urhebern.”’

28 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

set to music, which had the effect of still further increasing the un- real character of the play.

The pastoral and allegorical elements also forced their way into religious poetry.! Only when these elements entered the popular lyrics did they acquire more life and naturalness.2 The tendency towards Marinism and affectation reached its highest point in the works of Hoffmanswaldau (1617-1679) and Lohen- stein (1635-1683), the leaders of the so-called Second Silesian School. Literature had become more and more smothered with allegory, conceits, and bombast, and in the search for fine phrases, foreign words forced their way into the works of some authors to an incredible degree. As a consequence, popular interest in lit- erature almost died out. <A revulsion had to come, and it took the form especially of a return to the contemplation of nature. This brings us to the second and greater wave of idyllic and pas- toral works (see table 1), on the crest of which are Gessner’s idyls, the culmination of the pastoral literature in Germany.

About the beginning of the eighteenth century there was a re- volt against the bombast and unnaturalness of the so-called Sec-

ond Silesian School. We can trace the influence of Reaction Against such a reaction in the few idyls written at this Bombast. time; but especially did it arouse men to contem- plate and describe nature with a deeper apprecia- tion of its beauty. The tendency to realism which lay dormant in this movement was indeed suffocated by the influence of

1 The extreme of this tendency is perhaps represented in a work by Laur. v. Schnifis, which went through many editions: Mirantisches Fl6tlein oder Geist- liche Schéfferey, in welchem Christusunter dem Namen Daphnis die in dem Siindenschlaff vertietite Seel Clorinda zu einem bessern Leben auffer wecket. Constanz 1682. Cf. Koberstein II 218.

2 See Die deutsche Renaissance Lyrik by Waldberg; also Koberstein II 28.

3 “Deutsch kann jeder Bauer reden” said a learned man, Biedermann: Deut. Volks u. Kultur Gesch. Book V., p.65, 66. —

In a play composed to celebrate the peace of Westphalia the following sentence occurs: ‘Ein Cavalier ist welcher ein gut courage hat, maitiniret sein etat und reputation und gibt einen politen courtisanen ab.”— Of Birken’s free use of foreign words and phrases, see Huphorion 1897, Heft 3, article by Burckhardt.

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GHSSNER. 29

Gottsched and his followers, but yet Gessner owes this descriptive literature much of what is best in his idyls.

The first great opponent of the turgid style was Christian Weise. He wrote but one pastoral: Die betriibte und getréstete Galathea, 1674, which shows unmistakable signs of dramati¢ ability. Wernicke, in whose style we trace Weise’s influence, cele- brates in his four idyls two deaths, one birth, and one betrothal in the conventional, allegorical manner.! The most realistic poet of his time was Christian Giinther? (1695-1723), whose re- alism, however, often degenerates into coarseness. He also wrote a pastoral for a wedding, commemorates his old friends in a shep- herd-poem, and in a conventional manner desires to have his epi- taph cut in a tree.

Compared with those of Wernicke and Gitinther, the eclogues of B. Neukirch? (1665-1729) show a retrogression towards the in- flated style of Lohenstein. Yet Gottsched, in his Critische Dicht- kunst (1730), calls Neukirch Der deutsche Theokrit, and in the 3d edition of Crit. Dichtk. (1742) he replaces his own model idyls by four of Neukirch’s.*

1 First printed 1701. See N. Wernikens poetische Versuche in Ueber-. schritten, wie auch in Helden und Schifergedichten edited by J. J. Bodmer, Ziirich 1749. This work was probably known to Gessner. As a sample may be given the synopsis of the 1st eclogue: Menalcas meeting Thyrsis, after some preliminary conversation, informs him of the death of Daphnis. Thyrsisexclaims: “Ist unser Daphnis todt? Denn gute Nacht Ihr Walder,” etc. (cf, Daphnis’s fare- well in Theocritus I). — They recallincidents of Daphnis’s life, and decide to gather flowers for his grave. The influence of Vergil may be traced,

2 “Der letzte Schlesier’.— With him closes the long line of poets that began with Opitz —Goethe thought highly of his songs and odes. See Tittman’s Intro- duction to the works of J. C. Giinther (1874). Cf. also O. Netoliczka: Schéiferdich- tung u. Poetik im 18:ten Jahrhundert, in Viertel-Jahrschrift fiir Litt.-Gesch II. 2, 1889, p. 5.

3 The following shows to what extremes of absurdity he could go; in one of his poems we are told: “‘Die um Sylviens Busen spielende Hand wird vor Liebes- brand schwarz, Sylvia aber will ihr eine Gunst missgénnen, die sie den Fléhen nicht versagt.” (Ehrich Schmidt in Allg. Deut. Biog.) In Neukirch’s Grosse Anthologie (p. 577) a wedding pastoral oddly compares the bride to the sheep, the bridegroom to the shepherd, who loves not her wool, the golden fieece, but her heart. Netoliczka, p. T.

4 In the edition of 1751, p. 593, Gottsched says; ‘‘Hier kann ich also keinen

30 PASTOORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

In the revolt against bombast and affectation, Brockes and Haller led the way in turning to the contemplation of nature which had for so long a time been neglected. Literature Many authors followed in their footsteps. This Descriptive of literature, descriptive of nature, also set its stamp Nature; Brockes, upon the idyls of Gessner. Haller and Brockes! produced nine volumes.of purely de- Kleist. scriptive poetry, the title of which describes its character: JIrdisches Vergniigen in Gott? (1721- 1748). He delineates all kinds of scenes on land and sea, plants, animals, the seasons, the various parts of the day, the heavens, the mental capacities of man, and a thousand other objects. These poems are usually too minute and detailed, and hence afford no good general survey of the object or scene described. As an artist of no mean merit, he sought to bring his poetry as much as possible under the rules of the arts of music and paint- ing. Though this implied a gross misunderstanding of the rules of literary composition, yet by this very mistake he made a great advance in form and in subject-matter over his predecessors. His descriptions display fine perception; his great fault is that he always depicts Jifeless nature. There is no action, as he was un- able to people his world with appropriate inhabitants. He made his poems didactic, his views of the creation being teleological: God in nature, and purpose in everything created was ever his theme.

bessern nennen, als Neukirchen, der uns etliche schéne Proben (von Eklogen) gegeben hat, und also unser deutscher Theokrit zu heissen verdienet.”’ Yet in this edition Gottsched shows the good sense of omitting Neukirch’s idyls, and even ventures to criticise them.

1 Barthold Heinrich Brockes 1680—1747. His Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott was greatly admired by his contemporaries, the first volume going through seven editions.

2S. Gessner (in Brief iiber die Landschaftsmalerei, Frey’s ed. in Deu Nat. Lit. p. 288 ff.) speaks of Brockes’s minute descriptions of nature and adds: “Ofit zu weitschweifig, oft zu erkiinstelt, sind seine Gedichte ein Magazin von Gemiilden u. Bildern, die gerade aus der Natur genommen sind,”

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER. 31

Haller was greatly influenced by Brockes,! and like him consid- ered the didactic and descriptive element to be the main purpose of poetry. But he made an improvement upon Brockes, both in his descriptions of nature, and especially by peopling it with real characters. By combining these two elements, human characters and a natural background, he produced literature that was idyl- lic in its nature.

These first notes of a realistic idyl in Germany were heard in Haller’s Alpen. In 1728 Haller,? who ardently loved his native country, Switzerland, made a journey through the Alps, the im- pressions of which he describes in Die Alpen (published 1732). Other poets (as Brockes) had sung the beauty of the plain, the forest, the meadow, and the quiet river. But never before had the grand scenery of the mountains been described. Haller first grasped them poetically, and in his vigorous and rhetorical verse called the attention of his contemporaries to the beauty which before had aroused more awe than admiration.

In accordance with the taste of the times and following Brockes, Haller enters into a doubtful contest with the flowerand the land- scape painter. But instead of bringing in the ever-recurring reflections of Brockes on the goodness and wisdom of God and the purpose of creation, Haller combined with his descriptions pictures of human life standing in the very closest relation to the nature he depicts. Haller sketches before our eyes the natural beauties of the Alps, the seasons, the pursuits and festivals of the people, in general: simple, contented and happy life in the moun- tains. Here are the beginnings of the genuine idyl.+ Yet this best and most characteristic part of the poem failed to attract the attention of his contemporaries. Even his countryman Gess-

1 See Julian Schmidt; Gesch d. deut. Lit. 1176.

2See Albrecht von Hallers Gedichte, edited by Dr. Ludwig Hirzel, Frauen- feld 1882,

3 Lessing in his Laokoon XVII, deals the death blow to merely descriptive poetry, He quotes Die Alpen, verses 381-400, which minutely describes the flora of the Alps, and shows its unsatisfactory character.

4 See Koberstein, Deu. Nat. Lit. V; 53, 1.

32 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

ner follows Haller’s example in only one idyl, where he describes a real human character with the Alps as background. Not till we come to the works of Miller and Voss do we again hear idyllic notes of such clearness and beauty as Haller’s.

Haller was also the first poet who gave expression to the feeling of hostility against society and civilization (‘“Kulturtemdliche Stimmung”’) in German poetry; the sentiment which later found its best expression in Rousseau with his theory of a return to na- ture.1

In imitation of Brockes and Haller there appeared a great number of works descriptive of nature. Foremost of these is Ewald von Kleist’s? Friihling (1749), in which he describes the impressions he had received during a walk on a beautiful spring day. It is based upon Brockes’ paraphrased translation of Thomson’s Seasons. Compared with Haller’s Alpen it shows a retrogression in the idyllic elements, while the descriptions? are more vigorous. °*

The germs of a genuine idyl, especially as found in Haller, were not to bear fruit till almost half a century later. Most promi-

nent among the influences which interrupted its The Influence of development was that of Gottsched. This reac-

Gottsched; tionary effect he accomplished mainly by two of Critische his works which he published at the beginning of Dichtkunstand his ‘“‘autocratic rule’ in German literature, Cri- Atalanta. tische Dichtkunst® (1730), and the shepherd-

play Atalanta (1741). By the former he deter-

1 See p. 40.

2 Ewald Christian y. Kleist (1715-1759) also wrote many poems of an idyllic nature (See Deut. Nat. Lit.; Anakreontiker); among others Sehusucht nach Ruhe 1744 (p. 134): An Wilhelmina (p. 131), Das Landleben 1745 (p. 140) Menalk (p. 142).

3 Gottsched and his followers: condemned it; but it was hailed with joy by Klopstock and the Swiss, and strengthened not a little the influence of descriptive poetry in Gessner’s idylls. (Se2 Deut. Nat. Lit., Anakreontiker I1. 109.)

4 Lessing’s Laokoon XVIII. passes sentence on descriptive poetry; Der Friihlingis also mentioned as coming under this doom, since it is “eine mit Emp- findungen sparsam durchwebten Reihe von Bildern.”’

5 See Julian Schmidt: Gesch. d. deut. Lit. 1 226.

5 The references on the following pages are to the edition of 1751.

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GISSNER, 33

mined the theory of the idyl, as well as other forms of literature, till after Gessner’s appearance; and his shepherd-play Atalanta was followed by such a mushroom growth of pastoral dramas as is seen nowhere else in literature.

Gottsched’s Critische Dichtkunst is the first complete treatment of literary forms that I could find after Birken’s Dichtkunst (1679). It shows an utter lack of originality, treating the sub- ject-matter in a superficial and conventional manner and does not at all make any advance in the theory of literary forms. As to idyllic literature, he merely accepts the verdict of French crit- ics, especially Fontenelle.1 It is only a re-statement of the tra- ditional theories of the seventeenth century as we see them in Opitz and Birken.? Gottsched again repeats the old theory that pastoral literature was the oldest in the world,? that it ought to describe an ideal existence in a Golden age,‘ since the present shepherd-life is unsuitable for poetic treatment; the only passion to be described is love, but such love must be of an innocent na- ture;> theshepherds of Theocritus are too “grob und plump,” Ver- gil was “artiger,” though his shepherds were not always virtuous enough; fisher-idyls are not in good taste, as a fisherman’s work is too laborious; vintagers, however, are proper subjects for idyl- lic description.

Only in one point did Gottsched show any advance on Fonte-

1 “Herr von Fontenelle, dem ich diese Anmerkungen mehrertheils abborge.”’ Crit. Dichtk. p. 589.

2 Ci. Von der deutschen Poeterey by Opitz (Breslau 1624) pp. 23, 33. Also Birken’s Teutsche Redebind- und Dichtkunst (Niirnberg 1679), especially the Zuschrift and Vorrede.

3 P. 581: Man kann gewissernmassen sagen, dass diese Gattung (Idyllen) die allerailteste sey.’ — To defend this statement he adds: ‘‘Die allerersten Poesien sind nicht bis auf unsre Zeiten gekommen,”’

4 P, 582, Gottsched says; ‘‘Poetisch wurde ich sagen es (ein gutes Schiifer- gedicht) sey eine Abschilderung des giildenen Weltalters; auf christliche Art zu reden aber eine Vorstellung des Standes der Unschuld, oder doch wenigstens der patriarchalischen Zeit, vor und nach der Siindfluth.

5 P. 585: “Kurz, die unschuldige Schiferliebe muss von allen Lastern frey seyn, die sich durch die Bosheit der Menschen allmiihlich eingeschlichen haben.”’ The shepherd, he adds, must be “ganz tugendhaft und vergniigt.”’

34 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

nelle in the direction of naturalness; for he criticises Fontenelle for having made his shepherds ‘witty Parisians clad in satin.”

The extreme development, however, in the theory of the idyl? appears in J. A. Schlegel’s satire Vom Natiirlichen in Schafergedich- ten,*? published 1746. He intended this essay as a satire upon Gottsched and his followers; yet his theory does not fundamen- tally differ from Gottsched’s view of the idyl as expressed in Critische Dichtkunst. But it goes beyond Gottsched, and shows the extreme of the rococo taste in excluding everything that at all smacked of realism. Sickness, sweat, ordinary labor of any kind (‘What have the Muses to do with household work?”’) must he utterly excluded. Gessner’s fastidious shepherds show that this theory also influenced him.

It is interesting to notice that The Guardian,’ translated from the English by Frau Gottsched (1749), contains the first beginnings of a sound realistic conception of the idyl. Especially does it oppose the traditional cult of Vergil, and points out the genuineness of feeling which is displayed by the shepherds of The- ocritus, as compared with the rhetorical tone of Vergil’s. Gess-

1 Gottsched himself probably felt the unreal character of this kind of poetry, as is shown by J. J. Schwabe’s preface to Gottsched’s Gedichte (1736), his ec- logues being omitted in this edition. Schwabe says (after calling the reader’s at- tention to the fact that there are no shepherd-poems in this edition); “‘Wo ist die gtildene Freiheit, die reine Liebe, und die tugendhafte Hinfalt, die das Wesen der- selben sind? — jetzt verzeih uns nur, dass wir euch mit keinem Hirngeburten un- terhalten, denen ihr doch nicht dhnlich sein wollt.’”’ See Gottsched’s Gedichte 1751, pp. 20, 21,

2 Among others who discussed pastoral literature was Christlob Mylius, Les- sing’s cousin, in an article on Schéifer Poesie, 1745. He makes the absurd pro- position that ‘‘ein vollkommener Kenner des Charakters aller Arten von Schifer_ gedichten nach dem Inhalt der Muster der guten alten und neuen Schafergedichten eine Geschichte von Arkadien als Richtschnur fiir die Poeten verfertigen und herausgeben solle,’’ See Netoliczka p. 56.

3 Vom natiirlichen in Schifergedichten, wider die Verfasser der Bremischen neuen Beytrige veriertiget vom Nisus einem Schifer in den Kohlgarten einem Dorfe vor Leipzig- Von Hanns Jérgen gleichfalls einem Schafer, Zitirich, 1746. Nisus was J. A. Schlegel, Jorgen Bodmer.

4 Gleim’s Bléder Schifer is criticised for making mention of “Heu und Erbsenstroh.” See Kérte; Gleim’s Leben, p. £1.

5 Se Page 59, Netoliczka.

or

PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER, 3

ner, too, in spite of his unreal and conventional shepherds, claimed that Theocritus was his model. Whether he was at all influenced by said article, I do not know.

Ever since Opitz had imtroduced the Opera into Germany through his translation of Dafne, with its mythological and pas” toral character, the opera had been a favorite form of entertain- ment, first at court-festivities,' later in some of the large cities, especially Hamburg, Braunschweig, and Dresden, and grew to be exceedingly popular. Ballets, pantomimes, and masquerades were introduced into these operas, whence the music and display became all-important, while the text was utterly disregarded.

When Gottsched began his reforms of the German stage, he found the stage occupied by this form of opera, which he heartily despised.” Wishing to drive the opera off the stage, he pro- posed to substitute for it the shepherd-play to be spoken, not sung, and wrote his Atalanta (published 1741) with this purpose in view.* He succeeded, too, beyond his expectations; German literature was literally deluged by imitations of Gottsched’s play- During the ten years immediately following the publication of Atalanta more than thirty shepherd-dramas appeared, seven be- ing published in the year 1746 alone.

In Atalanta and these plays which it called into existence there is no individual characterization; all allusions to the ordinary oc- cupations of life are carefully avoided. The shepherds are mere conventional types, puppets without life and reality; the writers do not give any motives for the entrance or exit of the actors,

1 As a good example of these operas may be mentioned Johann von Besser’s Singspiele, 1707, (‘‘mit mythologischem Prunk ausstaffiert’”’), page 563 of Des Hernn von Besser Schrifften 1732,

2 “Wenn nicht die Regeln der ganzen Poesie iibern Haufen fallen sollen, so muss ich mit dem St. Evremond sagen: Die Oper sei das ungereimteste Werk, der menschliche Verstand jemals erfunden hat” Krit. Dichtk. p, 369.

3 See Das deutsche Schiferspiel des 18. Jahrhunderts (Inaugural Disser- tation), Halle a, 8., 1885, by Friedrich Riihle, In this he sets forth the importance of Gottsched’s Atalanta in the development of the pastoral drama.

36 PASTORAL LITERATURE FROM OPITZ TO GESSNER.

wherefore these plays lack all unity of dramatic action. No real advance can be traced in these dramas;* on the contrary, a tendency towards shallow and sensual triviality manifested itself, so that Gleim laments the deterioration of the literary taste, and calls these plays ““Schweinhirten-spiele.”’*

The importance of these plays in their influence upon the idyl lies in this, that they filled Germany with the atmosphere of this unreal pastoral world. Hence it seemed necessary to the first writers of idyls to retain this ideal hazy shepherd-life in their works in order to make them acceptable to their contemporaries.

A protest against these Schweinhirten-spiele and a return to an imnocent ideal world is seen in the many works of the time

which went back to the patriarchal age of the “‘Patriarcha- Bible for their motives. These ‘“‘Patriarchaden,” den.” usually epic in form, may be traced to the influ-

ence of Klopstock and even to Milton. The works emanated from the circle that was opposed to Gottsched,* and exerted great influence upon Gessner. This ‘‘seraphic poetry,” as Julian Schmidt calls it, suffers from the common fault of the period, vagueness and lack of characterization.

The earliest and best written idyls of the period immediately

1 Bodmer’s pastoral drama Cimon (written 1747) is noticeable by its giving reasons for the entrance and exit of the actors, and by its haying a definite local- ity, “‘zum ersten und einzigen Mal in einem Schiiferspiel” (Netoliczka, p. 68).- Yet even Bodmer was unable to imbue his characters with any life or reality.

2 See Netoliczka p. 19.

3 In the year 1746 Gleim writes to Uz as follows: ‘Nach meiner Meinung hat in Deutschland nie ein so schlimmer Geschmack geherrscht als jetzt.- Man macht Schiiferspiele, die man mit Recht Schweinhirten-spiele nennen kann.’ See Gleims Leben by K6rte (1811) p. 43.

4 Milton’s Paradise Lost was translated by J. J. Bodmer 1732, revised edition 1742; this as is well known greatly influenced Klopstock’s Messias, three books of which were published 1748.

5 Bodmer’s “‘Patriarchaden”’ were a weak imitation of Klopstock’s Messias; they were: Noah 1750, Jacob and Joseph 1751, Jacob and Rachel 1752; Klopstock in turn followed his example in Der 70d Adams 1757, which work Gessner imitated in Der Tod Abels 1758; Maler Miiller showed the influence of his predecessors in Der erschlagene Abel 1775, and Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Néichte 1778.

PASTORAL LITERATURE PROM OPITZ TO GHSSNER, 37

preceding Gessner are Johann, Christoph Rost’s Schéfererzéhlun-

gen.1. Both in style and contents they show a Writers of Idyls_ reaction against the conventional French taste of Immediately Pre- Gottsched, and contain many anacreontic ele- ceding Gessner. ments. He abandoned the idea of an innocent

Arcadian existence, and employs the form of the idyl for presenting the grossest sensual descriptions, though writ- ten in exceedingly light and pleasing style. Rost’s lasciviousness was imitated only by C. N. Naumann, whose work is merely vulgar, as he lacked Rost’s ability.

As Gessner was closely associated with Hagedorn and the “Hallenser”’ circle, they exerted great influence upon his style. Hagedorn’s Fabeln und Erzéhlungen (1738) gave models for the epic treatment of bucolic material. From the ‘Hallenser’’ circle (Gleim, Uz, G6tz, etc.) emanated a species of poetry which com- bined anacreontic and pastoral elements.? The idyls of J. N. G6tzt were added to his book of poems: Die Oden Anakreons in reimlosen Versen (1746). These idyls are written in rhymed verse, and, like the works of all these anacreontic writers, are very light and charming in style. From these authors Gessner ac- quired much of his pleasing and graceful style, and the anacreon- tic element also enters into his idyls.*

In the idyls of Chr. Fr. Zernitz appears the tendency of again turning to an innocent pastoral world. However, his work, Versuch in moralischen und Schétfergedichten, 1748, written in strophic form, is wholly worthless. °

1 See Versuch von Schifergedichten und andern poetischen Ausarbet- tungen 1760 (name of author and publisher not given on title page). The popularity of this work is attested by the fact that it went through eleven edi- tions. Of similar nature is Rost’s Die schénste Nacht, Berlin, 1763, one of the most famous poems of German erotic literature,

2 Sieben Hirtengedichte vom Schoch dem jiingern aus Sachsen- 1743.- See Netoliczka, p. 19.

3 See Anakreontiker in Deut. Nat. Lit.

4 See Koberstein V. 56, and Netoliczka, p. 62.

5 See Scherer’s Deut. Lit. Gesch. p. 430.

6 See Koberstein V. 56, and Netoliezka 57.

(uuy io’)

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

None of these idyllic writers preceding Gessner had struck the note that suited the visionary, sentimental mood of their time.? Their work is of importance mainly as calling the attention of their contemporaries to this literary form. The sentimentality of the time was now to find its best expression in the idyls of Gess- ner.

CHAPTER LY.

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IpyL.

Gessner gathered together all the threads of pastoral poetry running throug’ the literature of the period at the end of which he stood, and wove these into his idyls. Hence in his works we find all the elements of weakness as well as of excellence, charac- teristic of the rococo eighteenth century.

Solomon Gessner was born in 1730 at Ziirich, where he spent most of his life, thus coming directly under the influence of the Swiss school and of Klopstock. Early in his youth he was at- tracted to the descriptive poetry of Brockes, for which he enter- tained a predilection all through life. When nineteen years old he went to Berlin to learn his father’s trade, that of book-dealer, but soon turned to the study of drawing and painting. At Berlin he made the acquaintance of Ramler, to whom he showed his first poetical efforts, and who exerted a lasting influence upon his lit- erary development. From 1751 on he resided at Ziirich. Unable

1 Of other writers of idyls I may also mention K. A. Sehmidt.- See Koberstein VY. 56. Hirtenlieder und Gedichte was published at Halle, 1753, by ananonymous writer. See Netoliczka p. 63.- Concerning F. W. Zachariaé’s Phaeton 1754. Geryinus says it could not be called anything but an idyl, if it did not smack of being a parody on Ovid’s Phaeton. See Gervinus IV. 22.

tle

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL, 39

to earn his living: by his literary labors, he took up painting as his calling. After the death of his father he assumed control of the book-shop. Meanwhile his works had made him famous, so that he was honored by his townsmen with many positions of trust until his death in 1787.

Before he came to write the idyls upon which his fame chiefly rests, he tried his apprentice hand upon other works. His first poems were anacreontic,! in imitation of Hagedorn and Gleim. The next step towards the idyl was the pastoral romance Daphnis (1754), suggested to him by a chance reading of a translation of Daphnis and Chloe by Longos, which has been the great model for so many works of this nature. Gessner’s Daphnis lacks ac- tion and reality as compared with the original. The story is full of tenderness and delicacy, but these qualities do not make up for what it lacks in strength and variety.

In the short sketch of Genrebild Gessner found the literary form for which his talent best fitted him. His first idyls, twerty in number, were published in 1756, followed by his Neue Idyllen, twenty-two in number, in 1772. The later idyls are to a great extent a reflection of the best parts of the first collection. Yet though they lack the freshness of the first idyls, the style and lan- guage show an advance in being less diffuse.

These idyls, especially the first edition, suited as no other had done, the “‘sweetish”’ sentimentality of the time, and were hailed with joy. In what did this feeling consist?

The tendency of German poetry to turn to a visionary world of imaginary innocence and happiness, away from the conditions of surrounding distress, is one of the most marked characteristics of the time.2 The peasants and shepherds were almost without

1 See Frey’s Gessner, Introduction, p. 10.

Frey in his indroduction to Gessner’s works, page 18, says: “Aallers prophetische Strafrede, Gessner’s liebliche Idylle, Lessing’s Emilia Galotti, Goethe’s G6tzund Schiller’s Jugenddramen— sie liegen hier alle in einer Linie; die Sehnsucht der Idylle wendet sich seufzend von ihrer Zeit ab, der Zorn der stiir- mischen Dramen stészt diese um,”’

40 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

exception so poor and oppressed, that a realistic portrayal of their condition would have attracted no attention. As Gessner puts it: ‘Was soll der Schafer mit der Wirklichkeit wo der Bauer mit saurer Arbeit unterthinig Fiirsten und Stiidten den Uberfiuss liefern muss, wo Armuth und Unterdriickung ihn ungesittet, schlau, und niedertrachtig gemacht haben?”’!

But this feelmg of aversion was directed not only against pastoral or peasant life; civilization as a whole was blamed for having produced all the crime and unhappiness in the world. This common sentiment found its best expression in the works of Rousseau. Even in his first great works,? which appeared before the idyls of Gessner, Rousseau appears as the great apostle of freedom from the restraints of civilization, and in tones which re- echoed throghout the world, preaches a return to nature.

Gessner, in common with his contemporaries, turned away from the present state of the world and of.civilization, which seemed all wrong, to an ideal world which was thought of either as wholly imaginary or as having existed in the past. Such periods they found in an ideal Arcadia, and also in the patriarchal times as pictured in the Bible stories treating of the periods before and after the deluge. Especially did Klopstock and the Swiss turn with religious fervor to depicting the Patriarchal Age.$ Gessner and his contemporaries entertained an unshakable belief and assurance that such an ideal world had actually existed. Was not the Bible narrative in itself absolute proof that this earthhad

1 Gessner’s Introduction to the idyls, p. 64,

2 In 1750 appeared Discours sur les sciences et les arts, which shows Rousseau’s “‘Kulturfeindliche Stimmung;’ it appears still more forcibly in his Discours sur Pinegalité parmi les hommes 1755, translated by Moses Men- delssohn in the following year.

3 Gervinus IV, 174, says: “Dass wir die Idyllen von Salomon Gessner aus Ziirich auf eine Linie mit diesen Patriarchaden stellen, wird niemand wundern, der die Geschichtlichen Verhiltnisse beachtet hat. Er ging aus Klopstock hervor, wie Thomson aus Milton,”

4 Gessner writes: ‘Kurz, sie (die Ekloge) schildert uns ein goldnes Weltalter, das gewiss einmal da gewesen ist, denn davon kann uns die Geschichte der Patriarchen iiberzeugen, und die Hinfalt der Sitten, die uns Homer schildert.”

GHSSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THER PASTORAL IDYL, 41

seen an age of innocence and perfect happiness, when pastoral occupation was the most important? And was not the legend of the Golden Age, which had come down from classic authors corroborative evidence? In this ideal shepherd-world, too, all poetry had its origin and source, and to this era of perfection man must always go for his noblest ideals and highest aspirations. Gessner tried to depict this era as he imagined it had really exist- ed,1_ and ardently hoped that it might again bless the earth and usher in a new age of innocence and happiness.

In’ Gessner’s idyls description of nature occupies the most prominent place. Of the forty-two idyls of Gessner, twenty lack dialogue altogether, and are purely descriptive or narrative; and of the dialogues, fifteen or more come in this same category, leaving but a few in which the descriptive element is of minor importance. A Swiss and a painter, he seems to have been doubly qualified for describing the grand nature of his native country; but not even Haller’s Alpen had opened his eyes to the beauty and grandeur of the mountains. On the contrary, nature in his works is too conventional and overadorned, like the ornamental French gardening of the rococo period.

Gessner intentionally made the descriptive element so promi- nent, following the examples of Haller and Kleist, and more especially of their predecessor Brockes, whose minute vapid de- scriptions had charmed him in his youth. In common with these great descriptive authors Gessner still labored under the theory that poetry could and should vie with the landscape painter, and in his idyls he entered into this unequal contest. In his Brief tiber die Landschattsmalerei he says: ‘Die Dichtkunst ist die wahre Schwester der Malerkunst. — Wie mancher Kiinstler wiirde mit mehr Geschmack edlere Gegenst&nde wiihlen, wie mancher Dichter wtirde in seinen Gemiilden mehr Wahrheit, mehr Malendes im

1 Gessner says: “Diese Dichtungsart bekon:mt daher einen besondern Vortheil, wenn man die Scenen in ein entferntes Weltalter setzt; sie erhalten dadurch einen héhern Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit.”

The Idyl in German Literature. 3

42 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL,

Ausdruck haben, wenn sie die Kenntniss beider Stiicke mehr ver- banden.”’! This tendency naturally developed much Kleinmalerei. In his Brief tiber die Landschaftsmalerei Gessner characterizes his early work as a painter; this criticism is also the best character- istic of his literary productions, including the idyl. He writes: “Meine Neigung ging vorztiglich auf die Landschaft. Das Beste und der Hauptendzweck ist doch immer die Natur. So dacht’ ich und zeichnete nach der Natur. Aber ich wollte der Natur allzugenau folgen und sah mich in Kleinigekeiten des Detail verwickelt, die den Effekt des Ganzen st6rten; und fast immer fehlte mir die Manier, die den Gegenstéinden der Natur ihren wahren Charakter beibe- halt.’’?

Just as the grand nature of the Alps finds no reflection in Gessner’s idyls, he also fails to imitate Haller in introducing actual idyllic life of the mountain people who dwelled in almost patriar- chal simplicity. However, Gessner did people his beautified nature with inhabitants: shepherds, satyrs, fauns, and zephyrs. Even though the former are more natural than Fontenelle’s shepherds (‘courtiers clad in silk’), yet two causes contributed to make the characters represented seem unreal and lifeless. In the first place they were only of minor importance as compared with the scenery of which they were intended to be the ornaments and decorations. In the second place, the scenes are laid in an ideal Arcadia, an innocent Golden Age, and in consequence the characters are vague and unreal, too innocent and virtuous to be really human. This Arcadian innocence and goodness makes the characters all of one general type; it was always the same shepherd in different situations. This poverty of character-types is all the more noticeable as there is hardly any action in the idyls. In twenty

1 Continuing, Gessner writes: ‘‘Der Landschafts-malér muss sehr zu beklagen sein, den z. B. die Gemiilde eines Thomson nicht begeistern k6nnen. Ich habe in diesem grossen Meister viele Gemiilde gefunden, die aus den besten Werken der grdssesten Maler genommen scheinen, und die der Kiinstler ganz auf sein Tuch tibertragen konnte.”” Brockes is also mentioned. p. 288.

2 See Brief iiber die Landschaftsmalerei in Gessners Werke (Deut Nat. Lit.) p. 282.

GESSNER AND THI CULMINATION OF THI PASTORAL IDYL. 43

of the fourty-two idyls no dialogue occurs at all, and what dia- logue there is, is lacking in dramatic life, being: either descriptive or narrative. The conversation of the shepherds which ought to bring out the difference of character only shows how exactly alike they are,!. most of what is said would be equally appropriate in the mouth of either shepherd. This sameness is necessarily fatal to any continued interest in the characters. Their calm dialogue cannot move us even when it, as in the idyl Der Sturm, describes a storm at sea and a shipwreck. As Goethe says: “Voltaire kann zu Lausanne aus seinem Bette dem Sturm des Genfer Sees im Spiegel nicht ruhiger zugesehen haben als die Leute auf dem Felsen, um die das Wetter wiitet, sich vice versa detailliren was sie beide sehen.”’

Two of Gessners idyls, however, deserve special mention as differing from the others, and showing an approach toward realism.

Der Faun (idyl 20) has some of the spirit of Theocritus, and excellently characterizes two different types; the love-sick Faun, whose suit has been rejected, gives way to despair, while hisfriend banters him on account of his passion and eventually induces him to join the merry procession in honor of Lyaeus.

In only one idyl does Gessner leave the dream-world of an Arcadian existence and descend to terra firma; in only one does he foreshadow the realistic idyl, which wassosoon to appear, descri- bing characters and scenes of the native soil. Das hdlzerne Bein, eine Schweizer-idylle portrays in the old invalid soldier a charac- teristic figure with the grand mountains of Switzerland as a background. The veteran describes in animated words to an

1 Goethe says: “Zeigt das nicht den gréssten Mangel dichterischer Empfind- ung, dass in keiner einzigen dieser Idyllen die handlenden Personen wahres Interesse an und mit einander haben? Entweder ist es kalter, erziihlender Monolog oder was eben so schlimm ist, Erziihlung und ein Vertrauter der seine paar Pfennige quer hinein dialogisiert, und wenn denn einmal zwei was zusammen finden, empfindet’s einer wie der andre, und da ist’s vor wie nach.’’ See Goethe's excellent review of Moralische Erzihlungen uaod Idyllen von Diderot und S. Gessner in Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeigen 8, 273 (1772).

44 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

admiring young shepherd one of the severe battles fought for the independence of Switzerland. But even this idyl Gessner over loads by bringing in an account of the shepherd’s subsequent visit to the soldier’s home, and hismarriage with the soldier’s daughter. Of the first part of this idyl Goethe says: ‘‘Wie ich anfing, sie zu lesen, rief ich aus: O, hitt’er nichts, als Schweizer-idyllen gemacht: Dieser treuherzige Ton, diese muntre Wendung des Gesprachs, das National-interesse! Das hélzerne Bein ist mir lieber als em Dutzend elfenbeierne Nymphenftisschen!’’!

The hexameter would have been the most natural form for Gessner to adopt in his idyls after the example set by Klopstock and Kleist, and by Bodmer in his Patriarchaden, especially as that is also the meter of the classic idyls. But at the advice of Raimler he began to write in a rhythmical prose,? which together with a poetic and elevated style he adopted in nearly allhis works. Everywhere occur fragments of iambic? or dactylic verse, occasion- ally even a whole hexameter line.4 Thisrhythmical prose appears in the works of many of the immediate imitators of Gessner, especially writers of idyls, some of whom tried to hide their inability to put their weak products into a strict poetical form, and hence chose this easier rhythmical form.

The idyl or Genre-bild suited Gessner’s peculiar talent. But with success came the ambition to produce some greater work. Under the influence of Klopstock and the Patriarchal epics of the Swiss, he wrote Der Tod Abels which was considered by his

1 In Frankf. Gel. Anz., 1772.

2 Later Ramler became possessed with the mania to “improve” the works of his friends. Among other ‘‘improvements’”’ he turned Gessner’s prose idyls into verse and published them under the title: Gessner's auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht (Berlin 1787). ;

3 So in idyl I there are long iambic passages; e. g, “Die, Daphne! dies allein, belohne meine Lieder, dies sei mein Ruhm, dass mir an deiner Seite, aus deinem holden Auge Beifall liachle.”’

4E. g., in Gessner’s wellknown idyl Mirtil (No, 5), we meet the following dactylic prose, the latter part of it constituting an hexameter line: “Ttzt schwieg er und sah mit thriinendem Aug’ auf den Greisen; Wie er lachelnd da liegt und schlummert! sprach er itzt schluchzend.”’

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. 45

contemporaries, especially in France, as his best work. He des- cribes in it the same idyllic world as in his idyls, with the same lack of action, and inability to characterize. Abel is the embod- iment of good, Cain of evil, but as Gessner could create no genuine human villain, there is no real climax. Der erste Schiffer (1762), altogether pastoral in its character, is considered Gessner’s best work both as to the plot and style.

Gessner informsus, that in his idyls he took Theocritus for his model. He says: ‘Ich habe den Theokrit immer fiir das beste Muster in dieser Art Gedichte gehalten. — Ich habe

Gessner and ‘ aieites 3 meine Regeln in diesem Muster gesucht.” And out-

Theocritus. Rena SS z A : wardly he did imitate Theocritus and the ancients in

choosing their shepherd-names, as Daphnis and Daphne, Amyntas and Alexis, Damon and Thyrsis, Phillisand Chloe, Tityrus and Me- nalkas; further, by the introduction of satyrs and fauns, by the use of songs and refrains, and by referring to the ordinary occupations of shepherd-life. Yet there is a wide difference between the two: Gessner described a beautified nature which he adorned with Dresden China shepherds. Theocritus described human characters to whom he gave an appropriate natural background. Seemingly Gessner himself did not appreciate in all its extent the difference between himself and Theocritus. This self-deception may to some extent be explained by Gessner’s inability to read Greek; it is possible that the French translation of Theocritus, which he used, may have blurred the distinctness and vigor of the original out- lines: So in the introduction to his idyls Gessner several times speaks of the unverdorbene Herzen and sanfte Miene der Unsckuld ihrer Liebe of the shepherds of Theocritus, asifthey, too, belonged to an innocent Arcadia. By omitting such realistic features as seemed to him inappropriate according to his standard,’ he

1 Frey says in his introduction to Gessner’s works: Uber dem ganzen Werk- chen ist ein unendlicher Zauber siisser Sehnsucht und nirgendsschimmert Gessner’s traumhafte Welt in solechem Glanze, wie hier.’”’- Cf. Koberstein V, 57, 11.

2 “Zwar weiss ich wohl dass einige wenige Ausdriicke und Bilder in Theokrit bei so sehr abgeiinderten Sitten uns veriichtlich worden sind; dergleichen Um-

46 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

thought that he could produce a world which was as real as that of Theocritus, without the latter’s seeming coarseness, not appre- ciating that it is just the combination of all these small touches in Theocritus which give color and life to his characters and to his poetry.

Though Gessner himself challenges a comparison of his idyls with those of Theocritus, we cannot judge them by the same standard, but must always remember, that the aim and purpose of the two poets was altogether different.1. It was Gessner’s aim to describe a Golden Age, in which piety and virtue and calm happiness reigned supreme; it was his aim to portray a nature beautiful and perfect, like the paradise of the Bible. Besides this there was the moral purpose: Gessner wished to strengthen in his readers the desire to lead a life of virtue and contentment, and wished to arouse a deep appreciation of the beauties of nature. And who would deny that Gessner has accom plished this his purpose to a remarkable degree? He must ever be honored on account of the tenderness of his feelings, the purity of his thought, the grace of his presentation, and the harmony of his language.

Even though Gessner misunderstood the character of Theoc- ritus’s idyls, yet by turning to them for his models he called the attention of his contemporaries and successors to Theocritus. The need of a greater realism began to make itself felt and gave an impulse towards the later realistic development of the idyl.

If you wish briefly to sum up the characteristics of Gessner’s idyls, it can be best done in the words of Goethe: ‘“‘Malender Dich- ter! — Dazu charakterisiert sich Gessner selbst, und wer mit Les- singen der ganzen Gattung ungtinstig wire, wiirde hier wenig zu loben finden: Mit dem empfindlichsten Auge fiir die Schénheiten der Natur hat G. reizende Gegenden durchwandelt, in seiner Hin- bildungskraft zusammengesetzt, verschGnert — und so standen

stindgen hab ich zu vermeiden getracitet.’’ Se Introduction to Gessner’s Idyls, p. 65.

1 Concerning the character of the idyls of Theocritus, see page 11.

GHSSNER AND THI CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL. 47

paradiesische Landschaften vor seiner Seele. Ohne Iiguren ist eine Landschaft todt; er schuf sich also Gestalten aus seiner schmachtenden Empfindung und erhéhten Phantasie, staffierte sein Gemiéilde damit, und so wurden seine Idyllen. Und in diesem Geiste lese man sie! und man wird tiber seine Meisterschaft erstaunen.”’?

Gessner’s ideal pastoral idyl is the culmination of the pastoral literature which has been introduced into Germany at the begin- ning of theseventeenth century. But this culmination also brought with it a surfeit and a reaction, by which the unreal elements of this literature were thrown off, just as Goethe overcame his senti- mental Werther-mood by giving expression to it in Werther’s Leiden. After Gessner the notes of the shepherd’s pipe, which had been heard on every hillside, were soon to die away in German literature. His strains were not the beginning of a new era. They were the swan’s song of one about to end.

Most of the immediate imitators of Gessner in their desire to be original substituted fishermen and gardeners for the shepherds.

a Yet we discern no real advance in the works of these The imitators of

Becca: imitators; their atmosphere and setting is the same

innocent and perfect Arcadia which we find in Gess- ner; the characters represented are Gessner’s shepherds in the garb of fishermen. These idyls are not only narrative and descriptive, but the moral and religious element occupies a most prominent position. The authors who persisted in clinging to this ideal world of innocent Arcadian existence thereby showed that they were untouched by the re-awakening influence which began to dominate German literature, and that they retained the phantom ideal, which others had already cast aside. Hence much of the work of these imitators is of a very low order of merit; in fact, Julian Schmidt places it among the least enjoyable literary pro- ducts of the time. Two of the imitators of Gessner, Kleist and Bronner, rise above the others in ability and mastery of form.

1 See Frankf, Gel, Anz. 1772,

48 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

Ewald Christian v. Kleist who had exerted a great influence upon Gessner by his descriptive poem Der Friihling! is now in turn led by Gessner’s works to try his hand at writing idyls.? Even in his earliest idyllic works? written before Gessner’s idyls he shows a tendency to turn away from the world of shepherds. So in Amynt (1751) and in other poems the shepherd element has almost vanished. Now when Gessner’s example led him to write idyls, he endeavors to enlarge their scope. In the introduction to his Neue Gedichte (1758) he says, that the French by taking the subject matter for the idyl from shepherd-life only, had made the limits of the idyl altogether too narrow; Kleist thought that other phases of country life were equally suitable for idyllic treat- ment. However, as Kleist’s aim was moral and religious, he insisted that only pure and pleasing pictures should be given, trivial and unenjoyable traits were to be carefully removed. In his Milon und Iris and Irin he contributed a gardener-idyl and a fisher-idyl. These, like all his works, are full of pious senti- ment; pray to God, rely upon him; He directs the world for the best; He will bestow a lasting happiness upon all who obey His will. The idyls of J. Chr. Blum,’ though written in a pleasing

1 See page 32. 2 In imitation of Gessner Kleist wrote the gardener-idyl Milon und Iris 1758 and his fisher-idyl Irin 1758. 3 See note 2, p. 32. 4So in Jrin the son admires the beauty of the sea and shore, but the most important part of the idyl are the moral precepts of the father: “‘O bleib der Tugend immer Treu Und weine mit den weinenden Und gieb von deinem Vorrat gern Den Armen.” In order to complete the moral, even though it makes the idyl as such less perfect, the death of Irin is mentioned, and that the son “folgete Stets diesen Lehren. Segen kam Aufihbn. Sein langes Leben diinkt Thm auch ein Friihlingstag zu sein,” 5 See Koberstein V. 60- Several of Blum’s idyls written in blank verse had been printed in the G6ttinger Musenalmanach, before they were collected and published in the year 1773.

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF 'THIE PASTORAL IDYL. 49

form, are unimportant in themselves and in the influence they exerted.

Kleist wrote only one fisher-idyl, His example was followed by one whose name is inseparably connected with idyls dealing: ex- clusively with the life of fishermen, Franz Xaver Bronnert (1758 —1850). In his youth he had been a most ardent reader and admirer of Gessner, and early tried his hand at translating idyls from the Greek. From the window of his cell in a Benedictine convent he had a fine view of the Danube and of a fisher-village, so that he at all times saw fishermen plying their trade among the small islands that dotted the water. This sight aroused his interest in the village-life, and led him to the composition of his first fisher-idyls. Diffident of his own powers he did not venture to publish these idyls, until after his flight from the convent to Switzerland. Here he met Gessner who encouraged him in his writing of fisher-idyls, and introduced his first volume to the public in 1787.? Re-assured by the success which greeted this publication he issued his Neue Fischergedichte und Erzéhlungenin 1794.

With little originality Bronner everywhere shows the influence of the models whom he followed. In all his idyls he adopted the rhythmical and lofty prose of Gessner and the moralizing tone of

1 See Bronner’s Introd. to Vol. II. 24, where he makes special mention of Kleist’s Zvin “eine der lieblichsten versificierten Fischeridyllen. Wer hort nicht gern den frommen Vater zu, der seinem Sohne beym Reusenlegen die schénsten Lehren ertheilt? Und wer fiihlt sich nicht sanft geriihrt, wenn er den Schluss liest, aus dem ein so feiner Ton siisser Wehmuth lispelt?- Méchten nur die folgenden Fischergedichte auch so allgemein gefallen, als Kleist’s Irin.”’? Se Gervinus IV, 188.

2 Fischergedichten und Erzihlungen mit einem Vorwort von Gessner, 1787. — Among other things Gessner says: ‘Der Verfasser hat diese Gedichte in einsamen Stunden der Musse verfertiget; vom Fenster seiner Kloster-zelle, wo er die Jahre seiner Jugend auch unter ernstern Studien der Mathematik und Natur- kunde hinbrachte, hatte er die ausgebreitete Aussicht auf einen Fluse, und seine schattenreichen Ufer, und auf die anmuthigen Inseln, die er umschwamm. Bey der Lektur des Theokrit, Virgil und Sannazar staunte er diese Scenen an, beobachtete die mannigfaltigen Sch6nheiten, die vor ihm lagen und die Bewohner der Gegend, deren meiste Beschiiftigung der Fischfang ist, ward begeistert, und schrieb so, was er sah, was ibn riihrte, und so entstanden seine ersten Fischergedichte.”’. See p. 3.

50 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

Kleist. Die erste Fischerin is an evident and weak imitation of Gessner’s Der erste Schiffer, and the idyl Der Bad seems to be based upon the bathing scene in Thomson’s Seasons.

In the introduction to his idyls Bronner justifies his selection oi fishermen for the actors in his descriptive idyllic poems by citing the example of classic authors, of Sannazaro and of Kleist, and claims that fishermen are fully as capable of idealized treat- ment as are shepherds;! furthermore, the fisheridyl had the advantage oi not being worn threadbare.* And he was acquaint- ed with the life of the fisherfolk; for years had he studied and observed their ways and habits, their daily work and pleasures. He says himself: “‘Erinnern Sie sich nur, dass ich, sieben Jahre lang, taglich ein Fischerdori mit aller semer Geschaitigkeit vor Augen hatte; dann werden Sie es ganz begreiflich finden, wie sich meine Phantasie allmahlich mit Fischern bev6lkern konnte.”’?

In spite of this fact, that Bronner’s idyls are based on personal observation and actual acquaintance, and ought therefore to contain real human characters, we feel at once that it is not the fresh and invigorating sea-air which pervades them, but the per- fumed atmosphere oi conventionality and idealization. And even Bronner himself appreciated that his characters are not men of fiesh and blood. On the contrary, his very definition of fisher- idyl indicates his purpose to describe an idealized and innocent world. The fisherman’s garb was but a mask for ideal charac- ters, in some of whom he even expected his friends to recognize themselyes.* The very names he gives his fishermen show their un-

1 Introduce. to Vol. IL, p. 9 of Bronner’s works.

2 Iniroduc. to Vol, IT. 9.

3 Introduce. to VoL L.. 10.

+ Bronner defines the fisher-idyl as “einzelne den saniten Geifiihlen Schmei- chelnde Bilder, Handlungen und Kleine Scenen aus dem Fischerleben.* Later he adds: “Thre Charakiere diirien und sollen veredeli sein. wie man sie vielleicht nirgend antrifit. aber wie man sie doch anzuirefien hoffen kann.” See Introd. to Vol IL, pp- 6, 8.

30“Meine Bekannten werden sich, bey der Durchlesung derselben, wohl selbst erkennen.” See Introd. Vol. L.. 12.

GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL, 51

real character and their kinship to Gessner’s shepherds: Clinias and hardly astonished at meeting a mythological incident, as when a Naiad transforms the drowning Calmus into a water-plant. The Theone, Palemon and Myrson, Asphalionand Lyde. The time of the idyls is laid in a remote and hazy antiquity, wherefore we are characters all belong to the innocent Golden Age; if at any time a fisherman does commit any wrong, no motive is assigned for his action, and he immediately repents.1_ Dramatic dialogue islack- ing and the action is stifled by the long descriptions and more especially by the moralizing reflections.? The very titles are often suggestive of sermons: Geniess im Stillen, Maissigung, Die wahren Reichen, etc.

Real fishermen of his day Bronner did attempt to introduce into two of his idyls, but with little success. He thinks it necessary, however, to preface the first of these idyls with an apology to the reader for thus rudely taking him away from the pleasing illusion of a “better world”, an illusion so necessary to idyllic poetry. But even in this idyl, Der Fischer bey Hote, ein modernes Fischer- gesprach, the purpose is didactic, the fisher-element disappears, and the idyl becomes a satire, in which Veit describes to Hans his impression of a visit at court. The second attempt at a realistic idyl again shows Gessner’s influence; just as Gessner had closed his idyls with eine Schweizer-idylle, in which the soldier with the

1 So e. g. the idyl Die Rache des Redlichen.

2 That Bronner considered these moralizing reflections an important ingredient of his idyls we see by his own statement: “‘Vermégen die eingestreuten moral- ischen Ziige, hier und da, eine schGnere Empfindung in unverdorbenen Herzen zu wecken, so halte ich mich doppelt fiir meine Arbeit belohnt.’’ See Introd. to Vol. The, J1P2.

3 Bronner’s apology which also shows the character of his work is as follows: ' “Teh menge hier unter Gedichte, deren handelnde Personen alle in ein enferntes Zeitalter zurtickgesetzt sind, ein Fischergespriich aus neueren Zeiten. Zwar muss ish fiirchten meine Leser dadurch auf eine unangenehme Weise aus dem Traume za wecken, in den ich sie gern eingewiegt hiitte, um ihnen desto bequemer Bilder aus einer bessern Welt vormahlen zu kénnen. Allein ich hoffe doch, das kleine Stiick, eben weil es modern ist, werde so viel Interesse haben, dass man mir die geflissentliche Aufhebung einer dieser Dichtungsart so vortheilhaftes Taéuschung mu gut halten wird.’ See Bronner Vol. I. 98.

52 GESSNER AND THE CULMINATION OF THE PASTORAL IDYL.

wooden leg describes a battle, so Bronner makes a ballad celebrat- ing the Swiss struggle for liberty the chief element of his last idyl, Schwanau, ein Schweitzerisches Fischergedicht.

Other writers of little or no original powers imitated Gessner and Kleist in their idyls, losing themselves in reflections and vague descriptions of an idealized and hazy world of innocence. Oi these authors Briickner is of importance only in sofar as he in no small degree influenced the first idyls of Voss, with whom he was inti- mately associated. Briickner’s Idyllen aus einer Unschuldswelt appeared 1774—5 in the G6éttinger Musenalmanach,: of which Voss was editor. These idyls also contain descriptions of innocent precocious child-life (as Die Unschuld, Jesus als Kind) later published under the title of Kinderidyllen. — Briickner’s Unschulds- welt together with works of a similar nature, Wilmsen’s Samm- lung fiir Geist und Herz, and Breitenbauch’s Jtidische Schafer- gedichte mark the lowest ebb which German literature of this period reached.? ;

Meanwhile the new and vigorous era of a literary re-awakening had begun in Germany; literature became a genuine reflection of actual conditions and real life. The decaying literature descrip- tive of an imaginary Golden Age, heard its doom from every side, best expressed in the words with which Gryphius closes his Schwar- mender Schiffer:

“Aus Nymien! Schaffer aus! Aus mit der Schiéifferey! Man kehr auifts Schloss! Last Kleid und Hirtenstab heim senden Weil Lysis nun entbaumt, ist dieses Spiel zu Enden.”

1 Sauer in G6ttinger Dichterbund (Deut. Nat. Lit.) p. 31 says: ‘Es macht keinen erfreulichen Eindruck dass dieser Almanach der mit Klopstock so kraftig einsetzte, mit Briickner so schwachlich endet.”

2 See Julian Schmidt Gesch d. Deut. Lit.

CHAPTER Y¥. Tap REALISTIC iDYL.

With the middle of the eighteenth century the day of a new li- terary era began to dawn upon Germany. The foreign forms and materials which had dominated German literature for centuries were overthrown by destructive criticism and by the impetuous onsets of the Storm and Stress period, whereupon followed the most remarkable development of a classic national literature which modern times have witnessed. In the idyl we can see the same successive stages which German literature as a whole passed through, namely: 1. the theory of the idyl perfected in the era of criticism; 2. the rough naturalistic idyl in the Storm and Stress period represented by Maler Miller; 3. the idyl in its German classic perfection, at least as to form, in the works of Voss.

The critics immediately following Gessner, especially Schlegel! and Ramler,? find only words of approbation for Gessner, con- sidering his style and conception of the idyl al- most perfect. But with quickening literary life in Germany, men began to doubt whether the idyl in Germany had been developed along right lines. Was this idealized description of a Golden Age the highest possible devel-

Advance in the theory of the idyl.

1A. J. Schlegel in his edition of Batteux, 1751, still characterizes Schéfer dichtung as follows: “Ihr wesentlicher Inhalt sind die sanften Empfindungen eines gliickseligen Lebens, die vermittelst einer einfachen weder heroischen noch lacherlichen, sondern natiirlichen Handlung entwickelt werden, und in der fiir sie gehérigen Scene, in der reizenden Scene der Natur, aufgestellt werden.” He lays stress, then, upon action as the essence of the pastoral, but action that includes no ordinary labor. In the second edition, 1759, however, in the article Von dem eigentlichen Gegenstande des Schiifergedichts he accepts and approves of Gessner’s descriptive idyls with their moral reflections as a new kind of pastoral.

2 In the second edition of Ramler’s Batteux, 1762, Ramler says that Gessner had written in the true spirit of Theocritus: ‘‘Man findet hier gleiche Siissigkeit ,

54 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

opment of this literary form? Could the unreal, hazy characters of Gessner’s idyls be ranked with the real shepherds of Theocritus? 4

The review of Schlegel’s treatise by Mendelssohn in Briefe die neueste Literatur betrettend, Berlin (1762) marks the first im- portant advance in theory. He defines the idyl as ‘‘der sinn- lichste Ausdruck der hdchst verschonerten Leidenshaften und EHmptindungen solcher Menschen, die in kleineren Gesellschatten leben.’ Mendelssohn defends local coloring in the idyl as over against the conventional background which Schlegel demand- ed, and advocates the introduction of more complex action and motives than an innocent Arcadia could offer. Mendelssohn claims that the peasant of the time, with some degree of idealiza- tion to be sure, could well be made the subject of idyllic treat- ment. In laying down this principle Mendelssohn made a great advance, for he thus brings the idyl back to the actual life of the immediate present. But Mendelssohn places Theocritus, Vergil and Gessner in one and the same category of idyllic writers, and thereby shows that the did not carefully distinguish genuine naive feeling from sentimentality.

It was reserved for Herder, ® as he was the pioneer in the theory of all modern German poetry and culture, to lay down the principle governing realistic idyllic poetry. In his Fragmente he points ut for the first time the impassable chasm which separated Theocritus and Gessner. The emotions and passions of Gessner’s

gleiche Naivetiit, gleiche Unschuld in den Sitten. Seine Empfindungen sind man- nigfaltig, seine Plane regelmiissig, nichts ist sch6ner als seine Colorit. Er hat zwar nur in Prosa gesungen, allein seine Prosa ist so wohlklingend, dass wir den Klang des Theokritischen Verses nur wenig vermissen.”

1 Koberstein V. 59, states that the first testimony of this change of feeling which he could find occurs in a letter from Abbt to Mendelssohn in the year 1762. Abbt writes (see vermischte Werke 3, 60): ‘‘Dieser Tage las ich etwas von Idyllen, fieng an dariiber nachzudenken, dass sie fiir unsere Zeiten und fiir unsere Liinder immer sehr ungeschmackt sein miissten, weil weder Natur noch Staat die Originalien dazu geben kénnen.”’ ;

2 See Herder’s Frag mente tiber die neuere deutsche Litteratur, the chapter headed Theokrit und Gessner, 1767.

Ol

THE REALISTIC IDYL.

are made so pure and ethereal that they cease to be passions, while Theocritus stands on the soil of real nature, his shepherds have really hnman passions; their innocence is the naive innocence of the child, while Gessner’s shepherds do not give the impression of being artless and ingenuous. In the words of Herder: “Wenn Ramler sagt, man finde bei Gessner eine gleiche Stissigkeit wie bei Theokrit, so ist die Stissigkeit des Griechen noch ein klarer Wassertrank aus dem pierischen Quell der Musen, der Trank des deutschen dagegen ist verzuckert.”

Herder wished that idyllic literature should no longer be a mere conventional presentation of ideal life, but should become a plant of native growth and development, grounded in the rich soil of actual popular life. This principle he laid down in the following words: ‘‘Nicht nachamen sondern im Sinne des eigenen Geistes nachschatien.”’ ‘This return of idyllic poetry to the actual present excluded from the idyl the conventional, virtuous and perfect characters, which were so utterly unreal. Only by repre- senting human characters, with all their weaknesses as well as excellences, could the idyl attain its best and highest form. Herder states his ideal of the purpose of the idyl as follows: ‘“‘Wenn man Empfindungen und Leidenschaften der Menschen in kleinen Gesell- schaften so sinnlich zeigt, dass wir auf den Augenblick mit ihnen Schafer werden, und so weit verschGnert zeigt, dass wir es ftir den Augenblick werden wollen: Kurz bis zu Illusion und zum héchsten Wohlgefallen erhebt sich der Zweck der Idylle, nicht aber bis zum Ausdruck der Vollkommenheit oder zur moralischen Besserung.”’ Under Herder’s influence poetic beauty was no longer confunded with moral perfection, and thus a return to depicting real life was made possible. Furthermore, Lessing had given the death blow to purely descriptive poetry in his Laokoon (1766), that famous analysis of the difference between the plastic arts and poetry, where he claims that action constitutes the essence of poetry.

Thus criticism cleared the ground and prepared the soil for the wonderful growth which was so soon to burst forth. Men turned away with a feeling of surfeit from the old literary forms and

56 THE REALISTIC IDYL,

subject-matter, and rejoiced to behold the dawning glory of classic German literature. In this great German renaissance the idyl, too, was regenerated; the principles which Herder had laid down were crystallized into form in the realistic idyls of two authors of superior merit, Maler Miiller and Voss.

Fredrich Miller (1749—1825), one of the most fruitful poets of the Storm and Stress period, was born in the Rhenish Pala- tinate, which he has celebrated in his best idyls. He early showed artistic talent, and for sometime was in the service of a Prince of the Palatinate as a painter and engraver. When 21 years old he came to Mannheim where he spent his happiest and most productive years in a congenial literary circle, assuming the pen-name of ein junger Maler, later Maler Miller. Through the recommendation of Goethe he obtained a pension to go to Italy to continue his studies as an artist. He spent the remainder of his rather unhappy life at Rome without accomplishing mush further.t The very name heassumed, Maler Miller, indicates how his efforts were divided between painting and literature, a distraction of interests fatal to the highest suc-

Maler Miiller.

cess in either.

Miller won the favor of the public of the Storm and Stress period by his idyls,? since he, as hardly any one else feltand gave expression to the various forces which were at work in this period of fermentation and transition. It is interesting to notice how the old and the new influnces struggled for the mastery in his mind and in his works, a reflection of a struggle which was going

1 He died at Rome in 1825. His wellknown epitaph, written by himselfreads as follows;

“Wenig gekannt und wenig geschiitzt, hab’ ich beim Wirken.

Nach dem Wahren gestrebt, und mein héchster Genuss.

War die Erkenntniss des Schénen und Grossen — ich habe gelebet!

Dass Fortuna mich nie geliebet, verzeih ich ihr gern.”

2 The idyls af Maler Miiller in the order of publication are: in 1775 appeared Der erschlagene Abel, Bacchidon und Milon, Der Satyr Mopsus, Der Faun, Die Schaafschur; in 1778 Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Niichte. Das Nusskernen and Ulrich von Kossheim were not published till 1811, but must have been written much earlier.

THE REALISTIC IDYL, 5

bo |

on all over Germany in all phases of literary and intellectual life. Miiller, however, never emerged from his period of Storm and Stress. Although in his idyls he passed from the imitation of Klopstock and Gessner to a natural and naive presentation of life, yet his works from beginning to end bear the stamp of Storm and Stress, and are throughout characterized by a rough natur- alism and and an entire lack of restraint. We obtain the best view of the influences affecting Mtiller by considering his idyls in three groups:

1. Those depicting the Patriarchal Age;

2. The faun and satyr idyls, based upon classic models;

3. The idyls describing the village-life of his own home near the Rhine.

Klopstock and Gessner exerted a great influence upon young Miller; their example led him to select Biblical subjects as material for his idyls. His Der erschlagene Abel is an imitation of Gessner’s Der Tod Abels. An episode in the latter work Miller expands into the idyllic romance Adams erstes Erwachen und erste selige Néchte. Yet though Miller in these works adopts Gessner’s rhythmical prose and still makes his characters too sentimental, we at once notice an improvement upon Gessner’s in characterization; instead of Gessner’s vague, paradisical forms Miiller has produced characters with real human feelings and passions. The different persons appear sharply outlined against the background of an idealized nature. For instance, in Miiller’s idyl Cain is areal villain who, however, succeeds in arousing our symphathy. The style is lively and vigorous. !

In the faun and satyr idyls Miiller frees himself still more from Gessner’s influence. The satyr Mopsus, Bacchidon und Milon, and Der Faun (1775), even though sometimes coarse and burlesque, are instinct with life and action, and are written in that vigorous language which betrays the dramatist of the Storm and Stress

1 See Hettner’s edition of Maler Miiller p. VI.

The Idyl in German Literature. 4

58 THE RHALISTIC IDYL.

period. They are also full of sparkling humor of which we find no trace in Gessner.! In Mopsus, the counterpart of Polyphemus of Theocritus, how ludricrous is the lament of the deformed satyr, whom the nymph Persina, pretending to answer his suit with favor, had decoyed into the brambles! The most humorous, however, of his idyls is the second, describing the youthful eager- ness of Milon to read his poem to Bacchidon, whose attention he had to buy by offering him wine. The garrulous old man with his unquenchable thirst continually interrupts him with:

“Halt ein, Milon, keine Silbe weiter! Hierauf muss erst getrun- ken sein!”’

When the reading is ended and the wine, too, is gone, how droll is Bacchidon’s elegy” to the empty wine-flask!?

The third idyl of this group possesses the proper brevity for an idyl, while the previous ones are too diffuse. It tells of the lament of Molon at the funeral-pyre of his wife. His rough, wild nature, his genuine emotion, his love for the wine-flask from which he drinks repeatedly between his sighs and lamentations, is all set forth in vigorous and choppy language thoroughly characteristic of the uncouth character depicted.

The third group of idyls, volksttimlich-deutsche, Miiller treats in a manner wholly independent and original. Here he describes peasant life of his home in the Palatinate (Die Schaafschur and

1 Though Bronner, in his introduction to his idyls, states that in private life Gessner was exceedingly witty.

2 “Todt, runzlicht, entstellt liegst du, zuvor so angespannter Schlauch! Gern, herzliebster Schlauch, wollt’ ich linger bei deiner Leiche weinen, stiinde nur, wie sich’s gebitihrt’, neben deiner Bahre ein wohlgezogenes junges vollbackiges Schlauchlein, dein Sohn oder Enkel, der mir hernach mit seinem Balsam wieder abwiische meiner Thriinen Salz. Aber wehe mir Trauermann! Der erblichene war eine Waise. — Leer! zu friih leer! Ach armer Weinschlauch!” Hettner’s Miiller, p. 83. fa

3 The review in Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek (XX XI. I 222) says: Die Bescreibung der ganzen Scene, der Ausdruck der rohen ungeschminkten Natur in der Trauerklage des Alten und des Kleinen hat etwas so Wahres, Charakteristi- sches, Hindringendes, dass es Herz und Sinn riihrt. Die Sprache ist hart, ver- stiimmelt, hingeworfen, wie es fiir seine Faunen, die er einmal als ehrliche Wilde bildet, geziemt.”’

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Das Nusskernen) or goes back to the chivalry of the Middle Ages for his material (Ulrich von Kossheim). Never before in German literature had the simple life of the common people been depicted with such force and vigor, with such faithful adherence to reality, as here in Miiller’s idyls descriptive of his Rhenish home. In the German poetry of the Middle Ages we see the beginnings ofa Dorfgeschichte; but this phase of life had for centuries remained entirely disregarded, until Das SchaafSchur again taught men to appreciate actual simple life of the present, and thereby gave renewed impulse to the Dorf-geschichte which in the modern novel has proven to be such a rich and productive field. Miiller’s descriptions are so true to life and full of vigor, so full of small traits of everyday occurrences that these idylsseem almost photo- graphic representations of the life of his native village. His love for folksong and folk-tales crops out everywhere in the many selections from these sources which he introduces. But unfortu- nately, satirical and polemical elements directed against pedantic critics and conyventionality, interesting as they are from aliterary point of view, weaken the poetic effect of these idyls.?

Maler Miiller put his idyls on the basis of reality. But there is a certain wildness in his scenes and characterization, a rough- ness in his prose, which shows that he had not overcome the

1 “Wir diirfen eine begiinstigte Gattung unseres Jahrhunderts, die Dorfge_ schichte, auf Millers Versuche zuriickleiten.’’ See Miillers Werke in Deut. Nat. Lit. edited by August Sauer, p. V.

2 The following passage illustrates both the vigorous style and polemical tendency of Miillers writings. In Die Schaafschur one of the characters, Walter, in speaking of ideal shepherds virtually attacks Gessner and his followers. Walter says: “Der Schulmeister bringt mir weiss der Kukuk was fiir ein Buch, heisst Idyllen, Gedrucktes, so von Schiifern; schreit, larmt und jubilirt und gaudirt sich wegen des Zeugs, so drinnen steht; liest mir dann auch hin und weider etliches vor. — Hi freilich, sagt ich; wo giebt’s denn Schiifer wie diese? Das Schiifer? Das sind mir curiose Leute, die weiss der Henker wie leben; fiihlen nicht, wie wir andere Menschen, Hitze oder Kiéilte: hungern oder dursten nicht; leben nur yon Rosenthau und Blumen und was des sch6nen siissen Zeugs noch mehr ist, das sie bei jeder Gelegenheit einem so widerlich entgegenplaudern, dass es einem mein Seel’ wider der Mann geht. — Das Pack da ist nicht von Herzen lustig, nicht von Herzen traurig, alles im Traume nur.” etc. See Hettner’s Miiller p. 87.

60 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

Storm and Stress period, and attained classic calmness and self- control.

Between the two extremes, the pleasing form and unreal world of Gessner and the rough naturalism of Miller, stands Voss.

While Gessner marked the culmination of the pastoral idyl, descriptive of an ideal] state of existence, in Voss the realistic idyl of the classical period of German literature reached its highest development. He wished to describe in his idyl actual ‘simple life as it existed in Germany, and to do this in the spirit of Theocritus. We are told that the idyls of Theocritus had their roots in Homer. The study of Homer, too, greatly influenced the character of the idyls of Voss. And so after various deviations and wanderings the idyl comes back to the form and spirit of the idyls of Theocritus, and the circle is complete.

Johann Heinrich Voss! (1751—1826) was born and lived in Northern Germany, and itis the natural scenery and the life of Northern Germany which is reflected in his works, especially in his idyls. While struggling along in poverty as a private tutor he sent some poems to Gottinger Musenalmanach (1772), and thus began a correspondence with the editor Boie (afterwards his brother-in-law), which led to his going to Gottingen in the same year. He and some associates of similar bent of mind founded the well-known G6ttinger Dichterbund (Hainbund), a circle of poets of no small importance in the history of literary Germany. He also assumed the editorship of the Musenalmanach in which most of his idyls first appeared. From 1775—1802 he again lived in Northern Germany, (at Wandsbeck, Otterndorf and Eutin), most of the time as teacher and rector at a Gymnasium. These years. were the happiest and most productive years of his life: now he wrote his idyls, carried on his classical studies, especially in Ho- mer, and produced his incomparable translation of the Odyssey

Voss.

1 See Johan Heinrich Voss in Géttinger Dichterbind of Deut. Nat. Lit. edited by August Sauer.- Also Johann Heinrich Voss by Wilhelm Herbst, 3 vols., 1872—1876.

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(1780). In 1802 he moved to Jena where he was in close inter- course with the Weimar circle, especially with Goethe. But soon an advantageous offer induced. him to go to Heidelberg (1805). Here during his last years he busied himself with collecting and filing his earlier poems.

Voss shows in his works that he, too, was carried away by the influences which dominated his contemporaries. The whole period was characterized by a longing to flee from the artificial and oyertrained culture of the so-called ‘‘Zopfzeit’’? back to sim- plicity of life and manners, — and this feeling is the very soul ofall idyllic poetry. We seethis feeling manifested in the extravagant joy with which men hailed Rousseau’s attack upon civilization and his theory of a return to a state of nature, in the deep and and universal appreciation of nature and country life, in the growing respect and admiration for the folksong, and in the revolt from Neo-classicism in literature. The age went back to the classic Greek literature for its inspiration; for now men were able to un- derstand and appreciate Greek art and literature with a deeper and fuller sense of its beauty and greatness.

' Early in his youth Voss’s attention had been called to the idyl by his bosom friend Briieckner, a devout admirer and imitator of Gessner in his Jdyllen aus einer Unschuldswelt.1 Gessner and Klopstock also charmed the receptive mind of young Voss.* At Gottingen, however, he at once showed a predilection for classical studies; especially did ancient Hellas attract him, after Herder’s writings had opened his eyes to the grandness and beauty of Ho- mer. He also made Theocritus and the bucolic poets an object of thorough study. Notes were collected for a future edition of Bion and Moschus, and he had in mind to write a long treatise on

1 See page 52; also Herbst’s Voss II. 84.

2 At the end of 1774 Voss wrote to Briickner: ‘Gessner ist so leicht als Gellert und doch ein Dichter, ein grosser Dichter.’’ — But only a few months later he speaks of how Gessner had imitated the Italians and filled his world with Arcadian inhabitants. ‘‘Was gibt du mir,” he adds, ‘‘wenn ich dir zeige, dass er nur da vortrefflich ist, wo er wirkliche Natur hat’’,

62 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

ancient pastoral poetry. The study of the Greek literature, espe- cially of Theocritus and Homer, determined both the form and the character of his idyls. .

One reason why the idyl attracted Voss was the sense of his poetic limitations. He felt that he did not possess the originality and the creative power to produce great masterpieces in epic or dramatic poetry. Least of all was he a lyric poet. But if any one of these forms by itself was beyond his poetic powers, might he not accomplish something of value and of Jasting value in the less pretentious idyl, into which he might introduce elements from all these forms of poetry?

Through the study of Theocritus and Homer, Voss cameto the conclusion, that the hexameter was best fitted to give dignity and stateliness to his poetry.! But of greater consequence was their influence on Voss in his choice of subject-matter. Like Theocritus he wished to depict reality, not an imaginary shepherd-world.? But his was not a slavish imitation; in the spirit of Theocritus he embodied in poetic form the idyllic features of his own time and of his native country with their local coloring and in their definite forms. He studied conditions about him, in order to depict them truthfully. So in March, 1775, he wrote to Ernestine Boie that he intended to visit Dithmarschen “um Studien zu Dietmar- scher Idylle za machen.” Headds: ‘Ich glaube dass diese Dich-

1 Klopstock’s hexameters were from a technical point of view very halting; many of them can hardly be scanned. It is Voss’s great merit that he firstreduced the German hexameter to sound metrical rules and fully naturalized it in German poetry. The metrical dilettanteism of Goethe and Schiller advanced under Voss’s influence to a mastery of this form of which Herbst says: “Unsere neuere Kunst- poesie in charakterischen Hauptzweigen hat sich recht eigentlich am Hexameter, dem Culturvers im eminenter Sian, aufgerichtet.” (Herbst’s Voss, II. 88).

“Wer eine wahre Form erschafit,’ says W. yon Humboldt with reference to Voss, “der ist der Dauer seiner Arbeit gewiss.”

2 In a letter to Briickner written while at G6ttingen he says: “Ich habe vieles iiber die Idylle mit dir zu reden. Theokrit hat mich zuerst auf die eigentliche Bestimmung dieser Dichtungsart aufmerksam gemacht. Man sieht bei ihm nichts von idealischer Welt und verfeinerten Schiéifern. Er hat sicilische Natur und sicilische Schiifer, die oft so pobelhaft sprechen, wie unsere Bauern.’’ See Kober- stein V. 63.

THI REALISTIC IDYL. 63

tungsart grossen EHinfluss auf die Menschen haben kann, denn sie ist die einzige, in die die jetzigen Menschen (d. h. Landsleute und die niedern Sténde die nichts mit der grossen Welt zu schaffen haben) vollig hineinpassen.”

The idyls of Voss! clearly reveal how for a long time he kept groping about seeking for proper idyllic material. They showa gradual improvement in choice and treatment of the sub- ject-matter, until he finally found the proper sphere in which he accomplished his best work. Most of his idyls are based on real life, such as had come within his own experience, wherefore they have the effect of an autobiography. In his very first productions he celebrates the theme, which like a thread runs through so many of his later idyls, and finds its highest expression in Luise, namely his love for Ernestine Boie. In Der Morgen? and Selmas Geburtstag behind the names Selma and Selino we at once recog- nize Voss and his betrothed. But the immaturity of the beginner and the beginner’s tendency to follow extraneous influence, are

1 The Idyls of Voss most naturally fall into four groups, corresponding to Voss’s residence at G6ttingen, Wandsbeck, Otterndorf and Eutin. These idyls appeared first in various periodicals. They are as follows:

1. The G6ttingen period 1774—5: Der Morgen; Selmas Geburtstag, Die Leibeignen (in two parts).

2. The Wandsbeck period 1776—8: Die Bleicherin, De Winterawend, Die Elbfahrt, Der Bettler; De Geldhapers, Das Stindchen, Der Riesenhiigel; Der Abendschmaus, Der Hagestolz.

3. The Otterndortf period 1780: Der bezauberte Teufel, Die Kirschenpfiiic- kerin, Der siebzigste Geburtstag.

4. The Eutin Period;

Der Geburtstag 1782 Combined in Der Briutigams Besuch 1783. Luise 1795. Luise 1784.

Die Heumad 1784, Philamon und Baucis, 1785, Die Erleichterten 1800, Fragment einer Fischeridylle (language indicates a late date).

The first important publication of Voss works was Johann Heinrich Voss, vermischte Gedichte und prosaische Aufsitze, Frankfort und Leipzig, 1784.

2 In Der Morgen the sentimental lyrical element is unduly prominent, and Klopstock’s angels haunt the poem. So Selma’s guardian angel flies to console the absent Selino:

“Und ihr Seraph entflog auf goldnen éitherischen Schwingen Hin zum fernen Selino,”’

64 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

still noticeable and to a marked degree, especially in the pompous style and theintroduction of the “‘seraphic” element of Klopstock’s Messias. The angels Sulamith and Thirza, sent to assist at the birth of Selma, sing a responsive cradlesong to the music of the golden harp, in sonorous hexameters out of keeping with their thoughts.

With Die Leibeigenschaft Voss begins a long series of idyls which have properly been called Tendenz-Stticke. As he wrote these idyls with the express purpose of instituting social reform by holding up to view certain social wrongs of the period,? he consciously or unconsciously imbued many of these idyls with the bitterness of satire.? This bitterness introduced an element which necessarily injured the idyllic atmosphere. Voss was descended from serfs; narratives of his father and. others, to- gether with what he himself had actually seen of the curse of bondservice as it still existed in parts of Northern Germany had filled his soul with hatred and indignation against the tyranny of the nobility. His soul burned with a desire to bring about an amelioration in the condition of these peasants. This indig- nation and reformatory desire prompted the idyls Die Pferde-

1 They even decide to inform her future lover of her birth: “Meld ihm des Kindes Geburt, du Genius, dem er vertraut ward, Dass ihm die Ahndung das Herz erliiutere wiirdig zu sein.”’

2 The whole era of the Storm and Stress is characterized by restiveness under restraint and a desire to break the bonds and shackles of tyranny under what- ever form they existed (we remember Goethe’s ‘““Tyrannen-blut trinken’”’). This revolutionary tendency also manifested itself in the G6ttinger Bund, and inmany of their poems took the form of a tirade against those whom they considered responsible for the social inequalities which existed. Later while at Wandsbeck when theardor of youth was somewhat allayed, Voss’s tendency became didactic; he writes himself, that the work of a poet is “die Sitten des Volks zu bessern und besonders dem verachteten Landmann feinere Begriffe und ein regeres Geftihl seiner Wiirde beizubringen.” See Sauer’s GOttinger Dichterbund, p. 16. Also Herbst’s Voss 1. 190.

3 Boie writes to Voss in March 1777: “Ihr Talent liegt in der Idylle. — Sie werden auch unser Juyenal werden, wenn Sie wollen.”’

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knechte and Der Ahrenkranz, which in parts are characterized by a tone almost savage.!

This didactic and to some extent satiric element appears in almost all the idyls Voss wrote while at G6ttingen and Wands- beck. Der Bettler declaims most bitterly against intolerance; it is based on an actual incident which had come under Voss’s immediate observation: a rationalistic and liberalminded minis- ter has been persecuted and deposed by his more orthodox superior... We hear Voss’s own indignation when the idyl tells us that the deposed minister is now supported by Der Bettler, the cripple Tiess,? and is often obliged to starve, ‘‘weil er nur, was Gott gesagt, nicht Menschensatzung, lehrt.” Jtirgen, the shepherd, is but the mouth-piece of the poet, when he bursts forth: “Ikopthanger ihr, ihr Wolt’ in Schaisgestalt.’? However we feel as if the moralizing element went a little too far when Jiirgen adds:

Doch Gott sei euer Richter! Tiess und du Habt mich so weich gemacht, dass mir so ist, Sonntag, will’s Gott, zum Abendmahl zu gehen.”

1 Michel describes how his uncle in a dream had seen the noblemen feasting in hell: “Statt der Musik erschallt aus den Wéanden ein Heulen und Winseln. Drauf wird die Tafel gedeckt. Ganz oben setzt sich der Stamherr Vom hochadligen Haus’, ein Strassenréiuber. Sein Beinkleid, Wams und Bienenkapp’ ist gliihendes Eisen. Sie fressen Blutiges Menschenfleisch, und trinken siedende Thriinen.”’

2 The lame Tiess is probably modelled after the soldier in Hélty’s Das Feuer im Walde which in turn was a copy of Gessner’s Sch weizer-idylle. Ludwig H6lty (1748—1776) an intimate friend of Voss, wrote several idyls; Das Feuer im Walde being by far the best one. He gained entrance into the G6ttinger- bund by a translation of The Rape of Europa from the Greek of Moschus, 1770. We trace the influence of Voss’s idyls depicting the life of northern Germany in H6lty’s Christel und Hannchen, eine Schnitteridylle, 1774. Just before Hélty was carried away by consumption he wrote Der Arme Wilhelm, in which idyl Wilhelm mourns the premature death of his love and expresses a presentiment that he too soon will die.

J. M. Miller, also of the G6ttingen circle, wrote a couple of unimportant idyls (Daphnis und Daphne, Wilhelm und Lischen, 1773).

66 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

In like manner Voss in the form of the idyl attacks many other real or imagined vices of his times: so he declaims against avarice in De Geldhapers, against superstition in Der Riesenhitigel, against bachelorhood in Das Stédndchen, against gluttony in Der Abend- schmaus. These may be compared to the modern social story or novel which preaches some special social reform.

Yet even in these idyls Voss considered the satirical and di- dactic element less important than the idyllic. He wished to make the idyl the reflection of life about him, with which he was per- fectly familiar, of the manners and customs of his home. The very names he gives to his characters, Hans, Michel, Henning, etc., the introduction of popular sayings, and the outspoken language colored with provincialisms show that he had abandoned entirely the ‘“‘Frauen- und Unschuldswelt’’ of Gessner and Briickner, and placed himself on the soil of reality. More and more he drops the satirical tendency in his idyls, and turns to the delineation of the sweet joys of legitimate love and of home life.

The idyls De Winterawend and De Geldhapers! are two excel- lent Genrebilder from peasant life written in Low German dialect.” In these idyls as well as in the ones immediately following them the influence of Theocritus becomes more and more apparent.

1 Claudius (the editor of Wandsbecker Bote) considered De Winterawend as Voss’s most perfect idyl. Although the dialect to one not thoroughly used to it conceals the excellence of the poem somewhat, yet one can appreciate the fol- lowing charn:ing song in praise of country life, sung while the members of the family are gathered around the fireplace of a winter-evening. When Peter urges Kvischen:

“Sing du, ik groele dato, und im Schorsteen orgelt die Ostwind,”’ the latter sings: Wat ist doch voiir en quadlig Ding, In Wall und Muhr to lawen! Drum hew ik mi ok vix und vlink Wol up dat Land begiiwen. As Landmann, liiw ik gans gewiss Vergnégter, as de Kaiser is.”

2 “Voss hat den Schritt bis zur voller Anwendung des Dialekts gewagt, und so der reichen Dialektdichtung der nachklassischen Zeit den Weg gebahnt.” See Sauer’s Introd. to Maler Miiller p. 5. :

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Voss himself defends his use of dialect by referring to Theocritus’s The Syracusan Women, which idyl evidently was in his mind when he wrote De Geldhapers. The two women of Syracuse force their way through the crowd at the Adonis festival, asthe two peasants in Voss’s poem press through the crowd of wagons and people on the market place. The former admire the royal horses-of-state, the splendid carpets and Adonis on the silver couch, as the latter the Danish hussars with the bright sabres. Dramatic move- ment and excellent characterization distinguish this idyl above all others. Sauer claims! that were it not for the unusual dialect of the idyls, they would be more popular in Germany than the “still-life” picture of Der siebzigste Geburtstag.’

The most perfect of all the idyls in which Voss used the dra- matic form combined with lyrical elements, as we find in Theocri- tus, is Die Kirschenpfltickerin. The whole idyl is pervaded by the calm and balmy atmosphere of the orchard on a summer’s day. How charming is the roguish Rebecka who takes away the ladder from the tree in which Hedewig is picking cherries! The unwilling prisoner is not released, until she has sung a song composed by her lover.

But the peasant life of the North offered a rather unyielding material for poetic treatment, and besides was too remote from the interest and sympathy of the majority of Voss’s readers. Not until Voss in his idyls described scenes and conditions, in which the simplicity of the country and the culture of the city were reconciled and united in perfect harmony, did he fully charm the hearts of his audience. This union of lowly life with high imtellec-

1 See Sauer’s Introd.to Voss in Géttinger Dichterbund (Deut. Nat. Lit.) p. LULL.

2 Other less important idyls based upon Greek models are Das Stiindchen (an imitation of Theocritus’s Cyclops) with its rather forced humor, and Der Riesenhiigel (imitation of Theocritus’s Magican, Idyl II.) with the strange refrain in the song of the witch:

“Trommile, trommle den Riesen zum Leichnam, Abrakadabral”’

3 Voss writes in a letter to Gleim to whom he dedicated the idyl: ‘Es ist ein Versuch, wie weit man die Denkart der Landmiédchen veredeln kann.’’

68 THI REALISTIC IDYL.

tual interests Voss found in the country school-house and parson- age, and his choice and treatment of just this field revealed genuine poetic discrimination and even creative power on his part. Here, too, Voss felt perfectly at home. His father had taught school and his wife Luise was the daughter of a country parson. The happiest experiences of his life had come to him in this harbor of peace, upon whose secluded shore the ocean-waves of the troubled world beat only with gentle murmur.

This attractive sphere Voss has depicted in Der Siebzigste Geburtstag, and the three idyls which eventually were united into the idyllic epic Luise. In Der siebzigste Geburtstag Voss has erected a beautiful monument to his parents. He himself is the expected son who brings Ernestine to visit the old home. This poem marks Voss’s highest power as a writer of idyls, ‘‘eine Perle unserer Litteratur’, as Julian Schmidt says. It is replete with the atmosphere of love and restfulness, in its simplicity and brevity it is the most perfect panegyric of happy family life. With what art does the poet describe the mother’s busy preparations for the reception of the son and the daughter-in-law who were coming to join in the birthday celebration of the aged father! With what loving minuteness does Voss refer to every detail of his childhood home!! With what grace does the young wife’ on her arrival, when she sees the slumbering father, awaken him with a kiss!? — Voss wrote no other idyl of equal power and objectivity.

1 See Voss p. 137, lines 21—30 in Deut. Nat. Lit.

2 The fine closing lines are: (The mother)

“(Offnete leise die Klink’und liess die Kinder hineingehn. Aber die junge Frau mit schGnem lachelndem Antlitz Hiipfte hinzu und ktisste des Greises Wange. Erschrocken Sah er empor und hing in seiner Kinder Umarmung.”’

3 When Voss for the first time collected and published these idyls in his Vermischte Gedichte, we can see by Wieland’s review in Der teutsche Merkur, August 1785, how they were received by Voss’s contemporaries. Wieland says: “Seine Idyllen sind nicht Kopieen, nicht idealisierte Nachahmungen des grie- chischen Hirtendichters: essind wahre Theokritische Gedichte, nicht bloss in seiner Manier sondern mit seinem Geiste gedichtet, der durch Idealempsychose in un- sern Landsmann iibergangen zu sein scheint. Gerade so, denke ich... . wiirde

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When Voss composed Der siebzigste Geburtstag he was just completing his translation of the Odyssey (1780). Not only did the translation charm all Germany with its beauty and freshness, so that Schiller could say: ‘‘Und die Sonne Homers siehe, sie lachelt auch uns”, but the Odyssey also sets its stamp upon the later idyls of Voss. From now on he employs altogether the epic form, no lyrical elements are introduced, and the conversation is drawn into the epic narrative. Furthermore the minute descriptions of household furniture, of preparations for meals and other duties, point to similar descriptions in the Odyssey as the model.

The epic form Voss employed and developed in the idyls Des Bradutigams Besuch (1783), Der Geburtstag, and Luise (1784), each in its brevity and conciseness affording a charming picture of the calm idyllic life in a German country parsonage. ' All that can be said in praise of Der siebzigste Geburtstag is equally true of these idyls. The happiness of ideal home-life is the theme, which Voss describes with all the affection of his heart. And how could it be otherwise? ‘Die rosenwangige Jungfrau” “die freundliche sch6ne Luise’’ is to Voss his own Ernestine, ‘‘der ehrwiirdige Pfarrer von Griinau” and ‘‘die alte verstandige Haus- frau”? her parents, in whose home he had spent the sunniest days of his life. True, there is a lack of psychological depth in these

Theokrit oder Homer selbst diese Natur und Dorfscenen aus unsrer heutigen Welt behandelt und geschildert haben, wenn er in unserer Zeit gelebt, und (wie unser teutscher Theokrit) in der Lage gewesen wiire, die Natur von dieser Seite belauschen und studieren zu k6nnen.” Furthermore, Wieland praises in these idyls the Newheit, Wahrheit, Reichthum der Bilder, Poesiedes Styles, Versifi- cation, Auswahl der Umstinde, Natur und Landleben and Rusticitét.

1 In the words of a critic (in Neue Bibliothek der schGnen Wissenchaften, vol. 56, 261): “Schon der Kreis, aus dem die handelnden Personen gewiihlt sind, ist so beschaffen, dass er der Phantasie des Dichters einen giinstigen Spielraum er6ffnet und den Leser in einen anziehenden Standpunkt versetzt. Wo lassen sich Tugend und Unschuld, Gutherzigkeit und Zufriedenheit mer erwarten, als in der Familie eines wiirdigen und biedern Landpfarrers, oder, wo wird der gebildete Mann lieber einkehren und sich besser und gliicklicher fiihlen, wenn er auf dem Lande des Gewiihls und Getiimmels der Stadt vergessen will.”

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characters, a lack of individuality in the poetic treatment, a lack of action in the whole plot, but in spite of this or perhaps, in consequence of it, we feel at once soothed, calmed and at home in this peaceful atmosphere and in the presence of these attractive people, whom we after all would not care to have otherwise. Goethe often read these idyls to his circle in Weimar, and we are told that certain passages moved him to tears; and he would close the book with the words: ‘‘Hine heilige Stelle.”

In these idyls Voss like Homer describes family life, furniture, the kitchen utensils, and household duties. The description of nature occupies a much more prominent place than in either Ho- mer or Theocritus, as might be expected in modern poetry with its deeper feeling for and appreciation of nature in all its moods. But the dessription is not too prominent in these idyls, for we feel that it is an essential element of the poem: these surroundings are a fitting and necessary background to these characters.

At the advice of Gleim, Voss changed these three idyls and combined them into one, publishing the whole in 1795, under the title of Luise, ein landliches Gedicht in drei Idyllen. This change and amalgamation made of the unpretentious idyls a pretentious epic poem.t What in the idyl had been minor shortcomings, (such as the comparative lack of action and of individual charac- terization) in the larger epic strikes the reader as gross blemishes. Furthermore, the simple natural tone has given way to one more pretentious and pompous.” The old realistic parson speaks and moralizes much more than in the originalidyls, he has become the main figure, as the poet wished to express his own philosophy

1 The original idyls had been increased by 468 verses (from 1392 to 1860) to form the epic. And with every new edition Voss showed a misguided desire .to improve his work by adding to their length, and by changing the simple tone to one more stilted. In the final edition, the Luise had been inerrased to 2825 verses, one quarter of the length of the Odyssey! In almost every case the original form is the more simple, natural, and pleasing. 2 The “Kaffee” of the original had become “Trank der Levant,” etc. See Sauer’s Voss, p. 56, I

THE REALISTIC IDYL. 71

of life by the mouth of the parson. The didactic elements suffocate the idyllic.

Yet the Luise does mark agreat advance and deepened in Voss’s contemporaries the appreciation and the respect for the dignity and worth of simple idyllic life such as we find here represented. Schiller felt this when he says: ‘‘Die Luise ist ei recht poetisches Werk, mit welchem Voss unsere deutsche Litteratur nicht bloss bereichert, sondern auch wahrhaft erweitert hat.”! And Goethe writes to Voss immediately after the publication of Luise:? “tir das was Sie an Luisen aufs neue gethan haben, danke ich Ihnen, als wenn Sie ftir ee meiner Schwestern oder fiir eme alte Geliebte gesoret hatten. Ich habe besonders die dritte Idylle, seitdem sie in Merkur stand, so oft vorgelesen und repetiert, dass ich sie mir ganz zu eigen gemacht habe, und so wie es jetzt zusammensteht ist es eben so national als eigen reizend, und das deutsche Wesen nimmt sich darin zu seinem gréssten Vorteil aus.”’

But the Luise is not only a great poem in itself, but rendered a most important service to German literature by directly sug- gesting the idyllic epos Hermann und Dorothea? The wonder- ful and fertile mind of Goethe seized upon the ideas and under- lying principles in Voss’s poem, they grew and developed into Hermann und Dorothea the most perfect btirgerliche Epos ever written. No longer an idyl, this idyllic epic is yet the direct off- spring and most perfect fruit of idyllic literature. And Goethe himself was the first to acknowledge his indebtednesss to Voss.+*

1 In a note to his treatise: “Uber naive und sentimentalische Dichtung.”’

2 July 6th, 1795, — See Goethe Jahrbuch V, 41. Goethe’s famous and sympathetic review of Voss’s works (1802) was published in Jenaische Allg. Lit. Zeit in April, 1804.

3A. W. Schlegel in his review of Hermann und Dorothea says: “Bei der Nachwelt wird es Luisen empfehlen kénnen, dass sie Dorotheen zu Taufe gehalten hat.’ See Koberstein IV. 460.

4 Goethe writes to Schiller, February 28, 1798: “Ich bin mir noch recht gut des reinen Enthusiasmus bewusst, mit dem ich den Pfarrer von Griinau aufnahm, als er sich zuerst im Merkur sehen liess, wie oft ich ihn vorlas, so dass ich einen grossen Theil davon noch auswendig weiss, und ich habe mich sehr gut dabei gefunden, denn diese Freude ist am [nde doch produktiy bei mir geworden, sie hat mich in diese Gattung gelockt, den Hermann erzeugt, und wer weiss, was noch daraus entstehen kann.”

72 THE REALISTIC IDYL.

When Hermann and Dorothea was about to appear, he wrote in a letter to Voss: ‘Ich werde nicht verschweigen, wie ich bei dieser Arbeit unserm Volke und Ihnen schuldig bin, Sie haben mir den Weg gezeigt und es mir Mut gemacht.”’ And the public acknow- ledgement did notfailto appear. Itoccurs in the beautiful Elegie, the prologue to Goethe’s epos:

“Uns begleiche des Dichters Geist, der seine Luise

Rasch dem wiirdigen Freund unz zu entzticken verband.”’

With the discussion of the idyls of Voss, and their development

into the idyllic epos, we have arrived at the end of our study. From now on idyllic literature in Germany as elsewhere seeks a wider channel in which to flow, namely the Dorfgeschichte or peasant novel, of which Gosse, in discussing a work of this nature by Bjérnson, says that it “is a recrudescence ofthe idyl in its most primitive form, a recapture of the early charm of bucolic poetry.”

TABLE NO. 1.

NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED IN GERMANY DURING THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES CONTAINIG PASTORAL AND IDYLLIC ELEMENTS.

DIDPID|AIAIDRialalanianilalaealalaloe ie Jala A] OO | H]19 [co | 1 OIG 1O la | aA) | HH jis | | | oO] Ss Py Ey WW af) SISICISOlol/SoIlololelolololoeleloleiolo AlalMlolSIHlalaAlSlatal»Al/H|O ISIE |aIa SISISIS/SIOI(SIO(E JEL IEE le leljelele mininin iA eid iA in in JiR iA [Aint iA lA es | mc Romances |1|5 6 2! Hat | | Drama l2lij4|4i2/4l/3 it |] i 28/8 |4{5/4 Pastorals | | | (many difficult 9/16/16) 9] 4)2) 4 5 | 4/10/15/14}11] 4 |} 2 to classify) | Praise of ae! | Natate 2) 1/2/41 | [> 2) 7 | 9 \12) 6 | 1 Idyls & | ’ alll se Eclogues | 3) 1 1 2})2 | 7 |10}/22)10} 5 Critical | | | al | 1|/5|2|4| | 2

See page page 15. The flood af pastoral iiterature may be represented by two waves, the latter very much larger than the former.

Date of firat

TABLE NO. 2.

Works of pastoral and idyllic nature published in Germany from Hessus to Voss. (1500—1795) .

(Also including works which greatly influenced idyllic literature.)

Title of Work.

appearance.

1509 Das Bucolicon (12 idyls)

1528 Das Bucolicon (17 idyls)

1530 Theokritus transl. into Latin verse

1567 Virgilii Bucolica (Transl.)

1576 Der Weingiirtner (a play)

1579 Lob des Landlustes (Beatus ille)

1580 Virgilii Bucolica et Georgica para- phrasi. Introduction De yita rustica

1595 Bergeries de Juliette (Montreux)

1600 (about) Contarinis Schiifergedicht

(transl.)

1605 Longos (soon after transl. by Joh. Brieger)

1619 Guarinis Pastor Fido (transi.)

1619 D/’Urfe’s Astree (transl.)

1625 Lob des Feldt-lebens (based on

Fischarts 1579)

1627, 4 Dafne (first opera in Germany)

1629

Sidney’s Arcadia, (transl.)

1630, 4 Schifferey von der Nimfen Hercinie 1630 Lentz oder Friihling 1630, 8 Theatrum Amoris, III part von der Liebe Endymionis des Schiif-

fers in Caria (Roman)

1631 Friihlings-Hochzeit Gedicnte 1632, 8 Schiifferey oder keusche Liebes- beschreibung der verliebten nim- fen Amoena u. d. lobw. Schiiffer

1632

Amandus (Roman)

Schiiferin Dieromene

1636, 8 Wintertags Schiifferey nen Coelinden u. ders. ergeb. Schiit dorf

fer Corimbo (Roman)

The Ilylin G2rmin Literature,

d.

Reu und Leid uber die Liebe der

Sch6-

Author. Place of publication and date of later editions. Eobanus Hessus Erfurt Hessus Hagenau Hessus Hagenau

Stephan Riccius Nicodemus Frischlin

Johann Fischardt Strassburg 1580, 1600

Prischlin Francofurt 1602, 8

durch F.C. V. B. Miimpelgart

Elizabeth of Hessen

Jungermann

Hilgerum Mannlich, Miihlhausen

Je BBs Verb: Miimpelgart

Martin Opitz

Opitz (Torgau) Breslau

Opitz Frankfurt a. M 1638, 1642, 1643, 1659

Opitz Brieg

Andres Findischen

Paul Fleming

i St

5 1D), 1D);

Zacharias Lund

Friedr. VY, Drachs-

1573, 1580

Gera Franckfurt

Leipzig

Leipzig, 1635

1641, 1642 1645, 1652 1659, 1661

(Autograph in

Kopenhagen Leipzig

)

a

1640

1641

1642

1642,8

1643

1644

1645

TABLE NO. 2.

Title.

(Drama) Daphnisu. Chrysilla neben einem anmutigen Auftrage yom Schafe-Dieb.

Lamentatio Germaniae expirantis. der nunmehr hinsterbende Nym- phen Germaniae elendeste To- desklage

Hirt Filamon u, Schifernymfe Bel- liflora. Schifer-roman

Pegnesisches Shifergedicht (von Strefon u. Clajus)

Idyl (first)

Ein Hirten-geriithe eines (hrist- lichen Hirten, der seine Schafe in der Fremde weidet

Des Daphnis aus Cimbrien Galathee

Poetischer Rosen-wiilder Vor- schmack oder G6tterund Nymfen IN o S595 yon einer Nymphen entworfen.

Friiling

3 Die verwiistete u. verddete Schift-

erey. Leoriander betrogen von d. Schiferin Perelina (Roman). (Two) Hirtenoden

Tragico-Comoedia Von der ver- liebten Schafferin Dulcimunda Schiifferey (from the French of

Montchrestien), one for each sea- son (Roman) Weihnachts-Lied (Ecloge)

Des edeln Daphnis aus Cimbrien Besungene Florabella Fortsetzung der Pegnitz Schiifferey

Author. Place.

Herm. Heim. Schere

Hamburg (das zwischen-spiel meist Platt deutsch)

Just. Ge. Schotte- Braunschweig

lius, F. G., P.1

Georg Neumark Hamburg 1648 Geo. Phillipp Hars- Niirnberg dorffer & Johann Kaj

Georg Rudolf Weckherlin

Joh, Brzetislaw Mislick

(no date)

Johann Rist, Hamburg 1646

125, 105 (Ge, 185 ©.

Philipp Zesen, D.G. Hamburg Andreas Tscherning: Dresden Kaspar Hertranfft (no date) printed in Lappenberg’s Fleming

Ernst Cristoph Jehna, 1645, 8

Homburg

Aug. Augspurger Dresden Johann Klaj Wittenbergk (Birkens Redekunst

page 297)

Rist Hamburg von Birken u. Niirnberg

Klaj, P.

1 F. G. means member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft; P. member of the Nurnberg Pegnit2— sehdafer; E. O. member of Elbschwanen-orden.

TABLE NO. z

Date. Title.

1646 Montemayors Diana (transl.)

1646, 8 Roselieb d.i. Waldspielin Reimloser Rede. Fast nach Tassens Amintas

1647 Die vier Tage eines Newen und Lustigen Schiifferey von d. Sch6- nen Coelinden u. derselb. ergebe- nen Schiifer Corimbo

1647 Das Friede wtinschende Teutsch- land

1648, 4 Pegnesisches Schaeferdicht in den Nordgauer Gefilden

1648 Idyls (six)

1649 Vergils Bucolies (in Alexandrines) also ein absonderlich Hirten- gespriich eines Fiirstl. Person zu ehren gemachet.

1649 Hirtenliedchen zur Vermehrung d. Hochzeitl. Ehrenfreuden Herrn Joh. Fauljoch

1650 Der Elmen-Nymphen Immergrii- nendes Lust-Gebéu nach Art eines Schiifergedichtes. (In honor of the house of Brunswick)

1650 Die Nymphe Noris in zweyen Tag- zeiten (mit Gedichte, Rétseln, Sinn-u. Reimenbildern duch arti- gen Gebéuden.)

1650 Deutsche Poetische Gedichte (con- taining idyllic description)

1650 Teutschlands Kriegs Beschluss u. Friedenskuss vom Schiifer Flori- dan

1650.12 Die Geistl. Schiifferey Dem Hirten aller Hirten

1651L Margenis, das vergniigte, bekriegte und wieder befriedigte Teutsch- land

1651, 4 Hirtenambt d. Geistl. Schéfferey aller Hirten

1652 Des KGnigl. Printzens Erofilos Hir- tenliebe (after the Dutch author

Cats) 1652 Hirtengesang (zur Hochzeit Schép- pings)

i)

Author,

Harsdorffer

Zesen

Christian Brehme (says he describes

his friends) Rist Klaj

Weckherlin Oswald Beling

Simon Dach

Enoch Glaeser

Joh. Helwig, P.

Sibylla Schwarz

yv. Birken

v. Birken

Joann Khuen

Joh. Geo. Albini

Julius Bruning

Place,

Niirnberg 1661—1663 Hambure:

Dresden

1647, 1648 1649 Nurnberg

Amsterdam Schleswig

KG6nigsberg

Woltffenbiittel

Niirnberg

Danzig

Niirnberg

Miinchen

Niirnberg

Miinchen

Leipzig

KGnigsberg

76 TABLE

Date. Title.

1653 Der Getreue Hiirte. Arkadischer Hiirten-Auizug. (Am Namenstag einiger Prinzen)

1653 Das Friedejauchzende Teutschland

1653 Pastor Fido presented at Dresden

1653, 4 Der Grund aller Hochzeiten oder Beschreibung d. erst. Hochzeit zw. Adam u. Eva

1653 (Drama) Rosetta Schiétferey

55 Aengelens Der verstandige Giirtner iiber die 12 Monate d. Jahres (Transl.)

1655 Vortrab des Sommers

1655, 4 Ein Hirtenlied (zur Hochzeit d. cand. Fuchs)

1655,12 Schiéilferfreud .d. Geistl. Schéifferey.

Dem Hirten aller Hirten

Uber den Schiifferischen Namen

abgesehene Ode

1656 Ecloge, Florelle oder Lob-und

Trost-Schallendes Hirtengespriich

beim Tode Eleonora Krausen,

gest. 16 Sept., 1655 in Weimar

1656

1656 Wandlungslust welche in aller- hand Anbindungs- Hochzeit- Neu- Jahres- u. Liebes- Schiifereien besteht

1657 Musik- poet. Lustwald, also cont.

zu keuscher Ehrenliebe dienende Schéferlieder 1658, 4 Schiifergedicht u. Schiitzengeschicht 1659 Virgil, Bucolica oder Hirtenlieder (transl.)

1659 Adeliche Rose welche den Getreuen Schiifer Siegreich u, d. wankelm. Adelmuht vorstellet

1660 Die Verfiihrete Schiéferin Cynthie

durch listiges Nachstellen d. Flo- ridan

1660, 8 Verlibtes Gespenste, Die Geliebte Dorn-roose (Bauerstiicke in honor of wedding of Prince Geo. of Glogau)

1660,12 Schéffer- Hirten- Liebes- und Tu- gend Lieder

NO. 2.

Author. Ernst Geller

Rist

Georg Greflinger,

i. O.

Heinr. Elmenhorst

Greflinger Tscherning

Joh. Wedemeyer

David Schirmer

Neumark

Jac. Schwieger

Neumark

Cristoph Frank, P.

Chr, H. Liibeck

Jacob Schwiger

Schwiger

Andreas Gryphius

Joh. Geo. Schoch

Place.

Dresden

Niirnberg 1653

Hamburg

Leipzig Hamburg 10 ed. to 1692

Rostock Riga

Miinchen Dresden

Jena Hamburg

Jehna Niirnberg Gliikstadt Gliikstadt

Breslau

Leipzig

TABLE NO. 2.

Date. Title.

1661 Dess Elbisechen Schwanen- Schii- fers Hyphantes Poetische Musen, liber die himmelsch6ne Rabelle, treuverliebte Warylisis, falsche

: Florinde

1668 Monte- Mayors Diana (transl.)

1663 Neu-erfundene Philyrenische Kriegs und Friedens Schiitferey, das ist: Kurtze Chronologische Verfas- sung aller vornehmster Gesch d. Stadt Leipzig

1664 (In Ottobert the author speaks of his) Hirtenlieder

1665 Pegnesische Gespriichspiel- Gesell- schaft von Nymfen u. Hirten bey einem Hochgrafl. Beylager

1665 Altaniens werthester Hirtenknabe Filareto unter e. Schiif. spiel u. Sanglust

1667 Ergétzliche Friihlings-freude in einem Pastorell.

1667 Schiiferspiel der ehre des Ruhm- seligsten Spielenden durch die Pegnitz Hirten

1668 Schiéfergedicht: Ohne Gott. u.d. ges. Vernunft vorg. u, von vielen beg. Thorheit d. Verliebten (Roman)

1668, 8 Klarin, Klariminde u. Magdalis, oder Poetischer Myrthenwald

1669, 4 Weinachts-Schiifferey zu Ehren d. Geburt Jesu Christi

1669, 4 Die in der Flucht siegende Daphne

1669, 5 Jauchtzende Cupido. Schiifferspiel beim Namensfeste eines Prinzen

1670, 4 Der MHerculische Palmenbaum (Schiifergedichte)

1670 Kundegis, eine Teutsche Schiiferey

1670 Wahregilt, eine Teutsche Schiferey

1672, 8 Die K6nigl. Schiiferin Aspasia. Am Geburtstage Herrn Augusti

1673 Willbald, Teutsche Schiitferey

1673, 8 Der Bekehrte Schéifer (Roman)

1673, 9 Pegnesis: oder der Pegnitz Blumen- genoss Shiifere Feld Gedichte in 9 Tagzeiten

Author.

Geo, Heinrich Weber

Gio 1, 18h, Schoch

Wolfe. Helmhard, 19> Gis v. Birken

Const, Chris. Dede- kind

Martin Kempe

v. Birken

Henning Gross- court J. Hagen

Seb. Seelman Wilh. Cronpusch

S. Seelmann

Heinrich Tolle Heinrich Tolle

Tolle

Maria Cath. Stockfleth mostly by v. Birken

Place.

Gliickstadt

Niirnberg: Jena

Erfurt

Niirnberg

Dresden

KGnigsberg

Niirnberg

Helmstadt Baireuth

Regensb. Gorlitz

Regensburg Gottingen Gottingen

Halle

G6ttingen Niirnberg

Niirnberg

a | ~

78 TABLED

Date. Title.

1673,12 Des Blumengenossen Lilidans ge- kiisste Lysis

1674 ‘Trauer Hirtenspiel (iibere. verstorb. Markgraf)

1674 Die Betriibte und getréstete Ga- lathee (Schiiferlich mythologisch Sangspiel)

1675,4 Das verletzte, benetzte und wieder ergetzte Schiiflein, ein Feldgedicht

1677 Corydons auss Arcadien Viessir- liches und gar erbauliche Narren- bossen oder Spannene Grabschrif- ten (Satire)

1678 Adam und Eva, oder Singspiel v.

d. gefallne u. wieder aufgerichtete Mensch, (Transl. fr. Ital. Opera) 1678.8 Guarinis Pastor Fido (Transl.)

1679 Teutsche Rede- bind u, Dichtkunst- mit einem Hirtengedichte

1679 Schiiferspiel

1680 Eine Geistliche Schiiferei in Rosen-

Lilien- und Negelchen Thale an-

diichtig betrachtet

1681, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1682 Der ungliickselige Hirt

the French) (Roman)

Mirantisches Flétlein: oder Geist- liche Schiifferey. In welcher Chri- stus under dem Namen Daphnis die in dem Siindenschlaff vertietite Seel Clorinda zu einem bessern

Leben aufferwecket. Schiifferspiele (No. 1 Pastorell)

(From

1682

1684

1684, 8 Die betriibte Pegnesis- von dem Wandel des sel. Floridans-mit Gesps. Ged... . durch einen Blu- menhirten (of vy. Birken)

1686, 6 Der unblegliickte Schiifer Corydon, welcher mit Zuhilfe der Cypris, in Annehmung der himml. Rosibei- len in einem Fortunato verkehrt worden, bey einer biirgerlichen

NO 2.

Author.

Joh. Tepelius, P Michael Korgehl

Christian Weise (the only one by

him cont. past. el.) Joh. Lud. Faber, P

Christian Richter

Hofmann vy, Hoff- manswaldau

vy. Birken

Joh. Bapt, Renz K. H. Viebing Ernst Stockman

12, Wo Wile

Laurentius v. Schnifis

Joh. Christ. Hall- man Martin Limburger

Jac. Reich

Place.

Giessen Céolln

(Leipzig)

Hamburg

G6ttingen 1679, 1681. repr. 15 times till 1730 Niirnberg

(G6ttingen) Helmstadt Jena Regensburg Constanz

1694, 95, 1711 1735, 39

1750 Augsburg

Niirnberg

K6nigsberg

Date.

TABLE NO. z

Title.

Hochzeit in einem Pastorellabge- bildet.

1689, 4 Cain u. Abel oder d. Brudermérder

1690

1692 1692

1699

1701

1714,10

1716

1718-20

(Opera)

Von dem Hof, Stadt- und Land- leben

Vorzug des Landlebens

Mirantische Mayen-Pfeiff oder Mar- ianische Lobverfassung. In wel- cher Chorus, ein Hirt, der Mutter Gottes Schénheit besingt

Die Wiederkehr der Giildenen Zeit (Opera)

Etliche Schéffer-Gedichte (in vier Eklogen besingt er zwei Todes- falle, eme Geburt u. eine Ver- mihlung)

Geistliche Hirtenlieder, der inihrem Jesum verliebten

Der Tod d. Grossen Pans, oder Herrn Schotten (Opera)

Der Getreue Treu-Bruch (Schiifer- spiel)

Daphne (Opera) (Music by Hiindel)

Die geheime Liebe d. Diana. In einem Pastoral auf d. Schauplatz

L’inganno fedele, oder der getreue Betrug, ein heroischer Schiifer- Spiel (Opera)

Feld und Landleben

B. Neukirch’s grosse Anthologie. (Much of it Schéferliche Gelegen- heits-dichtung)

Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott

Isaac u. Rebecca oder die Kluge Vorsichtigkeit

Hochzeit-fest (ein Pastorel) Schi- fergedicht. (In memory of his friends)

Cupido auf seinem Thron

Fontenelle’s Endymion (Trans)

Ird. Verg. in Gott, II Theil (Spring and winter )

Gelegenheits Eklogen (In part VIL of Hoffmannswaldau’s works) by upper Saxon poets

Author.

Christn. Heinr. Postel Canitz

Canitz

Laurentius y. Schnifis

F. C. Bressand

Christian Wernicke

Joh. Scheffler (call- ed Angelus Silesius)

Christian Hein. Postel F.C. Bressand

Heinrich Hinsch Joh. Ulr. y. Koenig

Joh. Ulr. vy. Koenig Helmhard 1688 Collected by B.

Neukireh

Brockes

Joh. Chr. Giinther

1723

Vocativo Gottsched Brockes

by G. F. W. Juncker

Place.

Hamburg

Publ. 1700 and later

Dellingen

Hamburg Hamburg 1704, 1749 Berlin Hamburg: Braunschweig:

Hamburg: Hamburg:

Hamburg

Niirnberg Halle

Hamburg: Frankfurt

a. d. O.

Frkf. u. Leipzig

Friestadt

Hamburg

TABLE NO.

Date. Title.

1729 Extract from Longus’s Daphnis & Chloe in Zeitschr. der Biedermann

1730 Schiifergedicht: Das Neubegliickte Sachsen (durch die Geburt eines Printsen, auf d. Schauplatz vor- gestellt) °

1730, 8 Critische Dichtkunst (cont. 4 Idyls

of Gottsched)

1732 Phillis, Schéifergedicht

1732 Vergils Eclogues transl. (theils in

Hoch-, teils in Nieder-Séchsische Verse )

1732 Die Alpen (written 1729)

1733 Daphnis, ein Hirtengedicht

1733 Sottises Champétres oder Schiifer- gedicht des Prof. Philippi

1738 Fabeln u. Erzihlungen

1738 Das Lob d. Zakenflusses u. s. Um-

zirks auf. d. Schles. Riesengebirgen Hirtengedichte auf die Geburt Jesu Christi

1739,12

1740 Ode auf die Geburt Christi, nebst der Priorischen Ekloga Messias (Aus dem Eng!.)

1740 Critische Dichtkunst

1741 An Friedrich II im Namen d. Nymphe Hercynie

1741, 8 Atalanta oder die bezwungene Sprédigkeit (written 1740)

1742, 8 Amyntas, Hirtengedicht d. Uassi (Transl.)

1742 Four eclogues as models in Gott- sched’s Crit. Dichtk. 3rd ed. Schifergedancken bey einer Jagd seiner KGnig]. Maj. in Preussen

1742 Schiifererzihlungen (“‘gefiillig, aber auch liistern-sinnlich’’) (8 Erzabl.)

1742 Die gelernte Liebe, oder der ver-' steckte Hammel, Schifersp. (1 act)

1743? Hirtencantate (Belustigungen)

1743 Sieben Hirtengedichte von Schoch dem Jiingeren

1748 Corydon, der Briiutigam ohne Braut, Sylvia, die Braut ohne Bréiutigam

D

a.

Author. Gottsched

Joh. Ulr. y. Koenig:

Joh. Cristoph Gottsched

Fried vy. Hagedorn Caspar Abel

Albrecht v. Haller Brockes Chr. Ludw. Lisecow

Friedr. v. Hage- dorn Lindner

Lindner

Elias Kaspar Reichard

Breitinger Kaspar Gottlieb Lindner Gottsched

Joh. H. Kirchhoff Benj. Neukirch Benj, Neukirch

Joh. Cristoph Rost

J. E. Schlegel Naumann

Kopenhagener Anonymus

Place.

Leipzig

Dresden

Leipzig 1737 1742, 51 ete.

Gosslar Bern Hamburg Leipzig Hamburg Hirschberg

Hirschberg

Ziirich Hirschberg 1742

Leipzig 1745

Hannover

Berlin 1744, 48, 51, 56, 60, 64, 67, 68, 78

Frkf. u. Lpz. 1746

TABLE NO. 2. SL

Date. Title. Author. Place. 1748 Landleben in Ritzebiittel B. H. Brockes Hamburg: 1744 Oden und Schiifergedichte Joh. Fried. Grafe Leipzig 1744+ Das Band, ein Schiéiferspiel, 1 act Chr. Gellert Leipzig: 1744, 8 Das angenehme Huhn,. In versen Hinr. Jansen Bremen besungenes Landgut d. Herrn y. Stocken. 1744 Hlisie, Schéiferspiel Ad. Gottfr. Uhlich Leipzig 1749 1744, 8 Die gepriifte Treue. Schiiferspiel Karl Chr. Giirtner Bremen 1745, 8 Sylvia, ein Schiiferspiel Gellert Leipzig

1745 Der Inselberg besungen von einem Chr.Euseb.Suppius Gotha Meistersiinger 1745 Hinterbergens Winter u.Sommer- J. B. vy. Fischer Riga lust mit physik. u. moral. Betracht. 1745, 4 Der bléde Schiifer (ein Lustspiel) Joh. Wilh, Ludw. Berlin 1746

Gleim - 1752, 63,767 1745 Win Aufsatz uber die Schiiferpoesie Christlob Mylius 1745 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (Trans, fr. Brockes Hamburg Engl.) (“breit umschreibend”’) 1745, 8 Die Martinsgans, Schiifersp. Chr. Nik. Naumann 1745 Der faule Bauer, ein Nachspiel A. G. Ublich Hamburg u. Leipzig: 1746 Idyls (in die oden Anakreonsin Joh. Nik. G6tz Frankfurt u. Reimlosen Versen) Leipzig 1746, 8 Die versGhnliche Liebe. Die zufrie- Joh. Dav. Herr- Leipzig dene Liebe * mann 1746 Die Kirms (Sperontes) Joh. Sig. Scholze Leipzig 1746 Kiéitzchen Joh. Sig. Scholze = Leipzig

1746 Der plauderhafte Schéifer (Lustsp.) Ad. Gottfr. Uhlich Danz.u. Leipzig 1746 Vom Natiirlichen in Schifergedich- Joh. Ad. Schlegel — Ztirich ten etc. (bes. gegen Gottsched)

1746 Die beste Wahl. (Schiifersp.) Erlangen 1746, 8 Critische Briefe Bodmer u. Breitin- Ziirich ger 1747 Ein Schéferspiel ohne Liebe J. W. Jelpken Braunschweig 1747 ~=Der Leichtsinnige (vonDrymantes) Fr, Wilh, Eichholtz Hamburg 1747 ‘Die Gliickliche Hifersucht. Schsp. Jena Metastasios KdG6nigl. Schiifer Wien (transl. fr. Ital.) 1748, 4 Die Spréde, ein Schiiferspiel J. F. Lowen Helmstaedt. 1748, 8 Der Herbst. Frhr. Bachoff vy. Echt 1748, 8 Die Landlust Frhr. Bachott y. Echt 1748, 8 Versuch in moralischen und Schii- Chr, Fr. Zernitz Hamburg u. fergedichten (resembles Haller) 1745 Leipzig (ed. by Uhlich) (‘Ganz werthlos” Kob.)

The Idyl in German Literature. 6

$2 TABLE NO. 2. Date. Title. Author, Place. 1748, 8 Galathee u. Alcides, musik. Schi- Potsdam ferspiel 1748, 8 Der Kuss ganz neu musik. Schifer- Christlob Mylius Frkf. u. Leipzig spiel 1749 Der Friihling, ein Gedicht Ewald Chr. v. Berlin, 10 ed. Kleist to 1804 1749 Der grossmiithige Entschluss, 3 acts Frkf. u. Leipzig 1749 (Anarticle from) Guardian (cone. Frau Gottsched Leipzig Theocr. and pastoral poet., transl.) 1749 Die Schaferinsel. Lustp.in 3 Aufz. Christlob Mylius Wien 1749 Die unschuldige Diebe. Schaiferspiel Joh. Jac. Dusch Hannover

1749. 8 Neue Critische Briefe 1749 Die gliickliche Eifersucht 1750 Die Liebe oder Thyrsis u. Doris. (Ein Schéfergedicht in 3 Gesiin- gen)

1750 Empfindungen d. Friihlings 1750,8 Noah (Jacob u. Joseph 1751— Jacob u. Rachel 1752)

1750 Discours sur les Sciences et les Arts (attacks civilization)

1751 Hirten- Gespriache

1751 Der Betrug bei der Schiiferey (Scha- ferspiel)

1752. + Poetische Blicke ins Landleben (ed.

by Bodmer)

1752 Doris oder die zartliche Schiferin. 1 act

1752 Der Winter, ein moral. Ged.

1752 Der Fryhling (transl into French

1770) 1752.8 Das Urtheil des Paris. music. Scha- ferspiel (Ital. u. Dent.) 1753 Hirtenlieder u. Gedichte (Follow- ing rules of Batteux and his transl.)

1753 Das Schiferfest oder die Herbst freude. Lustspiel in versen am Namenstage Maria Theresa aui- gefiihrt.

1753, 8 Die Nacht

1754 Damon und Damoetas, Ekloge,

Bodmer u. Breitinger Ziirich 1763

*Keineswegseinge- Eisenach wohnliches Gelegen- 2nd ed. heits-dichtung”’.

(Netoliezka.)

Bodmer Ziirich Rousseau

Suppius Gotha (Seleontes) Langensalza E.F.v.Gemmin- Ziirich

gen Dresden 1759

Georg Joach. Rost u.

Mark Wismar

Cristoph M. Wie- 1752

land : Berlin

Anonymous (“The Halle

song Myrtill be- :

longs to the best 4

of the time’’)

Carolina Neuberin Wien, 1753, 4

Sal. Gessner Zurich

Mich. Dietr.Blohm Altona

TABLE NO. &

Date. Title. 1754 Der Tausch 1754 Versuch Landlust 1754 Die Schéne Nacht

1754, 8 Daphnis an Silen

1754, 8 Der Stand der Unschuld und Fall des Menschen, Schiiferspiel von Dryden (transl.)

1754? Trilogie (after Prior’s Despairing

Shepherd) (‘‘Sterbeblau — senti- mental’’)

1754, 8 Daphnis

1755, 4 Die Tageszeiten, ein Gedicht in 4 Biichern

1755 Der beste Vater. Schiifersp.

1755 Discours sur linegalité parmi les

hommes

1755, 8 Doris oder die ziirtliche Schéaferin (Schiifsp. )

1755. 8 Gartengedanken. Gedicht

1756, 8 Idyllen

1756, 8 Von der Ursprung der Ungleichheit unter d. Menschen (trans.)

1756, 58 Batteux. Hinl. in die sch6nen Wissenschaften (mit Zusitzen

Ein reimfreis

1757 Der Tod Adams

1757 Die Idyllen Theokrits, Moschus u. Bion (transl.)

1757 Poet. Geméhlde u, Empf. aus d.

heil. Gesch. (ecloga sacra)

1757, 8 Die dankbare Treue. Hin Schiifersp.

1757-60 Schilderungen aus dem Reiche der

Natur u. d. Sittenlehre fiir alle Monate des Jahres

1758 Neue Gedichte (including Idyls) (one fisher--idyl)

1758, 4 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (transl.)

758, 4 Der Mai, eine musik. Idylle. 758. 8 John Gay’s Fabeln (transl.)

Author, J. J. Dusch

eines Gedichtes iiber die Fried. Dan. Behn

Joh. Cristoph Rost

Anonymous

Joh. Arnold Ebert

S, Gessner

Just Fr. Wilh. Zachariae

Joh. Ad. Pantke Rousseau

Joh. Cristoph Rost

Ernst Gottl. Wol-

tersdort Sal. Gessner

Moses Mendelssohn

C. W. Ramler

Fr. Gottl. Klop- stock

Chr. Gottl. Lieber-

kiihn

Jac. Fried. Schmidt

Joachim Chr. Grot

Joh. Jae. Dusch

Ewald Chr, v. Kleist

Joh. Franz v. Palthen

Place.

Liibeck

Berlin 1763, 9 Halle Frankf.

Braunschweig

Zrch. 1760, 65 Rostock

Frankf. u. Leipzig Breslau

Zrch. 1760, 65 Berlin

Leipzig., 1762, 69, 74, 85, 1802

Leipzig u. Kopenhagen Many ed. Berlin

Hamburg Hamburg u. Leipzig

Berlin

Rostock

Karl Wilh. Ramler Berlin 1764

Joh. Franz v. Palthen

Hamburg

Title. 8 Der Tod Abels

758, 8 Die Hirtengedichte des Virgilius

1758, 8 Die Hirten bei der Krippe zu Bethl. (musik. Ged.)

1759 Lyrische Muse an der Saale (Con- tains Hirtengedichte) (in one “wetteifert mit Rosts Schamlo- sigkeit’’)

1759 J. Gay’s Schiéfertrauerspiel Dione. Transl. from Engl.

1759 Das Ochsenfest

1759 Schiifergedichte (A. d. Engl. u. Ital. iibers.)

1760 Der Morgen, in Prosa

1760 Lied der Nymphe Persanteis

1760, 8 Das Dorf, ein Gedicht

1761, 8 Der Schatz. Bin Schéfersp. in 1 akt. (in Alexandrinern)

1761, 8 Idyllen

1762 Kkritik der Schlegelschen Abh. (an advance in idea of idyl) 1762 DieSchéferspiele: Evander u. Erast.

Der erste Schiffer (his best work) 1762, + Hirtenliedern des Virgils u. Pope 1762,8 Die Schépfung der Natur. Ein Gedicht 1762,8 Damoet u. Phillis. Eine Schiiferey 1763 Bukolische Erzihlungen

3, £ Elmine und Ernst. Eine Idylle

763, 8 Menalk in der Schéferstunde 763, 8 Philemon u. Baucis, Schausp. in versen. 1 Akt. 8 Moses in Midian, ein poet. Gemiilde 1764 Lieder auf die vier Tagszeiten 1764 Der Sommertag in 4 poet. Be- trachtungen 1764, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1764, 8 Idyllen oder Klagen Fliichtige Zeit Der Brudermord des Kains. prosaiches Trauerspiel

1763,

iiber die

1765 Ein

TABLE NO 2.

Author.

Gessner

Chr. Gottl. Lieber- kiihn Karl Wilh. Ramler

Paul Aug. Schrader Joh. Geo. Phil. Muchler

H.

Ramler

Joh. Jae. Dusch Gottl. Konr. Pfeffel

Jac. Fr. Schmidt Mendelssohn

S. Gessner

Joh. Heinrich Smid Benj. Chr. Hein. Giesebrecht

Joh. Sigm. Manso Geo. Aug. v. Breitenbauch

Joh. Dan. Glum- mert

C. E. Suppius

G. K. Pfeffel

Joh. Chr. Lossius

Joh. Matth. Stoll (Graf) Alex. Christiani

Gleim

Karl Heim. Hoffer

Lud. Fried Hude- mann

Place. Ziirich 1760, 60, 65, 67, 73 Berlin

Berlin

Jena

Berlin u. Leipzig Braunschweig: Berlin u. Leipzig:

Kolberg Altona Frankfort

Berlin

Ziirich 1765, 67, 70, 75 Aurich Halle

Bielsfeld Prkf. u. Leipzig Danzig Strassburg

Erfurt

Hildb. Wien

Berlin Leipzig

Wismar

TABLE NO.

Date. Title.

1765? (Allegorische Alexandriner) Ekloge 1765, 8 Jiidische Schiifergedichte 1765, 8 Abwechselungen wider die Lange-

weile 1765, 8 Lob des Landlebens 1766 Laokoon 1766, £ Lucas od. der erhérteSchiifer, Eine Idylle 1766, + Die siisse Dienstbarkeit, ein landl. Singgedicht.

1766, 8 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten; also Ge- miilde von der Weinlese

1766, 8 Die Abendzeiten in 4 Meisterge- singen

1767,8 Die Ruhe auf dem Lande

1767 Bion u. Moschus: Idyllen (transl.)

1767 Der Wartberg bei Heilbronn. 12 Gesiinge

1767 Abbhandiung vom Schiifergedichte

1767 Theokrit u. Gessner (in Fragmen- ten tiber neu. deu. Lit.)

1767,8 Das Landleben (‘‘Kleinmalerei’’)

1768, 8 Idylle auf die Abreise Marien Char- lotten, Erzherz. in Oesterr. 1769 Sieben kleine Gedicnte der Venus gesungen. Also Idyls. 1769, + Paris auf Ida. [Ein heroisches Pa- storale 1769, 8 Der Winter (eine moralische Wo- chenschrift) 1770, £ Der gliickl. Friihling. Ein Ged. auf d. Ankunft d. Mad. la Dauphine (Compd) ? Elegieeines Schiifers (Imitation of 1770 § Kleists Amyntas) 1770, 8 W. Collins Orientalische Eklogen aus dem Enel. 1770 Einige Idyllen Gedichte) 1771, 8 Versuche in Idyllen

(in Vermischte

1771, 8 Idyllen: Die Hiigel bei Ratenau u. Rosalia u. Amyntas.

1771 = Idyllen

»

Author, Joh. Elias Schlegel Breitenbauch lal, A I

Lessing:

Joh. Dan. Glum- mert

Joh, Dan. Glum- mert

Johannes Tobler

Gottl. Cristopher Schmaling

Fr. Grillo Cristoph L. Pfeiffer

Jos. (Freyherr) v. Penkler

Herder

Chr. Cai. Lorenz Hirschfeld

Joh. Cristoph Re- gelsperger Abraham Jac. Penzel

Joh. Heinr. Weiss- mann

C. C. L. Hirschfeld

Joh. Rautenstrauch Holty

S. Gessner

Joh. Gotti. Chr, Nonne

Hektor W. (Frei-

herr) v, Gunderode Joachim Cris. Blum

Karl Chr. Reckert

Place.

Leipzig: Leipzig:

Berlin Danzig:

Danzig Ziirich 1774 Quedlinburg 1773

Gotha

Berlin Heilbronn

Augsburg

Leipzig 1768, 71, 76, 1828 Wien

Berlin Rudrestadt

Leipzig 1775

Strasburg

Ziirich

Jena

Karlsruhe Berlin

Miinster

86

Date. Title.

1771.8 Versuch eines poet. Gemildes yom Herbste 1771, 12 Theokritos Idyllen (Transl.) 2 David, ein Trauerspiel 2 Moral Erz. und Idyllen von Diderot 2 Brief iiber die Lanschaftsmalerei } Neue Idyllen J 2 Idylls of Theokritus, Bion u. Moschus (prose)

S Hirtenlieder. u. d. verklagte Amor-

Idyllen

Cimon, Schaferspiel (written 1747) (After Bocce. Decamerone V1.)

Idyllen

Amor und der Dichter

5 Der Hiigel bei Kindleben

8 Amors reise nach Fockzana zum Fried-Congress

’ Idyllen

Versuche von Schafergedichten

Das Feuer in Walde

Gemalde aus einer Welt unschuldi- ger Menschen . 8 Schaferspiele 8 Palimon, Schadfersp. mit Gesingen (2 acts) S Die Promenade in dem Grossen Garten Die Christnacht unter den Schafern (Dram. idylle) Idyllen Idyllen. Schnitteridylle u. d. Arme Wilh. 5 Orpheus, Ein Singspiel 5 Menalk u. Mopsus (after V eclogue of Vergil), Eclogen Der Faun. Eine Idylle Der erschlagene Abel. Eine Skizze An den Frihling Gemialde aus dem Sommer Der Satyr Mopsus Bacchidon u. Milon

TABLE No. 2.

Author.

Karl Sam. Slevogt

Fr. Grillo Klopstock Gessner

Sal. Gessner

Karl Aug. Kiitner

Fr. Aug. Clem Werthes

Joh. Heinr. Weiss- mann

Bodmer

Andreas Grader Joh. Sig. Manso Heinr. Aug. Otto- kar Reichard

J. G. C. Nonne

Blum

Johannes Kraus Cristoph L. H. Hélty

Theo. Joh. Briickner

Moses Dobruska Joh. Wolfg. And. Sch6pfel

Hein. Aug. O. Reichard

Paul Georg Hagenbruch Brickner

Holty

Werthes

Jak. Mich. Reinh. Lenz

| Maler Miiller

|

J

Place

BHisenach

Halberstadt

Hamburg

Ziirich

Ziirich 1772. 74, 82

Leipzig

Riga Bielefeldt Gotha Jena Berlin Maynz.

Mus. Alm.

Prag u. Leip Frki. u. Leip

Gotha Langensalza Mus. Alm.

Ziirich Frk. u. Leipz

Mannheim

to

TABLE NO. +

Date. Title. Anthor. Place. 1775 Die Schaafschur, eine Pfalzische Maler Miiller Mannheim Idylle :

1775, 8 Idyllen Joh. Heinr. Biicking Maynz 1775, 8 Einige Gedichte (Fikenscher) (coll. Joh. Geo. Em. Bayreuth by Krausemark) Rosner 1775, 8 Apollo unter den Hirten (Musik. Gottfried Uhlich Wien Schiifsp., 1 act) 1776, 8 Die Werbung fiir England. Liind- Joh. Christoph Bayreuth liches Lustspiel Krauseneck 1776, 8 Idyllen (9 versificierte, Gessner’s) Klamer E. Kk. Leipzig Schmidt 1776 Der Morgen Die Leibeigenschaft Die Pferdeknechte Der Aehrenkranz Selmas Geburtstag - Voss 1777 Die Bleicherin Der Bettler Die Elbfahrt De Winter Awend 1777 +=Liederchen u. Gedichte, Schiifer dra- Traugott Benj. Leipzig ma, ete. Berger 1777, 8 Idyllen u. Erzihlungen Karl Hein. Hoffer Leipzig 1777, 8 Eine laindlische Erzihlung P. E. Birkner Helmstadt 1777, 8 Die Fiirstenreise. Ein lindliches J.C. Krauseneck Bayreuth Lustsp. in 1 act. 1777 +=Ein Kinderpastorale, aufzufiih.am Heinr. Leopold Strassburg Geb. tage s. Vaters Wagner 1777, 8 Wintergemiihlde (2 Ausgaben) Karl Chr. Reckert Berlin 1778 Adams erstes Erwachen und erste Maler Miiller Mannheim Seelige Niichte 1779 1778, 8 Das Steingebiirge bei Adersach in Ernst Leberecht Bunzlau Boéhmen, ein Gedicht Semper 1778 Das Stiindchen Der Hagestolz | Der Abendschmaus Voss Der Riesenhiigel De Geldhapers 1779, 8 Es ist Friede. Ein liindlichesDrama Joh. Chr. Bock Leipzig in 1 act 1780, 8 Neue Idyllen eines Schweizers 1780, 8 Jacob beim Brunnen, eine Schiifer- Bodmer Ziirich spiel aus d. Ital. des Lemene 1781 Homer’s Odyssee Voss 1801, 02, 24 1781 Die Kirschenpfliickerin

Der bezauberte Teufel (Die Schnitter, > Voas

Theoe. 10)

toh} TABLE No. 2.

Date. Title.

1781 Der siebzigste Geburtstag

Author.

Voss

1782 Theokrit (9 Idyllen), Bionu. Mo- Chr. Graf zu

schus (3). transl.

1782,8 Das Harz. ein Gedicht in 7 Gesiin- gen

1782 Das Adonis-fest (from Theocr. )

1783 Des Briutigams Besuch (afterwards

2nd part of Luise)

Stolberg Er. Chr. Hein. Dannenberg

|

' Voss

1784 Luise (afterwards Istpart of Luise)

1784 Idyllen u. Lieder

1785 Gedichte, vol. I Idillen 1785 Hochzeitlied (afterwards in 3rd part of Luise) Die Heumad 1786 Philemon u. Baucis 1786. 8 Idyllen (in his Gedichten)

1787 Ardinghello u. d. gliickseeligen Inseln. (Ital. 16 cent.) 1787.8 Alexis oder von dem goldnen Weltalter (trans!. of Hemsterhuis) 1787, 8 Fischergedichte u. Erzahlungen (introd. by Gessner)

787, 8 Dam6t u. Phyllis. Eine Idylle TS7,8 Salomon Gessners auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht

S8S__ Die Insel Gessners ep Schiafergd. Der erste Schiffer in verse gebracht 1790, 8 Idylle, die gliickl. Wiedergenesung des von Flotow 1790 ‘wo idyls of Theocritus (Polyfem) 1791 Sonntagsfreuden d. Landmanns

1791.8 Daphnis u. Chloe. Idylle mit Ge- sang 1791.8 Die landliche Feier d. Fiirstenta- ges, ein Dorfgemalde in 1 Handl. 1792 Das Morsergericht (transl.) 1793 Homer’s Werke (Ilias neu-. Odys- seus umarb.) 1794 Neue Fischergedichte 1795 Der erste Frihling 1795 Gesangd. Leibeignen beim Ernte- kranz (later in Die Erleichterten)

|

J

Traugott Christiana Dor. Léberin

( Voss Jae. Fr. Schmidt Joh. Jae. Wilh. Heinso

Fr. Hein. Jacobi

Franz Xaver Bronner

Karl Chr. Reckert Ramler

Fr. Leop. Stolberg Ramler

J.C. Krauseneck

Voss

Fredrike Jul. (Grii- fin) vy. Revertlow Karl Chr. Reckert

C Krauseneck

Voss

Bronner Fr. Leop. Stolberg Vos

V7]

Place.

Hamburg

G6ttingen

Dresden

Berlin Berlin

Leipzig Berlin

Bayreuth

Kiel Berlin

Bayreuth

Zirich

TABLE NO. 2. 89

Date. Title. Author. Place. 1795 Luise Voss KG6nigsberg 1795, 6 Uber naive u. sent. Dichtung Schiller

1796 Gedichte (incl. Mérsergerichtete.)) yo,

1797 Vergils Eclogues (transl) 5

1797 Alexis u. Dora. Eine Idylle Goethe

1797 Hermann u. Dorothea Goethe

The Idyl in German Literature.

90 TABLE NO. 3.

WABI EwN Os:

Idyls proper published in Germany during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Date. Title. Author. Place. 1641 Idyl (First) Geo. Rud. Weckherlin 1648 Idyls (Six) Geo. Rud. Amsterdam Weckherlin

1656 Ecloge. Florelie oder Lob und Georg Neumark Jena Trost Schallendes Hirtengespriich (beim Tode Eleonoren Krausen gest. 16 Sept. in Weimar)

1701 Etliche Schiiffer-gedichte (infouree- Chr. Wernicke Hamburg logues he celebrates two deaths, 1704, 1749 one birth and one betrothal)

1718-20 B. Neukirch’s grosse Anthologie Coll. by B. Halle

(much of it pastoral Gelegen- Neukirch heits-dichtung )

1732 Die Alp n Albr. v. Haller Bern 1742 Schafererzihlungen Joh. Christoph Rost Berlin 1746 Idyllen (in Oden Anakreonsinreim- Joh. Nik. G6tz Frkft. u. losen Versen) Leipzig 1748, 8 Versuch in Moralischen und Schi- Chr. Fr. Zernitz Hamb. u. fergedichten (inclined toward 1745 Leipzig

Haller) Ed. by A. G. Ublich 1750 Die Liebe oder Thyrsis und Doris

1753, 8 Die Nacht S. Gessner Ziirich 1753, 8 Hirtenlieder u. Gedichte (after Anonymus Halle Batteux) 1754, 8 Daphnis an Silen Halie 1654, 8 Daphnis S. Gessner Ziirich 1760, 60, 65 1754 Damon und Damoetas. Ekloge Mich. Dietr. Blohm Altona 1756, 8 Idyllen Sal. Gessner Ziirich 1760, 60, 65 1758, 4 Der Mai, eine musik. [dylle Karl Wilh. Ramler Berlin 1764 1758 Neue Gedichte (including idyls) Ewald Chr. v. Berlin Kleist 1758, 8 Der Tod Abels (transl. into French 8. Gessner Ziiurich 1760, 1759) 65, 67, 73 1760 Der Morgen in Pros. Screibart H. 1761, 8 Idyllen Jac. Fr, Schmidt 1762 Der erste Schiffer S. Gessner Ziirich 1763 Bukolische Esziihlugen Ge. Aug. v. Frit. u. Breitenbauch Leipzig 1763, 4 Elmire und Ernst, Eine Idylle Joh. Dan. Danzig

Glummert

TABLE NO. 3.

Date. Title.

1764,8 Idyllen oder Klagen iiber die fliich- tige Zeit.

1765, 8 Jiidische Schiifergedichte

1766, 4 Lycas od. der erhérte Schiifer, eine Idylle

1766, 8 Thomson’s Jahreszeiten (including Gemihlde von der Weinlese)

1768, 8 Idylle auf die Abreise Marien Charl. Erzherz. in Oesterr. (He wrote many similar)

1769 Sieben Kleine Gedichte der Venus gesungen, also Idyls

1770, 8 W. Collin’s orientalische Eklogen ete. aus. d. Engl.

1770 Hinige Idyllen in Vermischte Ge- dichte 1771 += Imdyllen 1771, 8 Versuche in Idyllen

1771, 8 Idyllen. die Hiigel bei Ratenau, Ro- salie und Amyntas 1771, 12 Theocritus: Idyllen (transl.) 1772 Moralische Erzéhl. u. Idyllen v.

Diderot 1772, 8 Neue Idyllen 1772, 8 Hirtenlieder u. d. verklagte Amor

1772, 73 Idyllen

1773, 8 Idyllen 1773 = Idyllen 1773, 8 Versuche von Schifergedichten 1775 Menalk u. Mopsus (after Y. Ec. of Vergil), Eclogues Der Faun. Hine Idylle ) Der Erschlagene Abel. Eine Skizze | Der Satyr Mopsus | Bacchidon u. Milon f Die Schaafschur, eine Pfalzische Idylle J 1775, 8 Idyllen

1775

1776, 8 (Anhang von) Idyllen (9 versificier- te Gessner’s) 1777, 8 Idyllen u. Erzihlungen

Author.

Karl Hein. Hoffer

Ge. Aug. v. Breitenbauch

Johannes Tobler

Joh. Cristoph Regelsperger

Abraham Jak. Penzel S. Gessner

Joh. Gottf.

Chr. Nonne

Karl Chr. Reckert Hektor Wilh. (Freyherr) v. Gtinderode Joachim Cristoph Blum

Fr. Grillo

S. Gessner

Sal. Gessner

Fr. Aug. Clem Werthes

Joh, Hein. Weissman

Blum

Andreas Grader Johannes Kraus Lenz

Maler Miiller

Joh. Heinr. Biicking

Klamer E. K. Schmidt

Karl Heinr, Hoffer

91

Place.

Leipzig Leipzig Danzig Ziirich 1774

Wien

Berlin Ziirich Jena Miinster Karlsruhe BerJin

Halberstadt Ziirich

Ziirich Leipzig Leipzig Berlin Riga Maynz

Pkft. u. Leipzig

Mannheim

Frankfurt Leipzig

Leipzig

1795

wm we

TABLE No. 3.

Title. Die Leibeigenschaft Die Pierdeknechie Der Aehrenkranz Selmas Geburtstag Die Bleicherm Die Betiler Die Elbiahri De Winterawend Das Standchen. Hine Junker Idylle De Geldhapers Der Riesenhigel Der Abendschmaus Der Hagesiolz Die Kirschenpiliickerin Der bezauberte Teufel Der siebzigsie Geburtstag Homer's Odyssee) Des Brautigams Besuch (later 2nd part oi Luise) Luise (later Ist part of Luise) Idyllen w_ Lieder

ee

Gedichte. vol. 1 Idyilen

Hochzeiilied (later in 2nd pari of) Luise)

Die Heumad {

Philemon u. Baucis

Dam6i a. Phyllis. Hime Idyile

Gessner’s Auserlesene Idyllen in Verse gebracht

5 Gessners Schaierged. Der ersie

Schiffer in Verse gebracht

. 8 Idylle: die gliickliche Wiedergene-

sung des Cammerpres. von Flotow

, 8 Daphnis a. Kloe. Idyile mit Gesang

Homer’s Werke (Ilias neu-. Odyssee umarbeitet)

Frahlings Gesang (later in Ist paré of Luise)

Gesang d. Leibeignen beim Erntekranz (later in die Erleich-

terten) } Gedichie (contains Morsergericht | ete.) | Luise ein landl. Ged. in drey| Idyllen. |

Author. Place

Voss

Traugott Christi- ana Dor. Léberin Voss 1801, 2, 1824

Dresden

Voss

Karl Ch. Reckert [Berlin Ramler Berlin Ramler Berlin J.C. Krauseneck Bayreuth Karl Chr. Reckert Berlin Voss

Voss

93

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED.

Allgemine Deutsche Biographie. Anakreontiker und Preussisch-patriotische Lyriker. (Hagedorn, Gleim, Uz, Kleist, Ramler), in Deut. Nat. Lit. ed. by Franz Muncker, Stuttgart, 1895. Barthold, F. W. Geschichte der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft. Berlin, 1848. Baumgart, Hermann. Haudbuch der Poetik. Stuttgart, 188T. Besser, Johann you—Des Herra von Besser Schrifften, beydes in gebundener und ungebundener Rede, ausgefertiget yon J. U. Kénig, Leipzig, 1732. Bezold, Dr. Friedrich yon—Geschichte der deutschen Reformation Berlin, 1890. Biedermann, Dr. Karl—Deutsche Volks- and Kulturgeschichte fiir Schule und Haus. Wiesbaden, 1891.

Birken, Siegmund, von—Teutsche Redebind- und Dichtkunst samt dem Schau- spiel Psyche und einem Hirtengedichte. Niirnberg, 1679.

Blum—Joachim Christian Blnms simmtliche Gedichte, Carlsruhe, 1781.

Bodmer. J. J—Critische Briefe. TZiirich, 1746.

Brockes, B. H.—Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott, bestehend in Physicalisch—und Moralischen Gedichten, in 9 yol. Hamburg, 1737—48.

Brockes, B. H—In Geguer der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit.

Bronner, STE Xaver—Fischergedichte und Erzihlungen wit einem Vorwort you S. Gessner. Ziirich, 1787.

Bronner, Franz Xaver Bronuners Schriften in two vol. Sndndhnren ere Fischer- gedichte und Erzihlungen. TZiirich, 1794.

Budik, P. A—Leben und Wirken der vorziiglichsten lateinischen Dichter des XV.—X VII. Jahrhunderts. Wien, 1827.

Burckhardt, Jacob—Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien. Basel, 1860.

Burckhardt, C. A. H—dus dem Briefwechsel Sigmund von Birkens und Georg Neumarks 1656—59, in Euphorion 1897, Heft 3.

Canitz, F. R. L. yon—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit.

Diimmler, Ernestus—Poetae Latini aevi Carolinied. by E. Diimmler. Berlin, 1881. Ebert, Adolf—Naso, Angilbert und der Conflictus veris et hiemis in Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur vol. 22. Berlin, 1878 Fallersleben, Hoffman von—Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16 u. 17 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1844.

Fischart, Johann—Dichtungen von Johann Fischart genannt Menzer, hrg. yon Karl Goedeke. Leipzig, 880.

Fleming, Paul—Gedichte von Julius Tittman. Leipzig, 1870.

Fontenelle, Bernhard de—Of Pustorals by Monsieur de Fontenelle englished by M. Mottenx, London, 1719.

Froning, Dr. R—Das Drama der Reformations-Zeit in Deut. Nat. Lit. Stutt- gart.

Fulda, Ludwig.—Geguer der zweiten schlesischen Schule in Deut. Nat. Lit. hrg. von Ludwig Fulda, Berlin:

94 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED.

Gervinus, G. G.—Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtuag, 5 vol. hrg. yon Karl Bartsch. Leipzig, 18714.

Gessner—Solomon Gessner yon Johann Jacob Hottinger, Ziirich, 1796.

Gessner—Solomon Gessners Werke—Aus wall von Prof. Dr. Frey in Deut. Nat. Lit. Berlin.

Gleim—/Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schrif- ten von Wilhelm KGrte. Halberstadt, 1811.

Gleim, J. W. L.—See Anakreontiker.

Goedeke, Karl—Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung aus den Quellen yon Karl Goedeke, 2nd ed., 3 vol. Dresden, 1884.

Goethe, J. W.—Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe in den Jahren 1794 —1805. Stuttgart, 1856,

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang—Werke.

Goodrich, Frank—A Social Reformer of the X Vth Century in Yale Review, Aug. 1896.

Gosche, Dr, Richard—Idyll und Dorfgeschichte im Altertum und Mittelalter in Archiy fiir Litteraturgeschichte. Leipzig, 1870.

Gottsched, Joh. Cristoph—Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst durchgehend mit den Exempeln unserer besten Dichter erlautert, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1751.

Gottsched.—Hernn Johan Cristoph Gottscheds Gedichte. 2 vol. Vorrede by Joh. Joachim Schwabe. Leipzig, 1751.

Gryphius, Andreas—Dramatische Dichtungen, hrg. von Julius Tittman. Leip- zig, 1870.

Guarini, Giovanni Battista—The faithful Shepherd, a dramatic pastoral trans- lated into English from the Pastor Fido by William Grove. London, 1783.

Giinther, Johann Christian—Gedichte, hrg. yon Julius Tittman. Leipzig, 1874.

Hagedorn,—Freidrich von Hagedorn, Poetische Werke. 2 vol. Hamburg, 1800.

Hagedorn, F. yon—see Anakreontiker.

Haller—Albrecht von Hallers Gedichte hrg. und eingeleitet von Dr, Ludwig Hirzel. Fraueufeld, 1882.

Haller—Albrecht von Haller, Auswahl in Deut. Nat. Lit. hrg. von A. Frey, Berlin.

Herder—Werke.

Hessus, Helius Eobanus—Noriberga illustrata und andere Stidtegedichte. hrg. yon Joseph Neff. Berlin, 1896.

Holty, L. H. C—Gedichte neu besorgt und vermehrt von J. H. Voss. Upsala, 1816.

Hoélty—Ludewig Heinrich Cristoph Hélty, hrg. von August Sauer in Der G6ttinger Dichterbund of Deut. Nat. Lit., Stuttgart.

Homer.—Homeri Ilias et Odyssea edidit G. Dindorf—5th edition ed. by C. Hentze. Leipzig, 1893—4.

Homer—The Odyssey of Homer, done into English prose by 8. H. Butcher and A. Lang, 3rd ed. London, 1881.

Homer—The minor poems of Homer, with introduction by Henry Nelson Coleridge, New York, 1872.

Kleist, E. C. von—See Anakreontiker.

ieee!

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED. 95

Koberstein—August Kobersteins Geschichte der Deutschen Nationallitera- tur, 5 vol. 6Gte umgearb. Aufl. yon Karl Bartsch. Leipzig, 1884.

Konig, Joh. Ulr. von—Des Herrn von KOGnigs Gedichte aus seinen yon ihm selbst verbesserten Manuschriften, gesammlet und herausgegeben. yon G. C, Waltherrn. Dresden, 1745,

Kudrun—Kudrun hrg. und erklart von Ernst Martin. Halle, 1872.

Lessing—Gotthold Eprahim Lessings simmtliche Schriften hrg. yon Karl Lachmann, Berlin, 1839.

Lohenstein—Dauiel Kaspers von Lohenstein Teutsche Gedichte. Breslau, 1689.

Longos—Erotici Scriptores, Graece et Latine, edited by G. A. Hirschig. Paris, 1856.

Longos—Longos Hirtengeschichten von Daphnis und Chloe, Uebersetzt von Friedrich Jacobs. Stuttgart, 1832,

McLaughlin, E. T.—Sfudies in Mediaeval Life and Literature. New York, 1894.

Marmontel, Jean Francois—Des Herrn Marmontels Dichtkunst. Aus dem Franz. tibersetzt. Bremen, 1766.

Miller—Johan Martin Miller, brg. yon Angust Sauer in der G6ttinger Dichter- bund of Deut. Nat. Litt. Stuttgart.

Miller, Friedrich—Maler Miiller, hrg. von A. Sauer in Sturmer und Dranger of Deut. Nat. Lit., Berlin.

Miiller, Friedrich—Dichtungen von Maler Miiller, brg. yon Herman Hettner. Leipzig, 1868.

Neidhart—Neidhart von Reuenthal, hrg. von Moriz Haupt. Leipzig, 1858.

Netoliczka, Oscar—Schiéferdichtung und Poetik im 1Sten Jahrhundert in Viertel-Jahrschrift fiir Litt. Gesch. II. 2, 1889. :

Neukirch, Benj.—_In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit.

Opitz, Martin—Ausgewéhlte Dichtungen, brg. von Julius Tittman.

Opitz, Martin— Weltliche und geistliche Dichtung, hrg. von Dr. El. Oesterley in Deut. Nat. Lit., Berlin.

Opitz—Martin Opitz—eine Monographie von Freidrich Strehlke, Leipzig, 1856.

Opitz, Martin—Von der deutschen Poeterey. Breslau, 1624.

Opitz—Opitz Als Benutzer Fischarts in Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Philologie, August, 1877.

Poliziano, A. A.—Le stanze L’Orfeo e le Rime di Poliziano, edited by G. Carducci. Firenze, 1863,

Ramler, Karl Wilhelm—See Anakreontiker.

Rost. Joh. Cristoph—Versuch von Schifergedichten und andern poetischen Ausarbeitungen. 1760.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques—Discours sur les sciences et les arts. 1750,

Rousseau—Discours sur l'inegalité parmiles hommes, 1755.

Rousseau— Eloisa, a series of original letters. Transl. from the French. 3 vol. London, 1810,

Rousseau—The Social Contract or Principles of Political Right. Transl. by H. J. Tozer. London, 1895.

Riihle, Freidrich—Das deutsche Schiiferspiel des 18. Jahrhunderts. Halle, 1885.

Sannazaro, J—Areadia. Edited by M. Scherillo. Torino, 1888.

Scherer, Wilhelm—Poetik. Berlin, 1888.

Schiller—Werke

96 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS READ AND CONSULTED.

Schlegel, Joh. Ad—Vom Natiirlichen in Schifergedichten. (Besorgt yon J. Bodmer) Ziirich, 1746.

Schmidt, Julian—Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit. Berlin, 1890.

Smith, Homer—Pastoral influence in the English Drama, in Publications of the modern Language Association of America, Vol. XII. No. 3——New series. Vol. V..No.3. Baltimore, 1897.

Tennyson, Alired—Victorian Poets by E. C. Stedman. Boston, 1876.

Tennyson—Idyls of the King and Arthurian stories, Ed. by M. W. Maccallum. New York, 1894.

Tennyson—The works of Alfred Tennyson, London, 1873.

Teufel, W. S—Geschichte der rdmischen Literatur, 4te Aufi. bearbeitet von Ludwig Schwabe. Leipzig, 1882.

Theocritus—Theocrits Gedichte erklart yon Hermann Fritsche. 3te Aufiage be- sorgt von E. Hiller. Leipzig, 1881. ;

Theocritus—Bion and Moschos rendered into English prose by A. Lang (Ox- ford). London, 1880.

Theocritus—Die griechischen Bukoliker Theokritos, Bion und Moschos, iibersetzt und erklart von Dr. Friedrich Zimmermann. Stuttgart, 1856.

Thomson, James—The Seasons, with notes by Percival Stockdale. London, 1793.

Usteri, Johann Martin—Dichtungen in Versen und Prosa, nebst einer Lebens- bescreibung des Verfassers, hrg. yon David Hess, 3 yol., Berlin, 1831.

Uz, Johann Peter—See Anakreoutiker.

Vergil—Les Oeuvres de Virgile, les Bucoliques et les Georgiques par E. Benoist. Paris, 1867. ;

Vergil—Vergil als bukolisc her Dichter. Vergilstudien yon M. Sonntag. Leip- zig, 1891.

Vergil—Virgilius lindliche Gedichte, iibersetzt und erklart von J. H. Voss. Altona, 1830.

Vergil—Die Gedichte des Virgilius in Versmass der Urschriit, iibersetzt yon W. Hertzberg. Stuttgart, 1856.

Vergil— Virgil im Mittelalter yon Domenico Comparetti. Aus dem Italienischen iibersetzt von Hans Dutschke. Leipzig, 1875.

Voss—Johann Heinrich Voss, hrg. yon August Sauer, in der G6ttinger Dichter- bund, Deut, Nat. Lit. Berlin.

Voss—Johann Heinrich Voss, von Wilhelm Herbst, 3 yol. Leipzig 1872—6.

Voss, Johan Heinrich—Sdmtliche Gedichte. Vol. I. Luise. Vol. IU. Idyllen. KGningsberg, 1802.

Waldberg, Max Freiherrn yvon—Die Deitsche Renaissance-Lyrik. Berlin, 1888.

Wattenbach, W.—Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, 5ed. Berlin, 1885.

Weckherlin—Georg Rudolf Weckherlins Gedichte, brg. yon Hermann Fischer. 2 vol. Tiibingen, 1894.

Weckherlin, Georg Rudoli—Gedichte, hrg. yon Karl Goedeke. Leipzig. 1873.

Weise. Christian—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule. Deut. Nat. Lit.

Wernike, N.—In Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule.

Wernike—N. Wernikens Poetische Versuche in Ueberschriften, wie auch im Helden und Schdfergedichten. Neue Aufi. Ziirich, 1749.

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AUGUSTANA . LIBRARY . PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER 4.

On the Cyclonic Distribution of Rainfall

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905

DEDICATORY.

However inappropriate the occasion, the author of the follow- ing short paper cannot forego the pleasure of expressing a @reet- ing of remembrance and affection to all of those earnest young men and women who have, with a truly scientific and unselfish interest, during several years in the past given time and thought to the work which was necessary for the extraction from the original documents of the data presented on the following few pages. :

Ars longa, vita brevis.

Especially does lite and its associations seem short to the man in the lecture room. It is his privilge to continually make new and most-pleasant acquaintances with open and unbiased young minds and hearts, but it is also his fate to be compelled to part with them, as he feels, altogether too soon, often never to meet them again.

To each and every member of my former classes in Meteor- ology, and especially to the members of the Weather Club, I ex- tend my thanks, and desire to present a copy of this paper.

J. A. UDDEN.

Augustana College, March 30, 1905.

.

ON THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

Some years ago I had the pleasure of hearing a lecture on weather, given by one of the observers of the United States Weather Bureau. The lecturer discussed the distribution of weather in the extra tropical cyclones in America. He described the conditions which characterize the four quadrants of an area of low pressure. He especially emphasized the statement we often find in text-books, that the greatest precipitation occurs in the re- gion which lies some distance to the southeast of the center of an area of low pressure. ;

A short time after hearing this lecture I had occasion to dis- cuss weather prognostics with a gentleman whose occupation had led him for many years to closely watch the government's fore- casts issued: at Davenport, Iowa. This gentleman said he had found that storms would usually arrive from six to twenty hour's behind the time they were due according to the local forecasts. Otherwise he regarded the predictions as quite reliable and valu able. ‘‘When a storm is announced”’, he said, ‘it will almost al- ways come, but it is apt to be a little behind time.” This state- ment corroborated an impression which I had myself received. It is the writer’s belief that if a careful comparison were made of the forecasts referred to, and of the actual conditions of the weather at Davenport previous to 1896—since which time I have given less attention to the matter—it would be found that the forecasts more frequently missed by announcing storms too early, than too late.

It occurred to me that this delay of the expected storms might be due to some regional or local variation in the features of the passing cyclones, and that it would be desirable to determine, by some statistical method, the actual relation of weather conditions to different parts of the cyclone for this locality.. For the purpose

6 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

of doing this, I made use of a simple devise, which I have since had the satisfaction of seeing employed by others. By marking off eight radii in four concentric circles I plotted twenty-five areas in a figure, which could be used to represent definite separate tracts in acircular storm. The lengths of the radii of the successive cir- cles had the ratios 1:4: 7: 10 and were taken to represent the same number of hundreds of miles in a composite cyclone two thousand miles in diameter. The construction will be readily un- derstood from the accompanying figures. The radii were drawn at angles of 45°, but were not extented into the inner circle. The figure was so oriented that the four points of the compass would bisect four alternate octants. There were thus three tracts marked off in each octant outside the smallest circle. With this represent- ing the central region of a cyclone, the figure was used to delimit twenty-five fixed areas inside its extent. Tract “1” thus covers a central circle two hundred miles in diameter im the center of a cy- clone. Tract ‘‘2” covers an area extending from one hundred to four hundred miles away from the center to the north, and lying between radii diverging 22%° on either side. Tract “10” covers the area between the same two radii at a distance from four hun- dred to seven hundred miles from the centre. Tract “18” lies at a distance from seven hundred to one thousand miles from the centre, and so on, in the other octants.

My method was then simply to take a sufficient number of observations on the weather at Davenport, when this station lay in any one oi the twenty-five corresponding tracts of an actual cyclone, and to average these for each tract separately and thus obtain for each separate percentages expressing frequency of cer- tain weather conditions, such as precipitation and cloudiness, re- sultant wind directions, etc. I averaged these elements of the weather. as observed at SA M., during a period of about five years, taking the data from the daily weather maps. There were nearly a thousand observations in all. These were distributed among the twenty-five tracts somewhat unequally, but it is be- lieved that the number of observations in each tract was large

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 7

enough to secure a fairly representative average, In other words: the number of times precipitation occurred or cloudiness prevailed was noted when Davenport was located in any one of the desig- nated tracts with reference to the centre of a low area, and also the total number of times the opposite conditions prevailed. From these two figures percentages were obtained showing the comparative frequency of precipitation and cloudiness in each tract. It will be seen that this is only a very simple method of averaging weather conditions for different parts of an area of low pressure. The results can be plotted on a chart.

It was found that precipitation is most frequent at Davenport when the station lies in the tract numbered eight, which is on the west side of the central low. It was also found that precipitation is infrequent in the region to the southeast of the centre, decreas- ing very rapidly in that direction from the tract numbered eight. From this distribution of precipitation it is evident that if fore- casts were made on the supposition that precipitation is greatest on the southeast side of the central low, a large percentage of the predictions would announce the stormy weather ahead of time. For it would often happen that the centre of the low would have to move east some two or three hundred miles before it would bring up that tract, where rains and snow are actually most fre- quent.

With the aid of some student friends the cyclonic conditions were averaged in a like manner for some more stations, represent- ing four other climatic regions in the United States. It was found expedient to make use of data slightly different from those used in the Davenport cyclone. Thus we combined the observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita, and Oklahoma during the years 1894—1898, obtaining a chart which presumably is charac- teristic for the cyclonic conditions on the southwest plains. Other charts combined into like averages the observations at Helena, Miles City, Leander, and Boise City for 1899; those taken at nine stations in the Upper Missiouri Valley in 1899; and those taken at Detroit and at Buffalo'during the years 1900—1903.

io)

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

The precentages of precipitation for the several cyclonic tracts in each of the five locations averaged, are given in Table no. 1, below, and in the same way the precentages of cloudiness are shown in Table no. 2 for the same locations, exepting Davenport. Cloudiness was averaged for this station also, but the figures are not now accessible. The same data are plotted in the accompany ing figures.

TABLE NO. 1.

Showing percentages of precipitation in five composite cyclones in different parts of the y United States.

| Sai " Oe/E22) al zs . 2| |e\8l 3] @ Ss nee e| gles/eel |: 3 a| &e|o3) 2 3) Z| Aalaeleoal =} a 1|26{ 3) 0] 20 | 44 2 | 21 | 14] 17 | 21 |/40 3 | 15 | 20 | 10 | 11 | 40 25 ON aC N | SEIEZO 5|/ 38| 5] 0} 5 | 26 Gi ea ss Pesan 7 Ta OS Ss ea LS 8 | 35 | 5 | 13 | 11 | 26 9 | 17 | 21 | 16 | 15 | 33 10 | 21 | 18 | 20 | 25 11 | 8/19 6 | 20} 18 12| 8/18] 14| 6 | 17 ig OT 2 Oe 2 Te 1s |g eo S| ONS eS Zo) So 16|10| 6| 5] 5 | 34 Ta O Ee 20 | 6 | 25 Ty || Ie? aes ale 19/19 | 6/12! 9] 8 in i Eo ee ee me Gls] 2le Tm ea Gl ae = 230 ea a ea ao Me Ole ie. Zen 2 25|.0| 6|16| 31-0

we ee

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 9

TABLE NO. 2. Showing precentages of cloudiness in four composite cyclones in different parts of the United States.

ceo) 2 Se | SE | el ee | Og | 3 | & ° o a Sa ou = i) AG | es| 2 | 2 Sg ey Bes is E28 oS-| 2 @ <5 [sep = Qa 49 48 60 93 57 60 17 93 69 46 66 93

(ve) co (ot) =] is Ne) ite) (oa)

48 tl

(ee) Q is 1s)

i) for) eal oO is a ~] On

wo for) iS J] aS AS 4 bo

D Qj On rs D> for) (Ne) XS)

©©| 00! I] G2] or] | ol BO] | Number of tract.

for) ive} in On B ite) (JG)

pan o oO iw) On B — bo =] te)

a = for) (oe) (Je) for) fer) fer) = oO

a bo On rms On for) is Ne) J for)

He (Ju) (J) (=) (ve) PS (J) SS ao On

ay is

bo

(e.<) (J) for) co ie) on (oe)

ft or (oy) oy (oy) a (Ju) (oy) (oe) ee

an (or) ip bo i on (Je) for) for) Ye)

= =i for) So D> (Je) is ye “] =

an co D> rss bo iss) on to} (ore) bw

= ite) Oo Ne} is imal oO eB 4 4

to (=) (Jt) lo<) is = (et) ree on (Jt)

i) = bo ie) bo a (Wy) w fer) ot

wo is) oo Hn on) oO 09 on |

bo (eo) (oy) aD rs an (0) for) ie) (=)

iw) rs iw) w oo fox) oo Ss on lor)

25 38 49° | 27 50

Although the data used for these different averages are not exactly of the same kind, it is believed that these tables and charts are quite comparable, and that they roughly indicate the cyclonic features which are characteristic for each region. They show clearly that the area of the greatest rain- and snowfall is not in the same position with regard to the centres of low areas in differ- ent climatic regions. In every case it is eccentric and lies to the

10 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

west, northwest, north or northeast, in the cases studied, but in no instance to the southeast.

Several features shown in these charts suggest further in- quiries. In the two charts for the semi-arid regions in the south- west and the west, precipitation is most frequent in a crescentic tract on the north side of the central low pressure. To what ex- tent is this characteristic of the cyclones in the west? »

In the two charts representing conditions in the region of the northern part of the central plains, the area of the greatest pre- cipitation has a sigmoid shape. Is this a constant feature for the region, and, if so, what is its cause?

In the Davenport charts precipitation as well as cloudiness is unexpectedly high in the southernmost tract. Rain and snow are almost as frequent when a iow centres three hundred miles north of Lake Superior, as when it lies at Davenport. A study of the conditions which bring about this unexpected precipitation may throw some new light on cyclonic conditions in the interior.

The purpose of this paper is merely to call attention to the method of averaging. It is a truly statistical method which promises a more accurate knowledge of cyclonic conditions than we have had before. Its application will involve a great deal of work. The averages given here pertain orly to the conditions for the morning hour. Ifsimilar averages could be made for an af- ternoon or for an evening hour, for the same places and periods, it is not unlikely that differences would appear. Again, it is to be expected that summer and winter cyclones are unlike, and it is be- lieved that there are differences among the cyclones coming along different paths. If this is true, it ought to be shown in such aver- ages as those presented in the above tables.

A study of all regional, seasonal, and other differences by some such accurate method of averaging can hardly fail to add some important items to our knowledge of cyelonic disturbances. It may be used for any of the elements of the weather. Thus, in the charts which follow, the prevailing wind directions are indicated

1

sai

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFTLL. II

by arrows, and the relative persistence of the @iven direction is indicated by the relative length of these arrows.

Note: In the’ figures numbered 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, the shading represents different percentages of precipitation as follows:

Solid black, 40°|,, and above. Crossed parallel lines, 30—39°|, Parallel lines, _20—29°|, Interrupted parallel lines, 10—19°|,

No shading, less than 10°|,

and in the figures numbered 7, 8, 9 and 10 percentages of cloudiness are indi- cated thus:

Parallel lines, 75°|,, and above. Interrupted parallel lines, 50—74°|, No shading, less than 50°|.,

12 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUATION OF RAINFALL.

Fig. 1. Showing the location of each of the twenty-five tracts as averaged in each cyclonic area. The numbers are those given under the columns “number of tracis” in the preceeding tables.

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 13

Fig. 2. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Davenport during the years 1893—1897.

{4 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

Ss

Fig. 3. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composité cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita and Oklahoma during the years 1894—1898.

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 15

Fig. 4. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at Helena, Miles City, Leander and Boise City in 1899.

16 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

Pig. 5. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind direction in a composite cyclone, based upon the 8 A. M. observations taken at all the sta- tions in the Upper Missouri Valley during 1899.

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 17

S

Fig. 6. Showing the distribution of precipitation and wind directions in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A.M. observations taken at Detroit and Buffalo during the years 1900—1903.

18 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL.

=

‘

Fig. 7. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone. based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Amarillo, Dodge City, Wichita and Oklahoma during the years 1894—i89$8.

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 19

Fig. 8. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Helena, Miles City, Leander and Boise City in 1899.

2

20 THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. ;

«

Ie

Fig. 9. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at all the stations in the Upper Missouri Valley during 1899.

THE CYCLONIC DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL. 21

Fig. 10. Showing the distribution of cloudiness in a composite cyclone, based on the 8 A. M. observations taken at Detroit and Buffalo during the years 1900—1903.

Stay Pa od Me eae tare ed ‘na HO Ss myc LNA Ue . 1

a SP RMERBOAI. KUeCUMY

ena Meine

“AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS . NUMBER FIVE

. os A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS

IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA

BY

NETTA C. ANDERSON

ON THE

IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL.

-ROCK ISLAND, ILL.

- PROBOSGIDEAN FOSSILS OP THE PLEISTOCENE, DEPOSITS

Bas AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905 |

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AUGUSTANA LIBRARY PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER FIVE

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA

BY

NETTA C. ANDERSON

OS Welk,

PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK-ISLAND, ILL.

: ROCK ISLAND, ILL. | AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1905.

A eR PEIMINARY EIST OF

Fossil Mastodon and Mammoth

Remains

ILLINOIS AND IOWA

BY

NETTA C. ANDERSON

INTRODUCTORY.

In submitting the subjoined Preliminary List of Fossil Elephant and Mastodon Remains in Illinois and Iowa, which is believed to be the first of its kind in these states, the compiler does not intend to imply that the list is nearly complete; she is impelled to pub- lish the result of her research, thus far, in the hope that such a list may be of assistance in securing further data along this line. The difficulty in securing reliable information can. be easily appreciated, for compara- tively seldom does the working Geologist see such re- mains in situ, and the museums, their ultimate reposi- tories, appear to keep scant record of the circumstan- ces connected with such finds, their geographieal and geological position, date of their discovery, etc.

In presenting this list the compiler would therefore make her humble plea for more complete and more caretully kept data from which the specialist must pro- ceed in determining more nearly the true horizon of these huge Proboscidians. She also wishes to express her gratitude to the State Geologists and Assistants, to Librarians, Curators of different museums, and to numerous private individuals, all of whom have so cheerfully assisted her, and in particular to Dr. J. A. Udden, of Augustana College, does she feel indebted for invaluable assistance and encouragement.

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CALHOUN COUNTY.

- From the clay (drift clay) in the side of a ravine in Calhoun county, Illinois, we recovered the jaw of an elephant beside which Jumbo would seem small. One of the teeth from this jaw weighs nearly eighteen pounds. -

(McAdams, Transactions, St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV, No. 3, Dp. le«iz.)

CHRISTIAN COUNTY.

Sangamon River.—A tooth of a mammoth was found by Da- vid Miller in a sand drift near the South Fork of the Sangamon river, and was presented to the State Cabinet. This specimen is of a chalky white color and does not appear to have been impreg- nated with any mineral substance since it was imbedded in the

earth. (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 38.)

COOK COUNTY.

Evanston.—The tooth of a mammoth was taken from a gravel pit near Evanston. It was placed in the Museum of North- western University.

(Reported by Prof. U. 8S. Grant, Northwestern University.)

Glencoe.—A fragment of a mastodon tooth four and three- fourths inches lone was dug up by Mr. James Robertson while ditching in glacial drift at Glencoe. The fragment, which is from the proximal end, is now in the possession of Mr. Walter O'Neill of Lake Forest.

(Reported by Prof. James G. Needham, Lake Forest College.)

10 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

DU PAGE COUNTY.

About 1875 some mastodon remains were found in a bog about eight miles southwest from Naperville. They were donated to the Museum of Jennings Seminary, Aurora.

(Reported by L. M. Umbach, Northwestern College.)

Wheaton.—About 1890 the remains of a mammoth were found while ditching on the Jewell farm near Wheaton. The re- mains consisted of about a dozen ribs, as many vertebrae, one femur, and other parts of the legs.

(Reported by Pres. Charles A. Blanchard, Wheaton College.)

EDGAR COUNTY.

The bottoms of the prairie sloughs along the western edge oi Edgar county generally contain more or less light brown marly clay containing fresh water shells. From one of these slough bot- toms a nearly perfect skeleton of a mastodon was obtained some years since, which, after having been exhibited through all this part of the United States, is said to have been sold to a Philadel- phia museum. Fragments of this animal are not rare hereabouts.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. IV, p. 216.)

FULTON COUNTY.

The Museum of Knox College contains the tooth of an ele- phant which was found in Fulton county. This specimen, which is much decayed, was found near the surface of the ground.

(Reported by Albert Hurd, Curator of Museum, Knox College.)

GALLATIN COUNTY.

Equality.—“Hali Moon”’—Many mammoth and mastodon bones and enamel plates of teeth, the less enduring parts of the latter mouldered into dust, have been found here. Half Moon is

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FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 11

a salt lick beneath which is a yellowish clay mixed with gravel and sand, belonging to the age of drift. The salt work was origi- nally a swamp, for the bones lie on this drift.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 38.)

A fine tooth of a mastodon was found in Gallatin county and presented to the State Cabinet, but under what conditions it was found is not at present known.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 38.)

Shawneetown.—Teeth of a mastodon were found close to the water’s edge in front of Shawneetown. They were imbedded in a shallow deposit of bluish clay resting upon yellow clay and gravel. Corresponds in geological time with bone beds at Half Moon. .

J (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. VI, p. 214.)

GRUNDY COUNTY.

Morris.—In 1868 mastodon remains were found at Turner’s Strippings, three miles east of Morris, under eighteen inches of black mucky soil and about four feet of yellowishloam and resting on about one foot of hard blue clay, which covered the coal. The bones were badly decayed, and most of them were broken up and thrown away by the miners. Of the remaining, Mr. J. Evan, of Morris, obtained and presented to the State Cabinet, a part of a thigh-bone, a fragment of a lower jaw, three teeth, and a few of the smaller bones. The locality is a part of the old river bottom, and in the lack of personal observation, [ am uncertain whether to believe that the presence of the bones indicates that theanimal was mired and died there or to suppose that the carcass was de- posited there by the river.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. IV, p. 193.)

Minooka.—“‘In 1902 Mr. John Bamford, in enlarging a bog- spring, encountered a mass of Bison, Deer, and Elk bones at about five feet below the surface. Passing through nearly two

12 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

feet of these, he came upon mastodon bones in abundance. Skulls of at least six different individuals had been found in a well ten feet in diameter when I visited the place in 1902. These animals had evidently resorted to this drinking place and had mired in the bog. Old settlers related several instances of cattle becoming mired at this place in the same way.”

(Reported by E. 8S. Riggs, Assistant Curator of Paleontology, Field Colum- bian Museum, Chicago.)

HANCOCK COUNTY.

Warsaw.—“About five or six years ago one of my nephews found a large fragment (about one-half or more) of a mastodon tooth, sticking out of the bank of a creek, about five miles below Warsaw.”

(Reported by Charles K. Worthen, Warsaw, Ill.)

HENRY COUNTY.

Penny’s Slough.—The tooth of a mammoth in a good state of preservation was found in Penny’s Slough and presented to the Davenport, lowa, Academy of Science.

(Information obtained from label on specimen.)

Cambridge.—The Museum of the Chicago Academy of Science contains part of a tusk of a mastodon, recovered at Cambridge

from a well, sixteen feet below the surface; condition poor. (Reporied by Frank C. Baker, Curator, Chicago Academy of Science.)

JO DAVIESS COUNTY.

Blue Mounds.—Mastodon remains have been taken from a great number of crevices over the whole area of the lead region, showing the species to have lived in immense numbers and through a long period of time. From a crevice near Blue Mounds,

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 13

bones of a mastodon were taken. /lephas also inhabited this region, though apparently less abundant than the mastodon. Few teeth found near the surface at

Galena are all the remains of this animal I met in this region, (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 162.)

JOHNSON COUNTY.

Bloomfield.—The remains of a jaw and three teeth of a

-mastodon were found in the yellow clay about three feet below

the surface near Bloomfield. (Proceedings, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. X (1856), p. 163.)

KANE COUNTY.

Aurora.—In 1870 tusks and several teeth of a mastodon were obtained from the superficial deposits of this county near Aurora when the excavation for the track of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad were made. These remains are in the Museum of Clark Seminary at that place.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. IV, p. 113.)

Aurora.—In 1853, while extending the Burlington railroad south of Aurora, workmen found teeth and a tusk of a mastodon in a swamp on the edge of Fox river, where the Burlington repair shops at Aurora are located. The remains were presented to Jennings Seminary by an official of the road, Benjamin Hackney.

(Reported by Mrs. Susan H. Quereau, Aurora.)

Batavia.—In cutting a ditch to drain a marshy lake of some two hundred acres, some leg-bones and vertebrae of mastodon (along with Bison and other bones) were found in a sticky clay about five feet below the surface.

(Reported, after personal investigation, by E. S. Riggs, Assistant Curator of Paleontology, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.)

»

14 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

KNOX COUNTY.

Galesburg.—kKnox College Museum contains:

a) The tusk of an elephant which was found near Galesburg. The specimen is quite imperfect and was taken from recent depos- | its near the surface. :

b) An elephant tooth, much decayed, which was found while ditching on a farm near Galesburg.

Spoon river.—c) A mastodon tooth in good state of preser- vatior, the enamel nearly perfect, which was found in the bed of Spoon river in Knox county.

(The above three instances reported by Albert Hurd, Curator of Musewm, Knox College.)

MACON COUNTY.

The museum of the Chicago Academy of Science contains two rami of the lower jaw and several molars of a mastodon, all in

good state of preservation, which were found in Macon county. (Reported by Frank C. Baker, Curator, Chicago Academy of Science.)

MADISON COUNTY.

Alton.—A portion of the jawbone ‘of a mastodon with two teeth remaining was found in the lower part of the loess, just above the city of Alton. This specimen was found about thirty feet below the surface and near the bottom of the loess, where it was only separated from the limestone by two or three feet of local drift. The bones were of chalky whiteness and in very fine

state of preservation. (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 315)

MARION COUNTY.

Sandoval.—At Sandoval, about twenty-four miles north of Beaucoup, mastodon remains were found twelve feet below the surface, in similar position to the one at Beaucoup.

(Proceedings, American Association tor the Advancement of Science, 1856, pp. 148S—169.)

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 15

OGLE COUNTY.

Byron.--Some years ago a large bone, supposed to be from the foreleg of a mastodon, was found two or three miles above Byron. The bank of Rock river had caved down for some dis- tance back from the stream; some five feet below the surface of the highland coming up to the river and about fifteen feet above ordinary water level, the bone was found sticking in the bank. The bank seems to be a sort of modified drift made up of some- what marly, dark-colored, alluvial clay intermixed with river sand and considerable gravel. The formation is hardly alluvium, but seems to be a kind of river drift. The fossil is light, porous, and whitish in color, in rather poor state of preservation. We ob- tained it through the courtesy of Mr. Mix and sent it to the State Geological Cabinet.

(1linois Geological Survey, Vol. V, p. 110.)

Harper.—A number of years ago Mr. Gross found the téoth of a mastodon on his farm in Forreston township, one mile south of Harper. A small stream cuts through the farm, and one spring, after a freshet, the tooth was found in a large bed of gravel which had been washed to one place along the shore of the stream. The freshet washed a hole about nine feet deep out of the bed of the stream just above this gravel bed, and the finder, thinking that the tooth might have been washed out of this place, made a dili- gent search for other remains, but failed to find anything. The tooth measures eight inches in length and four and a half inches in width at the widest point, and is in an excellent state of preser- vation, having smooth polished surfaces. Another tooth was found in the same place a short time before by a Mr. Ainsworth. (Reported by Miss Abba Fager, Forreston.)

Rochelle.—“‘In July, 1886, I saw a coliection of mammoth fos- sils at F. G. Rossman’s, a farmer living near Rochelle, which he obtained in a bog in the northwest part of section thirty- three, Lynnville township. The fossils found were; one tusk, two

16 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

teeth, one piece of jawbone in which one tooth fitted, four pieces of ribs, and about a panfull of small bits of bones The tusk weighed seventy-three pounds, but was not complete, each end be- ing broken off. The length of the specimen was about five feet, and it measured twenty inches in circumference at the large end and about eighteen inches at the small end. The teeth each weighed twelve and one-hali pounds and had a grinding surface nine inches long by four inches broad. The best rib specimen was forty inches long and five and three-fourths inches in circumference at the dorsal end. Another rib, thirty-four inches long, was -not complete. The only further notes I have concerning these speci- mens is that the grinding surface is three or four inches shorter than the longest diameter of the tooth.”

(Reported by Frank Leverett, Ann Arbor, Mich.)

Stillman’s run.—Remains of the mastodon were found closely connected with the drift gravels. In 1858 a tooth was found in a little tributary of Stillman’srun. The locality is lw—somewhat marshy. The stream had cut a channel through the black alluvi- um of the low prairie. The tooth was washed out and lodged against a clump of willows when found. It is a ponderous grinder, weighs seven and a half pounds, is covered with a shining black enamel, and is a fossil in a high state of preservation.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. V, p. 110.)

PEORIA COUNTY.

Peoria.—The remains of a mammoth, consisting of two molar teeth with a portion of the jaw, were found by Captain Smith in the gravel bed No. 2 of the following section in the Peoria bluff:

No. 1. Brown prairie clay and soil.

No. 2. Coarse gravel and sand with boulders.

No. 3. Clay and sand forming seven or eight distinct beds, some containing coarse gravel and boulders.

The specimen was presented to the State Cabinet.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. V, p. 237.)

ell

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 17

PIATT COUNTY.

Atwood.—The Museum of Northwestern University contains the tooth of a mammoth found near Atwood in 1879. The tooth

was dug up about six feet below the surface. ; (Reported by Prof, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University.)

RANDOLPH COUNTY.

Chester.—Mammoth and mastodon remains have been found in Alton and Chester. The fossils (bones) were found in loess. These belong to the collection of the Honorable Wm. McAdams, Alton. (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. VIII, p. 8)

ROCK ISLAND COUNTY.

Milan. —A piece of a tusk was found in the excavation made for brick clay by the Rockford Construction Company (1893?) on the north side of Rock river and on the east side of the Milan road south of Rock Island. It was taken from the red oxidized layer which forms the top of the boulder clay in the base of the ° bluff here and which was covered by a few feet of loess. The piece of tusk was about two feet long, but crumbled and broke into three pieces on exposure to the air. It was perceptibly curved, and measured about six inches in diameter at the proximal end, and about four inches at the distal end. The specimen is in the museum of Augustana College, Rock Island.

Rock Island.—In laying the overflow pipe from basins of the Rock Island water works on the bluff south of the city, a cut was made in the loess to a depth of about twenty-two feet near the edge of the bluff. In the lower part of this cut there was part of a tooth of an elephant and also a piece of a bone of the leg. The specimens were donated to the museum of Augustana College. The loess, at the point in the bluff where the bones were found, is about thirty-five feet thick, and the lower part of it is seen to be somewhat peaty in some of the cuts in the streets to the west.

18 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

Rock Island.—In the excavations which were made on the slope of the bluffs between Nineteenth and Twentieth streets in Rock Island in 1897, Dr. J. A. Udden found a carpal bone of an elephant. It was cuboid in form and measured some three or four inches in diameter. It was found on the surface of the ground in an excavation which was near the contact of the loess and the boulder clay.

Rural township.—A well preserved tooth of a mastodon was found in 1900 in a creek in the west hali of section nineteen, town- ship sixteen north, range one west (Rural township). The find was made by Mr. A. Dhuyvetter, after a heavy rain which caused high water in the creek. There are reports of other large bones having been found in the same creek. The drift in this township in places rests on pre-glacial gravels, consisting largely of chert. The tooth was secured for the collection at Augustana College.

(The above four instances were reported by Dr. J. A. Udden.)

SANGAMON COUNTY.

Illiopolis and Niantic.—In 1870, between Uhopolis and Nian- tic, near the east line of the county, the jaws of a mastodon, with teeth intact, both tusks, and several oi the large bones were found beneath a black mucky surface soil, four feet in depth. These bones, together with some buifalo, elk, and deer, were imbedded in quicksand, which probably once formed the bottom of a pool oi water to which these animals had resorted. The fossils now be- long to the State Cabinet.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. VIII, p. 23.)

The Niantic mastodon was found on the farm of W. F. Corell, in a wet, spongy piece of ground located in a swale or depression of the surface that had evidently once been a pond and had been filled up by the wash from the surrounding highland until it formed a morass or quagmire in dry weather. The bones were about four feet below the surface and partly imbedded in light gray quick-

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 19

sand filled with fresh-water shells. Above this quicksand was found four feet of black peaty soil, so soft that a fence-rail could easily be pushed down through it. The quicksand had evidently once formed, the bottom of a freshwater pond, fed probably by springs, and was the resort of the animals whose bones were found here.

The first bone met with was one of the tusks, and, supposing it to be a small tree, it was cut in two with an axe before its true character was suspected, The other tusk was taken out whole and measured nine feet in length around the curve and about two feet in circumference where it was inserted in the skull. The lower jaw with the teeth in place and the teeth of the upper jaw and some of the smaller bones were also found in good state of preser- vation. The depth of the quicksand was not fully ascertained, but it was probed to the depth of two feet or more without reach- ing solid bottom.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. V, p. 30S.)

The tooth of a mammoth was found some years ago, in the blutfs of the Sangamon and near the surface and probably came from beds not older than the loess.

(Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. V, p. 308.)

VERMILION COUNTY.

Fairmount.—Forty-six years ago the remains of a mastodon were found in loess, two miles southeast of Fairmount. The black soil here is from one to two feet thick, and is underlaid by a lght brown, tenacious clay filled with calcareous shells of Limnea, Physa, etc. Bones of a mastodon were found lying partly upon, partly imbedded in this marly clay, the tip of one of the tusks being within thirteen inches of the surface. The slough had been mostly drained of late years, the air had permeated the bed and pretty thoroughly decayed the bones, which were doubtless in good state of preservation so long as constantly covered with water. The parts were promiscuously mingled, showing that the

20 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

animal had not long been left to decay undisturbed. Marks of- gnawing upon a few of the bones give reason to suppose that the water in which the carcass lay was so shallow as to give access to carnivorous animals. Fragments are in possession of the Chicago

AGRO BER G1 Seisalee: (Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. IV, p. 242.)

Danville.—Near the town of Danville, in the bluff forming the tableland of the country, the following section was observed:

Soil—five feet.

Gravel, with bones of an elephant—eight feet.

Clay—two feet.

Fine washed sand reposing on rocks of coal measures—two feet.

(Proceedings, Anierican Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. X (1856), p. 63.)

Hoopeston.—The tusks which were used in the restoration of

a skeleton of Mastodon americanus in the American Museum of Natural History were found near Hoopeston in 1879.

(Report of State Paleontologist, New York, 1902, p. 926.)

East Lynn.—‘‘The only mastodon bones ever found in this vi- cinity were found while the workmen were digging a ditch on the farm of a man named Guingrich at East Lynn, about twenty-four years ago(1881). I have forgotten almost all the circumstances.”

(Reported by Charles W. Warner, Hoopeston.)

WASHINGTON COUNTY.

Beaucoup.—According to Dr. Stevens, in an excavation along the line of the Illinois Central railroad near Beaucoup, at the depth of abouteighteen feet were found the remains of a mastodon in the prairie drift, below the yellow clay in the older or reddish clay.

( Proceedings of the American Associatiou for the Advancement of

Science (1856), pp. 148S—160.)

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 21

WINNEBAGO COUNTY.

New Milford.—In 1851 a large tooth of amastodon was found, in a fine state of preservation, in the Kishwaukee. It was drawn up in a seine from near the mouth of the river.

(Prof. 8S, P. Lathrop, in the American Journal of Science (2), XI, p. 439.

ALLAMAKEE COUNTY.

Postville.—During the summer of 1904, Mr. Thomas French found four teeth, the lower jaw, and a portion of the vertebral column of a mammoth sticking out of the bank of Yellow River, where it cuts through his farm, four miles north of Postville. The bank had caved away, exposing the bones, which lay on a gravel bed. The teeth each measured about four and a half by eleven inches and weighed thirteen and a half pounds. The remains are all in an excellent state of preservation.

(Reported hy Mr. Thomas French )

BENTON COUNTY.

Shellsburg.—In 1903, Mr. J. Grubb, of Shellsburg, found a mastodon tooth in the alluvium of Bear creek. A portion of a rib was previously found near the same place.

(Reported by Assistant State Geologist T. E. Savage.)

Mr. J. A. Burns, who found the rib, reports further regarding this find: ‘‘The tooth and rib were found on my farm in Benton township. The tooth was about the size of an ordinary five or six pound flatiron and was in a splendid state of preservation. It is now in the possession of Mr. Grubb’s son, near Kingsley, Iowa. The rib measured about three feet in length. I gave it to a Cor- nell, Iowa, student.”’

CEDAR COUNTY.

Several finely preserved mammoth teeth were found on the farm of A. T. Whitnell, on the southeast quarter of the southeast quarter of section six, Springtield township. These were found ina

26 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

washout in a small creek. Above the washout a bed of white allu- vial clay is overlain by gravels. In which of these the teeth oc- curred is impossible to say. The teeth are in the museum of Cor- nell College.

(lowa Geological Survey, Vol. XIII, p. 377.

Clarence.—Two small molars of a mammoth, in nearly perfect

state of preservation, were found in or on the Kansan drift in a shallow creek six miles south of Clarence, and were presented to the Museum of Cornell College. The grinding surface of the teeth is shghtly worn.

(Reported by Prof. Norton, Cornell College.)

CLINTON COUNTY.

Clinton.—The Davenport Academy of Science contains a mam- moth tooth which was found near Clinton and donated to the

Museum by Mr. Thomas J. Frasier. (Information from label on specimen.)

Clinton.—The Chicago Academy of Science contains:

a) The whole tusk of a mammoth, in poor state of preserva- tion, which was found near Clinton in Iowa.

b) One molar of a mammoth, in good condition, also found

near Clinton and presented to the Museum by J. J. W. Foster.

(Both instances reported by Frank C. Baker, Curator, Chicago Acad- emy of Science.)

DAVIS COUNTY.

Floris.—‘‘In 1862 I found in the Des Moines river, near Floris, two mastodon teeth, one weighing fourteen and the other four

pounds.” (Reported by Justus M. T. Myers, Fort Madison.)

FAYETTE COUNTY.

Clermont.—Mr. C. E.: Allen, of West Union, has a mastodon tooth, which was found in the gravel pit near Clermont. (Reported by Assistant State Geologist T. EH. Savage.)

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 27

HENRY COUNTY.

Mt. Pleasant.—About ten years ago several teeth and bones of a mastodon were exhumed in sinking a well on the poor-farm at Mt. Pleasant. The remains were found in the Kansan drift or immediately below this drift. Iam not certain which. They are in the Museum of the lowa Wesleyan University at Mt. Pleasant.

(Reported by Assistant State Geologist T. EB. Savage.)

Salem.—‘‘I learned of the discovery of the remains of a masto- don and what was said to be the tooth of an elephant (but more probably mastodon), when at Salem in November, 1884, and vis. ited the locality where they were found, but was unable to find the man who had possession of the bones and tooth. The locality is in the valley of Big Cedar creek in section eight, Salem town- ship. The creek had at that time washed a channel into the bor-

der of an old bog, in which the fossils were imbedded.” (Reported by Frank Leverett, Ann Arbor, Mich.)

“Some years ago two teeth of a mastodon were brought me by a couple of men to sell for them. They said they were dug up

near the bank of Skunk river, in Henry county.”’ (Reported by Dr. J. M. Shaffer, Keokuk, Iowa.)

JACKSON COUNTY.

Maquoketa.—The atlas and two vertebrae of an extinct pro- boscidian were found near Maquoketa and presented to the Mu-

seum of Cornell College. (Reported by Prof. Norton, Cornell College.)

JEFFERSON COUNTY.

Walnut creek.—In the bed of the creek, where it follows a rocky cliffin the west half of the southwest quarter of section twenty-eight, in Walnut township, Mr. Josia Bates some years ago found the lower jaw of an £, americanus. Both molars were

28 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

well preserved, and the entire specimen weighed fifty pounds. To what part of the drift it belongs is not evident. (Iowa Geological Survey (Udden), Vol. XII, p. 428.)

LEE COUNTY:

Denmark.—‘‘I saw a large leg bone of a mastodon a few years ago at Denmark, which had been found in Lost Creek Valley in section three or four, Washington township. I think the bone belonged to Mr. Justus M. T. Myers, of Fort Madison.”

(Reported by Frank Leverett, Ann Arbor, Mich.)

Concerning this find, Mr. Myers himself reports as follows:

“In 1898 I found in Lost Creek, Lee county, one leg bone, six inches in diameter and nearly three feet long, one of the short ribs, eighteen inches of tusk, and two small pieces of bone of mas- todon, all close together. Since then have looked the creek over for miles, but have found nothing more. Associated with these remains were one human leg bone and one flint arrow-head.”’

Montrose.—‘‘In 1896 I found one molar of Elephas primige- nius in a creek below Montrose, and the same year I also found in

Sugar Creek—The molar of another extinct elephant, which I cannot determine.”

(Reported by Justus M. T. Myers, Fort Madison.)

“Some years ago there was brought to me—to dispose oi—a

- fine fossil, the larger part of the pelvis—right side—oi the masto-

don. The acetabulum and attached portions were perfect. Its

weight was nearly two hundred pounds (?). This specimen was found on Skunk river, in Lee county.”

(Reported by Dr. J. M. Shaffer, Keokuk, Iowa.)

LINN COUNTY:

Bertram.—Part of atusk of a mastodon was found ina gravel pit at Bertram and presented by 8. C. Comstock to the Chicago Academy of Science.

(Reported by Frank C. Baker, Curator, Chicago Academy of Science.)

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 29

Spring ville—The small molar of a mastodon and a large crown of a mastodon molar were found in or on the Iowan drift near Springville, and presented to the Museum of Cornell College.

(Reported by Prof. Norton, Cornell College.)

LOUISA COUNTY.

Indian creek.—An elephant tooth was found in digging a shal- low well in a small tributary to Indian creek, section twenty- eight, township seventy-five north, range three west.

(lowa Geological Survey (Udden), Vol. XT, p. 110.)

Otter creek.—A tooth, the lower jaw, part of the pelvis, seve- ral ribs, and a large piece of the tusk of an elephant were dug from the bed of Otter creek near the center of the northwest quar- ter of section twenty-five, township seventy-three north, range four west. These and the above mentioned specimens were found in what Udden thinks was Sangamon soil.

(Iowa Geological Survey (Udden), Vol. XI, p. 110.)

MARSHALL COUNTY |

Albion.—A large molar of a mammoth, in a perfect state of preservation, was found in the Iowa river near Albion, and pre- sented to the Museum of Cornell College. The grinding surface of the tooth is well worn.

(Reported by Prof. Norton, Cornell College.)

MILLS COUNTY.

Glenwood.—“‘I read a paper on the Glenwood mammoth at the Iowa Academy and had some correspondence concerning it. Tt seems to have been a young one, as indicated by its size, the imperfect ossification of its bones, and the presence of a simple tooth in front.of the molars of the upper jaw. I took measure- ments and a sketch of the position of the bones, but I cannot at present lay my hand on the paper. The bones were quite poorly

30 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

preserved. Some of them are in the museum at Tabor. The pe- culiar simple tooth, which I took out myself, had about the form as sketched. {donot haveit at hand. The remains comprise a dilapidated skull with tusks and teeth, several lee bones, but I think only the ends of some of the latter, perhaps the head oi a humerus, are all that are at Tabor. The remains were five to eight feet below the surface of the east slope of the cut north oi the railroad between Glenwood and Pacific Junction, not far from Kee creek and north of the railroad. They were in the upper part of the boulder clay below the loess. The deposits near them ap- peared to be water laid, and were quite gravelly.”

(Private communication from Prof. J. E. Todd.)

Pacific Junction.—Some bones of an elephant or a mastodon were unearthed near the base of the loess, while grading for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad at the southernmost point of the bluffs between Keg creek and the Missouri bottoms east of Pacific Junction.

(lowa Geological Survey, Vol. XIII, p. 170.)

Malvern.—Bones of a mammoth were exhumed from the lower part of the loess in grading for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad. The excavation was made in 1879 at the cross- ing of First avenue and Railway street. There were three teeth,

‘part of a tusk, and two long bones. (lowa Geological Survey (Udden), Vol. XIII, p. 170.)

“‘4 mammoth was unearthed when the Wabash railroad went through Malvern, in a cut made just northeast of the crossing of the Wabash and Burlington roads. Several teeth, tusk, vertebrae, and ribs were taken out, and several of them are in the Museum at Tabor. The tusk was eight or nine inches through and several feet long. The vertebrae were dorsal and had the long spinous pro- cesses on them. The teeth showed the typical americanus form.”

(Zxtract from a letter by Prof. Todd.)

These notes probably refer to the same specimens as are re-

ported by Udden.

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 31

MUSCATINE COUNTY.

Wilton —In 1874, bones of a mastodon or mammoth were found in the south bank of Mud creek, about half a mile south of Wilton, at a point where the stream, coming from the north, bends abruptly to the west. Measured from the water, the bank at the time rose nearly thirty feet high. The several bones lay at about the same level in the bank. The skeleton had evidently ar- rived entire at the place, but it was dismembered and- scattered before it became finally imbedded. The deposits, containing the skeleton, were modified drift, consisting of alternating strata of very fine sand and clay. The fineness of this material, the rerular stratification and absence of organic matter indicated that at the time of the imbedding of the skeleton, the locality was covered with comparatively deep, clear, and still water, ‘having nothing of the character of a marsh, but rather resembling the bottom of

9

some wide lake or some large, slowly moving river.” The topoe- raphy of the surrounding country and the nature of the drift itseli favored the idea that a lake at one time covered the territory of the West Liberty plain and reached up to Wilton, and that sedi- ments from some inflowing river had aided in filling the lake. “Occasionally larger bodies, carried by some more powerful agen- cy, found their way out to the deeper parts and became covered up by the accumulating sediment.” The evidence was conclusive that the sediments containing the skeleton were laid down after the ice had disappeared from the region. In the excavated skele- ton the cranium and the cervical vertebra were missing, but of the vertebrae there were exhumed nine dorsal, twosacral, and one caudal; also thirteen ribs, one segment of the sternum, parts of

_both innominate bones, one femur, the right tibia, a number of

the tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones, one patella, the right scapula, the lower end of the humerus, and some carpal and metacarpal bones. The right scapula was in a particularly per- fect condition.

Measurements were taken as follows:

32 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH” REMAINS.

Scapula— Inches. Length, from margin of glenoid cavity to superior angle...............39 Width, from posterior angle to opposite bordev............:::0ecsceeeeeees 28

Glenoid cavity, diameter @ircumferencetotsheadle cess estes cee sass aae necro eee eae enero eee ee eae 2 NAY GIST cc eescecnsecoo2ceocaaecoccodadacad6beooccaotanepcoasepasdeomac560 Longest rib, on outer curve... IWAdes birib saer Ose ect acer etae oe eee aera ceca meee tar a uae Vertebra (first dorsal)—

Wridithvand id epthyo tice nib iim ysssete ss ceeasetees ree aoe ctaceeeeee ss arennen seen 5% IACrossilaberallprOCeSSrssrssstesscetetewnnrecocece steececsooncnereeteaesseneee ease 11% Length of dorsal process..........2.....:ceecseeccccecereecececeeceeeecers Sotcesstneaecer 10

Height of neural arch... IWhidithtofmeurallharclieesesss.cncce-ccste ove cones seme ncncacte teers seeetcenten eeciaanacce Right tibia—

Length

@incumierenceyatybopeererveersccecescerseseernnssee eee eee erence eee ene sean 22%

Cirenmierencelamaid deter secerensecceste eee es caecen reece eoereceteee eae tteteass 10% Humerus, circumference at lower CMd..............-.0ssseceecccccenceceeccccnnecseecenss 37

(lowa Geological Survey, Vol. LX, pp. 352—353. )

Mad creek.—About one mile from where it empties into the Mississippi river, Mad ereek has cut away the point of a hill, the top of which is loess. This cut forms an almost perpendicular bank, probably forty feet high. About ten feet from the top is a bed of gravel, perhaps one foot thick. In this gravel bed, Mr. Joe Freeman found a considerable fragment of an elephant tooth.

(Ff. M. Witter, Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science, Vol. I,

part 2, p. 67.

Muscatine.—From the loess in the city of Muscatine, Professor

Witter has taken teeth, bones, and antlers of a species of caribou

or deer, and a tusk and teeth of a mammoth or mastodon. (Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. LX, p. 360.)

PAGE COUNTY.

Blanchard.—Large bones which, from the description given, must have. belonged to the mastodon or mammoth, were found fifty-four feet below the surface while digging a well at Blanchard,

2

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 33

in the Tarkio Valley. Evidences point to an ancient, filled and only partly re-excavated water course. (Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. XI, p. 413 )

Clarinda.—In the valley of the Nodaway, near Clarinda, some

teeth of the mastodon have been found. N (Iowa Geological Survey (White), Vol. I, p. 353.)

PLYMOUTH COUNTY.

Akron.—Very recently, in the vicinity of Akron, Professor Todd has found elephant bones. These were in the drift. (lowa Geological Survey, Vol. X, p. 117.) Professor Todd reports, concerning this find, as follows: ‘‘The teeth, tusk, and bone fragments found near Akron were in the up- per part of the till, under loess. They were found in a well about two miles east of Akron, and were in the possession of the finders the last I knew. The teeth were those of a mastodon, much worn. The length of the crown of one tooth I measured was nine inches, and the breadth about three. The diameter of the tusk was about three inches.”

POLK COUNTY.

Avon.—A few years ago, workmen excavating in the gravel pit at Avon unearthed numerous bones, among which were a large tusk and other bones of some very large animal, either mas- todon or mammoth. Unfortunately, no attempt to save the bones was made, so they became broken and lost. The drift in which these bones were found is post-Kansan—pre- Wisconsin (?) in age.

(Reported by John L. Tilton, Simpson College.)

Polk City.—A periectly preserved molar tooth of Elephas pri- migenius was found in 1898 by a Chicago and Northwestern rail- road employee at Polk City. The tooth occurred in the gravels which occur at that place, and are evidently late Wisconsin in age.

34 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

“These finds are interesting in that it makes it reasonably certain that these huge proboscidians roamed over these cous during the alee Wisconsin or even during post-glacial times.’

(lowa Geological Survey, Vol. LX, pp. 210—211.)

Raccoon river.—The femur of a mammoth in good state of preservation was taken from a sandbar of Raccoon river in Polk county. Belengs to the Museum of Drake University.

(Reported by Prof. L. S. Ross, Drake University.)

POTTAWATTAMIE COUNTY.

The bones of an elephant are reported to have been found on section thirty-four, apparently in the loess. (lowa Geological Survey (Udden), Vol. ‘XL D. 260.)

POWESHIEK COUNTY.

Grinnell.—“About the year 1884, in excavating for a cellar at the corner of Main street and Fourth avenue, a tusk of a mam- moth, together with a number of molar teeth and some fragments of other bones, were uncovered. These remains are now in the museum of lowa College. Excavations in this same vicinity at an earlier date had exposed fragments of undoubtedly the same ani- mal. This last fall, in the excavation for another cellar, other fragments were discovered, all, however, in a state beyond preser- vation, and mere small pieces. All the pieces found’ evidently be- longed to a single individual. The geological formation in which | they occur is the loess. As I remember, the tusk was at a depth of about six feet below the surface. The tusk is about seven feet long and is in a fair state of preservation. The molar teeth are also well preserved. The other pieces are so small that I do not feel able to guess at their original location in the skeleton.

(Reported by Prof. W. H. Norris, Iowa College.)

oo or

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

SCOTT COUNTY.

Big Rock.—The Museum of the Davenport Academy of Science contains a tooth of an #. primigenius, found near Big Rock and donated by A. W. Manchester.

Unformation from label on specimen.)

Blue Grass.—A portion of a skeleton of a mammoth was dis- covered near Dr. Carpenter’s residence (June 27, 1858), imbedded in yellow clay and lying about ten feet below the surface of the ground. This is not, however, its first discovery. In 1844, in the same locality, the tusks were found, and, it is said, were eleven feet in length. Some of the molar teeth were taken at the same time and in almost perfect state of preservation, the enamel being clearly discernible, as in the case of the one lately discovered.

“The tusks of the animal formerly unearthed were fully the size mentioned, but they soon crumbled to pieces on exposure to the atmosphere. The largest of the molar teeth was about four- teen inches in length. It was exhumed in three pieces, and may now be seen in an almost periect state of preservation in our cabi- net, where also may be seen some of the bones, showing very per- fectly their osseous formation and the kind of clay in which they

were imbedded.”’ (Editor Davenport Daily Gazette, June 30, 1858 )

Davenport.—A tusk, several molars, and some bones of the mammoth were exhumed in the west part of the city. They were found at the junction of the yellow and bluish clays, three feet above the peat bed, indicating that the skeleton was deposited after the blue stratum of the loess, the body having floated there or the creature having waded in to his destruction. The specimen is in the Davenport Academy of Science.

‘Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science, Vol. I, p. 98.)

Dr. C. A. White comments on this locality as follows: ‘‘Such of these deposits (alluvium), as partake more of the character of marsh accumulations are found in somewhat similar positions,

. -

36 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

but all seem to have taken place at an earlier period in the process of deepening the river valley. For example, one of these depos- its occurs almost on the very brow of the bluffs that border the valley of the Mississippi near Davenport. This example is one of unusual interest, in consequence of the existence there of an ex- tensive bed of ancient peat, which is covered to the depth of sey- eral feet beneath the: prairie soil, and the discovery, in the clay above the peat, of the remains of a mammoth. The exposure was made by the excavation for the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad company, previous to which there was no appearance at the surface to indicate anything more than the ordinary drift deposit.”

(lowa Geological Survey (White), Vol. I, p. 119.)

SHELBY COUNTY.

Defiance.—About 1890 H. B. Sooy came into possession of a huge tusk of a mammoth or mastodon, which measured six feet long and seven inches in diameter at the base and three and a half inches at the tip. He kept it about four months, when it began to crumble, and continued to do so, until all but about two feet of the tip was destroyed. The tusk was found at the bottom of a well on the bank of a small stream about. three miles from Defi- ance. Parties made search for the skeleton by boring close to the old well, and came upon something resembling bone. They then attempted to dig down to the skeleton, but as it lay below the bed of the creek, water came into the hole so fast that the search was abandoned, and no attempt has been made since to investi- gate further.

(Reported by H. B. Sooy.)

STORY COUNTY.

In 1894, a mammoth was found on the farm of Dr. H. M. Templeton. It was discovered while digging a well which was being sunk in one of the numerous depressions in this part of the

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 37

country. This depression formerly contained a few feet of water, and it still receives surface drainage in times of heavy rainfall. The soil was composed of the washings from the surrounding land and the remains of marsh vegetation characteristic of sim- ilar surface conditions on the Wisconsin drift. When the digging had proceeded to a depth of about four or five feet, a deposit of bone fragments was discovered. This included the bodies of four or five dorsal vertebrae, portion of one rib, a short section from the lower end of the tibia, and the lower extremity of the left femur, besides a number of fragments difficult to assign to their exact location in the skeleton. The masses would about fill a half- bushel basket. There were none of the long bones complete and none of the pieces would give a very correct notion of the entire length of any of these portions of the skeleton. The parts giving the best idea of proportion are the vertebrae, the head of a rib, in quite good state of preservation, and the lower extremity of the femur. The vertebrae show both anterior and posterior ar- ticular surfaces, in a perfect state of preservation. The transverse and vertical measurements of these surfaces are nearly exactly the same, four and one half inches. The antero-posterior diameter, of the vertebral body, is exceedingly short, considering the im- mensity of the other measurements. The length is but two and one-half inches. This must have given the creature a back grotesquely short in comparison with its gigantic size. The artic- ular facets on the inner surface of the head of the rib measure three and one half inches. The excavations at the anterior and posterior extremities of the vertebral bodiesalmost blend into one another. The part giving the most correct notion of the enor- mous size of the animal is the remains of the thigh bone. The fragment represents a section from the lower end of the bone just long enough to show the femoral trochlea and the two condyls. These are almost perfect, with the exception that a small frag- ment has been broken away from the external posterior part of the external condyl. The internal condyl is in a perfect state of preservation. The extreme length of the articular surface ex-

38 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

tending from the lower border to the external condyl to the upper margin of the trochlear surface on which the patella glides is six- teen inches. This mass is from eight to ten times the size of the corresponding part of an average horse. All the parts are quite firm and in such state oi preservation that they have not in the least been affected by exposure since their removal from the ground. The conditions were such as to lead to the conclusion that the bones could never have been buried to a greater depth than that at which they were discovered. The superincumbent covering must have been increasing in thickness rather than di- minishing, on account of the process of gradual fillmg now going on in these shallow prairie basins. A number of trial excavations were made in different parts of the depression without unearthing any additional portions of the skeleton.

(Iowa Geological Survey, Vol IX, pp. 210—211.)

WARREN COUNTY.

Indianola.—‘‘In June, 1903, workmen engaged in laying a ce- ment foundation for a culvert on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad, two and a half miles east oi Indianola, found large bones at a depth of six feet below the bottom of the draw or ravine. The two fragments brought me are parts of the centra of vertebrae, each about four inches across and two and a half inches thick. There is also a fragment two inches long that seems to be part ofa rib. They were found in the Kansan drift. I do not know whether these remains are of the mastodon or mam-

moth.” (Reported by John L. Tilton, Simpson College.)

WASHINGTON COUNTY.

Having observed some newspaper notices of large bones and teeth found in Washington county, Iowa, by Mr. Jerry Hoppin, we went down there on the eighteenth of July (1881), to see what discoveries had been made. Wefound Mr. Hoppin’s farm on sec-

bee

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 39

tion fourteen, township twenty-two, range three, and made a careful examination of the objects and the locality where they were discovered. The remains consisted of the following teeth and bones of Elephas primigenius, viz.; the two upper molars— beautiful specimens, very well preserved and nearly black. The grinding surface on each is eleven by four and three-fourths inches, and the greatest depth of the tooth nine and one half inches. To each of these teeth is attached a portion of the jaw-bone, showing also a part of the socket of the tusk.

A fragment of a tusk, thirty inches in length and twenty-one inches in circumference. It is very much decomposed and falls to pieces rapidly. A considerable quantity of finely broken frag- ments was also found.

The atlas, absolutely perfect. The extreme width of this bone is seventeen and one half inches; its anterior-posterior diameter, nine inches: articulating surface, ten by four and one half inches.

Three other well preserved vertebrae, one cervical, one lumbar, one uncertain, having an articulating surface of six and one half inches in diameter.

The left scapula, from which a portion is:broken off. Its ex- treme length is thirty-four inches: greatest width of part pre- served, twenty inches; articulating surface, nine and one half by six inches.

One segment of sternum, very perfect. Its dimensions are: length, eleven inches; depth, six and one half inches; and width, four and one half inches.

Head of femur, of hemispherical form, seven and one half inch- es in diameter.

A portion of humerus, thirty-six inches long, both extremities wanting, and the whole much decayed and very fragile.

One fibula, quite perfect, twenty-seven and a half inches long.

Several fragments of ribs, one piece three feet in length, and some of the pieces indicating the full length of a rib to be over five feet. In addition, there were a good many small and indetermin-

40 FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS.

able fragments, though it is possible that, upon a more extended examination of the whole, the true place of them might be ascer- tained.

These relics were discovered in a small stream, running through the bottom land on the farm. The scapula was first found by Mr. Hoppin’s boys while bathing. They at first took it for a piece of wood, but, upon discovering its true character, they made search for more, and found several of the other bones within a few feet of the same place. Mr. Hoppin then continued the search by digging into the adjacent bank; and there found the teeth and several of the other bones. All the bones were found within an area of fifteen feet each way, in the black mud (sedimentary de- posit, chiefly of vegetable mold with some clay), and about six feet below the surface of the level ground.

(J. Gass, Proceedings, Davenport Academy of Science, Vol. 111, pp.

177—178.)

FOSSIL MASTODON AND MAMMOTH REMAINS. 41

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Pleistocene Deposits

ILLINOIS AND IOWA |

BY

JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

The data collected in the foregoing paper by Netta C. Ander- son on the fossil Mastodon and Mammoth remains in Illinois and Towa, give valuable and various information, which seems profit- able to briefly summarize and discuss. It brings together a num- ber of observations made by different parties at different places and at different times, extending back sixty years or more. Some special points suggest themselves for review: 1) the conditions of interment of these animals, 2) their specific determination, 3) their relation to different drifts and +) their association with other fossils.

Mode of laperment

The eighty odd recorded finds set forth, quite clearly, the con. ditions attendant on the interment of these animals and the man- ner of the preservation of their remains. The broad statement is warranted that the greater number. of the animals, whose remains have been discovered, perished in low and bogey localities. In two instances it is clear that they had come in search for water and salt, for near Minooka, in Illinois, parts of the skeletons of six in- dividuals were recovered from the ground near a bog spring, and in Gallatin county, in the same state, numerous bones were found near the “‘Half Moon” salt lick.

In the case of sixty recorded fossils, their location is given with sufficient detail to enable us to make inferences as to their mode of interment. We find that remains of thirteen individuals were discovered in stream beds or in undoubted alluvial deposits. Of these, ten consisted of detached teeth, one was a single bone, one was a jaw, and one consisted of a tooth and a bone. Five finds were found in terrace and glacial gravels, and four of these

48 ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

consisted of single teeth. Evidently, these single teeth which are found in stream beds and in drift gravels, are not in situ, but have been dislodged by streams and glacial currents from the beds which originally contained them, and they have been separated from the other parts of the skeleton to which they belong.

In eighteen instances, remains were found in boggy places, or near springs, and in every case save one these consisted of several parts of a skeleton, usually teeth and some bones. Many of these also came from alluvial deposits, but itis evident that they were found in the places where the animals perished.

But most of the fossils have come from the loess or from near the surface of the boulder clay under the loess. There are twenty- four such finds, and only one is mentioned as consisting of a single tooth. The rest are referred to as “numerous bones’, “several bones’, ‘“‘parts of skeletons”, or as “remains”. In cases of this kind, the fossils are likewise in situ. In other cases it is not pos- sible to make out from the data given whether the finds should be classified as from alluvium or as from bogs, for it seems quite likely that some of the bogs may have been on alluvial lands. Barring such, the number of finds representing different modes of interment may be tabulated as follows:

gees | ¢ Sfas | 3 8 no OS Od m SPEcIMENS Founp IN 8 ee s wy 2 Boke | gees 42aso | 2aas Shur anys) Ore ibn FANNER 7B UT coco-racecoadaaccoosoo55a5cadceceoeenebouaceeonco56oce 2 17 Glacialloravielsvensnccessssessssessreterosseecccresccss sneer tense 1 4 IBYOFEHS) he TNEEHE (OIA NVEHS| coocadeccoaoocoosedeeaconaaesneo0A 3084000 9000000000033000 17 1 Loess, or On glacial ClayS...........--...0.ssc-ccsenssessseersooeesesereres 23 1

Specific Determination of the Fossils.

Among the individuals represented in the list, Mastadon, Ele- phas primigenius and Elephas americanus have been expressly

ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS. 49

identified. Specific determination of Mastodon is in no case ex- pressed, but it is presumably M. americanus. The list men- tions in all thirty-nine individuals of this genus, In ten cases identification was made from other parts of the animals than from their teeth, and it may, perhaps, be somewhat uncertain. Twenty-one of these finds are reported as mammoths and five as Elephas primigenius, making twenty-six specimens of this species. Nineteen of these determinations were made from teeth, often oc- curring with other bones, one appears to have been made from a tusk, and four were probably made in absence of either teeth or tusks. Hlephas americanus is reported from two places in Iowa. Ten of the specimens are spoken of merely as elephants, and these are presumably EHlephas primigenius. Except in two cases, the determinations of these nine specimens were also made from teeth. In one instance, only a tusk was present, and in another, both teeth and tusks seem to have been wanting. In all, the list in- cludes thirty-five elephants and thirty-four mastodons. Thirteen specimens are reported merely as “‘proboscideans”’, as “mammoth or mastodon’’, or as “elephant or mastodon’”’. In eleven of these cases, the remains did not include any teeth, and in nine there were neither teeth nor tusks. Thus it appears that specific de- terminations have not been made except in the presence of either teeth or tusks. These furnish the most obvious and reliable char- acteristics for that purpose. From the above facts, we may con- clude that the determinations are sufficiently accurate to warrant the general conclusion from the figures given that the remains of the elephant and of the mastodon are about equally frequent in these two states. It will be noticed that nearly all of the fossils are from the drift-covered region. Professor J. D. Whitney* states that in the lead region (the driftless area) mastodon remains are much more frequent than those of the elephant.

* Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. I, p. 162.

50 ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

Table of Specific Determinations.

bP ee aia 5a < Be | ee | Be | ee Gan) a8, | ao | oo, Sno} ape roe aa eoe|o58| S2 | ses 3 Bel OFS os 3 ae Apa] Hos SIs) Aes “Mami OGW?2 errr antuscseacccccsteesteescseaseaen oeaetre ee aetrsaeaeeecer 2 13 1 5 “Hlephas primigenius”’.............0--...ccccceseoecrrecesesesenee allacooaconci i). "I aoneano50a|pboasdonos “Mlephas AMeVIiCANUS”’..........--..:seeseeeeereeeeeseeenseseeneneee 1 BEG 9))l Resseedced eoeepcesc Maisto d Om? 82kis.c sks nancccecte teeoeccstcicocceseessgesseccdoes saa 2 24 3 5 Pile pain?) sesateeefeasasrecesveccdessteraessacesssetecsseeceers eteral Mars teee 7 Hallie 6 “Proboscidean”’, ‘elephant or mastodon”’, ‘“‘mam- TOOFE M GIP TENE ROY KOE” occéqenaccbaq050070d0008002000000eN5e0b3e0NAl[o450580009 2 2 9 \

Relation to Different Parts of the Drift.

The relation of these fossils to the different drifts in the Mis- sissippi valley is by no means clear in every case. Many of the observations were made long before different drifts had been rec- ognized, and some were even made by geologists who did not re- gard land ice as necessarily an agent in the deposition of the gla- cial till. A thorough study of the geological position of these fos- sils would require visits to many of the localities in the field. Though this is impracticable, the data in the list warrant some general observations in this line.

In fifteen cases, the notes furnished by the observers quoted either give insufficient or no data from which we may judge of the relations of the fossil to the drift. These are mostly in cases of discoveries of single teeth or tusks. In fourteen instances it is only known that the remains, likewise mostly teeth, came from some creek or from some river. One tooth is reported as having been caught in a seine. Others are spoken of as exposed in banks of streams, and where these consist of single bones or teeth, one must regard them as in transit and not necessarily as fossils

ON THE PLOBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS. 51

originally belonging to the alluvium from which they came. [i- nally, several teeth have been found in gravels, whose age is unknown, and in which they are evidently inbedded secondarily. It appears that about one half the number of all. the fossils re- corded cannot be assigned to any particular relation to the drift on the evidence of the original record.

Mastodon remains are reported in one case as coming from the “Kansan drift or immediately below this drift”. This find was made in a well on the poor-farm ati Mount Pleasant, in Iowa. Coming from such an excavation, circumstances seem to have been favorable for exact determination of the horizon. There were several teeth and bones, and this makes it reasonably certain that the bones were in situ. In all likelihood the animal lived, perished, and was buried on the land in eastern Iowa before the advance of the ice which brought the Kansan drift. Fossils in a till can hardly be regarded as in situ. They would be ground to pieces by the ice.

Parts of skeletons of the mastodon have been found in some- what similar positions on the upper surface of the Kansan drift, in the so-called “‘ferretto zone’. This is the old and weathered land surface which developed after the Kansan drift had been de- posited. This drift is now covered by loess, but in some localities it has been almost entirely removed. Under thirty feet of loess, which rested on two or three feet of drift, a mastodon jaw with two teeth was found near Alton, in Illinois. In Washington county, in the same state, other mastodon remains are recorded as having come from the same horizon, one from near Sandoval, and another from near Beaucoup. Some teeth, a tusk, and some bones of a mastodon were recently found ‘‘in the upper part ofthe till, under the loess’, near Akron, in Plymouth county, in Iowa. This till is also believed to belong to the Kansan.

The “‘ferretto zone” is to be seen under the loess only beyond the borders of the drift sheets which are later than the Illinoian. Fossils from this zone must be younger than the Kansan drift

52 ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

itself, as they have become imbedded in its eroded and weathered surface. As long as this till was being subjected to progressive destruction, no remains of land animals could very well be pre- served. They would be destroyed with it, except in special situa- tions, where the generalcondition of erosionmay have locally come to a standstill, or may have been reversed. These fossils must hence be regarded as rather belonging to the stage when loess be- gan to accumulate on the Kansan till. This stage is not definitely fixed among the series ofevents ofthe glacial period. By some it is believed.to be contemporaneous with the deposition of the lowan drift, but others think that much of the loess is older than this. So that the only thing we can know with certainty of these fossils is that they are post-Kansan and pre-loessian. They may be only slightly younger than the Kansan drift, or only somewhat older than some much later loess.

There is another similar zone over the area of the Illinoi- an drift. It marks in the same way the time when the loess be- gan to accumulate on the Llinoian till. Theconditions attendant upon the beginning of loess accumulation on this till were some- what different from those resulting in the burial of the ferretto zone on the Kansan. The Illinoisan drift surface seems to have been less well drained. It is less affected by oxidation, and boggy conditions were apparently more frequent when the loess began to accumulate. . Only two proboscidian fossils are mentioned in the list as clearly imbedded in the Illinoian drift. One was found in some waterlaid material at a point one half mile south of Wilton, in Muscatine county, in Iowa. This consisted of a considerable part of a skeleton. The other was a tusk, occur- ring just under the base of the loess, in the ‘bluff near the bridge across Rock river, south of Rock Island, in Illinois. The only rea- sonably certain conclusion we can draw as to the age of these fos- sils is that they are post-Illinoian and pre-loessial. In neither case were these fossils generically identified.

Of just as indefinite age are such fossils as have been recovered

a)

ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCEME DEPOSITS. 5:

from the loess. There are at least eight of these. Six or seven came from the base of the loess, and nearly all of these were from the area covered by the Ilinoian drift. One, or perhaps two, came from Fremont county, in lowa, and hence were from the area of the Kansan drift. All of these might perhaps as well be classified with the fossils in the ferretto zone and with those in the loess- covered upper surface of the Ilinoian drift, for they were evidently buried at the beginning of the accumulation of the loess in which they lie. Ifthe modern view that the loess is a land deposit is correct, it appears quite probable that its basal part is not every- where of the same age. The loess may have begun to form on the Kansan drift even before the Hlinoian ice invaded this region. On the other hand, the relation of the loess to the Iowan drift is such as to make it unlikely that the bulk of the former deposit is of a later date than this drift itself. Therefore we are justified in be- lieving that the fossils which come from the base of the loess are post-Kansan and pre-lowan, when found beyond the limits of the Illinoian drift, and when they come from the area of this Aill, they must be post-Illinoian and pre-lowan.

From Grinnell, in Iowa, a mastodon is reported as coming from the loess. Grinnell lies on the area of the Iowan drift, and while this drift usually is without any loess covering, such a cov- ering is reported as being present in the adjoining (Tama) county. This loess is, of course, of post-lowan age, and so must this fossil be, which was excavated from a depth of six feet from the surface. Two mastodon teeth are also reported from a creek on the lowan driftin Forreston township, in Ogle county, in Ilinois,and the great- er part of askeleton of the mammoth was recovered from a boggy placein Lynnville township, inthe same county. This latter point is almost on the boundary between the Wisconsin and the Iowan drift, and, it may be, on the surface of the latter. In either case, the interment of this fossil was probably much later than the de- position of the lowan drift, as it came from near the surface. The same must be said of some other finds which have been made at

54 ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

shallow depths on the area of the Iowan drift. They are post. Iowan.

Twelve fossils are reported from the area of the Wisconsin drift. Two of these were teeth, presumably not in situ, as they were taken from gravel. One, a part of a mastodon skeleton, was taken from a tenacious clay on the early Wisconsin drift (Cham- paign till sheet of Leverett) near Fairmount, in Vermilion county, in Illinois. The others have come from low and swampy places on the but slightly modified surface of this late till. They seem to belong in the soil on the drift or in local accumulations of wash or perhaps incipient loess deposits on low divides where the drift is practically yet untouched by erosion. These are clearly post- Wisconsin in age.

In some dozen cases, considerable parts of skeletons, or at least a few bones, with or without some teeth, but enough to indi- cate that the remains were practically in place, have been found in alluvial sediments. Some of these are evidently much older than the others. Bones are thus mentioned by Professor Calvin as having been found in a well at a depth of fifty feet in the Tar- kio valley, on the Kansan drift, near Blanchard, in Iowa. Other finds were made in alluvium on driftless territory, as in Gallatin county, in Illinois, and in Allamakee county, in Iowa. All these may be older than the fossils which come from alluvium or later drifts. One mastodon came from the alluvium along Illinois river; three miles east of Morris. Most of the alluvium in this valley must be as late as Lake Chicago, which drained in this direction. It appears certain that both the elephant and the mastodon are represented among the alluvial fossils, on the Wisconsin drift. They are both of post-Wisconsin age, and, judging from their oc- casional shallow interment in alluvium, in loess, and in modified surface drift, they are sub-recent.

In tabulated form, the relation of the proboscidian remains to the members of the drift are as below:

ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

al uo

AGE

Specimens of unknown age.

Mammoth ; Elephas primigenius.. BHlephant................. Mastodon

Specimens of the pre-Kansan (?) or Kansan (?) age. INV IGYE THONG (0310s nocepcedgnonocdose sdb uooaconoeHocackac Hanae socoececaoEsaocenboecoocosced Aceesec

Specimens from the ferretto zone, post-Kansan and pre-loessian. IWIEYSTROY (O) 0 3¢e0c0ce8e0600000900009602008000000 spordcocogcocoreneqassoosoordocccconoessecbecda

Specimens from the surface of the Illinoian drift, post-[linoian and pre-loessian.

Windetermined: tice ecoswes tee eewesaeeees NSO Makaha tative ces tee dnete

Specimens from the base of the loess, post-Kansan and pre- Iowan.

le Pannier en vevesvecevusvasndevitecauacstescstssyaves Usectveveuntereterecotacsrceses Mammoth... Mastodon.... Fake Wine Cermane deere ee sock sec eees encucs tes wace. teh cceoventsngecotbnss deccetanesers

Specimens from the loess.

CPW AS DIN CTICAM USE. wrccse-esscesesecccccsesseacersocetesseseceonsaeeseceeceseee Mammoth

From the area of the lowan drift, post-lowan. IMUeajran tn OGL sencavaee se sassccceuncsay aussuceccceccaviters sostuee outedees ote ccseessessees et IMS TO GON cst Loe eset cenit acne case seth gecee oncevicve sun taceuay ceceevdsateocebe cake From the area of the Wisconsin drift, post- Wisconsin.

ECT DASH OLIN SCMIU SG ertccacdesn asset cee ccsteeden cnn ieee ate taccnnedeesetenes Bile p banitigeee=s-ecseee esses Mammoth ..

From alluvium, mostly sub-recent, but some, perhaps, older.

JY AIDEN] j Oa VAATED OVE ecaceceaeacce bp ococe SOO COC OC COCECECOC OCCU ECE INI HTTEOOSULT snosnedbeeerecoeeense Mastodon....

Te Cerin ric ene ee ue MN Neh CM Ns ee

Teeth or tusks only

Bones, most- | ly with teeth | or tusks

56 ON THE PBOBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

Associated Fossils.

From what is known concerning the age of the latest glacial drift, and from the fact that many of the remains have been found in alluvium which is later than this drift, there seems to be good reason to believe that elephants and mastodons have inhabited these states within the time of the last five thousand years, or per- haps still later. The association of their remains with those oi other animals not yet extinct in this part of the world likewise indicates that they have but recently been exterminated. These associated fossils are of various kinds. In Rock Island, the loess which contained elephant bones also contained fragments of conii- erous wood, and at Davenport, in Iowa, the peaty loess, from which tusks and other bones were taken, has a seam of diatoma- ceousearth, in which no less than thirty-three now living species of diatoms have been identified.* Only a short distance from this locality, the same horizon carries the usual land snails, such as Helicina, Succinea, Pyramidula, Bifidaria, Limnzea, and others which are characteristic of the loess. In Sangamon county, in Illi- nois, the mastodon-bearing alluvium contained such common pond snails as Planorbis, Cyclas, and Physa, and at Fairmont, in Ver- milion county, where mastodon remains were found in what ap- pears to be a waterlaid clay, this contained Limnza, Physa, Pla- norbis, and Spherium, all typical pond mollusks of to-day.

The mammals which are mentioned as found in immediate as- sociation with the mastodon, are the American buffalo, or the bison, which is reported from three localities, the wolf, the peccary, the deer, and the elk, each of which is reported only once. In the country around Chester and Alton, in Illinois, where Professor Wm. McAdams made extensive observations on the fossils of the loess many years ago, he is reported as haying found in this de- posit Mastodon, Megalonyx, Bosprimigenius, Castoroides, ohio- ensis, and many small rodents. The latter occur in the so-called

* See Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. IX, p, 356.

aw“

ON THE PROBOSCIDEAN FOSSILS OF THE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS. 57

loess-kindchen.* But it is not known in this case that these mam- mals came from the same localities as the mastodon, and the present writer believes it can be shown that all the loess in that region is not of the same age. Hence it is perhaps a question whether the co-existence of these fossils with the mastodon is really proven by Professor McAdams’s observations. That they all really did inhabit this country contemporaneously, is none the less most probable.

Man and the Elephants.

On the question of the co-existence of the elephant or the mas- todon with man, these data give no direct testimony except in one instance, which is mentioned by M. T. Myers, of Fort Madi- son. He reports having found “one human leg bone and one flint arrow-head”’ associated with the remains of a mammoth recoy- ered from the alluvium of Lost creek, in Lee county, in Iowa. It is not known precisely how close this association was, and in view of the importance of the question, this find would seem to merit a more detailed study and a more full statement of facts. The as- ~ sociation is reported from a region where so-called “elephant pipes” have been claimed to occur in mounds constructed by ear- lier inhabitants of this country.* If these pipes are genuine, they prove beyond a doubt that the race who built the mounds were the contemporaries of the elephant, for the pipes are fashioned with the form of this animal. At all events, the evident recency of some of the proboscidian remains makes us expectant of some fortunate discovery giving conclusive proof that man lived on this continent while these huge mammals were yet here.

* Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII, p. 8. * Proceedings of Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. III, p. 182, and Vol. II, p. 349.

LINNE MEMORIAL NUMBER

AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY eo PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER 6

SCANDINAVIANS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA BY PER AXEL RYDBERG, PH. D.

REPORT ON , A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE LANDS BELONGING TO THE NEW YORK AND TEXAS LAND COMPANY, LTD., IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1907

* ; SINE Seni PNOTAUKE IN Parise WROTE G ae it ty Po h } te Ht < if: ee { Sues, uh ; ‘ . : at +] i 8 +e | : aah et H vel x Tie, .

AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY o PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER 6

SCANDINAVIANS WHO HAVECONTRIBUTED TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA BY PER AXEL RYDBERG, PH. D. REPORT ON A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE LANDS BELONGING TO THE NEW YORK AND TEXAS LAND COMPANY, LTD., IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS BY JOHAN AUGUST UDDEN

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1907

ae AE TT

The two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Linné was made the occa- sion for a celebration in the chapel at Augustana College and Theological Sem- inary, April 13th, 1907. An address on The Place of Lioné in the Scientific World was then delivered by Dr. Charles E. Bessey of the University of Nebraska, and another address on Linné and the Love for Nature was given by Mr. E. K. Putnam of the Davenport Academy of Sciences. Brief addresses were made by Dr. Josua Lindahl of the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History, by Dr. P. A. Rydberg of the New York Botanical Garden, and by Dr. J. A. Udden of Augustana College.

Dr. P. A. Rydberg was invited by the committee on arrangements to pre- pare a paper to be published in commemoration of the occasion. He chose for his subject, Scandinavians who have Contributed to the Kaowledge of the Flora of North America.

GuSTAV ANDREEN

Scandinavians who have Contributed to the Knowledge of the Flora of North America By Per Axel kydberg, Ph. D., Curator New York Botanical Garden pa

A Memoir Prepared for the Celebration, at Augustana College and Theological Seminary, of the 2ooth

Anniversary of the Birth of Linne

CONTENTS

Medicani periods) 147 8— 1601 ree teeee ees.S oe cc adds taeda lec dovece wotucesucecersccnesetteucee 7 Bauhiniane period, cl GOL— TGQ rescence nc cecc nese ee erect en yaane ecaracheeauscuvecrssaeseiunt 8 ANGE AS OVE FAO | A)! ATS) comoococcoosocddescnaccaHNOneUSCeERBOOCOULRED HU SadCECOSDNCCen 8 ILE IM SECC), WAS BI TER) escose-coccopoacceccdgseccoecceceg cecosedes CeodsoonconsoeeceoceccoNton: 9 WmitedtStatestandkCanad aes x. cereees see rccte a eenaenc. Tate hee eee eee 10 GreenlandtandAtrctie Atm eri cam sseseaseottecuseecacceseecoeee roe ae setce ene seer eseaetoeaee 14 WrestlndiessandiGentralpAuiericateses-eca-c-sestenrecte eae cee seecesceerectcoseeecaecres 15 Jussieuant period 7/89 — BUG. oe ee gestcannacecuseectauiseduaneseeceececess+selecescceeussewesinns 18 Westin dies .ssie.ccrsccccccseeeciecs wensteess Sa de es Oaloa Nate u ad cstiancoesaae ie leueuses cou oti e Skewes 18 Candolleanipeniod sl SiS ed 0 Reece sence ee teen tnc eee sees nant eee actos sine ra noe ose cesemneinosee 20 GreenlandiandvArcticvAmMeni@derscscc-eeoeses see oecon ene ee eee rece ne tans Sonne eee 22 IWiEStAIN GIGS) ta hee cnt in coe eesecnnmetiecacmusee sath westoces cde aesass ca vatescans conteecn emer ae 23 Elookeriantperlods:)840 1 S89 vee scare sence care tease ceeene doctne sacnew cena receasaneeeereesaneeae 24 Wnited’Statestand! Canad ayicerccccsss-cse see dee nee eo ee es cae aee enc sen acces en scesemeotectss 25 Ginsemileinel exael ARC JNAGETIED 5. cose saosoonasssdocotooos sdncoboousoseoncoossodosccooundcos 26 WWieSt: Indies esi aces decheecs gee ee eec tests duces ctee dace cusnswecnsesetaeescchaaecsesassaecrsdceevcses 33 Mexicolandi(GentralvAtm erica icc. een ees cen ec eeten nceaeaooes see cane aeeeecestees 36 Hngleriansperiod si SSO eles ce vem eter ves ses secs se Secs ooh ace Seen eda eee rt ee 38 WnitedyStatestand| Canad aerssna x ccomescececetee occ teeta shee te ceceee ono eeeceeanes 38

Sarin ay ar sioaee eco seen eae oe oe ee ee ae oa ee aed nes ee ne See Ce eee 38

SCANDINAVIANS

Who Have Contributed to the Knowledge of the Flora of North

America. *

When we this year celebrate the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Linnzeus, the first questions that suggest them- selves to us are: ‘“‘What did the immortal Swede achieve for bot- any and zoology, the two sciences he loved so well?”’, and “Has the work of Linnzeus any direct bearing upon the botany and zoology of America?”

The first of these questions has been answered so many times, and will be answered over and over again this spring at hundreds of places where the anniversary will be celebrated. I say hundreds, for there will scarcely be any college or university of any repute, where natural history is taught, throughout the whole world, which will not have a commemorative celebration of some kind; and what would be more natural for a speaker of the day or an in memoriam writer to dwell upon than the life work of the man in whose memory the celebration is held. To exploit the achieve- ments of Linnzeus will therefore be left in the hands of many abler men than the present writer is.

The second question the writer has been asked to answer in a short address at the celebration to be held here in New York on - the 23rd of May. Undoubtedly, it will be answered at more than one place in this country this spring.

When the writer some time ago was asked by Professor J. A. Udden to prepare a ‘‘fest-skrift’? for the Linné anniversary at Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois, he hesitated very much whether to accept this honoring invitation or not. He did not know if it would be possible for him in the short time, and with all the busy hours of a curator at an institution such asthe New York Botanical Garden, to prepare a memoir creditable to such an oc-

* Reprinted from the Augustana College Library Publications Number VI.

6 SCANDINAVIANS AND

casion. At last he dared to undertake the work, and hopes that the institution for which it has been prepared and the anthor’s contemporaries in general will receive it as it is, and have forbear- ance with its shortcomings.

After accepting the invitation, the writer had to choose a sub- ject. As he did not dare to undertake the answering of the first question of the day, because it would have been too hard a task and he would have had too many competitors, and as it was only reluctantly he had agreed to make a short address, in which he would try to answer the second, he hardly knew what to write about. His national pride helped him in choosing the subject, and he will try to answer the question: ‘‘Have the Scandinavians contributed anything to the knowledge of the flora of North America?”’

Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, Icelanders, and the descendants of Swedes who settled in Finland a few hnndred years ago, are in reality but one nation, although ruled by four differeut crowned heads. Many of these Scandinavians have chosen, like the present writer, to settle on this side of the Atlantic and to swear allegiance to the stars and stripes. They have not thereby lost their nation- ality, nor its virtues. As Scandinavians have also been counted a few men of Scandinavian parentage (of the first generation), if this was known to the writer.

With North America the writer understands not only the United States and Canada, but the whole continent north of the Isthmus of Panama and adjacent islands, hence comprising also Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. This view is the one generally adopted by American botanists, since the acqusi- tion of Porto Rico and the overtaking of the Panama Canal work by the United States. From that time the heaviest work on the flora of these countries has shifted from Europe to America.

When trying to write a sketch of the Scandinavians more or less connected with the history of botany of North America, the writer naturally has to deal with this history and with the history of botany in general. It may not be amiss to state that the his- tory of botany is here taken in a rather narrow sense, including only that of systematic botany, plant geography and related branches, not of plant physiology, nor general morphology, ete.

The best history of botany (or we may say, of botanists) in the library of the New York Botanical Garden is Emil Winckler’s

-]

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA.

Geschichte der Botanik. Unfortunately, this history brings us only up to 1850. Winckler divides the history into the following periods:

The ancient writers.

Medicus—Bauhin, 1478—1601.

Bauhin—Tournefort, 1601—1694.

Tournefort—Linneus, 1694—1735.

Linneus—Jussieu, 1735—1789.

Jussieu—R. Brown, 1789—1817.

R. Brown—............ , 1817—1850.

Pritzel divides it into the following periods:

Ancient writers.

Tournefort—Linneus, 1694—1736.

Linnzeus—R. Brown, 1786—1810.

R. Brown—DeCandolle, 1810—1824.

De Candolle—............ , 1824—......

These two writers agree in regarding Tournefort, Linneus, and Robert Brown epoch-making botanists. There is no question that the two first were. As to Robert Brown, there is no doubt that he was one of the greatest systematic botanists the world has produced, and scarcely anyone has known as many plants as he; but as far as the botany of North America is concerned, the writer cannot see that a new epoch began either 1810 or 1817. There are many more reasons for assigning the beginning of new epochs with Jussieu and De Candolle, or rather with the appearance of the works in which they proposed their new systems of classifica- tion.

As far as the North American botany is concerned, new epochs apparently began about 1840 and 1890. The beginning of the first of these was too near the time when Winckler and Pritzel wrote, and was naturally overlooked by them.

The writer has adopted in generai the periods by Winckler, but with some modification in the later ones.

1. MEDICAN PERIOD, 1478—1601.

This period extends from the time of Medicus to the appearance of Kaspar Bauhin’s Pinax. During this time nothing of any value was written on American botany except the work of Hernandez, who traveled in Mexico in 1570—6. Only a portion thereof was published 1615, 1648, 1651, and 1791. So even the publi- cationof Hernandez’s work does not belong to this period.

Nothing was contributed to the knowledge of the American flora by Scandi- navians.

SCANDINAVIANS AND

(0's)

2. BAUHINIAN PERIOD, 1601—1694.

This period extends from Bauhin’s Pinax to Tournefort’s Institutiones. The former of these was a remarkable book jorits time. It aimed to catalogue and describe all known plants. The names of the plants and the descriptions were of the usual form of the the time. Of course, the work is written in Latin. The names consist of a noun together with a descriptive phrase of one or more adjectives or adjective modifiers. The descriptions are crude. but often as good as were used by the immortal Linnzus himself, 150 years later.

During this period the fiora of the West Indies and Mexico was explored and described by Sloane, a noted Irish physician and naturalist, and the Jesuit Barna- bas Coba: but nothing was done by Scandinavians.

3. TOURNEFORTIAN PERIOD, 1694—1735.

Tournefort’s Institutiones was the epoch-making book. In this appear for the first time botanical genera in their modern sense. Tournefort had in many cases even a Clearer idea of generic limitations than Linnzus himself. The major- ity of the genera in the Genera Plantarum of the latter were adopted from this work of Tournefort. Tournefort’s descriptions are about as good as those of Linnzus, and have the advantage of being accompanied by illustrations. What Tournefort’s Instintiones lacked was the systematic arrangement.

During this period the fiora of North America was investigated by Plumier. who made four journeys to this continent, W. Houstoun, who collected in the West Indies and Mexico, John Lawson, in Carolina, and M. Catesby, in Virginia. Florida, and the Bahamas.

The first Scandinavian who, as far as the writer knows, con- tributed to the knowledge of the flora of North America, was Hans Egede, who spent fifteen years as missionary in Greenland. Greenland is not always counted to America, but there is no rea- son why it should not be. It is muchnearer America than Europe. Even botanicallyit belongs tothe iormer. Itistruethatit contains many plants common tonorthern Europe but not jound elsewhere in North America, but still it is more American than European. The larger number of plants growing in Greenland are circumpo- lar ones, i. e. found in America as well as in Europe and Asia. Ii these are excepted, the flora is decidedly more American than Eu- ropean, especially in the northern part. This is not the case at all with the neighboring Iceland. The latter could be counted geographically to America, but not so botanically. Its flora con- sists almost exclusively of plants common to it, northern Scot- land, northern Scandinavia, Spitzbergen, etc., with a few common to it and Greenland but with no American plants, if the cireumpo- lar ones are excepted.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 9

Hans Egede was born at Trondenzs, Norway, the 31st of January, 1686. He served some years as a minister in his native land. He went to Greenland as a missionary in 1721, and stayed there till 1536. He died at Stubbekj6bing on the Island of Falster, Denmark, the 5th of November, 1758. He made a collection of plants, which are still preserved at Copenhagen. After his return from Greenland, he published a very interesting account of the country, its people, fauna and flora, under the title:

Det Gamla Grénlands Nye Perlustration eller Natural-Historia, 1741. (Trans- lated also into French.)

It is claimed that what most tempted Egede to go to Green- land was the idea that he might find there some descendants of the old Norwegian and Icelandic settlers from the time of Leif Ericson. He did not find any Norsemen, although he visited all the places where the old colonies were supposed to have been. The temporal as well as the spiritual welfare of the heathen Greenlan- der weighed heavily upon his heart. ‘In order to alleviate their wretched condition, he induced a Norwegian company to establish trading posts at several places. After the company had lost one of its best vessels, and as the trading never had been a very pay- ing business, the company decided to withdraw its men and dis- continue the trade. This happened in 1726. Egede and his family and a few volunteers remained. Egede sent such a strong plea to the king of Denmark, that in the second year a vessel was sent to Greenland, the Danish government reopened some of the posts, and has carried on from that date a regular communication and continuous commerce with the island.

Paul Egede, son of Hans Egede, was born in 1708, became a missionary to Greenland in 1734, received the title of theological professor in 1761, and that of bishop in 1779. He died in 1789. He has left the following publications:

Herbarium vivum samlet i Grénland ved Colonierne Christianshaab og Godt- haab, 1739.

Efterretninger om Grénland, uddragne af en Journal holden fra 1721 til 1788.

4. LINNEAN PERIOD. 1735—1789.

A new epoch began with the appearance of Linnzeus’s Genera Plantarum. In this Linnieus’s new system of classification was used. Before this time there had been no definite system, or there had been used only such crude systems as we sometimes find to-day in some popular books, where, for instance, the plants are

10 SCANDINAVIANS AND

classified according to the color of the flowers. Linnzeus based his system on the number and different arrangenmet oi the stamensand pistils. This was an artificial system, and Linneus knew it to beso. He once expressly stated that he expected it to be superseded by a more natural one, where the relationship of the plants would be better shown. The Linnean sexual system was and is a very convenient one, and has been used more or Jess up to our times, where the aim has been to give a key, by the means of which one could quickly determine the names of the plants. That Linnzeus saw the natural relationship of plants is shown by the fact that he later gave names to several of our modern families of plants, and that he arranged his artificial system so that several of his classes or orders are practically equivalent to modern families, as for instance the 14th, 19th and 20th. classes, and his orders of the 15th and 17th classes. ~

Another invention of his was the uniform binomial names of the species. This was introduced in his “Species Plantarum” of 1753. Before Linnzus, the bota- nists, especially since the time of Tournefort, recognized genera in the same sense as we now do, and designated them by Latin nouns. In order to designate the species, they added to these nouns descriptive phrases consisting of one or usually several adjectives*, or their equivalents. Linnzeus reduced the specific name to one adjective. We find occasionally binomial names in works before Linnzeus, but he was the first to use consistently only such names.

By these two systems it was from this time easy to tabulate and arrange the known facts about plants, and it was comparatively easy to find the description of a certain plant; for each genus had a certain place in the system and had only one name, and the species had only one additional name to distinguish it from other species of the same genus, in a similar way as John Smith and Andrew Smith of the same family have different personal names.

During this period many native American botanists explored the country, as John Clayton, John Mitchel, and Thomas Walter the southern states, C. Colden, Jane Colden, William and John Bartram the northern. Many Europeans made extensive travels in this continent, as Patrick Browne, N. J. von Jacquin and Swartz in the West Indics, and Miguel Venegas and A. Menzies on the Pacific coast.

The following Scandinavians made contributions to the knowledge of the North American flora during this period:

A. United States and Canada.

Pehr Kalm was born at Nerpis, Finland, in 1715, and died as professor at the University of Abo, the.16th of November, 1779.

In the seventeen hundred and nineties, Baron Sten Carl Bjelke, then the vice president of the court of appeals (hofrétten) of Fin- land, proposed to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at

* An illustration of the difference in the nomenclature of Linnzus and, that of his predecessors is found below on page 12 in the citation from Kalm, in which the latter first gives the old way of naming the plant, named after him, and the Linnean way, viz., Kalmia latifolia. —

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 11

Stockholm to send a botanist to Siberia and Iceland, which are on the same latitude as a part of Sweden, to collect seeds of plants as would “improve the Swedish husbandry, gardening, man- ufactures, arts, and sciences.” Dr. Linnweus suggested that North America would be a better country than either. About the same time a Captain Triewald gave in Stockholm an exhibition and lecture on his observations on silk-culture. As Linnzeus had de- seribed a species of mulberry* from North America and native of a climate similar to that of Sweden, this gave additional strength to the choice of North America. When Count Tessin, who could nearly always have his own way, and who was in favor of the project, became president of the Royal Academy, it was decided to send Professor Kalm. An appeal was sent to the three universi- ties of Sweden, at Upsala, Lund, and Abo, to contribute what they could for the advancement of science. Abo was the first one to answer, and sent a small sum, Lund had nothing to spare, but Upsala contributed liberally, considering the times and the coun- try. Now-a-days, $450 seem to us rather.a small sum. With the countributions from other sources, the fund amounted to about twice that sum. Professor Kalm, however, spent not only this and his own salary, but about $650 of his own money, and the journey left him with very limited means for the rest of his life.

After passports had been secured from the courts of London, Paris, Madrid, and the Hague, Kalm sailed from Gothenburg the 11th of December, 1747, accompanied by Lars Jungstrém, a gar- dener by profession. Overtaken by a severe storm, the vessel had to put in at Grimstad, Norway, where the travelers had to stay till the 8th of February, 1748. They arrived at London the 17th of the same month, stayed in England till August 15, and arrived at Philadelphia the 26th of September.

In Philadelphia Kalm stayed about a month, and made there the acquaintance of John Bartram, the most prominent American naturalist at that time. Then he set out on a journey to New York, passing through New Frankfort, New Bristol, Pa., Bur- lington, N. J., then the residence of the governor, Trenton, “Prince-town’’, New Brunswick, and Elizabeth, returning to Phila- delphia Noy. 5.

In November he visited Racoon, N. J., where a number of

* This was Morus rubra L., which can be grown in southern Sweden, but, unfortunately, this species is not well adapted to silk-culture.

12 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Swedes lived. alm afterward published three volumes on his travels. In these he describes very minutely everything he saw, the people, their industries and customs, the conditions and na- ture of the country through which he traveled. Of the animals and plants he met with, he gave only short descriptions, as he in- tended to publish these more extensively in a scientific work in Latin. In the diary of his stay in Racoon, he describes what the Swedes called the spoon-tree, because the Indians were said to make spoons from its wood. Kalm adds: ‘‘The English call this tree Laurel, because its leaves resemble those of the Laurocerasus. Dr. Linnzeus, conformable to the peculiar friendship and goodness with which he has always honored me, has been pleased to call this tree, Kalmia foliis ovatis, corymbis terminalibus.or Kalmia latifolia.”

With the exception of a few days spent on a revisit to Phila- delphia and a short visit to Penn’s Neck, Kalm staid at Racoon the whole time till May 21, 1749. From June 3 to June 10 he was in New York. From there he sailed in a yacht to Albany. From there he traveled through Saratoga, Fort Nicholson, Fort Anne, Fort St. Frederic, Fort St. John, and Prairie de la Magdelene to Montreal, at which place he arrived on the 24th of July. He ar- rived at Quebec the 5th of August, visited several neighboring places, and returned to Montreal the 15th of September.

The three volumes of his ‘‘En resa till Norra Amerika” de- scribes his travels up to this period. Evidently he intended to publish the account of the remainder of his stayin North America, but it was never done, probably on account of lack of funds. In the preface is given a synopsis of his travels. From this we find that he returned to Philadelphia the same fall. In 1750 he visited western Pennsylvania and the shores of New Jersey. After thishe undertook his second long journey, through New York, the Blue Mountains, to Albany, then along the Mohawk River, visited the Iroquois Indian nations, the Mohawks, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, Onandagas, and Kayugas, saw the shores of Lake Ontario and Niagara Falls, and returned to Philadelphia in October. In a letter to Bartram he has given a vivid and most interesting de- scription of his impressions at Niagara.

In 1751 he returned home by the way of England, and arrived at Gothenburg on the 16th of May. He resumed his duties as professor at the University of Abo. In his private little garden

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 13

he raised many of the seeds he had gathered, and many more were cultivated in the Botanical Garden at Upsala. As stated before, he published:

En resa till Norra Amerika (A Journey to North America), in 3 volumes, 1853—'61. [This has been translated into German and English, and is one of the best accounts of this country at that period. |

Norra Amerikanska firge-6rter, published in 1763.

He intended to publish a larger descriptive work on the plants and animals he met with on his journey, but this was never done, very likely because he had spent all his funds. All, or at least most of his plants were published by Linnzeus in his “Species Plantarum.”

Carolus Linnaeus or CARL VON LINNE was born at Rashult, Smaland, Sweden, the 13th of May (old style), 1707, and died at Upsala the 10th of January, 1778. There is no need of going into details of his life-history, for it will be given extensively over and over again this year. Only a few words may be given to show his work on American botany. I shall give it more extensively else- where.

He became acquainted with the North American plants from the finely illustrated works of Plumier, Plukenet, Catesby, Sloane, and Gronovius; also those of Petiver, Morrison, and Cornuti. Through Gronovius he had a chance to see Clayton’s collection. Sloane’s and Catesby’s plants he saw on his visit to England. He described himself the plants collected by Kalm. A few Amer- ican plants were already under cultivation. These were all incor- porated in the first edition of “Species Plantarum.” He after- wards received plants from Barthram and from Colden and his daughter Jane. He corresponded with John Ellis, a resident in the West Indies, and Dr. Gardner, who botanized in Carolina and Florida. Later he purchased a set of West Indian plants collected by Patrick Browne, and received a part of Jacquin’s collections through exchange. These were described in the 10th edition of his “Systema Nature” and in the 2nd edition of ‘‘Species Planta- rum.” In all, he described about 2,000 North American piants.

The works which in part bear on North American botany are:

Species Plantarum, 1753; Edition 2, 1762—’63.

Systema Nature, Ed. 10, 1758—’59.

Daniel Carl Solander was born the 12th of February, 1733, at Pitea, Sweden. In 1759 he moved to England, and became libra-

14 SCANDINAVIANS AND

rian of the British Museum in 1765. Solander died in London the 13th of May, 1782. Together with Banks, he was a botanist on Captain F. Cook’s first voyage around the world in 1768—71. As a result of this journey the following scientific work was pub- lished by the trustees of the British Museum in 1900—’05: Illus- trations of the Botany of Captain Cook’s first voyage around the world. Solander also helped Aiton in publishing:

Hortus Kewensis, 1789. :

In this Solander has contributed the descriptions of many new plants from America as well as elsewhere. Six of the new genera published in Swartz’s West Indian flora are really from Solander’s hand, as Swartz found the descriptions as well as the names in Solander’s manuscript in the Banksian herbarium.

B. Greenland and Arctic America.

Many of the men in charge of the Danish trading posts in Greenland, established at the instigation of Hans Egede, and many of the sea captains engaged in the trade on Greenland or whaling near its coasts, brought home botanical specimens. One of the earlier and the most important of these was,

Carl Peter Holboil, who was born at Copenhagen the 31st of December, 1795. In 1821 he was appointed lieutenant in the ma- rine, and some years later captain and governor of one of the colonies in Greenland. After his return to Denmark. he sailed in 1856 to revisit Greenland, and neither he nor his vessel was ever heard from. He was interested in both zoology and botany, and published an article on the birds of Greenland. His collection of plants is at the botanical museum at Copenhagen. At least one plant, Arabis Holboellii of the mustard family, is named after him.

The plants from the older of these collections, as well as those made by Egede and his son, were mostly described in the splendid work that bears the name FJora Danica. It is a large folio in six- teen volumes, and was intended to figure every plant growing in the kingdom of Denmark and its possessions. It includes, there- fore, Norway, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Schleswig-Hol- stein, and Oldenburg, which all at some time have belonged to Denmark. It was begun in 1764 by Oder, and was concluded in 1871.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 15

Georg Christian Oder was born at Anspach, Germany, the 3rd of February, 1728. He took the degree of doctor of medicine in 1749, later moved to Denmark. where he was appointed protes- sor at the University of Copenhagen in 1754, became ‘‘Stiftsamt- man’ at Drontheim, Norway, in 1773, moved to Oldenburg in 1773, where died the 28th of January, 1791.

His most prominent botanical work was the above mentioned Flora Danica, of which he published the first three volumes. These contain a large number of Greenland plants.

Christen Frits Rottboil was born at Hoérby, Zealand, Denmark, the 3rd of April 172%, became doctor of medicine in 1755, professor in 1756, and director of the botanical @arden in Copen- hagen in 1776. He died in Copenhagen the 15th of June, 1797.

The only article from his hand that bears directly on Ameri- can botany is,

-Afhandling om en Deel rare Planter, som i Island og Grénland ere fundne, etc. 1770.

Anders Johan Retzias was born at Christianstad, Sweden, the 3rd of October, 1742, became doctor of philosophy in 1766, and was professor at the University of Lund 1777—1812. He died at Stockholm the 6th of October, 1821. Linnzeus, Lasta- dius, Wahlenberg, and Retzius are those of the older botanists who did the most to make the flora of Lapland kitiown. They therefore laid the foundation to the knowledge of the Arctic vegetation in general. Among other botanical works he published the follow-

ing, which also included Greenland: Flora Scandinayize Prodromus, 1779 [together with two supplements].

C. West Indies and Central America.

Carolus Linnaeus (See above).

Carl Gustaf Sandmark, a pupil of Linneus, wrote a disser- tation which was based on a collection secured by Linneeus from P. Browne. In reality this did not contain anything new, as the species had already been described in “Systema Natur” by Lin- neus. The only value Sandmark’s dissertation has is that it gives more extensive descriptions.

Flora Jamaicensis, 1759.

Gabriel Elmgren, also a disciple of Linnweus, wrote a disser- tation based on the same collection of P. Browne. What is said

16 SCANDINAVIANS AND

of Sandmark’s dissertation, applies also to this. Elmgren’s work, however, contains many species not found in Linnzeus’ ‘‘Systema.”’ Three of these are accompanied by descriptions and belong vy right to Elmgren, although they as a rule have been credited to Linneeus.

Plantarum Jamaicensium pugillus, 1759.

Daniel Carl Solander (See above).

Carl von Linné, f., the son of the immortal Linneeus, was born at Falun, Sweden, the 20th of January, 1741, became pro- fessor of medicine in 1763, and died at Upsala the 1st of Novem- ber, 1783.

As far as the writer knows, he published only a few Central American plants coilected by Mutis.

Supplementum Plantarum Systematis yegetabilium, 1781.

Olof Swartz was born at Norrképing, Sweden, the 21st of September, 1760. His father, whose name was also Olof Swartz, was a factory owner and aman of some means. This fact made the son independent and able to spend money both in travels and in publishing his works. Olof Swartz was a pupil of Carl von Linné, the younger. Asa student he showed such ability that his teacher said of him: ‘“‘Botanices studiosus optime spei.”’ In 1780 and 1783 he took the two preliminary examinations then required for the degree of doctor of medicine. During the summers of this period he undertook several botanical expeditions to different provinces of Sweden and made several new discoveries.

Swartz had for some time contemplated making a journey into the tropics, and in 1783 he was ready to go. He went on board the 5th of August, and sailed in a merchant vessel to Bos- ton, where he landed the 3rd of October. He did not intend to stay there, but took the first opportunity offered him to go to Jamaica. He left Boston on the 26th of November and landed in Montego Bay on the 5th of January, 1784. He set to work with an untiring zeal to make as thorough a survey of thenatural history of the island as possible. Not long after his arrival he Was invited to remain as government botanist, but he declined. In 1785 he spent a few months in Cuba and San Domingo, and returned to Jamaica. According to Wikstrém, he also visited Porto Rico, but this is denied by Urban.

In 1786 Swartz went to England to compare his collections

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 17

with the Linnwean and Banksian herbaria there. During his stay he was offered another position, viz., to go to India as physician of the East India Company; but he declined, having decided to serve his own native country. His collections were very rich. and his Flora Indize Occidentalis, the ultimate result of his travels and labor, is the foundation ot our knowledge of the flora of the West Indies. It contains the descriptions of 892 species of plants. Of these 723 were new to science.

After his return to Sweden, Swartz continued his botanical explorations in different parts of Sweden. In 1802 he was called to become the successor of Prof. Lepechin as director of the Roya] Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, but again he declined. He was appointed director of the Royal Academy at Stockholm in 1807, made a knight of the Order of Vasa in 1908, and professor of the Royal Carolinian Medico-Chirurgic Institute at Stockholm in 1814. He died the 19th of September, 1818.

Swartz’s knowledge of American plants, however, was not limited to his own collections. While in England, he studied the collections found in the herbaria of Sloane, Plukenet, Petiver, and Banks. He corresponded freely with suck men as Schreber, Willde- now, Schreeder, Persoon, Mohr, Hooker, and Fischer, the promi- nent botanists of his time. He received from Rev. Muhlenbere: in Pennsylvania a fine collection of American plants collected in 1710 and 1711. From these he described six new species of mOsses.

In 1817 Rey. Forstrom, then residing on the island St. Bar- tholomew, sent him a large collection of Antillian plants. These furnished the material for his “Flora Bartholomensis et Guada- loupensis”, containing 34 new species.

He was an acknowledged authority on ferns, mosses, and lichens. He was the father of fern-knowledge; his Synopsis Filicum made a revolution in that science. He was one of the first to adopt and apply the system of genera and species of mosses by Hedwig, the father of bryclogy, and he knew almost as much about lichens as his friend Acharius. In his books on these three classes of plantS are found numerous descriptions of North American plants.

The following publications from Schwartz’s pen refer wholly or partly to North American plants:

18 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Tolf nya slag af Urtice-slaktet fran Vestindien, 1787.

Beskrifning pa nio nasslor (Urtica), hvilka uyligen p& Jamaica blifvit upp- tackta och beskrifna af O. Swartz, 1787.

Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, etc., 1788.

Cinchona augustifolia, en okfnd vaxt fran Vastindien, 1788.

Solandra, ett nytt slakte fran Vastindien, 1788.

(Quassia excelsa,en ny vaxt fran Vastindien, 1788.

Stylanthus, ett nytt ortslakte, 1785.

Observationes botanic quibus plant Indi occidentalis, 1791.

Teones plantarum incognitarum quas in India occidentale delexit atque deli- neavit, 1794. ;

Flora Indi occidentalis aucta atque illustrata, etc., 1797—1806.

Synopsis Filicum, 1806. ;

Lichenes Americani, 1811.

Flora Bartholomensis et Guadaloupensis. 1825 & 1827.

5. JUSSIEUAN PERIOD, 1789—1819.

This period begins with the publication of the Genera Plantarwm secundum ordines naturales disposita by Antoine L. de Jussieu. In this appears for the first time a system of classification based on the natural relationship of the plants. This system was in reality founded by his uncle, Bernard de Jussieu, but never published. The system was much more natural than the sexual system of Lin- nieus, but was also much more complicated. As it had many inconsistencies, and ° as there was no uniformity in the names of the families, it did not receive the ad- herents that it deserved, and there are few books in which we find it used during this period. Even if the Jussieuan system of classification did not leave deeper marks on the period which bears its name, it is evident that a new era began at this time, a very active one, especially in systematic botany, with such systemat- ists as Willdenow, Ayton, Salisbury, Persoon, Sprengel, and Robert Brown, the latter, however, belonging just as much to the next period.

Before this time nothing had been published that exclusiveiy treated on North America except Walter’s “Flora Caroliniana’’, which appeared the year before Jussieu’s *‘Genera’’- During this period were published all the older floras of this country, viz., those of Michaux, Pursh, Barton, and Bigelow, and Nuttall’s ‘‘Gen- era’. Elliott’s work was published a few years after the beginning of the next. H. Muhlenberg and C. C. Robin belonged to this time. Lewis and Clark made their famous expedition across the continent, A. Poiteau, John Lunan, and G. Richard de Tussac explored the West Indies, David Cranz, a Moravian missio- nary, collected in Greenland, and another one of the same creed, Kolmeister, in

Labrador. The following Scandinavians partook in the work; none of them, however,

contributed anything important to the knowledge of the flora of the continent. Their work was mostly limited to the West Indies.

A. West Indies.

John Ryan was a planter on St. Croix. When and where he was born and when he died, I have not been able to ascertain, but

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 19

he was a contemporary of Vahl’s. He made several journeys to different parts of the West Indian islands and to Surinam and Brazil. He corresponded with and sent numerous specimens to Vahl.

Julius Philip Benjamin bon Rohr, an officer of the garrison of the Danish West Indies, served from 1757 as civil engineer, and from 1765 as superintendent of constructions at the government buildings and forts. In 1787—'91 he made a series of journeys in the interests of cotton culture, and died as lieutenant colonel in 1793, on a journey from North America to Guinea. He was an ardent collector, and described 8 new genera of plants from St. Croix, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. His collections were afterwards elaborated by Vahl. At least one publication is

from his hand: Plante-Slegter med tilf6iede Anmierkninger af Hr Professor Vahl, 1792.

Hans West was born in 1758 at Mesinge, on Hindsholm, F yen, Denmark. In 1788—1800 he was the president of the school at Christianssted on St. Croix. In 1802 he was appointed minis- ter to Holland, and died at Cassel, returning from a journey to France 1811. He made in the Danish West Indies and Porto Rico extensive collections, which were sent to Vahl. He published the following, a work of 363 pages:

Bidrag til Beskrivelse over Ste. Croix, med en kort Udsigt over St. Thomas, St. Jean, Tortola, Spanishtown og Crabeneiland, 1793. [Several new species are there published].

Martin Vahl was born at Bergen, Norway, the 10th of Octo- ber, 1749. He became lector at the Botanical Garden at Copen- hagen in 1779; director of the Botanical Garden in 1800; profes- at the university in 1801, and died the 24th of December, 1804. He studied under Linnzeus in 1769—’75, and edited Flora Danica, Vols. 6 and 7, in 1787—1803. He was specially interested in the flora of the West Indies. The plants he described were collected by von Rohr at St. Croix, Monserrat, Guadeloupe, and Martinique; by Dr. Ryan at Monserrat, St. Croix, and St.John; by Hans West on the Danish West Indies; by Mertfelt on Guadeloupe, and Dr. Pflug on St. Croix.

The following, referring to American plants, are from him:

Flora Danica, Vols. 6 and 7, 1787—1803.

Eclogve American, 1796—1807.

En deel Kryptogamiske Planter fra St. Croix, 1802.

20 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Om Slegtet Cinchona og dens Arter, 1797.

Icones illustration, plantarum Americanarum in Eclogis descriptarum inser- vientes, 1795—99.

Anmerkninger til Oberst-lieutenant von Rohrs Beskrivelse over nogle Plan- ter, 1793.

Beskrivning over Stellaria Grienlandica og Dryas integrifolia, 1797.

Samuel Fahlberg, a Swedish physician, came to St. Barthol- omew in 1785, soon aiter that island had become a Swedish pos- session. He published:

Utdrag ai samlingar till naturalhistorien Giver 6n St. Barthelemi i Vastindi- en, 1786.

Bengt Anders Esphrasen, a botanica] student, undertook in 1788 a journey to the West Indies under the auspices of the Royal Swedish Academy oi Sciences. and visited St. Bartholomew, St. Eustatius, and St. Kitts. Aiter his return he published:

Beskrifning Giver svenska vastindiska 6n St. Barthelemi samt Garne St. Eus- tache och St. Christopher, 1795.

P2ul Erdman Isert was born in 1757. and in 1783 went out as head physician oi the Danish Colonies in Guinea, which he left in 1787 and sailed in a slave-ship to the West Indies. He visited St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John, St. Eustatius, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. He returned to Copenhagen, where he died in 1789. He published:

Reise nach Guinea und den Caraibischen Inseln im Columbien,. 1788.

Reb. Forstrém. Nothing more is known to the writer than that he was a Swedish clergyman residing on the island of St. Bartholomew, and sent a large collection to Swartz in 1817.

Olof Swartz (See preceding period.) ; 6. CANDOLLEAN PERIOD, 1819—1840.

This pericd began, in the writer's opinion, rather with the appearance of the second edition of Augustine Pyramus de Candolle’s Theorie elemenitaire de la Bota- nique in 1819, than with that of the first volume of his “Prodromus”, in 1524: jor the epoch-making publication was the publication of his system of classifica- tion. It is true that his system had already been published in 1815 in the iirst edition of the “Theorie: but it received considerable modifications in the second edition. where it is practically as we know it to-day.

De Candolle’s system was based to a great extent on that of Jussien: but not only had the related genera been brought together into families, but the related families into orders, and arranged in a series. Except in a few cases, he had iorm-ed the name of each family jrom the name of a representative genus belong- ing to it by suffixing the ending -vcee, as, ior instance. Rosacer irom Rosa. His

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 21

system was adopted almost immediately by the leading botanists of the world, and the Natural System has from that time prevailed over the artificial Sexual System of Linnzeus.

Before this time nearly all botanical publications relative to the flora of North America had been made by foreigners. From this time on, at least as far as the United States and Canada are concerned, the bulk of the published works is from the hands of native Americans. During this period lived here the following botanists: Nuttall, A. Eaton, Schweinitz, Barton, Rafinesque-Schmaltz, Torrey, Beck, Riddell, Engelmann, Darlington, Elliott, and Gray. Douglas and Drummond made their trips across the continent. E. Meyer explored Labrador; de la Pylaie Canada; Scoresby, Ross, Parry, and Richardson the Arctic regions; Maycock, Ehrenberg, and Macfadyen the West Indies; Llave, Lexarza, Schiede, Deppe, Moricand, Hartweg, and Ehrenberg Mexico.

None of the Scandinavian botanists visited the northern part of the continent proper, and none wrote specially on the flora of the Uuited States or Canada; but two of the most prominent Swedish botanists published works in which numerous North American plants are described. ‘These were:

Carl Adolf Agardh was born at Bastad, Sweden, the 23rd of January, 1785, received his Ph. D. in 1805, became docent at Lund in 1807 and professor in 1812, was appointed bishop of Karlstad, where he died the 28th of January, 1859. He was an ardent student of sea-weeds, and can be called the father of algol- ogy. His work was continued by his son, Jacob Georg. The elder Agardh has, as far as the writer knows, published nothing that bears exclusively on American botany; but in his principal works he describes many American plants. These works are:

Species algorum, 1820.

Systema algorum, 1824,

Elias Magnus Fries was born at Femsj6, Smaland, Sweden, the 15th of August, 1792, received his Ph. D. degree in 1814, be- came ddcent at Upsala in 1814, and professor and director of the Botanical Garden in 1851—’63. He died at Upsala the 8th of February, 1878. The place Agardh held in algology, Fries can be said with fully as good a right to have held in mycology. It is especially the higher fungi, and above all the Hymenomycetes, which have been treated with a master’s hand by him. In his large works we find many American species described, and still more that are common tou the Old and the New World.

Systema mycologicum, sistens fungorum ordines, genera et species, 1821—’29. With a supplement, 1830—’32.

Library Publications. 2.

22 SCANDINAVIANS AND

B. Greenland and Arctic America.

With the nineteenth century began an active period in the in- vestigation of polar regions. It was especially Arctic America that was an object for explorations. During this time Sabine, Ross, Parry, and Franklin undertook their famous expeditions. The following Danes added not a little to the knowledge of the flora of Greenland and the neighboring islands. The first one be- longs rather to the preceding period, but is included here, as his work is closely connected with the work done later.

Captain Morten Wormskjéild was born at Copenhagen the 16th of January, 1783. He made a journey to Greenland in 1812—’14, and another around the world in 1815—’19, resided in Kamtschatka 1816—’18, and died in Gauné, Denmark, in 1845. He brought home a finecollection of plants. Atleast one American plant is named after him, Veronica Wormskjoldii, which grows in Greenland and Arctic America as well as in the Rocky Mountains.

Count Rabenmade a journey to Greenland in 1823 and brought home a collection, which was determined by Hornemann.

Wilhelm August Graah was born the 24th of October, 1793, and died in 1863. He made several journeys to Greenland, the first in 1823. On his third journey, 1828—'31, he wintered at Nano- latic, Nubarbik, and Julianehaab. He was director of the Green- land Company in 1832—’50, and appointed captain in 1840.

UndersGégelse Reise til Ostkysten af Grénland, 1852.

Expedition to Search for the Lost Colonies on the East Coast of Greenland.

Jens Lorenz Mustue Vahi. son of M. Vahl, was born the 27th of November, 1796, was for a long time librarian of the Botanical Garden at Copenhagen, and died the 12th of november, 1854. Vahl traveled in Sweden, Germany, Austria, France, and Spitzber- gen. He made one journey to Iceland and another to Greenland in 1828—’36. From his hand is the following publication:

Voyage en Island et au Greenland, 1841.

He also contributed to Flora Danica and to ‘‘Naturhistoriske Bidrag til en Beskrivelse af Grénland”’ by Rink.

Hans Christian Lyngbye was born at Blendstrup, Denmark, the 29th of June, 1782. He was a minister of the gospel, and died at S6eborg the 18th of May, 1837. He was especially

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 23

interested in water plants; contributed to Flora Danica, and is the author of Tentamen Hydrophytologia Danicz [which also included Greenland], 1819.

Jens Wilken Hornemann was born at Marstal, Aerd, Denmark, the 6th of March, 1770, received the honorary degree of Ph. D. in 1836, was professor of the university of Copenhagen 1808—’39, and died in Copenhagen in 1841. He was one of Denmark’s most prominent systematic botanists, and added much to the knowl- edge of the flora of Scandinavia. He determined the collections made by Count Raben, Captain Graah, and others. Besides, he published the following works which contain descriptions of North American plants:

Dansk Oekonomisk Plantelere, 1837.

Hortus botanicus Hafniensis, 1813—’15.

Bemarkninger om Vegetationen i Grénland samt nogle der af Wormskjéld og Gieseke fundne sjeldne Planter, 1815.

Om Groénlands flora, 1832.

Flora Danica, Vols. 8—13, 1810—’4.0.

C. West Indies.

Peder Eggert Benzon was born at Vesterskov on Lolland, Den- mark, the 27th of October, 1788. He took his pharmaceutical examination in 1814, and arrived at St. Croix in 1817, where he practiced as apothecary. In 1822 he was elected superintendent of the natural history collections made by the order of the gov- ernment. In 1848 he returned to Copenhagen, where he died the 24th of July, the same year. He made large collections which were sent to Copenhagen, and carried on an extensive correspond- ence, especially with Hornemann.

Om den vestindiske Salop, dens Dyrkning, Tilberedelse og almindelige Egen- skaber, 1823.

Peter Rabn was born in Drébak, Norway: In 1816 he took his chirurgical examination and became ship-surgeon on a Danish man-of-war. As such he visited, as early as 1520, the Danish West Indies and Porto Rico. (n 1830 he became surgeon of the garrison on St. Thomas, and died in 1839. He collected plants in the Danish West Indies, Crab Island (Vieques), and Curacao. Al though a man of poor health, he made large collections and corre- sponded with Prof. A. P. Candolle at Geneva and Prof. Horneman at Copenhagen.

24 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Hans Baltzar Hornbeck was born the 9th of January, 1800, at Copenhagen. In 1829 he took his chirurgical examination, and went out the same year as ship-surgeon on the government vessel ‘“‘Diana”’, to the West Indies. Two years later he took his examination as doctor of medicineand moved to St. Johnas prac- ticing physician. He returned to Denmark in 1844, and died in 1870. He was an ardent collector, and corresponded much with Prof, Schouw in Copenhagen.

Johan Emanuel Wikstrém was born at Venersborg, Sweden, the 1st of November, 1789, became doctor of medicine in 1817, and- was director of the Botanical Museum at Stockholm in 1818—’56. He died the 4th of May, 1856. For many years he published “Ofversigt af Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens handlingar.’’ There are numerous publications from his hand, but only the following, as far as the writer knows, refer to American botany. They were principally based on the collections made by Dr. Fahlberg, Eu- phrasen, Richard, l’Herminier, Bertero, and Forstrém.

Ofversigt af Gn Sanct Barthelemis flora (6 new species), 1826.

Ofversigt af Gn Guadeloupes flora (21 new species), 1828.

Enumeration of Plants of St. Hustache and Saba.

Den amerikanuska Agayes eller den sa kallade hundraariga aloens natural- historia.

6. HOOKERIAN PERIOD, 1840—1889.

The appearance of Hooker’s Flora Boreali-Americana, 1829— 40, and about the same time of Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America, 1838—’43, marks the beginning or rather the end of a period, at least as far as North American botany is concerned. These two books represent the work done during the Candollean period of two decennia of most active work. ‘The new period was also an active one, for during this were undertaken the botanical explorations connected with the Mexican boundary survey, the Pacific Railroad surveys.and Hayden’s geolog- ical surveys. Nuttall,Torrey, and Engelmann were still at work during ‘the earlier part. C. C0. Parry, Hall and Harbour, Bigelow, Watson, Thurber, Wolf, Porter, Coulter, Palmer, Brandegee, Lemmon, Bolander, Kellogg, Greene, ete., were ex- ploring the West; Palmer and Pringle began their work in Mexico, and the Ma- couns, father and son, theirs in Canada. The systematic part, at least on the flowering plants, passed over almost exclusively to one institution, viz. Harvard, where Gray was the leading spirit.

Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum, in which was inaugurated mod- ifications and improvements on the Candollean system of classification, appeared about the middle of this period, 1862—’83. It would hardly be advisable to as- sign as the beginning of a new period the time when this appeared; for the ‘‘Ben- tham-Hookerian system” differs in no essential respect from that of De Candolle

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 25

and had little effect on botany at large. The ‘‘Genera’’, however, have been of inestimable value, for no work contains such good and complete descriptions of the genera of the world as this.

The following work was done by Scandinavians during this period:

A. United States and Canada.

Thure Ludwig Theodor Kumliten was born at Herrlunda, Vasterg6tland, Sweden, the 9th of November, 1819, graduated at Skara Gymnasium, and was for some time a pupil of Elias Fries at Upsala. He emigrated to America in 1843 and settled near Lake Koshkonong, Wis. For twenty years he made collections for the museums at Upsala, Stockholm, Leyden, the British Mu- seum, and the Smithsonian. He was a zoologist as well as a bot- anist, and a great lover of nature. In 1867 he became instructor in botany and zoology at Albion College, and in 1883 conservator of the Milwaukee Public Museum. He died the 5th of August, 1888. He published very little. The only botanical publication, as far as the writer knows, is the following:

On the Rapid Disappearance of Wisconsin Wild Flowers, 1876.

Jacob Georg Agardh, son of C. A. AGARDH, was born at Lund, Sweden, the 8th of December, 1813, received his Ph. D. degree in 1332, became docent at Lund in 1834,extra-ordinary professor in 1847, and professor in 1854, retired in 1879, and died the 17th of January, 1901. He was one of the most prominent phycologists in the world, and specialized in the marine alge, especially the red sea-weeds. He has written little that bears directly on American botany, but his principal work, “Species, genera et ordines Alga- rum’’, comprises the whole world, and therefore contains many American plants. The first one given below contains more North American species than exotic ones. The following are from his hand:

Synopsis generis Lupini, 1835.

Nya alger fran Mexico, 1847.

Species, genera et ordines algarum, 1848 —’63.

Bidrag till kinnedom af Grénlands Laminarier och Fucaceer, 1872.

Till algernas systematik, 1872—’90.

Grénlands Floridier och Ulvaceer.

Nils Johan Anderson was born at Girderum, Smaland, Swe- den, the 20th of February, 1821, received his Ph. D. degree in 1845, was lector at the Gymnasium of Stockholm in 1851—’53, and director of the Botanical Museum in 1856—’79. He died

26 SCANDINAVIANS AND

March 27,1880. In 1851—’53 he was the botanist of the journey around the world of the Swedish man-of-war Eugenie, on which tour the Galapago Islands were especially studied. Anderson was the most prominent salicologist of his time, and numerous wil- lows from America as well as elsewhere have been described and named by him. The works from his hand that bear on North American botany are the following:

Salices boreali-americane, A Synopsis of the American Willows, 1858.

Monographia Salicum hucusque cognitarum, 1867.

Salicaceze in De Candolle’s Prodromus, 1868.

Veit Brecher Wittrock was born at Holm, Dalsland, Swe- den, the 5th of May, 1839, received the degree of Ph. D. in 1866, was appointed docent at Upsala the same year, and professor in 1878. The following year he became director of the Botanical Garden at Stockholm. He is a prominent algologist and a spe- cialist on green alge. The following publications refer more or less to American plants:

Algologiska studier, 1867.

On the Development and the Systematic Arrangement of the Pithophoraceae, a new order of Alge [all Tropical, some West Indian], 1877.

Prodromus Oedogoniorum, 1874.

Sextus Otto Lindherg was born at Stockholm the 29th of March, 1835, received his Ph. D. in 1865, and became professor and director of the Botanical Garden at Helsingfors, Finland, in 1865. He died there the 20th of February, 1889. He was one of the most prominent bryologists of the world, and is the author of a new system of arrangement of the genera and species of mosses. Works that bear directly on the North American flora are the fol- lowing:

Revisio critica iconum in opere Flora Danica muscos illustrantium, 1871.

Europas och Nord-Amerikas hyitmossor, 1882.

B. Greenland and Arctic America.

In 1870 began a series of expeditions to Greenland and other parts of Arctic America; but before this time several collections had been sent to Copenhagen by men who had made longer or shorter stays in Greenland. The most important of these were made by

Captain Norman,

Dr. L. Schiédte, who was a physician at Ivigtut in 1867, and by

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 27

Henrth Johannes Rink, who was born in Copenhagen the 26th of August, 1819, received his degree of Ph. D.in 1844, made a journey around the world in 1845—’47, one to northern Greenland in 1848—’51, and another to southern Greenland in 1852—’68. Dr. Rink was governor of the colonies at Julienhaab and Godt- haab in 1853, became general inspector of South Greenland in 1858—’68, and one of the three directors of the government ex- plorations of Greenland in 1871—’82. He died at Christiania in

1893. He published contributions as follows: Grénland, geographisk og statistisk beskrevet, 1852—’57. [Natural history contributions to this were made by J. Reinhart, J.C. Schiddte, O. A. L. Mérch, C.

Luetken, and J. Lange (See below.).] Greenland, 1877. [The botanical account in this was by R. Brown (Campst.)

and J. Lange. ]

Salomon Thomas Nicolat Drejer was born at Hveldrup, Viborg, Denmark, the 15th of February, 1813, became docent at the university in 1839, and died at Copenhagen the 21st of April, 1842. He was an acknowledged authority on sedges, especially the genus Carex. He described numerous new species of this genus, of which not afew are found in America. The most important work from

-his hand is

Revisio critica Caricum borealium in terris sub imperio Danico jacentibus in- ventarum, 1841.

In 1870 and 1871 two Swedish expeditions were made to Greenland under Prof. Nordenskidld. The botanist of the first expedition was 8. Berggren; of the second, T. E. Fries.

Sben Berggren was born at Hor, Skane, Sweden, the 12th of August, 1837, received his Ph. D. degree in 1865, became docent in 1866, extra ordinary professor at Upsala in 1881, and _profes- sor at Lund in 1898. He made a journey to Spitzbergen in 1868, to Greenland in 1870, and to New Zealand in 1874—’75. The fol- lowing contributions are from his hand:

Alger fran Grénlands inlandsis, 1871.

Férteckning 6fver karlvixter och mossor fran Grénlands-expeditionen 1870, 1871.

Bidrag till kinnedom om fanerogam-floran vid Disko-bugten och Auleitsivik- fjorden pa Grénlands vastkust, 1872.

Undersékning af mossfloran vid Disko-bukter etc., 1875.

Theodor Magnus Fries, son of Elias Fries, was born at Femsjé, Smaland, Sweden, the 28th of October, 1832, received his Ph. D. degree in 1857, became docent the same year, was professor at

28 SCANDINAVIANS AND

the university and director of the botanical garden in 1877— 99. He accompanied Nordenskidld to Spitzbergen in 1868 and to Greenland in 1871. Some of his works which bear directly on North American botany are the following:

Lichenes Arcioi Europe Grenlandieque hactenus cogniti, 1861.

Groniand, dess natur och invanare, 1572.

On the lichens collected during the English polarexpeditions 18T5— 76, 1879.

The botanical collections of these expeditions have been worked up by several other Swedish botanists. The principal oi these are:

jacob Georg Agardh. See page 25.

Frans Reinnold Kjeilman. See page 32.

Carl Fredrif. Otto Nordstedt was born at JOnk6ping, Sweden, the 20th oi January, 1838, became conservator of the Botanical Mu- seum at Lund in 1880, received the honorary degree of Ph. D. in 1881 and the title of professor in 1903. He has been for many years the editor oi the ‘“‘Botaniska Notiser’’. He has made exten- sive collections, and is an acknowledged authority on fresh-water alow. He has published:

Desmideer samlade ai Sven Berggren under Nordenskj6ldska expeditionen till Gronland, 1870, 1885. Ueber einige Characeen aus Porto Rico, 1888.

In 1876 began a series of expeditions to Greenland, undertaken to a great extent by the Danish government. The results of these expeditions have been printed in that excellent work which is known under the title

Meddelelser om Grénland.

The principal collectors on these expeditions were:

Andreas Nikolaus Kornerup, born at Copenhagen the 7th of February, 1857. became docent at the Agricultural College in 1880, and died the 3rd of September, 1881. He was the botanist of Steenstrup’s expedition in 1876 and of Captain Jensens in 1878—79. His rich botanical collections were determined by Lange. He also contributed to Meddelelser om Grénland. The most important oi these articles are:

Bemzrkninger om Gronlands almindelige natur.

Om det organiske Liv paa den Ostlige Nunatak.

Knud Johan Vogelias Steenstrep was born the Tth of September, 1842, at Mov, Aalborg, took his pharmaceutical examination in 1863, became assistant in the Mineralogical Museum in 1866,

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 29

and has been since 1871 the geologist of the Danish explorations of Greenland. He received the honorary degree of Ph. D. in 1594. He made two expeditions to Greenland. one in 1876 to Juliane- haab, and another in 1878—’80 to North Greenland. On the first Docent Kornerup was the botanist; during the second Steenstrup made the botanical collections himself.

Gustav Fredertk Holm was born in Copenhagen in 1849 and _ be- came captain in the marine in 1885, He partook in the expedi- tion under Steenstrup in 1876. He led an expedition to South Greenland in 1880—’81, and another to East Greenland in 1883 —’85. He published,

Den Danske Konbaadsexpeditionen til Grénland, 1883—’85.

C. Petersen*, Ph. Cand., was the botanist of the expedition to South Greenland in 1880 under Caprarn G. F. Hou.

Jens Arnold Diderich Jensen was born at Flensborg the 24th of July, 1849, became captain in the marine in 1886, bureau-chief of the marine department in 1887, and retired in 1892. He made several journeys to Greenland: In 1877 to South Greenland, in 1878 to Godthaab and Fredrikshaab, in 1879, 1884 and 1885 to Holstenborg, Suckertoppen, and Godthaab. On the second of these journeys he was accompanied by Kornerup, and on the last by Dr. S6ren Hansen, who acted as botanists. On the others he collected some plants himself.

N. Sylow, Ph. Cand., was the botanist of the expedition to North Greenland in 1879—’8SO under Lizur. R. HAMMER, and of that to South Greenland in 1883 under CapraIn Hou.

P. Eberlin and N. Knutson, Ph.Cand., werethe botanists of the expedition of 1883—’85, under Caprar Hou.

Carl Hartvig Ryder was born the the 12th of September, 1858, at Copenhagen, became lieutenant in the marine in 1879, and captain in 1897. He partook in Poulsen’s expedition to Godt- haab and Suckertoppen in 1885, made one to Upernavik in 1886, and another to the east coast of Greenland in 1891—’92, during which he himself made extensive botanical collections.

Johannes Eugenius Buelow Warming (See West Indies, page 48), and

* TI have not been able to give any biographical sketch either of him or of several of the fol- lowing collectors, as those volumes of Meddelelser om Grénland in which the account of their work published, are not found in the libraries of the City of New York.

30 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Theodor Holm (See under United States, page 40) were the botanists on the Fylla expedition of 1884 under Caprain NORMAN. They visited the Disco-Godthaab district.

On the Fylla expedition of 1886, under Caprain Bren, the botanists were J. L. A. K. ROSENVINGE (see below) and THEO- por Hoitm (see United States). They visited the districts of Upernavik, Préven, Godhavn, Holstenborg, Suckertoppen, Godt- haab, and Fredrikshaab.

Ntkolaj Eg Kruse Hartz, M. A., was born at Randers, Den- mark, the 23rd of August, 1867, and is an assistant in the Danish Geological Survey. He has had charge of several expeditions to Greenland, one to the Holstenborg, Fredrikshaab, and Tasermint districts in 1889, to Vaigattet and Holstenborg in 1890, and one to East Greenland in 1899—1902. From these he returned with many botanical specimens. During the last of these expeditions he was accompanied by KruvsE as botanist.

Botanisk Rejse beretning fra Vest Grénland, 1894.

Ostgrénlands Vegetationforhold, 1895.

Panerogamer og Karkryptogamer fra Nordést Grénland, 1895.

Johan Martin Christian Lange was born at Odstedgaard, Fredericia, Denmark, the 18th of March, 1818, became docent in 1846, was director of the Botanical Garden in 1856—’76, and received the honorary degree of Ph. D. in 1877. He died in Copen- hagen the 3rd of April, 1898. He continued after Hornemann the

publication of Flora Danica, of which he edited Vols. 15—17.

He became much interested in the flora of Greenland, deter- mining most of the collections made there. He left several publi- cations, of which the following may be mentioned:

Oversigt over Grénlands Planter, 1857.

Naturhistoriske Bidrag til en Beskrivelse af Grénland, 1857.

Synopsis of Greenland’s flora, 1877.

Bemerkningar om de ay Cand. Kornerup i 1878 samlede Planter paa Vestkys- ten avy Grénland, 1879.

Studier til Grénlands Flora, 1881.

Del Planter fra Nordgrénland, insamlede af Dr. Hansen, 1889.

Conspectus Florez Greenlandice in “‘Meddelelser om Grénland”, Vol. 3.

This is by far the most important work that has appeared, treating of the flora of Greenland. The first part appeared in 1880.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 3l

The contents. of this publication is as follows: Part I. Fanerogamer og Karsporeplanter: [Introduction ]—Lange. Bemerkningar om Grénlands alminderlige Natur.—Kornerup. [Systematic part. ]|—Lange. Tilleg om grénlandske Plantenayne.—Rink. Part ll. Tilleg til Fanerogamerne og Karsporeplanterne.—Lange. Groénlands Mosser.—Lange & C. Jensen. Part III. Lichenes.—Deichmann-Branth & Grénlund. Fungi.—E. Rostrup. Marine Algze.—Rosenvinge. Andet Tilleg til Fanerogamer og Karsporeplanter.—Rosenvinge,

Carl Christian Howitz Grénluna was born at Vordingsborg, Denmark, July 14, 1825, served as teacher at Haderlev College and as microscopist at Ny Carberg, Copenhagen, where he died August 10,1901. He made a journey to Iceland in 1868 and an- other in 1876. He has published, besides his Jslands Flora and the contributions to Conspectus Flore Grenlandice, also

Lichenes samlede i Gréuland af Prof. Fr. Johnstrup i sommaren 1874, 1877—78.

Fredrik Georg Emil RRostrup, born at Steensgaard, Lolland, Denmark, Jan. 28, 1831, became teacher at the Normal School at Skaarup, 1858, honorary Ph. D. in 1894, and professor in 1902. He contributed the part on fungi in the ‘‘Conspectus’’.

Tilleg til Grénlands Svampe, 1888. i

Janus Lauritz Andreas Kolderup Rosenvinge was born at Copen- hagen the 7th of November, 1858, became Ph. D. in 1888, docent at the University in 1895 and atthe Polytechnic Institutein 1900. Besides his work on the Conspectus Flore Groenlandice men- tioned above, we find, among other contributions:

Det sydligste Grénlands Vegetation, 1896.

Groénlands Halvalger, 1893.

Vegetation de la partie plus meridionale du Grénland, 1901.

Sur la vegetation d’algues marines sur les co tes du Grénland.

Nye Bidrag til Vest-Gr6nlands Flora, 1898.

Deuxieme memoir sur les algues marines du Gronland, 1900.

Om Algevegetationen ved Grénlands Kyster, 1900.

Jacob Severin Deichmann-Branth was born at Nykjébing the 7th of December, 1831, was a minister by profession, and trav- eled in Germany and Italy. He, together with Grénlund, contrib-

uted the part on lichens in the Conspectus Flore Grenlandice. Tilleg til Gronlands Lichen-Flora, 1892.

32 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Ludwig Kumlien, the son of Thure Kumlien (see under United States, page 25), was born in Wisconsin, and died in 1902. Evi- dently he had inherited from his father the love of natural history. He was, however, more of a zoologist than a botanist, and was especially interested in birds. He was a field agent of the Smith- sonian for a number of years and collected in Wisconsin and the New England States. He was the naturalist of the Howgate Po- lar Expedition in 1877—’78 to Cumberland Sound. The plants he collected were mostly from Niantilic Harbor, Annanactook, Kik- kerton Island, and from the Island of Disco, Greenland. He pub-

lished the report of the expedition, in which the plants were deter- mined by Gray.

Contribution to the natural history of Arctic America, made in connection with the Howgate Polar Expedition, 1879.

Frans Reinhold Kjellman was born on Tors6, Vastergétland, Sweden, the 4th of November, 1846, became Ph. D. and do- cent at the University of Upsala in 1872, and professor in 1883. He accompanied Nordenskjéld as botanist to Spitzbergen in 1872—’73, to Nova Zemlia and Siberia in 1875, and around the world in 1878—’80, during which journey they passed through the Behring Sea and visited Fort Clarence and theSt. Laurence Island. He died at Upsala the 22nd of April, 1907. He was a prominent phycologist, and has paid attention especially to the alge of the Arctic regions. Only a few of his works refer, however, to North American botany.

Fanerogam-floran p& St. Lawrence-6n, 1883.

Om Behring-hafvets algflora, 1889.

Om Floride slaktet Galarwara [Species from Florida, West Indies, Mexico, ete.

Nes of the Arctic Sea, 1883.

Ernst Bernhard Almquist was born at Skogs-Tibbe, Upland, Sweden, the 10th of August, 1852, received his M. D. in 1882, and became professor at the Carolinian Institute at Stockholm in 1891. He was the physician and lichenologist of the Nordenskjéld expedition around Asia in 1878—’80.

Per Teodor Cleve was born at Stockholm the 10th of Febru- ary, 1840, received his Ph. D. in 1863, became docent the same year, and professor at Upsala in 1873. Heis a prominent chem- ist and geologist, but also a botanist, having paid special atten-

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 33

tion to the diatoms, desmids and other fresh water alge. He partook in a geological journey in 1868—’69 to North America and the West Indies.

Diatoms from the West Indian Archipelago, 1878.

Diatoms collected during the expedition of the Vega.

Farskvattens diatomaceer fran Grénland och Argentinska Republiken, 1881.

On the diatoms collected during the Arctic expedition of Sir George Nares, 1883.

Diatoms from Baffins Bay and Davis Strait, 1896.

Synopsis of the Naviculoid Diatoms, 1894.

Johan August Berlin was born at Malsta, Upland, Sweden, the 7th of August, 1851, received his degree of Ph. D. in 1888. He was the botanist of the Nordenskj6ld expedition to Greenland in 1883.

Karlvaxter, insamlade under den svenska expeditionen till Grénland 1883, 1884.

Alfred Gabriel Nathhorst was born at Vaderbrunn, Séder- manland, Sweden, the 7th of November, 1850, took the degree of Ph. D. in 1874, and became decent the same year. He became professor and director of the Paleophytological Museum, Stock- holm, in 1884. He has made journeys to Spitzbergen in 1870, 1882 and 1898, to Greenland (with Nordenskj6ld) in 1883, and to East Greenland in 1899. Heisa prominent paleontologist and phytogeographer.

Botaniska anteckningar fran nordyiistra Gronland, 1884.

Forssatta anmarkningar om den grénlandska vegetationens historia, 1891.

Tyva somrar i Norra Ishafyet.

Johan Georg Robert Boldt was born at Kuopio, Finland, the 3rd of January, 1861, took his Ph. D. examinations in 1891, and has been instructor of geography and history at BjG6rneborg since 1899. He is a specialist on alge, especially the desmids.

Desmider fran Grénland, 1888.

C. West Indies.

Albert Heinrich Ritse was born the 11th of September, 1810, on Aeré, Denmark. He became apothecary on the island of St. Thomas, where he remained until 1870. He died the 18th of October, L882. He made important collections, which are pre- served at Copenhagen.

34 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Henrik Johannes Krebs was born at Svendborg, Denmark, June 8, 1821. He took his pharmaceutical examination in 1840, aud went to St. Thomas in 1843. He made several journeys to North, Central, and South America, to the Bermudas, Bahamas, Cuba, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, St. John, and St. Croix. In 1853 he became Swedish-Norwegvian consul, and from 1860 he was first a member and then the speaker in the local legislature of the Danish West-Indies. In 1870 he returned to Copenhagen. He made considerble collections and published the following:

Et Bidrag til St. Thomas’ Flora, 1847. Catalogue of plants found on the island of St. Thomas, 1852.

Axel Theodor Goes was born at ROk, Ostergdtland, Sweden, the 3d of July 1835, served as government physician on St. Bartholomew 1865—70 and died at Stockholm Aug. 20, 1897. He made collections of West Indian plants.

Vegetationen pa St. Bathelemy, skildrad i ett bref 1867. [ Published by Th. M. Fries. |

Carl Conrad Berg was born in Copenhagen 1845. He was a machine worker by trade, came to St. Thomas in 1864. In 1867 .he had charge of the dredging of the harbor at that place and in 1897 he became ‘‘Dock-master” for an English company. He came in contact with Baron Eggers and learned the scientific names from him. He has made an extensive collection of tropical woods, especially those of St. Thomas and St. John.

Frederik Michael Liebman (See Mexico, page 36).

Anders Sando Orsted (See Mexico and Central America).

Baron Henrik Franz Alexander Eggers was born at the city of Schleswig, the 4th of December, 1844. He partok in the war of 1864. After the end of this war, he entered the service of Austria, followed Emperor Maximilian to Mexico, 1865—67, and was taken prisoner. After his release, he traveled for some time in Mexico. He went to St. Thomas in 1870 and entered the Danish service as a lieutenant, was advanced to captain and pensioned in 1885. He has lived in Copenhagen since 1887.

He visited San Domingo in 1880, Porto Rico in 1881 and 1883; Tortola, St. Kitts, San Domingo, Hayti, ‘Turks Islands in 1887; Hayti, Jamaica, Bahamas in 1888; Cuba in 1889; Tabago, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Vincent and Barbados in 1889—90, Tab-

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 35

ago, Jamaica, Panama and Curagao in 1891—93, and made ex- tensive collections. The following publications are from his hand:

Erindringer fra Mexico, 1869.

St. Croix’s Flora, 1576.

Rhizophora Mangle L., 1877.

Reynosia Griseb. En hidtil ufuldstandig kjendt Slegt af Rhamnaceernes Fa- milie, 1877.

Naturen paa de Dansk-Vestindiske Oer. 1878.

The Flora of St. Croix and the Virgin Islands, 1879.

Et Beség paa Oen Dominica, 1880.

Die Poyale des 6stlichen Porto Rico, 1882.

Porto Rico, 1883.

Reise in das Innere yon Sto. Domingo, 1888.

Flora of the Bahamas, 1892.

Supplement til St. Croix’s og Jomiruéernes Flora, 1889.

Botanical Exploration to Cuba, 1890.

Die Insel Tobago, 1893.

Veit Brecher Wittrock (See United States and Canada, page 26).

Carl Emil Hansen Ostenfeld (See Greenland and Arctic America, page 45).

Carl Fredrik Otto Nordstedt (See Greenland, page 28).

William Nylander was born at Uleaborg, Finland, Jan. 3, 1822, received the degree Ph. Cand. in 1843 and that of M. D. in 1847. He lived in France from 1851 to 1857, when he was appointed professor at the University of Helsingfors, Finland. He returned to France in 1863 and died in Paris the 29th of March, 1899. He was perhaps the most prominent lichenologist of the world and was the author of numerous publications. Those relating to North America are the following:

Synopsis methodica Lichenum omnium hucusque cognitorum, 1858—’59-

Collectio lichenum ex insula Cuba, 1866.

Enumeration des Lichenes récoltés par M. T. Husnot aux Antilles francaises, 1868.

Cirea Pyrenocarpeos in Cuba collectos a C. Wright, I876.

Lichenes nonnulli insule St. Thomas Antillarum, 1880.

Enumeratio lichenum Freti Behringii, 1888.

Mexicanas plantas nuper a colletoribus expeditionis scientificee [together with E. Fournier and E. Bescherell].

Lichenes exotici a W. Nylander descripti 1892.

Nils Gustaf Lagerhetm was born at Stockholm the 18th of Octo- ber, 1860. In 1889 he became conservator at the museum at

36 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Lisbon; from 1889 to 1892 he was at Quito, 1892—5 at Tromsé, Norway, and in 1895 became professor at Stockholm. He has specialized in the lower cryptogams, especially the Desmids. The following contributions bear on American Botany.

Bidrag till Amerikas desmidieflora, 1885.

Ueber einige Arten aus Cuba, Jamaica und Puerto Rico. [Desmids found in material collected by Sintens, Swartz, and Wright], 1887.

Sur un nouveau parasite dangereoux de la Vigne, Uredo Viale in Jamaica,

1889. Mykologische Studien, 1899.

D. Mexico and Central America.

Frederik Michael Liebman was born at Helsingér, Denmark, the 10th of October, 1815, made journeys in Germany 1835, and in Norway 1836, and became docent at the University of Copen- hagen in 1837.

In 1840 he started for Mexico in company with Rathsack, a gardener, and arrived at Vera Cruz in February, 1841. Here he met the Russian botanist Karwinsky, and they traveled together for some months. He visited several places north of Vera Cruz, as for instance Antiqua, Colima, Misantla and as far north as Papantla. Then he turned south and after having visited several places he stayed for a considerable time at Hacienda Mirador on the eastern slope of Mount Orizaba. This mountain he climbed in company with the German botanist Ghiesbrecht. Then he visited Tehuacan and returned to Mirador. Rathsack returned to Denmark in 1842 with numerous boxes of herbarium speci- mens, samples of woods, fruits, seeds and living plants. Liebman himself undertook a journey southward, visiting the city of Ori- zaba, Cuicatlan, Oaxaca, etc,, climbed the peaks of Zempoaltepec and El Pelado, visited among other places, San Pedro Alto, Hua- mamelula and even Tehuantepec, and on his return again Oaxaca and Mirador.

On the home journey from Vera Cruz, he stopped two or three weeks in Cuba. He died the 29th of October, 1856, as professor at the University of Copenhagen.

Liebman did not have time before his death to publish much from the results of these collections. Most of this fell on the shoulders of Orsted. Still the following important contributions are from Liebman’s hands.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA, 37

Mexicos Breegner, 1849.

Mexicos og Central-Americas Neldeagtige Planter (Urticew), 1851. Mexicos Halvgries (Cyperacee), 1850.

Les chénes de l’Amerique tropale (posthwmous, edited by Orsted), 1869.

Liebman also contributed to Flora Danica, of which he edited the 14th and 15th volumes and a supplement.

Anders Sandée Orsted was born at Rudkjéping, Denmark, the 21 of June, 1816, began teaching in 1837, took his M. A. degree in 1844 and the Ph. D. in 1854, was appointed docent in 1851, re- ceived the title of professor in 1860 and became full professor in 1865. He died the 3rd of September, 1872.

He made a botanical journey to the West Indies and Central America in 1845—48. His stay in the West Indies was rather short. Besides the Danish West Indies, he visited also Jamaica, where he stayed six weeks. Orsted was one of the most produc- tive botanists, and the mere list of his publications would occupy half a dozen pages. The following contains the most important publications bearing on American botany.

Ein Reise i Guanasti i Costa Rica, 1849.

Naturens physionomie i Central America, 1849.

Central Americas Rubiaceer, 1852.

Composite centroamericane [together with Bentham], 1852.

Geographisk-statistisk Oversigt over Central-Americas Compositeer, 1852.

Leguminose centroamericane, 1853.

Scrophularine centroamericane, Labiatz do. and Malpighiacee do. [together with Bentham], 1853.

Gentianee centroamericane [together with Grisebach], 1853.

Mexicos og Central-Americas Acanthaceer, 1854.

Myrtacez centroamericane [together with D. O. Berg], 1855.

Om det centralamerikanske Balsamtre og Balsamkysten, 1856.

Plante nove centroamericane, 1856.

Centralamerikas Lobeliaceer [together with Planchon], 1857.

Plante nove centroamericane, 1857.

Centralamerikas Gesneriaceer, 1858.

Palme centroamericane, 1858.

Myrsinew centroamericane et mexicane, 1861.

L’ Amerique centrale, 1863.

Skildring af Naturen paa Jamaica, 1863.

Det centralamerikanska ambratre, 1870.

Preecursores flor centroamericane (posthumous), 1873.

Jacob Georg Agardh (See above).

Library Publications, 3.

38 SCANDINAVIANS AND

7. ENGLERIAN PERIOD, 1889—.

In 1889 appeared the first fascicle of Engler and Prantl’s Natuerlischen Pflant- zenfumilien, and three years later Adolph Engler’s Syllabus. The former [not yet completed] gives an an extensive account of all families and genera of plants, not only the flowering plants, as the Genera Plantarum of Bentham and Hooker and their predecessors. It was in this that the Englerian system of classification was first used, and it was in the Syllabus that it was first given in full. The Englerian system differs mainly irom those of Bentham and Hooker and of deCandolle in the fact that Engler begins with the lower plants and advances from lower to higher forms, while the other systems begin with some of the higher families and proceed to the more simple ones.. The names of the families are in most cases retained, but their relative position in many instances considerably changed. As the general arrangement of families and genera is much more natural than in other systems, Engler’s system is now adopted at the leading institutions of this country. In individual cases the arrangement could be improved, and in some cases it is not as good as in the two preceding systems.

About the time that this system was made public, the two leading botanists of this country passed away, A. Gray in 1888, and S. Watson in 1892. This in itself might have been regarded as the end of a period, for the prominence of es- pecially the former had been so great that the work of almost everyone else had been overshadowed. Now came a period of general comradeship and good-feeling, in which the tendency is: ‘‘Let also the smaller lights shine.” To mention all the workers during the last eighteen years would be impossible, and it would be with- out the scope of this paper. During this period not only the Scandinavians on the other side of the Atlantic haye taken an active part in American botany; there has grown up also a set of men in this country who have made no small contribu- tion to the knowledge of North American botany, consisting partly of Scandina- vians who in younger days immigrated, and partly of the sons of immigrants.

A. United States and Canada. a. SCANDINAVIANS.

Nils Conrad Kindberg was born at Karlstad the 7th of August, 1832. He took his Ph. D. degree in 1857, and became lector at the College of Linképing 1860—1900. He is one of the leading bryologists in the world. Heisa productive writer. The publi- cations relative to North American botany given below (and this list is very likely not complete) can not by any means becompared in number with the works on Old World bryology.

Enumeratio muscorum qui in Greenlandia, Islandia~et Feroer occurrunt, 1888.

Bidrag till kinnedom om Canada-omradets mossflora, 1890.

Checklist of European and North American Mosses (Bryinew), 1894.

New or less known species of Pleurocarpous Mosses from North America and Europe, 1895.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA, 39

New or less known species of Acrocarpous Mosses from North America and Europe, 1896.

European and North American Bryinew, 1596—’98.

Genera of European and North American Bryinew, 1897.

Mousses recoltées an Alabama, 1898.

Musci in J. Macoun, Catalogue of Canadian Plants, 1892.

European and North American Polytrichacew, 1894.

Notes sur un Hypopterygium in Canada, 1899.

Addition to the North American and European Bryology, 1900.

Bemerkungen tiber Nordamericanische Laubmoose, 1903.

New North American Bryinese, 1905.

Johan Nordal Fischer Wille was born at Skjolden Haabdl, Nor- way, the 28th of October, 1858, received his degree of Ph. D, in 1885, became amanuensis at the Natural History Museum at Stockholm in 1883, professor at Stockholm in 1886, and professor at the University and director of the Botanical Garden of Christiania in 1893. Heis a prominent phycologist, and has published considerably, but rather little that refers specially to American botany for instance:

New Forms of Green Algze, 1899.

Studien iiber Chlorophyceen, 1901.

Algologiska notiser, 1903.

Johan Ivar Lindroth was born at Sibbo, Nyland, Finland, took his examination for the Ph. D. degree in 1903 and has been since 1902 teacher of Natural History at the Forestry Institute at Evo, Finland. He is specialist on parasitic Fungi. The following publications contain some North American species.

Mycologische Notizen, 1900.

Uredinese novee, 1901.

Carl Christensen, Ph. Cand., assistant in the Botanical Museum at Copenhagen, is an ardent fern student. He has served the world by issuing his Index Filicum, a work which is to the pterid- ologist what the Kew Index is to the phanerogamic systematist. It is even in many respects superior to the Kew Index, especially in the matter of citing synonyms. As yet, Mr. Christensen has published but little referring to American Botany. Of these the

most important are:

American species of Leptochilus section Bolbitis, 1904. Index Filicum, 1905.

b. ScANDINAVIAN-AMERICANS.

August Gustaf Eisen was born at Stockholm, Sweden, the 2nd of August 1849, received his degree of Ph. D. in 1872 and became

40 SCANDINAVIANS AND

docent in Zoology at Upsala the same year, but emigrated to America. He is a prominent zoologist, has made severaljourneys to Mexico and Central America, and collected botanical as well as zoological specimens. He is a member of the California Academy,

whose President he was in 1905. Explorations to the Cape Region of Baja, California, 1894—’95. Biological Studies of Figs, ete., 1896.

Herman Theodor Holm was born the 3rd of February, 1854, at Copenhagen. He was the naturalist of the Danish North Pole Expedition of 1881—82 and accompanied Warming to Greenland in 1884 and Rosenvinge in 1886. In 1888, he emigrated to America, and became assistant botanist of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1893—96. He is a specialist in anat- omy and morphology of flowering plants. He received his Ph. D. degree in 1902. He has published many papers on plant anat- omy. The following are some of those referring more especially to North American botany:

Contribution to the Flora of Greenland, 1896.

Catalogue of Plants Collected by Messrs. Schubert, Stein, and White on the East Coast of Baffin’s Land and the West Coast of Greenland, 1900.

Allies of Stellaria media, 1901.

Biological Notes on Canadian Species of Viola.

On Some Canadian Species of Gentians, 1901.

On the genus Arctophila Rupr., 1902.

Studies upon Cyperaceee, I—X XIV, 1896—1905.

John H. Sandberg was born the 24th of July 1848, at Broby, Skane, Sweden. He received his college education at Lund and also studied pharmacy in Sweden. He came to America in 1868 and located at Minneapolis in 1887. He studied medicine in this country has been practicing at Jenkins and Minneapolis, Minne- sota. He is an enthusiastic collector and brought together a large herbarium of Minnesota plants, which some years ago was secured by Gustavus Adolphus College at St. Peter, Minnesota. In 1892 he became a field agent of the division of botany, United States Department of Agriculture, and collected in company with D.T. MacDougal and A. A. Heller, in Northern Idaho and adjacent Washington and Montana, and the following year in company with John B. Leiberg in the same region.

John B. Letberg, was born the 7th of October, 1853 at Malmé, Skane, Sweden, where hegraduated from the Gymnaseum, arrived

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 41

in America in 1868, and settled in 1880 near Lake Coeur d’Aleen, Idaho. He accompanied Dr. Sandberg on his second botanical expedition to the mountains of Idaho in 1893, acted as field agent for the Botanical Division of the United State Department of Agriculture the summers of 1895 and 1896, and collected in Idaho, Washington, Nevada, and Oregon. In 1897, he became connected with the United States Geological Survey, up to 1903, and in 1905—6 carried on investigations in reference to the tim- ber supply of the Forest Reserves of Montana, Idaho, Oregon, California and Arizona and was Forestry Inspector in the Philip- ines in 1904—5. The following publications are from his hand.

Contributions to the Flora of Iowa, 1870.

Contributions to the Upham’s Flora of Minnesota, 1880.

General Report on a Botanical Survey of the Coeur d’Alene Mountains in Idaho, 1895.

Delphinium viridescens and Sambucus leiosperma, 1897.

The Bitterroot Forest Reserve, 1899.

The Priest River Forest Reserve, 1899.

Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California, 1902.

Forest Conditions in the San Francisco Mountains Forest Reserve, Arizona [with 'T. F. Rixon and A. Dodwell].

Aven Nelson was born at Keokuk, Iowa, the 24th March, 1859, his parents being Norwegians. He received his degree of M.S. in 1890, A. M 1892, and Ph. D. 1904. He has been profes- sor of biology at the University of Wyoming since 1887. He is a prominent systematic and economic botanist, has made extensive collections in the Rocky Mountain region, especially in the state of Wyoming, and has built up the largest herbarium found within the Rocky Mountain states. He is one of the most prolifie writers on systematic botany, and hundreds of new species have been described by him. The following are the most important of his publications:

First Report on the Flora of Wyoming, 1396.

The Worst Weeds of Wyoming, 1896.

New Plants from Wyoming, I—XV, 1898—1904.

hocky Mountain Species of Thermopsis, 1898.

The Trees of Wyoming and How to Know Them, 1899.

The Western Species of Arga!lus, 1899.

New Species of Oreocarya and its Allies, 1899.

Some Species of Tetraneuris and its Allies, 1899.

Some Notes on the Flora of Yellowstone National Park, 1899.

Som Native Forage Plants on Alkali Soil, 1899,

42 SCANDINAVIANS AND

Some Rocky Mountain Chrysothamni, 1900.

Cryptogams of Wyoming, 1900.

Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium, I—VII, 1900—’06.

Broom-grasses of Wyoming, 1901.

An Analytical Key to Some of the Common Plants of the Rocky Mountain Region, 1902.

The Genus Hedysarum in the Rocky Mountains, 1902.

Native Vines in Wyoming Homes, 1902. _

Psilostrophe, a Neglected Genus of Southwestern Plants, 1903.

The Wheat-grasses of Wyoming 1903.

Plantz Andrewsianex, 1904.

New Plants from Nevada, I—II, 1904—’05.

Plante montrosenses, I [together with Kennedy], 1906.

Per Axel Rydberg was born the 6th of July, 1860, in Ohd Par- ish, Westerg6tland, Sweden, and studied at the Royal Gymnasium at Skara, where he was graduated in 1881. The following year, he emigrated to America. From 1884—1893 he taught at Luther Academy, Wahoo, Neb. He received his M. A. degree at the Uni- versity of Nebraska in 1895 and his Ph. D. at Columbia Univer- sity, New York, in 1898; was professor of natural sciences and mathematics at Upsala College, Kennilworth, N. J., 1895—6 and 1897—9, and issince that time one of the curators of the New York Botanical Garden. In the summers of 1891—98, 1895, and 1896 he was a field agent of the United States Department of Agricul- ture and collected in western Nebraska, the Black Hills of South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming and Colorado. In 1897, 1900, and 1905 he collected for the New York Botanical Garden in Montana, Colorado, California, and Utah. The list of his pub- lications is omitted for obvious reasons.

List of Papers Published by Dr. P. A. Rydberg.*

On the American Black Cottonwood, 1893.

Flora of Nebraska. Part 21, Rosales, 1895.

New species of Physalis, 1895.

Flora of the Sandhills of Nebraska, 1895

Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota, 1896.

The North American species of Physalis and related genera, 1896.

Notes on Potentilleae., I—VI, 1896—7.

Notes on two western plants, 1897.

Antennaria dioica and its North American allies, 1897.

Rarities from Montana, 1897.

* Hditor’s Note. This paper would be lacking in a most important particular, if the writ-

ings of its author wera omitted. The editor, for that reason, takes the liberty to here insert as

complete a list as he has been able to secure of the published papers of Dr. P. A. Rydberg to the present date. J. A. UDDEN.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 43

Report on the grasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain region, (to- gether with C. L. Shear), 1897.

A monograph of the North American Potentilleae, 1898.

The cesptose Willows of Arctic America and the Rocky Mountains, 1899.

Delphinium carolinianum and related species, 1899.

New species of the western United States, 1899.

An annotated catalogue of the Flora of Montana and the Yellowstone Na- tional Park, 1900.

What is Prunus insititia? 1900.

Composition of the Rocky Mountain Flora, 1900.

Studies of the Rocky Mountain Flora, I—X VIL, 19\ 0—7.

The American species of Limnorchis and Piperia, 1901.

Further notes on the Potentilleae, 1901.

Is the Whitefruited Strawberry of Pennsylvania a native species? 1901.

The North American Twinflowers, 1901.

The Oaks of the Continental Divide north of Mexico, 1901.

Our yellow Lady’s-Slippers, 1902.

A new station of Isotria affinis, 1902.

Some generic segregations, 1903.

Explorations in Utah, 1905.

Penthoraceae (in the North American Flora), 1905.

Parnassiaceae (in, the North American Flora), 1905.

Astragalus and segregates as represented in Colorado, 1905.

Saxifragaceae (in the North American Flora, together with J. K. Small), 1905,

Hydrangiaceae (in the North American Flora, together with J. K. Small), 1905.

Flora of Colorado, 1906.

Julius Hjalmar Flodman was born the 23rd of September in Heda Parish of Ostergétland, Sweden. While he was a small boy, his father emigrated to America in 1868 and settled in Polk County, Nebraska. Flodman graduated at Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill., in 1890, and received the degree of A. M. in 1900, has been teaching at Luther Academy, Wahoo, Neb., since 1890, except one year, when he attended the University of Nebraska. He accompanied the writer on two of his botanical expeditions, viz. to western Nebraska in 1891, and Montana in 1895, and dis- tributed sets of herbarium specimens collected on the last men- tioned expedition.

Alexander Pierce Anderson was born at Red Wing, Minnesota, his parents being Swedish. He received his degree of A. M. n 1895 and of Ph. D. in 1897. He was botanist and bacteriologist at Clemson College, 8S. C., 1897—9, assistant professor of Botany at

44 SCANDINAVIANS AND

the University of Minnesota, 1899—1900, biologist and entom- ologist at Clemson, 1900—1. He is the inventor of the famous ‘‘Puffed Rice” and other starchy products. He is now the botan- ist and experimental chemist of a company, which is engaged in developing his discoveries and inventions. The following syste- matic and economic papers are from his hand:

Diseases of Plants, 1898.

A New Tilletia parasitic on Orysa sativa, 1899.

Rice Blast and a New Smut on the Rice Plant, 1899.

Tilletia horrida Tak. on Rice Plant in South Carolina, 1902.

Dasyscypha resinaria, causing the canker growth on Abies balsamea, 1902.

Philip Dowell was born at Attica, Indiana, the 3rd of Decem- ber 1864, his father being a Swedish-American clergyman. He received his degree of A. B in 1885, A. M. in 1895, and Ph. D. in 1900, taught at Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill., in 1889— 90; at Hope Academy, Minnesota, in 1890—1; at Upsala College, Brooklyn, 1896—7; was professor of sciences at Muhlenberg Col- lege, Allentown, Pa., in 1896—1902; was botanical assistant at the United States National Museum in 1902; and is now instruc- tor in the New York High Schools since that year. He is a zool- ogist as well as botanist. The following botanical publications are from his hand: :

Addition to the Flora of Staten Island, 1905. Botanical Notes, 1906.

Distribution of Ferns on Staten Island, 1906.

North American Species of Calceolaria, 1906. Observations on the Occurrence of Boott’s Fern, 1906.

Elias Nelson was born in Sweden, Sept. 7th, 1876, came asa boy to America, studied at the University of Wyoming, were he took his M. A. degree in 1899. He was a pupil of Prof. A. Nelson. He has been a scientific aid in the U. 8. Department of Agriculture in 1900, and assistant in Horticulture and Agrostology at the University of Wyoming in 1901—5, and is now the superintendent of the Experimental Farm at Bend, Oregon, since 1905. Hehas made extensive collections, especially in Wyoming and neighbor- ing states. He has made a speciality of grasses and forage plants.

Revision of the Western North American Phloxes, 1899.

Some New Western Species, 1899.

Some new species of Wyoming Plants, 1900.

Shrubs of Wyoming, 1902.

Notes on certain species of Antennaria 1902. -

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 45

Some Western Species of Agropyrwm, 1902. Native and Introduced Saltbushes, 1904.

Carl Otto Rosendahl was born the 24th of October at Spring Grove, Minnesota. His parents were Norwegians. He graduated at the University of Minnesota in 1901; was instructor in botany at the same institution, 1901—2; and took his Ph. D. at Berlin, Germany, in 1905. He has paid special attention to the flora of Minnesota. He has published the following:

An Addition to the Knowledge of the Flora of Southeastern Minnesota, 1903. Die Nordamerikanischen Saxifraginee, 1903. Observation in Plant Distribution in the Renfrew District of Vancouver Island.

Pehr Hjalmar Olson-Seffer was born at Ekenas, Finland, the 14th September, 1873, became instructor in Swedish at Marie- hamn College in 1896 and of botany at Helsingfors College in 1896, made a journey to Australia and migrated to America in 1403. He became instructor in systematic botany at Leland Stanford University in 1903, and received his Ph. D. in 1904. In 1905, he made a journey to Central America and in 1906—7 a journey around the world, in order to study rubber-culture and tropical agriculture. His specialty is Phytogeography and Economic Botany. He was fora short time the director of La Zaculpa Botanical Station and Plantation in Chiapas, Mexico, and was lately appointed Governmetal Comissioner of tropical agriculture of Mexico. He is the editor of the department of trop- ical agriculture in the Mexican Investos.

Mexico — Rubber Experiment Station Prospectus, 1906.

Tvar Tidestrom was born the 13th of September, 1865, in the Province of Nerike, Sweden, and came to America in 1881. From 1890—5, he was a student and assistant of Prof. E. L. Greene, at the University of California, and later at the Catholic Universiti of Washington, D. C., where he received his Ph. B.

Notes on Botrychium virginicum, 1905. Notes on the Gray Polypody, 1905. Elysium marianum [Ferns and Fern-allies of Maryland and Virginia].

J. Lanell was born at Kalmar, Sweden, the 30th of March 1851, received his license to practice medicine in Dakota in 1889, aud is now a practicing physician at Leeds, North Dakota. He has made extensive botanical collections in Dakota and in Oregon. A few new plants discovered by him have been described by Prof.

46 SCANDINAVIANS AND

A. Nelson. As far as the writer knows, the only botanical paper he has published is The Genus Alisma in North Dakota, 1907.

O. M. Oleson was born near Drontheim Norway, where he also learned gardening. He came to America and settled at Fort Dodge, lowa, in 1870, and two years later entered a drug store. In 1876—77 he attended the College of Pharmacy at Philadelphia, where he graduated. He has collected considerably in Iowa, and in 1904 in the Yellowstone Park and in 1906 in California. He is the Chairman of the Board of Park Commissioners of Fort Dodge, Lowa.

Flora of Webster Co., Lowa, [together with M. P. Somes] 1905.

B. Greenland and Arctic America.

Johan Alfred Byérling was born in Stockholm the 19th of Octo- ber, 1871. He was the botanist of two arctic expeditions, viz. one to Spitzbergen in 1890; the other to Arctic America, in 1892. While engaged in this expedition, he died on Ellesmereland (west of Greenland).

Frederic Christian Emil Borgesen. (See West Indies).

Christian Krause was born at Lillio, Korsér, Denmark, the 6th of June, 1867, received the degree of M. Sc. in 1895, and became adjunct professor at the College of Randers. He made one jour- ney to West Greenland in 1897, and another to East Greenland in 1899—1502.

List of Fanerogams and Vascular Cryptogams found on the Coast 75°—66° 20’ Lat. N. of East Greenland, 1905.

Morten Pedersen Porsild was born at Store Andst, Jylland, Denmark, in 1872, became assistant in the Botanical Museum at Copenhagen in 1895, received the degree of M. Sc. in 1900 and be- came director of the Arctic Botanical Station at Godhavn, Green- land, in 1905. Before that time he made two journeys to Green- land, viz. in 1893 and 1902. He has published: .

Bidrag til en Skildring paa Disco, 1902.

O. Gelert was born at Nybol, Sundeved, Denmark, November 9, 1862. He took his Phar. Cand. examination in 1883, served for some time as druggist, and was later employed in asugar-refinery.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 47

This place he was forced to leave on account of poor health. He then received a position in the Botanical Museum at Copenhagen. Here he worked especially on the arctic collection together with Ostenfeld. Their aim was to publish an Arctic Flora. The work has been continued by Ostenfeld, and the first fascicle has been published. In 1897, Gelert made a journey to the Canary Islands. He died the 20th of March, 1899, at Copenhagen. Notes on Arctic Plants, I [Crucifers], 1&97.

Per Dusen was born at Wimmerby, Sweden, the 4th of August, 1855. He is a civil engineer by profession and has made the following journeys, mostly in the interest of botany: to Kamerum in 1890—2, Terra del Fuego in 1896—7, East Greenland (with Nathorst) in 1899, and Patagonia 1904—5. Heis an amanuen- sis at the Museum of Rio Janeiro since 1901.

Beitrage zur Laubmoosflora Ostgr6nlands und der Insel Jan Mayen, 1901. Nagra viktiga vaxtfynd fran nordéstra Grénland, 1901. Zur Kentniss der Gefiisspflanzen Ostgronlands, 1901.

Herman Georg Simmons was born at Dalby, Skane, Sweden, the 16th of August 1866, became Ph. Cand. in 1892, and amanuensis at the Botanical Museum at Lund in 1893. He was the botanist of Sverdrup’s expedition to Ellesmereland (west of Greenland) in 1898—1902. The following are his publications:

Preliminary Report on the Work of the Second Norwegian Polar Expedition 1903. Flora of Ellesmereland, Part I, 190...

Carl Emil Hansen Ostenfeld was born at Randers, Denmark, August 3rd, 1873. He has been inspector of the Botanical Muse- um at Copenhagen since 1900. He has made as his specialty the study of the flora of arctic regions. The following publica- tions referring to America are from his hand:

Om inslebte Planter fra Ivigtut (Syd Grénland), 1902. Flora Arctica, Part I, 1902. Halophila Aschersonii [native of St. Croix], 1902.

Hugo Gustaf Adolf Dahlstedf was born at St. Lars, Ostergiét- land, Sweden, the 8th of February, 1856, became amanuensis at the Botanical Garden at Stockholm in 1890 and at the Botanical Museum in 1892—4. He is a specialist on several Cichoriaceous genera, especially Hieracium. He has furnished some contribu- tions to the knowledge of the North American Flora. He wrote

48 SCANDINAVIANS AND

the manuscript of the genus Hieracium for the Conspectus Florae Groelandicae.

\

Studien iiber siid-und centralamerikanische Peperomien, 1900. Studier 6fver arktiska Tarazxaca, 1905. Arktiska och alpina arter inom formgruppen Taraxacum ceratophorum, 1906.

C. West Indies.

Johannes Eugenius Buelow Warming was born on Mané, Jylland, Denmark, the 3rd of November, 1841, received the degree Ph. D. in 1871, became docent at the University of Copenhagen in 1874, at Stockholm, 1882—6, and was appointed professor and director of the Botanical Garden at Copenhagen, in 1887.

He undertook in 1863 a journey to Brazil, where he remained for three years. The book published on Lagoa Santos after his return home, placed him at once as one of the leading phytoge- ographers of the world. In 1884 he and Theodor Holm joined the Fylla Expedition to Greenland, and in 1891 and 1892 he un- dertook a botanical exploration of the West Indies and South America. He was accompanied by Holger Jérgen Lassen, and Mr. Levissen, a forester, and visited Barbados, Trinidad, Venezu- ela, Porto Rico, and the Danish West Indies. During these trav- els of his he gathered extensive material and knowledge, which he used in his phytogeographical and ecological works. He drew also from the work done in the West Indies by Bérgesen and Paulsen. The works that treat more or less of the North Amer- ican Flora are the following:

Biologiske Optegnelser om Grénlzendske Planter, 1886—’90.

Halophytstudier, 1897.

On the Vegetation of Tropical America, 1899.

Familjen Podostemacew, 1881—1901. Om nogle arktiske Veexters Biologi, 1886.

Holger Jorgen Lassen was bornat Copenhagen, July 10th, 1868, and received the degree Ph. Cand.in 1887. Hepartook in the Green- land Expedition of 1890, and accompanied Prof. Warming on his journey to the West Indies and Venezuela in 1891—2. He died, October 3rd, 1897. He has publishid some smaller articles on tropical America, and besides

Momenter af Vistindiens geografi.

THE FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA. 49

Frederik Christian Emil Borgesen was born at Copenhagen, Jan. 1st., 1866, received his Master’s degree in 1891, and became librarian of the Botanical Garden in 1900. He has made several journeys in Sweden, Denmark and Norway and has madeaspecial- ty of the fresh-water algae, especially the Desmids. He made two visits to the Danish West Indies, one in 1893, the other in 1895—6, together with O. Paulsen. Here he studied especially the marine algae. He has published the following papers:

Ferskvandsalger fra Ostgr6nland, 1894.

Om Vegetationen paa de dansk vestindiske Oer [with O. Paulsen], 1898.

La Vegetation des Antilles Danoises [together with O. Paulsen], 1900.

Vore vestindiske Oer, 1900.

A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Marine Algce Vegetation on the Coast of the Danish West Indies [also in Danish], 1900.

Ove Wilhelm Paulsen was born at Aarhus, Denmark, March 22nd, 1874. He made several shorter journeys in Denmark and Norway, and went with BGrgesen to the West Indies in 1895—6. In 1897, he received his Master’s degree and in 1898—9 he par- took in the expedition to Pamir under Lieutenant Olufsen. He became assistant at the Botanical Garden in 1900. Together with Borgesen he published:

Om Vegetationen paa de Dansk-Vestindiske Ger, 1898.

Carl Emil Hansen Ostenfeld. (See under Greenland and Arctic America, page 47).

Carl Olav Ernst Hansen was born at Olstycke, near Copenhagen, the 7th of June, 1865. He was a gardener by trade; came in 1885 to the Botanical Garden at Copenhagen; made a journey to France in 1888, where he was employed for some time at Jardin des Plantes. In 1892 he was offered to go to the West Indies and eventually take charge of an Experimental Station which was contemplated. He visited Barbadoe, Jamaica, Domingo, and St. Lucia, where he studied the botanical gardens and sugar planta- tions. He made collections of plants, which he sent to Copen- hagen.

Mexico and Central America. Angust Gustaf Eisen (See United States, page 39). Pehr Hjalmar Olson-Seffer (See United States, page 45).

Keport on A Geological Survey of the Lands Belonging to The New York and Texas Land Company, Ltd. m the Upper Kio Grande Embayment in Texas By J. A. Udden.

CONTENTS.

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Library Publications, 4.

54 CONTENTS.

TONCOUS MOCKS wer aesc sass scesesseee eee assess Tatas SAM UN RE a a) ea A ee 86 Geological!structure.. 2.0. 4:.:.s.cessseecesecessseeoei sent ee ga2de cc ses caees bos cucpeeustn cera 87 The Wampasitas arch js... ee eccsese = sacs cusses se cseeceecewaw ae sods sae eee oo Pee ee 88 Minor: folds... i scei ic toa eceeececee is dds sada ca ctu cee eons stn gone te aoe eee eee 90 WCOnOMIC PEACE so. sc scenes eases iece hes cess cece ess cesses a Sos c aS eas ote ae eae e none SoS S OER 90 IATbeSIatl Water! etc. fesse nc Re ee oe ee ote aes a gS aaa oon soo eee 90 Water injcretacéous rocks). -c...-o2css sec sees ec 90 Water from the tertiary rocks .................2......05- Auotedese. seesisccecoteree 92 Wastevof flowine water icicsecscs eran ee ee Gas am On) eerie sae a Re Sere cutee eee ts orc Pes Cea nee eee Quantitativevestimate 2002 fie ee ae se re es eee Petroleum ssc econo seh ove coe wc ea tee oe deeds Ca coed soon ete nen eae eee Probability of existence of oil Saltpeter iiss: 35c:i 2222 Sooo a cose occ bcbae cave ctege Coven oes eee tae ore ae eee see esas eee Bat guano Conclusion

INTRODUCTORY.

The rocks which underlie the upper part of the Rio Grande Embayment, belong to the Cretaceous and the Tertiary systems. They consist of limestones, sandstones, clays and marls. In a few very limited localities dark porphyry has been injected between these stratified formations. The rocks have suffered but little disturbance. Generally speaking, we find them in the position they were orginally deposited on the bottom of the ancient wa- | ters, excepting that they have been elevated toward the north- west and have sunk down toward the southeast. The general tilting in that direction amounts to about forty or fifty feet to the mile.

By the process of general erosion and land waste, these forma- tions have been cut down so that the land now presents a quite even plain, whose surface has a general slope in the same direc- tion as the beds dip. For the whole area this slope averages less than ten feet to the mile.

As a result of this general erosion and tilting we now find the lowermost and oldest strata exposed to the northwest and the uppermost and more recently deposited beds appear farthest south and east.

From Devil’s river to the Dos Hermanos country there are ex- posed some 4,400 feet of strata. In the following report I shall describe these, beginning with the oldest formation, giving in full my observations on their mineral character, the surface distribu- tion, and underground extent. (See map).

THE CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTS.

THE DEVIL’S RIVER LIMESTONE.

This name is here applied to the limestones which are found exposed on Devil’s river. They include what is known in central Texas as the Edwards and the Georgetown limestones. The ~ upper hundred feet, or less, correspond to the latter, and the lower four hundred feet are the equivalent of the greater part of the former. They are not separated by any well marked horizon of change, but merge gradually into each other.

This rock consists of mostly thick ledges of a white or gray limestone of quite pure composition. It varies from a moderately coarse grained to an almost compact and structureless texture. The ledges are mostly thick, occasionally measuring as much as ten or even twenty feet. But there are two horizons where the seams of stratification are more closely laid, and these occur at from seventy-five to a hundred and fifty feet, and again at from two hundred and twenty-five to three hundred feet below the top of the formation. This alternation of horizons of more and less enduring rock causes the bluffs on either side of Devil’s river to vary in their declivity at different heights. The cliffs of the more enduring divisions are more difficult to scale and often impass- able, while the slopes are less abrupt on the exposed edges of the less heavily bedded strata. In the same way we find the valley of the river more open at points where it runs over the softer beds, as above the mouth of San Pedro creek, at Pafford’s crossing, be- low the old Newman’s ranch, and again above the old Ames’s ranch, while it takes on the true character of a narrow canyon when cutting on the harder ledges, as it does for several miles north of the mouth of San Pedro creek, north of Deadman’s can- yon and above Newman’s ranch. For the same reason the roads leading down to the river from the plateaus through tke arroyos from either side are least satisfactory, where these canyons lead over the heaviest limestone ledges. In fact, it is these ledges which make most of the lateral canyons impassable. In surveys 26, 27,

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 57

and 28 in block D, on both sides of Cedar creek, the difference in weathering of these several horizons is perhaps most clearly ex- hibited, viz:

1. The ledges in which the river is nowcutting yield but slow- ly, and the channel is contracted and bordered by narrow, rocky and sloping benches formed by the lowermost indurated ledges. One of these was seen to contain some sand and a faint impregna- tion of bituminous material.

2. A slight recesssion of the bluffs above this level marks the presence of somewhat softer beds.

3. Then there is a shoulder in the bluff, which again consists of more heavily bedded strata.

4, These are overlain by other more rapidly disintegrating beds.

5. Uppermost the bluffs are carved into buttes consisting of the highest member in the Edwards limestone, which is quite as resistant to the destructive agencies at work as any of the lower horizons.

6. The limestone which follows above this corresponds to the Georgetown limestone. Everywhere along the river this forms the outer border of the dissected plateau. It weathers in such a manner as to leave in the thin residual soil, usually present on the suriace, a number of angular boulders, which render the wagon roads exceedingly uncomfortable for travel.

This entire formation consists of limestone, but there is con- siderable difference in the texture of different ledges. The broad statement is true that all ledges consist of open sea sediments and that foraminiferal shells constitute a large ingredient in the calcareous material of which they are composed. Some of the lower indurated ledges near Indian creek contain these minute - shells in great abundance. In the thinly bedded ledges there is more of comminuted fragments of these shells. The upper indur- ated ledges show a crystalline texture, typical of much of the Ed- wards limestone elsewhere. Certain of the ledges are more porous than the rest, and these have become the conduits of underground water, and frequently exhibit in their outcrops deeply etched sur- faces. One of these ledges lies only about one hundred feet below the top of the formation. It may be seen in the banks of Evan’s creek above the railroad bridge in the southeast quarter of sec- tion 19 in block A. Another such ledge remains as a porous and

58 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

decayed stratum which may be seen in the banks of Indian creek near its mouth. Above Ames’s ranch another porous stratum forms the exit of a large number of springs known as the Cold springs. This stratum lies about 400 feet below the top of the formation, and it is the most important water bearing horizon in the formation.

Mineral Occurrences.

Mineral occurrences in these limestones are nowhere of much consequence and not frequent. Calcite is occasionally found in veins and cavernous pockets. The latter vary in size from a few inches to considerable masses, which are apparently associated with springs and ancient caverns. Several small veins were noted on survey 24, near the springs in the base of the cliff on the east side of Devil’s river, about two miles east of.the mouth of Satan’s creek. It consists of columnar calcite crystals and averages abcut three inches in thickness. Another occurrence was noted just north of the Twin Water holes, about half a mile west of the centre of survey 33, in block A. The north bluff of Evans creek at this place exhibits a synclinal fold which is clearly due to sett- ling of the overlying strata, consisting of the Buda limestone. into a cavernous hollow below. In the limestone on the slope of this bluif there was a vein of calcite not exceeding six inches in thickness. Its course is from east to west. The limestone cor- responds to the Georgetown, and it is overlain by the Del Rio clay. Along the contact of these two formations pocket-like aggregates of calcite lie in the limestone, and these are stained by infiltrated ferruginous materials. An analysis of several samples disclosed no trace of any valuable ore.

In the lower hundred feet of the formation we find siliceous material gathered into concretionary lenses and sheets. as chert and flint. There are at least two horizons of chert exposed in the canyon above Pafford’s crossing. These occur in the lowermost indurated ledges. On survey 80 in block D cherty seams lie about forty feet above the river in the east foot of the bluff. This ledge was seen at intervals for several miles to thenorth. Along the wagon road leading down to the river in survey 15 in block B, two cherty seams were noted. One of these consisted of concretions of somewhat irregular form. This lies only a few feet above the

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 59

water in the river. The other lies seventy feet above this and con- sists of lenses of more regular form, and these also run into con- tinuous layers. Seams and geodes of quartz which is not cherty, but of crystalline structure, were also noted in these ledges. One such seam was followed for nearly a mile. This quartz is associ- ated with calcite, some of which has a dark amber color. This hasled to some desultory prospecting below Cedar creek i block D.

The siliceous segregations are characteristic of the Edwards limestone almost everywhere in Texas, and the chertis often found in greater abundance than is the case on Devil’s river. It cannot be regarded as indicating mineralization of any consequence.

Frequently the ledges of the Devil’s river limestone are bitu- minous. When crushed they emit an oily odor. In the dry bed of Pafford creek in survey 68, Block 1, about a quarter of a mile west of the river, | found one such ledge which contains small geodes filled with black and hard asphalt. These geodes have originally been empty cavities in the rock, and crystals of calcite have been formed on their walls before the filling of bitumen Ac- cumulated. This appears to have oozed in from the surrounding rock. Some of the geodes are still empty and only the calcite is present. The asphalt is quite scarce. The geodes vary in size from one to two inches in diameter, and one seldom finds more than two or three on a square rod of exposed surface. Nothing was seen suggesting bituminous accumulations in any valuable quantity.

Distribution.

The Devil’s river limestone is exposed along theentire distance of the river from Camp Hudson down to the Rio Grande. North of Deadman’s creek the overlying beds have been cut away by erosion on both sides of the river to beyond the limits of the New York and Texas Land Company’s surveys, but south of this, owing to a low dip to the south, this limestone is less extensively bared and forms the surface rock for only two or three miles away from the river, or even less. In the region of Del Rio the forma- tion disappears under higher beds, as we follow the river. The south border of its area of outcrop here turns to the east. In this direction it runs a sinuous course for fifty miles and more, follow- ing in a general way the north limit of the New York and Texas Land Company’s surveys to the east of Turkey mountain.

60 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

North of this line the Devil’s river limestone rises to form a hilly plateau, and southward it descends under later sediments which form a gradually increasing thickness of cover in that direc- tion. Thatit extends far out to the south and east under the other formations there can be no doubt. It is not likely to change much in a hundred miles, for it consists of sediments formed in an open sea, whose nearest known shore was far to the north.

THE DEL RIO CLAY.

Above the Devil’s river limestone there is a clay known as the Del Rio clay. It varies from forty to 150 feet in thickness, and averages probably 100 feet. In a conspicuous hill south of Del Rio, and in the bluff which runs in a northeast-southwest direc- tion to the southeast of this town, several exposures occur, from which the nature of this clay was made out. The upper half con- sists of yellow clay, which is usually calcareous and which contains thin layers of calcareous material and sandstone. In these flags two fossils are invariably present and render this part of the clay always easy of identification, Hxogyra arietina and Nodosaria texana. These are equally abundant in other places, from Comstock to Turkey mountain. Some fifty or sixty feet below the top of the clay at Del Rio it contains seams which are more or less impregnated with feruginous material, and the clay itself is of a dark brown or red color, which is due to the presence of hem- atite. The lower half of the formation is usually of a dark green- ish-gray color. ;

Mineral Occurrences.

Gypsum and marcasite were both observed as occasional min- erals in this clay. The latter has usually been changed to hem- atite, which often occurs in pseudomorphs having the cubic forms of the original mineral. This is the case in block “A” and 12 on Devil’s river, where some prospectors have mistaken this mineral for galena (sulphide of lead), which has the same crystalline form.

East of Del Rio hematite occurs as a heavy infiltration in cer- tain layers which are best exposed in the hills about one third of a mile south from the north corner of survey 604 of the G. H. & H. Railroad Company. About ten feet of the clays have been

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 61

exposed by an excavation, and here they are seen to be heavily charged with amorphous oxide of iron. Farther to the south- west a seam of practically pure hematite was noted, measuring from one to four inches in thickness. This was seen to extend for nearly a hundred feet in a recently cut gully. From a general examination of the vicinity it was, however, evident that this deposit is local, the ferruginous character of the clay diminishing in both directions from this place along the exposed outcrop of ‘the Del Rio formation in this bluff. This red clay will make an excellent puddling clay.

Variations in Thickness.

On Deadman’s creek, about five or six miles above its mouth, the De] Rio clay is absent and the Buda limestone directly over- lies the Devil’s river limestone. In the country about two miles to the east-southeast of California ranch it measures only thirty feet in thickness. From this point it increases southward to eigthy feet near the centre in survey 20 in block A. Southeast of Del Rio it reaches its maximum thickness, which is probably not much short of two hundred feet. In the region of Turkey moun- tain it averages ninety feet. In general it increases in thickness southwards.

Geographical Distribution.

Consisting of clay, this formation yields very readily to ero- sion and has been promptly washed away, except where it is cov- ered by the overlying Buda limestone. Under the edges of this limestone it everywhere forms the slopes and bluffs that limit the level and less elevated flats, from which the clay has been wholly or partly removed. In this way have been formed nearly all of the bluffs which follow on either side of the arroyos in block 1, and in block A west of Devil’s river. Most of the tributaries of Evan’s creek have cut through the Buda limestone cover, and their course is marked by broad valleys, washed out in the Del Rio clay. The wagon roads in the region usually follow these flats, which are comparatively even and free from rocks. In the south half of Block 12 the bluff which parallels the river about a mile to the east is of the same nature. This bluff follows San Pedro creek eight miles, then it swings around to the south side and returns

62 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

to within less than two miles of the Del Rio road, where it turns first to the south and then to the east, following more or less closely to the north boundary of block 4.

The low lands on the north side of this block are mostly underlaid by this formation. In block 5 only the larger streams, the two branches of the Sycamore, have cut through the lime- stone cover into the clay, but in block 11 the formations have been lifted a little higher and erosion has laid bare the Devil’s river limestone everywhere in the north tier of sections, and in bloek 10, while extensive low flats mark the outcrop of the clay south of this for a varying distance of from one to three miles. Following these flats to the east we find them turning southeast toward Pinto mountain and then east along Pinto creek, until we reach the head of Grass valley. From here the outcrop of the Del Rio clay runs nearly south for about five miles and then east, making a short detour to the south around Turkey mountain.

Relation of the Del Rio Clay to Water Supply.

This clay is practically impervious to water. We therefore find water accumulating under it as well as above it. On the belt of lowlands just described, and for two or three miles south of them, many wells draw water from the limestones underneath this formation, the best water-bearing ledges being reached about a hundred feet below its base. These are exposed to view in the bed of Evans creek, in survey 19 in block A, west of Devils river. All the large springs of this region, such as the Cienega spring northwest of Del Rio, the San Pedro spring, the Las Moros springs, and even the Brackett spring, are evidently overflows over ornear the north margin of this clay, which limits the deep under- ground seepage under the country to the south, and has caused the ground waters to flow over or to find outlets and establish open passages through the less well protected margin of this con- fining cover.

Accumulation of water on the upper surface of the clay has resulted in the making of a number of waterholes on the belt of flat lands over its area of outcrop. Such are the Javelin water- hole in survey 16 in block 11, and many other less important ones, more or less permanent.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 63

THE BUDA LIMESTONE.

This name is applied to a limestone which extends from the central part of the state several hundred miles westward. It overlies the Del Rio clay. In its exposures this limestone some- ° times resembles the Devil's river limestone. It lies in ledges from six inches to several feet in thickness and often weathers in- to steep bluifs, the ledges breaking off as the underlying clay is washed away. But it is different from all other limestones in this region in having a uniformly fine and compact texture. In composition it is a comparatively pure carbonate of lime, free from any considerable clayey ingredient. Its compactness pre- vents vegetation from gaining a foothold on its slopes, and in the Devils river region its contact with the overlying formation is frequently marked by a sharply defined horizontal line, above which the hillsides are nearly covered by verdure, while below it the bleak white surface of this limestone appears. The same physical peculiarity has prevented the ground water from pene- trating this rock. Only in a few places have porous features developed. The most marked change in this respect was noted along the canal which has recently been cut south of Del Rio, where this rock has become known as the “rotten linestone’’, from the fact that it is traversed by numerous porous streaks and has in places acquired a yellow and rusty tinge.

The thickness of the Buda limestone varies but little. Where not effected by erosion it probably never runs short of fifty feet, nor much exceeds a hundred feet. Usually it measures from seventy to eighty feet.

Location of Outcrops.

On the south side of the lands underlaid by the Del Rio clay the Buda limestone is everywhere present and almost invariably exposed, usually forming a slope or bluff. It forms a narrow belt seldom more than two or three hundred yards wide. In crossing the arroyos this belt often makes long detours to the south, sometimes following the valleys for several miles on either side. In blocks 4 and 5 and in the west half of block 11 it forms the bed rock over quite extensive areas, and its outline on a map would be very sinuous, owing to the fact that the south dip of the

64 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

terranes is very low and in places even reversed. Mapping this region was out of question, except in a general way.

Possible Economic Importance.

The fine texture of the Buda rock would adapt it for use as lithographic stone were it not for the presence of occasional grains and streaks of calcite and numerous barely visible joints or incipient fractures which were seen to affect all the material examined. The joints would without doubt disappear some dis- tance within the rock, if a quarry were opened in a suitable place, and it may be that the calcite grains do not exist in all theledges, although no such ledges were observed in this survey.

The purity af the limestone makes it a suitable material for the manufacture of Portland cement. For this purpose similar limestones are mixed with a certain quantity of clay, and for this use the underlying Del Rio clay would answer very well. The limstone would be easy enough to grind, as it is rather less tough than the majority of rocks of similar kinds. Economic conditions limit profitable enterprises of this kind to localities where the raw materials occur in the immediate vicinity of transportation facil- ities, and such locations might readily be found along the South- ern Pacific railroad just east of Del Rio, or between Devil’s river and Comstock.

THE EAGLE FORD BEDS.

This formation, which takes its name from a locality in North Texas, overlies the Budalimestone. Itslower contact with the Buda limestone is invariably sharply marked, as already noted, but up- ward it very gradually and quite imperceptibly acquires the char- acter of the overlying chalky limestone. For this reason no definite depth can be assigned to it, except when taken with this upper member. For practical purposes we may regard it as measuring 250 feet. Westward it exceeds this figure.

The main part of the Eagle Ford beds in this region consists of ledges of cream-colored limestone, measuring from a few inches to a foot in thickness. This limestone is not pure, but contains a varying amount of fine sand, which usually appears as bands of yellowish or light brown color on vertical fractures. The entire formation is somewhat regularly thin-bedded. The lower hun-

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 65

dred feet frequently include beds of marly shale and clay, in which a most perfect lamination appears. These may be greenish blue in color or dark gray or rusty red. At times they are black, from bituminous or carbonaceous materials, or there may be thin and flaggy straight layers of alternating lighter and darker color. The upper hali af the formation is usually free from clayey layers, its stratification is more uniform and the ledges contain a less amount of the fine sand. The rock becomes somewhat softer and is more frequently white. In weathering, the Eagle Ford beds invariably break into long quadrangular blocks, whose length may ten times exceed their width or thickness, and whose square edges have a tendency to weather to acute angles. Ferrug- inous material is present in varying quantity. The lower strata are sometimes stained bright red by oxide of iron, while in the higher strata the same substance is present in clusters of cubic crystals which originally were pyrite. These vary in size from one eighth of an inch to three inches in diameter.

Geographic Distribution of Outcrops.

The silicious and ferruginous ingredients in the Hagle Ford beds render them somewhat more resistant to weathering than most of the Cretaceous rocks in the Rio Grande embayment, and we therefore often find them on the divides forming the highest ground in the uplands. In the Devil’s river country they have mostly been worn away, but remnants of the basal part cap many of the hills in the divides between the upper branches of Deadman’s creek, Evans creek, and Barranco Blanco creek and also on the plateau north and east of California creek. In this region the ferrugions material is quite abundant and the rock is often of a bright red color. Hast of Del Rio some patches were noted in block 4. In block 5 it is everywhere present on the up- lands, In the south half of block 3 and in the north half of block 2 it forms most of the high divides. From the south half of block 11 the area of outcrop of this rock turns southeastward and passes a broad belt between Pinto mountain and Brackett, sur- rounding Elm mountain and extending on the south side of Turkey mountain into Uvalde county.

Bituminous Contents. In the lower part of this formation the shaly ledges are occasionally impregnated with bitumen and oil. I find that some

66 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

black shale which is exposed in the south bank of Sycamore creek in block 2 and farther down in this stream, contain from four to nine per cent. of their weight of bituminous material. About two and one half mile north of Comstock, several feet of bituminous shale have been found in a well, and some of the pieces taken out contain nearly fifteen percent, of bitumen. This is sufficient to support a flame when the shale is thrown in fire, and this shale as well as the darkest shale on Sycamore creek is sometimes locally spoken of as coal. When burned, even the best I found, leaves a residue of no less than eighty-five per cent of ashes. Oil which is reported to have been found in some well near Johnston siding evidently comes from this horizon. In a well made by Mr. Lester- jette near the northwest corner on survey 1 in block 9 at the west end of Anacacho mountain, these dark shales were penetrated at a depth of 810 feet. The samples taken at the time are still preserved and are found to be slightly bituminous. The drillers likewise reported a show of oil in the well at this depth.

The basal part of the Eagle Ford beds almost always contain a small amount of bitumen. In the calcareous ledges there is enough to cause the rock to emit an oily odor when it is thor- oughly crushed. This is true for the entire state of Texas and beyond, north as well as south. But the formation has a com- pact texture. It is a rock with little porous space, and it can not be expected to yield any considerable fiow of oil or gas. The small quantities of oil which have been discovered from these shales are heavy paraffine oils of high value as lubricators. Should any highly charged black shales be found, they might perhaps be profitably distilled for such oil.

THE AUSTIN CHALK.

The Austin chalk is named from the city of Austin, where it is frequently exposed in the streets east of Shoal creek. With the other formations already described it extends as a continuous belt almost across the state. It consists of white soit limestone, usually in ledges varying from six inches to two, or at times several feet in thickness. The rock is more indurated and stony than true chalk, but it consists of the same material, being composed of foraminiferal ooze. In its lower part there is a zone of heavy beds, which furnishes good building stone. This is

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 67

quarried on Pinto creek at the crossing of the Southern Pacific railroad, and also at Fort Clark in the west bank of Las Moras creek, The limestone ledges are quite often separated by seams of greenish gray clay, measuring from a fraction of an inch to two or three feet. Upward these clayey strata increase in thick- ness, and the formation terminates with alternations of clays and strata of limestone.

Area of Qutcrop.

The outcrop of the Austin chalk covers a comparatively wide belt of land, which extends from the Rio Grande below the mouth of Sycamore creek and eastward into Uvalde county.

We find this formation on both sides of Pinto creek from the southwest boundary of the company’s lands to north of the Southern Pacific railroad. It is the bed-rock underlying most of the lands drained by Cow creek and Tequesquite creek and extends to the east of Las Moras creek. It covers the south half of the Meliton Valdez grant, nearly all of the Dolores Soto De Reales grant, and all the land between Brackett and Spofford Junction. From here the area of this formation continues east- ward with decreasing width north of the Anacacho mountains.

The upper hundred and thirty feet of the Austin chalk consist of a series of alternations of white limestone ledges with strata of clays and marls. These makea transition to the overlying formation, which consists of clays and marls exclusively. They were seen on Tequesquite creek, from its mouth to a mile anda half above this, and also on Las Moras creek, in its lower course. They are also exposed at a point a mile and a half northeast of Spotford Junction, in Lindsay creek, and at several points on both sides of the railroad bridge across Elm creek at the west end of the Anacacho mountains. I here append a section of these beds as they were measured on Tequesquite creek.

SECTION OF THE UPPER PART OF THE AUSTIN CHALK ON TEQUESQUITE CREEK.

Thickness in feet. (GemmlbiMESbOMC Se seeseeeeean acd weN ci ccc tered acces Sec wn cen) sedis ebtekan schenessGetes euESS 7 Ges ballets eeetre seen eee eeeg IU. censsccccuates chu lvbben cu cuwaess pes saeecodeens 17 5. Thin ledges of limestone with some seams of shale.................. 6 4. Stony marl with bands of limestone containing Gryphaea

euUcel a SoA Sea Seas eee tea occa av ce hs eae oe ee daa weds Bade Seas Hse abeee aad 13

68 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

3. Clay and marl with occasional grains of glauconite and with bands of limestone, containing Ostrea diluviana, Exogyra

ponderosa and other fossils............ SEE BSA OTTO ORCLOLO DIS 22 2. Shaly chalk with some ledges of chalky limestone.....................38 1. Hard chalky limestone with thin seams of marly clay.............. 20

Thickness of the Austin Chalk.

This formation measures not far from 750 feet along the Rio Grande. North of the Anacacho it is somewhat less than this. But as the division between the Eagle Ford beds and the Austin chalk is not well marked the combined measurement of these two formations may be more accurately given, and this is about 1050 feet. In the country north of the Anacacho mountains they measure about 950 feet.

THE UPSON CLAY.

The Upson clay is a deposit which takes its name from theold Upson postoffice in Maverick county.* It is the equivalent of the Taylor marls of the central part of the state. Where weathered and leached, as it usually is, it has a yellow color. When freshly exposed, it is dark gray or greenish gray. In many place its carries small flakes and crystals of gypsum and thin horizontal seams of this mineral. Crystals of barite were also found. Its characteristic fossils in this region are Exogyra pouderosa and Ostrea larva, the latter having been noted only in the upper part of the deposit, where it occurs in some sandy layers which were seen on Elm creek and on Imperialist creek, from two to four miles north of Paloma.

Distribution.

The country underlaid by this clay is quite extensive. It comprises all of those flat lands which extend southwest, south, and southeast from Spofford. This includes most of the land drained by Canyon Grande, Hackberry creek, Cow creek, and Imperialist creek, west of the Eagle Pass branch of the Southern Pacific railroad. East of this road it includes all of the Snow Tank pasture, and the north half of the Jarita pasture and the west part of the Gilbeau pasture. East of Spofford it is seen in Lindsay creek as far north as to survey 18 in block 8 and in Elm creek to within a mile of the Southern Pacific railroad. From

* This name was first used by E. T. Dumble, Director of the Texas Geol. Survey.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 69

here it is continued as a narrow belt under the north cliff of the Anacacho mountains.

Physical Properties.

These clays weather rapidly and their detritus is promptly carried away by erosion. As a result we find the lands they un- derlie, flat and low and with a fine and fertile soil. The draining streams have cut wide and open valleys. Their channels have in several places been gouged out by the freshets to hollows which are deep enough to hold water the year around. They are quite as impervious to water as is the Del Rio clay and afford every- where suitable ground for the construction of tanks. On the other hand these clays yield no water in wells. The streaks of sand which they contain, are of small extent, and at best give only a small amount of seep water.

Thickness.

Owing to the scarcity of outcrops and fossils the thickness of the Upson clay can only be made out from the general dip of the formations and from well records. The mantle of soil is thin. but covers the formation everywhere, except at a few points in the arroyos, and one may travel for miles without seeing any- thing below this mantle. Fossils are likewise scarce and no attempt could be made to combine the exposures seen into a single section. Of the thickness of this formation I can hence only make an estimate based on the general dip of the bed rock for this region, which appears not to exceed seventy feet per mile along the RioGrande. Asthe width ofthe belt of outcrop is about seven miles, this indicates a thickness of nearly 500 feet. In block 7 several wells have been bored in this clay, but the records are not ofsucha nature that itis clear whether they have gone through the formation or not. It is evident, nevertheless that there are some four or five hundred feet of clay in the country south and east of Spottord.

At all events the thickness of the Upson clay is not the same for different parts of this region. Approaching the Anacacho mountains it thins rapidly. Its upper part is here replaced by the Anacacho limestone and only the basal part continues as a rapidly eroding stratum in the foot of the Anacacho escarpment

for a limited distance. Library Publications, 5.

70 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

THE ANACACHO LIMESTONE.

This is the heavy-bedded yellow rock, which forms the Ana- cacho mountains. It consists of strong ledges of limestone, whose combined thickness measures about 400 feet. The rock is iragmental. It consists of broken particles of shells and plates and spines of various organisms, such as moiluscs, sea urchins, and corals, and with these are mingled entire small tests of foramini- fers. It may be called an organic sandstone, with some grains that consist of minute entire tests of marine organisms. The rock has been consolidated by the solution and introduction of carbonate of lime as a cementing material. It must be regarded as the material of a submerged bar, formed in the sea not far from a shore. The material is well sorted and washed, but not much worn. In many places the ledges exhibit a cross bedded structure. This is especially frequent in the west end of the Ana- cacho mountains, as in the west branch of Elm creek at a point about one and one fourth mile southwest of the Anacacho bench mark of the U. 8S. Topographic Survey, where the following sec- tion is seen in a nearly vertical wall of the limestone.

4. Heavy ledges of cross-bedded fragmenta! limestone................. a 3. ‘Thin-bedded) limestone... 2.5.52 cee seeceven-secsseccce-nsnccsecenncocteveceentnese 9 2. Single ledge of solid limestone ...............--.-...sccsee-eeceeceeeeesenneneeeees 8 1. Thin-bedded fragmental limestone..................2.2.22::::012eeeeeeeneeeeeeees 2

Equivalence.

The sudden thinning out of the Upson clay against the west margin of the Anacacho limestone and its entire disappearance under its formation farther east, shows that this limestone be- gan to be formed in the region of the Anacacho mountains before the making of the Upson clay had come to an end farther west- ward. We must hence conclude that the two are at least in part of the same age. Stratigraphic relations indicate that the mak- ing of the Anacacho limestone continued for some time aiter the Upson clay had all been deposited and that the former is the equivalent not only of the later, but also of a part of the Eagle Pass formation, presently to be described.

; Thickness and Distribution. The resistance of the Anacacho limestone to erosion has caused it to remain as a capping ofa plateau or low mountain,

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 71

while the soft clays and less durable limestone all around it have been washed away more rapidly and reduced to lower land. The Anacacho mountains are wholly due to this difference in re- sistance to destructive forces. The thickness of the formation is 300 feet in the west end of the mountains and about 400 feet in the east end. With the other rocks it is tilted to the south, about ninety feet to the mile. The steepness of the slopes on the north side of the mountains is due to the comparatively rapid removal of the underlying clays. The limestone, being more resistant, remains until its foundation is removed. The southward slope of the top of the mountain is due to the dip in that direction and in block 9 the limestone disappears under an overlying clay. In wells which have been drilled on this clay the limestone has been encountered at depths increasing with the distance from the mountain. The southernmost exposure noted was about a fourth of a mile northwest of the southeast corner of Kinney county. From this point and from the east end of the Anacacho mountains this limestone constitutes the bed rock as far east as to Turkey creek and beyond this. But in this eastern region it lies more nearly horizontal.

Asphalt.

The deposit of asphalt which has been worked at Carbonville, three miles south of Cline in Uvalde county, occurs in the lower part of the Anacacho limestone. I find, however, that the ledges which carry the asphalt are of a more coarse texture on Turkey creek than they are farther west. Near the asphalt deposits they have also been affected by. volcanic agencies that probably were instrumental in rendering those agents effective, which brought about the concentration of the asphalt at this point. The only evidence of local disturbance noted in the region of the Anacacho mountains which may be due to a concealed igneous intrusion is a small, but somewhat abrupt upward fold, now marked by a valley, at a point three and one half miles south and three miles west of U.S. bench mark Cline. In the country where the asphalt — occurs chert is frequently observed as an accompanying mineral. No such chert was observed in the Anacacho mountains. While all of this indicates dissimilarity of physical conditions, the pres- ence or absence of asphalt in the lower ledges of these limestones, Where these are not exposed, can only be determined by direct

72 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

exploration. But indications do not warrant drilling for this exclusive purpose. It would seem wise to closely watch any drill- ings which may penetrate this limestone, as in block 9 and in the north part of block 1 and block 3 in Maverick and Zayalla counties.

THE EAGLE PASS FORMATION.

Like all the sediments previously described, the Upson clays, when followed southward, disappear under later deposits. The sediment overlying the Upson clay have been called the Eagle Pass formation. This consists of a series of clays, marls, sand- stones and limestones, which include the coal now mined north of Eagle Pass. The Eagle Pass formation presents two phases. East of Chacon creek it is much thinner than west of this stream, and contains but a few ledges of sandstone, while to the west and south ai a line nearly coinciding with the course of this stream the formation is much thicker and sandstones and coal beds have a greater development. Three fairly well marked divisions have been made out along the Rio Grande, but these merge as we approach the Chacon. Clearly the belt which separates these two phases was a line which marked some geographical limit in the Cretaceous sea, already at the time when the underlying Up- son clay and the Anacacho limestone were being formed. The country which is east of the Chacon must have been in a part of the sea where sediments were less copious than to the west. It was farther out in the sea than the region to the west, for here we find more sandy deposits and also coal seams which are de- rived from the vegetation near the adjacent land.

It will be convenient to describe separately the clayey sedi- ments to the east. On the Nueces these are known asthe Pulliam formation from their exposures near the Pulliam ranch. Beginning below, the three divisions of the Eagle Pass Formation west of Chacon creek are: 1) The San Miguel beds, 1) the Coal series, and 3) the Escondido beds.*

The San Miguel Beds.

In the bluffs on the south side of Hackberry creek in surveys 70, 70%, and 71% in block 4, the lowermost ledges of sand- stone of these beds cap the Upson clays. These sandstones are

* Designation first given by E. T. Dumble.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 73

mostly composed of siliceous material, but they contain occa- sional ledges consisting of organic fragments. In this respect the formation resembles the Anacacho limestone, to a part of which these beds clearly are equivalent. Green grains of glauconite are also present.

But the best exposures of these beds occur in the bluffs of the Rio Grande all the way from two to six miles below the mouth of Hackberry creek, also called Canyon Chiquito. Thesandstones are interbedded with clays or shales. These shales increase in thick- ness and frequency in the upper parts of the beds, which are ex- posed farther down the river. A section of the lower part of the beds seen in the river bluff near the old village of San Miguel is as below:

San Stones de a-saaseechs ene Ma Seaae he tess ca daa Sas ooece cache sedonaseenenesss 8 feet. (0) EN ees ee GEA SoC CEE CSE ECOCOB UAE OSCE EO EEO CRSEC OCC REDE Ee SOM ae eee Ere 4) EG Sandstone ffi, Wee

QNaiyiesssaeicscoecewscsces Sy atun Se seis dua dotastee lalabs fics os sete aaedovad suchas vite 9 < Caleareous sandstone c

These same ledges were again seen near the old Stone ranch northwest of Paloma, and on survey 86 in block 7 northeast of Paloma. From the last place their outcrop was traced in a northeast direction for four miles, but beyond this they could not be identified.

Near Paloma a ledge of sandy limestone runs parallel with the outcrops just described, at a distance of a mile to the south of there. About 100 feet of clay separates these two ledges. The upper Paloma ledge is overlain by another heavy bed of clay and’ above this there is more sandstone, which is soft and friable and of a dark rusty brown color. On Elm creek the thickness of the San Miguei beds does not-much exceed 400 feet. From the log of a boring which was made near Eagle Pass many years ago and

which penetrated to the shales below these beds,* it is clear that the upper part of these beds consists of clays which measure some 250 feet. These might perhaps as well be classified with the over-

lying coal series.

* Thomas W. Vaughan, Bull. 164, U.S, Geol, Surv., p. 24.

74 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

The Coal Series.

These are the deposits which immediately overlie the San Miguel beds on lower Olmos creek and at Eagle Pass. The series consists of clays, shales and sandstones, with seams of coal and fireclay. One of the coal seams is thick enough to be profitably mined.

A continuous section of the coal series was made from the ex- posures in the country around Eagle Pass, and this measures 357 feet. This section is as below:

Section of the Coal Series. Thickness in feet. 20. Sandstone, tough and calcareous above and softer and more siliceous below. (A part of the basal sandstone of the over- lying Escondido beds.)...............-..--se0«+ Poaesennnostceenecneneeer ees 15 19. Shaly clay .. 40 18. Clay with yellow or dark concretions of carbonate of lim and of iron, measuring from a few inches to three feet in dia- meter, and having internal fissures filled with dark calcite... 1 17. Clay, sandy below and with a dark carbonaceous seam

about 2 teetibelowsatOpecs-cessesesecessscrcsseecseee cer oe eceee tere eee 32 NG. Yo Wellowrandvoraiyncl ays: -ccsscecoes ccc eseoec esas cesce sete eee ee eeene es 3 >See aminabedisoluisal CStONC sere tetera sees ee eee ne Reece eee eee ne eee 1% 14) ‘Coalyishales cei ee ee RSS REN ne eet cae 1% Se Samdiyafinerclaiysesceeste-<ssste senescence caceee na cece cea coerce eres nema 1% D},' lim pure xe Wall seeenescoenssectmsocees secase ces Gee se ae Tee oer eee ee 4 UE Pe Claiycesce t= anscads cone tonecssaccecr ewe sostece teecemert tae ee nepeaacn enters 2 AOS COally: cl aye a evsss tes ccdcecascsewaces wubastacatecetwaces ons eens ee aes 1 OM Waminated! Sandstonesrs-crc- cere seerccce sect e cece cease eee 3 Soy Darksorayel by-sicc steed eecvetecwnshesectesucceds sce as soeecenstececon sss steenee 1 ieee laninatedysoltasand stonetereuscctenecstecttesceoree cease oseeceeces 3 Gy Go ally gel aye -o-ccce~rsien ea ances Seneca ore ike eer ane Tarte erence sae dace eeeeeere 2 5. Clay, dark above and sandy in lower part................-...e00++ 33 4. Sandstone, in places cross-bedded, with occasional seams of

conglomerate of small pebbles, slightly micaceous along some seams, in its upper part containing silicified trunks of

UIA pg nS GeC0kC GAO aC CO ICSAC IO BOO SCOCE OI OCOSECORDOBEKIDO SOOO URS EOOIIEOOOTICLEEKO 40 3. Clay, with seams of sandstone and occasional seams of

CO aM es Severs tee sce s eectecs tase cntacsusenecs nee cee wan ccont rena oesanesee sete 160 Diy (Boal caemacteceec ce scoccOcdGODeas0e | HcaoacedoBCEOGOS aL OOOO SECO ODSOOOBOOHOLOOKIEOSEC 6 1A Mireclayrand sandstones css: s-<csecre cescecencee state tee cc aees tee smecree cee 15

Numbers 1, 2 and 3 are not exposed in a continuous section but were penetrated in such a section by an exploration shaft not

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 75

far from the Olmos creek mines. Other explorations show that this part of the section is variable. Numbers 4 to 16 inclusive outcrop in the hills to the north of Kagle Pass on the west side of the railroad, and numbers 17 to 20 were measured and traced for several miles in the bluffs east of the railroad. Number 20 caps the bluffs east of Eagle Pass.

Thickness.

No fast limits can be assigned to the three divisions of the Eagle Pass formation. If we designate the lowest sandstone in the above section (number 1) as the basal member of the coal series and the uppermost clay (number 19) as its highest part, we find that the total thickness is 372 feet.

Distribution.

The coal series are exposed in the valley of the Rio Grande from some five miles below Eagle Pass to about three miles north of the mouth of Olmos creek. The area of their outcrop forms a belt about four miles wide, which follows the Olmos valley from the points indicated on the river to about three miles north of Olmos station (Thompson’s ranch). Beyond this the belt turns to the east around Chapotal hill and then to thesoutheast. Thesand- stones of the Eagle Pass formation are seen in Olmos Grande, Olmos Chiquito and in Chapotal creek. Again this belt turns east and then northeast and north, as appears from exposures of soft sandstones, carbonaceous clays, ferruginous concretionary ma- terials, and silicified wood, such as characterize these sediments north of Eagle Pass. Materials of this kind are met with on Sur- veys 209, 186, 177, 178, 155 and 145 in block 7. Beyond this the coal series has not been identified. Its sediments are in all probability reduced in thickness farther east and go to make up a part of the as yet unclassified complex presently to be described as the Pulliam formation.

The Eagle Pass Coal.

Thin seams of coal, measuring a few inches in thickness, have already been noted in the sections of the Coal series. But neither well records nor outcrops have so far shown more than one work-

76 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

able seam, and this is the seam which is now worked by the mines on both sides of the Rio Grande. The vein is exposed in the bluffs of the Rio Grande north of Olmos creek, and also in the bed of this creek north of the mines.

This coal was carefully examined and measured at four points in order to make out whether there was any successive change in its nature, from which an inference might be made as to itsnature under the country lying to the east of Eagle Pass. The measure- ments were made in Shaft number 4 in the Fuentes mine, Mexico, in the Dolch mine and in two pits on survey 166 in block 17, and are as below:

1.

A SECTION OF THE CoAL IN SHarr NuMBER 4, FUENTES, Mexico.

Thickness in inches. 9. Cap rock, shale and sandstone..............c:cesececeseneeeeeceensenecneeee —. CSE 80) 112} 7(600}2) nee iasan can endonbaccosodeandod SaaS uoecoeoSc acca codsoqcsabssaadabsccdogaer 6 ite Lmipure! €o als eee oe. eee aacenecntetceectcete cree I ESE ee 6 6. Good coal, containing occasional small lentils of bone coal......30 5. Mixture of fireclay and bone Coal.............ccceecseceecnsceecseeeeseeees 3 BS NGOOG CORN cea ticc cs sccusendasstinns sieenneee Ioaacsenees ane lee eeeseetaereeiee tee sees 14 Be) bali fre Clay tisseaecoecsececsceecceec see sn ceto esta redeaee srearcrseeseeneere eee OU, DE MC Oa An ENR eC oeetne ine eanee itera eet iate Se Seat gator eeu tou WeaturlS as hae ee eRe ses 6 MSV ire tcl ayes siracccanccen sect tesies toca rete ee cae ae setae eae anae cece ucnenene = 2

A SECTION OF THE COAL IN THE Douce Mine, NortTu oF EAGLE Pass.

Thickness in inches. 8s \Caprockiidarkushalesios.scceessaccotenccacesesuaceoneneesse-eeeenemecceacs = 7. Coal of good quality...............::ceceee pon?) Grp Bonedcoalle ne Soareeenceacatuncedsaacectass pba) nes Da oh( ol Eh Asacina peepee BHaGReCeGanC eos RpSEinbeeEe EOC GEE EaseH osbebocnobeeonsdaeGboe0 1% Bie COA see eveh cans gece aeedaeaetide bvawslovaueaee soot eneaaee scale tewenecbdes creme tesetes 24 Be OABIVe VC] ayia ss ees ee See wos aee sae cae somone ee ae eaetines Motion sac a rsxeesens 20 Dig COAT Re aeeee RI ee ae aaew tee va reciae Sooo eae nates dae aeee ee ceeemaret eee 6 A IB rclaiymeteeacccecud aces eceeenee ete eras ACORbaSbbapbeaacoroceadebapsoodonandad — 3.

SECTION OF THE HaGLE Pass CoaAL IN A Prt ON THE East BANK OF OLMOS CREEK NEAR THE Wes? LinE OF SurRVEY 166, Bock 7. Thickness

in inches. 11. Cap rock, gray sandy shale.................2..:seeeeeeee joameoanquSdades -- TOG SISO EVENTOS he aogaadsudsocbocanoodéodecneadaoococnéceadoddsanccconowacuovadacabeeeds 9

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS, mtr

8. Good coal, slightly weathered................ccsccsesecssssesesesennees

ica ONEICOM] sen auccsecsecssecaesestacicens ccna sectacceesereaa Mies

6. Fair coal, with some half inch lenses of fireclay...

Dean Cave VADONEICOAL.«.seccccrecseeves-Becccevescedeseue(eceensccotenes cost tvastece

4. Fire clay, dark and slightly bituminous, with white seams EIKO <cocbabahcos ccc nceoc Uc eOo-So00e De H DOSE ORE Sa oocacouncee Haaser Hoc Rer eee 48

SMB ONE COBE Nara accscecaee eee ooo res ee sane Sone saeeo ate eee enee ates 2

2. Fair coal, becoming bone coal above..............secsecenecenereeees 13

ip H rey Cl aivic meee scchtasceuss condos Peart Wosweeceeveoe cas ecuonclewseacesteeaseneses 2

4,

SECTION OF THE HAGLE Pass CoaAL IN THE Hast BANK OF OLMOS CREEK, ONE HALF Mite Norvti FROM THE Sours LINE OF Survey 166, BLock 7.

Thickness

in inches. lie. Capirock oray Shale: . 0 care. seek cer cck csc ecettstbaresconieccseueeceets -- 16. Coaly shale............ ..... Mela 15. Fair coal, weathered rey LO AS WNWInerClayacencecceeeseeeeceees a0 be bye Bee Dlack alr. cO all eise.wscarvaser cesses sc acetecn nace eethecdte stacanetosteweess 1 U2, Ube O WEE) OKONY Aa) COL) | -caccosaqoascqancoscbsocHoHoHocdeoadadoouusoBoGHotoDoDooRNS 6 ARLES ONETCO MM ceases secs tencee sea ecco aces Sees ae a ne OO eta 4 LOM ehainicoalysliohtlys weathered scescsscssresscceseesscescesseerceeceetees 14% (oeadll Sab 310 Es 7asencastcnanehocESEBeceCh Re cOnCe Tice eco Snare Bate ee cor DASE SE AEEEE yy Soy Blaieve Gall fesse soa sae dacskcanseeee ences seven eecea uses ctanenee esse saves cease 6% 7. Fire clay, light above, dark below...............ccsescesesssenee seco 4015 6. Very good coal... 3 5. - Fire clay........... 2 Hie Wal DENTE YK) Gee ernegronacoctige cD PB aE AE Ce COSEGCOL DOSS G Ce HERE EEC me cre icae se ndceres 118} ie earl HURE}(O Een 7ah aoe ionen gb aaccods sbooe ecnod snAGndosadesEiodonceedodcesccsuEsnaecdescass 3 2, Fair coal with some streaks of bony coal.................0.00.000es 0 a Vora Seto Eh oo onecesaosbo ce soccen Ee ann aDcoCee roo noac eee ooAacon cbecccce eeu 4

The points where these sections were taken lie in the line of the strike of the coal seam, extending from the northeast to south- west a distance of ten miles. It will be seen that in two respects there is a gradual change in the coal to the northeast. The vein is split up into progressively more and smaller parts. The total thickness of the coal does not perceptibly decrease to the north- east, for there is at Fuentes fifty-six inches, in the lower pit forty- one inches, but again in the upper pit fifty-four inches. Along with the splitting of the vein there is a decrease in the degree of purity of the coal (See plate 2). Irrespective of the weathering of the coal exposed in the upper pit, most of the coal was slightly impure from the presence of original clayey sediments. The significance of these changes is clear. The northern exposures are

78 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

nearer to the margin of the basin in which the coal was made. But we have no knowledge of the shape of the original basin. There may have been irregularities in its outlines and areas may exist in its marginal region where the vein is better. Rapid changes of this kind are indicated by the differences in thesections of the two pits made on the Olmos creek. There can be no doubt that the vein is workable in many places in block 16 and also in the surveys adjoining survey 166 in block 7, Changes in the seams are characteristic of the outer margin of most coal basins. The eastward extent of the coal beyond this can only be determined by drilling, as exposures in that direction show only the presence of the sediments which contain the coal. If prospect holes were made near the tank on survey 193 in block 7, and near the centre of survey 145 in the same block, and if no workablecoal were found within 400 feet of the surface at these points, the ques- tion would be settled. Eastward from the latter point the sedi- ments change to such a degree that it is not likely any consider- able veins of coal exist. The limits of the coal basin does not ex- tend farther than this. The sea was apparently too open for the accumulation of vegetable material in that direction.

The Escondido beds.

This name has been applied to all of the sediments of the Eagle Pass epoch overlying the coal series and beginning below with the ledges which cap the bluffs a half mile east of Eagle Pass. The thickness of these beds on the Texas side of the Rio Grande is about 800 feet. They consist mainly of clays and marls of dark color, interbedded with more or lessextensive strata of sandstone, limestone, and layers of oyster shells. The area where this divi- sion of the Eagle Pass formation is exposed may be roughly indi- cated as being the country east from Eagle Pass, nearly reaching to Zavalla county and southeast as far as to Comanche creek and a little beyond the north limit of the Antonio Rivas grant.

An examination of the country shows that the sandy and cal- careous stony ledges are arranged in essentially three groups: 1) the basal sands, 2) the middle sands and 3) the upper sands, and that each of these is overlain by more or less persistently developed clay deposists, which may respectively be designated as the lower, the middle, and the upper clay. It is also evident that this group-

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS, 719

ing of the different rocks is not equally marked everywhere. Ledges of sandstone occur in the clays wholly isolated from other sandstones, and clay beds are nearly always present between the sandy and the calcareous strata. The oyster shell breccias are especially irregular in their behaviour and occur in association both with the clays and with the sands. They are also more apt to run out and to undergo more rapid changes in thickness than the other rocks.

1. The basal sandstone is exposed in the banks on the bluffs of the Rio Grande on the three surveys of Samuel Sanders, It caps the bluffs which extend in a north and south direction from three miles south of Eagle Pass to Arroyo Seco, three miles north of the city. North of this creek the escarpment formed by this sandstone turns to the northeast, passing through surveys 6 and 4 in block 16 and through surveys 199, 200, 196, 197, 168, 169 in block 7, and rising to form the capping of a low hill known as Chapotal hill in survey 170 in the same block. From this point it can be followed for several miles to the south and east, but be- yond that its course is doubtful. It should be added that this sandstone is not a unit, but consists af different ledges separated by strata ofclay. At times it is broken up into two or three members. In composition it varies from a siliceous sand to a fairly pure limestone, containing a considerable amount of shell fragments. It is mostly fine in texture, but there are occasional seams of gravel. Exogyra costata is sometimes seen in the clay immediately below it. Ripple marks were noted in several places, and fragments of bones of reptiles are not unkown. Barite is a frequent mineral.

The thickness of this sandy zone varies from thirty to one hundred feet.

2. The lower clay comes up to the surface in a swale of low upland which follows the sandstone just described, on its east and south side. The average width of this swale, or shelf, is two miles, and the thickness of the clay is about 275 feet. Inits upper half the fossil shell /xogyra costata can be found almost wherever the clay is exposed. By this fossil the belt was traced eastward from Muerto hill to the John Foster survey, and from there northeast- ward as far as to near Chilpotin tank on survey 119 in block 7. Fibrous barite was noted in several places in this clay.

80 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

3. The exposed west ledge of the middle sandstone group forms the second range of hills extending from north to south, three miles east of Eagle Pass. In survey 1 in block 16 the es- carpment formed by this sandstone makes a turn to the south- east and reaches its highest position in the rock capping Muerto hill, where again it turns to the east, or a little south of east, to survey 8 in block 6. From this point it was traced with some in- terruptions northeast and then north to Chilpotin tank and northwest to the Vela Ramos survey on Salado creek. It is prob- able that this same horizon is represented by some ledges which run from here north and west, to survey 25 in block 7, and from there north and east across Chacon creek, and then east on the south side of the Anacacho mountains.

While apparently more persistent than the lower sandstones this middle group is more variable in its nature than the former. It is frequently slightly coarser and more open in texture. Quite often it is calcareous and contains an appreciable ingredient of organic fragments. In places it is wholly composed of entire and broken pieces of the valves of an ancient oyster, Ostrea cortex. Near the northwest corner of survey 225 a breccia of this shell measures nearly forty feet in thickness.

The thickness of the strata belonging to this sandy group, including the sands, the interbedded clays, and the shell breccias, is in the neighborhood of 130 feet.

4. The middle clay underlies the basin of Lampasitas creek and is also found on some of the high divides on either side of Rosita creek. Occasionally it is of light gray color and contains seams with small flakes of gypsum. Shells of Ostrea cortex are frequent throughout. In its upper part I found large concretions of yellow carbonate of lime and many of these contained the fossil Sphenodiscus pleurisepta. It contains some ledges of shell breccia locally known as shell rock, but these are absent in many places. Some of these are seen near Stone Ranch on Willow creek.

5. The upper sandstone was traced in a continuous outcrop for fully ten miles on the east side of Palo Blanco and Willow creeks. It forms a very sinuous line of bluffs from survey 116 in block 6 northwestward to survey 98 in the same block, and thence northward to the head of Palo Blanco creek. In this region it measures from five to thirty feet in thickness. In texture it is usually fine grained.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 81

6. To the upper clay Irefer provisionally all of the Cretaceous sediments which lie above the upper sandstones. In the south half of survey 116 in block 6 these beds were made out to be as in the following section.

SECTION OF THE UPPERMOST CRETACEOUS BEDs IN Survey 116, Block 6.

Thickness in feet.

5. Soft sandstone of fine texture, yellow, with some layers of more caleareous material, containing Sphenodiscus and small

bivalve shells, preserved mostly as Casts.............2.cccccseeeeeeeees 15 4. Clay with cakes of fibrous barite 38. Brecia of broken oyster shells with sandy material ................. 2 2. Clay with shells of Ostrea cortes........0...s.ccescosccn-seeecrseeensensenss DO AGI eI PPELISAM ASLONE seco cc soeeete ncoe tess es ce ese ce rece ere ectueseastseee 5

On the south side of Pena creek, four miles south of the hill where the above section was noted, the sandy member (number 5) has a considerably stronger development, and measures some 40 teet. Above it was a clay of at least the same thickness. This clay is characterized by the presence of Ostrea idriensis and by an as- semblage of other bivalves and some tall-spired gasteropods. The same clay, with the same fossils, was noted in the northeast quar- ter of survey 153 in block 7 and also in the southwest quarter of survey 121 in the same block. It is overlain at all three places by sandstones belonging to the Tertiary age.

THE PULLIAM FORMATION.

The Pulliam formation takes its name from the Pulliam ranch on the Nueces river, where some of its ledges of soft sandstone are known to contain from ten to thirteen percent of asphalt. This formation is by some regarded as the attenuated eastern equiv- alent of most of the Eagle Pass beds. It consists of clays and marls, with some ledges of sandstone, limestone, and shell beds. One of the sandstone ledges forms the divide between the upper branches of Chaparrosa creek, and Mula and Palo Blanco creeks. It is also exposed in places in the north half of block 3 south of the Anacacho mountains. South of this it is covered by the Ter- tiary deposits, which deepen to the south and east. The thickness of the formation on the Nueces river has been estimated at from 100 to 200 feet. This clearly increases to the westward and along the Chacon creek and south of the west end of the Anacacho

82 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

mountains in the Mula creek basin, it is certainly not less than 500 feet.

The bituminous sandstones noted on the Nueces river in this formation no doubt underlie some of the lands in the northwest part of Zavalla county, but the presence of the bitumen cannot be ascertained except by exploration. Wells made on these lands merit attention for the detection of this product at reasonable depths. The synclines, or downward folds, in which the asphalt is most apt to have accumulated, are concealed, if there be any, by the overlying Tertiary deposits.

THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS.

The deposits belonging to this age cover the older sediments on most of the lands in Zavalla and Webb counties and alsoin the east and south part of Maverick county. They consist of clays and sandstones, and in places contain seams of lignitic coal and occasionally some ledges of yellow calcareous rock. In general appearance they differ but little from the sediments which make up the Eagle Pass and the Pulliam formations. The boundary between these two divisions were made out with fair accuracy by a study of their physical characteristics. The sandstones of the Tertiary age are more heavily impregnated with oxide of iron than the Cretaceous beds, and this frequently gives them a deep red, a brown, or a yellow color. They are also more variable in their texture and contain coarser grains of quartz, that may sometimes be known by their bluish white translucency. This is especially true of the basal sandstones of the group. The clays also are inclined to exhibit brighter distinctions of color, and from layer to layer there are apt to be somewhat rapid changes from one to the other of grayish white, yellow, red, purple, brown and dark lead-gray. These colors are due to different degrees of oxida- tion of the iron which they contain.

The thickness of the Tertiary deposits it was not practicable to make out except from such records as could be secured from well-drillers in the Carizzo Springs artesian basin. There was no opportunity to see any continuous set of samples of drillings, and verbal descriptions by drillers are always unsatisfactory. The following section is given as an average of the results obtained. It is quite evident that these clays and sandstones are even more variable in their development than the Escondido beds.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 83

CENTRAL SECTION OF THE TERTIARY DUPoOsiITs IN THE CARIZZO SPRINGS ARTESIAN BASIN. Approximate

thickness in feet. 6. Clays of varying color and texture, with some sand above and occasionally lignitic below...............-s.-cescocececcscevcoeenecee 250 5. Sands of somewhat fine texture, sometimes yielding water.... 50 4. Clays partly of dark color and containing occasional streaks of bituminous and lignitic or peaty material...................2..-+- 150 3. Sands giving the principal flow of water, somewhat coarser hanyohenrp per Sam deca see senseeeeee nee ee eseen ene Bee senere ASSERT 125 2. Clays, with some seams Of lignite.................--.ceeecessessesseoeesees 50 1. Sands, yielding water in some deep Wells...........2-.2e00eeeeeeeeeees 30

Lignite.

The seams of lignite which have been found in the lower part of this section have also been noted in other places. As we pro- ceed to the north and to the west from Carizzo Springs the lower strata rise until we find them exposed in the belt adjoining the area of the Cretaceous sediments, on which they rest. In this belt lignitic coal is reported in several wells, and a small seam has been observed in an outcrop on a hilly slope east of section 122 in block 7. One of the wells going through thin seams of lignite at shallow depth was made near the junction of Salado and Chacon creeks on the F. Wucherer survey. At this place there were two seams, each about six inches thick, one forty and the other sixty feet below the surface. One of the same seams was penetrated at a somewhat greater depth in a boring about a mile and a half northwest of this place. Some years ago a lignite bed was re- ported from some wells south of survey 1 in block 6, and more re- cently a seam reported to measure four feet was penetrated in a well far to the south near the northwest corner of survey 7 in block 9 at a depth of 220 feet.

These occurrences of lignite in the belt of outcrops of the Terti- ary sediments are no doubt only some of the many instances of the same kind, of which no record is known. This lower lignite horizon characterizes the earlicst tertiary deposits in the eastern part of the state and in Louisiana; but in that region it has not been found to contain lignite in commercial quantity. The prob- ability is that they will prove equally unprofitable here. Judging by such explorations as have been made, they are best developed in the Farias and the Camanche pastures in blocks 9 and 11.

84 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

The lignite seams which have been found in the clays above the main waters and in wells made west of Carizzo Springs. and in the region of the Wilderness Lake and the Beef Hollow pastures are apt to have a less variable development, for they were formed in the Tertiary coastal waters at a time when the shoreline was more distant and when the lagoons were more extensive and uniform in their physical features. The upper lignite beds con- tain the productive deposits, but they are not productive in every locality. In Zayalla and Dimmit counties the beds to which they belong do not extend farther west than to within six miles of Maverick county, and usually they do not extend that far west. So far as I could learn, nothing is known of these lignites on the Company’s lands except from explorations made by churn drills, and no reliable estimates on the thickness of such seams can be made except by the use of core drills. In Webb county these clays underlie the east part of block 7 and all of blocks 8 and 14. Itis not likely that lignite beds of this horizon anywhere lie deeper than 400 or 500 feet on any of the Company’s lands west of the Nueces river. A vein reported to be three feet thick was found in a well made on the Trinidad Sanches survey at a depth of 75 feet.

PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS.

The surface of the uplands in the upper part of the Rio Grande embayment sometimes consists of the bare outcrops of the coun- try rock, with thin patches of scanty soil. More frequently the bed rock is covered by a continuous thin land drift with a mantle of dark soil. In afew places this land drift rests on sediments which are evidently much later than the early Tertiary rocks just described. The springs on Tequesquite creek, four miles above its mouth, issue from such a deposit. Its lower partisacoarse gravel which changes upward into cross bedded sand and then to clays > and fine sands of yellow color. These gravels and sands are prob- ably not very extensive, but they are clearly the cause of the springs, which result from a slow seepage of water retained and stored in the porous sand.

Material unlike this, but of nearly the same age, forms a verti- cal bluff on the east side of a creek known as Agua de Fuera at a point a mile and a half northeast of Spofford. It rests on clay and stony ledges of the Austin chalk. Below it consist of a con-

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 85

glomerate of rounded limestone pebbles. Above this there are several heavy ledges of a white laminated and hard calcareous tufa, from ten to twenty feet thick. This tufa must underlie the land for more than a mile to the south, for it is exposed in the sides of the cut along the Southern Pacific railroad from a half to one mile east of Spofford. Itisarather pure carbonate of lime and with the Cretaceous clay that underlies, it could be used in the manufacture of good Portland cement. A suitable site for a mill could be found next the road and no carting would be needed. Both the limestone and the clay would be right at hand. This same stony tufa was also seen in the south bank of a creek near the north line of survey 27 in block 9, south of the Anacacho mountains.

ALLUVIUM AND SOIL.

Excepting the land where the Cretaceous limestones form the bed-rock, and in a few other places, as in the Anacacho mountains, where the weathering rocks are resistant, all streams have wide valleys with well developed flood plains. These are built up from a loamy alluvium, which has developed deep and rich black soil. In many places these valleys may be said to be in a measure sub- irrigated, for as the surface is desiccated under the summer sun, capillary moisture ascends from the more humid alluvium below. The supply is sufficient for a luxuriant vegetation of mesquite, pear, grass and various shrubbery. It seems to me that much, if not all of these alluvial lands, will in time have a greater value as cultivated land, than as pasture land. With a rainfall averaging twenty inches a year and with thorough cultivation, the soil ought to be very productive. The quality of the soil is such that it might even in time warrant the construction oftanks, or reservoirs, for purposes of irrigation. I believe that the time will come when this will be tried on some of these lands. It isclear that all of the Company’s lands east of Del Rio have been selected for the excellence of the soil for pasture vegetation. Thesurveysevery- where follow those tracts where clays and marls form bedrock and subsoil. Thisis most notably the case north and west of Fort Clark, where the surveys follow the outcrop of the Del Rio clay, from Del Rio to within a short distance of the Nueces river.

One circumstance which increases the fertility of the soil south

of the belt of the Austin chalk is the presence in the Cretaceous Library Publications, 6.

86 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

marls and sandstones of small grains of glauconite. This isa phosphatic mineral, which has been worked extensively for the market in beds of the same age on the Atlantic coast and used as a fertilizer. In the upper part of the Austin chalk formation, in the Upson clay, and in the San Miguel beds, this mineralis present in small grains as an original ingredient, which is continually yielded to the soil forming on the surface.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

During the tertiary age, while the Upper Cretaceous strata extended uninterrupted far to the north and before the land had been elevated to its present level, some volcanic disturbances re- sulted in the injection of what must have been extensive sheets of basaltic rock, chiefly among the strata of the Eagle Ford beds. At least two or three thousand feet of sediments have since that time been removed by erosion from the country north of Eagle Pass, and the land has been cut down to a level mostly below the in- truded rock, in the country north of the main line of the Southern Pacific railroad. It seems probable that there was only one sheet originally injected. This may have extended as one continuous body from east of Turkey mountain to west of Pinto mountain. But the greater part of this sheet has been cut away with the formations in which it lay, and at the present time we find only a few small remnants of the original intrusive. These remnants are left on account of their effective resistance to weathering and erosion, and we find them capping the highest points in the region. They are the dark rocks found on seven peaks which rise as pro- minent landmarks on the uplands around Fort Clark: Turkey mountaiz, Elm mountain, Las Moras mountain, Pintomountain, Little Pinto mountain, Palmer hill, and another low hill two miles north of Las Moras mountain.

The rock is alike in all of these places. It is a dark basalt, composed chiefly of plagioclase feldspar, olivine, augite, and magnetite. It usually has a somewhat porphyritic structure, but varies considerably as to coarsness of texture. In some cases the crystals are readily visible to the unaided eye, while at other points the rock appears compact and the crystals are microscopic. Everywhere the rock is fresh. It has undergone practically no change from its original condition. This makes

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 87

it certain that no mineral deposits of any consequence will be found associated with it in these localities.

It is probable that the intrusives come from the Uvalde country on the east. In that region similar rocks have a much greater development and the fissures through which the molten masses rose, are no doubt to be. found in that direction. This hypothesis would also account for a westward thinning which is evident in the remnants of the flow found in Kinney county. The measurements taken are given in the following table.

TABLE SHOWING APPROXIMATE THICKNESS OF THE IGNEOUS Rocks IN KINNEY

CouNTY. Thickness in feet. SMunkeyein O UML Dies cae ccoseer sae ve mees cee et ee eat vows eae eetec aces uswesese weer 200 Elm mountain MastMorasim OUNtAII- rrecccstes coco scce se oct re nonce cecuek eeteee nce Seas enecne wees 90 Ect wiommilesmonrnthvotluaseMOrasteccsceesesescesectasesce cesses senectetees 70 MittlewPin Comm Ownbaln ser-sccsesassssesce soe ctec cose coseoeteaceeccamecencsencnees 15

Pin FOeM OUN GAIN bese asececces eerste ose aicees eee ane arene scuae ee aaae ts 30 Jerr Voss O41) heats oe esos poceeeSadociodaccaccne aaa coe cRochoaedder eta mt pcoenn 30?

In all probability other exposures of this intrusive are found at some points to the south and west of Palmer hill, for small boulders of it are present in the land drift between Fort Clark and Spofford.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.

In its great features the structure of this whole region is quite simple, as will be apparent from the facts already presented. There is a general slow descent of the formations to the southeast. In the distance of a hundred miles, from Del Rio down the Rio Grande, 3872 feet of stratified rocks go under the river. The descent of the river itself in this distance amounts to nearly 200 feet, and thus the dip averages some forty feet to the mile.

The whole region must be regarded as a single structural unit, a wide and low monocline tilted to the southeast. This mo- nocline is however itself affected by minor flexures and by some small faults. Thus we find a rather abrupt reversal of the gener- al southward dip in Devils river about one mile north of the bridge of the Southern Pacific railroad. At this place there is a small anticlinal fold with its axis extending from east to west for several miles. To the north of this axis the ledges of the Devil’s

8s 4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

river limestone dip northward for a few hundred yards. descend- ing as much as fifty feet, before again resuming their slow climb in that direction. Another fold of about the same size and direction was noted two miles north of Del Rio. This latter fold extends several miles to the east,so that the dip at several points east of Del Rio is to the north even as far out as near therailroad bridge over,Sycamore creek. Between Pinto creek and Las Moras creek the ledges of the Austin chalk are at several points ina horizontal position and in a few cases they dip north. On Tequesquite creek, irom one to three miles above its mouth, there are several abrupt small folds and some small faults. One of these faults crosses the creek about a hundred and fifty yards above the main wagon road following the river. The downthrow oi this fault is to the north and amounts to about seventy feet. The trend of the fault is some five degrees north of east. About the same distance below the road there is a small, short, and abrupt monoclinal fold with dip to southwest and a down- throw of only ten feet. In following up Las Moras creek from the same road a reversal of the south dip was noted for a half mile on the Samuel Blair survey.

Several irregularities of this kind were also noted on the lands north of the Anacacho mountain.

THE LAMPASITAS ARCH.

Ii we project a straight line from the centre of Survey 97 in the Lampasitas pasture in block 6, due north, or a little west of north, we find that this traverses a region where dips are very gentle and more often to the south than to the southeast. In the east part of the Paula pasture, in the Lampasitas, and in the Sauz pastures, dip is either absent, the ledges lying horizont- al or with a slight tilting to the south, or there is a noticeable dip to the west or southwest. Only at a few points is the dip normal to the general structure, to the southeast. Thus the horizontal position was noted in the following places:

1. S%, survey 251, block 7. EX, survey 20. block 6. Survey 18, block 6. Survey 19. block 6. Sw survey 22, block 6. Sw survey 23, block 6. EX, survey 24, block 6.

ww bo

D ot

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 89

7. NY, survey BS & F survey 65. 8. S%, Miles Bonnet 74 survey. 9. South end Guadaloupe de los Santos survey. 10. W. Owen’s survey. 11. Centre, Survey 56, block 6. 12. Sw, survey 57, block 6. 13. Centre, survey 58, block 6. 14. Nw, survey 103, block 6. 15. W4, survey 119, block 6. 16. N%, survey 93, block 6. 17. S% survey 47, block 6.

Dips to the west, northwest, or to the southwest were noted as follows:

Nw, survey 225, block 7.

Se, survey 18, block 6.

Near S. line, survey 22, block 6.

Near N. line. Serena Goodman suryey.

W. line, Thomas Weeks survey (on Rio Grande). E. %, survey 12, W. of Anton Handauer survey.

ao or oo to

It is clear that from the north end of this area of variable dip there is a general descent of the beds to the south, probably equal to some 30 feet to the mile. But there are minor folds which frequently reverse this dip. The frequency of the horizontal atti- tude on the west side of the stated line and no less the occasional tilting to the west, clearly show that the strata are affected by a flexure, which has the form of an arch whose crest extends in a north and south direction. But owing to the general inclination of the terranes to the southeast, the west limb of this arch is slightly more raised in its position, as compared to the east limb (see plate 3), :

The presence of the arch is clearly shown at its northern extension in the southward detours made by lines indicating the north limits to the three members of the Eagle Pass formation. It also appears from these curves that the arch is more narrow and pinched at its north end and wider and perhaps not as high or as well defined at its south end. South of Mula creek, in the Sauz pasture, it is lost in a general dip to the southeast which again becomes the ruling structure. The highest dips referable to this arch were seen on its east side as far north as the Salado tank in the Salado pasture. Near the old Salado tank there is an eastward dip of some five or six degrees and at a point south-

90 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

east of Chilpotin tank a dip to the east-northeast measures seven degrees.

MINOR FOLDS.

There is a minor class of structures which are frequent in the country covered by the Eagle Pass formation. These consist of abrupt and small folds where the more indurated members, such as the sandstones, limestones: and shell breccias assume a high inclination for a short distance and appear with their edges on the surface of the ground as low and straight hog-backs. The indurated member is sometimes unbroken and the fold is seen asa well marked crest, with the rock changing its dip along the crest. But at other times only one side of the fold is seen. In the latter case these folds probably are to be regarded as small overthrusts. These folds are due to lateral pressure. The more plastic clays have yielded to this pressure by shortening in the direction the pressure has been applied, while the indurated and rigid ledges imbedded in the clays have been fractured and folded. The direc- tion of the force was northwest and southeast, for the prevailing trend of the folds are from southwest to northeast. A list of the more important places where these structures were noted is as below:

1. NE, survey 20, block 6. Trend N. 25° EH.

2. Near centre, survey 22, block 6. Trend N. 45° E.

3. SEY, survey 18, block 6. Trend E NE.

4. South of centre, survey 98, block 6, Trend N—S.

5. 4% mi. WNW of SE corner, survey 100, block 6. Trend N 68° E.

"6. NW of centre of survey 98, block 6. Trend NE—SW. 7. Near centre survey 116, block 6. Trend N. 48° EB.

ECONOMIC FEATURES.

ARTESIAN WATER.

Water in the Cretaceous Rocks.

In describing the Devils river limestone reference was made to the fact that there are two water-bearing horizons in this limestone, one about a hundred feet below its upper surface and the other some two hundred feet below this level. There is no doubt that the large springs north of the Southern Pacific rail-

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 91

road come from these water-bearing strata. The San Pedro springs at Del Rio have a head of some 930 feet above the sea and the head of the other springs ranges up to 1075 feet above the sea. Ii the waterbearing strata can be tapped at points where the level of the ground is below these heads, the water will flow. This is the simple principle of all Artesian basins. The question of such water supply in this case is a question of depth to the water-bearing stratum, a question of elevation of the land surface, and of probable height of the head.

The head of these waters is not likely to be much lower than the head of their lowest known outlet at Del Rio. Farther to the east it must vary somewhat with the known heights of the natu- ral flows in that direction. For the lands south of the Southern Pacific railroad we must infer that the head of the obtainable flow will range between the two figures given. Comparing these eleva- tions with the elevation of the land, I find that nearly all of the land east of Canyon Grande west of Hagle Pass railroad and south of the Imperialist pasture, must be lower than 930 feet. The alluvial bottoms in the two Imperialist pasture must also fall below this elevation in their south halves. On these lands the water can be expected to flow. The question of depth is answered by the measurement already given of the several formations that have been described. If a well were made on the bottom along Canon Chiquito on survey 62, in block 4, the formations to be penetrated would be the following:

Thickness in feet.

WipS ODS Cl ayes ivives sce sseeecons cameras ov acc taseees so voscesc cen coesastecnresasevseees PSUS bin) Ch all Kees See tn aatsecten stevens cnsac-eeasreerse teres cddsinee oc snesbars

Eagle Ford rock Buda limestone

DelsRi) Gl aye sec. ciise ss vetscisassossucececsctviskacs/sescecetesceesesnesaveesssane ne 100—200 MevilisiRiverslimestOner secescsccasseescotsecceesce een tee rseec cee ccrectpeontece sucess 300 TO Gels a ates Sooke cance evancesesiesaven saedeucss sex ooous Wovens sentesondsuestedceboscss 1925

While absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures the error is not believed to exceed 300 feet either way, and at most the main water-bearing rock cannot lie deeper than 2200 feet. For other points the same rock will be found to rise north- ward and to go down to the south at the rate of about 50 feet to the mile.

92 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

On the bottoms in the east part of Snow Tank pasture the conditions for a flow is even more favorable, owing to the lesser elevation of theland, which isin some places below the 900 feet level, and also on account of the almost certain rise of the head in this direction, the head of the Brackett springs being 1075 feet. But the depth would probably be more than 1925 feet. It cannot be estimated with quite as great certainty as for the country to the west, owing to an absence of sufficient opportunity of noting the dips in this eastern region, outcrops being few. But the addi- tional depth of the drilling necessary to reach the water would not be likely to exceed 400 feet. To the east of the Chacon the depth would be still greater.

{t remains to be added that there are fair chances for securing flows of this water in the lower bottoms of Cow creek and Pinto creek on the Company’s lands, if this should be desirable. On Pinto creek the depth to the water would be about 1200 feet and on Cow creek it would be about 1500 feet.

Water from the Tertiary Rocks.

The artesian water which flows in the basin of Camanche, Live Oak, and Turkey creek and in the valley of the Nueces river, comes from the sands in the tertiary system. The intake area of these water-bearing sands lies between Carizzo Springs and the Anacacho mountains. In this region the water. bearing strata come up to the surface and form a sandy rolling belt of land, as in the Chaparrosa pasture, in the west part of Palo Blanco past- ure and in the Turkey creek pasture. As in other Artesian basins it has been noted here also that the deepest lying sands have the highest head af flow. This is because their intake area lies farther north and higher up, than that of the upper sands.

In the absence of definite data on the elevation of the lands in this basin, the extent of the available flow can be inferred only from the distribution of the wells now in existence. For this pur- pose a list was secured which gives the name of the owners of wells with some data on the depth of the wells, their flow, etc. The list does not give the location of all the wells, and it is defective in other respects, but it is given for what it is worth, asthe best that could be secured at the time.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS.

List of ARTESIAN WELLS NEAR CARIZz0 SPRINGS.

93

Owner’s name. Location. No. of | Diameter Depth Flow in gallons wells. | in inches, (Average). per hour.

A. Richardson, Survey 50, bl. 1, |

G.N. R.R. 10 7 600 120,000 T. A. Coleman, 2 6 500 30,000 I. M. Shaw, 3 5 3/16 | 450 to 850 45,000 G. White, 1 5 3,19 400 18,000 Schimmelpfenning BROS ee ae etna hl Meestrneet esas coetee ees s 2 6 350 2,000 Dr Decker, RR

Survey 55 1 8 537 40,000 C. J. Pollard, DIN ROMRMRA

survey 3, bl. 3. 1 10 650 20,000 by. J. Arnold, Survey 55, Peron

AS AN, 18 TR. 1 8 500 16,000 Wm. Knight, Survey 3, bl. #.

We ke Ne Oa IRs 1, 2 8 625 32,000 Dr. Hughes, Survey 4,

tT & N. O-: R. R. il 5 500 50,000 Patterson a el ieee eee Z 7 625 40,000 A. Eardly, J.T. Camble

survey il 12 735 72,000 Shaw & Berry, 2 5% 650 40,000 J. W. Campbell, 1 596 680 40,000 J. C. Owen, 1 5 3/16 630 14,000 Burnet, 1 5% 525 16,000 Parmlee, 1 5% 450 16,000 Moehrig, 2 6 500 30,000 Foster, 2 5% 500 32,000 Smith, 1 5% 500 16,000 Rector. 1 5% 500 20,000 Skivington, 1 5 3.16 500 14,000 Thorpe, 3 5 3/16 400 | 30,000 Thorpe, (new well)... 1 8 411 20,000 Jefirey, 1 SSG 364 14,000 J. White, 1 5% 500 20,000 M. J. Denman, 4 5% 450 72,000 Kendall, 2 4 500 36,000 McCaleb, 2 5 600 40,000 Lavin, 1 4y 850 200 Cragg, 1 5 3/16 500 15,000 J.S. Taylor, 1 5 3/16 816 60,000 Shipp, il 5 3/16 400 | 18,000 Moore, 1 Sua 526 20,000 Pratt & Hayes, 1 8 .900 50,000 Asher Richardson,|in Moro valley, | [es eeeseeeeesec[esceeeesceeeeceece | 50,000

94 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

The head of the waters in this basin will no dobt be found to vary at different points to some extent. Such variations are not unknown in regions with a more regular geological structure than this basin. The deepest water can be expected to exhibit the least variations in this respect. A well which was recently made at a point about three miles west of the “Cross 8” ranch by Mr. Archi- bald gives us an approximate measure of the height of the head of this lowest water. Four measurements by the aneroid baro- meter inake the elevation of the curb of this well 54 feet above low water of the Nueces river at the ranch. The elevation of the Nueces low water at this point is estimated at 667 feet above the sea level. The curb of the well is therefore about 721 feet above the sea. The water is said to rise ten feet above the curb, and its head must be near 730 feet. At present the well istapped through a ditch fifteen feet below the curb.

All the lowlands belonging to the Company in the northwest part of Webb county are below this level and there is good reason , for believing that flowing wells may be made by sinking wells into the lowest tertiary sands under these lands. An estimate of the thickness of the tertiary beds on the Rio Grande on these lands indicates not less than 1,000 feet and not more than 1,500. This thickness would have to be penetrated in order to make a fair test.

Waste of Flowing Water.

The unrestricted waste of water in the Carizzo Springs’ basin will soon be a matter of concern to land owners north and west of the wells as well as to owners of land irrigable by this water. As has been indicated already, the intake area of this water is on the sandy lands between Chacon creek and Turkey creek south of the Anacacho mountains, extending about as far south as to Wilderness lake. With such a limited intake area a too liberal draught on the supply will certainly reduce the head, and not only will the wells with the lowest pressure cease flowing, but the underground water level in the intake area will sink and with this must follow a general scarcity of water in shallow wells and in tanks dependent on surface supply in this region. For witha lowering oi the level of the ground moisture the water which supplies the vegetation, the tanks and natural water holes, will be less, and the general seepage downward will be more rapid.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 95

A riliable well man, who has had the best opportunities to keep informed on the yield of the wells in the Carizzo Springs basin, gives the information that the head of most of the wells has been reduced, and he estimates that on an average the head has gone down twenty five feet since the flow was first tapped, Whether there is a perceptible increase of droughty conditions in the Cha- parrosa, Palo Blanco, and Gato Creek pastures is not known, but it is to be expected that a greater part of the rainfall on these lands will be lost to the surface and to the vegetation, and will more rapidly than before sink to replenish the lowered head of the ground water tapped by the Carizzo Springs wells.

At the present time wells are permitted to flow to waste without restriction. Economic considerations suggest prompt ligislation to prevent this senseless waste. It will necessarily reduce the area of irrigable lands. It is clear that the loss will first affect those lands that lie toward the periphery of the basin.

GAS AND OIL.

The inquiry regarding the probable quantity of natural gas in the country southeast of Eagle Pass resolves itself to a ques- tion of geologic structure. The history of the well made some years ago shows that gas was present under high pressure, and the only doubt there can be as to the existence of commercial quantities is as to the size of the reservoir which was then tapped. To estimate this factor the structure of the formations was made out in as much detail as was possible. The results of this study have been given in the description oi the structure.

Natural gas occurs in folds where clay or shale or other im- pervious strata form what we may call inverted troughs, or anti- clines that prevent the accumulated gas from escaping upward. A few instances have also been known where gas has accumulated

_against a shoulder on an inclined stratum of impervious cover, a so called arrested monocline. In every case the gas is held in some porous rock.

In the wells made on section 116 in block 6 the gas was found in a sandstone that measured 57 feet in thickness. The whole section of the well as given to me by Mr. W. L. Evans, is as below.

SECTION OF THE GAS WELL ON Survey 116, Buock 6. Thickness - in feet. PX. MGI ONE AOE 7 caccseccbedeoctecas bade nsacda canon ca soteccen con eRUacedonbaaasas900 10

25 MENG TOT OC Rael wavect oso ce encodes a cataea nessa ae cet ad we robe eR a aca ees oeeeeeaee 4

96 : A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

242 BBlune\ clay, andisoapstOne ras .cccrstecseecccee rete eeeses eee eee 166 23) i Coarse wihite; SADC mrs-nc- siocccseocae erste cacsscaaitennccs ns seseaeeee ear 10 DIS BB LUC CLAY ieesn cnt csccece see cescac ces ee-scncceons «stccnssaatceter oc ca tstseneanenase see 10 21. Common sand with some salt WateT...........-..ccc0..ccceceeeeeeseees 10 20. Blue clay

19)Brownbisan diy \Clajiy t-te cas ceasesoece ore ee eee ee 3 185 Wihitersandandiishell siscees- oo coe sce c ceo eee eee eee eee ee 6

17. Fine sand and white clay, the sand yielding some salt water, some gas and some oil TU Syoeia 1B I RGIS OTE an adoner coker dancecn saa sasanto ase scodcOsadn inccoaes

14. Brow sandy: clays ssc: coc seioo sie se ace seseccactcceteeitescestsettteceons oe 13. Fine hard sand 12. Blue sandy clay.............. fil Hard anocks ses. Geedeyeeee sae ae 10s Bluetclayzand shard Ockse-ess.ssssee ce cecccoessese iat eeaceen cate se cee nae 10 OP Blte relay cance sesceesserse= ae se ece ne ctesicton te watoneaieevest eres caaee ne ere see 296 beard noc kee seevccectent woe fence setiee so avasuvssoueaecesussasad teins

7. Coarse brown sand with pronounced odor of oil... 5 Gs) Blue | Clary nos 2.cec. secs s ee sscces) Gecusececececers ou ccuciectte ote dees ouesownonea eae 5. Brown coarse sand with some oil and heavy pressure of gas

spouting 60—80 feet 57 4 (Bluetelaiyys----<ec----e----0 = ae = ge) SB aeewA\S pall tvs tessa bate somes nese ou ecccocy ooo sneeate ca seecaset eee eased aeeae nee 5 Ape 18d a Fh faaateecacace aaseecceosa- eu acoe Beck encod ROCC-OeC Leno n ao EER GpERseABadmuacbs 15 1. Chielly clay, with some porous, easily drilling rock at 745 feet

below the!curb) of ‘the well! 222. .2.-2---222- one sseccseeon- sean ceeeeen oes 265

The strata penetrated are clearly of the kind which is re- quired for the retension of gas and oil. Each of the two gas- bearing sands have an impervious cover of clay, the lower of which is nearly 300 feet thick and the upper 166 feet. The pres- ence of asphalt below the lower sand indicates that distillation of hydrocarbons have taken place in this sand at some earlier time, for solid hydrocarbons are the natural residues of this process. The thickness of sandstone makes the porous stratum quite ample to hold a very considerable quantity of gas, if the stratum has the neccessary shape and capping.

The local structure which contains the gas in this well is in my opinion a low arch, whose axis trends northeast and south- west, and is at about a third of a mile south of the well. The height of this arch must be near fifty feet. The outcrops from which this structure was made out are not as clear as might be desired. A sandstone which appears in the creek rises about fifty feet for the first half mile on a line running south

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 97

and nine degrees west from the well. At this point there is a change in the dip and the same sandstone descends at one point at a rate of 160 feet per mile to the south, and at another point, farther east, about 80 feet per mile to the southeast. The sand- stone has been partly cut away on the north side of the crest to the southwest of the well. To the northeast the arched structure is not indicated clearly. The arch probably flattens out somewhat in that direction. The sandstone from which this structure was made out is the same ledge that forms the blutfs on the east side of Sauz and of Palo Blanco creek to the north. Northward from the well this structure again rises to the northwest for a mile or more and then continues horizontally and evenly, with a small dip to the northwest for a mile and a half in the same direction.

From this it appears that the well is near the outer north margin of a small anticline which is itself a part of a larger and more flat anticline. Or, probably it would be nearer to an accurate description to say that the well is at the foot of a small anticline, which is itself at a point on the upper edge of alow arrested monocline, where the strata gradually are flexed into a horizontal position. My observations also indicate that the main axis of the anticlinal arch is limited in lenght and that the arch is rather to be regarded as a lengthened dome. It will be convenient to refer to this structure as the Mula dome, for its crest runs somewhat parallel with Mula creek, on the south side of its valley. The larger anticline or the region of the horizontal structure which lies to the north and west of the well, is the south end of the flattened crest of the Lampasitas arch, which has already been described.

Quantitative Estimate.

To estimate the quantity of gas held in this reservoir, we must estimate the volume of the porous space in the 57 foot sandstone included in the Mula arch. The known height of this arch is about forty-five feet. The width of its north limb is one third of a mile, and that of its south limb is a half mile, as near as could be made out by measurements on exposed strata. Let us say the whole width is two thirds of a mile. Its length is not known, but it is at least as great as its width. To be within safe limits we may then regard the arch as a cone having a height of 45 feet and a diameter of two thirds of a mile at its base, or 3520

98 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

feet. What is the volume of the porous space in a cone of sand- stone having a basal diameter of 3520 feet and a height of 45 feet? The porous space of sandstone ranges from twenty-seven to forty-five percent of the volume of the rock. In this case it is not less than thirty percent. The pressure under which the gas was held, judging by the depth of the well and the height to which water and debris was spouted (60-80 ft.) by the well, is estimated at 230 pounds per square inch, or about fifteen atmospheres. The quantity of gas should hence be equal to the volume of the porous space multiplied by ELS ‘This will make about 220 millions cubic feet of gas.

On the flattened isoweth end of the Lampasitas arch it would seem almost a foregone conclusion that there should be other minor folds like the Mula dome, and it seems likely that some of these may prove to be gas bearing also. Some of the places showing & dip to the west may prove to be on the west side of such folds. A list of these have already been given (see page 89). The three places where crests of minor anticlines are most strong- ly indicated are (1) about one third of a mile west-northwest from the southeast corner of survey 18 in block 6, (2) on the cen- tral tract of survey 118in the same block, and (3) near the central part of the south halfof survey 22 in the same block.

Petroleum.

With the gas that is at present escaping from the Mula creek well there is also a small quantity of oil, which accumulates on the top of the water that now fills the well. A sample of this oil was submitted to Messrs Edgar and Carr of the Dearborn Labo- ratories in Chicago, who reported to Col. W. L. Evans, Jan. 27, 1906, as follows:

REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF OIL FROM THE Muna CREEK WELL. Gravity, 23. 4 Baume. Flash point, 280° Fahr. Burning point, 330° Fahr. Heat value (Parr calorimeter per pound of oil) 17808, British thermal units.

The analysts add the following comments: ‘From the above results tu tests made upon the sample at hand, we conclude that this is not a desirable crude from a refining point of view. It shows very similar to other crudes from Texas, except that the

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 99

gravity is about 2 degrees lighter. The flash and burning points are much higher than those of crudes which are being refined upon a large scale with absolutely satisfactory results. We do not mean to say that it could not be refined and a mode- rate amount of light oils, such as kerosenes, naphtas, etc., be obtained. However, as is almost invariably the case with this class of oils, same would need special treatment before refining, and even with this the lubricating or heavy products obtained would not be of the high quality desired for this class of oils.

While the heat value of the oil is not high for crudes, it is suf- ficiently so to make the oil desirable for fuel purposes. The price which could be had for the oii, would probably be proportionately lower than that of some other oils, as the heat value is propor- tionately lower than of other oils on the market. We do not mean to say that this is lower than any other on the market, as many are being used which is no better than this one.” The above quotation is from a letter written by the analysts to Col. W. L. Evans, who submitted the sample.

Probability of Existence of Oil.

As to the existence of petroleum in commercial quantities in this field, it would be hazardous to venture a definite opinion. It is a well known fact that the first explorations in mostoil regions have been made on the basis of much less promise. The accumula- tions of oil require the same kind of structures as are found to hold gas. There must be present some impervious stratum to arrest the rise of the oil under the pressure of ground water. The structures which hold gas are just as efficient to hold oil, if it be present. And usually the two are associated, though one or the other is apt to prevail. When present in the same well, oil is usu- ally produced only after the gas has escaped. Gas wells may thus sometimes turn into oil wells. Both gas and oils are to be regarded as products of a natural distillation and the presence of one may be taken as a certain indication of the production of the other. But the products of the same distillation may have be- come separated and may not now be in the same reservoirs. As a rule the oil is held lower down in the reservoirs than the gas. Oil might hence be rather looked for south and east of this gas well than. in any other direction.

100 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

In this connection attention should be called to the fact that the strata which contain the gas in the Mula creek well are sedi- ments of the same or of very nearly the same age as the strata which yield oil in the Boulder district in Colorado and at Corsi- cana in Texas. In both of these places the oil is associated with gas, though this has been only occasionally found at Corsicana. In the Boulder district gas is of somewhat more common occurrence than at Corsicana. In the Boulder field the formations are more strongly folded than in the country southeast of Eagle Pass, but at Corsicana the structure is about the same. Everything con- sidered, the prospect of finding oil on that part of the Lampasitas arch covered by the Escondido beds can not be regarded as alto- getherunpromising. Prospect holes should go down to the Upson clay. Below the top of this clay there is no rock sufficiently porous to warrant exploration.

SALTPETER.

The saltpeter which has been found in a cave on Devil's river is a rather exceptional mineral occurrence. It has been formed in its present place by a natural process from human excrements and food waste, originally left in the accumulating earth and rub- bish on the floor of an aboriginal dwelling place. Saltpeter of commerce is in part manufactured by mixing refuse animal sub- stances with lime and earth and leaving the mass to decay. The lime in these caves was produced in connection with the heating of limestone rocks in the preparation of food. Great heaps of these partly calcined stones are seen on the ground. The accum- ulated rubbish which is found on the floor of the old dwelling place averages about five feet in thickness and covers an area 136 feet long and about 34 feet wide, or 2,890 square feet. From sam- ples taken at respectively one, two, three, four, five and six feet below the surface, it was ascertained that the saltpeter is present only in the upper three feet. Into this stratum it has évidently been brought by capillary rise of moisture, drawn from a lime- stone shelf below and dissipated by evaporation from the surface of the debris. Rough analyses of each of the samples taken are as follows:

Percent of Saltpeter. Uppermost foot 20

Second foot below surface 7

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS. 101

Third foot below surface 1

Fourth foot below surface less than 1

Fifth foot below surface less than 1

Sixth foot below surface practically absent.

Irom these figures it appears that some thirty or forty tons of crude saltpeter might be extracted from the deposit in this eave. A part of the richest upper crust has been removed, and this would reduce the quantity by several tons. At all events twenty tons crude saltpeter, probably containing ten percent of salt, appears to be a fair estimate of the quantity remaining. It would have to be hauled about eigtheen miles over a bad road to the nearest marketing place.

This cave is located under an overhanging cliff of limestone on the north side of a creek emptying into Devil’s river from the west. The cave is about five-eighths of a mile north from the mouth of Indian creek. A small spring issues from the bottom of the creek immediately below the cave. Implements of flint and other rock, such as arrow-points and fragments of metates (small hand-mills) occur throughout in the debris containing the salt- peter. These relics, as well as the calcined stones, indicate the origin of the debris.

BAT GUANO.

In the Devil's river limestone caverns are quite frequent. These have been produced by the solvent action of underground water, and they are common in all limestone regions. Soine of these caves have for long periods been inhabited by bats, and con- tain considerable deposits of guano. Atleast two are known by the stockmen on the lands of the company. One is said to be in the hills on the west side of Devil’s river on or near survey 16 in block B., and was spoken of as a small cave. The other cave was entered by the writer and examined. Its entrance is on the north slope of a hill adjoining a branch of an arroyo which runs into Devil’s river from the east ou survey 15, block D. There is a ver- tical hole about thirty-five feet deep and this leads into the main chamber of the cave. This is a hundred feet long, fifteen feet wide, and thirty feet high. The floor of the inner part of this cave is covered by from two to four feet of porous and dry guano, which settles deep under one’s feet. ‘Chere are about 60 tons of guano. Ii this were to be marketed, it would have to be hauled twenty

Library Publications, 7.

102 A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LANDS

miles by wagon over a very bad road which crosses Deyil’s river at an almost impassable ford. In all probability there are other bat caves on these lands.

CONCLUSION.

The survey of these lands shows that the region has nowhere been affected by those relatively more efficient volcanic agencies of circulating moisture and of pressure and heat, which bring about the concentration of such minerals as gold, silver, copper, or their ores, and the ores of lead, zinc, or quicksilver. The rocks are but little changed from the condition in which they were orig- inally deposited. Violent folding, crushing, or dislocation is absent. Volcanic products are only seen at a few places, and con- sist of a few remnants of intrusives from extraneous sources. But there are deposits of other minerals. They are of the kind which occur in regions not greatly affected by metamorphic agencies. Enumerated in the order of probable importance these are as follows:

1. Coal, certainly found on surveys 166, 198, 199, block 7, surveys 5, 4, 6, 7, block 16, and probably worth exploring for on a belt extending several miles farther east.

2. Gas, known to exist in valuable quantity on survey 116, block 6, and indicated as more or less probable for scattered points on an area of twenty-five square miles to the north and west of this survey.

3. Artesian water, indicated for some tracts north of Eagle Pass on the Upson clays and partly known and also indicated on some of the lands north from Carizzo Springs. Also indicated for some of the land in Dimmitt county.

4. Oil, quite likely to be found in association with the natural gas. Possibly also may some time be distilled in commercial quantities from certain black shales in the Eagle Ford formation from Sycamore creek, northward and westward.

5. Lignite, found in the region of greatest thickness of the tertiary rocks, and existing in the west edge of the same forma- tion, possibly in valuable quaintity at some points.

6. Cement material, found along the Southern Pacific rail- road near Spofford, also at points from Sycamore creek and west- ward.

IN THE UPPER RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT IN TEXAS, 103

7. Puddling clay of good quality exists in the Del Rio clay near Del Rio.

8. Asphalt, known to exist in limited quantities, and in im- pure state in the Pullian formation near the company’s lands, but not believed to warrant the expense of special search.

9. Saltpeter, known in small and commercially unimportant quantity.

10. Bat guano, known in small and commercially unimpor- tant quantity.

i res ays aie 4 17 si “hiteh wine inscein> a haa

INDEX.

‘Nepal, | (EMM INGE se sgocaoadcodénangseo|D 21 Agardh, Jacob Georg oA) PAL, BS Mb Keo oabooaoadoooontoabHObHOObOS 85 Almquist, Ernst Bernhard, ........ covdosdo! 8 Anacacho limestone, ..-......seceeeeeecee 71 Anderson, Alexander Pierce, .............. 43 Andersons UNUS) OMAN ernie llelelersi= ene « sievelolels 25 AT CULCHMATNEDLCH tercncisielsiclcdeicicre baci 14, 22, 26, 46 AMID, obooddosdouounwaovoogudDobuORODO 41 ARIGTEM JONG og 5ocdad0o0s09000b0000b0000 92 /NAGBIN WAP ooganancpodsubo0e0dKd0 90, 102 Ameren Wels ooooncs0d0nncocnoocoKaacKR 93 FAS phalltieteitei-lsietsieiet 59, 71, 96, 103 Aven GAM Soogdodeganacanesoacdaasogsa 66 TAG bo pogo ac oncoodcoHpoubOoUGODSCaoE 79 BHI ooooadnooooocooorodagocgenNoooNne 86 Bhs GMA aoocogncopoocpneunoddoon 101, 103 pplameEM IRS oarooscgoqdobosouoGK0NDK 8 Benzon, Peder Eggert, .............+0005 23 IE, Chil Come oooogodudoo9005DbGCK00 34 rsa, SWE oosadbosocqoocsuacoodaNoN 27 Berlin, Johan August, .............:-..-. 3 IBA, soocaoouaeoeoonpuctegenKS 59, 65, 66 Bjorling, Johan Alfred, ................0. 46 Boldt, Johan Georg Robert,.............. 33 Borgesen, Frederik Christian Emil,........ 409 jks, Ika, soococdundcogDdOoDoDHODON 3 (Chile; co aooocoabcusgo po RDO ooODUOUALEDS 58 ORMAGE, susnocadosooognobonoonUes 10, 25, 38 (Chilton, ocooovooggon ns oboonOdDoOOUOS 41, 42 (Chinon emi, sooocandacoduadooneaan 20

Carizzo Springs, Caves,

Ohi, sooovanoadcoooboDsooCoUcuoODODDOO Central America,

(HMR, oegodoaocogodoogD OOo aOKdDODONNIND Christensen, Carl,

Cleve, Per Teodor,

Gb, obbiaoosncccbodobooDde™

Coal series

Colorado

Conspectus Flore Grenlandice............. 31 Cretaceous rocks ......

Cretaceous sediments Dahlstedt, Hugo Gustaf Adolf,

IDA, GooccobagsogonoooponcodgDnaNEENDD 42 Deichmann—Branth, Jacob Severin,......... 3 Del Rio Clay, 60 Devail’s) river! limestone. circ i-lel-tete late elele eri 56

INEM, Scand codboUKnODHdoscooevOUSEUOOS 33 DHS GaocoondovndcooondourarococoobddDad 88 Distribution of coal series,................ 75 Distribution of the Del Rio clay,.......... 61 Distribution of the Devyil’s river limestone... 59 Distribution of the Upson clay............ 68 DYE, TtmIbe, GonodnndoaocucanocgoconnoaDG 44 Drejer, Salomon Thomas Nicolai,. coca Mi Die, WEY sosdéoccocas -.68, 72 IDEN, THIS copécccaccdococs th Hagle Word beds, ...........- . 64 Hagle Pass coal, ............ 5 0) Hagle Pass formation, ........ 5 2) Eberlin, PB. wee eee eee ee eee 29 WOME TEA Googonacecooadoodcoss 90 Economic featurés of the Buda limestone,.. 64 INShHOVHY INK, SocogdoopooeuoqoeodunadouuN 42 Wdwards limestone -. 0-6-2... eee , Tela; EIN “GhapeaoumosonecoucadoonuoUe 9 HEC, LPAI, Gooodcogeocbaboodcnoauouase 9 Eggers, Baron Henrik Frans Alexander...... 34 Tnsan, “EWE GME Sooooodobandanoce

IDiken TOUTE, Gogocopgodomondduoesaagden IDikaeney, Chom, oooococogaccocucos0n0NG Hnelenianih eriod eery ati ttl tliat eisirsteihs nfyepoyerelixaloy, Tosh Gondodsaocaccasenocoade Euphrasen, Bengt Anders

Exogyra arietina, ........-

Bxogyra costata ...........-.

IDPOP AMD, OMG, aceooagncneocnoconcuces IDPGolloM AMC, ThA WHAM oSoccnsoocaceeanccna Ino, SERN Sonoococascacanecccds Inti, copeoocdoonn Dao UDOoOSaaeansONENE Dioysberenl, diwilkies; Iahplbwe, soeabacoeacaoes 43 Flora Boreali-Americana, ................. 24 IMO, WERNER, oogcdoaneduacounbn 14, 19, 37, 43 Flora Indie Occidentalis, ................ 17 INOnE OF WAMPN M50 ocogndoccoougvecsteoEon g Hlorawok (North) Americas sjspcjercieles eles INGIGER Siosooodppooannpadceaoudodanba puss Intnl; they Cosobopocooubn oS bUCoOOaOs Tries, Elias Magnus, ......

Fries, Theodor Magnus,

IMA CoM Goodaossocud

Fylla Expedition, .........

CHM, coopoonotecaogones

CAS; atueadonoce

Gas well, Gelert, O.,

106

Cem, kM soscog000Gcc000000700000 24

Genera Plantarum secundum ordines naturales GHAI, sooogoodaacon;abedaesan0Ca000

(Geodestmrerreliienieineriete

Geological structure

Georgetown limestone .....

Geschichte der Botanik,

Glauconite, ...........

Goes, Axel Theodor,

Graah, Wilhelm August Greenland ere rtletiekerrrerers

.-14, 22, 26,

Grénlund, Carl Christian Howitz ........ 31 Gustavus Adolphus College,............... 40 GhAgsthn, Gacoodoos.AbcnodoBda0UDDDDRO9009 60 Hansen, Carl Olay Ernst, ................- 49 Hartz, Nikolaj Eg Kruse ................ 30 lee Ay FOE oooncsododeo0n

Heller, A. A.

Isigweinne Sdodcc00000

VOD OLIN Carlee etertieretercieteleteletstetelelsietefel-tel-lei= 14 Holm, Gustav Mrederick ..........-....-«- 29 Holm, Herman Theodor,...............- 40, 30 BOMkedbn IEMs, sooccondodc0dooaDsoECON 24 Hombecks Hans) BaltZeriyeyetlete -leloisioyel-foie slo ste 24 Hornemann, Jens Wilken .................. 8} IEhAN EMO saooonocosgaccdg000GG00HS 21 IGG) cooosodepoooDnDOODOGODOUOONO 40, 41, 42 TEMAS WOKS Gocoodsoovods000Ss004900000 86 ikGriy awl Ihe, SoosaodoooodKKdo00OKS 20 IWGkiGs MOM, soosacsconscg0c 900000008000 31 Jensen, Jens Arnold Diderich,.............. 29 Jussieuan Period, o dfs Ik@iln, THeR, Ges odooosagscdDUdUoOD040G000 10 Wandberg) Nols) Conrad) oeyey- =) -)-telelelet-)eeler= -t=t= 38

Kjellman, Frans Reinold, Knutson, N.

Kornerup, Andreas Nikolaus, - 28 Krebs, Henrik Johannes,.................- 34 Kae, OMARnEM, osooadcgdac00a00n0G00000 46 Kumlien, Thure Ludvig Theodor,......... a} BY Lagerheim, Nils Gustaf,............-.--.+% 35 liphpASies) Ad, GobooddcesH50d0000000 88, 98 Lange, Johan Martin Christian,........... 30 Las Moras Mountain,...........

Lassen, Holger Jérgen,

Leiberg, John B., ...........

Liebman, Frederik Michael,

IEE, oocododadcocanucdG0G09000006 83, 102 Lindberg, Sextus Otto, ................... 26 IbiXeROd, Aen Ie odogdodcddodaunobD08 39 Linnean Period ...... 9 ite CHRO GoddodadoodsecseoonooDeS 13 itsts, Chill Who odccsancpoopa0seobos00000 16 MittlesePintommountain serie ritlietplettstlelteleter 87 WN As dS cgscoddodedoddocousdoagbanod 45 ithe INEGE hE Soabdoopoasodds000050n00 42 Lyngbye, Hans Christian, ................ 22 Mac Doug alle SMH, wietetetnteletalafatelslar-falayelclatsi= fete 40 NDI > Goo capggdocddooDD0OndmoOgbDOGS 60

Medican Period,

INDEX.

WIS, SooagDdsntda0o0cDdOs FADD wOKGS Minerals in Del Rio clay,.........

Minerals in Devil’s river limestone.

Min OG antiClinessrelsiateletelstelelstelelelel=[=talstelstaie lols Whyte, Goodosaondns00bbBoangas000o

inh, Gwe coososcod0adnoobADoboDoOdODS Nathhorst, Alfred Gabriel, ...............+ MEIN, ASN, sososounsedosconeanosgosos Wao, LAS coscédooodsosco000d 3

NEGA, SocoabbcocsosobouDDDNsOmOO ERIN New York Botanical Garden............... Nodosaria texana, ........ pone orad Nordenskjéld expedition, ................. 3 Nordstedt, Carl Fredrik Otto, .......... 28, 35 Moydaein, Ohi, Coosopca5docaG0ODanODDUF 26 Mhpbmvlse, \Wailllkeyen, Soasocsssbocancacse0ns 35 Oder, Georg Christian, .................. if) Onl Goondoodd0oud0090 +.-»-66, 95, 98, 99, 102 Okixemn, @5 Ik, cocanbbosocsbo00g200825005 46 Olson-Seffer, Pehr Hialmar, 45, 49 Olmos creek coal, gopg2G0ans50 76 Orsted, Anders Sandée,............. By CHL Ostenfeld, Carl Emil Hansen,............ 47, 49 Ostreacontexsmeetmieiinieiisteietal-teisietseteserets 80, 81 Ostreagen dricnsisseeterieletetetcieetetstaiet ete eee 81 Ostreawil anvasieetelei eel eit teeter ere rats 65 Outcrops of “Austin chalk,.............. 5 ON Outcrops of Buda limestone,........... . 63 Outcrops of Eagle Ford beds,........... . 65 REO HOES, 5 55500Gd09nd 00000060 = 96; Palmer: sHaMe ee eielovs civeste reo aoe nie G. tals Paulsen, Ove Vilhelm,....-......-.-. 49 (Peterson; MC. ation = meine eels 29 InetroleumWa eee Meee ocr re 98 Phy sallis; PP etbretecd-y- cietertetotac sito ee Caer 42 Physical properties of the Upson clay,..... 68 Rintommounpainswe-eemeeieeneeiceicrmcr ence 87 Pleistocenemdeposits;uyaeieiesiisisieicieieisieicieeeee 84 Parsild, Morten Pederson,...............-- 46 Rotentilless Me eireinieteyieciccimci chee eee 43 uddlingyiclayne-rvctereieietiieeeieeeeiee 61,103 Piulliamestormation eee eee cee eee eee 81 QWeitiiD § GoodoboobooasDpoGoOGKadUN ODDO UDO 59 Rabentcountiye. -icrsrelrecieieceicieiionicte eee 22 Ravn, Peter,

Rediiclary ss) jatsiecsverctaevetarcicteleisiotsioei tee eee

Retzius, Anders Johan, Ruse, Albert Heinrich, Rink, Henrik Johannes, Rocky mountain Flora, Rohr, Julius Philip Benjamin vyon,.

RosendahlyuCarl cOtto;wrey-kiere eee eee

Rosenvinge, Janus Louritz Andreas Kolderup, 31 Rostrup, Fredrik George Emil,............ 31 RotthollaChristenwhiriishieerneerereeeeetee 15 ich Olu haa abocnosoproooondaaoouucacooS 18 Ry dberes Per Axelseeeeeeeeiee eerie 42 Invelse, (bl lkMingis Goacsasouacenuouseds 29 Saltpeter) waccjeice mosrcesfoveradcaess eter cie aie raletere 100, 103

INDEX. Sandbere, John H. ............+.-.-.-.-. 40 TE ANROa, INES Go oocecoonceocounbegnEDS 45 Sandmark, Carl Gustaf, 15 Moroiyaqniye IVE chooconocosogeracaqne 8 San Miguel beds, .......... 72 MINK eC ye OUNCES ele slala|elalcdelei=loke|«relelelefolel=lsie 87 San Pedro creek, ....... 56 Wralsery GL NS, cocnobdanncdepicgouoenddUnS 5, 42 Scandinavian Americans, .....:....-.+---- 39 Whoieel MEE, Soo dodsucodouongu0KN6 10, 25, 38 Selanexelia; Wie; Wi} ode noshwosdouvbvcKuooKUNDD 26 United States Dept, of Agriculture....... 40, 42 Samoans OF Gor; sassaksoubaoonndaqods THs Ate Wrochiby (folly Cocecubnedoucccdcn ~ 42 Simmons, Herman Georg, ..........+++++: 47 yoo, CEN, Godcuonsodsacce - 68 Rill, covoconascsnuocudodD REIN, sagaocoseocancdoo00 42 Solander, Daniel Carl, Vahl, Jens Lorenz Mustue,..........-++.++- 22 Sphenodiscus pleurisepta, Wan, ibid, copsdavonneocoocecandtoneane 19 Sia, Codoudtcoosdougbandeaoodcuanoded Wael, 1 Wig eadstsooccododcascopeaes 73 Steenstrup, Knud Johan Vogelius,.......... 28 WOGERMe ROU; socosenoudonconno0n0 Ar SWHGRRA, obocdoouddododcucubosconongoodE 87 Warming, Johannes Eugenius Beulon,....29, 48 Sienna, OM soocagwoogsoahopadh bono amano 16 Tne, cacooocoocdbeucocubouocou0nG 41 Sycamore creek, -..----2..--+-.-- ees eee GP) \ibkiwar sippy “ooocsocooosnoccbocgtenne 62, 94 Sylow, Ni, ....- esses cece e eee ee eee aes 2) AWG. cococcasedescoacooendovabgsposaeue 93 Shimoosis Inne, GogdodooodouovascenoueD 17 Wise) JEehnihacdppooumasooosnooorcrGuoooe 19 iegrloe TRL, cosonoocaasenodvdoddpobooauCG 69 \WiGae Umass, condosedocgancee 15, 18, 23, 33, 48 Ico) GRAMS, GoocaccabagcdanoudGnouS 68 Wikstrém, John Emanuel, ................ 24 Ene? GOAKE. cobdccaoodusonbonubooGnO0" 92 Wille, Johan Nordal Fischer,.............. 39 Mertiany) ‘sediments; <2). we se le ele ele eels ea el 82 Vrioklor, iw coosaqconesooanuounnogcEn 6 Theorie elementaire de la Botanique........ 20 Wittrock, Veit Brecher, ..............- 26, 35 Thickness of Austin chalk,................ 68 Wormskjéla, Captain Morten, ...........-.-- 22 Thickness of the coal series,............... 75 Whom, odocacococovoncoopecacubocdson 42 Thickness of the Upson clay,............... 69 WhrOwidys WhihGsinn) ooobonoboncedooo0duS 41

PLATE I.

Rio Gq rande 5000 Section

: : : Section East of ertiary (Eocene) Clays, sands, lignite—1000 Ft. oak

Chacon Creek

L000

ee

Escondido Beds—800 Tt.

A

==

Coal Serices—372 Ft.

Pulliam

d £ ~S

a

g

>

fo)

&

ie) == —

nD

Gs) AY =

ap

icv} i

San Miguel Rel: 10 FESS Formation—500 Ft, {Upper Cretaceous —— 7S Anacacho

Upson Clay—500 Ft. Limestone—500 Ft.

Upson Clay

Austin Chalk (Limestone) -+-750 FL Austin Chalk

Nagle Ford (Limestone)—250 Ft. Eagle Ford

Buda _ Del Rio Clay 100—150 Ft. Del Rio Hs ESN i nee eee

Tower Crefaceous | Devils River . wils River Limestone—500 Ft. | Edwards pes ne

SECTION SHOWING THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE RIO GRANDE EMBAYMENT, TEXAS.

"1IVOD SSVd WIDVa GME TO SNOT

i Pes | GXaADa'L

SSUq 9 WK Wlod ‘NOT

997 foamy 4rq todd g 99T orang 4rq roMory

SOU], Jo v[LIg

‘HOUV SVLISVINVT GH FO NOMLOAS OLLVNWVeEDVId

Spog Op!PUoosT] aj} JO ouojspuny todd Q—- -y

spog op!puoasy oy} Jo 9uojspurg oPPUY—e

spog Opt puodssy ay} jo oulojspure TOMO] -

Tl GLVW Id

PLATE IY.

POSITION OF THE MULA ARCH. THE LINE A—B SHOWS THE POSITION OF THE SECTION IN PLATE VI.

LEGEND

Igneous

Austin Chalk

RA VT WAAAY SAI RK AANA AEANAMEASAE 4

GERI WALLEY |

— — et © LA

Pinto Mountain

Tountain

Las Moras Mountain

Ss Se ee AUST SST UN

Elm Mountain

aE QQ WANA, ~ asa

SS = — Sr Sie

Turkey Mountain

a CS A ee

OR ie Palmer Hill aa

RELATION OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS TO THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. SECTIONS

RUNNING FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.

PLATE VI.

PLATE VII.

LEGEND

Devils River Limestone aaa

Parven cave accumulations

Talus of calcined boulders, ete. g

Ancient dwelling eee 4

Spring

[aN =

SECTION OF THE SALTPETER “CAVE,” 54 MI. NORTH OF THE MOUTH OF INDIAN CREEK, ON DEVIL’S RIVER.

Reoomet ; <a oa Mperon

5, : SA ye he

: ; es

Nae 7

Jae OF THE Lo LAND BELONGING TO

THE NEWYORK Ano TEXAS LAND COMPANY LTD.

In the upper Rio Grande Embayment Texas

Bi na | J.A.UDDEN Geologist

19 OG.

Shak

LISGEND

Map Section

Artesian wells Oulcropping sandstones Pleistocene

ARIZZO SPRINGS Igneous rocks

Tertiary(Eocene)

Pulliam Formation \ : Zz =

| Escondido Beds Hine *& % . DIMMITU CO.

Coal series

San Miguel Beds

Anacacho limestone

Upper Cretaceous

| Upson clay

| Austin chalk (limestone)

| Eagle Ford Beds

( Buda limestone

, Del Rio clay

Lower Cretaceous

Devils River limestone | (FortWorth and Edwards limestone)

Boundaries NY.and Texas Land Co, Lands.

Scale of miles

Engraved by the lowa Put. Co Davenport lows.

AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY o PUBLICATIONS NUMBER 7

Genesis and Development of Sand Formations on Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

—. The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

‘ PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1910

iN Fol

AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY o PUBLICATIONS

NUMBER 7

Genesis and Development of Sand Formations on Marine Coasts

BY

PER RS@ESS@N-SERRER Rhos»:

The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS 1910

The Denkmann Memorial Library is a gift to the Augustana College and Theological Seminary from the heirs of the late Mr. and Mrs. Frederick C. A. Denkmann of Rock Island: Mrs. Thomas B. Davis, Mr. Frederick C. Denk- mann, Mrs. William H. Marshall, Mrs. Edward S. Wentworth, Mr. Edward P. Denkmann, and Miss Susanne C. Denkmann.

The gift was announced January 28, 1908. Work on the building was begun in 1909, the corner stone was laid January 21, 1910, and the structure is expected to be completed in 1911.

The building is a modernized version of the Italian renaissance, built most substantially of Missouri limestone of a beautiful texture and extremely hard quality. The foundation is of concrete. The roof is tile. The first story is treated as a base to the upper story, which contains the large reading room extending across the front. In this reading room are five windows on the front, which is 120 feet, giving the structure a massive appearance. In the first story are located the administrative offices, a memorial hall, and a lecture room. The building is ninety-six feet deep through the middle part, the rear being an addition containing the book stack which will hold 120,000 volumes, the librarians’s room, and several seminar rooms. In the basement are strove rooms and a rest room for girls. In the attic is a museum room.

‘TIL ‘GNV ISI MOOU ‘ADATION VNVISODOV ‘AUVUAIT TVINONAN NNVIVMNAIG

APTA Te FARK AL at

+ Sl ey od Oe a :

Genesis and Development of Sand Forma- tions on Marine Coasts

by Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

COUNT E NaEsS

Page Sandslormationsmnyceneralllss--csscecesssssosssscuceesssesssesscnassseerseesaceseses 10 Genesispandidevelopmentesrccecsssesenecsnscacesscesseseeestsessaceesanesestencceseae 14 SHENG) OSEYG) AGS te cccacecaccdasoncecno bac cockoceeccosnonanosoessecearobocracecuncrocaceIee 20 IDES) Ge grenaseaapegeneesoccsracee ee Raa ao ee ecae aa EEE eeer eee Oo eee eee rea cece 24

Nes Culp tua el OLMSheescesssreseeneneeee maces cee tonseneterceceessenectess=r 27 Polygenetic origin of a dune-complex.................2c0:cesceeeeeeeees 32 Sand fields near the coasts............... . 33 WonditionsBtoraplamtalifeseeccc rece seec tes. ceeecree nee wares ret aeeeceecteeres 34

Bibliog raph ypesescctcces ete setccesecicncsor teaedestccceatceesesteccstowenevercreseasesoce 36

Genesis and Development of Sand Forma- tions on Marine Coasts.

By Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

Since the year 1891 I have been studying the sand formations on marine coasts and their flora and vegetation. During the years 1891 to 1899 my investigations were confined to the coasts of the Baltic. The last mentioned year I also investigated the dunes on the Danish North Sea Coast, in Holland, and in certain parts of Scotland and France. In 1900—1901 observations were made in Southern Sweden, in various places in Denmark, on the South Coast of England, in Southern Italy, at Port Said, in Egypt, in Western Australia, and in Queensland.

’ Various coasts in Australia, from Central Queensland to Western Australia, through New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, were visited and re-visited during 1902. In New Zealand only part of the North Cape was made subject to a brief and hurried visit and notes of the strand vegetation were taken during stays in various islands of the Pacific, such as the New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, Samoa and Hawaii.

On the Pacific coast of North America the dunes at San Francisco and Monterey Bay were studied in 1903—05. During 1905, I also visited the coastal sands at Santa Barbara and Santa Monica, in Southern California, as well as several sand dune districts on the Pacific coast of Mexico, such as Salina Cruz, in the innermost part of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and San Benito, near the Guatemalan border. The extensive sand dunes near Vera Cruz, in Mexico, on the Gulf side, were investigated in August of the same year. In December, sand strands were studied at Mazatlan, a Mexican port on the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, as well as at San Blas in Mexico and Champerico in Guatemala.

The large field these observations cover have given me ample oppor-

tunity to make comparisons of the coastal sands in various climates Library Publications. 1

10 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

and under the most different natural conditions. In the present paper I propose to deal briefly with some of the marine sand formations, their origin, development, and classification, so far as it is necessary to demonstrate the most fundamental facts of this subject and the principles on which they are based. I also give short comments upon the principal dune districts visited in the course of my studies.

To Proressor Wu. R. Dupuey of Leland Stanford Junior University I am greatly indebted for many favors in connection with my work, and I have also to express my acknowledgments to Dr. JoHAN ERIKSON, Karlskrona, Sweden, Dr. K. R. Kupprer, Riga, Russia, Dr. W. J. SmirH, Leeds, England, B. H. Woopwarp, Hsq., F. R. G. S., Perth, Western Australia, C. E. Bensow, Esq., C. E., Sidney, New South Wales, Dr. L. Cockayne, Christchurch, New Zealand, and various other persons, who have assisted me with information and photographs.

SAND FORMATIONS IN GENERAL.

When we consider the factors which have given rise to the formation of sand, the principal ones are the atmospheric and the aqueous agen- cies, which also are the most important in transportation and distribu- tion of the material. It will therefore be convenient to distinguish between the following general classes of sand deposits:

1. EHolian sand formations.

2. Neptunian sand formations.

The term eolian in this connection was to my knowledge first used in 1835 by R. J. Nelson1) and it signifies the agency of wind. LEolian deposits exhibit a different composition and structure from the nep- tunian, those sediments which have been built up by the water. The transporting power of water being considerably greater than that of wind, it necessarily follows that the material moved by aqueous agencies varies more in size than that which is carried by the wind. We will have ample opportunity to note this difference as we proceed in, our inquiry.

No rational nomenclature for the different kinds of soil constituents, neither of inorganic nor of organogenetic origin, has yet been agreed upon, and it will thus be necessary to give here the designations which have been used during my observations in the field.

1) Proceedings of Geological Society of London, Vol. II., p. 160.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 11

Diameter of grains in millimeters.

TIT Ch OWGllbs ca cacaocsencs 0.02— 0.03 Medium dust or silt........... 0.083— 0.05 Coarsekdustron siltapneeereeaer O,05— @O-i INAH GAME sooccococooecdoose Ol —= O.? Mn eRSAN Geman wet eee ae O32 —= (0.8 Mednimvcan dienes 0.8 — 5 @oarsensan dy MemiAce site aes cle Oo — il (Chahieh 6 6 otras oe Oia ee eee 1 6 — 2 Grave lee ye ya ecco. an bots 2 —. 4 @oarseforavellfanas soce ee 4 — 6 IDC DIESM ernest ee cen § — id Coarse pebbles ............... 10 — 20 Shingles shan coke eae 20 — 50 SSROMYES| 5 Sc ao Hoioy pote orn ea nen 50250 Boulders: ayes opie kes 250 —Upwards

The limit of the coarseness of sand grains is here considered as 0.2—0.1 mm. When the grains are finer than 0.05 mm., the soil 1) has lost the physical properties of sand. It does not feel gritty to the fingers, and if it is dropped on a level and hard surface the grains will not separate but congregate in small heaps. It needs several minutes to sink in water to the bottom of a test tube. When over 0.05 mm. the soil has, however, more of the characteristics of real sand. It is then gritty, when pulverized between the fingers. If scattered dry, it will separate into grains conspicuous to the naked eye. When mixed with water in the test tube, it sinks rapidly, usually in less than one minute, and it is to a noticeable degree conductive of water. It is difficult in practice to draw the lower limit for sand of a certain coarse- ness, because the soil is more or less mixed. On account of the difference in specific gravity of the grains many samples contain grains of different grades.

In the above table the measurements of diameter refer to the average sized grains in each class. The term sand has here been applied to soil, the grains of which are under 1 mm., while a coarseness of 1—2 mm. has entitled the soil to the name of grits. When the chief ingredient is particles larger than 2 mm. and below 6 mm. the soil has been designated as gravel.

Common sand is 2,100 times heavier than dry air, while only 2.5 to

1) The term soil is in this paper used in its broadest technical sense to designate the loose material constituting the disintegrated superficial layers of the earth’s surface.

12 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

2.7 times heavier than water. A strong breeze is therefore required to raise the dust of a road for transportation by the wind, and a still stronger breeze to raise quartz sand; while large pebbles are seldom lifted from the ground. The winds are also extremely irregular in their movements and action. The trades over the ocean have a higher degree of uniformity than other winds, but the velocity is generally only 10 to 20 km. an hour. The winds that do the chief part of eolian geological work are those of storms, whose velocity per hour is from 50 to more than 100 km. Such winds are very unsteady in their action, blowing in gusts, in which there is a sudden increase to a maximum and a-slower decline to a minimum. There is no constancy in force even for an hour, and no uniformity over large areas.

The transporting power of water, on the contrary, is very great; strong waves or torrents being able to move rocks weighing hundreds of tons. By experiments it has been found that a current moving at the rate of 25 cm. per second is able to carry fine sand, while a velocity of 50 em. is sufficient to transport coarse gravel. The action of water is, Moreover, very constant as a rule, and the waves on a long coast, for instance, exert their uniform influence over a considerable area.

We must not, however, confound the transporting power of these agencies, wind and water, with their erosive power. In one case it is the weight, in the other the cohesion, that offers the resistance. Neither wind nor water has any greater erosive power by itself. It is where mud or sand is carried by the wind or water, that a friction arises which removes the particles, loosened by decaying and other processes, from their original place.

Water is efficient in denudation by 1) dissolving of rocks; 2) trans-

portation of the material which assists in the eroding work, and 3) car- rying away the debris. The analogous functions of wind are: 1) trans- portation of the material which triturates and erodes all substances in its way, and 2) distribution. . A-water current when overloaded with solids will deposit ; when under- loaded it will erode. A sandladen wind always both cuts and deposits. Dry sand, wind borne, is an unobtrusive agent, working silently but diligently on the task of paring away the surface. It leaves no monu- ments to show the magnitude of its results, as does denudation by water. River beds and sandbanks are examples of the excavating and building up through sedimentation by the water.

Water is a base leveler in the sense that it transfers material from higher places to lower; but where it erodes, it always works more rapidly

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 18

along the lowest lines and leaves ridges and islands, by which its results can be measured. ‘The water currents have, at any one spot, but a single direction, and the furrows and mouldings of the curved surface are grouped in a single system; but the wind may blow in many direc- tions, and produces series of corresponding complexity.

It is a well known law in dynamical geology that all sedimentary deposits are stratified. This lamination is somewhat different when caused by eolian influence than when resulting from the action of water. The sorting power of water is more distinct than that of wind, because of the greater regularity of water currents.

As a consequence of the rapid variations to which the transporting power of the wind is subjected, eolian deposits are generally straticulate, finer and coarser laminae succeeding each other in indefinite alterations. But there is not the evenness of layer characterizing aqueous deposits, even when made over level surfaces. Tio make beds without straticula- tion would require winds without these irregularities—little varying and long continuing,—such as few regions have, except those that have winds of too moderate velocity to carry any but the finest particles. The gusty winds also tend, by their denuding as well as transporting work, to make wavy rather than plane upper surfaces. Moreover, any barrier, as a projecting rock or a stump, or a tuft of grasses, causes a heaping of the sands around the obstacle, and makes curving surfaces in the heaps, owing to the eddies in the air.

We must here consider the following kinds of lamination:

1) horizontal

2) oblique

3) flow- and plunge 4) irregular.

Horizontal strata are developed in water only, especially in ngn- running water. Hach lamination here represents different conditions of the water in which the sediment is deposited, and oblique lamination or cross-bed structure is a result of deposition by rapid shifting currents, carrying material of varying coarseness. While strictly horizontal lami- nation cannot be formed by winds, obliquely laminated layers occur in eolian deposits, indicating that somewhat regular winds have blown for some time.

This cross-bed structure of the sediments is characterized by a lami- nation in a plane, oblique to the horizon. It results from the pushing along of the sand by currents, causing at first a little elevation, and

14 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

then the deposition of successive layers over the front slope of the elevation. If the currents are transient, alternating with conditions of still water, the obliquely laminated beds will alternate with others horizontally laminated. Such laminations may be due to changes of wind or tide, or to the periodical or occasional fluctuations in the volume of rivers.

The flow- and plunge structure has been caused by plunging waves accompanying the rapid flow of a current, through which action the oblique laminae have been broken up into short, wavelike parts. This lamination bears evidence of being the result of an agent less variable, and moving slower than that which has formed the irregular structure so characteristic of most eolian deposits.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COASTAL SAND FORMA- TIONS.

The sand formations, which will come under discussion in connection with our present subject, all have their origin ultimately due to the action of the sea. We can conveniently divide these marine formations into following groups:

1. Submarine sand banks. 2. Sandy islands.

3. Sandy spits.

4. Sandy beaches.

1. The first class of formations or submarine sand banks are formed by the combined action of streams and the waves of the sea, or by the latter alone. Most of these accumulations contain more or less of river detritus, which is brought down to the sea during floods. The ocean’s waves and currents meet it as the tide sets in, with a counter action, or one from the sea landward; between the two the waters, as they lose their velocity, drop the detritus over the bottom. Where the river is very large and the tides feeble, the banks and reefs extend far out to sea. Where the tide is strong, sand bars are formed, and the stronger the tide, the closer are the sand bars to the coast. Where the stream is small, the ocean may throw a sand bank quite across its mouth, so that there may be no egress to the river waters except by percolation through the sand; or, if a channel is left open, it may be only a shallow one.

In other cases the material constituting the sand banks is derived

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 15

from the land through the erosion and transportation of waves and cur- rents. This material consists usually of coarse or fine sand, but may include some beds of pebbles or stones when the currents are strong. The stratification is comparatively regular and nearly horizontal.

2. When the accumulations just spoken of increase under wave- action in shallow water, until they rise above low tide level, they form sandy islands.

3. Sandy spits are the lengthwise extensions of beaches formed through the waves throwing material on shoals at the turn of the shore. Their composition is similar to that of the above formations.

‘4. Sandy beaches are made by material thrown up on the shore by waves. This material is coarse where the waves break heavily, because, although trituration is going on at all times, the powerful wave action and the undertow carry off the finer material seaward into the offshore shallow waters, where it settles over the bottom or is distributed by currents. It is fine where the waves are gentle in movement, as in sheltered bays, or estuaries, the triturated material accumulating in such places near where it is made.

As soon as the accumulations of eroded material have increased so far as to rise above the surface of the water, the further growth is similar to that of the beaches, and from these latter other coastal sand formations such as dunes and sand fields are developed by the influence of wind. The development of these two kinds of eolian sand formations will be discussed in detail under separate headings.

It is a well known fact that the salts of seawater hasten the deposi- tion of sediments, and consequently the shape and formation of sand banks and beaches on marine coasts is somewhat different from those of corresponding freshwater deposits. I have not been able to ascertain whether the seawater acts differently on siliceous material than on clay sediments. We usually find that deposits nearer the shore or the source of the material contain more silica than further out in the deep water, but this may depend on the usually large size and the greater weight of the siliceous fragments, which causes them to sink sooner.

In order to determine this, experiments were conducted in the labora- tory. I tried ordinary seawater from the Baltic, of a salinity of 0.6% measured with areometer, and artificially prepared solutions of resp. 2.7% and 3% corresponding to the salt content of ocean water. Finely ground clay and beach sand were stirred in the water samples, and allowed to settle in vessels 25 cm., 50 cm., and 100 em. deep, all being 42 cm. in diameter. The following results were obtained:

16 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

eee

Salinity of Hours for settling. Depth of vessel. No. of vessel. water pr cent. Silica. Clay, 1 fresh 29 38 25 em. 2 0.6 10 12 3 2.0 2 2.0 4 3.0 tds) 2.20 5 fresh AQ 50 50 cm. 6 0.6 14 16 7 atl 3 3.1) [8 3.0 2.50 3.25 9 fresh 68 84 100 cm. 10 0.6 24 30 ial 2.1 5 6.25 12 3.0 4.25 5.25

As will be seen from this table, silica in all cases both in salt and fresh water settled faster than clay. Whether this fact was merely a result of a greater weight of the siliceous particles, or whether other factors influenced the sedimentation, I was unable to decide. At all events it was evident that the salt produces a considerable flocculation in the water. The primary cause of the growth of the deposit in water is sedimentation, but in many cases the rising of the level of the coast- line has to be taken into consideration as a secondary factor. It is often difficult to determine to what extent the rate of growth of a deposit is due to one of these factors or the other. Especially is this the case on a low coast, where the growth always takes place more rap- idly than on a steeper shore. The horizontal growth of the deposit is also much greater on coasts protected by islands than on open coasts with deep water, where the material is more easily carried away.

With regard to the position of the marine sediments it will be noticed that they are apparently horizontal, and the tendency is to level the beds through filling all depressions. The coarser sediments are always nearer the shore in comparatively narrow lines, parallel to the coast, whereas the finer sediments are spread over a larger area further off the shore. Banks and beaches are always sloping gently seawards, and they are, perhaps, somewhat steeper on marine coasts than on fresh water shores, general conditions being equal.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS, 17

We have here also to consider the peculiar results of the wave-action of both water and wind, which are generally known by the name of ripple marks, a term introduced by Lyell.

The phenomena of rippling have in recent times had a careful ob- server in Cornish, and the following statements are principally based on his studies of this problem, although the laws and facts presented by him have been subjected to a detailed investigation in the field by the present writer, and I am able in a few instances to bring forward some evidence in support of Cornish’s theories.

The same factor which causes the wave formation of water has a similar influence on the sand. ‘The resulting wave-forms or ripples consist of alternate ridges and furrows made by the wash of the waters over a sand flat or beach, or over the bottom within soundings. They may also be made by the action of wind on a surface of sand. When the ripples are formed through the action of water we can distinguish between

1. wave formed ripples, 2. current made ripple marks, and 3. tidal sand ripples.

The parallel formations of wind made sand waves are 4. eolian sand ripples, and 5. dunes.

Comparing waves of water with those of a more solid medium, such as sand, we find that, while in the case of water two kinds of waves, oscillatory and wind driven, can be recognized, wave formation in sand is always connected with onward movement of the particles. In oscil- latory waves the water particles on the crest are moving forward, but those in the trough backward with the same velocity and consequently the water body as such does not move in either direction. It is cus- tomary to express this motion by saying that the particles move in a circular orbit. When the waves are wind driven the forward velocity is greater than the backward, and a bodily movement of the water in the direction of the acting force is the result. The curve described by the water particles is still closed, having a trochoidal form. In the case of drifting sand the particles from the crest of the wave move in curves, which are open.

Wave-formed sand ripples have an unsymmetrical form, always facing with the waves. Current made ripple marks are similarly unsymmetrical in form, the sheltered side being steeper, and the front facing the cur-

18 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

rent. ‘Tidal sand ripples, first described by Reynolds!) and later by Cornish?) occur in estuaries and also on some shores where the sand is exposed to waves as well as currents. Cornish is of ihe opinion that they do not require for their formation any cooperation between flood and ebb currents. The size and form of these ripples is constantly changing with the variations in the tide. Cornish describes this in the following words:

“At neap tides the sands were nearly smooth, and as the tides in- creased the tidal sand ripples appeared, short and relatively steep. The amplitude increased steadily, the average wave-length also increased, apparently by elimination of some of the ridges. When the highest spring tide was passed the amplitude rapidly diminished, the wave- length remaining nearly, but not quite constant, and the mean sand level remaining practically unchanged.”

Tidal sand ripples sometimes attain a considerable size, Cornish giving the wave length of from 1 to 6.7m. I have often noticed a finer rippling of the proper tidal ripples, and in two instances, on the east- ern coast of Australia, I observed the tidal sand ripples crossed by another set of large mpples. These were formed by a sudden change of the direction of the tide current through the overflow of a neighboring stream. Both these sets of wave formations were then beautifully rippled in the usual way by little current marks, facing almost trans- versely the second set of larger ripples. Cornish attributes the forma- tion of current marks to the pulsation of the fluid rather than to the current itself.

In the formation of eolian sand ripples it is the heterogeneity of the material which is of the greatest importance. The sorting action of wind is remarkable, and it is evident at the first glance on a group of ripples that the heavier grains always constitute the crest, the lighter the trough. A moderate range of sizes of grains seems therefore most favorable to the formation of ripples.

Darwin?) remarked the uniformity of pattern in the ripples formed by wind, which uniformity, as a rule, is absent from ripples made in

1) Reports of committee appointed to investigate the action of waves and currents on the beds and foreshores of estuaries by means of working models. — British Association for Advancement of Science, Reports ’89, 190; 791.

2) The formation of wave surfaces in sand— Scot. Geogr. Mag. 17: i—11. 1901.

3) G. H. Darwin: On ripple mark. — Proceedings of Royal Society, London, vol. 36. 1883.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 19

water. When the wind blows upon the sand, a winnowing process takes place, the finer particles being carried farther away than the coarser material, which then produces the ridges of heavier grains mentioned above. This uniformity of pattern connected with the fact that the wave length increases with the time during which the force of the wind is acting upon the sand led Cornish1) to advance the following law for rippling by wind: The rippling takes place when the eddy in the lee of the larger grains is of sufficient strength to lift the smaller.

The systematically corrugated surface of loose sand can only be produced by a wind that is not too strong for the larger grains to remain on the ground. If the breeze is too strong no rippling whatever takes place as all the particles of sand then will be transported. If on the other hand the wind is too weak to make an eddy, the sand moyes slowly, but does not form ripples.

The height of the waves and their distances from each other is larger the larger the grains are. The movement of the waves is of different rapidity and depends on the force of wind and the size of the grains. It is naturally more rapid when the wind is stronger and the sand fine. Following results were obtained by the author from a number of meas- urements of amplitude or height of ridge and wave-length of sand ripples made by wind on the coast of West Australia. All measurements are given in millimeters:

Coarseness Wave Number of measure No. of Amplitude. ments of which

grains. length sample is average. iL. 0.7 8.6 36 34 2. 0.6 3.1 29 6 Be 0.4 3.7 34 3 4. 0.3 2.5 47 14 He | 0.8 6.2 40 8 6. 0.6 4.4 39 6 Ue 0.7 8.7 51 3) 8. 0.8 8.3 68 21 9. 0.6 14.6 82 | 19

These measurements serve to support the results obtained by Cornish and the law advanced by him, that amplitude and wave-length increase

1) On the formation of sand dunes.— Geographical Journal, vol. IX: 280.

20 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

im same proportion. His other conclusion that regular rippling has an amplitude of three grains from trough to crest, seems to me rather hasty. I have, however, not made any regular observations to test this statement, it being of minor importance in connection with my present inquiry.

For the study of wave forms, which as a legitimate subject for in- vestigation has attracted the attention of several scientists since the time of Newton, Cornish has proposed!) the term Kwumatology (kdpa -wave).

Accepting this name for the sake of convenience, the writer has to point out that the digressions here made into the domain of Kumatology have been necessary in order to arrive at a better understanding of the factors which control the movements of sand, the interpretation of which is in many respects still contradictory.

SANDY BEACHES.

The beach may be defined as that strip of the shore which is formed by the agency of waves. As a rule, it is situated between the lowest level of the water and the formations produced by other geological agents.

The method of beach formation has already been indicated. It was mentioned that the mechanical action of the sea is evidenced in the phenomena of erosion, transportation and sedimentation. ‘The eroding action of the sea is especially prominent on steep rocky shores, and on places where the difference between low and high tide is great.

The material from the rocks eroded by the waves as well as the sand and silt carried down to the rivers, sinks to the bottom of the sea and is again transported by the waves and currents to the coast, there to be accumulated. Although the transporting power of the waves is im- mensely great, the distances to which rocks or even sand can be carried is limited. In sediments of a clastic nature a sifting takes place through the action of the waves against the shore, the finer material being carried farther away, while the coarser is left on the shore. On very steep shores, only larger pebbles and gravel are found, on lower fine sand, and on very low coasts, silt.

If we consider the movements of the sand on a low shore, we will

1) Geographical Journal, March 1897 and June 1898.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 2k

notice that the sand grains follow the movement of the waves, that is roll up and down. ‘The deposit of sand takes place only when the returning current does not carry back all material brought forward by the wave. It follows that the velocity of the forward movement must be greater than that of the returning current which is possible only on very low strands, the sloping angle of which is not greater than five degrees. If the size of the grains is large, the angle naturally also changes. At the limit to which the wave reaches, an instantaneous ab- sorption of the very thin strata of water takes place in the sand, so that the returning current does not begin at this limit, but at a place lower down. It is easy to determine the width of this belt in which the absorption takes place, as the sand surface first is shining by the water and then quickly turns dull. The width is always varying, and is in direct relation to the strength of the waves, and also to the sloping angle of the beach. During a strong gale and on a very low strand, this belt is from 2m. upwards on the Baltic coast, and on the western coasts of Australia and the Pacific coast of America, where the mighty waves of the ocean strike the shore with all their force, this belt is still much broader. Secondly, deposits take place only on coasts, the sloping angle of which is not more than 5 to 10 degrees. This angle is about 5 degrees with a grain size of 0.5 to 1 mm. in diameter. With finer sand, under 0.5 mm., as is the case on many places on sheltered shores on the Baltic coasts, it sinks to between 1 and 2 degrees, while with larger grains, from 1 to 3 mm., an angle of 7 or even 8.5 degrees is formed. With a steeper slope, deposition does not take place, but a denudation is commenced.

Sandy beaches afford ‘a certain protection of the coast line against the erosive action of waves and surf. During the constant landward urging of the sediments the coarser ingredients of the arenaceous material soon cease to roll, and come to rest, and as the deposits are augmented they will offer sufficient resistance to reduce the energy of the wave, and consequently the erosion is diminished.

That beach sands remain unworn depends to a great extent on the fact that the particles do not touch each other, as each one is surrounded by a film of water. The beating of the waves also compresses the inter- stitial water, and the solitary grains are thus not tossed about and therefore do not grind and wear.

The presence of a considerable amount of interstitial water in the beach sand washed by the waves is demonstrated when through the pressure of the foot on the sand this whitens because of the expulsion

22 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

of water, while as soon as the foot is lifted the original dull color is quickly resumed.

Very fine sand is angular, and the rounding by water is produced only when the strength of the current is not sufficient to keep the grains suspended, but vet capable of moving them. The specific gravity of the volume of sand is always smaller than that of the solitary grains. The latter leave between each other spaces which are filled with air and water; if all the grains were of the same size and exactly spherical, the specific gravity of the volume of sand would be independent of the absolute size of the grains, but as soon as grains of different sizes are mixed, the small grains fill the spaces between the larger and hence increase the specific gravity. This latter is also, the mineral character of the grains being equal, higher the more dissimilar the grains are.

The texture of the sand in each locality depends entirely upon the nature of the rocks from which it was originally derived. Through having a comparatively large mixture of different sizes, and consisting of the most different minerals of different specific gravity, beach sands exhibit considerable differences in texture. On almost every non-rocky coast, however, some kind of accumulation of fine grained quartz sand can be noticed.

By quartz sand we understand a soil consisting mainly of white or yellowish quartz grains, among which only very seldom any organic mat- ter is distributed. Being conspicuously free from foreign constituents, quartz sand is very uniform. It is generally believed that the pure quartz sand on marine shore is a special result of the action of the sea. This is, however, not the case. I have examined many samples of the littoral sediments on different coasts, but never found the clean white quartz sand of the beach occuring on the bottom of the sea. On the contrary, the sandy sediment under water is impure, mixed with organic matter, and highly colored. As soon as the sand is thrown ashore by the wave and current action, and left at the water level, it is picked up by the wind and carried inland. And if we observe the sand of the beach from the edge of the water landward, we will find that it becomes cleanet the further it is from the sea. This fact is mentioned by several authors; for instance, Serres,1) who speaks of it in discussing the French Mediterranean coast. Beach formations are very irregular in stratification in their upper portions, where they are made by the toss

1) Marcel de Serres: Der Treib- und Flugsand des Mittellindischen Meeres. —Peterm. Mitth. V: 197—198. 1859.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 23

of the waves combined with the drifting of the winds. But the sloping part swept by the waves below high-tide level is very evenly stratified parallel to the surface: This surface dips usually at an angle of 5° to 15°. Generally speaking the coarsest beaches have the steepest slopes. The sand of the beach is increased or decreased according to the weather and the seasons, it being thickest in summer and thinnest in winter, and sometimes the beach is almost stripped of sand after a series of gales. On the beach, there is formed a ridge of sand during offshore winds. The sand is readily raised by the breakers and usually an excavation or trough is found at the back of the ridge. This is similar to the excavation and elevation produced in ripples. When the wind goes down, a succession of low ridges are formed concave on the side toward the sea, but as soon as a wave reaches over the top of the ridge, the concavity is filled and an edge with uniformly sloping sides is formed. The height of this beach ridge is usually not very considerable on the Baltic coasts; seldom more than 1.5 m. over the general level of the beach, or 2.25 over the sea. On the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the height is not much greater, although the ridge is formed by breakers of considerable strength.

When the breaker line has been stationary for some time, for instance during a high tide, an excavation is dredged out, and at ebb a lagoon is often left here. For our purposes the beach may be divided into the following belts: 1. The submerged beach; 2. The front beach ; 3. The middle beach; and 4. The upper beach. The first belt includes that portion of the beach that hes below mean low tide, but which may be exposed by neap tides. It is normally covered with water, and is subjected to the constant beating of the waves, which carry the material ashore in their landward advance. Some of the detritus is deposited, while another part is returned seawards with the undertow. Where the carrying power of the surf is great, the beach is often built up by material containing a considerable amount of coarse gravel and pebbles. On such beaches there is always a residue of mud after a storm or an exceptionally high tide, while no such deposits occur on sand alone. The front beach is the belt between mean low tide and mean high tide, being alternately each day exposed to the air and submerged. It mostly passes without any marked break into the submerged belt. Situated on the border between the land and water the front beach offers very unfavorable conditions, not allowing the deposits to remain stable or resting, on account of the repeated washing of the waves and currents.

With the term middle beach we would designate that portion of the

24 d GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

shore which is continuously moistened by the spray from the sea, and it may even occasionally become inundated. The sand of this formation which has been piled up by the waves, is picked up by the wind and earried inland. It is usually of a light color. The upper layers are rapidly drying up, but the ground water keeps at a high level, and moisture is usually found at a very slight depth.

The upper beach is limited on one side by the line of debris that marks the highest water. This debris, cast up by the-sea, consists of lumber and other wooden articles, fruits and seeds, fragments of marine plants, and a quantity of animal remains, rapidly decaying. The upper beach is also characterized by a greater rise in elevation and contains more organic matter than any other part of the beach. The development of this formation is modified to a greater extent by the wind than by water, and it is especially on this strip of the shore, where the sands commence to drift, and where they usually form the first ridges of sand parallel to the coast, which we know as dunes.

The windmade embankments on the beach have a remarkable con- struction, somewhat different from the usual. When the shifting of the sand is very rapid, the littoral dunes do not reach any remarkable height, and their existence is then very precarious.

DUNES.

The etymology of the word dune is somewhat obscure. Generally it is presumed that it is derived from the Celtic word dun, hill. In Latin it is called dunwm, in Greek d6vvov, and hence the modern lan- guages have acquired the use of the same term in more or less changed dress. According to Grewingk, not every ridge of sand parallel to the coast is a dune, as they can in some cases originally be sand-banks formed under water, which later have been lifted above the surface of the water through the elevation of the shore. Dunes are formed especially where the sands are almost purely siliceous, and hence incoherent, and little fit for any kind of vegetation. They reach their greatest height on projecting coasts that receive the winds from different directions.

The source of the dune sand is usually either diluvial sand, which has been laid bare, or sand which has been brought ashore by the sea.

On the Dutch and Danish west coasts almost all the sand which forms the dunes traces its origin from the sea. It is here thrown up on the beach by the wayes, and as soon as it has been dried by the sun,

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 25

the wind carries it further inland. On the coasts in question, the westerly winds are the prevailing, and therefore the sand wanders in an easterly direction.

Because of their extreme shiftiness of soil, the dunes do not attain any considerable elevation. The sand deposited by the wind on the summit of the hill is always in a state of unstable equilibrium. It has a constant tendency to be precipitated down the other side, and the higher the summit, the greater is this tendency, so that the dune arrives at last to a point when no further accumulation is possible. The dune, however, still continues to grow, extending its base and generally increasing in dimensions, but does not increase in elevation.

The size and the height of the dune depends on the distance from the sea and on the strength of the wind. In some cases it has been observed that during a strong wind a dune has decreased in height 5 cm., while other dunes have increased 25 cm. LEHvery dune has one side placed against the prevailing wind. This front side has a lower grade than that on the lee side, which is always more abrupt. As long as the same wind prevails, and as long as the wind carries only so much sand as it is able to take away from the top of the dune, so long will the dune retain its position and form, just as a whirlpool in a river is constant, so long as the river maintains the same velocity and volume. Because the sand grains cannot be lifted to any greater height in the air, the dunes, when they have reached a certain elevation, would present to the sand grains an almost insurmountable obstacle, but they have very seldom time to cohere. The wind modifies its work incessantly and the height of the dune is very soon reduced by stronger winds.

The transporting power of the air is, as already mentioned, small compared with that of water, because of its lightness and want of cohesion. ‘The size of the particles has, therefore, a great influence not only on the degree to which the sand is liable to drift, but also on the extent in which it may manifest properties relative to the texture of the soil, among others that of retaining moisture, which is so important to vegetation.

The amount of sand transportation is greatest, other things being equal, where there is no cover of vegetation to keep down the sands, and the deposits made are most extensive in the direction of the pre- vailing currents. The coarser dune sand particles are pushed along the ground, while the finer form clouds of dust in the air, and settle rapidly or slowly near to or remote from the source of supply according to the

force of the wind and the size of the particles suspended. Library Publications. 2

26 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

The drifting of sand by wind takes place according to following principles: If the force of the wind is great, the grains do not move on the surface but are lifted by the wind to a certain height. The larger grains make jumps, and touch the ground from time to time, while the smaller grains often are carried forward in form of clouds at a con- siderable height from the ground. At a velocity of 4.5 m. in the second, grains of 0.25 mm. diameter slide on the ground, but at a velocity of 15 m., grains of 1 mm. diameter are lifted high in the air. As a corollary of this fact it follows that the movement of the grains depends on their volume. The greater part of the sand grains have an irregular flat form, and hence their movement is not rolling but sliding. That of the largest take place spasmodically and only during stronger gusts. According to Sokoloff, a wind of a velocity of 10—12 m. in a second cannot carry grains of 100—150 cubic mm. When the wind is not too strong, the grains slide along the surface, but when they are lifted up during the strong gusts, and fall down at a certain angle, they again rebound at the same angle. Hagen has proved that coarser sand grains are sometimes lifted up to 2 m. height, and in such a case they are carried up to 12 m. from their original place.

Ridges or rim formed ripples advance almost entirely by the sliding of the larger grains of the top layer of the crest, and Cornish estimates the progress of the ridges at one foot per hour. Helmann found in Chiwa that the ripples on the lee-side of the dunes move almost with the same rapidity as on the windward side, and he was not able to interpret this phenomenon. It has been ascertained that the movement of the dunes landward goes on at the average rate of 4.30 m. a year, and that the quantity of sand thus transported is about 75 cubic m. to the running m. of the length of the dune.

The winds have a greater power at a higher elevation than near the surface, and consequently more sand is removed from the summit than the wind is able to lift from the ground. This difference in the strength of wind exercises a modifying influence on the development of the dunes. The effect of the wind is to diminish the maximum slope, but as the formation of dunes is mainly regulated by the supply of sand, the varying angle of the windward slope depends upon the varying density of the sand shower pushed forth toward the summit. In cases where the supply of sand has become scarce or exhausted, the front slope of the dune soon will be almost as steep as the lee side, that is, approach the natural limit of the angle of rest.

The leeward slope of the dune varies but slightly, provided a reverse

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 27

of the dominant wind does not take place. It is the gravity which here exercises its force and reduces to the angle of rest any steeper slope caused by the air currents or other factors. The development of a dune is similar to that of a ripple, although it takes place on a larger scale. In lee of the dune crest there is an eddy, the upward motion of which lifts the fine sand particles, and in cooperation with the wind sends them flying from the summit. Gravity acts upon these particles, causing the fall across the stream lines of the air. The coarser sand falls more steeply, and this pitch is further increased by the backward motion of the eddy.

There are thus several factors which influence the formation of dunes. Of these operating factors the force and direction of the wind, the sand shower, the eddy in the lee of any obstacle, the gravity, the configuration of the surface, and the moisture are the principal ones. If the dune is formed at a certain constant sum-total of these factors, it retains its form as long as these factors are constant.

THE SCULPTURAL FORM OF DUNES.

The forms of dunes have a greater variety than those of ripples, because a dune is the result of many changing winds. While the dunes do not owe their origin to the action of the sand grains, like the ripples, still rippling plays a part in the shaping of every dune. Reversible winds produce dunes having both front and back slope very steep. The first effect of reverse of winds is to turn the top of the dune.1) During strong winds the troughs are always deeper.2) On a hard ground, the windward slope can be as steep as the angle of rest, in case the sand supply fails and the wind is strong. If such is the case the dunes are widely separated.) This form differs from that of dunes produced in deep sand by dominant wind. The angle of the windward slope in this case decreases with the density of the sand shower, and increases with the power of the wind.

The amplitude of the dune does not exceed one third of the wave- length, and this limit is most nearly approached when the wind blows

1) Sven Hedin: A journey through the Takla-Makan Desert, Chinese Turkestan.—Geogr. Journ., VIII: 264—278, 356—872. 1896.

2) G. Grandjean: Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne.—Bull. Soc. Géogr. Coml. de Bordeaux, March 1896.

3) V. Cornish: On the formation of sand dunes.—Geogr. Journ. IX., p. 286. 1897.

28 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

alternately from opposite quarters, but does not hold in one quarter sufficiently long to reverse the work of preceding winds. Cornish1) remarks that in speaking of amplitude instead of height of dunes, one avoids the common confusion which results from the fact that the vertical distance from the bottom of the trough to the summit may increase even by raising of the crest or by deepening of the trough.

A dune sufficiently large is stationary, and it is an established law that as the amplitude increases, the velocity of the dune wave decreases. The velocity of the dune is the rate of advance of the crest which takes place by accumulation of sand upon the lee slope. There is also a group velocity of dunes to be recognized, that is, the rate of travel of the sand. Increase of wind will increase formation of new dunes to leeward rather than the rate of travel of the individual dune, and is usually accompanied by a considerable lowering of the general level, especially in the case of simultaneous diminution in the supply of sand.

The sorting action of wind already mentioned is supported by rain- water jyhich washes the finer particles down into the trough, and con- sequently we find the summit of dunes to consist of coarser material. But on the other hand the lower part of the eddy is gouging out the trough and the finer material is carried away through the combined action of the eddy and the wind. The sand is therefore finer in the dunes generally than in the hollows between them. On a large sandy surface the particles are finer at the extremity towards which the wind blows.

Through this winnowing process the dust which consists of friable matter, having been reduced to the size of powder by grinding between the sands is carried away from the dune district and deposited beyond its limit. It is especially in desert regions, where aridity excludes vegetation and allows the wind to play with full force upon the finer particles of the soil, that we notice the development of sandy deserts covered with quartz sand, yet surrounded by grassy steppes consisting of clay dust. This remarkable distribution of the products of rock disintregration by wind and its effect on the physiography of Northern Africa has been eminently shown by Walther.2) Already Buvay 3) described the transition between the cultivated coast lands and the desert of Africa, which must be called a steppe, and the genetical relation of these formations is now a generally admitted fact.

il) 1b stay ZEVe 2) Die Denudation in der Wiiste. 3) Zeitschr. fiir Allgemeine Erkunde. Berlin, 1857, p. 290.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 29

If we consider the general appearance and composition of the drift sands we find that they consist in a preponderating degree of somewhat rounded grains of quartz sand with only a very small percentage of other materials. The admixture consists primarily of felspar, of mica, and of various other minerals, such as hornblende, augite and granite, and to some extent of lime, mostly in form of fragments of shells.

In a erystallinic rock, such as granite, we find that the different con- stituents, felspar, quartz and mica, are present in isolated crystals. As soon as these elements are separated from each other, they acquire a granulated form and constitute what we call quartz sand. The grains of felspar and mica act, however, in a different way than those of quartz, the latter representing crystallographically only one or a few individuals, while felspar and mica consist of many thin lamellae. Hence, when exposed to the decomposing agencies, disintegration of felspar and mica is much more intensive than that of quartz. The different particles of sand are moved more rapidly by the wind the lesser their gravity in proportion to their surface. Mica is so light that the least gust of wind carries its thin lamellae. away, and it is further so briftle that it is easily broken into small fragments against other sand particles. The same can be said of felspar, although, perhaps, in a less degree. Here we also have to consider the chemical facility for decomposition. During the night and in the dewy mornings, the felspar which has been opened through the many capillary spaces is chemically decomposed by the moisture, while the quartz has a greater resistance against this agency. Consequently the older the dune sand is and the longer time and water have exerted their influence, the less felspar will be found in it and the more dominant is the quartz over the other minerals. As a rule, all the sand grains, however, exhibit more or less the rounded appearance. due to attrition and weathering.

Besides the sand, the wind carries all kinds of light plant remains, thin shells, dry crabs, dead and living insects, and similar particles. All these temporary constituents of the dune are, however, insignificant in comparison with the sand, and are usually so rapidly decayed that they are seldom found in the deeper parts of the dune. ‘The separate grains are mostly covered with a fine mold, in part due to the decomposi- tion of the above organic remains, on which depends the fertility of the sand. The drift sand, though varied with a sprinkling of somewhat rare grains of darker colored substances, is generally a mass of a light color.

The stratification of dunes is usually very mixed, and in the same

30 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

dune strata, cut in all the four directions of the compass, can be seen. Successive layers dip in various directions, and are abruptly cut short, showing that the growing dune hill was partly cut down by storms and was again and again built up by such disasters. The consolidation of sand is best observed in ripples and rarely well shown in dunes, because the latter are the result of changing winds, and the time involved in their formation is too great for observation.

The fundamental forms of sand dunes include the transverse and the longitudinal. The former, which is the most common on sea coasts, especially where the wind is of moderate strength or the sand strip comparatively narrow, is that placed at right angles to the prevailing wind; the latter, formed where the wind is so strong as to prevent free lateral growth, is that following the direction of the wind; between these two there is an intermediate form; when varying winds act upon this latter form, conical dunes are produced. ‘They are, as a rule, stationary, while the longitudinal form represents the most rapidly traveling dune. ;

The dunes which are placed parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds have originated quite differently from those which are placed at right angles to the wind. As we have seen, the usual mode of deyelop- ment of a dune is that the sand forms a ridge transverse to the direction of the wind. The sand is blown up on the lower slope on the front, and when it reaches the top it falls down along the lee slope; the ridge growing until it has reached considerable height. The parallel longi- tudinal dunes are, however, formed through the central part of the dune, being blown further and further forward, while the ends are kept back by various forces. The rule is that such a horseshoe-shaped or parabolic dune on the seashore moves with the convex side in the direction of the prevailing wind.

Apparently diverse, even opposing effect is produced in sandy deserts. if the observations of Rolland and many other travellers regarding the dunes called Barchanes are correct. In Traité de Géologie of Lapparent, 3 Ed., 1893, p. 140, we find the following opinion expressed about these wandering dunes: “Enfin la forme de dunes en marche doit étre généralement celle d’un croissant tournant sa convexité vers le vent; par les particules sableuses, ayant moins de hauteur a franchir sur les bords de la dune qu’en son centre, cheminent plus vite 4 droite et a gauche. La créte doit done se courber en projectant deux pointes vers Vintérieur. Cette forme en croissant a été bien constatée par tous les yoyageurs qui ont parcouru le Sahara et les déserts americains.”

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. bl

Now the question arises: How is this phenomenon to be explained? Cornish1) refers to the development of barchanes in the following words: “They form here and there upon the desert floor where the wind will let them. It appears that they neither occur in localities where the sheet of wind has everywhere a complete mastery over the sand, nor where the burden of all the flying sand is everywhere too great for the carrying power of the wind; they dot the desert plain in localities where the sheet of wind has, for the most part, the mastery of the sand, but drops its burden here and there at certain points or more probably along certain strips.”

“The horns or cusps of the barchanes, pointing to leeward, are readily explained, for the lowest parts of the dune travel quickest. A form as of the moon in her first quarter (1. e. that is to say with the cusps pointing in the direction of motion) is the form of front proper to a traveling sand-wave as viewed in plan. In this case gravity does not operate, so that the incoherence of sand does not hinder the formation of the cusp as it does in the profile of dunes.”

This explanation seems negatived by the fact that the cusps generally are very insignificant as compared with the body of the dune, and in most cases a difference in size of the cusps can be recognized. Thus Lessdr?) observed in the Kara-Kum desert in Central Asia that the southwesterly cusp always was longer. This seems to indicate that the cusps are formed in a way similar to that of the low ridges which have often been noticed on the lee side of both stationary and wandering dunes on sea coasts. These lee ridges are usually placed at right angles to the length of the dune and are formed by the combined action of the eddy in the lee and the current sweeping around the side of the dune. If we accept this explanation for the formation of cusps in lee of the barchanes, the original form of which tends to the oval, according to Sokoloff), we will find a satisfactory solution of the action of wind in the development of the barchane without having to theorize about the lower cusps of the dune moving more rapidly than the higher, which cannot be correct, as we know that the force of the wind is considerably greater on the higher parts of the dune hill than on the lower, and that consequently the central and highest part travels quicker. Steen- strup +) has also shown that a parabolic dune never can move with the

1) On the formation of sand dunes, p. 290.

2) P. M. Lessadr: Die Wiiste Kara-Kum. ‘“Izwestija”’ Russ. Geogr. Soe. 20: p. 115. 1884.

3) Die Dtinen. 1894. p. 164.

4) Om Klitternes vandring. 1894. p. 14.

32 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

closed side toward the wind, and I must subscribe to his opinion, as | have not, on any of the dunes visited my me, been able to observe a phenomenon of that kind.

Summing up the foregoing discussion on dune forms, we would say that:

1. Dunes are formed in lines transverse to wind in unobstructed places. :

2. Dunes are formed in lines parallel with wind in places where some kind of obstruction is in the path of the wind.

3. Wandering dunes have their convexity in the direction of the prevailing wind.

POLYGENETIC ORIGIN OF A DUNE COMPLEX.

The fundamental principles of dune formation established in the previous section must be recognized at the outset of this discussion in order to facilitate an understanding of the conditions which cause the origin and development of a dune complex. With this term, dune complex or dune tract, as distinguished from a solitary dune or a dune massiv, we signify a collection of secondary dune hills interspersed with deep gullies.

The dune complex is formed behind the chain of primary dunes, when the rate of travel of the sand is locally diminished without a corresponding decrease in the supply of sand. The formation takes place either through older dunes having been broken up into rough hummocks by the wind, or through secondary embryonic dunes being started by the piling up of drifting sand around some obstacle, in most cases a congregation of plants.

One of the most important factors determining the development of a dune complex is the presence of ground moisture. Without this factor we would not be able to explain the apparent irregularity of formation of a group of small dunes, where the quality of sand ought to have called for a regular dune massiv. The action of wind alone is insufficient for this modelling of the surface, but in connection with the greater co- herence of the sand particles caused by the ground moisture the phenomenon is easily explicable.

It is the irregularity in action of wind, caused by the breaking up of the regular even surface of a dune or a sand field into small elevations

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 33

and depressions, that governs the development of such embryonic sand hills into a dune complex. In almost every case the latter formation has had such origin from a number of nuclei, while a dune massiy is formed from a single embryonic dune.

If the plants should not influence the development of dunes the ridges would, like large waves, roll over the land until they were stopped either by water or by high mountains. In most cases it is the plants which have caused the broken forms of the sea coast dunes. Inland dunes have, as a rule, a more regular shape.

There is no other geological formation of the present time which is the result of such a combination of factors from the organic and inorganic nature. Dunes are developed wherever the winds can play over the loose sands, and as soon as the sand begins to drift, the ordinary vegetation is destroyed and plants which thrive in drifting sand immigrate, and thus begins the co-operation between the drift sand and the dune plants, the result of which is the dune. Although there is a struggle for power between the moving sand and the plants, it is remarkable with this strife that they both thrive best where they are almost of equal strength. If the plants have gained a victory they will soon be replaced by other plants, and then it can happen that the wind again breaks open the soil and the sand starts to drift afresh.

SAND FIELDS NEAR THE COAST.

As long as an obstruction has caused the formation of a dune, one of these will act as a recipient for the sand, and in this way dunes after dunes are formed until finally a whole sea of sand covered with dunes is formed.

The encroachment of dunes is due not only to the travel of the dunes themselves, but also to the formation of new dunes to the leeward from material supplied by the sand shower.

In some cases, however, when the dunes have not been fixed by a vegetation, the sand skims along the surface like snow drifting before a stiff breeze and accumulates rapidly, covering the plains without forming any hills. Further, the fine material which has been lifted to a certain height in the air, is deposited behind the dune region, and is quickly covered with vegetation, as it offers better condition for plant life on account of its greater coherence and capacity of retaining moisture than the coarser dune sand. ‘These sand fields sometimes cover con-

54 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

siderable areas, and it seems often almost inexplicable that no rippling or dune formation takes place. The explanation of their non-formation is to be sought in the fact that the sand-sized particles are too small in proportion to the mass of material, and further, the deposition of dust takes place so rapidly that the wind is not able to carry it away, leaving the coarser particles to accumulate.

CONDITIONS FOR PLANT LIFE.

There is a great variation in the conditions for plant life on different sand formations. The climate has something to do with this result as well as the quality of the soil. Sea air and saline constituents of the soil destructive to some plants may be beneficial to others. The mobility of a drifting sand dune on the coast may be a condition of life to one plant, while dry atmosphere and the stability of an inland sand field may be essential to the growth of another. Even Pinus maritima, which has produced such wonderful results on the Landes of Gascony, does not grow everywhere even on sand formations in France. It is therefore necessary to study in every case the natural conditions of the locality be- fore the problems of ecological relationship can be solved.

Some of the conditions of sand formations are, however, everywhere the same and these will here be briefly considered. One of the most important points in this connection is the relation to moisture. The rain-water sinks easily into the sand, the better the coarser the grains are. Generally speaking, the power of retention of water is very small and of all soils sand ranges lowest in this respect. The sandy soil has also a very low power of absorption, and is able to condense only a small por- tion of the atmospheric moisture. This is especially the case with quartz sand.

Further, sandy soil dries easily, and it is therefore heated quickly by the sun; but it also cools very soon at night. The difference between day and night temperature can be as high as 40-50° C. In consequence of this, sand is subjected to a considerable bedewing at night, a factor which is important for its capability of carrying a vegetation cover. The great variation of temperatures of the soil is disadvantageous to the plants in one respect, they being more liable to injury by frost, than if growing on any other soil. Sand floras, on the other hand, are always developed earlier, because of the greater heat capacity of the soil.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. bi)

The nutritive value of the sand is very different according to the chemical character of the grains. The commonest form, or quartz sand, is the most barren on account of the insolubility of the quartz grains, and also because of their resistance to decomposing agencies, as already men- tioned, Sand consisting of mica, felspar, limestone, and other minerals, disintegrate, however, and have by reason of this a higher nutritive value.

Formation of mould takes place only to a small degree in dry sandy soil, because the organic constituents are so easily decomposed through the admittance of air, and the particles are further quickly distributed and carried out of reach of the plants by sinking with the water through the loose soil. The proportion between organic and inorganic constitu- ents in this soil is too great, the quantity of the former being too small to establish a sufficient supply for the demand of a more luxuriant growth of plants.

This scarcity of plant food results in a more or less open vegetation consisting of low growing plants, which do not give each other the mut- ual assistance against mechanical influence of wind and other factors, that is evident in the arrangement of plants on most other soils. The injurious effect of the intense light, both direct and reflected from the surface of the sand, has to be guarded against. The transpiration of open sand vegetation, especially on the seacoasts, is always considerable because of the constantly changing atmosphere, resulting from the almost continuous winds. The plants have to develop some means of reducing this excessive transpiration.

Summing up, we may say that the competition for food is more in- tense, the water supply less, the light stronger, the temperature higher, the transpiration greater, the foothold more uncertain and difficult, the conditions for plant life generally more adverse, than on any other soil.

GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

oe ES

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OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 39

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Schroeder, van der Kolk—Bydrage tot de Karteering onzer zandgronden.— Amsterdam, 1895, 1897.

Sieger, R.—Seenschwankungen und Strandverschiebungen in Skandinavien. —Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1893: 1—106, 393—488.

Simonds, Frederic W.—Floating Sand: an unusual mode of river transpor- tation— Amer. geol. xvii: 29—37, 1896.

Smith, Walter A.—Treatment of drift-sand as applied to the Bondi sand dunes.—Read before the Sydney University Engineering Society, Oct. 27th, 1902. p. 15—20.

Sokoloff, N. A.—Die Westkiiste des kaspischen Meeres von der Festung

Petrowsk bis zum Flusse Ssamur.—Ermans Archiy, vii. 1848.

Die Diinen. Bildung, Entwickelung und innerer Bau. German trans.

by Andreas Arzruni—Berlin, 1894.

——Die Diinen der Finnischen Meerbusens.—Tray. Soc. Nat. St. Petersburg. 1882.

—tUeber die Entstehung der Limanen Sitidrusslands——Mém. com. geol. X, _No. 4. St. Petersburg, 1895.

Staring, W. C. H—Windvormingen (d. i. zandheuvels in onze heivelden, met afbeeldingen).—Alb. d. natuur, 1861: 7.

Steenstrup, K. J. V—Om Klitternes Vandring.—Nath. Medd. Kjébenhavn. 1894.

Tarr, R. S—Wave-formed cuspate forelands.—Amer. Geol. XXII: 1—12. 1898.

Themak—Die siidungarische Sandwiiste—Fo6ldt. K6zl. XVII: 275—. 1887.

Thesleff, Arthur—Dynbildningar i 6stra Finland—Medd. Geogr. For. Finl. Il: 36—77. 1895.

Thuret, Gustave—Expériences sur les graines de diverses espéces plongées dans de l’eau de Mer.—Archives des sciences de la biblioteque universelle. 1873: 177—194.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 41

Trouessart, E. L—Au bord de la mer. Géologie, faune et flore des cétes de France de Dunkerque 4 Biarritz—Paris, 1893.

Udden, J. A.—Erosion, transportation, and sedimentation performed by the atmosphere.—Journ. geol. II: 318—332, 1894.

—Dust and sandstorms in the West.—Pop. Sci. Mo. 1896: 655—664.

— Loess as a land deposit—Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. ix: 6—9, 1897.

—The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits. — Augustana Library Publications, No. 1, Rock Island, Ill. 1898.

Vasselot, de Régné de—La dune littorale-—Revue des eaux et foréts. 1875.

Vauthier, L. L—Mémoire sur lV’entrainement et le transport par les eaux courantes des yases, sables et graviers. Compt. rend. par M. Durand- claye, A.—Ann. d. ponts. T. 2, 1885.

Venukoff—Sur les résultats recuellis par M. Sokoloff, concernant la forma- tion des dunes.—Compt. Rend. Ac. Sci. 100: 472—474. 1886.

Vernon, Harcourt—On the means of improving harbours established on low and sandy coasts.—London, 1880.

Vries, G. de—De Rijndijk in de duinen to Petten.—Versl. K. Ak. Wet. 3 sér. pt. 3. 35 p. Amsterdam, 1886.

Wahnschaffe, F.—Die léssartigen Bildungen am Rande des Norddeutscheu Flachlandes.—Zs. D. geol. Ges. 1886.

Walther. Johannes—Das Gesetz der Wtistenbildung in Gegenwart und Vor-

zeit—Berlin, 1900. Die Denudation in der Wiiste und ihre geologische Bedeutung. Unter- suchungen tiber die Bildung der Sedimente in der uigyptischen Wiisten. —Abh. K. Siichs. Ges. Wiss. 1891. math. Phys. Cl. xvi. No. 3: 570. —tUeber die geologische Thitigkeit des Windes—Natw. Wochenschr. Ber- lin, 16: 431—482. 1901.

Weber, Ernst Heinrich & Wilhelm—Wellenlehre.—Leipzig, 1825.

Wessely, Josef—Der Europiiische Flugsand und seine Kultur.—Wien. 1873.

Weule, Karl—Beitriige zur Morphologie der Flachktisten—Zs. Wiss. Geogr. vy. 8. 1891.

Wheeler, W. H.—The Action of Waves and Tides on the Movement of Ma- terial on the Sea Coast.—Rep. Br. A. A. S. 1898. 883—8S4.

—The Sea Coast: 1. Destruction. 2. Littoral Drift. 3. Protection— London, 1902.

Winkler, T. C.—Zand en duinen.—Dokkum, 1865.

—On the maritime dunes of low countries——Report of the Internationai Congress of Geologists. 1878: pp. 181—.

—Sur lorigine des Dunes maritimes des Pays-Bas—dArch. Néerl. xiii: 417—427. 1878.

——Considérations géologiques sur l’origine du zand-diluvium, du sable cam- pinien et des dunes maritimes des Pays-Bas.——Teyler. Arch. vol. V. 1880.

Woodworth, J. B.—Post-Glacial Action in Southern New England.—Am. Journ. Sci. ser. 38. 47: 63—71. 1894.

Zobrist—Les dunes. Réfutation des théories de M. Bouthillier de Beau-

mont.—Bull. Soc. neuchat. géogr. IV: 1—17, 1888.

Library Publications. 3

The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

by Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

inh Tel

i.

CONSE NGS

I. Review of the literature on sandfloras ..............:000002 eee II. Observations on certain sand formations . BAltLCNCOASUS terccessseace coreereeeee eee

The east coast of Sweden......... Shores of Gulf of Finland ........ Islands in the Baltic

Atlantic coast of Europe INearsblymouthwingHin ge landieeercessseessccetteesses eee cecercceece eee COM Was WEG CORES OLE UH EENIC@}scoccos00005 conononoobaseconnShoDoD-conconoosasa5ANS. C0000 VNStrall adc ccccecasccetcsext cocccccthectunveueessecees Sand formations on the west coast .. Dunes in South Australia .........0... Sandy beaches near Sydney . Drift sands in Queensland.... INewiZealandiic-c-c.ssscececccceesecuseccess EV Wal ssevssivsveascectecste castowsrecductsseee Pacific Coast of North America.............. South of Golden Gate ........... WHI@TRETRENY, BEI? — aecccocececopencboz0n0000500000060000000 JoooEEeccoFass60605500000 noTENEECHoEEoTOI5 r Southern’ Caliown lacs cccccccssssosssescecccsessccceecoes ses vocsosstestecccasdewestecigeswsssts Mexico and Central America.... MexicantPacibic! COaS tscrccc-sscsasssiceresikesoscossigSseaveusy siseeevessd ives sveuedaseasses Wiest Coast of Chiapas) iiciiccecccccsessccccestececeseitenecssnteesacitcevatcSecseetentiees Pacific Coast of Central America MunesineariVieran Cruziers.cescaccer sees caseeues suwosnsaw cee ees esau ae suvenccss sc aaveasecents III. Principal Components of the Sand Strand Flora...............:::ccecseeseeees 75 Taxonomic account IV. Bibliography ...................

The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

By Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

1. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON SAND FLORAS.

The earliest data about plants confined to sand formations, particu- larly coastal dunes, we find in Smallegange’s Chronijk van Zeeland, 1696, where it is mentioned (p. 313) that some dunes on the North Sea coast had been planted with Marram-grass or Helm (Ammophila arenaria) already in 1307. Maximilian of Austria issued in 1510 a proclamation upon planting the Helm, and in 1567 the government of Holland also prescribed, in an official edict, the planting of this species on the coastal dunes.

The problem of arresting the drifting of sand and of utilizing the dunes has since that time been considered to be of primary importance for Holland, and we find that the Dutch had made great progress by the middle of 1700, when the question was brought into prominence in Denmark and on the coast of Northern Germany.

At Tidsvilde in Sjaelland in Denmark there is still an old monument bearing an inscription in Latin to the effect that the drifting sand at that place had been fixed in 1738 by Roehl, a German by birth, who planted the dunes with Marram-grass. The Danish king resolved in 1779 that every citizen should plant a certain area with this grass, and the document, which is still preserved in the public archives in Copen- hagen, gave detailed instructions regarding the mode of planting.

On Wangeroog, one of the North Friesian islands, similar planta- tions were made at least as early as 1754, from which year there is on record a map by J. D. Tanner.

In 1768 Professor J. D. Titius of Wittenberg wrote a prize essay on fixation of drifting sand on the Baltic coast (Gerhard, p. 286), and his proposals were put into practical tests at Danzig under the direction of a Swede, Abraham Lindstrém, during 1771. The experiment proved,

48 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

however, a failure, and it was not until several years later that Séren Biérn, a Dane, succeeded in establishing a plantation on the dunes.

At the same time Baron de Charleyoix-Villers wrote several treatises on the subject of fixing the dunes of Gascony (Grandjean p. 53), and his views were utilized by N. T. T. Bremontier, who in 1788 started the reclamation of the Landes of France, which has changed certain parts of this inhospitable region into fertile fields.

On the coasts of Holland, Germany, Denmark, and France the fixa- tion of dunes, started by these pioneers, has ever since been continued, and similar work was later taken up in various other countries. It lies not within the scope of this review to describe the different phases of this reclamation work as it came to be more and more a practical appli- cation of experience gathered by previous cultivators and by scientific investigations.

One of the first studies of the strand flora from a phytogeographical point of view was that of Boll on the beach flora of the German shores of the Baltic, published in 1848.

The coastal sand flora of Eastern Germany has since been studied by Kalmuss, von Klinggraeff, Klimsmann, Krause, Marsson, Ratzeburg, and Schafer.

Brick gives in his work on the ecology of strand plants of the Baltic a number of yaluable suggestions, and in Ackermann’s Physical geog- raphy of the Baltic there is a number of pages devoted to the coast flora.

The most comprehensive work of recent date on coastal sands is Gerhard’s “Handbuch des deutschen Diinenbaues,’” in which the dunes of the German sea coasts are treated. The flora has been described in this work by Abromeit.

The continuation of the sand region of Eastern Germany along the Baltic shore of Curland has been carefully studied by Klinge, while the sands of the Gulf of Riga are to some extent described by Doss and Robert. We may have to expect in the future a treatise on the dune flora of that region by Dr. Kupffer.

Studies of the dune sands on the shores of Gulf of Finland have been made by Sokoloff and Thesleff. Other dunes of Russia are described by Rauner, and minor inland dunes in Finland by Granit and Hult. Some dunes of the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Bothnia have been worked over by Rosberg. Professor Vilhelm Ramsay recently studied the sand formations on the coast of the White Sea, but his observations are not published.

The small island Gotska Sand6én situated in the Baltic, 40 km. N.

OF MARINE COASTS. 45

of Gotland, and consisting exclusively of sand, has been visited and studied by Sernander, Andersson, Eisen and Stuxberg, Holtz and Johansson,

The only publications, in which the sand flora of the Baltic coast of Sweden is treated, are by Erikson. In an excellent paper he describes in detail the topographical features of the vegetation and also the struc- tural adaptations of the sand strand plants of Eastern Scania, the southernmost province of Sweden. Schultz has recently studied the geo- graphical distribution of the strand plants of the Baltic countries.

Warming’s different papers on the sand flora of the Danish North Sea coast are of the greatest importance, giving a good description of this extensive sand district with its typical formations. The observa- tions are made with the critical acumen so characteristic of this author. The review of sand vegetation generally, which Warming gives in his ecological plant geography, is a most comprehensive one.

Feilberg has written on grass cultivation on Skagen, the sandy Northernmost point of Denmark, and Raunkiaer published in 1889 a good paper on the east and south shore of the adjoining part of the North Sea. Of other authors who have written on the flora and ecology of the Danish dunes, we may mention Andersen, Bang, Bérgesen & Jensen, Mentz, Paulsen, and Schmidt.

Buchenau has written considerably on the sand flora of the German North Sea coast, and his studies are characterized by acute observa- tions, and suggestive details.

Fischer-Benzon, Focke, Graebner, Hansen, Hock, Hubbe, Knuth, Lemmermann, Meyer, Noldeke, Reinke, Sandstede, and von Seeman have all written more or less about the flora and vegetation of the same coast, and especially on that of the outlying islands.

Among more recent writers on the dune sand of Holland, and its flora, we may mention Dozy, van Hall, Holkema, Lorié, Retgers, Schol- tens, Vuyck, Winkler, and de Witt Hamer. Blijdenstein and Brants have briefly referred to the flora of the dunes of this country and Heden has especially studied the distribution of dune plants, while Giltay paid attention to some of the ecological adaptations.

The vegetation of the sandy coast of Belgium has been investigated by Massart and van der Swaelmen.

Lesage has written on modifications of the leaf of maritime plants when subjected to different environmental conditions.

Various other writers, such as Baraban, Van den Bosch, Chodat, Costantin, Delfortrie, Girardin, Gosselet, Gras, Labats, Masclef, Partiot,

50 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Poisson, Sauvage, de Vasselot, and de Vicq have studied the conditions of the dunes on the northern coast of France. i

Among authors on the Landes of Gascony may be mentioned Brown, Chambrelent, Dulignon-Desgranges, Duregne, Engler, Fabre, Géneau- Lamarliére, Goursand, Grandjean, Houtreaux, Laval, and McNaughton.

Flahault and Combres have made valuable observations on the dunes of Southern France. Daveau, and especially Willkomm, have written upon the subject as regards the Iberian peninsula. Borgesen in a brief article discussed the sand strand vegetation in Southern Spain.

The sandy beaches on the coast of Norway are touched upon in the works of Blytt, Holmboe, Norman, and Wille. The coastal sands of the British Isles have been to some extent studied by Bailey, Dowker, Rob. Smith, Thompson, and Whilden as regards the flora, while Cornish has carefully investigated their origin and development.

The sand floras of the interior of the European continent we find referred to in the extensive literature on the steppe formation. Borbas described the sand vegetation of the plains of Hungary, and Adamovic the sand steppes of Servia.

From the Mediterranean shores of Africa there are studies by Parrau and Serres, and from the dunes of Italy by Sprenger and Tommasini.

Volkens’ important work on the flora of the Arabian desert, although treating of island sands, contains a rich supply of suggestions on the adaptation of psammophile plants.

Other writers on the sand deserts of Northern Africa are Jordan, Kotschy, Riston, Rolland, Schirmer and Walther, the latter having made an especially careful study of the formation of dunes.

During Nordenskiold’s Vega-expedition Kjellman studied the coast flora of Siberia.

In the works of Hedin on his explorations in Central Asia we find much valuable information on the sand desert of Gobi and the dune vegetation of that region, and other travelers have described continental dunes from various other parts of Asia. Helman wrote about the dunes in Chiwa, Nalivkin on those of Ferganah, Radde on the dune vegetation of certain parts of Caucasus.

The extensive sand dunes of India have caused considerable trouble to cultivation, and the sand binding plants of that country have been referred to by Clark, Duthie, and Cleghorn.

Schimper gives in his “Indomalayische Strandflora” a valuable treatise on the vegetation and flora of the coastal sand, and in his

OF MARINE COASTS. 51

“Pflanzengeographie” the subject is extensively treated with reference to different regions.

Karsten wrote (1891) more especially about the mangroye-yegetation of the Indo-malayan achipelago, and Goebel treated the strand flora of tropical Asia.

In South Africa Thode made a good study of the coast flora, and Werth has described the sand strand vegetation of the Zanzibar Island.

The extensive coastal and interior sand formations of the Austra- lian continent have attracted only little attention by scientific writers so far. We have to note briefer articles by Benbow, Boyd, Maiden, and Walter Smith.

The New Zealand dunes have been studied by Cheeseman, Cockayne, and Kirk. Diels also wrote on certain ecological features of the flora. He had not, however, himself visited these islands, but based his study on collections, and on information by Dr. Cockayne. The latter made valuable observations on the sand flora also on Enderby, and Chatham islands, and he recently published an excellent paper on the dune flora of the eastern coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand.

Kurtz and Reiche have briefly treated the sand flora of Chili. On the sand dunes of the Pacific coast of North America nothing is written except some brief notes by Davy, Lamb, and McKenney.

The extensive dune formations on the Atlantic coast of the United States, and their flora, have been the subject of study of several writers, as Britton, Gifford, Harshberger, Jelliffe, Mohr, Ross, Rothrock, West- gate, and Webber. ‘The ecological study of the strand vegetation of North Carolina by Kearny is an excellent piece of work. Lloyd and Tracy have treated the insular flora of Mississippi and Louisiana.

The flora of the interior sand hills of North America has been worked over especially by Hitchcock, Rydberg, Smith, Pound, and Clements. Lamson-Scribner has treated the value of grasses as sand stays. Cowles made a study of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan, and Hill has written on the sand dunes of northern Indiana and their flora.

MacMillan’s admirable study of the strand flora of the Lake of the Woods is without any equal in the phytogeographical literature of the United States.

Borgesen has carefully studied the strand flora of the Danish West Indies.

From the dunes of Southern Brazil we have an excellent description by Lindman, and Schenck also recently wrote of the strand vegetation

52 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

of Brazil. Brackebusch has contributed to the knowledge of the sand flora of Argentine. The coast plants of Japan have been treated by Imamura.

Mention may also be made of the general description of dunes which is contained in Richthofen’s “Fiihrer der Forschungsreisende,” as being a valuable and suggestive treatise.

The present writer has published several papers on sand formations in connection with the inquiry referred to in the following pages.

Hl. OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN SAND FORMA- TIONS.

BALTIC COASTS.

It has been claimed by certain authors, as Vogt, for instance, that maritime dunes are formed only on coasts with tide phenomena. Accord- ing to him sand particles are thrown up on the shore at high tide, and having been dried during low tide, they are subsequently carried inland by wind. The dunes on the northern coasts of the Baltic where there is no visible tide, as well as the extensive dune formations near many inland seas in America, for instance, show, however, that tides are not necessary for the formation of dunes.

A remarkable coincidence exists between the topographical form of the coast, and the development of dunes. This is nowhere more evident than on the Baltic coasts.

The east coast of Sweden washed by the Gulf of Bothnia, the Aland Sea, and the Baltic, is almost everywhere rocky, and extensive sand for- mations occur only at a few places. The northernmost location where observations have been made by the writer, was at the mouth of the Dal river, where a visit was made in October 1897. On a very limited area there are sandy beaches, and in one place a few embryonic dunes have been formed on the upper beach. The sand was of a yellowish color, and consisted of medium sized quartz grains, with some admixture of felspar. On the middlé beach there were some light accumulations of mould. The sand was slowly drifting back and forth along the beach forming beauti- ful ripples. The salinity of the sea water was low.

At Saltsjébaden near Stockholm, at Ostana, and Sandhamn, minor sand formations were visited in 1896, 97 and 799. Only beach forma-

OF MARINE COASTS. : 53

tions occurred on the former places and the dunes in the latter locality are not very extensive. The beaches consist generally of very narrow strips of loose material; the gradient of the shore being comparatively steep, the area of influence of the sea is consequently limited, especially as the force of the waves is never very great within this archipelago.

In the neighborhood of the city of Norrképing there is quite an ex- tensive archipelago, consisting of a few larger and many small islands. In June, 1899, I visited a number of these islands, near Arkésund. Of the great number of beach formations investigated only a few were sandy,

Fic. 1. Beach with Halianthus community. Swedish East Coast

shingle beaches being far more common. Where sand occurred it was very coarse, except in some sheltered places. All these islands are ex- posed to the strong winds of the Baltic, and those being only a couple of kilometers distant from the mainland, had no tree vegetation. The salinity of the seawater was here varying from 0.49-0.66%. 1)

On the open coast, facing Kalmar strait, some observations were made in June, 1899. The shores south of the town of Kalmar are very low, more or less muddy. In some places shingle beaches were formed, and these were sometimes covered with fine sand, mixed with clay par-

1) All my measurements of salinity of seawater in the Baltic were made with an areometer (Aderman type) purchased in Stockholm.

Fic. 2. Sand field with Armeria community, Swedish South Coast. PHOTOGRAPII BY ERIKSON.

Fic. 3. Gray dune with pines on Swedish Southeast Coast. PHOTOGRAPH BY ERIKSON.

OF MARINE COASTS. oe

ticles. This shore is sheltered by the island Oland from the direct force of easterly winds and waves of the Baltic. The salinity of the sea- water was 0.66%.

In the Blekinge archipelago Torhamn and several islands as well as the shores near Karlskrona were visited June 18th, 1899. The few sandy beaches observed were not extensive, and were formed of a rather fine sand, quite often mixed with clayey residue. On June 19th, 1899, some shores near Karlshamn, especially at Helenebirg and on Boo were investigated. The sandy beaches were formed of coarse material mixed with pebbles. Large boulders were strewn on the narrow beaches. The shores in this neighborhood are usually steep and rocky.

A number of sandy formations were studied at Sélvesborg, June 20, 1899. The shore sloped generally at an angle of 30 degrees. The ma- terial was pure yellow quartz sand. The coast is open to the Baltic.

At Ahus there are extensive sand strands, with long stretches of beach formed of pure sand. (See Fig. 1.) Inland there are minor dunes and large sand fields. My observations here were made June 21—22, 1899. The vegetation on these sand formations has previously been studied by Dr. Hrikson.1) (Fig. 2.)

The coast near Simrishamn is low and open to the Baltic. Sandy beaches at Horshall and Brantevik and also north of the town were stud- ied, June 23—24, 1899. The sand is of coarse consistency, and the slope is here generally about 45 degrees.

The whole eastern coast of Sweden is rocky and steep, the hard cliffs are disintegrated only very slowly, and the material is usually washed out to sea except where inlets give a resting place. The only more extensive sand formations on the coast are in the south at the places just mentioned. (See Fig. 3.)

SHORES OF GULF OF FINLAND.

On the steep rocky coasts of Esthonia, on the southern shore of the Gulf, dunes are very rare, and occur only where the calcareous bluff retreats landward, and leaves a narrow sandy strip along the shore. In the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, from the mouth of Narwa river, the coasts are sandy, and dunes are common. ‘The largest dune dis- trict is that between Systerbiick and Bjork6, in the innermost part of

1) J. Brikson: Studier 6fver sandfloran i dstra Skéne.—Bih. K. Sy. Vet. Ak. Handl. 22. 83—81. 1896.

56 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

the Gulf. The coast is here unsheltered by any islands; and the shore is exposed to the full force of the open sea. The prevailing winds are westerly and southwesterly, that is, those which have a free passage along the whole stretch of the Gulf from the Baltic. They meet no obstacles in their way, and they strike the land with their full intensity. On this coast a series of dunes have been formed following the coast continuously for about 80 km. Although every sign of tides is absent, the sea is very seldom or never quite calm. The constant breakers and the great difference between the high and low water caused by winds have developed the sand formations of this district. Some of the dunes are smaller and some larger; some of them are still drifting before the high winds, constantly changing their form and their position, en- croaching more and more on the land. Others again are in ridge form, covered with vegetation, and are stable.

This sand consists of quartz of a yellow-white color, mixed with felspar and mica. The size of the grains is 0.3-1mm., and they are sometimes larger, up to 3 mm. On this coast, the development of the dunes is promoted by human agency, the natural forests being destroyed and the larger pebbles, which have been left by the wind on the shore, and which retard the advancing sand thrown up by the waves, are col- lected and transported to St. Petersburg for road-making purposes and thus the sand is given a full opportunity to spread. The form of these dunes is varying. They consist mostly of long hills of very different dimensions, some almost round, others nearing but never completely assuming the horse-shoe form.

These dunes have been studied by Sokoloffl) and Thesleff?), and my own observations were made during several visits in May, August and October, 1898.

On the Finnish south coast, which is rocky, there are only a few sand formations. Sandy beaches of the same character as those of the Swedish east coast near Stockholm were studied, near the city of Helsingfors, during 1893—’99 and on the coast of the province of Nyland, 1891—’92, and 1898—99. On the Hangoé peninsula there is a smaller dune district which was made the subject of detailed inves- tigations in June 1895, in July 1896, in August and September 1897, in April, August and September, 1898, and in August, 1899. The sand is here of glacial origin, having been redeposited by waves and wind. The salinity of the sea water was 0.6% at a temperature of +14.0°C.

1) Die Diinen. Berlin, 1894. 2) Dynbildningar i Ostra Finland.—Med. Geogr. For. Finl. p. 36—77. 1895.

OF MARINE COASTS. 57

ISLANDS IN THE BALTIC.

The great island archipelago along the southwestern coast of the Finnish mainland, and thence stretching in a westerly direction towards Sweden, consists of small islands with rocky shores. This is especially the case in the outer part of the archipelago, where the influence of the sea 1s more conspicuous, and the finer material is very seldom able to find rest on account of the steepness of the shore. In the inner archi- pelago the beach is covered with boulders ranging from 4 dm. to 1 m. in diameter. Between these boulders the soil consists of sand and gray- el, more or less mixed with clay. In Aland pure sand beaches are very seldom of common occurrence. This is especially the case in the Kokar and southern part of the Sottunga archipelagoes. In the Korpo and Nagu archipelagoes sandy beaches are quite common, but sand dunes do not occur. On the shores of the Kimito Island, the flora of which was studied by the writer in 1893.1) quite a number of sandy beaches are found. Usually it is the innermost part of an inlet, which consists of sand.

The island Runé on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland is low, and sandy beaches are frequent. A number of observations were made in June and July, 1896.

On the island Osel, visited in 1896 and 1898, sand formations were investigated on the southern coast, facing the Gulf of Riga, and at Rootsikiill, on the western coast. The sandy shore west of the town Arensburg is at Jerwe formed by a very narrow strip of beach, and then rises to a steep sand bank, 12-15 m. high, on which a number of low, circular dunes occur.

The material, of which these are composed, is a comparatively fine sand, the average size of the grains from 16 samples being 0.3 mm. The salinity of the sea water at this place was found to be 0.82 per cent. with a surface temperature at noon of +16.6° C. The shore is open to the waves from south.

On the Swedish side of the Baltic the large island Gotland has sandy shores, especially at its northern end. Their vegetation has been studied especially by Johansson.2) The present writer only visited the coast near Visby on the western, and at Ronehamn on the eastern

1) Bidrag till kinnedomen om floran i Kimito skargird—Acta Soc. F. Fl. F. XI. No. 11. 1895.

2) Hufvuddragen af Gotlands vixttopografi och vixtgeografi—IK. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl. 29: No. 1. 1897.

Library Publications. 4

58 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

side, in June, 1899. At the former place the shore was steeper and only small accumulations of sand were formed. The sand was here rather coarse, almost gravelly, and contained much lime, At Ronehamn the coast is low, open to the sea, and exposed to winds. The sand was mixed with large quantities of silt and pebbles.

North of this island there is a small island, Gotska Sandén, com- posed entirely of sand. It has been visited by several botanists and geologists, and occasional observations of the dunes and their vegeta- tion are found in various works.

Oland, the other large island on the Swedish east coast, was visited in June, 1899. Both the eastern and the western shores are low, and where sand formations occur, they are formed of coarse gravel, and cover only very limited areas.

The island Bornholm, in the southern part of the Baltic, was visited in June, 1899. On the western coast, south of Ronne, there are quite extensive sand formations. At Svaneke, on the eastern side, the coast is rocky, but between the cliffs small deposits of coarse sand were ac- cumulated. The coast is everywhere unprotected and exposed to waves and winds.

WEST COAST OF RUSSIA.

The shores of the Riga gulf are low and sandy, especially in the southern part, and they are also rich in dunes, which in some places reach a considerable height.

Between the Diina river and the watering place Catharinenbad, the belt of dunes varies in width from 0.5 to 2 km. (Fig. 4) and west of the river, especially near the mouth of the Bolderaa river, the sand covers a large area. In many places the sand is drifting. It consists primarily of quartz, but is mixed with felspar and hornblende, and even granates. The average size of the grains is 0.25-0.85 mm. The sand is brought down to the sea in quantities by the rivers and is again thrown up on the shore by wave action. This district was visited in 1898.

The west coast of Curland is bordered by a broad belt of diluvial sand, and it is therefore for its whole length covered with a continuous chain of dunes. At some distance south of Libau the dunes are very high, up to 35 m. The highest dune on this coast, Koope-Kaln, rises 70 m. above the sea. The sand rests in many places, especially near Libau, on a compact stratum of peat, in which trunks of trees often are

Fie, 4. Temporarily stable dune near Bullenhof, Riga, Russia. The moving sand of the lee-

slope is in progress of being naturally arrested by grasses, (Moeleria glauca and Festuca

ovina), herbs, (Artemisia campestris, Hieracitum umbellatum, Pulsatilla pratensis and others), and by pines (Pinus sylvestris.)

PHOTOGRAPH BY KUPFFER.

60 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

found. The landward side of the dune belt is bordered by extensive swamps. ;

The dunes near Libau are formed by a somewhat fine sand aver- aging 0.15 mm. It is a pure white quartz sand, the admixture of other minerals or other colors being inconspicuous. The salinity of the sea water is about 0.8 per cent.

GERMAN NORTH COAST.

In direct continuation of the last mentioned dunes follow those on the German north coast which is sandy along its whole stretch to Swine- miinde. On the long narrow spits, known as Kurische and Frische Nehrung, the dunes have reached a remarkable development and the dune district is second in size to none in Hurope except that of Gas- cogny.

The detailed description we have of these dunes in the comprehen- sive work of Gerhard1) makes it unnecessary here to discuss their gen- eral appearance. In connection with our treatment of the sand vegeta- tion some comparisons will be made.

SWEDISH SOUTH COAST.

We have yet to mention some minor sand formations on the Baltic coasts visited by the author. At Ystad, in southern Sweden, there is a long sandy beach, which was made subject to study in June and July, 1899. The sand is fine quartz, almost pure, yellowish in color. The sloping -angle of the beach is about 35 degrees. The coast is here un- protected, as is also the case at Dybeck and Trelleborg, where sandy and gravelly shores occur. The dune district at Falsterbo was not visited. Along the Swedish coast of Oresund there are sandy shores in numerous places, both in the neighborhood of Malm6 and Helsingborg. At Engel- holms hamn a series of small dunes occur near the mouth of the river. These were studied in 1900.

1) Handbuch des deutschen Diinenbaues.—Berlin, 1900.

OF MARINE COASTS. G1

THE NORTH SEA. The West Coast of Denmark,

from Cap Skagen, the northernmost point of Jutland, is sandy along its whole length, and the sandy shore continues through Schleswig- Holstein to the mouth of Elbe river. (See Fig. 5.) This dune district comprises an area of some 70,000 hectares. The dunes do not run to any considerable height, 32 m. being given as the greatest. A chain of islands follows the southern part of this coast and they are all sandy. On the island of Sylt, the height of the steep coast is 34 m., and on this dunes up to 28 m. in height are developed.

The size of the grains on these dunes along the North Sea coast decreases southwards from Skagen. On Anholt, Jessen still found, however, a dune sand in which 91% of the grains had a diameter of over 2 mm. Jentzsch, in Gerhard’s handbook, mentions that samples of dune sand from Sylt contained grains of the largest size; while the finest sand came from Borkum. On the small island Norderney, out- side the German North Sea coast, the sand grains are of very small size, 0.11 mm. in diameter according to Wessely.

The Danish and German North Sea dune flora is the best known, many investigators having worked here, principally Warming and Reinke. 'The writer’s personal knowledge of the dunes on Jutland is confined to a few points, visited in 1900.

SAND DUNES IN HOLLAND.

The belt of sand dunes which, as already mentioned, marks the coast from north of Jutland to Elbe, continues from that river almost without any break along the southern shore of the North Sea to the Straits of Calais, for a distance of about 500 km. In most other coun- tries the dunes are a source of trouble through injury to forests and cultivated fields, but in Friesland, Holland, and Belgium, they are a protection against the invasion of the sea, being natural dykes. Their height is not very remarkable and they very seldom reach over 20 m.

The dunes are especially well developed on the West-Friesian islands and on the mainland between Heider and Hoek van Holland. This dune belt is mostly of a comparatively narrow width, but in some places as in the neighborhood of Haag it covers several kilometers inland from the sea.

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OF MARINE COASTS. 63

At the last mentioned place the dunes do not show any regular ar- rangement as is usually the case, but they constitute a large dune- complex in which no order can be recognized. The dunes on this coast are, as a rule, low, but reach sometimes an elevation of 60 m. Westerly winds prevail on all these coasts.

SCOTLAND.

In October, 1899, a passing visit was paid to the dunes at Gullane Point, south of Firth of Forth, not very far from Edinburgh. For a distance of about 10 km. the coast is here sandy, and by far the most extensive dunes of this place are on the eastern shore of Aberlady Bay, where the sandy belt is about 2 km. wide. All stages of development are met with. Sandy shore, embryonic dunes, dune-complexes, and sandy fields. A greater part of these sand formations was fixed by vegetation.

The general conditions did not materially differ from those on other coasts of the North Sea. I have not been able to get reliable information as to the salinity of sea water in the Firth of Forth, but so far out the influence of the river is doubtless comparatively insignificant. The prevailing winds are those from N. N. HE.

ATLANTIC COAST OF EUROPE.

Near Plymouth in England

the writer made some observations in October, 1900. Only sandy beaches of small extent were visited. The sand was coarse, mixed with humus, the remains of decomposed seaweeds and marine animals thrown ashore by waves. The beach was exposed to southerly winds, but being in the interior of the harbor it was protected against the currents, and consequently the amount of kelp accumulated was considerable.

On the west coast of France,

from Graves at the mouth of the river Gironde to the bank of Adour and even further to the cliffs of Bearn, a series of dunes follow the coast for more than 200 km. This belt having an average width of four to five and in some cases seven to eight km., is in many ways remarkable.

64 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

It is the natural border between the Bay of Biscay and the territory known as the “Landes.” The sand had for centuries been constantly shifting, making great devastations, until its progress was arrested by plantations. Engineering skill and judicious planting of sandstays and trees has changed this district from desolate, unhealthy marshy moor- lands and unproductive sandy tracts to a habitable, and in some places, fertile country.

According to early writers, {he dunes advanced in former times con- stantly inland covering houses, filling the outlets of rivers, making great damages to cultivations and increasing the unhealthiness of the Landes. The advance of the sand was especially rapid in the neighborhood of Saint Pol-de-Léon; there existed before the year 1666 several villages which had to be abandoned, and which were buried under 6 and 7 m. of sand. In 1722, this dune had progressed more than 24 km., which would indicate a yearly advance of more than 500 m. According to Brémontier, the dunes advanced at his time, or about 1790, from 20 to 25 m. a year, and they did great damage to the fields in the neighborhood of Bordeaux.

The whole coast from Gironde to the foot of the Pyrenees presents an aspect in regard to its geological constitution, quite uniform with the sandy coast in the north. Capbreton, situated at the ancient estuary at l’Adour, at the present day covered with dunes, was formerly a flourishing harbor, which has since been replaced by Bayonne. ‘The dunes on this coast are often high, in some places averaging 70 m.

The sand is composed of pure quartz, reduced to minute grains, generally rounded by trituration, and moving easily. The width of the upper beach is about 200 m. from highwater mark to the foot of the littoral dune.

The dunes form a series of parallel ridges, the valleys being of vary- ing width. Whenever the dune valleys, locally called “Lettes’, reach a width of 1 km. they are covered with a luxuriant vegetation.

The most frequent winds, and the most violent ones on this coast, are those from the west and south west.

AUSTRALIA. Sand formations on the west coast

are very common on this island-continent. At Geraldton they are quite high and are constantly shifting. North and South of Fremantle there is a dune district of considerable extent, and this was studied in the

OF MARINE COASTS. 65

fall of 1900 and in September and October, 1902. The coast is open to the Indian ocean and the waves strike the beach with full force. The beach is usually narrow and sloping in an angle of about 30°. (See Fig. 6.) Landwards it is bordered by a series of dunes, often of con- siderable height. I have measured dunes being 32, 37, 44 m. over the surface of the sea.

Fig. 6. Shrub vegetation on stationary dunes North of Fremantle, Western Australia.

PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

South of Fremantle the beach is wider and then gradually merges into dunes by the way of low mounds. Here the sand is still drifting rapidly and many of the streets of the outskirts of the town are con- stantly being filled with sand.

The texture of the sand is coarse. The grains are angular, of a white or in some places reddish color.

66 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

On the southern coast of Western Australia there are quite extensive sand formations, but they were not visited by the writer.

Dunes in South Australia.

The greater part of the coast of this state is more or less sandy. At Vincent’s Gulf the dunes are especially well developed. The sand grains are of medium size, yellowish in color, and rounded through constant trituration. Sandy beaches and dunes are common also on the Victorian coast. At Port Phillips Head there are some formations which were visited.

Sandy beaches near Sydney.

At Botany Bay, near Kensington, on Cronulla and Bondi Beach sand formations occur. Those at the last mentioned place are the most extensive and have caused some trouble through drifting. The quartz sand is very pure, and of a light color, where dust from the surrounding country has not been blown over the sand. The reclamation which was commenced several years ago, has now considerably changed the original topography of the sand, and in many places the loose material has com- pletely blown away, while in others it is fixed by vegetation.

The drifting at Botany Bay was caused by the rejuvenation of a sand dune, which previously had been covered with vegetation. The sand advanced inland and destroyed a part of the park at this place.

The salinity of the sea water outside this coast was found to be 2.9 per cent. Several visits on various occasions during 1901—02 were made to these sandy beaches.

Drift sands in Queensland.

The beach from Tweed River northwards to Southport consists en- tirely of sand. The sand forms an elevated bank or floor, on top of which regular dunes are formed. (See Fig. 6.) They advance steadily inland, covering everything and have already done considerable damage to property in the town of Southport.

Further north at Cleveland and Manly there is a long stretch of sandy shore with a few dunes, but there is almost no vegetation on the ground, because everything is destroyed by the thousands of holiday excursionists from Brisbane. Stradbroke Island in Moreton Bay is entirely built up of sand, and is considered by some writers as a single

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dune!) about 60 km. long and 5 km. wide. Jis maximum height is 270 m. At Sandgate, north of Brisbane, there is a narrow sand beach, and still farther north, at Coloundra, dunes are found. Fraser’s Island in Wide Bay has some very interesting sand formations, and on the opposite mainland, at Pialba, there is a narrow beach between the high, steep bank and the high tide mark. On all these places, visited by the writer at intervals in 1900—1902, the sand is coarse, sometimes even gravelly.

Southeasterly winds are the most effective on this coast. The salinity of the surface water in the ocean is 2.7 per cent.

Along the northern coast of Queensland, at Mackay, and north of Townsville, extensive dunes were observed, but the writer had not the opportunity of examining these.

NEW ZELAND.

Beaches on the North Island at Doubtless Bay were visited in the late fall, 1902. The dune flora of the district is described by Cheese- man2) and J am not able to add materially to his observations. The sandy beach merges gradually into low sand hills, and behind these there are extensive swamp lands. (Fig. 7.)

HAWAII

Various sand dunes on the islands of Oahu and Hawaii were visited and studied in detail in 1903,im December, and again in 1906, during the months of August and September.

PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA South of Golden Gate

in California there is a district of sand formations covering an area of about 72 sq. km. From the ocean the sand stretches eastward to near San Francisco Bay, embracing almost the whole end of the peninsula. The greater part of these sand formations is now reclaimed and used for cultivation or as building lots in the city. On the Pueblo lands of

1) Boyd: Forestry in connection with the sand dunes of Queensland.— Queensl. Agr. Jour. 1902: 123.

2) On the Flora of the North Cape District—Trans. N. Z. Inst. XX1IX: 333—385. 1897.

OF MARINE COASTS. 69

San Francisco is situated the beautiful Golden Gate Park, a result of successful reclamation operations, but south of the park there is still an extensive area, where the drift sand is blown about by the winds.

The shore is open to the Pacific and the waves break furiously on the sand. After a strip of gently sloping beach, about 25 m. wide, follows a well developed littoral dune, and inside of this there is a de- pression, the bottom of which is sometimes level and dry, in other places occupied by small pools of stagnant water. Further inland, small mounds of sand, kept together by vegetation, still persist. A

Fic. 8. Established dune at San Francisco. PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

series of small dunes follow and then we find the dunes assuming ereater and greater proportions. (Fig. 8.) The vegetation is scanty and the sand drifts in all directions. The main advance goes, however, eastward. Underlying these extensive sand deposits, is a kind of ar- gillaceous sandstone, considered to be of Cretaceous age.

All stages can here be observed, and the even sand surfaces on the slopes of the great dunes offer good opportunities for observations of the ripple phenomenon.

The sand is coarse, mainly consisting of quartz, but is of a dark color, and contains in some places an abundant admixture of organic matter. After rain the surface is often almost gray. I found the

70 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

cause of this-to be minute coal particles, brought down from the at- mosphere by the rain. The origin of this coal dust is, no doubt, the smoke from the factories of the city, which settles all over the neigh- borhood, but is nowhere so easily perceptible to the eye as on the white sand surface.

The salinity of the sea water is according to chemical analysis!) of sample secured in the spring of 1904, 1.649 per cent. The surface temperature of the water at noon was -+12°C. with an atmospheric temperature of +16°C. (III, 10, 04.)

on sand field in lee of the dune chain at Point Pinos, Pacific Grove,

Cal. The advancing dune can be seen in background.

Between Pescadero and Santa Cruz on the San Francisco Peninsula sandy shores and small dune accumulations occur in various places. During the summer 1904 a visit was made to this district. The char- acter of the dune sand corresponds to that of the San Francisco district.

1) Made by Mr. R. W. Dodd in the chemical laboratory of Stanford Uni- versity through courtesy of Dr. J. M. Stillman.

OF MARINE COASTS. 71

MONTEREY BAY. ;

in its inner part, is lined with a chain of high dunes, which sometimes extend for 1 km. or more. The beach is similar to that south of Golden Gate, but no distinct littoral dune is formed, the dune-complex commencing immediately after the upper beach. Inside of the dune belt usually follow sand fields.

The Hopkins Laboratory is situated on a rocky point at Pacific Grove, and only small patches of narrow sand beach occur between the

Fic. 10. Dunes covered with a Lupinus community, at Seventeen Mile Drive, Pacific Grove, Cal.

PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

bluffs and the ocean in the immediate neighborhood. One kilometer south of the laboratory, at Point Pinos (Fig. 9), sand formations of greater extent again commence. The beach is gravelly or even consist- ing of shingle for a distance until Moss Beach, where it is sandy.

The recent drift sand has accumulated into small dunes some dis- tance from the shore (Fig. 10), leaving a belt of older consolidated sand bare or covered with a dense carpet of various plants. Further inland the dunes grow in size and finally, about 0.5 km. from the ocean, they reach quite a considerable height. One of these dunes is about 90 m. in height, sloping abruptly on its leeward side to the plain behind.

THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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With a few interruptions by rocky points the sand dune belt con- tinues to Carmel Bay. Here it is, however, quite narrow. An analysis of the sand at Point Pinos gave the following result:

QuaTrtzmeoat as eae ae 61.2%

MIS Paty eosvsnn sine carenneasielstaey staan Suceucroehee 37.6%

Hornblender i.e ee ees 1.2% 100%

This constitutes a fair sample of the sand in the district. The average size of the grains of 16 samples was 0.35 mm., half of the sam- ples having been secured from the middle of the windward and the other half from the leeward side of dunes.

The prevailing winds at Point Pinos are those from W. and con- sequently the dunes wander in an easterly direction. It holds true that wherever winds blow in many different directions, as is the case at this place, the arrangement of the dunes is very irregular. Near the light- house, situated at the point, the dunes do not have any regular position, but turn in all directions. Only one kilometer further south, where the coast line is straight, the sand ridges are almost parallel to the shore. In cases where the wind has been able to break through these ridges, the central part of the dune has traveled forward more rapidly than the sides, thus leaving ridges transverse to the dunes parallel to the coast. I was here able to observe that similar results to these mentioned were obtained by the wind working through an opening between two advancing dunes, thus pushing the sand forward in the depression, and forming low ridges or cusps to leeward of the dunes. When this work has gone on for some time, the result will be exactly the same as when the wind is cutting through the central part of the dune by pushing the concavity forward until an opening is effected, that is, longitudinal ridges are formed. Fig. 11 illustrates both these modes of work of the wind. We thus find that in some cases the dune apparently travels with its convex side turned towards the wind, and I am inclined to the opinion that the formation of “barkhanes” in Sahara and other deserts, as described by several authors, takes place in this way rather than in that suggested by Cornish.

SOUTHFRN CALIFORNIA.

At Santa Barbara in Southern California sandy beaches are common. They are, however, rather narrow, and have a steep slope. The sand is coarse, of a light yellow color. Quite extensive sand deposits are found

MARINE COASTS.

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at Santa Monica. Sand dunes and sandy fields stretch inland from the beach. The sand is fine and is easily carried by the wind.

The dunes at Surf, San Diego and some other places in Southern California, as well as those at Point Reyes and Humboldt Bay, Northern California, and the extensive sand formations in Oregon and Washing- ton are as yet unfamiliar to the writer.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Mexican Pacific Coast.

At Mazatlan the sandy beaches occurring near the town were studied. They are very small in extension, but interesting on account of the peculiar red color of the sand. Through erosion from some red cliffs extending into the ocean a sand was formed which was then thrown ashore in quantities. It was very coarse, and was not carried by the wind.

The sand at San Blas was also very coarse and of a dark hue, caused by a quantity of organic matter being constantly brought down with the river and deposited at the mouth, whence waves and wind carried it up on the beach and over the sands.

West Coast of Chiapas.

From Salina Cruz southward there is a long sand bank extending as far as the border of Guatemala, at a distance of a few hundred meters to three or four thousand from the coast. This sandbank is in places quite broad, and high dunes are formed. Inside of the bank a long lagoon is formed called the “Estero.” Its shores are fringed with mangrove forests. The outer side of the bank is a continuous sandy beach, with a slope of about 35°. The sand is always tossed about by the mighty breakers of the Pacific, and the hot tropical sun assisted by the strong winds causes a rapid disintegration of the sand erains, which are carried over the bank and deposited on the estero side, gradually filling the lagoon. The sands of this bank are of a fluvio- marine origin. It is carried down by the numerous rivers that inter- sect the lowlands on the southern slope of Sierra Madre, then taken in hand by the waves and currents of the ocean which distribute the material evenly along the coast.

OF MARINE COASTS.

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Pacific Coast of Central America.

The writer’s experience of this coast is limited to the sandy beaches at Champerico in Guatemala. ‘The slope of the beach is nearly 50°. This unusual steepness is accounted for by the heavy breakers which here strike the coast with full force, and the strong undertow which erodes the submerged beach. The sand was coarse and very little drift- ing occurred.

Sand Formations at Vera Cruz, Mexico.

These are very extensive and all phases of development can be ob- served. Sand was drifting at the time of my visit and the formation of ripples was perhaps more clear in all its details than at any other place I have seen. The dunes moved rapidly, unchecked by any vege- tation. ‘The sand contained a considerable amount of lime which added to the light color.

Ill. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF THE SAND STRAND FLORA.

In presenting a list of the principal representatives of the flora on sandy sea shores, I do not intend to discuss the systematic relation or the specific characters of these plants. For ecological purposes this is of minor importance, at least in the present state of ecological knowl- edge, and in the study of this flora I have often found it to be of greater significance to consider many of the collective species, which have been divided by recent systematists, as “geographical species,’ whose distribu- tion represents a distinct whole, rather than as systematic units.

As a taxonomic account I give a list of the principal plants occurring on coastal sand formations, with a short description of the vegetative parts of these “species,” showing adaptations to the physical conditions of environment. This list does not pretend to be exhaustive, and con- tains principally those plants only which have come under the writer’s personal observation.

76 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT.

LIST OF SAND STRAND PLANTS. RANUNCULACEAE.

Ranunculus acaulis Banks et Solander.

Perennial, glabrous herb, with creeping stolons; leaves slightly fleshy, 3-foliate, with sheathing petioles; creeping scions almost filiform and often subterranean.

Confined to sandy beaches of New Zealand and Chili.

A submersed plant, R. marinus L., occurs on the submerged beaches of the Baltic, and on the dunes of California R. californicus Benth. is found, but this species is not confined to the coastal sands.

Thalictrum minus Dum. var. dunense Buchenau. Annual herb, with creeping rootstock; stem erect, much branched; leaves tomentose below. On dunes of Hast- and West-Friesian islands, North Sea.

DILLENIACEAE.

Candollea glaberrima Steud.

Procumbent shrub, much branched, glaucous; glabrous; leaves flat, linear, obtuse, 1—5 cm. long, sheathing at base, leaving a ring round stem when falling off.

Sand formations near Perth, West Australia.

C. Huegelu Endl.

Shrub with stiff, glabrous, shining branches; leaves rigid, narrow- finear margins revolute, appearing almost terete, acute, often broken at ends, thus appearing truncate, 2—7 cm. long.

Sand formations near Fremantle, West Australia.

C. pedunculata R. Br.

Branching shrub, erect from a thick rhizome, 30—40 cm. high, glabrous; leaves linear, truncate, 1—3 cm. long, margins recurved; narrowed below, with a stemsheathing base, leaving a ring round the stem in falling off.

With preceding species.

OF MARINE COASTS. 77

Hibbertia grossulariaefolia Salisb.

Shrub, with weak, prostrate stem; leaves small, alternate, with a prominent midrib underneath, flat, petiolate, ovate, mostly coarsely toothed, 2—4 cm. long, glabrous above, pubescent underneath; flowers pale yellow.

Occurs together with several other species of the same genus on sands near the mouth of Swan River, West Australia.

CRUCIFERAE. Cakile americana Nutt.

Annual herb, with deep root, decumbent stems up to 1 m. long, fleshy leaves, obovate, obtuse, crenate or sinuate toothed; flowers small, purp- lish. Pod fleshy, dry and corky when ripe.

Sandy shotes of east and west coast of North America. Also along the Great Lakes.

C. maritima Scop.

Annual herb, with often meter deep root; stem much-branching, hard at base, erect-decumbent; leaves few, fleshy, with oblong lobes; flowers purplish or white.

On all seacoasts of Europe and Western Asia, North Africa, North and South America, extratropical Australia.

Crambe maritima L.

Perennial herb, glabrous, glaucous, with branched stems, O, 5 m. high; leaves petiolate, large, thick, oblong, undulate, and coarsely toothed, upper leaves small; flowers white; pod globular, indehiscent, with one seed.

Sandy and gravelly seashores of Baltic, Western Europe, and Black Sea.

Erysimum capitatum (Dougl.) Greene.

Perennial herb, stout, erect, 15—45 cm. high, leafy, finely pubescent ; leaves narrow, entire; flowers cream-colored.

Seashores of California.

Malcolmia litorea R. Br. Suffrutescent; leaves obovate-oblong, obtuse, coarsely toothed, coy- ered with a dense grayish tomentum. On maritime sand dunes of Western Mediterranean. Several other species of the same genus occur on the dunes of that region.

78 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

VIOLACEHABR. Viola arenaria DC. Perennial rootstock; stems tufted, spreading, 5—15 cm. long, finely puberulent; leaves ovate, crenulate, obtuse, somewhat thick; petioles

long; stipules incised; flowers violet. Sandy shores of Europe and Eastern America, but goes also inland.

V. tricolor IL. Annual herb, distributed over Europe and Northern Asia, and is introduced to America. Often found on coastal sand formations, al- though an inland plant.

. PITTOSPOREAE.

Bursaria spinosa Cav.

Shrub, very bushy, somewhat thorny, glabrous; leaves clustered, obovate, obtuse, 1—3 cm. long, narrowed at base, petiolate, green on both sides.

On the coasts of Tasmania and Australia, from Queensland to South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf), but also found in the interior. A variety incana Lindl. is hoary in its young stages, and the under side of leaves are always tomentose. This form is found in West Australia and in the tropical parts of that continent.

Pittosporum crassifolium A. Cunn. and P. umbellatum Banks et Sol. are two littoral shrubs occurring on North Island of New Zealand, but are not confined to sand formations.

FRANKENIACEAE. Frankenia grandiflora C. et 8.

Perennial herb, erect or diffuse, slightly suffrutescent, 20—35 cm. high, smooth or somewhat pubescent; leaves entire, obovate, 1—2 cm. long, with revolute margins, sessile or short-petiolate, fascicled in the axils, the opposite pair mostly united by a somewhat membranaceous sheathing base.

Common especially on the marshes of the California sea shore, but spreads into Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico, preferring saline soil.

A shrubby F. pauciflora DC. is common on the sandy shores of Tasmania, West Australia, South Australia, and Victoria, but occurs also in the interior deserts.

OF MARINE COASTS. 79

P. hirsuta L.

Perennial herb, prostrate, seldom erect; leaves linear or oblong- linear, margins revolute.

A true halophyte, occurring in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Siberia.

F. pulverulenta L.

Annual herb, prostrate; leaves obovate, thickly pulverulent on lower side.

On seashores of the whole Mediterranean, but not confined to sand formations.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE. Ammodenia peploides (L.) Rupr.

Perennial herb, with long, brown rootstocks, fleshy, glabrous; stems tufted, stout, simple or branched, erect or diffuse, 7—25 cm. high; leaves sessile, clasping, ovate, acute; flowers small. .

On sandy beaches and littoral dunes in Northern Europe and Asia, and on the Atlantic coast of North America from New Jersey to the Arctic.

Arenaria serpyllifolia L.

Annual tufted herb, slender, slightly pubescent, much-branched, diffuse, 5—20 em. high; leaves ovate; flowers white.

Occurs often on dunes of Europe, Northern Asia and is introduced into North America. Not confined to coast.

Cerastium semidecandrum IL.

also not unfrequently occurs on dunes of Europe, but is not a sea coast plant. It often varies when growing near the sea.

Sagina crassicualis Wats.

Perennial herb, smooth, stem stoutish and succulent, branching, 3—12 em. long, decumbent; leaves linear, thickish, 4—10 mm. long, the basal forming a rosette, the cauline connate by broad scarious mem- branes.

Beaches of California from Monterey to Tomales Bay.

S. procumbens L.

“Annual, 3—5 cm. high, branching and decumbent at base, forming tufts, glabrous; leaves subulate, forming at base a short sheath; flowers small.

80 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

It is especially a maritime form, S. maritima Don., with thicker leaves, which occurs on the coast. Europe, Central Asia, North America, Australia.

Silene gallica L.

Annual herb, hairy, viscid, 15—35 cm. high, erect; lower leaves small, obovate, the upper ones narrow and pointed, flowers small, white.

Common on sand, gravel and waste places in almost every part of the world, and seems to prefer the coast. Abundant on dunes at Fre- mantle, West Australia, and in Central California.

S. nicaeensis All. Perennial herb, covered with long viscid hairs; leaves green, linear- oblong, obtuse, acute. Coastal sands of Mediterranean couniries. Of this genus several species as S. viscosa Pers., 8. maritima With., and S. inflata Sm. yar. litoralis are distinctly maritime near the Baltic, but usually do not occur on sand.

Tissa Clevelandi Greene.

Perennial, viscid, glandular; stems prostrate, forming deep-green mats, 10—30 cm. broad; leaves filiform, conspicuously fascicled in the axils, all longer than the internodes.

On the dunes near San Francisco, Presidio near that city being the type locality.

T. macrotheca (Hornem.) Britt.

Perennial herb, succulent with fusiform fleshy roots, stout stems, 18—30 cm. high, erect or ascending from the short, often branched, woody crown of the thick taproot; herbage deep green, viscid-pubescent above, glabrous below; leaves narrow-linear, 2—4 cm. long; stipules large, ovate. ;

Common on sands near San Francisco and Pacific Grove, California.

Var. scariosa Britton, with paler herbage, glandular-pubescent, or almost glabrous, and short internodes, is frequently met with on dunes at San Francisco and Monterey, although it prefers the bluffs near sea.

T. marina (L.) Britton.

Annual, biennial, or mostly perennial herb, glabrous or with short viscid pubescence; numerous stems branching from base, forming pros- trate tuffts, 6—12 cm. long; leaves fleshy, on coast, linear, with small, scarious stipules at base: flowers pink or white.

OF MARINE COASTS. $1

Common on sea shores in many temperate and subtropical countries. Europe, temperate Asia, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and some parts of South America.

PORTULACACBAE.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Fleshy, prostrate annual, seldom exceeding 15 cm., with succulent, alternate leaves, glabrous, cuneate or obovate, obtuse; flowers sessile, yellow, open only in sunshine; seeds many, capsule.

One of the most common sandy sea shore plants in the tropics and in most subtropical countries. Does not occur on California dunes.

Claytonia is often represented on coastal sands by different species, C. (or Montia) perfoliata Donn., for instance, at San Francisco, and C. australasica Hook. f. on sandhills near Dunedin, New Zealand (Kirk.).

TILIACHEAR.

Triumfetta procumbens Forst.

Prostrate perennial; stems 6—12 dm. long, rooting at joints; branches ascending, tomentose; leaves petiolate, ovate, obtuse, 2—5 cm. long, entire, or divided into 3 or 5 lobes, glabrous above, tomentose underneath; flowers yellow; fruit globular, 15 mm. in diameter, coy- ered with prickles.

Occurs on sandy sea shores of Queensland, most of the Pacific islands, and in the Malayan Archipelago.

LINACEAE.

Linum monogynum Forst.

Perennial, glabrous ‘herb, woody at the base, branched or simple, erect, 15—50 cm. high; leaves numerous, narrow, lanceolate, 1—3 cm. long; flowers large, white.

Restricted to New Zealand, where chiefly littoral.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE. Zygophyllum Billardiert DC. Prostrate herb, much-branched; leaves fleshy, opposite, with two

distinct leaflets; these oblong or linear, 1—3 cm. long; stipules small; flowers white.

THE SAND STRAND FLORA

oa) bo

Endemic in Australia, where it occurs on drifting sands in Victoria, South Australia, and West Australia.

RUTACHAH.

Correa alba Andy.

Much-branched compact shrub, 83—12 cm. high, branches covered with a hoary, brown-reddish tomentum; leaves ovate-obovate, obtuse, 1—3 cm. long, coriaceous, somewhat tomentose above, in age glabrous, densely tomentose beneath; flowers pink.

Common on sandy shores of Victoria and South Australia.

RHAMNACEAE.

Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Hson. Shrub, 1—2 m. high, much-branched; leaves green, oblong-obovate, serrate, 2—6 cm. lone; flowers blue. Coastal sands of California, but not confined to these situations.

Discaria Toumatou Raoul.

Varying from a small thorny shrub to a 6 m. high tree; leaves small, usually glabrous, absent in old plants; branchlets reduced to opposite woody spines, nearly 5 cm. long.

Restricted to New Zealand.

ANACARDIACEAE.

Corynocarpus laevigatus Forst. Evergreen, glabrous tree, with alternate, oblong leaves narrowed into short, stout petioles. Very abundant on the coasts of New Zealand, but also found inland.

LEGUMINOSAR.

Acacia retinoides Schlecht, and A. salicina Lindl. are often among the species of this large genus, which occur on the coastal sand formations of Australia, the former being common on dunes in Victoria, the latter the most abundant form on the sandhills round St. Vincent’s Gulf in South Australia. A. pycnantha Benth. is recom- mended as suitable for planting on drift sands.

OF MARINE COASTS. 83

Astragalus arenarius Li. Pall.

Low perennial with creeping rootstock, prostrate stems, branching at base, 5—15 em. long, hairy; leaves pinnate; leaflets linear-lanceolate, flowers bluish-purple.

Has a wide range on coastal sands of Europe, Asia, and North America, but does not extend to the Arctic or to the tropics. Some- times also on inland sand formations in Hurope.

A. Menzies Gray.

Perennial, stout, erect, 6—12 dm. high; young herbage whitish pubescent, soon green, but hirsute-pubescent; leaflets many, commonly crowded on the rachis, broadly oblong, usually retuse at apex, 10—15 mm. long, stipules broad, not pointed; corolla yellowish-white, with purple-tipped keel; pod 2—4 cm. long, thin-walled, much inflated, ovoid.

Coastal sands of California.

Canavalia obtusifolia DC. Perennial herb, with trailing stems, glabrous; leaflets broadly obo- vate, obtuse, 5—7 cm. long, thick; flowers pink. Common on coastal sands in the tropics of South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. At Moreton Bay in Queensland.

Crotalaria Cunningham R. Br.

Shrub, 6—10 dm. high, terete, tomentose branches; leaves ovate, broad, obtuse, 3—18 cm. long, densely tomentose on both sides, petiole 1—2 cm. long, geniculate above middle; stipules and bracts subulate; flowers large, yellow-green, streaked with dark lines.

Sandy shores of North, South, and West Australia.

Gastrolobium spinosum Benth.

Shrub, 6—8 dm. high, mostly glabrous, but sometimes the young shoots are clothed with evanescent wool; leaves opposite, ovate-cordate, ending in a pungent point, and bordered with prickly teeth, 2—4 cm. long and just as broad, rigidly coriaceous, usually glaucous.

Together with several other species of the same genus common on dunes near Fremantle, West Australia,

Genista monosperma Lam.

Common shrub in the Mediterranean countries on sand, but is not confined to sea coasts. Is often planted on dunes as an effective sand stay.

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OF MARINE COASTS. 85

Lathyrus litoralis (Nutt.) Endl. A maritime species occuring on sea shore of Marin Co. and north-

ward in California (Jepson: Flora of Western Middle California, 1901. p. 298).

L. maritimus Bigelow.

Perennial herb, with creeping rootstock, stout, 30 cm. high or more, glabrous, stems sharply angular, spreading; leaves with many pairs of leaflets, these ovate or elliptical; leafstalk ending in a long tendril; flowers large, purple; pod hairy when young, 3—5 cm. long.

Sandy and gravelly coasts of Northern Hurope, not going further south than Picardy; Arctic Europe, Asia, and America, where it ex- tends down the eastern coast. A form called L. californicus Dougl. is found on sea shores of Washington, and a variety aleuticus White, is found in the arctic parts of America.

Lotus corniculatus li. var. crassifolius Pers.

Perennial stock, with a long taproot; stems decumbent or prostrate, 1—5 dm. long; leaves pinnate, somewhat fleshy; leaflets ovate, pointed, flowers yellow.

This variety represents a race characteristic to the sea shores of Europe, but is not related to L. crassifolius Greene, which is a different plant of Western America, where it does not follow the coast.

Distributed over Europe, Northern and Central Asia, the mountain- ous districts of East Indian Peninsula, and Australia.

Lupinus arboreus Sims.

Arborescent or suffrutescent, silky pubescent on young stems and lower surface of leaves; petioles short; leaflets narrowly lanceolate, 3—6 em. long, 9—11 on first leaves, 6—8 on later leaves from the axils, these smaller; corolla sulphur-yellow, keel purple tipped; cotyledon of the seedling petioled.

Sand strands and in the neighborhood of coasts, California.

L. Chamassonis Esch.

Perennial, stems woody below, 3—12 dm. high, densely tomentose ; leaflets ’—9, silky-pubescent, oblong-oblanceolate, 1—3 cm. long, peti- oles short; flowers blue, the banner with a yellow spot.

Sandy soil along the whole Californian coast and Oregon coast.

86 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

L. litoralis Dougl. is a sea shore plant of California, from Point Reyes northward to Vancouver Island. (Jepson 1. c.)

L. trifidus Torr.

Annual herb, branched from base, 15—30 em. high, densely pilose pubescent, the younger parts canescent; leaflets 6—8, linear; corolla blue, with a white spot on the banner.

Coastal sands at San Francisco and Pacific Grove.

Medicago litoralis Rohde. Annual herb, with obcordate leaflets, toothed at apex, hairy. On sandy sea shores of the Mediterranean.

M. marina L. Perennial herb, with obovate leaflets, toothed at apex, tomentose ; flowers yellow, large. Sandy shores of the Méditerranean region.

Oxylobium callistachys Benth.

Tall shrub, young branches angular, clothed with appressed silky hairs; leaves lanceolate, 5—10 cm. long, obtuse, coriaceous, glabrous and reticulate above, silky-pubescent beneath, especially when young; flowers yellow.

Restricted to Western Australia.

O. reticulatum Meissn.

Shrub, 6—10 dm. high, rigid branches, silky-pubescent; leaves op- posite, obovate, obtuse, 2 cm. long, coriaceous, reticulate and glabrous in age.

Sea shore sands of West Australia. Occurs also on inland sand formations of that country. With several other species of Oxylobium common in the neighborhood of Perth.

Swainsona is a genus represented by several species on the sand formations of Australia, especially Victoria, but these plants are not restricted to the coast. Trifolium fragiferum L. Perennial stock, creeping stems, rooting at the nodes; leaflets

OF MARINE COASTS. S7

obovate, toothed; leafstalks long, slightly hairy; flowers sessile, white, the head very compact. Europe, Central Asia, preferring the coast, especially on the Baltic.

T. repens. L.

Perennial plant, glabrous or sometimes slightly hairy; stems creep- ing, rooting at the nodes; leafstalks long, flowers white, sometimes pinkish.

Europe and Northern Asia, whence spread to many countries. Not confined to coasts or sandy soil, but often occuring on such localities.

Vicia cracca L. Perennial rootstock; the annual stems climbing, with branched tend- rils, 6—12 dm. long, hairy; leaflets numerous, oblong, 20—25 mm. long. Common in Europe and Northern Asia, whence introduced to North America. Not confined to coast.

Ulex europaeus L. Shrub, 6—20 dm. high, much branched, hairy; the small branches all end in a thorn; lower leaves lanceolate, upper ones reduced to thorns. Sandy, dry soil in Western and Southern Europe, but not confined to maritime situations.

Vigna lutea A. Gray.

Prostrate or trailing herb, almost glabrous; leaves pinnately tri- foliate, stipulate; leaflets entire, obovate, obtuse, 3—8 em. long; stipules short and broad; flowers yellow.

Common on sandy shores in tropical Asia, South Africa, Australia, and Pacific Islands, rare in West Indies. On several islands along the Queensland coast. on shores of Moreton Bay and in New South Wales at Newcastle and Botany Bay on coastal sands.

A nearly related form V. Juteola Benth. occurs on sandy sea shores in different countries, but has not been observed by the writer.

ROSACEAE.

Adenostoma fasciculatum H. et A.

Evergreen shrub, 6—25 dm. high, with virgate branches clothed with leaf-fascicles ; leaves linear, rigid, entire, numerous, and mostly fascicled, 8—12 mm. long; flowers small, white.

Although not a sea coast plant, this species is included here, because

88 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

it is a conspicuous feature of the older dunes of the Californian coast, especially at Monterey Bay. It is one of the characteristic plants of the chaparral formation in certain parts of California.

Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb.

Perennial, stemless herb, silvery with white tomentum especially be- neath, rootstock sending out numerous, long, slender, jointed runners from the nodes; leaves 8—15 cm. long, in tufts, unequally pinnate; leaflets in 5—20 pairs, oblong or rounded, with very small ones inter- mixed, deeply toothed, white-silky, tomentose beneath or on both sides; flower large, yellow.

In temperate countries in both hemispheres, extending to the Arctic. Seems to follow the coast in California, and is never absent from suit- able localities on the sea shores of the Baltic.

Fragaria chilensis Duchesne.

Perennial acaulescent herb, with stout runners; upper surface of leaves glabrous; rest of herbage densely pubescent with long weak hairs, especially beneath; leaves of firm texture, dark green, leaflets 1—3 cm. long; flowers 2 cm. in diameter, white.

Coastal sands from San Francisco northward to Alaska. Also in Chili.

Potentilla reptans L.

Perennial herb, with slender, prostrate stems, rooting at the nodes; leaves petiolate; leaflets 5, obovate, coarsely toothed; flowers large, yellow.

Dispersed over Europe, Northern and Western Asia. Also natural- ized in New Zealand.

Rosa pimpinellifolia L. Erect shrub, with widely creeping subterranean stem, much-branched, 2—4 dm. high; leaflets small, glabrous; flowers pinkish. Europe and temperate Asia, but not in Arctic. Occurs generally not far from the sea, and is a characteristic plant on the dunes of the Friesian Islands (Buchenau).

CRASSULACEAE.

Sedum acre L. Perennial tufts, procumbent, consisting of numerous short, barren

OF MARINE COASTS. 89

stems, and erect flowering branches, 3—7 cm. high, glabrous, somewhat yellowish; leaves small, thick, ovoid; flowers yellow.

Common in Hurope and temperate Asia. Not confined to coastal sands, but frequently occurring there.

Tillaea minima Miers

Low succulent annual, simple or with many ascending branches, 2—7 em. high; herbage of adult plant reddish; leaves ovate or oblong, obtuse, 2 mm. long.

There is a Tullaea common on sandy shores in Australia, f. i. at Moreton Bay, Sydney, Port Phillip, Vincent’s Gulf and Perth, and the same form is said to occur in New Zealand and extratropical South America. It is recognized as 7. verticillata DC. by Bentham, but the difference, if any at all, is inconpicuous between this form and 7’. minima Miers., which is widely distributed in temperate South America and California. When occurring on the coast this species is always more succulent than in inland situations.

T. moschata DC.

Annual herb, with red creeping stems, 8—20 cm. long, succulent, rooting from the axils; leaves 1 cm. long, entire, obovate, obtuse; flowers comparatively large.

Occurs in New Zealand and on adjoining islands, in Southern Chili and Fuegia, as well as on several oceanic islands, as Falkland’s and Kerguelen’s Land.

T. muscosa L. Annual herb, 2—4 cm. high, much-branched, reddish, succulent; leaves linear. In Western and Southern Europe from Mediterranean northwards to Holland.

HALORAGEAE.

Gunnera arenaria Cheeseman.

Fleshy glabrous herb, with slender rhizomes, tufted; leaves 3—5 em. long, ovate, petioles sheathing at base, with short flattened hairs on upper part. This species shows a remarkable dimorphism in the form of flowers, drupes and even nuts. .

Coastal sands of New Zealand.

Library Publications. 6

Sep i * Bie 2a NaS

Moist hollow between fairly stable dunes occupied by a Soldanella community in which Gunnera arenaria Cheesm.

13.

Fra.

Upper surface of most Gunnera leaves is covered with sand.

is dominating.

PHOTOGRAPH BY COCKAYNE.

OF MARINE COASTS. 91

Hippuris vulgaris L. f. maritima. Perennial rootstock, with annual stems, 3—6 dm. high, stout; leaves entire, linear, acute, 10—15 mm. long» flowers inconspicuous. Occurs on coasts of Baltic. The typical form is dispersed over Europe and northern North America, and is not a coast plant.

RHIZOPHOREAE.

Rhizophora mangle L. The common mangrove of all tropical coasts does not, as a rule, occur on sandy shores, but occasional specimens can be found on sandy beaches or fringing sandy islands.

MYRTACEAE.

Calythriz aurea Lindl. Erect shrub, rigid, not much branched, minutely pubescent; leaves erect, ovate, thick, concave, obtuse, ciliate on margins and midrib;

flowers yellow in leafy heads. Together with other species of the same genus on sands at Swan

River, West Australia.

Kunzea pomifera F. Muell. Rigid, prostrate shrub, glabrous, or young shoots somewhat pubescent ; leaves ovate, narrow at base, rigid, spreading, obtuse, 6—12 mm. long;

flowers white. Sandy shores of Victoria and South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf).

Also in interior deserts of Australia.

Leptospermum laevigatum F. Muell.

Tall shrub, glabrous, somewhat glaucous, young shoots often silky: leaves oblong, 1—4 cm. long, 3-nerved, alternate, rigid, entire; flowers white.

Coastal sand formations in Australia (Sydney, Port Phillip, South Australia, and Tasmania). Does not extend to West Australia.

L. scoparium Forst.

Rigid shrub to 7 m. high tree, much-branched; leaves small, ovate, alternate, erect, concave; young shoots covered with silky hairs, adult foliage mostly glabrous.

Australia and New Zealand on the beach. In the latter country it extends to an altitude of 1000 m.

92 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

On sand at Moreton Bay and Port Jacksor L. myrtifoliwm Sieb. is quite common.

Melaleuca.

Several species of this typical Australian genus occur on coastal sands, f. i. M. parviflora Reich. on sand dunes of Victoria. Not re- stricted to the coast, however. MM. ericifolia Smith thrives in very salty situations, growing almost like a mangrove on muddy ocean shores. Tt is especially well adapted for fixing sand along salt lagoons and im wet places between dunes.

Metrosideros tomentosa A. Rich.

Large shrub or tree with massive spreading arms and stout, tomentose branchlets; leaves 3—10 cm. long, with short petioles, oblong, usually narrowed towards apex, rounded at base, margins flat or recurved, clothed with white tomentum beneath.

New Zealand (North Island only) coasts. Abundant on North Cape.

ONAGRACEAE.

Fuchsia procumbens R. Cunn.

Much-branched; stems prostrate, slender, 15—45 cm. long; leaves alternate, ovate, 1—2 cm. long, shorter than petioles; berry large, glaucous.

Sandy places near highwater mark on Northern coast of North Island, New Zealand.

Oenothera cheiranthifolia Hornem.

Annual caulescent herb, prostrate and radiating from a central radical rosette, crowning the taproot, 45—75 cm. long, rigid and tough; leaves thick, canescently pubescent, obovate-oblong, obtuse, shortly peti- olate, 1—3 cm. long; flowers yellow; seeds many. —

Coastal sand dunes, California.

O. micrantha Hornem.

Annual; branches procumbent from a short primary axis, not rigid or tough, pubescence hirsutulous; leaves radical, in rosette, oblong- lanceolate, 4 cm. long, slightly undulate, denticulate.

Does not differ materially from foregoing species.

Californian coast from San Francisco southward. According to

OF MARINE COASTS. 93,

Abrams!) not confined to coast, but also found on sand in the interior valleys of California.

Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale Haworth.

Perennial plant often forming extensive mats; robust, prostrate stems, woody at base, with short ascending flowering branches; leaves opposite, stem-clasping, 4—8 cm. long, glabrous, succulent, linear, tri- angular, sometimes compressed laterally, acute; flowers rose-colored; seeds minute, numerous.

This species scarcely differs from the South African IM. acinaciforme L. except in smaller flowers and less succulent leaves.

Follows the coast in California, Chili, and Australia. In the latter country it sometimes ascends the rivers as far as the water is brackish, and it occurs on the salt plains of the interior in a few places. Grows generally on the littoral dune, where that formation is developed.

M. australe Sol.

Perennial; stems prostrate, rooting at base, 3—15 dm. long; leaves opposite; connate at base, triangular, flat above, keeled or convex beneath, acute, fleshy, 2—4 cm. long, often crowded in short auxiliary shoots; some plants have red, others green leaves; flowers rose-colored.

Appears not to be very distinct from M. crassifolium L. of South Africa.

Coasts of Australia, New Zealand, South Pacific Islands and Cal- ifornia, at San Francisco, where most likely introduced.

M. capitatum Haw. Perennial, often suffruticose caudex, simple or branched; leaves crowded, very long, triquetrous, glaucescent. A South African species sometimes cultivated on sand dunes in Australia. The nearly related M. pugioniforme L. from South Africa is also a good sand stay.

M. crystallinum L.

Prostrate annual or biennial, much-branched, stems thick, about 3 dm. long, covered with transparent vesicles; leaves undulate, succulent, obovate, obtuse, narrowed into a stemclasping petiole; flowers white or pink.

1) L. R. Abrams: Flora of Los Angeles and vicinity, p. 271, 1904.

94 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Common on sea coasts of South Africa. Also on the coasts of Southern Europe, Canary Islands, California and Australia (South and West Australia).

M. edule UL.

Stems stout, spreading, prostrate, angular. Leaves opposite, fleshy,

7 cm. long, shortly connate at base, linear, triquetrous, concave above;

keel serrulate. Coast of South Africa, whence introduced into many countries as a

sandstay and then naturalized, f. i. on North Island of New Zealand.

Tetragoma expansa Murray

Succulent perennial, branched, erect or prostrate, 3—6 dm. high, glabrous, papillose; leaves alternate, plane, rhomboid-ovate, 4—5 nerved beneath, 2—8 cm. long, abruptly narrowed into a broad petiole, entire, acute or obtuse; flowers small, yellow; fruit angular with 2—4 spines.

On coast of Australia, New Zealand, and adjoining islands, Japan, Polynesia, temperate South America and California (Pacific Grove and shores of San Francisco Bay).

T. trigyna Banks & Sol. Stems suffruticose, 2—15 dm. long, almost trailing and climbing; leaves alternate, broadly ovate, abruptly narrowed into the petiole,

papillose. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and adjoining islands. A number of species of this genus occur on the sandy sea shores of

South Africa. UMBELLIFERAE.

Angelica litoralis Fries.

Perennial, 1—2 m. high, 2—3 ternately divided; leaflets ovate, acute, serrate; petioles thick, the upper ones much inflated; flowers greenish-yellow.

Occurs on gravelly and stony shores of the Baltic.

A. rosaefolia Hook.

Suffruticose plant, chiefly littoral in New Zealand (Kirk: Student's Flora of New Zealand).

Apium prostratum Labill.

Root stout; stems prostrate, 15—60 cm. long, stout, grooved; leaves 2—3 pinnate; leaflets sessile; obovate, narrow-linear, membraneous.

OF MARINE COASTS. 95

Sea shores of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Pacific Island, South America, South Africa, and several oceanic islands.

Crantzia lineata Nutt.

Small, creeping, glabrous perennial, with solitary or tufted, erect, cylindrical leaves, springing from the nodes; rhizomes slender, rooting at the nodes; leaves 1—12 cm. long, linear-fistular, obtuse, sometimes compressed, especially when growing in elevated situations.

North America on the Atlantic and certain parts of the Pacific Coast; New Zealand and Chatham Island. Is a saltmarsh plant, but occurs often in moist hollows between dunes.

Daucus maritimus Lam. Biennial, with leaves in rosette, densely covered with a short tom- entum. Mediterranean countries, where often found on sand dunes.

Eryngium maritimum WL.

Perennial root herb with deep root; about 8 dm. high, stiff, erect, much-branched, glabrous, glaucous; leaves stiff, broad, sinuate, divided into 3 broad, short lobes, veined, bordered by coarse teeth, radical leaves petiolate, others clasping.

Common on maritime sands of Hurope, North Africa and Western Asia, mostly growing on the upper beach or the littoral dune.

H. vesiculosum Labill.

Perennial, with stout root; stems 5—15 cm. long, prostrate, but never rooting at the nodes; radical leaves rosulate, lanceolate-oblong, narrowed into a flat petiole, 3—9 cm. long, deeply toothed; teeth spinescent.

Sandy beaches of New Zealand and Australia.

Hydrocotyle Novae Zealandiae DC.

occurs sometimes on sandy beaches of North Island, New Zealand, in a form, described by Kirk (in his Student’s Flora, p. 189) as H. robusta.

ARALIACEAE.

Pseudopanax Lesson C. Koch.

Much branched shrub or small tree; branches stout; leaves 2—5 foliate; leaflets sessile, 2—10 cm. long, obovate, obtuse, thick and

96 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

coriaceous, glossy, entire or sinuate-serrate; veins indistinct; petioles 5—15 cm. long. Sea coast of North Island, New Zealand.

RUBIACEAE.

Coprosma acerosa A. Cunn. f. arenaria Kirk. Low shrub, seldom more than 1.5 m. high; branches often interlaced ; leaves narrow, close-set; bark yellowish-brown. On drifting sands of New Zealand, rarely inland.

C. Baueri Endl.

Shrub or small tree, glabrous except the young shoots, which are sometimes minutely pubescent; branchlets stout, terete; leaves somewhat fleshy, broadly ovate, narrowed into a short slender petiole, rounded at the tip; margins often recurved, glossy; stipules broad, acute, minutely toothed ; peduncles axillary.

Coast of New Zealand.

Galium verum L.

Perennial from woody rootstock, glabrous; stems much-branched at base, decumbent, 15—30 cm. long: flowers yellow.

Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to the coast, but occurs often on upper beach and littoral dune, not infrequently together with G. mollugo.

VALERIANACEAE. Valeriana officinalis L.

Perennial stock; creeping runners; erect flowering stems, 15—20 em. high; leaves pinnate with many lanceolate segments, 2—6 cm. long, coarsely toothed, somewhat hairy underneath; flowers white or pinkish.

Common in Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to coast, but frequently occurring on upper beach near brackish water.

Valerianella olitoria Poll. Annual herb, glabrous, 6—15 cm. high, erect or ascending, branching from base, radical leaves caespitose, oblong, 3—5 cm. long, rounded at top, entire, narrowing at base; stemleaves narrower, clasping, coarsely

toothed. Common in Europe, especially in the south.

OF MARINE COASTS. 7

CAMPANULACHAL, Campanula rotundifolia L. Perennial, with slender, creeping rootstock; radical leaves ovate, others narrow-lanceolate, entire; flowers blue. Common on dry places throughout Europe, but not confined to coast, although it frequently occurs on established dunes.

Jasione montana L. Biennial, with tufted leaves, linear or lanceolate, somewhat hairy ; flowers blue. Widely spread in Europe. It is especially the form litoralis Fries, prostrate and tufty, which occurs on the dunes of the Baltic.

COMPOSITAE. Achillea millefolium L.

Perennial herb, common in Europe and North America, but not confined to the coast, although it frequently occurs on dunes.

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H.

Is abundant on dunes at San Francisco and Pacific Grove, but is not restricted to coastal sands.

Angianthus eriocephalus Benth. Low, slender annual, 2—5 cm. high, leaves narrow-linear, opposite, entire, woolly-white. On coast sand formations in Victoria and Western Australia. Occurs also in Tasmania.

Artemisia absinthium L.

Shrubby, with short stem, much-branched and leafy, annual flower- ing stems hard, 3—6 dm. high, white-gray tomentose; leaves small, divided into oblong, linear, obtuse lobes.

Near the sea in Europe and temperate Asia, whence introduced to North America and New Zealand.

A. campestris L.

Perennial stock, sometimes shrubby, low, branched; annual branches spreading, 83—4 dm. long, glabrous, somewhat reddish; leaves small, once or twice pinnate, with few narrow-linear segments, green on upper surface.

98 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Frequently on shores, although not restricted to coast. Europe and temperate Asia. Several forms of this plant occur on the coastal dunes of Germany, as sericea Fr. and stramentisia G. Beck.

A. maritima L. Suffrutescent, much-branched, decumbent, covered with white tom- entum; leaves twice pinnate, with narrow-linear segments. i Maritime sands of Western Europe, Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea.

_A. pycnocephala DC.

Perennial herb, with stout stem, 4—8 dm. high, somewhat woody at base, crowded with leaves, once or twice pinnately divided into linear entire segments; herbage densely silky-villous; flowers yellow.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from Monterey northwards,

2 A. Stelleriana Bess.

Perennial, densely white-tomentose; stem-branched, 3—7 dm. high, bushy; branches ascending; leaves obovate, 2—8 cm. long, pinnatifid into oblong, obtuse, usually entire lobes; densely tomentose beneath, but green and glabrous above in age.

Sandy sea beaches, Kamtschatka, Southern Sweden, Denmark, England, Ireland, Atlantic coast of North America.

A. vulgaris L.

Perennial, thick and woody stock, erect flowering stems, 5—10 dm. high, glabrous; leaves pinnatifid, with lanceolate, pointed lobes, coarsely toothed, dark green and glabrous above, white tomentose underneath.

Common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Not confined to coast.

Aster (Olearia) axillaris F. Muell.

Erect shrub, much-branched, 1—3 m. high, white-tomentose; leaves obovate, or linear, 1—2 cm. long, obtuse, entire, with revolute margins, glabrous and shining above, white-woolly beneath.

On coastal sand dunes in Victoria, South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf), and Western Australia (Perth). Also in Tasmania.

A. (Olearia) glutinosus Benth. Much-branched shrub, 1—1.6 m. high, glabrous, glutinous; leaves narrow-linear, acute, 1—4 cm. long, flat, margins somewhat recurved. Sandy coasts of Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.

OF MARINE COASTS. 99

A. (Olearia) ramulosus Benth.

Shrub, 1—2 m. high, much-branched, pubescent, sometimes glutin- ous; leaves small, spreading, obovate, petiolate, obtuse, with revolute margins, glabrous above, woolly beneath.

Together with otber species of this genus on dunes in Victoria, but not confined to coast. In Tasmania, New South Wales, and South Australia.

A. (Olearia) Solandri Hook. f. Much-branched shrub, 1—4 m. high, branchlets stout, puberulous; white-yellowish tomentose beneath; margins recurved. Usually on coast; New Zealand, especially on North Island.

A. Tripoliwm UL. Perennial herb, glabrous, 2—3 dm. high, erect or decumbent; leaves

linear, entire, somewhat succulent; rayflowers purplish. Maritime coasts of Europe, and temperate Asia.

Baccharis pilularis DC.

Evergreen shrub, prostrate on sand, 2—15 dm. high; branchlets angular; leaves sessile, obovate, 1—3 cm. long, sinuately toothed.

The more erect form is widely spread inland in California, while the prostrate form is confined to the coast. Rare south of Point Con- ception according to Abrams.

Bidens bipinnata L.

Glabrous annual, 0.5—1 m. high; branches angular; leaves thin, pinnately divided; leafsegments again divided into small, deeply toothed lobes; flowers yellow.

On sandy shores of Queesnland, as Moreton Bay. Is common in various situations in the eastern part of North America and in the tropics of that continent.

Calocephalus Brownit F. Muell.

Low, rigid, much-branched shrub, 3 dm. high, covered with a white, woolly tomentum; leaves alternate, linear, obtuse, 2 mm. long.

On sea coasts of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia.

100 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Cassinia fulvida Hook. f.

Erect shrub, about 1 m. high, much-branched; branches covered with a yellowish, subviscid tomentum; leaves narrow, linear, spreading, margins slightly curved, clothed with fulvous tomentum; glutinous above. Midrib obvious below.

Restricted to New Zealand, where it goes up to 1200 m. from sea level.

C. retorta A. Cunn.

Shrub, 1—3 m. high, with slender branches, covered with gray tomentum: small, erect, narrow-linear leaves, with recurved margins, underneath covered with whitish appressed tomentum.

On North Cape, New Zealand.

Cirsium occidentale Nuit.

‘Biennial herb, stout, 4—10 dm. high, white with thick coating of cottony wool; leaves pinnatifid, not very prickly, glabrate above, canes- cent beneath; flowers purple.

Common on established dunes near San Francisco, and follows the coast southward in California, extending inland among hills of coast ranges.

f Corethrogyne obovaia Benth.

Perennial with decumbent stems, 3—6 dm. long; leaves 2—3 cm. long, obovate, obtuse, toothed above middle, densely white-woolly; disk flowers yellow, ray flowers violet blue.

On sand dunes of California, from Pacific Grove northward.

C. virgata Gray. Suffrutescent, erect, 2—10 dm. high, branched; herbage woolly; leayes oblanceolate, serrate; disk flowers yellow, ray flowers violet blue. Coast of California.

C. viscidula Greene.

Perennial, tall, slender; stem and flowers at flowering time purplish, glandular-scabrous; leaves narrowly-oblanceolate, acute, serrate, viscid- glandular; disk flowers yellowish-brown; ray flowers violet blue.

On sand dunes at Monterey Bay, California.

Cotula coronopifolia L. Small perennial glabrous herb, with succulent, clustered, creeping stems, rooting at the nodes: branches ascending, 10—20 cm. high;

OF MARINE COASTS. 101

leaves alternate, often distant, sheathing at the base, lanceolate, nearly linear, entire or pinnatifid, 25 cm. long; flowers yellow.

Widely dispersed. West coast of Europe, from Spain (Cadiz) to Denmark, and Norway (Sognefjord), South Africa, Australia (New South Wales to Western Australia), Tasmania, New Zealand, Chatham Islands, California (supposed by Behr to be introduced), Chili and Brazil. Occurs in wet places among the dunes.

C. perpusilla Hook. f. and C. Trail Kirk are two other species occurring occasionally on blown sand in New Zealand (Kirk). Diotis maritima Cass.

Perennial rootstock, creeping; stems branching at base, hard, 20—30 em. high, covered with a dense, white tomentum; leaves alternate, oblong, entire, 1 cm. long; flowers yellow.

A plant nearly related to Achillea. Occurs on maritime sands of Europe, from the Mediterranean to the British Islands.

Ericameria ericoides (Less.) Nutt.

* Low evergreen shrub, with decumbent or ascending main stems and numerous erect branchlets; foliage punctate, resinous; leaves linear- terete, 2—5 mm. long, fascicled; flowers yellow.

Common on sand dunes of California.

Erigeron acris L. Common on established dunes in Europe, but not confined to coast.

H. glaucus Ker.

Perennial herb, with mostly entire leaves, stem very leafy at base, the cauline leaves much reduced, flowering stems erect, 10—25 cm. high, commonly one-headed, arising from a radical tuft of leaves crowning the fleshy caudex and often from rosulate offsets terminating prostrate woody branches; stems pilose pubescent; leaves finely pubes- cent, spatulate, obovate, entire, rarely with a small tooth on either side below the apex, 2—8 cm. long, upper cauline small and scattered.

Coast of California. Abundant on dunes at San Francisco.

Eriophyllum staechadifolium Lag. Suffruticose plant, 6—10 dm. high; leaves alternate, pinnately parted into 5—7 lobes, the margins revolute, and the under surface white with

102 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

a dense feltlike tomentum ; upper surface green, and tomentum of stems deciduous; flowers yellow. Coastal sands and sea cliffs in California.

Franseria bipinnatifida Nutt. _ Perennial branching herb, with procumbent stems, 6—10 dm. long, somewhat hirsute; leaves twice or thrice pinnately parted into oblong

lobes, canescent. Common on sandy shores in California.

Fic. 14. Dune covered with Franseria community, at San Francisco. PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

F. Chamissonis Less. Perennial branching herb, woody at base, stems procumbent, 6—10 dm. long, hirsute; leaves narrow-ovate, with cuneate base, serrate or

the lower laciniate. Coastal sands of California; not so common as foregoing species.

Gnaphalium chilense Spreng.

Annual or biennial, with several stems, erect from a decumbent base, stout, 15—75 em. high, densely clothed with leaves, narrowly spatulate, the short decurrent bases broad; herbage woolly.

OF MARINE COASTS. 103

On dunes at San Francisco and Pacific Grove, but not confined to the coast.

Grindelia robusta Nutt. var. maritima.

Perennial herb, with ascending or erect stems, 3—4 dm. high, herbage ligthly pubescent; leaves oblong, obtuse, serrulate; heads filled with white gummy exudation; rays yellow.

Sometimes on drift sand, but prefers hard ground near coast. California.

Helichrysum arenarium (L.) DC.

Perennial herb with single stems, densely white-tomentose; leaves sessile, obtuse, the lower oblong-obovate, the upper linear-lanceolate ; flowers yellow.

On dunes of Northern Germany, but also inland in certain parts of Europe.

H. cinereum F. Muell. :

Erect, much-branched shrub, 1—1.5 m. high; branchlets tomentose ; leaves linear, obtuse, 1—2 cm. long, with revolute margins, glabrous above, tomentose beneath, sometimes succulent.

Common on sand dunes in Victoria. Also said to occur in New South Wales and Tasmania.

Hieracium pilosella L. and H. umbellatum L. are commonly found on established dunes along the Baltic, but are adventive from inland.

Jaumea carnosa (Less.) Gray.

Perennial glabrous herb, with many slender stems, from the fleshy crown of the taproot, mostly simple, 10—15 cm. long, decumbent at base and rooting at the nodes; leaves linear, entire, fleshy, opposite, 20—25 mm. long; flowers yellow.

Sandy beaches, California.

Lessingia Germanorum Cham.

Annual herb, low, diffusely branched, 10—20 cm. high; herbage with appressed white tomentum, wholly glabrate in age, at least on branches; lowest leaves pinnatifid, those of the branchlets scattered, linear and usually entire, not gland-bearing; flowers yellow.

Common on sand dunes of California from San Francisco south- wards, but not confined to the coast.

104 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Mairicaria inodora lL. var. maritima L. Perennial herb, erect or spreading, much-branched, 3—5 dm. high, leaves succulent; disk flowers yellow, ray flowers white. Common on the Baliic shores.

Senecio Colensoi Hook. i.

Stem ereci, simple or much-branched, woody at the base, flexuose, grooved, the whole plant covered with white tomentum. Some are white on both surfaces, others only beneath. On the shore they are fleshy and glabrous. Leaves polymorphic, entire, obovate to lanceolate, nar- towed inio short petioles with broad wings. The leaves vary, however, greatly in form.

North Island, New Zealand.

S. lautus Sol.

Prostrate, decumbent or ereci, glabrous or pubescent, annual or bien- nial, 860 cm. high; stem and branches stout or slender, grooved; leaves succulent, 2—5 em. long, lanceolate, narrowed into a petiole, pinnatifid.

A yery variable species occurring on coasis of New Zealand, compar- atively seldom inland.

S. spathulatus A. Rich. Much-branched perennial; leaves obovate, toothed irregularly, the lower petiolate, the upper stemclasping, all fleshy; 2—4 cm. long. Sandy shores in New South Wales (Bondi), Victoria and Tasmania.

S. stlvaticus Lu. and S. viscosus L.

are not uncommon on sand formations oi the Baltic coasis, but are not confined to such situations.

Solidago spathulata DC.

Perennial herb, with glabrous, slightly glutious herbage; stems 3545 cm. high, branched at base, decumbent, thickly clothed with broad leaf bases; leaves basal, spatulaie, rounded at apex, narrowed to a long marginal petiole, serrate above the middle; flowers yellow.

On sand dunes at San Francisco and Monterey, California.

Sonchus arvensis L.. martiimus G. F. Meyer. Perennial: creeping rootstock; stems 6—10 dm. high; leaves long, pinnatifid, lobes lanceolate, curved downwards, bordered by large prickly teeth; the lower petiolate, the upper siem-clasping; flowers yellow.

OF MARINE COASTS. 105

S. asper Hill. var. litoralis Kirk.

Perennial herb, with stout roots; stems 30—45 cm. high, robust; radical leaves rosulate, closely appressed to the ground, somewhat fleshy, ovateoblong, obtuse, often waved, toothed, cauline leaves few, acute, am- plexicaule.

Coast of New Zealand.

Tanacetum cam phoratwm Less.

Perennial herb, strong scented, villous-tomentose when young, the wool more or less deciduous in age; stems robust, decumbent or ascend- ing, 3—10 dm. long; primary and secondary divisions of the leaves much crowded, the latter oblong, the margin more or less revolute; flowers yellow.

On sand dunes of California from San Francisco to Puget Sound, along Upper Great Lakes and from Hudson Bay to Maine on the At- lantic coast of North America.

T. vulgare L.

Occurs usually on the coast near the Baltic, but in New Zealand, where it also is found, it is not observed to favor maritime situations.

Taraxacum officinale Web.

is often found on seashores of the Baltic, especially in a prostrate, glaucous form corniculatum Kit.

Troximon apargioides Less.

Perennial herb, with deep taproot, low and tufted, stem erect or ascending from a woody caudex, 18—40 cm. high; leaves narrow, pinnat- ifid.

On sand dunes at San Francisco.

GOODENOVIBAE.

Scaevola suaveolens -R. Br.

Prostrate perennial, covered with appressed silky hairs; leaves alter- nate, obovate, petiolate, thick, entire; flowers blue.

Common on coasts of Australia. In Queensland at Wide Bay and Moreton Bay, in New South Wales (Manly Beach, Botany Bay), Vic- toria (Porth Phillip) and South Australia.

Library Publications. 7

106 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

EPACRIDEAE. Cyathodes acerosa R. Br.

Tall shrub with spreading branches; leaves scattered, spreading, linear, rigid, with a pungent point, recurved margins, about 1 cm. long; flowers white; large pulpy drupe.

Sand dunes of Victoria. Also in Tasmania and New Zealand.

Leucopogon margarodes R. Br.

Low shrub, branches pubescent; leaves oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, margins recurved, 5—15 mm. long.

Coastal sands in Queensland (Moreton Bay) and New South Wales (Neweastle) .

L. Richei R. Br.

Tall shrub, glabrous; leaves oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, recurved mar- gins 1—3 cm. long.

Common on sea shores of Australia. Queensland (Moreton Bay), New South Wales (Porth Jackson), Victoria (Porth Phillip), Western Australia (Perth). Also on Chatham Islands.

PLUMBAGINACEAE. Armeria vulgaris Willd. Acaulescent perennial, with a close tuft of linear, flat or revolute- channeled leaves; flowers rose color. On coasts in temperate countries in Northern and Southern Hemi- sphere, but not in the tropics.

Statice auriculifolia Vahl.

Perennial, tufted, branched, leaves 2—3 cm. high; resembles S. limonium L.

Coasts of Western Europe and the Mediterranean, usually on rocks, rarely on sand.

S. limoniwum L.

Stemless perennial, with tufts of radical leaves 5—15 cm. long, ob- ovate, glabrous, fleshy, petiolate, flowers rose colored.

On coastal sands and salt marshes in Western Europe, Mediterranean, Western Asia, California, South America.

S. reticulata L. is a form still smaller than S. awriculifolia, and occurs on coastal sands

of Mediterranean and Western Asia, and is said to go on the west coast of France.

OF MARINE COASTS. 107

PRIMULACEAHR,

Anagallis arvensis L.

Annual, glabrous herb, with 15—30 cm. long, procumbent or as- cending stem ; leaves opposite, entire, broadly ovate, acute, sessile, 12 mm. long; flowers bright red.

Usually near the coast, but also inland on cultivated soil. Europe, temperate Asia, Africa, and on Atlantic and Pacific coast of North America, where introduced, as in Australia.

Glaua maritima L.

Succulent perennial, with creeping rootstock; stem glabrous, branch- ing, 8—15 em. high; leaves small, opposite, sessile, ovate or almost linear, entire; flowers purplish or white.

Widely dispersed in Europe, temperate Asia, and North America. On the eastern coast it ranges from New England north, while on the Pacific it occurs from San Francisco to Alaska. Also in the interior in limited areas on subsaline soil.

Primula sibirica Jacq.

Perennial herb, with fibrous roots; glabrous, green; leaves ovate or obovate, entire, petiolate; flowers lilac.

In arctic America, Greenland, Northern Europe, and Asia to Kamt- schatka.

Samolus repens Pers. is a saline marshplant, sometimes found on moist sand in Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia.

S. Valerandi L.

occurs on similar localities as the former species, being dispersed in some form over almost all temperate and warmer regions of the globe.

MYRSINEAE. Aegiceras majus Gaertn.

One of the commonest mangroves, ranging from Ceylon and the Indian Peninsula to the Eastern Archipelago and the South Pacific Islands. Also in Australia on the Queensland coast and at a few places in New South Wales.

108 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

APOCYNEAE. Alyzxia buaifolia R. Br. Low shrub, spreading, glabrous; leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, obovate, obtuse, thick, margins recurved. Abundant on coastal sand dunes in Victoria and South Australia. Also in Western Australia (Perth) and Tasmania.

LOGANIACEAE.

Mitreola paradoxa R. Br. Erect, branching annual, slender, 7—12 cm. high, glabrous; leaves

linear-lanceolate, connate, sheathing at the base, 6—10 mm. long; flow- ers small, white. On coastal sand in Tasmania and Australia. Victoria (Port Phillip),

South Australia, Western Australia (Fremantle).

GENTIANACEAE.

Erythraea australis R. Br.

Erect glabrous annual, 15—45 cm. high, with few branches; leaves sessile, lanceolate, obtuse, the lower stem-clasping, 1—3 cm. long; flow- ers pink.

Common on all Australian coasts, and also in a few inland places. New Caledonia.

Differs very little from #. spicata Pers., the common form in the Mediterranean countries.

E. litoralis Bab. Annual, much branched, 5—25 cm high, leaves narrow, forming a spreading radical tuft, the upper in pairs, narrow-linear; flowers red. Common in Europe and Central Asia.

E. Muehlenbergii Gris. Annual, simple, or branched from base; 5—15 cm. high; leaves ob- long, obtuse, 1—2 cm. long; flowers rose colored. Coast of California from Monterey to San Francisco.

E. pulchella Sw.

Low annual, with single much-branched stem; leaves thin, ovate, the radical opposite; flowers small, red. Coasts of Baltic.

OF MARINE COASTS. 109

HYDROPHYLLACEAE. Phacelia Douglasii (Benth.) Torr.

Annual herb, branched from the base, with ascending or decumbent stems, 10—20 cm. long, herbage puberulent and hirsute with spreading hairs; leaves linear, pinnatifid; corolla light blue.

Coastal sands of California from San Francisco southward.

BORRAGINACEAE. Amsinckia lycopsoides Lehm.

Annual, with erect stems, branching; the branches sometimes decum- bent, 3—6 dm. long, herbage light yellowish-green, hairy, the hairs often conspicuously hardened; leaves ovate-lanceolate, usually with entire margins.

Coastal sands near San Francisco.

Cryptanthe levocarpa (F. & M.) Greene.

Annual, with strong taproot, branched from base with many erect or ascending branches, 12—30 cm. long; stems in sand short, sometimes caespitose.

Coastal sands of California.

Heliotropium curassavicum L.

Prostrate, much-branched perennial, fleshy, glabrous, glaucous; stems 15—90 cm long, spreading; leaves oblong, obtuse, narrowed into a short petiole, 1—3 cm. long; flowers sessile, small, white with a yellow eye.

Widely spread on sandy sea coasts of North and South America, West Indies, South Africa, Australia (Western Australia to New South Wales), Pacific Islands. Sometimes on alkaline lands in the interior (Australia, California).

CONVOLVULACEAE. Convolvulus Soldanella L.

Prostrate, trailing perennial, up to 5 dm. long, with creeping root- stock; stem succulent, glabrous; leaves deep green, thick, 3—5 cm. in diameter, reniform, entire, on long stout petioles; corolla funnelform, up to 5 em. broad, pink or purplish and white.

Common on sandy sea shores in extratropical countries. Hxtends in Europe from Mediterranean as far as the LHast-Friesian Islands (Buchenau).

Seems not to vary much in appearance on the coasts of California,

110 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Europe, and Australia, as far as the writer has seen, but Cockayne!) temarks a considerable variation in forms from New Zealand and Chatham Island: “The trailing stems of C. Soldanella, furnished with a few fleshy leaves, are very short, being rarely more than 4 cm. in length; the rest of the plant is subterranean, with the exception of the flowers. These latter are large, lilac and white in color, semiprostraite, with their peduncles buried beneath the sand right to the base of the calyx. This small development of C. contrasts greatly with the same species, when growing on the sand dunes at some distance from the sea in many parts of New Zealand. There it forms great masses trailing over the sand, or, when growing in sheltered positions amongst other plants, it actually assumes a climbing habit of growth.”

This species does not differ much in habit from the sea coast form of C. sepium L. and it has also been reduced to this by F. v. Mueller?) although it exhibits characters, which certainly justify its beimg con- sidered a different species.

Cressa cretica L.

Small, erect, much-branched perennial, 7—15 cm. high, silky-pubes- cent; leaves sessile, linear or ovate-lanceolate, entire, 5 mm. long.

On sandy coasts of the warmer paris of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and America. In California and Australia it also occurs in the interior on saline soil.

Bvolvulus alsinoides L.

Perennial, much-branched, prostrate; 15—30 cm. long stems, silky- hairy; leaves lanceolate, entire, sessile, 1—2 cm. long, obtuse or acute; flowers small, white or bluish.

Abundant on Queensland coast, and also found in New South Wales (Clarence River), South and West Australia. Reported from many places of the interior.

Ipomaea carnosa R. Br. .

Prostrate or creeping glabrous perennial; leaves petiolate, ovate, ob- tuse, cordate at base, succulent, 1—3 cm. long; flowers large, white; seeds woolly and hairy.

On sea coasts of warm countries in America, Africa, and Asia. Also occurs on the Mediterranean coasts, and on the shores of Guli of Car- pentaria in Ausiralia.

1) A short account of the plant covering of Chatham Island.—Trans. N. Z. Inst. XXXIV. p. 257. 2) Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, VI. p. 100.

OF MARINE COASTS. 111

Is nearly related to J. pes caprae Roth, and differs mainly by having a more succulent, narrower leaf, less prominently veined.

I. palmata Forst.

Glabrous, twining; leaves digitately divided into 5—7 ovyate-lanceo- late, obtuse, 3—5 cm. long lobes; corolla purple or white; seeds pubes- cent, with long silky hairs.

On tropical coasts in Asia, Africa, and America. In Australia quite abundant at Moreton Bay, and near Tweed River and Port Jackson in New South Wales. Also on North coast of North Island, New Zealand.

I. paniculata R. Br.

Perennial; stems trailing, glabrous, leaves palmately divided to below middle into 5—7 oyate-lanceolate, obtuse lobes; the whole leaf 12—20 em. long and broad; flowers large.

Tropical coasts of Asia, Africa, Australia, and America. Also in West Indies.

I. pes caprae Roth.

Glabrous perennial, with up to 40 m. long, prostrate, trailing stems; leaves orbicular, obtusely 2-lobed, somewhat fleshy, 5—8 cm. long, on long petioles; flowers large, pink; seeds hairy.

On sandy shores of the tropics. Abundant on East Australian coast southward to Richmond River. Used in India (Madras) as a sand stay.

SOLANACEAE. Nicotiana glauca Grahan.

from Argentine and Uruguay is grown in a few places on coastal sands of Australia, and is considered by some authors as a very good sand stay.

Solanum nigrum L. in various forms is often found on dunes in Northern Europe and Cali- fornia, and S. sodomaeum lL. on those of Australia, New Zealand, and the Iberian Peninsula, but both species are inland plants.

SCROPHULARIACEAE. Castilleja latifolia H. & A.

Root-parasitic perennial herb, (sometimes suffrutescent), 15—45 cm. high; herbage viscid-pubescent, leaves thick, alternate, ovate or obovate, mostly less than 3 cm. long, sessile; flowers dull-yellowish, the bracts and calyx lobes more showy than corolla.

Coastal cliffs and sands of California,

112 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Collinsia bartsiaefolia Benth. Annual herb, finely puberulent; leaves somewhat fleshy, ovate, 3 am. long. On sand formations from San Francisco southward along Califor- nian coast.

Linaria supina Desf. Perennial; stem short, much-branched, 10—15 cm. long, high, de- cumbent, glabrous; leaves linear; flowers yellow. On sandy soil especially near the sea in Western Europe; very com- mon in Spain and Southern France.

L. vulgaris Moench. Perennial ; rootstock creeping ; stems erect, 3—10 dm. high, glaucous, green, glabrous; leaves linear or narrow-lanceolate; flowers yellow. Common in Europe and temperate Asia. Often on dunes, but not confined to coast.

Mimulus Langsdorffii Donn. var. grandis Greene.

Perennial, with stolons at base, stems simple or branching, 6—10 dm. high; leaves elliptical, serrate, lower petiolate, upper sessile; flowers large, yellow.

Moist sand on California coast.

M. repens R. Br.

Perennial, prostrate, glabrous, rooting at nodes; leaves sessile, some- times stem-clasping, oblong, obtuse, fleshy, 5—10 mm. long; flowers blue, with yellow center.

Marine coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Collected by the author near Sydney and Melbourne. Occurs also in the interior

on saline soil.

Odontites simplex Hrtm. Annual, with few branches; leaves fleshy, ovate-lanceolate, serrate ;

flowers purple. Coasts of Baltic, mostly on gravelly soil.

Scrophularia californica Cham.

Perennial, very like S. nodosa L. Common in California and Nevada, but not confined to coastal sands,

although often found there.

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114 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

S. nodosa L.

Coarse, erect perennial found on moist plages in Hurope, temperate Asia, and parts of North America, often on the coast.

Veronica macroura Hook, f. On coast of New Zealand, but not confined to sand formations.

V. longifolia L. var. maritima L. is a perennial common on coasts of the Baltic, but occurs rarely on sand.

VERBENACEAE.

Avicennia officinalis L.

Erect shrub of considerable height; branches, lower side of leaf and inflorescence white with a close tomentum; upper surface of leaves usually glabrous in age, black and shining when dry; leaves opposite, coriaceous, entire, ovate-lanceolate, 5—7 cm. long, acute, petiolate.

Common in tropical Asia, Africa, Australia, and America, growing in marshes and inundated sandy places.

Vitex trifolia L.

Low shrub, the branches, lower surface of leaves and inflorescence white, undivided or of 3—5 leaflets, often white on both surfaces, usually glabrous on upper side in age; flowers bluish.

Common on tropical coasts of Asia, and Australia southward to Moreton Bay.

The variety obovata has a peculiar habit of growth on the beaches along Gulf of Carpentaria. The black rope-like stems run over the surface of the sands to a length of 10 m. or more, sending up shoots 3 dm. high at short intervals. (J. F. Bailey in letter.)

MYOPORINEAE.

Myoporum viscosum R. Br.

Shrub, erect, 1—2 m. high, glabrous; leaves alternate, lanceolate or ovate, tuberculate-glandular, obtuse, entire; flowers white.

On coastal dunes of South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf) together with M. serratum R. Br. from which it does not differ much. The latter is found in Tasmania, Victoria, South and West Australia. I. laetum Forst. is common on some New Zealand coasts, and can easily be grown on the middle beach.

OF MARINE COASTS. 115

LABIATAE. Galiopsis tetrahit L.

Annual, 15—30 cm. high, with stiff hairs, stems swollen under the nodes; leaves petiolate, ovate, pointed, coarsely toothed; flowers small, purplish white.

Common through Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to coast, but often occurring on marine beaches and dunes.

Prunella vulgaris L. In damp places in Europe, Northern Asia, Northern America, and Australia (except Western Australia). In tropical Asia and South America it is found in the high mountains.

Scutellaria hastaefolia L. Perennial herb, with erect stems, simple or little branched; leaves petiolate, truncate at base, ovate or ovate-lanceolate; flowers bluish. On the coasts of the Baltic, but also found in Central France and in Northern Italy.

Stachys ajugoides Benth.

Annual, stems creeping in sand, simple, 2—5 dm. long; herbage densely villous or silky pubescent; leaves oblong, 2—6 cm. long, acute or obtuse, petiolate, upper sessile; flowers whitish.

On sand dunes of California, but not confined to coast.

Westringia rosmariuformis Sm.

Tall, bushy shrub, branches, underside of leaves and inflorescence silvery white with densely appressed hairs; leaves in fours, linear or lanceolate, obtuse or acute, 1—3 cm. long, coriaceous, glabrous and shining on upper surface, margins revolute.

On sand dunes in New South Wales (Port Jackson).

PLANTAGINACBHABE. Plantago arenaria W. XK. ver. divaricata. Annual herb, with erect sometimes branched stem; leaves narrow

linear or filiform, margins revolute, pubescent. On sandy sea shores of the Mediterranean countries.

P. coronopus .

Perennial, hirsute; leaves radical, in a dense tuft, linear, acute, entire or sometimes pinnately divided into linear lobes, hairy.

116 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Marine sands of temperate Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. Introduced to Australia, where also found on Toadsides)) in Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.

P. hirtella H. B. K.

Acaulescent perennial, with thick root, pubescent herbage; leaves oblong-lanceolate, 7—30 cm, long, 2—3 cm. wide.

Coast of California, mostly on clay-bluffs, or in moist, alkaline soil away from coast.

P. lanceolata L.

Perennial; rootstock short, woody; leaves erect, spreading, lanceolate, 5—10 em. long, somewhat hairy, tapering into a petiole at base.

Common in Europe and temperate Asia, whence introduced to many parts of the globe. Not confined to sea coasts, but occurs frequently on marine sands.

P. maritima L.

Low perennial herb, with fleshy linear leaves, pointed, entire or slightly toothed.

Marine coasts of Europe, Asia, South Africa, Patagonia, North America (along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans). Occasionally inland in Hurope in high mountains.

P. psyllium L.

Annual herb, with erect branched stem; leaves narrow linear-lanceo- late, pubescent.

Common in the Mediterranean countries. Occurs often on the sea shore sands, but is not confined to these.

NYCTAGINACHAE. Abronia latifolia Esch.

Perennial, succulent herb with stout stems, 3—6 dm. long, prostrate, only leaves and flowering peduncles ascending and erect; leaves broadly ovate to suborbicular, broader than long, truncate at base, 1—4 em. long;

petioles longer than leaves; calyx yellow. Sand dunes on coast of California from Monterey northward.

A. maritima Nutt. Stout, prostrate, pubescent, viscid; leaves thick, broadly ovate, rounded at base, 3 em. long, petioles short, flowers red. Coast of California from Santa Barbara to San Diego. Greatly resembles previous form in habit.

OF MARINE COASTS. 117

A. umbellata Lam.

Perennial, with slender, prostrate stems, 2—10 dm. long, viscid; leaves almost glabrous, roundish ovate, the margin often sinuate, 2—4 em. long, narrowed at base to a slender petiole; calyx rose-purple.

Sand dunes along coast of California from Columbia River to Lower California.

PROTHACHAE. Banksia marginata Cav.

Common on coastal sand dunes at St. Vincent’s Gulf in South Australia (Tepper), but not confined to coast.

Several other species of this genus occur on the dunes of Victoria and Western Australia, as well as on those on the Queensland coast.

ILLICEBRACEAE. Corrigiola litoralis L. Annual, with numerous stems, procumbent or ascending, slender, glabrous; leaves linear, obtuse, tapering at base. On sandy sea shores of western and southern Hurope, and on the Mediterranean coasts. Sometimes in the interior of Hurope.

Pentacaena ramosissima H. & A.

Perennial herb, tufted; prostrate stems forming dense mats, 12—45 em. broad, pubescent; subulate pungent leaves crowded on the stems, 1 cm. long; silvery-hyaline stipules, 14 or nearly as long.

Coast of California. Abundant on dunes at San Francisco and Pacific Grove.

CHENOPODIACHAH. Atriplea Billardieri Hook. f.

Much-branched herb, prostrate, succulent, spreading, covered with papillas like Mesembryanthemum ; leaves shortly petiolate, ovate, obtuse, entire, 5—15 mm. long.

Sandy beaches near highwatermark. Coasts of Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand.

A. californica Moquin.

Perennial herb; prostrate stems, wiry, slender, mostly herbaceous, often much branched and forming a thick mat; root cylindrical, large, 1—3 em. thick, fleshy ; herbage greenish, finely white-mealy or somewhat glabrate in age; leaves thinnish, ovate-lanceolate, 5—17 mm. long, sessile or narrowed at base into a short petiole.

Sandy beaches of California, from San Francisco to San Diego.

118 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

A. cinerea Poir. Branching shrub, whitish with a scaly tomentum; leaves lanceolate or oblong, obtuse, entire, petiolate, 1—5 cm. long. Coast of Tasmania and Australia. Observed by the writer at Moreton Bay, Queensland; Botany Bay, New South Wales; Port Phillip, Victoria; Port Adelaide, South Australia; Fremantle, West Australia.

A. hastata UL.

Annual, slender, with 3—7 dm. long, ascending branches; herbage mealy, scarcely succulent; leaves triangular-hastate, entire or sinuate- dentate, 2—5 cm. long, often as broad or broader, petioles S—12 mm. long.

Coasts of Europe and Northern Asia.

A. leucophylla Dietr.

Perennial herb, with prostrate stems, densely light brown-scurfy, 3—12 dm. long, somewhat woody at base, many short ascending branches; leaves thick, orbicular to elliptic, 10—25 mm. long, sessile, 3-nerved.

Sand formations on the coast of California, from San - Francisco southward to San Diego.

A. patula L.

Annual, stout, succulent, erect or prostrate, 25—50 cm. high, with few ascending branches; herbage green, only the growing parts some- what mealy; leaves petiolate, the lowest often opposite, lanceolate- hastate, coarsely toothed, 4 cm. long, the upper lanceolate, entire.

Widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, and Africa northward to the Arctic. Introduced to Tasmania and Australia, where found in neigh- borhood of cities. Also near San Francisco.

Several other species and forms of Chenopodium occur on various coasts, but the author has not studied this genus sufficiently to be able to discuss the geographical distribution of these greatly varying forms.

Beta maritima L. Perennial, with erect or spreading branched stems, 3—6 dm. high; leaves large, broad, fleshy, green, the upper small, narrow; flowers green. Coastal sands of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, especially in localities where the sand is mixed with silt.

OF MARINE COASTS. 119

Chenopodium californicum Wats. Perennial, stout, erect or decumbent at base, 4—7 dm. high from a large simple or branched root; herbage green, very little mealy; leaves broadly triangular, truncate or cordate at base, unequally sinuate-dentate, 3—i em. long, petioles 2—10 em. long. Sand dunes of California from Pacific Grove southwards, but is not confined to the coast.

Ch. glaucum UL.

Much-branched, diffuse annual, prostrate at base, stems ascending 3—6 dm., glabrous, striate, furrowed; leaves petiolate, the lower lance- olate, coarsely sinuate-toothed, 1—4 cm. long, the upper gradually smaller, narrower, almost entire, all green above and whitish underneath.

On middle beach of sea coasts in Europe, temperate Asia, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand.

Other species of this genus are often found on coastal sands, but are not confined to these locations.

Kochia hirsuta Nolte.

Annual, with erect, ascendent or procumbent stems; leaves terete, filiform.

Sea shores and saline places in France, Belgium, Denmark, Northern Ttaly, and some places along the Baltic. Also in Western Asia.

Several related species are found in Australia, both on coastal and inland saline sands. At Port Adelaide, South Australia, Fremantle and Albany, West Australia, the author found specimens belonging to this genus, but was not able to identify them.

Rhagodia Billardieri R. Br.

Diffuse shrub, foliage fleshy, covered with mealy tomentum; leaves alternate, linear or lanceolate, obtuse, petiolate, 1—3 cm. long, green above and white underneath, margins recurved.

Abundant on many places of the American coast, as in West Australia, at St. Vincent’s Gulf, S. A., in Victoria (Port Phillip). Also found in New South Wales and Tasmania.

Salicornia ambigua Michx.

Perennial succulent herb, with leafless, 12—30 cm. long jointed stems, from woody rootstocks, erect or decumbent and rooting at the joints; herbage greenish; branches opposite; spikes slender, terminal, not thicker than the sterile portions of the stem.

20 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Coasts of North America, from New England to Florida, and from Oregon to San Francisco. Like all other species of this genus it usually grows in salt marshes, but is also found in lagoons and moist places between the dunes.

S. arbuscula R. Br.

Erect, bushy shrub, 15—90 cm. high, with numerous short and slender branches, internodes dilated at top.

Sea coast of Australia and Tasmania, but also in some places in the interior in saline soil.

S. australis Sol.

Procumbent stems. woody at base, with erect branches, 5—12 cm. high, internodes not dilated at end, usually terete or sometimes 2-lobed.

On sea coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, avoiding dry sandy places. Collected by the writer in Victoria and Western Australia.

S. herbacea iu.

Annual, glabrous, bright green or reddish, succulent, erect, 10—15 am. high, with a few erect branches, shooting from nodes.

Coasts of Europe, temperate Asia (also in the interior), and Eastern North America.

Salsola kali lL.

Annual, procumbent, glabrous or seldom somewhat pubescent, 15—45 em. high; leaves alternate. sessile, hard and rigid, the lower terete or dilate at base, 2—6 cm. long, the upper shorter, thicker, flattened above.

Sea coasis of temperate and sometimes tropical countries. In Australia also in the interior.

Suaeda maritima Dumortier.

Much-branched annual or biennial, erect, 15—45 cm. high or spread- ing, glabrous, succulent, with a hard and sometimes woody base; leaves alternate, sessile, linear, of green reddish color.

Sea coasts of Europe, temperate Asia, and America. Also in New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, where the plant is more sufirutescent.

BATIDAE. Batis maritima L. Low shrub, approaching Chenopodium in general appearance, oc- curring on the sea ocasits in West Indies, Florida, and Hawaiian Is- lands, principally on muddy shores, but also at times on sand.

OF MARINE COASTS. 121

POLYGONACEAE. Chorizanthe pungens Benth.

Annual, with prostrate branches, 5—30 cm. long; leaves spatulate, 1—3 em. long, opposite, petioles of cauline leaves 10 mm. long, those of the radical 25 mm.

Sand hills on Californian coast, from San Francisco to Monterey Bay.

Briogonum latifolium Smith.

Perennial herb, stout, tomentose, the indurated caudex with short leafy branches; leaves 2—5 am. long, oblong to ovate, obtuse or acute at apex, rounded or cordate at base, margin often undulate, upper surface glabrate, densely woolly beneath; petioles often margined.

Sand formations along California coast, occasionally together with other species of the genus.

Muehlenbeckia adpressa Meissn.

Stem woody at base, prostrate or climbing; leaves petiolate, lance- olate or hastate, obtuse, 2—7 cm. long, margins crisped, glabrous; flowers small, green.

On the sea coast of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, and West Australia (Fremantle).

A. compleza Meissn. is a species occasionally occurring on sea beach- es of North Cape, New Zealand.

Polygonum aviculare I.

Annual herb, prostrate, with branches leafy to the end, glabrous and green, stems wiry, minutely striate, sometimes meterlong: leaves oblong, acute, 1—2 em. long, shortly petiolate.

Almost everywhere on the globe, especially in temperate climates.

Very variable, especially on sea shores, where a number of forms occur, as yet insufficiently known.

P. maritimum L.

Perennial, somewhat woody; branches short, thick; leaves glaucous, thick, larger than in P. aviculare, which it resembles, especially when young.

P. Rayi Bab. is a nearly related form, differing only in the fruits. The distribution of these forms is not well known, but they are

found in a number of widely separated localities. Library Publications. 8

= bo bo

THE SAND STRAND FLORA

P. paronychia Cham. & Schlecht.

Suffrutescent perennial, with prostrate or ascending stems, 3—10 dm. long, branches leafy above, clothed below with old sheaths; these large, 1—2 cm. long, brown and 5-nerved, margin lacerate above, per- sistent, the segments becoming hairlike in age; leaves linear-lanceolate, 15—30 mm. long, acute, the margin revolute.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from Pacific Grove to Puget Sound.

Rumez acetosella L.

Perennial herb, with tufted stems, often running red, about 25 cm. high, creeping rhizome; radical and lower leaves hastate or sagittate, the upper reduced or branches leafless, and ending in the reddish (pistillate) or yellowish (staminate) panicle.

Common in most temperate and subtropical countries, often oc- curring on coastal sands, but not confined to these.

R. conglomeratus Murr.

Perennial herb, with slender, mostly clustered stems, 10—12 dm. high; leaves oblong or ovate, slightly undulate, 10 em. long, reduced above, petiolate, rounded at base. ,

Dispersed in Hurope, temperate Asia, Australia, and California, ap- parently introduced into the two last mentioned countries. Sometimes on coastal sands, f. i. at Pacific Grove, California, where it has a char- acteristic prostrate form.

R. crispus L.

Perennial, with thick rhizome, stems furrowed, stoutish, 6—10 dm. high; leaves bluish green, the radical narrow-elliptical to oblong-lanceo- late, strongly undulated with crisp margins, the base often decurrent upon the petiole, up to 20 em. long, the upper smaller, passing gradually into bracts.

Common in Hurope and temperate Asia, especially on roadsides and waste places, but also on sea shores. Also in North America and Austra- lia, where supposed to be introduced.

R. maritimus WL.

Annual or sometimes biennial, with stem 3—4 dm. high, much branched, minutely pubescent, erect or procumbent: leaves lnear- lanceolate. :

Beaches and marshes, especially near the sea, but also inland. Europe, temperate Asia, Atlantic coast, and interior valleys of North America.

OF MARINE COASTS. 12:

we

THYMBELABACEHKAR. Pimelea arenaria A. Cunn.

This plant, characteristic for the driftsands of New Zealand and Chatham Island, is described by Cockayne!) in the following words:

“ The long cord-like underground stems put forth adventitious roots near their extremities, which latter, bending upwards, raise themselves above the encroaching sand. The leaves are all most densely silky on the under surface, a most efficient protection against excessive transpira- tion. Owing to the leafy extremities of the stems being erect, the semi- rosettes of leaves can receive the incident light to the best advantage.

“Tt is probable that the oldest portions of the plant—i. ¢., the most deeply buried portions—die, while the plant continues to increase by the rooting of its terminal shoots.”

P. prostrata Willd. is another species also found on North Cape of New Zealand.

P. serpyllifolia R. Br.

Low shrub, rigid, densely branched, glabrous; leaves opposite, ovate or oblong, coriaceous, somewhat concave; flowers small, yellow.

Common on coastal sands of Victoria, South and West Australia, but mostly in the interior. Also in Tasmania.

ELAEAGNACHAE. Hippophaé rhamnoides L.

Shrub, 83—12 dm. high, with a scaly scurf, silvery on under surface of the leaves, thin on upper side—rusty on young shoots; axillary shoots ending in a prickle; leaves alternate, linear, entire.

Common in Europe, Central and North Asia.

EUPHORBIACEAE. Adriana tomentosa Gaudich.

Shrub, 6—12 dm. high, covered with a stellate tomentum; leaves alternate, usually glabrous on upper side, petiolate, deeply 3-lobed, with narrow, obtuse lobes.

Sand dunes of South Australia (according to Tepper), coast of North and Northwest Australia.

Beyeria opaca F. Muell.

Erect shrub, 3—6 dm. high; leaves oblong or linear, obtuse, with revolute margins, white underneath.

1) A short account of the plant covering of Chatham Island, p. 260.

124 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Sea coasts of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. Closely related to following species.

B. viscosa Miq.

Tall shrub, flowering branches viscid; leaves oblong-lanceolate, ob- tuse, petiolate, margins recurved, glabrous above, white-tomentose under- neath, 2—5 cm. long.

Coastal sands of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Victoria, and Western Australia (Perth). Also in Tasmania and the interior of New South Wales.

Croton californicus Muell.

Perennial herb, suffrutescent at base, with branching stem, erect or diffuse; 4—12 dm. high; herbage hoary, upper side of leaves green, finely stellate-pubescent; leaves oblong, 2—4 cm. long; petioles 1—3 cm. long, staminate plant more slender and shorter branched.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from San Francisco to Los Angeles.

Euphorbia atoto Forst.

Diffuse, glabrous perennial, 30—45 cm. high, branches slender; leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, oblong, obtuse, more or less cordate, thick, 2—3 cm. long.

Sea coasts of East India, Malayan Archipelago, Islands of Pacific, North Australia, and Queensland southward to Moreton Bay.

EB. glauca Forst. is a specimen common on dunes in New Zealand.

E. Paralias L. Perennial, with short, hard, almost woody stock and erect stems, 15—25 cm. high; leaves short, concave, leathery, pale green. On coastal sands from Belgium southward in Europe, and extending into Mediterranean. Also on the southern coasts of British Islands.

BE. terracina Ji. var. retusa. Perennial, with long stolons; leaves linear-lanceolate to oblong- linear; very glaucous. Coastal sands of the Mediterranean countries, Canary Islands, Azores, and Medeira. Very common on the dunes of Spain.

Ricinocarpus cyanescens Muell. occurs on coastal sands in Western Australia together with several other

OF MARINE COASTS. 125

species, not sufficiently studied by the author. At Moreton Bay R. pinifolius Desf. was found, and near Port Fairy, Victoria, a plant, probably the same species. This genus is not confined to the coast.

URTICACHAR. Urtica dioica L. and U. urens UL.

are not infrequently found on coast formations of the Baltic, but are immigrants from inland.

MYRICACEAE. Myrica californica Cham.

Densely branched evergreen shrub, with fragrant alternate, simple, almost entire or serrate leaves, thick, glabrous, oblong, tapering above to an acute apex, narrowing below to a petiole, 7—12 cm. long; fruit globose, purplish-brown, covered with a coat of whitish wax, 6 mm. in diameter.

Sand dunes on coast of California, and ravines of outer coast ranges.

CASUARINEAE. Casuarina quadrivalvis Labill. and several other species occur on the dunes of Australia, especially in Victoria, South and West Australia, but their range is principally inland. CUPULIFERAE. Quercus agrifolia Née in a low, prostrate form is found on coastal dunes of California, f. 1. at Seaside, Monterey. SALICACEAE. Salix caprea L. Tall shrub, with large, ovate leaves, grayish green, tomentose under- neath, entire. European and North Asian species, often planted on dunes ot

Germany.

S. daphnoides Vill. Low tree or tall shrub, with oblong-lanceolate leaves, serrate, glabrous above, glaucous underneath. Often on dunes along the Baltic coasts. Extends also in to Central Russia and Siberia.

126 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

S. lasiolepis Benth. Tree or large shrub, with oblong leaves, somewhat serrulate, dul! green above, gray-pubescent beneath. On dunes of California, especially near San Francisco. Extends: also inland.

Saliz repens L.

Low, straggling shrub, with stems creeping underground, rooting at base, ascending to 3—6 dm.; foliage silky-white; leaves oblong- lanceolate, 2 cm. long, entire, silky on both sides.

On sand formations of Europe and Northern Asia.

Several varieties, especially argentea Sm., are met with on dunes of Northern Europe.

S. viminalis L.

Shrub, with long branches, 7—15 cm. long leaves, silvery white underneath.

In wet places in Europe and Northern Asia.

Several other species, such as S. nigricans Sm., S. cinerea L., 8. aurita L., S. purpurea L., S. pentandra ., 8S. dasyclados Wimm., S. fragilis L., S. alba L., and 8S. amygdalina L., are found occasionally on the dunes of the Baltic.

CONIFERAE. Callitris robusta R. Br. often occurs on the dunes of Australia, but is not confined to the coast.

Juniperus communis L.

is common on the sand formations of the Northern Baltic, and sometimes occurs in a low prostrate form, similar in habit to the variety nana, which does not, however, grow on sand in the Finnish Archipelago, where it occurs.

Pinus maritima Lam.

Large tree, with branches in whorls; leaves in twos, dark green, 15—20 cm. long, rigid, stout; cones from 10—15 cm. long, about 6 em. broad, growing in clusters of from 4—8 or more.

Common on sand dunes of the Mediterranean countries, and is ex- tensively planted on the dunes of Western France; its occurrence in India, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and China is usually attributed to artificial planting.

OF MARINE COASTS. 127

P. radiata Don. is found only on the established dunes and immediately inland from these at Pacific Grove, and within a limited area in two other similar localities, one in San Luis Obispo county, one in Santa Cruz county, California. HYDROCHARIDACEAE. Halophila ovalis Hook. f. Submerged marine plant, common on the shores of Moreton Bay, Queensland, and Port Phillip, Victoria. Also in Tasmania, New South Wales, and South Australia, preferring muddy shores, but also on sand.

IRIDACEAE. Sisyrrhinchium bellum Wats.

A somewhat prostrate, low form is found on the dunes at Point Pinos, Monterey, California, but it is not a different species, as it will under cultivation in moist, rich soil exhibit exactly the same characters as the inland form. This was tested by the author at Stanford University in the summer of 1904.

AMARYLLIDEAE. Pancratium maritimum B. Perennial herb, with large bulb; leaves erect, long, broadly linear. glaucous. Sandy sea shores of Western France, Iberian Peninsula, and Mediter- ranean countries.

LILIACEAE. Allium arenarium L. Stem 25—35 cm. high, single; leaves cylindrical, hollow, furrowed above, with long sheaths; flowers red. Sand in a few places on the Baltic coasts.

A. schoenoprasum lL.

Stems 2—3 dm. high, usually many together; leaves narrow, cylin- drical, hollow, one sheathing the stem at base.

In Northern Europe and Asia, and in mountains in Southern Europe. Britton & Brown (Flora of Northern United States and Canada) say regarding its distribution in America:

“Tn moist or wet soil, New Brunswick to Alaska, south to Maine, northern New York, Michigan, Wyoming, and Washington.”

128 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Asparagus officinalis L.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, and annual branching stems, erect, 3—6 dm. high; leaves short, subulate; flowers small, greenish white.

On marine sands of Western Asia, Mediterranean, and Western Europe northward to English Channel; escapes to similar localities in EK. America, according to Professor Dudley.

JUNCACEAE. Juncus acutus L.

A form closely approaching J. maritimus Lam. and found on marine sands on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe, and on the Caspian Sea, but not on the Baltic or North Sea, nor in the Southern hemisphere.

J. anceps Laharpe var. atricapillus Buch.

Rootstock creeping; stems erect, compressed, leafy.

Observed only between the dunes on the E. Friesian Islands off the German shore of the North Sea.

J. balticus Willd.

Rootstock creeping; stems hard, 3—6 dm. high, cylindrical, leafless, sheathed at base by brown scales.

In high northern latitudes in Europe, Asia, and America, found as far south in the United States as California. Not confined to coastal sands.

J. bufomus L. Small annual, pale-colored; stems numerous, tufted, 3—20 cm. high,

branching; leaves short, slender. Occurs almost everywhere, and is common in moist places between

the dunes. J. capitatus Weig. Annual, slender, tufted, 5—8 cm. high; stems numerous; leaves

short, slender. Marine sands of Southern Sweden, Northern Germany, Holland,

Western and Southern Europe. J. compressus Jacq. var. Gerardi Bab.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems 30—45 cm. high, erect, slender, compressed at base, with a few radical leaves, narrow, grooved.

OF MARINE COASTS. 1244)

Common in Europe, from Mediterranean to the Arctic, and in Northern Asia.

, J. falcatus Mey.

Perennial, with slender, creeping rootstock; stems 15—25 cm. high, leafy, terete, in compressed tufts.

Driftsand at Pacific Grove, San Francisco and other places on Californian coast.

J. maritimus Lam.

Perennial, with densely tufted stems, horizontal rhizome, rigid, 6—10 dm. high, with sheathing scales at base, of which one or two inner ones terminate in a rigid, terete, pungent stem-like leaf, shorter than the real stems; flowers in little clusters.

In maritime marshes and moist sands on shores of Atlantic North America, Europe from Mediterranean to the Baltic, where rare, Caspian Sea, and in New Zealand; Tasmania, and Australia from Queensland to Western Australia. Also in the interior of Australia.

NAJADACEAE. Najas marina I.

Slender, branching, submerged plant, with stout stems, often armed with prickles twice as long as their breadth; leaves linear, with 6—10 spine-pointed teeth on each margin; the broad sheathing base entire or with few teeth on each side.

Widely distributed in Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, Algeria. North America, West Indies, Brazil, Australia, and Hawaiian Islands.

Phyllospadia Scouleri Hook.

Submerged maritime herb, with elongated, narrow-linear, radical leaves, 1.5—5 mm. wide, from much-branched, creeping, brittle root- stock.

Together with another species, R. Torrey: Wats., from which it does not differ essentially in habit, growing on sand covered stones and rocks on the submerged beach of the Pacific coast of North America.

Potamogeton marinus L. Perennial marine plant, with filiform, branched stem; very leafy: leaves narrow-linear, 5—15 cm. long, 1 mm. broad. In salt water in Europe and North America. Often confused with the following species.

130 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

P. pectinatus 1. Perennial marine plant, with threadlike stem, very narrow leaves, 5—8 cm. long, sheathing at base. On submerged beaches of Europe and North America. In some cases in inland waters of the latter continent.

Ruppia maritima L. Submerged aquatic herb, with 6—10 dm. long, filiform forking stems; leaves 5—8 em. long, almost capillary, with a broad sheathing base. In salt and brackish water over nearly the whole globe, excepting South America. Also in the interior of North America. Very variable and divided into several species.

Triglochin maritimum L.

Perennial, with short rootstock, the terminal portion of which is covered with the sheaths of old leaves; stem 15—45 cm. high; leaves about 5 mm. wide, fleshy with membranous sheaths.

Coasts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Also in interior of latter continent in saline situations. On Pacific coast from San Fran- cisco northward to Arctic Ocean.

T. striatum Ruiz. & Pavon. Rootstock small, stoloniferous; leaves narrow-linear, shorter than the scape; fruits nearly orbicular. Brackish water in North America, extratropical South America, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia from Moreton Bay along south coast to Fremantle.

Zanichellia palustris L. Inconspicuous submerged aquatic, with capillary stems and leaves; these alternate or mostly opposite, 1—3 cm. long. Widely spread over the whole globe. Often in ponds between dunes.

Zostera marina lL.

Submerged maritime perennial, with elongated and very narrow grass-like leaves, with sheathing bases, 3—7-nerved, 3—10 dm. lone, 5—12 mm. broad, obtuse.

In shallow water on submerged beach, especially on mud, on coasts of Europe, North Eastern Asia, Arctic and North Atlantic coast of North America, and on the Pacific coast at least as far south as San Pedro, California (Dudley).

OF MARINE COASTS. 131

Z. nana Roth.

Submerged marine plant, with creeping rhizome, emitting short stems; leaves narrow-linear, grass-like, 3—6 dm. long, notched at the end, base narrow and sheathing.

Coasts of Europe, South Africa, Japan, New Zealand, Tasmania, and on the southern coasts of Australia.

RESTIACHAE. Leptocarpus simplea A. Rich.

In swamps and swampy saline stations, and also frequently on dunes, in New Zealand.

CYPERACEAE. Carex arenaria L.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, emitting small tufts, 7—40 an. high, leafy at base; culms erect, slender, slightly scabrous aboye; leaves very long, pointed.

Marine sands of Europe, Western Asia, and Virginia, where ad- ventive from Europe (Britton & Brown).

C. distans IM. Stems 25—40 cm. high, tufted, obtusely angled, smooth; leaves short, narrow, rigid; margins scabrous. Common on sea coasts of Europe and Western Asia, occurring from Mediterranean to Scandinavia.

C. extensa Gooden. Perennial, tufted, slender, 3—6 dm. high; leaves narrow, stiff, erect, often convolute. On marine coasts of Europe from Mediterranean to the Baltic.

C. halophila F. Nyl. Stems obtusely angled, slender, 3—5 dm. high; leaves broad, of yellowish-green color. ; Sea shores of northern part of Gulf of Bothnia.

C. Hookeriana Dewey.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, clothed with imbricated, nerved., purplish scales; stems 10—30 em. high, sharply angled, scabrous; leayes shorter than stem.

Sand dunes on coast of California. Also in interior of North America and Hurope.

132 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

C. maritima Muell. Stems obtusely angled, smooth, clothed at base with sheaths break- ing up into threadlike fibers: leaves broad, pale. Sea shores of the Baltic.

C. pumila Thunberg.

Rhizomes creeping, stems 10—20 cm. high: leaves longer, rigid with subulate points.

On sandy shores of extratropical South America, New Zealand, Chatham Island, Tasmania, and Australia, from Moreton Bay to South Australia.

C. salina Wahl.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, stem 6—12 cm. high, obtusely angled, smooth; leaves pale, 2—3 mm. broad.

Sea shores of Northern Europe and America, from the Arctic to New England on the east coast, and to Northern California on the Pacific coast.

Eleocharis uniglumis Link.

Perennial by horizontal creeping rootstocks; culms stout, terete or somewhat compressed, caespitose, striate, 15—30 cm. high, higher when in water: leafless, with one or two sheaths at the base.

Widely distributed in Europe, Asia, North America, from Canada to California.

Lepidosperma gladiata Labill.

Perennial rhizome; rigid stems, 1—12 dm. high, flattened, but convex on both sides about center, with acute smooth margins: leaves equitant, usually about 1 cm. broad, length of stem.

Common on coastal sand dunes in Tasmania and Australia, especially in Victoria, South and West Australia. On the western coast of Austra- lia also other species of this genus are met with.

Remirea maritima Aubl.

Low, branching perennial: stems from creeping and rooting base, ascending, 7—10 cm. high; leaves rigid, 2—7 cm. long, linear, with short, imbricate sheathing bases, pungent point.

Sandy sea coasts of most tropical countries. Africa, East India, Malayan Archipelago, Queensland, tropical America.

OF MARINE COASTS. 13:

Scirpus americanus Pers. Perennial; stem 3—6 dm. high, slender, triangular, continued as an entire pungent involucre 4—10 cm. beyond the inflorescence. In moist places and brackish lagoons between dunes on Californian coast. Also in interior of North America.

S. frondosus Banks & Sol.

Cockayne says!) of this species: “The most characteristic plant of the whole New Zealand area. It can form settlements and hold its own positions where no other New Zealand flowering-plant can exist, and only the most constant and furious winds can destroy a dune where it is properly established. Indeed, for sandbinding power it is probably not equalled either by Ammophila arenaria or by Elymus arenarius.”

S. maritimus L. Perennial, with creeping rhizome, often thickened into hard tubers; stem 3—10 dm. high, triangular, smooth; leaves often longer than stems. Common in tropical and temperate countries. In Australia from Queensland to Western Australia, especially frequent on coastal sands.

S. nodosus Rottb. Creeping rhizome; stems rigid, rush-like, terete or slightly flattened, 3—10 dm. high, leafless, except the sheathing scales at the base. In South Africa, extratropical South America, several Oceanic Is- lands, New Zealand, and Australia, from east to west along the coast.

S. rufus (Huds.) Schrad.

Perennial, with slender rootstock; culms tufted, smooth, slender, erect, compressed, 7—30 cm. high; leaves terete, smooth, channeled, the lowest sheathing.

In Northern Europe and Canada, seldom, however, on sand.

‘ S. pungens Vahl.

Perennial, with creeping rhizome; stem slender, 5—9 dm. high, acutely triangular; leaves few, 1 or 2 sheathing.

Western part of Mediterranean, extratropical North and South America, New Zealand, and Australia.

GRAMINEAE. Agropyron arenicolum Davy

is a maritime dune grass found at Point Reyes in California.

1) |. @ p. 261.

134 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

A. junceum Beauv. Perennial grass, with pungent leaves, rigid; roots extensively creeping. Sea coasts of Europe and Northern Africa on drifting sands.

A. repens L. var. litoreum Schum. Perennial, with creeping jointed rootstock; stiff, ascending stems; sheaths shorter than internodes. Common on coastal sands of Europe, Asia, and North America: also in the interior of the latter continent.

A. scabrum Beauv. Common on dunes in New Zealand and Australia, but also inland.

Agrostis alba L. var. maritima G. Meyer.

Perennial, stoloniferous; stems decumbent at base, 3—9 dm. high: leaves rigid, glaucous, scabrous, 7—15 cm. long.

Grows especially in moist places between the dunes. Baltic south coast. Ammophila arenaria (.) Link.

Tall perennial grass, with long rigid leaves; creeping rootstock; stems 6—12 dm. high, sheaths long; blades convolute and polished without, scabrous and glaucous within.

Coastal sands of Europe, North Africa, and North America. Intro- duced to many other countries as an effective sandstay.

A. baltica Link.

Is by most authors considered to be a hybrid of the former species, which it resembles in habit, and Calamagrostis epigea. This is, how- ever, not yet proved by experiments. Occurs on coastal sand dunes of Northern Germany and Southern Sweden.

Andropogon provincialis Lam.

Perennial grass, with erect culms, smooth and glabrous, 10—15 dm. high: leaves smooth, acuminate.

Southern Europe, where often planted on dunes. A. furcatus Muhl. is a North American form with a wide range along the eastern sea board. By some authors, as Hackel, it is considered to be identical with A. provincialis.

Aristida plumosa L.

Perennial caespitose grass, with ascendent culms: leaves acute fili-

form.

OP MARINE COASTS. 135

Northern Africa, both on the coast and inland. A. pungens Dest. is another grass from Northern Africa, which not infrequently is planted on sand dunes on the coasts of Mediterranean.

Arundo conspicua Forst. Abundant on sand dunes of New Zealand, but also distributed inland.

Avena praecor P. B.

Slender annual, densely tufted, 7—15 em. high; leaves short. Coastal and inland sands, Central and Southern Europe.

Calamagrostis epigea Roth. Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems 10—13 dm. high, erect. firm; leaves long, narrow, somewhat glaucous.

Widely dispersed over Hurope and Western Asia. Not confined to coastal sands.

Corynephorus canescens Bernh.

Small tufted perennial, 10—15 cm high; leaves fine, convolute.

Sand formations of Southern and Central Europe, eastward to Cau- casus and northward to Southern Sweden. In Norfolk and Suffolk. England, on sea shores.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Perennial grass, with prostrate, creeping and rooting stems, some- times very long, covered with undeveloped, striate sheaths; roots and tufts of leaves produced at the nodes; blades 2—5 cm. long, stiff, glau- cous green.

In all hot and some temperate countries, such as Southern Europe, whence it ranges to Northern France, and Australia. Not confined to coastal sands, but often a roadside weed, as in California, where it is introduced.

Dactylis litoralis Willd.

Perennial grass, with long creeping stolons; leaves rigid, glaucous.

Coasts of Mediterranean, but also on the salt steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

Distichlis maritima Raf.

Perennial grass, with stout, creeping, scaly rootstock; stems stout, rigid, erect, 10—45 cm. high, often branched below, leafy: leaves pale green, narrow, rigid, very acute, strictly 2-ranked; sheaths glabrous, slightly bearded at the base: ligule reduced to a mere ring, blade 5—15 em. long, spreading, rigid; margins minutely ciliate.

136 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Varies somewhat, being shorter and more rigid in some Iplees with shorter, stiffer, and more distinctly distichous leaves.

Common near salt and brackish water in America, Tasmania, and Australia. Characteristic on coastal dunes of Victoria and South Australia.

Elymus arenarius L.

Glaucus perennial grass, with stout, widely creeping stoloniferous rootstock; stems tall, rigid, stout, erect, 1—2 m. high; sheaths smooth, channeled: ligule a narrow truncate ring: blades 30—45 cm. long, 10—15 mm. wide, flat or with more or less convolute margins below.

Coastal sands of northern hemisphere. In North America from Greenland and Labrador to Alaska, southward to Maine, Lake Superior and California (San Francisco). Occasionally inland also in Europe.

Festuca litoralis Lab.

Stems 3—10 dm. high, forming dense tufts of pale yellow color; leaves almost cylindrical, erect, rigid, pungent-pointed, glabrous, length of the stem.

Common on coastal sand dunes of New Zealand and adjacent islands, Tasmania and Australia, from Wide Bay, Queensland, to Western Australia.

F. ovina UL.

Perennial, densely tufted, 15—50 em. high; leaves radical, narrow, almost cylindrical.

Common on established dunes, but not confined to coast.

F. rubra L. var. arenaria Osbeck.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, shooting stout, reddish stolons; stems ascending, rigid, hairy: leaves stiff, on upper side grayish green, darker beneath. Resembles much Agropyrum junceum.

Common on the coasts of Baltic. é

F. uniglumis Sol.

Annual, tufted, 10—15 em. high; leaves narrow, convolute.

On sandy shores of Mediterranean and on coast of Western Europe northward to England.

Glyceria maritima Reich.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems decumbent or erect, 2—6 dm. high; leaves smooth, glabrous, short, narrow, convolute; sheaths exceeding internodes.

‘ ve i

OF MARINE COASTS. 137

Coastal sands of Europe, Western Asia, Mediterranean, and North America, from Nova Scotia to Rhode Island on the Eastern coast, and on the Pacific to San Francisco.

G. stricta Hook. f. Tufted, glabrous, erect annual, 3—5 dm. high; leaves narrow, erect, with broad sheaths. On sea shores of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, from Vic- toria to Western Australia.

Hordeum maritimum With. Annual, coarse, tufted, stems decumbent at base, 3—6 dm long;

glaucous. Marine coasts of Western Europe, and of the Mediterranean.

Imperata arundinacea Cyrillo. Perennial grass, with long roots and 3—10 dm. high erect culms, leaves erect, narrow, often longer than the stem. Widely distributed in the Mediterranean countries, Southern and Western Asia, Cape Colony, Australia, and Polynesia. Often planted as a sandstay especially in wet localities.

Ischaemum muticum lL.

On tropical coasts of Asia, Polynesia, and Queensland, southward to Rockingham Bay.

Koeleria cristata (.) Pers.

Tufted, pale green, pubescent or silky perennial; stoloniferous root- stock; stem 3—9 dm. high, slender; sheaths striate, ligule very short : blades narrow, obliquely auriculate at the base.

A very variable plant, common on coastal sand dunes, but not con fined to these, in Europe, Central Asia, America, New Zealand, and in a few places in Australia (probably introduced).

Lagurus ovatus L. Annual, erect, 10—30 cm. high, leaves hoary, sheaths swollen. Common on coastal sands of Western Europe, from Mediterranean to the English Channel.

Lepturus incurvatus Trin. Annual, decumbent, much branched at base; 10—30 em. high, with

short, fine leaves. Library Publications. 9

“OT

OF MARINE COASTS. 139

On marine coasts of Europe, from English Channel along west coast to Mediterranean and Caspian Sea.

L. repens R. Br. Perennial, creeping grass, with branching stems; leaves spreading, glaucous, glabrous. Drifting sand on some islands of the tropical coast of Queensland and in Southern Pacific.

Paspalum distichum UL.

Stems creeping and rooting, ascending to 4 dm., covered with leaf- sheaths ; leaves linear-lanceolate, flat, glabrous.

Widely dispersed in tropical countries, usually on heavy soil, but oc- casionally on coastal sands. Also in Australia, from Queensland along the southern coast to West Australia, in New Zealand, and in North America from Southern California to Florida.

Phleum arenarium UL.

Annual, erect, 5—20 em. high; leaves short. Coastal sands of Europe, from Mediterranean to the Baltic.

Poa compressa L. Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems erect, 10—30 cm. high, flattened at base; leaves short, with flattened sheaths. Widely dispersed in Europe, Northern Asia, and North America ex- cept the arctic region. Frequently on coastal sands, but not confined to these.

P. Douglasti Nees. Perennial grass, with slender, widely creeping rootstock; stems

tufted, 20 em. high. Peculiar to the coastal driftsands of California.

Polypogon litoralis Smith. Perennial, procumbent, tufted, 3—6 dm. high, leaves short, narrow,

scabrous on both sides. Salt marshes and dune lagoons on sea coasts of Western Europe,

Mediterranean, North and South America.

P. monspeliensis Desf. Annual, procumbent and geniculate at base, 3—5 dm. high; leaves flat, broad, somewhat scabrous; sheaths smooth.

140 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Often on coastal sands, but not confined to these. Widely dispersed in Central Europe, from Holland and France to far into Central Asia, and in North America, from Atlantic coast to California, where it is chiefly found in the mountains. Also in Africa.

‘Schoenus nitens Hook. f.

Perennial, slender stem from creeping rhizome, 15—30 cm. high; leaves few at base, short, terete, but furrowed along inner side, sheaths not bearded. :

Marine coasts of Australia, from Moreton Bay to Western Australia, usually in clayey soil, but also frequently in sand. Also in Tasmania, New Zealand, and extratropical South America.

Spartina stricta Sm. yar. glabra Muhl.

Perennial grass, with creeping, scaly rootstock, stems erect, stout, 4—12 dm. high, leaf-blades long, flat, smooth, tapering from about 1 cm. wide near the middle to long, slender points; edges rolled inward when dry.

Sea coasts of Europe, from North Sea to Mediterranean, North America, along the Atlantic coast and in a few places on the Pacific.

Spinifex hirsutus Lab.

Stout stems; creeping, forming large tufts; leaves often over 3 dm. long, margins inyolute, woolly; the male plant has sessile spikes in a terminal head, each spike about 5 cm.long,spikelets sessile in the spike, 15—20 mm. long; the female plant has numerous spikelets in large globular head, the spikelet 20—25 mm. long, acute.

On sandy shores of New Zealand, New Caledonia, Tasmania, and Australia, from Queensland to West Australia.

A slightly differing form, occurring near Fremantle in Western Australia, has been referred to as S. Jongifolius R. Br., but its right as a distinct species is doubtful.

S. squarrosus L.

Resembles foregoing species in habit. The heads are large, radiating, and when the seeds are matured, the heads become detached, and are easily carried by the wind along the sand, thus dispersing their seeds.

On sandy shores of India.

Stipa tenacissima I. Perennial grass, with long, slender leaves. Resembles in habit

OF MARINE COASTS. 141

Ammophila arenaria, for which it is a substitute on the dunes of the Iberian Peninsula.

It occurs on sandy tracts everywhere in the western parts of the Mediterranean. A closely allied species, 8. arenaria Brot., is found on similar localities in Spain and Portugal.

S. teretifolia Steud.

Perennial; stems in dense tufts, 45—75 cm. high; leaves long, slender, terete.

On middle beach and in salt marshes on coasts of Australia (Western Australia to Victoria), Tasmania, and New Zealand.

Thuarea sarmentosa Pers. Creeping and rooting perennial, forming short tufts; leaves flat, lanceolate, 3—5 cm. long, densely silky-pubescent on both sides. On sandy beaches in the tropics from Madagascar to Samoa.

Zoysia pungens Willd. Rhizome creeping; stems erect, 5—15 cm. high; leaves flat or con- volute, with rigid, pungent points, glabrous; spike terminal. Coastal sands of tropical and Eastern Asia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, from Moreton Bay to Victoria.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE. Ophioglossum arenarium H. G. Britton. Rootstock slightly thickened, with 1 or 2 stalks, stem rigid, erect, 5—17 cm. high, bearing the sessile lanceolate fleshy leaf below the middle; blade 2—5 cm. long, acute or apiculate.

Gregarious in a colony of many plants in sandy ground under trees at Holly Beach, New Jersey. (Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 24: 555. 1897.)

O. vulgatum L. Perennial rootstock; stem single, 8—15 cm. high, with one oblong, entire leaf, 5—8 cm. long, narrowed into a sheathing footstalk. Although not confined to the coast this plant is often found on in- undated sands in the Finnish Archipelago, and on the Swedish east coast.

142 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Bibliography.

The following list contains the principal works on the subject, but does not pretend to be exhaustive. Several other references will be found in the text, not having been included in the bibliography because of their not being so intimately related to the general subject as to be of interest except in special cases.

Abromeit, Johannes. Diinenflora (in Gerhard: Handbuch des Deutschen Diinenbaues.)—Ber- lin, 1900. —Ueber Veriinderungen in der preussischen Flora.—Schr. phys. oek. Ges. Konigsberg, 34: 4—15, 1893. Ackermann, Carl. Beitriige zur physischen Geographie der Ostsee. pp. IX-+399.—Hamburg, 1883. Agardh, J. G. P Om den Spetsbergska drifvedens ursprung.—Stockholm, 1869. Albert, F. ‘ Las dunes del centro de Chile. Almquist, Sigfrid. Om Hippophaé rhamnoides f6rekomst i Bohuslin.—Bot. Not. 1891: 130. itenkirch, Gustav. Studien tiber die Verdunstungs-schutzeinrichtungen in der trockenen Gerollflora Sachsens.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. xviii: 854—3893. 1894. Andersson, Gunnar. Om Najas marinas tidigare utbredning under kvartiirtiden.—Bot. Not. 1891: 249—257. —Om de vixtgeografiska och vixtpaleontologiska stéden for antagandet af klimatviixlingar under kvartirtiden.—Stockholm, Geol. Fér. Foérh. Bd. 14. H. 6: 509—538, 1892. Studier 6fver svenska vixtarters utbredning och invandringsvigar. I. —Bot. Not. Lund. 1893: 217—239. —Svenska viixtviirldens historia. 106 p.—Stockholm, 1896. 2d ed. 186 p. 8°.—Stockholm, 1896. German translation (not very correct) in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 22: 483—550. Andersson, Joh. Gunnar. Mellan haf och dyner. (Gotska Sandén.) —Sirtryck ur Sv. Turistf. arsskr., 1895, 16 p. Andouard, A. Les sables du désert de la Basse-Egypte.—Compt. Rend. Ac. Sci. 117: 258—. 1898.

OF MARINE COASTS. 143

Andresen, C. C. Om Klitformationen og Klittens Behandling og Bestyrelse.—Kjébenhayn, 1861. Andrews, E. W. Pebbles and Drifting Sand—Trans. N. Z. Inst. 26; 397. Arcangeli, Giovanni. Sulla struttura delle foglie del A. (—triplex) nummularia Lindl. in relazione alla assimilazione-—Nuovo Giorn. bot. ital. xxii: 426—430. Areschoug, IF, W. C. : Der Hinfluss des Klimas auf die Organisation der Pflanzen, insbesondere auf die anatomische Structur der Blattorgane.—Hngl. Bot. Jahrb. ii: 511—526, 1881. Ascherson, Paul Friedrich August. Die Salzstellen der Mark Brandenburg.—Zs. D. geol. Ges. xi. 1859. ——Geographische Verbreitung der Seegriiser.—Pet. geogr. Mitt. 1871. 4° map. Also in Neumayer: Anleitung zur wissenschaftlichen Beobach- tungen auf Reisen.—Berlin, 1875; ii Aufl. 1888. — Zur Flora der adriatischen Kiistenliinder.—Oesterr. bot. Zs. 1885: 353—. Auerbach, Felix. Die Gleichgewichtsfiguren pulverformiger Massen.—Ann. Physik. Leipzig. (4 Folge), 5: 170—219, 1901. Auerbach, B. Les dunes d’Allemagne.—Ann. géogr. Paris. 10: 272—274, 1901. Bailey, Ch. On the adventitious vegetation of the Sandhills of St. Anne’s on t North Lancashire.—Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, 47. 1. No. 2. 1—8. 1908. Bailey, F. Forest Tour among the Dunes of Gascony.—Trans. Scott. Arboric. Soc., XI, pt. 8, 1887. Bailey, Frederick Manson. On the Flora of Stradbroke Island, with a description of new species.— Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8S. W. 6: 189—146. 1882. The Queensland Flora. 6 vols.—Brisbane, 1900—1908. Bang, J. P. F. Om de nord- og vestjydske Klitters Beplantning—Tidsskrift for Skoy- brug, Kjébenhayn. XII. 1889. Noget om Klitvaesenets Virksomhed paa Jyllands Vestkyst, saerlig i Ribe Amt.—Ilorst-tidende, XII: 49—61. 1899. Baraban. Fixation et reboisement des dunes du littoral maritime de la Vendée et de la Charente-Inférieure. 17 p. 1882. Batalin, A. Wirkung des Chlornatriums auf die Bntwicklung yon Salicornia her- bacea L.—Bull. du congrés international de botanique et d’horticulture. St. Petersbourg, 1886: p. 219—232. Rey. Bot. Cent. 27: 92—94.

he Sea,

144 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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Beecher, C. BE. Origin of spines—Am. J. Sci. VI: 1—20, 125—136, 249—268, 329—359. 1898.

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Benecke, Wilhelm. Die Nebenzellen der Spaltd6ffnungen. Ein Beitrag zur Kentniss ihres Baues und ihrer Function im’ Pflanzlichen Organismus.—Diss. 23 pp.. Jena, 1892.

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—Two Big-rooted Plants of the Plains.—Amer. Nat. 23: 174—176. 1889.

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OF MARINE COASTS. 145,

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——Bemerkungen iiber die vormiihlige und gegenwiirtige Lage und Beschaf- fenheit der preussischen und Danziger stidbaltischen Ufer, wie auch iiber die Entstehung der nehrungschen Halbinseln und tiber den Ursprung des Bernsteins, welcher an diesen Ufern gefunden wird.—Danzig, 1808.

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On the Physical Geography of the great Indian Desert, with special reference to the former existence of the sea in the Indus Valley; and on the origin and mode of Formation of Sand-hills—Journ. R. Soc. Bengal. XLY. pt. IL: 86—103. 1876.

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Regeering over het beplanten van de Nederlandsche Zeeduinen met bosch.—Nederlandsche Heide-Maatschappij Tijdschrift, 4: 41—147, 1892. Blytt, Axel Guldbrand. Christiania Omegns Fanerogamer og Bregner samt en Inledning om Vegetationens Afhaengighed af Underlaget. 103 pp.—Christiania, 1870. —Forség til en Theori om Invandringen af Norges Flora under vekslende regnfulde og térre Tider.—Nyt. Mag. Natury. 21: 279—3862, 1876. Rey. Bot. Not. Lund. 187 . p. 6. Engl.: Hssay on the Immigration of the Norwegian Flora during alter- nating Rainy and Dry Periods.—Christiania, 1876. 89 p. —Om Karplanternes Udbredelse i Norge.—Christiania, 1882. ——Om veksellagring og dens mulige betydning for tidsregningen i geologien og laeren om arternes forandringer.—Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1883. No. 9. 31 p. Germ. trans.: Ueber Wechsellagerung und deren mutmassliche Bede

146 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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Kkurze Uebersicht meiner Hypothese von der geologischen Zeitrechung.

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160 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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182 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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OF MARINE COASTS. 183

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page Berchwonsuhes Swedish asteGonStrremrirr- tril icien-lei-ieiciarieustenerele 53 Sand field on the Swedish South Coast....................... 54 Gray dune on the Swedish Southeast Coast................... 54 Dunes Hear eS Ullemho fie awEVUSS erred relsieiciierteralieieieiens 59 Dune on the Danish North Sea Coast........................ 62 Stationary dune North of Fremantle, Western Australia....... 65 Dune on the New Zealand Coast --..-----.-.---3.0---c+--+- 67 IDA) AE Send IMGRea, Chilhoawiels ococacccssncocgduG07005006 69 Sand field at Point Pinos, Pacific Grove, California........... 70 Dunes near Pacific Grove, California........-............... 71 Dunes on West Coast of Jutland, Denmark................... 73 Dunes near New Brighton, New Zealand..................... S+ Hollow between dunes, New Zealand Coast................... 90 DUNewNeAr Ss AneeHrAan CiSCom OaMlifOrni Arras -tlyeielelesenelel-nleierel t= 102 Seungl malo mene AATACOO, COHSGAs poocousssccccosseceocpoOannO 113 Sandy shore on St. Croix, Danish West Indies............... 138

Previous numbers of the Augustana Library Publications have been issued as below, Augustana Book Concern, Printers, Rock Island, Il.

The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits, by Jonan Aucust UDDEN ; pp. 69; 1898. (Out of print).

An Old Indian Village, by Jonan Avucust UppeNn; pp. 80; 32 figs., 1 plate; 1900.

Studies in the Idyl in German Literature, by Gustav ALBERT ANDREEN; pp. 96; 1902.

On the Cyclonic Distribution of Rainfall, by JoHan AUGUST UDDEN; pp. 21; 10 figs.; 1905.

A Preliminary List of Fossil Mastodon and Mammoth Remains in Illinois and Iowa, by Netra C. ANDERSON; pp. 40; 2 maps; 1905.

On the Proboscidean Fossils of Pleistocene Deposits in Illinois and Iowa, by JoHan AvuGust UDDEN; pp. 18; 1905.

Scandinavians who have Contributed to the Knowledge of the Flora of North America, by PER AxEL RypBERG, PH. D.; pp. 49; 1907.

Report on a Geological Survey of the Lands belonging to the New York and Texas Land Company, Ltd., in the Upper Rio Grande Embay- - ment in Texas, by JoHAN AUGUST UDDEN; pp. 57; 7 plates, 1 col. map. 32x21 in.; 1907.

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