AVICULTURAL

MAGAZINE

VOLUME 106
No. 1

THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

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THE AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE welcomes original articles that have
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Malcolm Ellis, Hon. Editor, The Avicultural Magazine, The Chalet, Hay
Farm, St. Breock, Wadebridge, Cornwall PL27 7LH, England.

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol. 106 - No. 1 All rights reserved ISSN 0005 2256 2000

THIRTY YEARS WITH PHEASANTS

by Philip Schofield

Most of us who keep birds, do so for the pleasure of having them around.
Looking through recent issues of the magazine one notices there are few
articles that refer directly to this aspect of aviculture, the emphasis is rather
on species that for reason of cost, low availability or absolute rarity, are not
present in most small collections. Having enjoyed keeping pheasants for
some 30 years, it seems appropriate to address this imbalance and share
some of my experiences of this group of birds which combine relative ease
of culture with spectacular beauty and low cost of purchase. The most
expensive birds in my collection have been Germain’s Peacock Pheasants
Polyplectron germaini, endangered in the wild, yet still selling for less than
the commonest Amazon parrot Amazona spp. Pheasants provide an
opportunity for the small scale hobby aviculturist to study the behaviour of
rare species and contribute to their survival.

As a small boy visiting a country house and gardens one Sunday afternoon
when they were open for a charity event, I saw my first Golden Pheasant
Chrysolophus pictus. An adult male in glorious colour, it was sharing an
aviary with a collection of small birds. Although interested in birds from an
early age, I have no recollection of what the other birds in the aviary were,
such was the impact of the Golden Pheasant. I kept returning to the aviary
to look at it, poking bits of grass through the wire as children will, and was
reluctant to leave with my parents at the end of the afternoon. To my already
firm ambition to have my own aviary was added the condition that it had to
have Golden Pheasants in it. Other childhood memories include Silver
Pheasants Lophura nycthemera sharing an aviary with Demoiselle Cranes
Anthropoides virgo at Colchester Zoo in the early 1960s, and the Pheasant
Lawn at the Norfolk Wildlife Park, where a large number of male pheasants
of several species lived in a walk-through paddock. The latter still seems a
good way to display pheasants to the public and could well be more generally
adopted. At the age of 15, in the spring of 1969, I was offered a male

2

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

Golden x Lady Amherst’s Pheasant C. pictus x C. amherstiae, that had been
found in somebody’s garden. Purchased for 15 shillings (75 pence or less
than 500 US), my first pheasant settled happily in an aviary with a few
pigeons, proving a trouble-free and attractive pet, harmless to his aviary
companions. Soon afterwards, I purchased a few pure-bred eggs of both
Golden and Lady Amherst’s Pheasants, of which my bantams reared two
and five young respectively.

In 30 years with pheasants, 17 species have lived for varying periods in
my small collection. I was also fortunate to be employed for a few months
at a collection that held almost all the pheasant species, providing daily
contact with some that I would otherwise never have got to know on a
‘personal’ level. A summer in Pakistan with the World Pheasant Association
gave me some experience of the problems of reintroduction, and some
knowledge of pheasant habitat, although I failed to see a single wild pheasant
in the three months I was there. Those that have bred repeatedly in my
aviaries are the Golden, Lady Amherst’s, Cheer Catreus wallichii, Reeves’
Syrmaticus reevesii, Nepal Kalij Lophura leucomelana leucomelana, Silver,
Grey Peacock Pheasant P. bicalcaratum, Germain’s Peacock Pheasant and
the melanistic form of the Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus. Edwards’
L. edwardsi , Swinhoe’s L. swinhoei, Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus and
Ceylon Junglefowl G. lafayetti have all bred once. Blue Peafowl Pavo
cristatus, Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impeyanus and Elliot’s S . elliotti
have so far produced only infertile eggs. Japanese Green Pheasants P.
versicolor were reared from eggs laid elsewhere.

My pheasants have lived in a variety of settings. The Ceylon Junglefowl
occupied an aviary 13ft X 4ft x 6ft high (approx. 3.9m x 1 .2m x 1 .8m high),
built in the angle of two brick walls and completely enclosed by polythene
sheeting. Electric tubular heaters thermostatically controlled to 40°F (4.4°C)
were placed beneath two lin (2.5cm) diameter dowel perches. These were
intended to prevent them getting frostbitten feet, as this species is not
completely hardy. Smaller diameter natural perches were placed higher in
the aviary for the other occupants, which at various times included Green¬
winged Doves Chalcophaps indie a, Ruddy Ground Doves Columbina
talpacoti. Chestnut-flanked White-eyes Zosterops erythropleura , Pekin
Robins Leiothrix lutea , Spice Birds Lonchura punctulata and New Colour
Canaries (dom.). Of these, the canaries and ground doves bred repeatedly,
and the Pekin Robins got as far as a completed nest. The aviary floor was
covered with several inches (centimetres) of peat, and conifer branches in a
corner sheltered a possible nesting area for the junglefowl. No living
vegetation was included. This was in the early 1970s. Were I to use such a
small aviary for a pair of pheasants now, I would keep at most only two
other pairs of birds with them, and make an effort to provide appropriate

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

3

planting. However, this aviary functioned successfully for three years and
in it I achieved what set out to do, which was to breed Ceylon Junglefowl.

My Red Junglefowl bred under very different conditions. The pair were
turned out, wing-clipped, in an open-topped enclosure approximately 100ft
sq (30.48 m sq), heavily planted and containing a concrete pond. Already in
residence were Demoiselle Cranes and various ducks and geese. The Golden
Pheasants had been removed as the male fought with the male junglefowl.
Both junglefowl roosted in the shrubs at night, sometimes coming down on
the wrong side of the fence in the morning, and having to be walked back in
through the gate. This proved the male’s undoing, as one morning a passing
fox found him before I did. By this time the female was incubating, and she
reared her brood with minimal help.

My Germain’s Peacock Pheasants were provided with enclosed shelters
and heated perches. The latter involved greenhouse heated tape,
thermostatically controlled to 40°F (4.4°C), laid in a groove along the upper
surface of the roosting perch to prevent frostbitten toes. The supposedly
hardier Grey Peacock Pheasants had enclosed shelters without heating. Great
efforts were made initially to induce both species to roost indoors during
the winter. In later years, feeling that their delicacy was rather exaggerated,
I allowed them to sleep where they liked, with no ill effects, and less stress
to all concerned.

Most of my pheasants have been housed in conventional aviaries ranging
from 10ft x 6ft (approx. 3m x 1.8m) to 40ft x 15ft (approx. 12.1mx4.5m) in
size, with partial overhead protection. Here again there have been
developments over the years. Early aviaries had 2in (5cm) mesh wire netting.
This reduced the number of other species that could be kept with the pheasants
and enabled wild birds to enter and eat the food. For some years now al* my
aviaries have been covered with V2in (1.3cm) mesh, which also effectively
retains any pheasant chicks being reared by their parents. I once built a
range of aviaries 5ft (approx. 1 .5m) high, intended to house only pheasants.
While fine for the birds, this arrangement was very uncomfortable for me -
at nearly 6ft (approx. 1.8m) and with a back problem - and has not been
repeated.

Various materials have over the years formed aviary floors here. Grass
has survived with peacock pheasants. All the others have trampled it, eaten
it or dug it up. This applies as much to ornamentals such as Pampas Grass
Cortaderia selloana, as it does to any attempt at a lawn. Peat is successful
and hygienic in small covered aviaries, and can be recycled as garden
compost. More environmentally acceptable is shredded bark, but it tends to
go mouldy and become a health hazard when used under cover. Used in the
open, it looks good, stays fresh and is comfortable for the birds’ feet.
Therefore, I prefer to use bark in the open flight and wood shavings in the

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SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

shelter. Gravel (except for expensive pea gravel) and sharp sand can be
very uncomfortable for the birds’ feet and soft sand can become muddy. An
earth floor can work successfully if the drainage is good and the aviary is
large enough. Mud is bad for the birds’ health and ruins their tails.

My existing aviaries are heavily planted with shrubs. The most resilient
of these is Japanese Honeysuckle Lonicera nitida, superficially similar to
Box Buxus sempervirens but much quicker growing. It seems unpalatable
to the most voracious browsers and will grow in any soil. Its only
disadvantage is that occasionally one of the bird’s long tail feathers will
become entangled in it, resulting sometimes in the feather being pulled out
and the bird having to grow a new one. An evergreen, its dense foliage
provides shelter and nest sites for both large and small birds. It can be
trained to any shape, and will grow sufficiently low to the ground to provide
nest sites for pheasants. Box has most of the same characteristics, but is so
slow growing that it is much less useful in an aviary. Buddleia species of
various colours are attractive when in flower and are very tolerant of pruning.
The same applies to Hawthorn Crataegus spp. which does not seem to be
eaten by pheasants. Almost any conifer will adapt to an aviary situation and
most can be ‘topped’ when they reach the roof netting. The same treatment
can work with deciduous trees. I have Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus and
Elder Sambucus nigra well established in aviaries. Sycamore does not appear
to be eaten, while the apparently more palatable Elder is quick growing
enough to withstand considerable browsing pressure. Snowberry
Symphiorcarpus spreads quickly if a large enough clump is planted to
withstand the initial onslaught of hungry pheasants, and most species enjoy
eating its berries. The same applies to the various cultivated currants Ribes
spp. Peacock pheasant look wonderful against a background of bamboo, of
which many are available, ranging from those suitable as ground cover to
the 18ft (approx. 5.4m) high Black Phyllostachys nigra. Points to consider
when planting an aviary for pheasants are:

1 . While all pheasants will eat vegetation, peacock pheasants hardly
ever do so, whereas Golden Pheasants pursue a ‘scorched earth’ policy and
eat anything within reach which is remotely palatable. Most species will by
digging expose the roots of plants, with peacock pheasants again being
relatively innocent and monals being by far the worst offenders.

2. Ideally plants should be left to become well established before
pheasants are introduced into an aviary. New shrubs added later to an already
stocked aviary should be as large as possible to maximise their chances of
survival.

3. Ideally the distance between any plant and the side of the enclosure
should be not less than the length of the pheasant’s tail. This will reduce the
incidence of broken tail feathers as birds walk up and down alongside the

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

5

wire. Roles (1976) gives suggestions for a variety of planting schemes,
some to provide particular colour contrasts, and some to match pheasant
species with plants they would encounter in the wild.

Most of the pheasants listed will sleep outside, perched as high as possible.
If they get rained on overnight, they will retire under cover in the morning
to preen and dry off. Monals and Cheer will sometimes sleep on the ground
by choice; the others rarely do so. Germain’s Peacock Pheasant and Ceylon
Junglefowl need mild heating to protect their toes from frostbite; Grey
Peacock Pheasants seem happy with just protection from wind and rain at
least this is the case here in Dorset, in southern England. Whatever Blue
Peafowl may endure, when living at liberty, I have had well-grown young
birds contact pneumonia and die through sleeping out in the rain, and as a
result have trained mine to sleep in a dry shed. All the above species but for
the exceptions mentioned, seem indifferent to cold weather.

Aviary companions for pheasants should be selected to suit the species
and space available. One needs to consider that smaller birds’ food is likely
to be attractive to pheasants and may need to be protected from them, or
provided in sufficient quantities to satisfy both. Roosting and nesting
facilities may also need to be protected. The dangers to other species from
pheasants take two forms:

1. Predation. Large pheasants (Cheer, Silver and peafowl are
particular offenders) may regard small birds as acceptable livefood and eat
those they can catch. To prevent this happening to fledglings they can be
caught and caged within the aviary until they can fly well. I have, before
they were due to fledge, placed young canaries, Java Sparrows Padda
oryzivora and Himalayan Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis caniceps in a
small all-wire cage and the parents have fed them through the wire until it
was safe to let them out. For this to work, the cage must be a little bigger
than the nest. I use a Spanish call-bird cage.

2. Aggression. This is likely to be directed at ground dwelling/large
species. I have had an otherwise benign male Golden Pheasant kill a Wood
Pigeon Columba palumbus in the breeding season, and a pair of Cheer
Pheasants that did the same when they had chicks to defend. When I
attempted to introduce a Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula in to an aviary
in which an unmated Germain’s Peacock Pheasant was sitting on eggs, she
came off the nest to attack the plover and it had to be rescued. My pair of
Monals, when released in the waterfowl enclosure, ignored the waterfowl,
but unmercifully persecuted the Demoiselle Cranes and could not be left
with them. In the same enclosure, Golden Pheasants were a great success,
as were unmated Cheer and juvenile Swinhoe’s Pheasants at different times.
As a general rule, I consider Polyplectron and Chrysolophus spp. safe in

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SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

mixed aviaries, while all the others need to be subject to careful introductory
trials. No pheasant is immune to the gastronomic temptation of a nest of
small birds’ eggs. While Old World quail may coexist with pheasants, the
American species can be a problem. When I attempted to introduce an odd
male Gambel’s Quail Lophortyx gambellii in to a small enclosure occupied
by an unmated female Kalij, he quickly confined her to a corner from which
she was afraid to move, and so they had to be separated. California L.
californicus and Bobwhite Quail Colinus virginianus at different times
proved equally dangerous to pheasants.

Although some of the literature suggests that distantly related pheasant
species can be kept together, my limited experience does not confirm this.
A male Grey Peacock Pheasant for many months tolerated juvenile peafowl,
but later when I tried to introduce him to a sub-adult pair housed in a 40ft
(approx. 12m) aviary, he proceeded to harrass them until they turned on him
and he had to be rescued. The same pair of peafowl, now adult, currently
tolerate juvenile Golden Pheasants, but will not accept an adult male. As I
mentioned earlier, my Red Junglefowl would not agree with my Golden
Pheasants. Equally, I find male Golden Pheasants will eventually pick a
fight with bantams, even after months of peaceful coexistence. A friend has
two male Old English Game Bantams confined with a year old pair of Golden
Pheasants, and the two chicks reared that year proved to be hybrids.

Thanks to foods developed for the poultry industry, a basic diet for
pheasants is easily provided. Layers’ or breeders’ pellets (chick crumbs
during the first weeks of life) can be provided ad. lib., together with small
quantities of wheat fed to them by hand once a day, or scattered in the aviary
to give the birds something to look for. Most species appreciate hard-boiled
egg, fresh and dried fruit, greenfood, peanuts, small seeds, livefood
(mealworms are especially acceptable and convenient) and wholemeal bread.
None of these are essential for the species described, but their provision
improves the quality of life for the birds and provides a chance for the keeper
to build up a relationship with them. Appropriate grades of shell and flint
grit are essential. A multivitamin powder sprinkled on the food may improve
breeding and rearing prospects, while proprietary pigeon minerals can be
provided to the same end.

When I had Golden Pheasants at liberty in the waterfowl enclosure, it
was surprising how high they could scramble up into the trees at night.
Heavily wing-clipped individuals would attain heights of 20ft-30ft (approx.
6m-9m) in Horse Chestnut Aesculus hippocastaneum and Beech Fagus
sylvatica to roost, and always descended safely in the morning.

Of the species kept, Golden, Lady Amherst, Kalij, Cheer, Red Junglefowl,
Germain’s and Grey Peacock Pheasants all reared their own young. The
male Lady Amherst ignored his offspring while the males of all the other

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

7

species were seen to associate with their broods. Cheer and Polyplectron
males would call the female and chicks to feed, and would perch at night
with well-grown young under a protective wing. When a female Golden
Pheasant left her tiny chicks on the ground unable to follow her to her high
roosting place, the male flew down and brooded them. This happened every
evening until they were able to fly up to roost. A female Reeves’ hatched
chicks which were promptly killed by the male. The birds were in a 10ft
(approx. 3m) square aviary, and this may have been heightened aggression
as I have heard of Reeves’ in larger quarters being excellent fathers. Another
infanticide was by a female Kalij, which killed the only female in a brood of
four when they were half grown; here again it was probably caused by their
close confinement. The same bird performed what appeared to be a
distraction display in which she fell forward and trembled her shoulders
when I entered the aviary where she had chicks. A female Monal sat well
beyond her time on infertile eggs. None of the other species showed any
desire to sit, and their eggs were hatched by bantams or in incubators. The
female Ceylon Junglefowl was an inveterate egg-eater to the extent that I
had to be on hand to retrieve her eggs as they were laid.

There was regularly fighting between the male and female of a potential
breeding pair of Monals. In a 30ft (approx. 9m) aviary over a number of
years, the male would be dominant through the breeding season, but as soon
as he started to moult, the female would turn on him and at times they had to
be separated. Although no damage was done, the persistent chasing of one
by the other led me to take no chances. Tiring of large numbers of infertile
eggs and failing to integrate them with the waterfowl, I eventually sold them.
The following year the new owner got one fertile egg out of the twenty-five
laid and from it reared a fine male, after which they reverted to 100%
infertility for as long as they lived. Both species of Polyplectron caused
trouble when forming new pairs, either sex could scalp the other, and
introductions had to be carefully managed. Most species were kept in pairs
when breeding except Golden Pheasants and Kalij, both of which laid
quantities of fertile eggs when kept in trios consisting of a male and two
females. Another exception was Grey Peacock Pheasants which bred one
year with two females in adjoining aviaries, sharing a male on alternate
days. These two females made it abundantly clear that they would kill each
other if they ever got together. Early attempts to keep a quartet of Lady
Amherst Pheasants in a small aviary were frustrated when one of the females
became dominant and persecuted the others. It was also necessary to be
careful when introducing a young male to an established adult female, as he
could be attacked. Two pairs of melanistic Common Pheasants bred happily
as a group one season in a waterfowl enclosure some 50ft (approx. 15m)
square. These were four siblings that had never been apart and the males

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

showed no aggression towards each other. Commercial game pheasants are
commonly flock mated, but with far more males and females in each group.

With patience and the use of tit-bits most pheasants will become hand
tame. However, a male that has become completely unafraid of people is
likely to regard them as rivals in the breeding season. This seems normal
with Ceylon Junglefowl and Silver Pheasants. The latter have enough weight
and spurs to be dangerous, and a dustbin lid makes a good shield when
working in their aviaries. Even a male Germain’s Peacock Pheasant in a
local tropical house had to be removed when he started attacking members
of the public. Females will sometimes attack in defence of their eggs or
young, and a female Golden Pheasants flew off her eggs, hitting me in the
face and making my lip bleed. This happened so fast that I do not know
whether the beak or claws did the damage. Such attacks obviously pose a
threat to the keeper’s eyes.

Pheasants’ courtship displays are, of course, renowned for being
spectacularly beautiful. Peafowl appear to display frontally only (facing
the object of interest), whereas the Polyplectron spp. and Monals have both
frontal and lateral (sideways) displays. All the others display laterally. In
most cases similar body language signifies both sexual and aggressive intent.
Full displays may be performed by either sex. Peafowl chicks, for example,
regularly fan their tails, and an adult female Grey Peacock Pheasant will
display sexually to an immature, submissive or disinterested male, or
aggressively to a female rival. I have seen Golden Pheasant poults no bigger
than Blackbirds Turdus merula, perform complete displays ending in apparent
copulation.

Pheasants can be long lived. I know of a male Silver Pheasant that was
put-down when in its early twenties, when it had lost the use of its legs and
after it had sired young the previous year. Golden and Lady Amherst
Pheasants have died at 1 1 years old, and I currently have a male Grey Peacock
Pheasant hatched in 1987 that shows no sign of old age. Germain’s have
not lived beyond 10 years. Chrysolophus and Polyplectron spp. of both sexes
are fertile at a year old, even though the males are still in juvenile plumage.
Red Junglefowl, Kalij and Common Pheasants are also fully mature in their
first season. Females of the others, including peafowl, can lay eggs at a
year old, but the males are not necessarily fertile; Silver and Swinhoe’s
Pheasants usually are not.

One of the minor pleasures of keeping the long tailed species has been
picking up their moulted train or tail feathers to put in a vase. Those of
peafowl. Reeves’ and Lady Amherst are particularly attractive but the latter
two often break their tail feathers off short before the moult. This is caused
partly by them turning round in confined spaces and careful aviary design
can help prevent this. A visual barrier at ground level will stop them trying

SCHOFIELD - PHEASANTS

9

to attack potential rival males in adjoining pens, and in doing so breaking
their feathers on the wire. A circular aviary, with appropriate shelter and
planting in the middle, to avoid the damage done to tail feathers in comers,
might be an ideal design for these species. Large enclosures are conducive
to perfect plumage. However, a male Reeves’ a friend had in a 7ft (approx.
2.1m) square aviary kept a 5ft (approx. 1.5m) long tail for months, while
one turned out in my waterfowl enclosure smashed all its tail feathers within
hours, partly owing to a lot of bushes along the perimeter fence.

Having kept a variety of species over the years, I am currently down to
three favourites, pairs of Golden Pheasant, Blue Peafowl and Grey Peacock
Pheasants. The peacock pheasants share a heavily planted aviary some 24ft
(approx. 7.3m) long with Pekin Robins and Turtle Doves Streptopelia turtur.
Their non-browsing habits mean that the enclosure keeps an attractive ‘jungle’
aspect and I have to keep an area clear in order to see them. Golden Pheasants
in a similar sized enclosure share with Ring-necked Parrakeets Psittacula
krameri and laughing thrushes Garrulax spp. The Golden species being
more herbivorous by nature, means that the Elder bushes never look their
best, while the Hawthorn, Sycamore and a small conifer remain unmolested.
Ivy Ilex sp. on the back wall is eaten back as far as the pheasants can reach.
The 40ft (approx. 12m) peafowl aviary houses a collection of doves and a
colony of Java Sparrows and supports several large Lonicera, a big Elder
(put in originally many years ago as a roof support, when supposedly a dead
trunk) and several conifers. I now find more interest in keeping fewer species
in relatively large enclosures that I once did when keeping seven or eight
different species in smaller quarters.

References and Bibliography

Beebe, W. 1937. Pheasants, Their Lives and Homes. Robert Hale Ltd.

Delacour, J. 1977. The Pheasants of the World. Second edition. Spur Publications.

Edlin, H. L. 1970. Collins Guide to Tree Planting and Cultivation. Collins.

Gruson, E. S. 1976. A Checklist of the Birds of the World. Collins.

Howman, K. 1993. Pheasants of the World, their Breeding and Management. Hancock Flouse.
Roles, D.G. 1976. Rare Pheasants of the World. Spur Publications.

Wayre, PA. 1969. A Guide to the Pheasants of the World. Hamlyn.

10

THE HIGH OCCURRENCE OF BROOD PATCHES IN
MIST-NETTED BIRDS IN A LOWLAND ECUADORIAN
RAINFOREST

by Harold F. Greeney, Caleb E. Gordon, Matthew E. Kaplan &
Charles G. Chimera

The diversity of tropical bird species has long been a subject of interest
among biologists and amateur birdwatchers alike. Ecuador alone is thought
to contain over 1,600 species of birds, many of which are spectacularly
unique in their plumage. Because of the interest shown by biologists and
amateurs, the bird fauna of tropical areas is well known in comparison to
other types of organisms. The discovery of new species and the accumulation
of ecological information continues, however, and contributions of this sort
are invaluable to tropical biologists and conservationists. In light of the ever
increasing threat to tropical habitats, gathering and publishing data on these
beautiful creatures has never been more crucial.

From December 21st to December 27th 1996, we conducted a mist-net
survey of tropical birds in the Sucumbios Providence of eastern Ecuador. A
total of 32 birds was captured at the La Selva Lodge and Research Station
located 75km (approx. 46miles) e.s.e. of Coca along the Napo River at an
elevation of 250m (approx. 800ft). Birds were removed from the nets,
evaluated for breeding condition and released. We were amazed at the
number of birds that were in breeding condition at the time of capture. A
summary of those with brood-patches can be found in Table 1 .

The fact that so many of the netted birds were in breeding condition at
this time of year possibly reflects the fact that this is near the peak of the dry
season in this area. A marked increase in the numbers of butterfly and moth
caterpillars was noticed during further fieldwork in the area, and many plant
species were observed to fruit during this time of year. These observations
may represent an increase in food resources for insectivorous and frugivorous
birds. This may help to explain the high number of brood patches observed
in birds which may have been taking advantage of higher food availability
by breeding during this period.

We wish to thank Eric and Maggie Schwartz for their hospitality at the
La Selva Jungle Lodge and Genoveva Salem for her logistical help. Thank
you to M. Lysinger for help and encouragement during all of our
ornithological work in Ecuador. For continued support of his work in tropical
forests, H. Greeney gives special thanks to Bob and Katt Azar who graciously
donated money to help fund the completion of this and other work.

GREENEY ET AL - ECUADORIAN BIRDS

11

Table 1 . Breeding condition of birds collected in mist-nets

Species Sex

Date Brood

Species

Sex

Date Brood

Patch

Patch

White-bearded Hermit

?

Dec

No

White-flanked Antwren

M

Dec

Yes

Phaethomis hispidus

22

Myrmotherula axillaris

23

Long-tailed Hermit

?

Dec

No

Plain-throated Antwren

M

Dec

No

Phaethomis superciliosus

24

Myrmotherula hauxwelli

22

White-chested Puffbird

?

Dec

Yes

Plain-throated Antwren

M

Dec

Yes

Malacoptita fusca

25

Myrmotherula hauxwelli

25

Wedge-billed Woodcreeper?

Dec

No

Plain-throated Antwren

M

Dec

Yes

Glyphorynchus spirurus

22

Myrmotherula hauxwelli

23

Wedge-billed Woodcreeper?

Dec

Yes

White-cheeked Antbird

?

Dec

Yes

Glyphorynchus spirurus

22

Gymnopithys leucaspis

24

Plain-brown Woodcreeper

?

Dec

No

Black-faced Antbird

M

Dec

Yes

Dendrocincla fuliginosa

24

Myrmoborus myotherinus

25

Elegant Woodcreeper?

?

Dec

No

Blue-crowned Manakin

F

Dec

Yes

Xiphorhynchus sp.

23

Pipra coronata

21

Elegant Woodcreeper?

?

Dec

Wire-tailed Manakin

F

Dec

Yes

Xiphorhynchus sp.

23

Pipra fdicauda

26

Plain Xenops

?

Dec

Yes

Wire-tailed Manakin

M

Dec

Yes

Xenops minutus

24

Pipra fdicauda

26

Plain Xenops

9

Dec

Yes

Ochre-bellied Flycatcher

?

Dec

Yes

Xenops minutus

27

Mionectes oleaginea

25

Short-billed Leaftosser

?

Dec

No

Ochre-bellied Flycatcher

?

Dec

Yes

Sclerurus rufigularis

25

Mionectes oleaginea

27

Dusky-throated Antshrike F

Dec

Yes

White-necked Thrush

?

26

Yes

Thamnomanes ardesiacus

23

Turdus albicollis

Dec

Cinereous Antshrike

M

Dec

Yes

Lawrence’s Thrush

?

Dec

Yes

Thamnomanes caesius

24

Turdus lawrencii

22

Cinereous Antshrike

M

Dec

Yes

Rufous-bellied Euphonia

M

Dec

Yes

Thamnomanes caesius

27

Euphonia rufiventris

25

Cinereous Antshrike

F

Dec

Yes

Blue-black Grosbeak

F

Dec

Yes

Thamnomanes caesius

23

Cyanocompsa cyanoides

23

White-flanked Antwren

F

Dec

Yes

Blue-black Grosbeak

M

Dec

No

Myrmotherula axillaris

23

Cyanocompsa cyanoides

26

Harold F. Greeney is at the Department of Entomology, University of
Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA, Caleb E. Gordon and Matthew E.
Kaplan are at the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the
University of Arizona, and Charles G. Chimera is at the Haleakala National
Park, PO. Box 369, Makawao, Hawaii 96768.

12

NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON HAND-REARING
AFRICAN PYGMY FALCONS
Polihierax semitorquatus

by Chris Smith

The African Pygmy Falcon Polihierax semitorquatus measures about
20cm (almost 8in) in length and has a wingspan of about 37cm (14.5 in). Its
weight ranges from 54g-67g, with females tending to be slightly heavier
than males. African Pygmy Falcons are sexually dimorphic. Males are light
to slate grey on the back and upperwing. They have a white collar or patch
of white on the nape, and the flight feathers and tail are dark brown to black
with white spots. The underparts are white. The legs and feet are orange-
yellow with black talons. Females share most of these characteristics except
that they have a chestnut brown cape extending from the back of the neck to
the middle of the back. Juveniles are distinguished from adults by having
buff underparts with dark streaks. A rufous wash is also present on the back
and underparts, which is more evident in young females.

The African Pygmy Falcon is found in two distinct regions of Africa.
The eastern population is found in southern Sudan, southern Ethiopia,
Somalia, north-eastern Uganda, Kenya, northern Tanzania and eastern Zaire.
The southern population is found in southern Angola, Namibia, Botswana
and north-western regions of South Africa. Both these areas have similar
habitat, namely semi-arid savanna and scrub with sparse ground cover and
trees. The two populations are recognized sometimes as subspecies, with
the eastern race P. s. castanotus being slightly larger and darker than the
southern race P. s. semitorquatus. However, the differences between the
two are inconsistent and may require further studies to be validated. The
African Pygmy Falcon is normally sedentary, migrating only during periods
of prolonged drought.

African Pygmy Falcons are rather unusual in their nesting habits, in that
they nest almost exclusively in weaver colonies. Two species of weavers in
particular are imposed upon by the falcons: the Social Weaver Philetairus
socius found in south-west Africa, and the White-headed Buffalo Weaver
Dinemellia dinemelli found in east Africa. Social Weavers are, of course,
well known for constructing massive multi-chambered nests capable of
supporting up to 50 breeding pairs of weavers. The Pygmy Falcons will
supplant a pair or two of weavers in order to use a few chambers themselves.
The falcons and weavers usually live together in harmony, although the
falcons will occasionally prey upon weaver nestlings. African Pygmy
Falcons are found in an estimated 25% of weaver colonies. Some
observations suggest the weavers may benefit from the falcons’ presence, in

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

13

that they provide a more effective defence against snakes entering the nest
complex. This suggestion may only apply in the case of the Social Weavers
however, as White-headed Buffalo Weavers being larger and heavier than
African Pygmy Falcons, could certainly just as easily repel an intruding
snake.

The breeding season is usually from March to June for the eastern
population, and from August to October for the southern population. Two
to four eggs are laid per clutch. The eggs are white and measure
approximately 28mm x 23mm. Incubation normally lasts 28-30 days. The
female does most of the incubation, but the male will tend the eggs when
the female leaves the nest. The male also provides food for the female and
the young and defends the nest. Chicks fledge at four to five weeks and

Egg alongside US250 coin

Chris Smith

remain with their parents for approximately two months before dispersing.

The African Pygmy Falcon is common and widespread throughout its
range. As the weavers expand their range by nesting on man-made structures
such as utility poles and windmills the pygmy falcons are expanding their
range as well. They are rarely found beyond the ranges of the weavers.
Although not endangered, the African Pygmy Falcon is listed on Appendix
II of CITES to protect it against potential over-collecting and export. These
birds range over several national parks and reserves, which should help
preserve their habitat.

14

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

The International Species Information System 1998 ISIS Bird Abstract
reported the captive population of the African Pygmy Falcon as 37 (21 . 13.3)
in 13 institutions. All of these are in North America. The Oklahoma City
Zoological Park has two breeding pairs of this species.

Husbandry

The Oklahoma City Zoological Park has maintained the African Pygmy
Falcon since 1994. These birds are housed in an off-exhibit building for
breeding. Their enclosures measure approximately 2m x 2m x 2.5m (about
6ft 6in x 6ft 6in x 8ft 4in) and have a pine shavings substrate. The diet
consists of newborn mice, Nebraska Bird of Prey Diet, crickets, waxworms
and mealworms. Live anoles Anolis sp. are offered on a regular basis for
dietary and behavioural enrichment. Adult mice are not offered because of
problems with impactions of mouse fur. Vionate for general vitamins and
minerals, Osteo-form for calcium replenishment and Nekton-E for vitamin
E, are sprinkled over the food. Breeding success has improved and hatchlings
have appeared healthier since vitamin E has been added to the diet.

Although the African Pygmy Falcon is particular about its choice of nest
site in the wild, captive falcons will readily use small wooden nest-boxes.
Nest-boxes used at Oklahoma City Zoological Park measure roughly 15cm
x 20cm x 20cm (about 6in x 8in x 8in), with an opening about 5cm (2in) in
diameter. The nest-boxes are placed about 2m (6ft 6in) above the floor. So
long as a suitable nest-box has been provided, the captive falcons have not
been partial to a particular time of the year for breeding.

The Oklahoma City Zoological Park has been breeding African Pygmy
Falcons since August 1995. The first three clutches were infertile. After a
clutch was removed from the nest-box, the falcons would within a few days
begin to lay a new clutch. In January 1996, fertile eggs were produced, but
failed to hatch. After subsequent clutches failed to hatch, eggs were removed
from the nest-box and incubated artificially.

On several occasions, when eggs were removed, dummy eggs were put
in the nest-box with the intention of returning the real eggs when they were
ready to hatch. The first time dummy eggs made from porcelain were used,
but were immediately rejected by the parents and tossed from the nest-box.
For later attempts, infertile eggs filled with plaster were used and these were
accepted by the breeding pair. Unfortunately though, attempts at replacing
the real eggs were unsuccessful due to them being infertile, the embryo
having died at an early stage, or the parents losing interest in the nest.

Incubation and hand-rearing methods

Eggs, on being removed from the nest-box, are placed in an incubator at
a temperature of 37°C (98.6°F) and 45%-50% humidity. The eggs are rotated

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

15

half-way in alternate directions five times a day. Between 28 and 30 days
pipping occurs. Within 24 hours of pipping, chicks normally have completed
the hatching process. In one instance, a chick took 35 days to hatch.

For some chicks, the hatching process is difficult and assistance is
required. Enlarging the break in the egg shell is usually enough to help the

chick during hatching. Removing the chick entirely from the shell has been
performed only after the chick had not hatched within 48 hours of pipping.

After hatching, chicks are left in the incubator for an additional 24 hours
to dry and absorb the yolk sac. Afterwards, chicks are placed in an isolette
at a temperature of 35°C (95 °F). The temperature is gradually reduced so
that the chicks remain comfortable as they grow and get their feathers. Cloth
covered bowls with small sticks lining the bottom for the chicks to grasp are
used as nests. The use of sticks seems to help prevent the chicks’ legs from
splaying.

16

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

The diet at this age comprises mainly finely chopped newborn (pinkie)
mice. Chopped wax worms and cricket abdomens are offered after the first
week. Chicks are given the same vitamin supplements (Vionate, Osteo-
form and Nekton-E) as the adults. They are offered food five times during
the day, at two hour intervals. An additonal evening feed (usually three to
four hours after the last daytime feed) is offered during the first week.

—

Chris Smith

Two to three weeks old

Growth and development

Upon hatching chicks are covered with white down and the eyes are not
yet open. A day old chick usually weighs 5g-6g. After three or four days,
the eyes slowly begin to open. Contour feathers begin to grow at two weeks.
Flight feathers emerge during the third week. At this age, chicks become
very active in the nest, perching on the rim of the bowl, hiding underneath
sections of cloth and exploring the isolette. At four weeks, the chicks are
almost fully feathered and begin eating food from a dish, rather than being
hand-fed.

By four weeks of age the chestnut coloured cape characteristic of females
becomes visible. However, sexing birds of this age by visual identification
does not seem to be wholly reliable. One chick initially showed the chestnut

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

17

cape pattern of a female, but eventually developed male plumage. This
particular chick began growing a chestnut cape, at three to four weeks of
age. At approximately eight weeks, however, the cape began to slowly
recede, and by the twelfth week the young bird had lost the cape and taken
on the appearance of a male.

To add to the confusion over understanding the development of young
African Pygmy Falcons, a second hand-reared male did not develop a female¬
like chestnut cape as its older brother had. Based on these observations it
appears African Pygmy Falcons cannot be positively sexed by a simple visual
examination until at least three months of age.

Table 1 . Daily weights (in grams) of hand-reared African Pygmy Falcons

Day

1

5.2

5.9

5.8

5.6

6.0

6.0

2

6.2

6.3

5.7

6.5

6.5

6.3

3

8.9

7.3

5.9

7.2

6.9

7.7

4

10.9

8.1

5.4

9.6

8.0

9.7

5

12.5

10.9

6.2

12.0

10.4

13.4

6

15.9

12.0

7.0

14.5

12.3

16.0

7

18.2

15.8

8.0

16.8

16.1

18.4

8

22.8

18.2

7.5

20.2

17.1

21.6

9

25.0

20.8

8.4

22.6

21.5

24.1

10

31.6

24.4

10.7

25.2

24.2

28.4

11

32.5

28.5

13.2

28.0

28.0

31.7

12

37.4

31.1

14.9

30.6

31.4

34.6

13

41.3

34.3

17.5

34.1

36.2

36.6

14

43.2

37.0

21.3

37.5

36.5

39.2

15

46.6

40.0

23.1

40.5

40.6

43.4

16

48.4

45.2

24.9

44.2

44.0

46.2

17

52.0

48.8

27.4

46.0

47.4

48.5

18

55.1

51.5

30.0

49.2

51.1

50.6

19

56.6

54. 1

33.1

51.7

52.3

53.8

20

61.2

57.0

36.6

52.8

52.3

55.2

25

66.8

61.1

51.8

53.8

57.8

60.7

30

60.8

70.8

62.7

52.0

58.0

18

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

Chris Smith

Three weeks old

Daily weights of hand-reared
African Pygmy Falcons

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

19

Chris Smith

African Pygmy Falcon in juvenile plumage

Medical problems and treatments

Medical problems were encountered with three chicks shortly after
hatching. Each of these chicks exhibited similar symptoms, namely poor
coordination difficulty maintaining its balance and a lack of appetite. The
general appearance seemed to be that of a neurological disorder. The affected
chicks’ heads would tremble, they would turn in circular patterns in their

20

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

nest bowl and had very poor feeding responses.

These chicks were treated with a booster shot of fortified vitamin B
complex, and sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim suspension (0.04mg for a
6g chick), given twice a day for 10-14 days. Medications were administered
orally via a syringe capped with a blunt- tipped dental applicator. Using
this, the chick’s beak could be gently prized open and the tip of the syringe
inserted inside the chick’s beak, without injuring the chick. Dextrose
injections were given subcutaneously if the chicks did not show an
improvement within two days.

Of three chicks that were treated, two survived. The first chick that was
treated did not survive. The second chick recovered about one week after
receiving treatment. The third chick, whose symptoms were noticed at an
earlier age and which received treatment immediately, was behaving normally
after the first day of treatment. Both of the surviving birds were treated for
the full 10-14 days.

Identification of a specific cause of the chicks’ illness was inconclusive.
Based upon the responses of the chicks to the medications, it is believed
bacterial infection was involved.

Summary

The Oklahoma City Zoological Park has been successful breeding African
Pymgy Falcons since 1996. Although attempts to allow the parents to hatch
and rear their young have been unsuccessful, chicks have been produced by
artificial incubation and hand-rearing methods.

Observations of juvenile birds have shown an inconsistent development
pattern, at least in males. The characteristic chestnut cape of the adult female
has been observed to develop and later recede in the case of one young male
pymgy falcon. This change in plumage was not observed with a later male.

Medical intervention has been successful in two out of three cases in
which each chick displayed similar neurological disfunctions, due probably
to bacterial infections.

Among zoological institutions, the African Pygmy Falcon has in recent
years become one of the more sought after species. It has been recommended
by the Raptor Taxon Advisory Group (TAG) that zoos establish a viable
captive population. A studbook is being researched. The Oklahoma City
Zoo has been one of the more successful institutions raising African Pygmy
Falcons during the past few years, having raised six chicks between 1996
and 1999. The zoo is continuing to undertake research into the best means
of housing and breeding the African Pygmy Falcon.

SMITH - AFRICAN PYGMY FALCON

21

Acknowledgements

To the Oklahoma City Zoological Park Bird Department: Darcy
Henthom, Neil Carter, Jeff Papp and Mary MacFarland, Jim Fish, Curator
of Birds, Jack Grisham, General Curator, Dr Michael Barrie, DVM, Dr Pilar
Hayes, DVM and Stephen R. Wylie, CEO/Executive Director.

Products mentioned in the text

Agrifarm Fortified Vitamin B Complex Injectable: manufactured by Dealer Distribution of
America, Porterville, California, USA.

Dextrose Injection, USP: produced by Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, Illinois, USA.
Nekton-E: produced by Nekton-Produkte, Germany.

Nebraska Bird of Prey Diet: packaged by Central Nebraska Packing, Inc., North Platte, Nebraska
69101, USA.

Osteo-form: manufactured by Vet-A-Mix, Shenandoah, Iowa 51601, USA.

Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim Oral Suspension, USP: produced by Hi-Tech Pharmacal
Co., Inc., Amityville, New York, USA.

Vionate: vitamin and mineral powder manufactured by Gimbom-Rich Health, Atlanta, Georgia
30340, USA.

Bibliography

Brown, L. and Amadon, D. 1989. Eagles, Hawks & Falcons of the World. The Wellfleet Press,
Secaucus, New Jersey, USA.

Brown, L., Urban, E. and Newman, K. 1982. The Birds of Africa. Vol 1. Academic Press Inc.,
New York, USA.

del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A. and Sargatal, J. eds. 1994. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2.
New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

International Species Information System. 1998. ISIS Bird Abstract. Apple Valley, Minnesota,
USA.

Tarboton, W. 1990. African Birds of Prey. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
Zimmerman, D. and Turner, D, 1996. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.

Chris Smith, the author of the above article and who wrote recently
about hand-rearing Puna Ibis Plegadis ridgwayi (Avicultural Magazine 105,
2: 65-71 ), is an Animal Technician at Oklahoma City Zoological Park, 2101
NE 50th, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73111, USA. Tel:(405) 424-3344/
Fax: (40 5) 425-0207.

22

STITCHBIRDS - AN AVI CULTURAL CHALLENGE

by Rose Collen, Glen Holland, Caroline Twentyman,

Jerry Pauli & Betty Watt

The Stitchbird Notiomystis cincta, a New Zealand endemic, belongs to
the Order Passeriformes, family Meliphagidae (honeyeaters) and is the sole
member of the genus Notiomystis. The Meliphagidae family includes over
170 species of honeyeaters, miners, friarbirds and sugarbirds. They are
distributed primarily through Australia, New Guinea, Timor and the Pacific
islands. The Bellbird Anthornis melanura and Tui Prosthemadera
novaeseelandiae are the only other members of the family that occur in
New Zealand.

Rose Collen

The male, as part of its display, raises its ‘ear’ tufts and cocks its tail

Stitchbirds, known also by the Maori name hihi, are one of only two
honeyeater species known to nest in tree cavities. The name Stitchbird
originates from the bird’s contact call, which resembles the word ‘stitch’.
Both sexes also have a soft warbling song and an excited alarm call, and

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

23

males have a three-note whistle and also mimic other species. In pre-
European times (it is believed that Europeans introduced rodents and
mustelids) Stitchbirds were distributed throughout the North Island and a
number of the surrounding islands. By 1885 Stitchbirds had disappeared
from the mainland, possibly as a result of predation at their nest sites by
ships’ rats. Currently the only self-sustaining population resides on Little
Barrier Island in the outer Hauraki Gulf. The Department of Conservation
has recently reintroduced them to a further three islands, where intensive
management and monitoring continues. To date none of these three

Rob Suisted

Female. The berries are coprosma berries and are eaten by Stitchbirds

populations is considered to be successfully established.

The Mt Bruce National Wildlife Centre (NWC) is the only facility holding
captive Stitchbirds. The NWC is operated by the New Zealand Department
of Conservation and is dedicated to the breeding and restoration of rare and
endangered New Zealand bird species. The Department of Conservation
Stitchbird Recovery Plan uses a captive breeding programme to:

Develop effective husbandry techniques to be used in the event of a
disaster affecting the only viable wild population.

Trial techniques that could assist in establishing new self-sustaining
populations.

24

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

The plan also acknowledges the environmental education role the species
can play. While Stitchbirds have been held and bred in captivity for over 14
years, there remain several challenges regarding their husbandry, including
further disease research, development of hand-rearing protocols and trialing
new aviary designs that will reduce disease risk. In the wild, bad fruiting
and flowering seasons can cause low productivity. In poor years, many
second and third clutches are deserted. These could in future provide a
source of birds for hand-rearing. In addition, disease-free hand-raised birds
for future research could be sourced from eggs from the captive population
which currently stands at 2.5.

There have been nine male and six female Stitchbirds brought in to Mt
Bruce since 1985. The reasons for fledged juvenile and adult deaths over
the past 10 years were recorded as:

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

Aspergillosis

1

1

3

-

1

-

1

1

1

1

Coccidiosis

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

Asphyxiation

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

Stress

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

1

Other

2

1

3

3

-

2

1

1

3

2

Diet

In the wild Stitchbirds feed on a variety of nectar plants, fruit and
invertebrates. The current artificial/captive diet is modelled on this and is
offered daily in three separate bowls, with a top-up as required when they
are rearing chicks. The current diet consists of:

Jam water: 250ml of apple and raspberry jam and a tablespoon each of
bee pollen and Pronutro, blended in 1 litre of water. The pollen is a valuable
nutritional supplement that is now popular with nectivores and species such
as lorikeets. Pronutro is a cereal-based South African product (22% protein)
that one of the authors (G.H.) used in South Africa to raise species ranging
from estrildids to parrots.

Wombaroo lorikeet nectar: a milk by-product-based nectar with <0.5%
lactose, produced in Australia.

A fruit/vegetable puree (finely blended) which includes sweetcom, carrot,
grapes, apple, pear and orange, made in a large batch and stored frozen in
the amounts required each day.

Our captive Stitchbirds are also offered a variety of natural foods. In
addition to access to the plants growing in the aviaries, they receive an almost
daily supply of nectar-bearing flowers or a bunch of wild fruits (e.g.
Coprosma sp.). These are placed so as to enhance public viewing of foraging
birds. Livefood, particularly moths, is readily caught using two fan/light

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

25

insect traps. Live insects are provided mainly during the breeding season,
with priority being given to females with young. Small crickets, waxmoth
larvae and mealworms have also been offered, but have not proved successful.
In future we intend to introduce these to hand-raised birds at an early age.

Causes of death in captive Stitchbirds
Aspergillosis

This fungal disease caused most frequently by Aspergillus fumigatus is
seen most commonly in its chronic form at the NWC. This is characterised
by rapid respiration, lethargy, anorexia and weight loss. Aspergillus is a
ubiquitous fungus that grows well in soil and organic matter. Transmission
occurs through birds inhaling the spores. Damp organic litter encourages
the production of large numbers of spores. Problem sites include damp
nest-box material, dusty environments and accumulations of mouldy food
scraps. Factors we have decided are important in the epidemiology of the
disease in this species in captivity are:

Environmental: Cage set-up

Access to leaf litter
Local weather effects
Food hygiene

Bird Factors: Species susceptibility

Diet
Stress

Management changes have been implemented that we hope will lessen
the impact of the above factors and control this condition. When the disease
is suspected, the bird is treated with a combination of Ancotil and Diflucan.

Atoxoplasmosis

The first diagnosed case of coccidiosis in Stitchbirds at the NWC occurred
in 1994. Analysis of mortalities show that it is now the most important
disease affecting Stitchbirds at Mt Bruce and causing the death of young
birds. We are reasonably certain that the coccidial infections in Stitchbirds
at the NWC are due to Atoxoplasma organisms. These produce oocysts that
are passed in the faeces and are indistinguishable from other isosporan
species. We have established the times when deaths from coccidiosis are
most likely to occur here. These are:

1 . In very young birds, in one case the entire second brood of a pair was

lost at 16 days of age. There was also a severe red mite infestation and

capillaria was present.

2. In fledged birds separated in to flocking aviaries, when the stress caused

by moving them can allow a low-level coccidial infection to flourish.

26

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

Dosing an infected chick

Rose Collen

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

27

We have endeavoured to establish a preventative programme for
coccidiosis which enables successful breeding to take place. This programme
involves.

1. Hygiene.

2. Preventative treatment.

3. Faecal monitoring.

Treatment is at present based on Toltrazuril (Baycox), which
unfortunately is only active against the gut forms of Atoxoplasma. We are
also trailing a coccidiostat and Primequin (a malarial treatment) in
combination with Baycox. We are keen to learn of any other treatments
that aviculturists have used successfully in the treatment/control of
atoxoplasmosis.

Stress

Stress related deaths have been attributed to aggression by a male towards
females and birds recently brought in to captivity from the wild. Handling
in order to fit a transmitter prior to transfer/release is also suspected to have
caused stress-related death in one bird, in another case, two six month old
males died following a severe territorial dispute. Some of these birds also
had aspergillosis.

Asphyxia

Since 1990 there have been three deaths from asphyxia, all in birds less
than one year old. Two involved arthropods, and in the other a whole kernel
of com was stuck in the pharynx.

Other causes

There have been a number of other causes of mortality, most of which
have appeared as isolated cases and hopefully these will not re-occur.

Coccidial research

Because of the importance of coccidiosis as a cause of death in captive
juvenile Stitchbirds, a group at Massey University, Palmerston North, has
been carrying out research into this disease. It is believed that the organism
responsible is a type of coccidia known as Atoxoplasma, however, the exact
identification and life cycle are unknown. There are many questions that
need answering:

How does infection occur and when?

How does infection with this parasite cause disease?

At what age do birds become resistant?

How common is this organism in free-living Stitchbirds and does it cause

disease?

28

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

Is this same organism found another species of birds or does it infect

only the Stitchbird?

Which treatments are most effective?

The research group has been provided with tissues from all the Mt Bruce
Stitchbirds that have died of this disease since 1994, and has been able to
examine their pathology in detail. Regular examination of Stitchbird faeces
for evidence of the coccidial oocysts has also been undertaken. In addition,
faeces from other bird species and from free-living Stitchbirds have been
examined. So far, it has been found that free-living Stitchbirds carry similar
coccidia to those in captivity, but there has been no evidence of disease in
wild birds. Transmission experiments using Zebra Finches Taeniopygia
guttata are in progress at present. In these experiments oocycsts from
Stitchbirds were inoculated via the mouth into a number of parasite-free
finches and faeces from these finches were then tested twice daily for
evidence of coccidia. At pre-determined times the finches were euthanased
and necropsied, and the tissues examined microscopically in order to detect
any sign of coccidia or changes induced by them. It is necessary to sporulate
the coccidial oocysts in the laboratory (i.e. encourage them to change their
form into their infective stage) before identification can be attempted or
transmission experiments undertaken. A major obstacle encountered is that
Stitchbird oocysts from Mt Bruce appear to be unresponsive to conventional
methods used to stimulate sporulation, and require oocysts to be sourced
from other Stitchbird populations. Further work is required in order to
understand the mechanisms of infection and disease and minimise the effects
of this parasite.

Captive husbandry

Stitchbirds at Mt Bruce are held in large bush aviaries measuring at least
10m x 10m x 4m high (approx. 32ft x 32ft x 13ft high). Each aviary has an
interior divider creating two flights. The aviary floor is natural, with fresh
leaf-litter added regularly to boost insect numbers. Insects, particularly
winged ones, such as moths, are an important component of the Stitchbird’s
diet, and they spend much of their time foraging amongst the vegetation for
these, especially when rearing chicks. The large size of the aviaries allows
the many plant species to grow to maturity and provide some of the fruits
and flowers which Stitchbirds utilize in the wild. The large volume of
vegetation also provides good habitat for an abundance of invertebrate life.

Adult birds have to be held in separate flights for most of the year, as
they are very aggressive and competitive. This applies not only birds of the
same sex, but also by males towards females. This aggressive behaviour is
compounded by the fact that they are held in captivity, and subordinate birds

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

29

in an aviary are unable to escape harassment by dominant birds. This social
stress has led to health problems (see chart, page 24). Some individuals,
however, usually older experienced males with females, are compatible.
Pairs held together require careful monitoring to ensure social problems do
not develop. Juveniles are housed together until they are approximately
two months old, when levels of aggression among them gradually escalate
and they need to be separated. The need to house all birds separately has
limited our ability to hold many birds and has compromised research into
captive husbandry and disease.

Glen Holland

Clutch of eggs in nest

The Stitchbird breeding season begins in October and final clutches can
be laid as late as February. Captive females may rear two to three clutches
of up to four chicks per brood. They will make up to four nesting attempts
if early clutches are unsuccessful. Stitchbirds are unusual nesters - usually
entering a cavity and building a platform upwards. We therefore provide
nest-boxes that have the entrance hole at the base. The base of the nest
consists of a tower of coarse twigs, grading into finer materials such as fern
rhizomes and leaf skeletons. The nest cup is thickly lined with tree fern
scales. In the wild, the bases of some nests are up to 30cm (almost 12in)
high. Each aviary has three nest-boxes in the female’s flight from which

30

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

she can choose, and one in the male’s flight close to the dividing wall. In an
effort to ‘impress’ the female, the male will begin to build a small nest in his
box (in the wild they try to lead the female to nest sites). This behaviour
sometimes helps stimulate the female next door to start building. The nest-
boxes we provide measure 30cm x 25cm x 40cm high (approx. 12in x lOin
x 16in high).

The breeding season can be a very stressful time for Stitchbirds. The
males have high levels of testosterone and will pursue the female and mate
with her many more times than is necessary for fertilisation. When the
female, with soft calls and tail up, solicits mating, the male will usually
copulate with her in the normal manner. Often, however, copulation is forced,
with the male chasing the female down to the ground and mating with her in
a face-to-face position (unique among birds) - with claws locked and wings
spread over her to prevent her escaping. The repeated chasing and ‘rape’ is
a cause of much stress to the female. If such attacks persist for too many
days the female will resort to hiding from the male. In the captive situation
she may even be unable to feed sufficiently or get opportunities to build a
nest.

We now hold the male and female of a pair in adjacent flights during the

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

season, thus stimulating the female to nest-build without harassment by the
male. When she has nearly completed nest building, her weight is carefully
monitored with an automatic scale at the feeding station, and from this we
can determine when she is ready to lay. We then introduce the male into her
flight. Depending on the degree of aggression shown by the male, we either
separate the pair after copulation has been observed , at the end of each day,
or if little aggression is observed, the male is left in the female’s flight for a
week until egg laying is completed. One male was allowed to remain with
the female throughout incubation and to assist with rearing the chicks.
Females are capable of rearing chicks on their own, but if the male is present
he can contribute up to one-third of the feeds.

Stitchbirds at Mt Bruce usually lay three to four eggs in a clutch. On
occasions five eggs have been laid, but in these cases no more than four of
them have hatched. After about 10 days it is possible to see the embryo

Capture trap

Rose Collen

32

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

developing inside the translucent egg shell. This can be done without
candling the eggs or even needing to handle them. It means they can easily
be checked for fertility by looking in the nest-box when the female is off the
nest. When the eggs are due to hatch, the nest is checked twice daily to
monitor progress. Any eggs which do not hatch within a day of the first are
candled. Dead in shell or infertile eggs are removed immediately, as nests
have been abandoned when dead in shell eggs were left with young chicks.
The nestling period is 28 days, during which time the chicks are checked
daily. Fortunately the parents tolerate a fairly high level of disturbance at
the nest. By the sixth day the chicks are passing relatively solid faeces,
which are collected daily for disease screening. The faeces are screened for
capillaria and coccidia loadings, so that treatment can begin immediately
infection occurs. If left untreated, chicks infected with coccidia usually die
near fledging. This disease has been the main killer of young chicks since
the captive programme begun.

Breeding Results from 1989 - 1998

(D

_Q

E

=5

z

Year

Nests

■

Hatched

Hedged

Survived

Two juvenile males were released back into the wild in 1998 and another
two in 1999.

To guard against mites and faecal build up in the nest, the nest-box is
replaced when the nest becomes soiled, which also provides an opportunity
to weigh and dose the chicks when required. The chicks become used to
human contact and therefore are quite tame and inquisitive when they become

COLLEN ET AL - STITCHBIRDS

33

adult, making management (catching and moving between aviaries) and
public viewing easier. Inside the clean nest-box, the chicks are placed in an
artificial nest, consisting of a sieve (with the handle removed), lined with
polar fleece fabric and placed inside a raised wooden platform in the nest-
box. The first time the natural nest is replaced, the female typically appears
confused on re-entering the box and hesitates at the entrance until eventually
the calls of the hungry chicks lure her in and she readily accepts the nest
changes from then on.

The chicks fledge at 28 days and are fed by their parents for a further
one to two weeks. They learn to use the feeding stations after about a week
and can be separated from their parents at about 40 days. Daily faecal
sampling of each youngster continues (when possible) until it is three months
old. We assume that by this age they have acquired resistance to coccidia,
which rarely kills adult birds. Sampling is then conducted twice weekly
until their faeces are consistently clear of coccidia. Throughout the winter
birds of all ages are screened monthly. The past two breeding seasons have,
in terms of the juvenile survival rate, been the most successful to date. Four
chicks fledged in the 1997-1998 breeding season and five in the 1998-1999
season. Of these, the females have been retained for captive breeding and
four males have been released on Tirititi Matangi Island in the Hauraki Gulf.
We have recently learnt that one of these males has fathered a clutch in the
wild there.

Correspondence concerning the above article should be addressed to
Glen Holland, Species Management, Mt Bruce Field Centre, National
Wildlife Centre R.D.l, Mt Bruce, Masterton, New Zealand. Tel: 06 -37 5 8004/
Fax:06-375 8003/E-mail: wildlife @ winz. co. nz.

* * *

RODOLPHE D’ERLANGER

Rosemary Low write, ‘It is with sadness and regret that I have to report
the death of our member Rodolphe d’Erlanger on December 23rd, after losing
his fight against cancer.

d’Erlanger was perhaps primarily known for commissioning and
financing the fine art works of Elizabeth Butterworth. This culminated in
1996 with the portfolio on macaws which was ten years in the making and
which was described as one of the most ambitious and complex fine art
works of the 20th century. Rodolphe had kept a small number of parrots for
more than 20 years and consistently bred Hawk-heads throughout this period.
I will sadly miss his quirky phone calls updating me on the progress of his
breeding pairs. Condolences are extended to his widow and two sons.’

34

THE RUFOUS-CAPPED AND OTHER BABBLERS

by Frank Woolham

Many familiar and widely-kept Old World softbills are included among
more than 250 members of the Timaliinae (Babblers). Species vary
considerably in size and colour and among them are many long-standing
avicultural favourites such as laughing thrushes Garrulax spp., Pekin Robin
Leiothrix lutea, scimitar babblers Pomatorhinus spp., fulvettas Alcippe spp.,
yuhinas Yuhina spp. and tree babblers Stachyris spp.

The last is a genus of some 25 species which range widely over the
Oriental Region. Importation of all species has been fairly spasmodic and,
in aviculture, they are by no means the best known members of the family.
I have had experience with only two - the Golden Babbler Stachyris chrysaea
and, more recently, the Rufous-capped (or Red-headed) Babbler S. ruficeps.
Both species have a range which extends from the eastern Himalayas to
Burma, parts of China and Thailand. Two subspecies of the Golden Babbler
are found further south - S. chrysaea chrysops (Malaysia) and S. c. frigida
(western Sumatra). These are two of the smaller members of the family and
examples of the Rufous-capped Babbler have been imported into Europe
within recent months. I suspect two birds in my possession at present may
be of Chinese origin since so many south-east Asian species have been
imported into Europe from that country in recent years; certainly they fit the
description of the subspecies S. r davidi, one of three described from China
and Hainan.

At around 472in (1 1 .5cm) in length, Rufous-capped Babblers are roughly
similar in size and shape to species such as the Black-chinned Yuhina Yuhina
nigrimenta. The upper surfaces including the back, wings and tail, are pale
olive brown, while the crown is bright rufous-brown. The particular birds
in question have uniformly grey-white underparts, paler on the chin and
throat. The bill is very dark grey and the legs and feet are ochreous grey.
The sexes are similar and at present I have no idea whether my two birds are
a pair, although levels of compatibility give faint cause for hope!

Their slender, straight, pointed bills are similar to those of leaf warblers
but in habit the birds are reminiscent of tits. They are vivacious, active and
alert - almost constantly on the move, investigating and re-investigating
every nook and cranny of their flight. They are remarkably confident and
frequently subject their owner to close eyeball-to-eyeball scrutiny in
expectation of a waxworm or some other small delicacy. Occasionally they
retire to a favourite perch, where they sit side by side and on some occasions
one bird partly covers the other with an outstretched wing. Despite this
close association allopreening has not been observed.

WOOLHAM - BABBLERS

35

I have yet to hear any song but calls are frequent and consist of a two
(occasionally three) syllable churring trill. This sometimes takes on a more
irritated, querulous tone. Alarm calls consist of a series of short, and rapidly
repeated, staccato notes, not dissimilar (but lower in volume) to those of the
Pekin Robin. Unsurprisingly for birds with such an obviously inquisitive
nature, they miss little and intruders ranging from cats to Sparrowhawks
Accipiter nisus are unerringly identified, via a window and frequently while
some considerable distance away.

In the wild, members of the genus are said to be mainly insect feeders
and this is certainly borne out by the dietary preferences of my birds. Their
main food is Claus Fat Food Type 4 (Blue Label) to which is added small
amounts of chopped (=mashed) hard-boiled egg, grated dried cheese, whole
prawn and corned beef - the latter two items grated from frozen. Although
clearly insectivorous they quickly started to take a few fresh (frozen)
elderberries and small amounts of finely chopped sweet apple each day.
Perhaps surprisingly they also enjoy a few strands of cress. Livefood, which
is much enjoyed, consists of about 20 mini-mealworms fed twice a day,
morning and evening, and up to eight waxworms offered at intervals
throughout the day (shared between both birds). They solicit livefood from
their owner with an engaging confidence that is hard to resist - but must be
in the interests of their health.

In the wild they are said to inhabit scrub jungle, bamboo thickets and
undergrowth, often in higher zones up to nearly 3,000m (almost 10,000ft).
In general, members of the genus Stachyris are gregarious and outside the
breeding season the Rufous-capped Babbler may be seen in travelling groups,
sometimes of up to 50 or more birds, which include a number of related and
similar-size species. According to Smythies in The Birds of Burma (Oliver
& Boyd, 1953), the Rufous-capped Babbler’s nest, which is mainly sited
fairly low down among vegetation, is ‘...a rather neat-egg- shaped structure
with the entrance at the top, and is made of bamboo leaves, roots and fibres,
with a lining of rootlets’. Clutches usually consists of four white eggs with
darker markings.

The Rufous-capped Babbler is one of several related species which seem
never to have quite found a secure niche in aviculture. With few exceptions,
most of the Stachyris spp. appear to fit Smythies’ observation that they are
‘...small brown birds’, although he also notes that the plumage of some
members of the genus is often ‘elegant’.

36

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

IS THE GREEN AVADAVAT BEING TRAPPED TO
EXTINCTION?

Thirty years ago the Green Avadavat dava formosa was a popular

aviary bird due to its beautiful plumage, and was imported fairly frequently.
However, it proved difficult to breed. Today it is very rare in aviculture in
Europe although still trapped for trade. Sadly, it is now a declining and
vulnerable species due to trapping, and as a result of habitat destruction and
disturbance. For this reason it was placed on Appendix II of CITES at the
1997 CITES Conference.

The Green Avadavat is endemic to central India. It is found in areas of
scrub or where there is tall grass, on the plains and in the foothills. In
Pakistan there was a small population in Lahore which may have originated
from escaped cage birds.

The Green Avadavat is listed on the schedule of the Indian Wildlife
Protection Act of 1972 which prohibits hunting and trapping. Obviously
the Act is not effective. In 1991 India instigated a total ban on keeping
native birds which apparently is not implemented. The Green Avadavat is
still sought after by Indian people and, probably still reaches some countries
which are not signatories to CITES.

While trying to estimate the population size, Abrar Ahmed from
Worldwide Fund for Nature, India, went to a certain area which he searched
with trappers, as only they knew where to find these avadavats. They located
a small population of between 60 and 70 birds, on stony, waste land less
than 1km square (approx. 5/s mile square). It took the trappers less than two
days to wipe out this population. (Surely, a not unpredictable event.)

The Green Avadavat is further threatened by the use of pesticides and
the conversion of its habitat into agricultural land. Although the Red Avadavat
A. amandava has adapted to living in crop fields and sugar cane plantations,
it is thought to be unlikely that this will a apply to the Green Avadavat.

Unless this species is better protected and illegal trapping ceases, it is in
danger of extinction. Its populations are already severely fragmented.

Rosemary Low, RO. Box 100, Mansfield, Notts NG20 9NZ.

REQUEST FOR INFORMATION

Dr Colin Harrison and I are currently updating and enlarging the Collins
Field Guide to Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with
North Africa and The Middle East. We are including an additional 120
species (mainly those from the Arabian Peninsula, Afghanistan and further

LETTERS

37

to the east in Asia) and are including more detailed descriptions of young
birds, particularly colours of bills, legs and feet.

We have been unable to find adequate descriptions for certain chicks as
follows:

Philby’s Partridge

Alectoris philbyi

Arabian Partridge

Alectoris melanocephala

Grey Francolin

Francolinus pondicerianus

Arabian Bustard

Ardeotis arabs

Hill Pigeon or Eastern Rock Dove

Columba rupestris

Everm arm’s Dove or Pale-backed Pigeon

Columba eversmanni

Bruce’s Green Pigeon

Treron waalia

White-throated Bee-eater

Merops albicollis

Abyssinian Roller

Coracias abyssinicus

Indian Roller

Coracias benghalensis

Gambaga Dusky Flycatcher

Muscicapa gambagae

Turkestan Tit

Parus bokharensis

Yellow-breasted Tit

Parus flavipectus

Shining Sunbird

Nectarinia habessinica

White-breasted White-eye

Zosterops abyssinica

Large-billed Crow or Jungle Crow

Corvus macrorhynchos

Amethyst Starling

Cinnyricinclus leucogaster

Bank Myna

Acridotheres ginginianus

Sind Jungle Sparrow

Passer pyrrhonota

Arabian Golden Sparrow

Passer euchloris

Sudan Golden Sparrow

Passer luteus

Arabian Waxbill

Estrilda rufibarba

Arabian Serin

Serinus rothchildi

Yemen Serin

Serinus menachensis

Golden-winged Grosbeak

Rhyne ostruthus socotranus

Yemen Linnet

Carduelis yemenensis

For certain species, we need details of legs, feet and bill colours only -

Siberian Crane

Grus leucogeranus

Reeves’ Pheasant

Syrmaticus reevesi

Silver Pheasant

Lophura nycthemera

Californian Quail

Lophortyx calif ornicus

If you can suggest any sources where, details of any of these might be

found, I shall be most grateful.

Peter Castell, Fairlawn, 679 Chester Road, Great Sutton, Ellesmere Port
CH66 2LN, England. Tel: (Home) 0151 -347- 1302Tel/Fax: (Office) 0151-
347-1435/E-mail: PCASTELL@FSBDIAL.CO.UK

38

LETTERS

AN ALEXANDRINE PARRAKEET AND BROLGAS

In the third issue of the Avicultural Magazine for 1998 (Vol. 104 No. 3,
p. 116), I made reference to an Alexandrine Parrakeet Psittacula eupatria
leading a feral existence here in Dorchester. This bird subsequently featured
in the UK weekly journal Cage & Aviary Birds in the early part of 1999,
after having been retrieved from a house in Weymouth, into which it had
flown through an open window. The parrakeet was handed over to the
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Protection of Animals), which refused to
return it to the couple who had fed it for many months at their bird table, and
instead re-homed it to an aviary. The reason given for this being that it
could not, as an exotic species, be returned to a free-flying existence.

The following issue of the magazine (Vol. 104, No. 4) included a reference
(p. 167) to Brolgas Grus rubicuna at Vogelpark Walsrode, with the comment
that this species does not appear to have been bred in Europe. Rutgers and
Norris (1970) quoted from an article in the Avicultural Magazine by Hubert
Astley in 1924, describing the young Brolga (Australian Crane) hatched by
his pair, which seems to have been fully reared. Unfortunately, I do not
have access to the primary source. Delacour (1931) confirmed that it ‘...has
been bred in confinement’.

References

Delacour, J. et al. 1931. Aviculture. The Avicultural Society.

Norris, K.A. and Rutgers, A. 1970. Encyclopedia of Aviculture . Blandford
Press, Dorset.

Philip Schofield, Dorchester, Dorset DTI 1QE, England.

According to First Breeding Records for Birds Reared to Independence
under Controlled Conditions in the UK compiled by Dave Coles, the first
breeding in the UK was at Woburn Park in 1908. He gives as his source the
Avicultural Magazine (p. 306) for that year. In News & Views recently (Vol.
105, No. 2, p. 94), there was reference to one having hatched at Whipsnade
Wild Animal Park, following the use of artificial insemination. According
to the Zoological Society of London Annual Report for 1998: ‘ This pair had
bred only twice previously in the last 20 years or so. ’ - Ed.

INBREEDING AND REDUCTIONS IN EGG SIZE

Since 1972 1 have been assembling a reference collection of eggs laid in
captivity. Here I should emphasise that I disagree with taking eggs from the
wild and all of my material has been received from reputable collections
after it has proved to be unviable. Through the help and generosity of a

LETTERS

39

great many aviculturists and zoo staff my collection now consists of almost
60,000 eggs representing over 2,000 species and subspecies. Since this
programme has been conducted now for almost 30 years a number of trends
are becoming apparent.

Two Orders, the Anseriformes and Galliformes, are widely kept and bred
in captivity and many of the species tend to lay large clutches. My collection
now contains large series of eggs from many of these species and since they
have been acquired over a long period they represent several generations.
Since many of the species of waterfowl and pheasants we have in our
collections descend from a few prolific pairs these populations have, by
now, become very inbred. Over the years, it had gradually become apparent
that inbreeding tends to reduce egg size. However, the reduction in egg size
does not necessarily adversely affect hatchability or chick viability. Of
course, some highly inbred populations do loose fertility and any chicks
hatched may be weak and difficult to rear, but this is not invariably the case.

Since Michel Klat has imported stock which is only one or two
generations away from wild caught birds it has been possible to compare
egg samples which confirms the trend of inbreeding reducing egg size. For
instance Golden Chrysolophus pictus and Elliot’s Pheasant Syrmaticus ellioti
have been bred in captivity for many years without the infusion of new
blood. Although the stock has remained viable and breeding results are still
quite good the average egg size has reduced dramatically. The size of the
eggs laid by the new stock imported by Mr Klat is noticeably larger. This is
exactly what I have noticed with other species of pheasants, ducks and geese.

Gordon Holmes, who used to maintain a marvellous collection at
Bradwell in Essex, had a large flock of Bar-headed Geese Anser indicus
which were all colour ringed and had their parentage, as far as it was known,
recorded. After it became apparent that there was an enormous difference in
the size of the eggs laid by his birds we checked the records of the birds
which had laid and a pattern emerged. Admittedly eggs can vary in size for
a number of reasons. Young females will often lay small eggs and some
clutches will include one or more abnormally small eggs. However, the
overwhelming majority of the small eggs were laid by inbred stock.

We then monitored the subsequent progress of the eggs and found that
the hatchability of the small eggs was very much the same as for the larger
ones. Also, whilst there was a difference in the size and weight of the chicks
immediately after hatching, the goslings from the small eggs quickly caught
up and, by the time they started to feather, there was no discernible difference
in size between those from the large or small eggs.

Have any other members got first-hand experience which supports or
disproves this observation?

Bernard Sayers, Chelmsford, Essex CM2 6AB, England.

40

COUNCIL MEETING

A Council Meeting was held on Sunday, 19th September 1999 at Wem,
Shropshire.

The following members were present: K.W. Dolton, R.C.J. Sawyer (Vice
Presidents), K.J. Lawrence (Chairman), Mrs. L. Gardner, N. Hewston, S.
Pyper, J. Trollope, Dr R. Wilkinson.

Minutes of the Council Meeting held on 17th April 1999 were, after
minor correction, approved.

It was decided that the D.H.S. Risdon Award for the best article in the
magazine during the previous year should go to Martina Muller and Norbert
Neumann for the article Keeping and Breeding Fig Parrots of the Genus
Psittaculirostris at Vogelpark Walsrode, Germany (. Avicultural Magazine
104, 2: 55-60).

Leeds Castle was awarded the Society’s Certificate of Merit for the first
breeding of the Crowned Hombill Tockus alboterminatus in Great Britain
and Ireland. The decision whether or not to make an award to Birdworld for
the first breeding of the Southern Helmeted Curassow Pauxi u. unicornis
was deferred for further investigation.

J. Trollope was re-elected to the Council for a further five year term.

The Council was told that a stand had been booked for the National
Exhibition of Cage and Aviary Birds to be held, 1 1th- 12th December 1999,
at Telford (a new venue). Mike Curzon was to be stand coordinator. The
Council agreed, subject to finalising some points, to support Avian 2000.

Laura Gardner asked what had happened regarding the suggestion that
the Society have a website? This had been suggested by the Hon. Editor at
the previous meeting, and while the Council was (and remains) generally in
favour of the idea, members felt they lack the necessary expertise to set this
up. Since the previous meeting, some enquiries had been made, but to date
had come to nothing and the search was continuing for someone, a member
of the Society perhaps, with the necessary skills to design and maintain a
successful website.

* * *

AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE BACK ISSUES

A large stock is available including some early issues. Sales are by post
only. Further details are available from:- Hon. Secretary, Avicultural Society,
c/o Bristol Zoological Gardens, Clifton, Bristol BS8 3HA, England.

41

BOOK REVIEWS

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD

The recently published fifth volume of the Handbook of the Birds of the
World is simply stunning. Any doubts that it would be impossible to maintain
the high standards achieved with the much acclaimed first volume in 1992
have receded further into the distance with the appearance of the four that
have followed. Volume 5 easily maintains what is now a well established
standard of excellence. Just three Orders, covering 10 families, occupy
most of the book’s 760 pages: Strigiformes (Bam Owls and typical Owls),
Caprimulgiformes (Oilbird, Owlet-Nightjars, Frogmouths, Potoos and
Nightjars) and Apodiformes (Swifts, Treeswifts and Hummingbirds). The
format remains the same: a lengthy introduction to each family which
provides considerable details under the headings Systematics, Morphological
Aspects, Habitat, General Habits, Voice, Food and Feeding, Breeding,
Movements, Relationship with Man, Status and Conservation.

Page size is 310 x 240mm and more than 750 distribution maps are
provided adjacent to information about individual species. Use of colour is
best described a lavish, even by modem day standards. There are 76 full-
page plates and more than 400 colour photographs, many of outstanding
merit. Completing details of the book’s vital statistics, there are
approximately 8,000 bibliographical references. Not least of many important
contributions is a thought-provoking introductory essay from Dr N.J. Collar.

Some of the information contained in this volume is so recent its inclusion
is remarkable, bearing in mind the length of time which must be taken-up
from design to publishing. The Forest Owlet Athene blewitti, provides a
good example. Rediscovered as recently as November 1997, it is not only
fully described in Volume 5 but an excellent colour photograph of an example
in the wild (Maharashtra, India) is also reproduced.

As a means of identifying individual species and distinctive subspecies,
the colour plates are of a high standard and although styles vary (19 artists
contributed to the volume) quality is consistent. No fewer than 32 of the 76
plates are devoted to hummingbirds with all of the generally recognised
328 species (plus many subspecies) illustrated. There are also 125
outstanding colour photographs of these iridescent New World gems. And
while the majority of species appear to have been photographed in their
natural environment, I was particularly taken by a shot of a Bee Hummingbird
Mellisuga helenae perched on the unsharpened end of a pencil to illustrate
its tiny size.

Photographs of a number of interesting conservation-sensitive species
are also included. Worthy of note are the Blossomcrown Eriocnemis derbyi,

42

BOOK REVIEWS

Juan Fernandez Firecrown Sephanoides femandensis, Chilean Woodstar
Myrtis yarrellii and Hooded Visorbearer Augastes lumachella.

While aviculturists will be particularly interested in the comprehensive
treatment given to the hummingbirds, coverage of the bam owls and typical
owls is also extensive and is accompanied by some outstanding photographs.
I do not claim to be an owl expert (in fact I shy away from that over-used
word in relation to every subject with which I am reasonably familiar) but I
was impressed by several photographs here, including one of a Congo Bay
Owl Phodilus prigoginei, which apparently vanished after its discovery in
1951 to reappear again 45 years later. Photographs of other species which
also took my eye include relatively ‘new’ species’ including the Long-
whiskered Owlet Xenoglaux loweryi from northern Peru, Cloudforest Pygmy
Owl Glaucidium nubicola from the Pacific slope of the Andes, and the
Sangihe Scops Owl Otus collari from Sangihe Island. A taxonomic challenge
is highlighted on facing pages by photographs of 12 species and subspecies
of the genus Otus. There are many more examples of the wildlife
photographer’s art with most subjects pictured while involved in some kind
of behavioural activity.

One of my favourites among the typical owls is Woodford’s now probably
better known as the African Wood Owl. My relatively meagre knowledge
of the Strigidae was given something of a lift when I discovered (p 204) that
what I had always known as Ciccaba xvoodfordii has been reclassified Strix
woodfordii. DNA studies have shown that the previous generic separation
was not justified.

The first five volumes have already added immeasurably to our
knowledge of the world’s birds. The books will undoubtedly appreciate in
value and are worthy of acquisition for aesthetic reasons alone. My niece, a
County Archivist, spotted Volume 5 when she visited us recently and spent
half a day going through it page by page before delivering an opinion: ‘This
is going to be a much sought-after collectable in the next century’, was her
view. But few people will leave this or any of its predecessors to gather dust
on a bookshelf. So informative a work demands regular use!

Like earlier volumes it is edited by J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot and J. Gargatal
and published by Lynx Edicions, Passeig de Gracia 12, 08007 Barcelona,
Spain. Tel: 34-93 301 0777/Fax: 34 93 302 1475/E-mail:lynx@hbw.com/
Intemet:http.//www.hbw.com

Frank Woolham

BOOK REVIEWS

43

AUSTRALIAN WHITE COCKATOOS

The 15th title in the highly successful Australian Birdkeeper A Guide to...
series, covers the Australian White Cockatoos. The term ‘white’ is used to
mean non-black, thus Galahs and Gang Gangs are included, in addition to the
Cacatua species. The author is Chris Hunt from Victoria who, with his wife
Maree, breeds cockatoos, some of which are hand-reared for the pet trade.

This is a very practical guide, starting off with advice on purchasing
cockatoos, transportation and the quarantine of new arrivals. The correct
way to handle a cockatoo, with and without a towel, is illustrated with
photographs. Housing, rodent control and aviary design are discussed, along
with the fact that suspended cages are not suitable for most cockatoos because
they like to forage and play on the aviary floor. This section includes a
photograph of an upright cylindrical outdoor cage for a pet cockatoo. Sadly,
I have seen these cages used on many occasions in Australia, although they
are totally unsuitable as the cockatoo is hardly able to open its wings. There
is much good advice on size and gauge of wire mesh.

The section on nutrition is very well illustrated and the need for fresh
cut branches is emphasised. Australians, of course, are able to supply a
wealth of natural foods such as branches with eucalyptus gum nuts. In
Europe we have to make do with pine cones.

The section on hand-rearing includes a useful table of weights of chicks
being hand-reared, from the ages of 15 day to weaning. To wean Greater
Sulphur-crests at 54 days seems rather early, to me, likewise Long-billed
Corellas at seven weeks. But then in my opinion most hand-feeders wean
cockatoos much too early, often with lasting psychological damage. The
husbandry section covers 41 pages. It is followed by a 19 page section on
diseases by Stacey Gelis, BVSc, MACVSc, an avian vet and aviculturist.
This is a very valuable section, especially that describing what to do with a
sick bird, and the problems caused by dietary deficiencies. Discussion on
the diseases to which cockatoos are most susceptible, such as PBFD
(circovirus), polyoma and chlamydiosis, includes disinfection, treatment and
supportive care. Bacterial infections, aspergillosis, candidiasis, bumblefoot,
worms, parasites and heavy metal poisoning are all covered in a lucid and
readable manner. The various causes of feather plucking are also detailed,
including allergies (dust-mites, grasses etc.).

The following 40 pages are devoted to species descriptions, with notes
for each one on breeding, sexing, mutations, etc. For the Galah there are
tables showing expectations from pairing together the various mutations.
This book is profusely illustrated and contains a wealth of useful information.
It is essential reading for all keepers and breeders of cockatoos, Australian
or otherwise.

Rosemary Low

44

NEWS & VIEWS

ARMED RAID

It was reported ( Cage & Aviary Birds , February 5th issue) that 60 Bali
Starlings Leucopsar rothschildi were taken in an armed raid on the captive
breeding centre on the Indonesian island of Bali. Later, the number stolen
was amended to ‘some 39’, with the other 21 seemingly unaccounted for!
Some of the stolen birds were already said to be turning up on the black
market out there. Members will recall that John Horton recently wrote about
his visit to the captive breeding centre ( Avicultural Magazine 105, 2: 54-56)
and how, at the time of his visit in June 1999, there were said to be 81 Bali
Starlings (breeding pairs and their young) housed there.

* * *

TOUCAN REARED

Geoff Masson, Head Keeper at Paultons Park has provided the following
details about the breeding of a Toco Toucan Ramphastos toco there last
year: ‘Eggs have been laid by our pair of Toco Toucans for a number of
years but no chicks had been reared successfully. Things seemed to be
going the same way last year when the chicks from the first two clutches,
totalling six eggs, were dead in the shell again. When a third clutch of two
eggs was laid I decided to leave them with the parents. The problem with
this course of action was that the parents always remove all the nest lining
and lay the eggs directly onto the wooden floor of the box. The birds were
allowed to sit as they were for two to three days and then when the female
came out of the nest-box to feed, I nipped into the aviary and put about 3in
(7.5cm) of sand in the bottom of the box and replaced the eggs. The female
went straight back and resumed incubation.

Approximately one week before the two eggs were due to hatch a third
egg was laid. A few days later this disappeared and one of the original eggs
was found broken on the floor with a fully formed chick dead inside. The
remaining egg was removed to an incubator. It hatched June 20th and the
chick weighed 21g. It was fed by syringe and kept in a brooder until its eyes
started to open on the seventeenth day. It was then transferred to a heated
unit with one-way glass and fed using a Toco Toucan puppet obtained from
our gift shop. The toucan was weaned on October 18th. DNA sexing
established it is a female, and a male has been purchased to pair up with her
this spring.

Geoff is interested in making contact with anyone with single Toco
Toucans, or incompatible birds, with the view to exchanging these for captive
bred birds. He can be contacted at:- Paultons Park, Ower, Romsey, Hants.
S051 6AL. Tel: 01703 814442.

NEWS & VIEWS

45

JAVA SPARROW AMONG BIRDS UNDER THREAT

The Java Sparrow Padda oryzivora is on the surface perhaps a surprise
inclusion in a list of over 1,200 bird species considered to be threatened by
extinction. Other species on the list, published recently by BirdLife
International, include the Gouldian Finch Chloebia gouldiae, Star Finch
Neochima ruficauda, Royal Parrot Finch Erythrura regia , Green Avadavat
Amandava formosa, Bali Starling Leucopsar rothschildi and Blue Bird of
Paradise Paradisaea rudolphi. Also on the list are 17 species of Amazon
parrots Amazona spp., several macaws Anodorhynchus, Cyanopsitta and
Ara spp., and many other parrots, as well as pigeons, ducks, geese and
pheasants. All 1,200 and more species will be included in Threatened Birds
of the World, to be published by BirdLife International and for which it
hopes to find a sponsor for each species. If you would like to know more,
you can contact Naomi Hawkins, BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court,
Girton Road, Cambridge CBS ONA, UK. Tel:+44 1223 2773 18/Fax: +44
1223 277 200/E-mail :naomi. hawkins@birdlife.org.uk

* * *

AUSTRALIANS STUNG BY CRITICISM

J.R. (Bob) Hodges’ criticism of the Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Plan
contained in his article Saving the Orange-bellied Parrakeet (Avicultural
Magazine 104, 2: 49-52), which brought a response from Richard H. Loyn
on behalf of the Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team ( Avicultural Magazine
105, 3: 134-136), was also commented upon in the Newsletter of the South
Australian Ornithologist Association.

Bob had, wrote the author quoted in Eclectus, criticised the team because
it has not been ‘prepared to distribute potential breeding birds to reputable
aviculturists nor even take advantage of their knowledge and expertise’.
They had been, the author continued: ‘trapped for aviculture for more than
120 years; a literature search and other sources of recorded information
showed that a minimum of 70 individuals were trapped in South Australia
alone between 1934 and the early 1970s; and according to one authority one
South Australian aviculturalist had ‘never been without these birds which
he traps himself, since 1934’ ( Australian Parrots in Captivity Lendon, A.
H. 1951). The second criticism also overlooks the fact that one member of
the Recovery Team [Peter Brown] was once a member of the Council of the
Avicultural Society. Personally I believe the Team’s reluctance to distribute
Orange-bellied Parrots to aviculturalists, no matter how reputable, is that
experience has shown that widespread establishment as a cage bird often
leads both to pleas for more wild stock for ‘new blood’ and to a minority of
aviculturalists who are careless about such matters, acquiring birds of
doubtful origin.’

46

NEWS & VIEWS

NESTING AMAZON AND NEW OWL

The Wilson Bulletin Vol. Ill No. 4, December 1999, includes (pp. 488-
493) an account of the nesting behaviour of the Lilac-crowned Amazon
Amazona finschi, observed over a three year period at 24 nests in the dry
forest of the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, western Mexico. There
is also (pp. 457-464) a description and painting of a new species of owl, the
Cinnabar Hawk-Owl Ninox ios, from north Sulawesi. Described from a
specimen collected in 1985 in forest in Bogani Nani Wartabone (then
Dumoga-Bone) National Park, it was previously identified as a rufous morph
of the Ochre-bellied Hawk-Owl N. ochracea.

* * *

A BUSY YEAR FOR THE WCS

The New York Wildlife Conservation Society Annual Report 1999 notes
that during the year Ornithology Department Chairman and Curator Donald
Bruning continued to work with Taman Safari and Taman Mini Bird Park in
Indonesia, which resulted in the latter being the first Indonesian establishment
to breed the Maleo Macrocephalon maleo. Senior Keeper Patti Cooper
worked with keepers at Jurong Bird Park, Singapore, on management
protocols for birds of paradise, as well as visiting Taman Safari to assist
with its bird of paradise programme.

Assistant Collection Manager Marcia Arland visited Entebbe Zoo,
Uganda, to review its facilities for Pied Kingfishers Ceryle rudis. Pairs
usually lose one or two young per clutch, so the department will collect
nestlings that otherwise might starve, hand-rear them in Uganda, and take
the adults back to the Bronx Zoo. The Ornithology Department has three
pairs of Bulwer’s Wattled Pheasants Lophura bulweri but, to date, the captive
breeding programme has been unsuccessful. In relation to this, Assistant
Curator John Rowden travelled to Borneo to observe this species in the
wild, and hopes to establish a long-term conservation project there for
Bulwer’s Wattled Pheasant. During the year the department received two
pairs of Green Junglefowl Gallus varius which are unrelated to any other
birds of this species in collections in the USA.

Bronx Zoo’s first Lesser Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos javanicus chick was
successfully reared by its parents in 1999. Montezuma Oropendula
Psarocolius montezuma, Congo Peafowl Afropavo congensis and Fairy
Bluebird Irena puella were some of the other notable species bred there last
year.

Information about current WCS activities can be found on its web page
at www.wcs.org. The home page which is changed weekly has the latest
news items, including about scientific projects, special zoo events and
conservation work.

NEWS & VIEWS

47

REARED BY CANARIES

Eric Callaghan, of Dublin, Ireland, who was awarded the Society’s medal
for the first breeding of the Three-banded Rosefinch Carpodacus trifasciatus,
wrote at the end of last year and mentioned he had bred two Dark Rosefinches
C. nipalensis, which had been fostered under canaries. He also had a Pallas’s
Rosefinch C. roseus reared by canaries and was disappointed to have lost
two broods of Great Eastern Rosefinches C. rubicilloides at a few days old,
because he had no suitable foster parents available at the time. As hard as
he has tried, Eric has been unable to persuade any of his species of rosefinches
to accept any form of livefood, and is sure it is a major reason for his difficulty
in producing parent-reared young. He was surprised therefore that when
Frank Meaden bred the Three-banded species last year, his birds took
waxmoth larvae.

* * *

VETS AT THE NATIONAL AGAIN

Once again veterinary surgeons participated at the UK’s largest bird show,
the National Exhibition Of Cage and Aviary Birds, held December 10th-
12th, at the Telford International Centre.

As in previous years, a Vets’ First Aid Room, provided facilities for
birds in need of treatment, rest or temporary housing. Experienced veterinary
surgeons, Kevin Eatwell, MRCVS, Mark Evans, MRCVS and Richard
Saunders, MRCVS, supervised the room and provided general assistance
during the show. Veterinary undergraduates, Simon Priestnall, Steve Smith,
Caroline Harling and Ella Poulter took turns at working with the duty
veterinary surgeon and gained practical experience of handling and tending
birds. Postgraduate students Becki Lawson and Kate Goldworthy of the
UK, Petra Wesche from Germany and Willemien van Wyk from South Africa,
all on the London-based MSc Wild Animal Health Course, assisted in the
work of the exhibition’s Inspection Committee and liaised with traders and
others on health and welfare matters.

Students also played a part in publicising the work of IFAR (International
Fund for Avian Research) which provides grants for work with free-living
and captive birds and supports the attendance of postgraduate students at
the exhibition. Co-ordinated by Professor John Cooper, FRCVS, the
veterinary work is now an integral part of the weekend and, in addition to
promoting the health and welfare of birds provides an excellent opportunity
for veterinary students to meet experienced aviculturists and learn from them.
Avian medicine has made enormous advances in recent years and more and
more veterinary surgeons now deal with birds in their practises. Involvement
in the National Exhibition, together with the work of IFAR, is helping to
ensure that the standing of veterinary surgeons in this field continues to
strengthen, with benefits to birds, their owners and the veterinary profession.

48

NEW SECRETARY OF IFAR

Emma Magnus is the new Hon. Secretary of the International Fund for
Avian Research (IFAR). She has taken over from Brian Byles, the fund’s
founder, who remains the Hon. Treasurer. Further information about IFAR
and its work can be obtained by contacting it:- c/o British Veterinary
Association, 7 Mansfield Street, London W1M OAT, or E-mail:
emma@ifar.freeserve.co.uk or EmmaMagnus@compuserve.com

* * *

LATEST ARRIVALS

The latest birds to be hatched at Chester Zoo include two Bali Starlings
Leucopsar rothschildi, a Nicobar Pigeon Caloenas nicobarica, two Speckled
Pigeons Columba guinea and a Golden Heart Pigeon Gallicolumba rufigula.
New arrivals include a Black Stork Ciconia nigra and two White-eared
Catbirds Ailuroedus buccoides.

* * *

MAKING THEMSELVES AT HOME

Les Reid, a member of the Sierra Club, returned home to find a
Californian Condor Gymnogyps californianus eating his underpants.
Altogether there were eight condors on his mattress. They had entered by
tearing open the screen door. They are, according to the report, among 49
captive-bred condors released into the wild, many of which appear to have
no fear of humans. Elsewhere in California, residents of Merced were, it
seems, trying to scare away 200 Turkey Vultures Cathartes aura , which
were nesting in nearby eucalyptus,

* * *

PET INDEX 2000

Pet Index 2000 (website:www.petindex.co.uk), The Pet Industry Business
Opportunities Exhibition, will be held April 16th- 17th, at the NEC,
Birmingham.

* * *

ROB HARVEY SPECIALIST FEEDS

We supply over 30 zoos with our range of top quality feeds.

Witte Molens famous PARROT PREMIUM (not a cheap copy) 15kg for £19.75, or 30kg for only £35.00

Witte Molen- Moist Eggfood -

Witte Molen- Hedgerow Eggfood -

Witte Molen- Universal Food -

Witte Molen- Low Iron for Touracos & Toucans

Witte Molen- Eggfood Red -

Witte Molen- Low iron softfood with insects -

£14.25 5kg tub
£15.50 5kg tub
£14.25 5kg tub
£16.25 5kg tub WITTE
£15.50 5kg tub

£19.00 3.5kg tub Main Distributor

MOLEN

We also sell a massive range of top quality clean seeds & berries from Witte Molen such as:-
Mountain Ash, Juniper, Sesame, Pine seeds, Plantain, Perillas, Black Lettuce, Teasel, Hemp ,
Chicory, Milk Thistle, Siskin mix, Wild Seeds, Weed Seeds, Soakseed, British Finch Premium,
Canary Premium and many more.

AVI-PLUS PARROT HANDREARING FOOD used to raise
over 10,000 parrots in South Africa last year - £6.95 kg.

Plus new formula with probiotics &
spirulina for delicate chicks £6.95 kg

Avi-plus Lorikeet Special - used by many zoos - £5.95 kg
AVI-SUP SOLUBLE MULTIVITAMINS £ 3.60 lOOg

AVI-STRESS £3.92 lOOg

AVI- SUPTWINPACK

MULTIVITAMINS & MINERALS £4.35 200g

AVI-MED SAFE SPROUT £2.78 250g

HEMP ROPE

As used in zoos and bird parks.
Hang these ropes in your parrot
cage or aviary and give your
parrot hours of fun.

36mm £6.99 per metre

10m for £55!

24mm £3.45 per metre

10m for £27!

We sell the whole range

Post & Packing
upto 30kg
only £3.95

Visit our website
& advertise your
surplus stock

FREE

www.robharvey.com

INCUBATION COURSES
Rob Harvey will be running
one day incubation courses
in the next two months
which cover all aspects of
incubation. The cost of £75
includes lunch, a copy of
Practical Incubation (rrp
£12.95) and various samples
and literature.

Please enquire for next
available date (Saturdays).

Mail order on all products.

For our price list or if you just want some advice please
contact Rob Harvey (ex-owner & curator of Birdworld
for over 20 years)

E-mail: admin@robharvey.com Tel: 01420 23986 Fax: 01420 23078
Rob Harvey, Kookaburra House, Gravel Hill Road, Holt Pound,
Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LG. Vat No. 709 3341 43
Export &Trade Enquiries Welcome

CONTENTS

Thirty Years With Pheasants

by Philip Schofield . 1

The High Occurrence of Brood Patches in Mist-netted Birds

in a Lowland Ecuadorian Rainforest
by Harold F. Greeney, Caleb E. Gordon,

Matthew E. Kaplan & Charles G. Chimera . 10

Notes and Observations on Hand-rearing African Pygmy Falcons
Polihierax semitorquatus

by Chris Smith . 12

Stitchbirds - An Avicultural Challenge

by Rose Collen, Glen Holland, Caroline Twentyman,

Jerry Pauli & Betty Watt . , . 22

The Rufous-capped and other Babblers

by Frank Woolham . 34

Letters

Re: Is the Green Avadavat Being Trapped to Extinction ... 36

Request for Information . 36

Re: An Alexandrine Parrakeet and Brolgas . 38

Re: Inbreeding and Reductions in Egg Size . . . 38

Council Meeting . 40

Book Reviews

Handbook of the Birds of the World . 41

Australian White Cockatoos . 43

News & Views . 44

Published by the Avicultural Society, England.
Produced by Data Publishing Service, Cheddar.