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Birds

AVICULTURAL
MAGAZINE

mBRAH :>:X

X

VOLUME 98
No. 1
1992

CONTENTS

Moszkowski’s Green-winged King Parrot

By Dulcie Cooke . . . 1

Breeding the White-tailed Blue Robin

By B. Woodley . 9

Notes on the Breeding Biology of Wild and Captive
Cut-throat Finches

By Neville Brickell and Arthur Wright . 13

Incubation and Nestling Periods of Lesser
and Greater Vasa Parrots

By R. Wilkinson, M. Pilgrim, A. Woolham and B. West . 17

Breeding the Racket-tailed Roller

By Roger Cattermole . 22

Tinamous in Great Britain

By Dr. Karl P. N. Shuker . 27

The Jacquot Express

By Paul Butler and Judith Venning . 34

News and Views

37

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 1 All rights reserved

ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

Moszkowski's Green-winged King Parrot
The single bird is a cock. The hen is on the left of the pair.

Dulcie Cooke

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 1 All rights reserved ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

MOSZKOWSKI S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

By Dulcie Cooke (Epsom)

Moszkowski's Green-winged King Parrot Alisterus chlorop-
terus moszkowskii could be considered one of the most exquisite of
a large family of birds well known for their spectacular appearance.
In these birds nature has thrown some of her most brilliant colours
together in an extravaganza of flamboyance only matched by the
grace and beauty of their flight. It is in flight, so light and fast, that
the richness and intensity of those purples, scarlets and greens can
be caught by the sunlight to form a living dream of glittering
colours, making an unforgettable impression on the viewer.

Green-winged King Parrots have always been rare in the U.K.
although over a period of many years commencing at the beginning
of the century a few specimens have been imported. Alfred Ezra
was the first to breed them in this country, in 1945. They have also
been bred in Holland, in Denmark, and in 1987 at Loro Park in the
Canary Islands. There are said to be more of them in Germany and
Switzerland.

In their wild state the race Moszkowskii inhabits West Irian and
Northern New Guinea as far east as Aitape on the northern coast.
They are found mainly in dense rain forests on the slopes of low
mountains, but they occasionally go almost as high as 8000 ft. and
visit cultivated areas at high altitudes. They progress through
forest areas on the lower or middle branches, and fly through the
trees, not above them. They may be seen singly or in pairs or
sometimes in small groups of up to six birds. Perhaps these groups
comprise parents and their young. Their flight is straight and very
strong.

Rosemary Low writing in her book Endangered Parrots pub¬
lished in 1984 says of Indonesia "A 4000 mile stretch of islands ...
of which Java is the most densely populated with (at that time) 95

3

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

million of Indonesia's 150 million people." The large areas of
dense rain forest where Moszkowski's live in West Irian New
Guinea stand a better chance perhaps of surviving Indonesia's main
export, wood, because of their inaccessibility to transport. Obvi¬
ously the magnificent Moszkowski's King and many other species
of parrot and Lory will stand a much better chance of surviving and
extending their populations as long as the rain forests are left intact.

The World Wildlife Fund has been active in helping to fund
Various projects with the support of the Indonesian Government to
create forest reserves and protected areas to help conserve the flora
and fauna from the threat of deforestation by the logging companies
and the local populations who often gain a livelihood from cutting
down trees and selling the wood. There would not appear to be any
risk of wild populations diminishing at present, thanks in part to the
wild and unpopulated areas in which they live, and in part to the
creation of these protected areas where Moszkowski's King parrots
appear to have every chance of thriving in their remote rain forest
domains.

The following description may help readers to identify these
birds should they see or acquire them and also, hopefully, will add
further aids to identifying the difference between the adult males
and females beyond those which are available at present.

Male

The male weighs about 7 oz. and is about 14 " (36cm) long. Its
call is distinctly softer than that of Australian Kings and varies
considerably. For example, it is a plaintive call when it is dark and
cold and he wants to be told to go to bed in his house! The head,
neck, breast and underparts are all a brilliant scarlet, a rather
deeper shade than that of Australian Kings. The shoulders and
wings are deep green, and the very light green wing stripe is wide
and long and very conspicuous. The entire back from the nape of
the neck down to the rump is a deep rich purple which quite literally
"glitters" in the sunlight. The tail is a rich very dark blue above and
black underneath with sometimes the odd "fleck" of red. The beak
is quite large with the upper mandible scarlet at the base and black
at the tip, and the lower mandible black. The legs are grey and the
large expressive eyes are orange.

Female

The head, neck, breast and underparts of the female are brilliant
deep scarlet like the male. She has the same deep green shoulders
and wings and the same broad light green wing stripe. What is not
made very clear in various descriptions is that she has the same rich

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

4

deep purple back extending from the nape of the neck right down
to her rump. Her tail is rich deep blue above and black below. Her
upper mandible is orange-scarlet at the base and black at the tip and
the lower mandible is black. The feet are grey. Her eyes are big
and orange just like her consort. Her weight can be rather less than
his at a little over 6 oz. and her length is approximately the same.

The only way to be sure one has a female (because weights can
vary in different birds) is the overlay of deep green feathers on the
nape of the neck and extending across the back from the shoulders
when the bird is still. When she flies, these feathers part to show
a wholly purple back, making her look like a male. There can be
a little purple band showing above the green on the nape of the neck
even in repose.

Joseph Forshaw in Parrots of the World states that the young are
like the female, except that the light green wing stripe is narrower
and duller in colour and that the breast is marked with green
feathers. Rosemary Low in Parrots, their care and breeding points
out that the beak is mostly horn coloured in young birds.

It is of great importance to bear in mind that, like all Kings,
either male or female can turn on their partner in times of stress,
such as can happen when one member of the pair is in breeding
condition and the other is not ready to breed. If it is the male who
is in breeding condition and the hen is too young, too old, or is out
of condition he can and in some cases does kill her. Therefore a
very careful watch must be kept both on the condition of the birds
and their disposition towards each other. Such a tragedy is much
more likely to happen when the birds are not totally compatible.
Clipping the flight feathers of one wing has a remarkable effect in
the case of some birds and renders them much better tempered
towards their mates but in certain cases it might be necessary to
remove the cock altogether. Young birds, should they ever be
produced, would be particularly vulnerable to a ferocious parent.

Moszkowski's Kings are not easy to acclimatize. They need a
heated house for a long time when first imported. A temperature
of 58 - 60° F will suit them very well but if the temperature falls
much below that in the first months here the hen or hens will start
to look distinctly unhappy. The face of a hen who is cold or
unhappy for some reason, or not well, will quite literally go a shade
or two darker in colour, only to go lighter again when she is warm,
happy etc.

They are subject to infestation by various worms perhaps be¬
cause, like Australian Kings, they spend some time on the ground

5

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

picking up all the odd bits they can find. Panacur Sheep wormer,
without Additives, the 2.05% solution seems to suit them very well.
I add one part of pure Panacur (the above solution) to 5 parts of
water. There is a sediment so it must be shaken well. Catheters or
tubes of any kind are never used. One and a half millilitres of the
above mixture is drawn into a syringe with the needle removed, the
nozzle of the syringe is put into the side of the beak and the plunger
is gently and slowly pressed home, allowing the bird time to
swallow. I find the best way to deal with these easily stressed birds
is to catch them in a very large net, lay them on the floor, where they
seem to feel safer and extract the head; this way they do not mind
the whole process too much. If the birds are kept on a stone surface
in their flight probably once per year would be sufficiently frequent
to worm them, but if there is grass or there are plants in the flight
I think it would be wise to worm them twice per year.

A careful watch must be kept for any signs of Candida growths,
which can be cured if it is taken in its’s very early stages. Any sign
of weight loss or disinclination to eat hard seeds suggests that it
would be wise to take the bird to a knowledgeable Avian Veterinarian
for treatment.

The beautiful plumage of Moszkowski’s needs spraying on
every possible occasion when the weather is mild, warm or hot for,
being rain forest birds, their feathers suffer and lose their sheen to
some extent if they are allowed to become very dry. As they
become acclimatised they gradually learn the habits of bathing in
a large container of water, as do the thoroughly domesticated
Australian Kings.

Moszkowski's Kings are quite happy with a rather smaller flight
space than would be suitable for Australian Kings who need about
90 sq. feet and will use more if it is available. How the flight is
shaped does not matter, birds fly round and round a square space
just as much as up and down a long narrow space. In the case of the
Moszkowski’s Greenwings they seem to be extremely happy and
full of life in about 60 sq. feet of flight space. Like the Australians
they need a spacious house which can be totally enclosed at night
in cold, wet and windy weather and during the winter months. One
about 4’ x 6' deep is large enough and this added depth gives them
extra flying space and a sense of security, and is big enough to take
a nest box in winter.

Although, once thoroughly acclimatized they are said to be
hardy, they certainly need about 60 °F when first brought into the
country from a warmer climate than our own, and later appear to

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

6

appreciate a little background heat of about 45 - 50 °F at night
during the winter months. This can be supplied very effectively by
tubular heaters.

The size of the house is important because with our English
winters the birds spend a lot of hours shut in during the winter
months. The house is best with a cement floor about 4-5" thick.
It is a great advantage to have light in the house at night, a low watt
light enables the birds to feed late in the evening and early in the
morning in the winter. The birds will benefit greatly from the
insulation afforded by an interlined roof to the house. External
quality hardboard or plywood stuffed with about 3 - 4" of a roof
insulating material will repay the trouble and expense by saving on
the heating and by producing more contented birds.

All Kings are nervous and easily stressed. It is therefore wise
to "double-wire" the flight, with an inch between each sheet of wire
and "spacers" made of wood to stretch the wires taut and keep them
apart. Our flight roofs are all covered with PVC corrugated
sheeting or glass fibre sheeting, fixed at a slight angle to permit
drainage. We know of Kings who have killed themselves by
concussion as a result of a Hawk diving on the unprotected flight
roof. Kings, and this includes Moszkowski's, spend quite a lot of
time on the ground, so a flight floor made of paving or ornamental
stones laid one quarter of an inch apart in sand or fine soil makes
an excellent floor. It drains well, the birds like looking for sprouted
seeds between the stones and it is easy to wash and sweep clean.

Nest boxes for Kings need to be large, but individual Kings do
show preferences for boxes of varying sizes, between 10" sq. and
3* deep for an Amboina which bred for Jim Hayward, to the more
usual 12" sq. and 5’ deep used by many breeders of Australian
Kings. Nest boxes can be set on a paving stone on the ground and
this will discourage insects from trying to enter. Obviously an
internal ladder and an inspection door are essential. Nesting
material varies, some breeders of Kings use rotted wood, others use
peat, yet others like my husband and I use a mixture of peat and
wood shavings for our Australian Kings, and I would think this
mixture would be acceptable to the Moszkowski's.

Thomas Arndt writing in his Lexicon of Parrots on Mosz¬
kowski's states "breeding in Aviculture is seldom achieved" and
further that "breeding begins in March ... two to three eggs are laid
... incubation is 21 days, fledging period is 35 days, young are
independent after 50 days" . This valuable information gives a clue
to the difficulties which most British breeders who are fortunate to

7

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

own these birds must encounter with their future breeding projects.
In all but a few very sheltered parts of the British Isles March can
be a fiendishly cold month, enough to put most hens off thoughts
of breeding, or to risk the lives of chicks if they are hatched. I
wonder would the answer to this problem be to put the nest box in
the (heated) house for the winter and early Spring months and to
move it outside for the Summer. These birds are reputed to be
double brooded so even if they would not breed in the house, there
is the second chance outside in the Summer months.

Feeding can be difficult when these birds are moved, so it is best
to put seed, soft foods, fruits and water in many places until the
birds settle down and show their preferences for feeding places.
Many Kings will starve rather than eat from a container or a
position they do not like, or food which they dislike, so it is best to
be very flexible and watchful in the early days. We have Australian
Kings here who flatly refuse to eat a varied mixture of choice "soft
foods" from a bowl next to their seeds on the feeding shelf, but if
the same food is emptied into one of their feeding cups and clipped
to the wire of the flight they will eat it all immediately.

The foods suitable for Greenwing Kings are the same as those
given to Australian Kings, although they seem to be even more fond
of fruit and greenfood. Ours took a long time to show any interest
whatsoever in branches of Apple, Willow and Hazelnut, something
for which the Australians will leave all other foods. Fruits eaten
with great enjoyment include apple peeled and with the pips
removed, pieces of melon and orange halves with honey or sugar
added. These are best "spiked" on to nails to keep them upright. It
is necessary to remove the skin of oranges which may contain lethal
sprays which washing cannot remove. Many other fruits could be
tried. Lettuce, watercress and endive are all eaten but no wild foods
are given because of the risk of their having been sprayed with
lethal materials. The "soft food" consists of brown bread made
moist and then crumbled, soaked and cooked sweet corn, garden
peas, chick peas, cut up grapes, sultanas, raisins, occasionally
hard-boiled yolk of egg and even a little grated Cheddar cheese.

If the birds show sign of going to nest then it would be advisable
to start giving them a good rearing food, such as Cede, but this food
would be too stimulating for the Autumn and Winter months, and
given all the year round such a rich diet would be likely to affect
adversely the birds' livers. Foods additional to the basic seed diet
of sunflower, safflower, canary seed and millet seeds are peanut
kernels, cut up walnut kernels and the various pine nuts. The latter

COOKE -MOSZKOWSKI'S GREEN-WINGED KING PARROT

8

must be watched in the Spring and Summer months because they
have a tendency to go mouldy from the inside without showing any
outward signs. Wheat and oats are eaten in small quantities and of
course millet sprays are greatly enjoyed but they must be rationed,
or the birds will eat no other seeds. Cooked brown rice is eaten and
one of the greatest treats of all is corn on the cob. Moszkowski’s
are not chewers of wood and leave their houses and flights all in one
piece.

It is very much to be hoped that these rare and beautiful birds
will, in the hands of experienced bird keepers, become established
here and on the Continent of Europe so that eventually breeding
stocks may be established to enable them to take their place beside
the now domesticated Australian Kings as a part of the great
kaleidoscope of beauty and form which is the Avicultural scene of
this century.

REFERENCES

ARNDT, THOMAS. Lexicon of Parrots Moszkowski's, Alisterus chloropterus
Moszlcowslcii. 1991 translation from German.

FORSHAW, JOSEPH. Parrots of the World , Green-winged King Parrot
Alisterus chloropterus Moszkowskii. Third edition, 1989.

LOW, ROSEMARY. Parrots, their care and breeding Alisterus chloropterus
Moszkowskii. Revised and enlarged edition 1986.

* * *

The breeding of the Green-winged King Parrot, in 1945 by
Alfred Ezra, which the author mentions, was that of the nominate
race. Ezra's pair continued to breed successfully on several occa¬
sions until 1954 when they were acquired by Crawford McCullagh,
with whom they fared poorly and, subsequently, by Alfredo Marques
with whom they did better and produced more youngsters. I believe
that the race Moszkowskii had never been imported into this
country until the early 1980's since when they have been kept and
bred by a few aviculturists, one of whom has been particularly
successful.

Ed.

9

BREEDING THE WHITE-TAILED BLUE ROBIN

By B. Woodley (New Milton)

In February 1990 I was fortunate to obtain an adult male White¬
tailed Blue Robin Cinclidium leucurum in excellent condition. It
was singing within days of being put into its new quarters which
consisted of a flight approximately 14 ' x 4 ' 6" x 7 ' 6 " high and
which occupied the entire space available between my garage and
my neighbour's boundary wall. The roof was covered in with clear
corrugated plastic sheeting and the ends were close boarded, with
only a small wire door at the southern end to allow access and assist
with ventilation. Feeding was done via a large garage window on
to a wooden tray screwed to the windowsill and, therefore, distur¬
bance was kept to a minimum. The aviary floor was covered with
a deep oak and beech leaf litter to which was added a scattering of
moss covered logs and decaying branches. No heating was pro¬
vided. Also sharing the aviary were a pair of Hardwick's Fruitsuckers
and a pair of Fairy Bluebirds (which also bred successfully and will
be the subject of a separate article). Previously the Yellow-vented
Bulbul Pycnontus goiavier had bred here in 1989. In the upper
canopy of the flight hanging baskets planted with assorted honey¬
suckles together with container grown plants were suspended from
the roof, and an evergreen Clematis amandii was planted in the
floor.

In May 1990, I was able to obtain an established hen White¬
tailed Blue Robin. Initial introductions in the flight proved impos¬
sible for the cock had a strongly established territory and was in
peak condition. When the hen was introduced he put on a magnifi¬
cent display, pulling himself into a variety of thin drawn shapes and
postures with tail fanning, head swaying, and wing drooping. This
was all too much for the hen who quickly retreated to the foliage of
a hanging basket. It quickly became apparent that it was too late
now (mid May) to try a pairing in 1990 and the hen was reluctantly
removed to separate quarters for the winter.

In late March 1991 1 re-introduced the hen to the same flight but
kept her at first in a large cage on the floor. The cock spent all his
time sitting on a log in front of the cage. On 12th April 1991, the
cage door was opened and the hen was released. Again a fantastic
display by the cock followed but, this time, none of the previous
aggression was shown. On Tuesday 3rd May the hen was seen

WOODLEY - WHITE-TAILED BLUE ROBIN

10

carrying leaves and coconut fibres and, peering through the open
garage window, I was amazed to see a deep cup-shaped nest taking
shape on the floor in the leaf litter in the right angle formed by the
garage wall and the wooden end of the aviary. The nest was a
classic type Robin nest. The hen, who was finger tame, carried on
nest building as I stood and watched, tearing fine pieces of moss
from logs and also using fine coconut fibre to line the deep cup
which merged into the surrounding leaf litter. On the third day of
nest building came a sudden surprise. Just when the nest appeared
complete a canopy or hood was constructed over the open cup,
using ounces of coconut fibre plus a scattering of moss and odd
pieces of leaf. By 7th May, the canopy appeared almost complete
and access to the nest was only possible via a small lateral entrance
tunnel through which the hen disappeared. On Wednesday 8th May
1991 at 6 - 7 a.m. the hen was no longer apparent in the aviary and
I took it to mean that egg laying had commenced. At this time the
nest was difficult to see when viewed from above through the open
garage window and appeared like a slightly raised pile of disre¬
garded fibres. I referred to ’Baker’ whose Indian nesting activities
were well documented. He, also, referred to this hood or canopy
over the nest, which was nearly always present when there was no
projecting bark or tree stump over the open cup.

On Saturday 11th May 1991, the hen appeared to commence
incubation and I noted that the cock resumed his short tinkling song
having been quiet for about a week or so during nest building and
egg laying. On Saturday 25th May there was no sign of hatching.
Not having been anywhere near the nest to date, I felt a quick check
might not go amiss. A quick inspection revealed 4 eggs very similar
in size and colour to those of a European Robin. Three were fertile
and chipping and one was clear. Hatching finally took place on the
following day. I saw, at the furthest extremity of the aviary from
the nest, a fully developed chick hanging out of a pile of remnant
egg shells. Meanwhile, faint cheeping from the nest indicated that
at the most two young could be left. I was fortunate at this time to
be on holiday and I collected small spiders, small green caterpillars
and centipedes to supplement the mini mealworms and ant pupae.
As the young grew, centipedes, wax moth larvae, woodlice and
small earthworms were also readily accepted. These latter items
made feeding easier and the hen chose wax month larvae in
preference to most other forms of live food. On the 2nd June 1991,
as I left for the Avicultural Society President’s Garden Party, two
strong healthy young were calling from the nest. The cock bird was

11

WOODLEY - WHITE-TAILED BLUE ROBIN

a good feeder and I noticed that, at times when he had an excess of
food, he would fly to the hanging basket and hide his catch,
presumably to be retrieved later, although I never actually wit¬
nessed this. About 7.30 a.m. on Sunday 9th June, 14 days from
hatching, two well developed perfect chicks fledged from the nest.
I should add at this stage, apart from a dusting of the food with
grated cuttlefish, no mineral or vitamin supplements whatsoever
were used.

It was quickly apparent that the chicks were one of each sex.
The young male was a rich dark chocolate brown, with heavy
fulvous speckling, on the breast and back. The hen was similarly
marked but more of a milk chocolate colour. The young hen was
the larger of the two and was fed by the cock. The young cock bird
was fed exclusively by the hen and both young took up plots at
opposite ends of the flight, near, or on the floor. Within hours of
their leaving the nest, the hen was busy refurbishing it ready for a
second round. This all seemed too good to be true!

On Friday 14th June 1991 I left for work and both birds were
fine. When I returned at 5.30 pm. I was shattered to find that the
young cock was dead on the floor with its head pecked to pieces
having been killed by the adult cock bird. This really took the icing
off the cake particularly as things had gone so well so far. On
Saturday 15th June the hen was incubating a second clutch. This
round hatched on 1st July 1991. The previously described routine
was followed again but it was noted this time that the cock did not
seem so interested in making as many visits to feed. On Friday 5th
July I noticed 2 dead young scattered on the floor at the furthest end
from the nest and a third chick dead at the entrance hole. Sadly that
was to be the end of the season for within a few days both adults
went into a moult.

The young hen was successfully reared and I am pleased to have
been able to find another unrelated male for her in 1992. Next year,
forearmed with the knowledge of 1991, 1 look forward hopefully to
rearing a couple of broods at least.

The White-tailed Blue Robin was hardly known to aviculturists
until recently when a few specimens were imported by dealers.
Raymond Sawyer kept a male out was never able to get it a mate.
It is about the size of the White-capped Redstart and flicks its tail
like a Plumbeous Redstart. The male's upper and underparts are

WOODLEY - WHITE-TAILED BLUE ROBIN

12

mainly deep blue, the sides of the head and neck and the central tail
feathers are black and the outer tail feathers are white. The female
is earthy brown, palest on the belly and throat. Her tail is brown,
marked with white. The species is very widely distributed through¬
out China, Taiwan, Indo-China, Assam and Nepal. It normally
frequents evergreen forests at an altitude of up to 8000 feet from
which it descends when the weather deteriorates.

Ed.

This is probably the first successful breeding of the White-tailed
Blue Robin in this country. Anyone who knows of a previous
breeding in the U.K. is asked to inform the Hon. Secretary.

13

NOTES ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF WILD
AND CAPTIVE CUT-THROAT FINCHES

By Neville Brickell and Arthur Wright
(Avicultural Research Unit, Durban, South Africa).

During the breeding season the Cut-throat Finch Amadina fas-
ciata becomes very aggressive. It occurs in pairs and associates
freely with the Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea and Red-cheeked
Cordon-bleu Uraeginthus bengalus. In the courtship song the male
stretches the neck, puffs out the breast feathers and advances
towards the female in a rhythmic dance, which may last for up to
four seconds, while emitting raucous humming notes. An immature
male was first observed performing the courtship song at 46 days
old. Nesting of the Cut-throat Finch seems to take place at the
height of the dry season in most areas but one reference states that
the species breeds "towards the end of the main rains" in southern
Mozambique. Aviary birds will quite readily breed three times in
a season, laying replacement clutches if the eggs are removed.
Consulted works give the following months: Malawi March to May
onwards; Zambia June; Zimbabwe January, March, April and Sep¬
tember; Namibia February to August; South Africa December to
May. The main problem associated with the captive breeding of
this species is egg-binding, and therefore we encourage the birds to
breed only during the warm months of September to April. We have
not been fortunate enough to locate a nest in the field and have had
to confine our findings to captive birds. We used cages measuring
2 x 1.25 x 1.25 m for our research. In their natural state a wide
variety of nest sites are on record from low down in a thick bush to
up to 4.5 m up in a tree. Besides constructing its own nest it
commonly uses disused nests of the Red-billed Quelea Quelea
quelea , Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedius, Spotted-
backed Weaver P. cucullatus, Red-billed Buffalo Weaver Bulal-
ornis albirostris and Social Weaver Philetairus socius. There are
also records of a disused woodpecker’s hole, probably that of the
Cardinal 'Woodpecker Dendropicos fusescens being used as well as
cavities in buildings and fence posts. The aviary birds were
supplied with the type of nest boxes used by Gouldian Finches. The
nests consist of an untidy ball of dry grass, lined with feathers and
with a short side entrance. A male was observed robbing the lining
from a weaver’s nest and taking it into another and a female

BRICKELL & WRIGHT - CUT-THROAT FINCHES

14

repeatedly trying to enter the nest of an incubating weaver. Our
captive males carried nesting materials whilst the females arranged
it. New material was constantly added to the nest throughout the
incubation period. We originally placed grass, usually teff, in each
empty box to which the males added further materials. Both sexes
incubated, starting with the penultimate egg. The incubation
period was measured between the times of laying and hatching of
the last egg. We found this to be 12 - 13 days. Males incubated for
periods of up to 3 hours at a time with females spending no more
than 1 hour on the eggs but both sexes spent the night in the nestbox
during the incubation period. The eggs were dull, chalky white.
The aviary eggs had measurements averaging (18) 17.6 x 12.72 mm
which is slightly larger than figures given in ornithological litera¬
ture averaging (23) 16.8 x 12.6 (16 - 18.1 x 12.1 - 13.4). A normal
clutch seems to be five, with three and sometimes up to nine being
recorded. The latter suggests that two females were laying in the
same nest. Our captive birds laid either five or six eggs. They were
single or double brooded, replacement clutches being laid if the
eggs were removed. The nestling period is 22 -24 days and the
young feed themselves after leaving the nest. Adult plumage was
attained at 70 -75 days and the birds were capable of breeding when
they were 8-9 months of age.

Development of the nestlings

When they hatched the chicks were blind and naked with a blue-
black skin. The gape was swollen and white in colour and the inside
of the mouth was light yellow with blackish markings (as shown in
the diagram). When they were 4 days old light grey down was
evident on the back, shoulders, flanks, crown and nape, the bill was
whitish with a greyish band across the centre of the upper mandible,
the legs and feet were flesh coloured with greyish white claws and
the eyes were closed with the eyelids black. At 6 days quills were
evident on the wings but had not pushed through the skin. The eyes
were still closed. Pin-feathers were just visible on primary and
secondary coverts, greater and lesser coverts at eight days and the
eyes were a quarter open. At 10 days the pin-feathers of the primary
and greater wing-coverts were about 2.5 mm long and down was
still in evidence on the crown and nape, at 13 days the primaries
were 10 mm long with the tail and pin-feathers protruding 2 mm.
The feathers on the back and breast were about 1 mm long and the
eyes were half open and at 14 days the primaries were about 14 mm
long and on the crown and nape the feathers were 1 mm long and
the eyes were three quarters open. At 16 days the primaries were

N. Brickell

BRICKELL & WRIGHT - CUT-THROAT FINCHES

16

19 mm long, the feathers on the crown, nape and the sides of the
face were 2 mm, the tail feathers were growing rapidly and protrud¬
ing 6 mm and the eyes were fully open. The feathers of the head
had a bronze tint.

When the chicks were 18 days old red pin-feathers were visible
on the cheeks of males and when they were 22 days old they were
fully feathered, but with a few tufts of down still visible on the
crown and nape and with areas of the belly bare. The primaries
were 35 mm long and the tail 20 mm. They were fully feathered at
24 days. The mouthspots gradually faded after they left the nest,
but they were still noticeable at 36 days.

N. Brickell

Inside of mouth of Nestling.

The jaw has been opened 180 ° to expose the whole mouth lining,
the tongue and the tip of the mandible.

The total average weights of the
shown below:

nestlings (with full crops) are

Age (days)

Weight (g)

Age (days)

Weight (g)

4

4.1

16

17.0

6

5.9

18

17.2

8

8.0

22

17.0

10

10.0

24

16.0

13

11.0

27

15.0

14

15.3

29 All left the nest

REFERENCES

BRICKELL, N.(1986) Introduction to Southern African Cage and AviaryBirds,
Volume 1, Nadine Publishers, South Africa.

CLANCEY, P.A. (1969 - 70) A handbook of birds of Southern Mozambique , Part 1
Mem. Inst. Invest. Cient. Mozambique.

MACKWORTH-PRAED, C. W. & C. H. B. GRANT (1960, 1963, 1973)

African Handbook of Birds, series 1 vol. 2, series 2, vol. 2, series 3, vol. 2
Longmans, Green & Co., England.

STEYN, P.(1967) Cut-throat Finch Amadina fasciata nesting in wood-pecker hole.
Ostrich vol. 38, P. 286, South Africa.

17

INCUBATION AND NESTLING PERIODS OF
LESSER AND GREATER VASA PARROTS

By R. Wilkinson, M. Pilgrim, A. Woolham and B. West
(North of England Zoological Society, Chester)

Two species of Coracopsis parrots, the Greater Vasa Parrot
Coracopsis vasa and the Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra are
endemic to Madagascar and the nearby Comoros Islands. An
endangered diminutive subspecies of the Lesser Vasa Parrot, the
Seychelles Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra barklyi occurs on Praslin
Island in the Seychelles.

Both species of Vasa parrots were uncommon in aviculture until
the mid to late 1980's when so many were imported commercially
from Madagascar that their low price resulted in a loss of interest
in these fascinating parrots. As such, few people have enjoyed
breeding these birds and relatively little has been reported on their
behaviour in captivity. Details of their breeding in the wild are also
largely unknown (Forshaw 1981) despite both species being rela¬
tively common in Madagascar (Rand 1936, Langrand 1990) al¬
though Low (1989) reports some details for the rare Seychelles
Vasa Parrot.

Some controversy surrounds the duration of the incubation and
nestling periods of parrots in the genus Coracopsis. In particular
there appears to be disagreement between the recent writings of
Tony Silva (e.g. 1991a, 1991b) and Rosemary Low (e.g. 1989).
Low (1984) gives information indicating an incubation period of 18
days or less in the Seychelles Vasa Parrot and later Low (1989)
quotes Becker (1987) that the incubation period may be as short as
13.5 days in Coracopsis nigra nigra. Silva (1991a) quotes Antonio
de Dios for an incubation period of about twice this length at 25 -
28 days for Coracopsis vasa. Larger Birds of the same genus may
be expected to have longer incubation periods in that there is a
positive correlation between the size of the bird and the size of its
egg and the latter with the period of incubation (Lack 1968, Skutch
1976). However, such a large difference would be unlikely and
Silva’s most recent writings indicate an incubation period of 23
days for Coracopsis vasa (Silva 1991b).

Lack (1968), in comparing different species of birds, noted a
strong correlation between the duration of incubation and the
length of the nestling period, suggesting that any evolutionary

WILKINSON, PILGRIM, WOOLHAM & WEST - VASA PARROTS 18

change in the rate of growth in the egg would be matched by a
similar change in the rate of nestling growth. In line with their
differences in suggested incubation periods of Coracopsis parrots,
Low and Silva also disagree on their nestling periods. Low (1989)
again referring to observations on Seychelles Lesser Vasa Parrots
in the wild suggests that these spend six weeks or less in the nest
and notes that a bird of the nominate subspecies she hand-reared
was fully fledged and of adult weight at five weeks old. Silva
(1991b) notes a nestling period of 59 days for two Greater Vasa
Parrots hatched and fostered under a pair of two females of the same
species.

Below we consider observations made at Chester Zoo first on
nests of Lesser Vasa Parrots and then on those of Greater Vasa
Parrots.

Lesser Vasa Parrots.

Lesser Vasa Parrots have been held since 1982 at Chester Zoo
where they were first bred in 1985 (James 1985, 1991). Because of
concern over causing unnecessary disturbance to the nesting par¬
rots the nest boxes were checked only infrequently and hence
estimates of incubation periods for these earliest successful
breedings were acknowledged to be approximate. In particular the
suggested dates of laying were not confirmed by observation but
indicated from dates on which the female was noted as spending
mornings in the nest box. However the period of 18 days between
when the female started "sitting properly" on 8th August 1985 and
when two chicks were seen on the 26th August (then estimated to
be two days old), suggests an incubation period as short as 16 days.
These two chicks fledged on 30th September and 1st October 1985.
If both chicks had hatched on 24th August this would suggest
nestling periods of 37 and 38 days.

No nesting occurred in 1986 and although observations were
made in 1987, 1988 and 1989 the nest inspections were not suffi¬
ciently frequent to ascertain incubation or nestling periods. More
regular nest inspections were made by the keepers in 1990 and
1991. In 1990 the female was first noted as "possibly sitting" on
11th August and her changed behaviour on 27th August when she
was seen out of the nest box being fed by a male suggested a chick
(or chicks) had hatched after 16 days incubation. When the nest box
was checked on 1st September "three chicks (possibly four?)
almost 4 inches long and covered in a light grey down" were noted
by the keeper concerned. Four chicks then almost fully feathered
were seen on the 22nd September and these fledged on 3rd, 5th, 6th

19 WILKINSON, PILGRIM, WOOLHAM & WEST - VASA PARROTS

and 13th October, indicating nestling periods of 37 to 42 days.
Again the above observations were limited in that exact dates of
egg laying and hatching were not obtained. This was largely due
to a reluctance to disturb the birds more than was absolutely
necessary. More complete data was gained in 1991 with exact
dates for the laying of the first two eggs of a clutch of four and
hatching dates for each of the three chicks hatched.

The nest-boxes used by the Lesser Vasa Parrots are of a grand¬
father-clock design and are only checkable by removing the box
top. Checking thus causes more disturbance to the sitting bird than
where inspection hatches are incorporated into the side of the box.
This particular female was unsettled by the checking in previous
years and because after the day of laying the second egg she
remained inside the nest box when the aviary was entered we
decided not to force her out. The first egg was laid on 5th August,
and the second on the 7th August. When the box was next checked
on the 20th August four eggs were present and on checking on the
21st August a chick had hatched. A second chick hatched on 22nd
August and a third on the 23rd August. On the 26th August one of
the chicks was found dead. The two remaining chicks seemed
healthy but there was no sign of a fourth chick or unhatched egg.
A second chick was found decomposed in the nest on the 1st
September and the remaining chick fledged on the 8th October.

The above set of dates allows the calculation of incubation
periods to finer limits than previously. If incubation began with the
laying of the first egg on 5th August and this egg hatched on 21st
August its incubation period was 16 days. This is the maximum
estimate of the incubation period for this egg. If the second egg laid
on the 7th August hatched on the 22nd August then its maximum
incubation period was only 15 days. The exact dates of laying of
the third and fourth egg were not determined but if as with the
interval between the first two eggs they were laid on alternate days
the incubation period for the third egg (assumed to be laid on 9th
August and hatched on the 23rd) would be 14 days. However if this
egg had been laid one day after the second on the 8th August its
maximum incubation period as for the second egg would be 15
days. If the first egg had failed to hatch the incubation periods
would be two days shorter than the above estimates. Such values
would be so low that we can be reasonably confident that the first
three eggs did hatch and our estimates for maximum incubation
periods are in fact the true periods.

With respect to the calculation of the nestling period, assuming

WILKINSON, PILGRIM, WOOLHAM & WEST - VASA PARROTS 20

the chick which survived was the first hatched, it remained in the
nest for 48 days. This is longer than the nestling periods of 37 -
42 days estimated from previous observation and we suspect re¬
flects the difficulties the female had in provisioning her chicks in
1991 as a result of the male’s going out of breeding condition and
losing interest in feeding her.

Greater Vasa Parrots.

Greater Vasa Parrots were first obtained at Chester Zoo in 1985
and although eggs were laid in 1987, 1988 and 1989, this species
was not successfully bred until 1990. Details of this first successful
nesting were published in a previous issue of the Avicultural
Magazine with the suggestion that the incubation period was
around 18 days (Wilkinson 1990). The nestling period for the first
chick hatched in 1990, assuming hatching on 10th June and known
to fledge on 29th July, was estimated as 49 days. The nestling
period for the second chick which also fledged on 29th July would
be one or two days longer at 47 - 48 days.

Careful observations were made on the nesting Greater Vasa
Parrots in 1991 with the result that exact laying dates and hatching
dates were recorded for each of four eggs. Eggs were laid on 13th,
15th 17th and 19th May and hatched on 30th May, 1st, 3rd and 5th
June. These gave exact incubation periods of 17 days for each egg.
The first chick fledged on 17th July, the second on 18th July and the
third and fourth together on the 20th July, giving nestling periods
ranging between 48 days for the oldest chick and 45 days for the
youngest. These observations are in close agreement with those
recorded in 1990.

Summary

Observations at nests of Lesser Vasa Parrots Coracopsis nigra
at Chester Zoo indicate incubation periods of 14 - 16 days for each
of three eggs, and nestling periods of 37 - 48 days. For the Greater
Vasa Parrot Coracopsis vasa the incubation period for each of four
eggs was recorded as 17 days and the nestling periods ranged from
45 - 49 days.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful for the comments of Rosemary Low in assisting
our interpretation of the 1991 nest records and for her encourage¬
ment in obtaining these data.

21

WILKINSON, PILGRIM, WOOLHAM & WEST - VASA PARROTS

REFERENCES

BECKER, B. (1987)Haltung und Zucht des Kleinen Vasapapageis. AZ Nachrichten,
June, 392-3

FORSHAW,J.M.(1981)Parrote of the World, Second Edition; reprint David &
Charles, Newton Abbot.

JAMES, P. (1985)Breeding the Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra at Chester
Zoo. Avicultural Magazine 91, 189 - 190.

JAMES, P. (1991)The Lesser Vasa or Black Parrot Coracopsis nigra In '.Parrots in
Captivity. Proceedings ofsymposiuml4 of theAssociation ofBritishWildAnimal
Keepers,ppl4-17.A.B.W.A.K.,12, Tackley Road, Eastville, Bristol BS5 6UQ.

LACK, D. (1968 ^Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds. Chapman & Hall,
London.

LANGRAND,0 (1990 )Guide to the Birds of Madagascar, Yale University Press,
New Haven & London.

LOW, R. (1984 ^Endangered Parrots, Blandford Press, Dorset.

LOW, R. (1989)Hand-rearing the Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra. Avicultural
Magazine 95, 169-175.

RAND, A. L. (1936)77te Distribution and Habits of Madagascar Birds, Bull, Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 72, 143 - 199.

SILVA, T. (1991a)Psittaculture; The Breeding, Rearing and Management of
Parrots. Silvio Mattacione & Co., Ontario Canada.

SILVA, T. (1991b)L<?ro Par que Newsletter, No. 25, November 1991.

SKUTCH, A. F. (1976)Parew/ Birds and their Young, University of Texas Press,
Austin.

WILKINSON, R. (1990) Notes on the breeding and behaviour of Greater Vasa
Parrots Coracopsis vasa at Chester Zoo, Avicultural Magazine 96, 115 - 122.

* * *

22

BREEDING THE RACKET-TAILED ROLLER

By Roger Cattermole (Diss)

The Racket-tailed Roller Coracias spatulata ranges over a large
part of central Africa with the greatest concentrations being found
in Tanzania, Zaire, Angola and Zambia. It is a bird of open
woodland and spends most of its time below the tree canopy
watching for the locusts, large beetles, scorpions, lizards etc.
which form the bulk of its diet. In common with other Rollers the
Racket-tailed has a very stunning display flight, flying vertically
and then plunging earthwards with wings folded only to be opened
when the bird is just feet above the ground. This highly specialised
display flight enables the male to present the dazzling blues of the
secondary feathers with the greatest effect as he banks out of the
dive with fixed wings. Few data exist on the breeding biology of
this species in the wild but natural hollows in trees some 6 to 7
metres above ground are known to provide its preferred nest sites.

Five individuals of the species were obtained during August
1990. They consisted of a surgically sexed pair and three of
undetermined sex. The birds were purchased from two different
sources but are likely to have been part of one consignment into the
U.K. This species has apparently not previously been imported.
Although they were not in juvenile plumage all of the specimens
lacked the characteristic rackets and had many brown and grey
feathers on their heads and necks. The body plumage was predomi¬
nantly a pale powder blue and was not seen to change to any great
extent when the birds obtained full breeding plumage. When first
acquired all five birds were placed in a large outdoor aviary
approximately 16 m x 8 m. Shelter was provided but rarely used.
The members of the group were compatible and would roost sitting
side by side in the highest point in the aviary. They settled in
quickly and readily accepted a diet of minced ox heart, insectivo¬
rous diet, chick crumbs and mealworms all liberally sprinkled with
multi-vitamins. The mealworms were taken with relish and all of
the birds soon became quite confiding. Their eye-sight is quite
remarkable and they take up vantage points to seek out every last
mealworm trying to take cover in the grass of the aviary floor. The
five birds attained full plumage by the middle of October, the long
outer tail feathers taking some weeks to grow to their full extent.
At this stage it became apparent that the outer tail feathers of the
known male were noticeably longer than those of the surgically

23

CATTERMOLE - RACKET-TAILED ROLLER

sexed female. It may be reasonable to conclude that the length of
these feathers may be used as a guide to the sex of the birds. Racket¬
tailed Rollers are certainly creatures of the sun and spend much of
their time displaying to one another when the sun is shining. The
display consists of much head bobbing and neck stretching with
bills pointing vertically uttering excitedly loud, guttural cackling
calls. This group display may suddenly be interrupted by frenzied
flights around the aviary in a very haphazard manner with many
near collisions.

The group was left outside until the end of November and the
birds seemed unaffected by the cold but they disliked wet weather
and looked very miserable on damp mornings. Their dry soft
plumage almost seems to attract moisture and has no ability to shed
water. They have never been observed bathing but they will wade
quite happily into shallow water to retrieve mealworms. They
rarely get wet when feeding in this manner for they walk almost on
tiptoe and hold their tails high to avoid getting their plumage wet.

The winter quarters consisted of a greenhouse converted for
wintering Pygmy geese in which a minimum temperature of 45° F.
was maintained. The diet remained unchanged and all of the
members of the group thrived. However the surgically sexed
female was found dead in a pool one morning and it was presumed
that it had been disturbed during the night and had fallen in. After
this disaster, low intensity light was provided so that, if disturbed,
the birds could see to return to a safe roost. Since the winter
enclosure was a greenhouse periods of sun in the early spring
(April) raised its temperature quite considerably. The Rollers
enjoyed this and periods of display soon followed. Aggression
towards one member of the group occurred and to avoid further
stress to the individual it was decided to remove the known male
and his believed choice of female. The pair was placed in the
outside flight during the third week of April and two weeks later the
remaining two birds were placed in an adjoining aviary. Much
interaction took place between the two couples through the wire
and the decision was takento place all four birds inthe same aviary.
All four birds commenced a full moult shortly after being put
outside. This may have been caused by the apparent shortening
days which followed the twenty four hours of light which they
experienced in their winter quarters. The complete moult lasted for
several weeks with the outer tail feathers again being the last to
develop.

The aviary contained various nest boxes designed primarily for

CATTERMOLE - RACKET-TAILED ROLLER

24

waterfowl. During early June the known male was frequently seen
inspecting these including some that were at ground level. A
hollow log fifteen inches deep with an internal diameter of approxi¬
mately six inches and a natural entrance hole of two and a half
inches was then fixed to an internal support three metres above the
ground. A canopy of plywood one metre in diameter was placed
above the nest box to provide shade and protection from the rain.
The nest box was half filled with fine oak sawdust and a small dowel
perch was fitted four centimetres below the entrance hole. It was
only a matter of days before the male was seen investigating the
box. He would frequently hang from the side of the box, just
peering in, with outstretched wings and uttering excited chortling
calls. Towards the end of July the male started to show signs of
aggression towards two of the Rollers. The attacks invariably took
place in flight and, because there was so much water in the aviary,
it was decided to remove these two individuals. Other inhabitants
of the aviary besides waterfowl and waders were Fairy Bluebirds,
Royal Starlings and Red-tailed Laughing Thrushes to which no
aggression was ever shown. Indeed they were even allowed in the
immediate vicinity of the chosen nest site and a pair of Pygmy geese
were seen on several occasions sitting on top of the nestbox and
peering in even when the Rollers were incubating. Copulation was
first observed on 27th July. The male would collect one or two
mealworms and present these to the female. If she accepted,
copulation was almost certain to follow. Copulation and attempted
copulation was observed on numerous occasions. During early
August the pair of Rollers were frequently observed calling and
displaying and entering the chosen nestbox.

By the middle of August it was unusual for the female to feed
herself. Virtually all of her food was presented to her by the ever
attentive male. During the remaining days of August the female
started to spend considerable amounts of time in the nestbox and
the male frequently fed her from the entrance hole. The nestbox
could not be inspected without removing it but it was presumed that
eggs were laid during the last days of August. Incubation was
believed to have started on 1st September. The female left the
nestbox only occasionally and all of her food appeared to be
provided by the male. On very hot days the female's head was often
seen peering out of the entrance hole and as she often remained in
this position for considerable lengths of time it was presumed that
she was hanging from the inside of the box and letting the eggs cool.
On the infrequent occasions when the female did leave the nestbox

25

CATTERMOLE - RACKET-TAILED ROLLER

the male would fly repeatedly around the aviary with very slow
wing beats presenting the blue wing feathers with spectacular
effect and screaming very loudly. He would continue displaying in
this manner until the female returned to the nestbox. The male
rarely sat near the nestbox but spent most of his time at various
vantage points around the aviary watching for mealworms, which
were collected and taken to the sitting female. During periods of
rest the male frequently sat on a perch next to the adjoining aviary
quietly chortling to the two Rollers previously removed from his
aviary. During the evening of 20th September the male started to
behave in a very agitated manner and it was believed that the eggs
might have hatched. On the following morning this was confirmed
when the male was seen to enter the nestbox with mealworms.
Initial feeding was done by both the male and the female. However
the male was considerably more attentive and carried far more of
the food. By 5th October the pair were happy to leave the nest
unattended while they were both feeding. At this stage greatly
increased quantities of mealworms were provided to ensure that
they were available at all times. Various other forms of live food
were also provided but the regular mealworms were the definite
favourites. The young were heard calling for the first time on 25th
September as the adults approached the nestbox. In view of the
rapidly shortening days and thanks to the advice of Andrew Perkins,
a member of the Avicultural Society and successful breeder of
softbills, artificial lighting was provided from 1 am to day-break to
extend the feeding time available. Six one hundred watt lights
fitted around the perimeter of the aviary and an overhead three
hundred watt flood light provided a high light intensity. On
inspection of the aviary on 5th October after dark, both adults were
roosting . With the possibility of cold nights it was decided to
provide twenty four hour lighting to enable the adults to feed
around the clock. At this time it was also apparent that the female
was rapidly losing interest and the male was doing virtually all of
the feeding.

Presumably in their natural environment the young at this age
are able to generate enough heat without the need of brooding.
October nights in the U.K. can be quite cold and damp and the
young could often be heard calling and sounded distressed but this
did not tempt the adults to continue to brood. Is it possible that the
duration of brooding is determined by instinct as opposed to the
ability of the adult to determine the need from the behaviour of the
young? I am convinced that at the time the adults stopped brooding

CATTERMOLE - RACKET-TAILED ROLLER

26

the young still required it in our climate.

The head of one youngster was seen at the entrance hole for the
first time on 16th October. During the next few days one head was
almost always visible and sometimes two. At this stage the adults
rarely went into the nestbox and most of the feeding took place at
the entrance hole. Both adults started spending more time sitting
short distances from the nest and calling possibly trying to tempt
the young to leave the nest. On 20th October the young seemed
particularly agitated and near the point of leaving the nest. Because
of the cold weather and the number of dangers in the aviary,
primarily caused by the large areas of water provided for the
waterfowl, the decision was taken to remove the young and adults
to an indoor flight. The nestbox was removed and on inspection
there were three young, one of which was dead. The dead youngster
was less than half the size of its siblings but was showing virtually
no signs of decomposition and so it was considered that it had died
very recently. Presumably being a weaker youngster it was not able
to get to the entrance hole for feeding and died of neglect. The two
remaining young were fully feathered and their flight feathers were
nearly complete. However, the tail feathers were little more than
an inch long and obviously still in the early stages of growth. The
plumage was a very dull blue grey with white and cream highlights.
At this stage the young were approximately two thirds of the size
of the adults. Following the transfer to the indoor flight the young
were removed from the nestbox for a short time each evening and
offered by hand two or three very large mealworms which were
eagerly accepted. When held near the entrance to the nestbox the
young would eagerly return. By early November the young left the
nestbox of their own accord each morning but would still happily
return in the evening if held near the entrance hole. On 6th
November the young were roosting beside their parents. By the
middle of November they were readily feeding on mealworms of
their own accord.

Now (late December) the members of the family group are still
compatible. The young are still not as big as their parents but have
started to moult their breast feathers. New feathers seem to be the
same colour as in the adults but are lacking its intensity. This

suggests that full adult plumage is not attained until the third moult.

* * *

This is probably the first successful breeding of the Racket¬
tailed Roller in this country. Anyone who knows of a previous
breeding is asked to inform the Hon. Secretary.

27

TINAMOUS IN GREAT BRITAIN
By Dr. Karl P. N. Shuker (West Bromwich)

To aviculturists, tinamous are well-known for being those non¬
descript, deceptively gallinaceous birds of the Neotropical Region
that are in reality most closely related to certain of the giant,
flightless ratites. Rather less well-known, conversely, is that at one
time they seemed destined to become exotic new members of the
English avifauna, as revealed in this article.

Tinamous are among the most perplexing and paradoxical of
birds. Comprising some 40-odd species in total, and ranging in size
from 8 - 21 inches, they closely parallel the galliform gamebirds in
outward morphology, with small head and somewhat long, slender
neck, plump body and short tail, sturdy legs, and rounded wings.
Admittedly, their bill is generally rather more slender, elongate,
and curved at its tip, and the tail is often hidden by an uncommonly
pronounced development of the rump feathers, but in overall
appearance they could easily be mistaken for a mottle-plumaged
guinea-fowl, grouse, or quail (depending upon the tinamou species
in question). Even so, it would seem that their misleadingly
gallinaceous morphology is a consequence of convergent evolution
(i.e. tinamous filling the ecological niche in South and Central
America occupied elsewhere by genuine galliform species, but
having arisen from a wholly separate ancestral avian stock), be¬
cause detailed analyses not only of their skeletal structure but also
of their egg-white proteins and (especially) their DNA have all
indicated that their nearest relatives are actually the ostrich-like
rheas!

Nonetheless, the tinamous are nowadays classed within an
entire taxonomic order of their own, Tinamiformes, because in spite
of their ratite affinities they have a well-developed keel on their
breast-bone for the attachment of flight muscles, and are indeed
able to fly - though they are not particularly adept aerially, prob¬
ably due to their notably small heart and lungs, which would seem
to be insufficiently robust to power as energy-expensive an activity
as flight. Equally paradoxical is the fact that although their legs are
well constructed for running, tinamous are not noticeably success¬
ful at this mode of locomotion either, preferring to avoid danger by
freezing motionless with head extended, their cryptic coloration
affording good camouflage amidst their grassland and forest sur-

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

28

roundings.

Their outward appearance is not the only parallel between
tinamous and galliform species. On account of the relative ease
with which these intriguing birds can be bagged, in their native
Neotropical homelands tinamous have always been very popular as
gamebirds - a popularity enhanced by the tender and very tasty (if
visually odd) nature of their almost transparent flesh. Accordingly,
it could only be a matter of time before someone contemplated the
idea of introducing one or more species of tinamou into Great
Britain as novel additions of our country's list of gamebirds - a list
already containing the names of several notable outsiders, includ¬
ing the Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa and the Common
Pheasant Phasianus colchicus. The concept of establishing natu¬
ralised populations of tinamou in Great Britain was further fa¬
voured by the great ease with which these birds can be raised in
captivity, enabling stocks for release into the wild to be built up
very rapidly.

And so it was that in 1884 the scene was set for the commence¬
ment of this intriguing experiment in avian introduction - the
brainchild of John Bateman, from Brightlingsea, Essex. The
species that he had selected for this was Rhynchotus rufescens, the
Rufous Tinamou - a 16 inch long, grassland-inhabiting form widely
distributed in South America with a range extending from Brazil
and Bolivia to Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. In April 1883,
he had obtained six specimens of this species from a friend, D.
Shennan, of Negrete, Brazil, who had brought them to England
from the River Plate three months earlier. Bateman maintained
them in a low, wire-covered aviary with hay strewn over its floor,
sited on one of his homesteads. By June, they had laid 30 eggs, most
of which successfully hatched, and half of these survived to adult¬
hood.

In January 1884, naturalist W. B. Tegetmeier paid Bateman a
visit, and became very interested in his plans to release tinamous
in England. On 23rd February 1884, The Field published a report
by Tegetmeier regarding this. However, the first release had
already occurred (albeit by accident) , for during the summer of
1883 a retriever dog had broken through the wire-roof of Bateman's
tinamou aviary, resulting in the death of four of the tinamous, and
the escape of seven or eight of the others onto Bateman’s estate and
thence to the Brightlingsea marshes. Only a small number of
tinamous had remained in captivity but these had increased to 13 by
the time of Tegetmeier's visit. As for the escapees, Bateman

29

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

[From: LYDEKKER, R. (Ed.) (1894 - 6). The Royal Natural History. ]

Rufous Tinamous Rhynchotus rufescens.

[ From: NEWTON, A. & GADOW, H. (1894 - 6). A Dictionary of Birds. ]

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

30

recognised that they were in grave danger of being bagged by
persons shooting in the area (thereby ending any chance that they
would succeed in establishing a viable population), and so in a bid
to thwart this he issued a handbill, drawing to the attention of local
people the basic appearance and habits of tinamous, and his plans
for their naturalisation in England. The handbill read:

The tinamou, or, as it is called by the English settlers on the
River Plate, "Big Partridge", is a game bird, sticking almost
entirely to the grass land; size, about that of a hen pheasant;
colour when roasted, snowy white throughout. When flushed,
he rises straight into the air with a jump, about 15 ft., and then
flies off steadily for about half a mile; he will not rise more
than twice. Mr. Bateman proposes, after crossing his stock
with the tinamous in the Zoological Gardens, to turn them out
on the Brightlingsea marshes, which are strikingly like the
district whence they came, and he hopes that the gentlemen
and sportsmen of Essex will give the experiment a chance of
succeeding, by sparing this bird for the next few seasons, if
they stray, as they are sure to do, into the neighbouring
parishes, as they would supply a great sporting want in the
marshland districts.

To supplement his captive stock, following Tegetmeier's visit
Bateman obtained three more specimens of Rufous Tinamou from
his friend Shennan, and also purchased three from London Zoo. In
April 1885, he released eleven individuals onto the Brightlingsea
marshes; these, together with 14 hatched from eggs, had increased
to approximately 50 or 60 birds by September, according to a
second, more extensive report by Tegetmeier ( The Field, 12th
September 1885).

Tegetmeier noted that throughout spring and early summer in
Brightlingsea and parts of Thorington the Rufous Tinamou's pres¬
ence there could be readily confirmed by its very distinctive call,
described as a musical 'ti-a-u-u-u' in the case of the cock bird, and
sounding unexpectedly similar to that of the Blackbird Turdus
merula. Illustrating this similarity is an entertaining anecdote
contained in a letter to Tegetmeier from Bateman:

Mr. Bateman, in his letter to me, states: "A passing gipsy
bird-fancier hailed my keeper's wife, after listening atten¬
tively awhile, with 'That's an uncommon fine blackbird
you've got there, missus,' alluding to the note. 'Yes,' she
replied. 'Will you take five bob for him, missus?’ 'No; I
won't.' 'May I have a look?' 'Yes; ye may.' 'Well I'm

31

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

blowed!’" As he well might be, seeing what he regarded as
the note of a Blackbird proceeding from a bird as large as a
hen Pheasant.

Summing up his report of 12 September 1885, Tegetmeier
offered the following words of optimism:

I cannot conclude without congratulating Mr. Bateman on
the success of the experiment as far as it has yet proceeded.
So much harm has ben done by indiscriminate and thought¬
less acclimatisation, that it is satisfactory to hear that one
useful bird has a chance of being introduced under conditions
in which other game birds are not likely to do well.

Of course, even if the threat to the tinamous' establishment from
shooters could be prevented, there remained the problem of perse¬
cution from four-legged predators - most especially the fox, a major
hunter of tinamous in their native New World homelands. Yet in
his second report, Tegetmeier had dismissed the possibility that
foxes would be a danger to them in England:

... there is no doubt that an English fox would not object to
a bird that is as delicate eating as a Landrail [Corncrake Crex
crex ]. The young brood in Brightlingsea are, however,
spared that danger, as the M.F.H. of the Essex and Suffolk
hounds has, with that courtesy which always distinguishes
the true sportsman, granted a dispensation for the season
from litters of cubs in the parish.

Tragically, however, Tegetmeier's expectation was not ful¬
filled. Despite all precautions, the foxes triumphed very shortly
afterwards, and the tinamous were exterminated. In less than a
decade Bateman's hopes for a resident species of tinamou in Britain
had been promisingly born, had temporarily flourished, and had
been utterly destroyed. By 1896, the entire episode had been
relegated to no more than the briefest of mentions in the leading
ornithological work of that time. Quoting from A Dictionary of
Birds by Prof. Alfred Newton and Hans Gadow:

What would have been a successful attempt by Mr. John
Bateman to naturalize this species, Rhynchotus rufescens, in
England, at Brightlingsea in Essex ... unfortunately failed
owing to the destruction of the birds by foxes.

A unique chapter in British aviculture was closed - or was it? In
his definitive work Introduced Birds of the World (1981), zoologist
John L. Long states:

It seems likely that a number of tinamous, other than the
Rufous Tinamou, may have been introduced into Great

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

32

Britain, but these attempts appear to be poorly documented.

An event that may have ensued from one such attempt featured
a tinamou far from the Brightlingsea area, but sadly the precise
identity of that bird is very much a matter for conjecture. On 20th
January 1900, The Field published the following letter from J. C.
Hawkshaw of Hollycombe, Liphook, Hants:

On Dec. 23 last, while shooting a covert on this estate, a
strange bird got up amongst the pheasants and was shot. On
examination it proved to be a Great Tinamu, or, as it is
sometimes called, martineta. As Christmas was near, I
skinned it myself, with a view of preserving it until I could
send it to be set up, and found it to be in excellent condition,
with its crop full of Indian corn, which it had evidently
picked up in the covert, where the pheasants were regularly
fed. The keeper on whose beat it was killed said that he had
constantly seen it feeding with the pheasants. If you would
be kind enough to insert the above in your columns I hope
that I may be able to discover whence this stranger had
strayed.

As a footnote to that letter, the editors of The Field briefly
referred to Bateman's experiment at Brightlingsea, but confessed
that they were unaware of any similar trials in Surrey, Sussex, or
Hants (Liphook was sited on the confines of those three counties)
that might explain the origin of the specimen reported by Hawkshaw.

Not only was this tinamou's origin a mystery, so too was its
identity. No description of its appearance was given; the only clues
to its species are the two common names, ’great tinamu' and
'martineta', applied to it by Hawkshaw. Ironically, however, these
actually serve only to confuse the matter further, rather than to
clarify it. The problem is that they have been variously applied to
at least three completely different species. Both names have been
applied to the Rufous Tinamou (as in Dr. Richard Lydekker's The
Royal Natural History, 1894 - 6); but 'great tinamou' is also
commonly used in relation to a slightly larger species, Tinamus
major (native to northwestern and central South America, as well
as Central America); and 'martineta' doubles as an alternative name
for the Elegant Tinamou Eudromia elegans (inhabiting Chile and
southern Argentina).

Was Hawkshaw's bird proof, therefore, of another attempt to
introduce the Rufous Tinamou into Britain; or was it evidence of
a comparable experiment with a different species? Perhaps its
existence in the wild was wholly accidental, totally unplanned -

33

SHUKER - TINAMOUS

simply a lone escapee from some aviary - certainly, tinamous had
been maintained in captivity in Britain, with no attempt made to
release them for naturalisation purposes, by a number of different
aviculturists for many years before this event.

Today, even with such established exotica as flocks of Ring¬
necked Parakeets Psittacula krameri flitting through many parts of
southeastern England, Red-necked Wallabies Macropus rufogri-
seus hopping across the Peak District moorlands, and Golden
Pheasants Chrysolophus pictus strutting regally through forest
glades in widely dispersed areas of the U.K., it still seems strange
to consider that had it not been for an all-too-formidable onslaught
by the foxes of Brightlingsea a hundred years ago, Great Britain
may well have become home to an entire additional order of birds
- that short-legged relatives of rheas and ostriches would have
become a common sight by now in the fields and marshlands of
England, far removed indeed form their original Neotropical world.

REFERENCES

HAWKSHAW, J. C. (1900).Tinamu in Hants.TTte Field, 95 (20 January): 95.
LONG, J. L. (1981 ^.Introduced Birds of the World. David &Charles
(Newton Abbot).

LYDEKKER, R.(Ed.)(1894-6).77ie Royal Natural History (6 vols.). FrederickWarne
(London).

MEYER DE SCHAUENSEE, R. (1971)A Guide to the Birds of South America.
Oliver & Boyd (Edinburgh).

NEWTON, A. & GADOW, H.( 1894-6 >4 Dictionary of Birds. Adam & Charles
Black (London).

SICK, H. (1985).Tinamou. In: CAMPBELL, B. & LACK, E. (Eds.), A Dictionary
of Birds. T. & A. D. Poyser (Calton). pp.594 - 5.

TEGETMEIER, W. B. (1884). The tinamou as an English game bird. The Field,
63 (23 February): 276.

TEGETMEIER, W.B. (1885). The tinamou in England. Ibid., 66 (12 September):
390.

WALKER, C. A. (1985). Tinamous. In: PERRINS, C. M. & MIDDLETON, A. L. A.
(Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Birds. George Allen & Unwin (London), pp 28 - 9.

34

THE JACQUOT EXPRESS
By Paul Butler and Judith Venning (Hayle)

Last winter a new project was being ’hatched' at Paradise Park,
the centre for endangered birds in Hayle, Cornwall. After several
weeks of activity an ugly duckling in the shape of a second hand
British Leyland bus was turned into a swan, or more accurately a
parrot!

The World Parrot Trust was asked by the RARE centre in the
USA to supply a mobile interpretive centre for the islanders of St.
Lucia in the Caribbean. This would tour the local communities and
carry the conservation message in a lively and attention-getting
format.

The Trust set to work, appealed to its members, raised £14,000
and produced the most colourful travelling classroom you are likely
to encounter. The exterior of the bus is painted in bright colours
which depict the endangered St. Lucia parrot 'Jacquot' against the
background of a rainforest. Jacquot is the national symbol of the
island and has become the focus for conservation efforts as its
natural habitat declines.

The interior of the Jacquot Express has been fitted with interac¬
tive displays which highlight the environmental problems on the
island. Some items of equipment and voluntary assistance were
given by local firms in Cornwall, England and by British Airways
Assisting Conservation. Gradually the exhibitions and models
were assembled. The bus contains the following exhibits:-

1. Putting the Pieces in Place.

This environmental jigsaw illustrates the forest ecosystem
with each piece representing a single component such as the
sun, trees, river, snake or bird. The exhibit explains that in
nature all the pieces are connected and that if one is removed
the whole picture is destroyed. The puzzle's pieces are large
and colourful catching the eye of even the bus’s youngest
visitor.

2. Forests for People.

This exhibit describes the functions that trees serve with
regard to the production of timber and the conservation of
precious soil and water resources. Visitors are invited to
write down (using chalk and a blackboard) all the various
uses of wood and water.

35

BUTLER & VENNING - JACQUOT

3. Proud of my Parrot.

This photo display highlights one of the most important
denizens of the island's forest ecosystem - the St. Lucia
Parrot, A mazona versicolor , known locally as Jacquot. The
panel highlights its beauty, uniqueness and rarity as well as
its symbolic value as the country’s National Bird. Informa¬
tion on its feeding, breeding habits and status are given and
a plea made for the public’s continuing support in its conser¬
vation.

4. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall.

The use of a mirror shows the visitor who threatens the forest
most and whose responsibility it is to ensure its protection!

5. The Population Problem.

This interactive display lights up at the press of a button
correlating the decline of St. Lucia's forest resource with the
island's rapidly growing population and poses the question
"What will remain in the year 2000?"

6. Not a Drop to Drink.

Perhaps the highlight of the bus is two exhibits that illustrate
the effects of deforestation. Constructed at a cost of US
$8000 these show a forested watershed and compare it with
one under poor management. The press of a button starts a
process where rains fall on the mountainside, percolates
down into the river and flows out of the model into a glass.
The water in the "well managed model" arrives clean and can
be drunk. The water from the model that depicts hillsides
ravaged by deforestation produces a muddy coloured water
supply which looks far from being good to drink.

7. Forests in the Future.

The final display is a photo panel which details what is being
done to protect the forest and what the individual can do to
help. The bus is also equipped with a generator, slide
projector, VCR and television, as well as cassette recorders
to provide supplementary information and a PA system to
hail passers by. Discovery boxes, posters and handouts
complete the facility.

Jacquot Express was handed over to the Forestry Department at
a small ceremony on 4th April. Present at the event were Mr.
Ferdinand Henry, Minister of Agriculture; his Permanent Secre¬
tary, Mr. Losmos Richardson; Chief Forestry Officer Brian James
and a number of invited guests. Also present were David Woolcock,
Programme Director for the World Parrot Trust, Paul Butler from

BUTLER & VENNING - JACQUOT

36

the RARE Centre and U.S. actor Lou Gossett Junior.

At the ceremony Mr. Butler indicated that through the bus the
Forestry Department’s environmental message could be carried
island wide. He added that when the bus eventually breaks down,
hopefully after giving years of service, it can be towed to a
prominent location to serve as a fixed educational facility. By that
time, everyone will be familiar with the bus and likely to seek it out
to learn more. Mr. Butler added that space on the back is available
for rent to businesses which wish to add their own support to the
scheme.

By the second week in April Jacquot Express was on the road.
Its effect on the population was stunning. Open mouths, looks of
disbelief followed by radiant smiles greeted the bus wherever it
went. Since then it has travelled to communities in the north and
east of the island giving children and adults alike an opportunity to
tour the exhibits and to learn about the importance of the forest. In
late April the bus visited the town of Micaud where more than 350
farmers were shown its displays thereby carrying the conservation
message into the heart of the agricultural community.

Under the direction of Senior Education Officer, Anita James,
a travel schedule has been prepared and it is anticipated that over
the next 6-8 months the bus will visit every major community on
Saint Lucia. After making this initial round, its exhibits will be
removed and housed in the department's interpretive facility. New
exhibits will be designed and constructed so that the bus may revisit
Saint Lucia's towns and villages carrying a fresh environmental
message.

Following the success of the Jacquot Express, the World Parrot
Trust is now equipping a second interpretive centre for the island
of Dominica. For further information about this article please
contact David Woolcock or Judith Venning at The World Parrot
Trust, Glanmor House, Hayle TR27 4HY, U.K.. Telephone 0736-
753365, Fax 0736-756438.

*

*

This interesting article describes just one example of the work
which is being done by the World Parrot Trust to support conser¬
vation measures for parrots. The Trust's efforts to protect parrots
in the wild include the education of the general public and the
protection and preservation of natural habitats. It advocates con¬
trols on international trade in wild caught parrots but it recognises

37

NEWS AND VIEWS

the importance of aviculture in conservation and encourages
avicultural activities of the highest standard to create and sustain
populations of endangered species. It also supports veterinary and
genetic studies. The Trust has been in operation for two years and
has already provided generous financial and practical support to
prevent the disappearance for ever of many endangered species
including the Red-tailed Black Cockatoo in Victoria, Spix's and
Hyacinthine Macaws in Brazil, the St. Lucia Parrot in the Carib¬
bean, the Moluccan and other species of cockatoo in Indonesia, the
Echo Parrakeet in Mauritius and the Maroon-fronted Parrot in
Mexico. The Trust was created mainly as a result of the enthusi¬
asm, dedication and hard work of Michael Reynolds.

Ed.

* * *

NEWS AND VIEWS

In 1989 the pair of Spix's Macaw at Loro Parque, Teneriffe
produced a single egg which was subsequently broken. The pair has
not nested since then. About twenty thousand pounds, raised by
Loro Parque at the last World Parrot Convention, will be used for
field work in Brazil in the area where the last known wild bird of
this species survives. A captive bird will be housed in an enclosure
into which it is hoped the wild bird may be enticed to breed. If this
happens the birds will remain at semi-liberty which should facili¬
tate the release of any offspring. (What rare optimism in conser¬
vationists!)

* * *

Huge flocks of Little Corellas (Bare-eyed Cockatoos) have been
wreaking havoc in Broken Hill, New South Wales by causing
frequent blackouts by chewing through the insulators at the Elec¬
tricity Company’s sub-station.

* * *

Sherbrooke Council, Victoria, Australia proposes to introduce
a law to compel cat owners to lock up their cats at night. Such a
measure should help to save Lyrebirds which are coming under
severe pressure from predation by cats and foxes as well as from
habitat destruction. It would also be greatly appreciated by local
aviculturists.

NEWS AND VIEWS

38

The Parrot Society celebrated its twenty fifth anniversary at the
United Kingdom Parrot Conference held at Chester in November.
One of the papers was delivered by our Council Member David
Alderton. After giving a very clear account of the ways in which
CITES regulates trade in rare species threatened with extinction, he
recommended the introduction of a ban on the sale of endangered
species like Hyacinthine Macaws and Queen of Bavaria's Conures
as pets. He suggested that, if aviculture were to make a positive
contribution to conservation, such species should be available to
approved breeders only. His remarks must have upset some of the
members of his audience (presumably the more commercially
orientated) and he was asked to leave the meeting. What hypocrites
some of us are!

*

*

In 1991 seven Congo Peacocks were reared at Amsterdam Zoo
and two Streak-bellied Woodpeckers Picoides macei at Carl
Hagenbeck’s Tierpark, Hamburg - probably a world first breeding
in captivity.

*

*

"Euro Parrot 1992" will take place from 14th to 16th May in
Odense, Denmark. Speakers will include Joseph Forshaw and Tony
Silva. Further information is obtainable from Euro Parrot 1992,
Odense Tourist Association, Town Hall, 5000 Odense 6, Denmark.

*

*

A conference on Hornbills sponsored by the World Conserva¬
tion Union, the International Council for Bird Preservation and the
American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria was re¬
cently held in Singapore. Delegates learned that the populations of
almost all of the 53 species of Asian Hornbill are declining rapidly
as a result of deforestation. Hornbills nest in large Dipterocarps
which are disappearing through intensive logging at an alarming
rate. Conservation through aviculture seems hopeless since there
are few pairs in Zoos or private collections and, in any case, Zoos
cannot or are not willing to devote sufficient space for them to
breed. Among the species most affected are the Rhinoceros
Hornbill and the even more rare Narcondam Hornbill. Attempts at
conservation, involving the construction of artificial tree trunks for

39

NEWS AND VIEWS

nesting, the setting up of management and population studies and
the introduction of captive breeding schemes, are being made but
they all seem too late.

Members, attending regularly the President’s Annual Garden
Party at Chestnut Lodge may remember seeing, a few years ago,
Raymond Sawyer's beautiful Green Junglefowl which bred suc¬
cessfully in his care. There now appears to be very few of these
lovely birds in captivity in the United Kingdom, although it is
rumoured that a few have been imported recently. Green Jungle-
fowl, which are closely related to the Red Junglefowl (from which
domestic poultry have been derived), are becoming increasingly
rare because the wild population is being seriously reduced to
produce "Bekisars". These are sterile hybrids between Green
Junglefowl and domestic poultry. They have been favourite cage
birds in Indonesia for a long time because they are used to take part
in the traditional song contests. Recently Bekisars have become
the faunal mascot of one of the Provinces of Java and now every¬
body wants to possess them with a consequent inevitable reduction
of the wild population of Green Junglefowl. The World Pheasant
Association is already making efforts, which one hopes will be
successful, to ensure their survival.

*

* *

Dulcie Cooke has drawn my attention to the following interest¬
ing letter from Mrs. H. B. Cave of Kington, Hereford which
appeared in the Daily Telegraph, 14th January 1992 under the
heading "Alarmist tendency in owl appeal".

"The £380,000 appeal by the Royal Society for the Protection of
Birds to save the Barn Owl (report, Jan. 10) is yet another instance
of alarmist conservationists being "economical with the truth" and
using an attractive bird to obtain money.

The RSPB states that there are only 5,000 pairs left - but this is
just in Britain. The Barn Owl is the most widespread landbird in
the world, found across North and South America, Africa, Europe,
South-East Asia and Australasia. Britain comprises just one third
of one per cent of its range. This bird is a long way from extinction;
even the over-used "threatened" is hardly applicable.

NEWS AND VIEWS

40

The Osprey was another emblem used by conservationists, yet
it is easily the commonest large bird of prey in the world. The 50
or so pairs found in Scotland have attracted hundred of thousands
of pounds over the past two decades, but the fact that as many birds
have been counted in one tree in Canada is never mentioned.

It is clear that to attract some of the £100 million a year currently
available to major nature conservation bodies in Britain, a species
has to be ”marketable” by way of endless appeals, expensive
advertising and the inevitable junk mail. Meanwhile those habitats
and species for which Britain is important in world terms are all in
rapid decline.

As someone who works full-time in nature conservation, I hope
that the new decade at least reverses the trends of the last one and
brings a better use of resources to our countryside.”

A census of Touracos in Britain is being carried out as part of the
Foreign Bird Federation initiative to establish specialist groups and
breeding programmes for particular groups of birds. The aim is to
establish the numbers of adult birds kept and young reared in 1991
for each species. These figures will be published in a report to be
sent to all contributors. A further aim is to help breeders seeking
to pair single birds or place or obtain surplus birds by putting them
in touch with each other (by request only: the report will not include
contributors' names or addresses). The census will be the first step
in establishing a network of Touraco breeders, identifying species
which are low in numbers, difficult to breed, or for which studbooks
might be useful, and identifying other areas in which Touraco
keepers can usefully cooperate. Touracos are ideal candidates for
the establishment of sustainable captive populations and it is hoped
that all keepers will respond to the census. The census is organised
by Jim Irwin-Davis, curator of Harewood Bird Garden, and Touraco
breeders Nigel Hewston, Andrew Perkins and Fran$oise Raison.
Touraco keepers who have not received a form should write to Jim
Irwin-Davis, the Bird Garden, Harewood, Leeds LS17 9LF for a
form and further details.

41

NEWS AND VIEWS

The habitat of Edward’s Pheasant has virtually been destroyed
as a result of the Vietnam war and the species may be just another
example of the great variety of birds which have recently become
extinct in the wild. There are still a few specimens in aviaries
throughout the world. These are the descendants of fourteen
specimens which Jean Delacour collected in 1924. The survival
plan for the species will depend upon their progeny and will
undoubtedly be helped by the co-operation of pheasant keepers in
contributing to the census organised by the World Pheasant Asso¬
ciation. (Census co-ordinator Diane Hewitt, Windy Hall, Crook
Road, Windermere, Cumbria.)

In the Loro Parque Newsletter No 25 Tony Silva discusses the
problems affecting aviculturists which have arisen as a result of the
decision of air-lines to refuse to transport not only wild caught but
also aviary bred birds. He concludes that the consequent genetic
isolation of populations of endangered species will adversely affect
conservation programmes. At the park several species of Parrot
bred successfully for the first time in 1991. These include Bern¬
stein's Lory, the Blue-fronted Amazon Parrot, Bodin's Amazon,
Queen of Bavaria's Conure, the Fiery-shouldered Conure, the
Greater Vasa Parrot, Leadbeater's Cockatoo and the Orange-breasted
Fig Parrot. Chilean Flamingoes and Demoiselle Cranes were also
reared. The newsletter concludes with Tony Silva's account of his
visit to Cape York to observe the Golden-shouldered Parrot and to
study the reasons for its decline in the wild. Predation by cats and
possibly Cane Toads and illegal trapping, he considers, are not the
only reasons and recommends that a detailed field study should be
embarked upon by the Loro Parque Association.

Ed.

* * *

Why should you
subscribe to a
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" AVICULTURAL
MAGAZINE

CONTENTS

Breeding the Von der Decken's Hornbill at Leeds Castle, Maid¬
stone, Kent in 1990

By Laura Paterson . 44

Breeding the Red Throated Conure

By Shirley Lawton . 48

Observations on the Grey-headed Mannikin Lonchura caniceps
and the Chest-breasted Mannikin Lonchura Castaneothorax in the
Port Moresby Area

By Robin L. Restall . 51

Captive Breeding and Management of White-naped Cranes at
Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust

By Hilary J. French and Hywel Glyn Young . . . 58

Fecund African Crowned Cranes

By J. B. Blossom . 67

Breeding and Behaviour of the Black-tailed Hawfinch

By Jeffrey Trollope . 71

Chester Zoo - Bird Notes 1991

By Roger Wilkinson . 76

Report of Council Meeting . 83

News and Views . 84

The Society's Awards

88

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 2 All rights reserved

ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

David Hos/cing

Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 2 All rights reserved ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

BREEDING THE VON DER DECKEN’S HORNBILL
AT LEEDS CASTLE, MAIDSTONE, KENT IN 1990

By Laura Paterson (Head Keeper)

The Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni is one of the
smaller species of hornbill, being only 17 - 20 inches in length and
approximately 130 g in weight. They are mainly arboreal, belong¬
ing to the sub-family Bucerotinae and closely resemble the Jackson's
Hornbill. They are white breasted with black wings but lack the
white spotted wing coverts of the Jackson's Hornbill. The feathers
around the eyes are black as is a streak running from the bill to the
back of the head. The legs and feet are also black. The male of this
species has a large, curved bill which is bright red in colour turning
to white at the tip (but does not have a casque) whereas the female
who is smaller in body size has a smaller bill which is less thick than
the male's and all black in colour. This species of hornbill inhabits
central Ethiopia and southern Somalia to central Tanzania and is
said to be locally common. It's favourite habitat is dry bush country
and open Acacia woodland where it can feed on a varied diet of
fruits, berries, insects, lizards and even small mammals such as
bats.

Rarely seen in zoos and private collections, the Von der Deck-
en's Hornbill is gregarious in nature and can be housed quite
amicably with smaller softbills such as thrushes and starlings. We
feed our hornbills on a diet which includes apples, pears, bananas,
grapes, papaya, insectivorous mix, crushed diet A (SDS Diets),
minced ox heart, rat pinkies, and a seasonal variety of livefood such
as mealworms, morio worms and locusts, which the birds take
directly from the hand.

Our hornbills are housed with a breeding pair of Spreo Starlings
in a planted aviary made of metal framed mesh panels with a
smaller brick built shelter for the birds privacy and warmth during
the winter months. At such times heat can be supplied to these

46

PATERSON - VON DER DECKEN'S HORNBILL

shelters and lights are on timers to provide longer feeding hours.
The outside flight is roofed by a metal canopy approximately 17
feet high to imitate tree top shelter and the most exposed side of the
aviary is sheltered by a thick growth of Honeysuckle. In this way
the birds are protected from the worst of the weather, and if
necessary can be completely shut inside. The presence of a second
pair of Von der Decken’s Hornbills which can be seen from the
outside flight prompts territory displays and calling and serves to
strengthen pair bonds.

In early March several nest boxes were provided both in the
flight and inside the shelter. The box eventually chosen was one
inside the shelter. It was the smallest box in the aviary and was
originally intended for the Spreo Starlings. It was 18 inches deep,
9 inches square and had an entrance hole only 3 inches in diameter
(just big enough for the female to squeeze through). In early April
the male began offering food to the female which she accepted and
much time was spent by the female examining all of the available
nest boxes. During this period the male frequently displayed
courtship behaviour which involved a repeated low call whilst
lowering his head and stretching his wings upwards. However we
did not observe the birds mating. The female spent approximately
three weeks going in and out of each box and partially mudding up
entrance holes before making the final choice. Although he showed
interest in this activity the male seemed to leave the mudding up
mostly to the female. However, once the female had decided where
to make her nest the role of the male became all important.

The female commenced mudding up the nest box on 11th May,
with the male in close attendance. On 15th May the female was
nowhere to be seen. The nest box was mudded up except for a
narrow slit. Even a one inch gap between the nest box and the wall
was mudded up. The male continued carrying food to the nest box
and defending the territory. Extra livefood was supplied including
locusts twice a day, extra pinkies, mealworms and morios. Initially
the male took all the livefood to the female but after a few days
reduced the supply presumably because of her confinement.

On 16th May the Spreo Starlings and their newly fledged young
were removed from the aviary. On 5th June it was noticed that the
male was no longer taking locusts to the female, but on 17th the
female was seen peering through the slit in the mud and young were
heard in the nest. At this point the female had been in the nest box
for 34 days.

From then on the supply of livefood was increased and all

PATERSON - VON DER DECKEN'S HORNBILL

47

locusts offered were taken straight to the nest box by the male. On
14th July, 28 days after the young were first heard in the nest, the
female left the nest box. She was in perfect feather and had
obviously moulted completely in the nest. Immediately the male
began calling and displaying to and feeding her and she kept close
to him for all that morning. On 14th July two youngsters were seen
looking out of the nest. When locusts were offered the male fed the
young and then the female. Three weeks later the youngsters left
the nest looking just like the female but with blue eyes. Both young
were fully feathered. This was 50 days after first being heard in the
nest box. Locusts and lots of livefood continued to be supplied and
the parents continued to feed the young. An additional food dish
was provided in the outside flight to encourage the young to eat on
their own, which they began to do within a couple of days. Seven
days after leaving the nest, one youngster was found dead on the
floor of the flight although there were no signs of injury or ill-
health and a post-mortem investigation could not determine the
cause of death. The remaining youngster remained with the parents
until 2nd September when the female was seen chasing him off and
going in and out of the original nest box. The parent birds were seen
copulating later the same day. The youngster was removed from the
aviary.

On 3rd September the female was back in the box again with the
male carrying food to her. On 22nd November one youngster left
the nest box, 50 days after all the locusts supplied were taken to the
nest box, i.e. 50 days after the assumed date of hatching (4th
October 1990). On 26th November a second youngster left the nest
box. Both birds were in immaculate feather. On 1st December a
third youngster emerged to our surprise as no sound had been heard
from the box after the second chick had left it. The third youngster,
unlike any of the others, returned to the nest box at night, perhaps
because of the weather (it was now December) and the fact that he
was the youngest of the clutch. All the young from the second
clutch were reared successfully by the parents. We believe this to
be a first breeding of this species under controlled conditions in the
U.K.

* *

*

This is probably the first successful breeding of the Von der
Decken’s Hornbill in this country. Anyone who knows of a previous
breeding in the U.K. is asked to inform the Hon. Secretary.

48

BREEDING THE RED THROATED CONURE

By Shirley Lawton (Northampton)

The Red-throated Conure Aratinga holochlora rubritorquis is
a most attractive bird which has, perhaps, been undeservedly
overlooked by many people who keep Conures because of the rather
uninspiring plain green colour of the nominate race Aratinga
holochlora holochlora. This is a great pity for my husband and I
have found the subspecies rubritorquis to be a colourful and
thoroughly interesting addition to our collection.

According to Forshaw (Parrots of the World) there are four races
of the Green Conure inhabiting southern Mexico, Eastern Guate¬
mala, El Salvador and Honduras. Aratinga holochlora rubritorquis
has been found in the highlands of eastern Guatemala, in El
Salvador, in Honduras and in northern Nicaragua. Deciduous
woodlands, watercourses margined by trees, scrublands, the mar¬
gins of forests and the lower parts of highland regions up to 2000
m provide their habitat. The race rubritorquis is fairly common in
Honduras where it inhabits pine forests above 900 m when breed¬
ing, coming down to 300 m in the non breeding season. In their wild
state these birds fly about in large noisy flocks in search of food.
Their flight is high, direct and very swift. They eat seeds, fruits,
nuts and berries. They will raid corn crops and are fond of the ripe
fruits of the Waxberry, Myrica mexicana.

The Green Conures appear to be opportunistic in their choice of
nesting sites. They have been recorded nesting in crevices in a cave
in eastern Mexico. In El Salvador pairs have been seen making
holes in Termites’ mounds, and entering and leaving Woodpecker’s
holes. One bird was noticed entering a hole in a large Cypress tree
in Mexico.

According to Rosemary Low (Parrots Their Care and Breeding)
the race rubritorquis was virtually unknown in aviculture until the
1970s. Thomas Arndt recorded the first breeding in West Germany
in 1976. He stated that once they are used to their keeper Red-
throated Conures become quite tame. His pair soon lost their
shyness and accepted titbits from the hand. However, when
breeding they became very aggressive. They were given fresh
twigs for gnawing at all times and as they became tame they raised
their loud voices less often. In Vogelpark, Walsrode, Germany, the
Red-throated Conure, rubritorquis, was reared in 1979. In 1982,

LAWTON - RED THROATED CONURE

49

Ramon Noegel and Greg Moss bred rubritorquis for the first time
in the U.S.A. Ramon Noegel wrote (Watchbird, March 1986) that
two pairs nested, the young taking 21 days to hatch. In the Florida
climate it might be expected that chicks would hatch slightly
earlier than in a cold climate. The chicks were removed from the
nest for hand rearing when they were fully feathered. Unlike wild
caught youngsters, the three chicks developed red on their throats
immediately. He considers that the addition of carotene and fish oil
to the diet causes captive bred young to develop their colours more
rapidly than wild caught specimens. He also mentions a visit to
Central America in 1979 when he and Greg Moss discovered
rubritorquis nesting in extinct volcanoes in southern Honduras.

Like the nominate race Aratinga holochlora rubritorquis is a
mainly green Conure. In adult birds the throat and upper breast are
bright orange-red and this colour increases in area with age. The
eye ring is flesh coloured, the iris is red, the beak is horn coloured
and the feet are brown. The length of an adult bird is 32 cm.

In 1988 we obtained a number of Red-throated Conures imme¬
diately after quarantine. They were mostly youngsters, all quite
tame, having been taken from the nests and hand reared in Hondu¬
ras, their country of origin. Some of them showed no red at all on
their throats for when they fledge they are entirely green, as are the
Red Masked Aratinga erythrogenys. The hen of the pair which
subsequently bred for us had quite a lot of red on her throat and was
obviously older than the male. Since we acquired them the red has
become quite extensive and they are now very beautiful birds.

The birds were housed in a circular aviary divided into six
triangular flights. These aviaries seem to suit the birds which find
security at the narrow end at the rear of the flight. Nest boxes, in
which conures like to roost at night are always available. The
measurements of the box given to the breeding pair of Red-throated
Conures are 18" high by 9" square (46 cm x 23 cm). The floors of
the flights are grass.

At the beginning of July 1991 the hen of the pair showed a lot
of interest in the nest box and on 21st July she laid her first egg
which was followed by another two days later. Incubation, I
estimate, took 24 days but I did not disturb the hen until after both
chicks had hatched. The parents proved to be most attentive to their
young. The first chick left the nest on 5th October and on the
following day both chicks were out in the flight. They were left
with their parents for a further three weeks by which time they were
feeding themselves without help from the parents. It was now the

50

LAWTON - RED THROATED CONURE

end of October, the nights were chilly and so it was decided to
transfer the two young birds to a place where a little heat could be
provided. Once they had left the nest the young birds never
returned of their own accord to the box at night and it had been
necessary to "persuade” them to return to the parent's box each
night since fledging. The parents were tolerant of the young birds
but it was obviously better for them to be in an enclosure which was
warm at night. When the young birds were already quite well
developed, but still in the nest, they were seen by Freddie and
Dulcie Cooke, who remarked on how well the parents were caring
for them.

The feeding of these Conures could not have been more easy.
They were given their normal diet but in larger quantities. This
consists of Sunflower seeds, Safflower seeds, oats, millet, a variety
of fruits and vegetable, sweet corn, mixed pulses (soaked) and a
small quantity of "Sheep mix". Like most Aratinga Conures the
sexes of these birds are alike and so, at some future date, it will be
necessary for them to be sexed.

My husband and I have found these very attractive and steady
birds most rewarding to keep and breed and deserving of the care
and attention bestowed upon them.

This is probably the first successful breeding of the Red-
throated Conure in this country. Anyone who knows of a previous
breeding in the U.K. of any race of the species Aratinga holochlora
is asked to inform the Hon. Secretary

51

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREY-HEADED
MANNIKIN LONCHURA CANICEPS AND THE
CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKIN LONCHURA
CASTANEOTHORAX IN THE PORT MORESBY

AREA.

By Robin L. Restall (Hong Kong)

In July, 1990, I visited Port Moresby accompanied by my wife.
The express purpose of the visit was to observe the local mannikins
Lonchura spp in the field, and make detailed examinations of
individuals in the hand including painting accurate colour refer¬
ences of each plumage phase if possible. After some interesting
adventures, including escaping from a gang of rascals in the Morata
township when our car was attacked and we narrowly avoided being
murdered [we were attempting a sortie to the Waigani marshes], we
met up with Roger and Jennie Hicks of the Port Moresby
Birdwatching Club. Thanks entirely to the good nature and extreme
helpfulness of the Hicks our objectives were achieved.

We visited several locations around Port Moresby, including a
drive past Sogeri. Thanks to the kind service of Mr. and Mrs.
Tolworth of the Pacific Adventist College, we were able to set a
mist net in a perfect location on two mornings and caught several
birds of both local species. On the first day, upon catching 12 birds
we closed down the net. These were banded with official AOH
rings, recorded by Roger, and carefully detailed by me. I retained
four Grey-heads for painting. On the second day some 27 birds
entered the net almost immediately and I had to make special
efforts to prevent others from becoming trapped. We closed the net
at once, From these I retained five birds for painting. All the birds
were subsequently released in the location in which they had been
netted during the previous day. The following notes are derived
from a combination of field observations and study of the captive
birds.

GREY-HEADED MANNIKIN -
Lonchura caniceps

This is the darkest and most richly coloured of the various races

52 RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS

of this species. Two of the others, kumusii from the northern
lowlands and scratchleyana of mid-montane levels, are both more
pallid in every sense. There are almost certainly other races,
hitherto not recognised, that I will describe in another paper, and
which are detailed in my book on Munias (Restall, 1992, in litt.)

Adult males measured 110 mm in length with wings invariably
52 mm. The orange of the rump begins at the level of the first
tertiary and is flushed with yellow there. The underwing-coverts
are pure buffish-salmon. Adult females measured 105 mm with the
wings 48 mm. The orange of the rump begins irregularly [it may
be scalloped with the dark brown] at the level of the third tertiary
and is both lacking the yellowish flush, and the uppertail-coverts
are not quite so brilliant. With a quantity of full adults to choose
from in the hand it is comparatively easy to select males and
females, though no doubt a fair proportion would have to be classed
as uncertain. The orange uppertail-coverts are undoubtedly used as
a social signal in breeding behaviour for the long hair-like, or
splayed ends are full and show down below the wing tips at the side
of the body. They are quite noticeable when a bird, particularly a
male, flies up to a vertical stem, above the level of most of the
feeding birds. [This contrasts with the Chestnut-breasied Manni¬
kin, which has the rump and short uppertail-coverts neat and close
beneath the wings, even when singing].

The vocabulary appears to be fairly limited, consisting of
variations on a single note, plus the song. The contact call in flight
is a long clear psiiitt, but within the group it is a sharp psit. The
contact note of the male has a slightly different tone from that of
the female.

The breeding season is recorded as being from October to April
with the juveniles moulting into adult plumage from four to six
months of age [Peckover and Filewood, 1976]. We saw juveniles
in every stage of plumage from totally juvenile, through those
beginning to show a few adult feathers, to birds that were mostly in
their first adult plumage - a slightly duller version of the second
moulted adult. However, there was evidence that breeding was
taking place. Adult males were seen performing undirected song,
sitting still, with neck slightly stretched, bill open and pointing
forward, feathers of the flanks and belly fluffed out. An adult male
was seen in full advertisement song when the head is turned from
side to side through an arc of about 50 degrees. I did not see full
courtship display, but this is described by Baptista (1991) and
enables me to make a comparative sketch. Several males were seen

RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS 53

flying off in a direct and determined manner carrying lengths of
grass, clutched at one end so that it trails along the body beneath a
wing and behind, appearing to be attached to the tail, One male was
seen tearing off a stem from the florescence of the feral millet
Pannicum maximum and then flying off in a direct line towards
some bougainvilleas where, we assumed, a nest was being lined.

Two kinds of feeding behaviour were observed. Firstly, a bird
would cling to the stem of a grass and peck out the seeds from the
panicule to which it was clinging, or one within reach. I watched
birds clinging to the thick stems oiSetaria sp. rushes, and reaching
out to feed on the green seeds of Pannicum maximum alongside.
We observed them feeding on brakes of ripe grey-brown Rottboellia
exaltata, amidst swathes of rich green plants not yet producing
seeding heads.

The second feeding behaviour was exhibited when the birds flew
down to the ground and hopped around among short grasses,
including what looked to me like Chloris barbata. Some birds
hopped out on to the path and were observed picking up unidenti¬
fiable bits. Others jumped up to the seeding heads, maybe a foot
or more, to grasp a panicule and fall back to the ground. A bird
might jump 3 or 4 times before succeeding in pulling a stem down,
whereupon it would stand on it and eat some of the seeds. I never
saw a bird eat a seeding head out completely. This is consistent
with all grass seed eating by Lonchura spp that I have observed, the
bird will eat some of the seeds in a head then move on. Baptista
recorded seeding heads being cleaned of seeds. This feeding
behaviour was identical for both species. On one occasion I saw a
few birds hopping about the ground beneath densely matted tall
(1.5 m high) dried out grasses. I assumed they were searching for
fallen seeds.

At night the birds I kept for painting all slept in a row, tightly
clumped side by side, around the rim of the food pot. As they
roosted up, their contact notes were the same consistent psit of the
birds when they were active and in close sight of each other,
although slightly muted.

At the lowland levels of savannah the Grey-headed Mannikins
were always accompanied by a smaller number of Chestnut-breasted
Mannikins. The one exception to this appeared to be the trapped 27,
of which over half were adult Chestnut-breasted and most of the
rest were juveniles of one or other of the two species. At the
foothills, after we passed Sogeri and beyond, there were only small
groups of Grey-headed without any Chestnut-breasted birds.

54 RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS

CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKIN -
Lonchura castaneothorax ramseyi
This is the south-easterly of the four sub-species that occur in
New Guinea. It is quite distinct from the others. L.c. spharpei is
a diminutive 100 mm or so, and has the forehead to nape pale grey,
and the underwing-coverts buffy-salmon. L.c. uropygialis is simi¬
lar but is distinguished by having a little yellow on the uppertail-
coverts. Both are exclusively from Irian Jaya. The race boschmai
from the Wissel Lakes District (Goodwin, 1982) and the Araboe
River area (Rand and Gilliard, 1967) I am unfamiliar with, not
having seen it live. The skins from which I painted it in the British
Museum collection indicate a distinctive bird with a chestnut breast
and chestnut barring on the flanks, drab from forehead to nape and
yellow uppertail-coverts. Its size is unknown to me. Any observa¬
tions or comments about boschmai would be most gratefully re¬
ceived.

L. castaneothorax ramseyi/nigriceps

Robin L. Restall

RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS 55

Recently-fledged juveniles have blackish bills, and, notwith¬
standing the pale belly and undertail-coverts, can be mistaken for
a young Lonchura caniceps in the field. This blackish bill soon
turns to a violaceous pale blue-grey, probably within two to three
weeks after fledging when the birds become independent and fully
able to feed themselves. The implication in finding black-billed
juvenile Lonchura castaneothorax is that the species must have
been breeding in June, an extension of the breeding season brought
on no doubt by the exceptional rainfall of that month [rainfall
recorded in June 1989, a normal year, was 16 mm. In this June the
measured rainfall in the area was 169 mm].

.The south-eastern race, common around the Port Moresby area
in the lowland savannah and marshy areas west to Hall Sound, was
formerly known as Lonchura castaneothorax nigiceps. The adult
male measured from 110 mm to 113 mm., the adult females I
measured were all 105 mm long. The wings of the males measured
52 mm, females were insignificantly different at 51 mm or 52 mm.
The underwing-coverts are white. I could not see any consistent
plumage distinction between the sexes but there was a distinct
tendency for the nape of the male to be less clearly ticked with grey,
and conversely the female has the ticking regular and clear from
crown to nape. Thus, with a quantity of birds to hand it is fairly easy
to select certain males, certain females, and of course to have a
quantity of uncertains. These comparisons were made on birds all
in perfect new plumage. Despite Immelmann's comment that the
species appears to have only one call note [as the Grey-headed in
fact does] I found the voice of the Chestnut-breasted Mannikin to
be more complex and the bird appears to have a rich and varied
vocabulary. While the contact calls are similar to those of the
Grey-headed Mannikin's a strong peeet on the wing, the close
contact notes are several and varied. The contact note of the male
is different from that of the female, and one of the birds, I think it
was a male, had a zeet-a-zeet-a-zeet-a-zeett on a descending scale
that sounded both intimate and comforting. It cannot be heard more
than a metre or so away, and is quite distinct from the courtship
song. I observed a male engaged in undirected song on two
occasions. The bird sat on barbed wire, body clear of the perch,
neck stretched and head pointing slightly down, maybe 10 degrees
below horizontal, flanks and belly feathers erect. This is a typical
Lonchura posture for undirected and advertisement displays.

At night, the birds I kept for study and painting all settled down
in one melange in the food pot as if it were a nest. It was obvious

56 RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS

Grey-headed Mannikin, drawn near Port Moresby
undirected advertisement song

also believe the Yellow-rumped Mannikin Lonchura flaviprymna is
conspecific with these two. There will always be a school of
lumpers [other targets are the Streak-headed Mannikin Lonchura
tristissima and the White-spotted Lonchura leucosticta as one, and
the White-crowned Lonchura nevermanni and Black Mannikin
Lonchura stygia as another]. The basis for this compulsion to
simplify is the Geographic Species Concept which holds that if two
species co-exist in a habitat and do not naturally interbreed then
they are separate species. Thus the opposite must be equally true,
in that if hybrids occur naturally then the two animals are
conspecific.

I feel that if two animals, in this case birds, have evolved to the
state where they are physically and behaviourally distinct then the
focus of study should be on why and how and what factors have
driven them apart, and I see no benefit whatsoever in lumping them
into a singularity. New Guinea’s mannikins are a wonderful living
laboratory of evolution and should be the subject of a major study.
Diamond (1979) has written eloquently about this in his discussion
of the probable rapid evolution of Lonchura spectabilis gajduseki.
The recent discovery of another very distinct sub-species with
cinnamon underparts in the Urima Cattle Station in the Sepik

RESTALL - GREY-HEADED & CHESTNUT-BREASTED MANNIKINS 57

Plains, Lonchura spectabilis sepikensis ( Jonkers and Roersma,
1990) dramatises his argument and makes it as contemporary as
ever. In fact, in this world of rain forest destruction when all is woe,
it is a small compensation that new habitat favouring the evolution
of new races [and no doubt new species?] is being created.

In my judgement the Chestnut-breasted Mannikin and the Grey¬
headed Mannikin are good species. They are physically different,
they have different behaviour patterns, and different voices. Ad¬
mittedly the differences are not dramatic, but in my opinion they
are enough. The Chestnut-breasted Mannikin is a notoriously
promiscuous species. In addition to the two species already
referred to it naturally hybridises with the Spice Bird Lonchura
punctulata in the wild in Australia (Immelmann). Oddly however,
the lumpers are not suggesting conspecificity here. It has become
domesticated, and has produced new colour variants, as well as
hybrids with several other species of Lonchura, and several other
estrildid species. Furthermore, the juveniles are distinct. This may
be a small point but similarity of juvenile plumage is always held
up by lumpers as constructive evidence of conspecificity so differ¬
ences should evidence the opposite.

In their work on the evolutionary genetics of the Estrildidae,
Kakizawa and Watada (1985) used protein electrophoresis to cal¬
culate the genetic distances between a considerable number of
species of estrildid finches. Two of these were Lonchura fla-
viprymna and Lonchura castaneothorax. Whilst they are undeni¬
ably closely related species, they are demonstrated in the study as
being distinct species.

REFERENCES

BAPTISTA, L. 1991. Field Observations on some New Guinea Mannikins.
Avicultural Magazine 97: 77 - 87.

GOODWIN, D. 1982. Estrildid Finches of the World. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)
London.

IMMELMANN, K. L. 1965. Australian Finches in Bush and Aviary. Angus &
Robertson, Sydney.

KAKIZAWA, R. and WATADA, R. 1985. The Evolutionary Genetics of the
Estrildidae. J. Yamashina Inst. Orn 17: 143 - 158.

PECKOVER, W. S. and FILEWOOD, L. W. C. 1976. Birds of New Guinea and
Tropical Australia. Reed. Sydney.

RAND, A. L. and GILLIARD, E. T. 1967. Handbook of New Guinea Birds.
Wiedenfeld and Nicholson. London.

58

CAPTIVE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF
WHITE-NAPED CRANES AT JERSEY WILDLIFE
PRESERVATION TRUST

By Hilary J. French (Bird Section) and Hywel Glyn Young
(Section Head, Birds).

The White-naped Crane Grus vipio is listed as vulnerable (King
1981, Collar and Andrew, 1988) and its future survival is threat¬
ened by a variety of factors, including habitat destruction and with
it the encroachment of human land use. Counts at wintering
grounds in 1989/90 in China and Japan estimated the wild popula¬
tion at about 4155 birds (Anon. 1990). The maintenance of a viable
self-sustaining population in captivity is desirable to ensure the
long term survival of this bird. This article will focus on the
management and captive breeding of White-naped Cranes at Jersey
Wildlife Preservation Trust between 1984 and 1990.

The International Studbook for the White-naped Crane
(Sheppard, 1989) held by the New York Zoological Society summa¬
rises the status of the species in captivity, and in 1989 297 individu¬
als were listed as being held in various institutions worldwide. The
White-naped Crane masterplan (Anon. 1988), although dealing
specifically with the North American population, provides useful
guidelines for the management of the species in captivity, taking
into account factors such as genetic diversity, age, sex, fecundity
and longevity. A European equivalent is provided by an
Europaisches Erhaltungszucht Program or European Endangered
Species Breeding Programme (E.E.P.) (Neugebauet et a/., 1989)
which formulates breeding plans for selected endangered species
held in European collections.

The Trust has held a pair of White-naped Cranes on loan from
Whipsnade Wild Animal Park since 1984. The male was bred at
Whipsnade in 1983, and the female was presented to the same
collection by the Hong Kong Government, having been captured
from the wild. Most of the data were collected over a period of five
seasons, in three of which parent-reared chicks were produced
without the complications sometimes encountered in crane rearing
e.g. disproportionate weight gain and associated bowed leg syn¬
drome (Guittin, 1986) and imprinting in hand-reared chicks (I.C.F.
pers. comm.).

The cranes have an enclosure covering an area of approximately
600 square metres. The perimeter is bounded by chain link fencing

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

59

which reaches a maximum height of 1.82 m where it forms the
divide with another enclosure containing a variety of waterfowl and
a group of Grey-necked Crowned Cranes Balearica regulorum. No
problems have been encountered in keeping these two genera in
adjacent areas, even though despite being pinioned both male and
female and their offspring do occasionally leap the fence. With the
male this often coincides with slightly breezier weather conditions
and, with any offspring, occurs most frequently when the family
group begins to disintegrate. The cranes have visual contact with
visiting members of the public on all four sides of the enclosure,
three of which are bounded by public footpaths. This does not
appear to distract the birds during the breeding season.

The enclosure is situated on gently sloping ground covered by
grass. A small stream runs through the enclosure allowing a
constant supply of non-stagnant water. This is used by the cranes
for drinking, bathing, and foraging as. well as providing a nesting
and roosting site. Vegetation is both natural and exotic. A dense
mat of brook lime Veronica beccebunga (a water weed) provides
areas for probing and material used in nestbuilding in the spring and
summer. A giant prickly rhubarb Gunnera manicata also provides
a favoured foraging area. There is ample shade provided by willow
Salix sp., swamp cypress Taxodium disichum, and a Dove tree
Davidia involucrata and an Italian alder Alnus sp.

The dietary maintenance of all cranes in captivity is relatively
simple. At the Trust in the winter the adults are fed on a poultry
layers ration, wheat and flamingo maintenance diet. These are
provided in a length of plastic drain pipe measuring approximately
40.5 cm with a diameter of 16 cm. This is sunk into the ground to
hold the pipe in place. The summer diet consists of the two first
ingredients with flamingo breeder pellets. During the breeding
season this is scattered on the ground to avoid disturbance by
entering the enclosure, and also making it easier for the crane
chicks to feed. Both adults and chicks forage for insects, worms
and vegetable matter. Occasionally the young of wild birds are
found.

Pairing of the cranes took place in 1984 with their first potential
breeding season in 1985, when the female was at least four and the
male two years old. It is difficult to ascertain when White-naped
Cranes attain sexual maturity both in the wild and in captivity. In
the wild they can be compared with other Grus species, e.g. Sarus
Crane, Grus antigone and the Australian Crane, Grus rubicundus.
The former has bred at seven years old (Johnsgard, 1983). In

60

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

captivity it appears that they can attain maturity at three years old
(Johnsgard, 1983 reference to hand-reared birds). Juveniles kept in
mixed flocks will also begin pairing up at this age (Anon 1988).
Initially the absence of any substantial breeding behaviour in the
pair at the Trust can probably be attributed to the male's immaturity
and to insufficient time for establishing pair bonding essential for
successful breeding.

During their second breeding season in 1986 three infertile eggs
were laid. The first egg was not laid in the nest, and excitable
behaviour from the male, stabbing at the egg and tossing it into the
air, plus the risk of predation by gulls, Larus argentatus, necessi¬
tated the removal of the egg for artificial incubation. Since it was
not replaced by a dummy egg the female laid a further two eggs to
make a normal clutch size of two, it being exceptional for cranes of
the genus Grus to lay a three egg clutch (Johnsgard, 1983). For
these reasons both eggs were also removed for artificial incubation.
The cranes’ comparative lack of interest in their nesting duties,
with little or no defence of the nest and eggs, could possibly be
explained by inexperience.

Erratic early breedingbehaviour of a relatively recent pairing of
young birds could explain the absence of any substantial nesting
activities in 1987. The initial age of nesting of one particular pair
of White-naped Cranes in captivity was at twelve years old
(Johnsgard, 1983). In 1987 there was only one observed mating and
no eggs were laid. However, further explanation can be offered
with a comparison of nestbuilding activities from 1986 - 90 inclu¬
sive as shown in Table I. In 1987 the first signs of nestbuilding were
not recorded until 16th May which is a little later than their first
breeding season in 1986 when nestbuilding commenced on 12th
May. There is very little comparison between these dates and those
of the three following and successful seasons with one or two
clutches being laid and chicks reared. The earliest nestbuilding of
the last three seasons was on 10th March 1989, their fifth season,
when two clutches of eggs were laid. In 1990 there was a similarly
early date of 12th March, but only one clutch of eggs laid. In 1988
nestbuilding from 7th April was followed by two clutches of eggs.
Whilst one cannot draw too many conclusions from this, it never¬
theless provides an interesting comparison between the initial
years of pairing with unsuccessful breeding, and thereafter a more
experienced pair starting their breeding season early enough to lay
two clutches of eggs should the need arise, and rearing their own
chicks.

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

61

It was in their fourth breeding season that greater maturity and
a closer pair bonding was exhibited by more frequent displaying
and vocalizing. After an unsuccessful first clutch which was
removed for artificial incubation (one egg was infertile, and the
other dead in shell), two fertile eggs were laid. The nest site was
defended vigorously and two chicks were successfully reared to
fledging by their parents. There have followed two successive
breeding seasons with parent-reared chicks.

The breeding season usually starts in late March with the onset
of nest building. Both sexes participate and a large, somewhat
untidy nest is constructed. Both birds continue to add fresh
material, particularly aquatic vegetation, throughout the breeding
season. Rearrangement of nesting material is also frequent by both
male and female whilst performing incubation duties.

A variety of material is used in constructing the nest including
vegetation found naturally within the enclosure such as the aquatic
Veronica beccebunga , J uncus sp. rushes and sticks. Additional
material such as straw and clippings from plants such as dogwood
Cornus alba is provided, and the cranes readily incorporate these
into their construction.

The cranes have a favoured nest site which it has become
traditional for them to use, situated in the middle of the stream.
However, changes in nest site have occurred in the past with the
abandoning of one nest site in favour of a new one to lay a second
clutch of eggs.

A nest area plays a very important function in the rearing of the
chicks, which extends beyond the period of incubation and the
immediate post-hatching phase. It is used consistently to brood the
chicks, both during the day in inclement weather and at nightfall.
The chicks will still use the nest as a safe place to return to during
the hours of darkness when as old as thirty seven days, although by
this stage whilst the chicks sleep on the nest, the parents roost
nearby.

Occasionally a makeshift nest consisting of an area of flattened
vegetation is used during the daytime, noticeably in spells of hot
weather. The female will also brood the chicks on this temporary
nest site. The use of an alternative nest or nesting place for the
chicks was seen during the 1988 breeding season, although it was
not used until the chicks were approximately fifteen days old, and
spending an increased amount of time exercising and foraging over
a wider area.

Once nestbuilding is completed a clutch of usually two eggs is

62

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

laid. The earliest dates for laying a first clutch were between 27th
and 30th March (1990, fifth actual breeding season) with the latest
not until 19th - 25th May (1986, first actual breeding season) (see
Table I). When first clutches were removed a second clutch was
laid as a replacement. Incubation starts with the first egg as in all
crane species, and duties for the 28 - 32 day period are shared by
male and female (Johnsgard, 1983). Although observations of
incubation duties were recorded these were insufficient to ascertain
what proportion was carried out by the male and female respec¬
tively, or the duration of each sitting.

The behaviour of the cranes was interesting during the incuba¬
tion period, and changed noticeably after their second breeding
season when there had been little or no defence of the nest and eggs,
and no unison calling or displaying at the nest was observed. Their
fourth breeding season marked a turning point with both birds being
far more defensive of their eggs when they were removed for
artificial incubation. This behaviour continued with the second
clutch which was left with the pair who successfully demonstrated
their ability to defend the nest area and incubate consistently.
Displaying and unison calling both took place at the nest site and
the male threatened aggressively when staff entered the enclosure.
Similarly gulls Larus argentatus and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus
were chased off vigorously, particularly by the male. Evidence of
a better developed pair bond was also seen with the non-incubating
bird often standing in attendance at the nest whilst the other bird
incubated.

With asynchronous hatching the result of incubation beginning
with the first egg, inter-sibling rivalry is a common occurrence both
with parent reared and hand-reared chicks (ICF pers comm). In
both 1988 and 1989 two chicks were hatched. Both pairs of chicks
were seen fighting; in 1989 as young as one and two days old. In
these cases although the older chick would always be slightly more
precocious, inter-sibling rivalry never reached the point where
there was the real possibility of injury.

From the day of hatching parental care included bringing inver¬
tebrate food to the chicks at the nest, although they nearly always
walked a short distance from the nest area a few hours after
hatching. Attempts are made to peck at objects on the ground even
though this is not very productive until the chicks are at least
several days old.

Supplementary feeds were given to the cranes several times
daily shortly after chicks hatched. These consisted of chopped raw

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

63

TABLE 1

Egg laving and rearing 1985 - 90 inclusive

Clutches

1985-90

[nclusive

Eggs per

clutch

Date of

Laying

Infertile

Dead

Embryo

Dead in

Shell

Hatched

No reared

to

fledging

1985

1986

3

19.5.86

22.5.86

25.5.86

3

1987

1988

1st clutch

2

10.5.88

12.5.88

1

1

2nd clutch

2

26.5.88

29.5.88

27.6.88

29.9.88

2

1989

1st clutch

2

7.4.89

10.4.89

1

7.5.89

1

bandreared

2nd clutch

2

23.4.89

26.4.89

25.5.89

27.5.89

1

1990

2

27.3.90

30.3.90

1

29.4.90

1

TOTALS

13

5

1

1

6

5

64

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

heart or pink mice, mealworms, grated hard boiled egg, poultry
chick crumbs, finely chopped apple, and grated cuttlefish and
vionate powder as a vitamin supplement. Once the chicks began
foraging successfully for themselves they were also able to feed on
adult rations of poultry layers pellets and flamingo breeder pellets.
However care was taken in the dietary constituents and quantities
available to developing crane chicks, since diet can be a contribu¬
tory factor in causing bow leg syndrome (Guittin, 1986).

At the International Crane Foundation weights of parent-reared
and especially hand-reared chicks are monitored closely, and should
daily weight gains for the latter become excessive then food rations
are limited and a programme of increased exercise is initiated (ICF
pers. comm.). The Trust has never experienced leg problems with
any of the crane chicks reared, including a single chick which was
hand-reared on a diet of chick crumbs (later replaced by poultry
layers pellets), chopped hard boiled egg, lettuce, Sluis, (insectivo¬
rous food), crickets and mealworms which were fed on a rationed
basis.

In the years where siblings have been raised it was noticeable
that for a short period of time, usually in the days immediately
following hatching, each parent would assume more responsibility
for one chick than the other. This displayed itself in the form of
feeding duties, with supplementary food and invertebrate matter
collected and delivered consistently to a particular chick whilst
ignoring the other.

Exercise was very important in the development of normal legs
and toes, and with their parents the chicks all walked short dis¬
tances from the day of hatching. A large area to forage in, and
parents who led the chicks to food sources as opposed to always
bringing the food to them, encouraged exercise throughout the
rearing period.

Since the cranes are kept in an uncovered area all chicks are
pinioned. This does not appear to affect the copulatory perform¬
ance of the male, shown by the fertility of eggs at the Trust.
Pinioning is done soon after hatching, usually when the chicks are
three to four days old. The chicks are briefly removed from the
enclosure, pinioned, weighed and wormed without appearing to
upset the family group unduly. Once the chicks are replaced group
activity quickly resumes.

A programme of chick worming is undertaken to avoid the
occurrence of gapeworm, Synagamus sp., one chick having died
fromthis in 1989, despite a single dosage of Panacur (Fenbendazole).

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANES

65

The disease manifests itself with breathing difficulties, gaping and
head shaking, caused by worms in the bronchial tubes and trachea.
It is treated using Panacur at the rate of 200 mg per 5 kg body weight
which is given orally initially when chicks are pinioned. Subse¬
quent treatment occurs periodically throughout the rearing period,
occasionally given orally as a single treatment, or usually as a
three-day course with the required dosage injected into pink mice.
When fed these are faithfully delivered by the male crane to the
chick. The stress of capturing chicks each time is thereby avoided.
This is effective both as a preventative and a curative measure, two
chicks having been successfully treated for the symptoms of
gapeworm by the administration of Panacur in this manner.

As long lived slow maturing birds, cranes have a long associa¬
tion with their parents. Archibald and Veiss (1979) have recorded
the fledging period of White-naped Cranes in captivity as at least
seventy days. Chicks born to the pairat the Trust are tolerated by
their parents until February or March of the following year (a
period of approximately 8 - 10 months). The family bond begins to
disintegrate in the preceding months with juveniles spending more
time foraging independently. There is also increased restlessness
and intolerance by the adults to the presence of the juveniles. In
particular the male will attempt to strike at juveniles who then
adopt a very submissive hunched posture, appearing far more
comfortable with the female who seems more tolerant. The onset
of a new breeding season increases the male's intolerance as he
starts dancing with the female. On several occasions when young
cranes have leapt the fence this could probably be attributed to a
flight reaction to threatening behaviour from the male. On each
occasion that they have been removed from the enclosure neither
the male nor the female has shown any distress or attempted to
retain vocal contact.

In the wild once immature White-naped Cranes have left their
family group it seems likely that flocks of non-breeding birds are
formed (at least on the wintering ground), but which still attach
themselves to the main concentration of cranes (Johnsgard, 1983).
At the Trust young cranes are managed collectively until breeding
age. Four young cranes at the Trust now are being managed in this
way.

As a safety measure, should the wild population be unable to
sustain itself, successful captive management and breeding of
White-naped Cranes is desirable. Whilst being selective in the
pairs that are allowed to breed (taking note of variables such as

66

FRENCH & YOUNG - WHITE-NAPED CRANE

genetic diversity, age, fecundity etc. as considered in the White-
naped Crane Masterplan, 1988), parent-reared crane chicks provide
a very satisfactory means towards achieving this end. Furthermore
given compatible birds that have good pair bonding and are held in
a suitable enclosure, hand-rearing and some of its associated
problems need not be encountered.

REFERENCES

ANON (1988). White-naped Crane Masterplan.

ANON (1990). Winter Counts of Endangered Cranes. ICF Bungle, Vol. 16, no. 3:8.
ARCHIBALD, G. and VEISS, D.L. (1979). Captive propagation at the International
Crane Foundation, 1973 - 8. In: Proceedings 1978 Crane Workshop, Texas:
51 - 74, Colorado State Univ. Printing Service.

COLLAR, N. J. and ANDREW, P. (1988). Birds to watch. The ICBP World
Check-list of Threatened Birds. ICBP, Cambridge.

GUITTIN, P. (1986). Bow leg syndrome in ratite birds. Avicultural Magazine,
Vol. 92, no. 2: 70 -79.

JOHNSGARD, P. A. (1983). Cranes of the World. Indiana University Press
Bloomington.

KING, W. B. (1981). Endangered Birds of the World. ICBP Bird Red Data Book.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.

NEUGEBAUER, W., NOGGE, G., SCHMIDT, C.R., and WINKELSTRATER, K.M.

Europaisches Erhaltungszucht Programm, May 1989 Nurenberg.

SHEPPARD, C. (1989) International Studbook of the White-naped Crane Grus
vipio, New York Zoological Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank David Jeggo for his help and advice in the preparation of
this paper, Dr. Anna Feistner for her comments, and Tracy Le Couteur for typing the
manuscript.

Products mentioned in the text:

FLAMINGO PELLETS: Breeder and maintenance pellets manufactured by Mazuri
Zoo Foods, Special Diet Services, Stepfield, Witham, Essex CM8 3AB, Great
Britain.

GOLD STARTER POULTRY CHICK CRUMBS: Manufactured by Dalgety Agri¬
culture Limited, 180 Aztec West, Almondsbury, Bristol, BS12 4TH, Great Britain.
PANACUR: Worming treatment manufactured by Hoechst Animal Health, Division
of Hoechst U.K. Limited, Walton Manor, Walton, Milton Keynes, Bucks MK7 7AJ,
Great Britain.

SLUIS UNIVERSAL FOOD: Insectivorous food manufactured by E.W. Coombs
Limited, Frindsbury Road., Strood, Kent, Great Britain, under licence from Sluis
B.V., Etten - Leur, Holland.

VIONATE POWDER: Vitamin/mineral feed supplement manufactured by Ciba-
Geigy Agrochemicals, Whittlesford, Cambridge, CB2 4QT, Great Britain.

67

FECUND AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES
By J. B. Blossom (Ingham, Norfolk)

A pair of East African or Grey-necked Crowned Cranes
Balearica regulorum gibbericeps was acquired from a private
water fowl collection on the death of its owner in December 1975.
The pair had been seen in July 1973 in the previous owner's
establishment. They were in adult plumage, and had the run of
some scores of acres with a herd of Fallow Deer Dama dama . More
details of their first breeding whilst in the possession of the author
are given elsewhere (Blossom, 1984). Suffice to say here that in
1983, the year the pair first bred, they were at least 12 years old. It
is assumed that they were wild taken. From a survey conducted in
1980 (Blossom, 1981) the author recorded that only one pair of the
Grey-necked sub-species B. r. gibbericeps had reared young in
captivity in Europe (Steele, 1977) previously. However in 1980
Grey-necked Crowned Cranes were bred at Bird Paradise, Hayle,
Cornwall (from Newton Steele's breeding pair), and at Flamingo
Gardens, Olney, Buckinghamshire, and fertile eggs were laid by a
pair at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust.

In 1983, the year in which the author's pair first bred, the
Zoological Society of London, Regents Park had a pair which laid
and reared four young. This pair appears to have been almost as
fertile and prolific in subsequent years. Since then other collec¬
tions, including Lilford and Stagsden, Bedfordshire, have been
notably successful. Sadly, few, if any, of these original pairs
remain extant. Trauma and accidents have taken their toll. The
question that begs itself is where have the young produced gone?
And have any bred in turn to produce young from captive bred
parents?

The author's .pair started laying in 1981 after being in his
possession for six years. To date, December 1991, they have laid
a minimum of 71 eggs, plus at least two which were taken by
predators. Though copulation has been observed on only three
occasions, all between 5 and 5.30 am, all of the eggs have been
fertile. It may be of interest to add that both birds are pinioned. The
breeding performance of the pair is summarised in Table 1.

68

BLOSSOM - AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES

1st egg, 1st clutch
laid

Numbers

clutches

eggs

hatched

reared

13th July 1983

3

10

7

7

1st July 1984

3

12

12

7

7th July 1985

2

8

4

3

7th July 1986

3

10

8

3

6th July 1987

3

9

?

4

17th July 1988

2

7

6

3

7th July 1989

3

10

7

3

? 1990

2

6

3

1

13th July 1991

2

7

5

2

Total in 9 seasons

23

71

52*

33

*at least 56 including eggs of those reared in 1987

TABLE 1.

Incubation has been practised in different ways, including a
combination of parent, broody hen, and incubator. Attempts at
allowing parents to incubate and rear their young themselves failed
in 1985 and 1989. Prolonged wet spells soon after hatching, and
lack of enough live food, which the parents seek by foot stomping
on grass tussocks, taking for example Crane Flies Tilpula oleracea
lead to chick loss very quickly. The parents do not pick up
inanimate food such as proprietary poultry rearing chick crumbs to
give to the young, although these have proved satisfactory for hand
rearing.

Losses of young after hatching successfully and being artifi¬
cially reared occurred for several reasons. The most frequent cause
has been trauma caused by older dominant siblings from the same
clutch. It must be remembered that they hatch asynchronously.
Chilling, by being pushed away from heat lamps by a more domi¬
nant chick is another cause as also is getting damp in long wet grass
after exercising.

Two chicks hatched in different years turned out to be "star
gazers", (a term used forthesame ora similar condition in domestic
poultry). The chick is unable to lift the head into the normal
position, but walks with the neck down and head inverted. These

BLOSSOM - AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES

69

both had to be euthanased. The cause of the condition has not been
established. One chick, apparently healthy at 5 weeks old, died
within 48 hours of appearing unwell. Post mortem examination
revealed in the gizzard a spent air gun pellet (lead) which it must
have found for itself. Trauma to two older chicks was also caused
by their falling from a raised brooder to the ground (the brooder
sides were not kept high enough as the chicks grew). Crane chicks
land heavily, with no "spring" in their legs to withstand shock,
unlike, for example, pheasant or poultry chicks. Two others died
as hatchlings probably through unintended starvation whilst they
were being looked after, in the author's absence, by a volunteer who
did not appreciate that hatchling crane chicks need to be hand/bill
fed for at least their first 5 days. Another, at four weeks, was killed
overnight in an outside brooder by a Weasel Mustela nivalis which
was trapped subsequently after it had been responsible for the
demise of several half grown waterfowl.

Joe Blossom

Hatchling drying out in incubator

70

BLOSSOM - AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES

After nine years, during which 33 independent fledged young
were produced, it would be gratifying to record productive second
generation pairings. Sixteen specimens have gone to private
collections and seventeen to zoos or bird gardens open to the
public. The author has been able to keep track of only a few. The
loss of five by trauma, and one by accidental poisoning with a
rodenticide is known, and a female was killed by a wild taken male
with whom attempts were being made to pair up.

Two females are known to have laid eggs. One female, paired
to a sibling male, both hatched in 1983, laid 3 eggs in 1988 i.e. at
5 years old. These proved infertile, but were of a good shape and
size. The second female, referred to previously as having been
killed by a wild taken male, was also hatched in 1983. She laid 3
eggs in 1990 i.e. when 7 years old. These eggs were returned to the
author for incubation but were clear. The first female is with a new
owner and is re-paired to a wild taken male.

The removal of the adult birds to the author's new home across
the country, with a change of enclosure and environment, which
may not be conducive to continued reproductive activity, prompts
the writing of this paper. Now (January 1992) they are at least 20
years old.

Postscript:

Mr. and Mrs. Philip Wriglesworth, Yorkshire, bought a pair of
Grey-necked Crowned Cranes at the closing down sale at Lilford
Hall in 1989. They believe that this pair was bred at Lilford. They
bred for them in 1991, producing one chick. It appears likely, but
is still to be verified, that the young bird will be the first recorded
second generation captive bred Grey-necked Crowned Crane, cer¬
tainly in the U.K.

REFERENCES

BLOSSOM, J. B., 1981. Ratel, 8,3, Survey of Cranes held in Captivity in the British
Isles - 1980. A.B.W.A.K., 12 Tackley Road, Eastville, Bristol BS5 6UQ.
BLOSSOM, J. B., 1984. Management of Cranes, Storks and Ratites in Captivity.

Proceedings of Symposium 9 A.B.W.A.K., ibid.

STEEL, Newton R., 1977 . Avicultural Magazine 83,2. Breeding the Grey-necked
Crowned Crane.

71

BREEDING AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE
BLACK-TAILED HAWFINCH

By Jeffrey Trollope (Middlesex)

The large, attractive and interesting Black-tailed Hawfinch
Coccothraustes migratorius has been imported into the U. K. and
Europe for many years, although the shipments have been few and
irregular and usually contained a majority of male birds. With the
current ever-increasing restrictions on bird importations into the
U. K. the future availability of this species and other imported birds
is very uncertain. There have been several unsuccessful breeding
attempts recorded in the U. K. Whittaker Carr (1964) reported that
eggs were incubated but not hatched and Beckett (1964) had chicks
hatched but not reared. In 1975 I had a pair which hatched chicks
but the female was found dead on the nest when the chicks were
three days old. In recent years, I have heard of three other
unsuccessful breeding attempts. The major problem during the
unsuccessful 1975 breeding appeared to be the cock's driving the
hen to nest again before the chicks of the first brood were reared.
In this paper, I record the breeding of C. migratorius in 1991.

The species, which is about 19 cm (7 inches) long and has a
massive stout yellow bill bluish grey at the base and ashy grey at
the tip, is sexually dimorphic. The cock's upper parts are greyish
brown and its underparts are greyish white with a rufous wash on
the flanks and the sides of the breast. Its entire head, white-tipped
wings and tail are black. The upper tail coverts are white, the irides
are very dark brown with an outer zone of light reddish brown and
the legs and feet are flesh coloured. The hen lacks the black on the
head, has the upper parts greyish brown and is lighter below with
the flanks and sides paler than those of the cock. It occurs in
Eastern Asia and is distributed from China to the Amur. It inhabits
forests, scrub, bamboo, agricultural areas and gardens.

A pair of C. migratorius was purchased in January 1990 and was
housed for a period of establishment in an outside birdroom, heated
to a minimum temperature of 8 - 10° C (45 - 50° F). A twelve hour
day was imitated by electric lighting. In April 1990 the pair was
released into an aviary (No 2) 3 x 1 x 2.5 metres high (10 x 3 x 8
ft. high), approximately one third of which is covered with weath-

72

TROLLOPE - BLACK-TAILED HAWFINCH

erboards and roofing felt. In this area cut conifer branches are hung
to provide seclusion and nesting sites, with cup-shaped wire and
wicker nesting receptacles fixed at various heights. The male bird
was found dead in May. It appeared that it had flown into the aviary
wire, probably because of harassment by a cat. In August I obtained
another male from a bird keeper. The female of his pair had died
after she had hatched chicks. Following a period of isolation, I
released this male into the aviary with the female. There was some
courtship feeding, but no other indication of breeding activity was
observed during 1990. The basic diet given is mixed millets,
canary mixture, sunflower, greenfood, coarse grade softbill food,
soaked seed and mealworms.

Breeding

The pair were removed from the aviary (No 2) during February
1991 while it was being refurbished with fresh cut conifer branches
and its perches and nesting receptacles were being cleaned and
replaced. The nesting material provided consisted of dried grass
and convolvulus stems, feathers, moss, twigs, dead leaves and
coconut fibres. On 5th March the pair was returned to this aviary.
The male began to sing and both birds were seen carrying grass
stems on 10th March. The male courtship fed the female during
April and a well made nest was built in a wire cup-shaped basket.
The materials used were convolvulus, grass stems and twigs and the
nest was lined with coconut fibres and a few feathers. The nest was
about 1.8 m (6 ft.) from the aviary floor.

Copulation was observed taking place on the ground on 5th May
and the first of three eggs was laid on 7th May. Incubation appeared
to commence on 10th May, the eggs hatched on 23rd and three
chicks were found dead on the ground during the morning of the
28th May. The same nest was used again for the second clutch and
the first of three eggs was laid on 1st June. It was difficult to
ascertain the date incubation commenced but it was probably on 3rd
June. Three chicks hatched on 16th June, two were found dead on
18th and one chick left the nest on 28th June. The chick had only
rudimentary tail feathers and the primary wing feathers were not
developed. The chick hopped from branch to branch, moving
across the aviary and soliciting food from both parents. On 3rd July
the chick was flying well and on 4th the female laid the first egg of
the third clutch of three eggs in the same nest. The fledged chick
of the second brood was flying well by 7th July and was being fed
by the male. By 19th, the chick was independent of its parents and
was removed from the aviary on 26th July. The chicks of the third

TROLLOPE - BLACK-TAILED HAWFINCH

73

brood had hatched and were found dead on the ground when they
were approximately seven days old. Two further broods were
hatched and the results for the five broods are summarised in the
following Table.

Clutch

Number

Number
Of Eggs

Date First
Egg Laid

Number

Hatched

Number

Fledged

Number

Reared

1

3

07.05.91

3

-

-

2

3

01.06.91

3

1

1

3

3

04.07.91

3

-

-

4

4

08.08.91

4

1

-

5

3

02.09.91

3

-

-

Breeding Synopsis - 1991 C. migratorius

The same nest was used for all the broods. Apparently extra
material was not added, apart from a li ing of coconut fibres. On
several occasions the male was seen carrying material to the nest.
The ground colour of the eggs is pale-blue spotted and blotched
with dark and ashy brown, usually with a few blackish scribblings
at the larger end. They are sub-elliptical and slightly glossy. Two
eggs from those laid in 1975 measured 22.2 x 15.8 mm and 22.8 x
16.2 mm; the clutch size was 3-4.

Incubation was carried out by the female but on a few occasions
the male was seen to cover the eggs for a brief period, whilst the
female was feeding. The female sits very closely and will not leave
the nest unless you are in touching distance; the incubation period
is 13 - 14 days. The young chicks, before feathering, have a grey
skin with sparse grey down. The gape is pinkish-red and the gape
flanges are dull white. The chick from the second brood which was
reared to independence resembled the female after it fledged,
except for its head, which was light brown, indicating it was a male.
The primary feathers were black with irregular and small areas of
white. At the time of writing (December 1991), this bird appears
to be in full adult male plumage.

74

TROLLOPE - BLACK-TAILED HAWFINCH

From March 1991, the birds basic diet was supplemented with
live house crickets and waxmoth larvae. From the end of April, live
invertebrates were collected from nettle beds and bushes, although
the yield was variable and very poor in wet weather. The adults fed
the chicks on mealworms, soaked and hard seed, a little softfood
and the collected invertebrates. The parents were not seen to feed
the chicks on waxmoth larvae or house crickets.

Black-tailed Hawfinch 21 days old.

J. Trollope

Behaviour

In 1975 and 1991 the onset of breeding was preceded by the
male's courtship feeding of the female and singing. The male bird
would approach the hen to feed her. When about 15 cm (6 in) apart
they would stretch out their necks and touch bills. The female often
jabbed at the male with her bill when he would retreat, before

TROLLOPE - BLACK-TAILED HAWFINCH

75

repeating the same behaviour until the female took the food of¬
fered. Copulation, which usually took place on the ground was
preceded by courtship feeding. During incubation the male some¬
times flew to the nest with material, such as a feather or small twig,
which the female usually took from him.

In contrast with the unsuccessful breeding attempts of 1975,
there was little evidence of male aggression to the female during
1991. It appears that lack of suitable livefood was the reason for
the rearing of only one young bird to independence, from a 100%
hatch from five clutches. "Naturally" collected livefood is prob¬
ably the optimum diet, but the yield from natural sources is
unreliable. It is hoped that experiment with a greater variety of
commercially bred livefood, combined with the collection of natu¬
ral livefood, may bring better results.

REFERENCES

BECKETT, C. D., (1964) Chinese Hawfinches Foreign Birds 30, 76.

DE SCHAUENSEE, R. M., (1984) The Birds of China. Smithsonian Institution
Press Washington D.C.

TROLLOPE, J., (1983) The Care and Breeding of Seed-Eating Birds.

Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset.

WHITTAKER CARR, V., (1964) Chinese (or Asian) Hawfinches.

Foreign Birds 30, 37.

ADDENDUM

The Foreign Bird Federation's Register of Birds Bred inthe U.K.
lists five C. migratorius bred in 1990.

*

*

This species is given the common name Yellow-billed Grosbeak
in Clements Checklist, Birds of the World 1981.

76

CHESTER ZOO - BIRD NOTES 1991

By Roger Wilkinson (Curator of Birds)

Our male Masai Ostrich Struthio camelus masaicus received a
new partner when a female of the same race arrived in April on loan
from Cotswold Wildlife Park. A request from Haigh Hall Country
Park for young Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae allowed us to
permit our pair to rear two chicks but again we shall breed from
these birds only if youngsters are specifically requested. The
Rheas Rhea americana laid but failed to hatch any chicks in 1991
- the first year they have missed since 1983. Similarly Chilean
Tinamous Nothoprocta perdicaria hit an all time low with only one
chick produced.

This was more than compensated for by the Humboldt's Pen¬
guins Spheniscus humboldti hatching six chicks in Spring and a
further two in early December. The White Storks Ciconia ciconia
hatched five chicks of which the smallest was removed for hand¬
rearing. The parents successfully reared three of the four chicks
left with them giving a total of four bred - compared to two in each
of the last two years. Waldrapp Ibis Geronticus eremita hatched
seven chicks but only two fledged of which one died shortly after
leaving the nest. No hand-rearing was attempted although the
parents were assisted in rearing by the supplementary feeding of
chicks in the nest. Our aim is for the birds to learn to rear their own
chicks unaided in order that the captive bred stock may be suitable
for reintroduction programmes if required.

Our Caribbean Flamingos Phoenicopterus ruber ruber looked
good in the early Spring but a spell of cold weather perhaps coupled
with disturbance from nest prospecting Canada Geese Branta
canadensis may have been responsible for no eggs being laid. The
Chilean Flamingos Phoenicopterus chilensis surprised us in their
first year in the new enclosure by nesting very close to the public
viewing point and rearing three chicks. One late hatched chick
found apparently lifeless at the side of the nest mound was resus¬
citated but died at less than a week old despite our efforts to hand-
rear it on a commercially produced flamingo crop-milk substitute.
A very late Chilean Flamingo egg was taken from the nest and
hatched in the incubator. This bird received a diet based on that
used for Caribbean Flamingos at San Antonio Zoo (Kunnemann &
Perry, 1990) and developed well but sadly died at 27 days old. To

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

77

our knowledge to date no Chilean Flamingo has been successfully
hand-reared from the egg, although staff at the Wildfowl and
Wetland Trust, Martin Mere, hand-reared a chick that had been first
fed by its parents over a period.

Black-necked Swans Cygnus melanocoryphus reared two out of
three of the cygnets hatched and amongst other waterfowl we were
successful in rearing Hawaiian Geese Branta sandvicensis, Ruddy¬
headed Geese Chloephaga rubidiceps and Emperor Geese Anser
canagicus and seven species of duck including four White-winged
Wood Ducks Cairina scutulata. The latter youngsters again were
reared as part of the Wildfowl and Wetland Trust’s projects for this
endangered Asiatic duck. New arrivals to the collection included
a pair of Cereopsis Geese Cereopsis novaehollandiae from Jersey
Zoo.

R. Wilkinson

White-winged Wood Ducks at Chester Zoo

The 1990 bred Andean Condor Vultur gryphus, named Henry
VIII as he was the eighth chick reared at Chester, was sent on loan
to Antwerp Zoo. In exchange for our sending Chester-bred Condors
to Moscow Zoo the previous year we received two female Red-
crowned Cranes Grus japonensis bred at Walsrode in Germany
from Moscow-owned parents. More importantly our newly estab¬
lished pair of Red-crowned Cranes laid for the first time in 1991
with one chick being successfully bantam-reared and a second
reared by the parents. A first egg was noted on the 18th May when
the male was seen playing with the broken egg. We were concerned

78

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

that he might prove to be an egg eater and so when the second egg
was laid on 30th May it was taken for artificial incubation. No nest
had been built for this egg or for the third which was laid on 12th
June. Again this egg was taken for artificial incubation. It was then
agreed after some discussion that we should mow the paddock;
some concern being expressed that this might disturb the pair of
cranes. In fact this appeared to be just what the birds were waiting
for. The female fashioned a nest from the fresh mown grass
cuttings and laid her fourth egg on 18th June which she immediately
began to incubate. The pair proved model parents and the chick
hatched on 20th July. The second egg had previously hatched under
a bantam on 2nd July although the third egg proved infertile. Both
chicks were successfully reared and were introduced to each other
in early January 1992. The Sarus Cranes Grus antigone were also
particularly successful with two chicks being reared by bantams
and a third by the parents. All three chicks and the breeding pair
were rather reluctantly moved to other Zoos in order to free their
enclosure to hold the two new female Red-crowned Cranes. We
hope shortly to exchange one of the new females for a male so as
to establish a second breeding pair of these endangered cranes.
Two West-African Crowned Cranes Balearica pavonina pavonina
were reared from three chicks hatched under bantams but the chick
hatched by its parents in the paddock was sadly lost to a predator
- we believe it may have been killed by a stoat Mustela erminea .

Blacksmith's Plovers Vanellus armatus and Crowned Plovers
Vanellus coronatus were reared both by hand-rearing and under
their parents. We were especially successful with pheasants in
1991. Edward's Pheasants Lophura edwardsii are now considered
extinct in the wild and we were pleased to rear eight youngsters last
year. We intend to hold at least two and if possible three pairs of
these pheasants in 1992. Secondly our Temminck's Tragopans
Tragopan Temmickii, received only the previous year, were espe¬
cially prolific with nine chicks reared of which the last two were
parent-reared. Satyr Tragopans Tragopan satyra, Himalayan
Monals Lophophorus impeyanus, White Eared Pheasants Crossop-
tilon crossoptilon, Palawan Peacock Pheasants Polyplectron em-
phanum and Golden Pheasants Chrysolophus pictus were also bred.
Having again only infertile eggs from our Congo Peafowl Afropavo
congensis, our male was exchanged for a different male with
London Zoo. Four Bare-faced Curassows Crax fasciolata and four
Variable Chachalacas Ortalis motmot were reared, again the latter
were reared by their parents.

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

79

R. Wilkinson

Red -fronted Macaw chicks hand-reared at Chester Zoo

Turning our attention to the parrots, our most significant breed¬
ing in 1991 was of five Red-fronted Macaws Ara rubrogenys. The
first clutch laid by the Red-fronted Macaws at the end of May was
of five eggs; of these two were fertile but both died during late
incubation. A second clutch was laid in mid-July of which the first
and fourth eggs were found on the aviary floor, but the other three
were laid in the nest box. The two eggs laid on the floor were
artificially incubated and both hatched and were hand-reared, the
parents hatching the remaining three eggs and rearing all three
youngsters. A first time breeding at Chester was that of the
fabulous Hawk-headed Parrot Deroptyus accipitrinus. After sev¬
eral failed breeding attempts we decided to take the eggs for
artificial incubation and three chicks were hatched and hand-
reared. Other important breedings were of a Musk Lorikeet Glos-
sopsitta concinna hatched in an incubator and the tiny chick hand-
reared. This was particularly important to us as the egg was
removed from the nest box after the death of both parents. This had
left us with four females reared in previous years but no males. The

80

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

chick has now been sexed as a male and an unrelated female
obtained as a future partner for this bird. The Greater Vasa Parrots
Coracopsis vasa repeated last years first breeding success but this
time doubling it by rearing four rather than two chicks. On the other
hand only one Lesser Vasa Parrot Coracopsis nigra was reared.
Other parrots bred included three Blue and Yellow Macaws Ara
ararauna, two Derbyan Parrakeets Psittacula derbiana, six Lesser
Patagonian Conures Cyanoliseus patagonus , two Yellow-backed
Chattering Lorys Lorius garrulus flavopalliatus and three
Musschenbroek's Lorikeets Neopsittacus musschenbroekii. Blue-
throated Conures Pyrrhura cruentata were hatched but not reared.
Fertile eggs were laid by the Lilacine Amazons Amazona autumna-
lis lilacina and by one of our two pairs of Green-cheeked Amazons
Amazona virdigenalis. These were left under their parents but no
chicks were hatched. New arrivals include a group of Cuban
Amazons Amazona leucocephala recently presented by Customs
and Excise. These will form the nucleus of a co-operative breeding
programme for this species with the Zoo Federation Parrot Group.
We also received a pair of Blue-streaked Lorys Eos reticulata on
loan from Penscynor Wildlife Park and a Greater Patagonian
Conure Cyanoliseus patagonus byroni coming from Antwerp Zoo.
The latter has now been paired with a bird of the same subspecies
at the Tropical Bird Gardens, Rode.

We hold four species of Turaco and three of these were success¬
fully reared in 1991. Two Schalow's Turacos Tauraco schalowi
and two Violet Plantain Eaters Musophaga violacea were hand-
reared. The Red-crested Turacos Tauraco erythrolophus, recently
arrived on loan from Jersey Zoo, reared a single chick in their first
year at Chester.

Our collection of pigeons continues to evolve and significant
new arrivals in 199 1 include a pair of Blue Crowned Pigeons Goura
cristata. The male was received from Bochum Zoo in Germany and
the female from Avifauna in Holland as part of the European EEP
breeding programme for this species. Also we received three of the
exquisitely beautiful Superb Fruit Doves Ptilinopus superbus also
captive bred at Avifauna in Holland, four Pied Imperial Pigeons
Ducula bicolor bred at Paignton Zoo, and a second pair of Common
Bronzewings Phaps chalcoptera bred at the Tropical Bird Gardens,
Rode. Our greatest disappointment was in not rearing any Pink
Pigeons Nesoenas mayeri in 1991 although we reared two Pink¬
necked Green Pigeons Treron vernans and a Celebes Quail Dove
Gallicolumba tristigmata , both for the first time at Chester.

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

81

One Spectacled Owl Pulastrix perspicillata was bred but we
were devastated by the death of the breeding female in late Decem¬
ber. A female Milky Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus received to pair with
our male on re-sexing was judged to be an immature male. Our
breeding pair of European Eagle Owls Bubo bubo were stolen later
in the year. That pair had earlier reared three youngsters. Two
Great Horned Owls Bubo Virginianus, four Snowy Owls Nyctea
scandiaca and sixteen Barn Owls Tyto alba were also reared. The
Barn Owls, as in previous years were donated to the Keele Univer¬
sity Barn Owl reintroduction project. A total of 98 chicks have now
been bred for this project. In order to improve the owl accommo¬
dation by doubling the size of the present aviaries, it has been
necessary to reduce the number of breeding pairs held. Nonetheless
we received one significant addition in 1991 when as a result of re¬
organisation at London Zoo we accepted their single male Rufous
Fishing Owl Scotopelia ussheri. This species is very rare in
captivity and in the wild and we will make every effort to pair this
bird. Should readers know of the location of other members of this
species or of Vermiculated Fishing Owls Scotopelia bouvieri I
would be obliged if they could assist.

After the death of a recently arrived but well established female
Sparkling Violetear Hummingbird Colibri coruscans we agreed to
send our male on loan to Slimbridge where they have previously
bred these gorgeous birds. Hopefully we may again hold this
species in the future if the pair at Slimbridge are successful.

Taking chicks for hand-rearing from the often unsuccessful
nests of some of the smaller softbills in the Tropical House free
flight meant more work for the keeper but success in rearing a Fairy
Bluebird Irena puella, Silver-eared Mesia Leiothrix argentauris ,
and Red-eared Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus. The preferred option of
catching up recently fledged chicks and placing these in a large trap
cage with one or both parents worked well for the White-rumped
Shamas Copsychus malabaricus which reared a total of six chicks.
Once the fledglings are placed in the trap cage they attract the
parents which can then be trapped and the family held together until
the chicks are fully independent. Similarly a Californian Quail
Lophortyx californica which hatched twelve chicks also in the
Tropical House free flight, was caught up together with her chicks
and in the safety of an aviary reared ten of these.

Three Rothschilds Mynahs Leucopsar rothschildi were hand-
reared. This was particularly important in that one of the parents
was unrelated to all the other U.K. studbook stock having been

82

WILKINSON - CHESTER NOTES

donated several years ago to Chester Zoo by a generous local
aviculturist. In the Bird House the Purple Glossy Starlings Lampro-
tornis purpureus reared three chicks. New species to the collection
included African Pied Starlings Spreo bicolor imported directly
from Tygerberg Zoo in South Africa. Other additions in the year
included Blue-eared Glossy Starlings Lamprotornis chalybaeus,
Silver-beaked Tanagers Ramphocelus carbo, Oriental White-eyes
Zosterops palpebrosa and Splendid Sunbirds Nectarinia coccini-
gastra.

Considering the larger softbills the most notable breedings
included four Channel-billed Toucans Ramphastos vitellinus, one
White Woodpecker Leuconerpes candidus, two Trumpeter Horn-
bills Bycanistes buccinator, three African Grey Hornbills Tockus
nasutus, three Kookaburras Dacelo novaeguineae and a Red-billed
Blue Magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha. Two Red-billed Choughs
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax were hatched in the incubator but al¬
though one chick was reared to over a month old it had failed to
develop normally and was euthanized. The Great Indian Hornbill
Buceros bicornis laid her egg outside the nest and the Wrinkled
Hornbills Aceros corrugatus hatched two chicks but failed to rear
them.

Mexican House Finches Carpodacus mexicanus after failing to
rear chicks in 1990 reared over twenty chicks in 1991. Two pairs
of Beavan's Bullfinches Pyrrhula erythaca were received and pairs
of captive-bred Red-billed Fire Finches Lagonisticta senegala,
Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu Uraeginthus bengalus , and Golden¬
breasted Waxbills Amandava subflava were presented to the Zoo.

At the end of the year some 300 chicks of over 70 species of birds
had been reared. Again this was a reflection on the hard work,
enthusiasm and commitment of the keeping staff.

REFERENCES

KUNNERMANN, F & PERRY, J (1990). Hand-rearing the Caribbean Flamingo

Phoenicopterus ruber ruber at San Antonio Zoo International Zoo

Yearbook , 29, 95-99.

83

REPORT OF COUNCIL MEETING

The Society's Council met at the Rode Tropical Bird Gardens
on Sunday 29th March, 1992, when thirteen Council Members were
present.

The results of the members’ questionnaire were discussed.
Thirty-five had been returned (approximately 16%). Of these 40%
had indicated they would be prepared to invite other members to
visit their collections as a group and 76% had requested more social
events. It was agreed such visits should be arranged when possible.
In the case of several small collections being within the same area,
a joint visit could probably be arranged and Mrs. Rosemary Wiseman
and Mr. R. Grantham agreed to act as co-ordinators. Invitations and
details will be circulated with the Magazine when appropriate. It
was also agreed that a Social Secretary was necessary to arrange
other events and Mr. K. J. Lawrence was appointed.

An encouraging number had indicated a willingness to give a
talk and/or write articles for the Magazine, and these offers will be
followed up. Although the majority of replies had indicated a
willingness to take part in some form of register of birds for sale or
exchange, Council decided not to pursue this at present as there is
already a similar scheme in operation through the Foreign Bird
Federation. Further consideration will be given to the possibility
of producing a register of members, indicating their special inter¬
ests.

Arrangements will be made to hold a Symposium in 1994, the
Society's centenary year, and a sub-committee is to be appointed to
organise this event under the chairmanship of Roger Wilkinson.

The Hon. Treasurer reported that the financial position was
improving and he was now hoping that the standard of the magazine
could be improved and that funds could be accumulated for the
forthcoming centenary year.

The next meeting of Council will be on 6th September 1992.

* * *

84

NEWS AND VIEWS

The New Zealand Chatham Island Black Robin has increased
recently to 116 specimens after declining to only five individuals
a few years ago.

Pairs of Palm and Leadbeater's Cockatoos and three Hawk¬
headed Parrots were stolen in February of this year from Chester
Zoo. This is not the first occasion on which the Zoo has lost rare
and valuable species in this way and some members may remember
the theft of the Zoo's Birds of Paradise about twenty years ago.

A pair of Rothschild's Peacock Pheasants has been presented by
Hong Kong Botanical and Zoological Gardens to the San Diego Zoo
on the occasion of the Zoo’s seventy-fifth birthday. This species
had never been kept in captivity when Delacour wrote "Pheasants
of the World" but its successful captive breeding in "Malaysia or in
Hong Kong under a co-operative agreement with Dr. K. C. Searle"
was mentioned last year by Frank Woolham in his contribution to
News and Views (Avicultural Magazine 1991, Vol. 97:45).

* * *

Ken Dolton's consistent success in breeding the endangered
Thick-billed Parrot Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyca is well known.
Regrettably the hen of one of his pairs died in January of this year
as the result of an ovarian tumour. This particular pair was obtained
for him from the San Diego Zoo in 1966 by E. Pariente, a dealer
well-known at the time, at a cost of £90! The pair first bred
successfully in 1973 when they produced two youngsters, as they
did almost every subsequent year until 1989 when they were at least
twenty-five years old. The cock is still alive and in good condition.

Incidentally, Pariente was the first importer into the U.K. of
White Cockatiels of which he obtained four pairs from Mrs. Moon
of Florida in whose aviary the mutation was established.

* * *

Council member Malcolm Ellis has recently completed painting

NEWS AND VIEWS

85

many of the bird illustrations for the new edition of the World Book
International Encyclopedia which is to be published soon. Many
of our members will be familiar with his illustrations in Birds of
Prey of the World by Philip Burton from which some of the original
paintings are available for sale. Details may be obtained from
Malcolm Ellis, The Chalet, Hay Farm, St. Breock, Wadebridge,
Cornwall, PL27 7LH.

*

*

Ed. Bish, Curator of Birds at Busch Gardens, Tampa, Florida
retired in January of this year after working in the gardens since
their opening 33 years ago. The bird collection is one of the largest
in the U.S.A. and now contains about 2000 birds of 221 species.
Several first breedings have occurred in the gardens, notably that
of Lear's Macaw in 1982, and viable breeding groups of Yellow-
collared Macaws, Maximillian's Parrots, Festive Amazon Parrots
and Golden (Queen of Bavaria's) Conures have been established
under Bish's supervision.

Gouldian Finches were once abundant at waterholes in North¬
western Australia and often occurred in flocks of thousands. Now
only two breeding populations are known neither of which exceeds
100 pairs. The main factor which has made the Gouldian Finch an
endangered species, even if it were not responsible for the initial
decline in their numbers, is the occurrence of a mite Sternostoma
tracheolum which infests the respiratory system of the birds. An
anthelmintic drug Clvomec") kills the air-sac mite and has been
found in studies in captive birds to be effective in treating the
condition. Accordingly a band of scientists and volunteers is
embarking on an ambitious project, with financial help from the
World Wide Fund for Nature, to try, with the use of the drug, to
build up the number of birds free of the parasite and also to search
for new breeding areas which can be made into Nature Reserves.

From Malcolm Ellis

According to a report in an Australian newspaper there has been
in Sydney over the past five years a population explosion of Sacred
Ibis. This summer their numbers were increased by birds driven by

86

NEWS AND VIEWS

drought conditions from the country into the city. The species is
now reaching plague proportions, according to a spokesman for the
Environment Minister, who added that "people still like them in
spite of their being a real problem." Graeme Phipps, Principal
Curator of Taronga Park Zoo, considers that they are not a problem
and that they fit quite well into the urban area.

The future of London Zoo has been assured after a year-long
campaign against its threatened closure and plans to replace it with
a theme park have been dropped.

After completing the article on Padstow Tropical Bird Gardens
(Avicultural Magazine, Vol.97, 4: 174-178) in September I learned
with regret that these delightful gardens would have to close.

Four birds of what is claimed to be an hitherto undescribed new
species have, according to recent reports, been found in a bird
exporter's cage in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The four, which
subsequently died, were described as "members of the Bishop
family", presumably, birds of the genus Euplectes.

A party visiting the Jozani Forest, Zanzibar, saw and heard the
Zanzibar race of Fischer's Touraco Tauraco fischeri zanzibaricus.
Endemic to that island and restricted to the Jozani area, it had not
been recorded since 1937, and was thought possibly to be extinct.
It is well known to the local people who call it Jogoo Mwita,
'cockerel of the forest’, presumably because of its loud call. The
party also saw the Green-backed Twinspot, recorded previously on
Zanzibar only on three occasions, all in the 1930s. EAST AFRICA
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Bulletin , 1991, 21, 4: 60.

At the end of March, Mike Reynolds wrote that 'Operation
Chough' had five pairs of Choughs building nests at Paradise Park,
Hayle, Cornwall.

A five-year Kiwi recovery programme was launched last August
by the New Zealand Conservation Department in association with
the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society and the Bank of New
Zealand. Its management and research studies are aimed at maintain¬
ing and, where possible, enhancing the abundance, distribution and

NEWS AND VIEWS

87

genetic diversity of Kiwis. Already surveys in central and west
coast areas of the North Island suggest that the Brown Kiwi has
disappeared from small forest patches as well as from extensive
areas in some of the National Parks where it was once fairly
common. However, the species is still present in moderate numbers
in some places near the Wanganui River and in Tongariro National
Park. It has been found that many Kiwis are accidentally caught in
possum traps or killed by dogs. However, a pleasing early result of
the survey is the discovery that the species has adapted well to pine
forests where there have been several Kiwi sightings in Northland.

*

*

Robin Restall writes

"In a copy of Kukila (Bulletin of the Ornithological Society of
Indonesia) I noted that the big Black-headed Mannikin Lonchura
atricapilla jagori has been recorded as far south as Parepare in
Sulawesi, well inside the range of the small Brown-headed Manni¬
kin L. atricapilla brunneiceps . This casts doubt on the integrity of
brunneiceps as a race of atricapilla and raises the possibility of
its being a true species. This is a fine opportunity for an aviculturist
to do a comparative study. I kept and bred the Timor Zebra Finch
very successfully a couple of years ago and am convinced that it is
not a race of the Australian Zebra Finch but is a good species in its
own right. The problem of carrying out a comparative study is to
obtain good Australian birds - the domesticated Zebra Finches
freely available have become too modified to be reliable enough,
I fear."

*

*

In International Zoo News (No 233, page 48) James Osborne
describes the comparatively new Territory Wildlife Park, Northern
Territory, Australia. The Park is at Berry Springs about 40 miles
south of Darwin along the Sturt Highway. Osborne writes enthu¬
siastically about the new nocturnal house which accommodates
some of the Territory's rarest mammals, the spacious enclosures
displaying kangaroos and dingoes and the huge aquarium. He
refers to the enormous walk-through aviary and to the billabong
where Northern Territory species of ibis, storks, cranes and egrets
can be seen from an elaborate hide. However, he does not even
mention what to me is the most attractive and interesting feature of

88

NEWS AND VIEWS

the park, namely a group of about a dozen quite small (about 15 m
x 15 m) aviaries each of which depicts accurately a different type
of Northern Territory habitat e.g. rain forest, desert, grassland etc.
These enclosures house an incredible number of Northern Territory
species among which I saw, at a distance of only a few feet, a
Spotted Bower Bird Chlamydera maculata in its bower, decorated
mainly with white objects like shells and stones, displaying to a
female. I remember particularly the Brown's, Crimson- winged and
Hooded Parrots and also the Red-collared and Varied Lorikeets
both of which were present in pairs in the aviaries and also in
considerable numbers in the trees in the gardens. Apparently the
Varied species is seen only during some of the dry season but the
Red-collared Lorikeets are always there. Perhaps Rosemary Low
had forgotten the Red-collared when she wrote in Parrots Their
Care and Breeding that the Rainbow (Swainson's) is "the most
beautiful of the genus" for it is completely outshone by the Red-
collared with its bright, wide red collar and its uniformly intense
orange-red breast. I thought I had persuaded successfully one of the
birdkeepers, Tim Martin, to write an account of the collection at
Territory Wildlife Park for the Avicultural Magazine but it has not
turned up yet.

Spix's Macaws at Loro Parque have hatched one chick which is
being reared by the parents.

Ed.

* * *

THE SOCIETY’S AWARDS

The following are probably first breedings in the United Kingdom.
Anyone who knows of previous breedings is asked to inform the
Hon. Secretary.

African Grey Hornbill
Buffon’s Touraco
Trumpeter Hornbill
Ashy Starling
Channel-billed Toucan

Chester Zoo Avic.Mag. 1990, 96, 167.
S.C. Horne Avic.Mag. 1991, 97, 35.
Chester Zoo Avic.Mag. 1991, 97, 67.
Chester Zoo Avic.Mag. 1991,97, 164.
Chester Zoo Avic.Mag. 1991,97, 179

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^AVICULTURAL

MAGAZINE

CONTENTS

Parent-rearing of a Palm Cockatoo at Palmitos Park.

By Rosemary Low . 91

A Trip to Australia.

By Fred Barnicoat . 97

Birds of Madagascar.

By Caroline Harcourt . 105

Captive Breeding of the Purple-crested Touraco.

By Fran9oise Raison . Ill

A New Sub-species of the Spice Bird
Lonchura punctulata from Borneo.

By Robin L. Restall . 115

Any hope for Hornbills?

By Roger Wilkinson . 119

Blue-crowned Hanging Parrots breed successfully as a trio.

By Fred Barnicoat . 123

Incubation of Crane Eggs by Cochin Hens.

By Thomas A. Mahan . 125

The Status of Australian Finches in the United Kingdom.

By A. J. Mobbs . 130

News and Views . 136

Letters to the Editor . 142

Avicultural and Veterinary Conference . 143

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 3 All rights reserved

ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

Rosemary Low

Male Palm Cockatoo on exhibit at Palmitos Park, Gran Canaria.

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 3 All rights reserved ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

PARENT-REARING OF A PALM COCKATOO AT
PALMITOS PARK

By Rosemary Low

Captive breeding of the Palm Cockatoo Probosciger aterrimus
is still a rare event, except in one very successful collection in the
USA, where I believe all the young are hand-reared. Parent-rearing
of this species is very much rarer. I would therefore like to record
in detail our experiences during 1991 with one pair of the nominate
race in the breeding centre at Palmitos Park, Gran Canaria.

They occupy an aviary which measures 8 m long, 2 m wide and
2.4 m high. Part of the roof and the front is constructed of welded
mesh (14 g. 1 in. x 2 in.) and the walls are solid. At the back of the
aviary an open-topped log rests on a solid base 67 cm above the
ground. The log is about 1.2 m high with an internal diameter of
30 cm. The logs for the Palm Cockatoos are different from all other
nests in the breeding centre in that they cannot be inspected from
the service passage at the back of the aviary.

The first nesting attempt of the pair occurred in 1991. The
single egg was apparently incubated only by the female. The date
of laying was unknown but the incubation period in this species is
29 or 30 days. The egg hatched on 23rd April when a chick was
heard at 5 pm. At 8 pm the female left the nest. Inspection revealed
a dead newly hatched chick. It had been bitten on the top of the
head. Perhaps the female had accidentally killed it when trying to
feed it. Chicks which are purposely mutilated usually have more
serious injuries.

93

LOW - PALM COCKATOO

We were disappointed but not discouraged. After all, the first
breeding attempt had produced a live chick. We then installed an
observation camera in front of the aviary. In July I witnessed
copulation by this pair - the first time I had seen it in this species.
Observation cameras, like television cameras, are remarkably effi¬
cient in even fading light and, thus, at 9 pm. one evening, I obtained
via the monitor a photograph of the pair mating.

The female laid again in August, near the beginning of the
month. The date was unknown as we kept disturbance to a
minimum. On 3rd September I was excited to hear once again the
sounds of a chick from the Palm’s log. It was probably no more than
one day old and from then on was heard frequently. Mr. Paulmann
(founder of Palmitos Park), Mike Gammond (my partner and
assistant curator of the breeding centre) and I were unanimous that
the pair should be given the opportunity to rear the chick. It turned
out to be the right decision.

I then had to decide what alterations to make to the diet. The
pair eat mainly sunflower seed and walnuts, although every day
their food tray contains a mixture of boiled maize, chopped fruits
and chopped vegetables, such as carrot, zucchini and spinach. I
believe that Palms are more likely to eat items such as zucchini and
orange if they are presented in quite large pieces which can be held
in the foot. When the chick hatched they were provided with
unlimited amounts of fresh corn on the cob which was readily eaten.
After a few days the fibrous orange fruits of an endemic palm
Phoenix canariensis were available and these too were eaten. The
supply lasted until the chick was three weeks old.

At that time a pomegranate Granatapfel tree nearby started to
produce fruit. As most parrots relish pomegranates above all else,
I offered some to the Palms. They were eaten with great enthusi¬
asm. From that day on the pair consumed at least two pomegranates
daily during the rearing period. When the tree finished fruiting, we
bought pomegranates by the caseload. I suspect that they played an
important part in the rearing of a healthy and very beautiful young
Palm Cockatoo.

The nest was not checked very often until the chick was about
one month old. The chick could be heard and the female was always
in the nest with it. On 22nd September (at 19 days) the young Palm
was ringed (12 mm internal diameter), weighed and photographed.
From then on I weighed and photographed it every Sunday until 3rd
November. The weights are recorded in Table 1 and are compared
with those of a Palm Cockatoo which was hand-reared in another

LOW - PALM COCKATOO

94

collection. The bird was weighed when its crop was usually about
half full. These weights clearly demonstrate the superior early
growth rate of a parent-reared young one. Palms are notoriously
difficult to hand-rear from the egg and many die when fully
feathered, but before independence, even in very experienced
hands.

However, a search of the limited amount of literature regarding
parent-rearing shows that this, also, is not without its problems. I
was therefore very relieved that the rearing of this youngster
progressed so well. I believe that the female stopped brooding it
when it was about one month old, even at night, but cannot be
certain on this point. When the female left the nest she always
stayed in the semi-enclosed part of the aviary at the side of the nest
which was not covered by the observation camera.

Age in days

Parent-reared

Hand reared

Weight in

grams

19

288

76

26

430

160

33

545

c 260

40

598

c 380

47

610

482

54

610

c 520

77

Left nest

Six months

615 <---Fully independent--->

Weights of two Palm Cockatoo chicks in different collections

TABLE 1

While the young one was in the nest, branches were occasionally
provided to allow the male to add more nesting material in the form
of long splinters chewed from the branches. Palm Cockatoos
always add these to their nest, gradually increasing the height of the
structure on which the egg or chick rests. In this respect, they are
unique among the cockatoos. As Palms always use an open-topped
nest it is said to be a precaution against flooding. However, it also
ensures that the nest interior remains clean. By 20th October the
nest structure was only 15 cm from the top of the log. In case this
caused the young Palm Cockatoo to leave the nest prematurely,
some of the material was removed so that the level was 30 cm below
the top.

95

LOW - PALM COCKATOO

Towards the end of October I sometimes saw the young one
looking out. On 5th November she was standing on top of the nest
with her father. The male screamed angrily when he saw me, as
though warning her to retreat from danger. On this occasion she did
not but on several future occasions she gradually disappeared
downwards into the log when the male screamed a warning. On
18th November, when she was 76 days old, she finally left the log
and in the morning she was sitting on the aviary floor. She was fully
feathered and almost as large as her father. She soon climbed to a
low perch. The following day, and on two or three occasions during
that week, I watched on the monitor as the male fed her. However
I did not see this again until late January, because the observation
camera was not operating for a couple of months. Three days after
leavingthe nestthe young one was sitting on a high perch which can
be reached only by flying. Her flight was strong and confident. She
was first seen feeding herself about one month after leaving the nest
but probably did so before. From the beginning of January, I could
observe the three birds via the monitor again. It was very notice¬
able how the young one was always with her father. Often the
female was alone at the back of the aviary. They were most active
in the hour before sunset until just before it became dark. It is
interesting that Wood (1988) observed them "flying about on calm
moonlit nights" in the Cape York Peninsula, Australia.

The female appeared to be afraid of her offspring, always flying
off when she approached closely. At the beginning of February, I
started to observe again the male feeding his daughter and also what
appeared to be increasing animosity between her and her mother.
On 15th February I noticed for the first time slightly aggressive
behaviour on the mother's part when she lunged at the young one
and sent her flying. On the following day the male was again
feeding his daughter and, unusually, the female was on the other
side of the male. She approached him as though she, too, wished
to be fed. There was no doubt in my mind that the female was
becoming very jealous of her daughter. Perhaps she also wanted to
nest again. The young one was therefore removed from the parents'
aviary on 18th February.

I refer to the young one as a female without actual proof. Her
small beak suggests femininity as also does her close relationship
with her father. Wood (1988) observed an interesting incident
when a young one in the wild left the nest for the first time. The
young one was a male. Immediately after leaving the nest, it flew
approximately 15 m and landed awkwardly near the male. It was

LOW - PALM COCKATOO

96

immediately attacked by the male and knocked off the perch. Until
the next nesting season the young bird would return to the nest site
with his parents but always at a distance from them.

The appearance of our young Palm Cockatoo differs from that
of the adults in the following respects. The plumage is blacker,
presumably because the powder down feathers are not yet growing
(it is the powder from these feathers which lightens the black
plumage to dark grey). There are a few faint narrow whitish-yellow
bars on the feathers at the sides of the breast - a variable feature of
immature plumage. The skin surrounding the eye is white (grey in
adults), the lower mandible is whitish and the upper mandible is
grey with the culmen and edges white.

The Palm Cockatoo is now the subject of an EEP which is, a
special European breeding programme initiated by zoos to try to
conserve selected rare species of birds and animals. A co-ordinator
is appointed for each one and it is his job to try to persuade all those
who hold the species to register them so that they become part of
the programme. Surplus birds are moved around where required,
special attention being paid to the genetics of individuals to avoid
inbreeding and to maximise the number of birds contributing to the
gene pool. One problem in breeding some of the rarer parrots is that
a few very successful pairs dominate the gene pool but the vast
majority of imported birds never breed and thus the founder stock
is actually very small. Programmes such as these can help to
correct this problem. The co-ordinator for the Palm Cockatoo EEP
is Dr. Roger Wilkinson, North of England Zoological Society,
Upton, Chester, CH2 1LH, England. I urge everyone who keeps
this species to contact him.

To date, very few successful breedings of this cockatoo have
been recorded in Europe. By "recorded", I mean published ac¬
counts or reports in The International Zoo Yearbook. The only
successful breedings of which I am aware are as follows: Germany:
Leipzig Zoo, Zoo Neuweid and Dr. R. Peters: U.K.: Birdland
(Bourton-on-the-Water), Mr. and Mrs. R. Mann/G. A. Smith and
Mr. and Mrs. H. Sissons. If anyone else has been successful, I
should be most interested to obtain the details.

REFERENCE

WOOD, G. A., 1988, Further field observations of the Palm Cockatoo Probosciger

aterrimus in the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland Corella, 12 (2): 48 - 52.

97

A TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

By Fred Barnicoat
(Johannesburg, South Africa)

I was enabled to visit Australia in March, 1991, through a kind
invitation from the Avicultural Society of Southern Tasmania to be
one of the speakers in the 6th National Avicultural Convention.
Australia had always seemed to me to hold the most attractive
prospects for a bird enthusiast. The reality of a short visit proved
even more enthralling than I had ever anticipated.

My first days were spent in Hobart. Here in the lovely garden
of Don and Gwenda Coombe, I gained my first insight into the
wonderful privilege of viewing Australian birds in the wild state.
Green Rosellas Platycercus caledonicus and the Tasmanian sub¬
species of the Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius diemenensis ,
with strikingly larger white cheek patches, settled every day in the
trees in the garden, and here I encountered the first of the many
species of Honeyeater I was to see over the next three weeks.

On short drives out into the countryside a spectacular and
frequent sight was the Flame Robin Petroica phoenicea usually
sitting in full view on the wooden posts in the fences around the
sheep and apple farms. Little flocks of Superb Fairy-Wrens,
Malurus cyaneus , the males by now fast going into their winter
eclipse plumage, were often to be seen flitting in the grass at the
side of the roads, and the Dusky Wood Swallows Artamus cyano-
pterus sitting on fence or telephone wires or indulging in their
batlike flight over the meadows.

In Don's garden, too, I gained the first taste of how much thought
and money Australians are prepared to put into the construction of
their aviaries. The entire perimeter was constructed with an opaque
but translucent material and the top metre or so of each side was
angled inwards so as to help shed the strong and cold winds
prevalent here at times. The inclusion of sliding windows at
intervals around the whole structure allowed for viewing the in¬
mates of both the very large and the smaller aviaries within, with
the minimum of disturbance to the inmates. Among the species
breeding well in groups of several pairs in the large aviary were the
Painted Firetail Emblema picta , the Green Avadavat Amandava
formosa , the Orange-breasted Waxbill Amandava subflava, the
Firefinch Lagonosticta senegala, the Cordon-bleu Uraeginthus

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

98

benegalus, the Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild, the Rufous-
backed Mannikin Lonchura bicolor nigriceps and the Orange¬
cheeked Waxbill Estrilda melpoda among others. The Melba
Finch Pystilia melba is kept only one pair to an aviary as two males
are usually aggressive towards each other, and the Australian
Crimson Finch Neochmia phaeton is kept as only single pairs to a
small aviary shared with one pair of Grass Parrakeets.

I was to see numerous further examples of the idea that many
Australian and African finches are best housed in small flocks to
stimulate breeding activity. I was highly impressed by the excel¬
lent results Australian breeders are achieving with their indigenous
and a limited (yet surprisingly large) number of exotic finches in
large, outdoor, planted aviaries that are aesthetically very pleasing.
No foreign birds have been legally able to be imported into
Australia since 1939, and I must say that I was deeply impressed to
see many of the species I know in South African aviculture readily
available at quite reasonable prices in Australia and in no way
inferior in colour and size to the very limited stock that must have
been imported over 50 years ago and can have had the benefit of the
infusion of little, if any, new blood. The existing Australian stocks
are also steadier and more ready to reproduce their kind after many
generations of captive breeding.

For me the greatest highlights were the Australian stocks of
Red-headed Parrot Finches Erythrura psittacea and Red Siskins
Carduelis cucullata , breeding prolifically in large, well planted
aviaries outdoors. These stocks seemed sturdier and better col¬
oured, and I think would prove better breeders, than those that I
have ever been able to import from Europe.

I was even more surprised by various weaver species that have
been established in Australian aviaries, and staggered by the small
stock of Pin-tailed Whydahs Vidua macroura propagated in huge
planted aviaries containing numerous pairs of the host species, the
Common Waxbill, on which they parasitize their young.

As my time in Australia progressed I became increasingly
impressed by widespread breeding results with an excellent stand¬
ard of a good variety of birds. In only one respect did a fear spoil
this favourable impression. The predilection for mutant forms,
fanned by the huge monetary profits that seem possible, which is
currently rampant in aviculture worldwide, is now coming to the
fore in Australia too, and I dread it may prove much to the
detriment, if not to the total destruction, of the maintenance of the
stocks of pure bred forms. This is a little surprising in a country

99

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

where bird breeders in general have been meticulous about prevent¬
ing the different Grassfinch or Lonchura species from cross-breed¬
ing. I would wish that all species being bred in Australia could be
of the same high standard and as untainted by a confusing plethora
of colour mutations as the Cuban Finch. The happy situation is that
Australia has the biggest and best stock of aviary-bred Cuban
Finches in the world and is a very valuable source from which sound
stock can always be obtained.

Of course most of my time in Hobart was taken up with the well
organised Convention. I suppose it is true of all such avicultural
conventions, as it certainly was of this one, that one gains far more
from them than one is in a position to give, and I found it a very
informative and enriching experience. It had a strong "conserva¬
tion theme" running through it, and the key speaker was Don
Marton, the Chief Wild Life Officer of New Zealand. In the
opening address he gave examples of where captive breeding
programmes have been successfully used to save critically endan¬
gered species, and he is the first nature conservation officer whom
I have ever heard to pay tribute publicly to the valuable expertise
aviculturists are beginning to command, and to view our efforts
with anvthing but disdain and accept that we can play a valuable
part in saving some endangered bird species for future generations
to see.

Next Peter Brown, a member of this society from long ago, and
now Director of the Governmental Breeding Station for the highly
endangered Orange-bellied Grass Parrakeet Neophema chrysogaster
, reported on some encouraging breeding successes, somewhat
counteracted by the outbreak of a disease. By far the greatest
privilege extended to me while in Australia was the chance to view
this breeding station and see the rare birds at close quarters a few
days later. It contained two impressive blocks of aviaries entirely
separated as a precaution forthe spread of disease. Different aviary
design was used in the two sections, in the one the entire front of
the aviaries being curved with the aim of trying to prevent the birds
from killing themselves by flying into the roof or end of the aviary
if they panic. An impressive earth mound wall has been constructed
on one side of the station to cut the cold winds and this wall has
resulted in improved results with the Orange-bellied Grass Parra-
keets. Great attention has been paid to security fencing to keep out
predators like possums as well as two-legged ones. All the protec¬
tive measures in use here are indicative of the priceless value
placed on the rare birds housed within. There was a strong feeling

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

100

among some of the bird breeders at the Convention that the time had
come when some pairs of the Orange-bellied Grass Parrakeets
should be spread among a few selected private breeders, so that all
the eggs should not be kept in the one basket so to speak. They
argue that private breeders have an excellent record of breeding
success with all the other Neophemas and feel that the Orange-
bellied would soon be thriving just as well. However, it seems
extremely unlikely that the Government will permit such a step
with so critically endangered a species - a pity, I think.

Dr. Gerard Karl, world renowned in the field of avian veterinary
science, had come from Holland. He delivered two papers, one of
which was on the ultra-susceptibility of specific colour mutants of
psittacine birds to certain diseases, while Dr. Louis Filippich, a
lecturer in veterinary science from the University in Brisbane,
stressed the importance of sound aviary design in keeping birds
healthy and of hygienic aviary practices on an on-going basis as a
necessity of restoring birds to health after an outbreak of disease:
that the mere dosing with medicines to overcome a disease problem
is never sufficient per se, was his theme. I gained the impression
that the application of veterinary science specifically to birds is
well advanced in Australia, undoubtedly more so than in South
Africa.

Peter Oderkerken gave an interesting address on lorikeets, of
which he is currently breeding all seven Australian species with
great success. He is particularly interested in observing and
photographing birds in the wild, and a recent spell spent in New
Guinea, primarily on business but with bird-watching as a major
sideline, enabled him to share observations of species such as the
Dusky Pseudeos fuscata, Fairy Charmosyna pulchella and
Musschenbroek’s Neopsittacus musschenbroekii in the wild. His
witty lecture was illustrated with excellent slide material as indeed
were all the lectures delivered at this Convention.

Numerous other lectures were given on a wide variety of birds
or groups of birds e.g. Blue Mutation Scarlet-chested Grass Parra¬
keets, Conures, African Estrildine species, the Serins or Wild
Canaries, Weavers and Whydahs, Softbilled Birds, Breeding Doves
and Pigeons etc. There were two lectures going on simultaneously
throughout the convention so that people could select the topic in
which they were likely to be the more interested.

In order to advance the theme of aviculture as an aid in conser¬
vation attractive T-shirts were sold by the Australian Federation of
Aviculture depicting the Red Siskin and highlighting the World

101

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

Conservation Programme of this species. The Red Siskin was an
appropriate symbol to choose for this purpose, the more so because
the Australians have managed to perpetuate a stock of these ultra-
rare birds that is virile, pure and of superlative quality.

A weekend spent in the beautiful city of Sydney allowed time
only for visits to Taronga Park Zoo and the private aviaries of the
well known avicultural author, Stan Sindel. Taronga must com¬
mand more breathtaking views than any other zoo in the world. The
birds were extremely effectively presented (as are all the exhibits)
in large, well planted aviaries with an attempt to match birds with
their natural habitat e.g. the "desert aviary", the "grassland aviary"
etc. ranging right up to the "rainforest aviary" in which one would
find amongst other birds a magnificent pair of Noisy Pittas Pitta
versicolor and Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster
to utilise the ground space. Breeding results must be very good
here. I found the same high standard of presentation at Currumbin
Bird Sanctuary, and I wondered if the careful thought so many
private bird fanciers put into the construction of their aviaries may
sometimes have been inspired by the good example put forward by
the public displays of birds.

Stan Sindel must be a very hard working man to keep pace with
such a huge set-up single-handed. I enjoyed seeing aH the Austral¬
ian Lorikeets breeding well, and some of the new mutations he has
established in his aviaries are beautiful. Then he has a good
collection of cockatoos including a couple of the black species and
he does well with some of the parrots that are rare in aviaries such
as the Golden-shouldered Psephotus chrysopterygius and Northern
Rosella Platycercus venustus as well as the Double-eyed Fig Parrot
Cyclopsitta diophthalma, which he has pretty well mastered by
now. All this has been well described already in magazines and
Stan's own excellent books for the specialist breeder, so what did
come as a especial surprise to me was his success with a number of
large softbill species. He had just bred the Green Catbird Ail-
uroedus crassirostris in an aviary of quite modest dimensions and
I appreciated being able to see this bird and its offspring at close
quarters. He had also had success with the Satin Bowerbird
Ptilonorhynchus violaceus and the Regent Bowerbird Sericulus
chrysocephalus.

The greatest proportion of my time was spent at the home of
Peter Oderkerken at Buderim, 150 km north of Brisbane. I owe my
friendship with Peter to this Society. Over 20 years ago we were
fellow members and in those days it was possible to publish a list

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

102

of the names and addresses of every member annually, through
which he visited me in Johannesburg as a very young man embark¬
ing on his first trip around the world. Another practice of the
Avicultural Society that I am so sorry has fallen away was the
recording in that list of the year when each member had first joined.
Some of the dates went right back to the last century and it gave
each member a real feeling of belonging to an amazing group of
enthusiasts.

Lorikeets predominate in Peter's own collection but it was the
wild parrots that came at frequent intervals into his lovely garden
and fed from a bird-table that held me enthralled. First to arrive
were a pair of King Parrots A listerus scapularis in all their glory,
followed by Pale-headed Rosellas Platycerous adscitus, innumer¬
able Rainbow Lorikeets Trichoglossus haematodus, fewer Scaly-
breasted Lorikeets Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus, Sulphur-crested
Cockatoos Cacatua Galerita, a Yellow-tailed Black-cockatoo
C alyptorhynchus funereus and a Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo
novaeguineae. I was soon taught the difference between the three
spectacular black and white birds that were all present in the garden
- the Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen, Pied Butcherbird
Cracticus nigrogularis and Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca or
"Pee-wee” and was subsequently to find them commonplace wher¬
ever I went. Doves common in the garden were the Crested Pigeon
Geophaps lophotes, the Bar-shouldered Geopelia humeralis and
the Spotted or Laceneck Turtle-dove Streptopelia chinensis, the
latter being an introduced species.

I was taken by car on a 4,000 km trip westwards across Queens¬
land as far as Charleville, where I was thrilled by the sight of Mallee
Ringnecks or Barnard's Parrakeets Barnardius barnardi feeding in
the trees along the banks of the Warrego River. It is impossible to
mention all the Australian birds I saw for the first time or all the
thrilling experiences of seeing birds well known to me in captivity
in their natural habitat. I loved passingthrough the little Australian
towns in which everyone you met was so friendly and a few
memories stand out: The large flocks of Sulphur-crested Cocka¬
toos, which often settle on the tarmac roads where they stand out
vividly against the dark grey background; huge flocks of Galahs
Cacatua roseicapilla ; the large number of Sulphur-crested Cocka¬
toos and Little Corellas Cacatua pastinator feeding around a grain
silo in the centre of Moura; the striking red of the underparts of Blue
Bonnets N orthiella haematogaster, showing up so vividly against
the brown earth background of a country roadside near Roma; the

103

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

beauty of a Blue-faced Honeyeater Entomyzon cyanotis quietly
perched in a small shrub at a garage on the main highway near
Gympie; the Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis of a lovely turquoise
colour with mauve throat and striking silver dollar marks on the
wings when he flew off at the Carnarvon Gorge National Park; King
Parrots and Crimson Rosellas Platycercus elegans feeding from
my hand and Red-browed Finches Aegintha temporalis around my
feet at the Bunya Mts National Park, the vivid red and black of the
Red-backed Fairy Wrens Malurus melanocephalus flitting in reed
beds in many places in Queensland - a sight rather reminiscent of
the Red Bishop Bird Euplectes orix of my own country, but the
Fairy-Wrens are far daintier; the noisy flocks of Apostlebirds so
commonly to be seen in the bushes along the sides of the road, but
not always to be counted in twelves as legend would have it! and
so on and on. Apart from the Red-browed Finches the only other
Australian Finches I managed to identify in the field during my
very short stay was the Zebra Finch Taeniopygia guttata, of which
we traced a nest containing babies, the Double-barred Finch Taen-
iopygia bichenovii and the Chestnut-breasted Finch Lonchura
castaneotkorax which was common in reed beds. It is the parrot¬
like birds that are so spectacular in the wild in Australia, like the
Crimson-wings Aprosmictus erythropterus whose vivid beauty as
they moved about in trees right on the edge of a main highway I
found absolutely stunning.

One of the special interests of Peter Oderkerken is the literature
relating to the Paradise Parrot Psephotus pulcherrimus. We en¬
joyed discussing the characters who are inextricably linked with
that tragic saga, and I found it a strangely moving experience to go
to many of the landmarks that are etched into the story - the Darling
Downs where Gilbert discovered the Paradise Parrot in 1844; the
enormous cattle stations of Fairfield, where C. Barnard found the
bird common in 1882, and of Manar, where Cyril Jerrard took the
one and only photograph in March 1922; Gayndah railway station,
where Chisholm had to get off the train and proceed by horse and
cart to visit Jerrard for the last "field study" of the Paradise Parrot
that was ever possible; rivers where it was sighted, the Dawson, the
Burnett and the Boyne, and the towns Taroom, Roma and Eidsvold.
On one of my last days in Australia I had the honour of being taken
to the Queensland Museum in Brisbane and introduced to the
ornithologist, Wayne Longmore, recently returned from the sensa¬
tional field expedition on which his colleague, Walter Boles, the
Collection Manager of the bird department of the Australian Mu-

BARNICOAT - TRIP TO AUSTRALIA

104

seum in Sydney, had picked up the body of a Night Parrot Pezoporus
occidentalis, the first to be discovered for 78 years! I had the great
privilege of being taken behind the scenes and shown not only this
skin but also the collection of 12 Paradise Parrot skins, which is
probably the largest to be seen anywhere in the world. It was like
standing before the holy shrine to a bird that none shall ever see
again. The shining brilliance even in those somewhat faded skins
bore mute and agonizing testimony to what a truly magnificent bird
the Paradise Parrot must have been in bush and aviary. The almost
certain knowledge that if only a tiny fraction of the depth of
aviculturists and their expertise that now exist had been there at the
dawn of this century, the Paradise Parrot would have been alive and
well and breeding in aviaries as prolifically as I had frequently seen
its closest relatives the Hooded and the Golden-shouldered doing
over the past few days.

A brief visit to the huge commercial breeding set-up called
Bonza Birds, which is at Caboolture, proved to me the huge variety
of breeding achievements possible in Australia. I saw species as
diverse as the Black-breasted Button-Quail Turnix melanogaster ,
Rose-crowned Fruit Dove Ptilinopus regina and Superb Fairy-
Wren Malurus cyaneus breeding well in the aviaries, the latter,
alas, being curtailed because there is an inadequate market for the
offspring in Australia!

As I watched the coastline of Australia receding into the dis¬
tance as my plane flew westwards from Perth, I hoped I might one
day be lucky enough to return, for this is truly a country par
excellence for any bird lover.

105

BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

By Caroline Harcourt
(London)

Madagascar's avifauna is relatively impoverished, not only in
comparison with the continental bird communities of countries at
the same latitude, but also in comparison with those on the other
large tropical islands, Borneo and New Guinea. For instance,
Zambia, similar in size and latitude, contains 732 bird species
while Borneo has around 550. This is in comparison to the mere 256
species in Madagascar, of which 201 (including three introduced
species) are resident. However, a very high proportion of the
Malagasy species are limited to the island. There are 105 endemic
species (53%) and a further 25 species are restricted to the Mala¬
gasy Region which includes the Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion and
their satellite islands as well as Madagascar itself (Langrand,
1990). Almost 25% of the genera are endemic, while three families
are restricted to the island and two others are limited to the
Malagasy Region. The affinities of Madagascar's avifauna are
primarily Afro-tropical but certain species, including the White-
browed Owl Ninos superciliaris, the Madagascar Starling Hartlau-
bius auratus and the Madagascar Bulbul Hypsipetes madagas-
cariensis, belong to the Oriental region.

The vast island of Madagascar, the fourth largest in the world,
has been isolated for at least 120 million years and it is this that has
meant that many of the species found there occur nowhere else in
the world. Humans arrived on the island only 2000 or so years ago
but they have had an enormous impact on the original, mostly
forest, vegetation. Now less than 20 per cent of the island is
forested and this too is vanishing fast. Indeed it has been estimated
that if the present rate of destruction continues, only the rain forest
on the steepest and most inaccessible slopes will survive the next
35 years (Green and Sussman, 1990). Needless to say, the fauna of
the island is disappearing along with the habitat. First to go of the
birds were the giant flightless species belonging to the genus
Aepyornis. Described, albeit somewhat inaccurately, by Marco
Polo as "so huge and bulky that one of them can pounce on an
elephant and carry it up to a great height in the air”, they must,
nevertheless have been an impressive sight. All that remains of
them today is fragments of their eggs or the rare whole egg, seven

HARCOURT - BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

106

times the size of that of an ostrich.

There are, presently, more species listed in the Red Data Book
of threatened African birds (Collar and Stuart, 1985) for Madagas¬
car than there are for any other African country. Of the 28 listed,
all but the Madagascar Heron Ardea humbloti are found only in
Madagascar. A further 12 Malagasy species are given as ’near-
threatened'. One species that may well now be extinct is the Snail¬
eating Coua Coua delalandei which was last seen with certainty in
1834 (Greenway, 1967). This species was known from an island,
lie Sainte Marie (now Nosy Boraha), off the east coast of Madagas¬
car, but here its rain forest habitat has long since been entirely
cleared. There is only a remote possibility that it might be
rediscovered on the mainland. It was thought that both the Red¬
tailed Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae and the Madagascar Serpent
Eagle Eutriorchis astur might also be extinct as neither had been
seen since the early 1930's (Collar and Stuart, 1985). However,
both are reported to have been re-found in the last few years. The
Newtonia was rediscovered in late 1989 in southern Madagascar by
members of the Chicago Field Museum and early the next year was
seen in rain forest on the mainland opposite Nosy Boraha. It is a
cryptic, canopy dwelling species, but now that its distinctive loud
call has been recorded it has been reported from several other
locations.

Two biogeographical regions - Eastern and Western - are de¬
scribed in Madagascar (White, 1983). The Eastern Region is
divided into four vegetation zones or Domains : Eastern, Central,
High Mountain and Sambirano, while the Western Region is di¬
vided into Western and Southern Domains (Figure 1).

The Eastern Domain consists of lowland primary rain forest,
which once extended all along the eastern coast up to an elevation
of about 800 m. The botanical composition of this area is rich and
diverse with high levels of endemism. However, almost all of this
forest has now been cleared, the only large tracts remaining are
around the Bay of Antongil. The Central Domain at 800 - 1300 m,
rising to 2000 m in some places, contains moist montane forest
which is also rich in species. Most of this, though, has been
transformed into grassland savanna, the largest area of forest
remaining is that on the Masoala Peninsula. The High Mountain
Domain has less diverse vegetation and the forest canopy is some¬
what lower than that of the moist montane forest. It is very
susceptible to fire damage. The Sambirano Domain is another area
of moist forest, but is of limited distribution in the north-west of the

107

HARCOURT - BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

island. The forests in the Western Domain are dry and deciduous,
with some of the trees in the area staying green for only four months
of the year. Much of this forest has been cleared by fire for
increased cattle grazing and cultivation or has been cut to make
charcoal. Finally, the Southern Domain is very dry, the area is
often referred to as spiny desert as many of its drought-adapted
plants resemble cacti.

Sketch map showing the vegetation Domains and places mentioned in the text.

Figure 1

HARCOURT - BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

108

The Eastern Region harbours the greatest diversity of birds.
There have been 165 nesting species recorded here, of which 42 are
found nowhere else (Langrand, 1990). There are two threatened
water birds confined to Lake Alaotra in this area, the Madagascar
Pochard Aythya innotata and the Alaotra Little Grebe Tachybaptus
rufolavatus. The former is on the edge of extinction because of the
alteration of its habitat and to intensive hunting. Thirty-six species
of forest birds are restricted to the region, all but one are endemic.
These include the endangered Serpent Eagle, the rare Brown Mesite
Mesitornis unicolor and the Short-legged Ground-roller Brach-
ypteracias leptosomus. This latter species is considered rare by
Collar and Stuart (1985) but it is possible that it is merely shy and
therefore not seen very often. Most of the 11 Malagasy forests
listed in Key Forests for Threatened Birds in Africa (Collar and
Stuart, 1988) are in this eastern area and it is certainly critically
important to the conservation of birds in Madagascar.

The Western Region contains 145 resident, non-marine bird
species. Most of these (131) frequent the Western Domain, though
only eight live there exclusively (Langrand, 1990). These eight
species are all bound to the lake habitat and are threatened by the
transformation of the wetlands into agricultural land, the introduc¬
tion of exotic plants and fishes into the lakes, poaching, nest
raiding and hunting. Hunting of some species is legal in Madagas¬
car, but there is generally poor control of the sport and many of the
hunters do not even know which species may be legally shot. The
forest species found within the western domain have limited or
fragmented ranges. For instance, Appert’s Greenbul Phyllast-
rephus apperti , which was discovered as recently as the early
1970's, is found in only two contiguous forests near Sakaraha in the
south of the country. These, and other forests in the area, are
particularly threatened by fires, cattle causing damage to the
undergrowth and illegal exploitation of the forest resources.

Inthe Southern Domain, 118 species have been recorded with 11
found only there. Three of the exclusive species are marine and the
other eight are forest-living. Two of the forest species, the
Subdesert Mesite Monias benschi and the Long-tailed Ground-
roller Uratelornis chimaera , are restricted to a narrow strip of
forest about 200 km long running parallel to the coast northwards
from Tulear (now Toliara). Each belongs to a monospecific genus
and are representatives of families that are endemic to Madagascar.
They are both terrestrial species so are threatened by dogs and rats
as well as by habitat destruction. Both are listed as rare by Collar

109

HARCOURT - BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

and Stuart (1985).

Madagascar has one of Africa's oldest protected area systems, it
was initiated in 1927. Almost 2% of the country is protected with
most of the different forest environments, except mangroves, being
covered. However, none of the wetland areas are included in the
system. The national parks and some of the special reserves are
open to visitors who have permits (easily obtained), but access to
the strict nature reserves is more restricted.

The protected area system of the Eastern Malagasy Region
consists of four national parks, seven strict nature reserves, four¬
teen special reserves and a biosphere reserve, a total of 26 sites
covering an area of about 7,100 sq. km. Little forest outside the
protected area system remains. In the Western Domain, there are
three strict nature reserves and seven special reserves, while in the
Southern Domain there are two strict nature reserves, two special
reserves and one private reserve. These 15 protected areas in the
Western Region cover an area of approximately 3,950 sq. km.

Langrand, in his recently published Guide to the Birds of
Madagascar, has recommended 17 sites for observing the country's
birds, the areas he suggests are all comparatively easy to reach. The
reserve with the greatest number of birds recorded (110) is
Analamazaotra, more commonly known as Perinet, in the east of
the country. Its other major advantage is that it is easily reached
all year round, either by an approximately three hour car trip from
the capital or on a train that takes about five hours and runs daily
from Antananarivo. Several threatened species can be found here
including both the Short-legged and Rufous-headed Atelornis cross-
leyl Ground-rollers, Pollen's Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and the
Yellow-bellied Sunbird Neodrepanis hypoxantha. The Madagas¬
car Serpent Eagle has been reported from Analamazaotra, but given
the numbers of visitors to this area, many of whom are ornitholo¬
gists, it is extremely unlikely that it has been overlooked there. The
rapidly deteriorating state of the forest is undoubtedly the cause of
its disappearance.

The second area that is very commonly visited by tourists is the
private reserve of Berenty in the south. Here 98 bird species have
been recorded and, as this is an area of comparatively open forest
and spiny desert, the birds are a lot easier to see than they are in the
eastern rain forest. One of the more spectacular birds that is
commonly seen is the terrestrial Giant Coua Coua gigas. Although
fairly secretive, this species is not shy and can be easily watched as
it feeds on the forest floor. At night, both the Malagasy Scops Owl

HARCOURT - BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR

110

Otus rutilus and the White-browed Owl are frequently heard and
can be seen fairly easily. The guides in this reserve will often show
you the owls' daytime resting sites as well.

In conclusion, Madagascar is a must for all bird watchers who
want to see species that they will not see elsewhere, though not a
country to visit if you merely want to tick a large number of birds.
Of course, you will also see many other unique species of flora and
fauna on this giant island. Best known are the lemurs and the
largest of these, the Indri Indri indri, lives at Perinet, while the
enchanting Ring-tailed Lemur Lemur catta is impossible to miss at
Berenty.

REFERENCES

COLLAR, N.J. and STUART, S.N. (1985). Threatened Birds of Africa and Related
Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. ICBP and IUCN, Cambridge, UK.
COLLAR, N.J. and STUART, S.N. (1988). Key forests for Threatened Birds inAfrica.
ICBP Monograph 3.

GREEN, G.M. and SUSSMAN, R.W. (1990). Deforestation history of the eastern
rain forests of Madagascar from satellite images. Science 248: 212 - 215.
GREENWAY, J.C. (1967). Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World. 2nd revised
edition. Dover Publications, New York.

LANGRAND, O. (1990). Guide to the Birds of Madagascar. Yale University Press,
New Haven.

WHITE, F. (1983). The Vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany
the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris.

Ill

CAPTIVE BREEDING OF THE PURPLE-CRESTED

TOURACO

By Franqoise Raison
(Broadway)

The first time I saw a Purple-crested (Violet-crested) Touraco
Musophaga porphyreolopha it was hopping from branch to branch,
in its unique flashing display, not in an African rain forest, but at
Battersea Zoo. You would have to travel five thousand miles to see
these birds in their natural habitat which is mostly south of the
Sahara, although, interestingly, some touraco fossils have been
found as far north as Bavaria.

Touracos belong to the family Musophagidae which means
plaintain or banana eaters. (My touracos are always very keen to
pick at banana pieces and swallow them greedily.) The touracos of
the genus Musophaga , which includes the Purple-crested, live on
the edge of the rain forest, in the tropical woodland of south-east
Africa from Mozambique to South Africa. In a book just published
by the Botswana Bird Club, ornithologists report observing a few
Purple-crested Touracos in the eastern valleys of Botswana. Their
attention was drawn to them by their call, a long sequence of notes
starting quietly and reaching a noisy, repeated, crescendo of
"kerkerker kok-kok-kok" . Some zoologists consider that the Pur¬
ple-crested forms a link between the dark violet touracos M. rossae
and M. violacea and the green touracos Tauraco persa and T.
leucotis. Their close relationship has been confirmed by karyology
i.e. the study of their chromosomes.

The Purple-crested or Violet-crested Touraco is known by the
scientific name Musophaga porphyreolopha. It has a large blue
crest with a purple sheen contrasting with the brilliant glossy
emerald green of its forehead. The bill is black, the nape is violet
black turning to dark green as also are the mantle, the wing-coverts,
and the tail. The thighs are pale bluish-slate. The feet are dark,
strong and zygodactylous. The brown, bright and observant eye is
surrounded by a red ring. The colour of the breast differentiates it
from its relative, M. p. chlorochlamys. As its scientific name
indicates M. p. chlorochlamys has an olive green breast and
abdomen blending with the green sheen of the wings and tail, whilst
M. p. porphyreolopha shows a pink brown tinge on the breast and
back. M.p. chlorochlamys is found mostly in a Zambezi valley and

RAISON - PURPLE-CRESTED TOURACO

112

often inter-breeds with its ochre-bellied relative.

My chick was bred from a chlorochlamys cock mated to a hen
of the nominate race. Although both birds were originally captured
in the wild, the hen came from Raymond Sawyer in London and the
cock from Servion Zoo in Switzerland. There is virtually no
difference between the sexes. However, I noticed that the hen's
crest and neck appear thicker than the male's.

In 1987 I tried to keep the two touracos together in an aviary.
They had to be watched very carefully since they fought constantly.
The hen, which was bigger and older, was terribly aggressive and
without doubt the dominant partner. She would chase the cock
mercilessly and drive him into a corner preparing to tear away the
feathers on his back with surprising viciousness. For a year I
attempted unsuccessfully to leave them together. I divided their
inside flight where I left their food and where each bird had a lamp
controlled by a time clock to provide light in the night and heat in
the winter. The birds flew outside on alternate days and were
constantly in sight of each other. In April 1987, when the weather
was warmer, I let them fly together for longer periods and provided
them with an escape box on the ground. It consisted of a large box
with two holes cut at each end to enable the frightened bird to get
in and escape from its partner.

Then the male's behaviour changed. He began to preen himself
arrogantly, called frequently and loudly and turned on his hen
whenever she began to show any signs of aggression. He became
the dominant partner, displaying by flicking his tail up and down,
raising his crest, and reaching upwards with his head before turning
it from side to side. He fed the hen by regurgitation, then jumped
on her back and they mated, generally early in the morning. They
were given an empty orange box with an open top. It was made of
slats of light wood with one narrow side taken out halfway. It was
fixed to the roof of the bird house, sheltered above by a sheet of
perspex and covered with conifer branches. The trees close to the
aviary protected it from the heat and a honeysuckle climbing on an
aviary panel nearby provided the birds with leaves which they often
tore, but, unlike our grey touracos did not eat. The aviary was
planted with grass and conifers, and provided with rocks and paving
and a small pool in which they bathed frequently. The aviary's size
was approximately 8' by 10' by 20' which I do not consider to be
really large enough. In the nestbox I prepared a layer of fresh hay
and the birds added a few small sticks only.

On Saturday 30th April 1988, both touracos spent the night

113

RAISON - PURPLE-CRESTED TOURACO

together in their nestbox for the first time. Previously the male had
slept there alone whilst the hen roosted in their shelter. I hoped they
might have one or two eggs since most touracos lay two eggs in a
clutch, but I was not prepared to disturb them, and, since the male
or the hen was constantly incubating, I waited impatiently without
interfering. The incubation period for touracos varies with the
species. For Purple-crested Touracos I found it to be between 22
and 24 days. The eggs are white, round and smooth, similar in size
to those of a domestic dove. Apparently, the parents eat the
eggshell after the eggs hatch. They are also supposed to eat the
faeces but I never saw them do this. However, the nest was always
kept clean.

It was as late as 31st May when both parents left the nest to feed
and I saw a small dark grey chick, covered in soft down with its eyes
open, and its dark grey bill gaping defensively, An egg was next
to it. I took the egg away and put it under my hen White-cheeked
Touraco which was used to the role of foster-mother. Sadly, the egg
was infertile. I decided not to attempt to hand rear the chick and
not to handle it in case I upset the parents. The parents fed the chick
regularly by regurgitation. It grew larger and looked healthy. It
moved easily and I was very relieved to see it standing up on its
little black legs, hissing and trying to bite me, full of hostility and
dislike. Baby touracos often have problems with their legs which
may stick out at odd angles and, unless treated with a splint, will
cripple the bird. I did not remove the chick to examine it before it
was two weeks old and so I never saw the tiny claws attached to its
wings. The little black claws, present on the other chicks which I
hand reared from the egg, disappear around the fifth day and are a
reminder of their pterodactyl ancestry. I noticed that its black eyes
had a blue centre, and as the days went by, the pink parting on its
head disappeared under new dark blue feathers. Its beak, slightly
pink, became totally black and the soft sooty down hardened into
black quills. They developed into lovely blue feathers on the wings
and tail.

The chick was fed on my usual touraco mixture of fruit (apple,
pear, banana, orange, carrot, grape, paw-paw) with pieces of hard
boiled egg and brown bread soaked in honeyed water mixed with
Milupa. I sprinkled it with Vionate and boneflour. Each week, I
gave the chick a syringe full of water with Cytacon, some Vionate
and Complan. Although offered mealworms, its parents never
picked them up. As the weather became warmer, the parents left the
chick alone more and more and I could watch it preening itself

RAISON - PURPLE-CRESTED TOURACO

114

assiduously. At two and a half weeks, the chick no longer showed
any quills. It would peck at sticks, its beak was totally black, and
it could make a small noise. No red skin had yet grown around the
eyes. On 29th June the young Purple-crested left the nest and was
able to fly a little. On the next day, it went into the bird house but
still spent most of the time in the nest. There was no sign of
aggression towards it by the parents, or any fighting. Although the
neck showed some green and a little purple crest appeared, no red
feathers grew on the wings which were still midnight blue. I never
saw it feed and it seemed to enjoy flying or hopping around the
aviary intent on new discoveries but returning to the safety of the
nest at dusk.

On 11th July I found two eggs in the nest which were incubated
by all three birds. Sadly, they were infertile, and I have not bred
another Purple-crested touraco since my hen died in 1989. At the
end of July, I put the chick in a large cage and took it into the house.
It fed itself without hesitation which was a great relief. Red
feathers appeared and the bird became very colourful. The domi¬
nant colour was the green of its father and thus it looks like the race
M. /. chlorochlamys.

Other young touracos which I had bred that summer were also
in the birdroom. They hated the Purple-crested youngster which
would show off and try to crow. I was certain that it was a cock
which was confirmed by surgical sexing by Andrew Greenwood. I
think that this was a first breeding in captivity in England. I know
now of a few more collectors who have subsequently been equally
successful in breeding the Purple-crested Touraco.

This is probably the first successful breeding of a Purple-crested
Touraco in this country. Anyone who knows of a previous breeding
in the U.K. is asked to inform the Hon. Secretary.

115

A NEW SUB-SPECIES OF THE SPICE BIRD
LONCHURA PUNCTULATA FROM BORNEO.

By Robin L. Restall (Hong Kong)

A friend in England wrote to me recently saying that he had been
to a dealer to see some munias and had noticed some "extremely
clearly marked and beautiful Spice Birds", and immediately bought
a pair. He wondered if I could identify them. The Spice Bird,
Lonchura punctulata like a couple of other congeners, the Striated
Munia L. striata and the Black-headed Munia L. atricapilla, has a
most extensive range. The only source of reference to aid in the
identification of the various sub-species for all three is Goodwin's
"Estrildid Finches of the World" (1982). In the case of the Spice
Bird, Goodwin is inadequate as my friend discovered. This is not
because his birds were not described, for they turned out to be the
Indian race L. p. punctulata which is described in exquisite detail,
but because not all the races are described and there is no means of
making comparisons between the races.

In my book "Munias and Mannikins of the world" I have
described every race of every species of Lonchura, and illustrated
every one in colour. In the preparation of this I was able to study
museum skins in many countries, study birds in the field, and in
many cases keep live birds for individual study. In the case of the
Spice Bird I learned of a virtually unknown race, L. p. baweana
(described by Hoogerwerf in 1963) from the island of Bawean, and
I discovered that the Spice Bird occurs in Kalimantan, Borneo
(recorded by Harvey and Holmes in 1976, and by Holmes and
Burton in 1987). Subsequently I was able to obtain nine of the
Borneo Spice Birds from the country east of Pontianak and shipped
direct from that city, and also study a batch of twenty shipped to
Jakarta from Banjamarsin.

The Borneo Spice Bird differs from other forms sufficiently to
justify sub-specific recognition and I have referred to it as L. p.
holmesi after Derek Holmes who first described it. It is about 110
mm long, males being 5 mm or more longer than females. It is dark
cinnamon above with the edges of the wing coverts broadly fringed
with light cinnamon-brown. From the nape to the lower back and
the wings, but not the paler edgings, it is finely barred with darker
wavy lines reminiscent of that on some waxbills, genus Estrild , and
this is constant in all plumages from 1st year adult onwards.

RESTALL - SPICE BIRD

116

The lower back is olive-brown graduating to brownish olive-
grey on the uppertail-coverts and tail, which are barred and edged
with a very pale straw. The visual effect is of a very pale grey tail.
The face is dark reddish-umber, becoming hazel on the outer ear-
coverts and sides of the neck where there are a few pinky-white
dots. The breast and sides of breast and flanks are white with the
characteristic scale markings in dark umber, appearing black on the
lower flanks. The underwing-coverts are pale cinnamon with some
darker edges, and maybe dark centres. The centre of the belly is
pale cream. This graduates to very pale straw on the undertail-
coverts. The bill is bluish-grey, tending to blackish on the upper
mandible but not black. The irides are dark ruby. The legs and feet
are dark grey. The females I measured were about 105 mm and all
had shorter tails. Measuring from wingtip to tail tip, the females
measured 30 mm, while the males measured 35 mm.

Robin L. Restall

Comparison of tail length of Bornean Spice Birds.

It might be helpful here to do a comparative list of the sub¬
species of L. punctulata.

117

RESTALL - SPICE BIRD

Race

Origin Bill Colour

Uppertail-coverts

punctulata

India

Black

Orange

subundulata

East India
Bangladesh
North Burma

Black

Yellow or
Olivaceous

topela

Burman to Black

China Thailand
to Vietnam

Yellow straw
(inc. rump)

fretensis

Pennisula Black

Thailand

Malaysia Sumatra

Straw edgings

cabanisi

Philippines

Blue-grey

Cream edgings

baweana

Bawean Island Black above
grey below

Straw

nisoria

Java, Bali,
Lombok

Black above
grey below

Straw

holmesi

Kalimantan

Blackish
above, grey
below

Very pale straw
to pale grey

fortior

Sumbawa

Black above
grey below

Straw

sumbae

Sumba

Black above
grey below

Warm olive

blasii

Flores to TimorBlack above
and Tanimbar grey below

Yellow straw

particeps

Sulawesi

(Celebes)

Black above
grey below

Olivaceous-

yellow

The race naturalised in Australia is topela (Lever, 1987). There

RESTALL - SPICE BIRD

118

is an excellent photograph of this bird in the "Readers Digest Book
of Australian Birds" (1976), which I take to be a young bird in its
first adult plumage as the yellow on the rump is non-existent and
the uppertail-coverts are very poorly marked. There is another
superb photograph of a Spice Bird in "Birds International" (Briffet
and Strange, 1990) which ought to be of the rac efretensis since the
article is about birds in Singapore but the lower mandible is clear
pale blue-grey, so maybe it is one of the escapes from one of the
many bird dealers on the island, who regularly import the common
seedeaters from Jakarta.

Robin L. Restall

Borneo Spice Bird

I have one pair of the Borneo Spice Bird in my collection here
in Hong Kong, in a roomy box-type breeding cage on our balcony.
As I write (early January, ’92) they are at last showing signs of
breeding activity but our weather is dreadfully changeable and it
really does put the birds off at times.

REFERENCES

BRIFFET, C. and STRANGE, M. 1990. Surprising Singapore. Birds International
2: 22-31.

GOODWIN, G. 1982. Estrildid Finches of the World. O.U.P. Oxford.

HARVEY, W. G. and HOLMES, D.A. 1976. Additions of the Avifauna of Sumatra
and Kalimantan, Indonesia. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl 96: 90-92.

HOMES, D. A. and BURTON, K. 1987. Recent notes on the avifauna of Kalimantan.
Kukila 3(1-2): 19.

Reader's Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds. 1976 Reader's Digest Services,

Sydney.

119

ANY HOPE FOR HORNBILLS?

By Roger Wilkinson
(Chester Zoo)

A recent report in "News and Views" of th t Avicultural Maga¬
zine (1992, Vol. 98, pp 38 - 39) of the ICBP/IUCN/CBSG workshop
on Asian Hornbills in Singapore suggested, that: "Conservation
through aviculture seems hopeless since there are few pairs in zoos
or private collections and, in any case, zoos cannot or are not
willing to devote sufficient space for them to breed". This is only
partly true. For many of the rarer Asiatic species then it is true that
there are presently few pairs in captivity. On the other hand many
Hornbills are proving to be amenable to captive management and
increasingly more private collections and zoos are achieving breed¬
ing results with a number of species.

The smaller Hornbills of the genus Tockus are perhaps most
suited to private collections and smaller zoos with limited facili¬
ties. Considerable expertise is now being amassed on their hus¬
bandry and reproductive requirements. Registers of birds bred in
the U.K., produced by the Foreign Bird Federation, list no Horn¬
bills bred from 1985 to 1987 but then twelve birds of three species
(the African Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus, the Yellow-billed
Hornbill Tockus flavirostris and the Red-billed Hornbill Tockus
erythrorhynchus ) were reported as bred in 1988 and sixteen birds
of four species were bred in 1989 (again including the Red-billed
and Yellow-billed Hornbills but also the Abyssinian Ground Horn¬
bill Bucorvus abyssinicus and the Trumpeter Hornbill Bycanistes
bucinator). In 1990 a total of eighteen Hornbills of four species
were recorded as bred including second successes with the Abys¬
sinian Ground Hornbill and Trumpeter Hornbills and a third Tockus
species, the Von der Decken's Hornbill Tockus deckeni. A recent
article in Cage and Aviary Birds noted that in 1991 one private
breeder, Steve Horne of Northamptonshire, reared fifteen Red¬
billed Hornbills, most significantly including four from a hen that
he had bred four years earlier. In 1991 other Hornbills that I know
were bred in the U.K. included again Trumpeter Hornbills and
African Grey Hornbills. Such consistency in breeding suggests that
in fact there is a very good future for at least the smaller species in
aviculture. Another recent success was that of Exmoor Bird
Gardens with Tarictic Hornbills Penelopides panini, bred in 1991.

WILKINSON - HORNBILLS

120

A report by Bruce Bohmke, Curator of Birds at St. Louis Zoo,
on trends in the North American population of captive Hornbills
(ICBP Hornbill Group Newsletter, no 1.), indicates that twenty
three species of Hornbills are held in collections in the USA
(presently most/all zoos as these are from ISIS statistics) of which
twelve species bred in fourteen different locations. However,
again it is the Tockus Hornbills which are proving to be the most
successful with four out of the five species kept in the USA
producing five or more offspring in 1990. Also encouraging is his
remark that both species of Ground Hornbills are well on the way
to being established. However only two zoos are breeding Southern
Ground Hornbills Bucorvus leadbeateri and within a few years the
majority of the American population will be related to the breeding
pair at Jacksonville Zoo (Koen Brouwer - personal communica¬
tion).

The International Zoo Yearbooks list recorded breedings at the
world's major zoos and I have tabulated the numbers of Hornbills
bred since 1980. Clearly the worlds zoos have been breeding a
number of Hornbills annually and for five species these have been
bred to at least the second generation. However for some species
breedings have been restricted to only one or two zoos and often
refer to repeated breedings of the same pair or pairs of birds.
Because of this Peter Olney, then Curator of Birds at London Zoo,
initiated in 1985 an annual survey of Hornbills in UK zoos and their
cooperative management was overseen by him for the Joint Man¬
agement of Species Group. London Zoo then had a good collection
of Hornbills and had led the way in breeding the Tarictic Hornbill
Penelopides panini and the Jackson's Hornbill Tockus jacksoni.

In 1990 a European Hornbill survey was initiated by Koen
Brouwer of the National Foundation for Research in Zoological
Gardens / EEP Executive Office in Amsterdam and this was up¬
dated in 1991. The update lists some 700 Hornbills of 29 species
and 18 sub-species kept in over one hundred European zoos and
private collections. The most commonly kept Hornbill is the Great
Indian Hornbill Buceros bicornis with 126 birds in 61 collections,
this is followed by the Red-billed Hornbill with 92 birds in 40
collections then perhaps surprisingly by the Wrinkled Hornbill
Aceros corrugatus with 68 birds in 24 collections.

Although as aviculturists we may be quite proud of our achieve¬
ments with Red-billed Hornbills we clearly have a long way to go
with the larger species. As such a Regional Studbook has been
initiated for the great Indian Hornbill in the United States and this

121

WILKINSON - HORNBILLS

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Rhinoceros Hornbill Buceros rhinoceros
Great Indian Hornbill Buceros hydrocorax
Rufous Hornbill Buceros hydrocorax
Abyssinian Ground Hornbill Bucorvus abyssinicus
Southern Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri

WILKINSON - HORNHILLS

122

species now has an International studbook run by Wendy Worth,
Curator of Birds at San Antonio Zoo. A European breeding
programme (EEP) for Great Indian Hornbills is being managed by
Koen Brouwer who requests that holders of this species in Europe
interested in joining the breeding programme contact him at the
National Foundation for Research in Zoological Gardens/EEP
Executive Office, c/o Amsterdam Zoo, P.O. Box 20164, 1000 HD,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He would also be pleased to be
contacted by people working with other Hornbill species.

Hornbills are becoming increasingly rare in the wild and seven
species, all Asian, are included in the 1990 IUCN Red Data Book.
These are the Rufous-necked Hornbill Aceros nipalensis, the Wrin¬
kled Hornbill Acer os corrugatus, the Sumba Hornbill Aceros evereti,
the Plain-pouched Hornbill Aceros subruficollis, the Narcondam
Hornbill Aceros narcondami, the Sulu Hornbill Anthracoceros
montani and the fabulous Helmeted Hornbill Rhinoplax vigil. Of
these threatened species only the Wrinkled Hornbill is represented
in European collections but has not to date been successfully bred
in Europe. More encouragingly in the United States a Wrinkled
Hornbill was reared at New Orleans Zoo in 1988 and two more in
1989. Miami Metro Zoo also hatched chicks but these were not
successfully reared. A pair at Chester Zoo mudded in in 1990 but
the female emerged from the nest without any indication of eggs or
chicks. In 1991 the same pair nested again but that time two dead
naked chicks were thrown out of the nest. In Belgium a private
breeder reported that his female Wrinkled Hornbill mudded in and
produced two eggs in 1990 but these also were thrown out of the
nest. Clearly this is one species that needs our concerted effort and
now is the time to act.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Koen Brouwer for his constructive comments on this manuscript.

REFERENCES

ANON. (1992) Report on 1991 Cage and Aviary Birds Foreign Bird Breeding
Competition: Cage and Aviary Birds, 14th March 1992; p.3.

BOHMKE, B. (1992) Observations on trends in North American Hornbill

populations. ICBP Hornbill Group Newsletter No 1 January 1992, San Antonio,
Texas.

BROUWER, K (1990) European Hornbill Survey National Foundation for
Research in Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

123

BROUWER, K (1991) European Hornbill Survey: 1991 Update, National

Foundation for Research in Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
COLLAR, N.J.E. and ANDREW, P. (1988) Birds to Watch: The ICBP World
Check-list of Threatened Birds, ICBP, Cambridge, U.K.

IUCN. (1990) 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, U.K.

OLNEY, P.J.S. (1982 to 1991) International Zoo Yearbooks, Vols 22 to 30,
Zoological Society of London; London, U.K.

* * *

BLUE-CROWNED HANGING PARROTS BREED
SUCCESSFULLY AS A TRIO

By Fred Barnicoat
(Johannesburg, South Africa)

A recent breeding success with the beautiful little Blue-crowned
Hanging Parrot Loriculus galgulus , which I think may be of general
interest, has just occurred in the aviaries of Mrs. Gwen Smith. She
purchased her first pair some 3 V2 years ago. For a considerable time
they made no attempt to breed, but were such delightful inmates in
the large, planted aviary that a second pair was added to the mixed
collection of birds a little over a year later. One of the males
subsequently died and it proved impossible to replace him.

Quite suddenly in November 1991 a pair of the birds was noticed
to be going in and out of one of the nest boxes that had been hung
up in the aviary. At first Mrs. Smith did not dare to look inside the
box, into which she had put a couple of inches of a mixture of peat
moss and wood shavings, dampened and rammed down hard. The
first indication that there were youngsters in the nest was when they
could be heard squeaking while being fed. Both the mother and
father went in and out of the box to feed the babies. Eventually
when both birds happened to be out of the box it was taken down and
found to contain four fully feathered babies. Considerable disap¬
pointment was in store, however, because as they left the nest all
but one of the babies were lost. One died by getting its claw hooked
in the wire netting of the aviary and being so trapped over night, and
two others were probably not fed sufficiently by the parents.
Perhaps as sometimes happens with birds the parents concentrated
their efforts on the strongest one. This one, however, was fully
reared and is a fine specimen.

BARNICOAT - BLUE-CROWNED HANGING PARROT

124

A further surprise development was that in mid December both
hens were discovered to be incubating eggs simultaneously in
separate nest-boxes. The only surviving male must have serviced
both females, and the one reared two, the other three fine young¬
sters without any mishap. When the babies first leave the nest they
are very clumsy with their feet and are extremely comical to watch.
As their green colour blends with the different shades of green of
the various shrubs growing in the aviary, they are difficult to spot,
the more so when they are hanging upside down on a branch, as is
frequently the case.

About 1988 quite a large number of this attractive species was
brought into South Africa and sold by the leading dealers. Very few
breeding successes with them have been reported. Apart from her
large and attractively planted aviary, the reason for this breeding
success may be connected with the feeding methods. Mrs. Smith is
the first person I have heard of to use commercially sold fruit juice,
which is advertised as having no sugar added, as the daily supply
of nectar. She uses the peach/apricot mixture and dilutes it with a
little water. In a separate container she also supplies a very sloppy
mixture of an infants' bran porridge with honey flavouring, a little
honey and the fruit juice. In addition at least three fruits are fed
fresh daily. The Hanging Parrots love grapes, apples, paw-paw,
figs, pears, water melon, mango and corn (maize) cut from the cob.
Sweet corn is available all the year round in our shops nowadays as
stocks can be frozen. The Hanging Parrots seem to prefer the corn
to any other fruit and pick out the pieces cut from the cob first of
all from the mixture of fresh fruits. The nectar and the porridge
mixture are fed twice daily.

I have found that my own pair of Blue-crowned Hanging Parrots
prefer prickly pear to any other fruit. I feed this fruit halved and
they scoop out all the fleshy part and every seed through the day,
leaving only the skin. My pair, purchased in the same year, has
never attempted to breed. Perhaps they are not compatible, and I
rather fancy that the hen was an old bird, but I have wondered if it
is a disadvantage to have a single pairand if they are stimulated into
breeding activity by being in a community.

125

INCUBATION OF CRANE EGGS BY COCHIN HENS
By Thomas A. Mahan

(International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, U.S.A.)

There are several ways to incubate bird eggs. Recent advances
in technology have enabled the aviculturist to use artificial incuba¬
tors efficiently (Stromberg, 1975; Putnam, 1981; Burnham, 1983).
Eggs can also be naturally incubated using the parents, similar
birds, or broody hens (Stromberg, 1975; Putnam, 1981; Lauver and
Kunneman, 1985.) Natural incubation is, by far, much better than
artificial incubation (Putnam, 1981; Burnham, 1983; Heck and
Konkel, 1983) at achieving hatching success. Many aviculturists,
however, are unable to utilize either artificial incubation or natural
incubation using similar species. A lack of equipment or a reliable
power source can greatly hinder an artificial incubation programme.
Also, some facilities may not be able to use similar species if large
amounts of space or resources are required for their housing.

Broody hens have been used quite successfully as surrogate
incubators for a variety of bird species (Heck and Konkel, 1983;
Lauver and Kunneman, 1985) but some aviculturists have had poor
results (C. Kuehler, pers. comm.). The main objects of this study
were to 1) compare the success of incubation of crane eggs by
broody hens with artificial incubation and incubation by cranes; 2)
determine if crane eggs incubated by hens need to be hand-turned;
and 3) develop a husbandry protocol for using hens to incubate
crane eggs.

I would like to thank C. Mirande and S. Swengel for their helpful
comments, S. Swengel for his statistical assistance, K. Rassmussen
for her compilation of incubation records at the International Crane
Foundation and the aviculture staff at the International Crane
Foundation for their help in maintaining the chickens and for
turning the crane eggs.

Methods

A flock of standard Cochin chickens was used for this experi¬
ment. It was divided into four groups, each group consisting of one
rooster and five hens. The chickens were housed in a building
divided into four rooms each 10' x 10’ x 8'. Heat was supplied in
the winters. Windows located on opposite walls provided adequate
ventilation. Access to a 10' x 20' outside run was available. The
rooms had concrete flooring covered by wood shavings for bed-

MAHAN - INCUBATION OF CRANE EGGS

126

ding. Bedding was changed every 3 - 4 weeks as needed. The birds
were fed on a commercial poultry diet ad lib. Fresh water was given
daily.

Two types of nest boxes were provided for the incubating hens.
An open front box was set on the floor for hens to begin their own
clutches. Once a hen became broody she was moved to a nest box
with a door. The hen remained in this "lock box" throughout the
incubation period except during daily breaks. Lock boxes were
secured to a wall at a height that facilitated easy removal of the hen
by the aviculturist. In 1989 the lock boxes used measured 12" x 12"
x 12" and were lined with wood shavings. In 1990 they were
enlarged to 14" x 14" x 14" and were lined with shredded tobacco.
The tobacco controlled insect pests and created a sturdier nest than
did the shavings.

We were able to synchronize the hens' broodiness with the
production of crane eggs by manipulation of the hens' photoperiod.
Each of the four rooms have a separate photoperiod system. The
hens' daylength was extended from 8 hours to 14 hours 30 days
before laying of the first crane eggs was anticipated. In order to
extend the flock's sitting time the onset of 14 hour days was
staggered so that as one group went off being broody, another
became broody. Each hen incubated for 30 days.

Thirty six fertile crane eggs were used for this study. They
included eggs from the following species: Red-crowned Grus
japonensis, White-naped G. vipio, and Florida Sandhill G. ca¬
nadensis pratensis.

The following procedure guided the handling of the crane eggs:

1 Newly laid crane eggs were fumigated using a mixture of
potassium permanganate solution and formaldehyde. Eggs were
thenplaced under a hen that had become broody withinthe previous
2 - 3 days. Each hen incubated two eggs.

2 The crane eggs were incubated full term (29 - 31 days) and
were removed two days before hatching. Half of the eggs were
hand-turned and every egg was weighed twice a week. Fertility was
determined by candling after about ten days incubation and infer¬
tile eggs were removed.

3 Two days before hatching each egg was removed from the
hen and transferred to an artificial hatcher where hatching was
monitored and recorded.

4 Chicks or unhatched embryos were medically examined
following hatching or incubation.

There was some doubt whether the hens could turn the crane

127

MAHAN - INCUBATION OF CRANE EGGS

eggs sufficiently to allow the chicks to develop normally. To test
this, half of the fertile eggs were turned by hand five times per day
throughout incubation. The remainder of the eggs were left unturned.

The study was divided over two breeding seasons, 1989 and
1990. In 1989 fourteen fertile eggs were incubated by chickens. Of
those fourteen, seven were hand turned and seven left unturned by
aviculturists. In 1990 twenty-two fertile eggs were incubated by
chickens. Eleven were hand turned, and eleven were left unturned
by aviculturists. We compared the success of artificial incubation
with that of natural incubation, a combination of both artificial and
natural incubation and chicken incubation (see Putnam, 1981).
Standard statistical methods were used to compare the results of the
two methods.

Results

In 1989 four of the seven hand-turned eggs hatched producing
chicks with the following characteristics:

one had no problems and had a normal development,
one had an open umbilicus,

one had crooked toes and could not easily stand up
and one had a splayed leg.

Three of the seven hand-turned eggs did not hatch. Their
embryos had the following characteristics:
one had an open umbilicus,
two were malpositioned,
two had unretracted yolk sacs,

two were oedematous in the head and shoulder area
and two reached the peeping stage of hatching but only one
of them pipped and rotated.

Of the seven that were not hand turned in 1989, three of them had
normal hatches but one had a large blister around the vent and the
other's umbilicus was still open. Four eggs that were not turned did
not hatch and the embryos had the following problems:
two were malpositioned,

one had an unabsorbed yolk, crossed legs, and an oedematous
hatching muscle,

one pipped, but died later with its yolk unabsorbed
one died after 5-10 days of embryonic development

In 1990 only one of the eleven hand-turned eggs hatched, but the
chick did not have a fully absorbed yolk sac. The ten that did not
hatch had the following characteristics:

eight were severely malpositioned and five of these had
twisted necks,

MAHAN - INCUBATION OF CRANE EGGS

128

one had abrasions and blisters on its hocks,
five had cranial oedema,
two were underdeveloped,

four had partially absorbed or unabsorbed yolk sacs
and three had been moving or scratching but failed to hatch.
In 1990 5 of 11 unturned eggs hatched. Three hatched
normally but one had a splayed leg and another had an open
umbilicus. Six of the eleven unturned eggs did not hatch and had
the following problems:

two died one half to three quarters way through incubation,
four were malpositioned,
four had unabsorbed yolk sacs,
one had curled toes,

three had twisted necks and cranial oedema,
four had blistered or oedematous hocks and carpals,
and one had a severely twisted right leg.

A combination of natural and artificial incubation (7 - 10 days
natural incubation, 20 - 23 days artificial incubation) resulted in a
hatching rate of 82% (n = 21). Eggs that were naturally incubated
had the second highest rate of hatching (80%, n = 30). Eggs which
were artificially incubated in electric incubators hatched at a rate
of 59% (n = 153). The results of the chicken incubation show a 36%
hatching rate (n = 36).

Discussion

The data from 1989 and 1990 combined indicate that hand¬
turning crane eggs during chicken incubation does not improve
hatchability. In 1990 there was a higher hatchability in those which
were unturned than in those which were turned.

The type of problems exhibited by both hatched and unhatched
chicks indicate that turning of each egg during incubation is not
adequate. The most notable features were malpositions and twisted
necks. There were also many indications that the chicks struggled
considerably while tryingto hatch. These included cranial oedema,
and oedematous and blistered hocks and carpals.

After the 1989 season it was thought that a major cause of the
low hatchability was inadequate space inside the lock box. We
thought that the hens might need a larger than normal space in
which to move because crane eggs are much larger than chicken
eggs. To turn the eggs a hen must lift up her body. If it is not
possible for the eggs to be rotated adequately normal development
cannot take place (Landauer, 1967; Stromberg, 1975). We there¬
fore enlarged the nest boxes by six cubic inches. Tobacco was used

129

MAHAN - INCUBATION OF CRANE EGGS

again in the second year because the wood shavings used in 1989
did not maintain the nest shape when the hen turned the eggs. The
hen merely pushed the eggs through the shavings without turning
them. The tobacco proved to be a much more supportive nesting
material. Many aviculturists who use chickens as incubators
recommend sugar cane for nesting material but we were unable to
obtain sugar cane for this study.

Our analysis showed that chicken incubation is the least suc¬
cessful form of incubation for crane eggs. A combination of natural
incubation and artificial incubation had the highest hatch rate. To
use broody hens for incubating crane eggs one must be prepared to
expend more effort than would be used for the other forms of
incubation. Chicken incubation could be the final option if natural
incubating cranes are not available or if artificial incubators or a
dependable power source are difficult to obtain. We recommend
that, if possible, a breeding facility should be located where
artificial incubation or crane incubation is accessible.

REFERENCES

BURNHAM, W. 1983. Artificial Incubation of Falcon Eggs. J. Wildl. Manage.

47: 158 -168.

HECK, W., and D. KONKEL. 1983. Incubation and Rearing. Pages 45 - 49 in J. D.
Weaver and T. J. Cade, eds. Falcon Propagation: A Manual on Captive Breed¬
ing. The Peregrine Fund, Inc. Ithaca, N.Y.

LAUVER, J., and F. KUNNEMAN. 1985. The Use of Broody Hens at the San
Antonio Zoo. Am. Pheasant and Waterfowl Soc. Mag. 85 (10); 6 - 9.
LANDAUER, W. 1967. Embryo Development and Hatchability. Pages 199 - 215 in
Hatchability of Chicken Eggs as Influenced by Environment and Heredity.
Second ed. Storrs Agric. Exp. Stn. Storrs, Conn.

PUTNAM, M. 1981. Refined Techniques in Crane Propagation at the International
Crane Foundation. Pages 254 - 256 in J. C. Lewis, ed., Proc. 1981 Crane
Workshop. National Audubon Society.

STROMBERG, J. 1975. Little Known Historical Poultry Facts of Interest.

Pages 78 - 82 in L. Stromberg, ed. A Guide to Better Hatching. Stromberg
Publishing Co. Fort Dodge, la.

MAHAN, THOMAS A., International Crane Foundation, E-11376 Shady Lane Rd.,
Baraboo, WI, U.S.A. 53562.

130

THE STATUS OF AUSTRALIAN FINCHES IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM

By A. J. Mobbs
(Walsall)

Until 1960, when the Australian Government placed a ban on the
export of its fauna, substantial numbers of Australian Finches had
been exported annually to the UK. Certain species had been bred
over the years before the ban came into effect, but no serious
attempt (other than with the Zebra Finch) had been made to develop
captive-bred strains. Indeed, it was not until 1971, when the
Australian Finch Society was formed, that serious attempts at
breeding Australian Finches came into being. At first many scarce
species proved difficult to establish, mainly due to the lack of
healthy stock. However, as more aviculturists became interested in
Australian Finches, the number of captive-bred birds increased.
The fostering of eggs and/or chicks (mainly under Bengalese
Finches) was carried out extensively and, in certain cases, still is
to this day. Indeed, without the aid of Bengalese and the occasional
import of birds from the Continent, it is doubtful whether certain
Australian Finch species would be available nowadays to UK
enthusiasts.

Partly because of the inclement weather conditions experienced
in the UK, most Australian Finch enthusiasts house their birds in
cages in heated birdrooms. Even so, substantial numbers are bred
each year in outside aviaries. However, few keep their birds
permanently in such accommodation, and those who do, ensure that
their birds have a heated shelter to which they can retire during the
colder months of the year. As with most species which are bred
under captive conditions over many generations, mutations have
appeared in several Australian Finches. Indeed, at the time of
writing, new colour mutations are appearing (in the Gouldian Finch
especially) with almost monotonous regularity. However, so far,
only the Lilac-breasted Gouldian Finch appeared first in the UK,
with the White-breasted mutation first appearing in South Africa.
The remainder of the mutations (in all species) first appeared on the
Continent, with almost identical mutations appearing in Australia.

There follows a resume of the status of Australian Finches
(excluding the Zebra Finch) in the UK today.

131

MOBBS - AUSTRALIAN FINCHES

Red-eared Firetail Emblema oculata.

The species is unavailable to aviculturists outside Australia.
Beautiful Firetail Emblema bella.

No longer known to aviculture outside Australia, this species
can only be kept in captivity in its country of origin if a permit is
obtained. It appears that the species is difficult to keep alive, let
alone breed. Because of this, it is doubtful if it will ever become
established in aviculture, even in Australia.

Diamond Firetail Emblema guttata.

This, one of the largest of the Australian Finches, is bred in
fairly substantial numbers every year. Sexing can be difficult,
especially for the person with little or no experience with the
species. Three mutations are available and all are well-established
in the UK. The Fawn is the mutation most widely bred. The
Yellow, which has the red of the rump replaced by yellow (and also
has a less intense red beak than that of the Normal) is also well
established. The Yellow/Fawn, although not bred in such numbers
as the other two mutations is, nevertheless, well established in the
UK.

Painted Firetail Emblema picta.

Until three or four years ago, the number of Painted Firetails in
the UK was very low and, without the occasional consignment from
the Continent, the species would have become virtually non¬
existent. However, over the past few years, more enthusiasts have
taken up the breeding of this delightful species and at present a
reasonable number are beingbred every year. If the current interest
remains, there is no reason why the Painted should not eventually
become self-sustaining in the UK, without our having to rely on
imports from the Continent. There are no mutations available in the
UK (or on the Continent). However, in Australia a Pink mutation
has occurred.

Crimson Finch Neochmia phaeton.

There are two sub-species of the Crimson Finch, namely the Pale
or White-bellied ( N . p. evangelinae and the Black-bellied N. p.
phaeton ). Both forms are rare in the UK and without the occasional
influx from the Continent, it is doubtful if either race would be
available to UK enthusiasts. Hens (of both races) appear to be
delicate. This, coupled with the fact that cock birds often show
extreme aggression towards their mates, in certain cases actually
causing their death, is one of the reasons why so few are bred each
year. Spare cock birds are sometimes offered for sale in the UK but

MOBBS - AUSTRALIAN FINCHES

132

it is rare to see pairs offered.

Star Finch Neochmia ruficauda.

One of the most popular Australian Finch species, the Star Finch
is bred in fairly substantial numbers every year. Two races are
recognised. However, other than in their country of origin, they
have become so interbred, that it is impossible to identify the races
in captive birds. In the UK, two mutations are available, namely the
Yellow and the Pied. Both are fully established.

Red-browed Finch Aegintha temporalis .

Often given the misnomer 'Sydney Waxbill', this species is not
popular with enthusiasts in the UK. This is due partly to its
resemblance to an African Waxbill. Also the high price asked for
any which come on the market can prove a further deterrent to
potential breeders. Certain UK breeders have experienced success
with the species but, as they have usually found difficulty in
disposing of surplus young, few have continued to breed the Red-
browed for more than a season or so.

Blue-faced Parrotfinch Erythrura trichoa.

Large numbers of this species are bred in the UK every year. At
present there is only one mutation, namely the Lutino. Being sex-
linked, substantial numbers were bred in a very short period and the
mutation is readily available.

Gouldian Finch Chloebia gouldiae.

Without doubt, the Gouldian is the most popular of the Austral¬
ian Finches, not only in the UK, but also in the remainder of the
avicultural world. It also appears that the species is becoming
increasingly scarce in the wild, mainly because of problems with
air-sac mite. Indeed so scarce is the wild Gouldian, that there is
every possibility that it will shortly be placed on the endangered
list. As a result of the large numbers bred in captivity each year
throughout the avicultural world, it is little wonder that of all the
Australian Finch species, the Gouldian has produced the largest
number of mutations. As well as the two head colour varieties,
where red is replaced with either black or orange (these are found
in the wild and are usually referred to as Normals), there is also the
White-breasted (in all head colours and the Lilac-breasted (again
in all head colours), plus the more recent mutations such as the
Dilute, Blue-backed, Yellow-backed, Silver, Pastel, Dilute-backed,
Lutino, Australian Yellow, European Yellow (all of which can be
found in White-breasted as well as Normal breast colour), plus the
Blue-breasted. Recently a White mutation has occurred. This list

133

MOBBS - AUSTRALIAN FINCHES

is by no means exhaustive as new colour mutations are appearing
with such regularity that, it is difficult to keep up with them.
Masked Grassfinch Poephila personata.

The Masked is not as popular as the Long-tail (and Heck's),
because of the difficulties experienced when attempting to sex this
species. The species appears to be more difficult to breed than the
aforementioned. Numbers are not so low as to endanger its
existence in the UK. However, a concerted effort on the part of
Australian Finch enthusiasts to breed more Masked would help to
ensure its availability to future enthusiasts. There are no mutations
available in the UK. Neither is the sub-species known as the White¬
eared Grassfinch.

Long-tailed Grassfinch Poephila acuticauda acuticauda.

The long-tail differs from the Heck's (see later) in that it's beak
is yellow rather than sealing-wax red. In the past breeders pre¬
ferred the bright red beak of the Heck's, considering it to be more
attractive than the yellow beak of the nominate race. This coupled
with the fact that the red beak of the Heck's is dominant to the
yellow of the Long-tail, meant that pure Long-tails became scarce.
Indeed they would have disappeared, if it were not for several
dedicated enthusiasts who, determined not to let the Long-tail
vanish from our collections, searched out those available and began
to breed from them. Without their efforts few, if any Long-tails
would be available in the UK to-day. Over the past few years,
numbers have gradually increased and as more breeders became
aware of the plight of the Long-tail, more took up the breeding of
these yellow-beaked birds. In all probability, the pure Long-tail is
now secure in the UK. Although I have not actually seen examples*
mutation Long-tails are offered for sale from time to time. Usually
it is Fawns and Whites that are offered.

Heck's Grassfinch Poephila a. hecki.

Although the Heck's is a sub-species of the Long-tail, such large
numbers are bred in the UK each year I consider that the race is
entitled to an entry of its own. It is an extremely robust bird and
is an ideal subject for the newcomer to Australian Finches. How¬
ever, because of the numbers bred, many breeders find difficulty
disposing of the surplus young. At present there are four mutations
of the Heck's Grassfinch, namely Fawn, White, Pied and Cream.
The latter is considered by many to be an aberration of the White,
rather than a true mutation. It appears that 'cream' birds are usually
obtained when White is mated to White. The Fawn is bred in
substantial numbers every year and is as readily available as the

MOBBS - AUSTRALIAN FINCHES

134

Normal. Pied are extremely scarce (if they still exist) and it is
several years since I have seen a specimen.

Black-throated Finch Poephila cincta.

As with the Heck's Grassfinch (which it resembles except for its
black beak and lack of tail-wires), the Black-throated is bred in
substantial numbers every year. Currently there are four mutations
available, namely Fawn, White, Cream and Pied. The Fawn is as
common as the Normal. Whites are also fairly numerous. The
Cream is, as with the same mutation in the Heck's (see above),
considered by many not to be a true mutation. Pieds are extremely
scarce and there is every possibility that none is available in the UK
at present. Many mutation Black-throated have reddish coloured
beaks and it is obvious that these have Heck's blood in their make¬
up. Certain individuals also have rudimentary tail-wires which is
a further indication that the Heck's Grassfinch has ben used to
produce the mutations currently available in the Black-throated.
Bicheno Finch Poephila bichenovii.

Undoubtedly because of the difficulties experienced when at¬
tempting to determine the sex of individuals, numbers remained
rather low for many years. However, most breeders now use my
method of sexing; i.e. caging each (adult) bird individually for five
or ten minutes because separation from others of their kind will
usually persuade cock birds to sing continuously. Being able to
determine the sex of individuals has meant that, over the past few
yeas, substantial numbers have been bred. It is also noticeable that
breeders selling surplus stock now offer birds of guaranteed sex.
There are two sub-species of the Bicheno Finch, namely P. b.
bichenovii which has a white rump and P. b. annulosa in which the
rump is black. Until a few years ago, the latter race was in danger
of being lost to aviculture in the UK. However, the black-rumped
race, over the past seven years or so, has been bred in ever
increasing numbers and, as the colour inheritance in both races is
now well documented, it is hoped that the black-rumped race will
never again become so low in numbers as to endanger its existence
in the UK.

Plum-headed Finch Aidemosyne modesta.

Although easily sexed, the Plum-headed has never been a very
popular species. However, numbers have never become low enough
to endanger its existence in aviculture in the UK. It is a sombre
coloured species, but can make an ideal introduction to Australian
Finches as it is easily bred. There is one mutation available,

135

MOBBS - AUSTRALIAN FINCHES

namely the Fawn. Being sex-linked the number of Fawns quickly
built up and the mutation is well established in the UK.
Chestnut-breasted Finch Lonchura castaneothorax.

This, the most popular of the Australian Mannikins, is at present
low in numbers in the UK. As with certain other Australian Finch
species, the popularity of the Chestnut-breasted appears to wane
from time to time. Then, when numbers become so low that
potential breeders find difficulty in obtaining stock, the price of the
particular species rises dramatically and enthusiasts again take up
breeding it. Only a matter of five or six years ago, I found difficulty
in disposing of surplus youngsters, yet at the present time, I can sell
all the Chestnut-breasted I can breed. There are, at present two
mutations available, namely the Fawn and the Crested. The latter
is the first feather mutation to appear in any Australian Finch
species. As far as I am aware only one Crested has so far entered
the UK (via the Continent) and two Fawn (again via the Continent).
As with most crested mutations, the Crested Chestnut-breasted
Finch is dominant to the Normal and crests can be obtained
immediately by mating a Crest (of either sex) to a Normal. The
Fawn mutation is sex-linked.

Yellow-rumped Finch Lonchura flaviprymna.

As well as being somewhat scarce in the wild, the Yellow-
rumped is also far from abundant in aviculture, even in Australia.
Sexing by visual means can prove almost impossible. However, if
youngsters that are moulting from immature to adult plumage are
studied regularly, it is possible to sex such birds by their song, as
at this age young cocks sing almost continuously. At present
numbers are very low in the UK. Even so a small core of enthusiasts
continues to breed the species every year. No mutations are known
outside Australia. However, in the latter country a Fawn mutation
has recently been bred.

Pictorella Finch Lonchura pectoralis.

This Australian Mannikin is easily sexed but, because of its
rather subdued coloration, it has never been very popular with UK
aviculturists. The species can prove difficult to breed, although
certain enthusiasts have, over the years, experienced many success¬
ful breedings. At the time of writing, numbers are very low in the
UK and, without the occasional imports from the Continent, there
is every possibility the species could be lost to aviculture in the UK.
No mutations have yet appeared.

136

NEWS AND VIEWS

From Dave Coles

The attempted reintroduction of White-tailed Sea Eagles has
been a slow but successful process, increasing in its reproductive
output every year. 1991 was a very encouraging year with a total
of seven young reared from four of six attempted nestings. Since
the initial successful nesting on Rhum in 1985 over twenty have
been reared. A detailed account of this increasingly efficient
programme is outlined in the latest RSPB Conservation Review,
available from RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds. SG19 2DL price
£7.00

There are some noteworthy longevity records in the avian world
with the odd one giving an insight into the age limit at which a
particular bird breeds. The first Siberian White Crane reared in
captivity was fathered by a bird in its late seventies. It reached an
age of at least 82 when it died.

The recently published European Cracid Inventory gives details
of nearly a thousand individuals of 31 species and subspecies in
private and public collections in Europe.

The inaugural issue of the Cracid Newsletter outlines the cur¬
rent research and news items with respect to this South American
family. Amongst the many items is one on the rediscovery of the
Cozumel Great Curassow Crax rubra griscomi.

Dulcie Cooke writes about the new Lori Journal International.
"This quarterly magazine provides a much needed vehicle for the
exchange of information, news and views on Lories, Lorikeets, Fig
Parrots and Hanging Parrots. Breeders of these birds will be able
for a fee fixed, at present, at £ 10 per year for this country, to benefit
from and contribute to a journal which is independent of any
society. However, it will, according to it's Editor Jos Hubers of
Holland, work in close co-operation with the International Loriinae
Society, the Belgian Association for Lories, Lorikeets, Hanging
Parrots and Fig Parrots, the German Lori I.G., the Papua New
Guinea Society, situated in Boroko and various Natural History
Museums. Its foreword by Rosemary Low makes an eloquent
appeal to Lory breeders world wide to contribute articles and
information in order to ensure its future success.

The first issue contains some extremely interesting and in-

137

NEWS AND VIEWS

formative articles on Lories and Lorikeets. It is to be hoped that
future journals will include articles on Fig Parrots and Hanging
Parrots for those dedicated aviculturists who keep these birds.
There is not a great deal of really up to date information available
onthe diet and management of Lories and Lorikeets. There appears
to be even less on Hanging Parrots and Fig Parrots and so the need
for information is especially great.

This magazine is printed on very good quality glossy paper and
the pictures, both colour and black and white, are excellent. It is
unfortunate that some of the translations into English leave much
to be desired and some of the grammar and spelling is incorrect. No
doubt this will improve in future issues.

I read a great deal on the subject of Lories and Lorikeets as well
as keeping and breeding them and it is a constant source of
amazement to me that most keepers and breeders of these delightful
birds have a most casual attitude to the subject of diet. Only Stan
Sindel of Australia emphasises the exact quantity and protein
content of the appropriate diet. In view of the generally agreed
need to control carefully the amount of protein fed to these birds in
order to avoid the risk of fatty kidney-liver syndrome, it would be
helpful if writers would be more specific about the quantitative
composition of the ingredients of their dry food or nectar. Where
possible it would also be helpful to other breeders if the protein
percentage was stated. It was noticeable that no writer mentioned
calcium for their Lories and Lorikeets for they really do like
cuttlefishbone, grated in the case of small members of the genus
Charmosyna.

As one would expect, Rosemary Low's long article on some of
the Charmosyna genus gives invaluable information and the pic¬
tures are charming. It is to be hoped that future issues will contain
captions for all the pictures. This would be helpful to people who
may not be familiar with all the species catered for in this very
excellent journal.

The Editor, Jos Hubers, is to be congratulated on producing a
greatly needed forum for the breeders of Lories, Lorikeets, Fig
Parrots and Hanging Parrots to exchange information which will
enable them to keep their birds in the very best conditions possible.
This magazine is highly recommended and should have a very
successful future.

Anyone interested in receiving copies should apply to the
British agent, Mrs. A. Ruggles, Coleman's Hatch, Nr. Hartfield ,
Sussex TH7 4HG. £10.00 for a year's subscription represents

NEWS AND VIEWS

138

excellent value for money."

*

*

A large photograph of three well developed Kakapo chicks
appeared in "The New Zealand Herald", 3rd June 1992. These are
being hand-reared in the Auckland Zoo, having been discovered,
deserted by their parents, on Codfish Island near Stewart Island.
When they were found they weighed about 90 g only but when the
photograph was taken they were eight to ten weeks old and their
weights were between 1.2 and 1.4 kg. Their ultimate fate will be
decided by the New Zealand Department of Conservation.

* * *

Les Gibson, a member living in Oregon, was incensed by the fact
that our recent questionnaire was for British members only and
expressed his resentment thus;" Overseas members will no doubt be
surprised and annoyed (or, in my case, enraged) to see that a
questionnaire on the pros and cons of the magazine has been sent
to the British members only. Yet again, the Imperialist Council
has relegated foreign members to the status of the "Colonial
Fringe". Well, I'll have you know that our subscription money is
just as good as the Pound Sterling. In fact, mine is even better!".
Perhaps Mr. Gibson did not realise that the questionnaire was
intended primarily to obtain British members’ views concerning the
social events of the Society at all of which overseas members
visiting Britain are very welcome.

* * *

Six Sparkling Violet-eared Humming Birds have been reared at
Slimbridge during the past eight years.

* * *

Visitors to the truly magnificent collection kept by Ruth Ezra
and Raymond Sawyer at Chestnut Lodge, Cobham are usually
surprised to find there not only many species which they have never
seen before but also some the existence of which they have been
completely unaware. And so it was when I attended the President’s
Garden Party in May, for, in one of the large beautifully planted
aviaries, landscaped with lawns, rocks and a waterfall, were two
pairs of Hodgeson's Grandalas, an incredibly beautiful species

139

NEWS AND VIEWS

about the size of a Song Thrush but more slimly elegant, with the
males almost entirely a glorious shade of bright blue and the
females brown, delicately speckled with white. Apparently, they
are not uncommon in the wild but their natural habitat is the high
Himalayas where they occur in large flocks at an altitude of about
12,000 feet. I have not been able to find any record of their previous
importation and I should like to know more about these exquisite
creatures.

* * *

The entries for the 1991 Foreign Bird Breeder of the Year
competition, sponsored by Cage and Aviary Birds, the Foreign Bird
Federation and John E. Haith Ltd. were judged by Bernard Sayers
and Will Harrison. They selected, as the overall winner, Roger
Cattermole who bred more than three hundred ducks including
White-faced and Eyton's Whistling Ducks, Hottentot Teal and
many other species. He also bred two Racket-tailed Rollers about
which his very interesting article appeared in the Avicultural
Magazine (volume 98, page 22). The runner-up was Geraldine
Stevens in whose aviaries were reared about 150 ducks and geese
including five species of Whistling Duck in addition to a Chilean
Flamingo, Military and Blue and Gold Macaws and Moluccan and
Leadbeater's Cockatoos. Breeedings of many species of waxbills
and finches including Jacarini and Red-crested Finches (Walter and
Jenny Savoury), Orange-winged Pytilia and Dybowski's Twinspots
(Keith Baigent), of Parrots including Green-winged, Illiger's and
Yellow-naped Macaws, Moluccan, Umbrella, Goffin's and Lesser
Sulphur-crested Cockatoos, Double Yellow-headed, Yellow-
crowned and Primrose-cheeked Amazons and Painted, Maroon -
tailed, Golden-capped and Red-masked Conures (Jim Mathews)
and Vernal and Blue-crowned Hanging Parrots, Red-flanked and
Meyer's Lorikeets and Celestial Parrotlets (Don and Irene Bardgett),
and of softbills, including Asian Hoopoes and Red-flanked Bush
Robins (Brian Fisher) and Red-billed Hornbills, White-cheeked
and Livingstone's Touracos (Steve Horne) illustrated the avicultural
skills of the birds' owners for which they were awarded prizes in the
appropriate sections of the competition. Chester Zoo was again the
winner in the Zoo and Bird Garden section with the breeding results
which have been described by Dr. Roger Wilkinson in the Maga¬
zine. Stagsden Bird Gardens, where no less than twenty cranes of
five different species were reared, were runners up.

NEWS AND VIEWS

140

The successful rearing in 1990 of Buffon's Touraco by Steve
Horne was documented in the Avicultural Magazine (volume 97,
page 35). Thinking that this may be a first breeding I inserted a note
in the last issue of the magazine asking for anyone who knows of
a previous breeding to inform the Hon. Secretary. Such requests,
I have learnt, are usually received by members with a conspicuous
lack of interest! However, this time there has been a response - and
an interesting one too. It comes from our Council Member,
Malcolm Ellis, who writes" I have done a little research into the
touraco breeding. I think that calling it Buffon's Touraco must be
a recent development. I can't recall hearing that name before. I'm
surprised by the author's comment that the nominate form has its
crest tinted pink at the tip. It is a long time since I have seen this
touraco, but we had it at London Zoo, and I have no recollection of
there being pink in the crest.

In Birds of West and Equatorial Africa, vol. I, pp 552 - 553,
Bannerman wrote "7. persa persa ranges from the Ivory Coast to
Cameroon Mountain; T. persa buffoni Shelly from Gambia to
western Liberia, in which the black patch below the eye is broader
and the white stripe below it is almost imperceptible." "7. p.
zenkeri Reichenow ranges from French Cameroons to northern
Angola and differs from T.p. persa in having the white stripe below
the eye reduced to a narrow line and not prolonged backwards."
"Rather fuller distinctions are given in my larger work."

Jersey bred what they called the Gold Coast Touraco 7. persa
persa, AM., 1971,77,5: 163 - 165. Both parents were brought by
Durrell from the Cameroons, so quite obviously belonged to the
nominate form. Explaining why the above did not receive an
award, Harrison AM., 1973, 79, 6; 224 - 226, wrote "The Gold
Coast Touraco, Tauraco persa, had already been bred under the
name Senegal touraco by Captain H. S. Stokes in 1932." If Capt.
Stokes' birds were truly Senegal Touracos, i.e. they came from
Senegal, they would have been buffoni , that being the race which
occurs in Senegal.

I don't have access to the 1932 magazine AM., 1932 (4), 10:3-5.
Someone who does can perhaps check whether Capt. Stokes de¬
scribed his birds well enough to decide whether they were buffoni
or the nominate form. Also, he may have noted from which country
they originated, which will be helpful. (Capt. Stokes' description
of his birds is not detailed enough nor is his statement that their
habitat was 'Senagambia to the Congo' sufficiently precise to
determine their race. Ed.) As Dave Coles maintains a comprehen-

141

NEWS AND VIEWS

sive breeding list, what about asking him to check all possible first
breedings and let the council have his recommendations?"

* * *

Many Avicultural Society members visiting Holland must have
been to Avifauna at Alphen a/d Rijn. It is probably Holland's first
bird park and was opened to the general public in 1956. It is a
charming place with well planned gardens, beautifully planted and
containing large attractive stretches of water. The extensive
aviaries, in which commendable efforts are made to imitate the
natural habitat of the occupants, house a collection of 450 different
species many of which breed successfully, as is illustrated in the
following list of 1991 successes which was sent to me by Hans van
der Sluis, a member of the park's staff.

Greater Rhea 16, European White Pelican 5, African Cormorant
3, White Stork 3, Sacred Ibis 7, Scarlet Ibis 2, African Spoonbill 3,
Plumed Whistling Duck 3, Fulvous Tree Duck 5, White-faced Tree
Duck 1, Coscoroba Swan 2, Whooper Swan 1, Trumpeter Swan 7,
Black Swan 6, Hawaiian Goose 1, African Shelduck 4, Andean
Goose 4, Upland Goose 4, African Black Duck 3, White-cheeked
Pintail 10, Cape Wigeon 4, Cinnamon Teal 4, Tufted Duck 8, Ring¬
necked Duck 3, Maned Goose 3, Mandarin Duck 6, Wood Duck 12,
African Pygmy Goose 5, Common Merganser 15, Hooded Vulture
1, Himalayan Monal Pheasant 8, Salvador's Pheasant 1, Blue Eared
Pheasant 7, Reeves's Pheasant 35, Temminck's Tragopan 4, Lady
Amherst's Pheasant 25, Golden Pheasant 4, Palawan Peacock Pheas¬
ant 2, Peafowl 12, African Black Crake 10, Tristan Rail 4, Sarus
Crane 3, Crowned Crane 1, Blacksmith Plover 2, Spur-winged
Lapwing 7, Collared Pratincole 2, Pied Imperial Pigeon 4, Black-
chinned Fruit Dove 6, Orange-bellied Fruit Dove 2, Superb Fruit
Dove 2, Orange-fronted Fruit Dove 2, Celebes Quail Dove 3, Red-
throated Ground Dove 3, Luzon Bleeding-heart Pigeon 1, Nicobar
Pigeon 2, Common Crowned Pigeon 1, Dusky Lory 2, Budgerigar
25, Green Rosella Parrakeet 1, Pale-headed Rosella Parrakeet 3,
Blue-bonnet Parrakeet 6, Cockatiel 4, Monk Parrakeet 5, Snowy
Owl 5, Laughing Kookaburra 2, Great Pied Hornbill 1, Red-billed
Hornbill 10, White Woodpecker 4, Black-cheeked Woodpecker 8,
Toco Toucan 3, Long-tailed Glossy Starling 3, Grosbeak Starling
3, Red-headed Parrot Finch 10, Long-tailed Grass Finch 8, Zebra
Waxbill 7, Red-whiskered Bulbul 3, and Yellow-fronted Canary 5.

Ed.

142

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Dear Sir,

GURNEY'S PITTA

It was noted in "News from ICBP {Birds International 1989,
Vol. 1, No.l; 1991 Vol. 3, No.l) that Gurney's Pitta Pitta gurneyi,
had not been seen for 34 years and was feared extinct until its
rediscovery in Thailand in 1986.

This statement is incorrect for although it has not been seen in
the wild for 34 years, its continued existence into the early 1970's
was only too well indicated by the international trade in this
species. Colin Vince in his book Keeping Softbilled Birds pub¬
lished in 1980 writes about a pair of Gurney's Pittas he owned five
years previously so one may assume that the birds were in trade in
the early to mid seventies. This is substantiated by records at
Chester Zoo which indicate that two Gurney's Pittas were received
from Mr. Green of Woodhey Bird Farm on 21st march 1971,
another male was received on 23rd June 1972 and a female pur¬
chased from the dealers Phillips and Heath of Whitchurch on 1 1th
September 1972. Unfortunately these birds failed to establish
themselves and no breedings were recorded.

Perhaps this influx of imported Pittas resulted from trapping
after the opening up of a particular forest area following logging
after which the area no longer remained suitable for the species. I
wholeheartedly support the current efforts of ICBP to encourage
sustainable management of the remaining remnants of lowland
forest still holding Gurney's Pitta and hope that this is not too little
too late. Gurney's Pitta, now critically endangered, was listed as of
indeterminate status in the 1979 IUCN Red Data Book but not
included in the 1966 edition or its subsequent revision in 1971.
How sad it is to reflect that the international ornithological commu¬
nity, zoos and aviculturists failed then to notice and so were unable
to respond to the plight of this lovely bird when they had the
opportunity twenty years ago.

The critical status of Gurney's Pitta is now well known and I was
shocked and saddened to read in Birding World , Vol. 5, No. 3 (1992)
that illegal trapping over the last two years has reduced the known
population from 18 pairs to just two pairs. As aviculturists and

143

conservationists we must unreservedly condemn such selfish ac¬
tion. There is no excuse for taking these birds into captivity unless
as part of a coordinated captive breeding plan approved by the
relevant national and international conservation bodies. Gurney's
Pitta now looks likely to become extinct as a direct result of illegal
trapping - perhaps for the international bird market but who knows?

Roger Wilkinson,

Curator of Birds,

Chester Zoo,

Caughall Road,

Upton by Chester,

Cheshire, CH2 1LH England.

AVICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CONFERENCE
SUNDAY, 4TH OCTOBER, 1992.

Aviculture and veterinary science will combine at this confer¬
ence which will be held at the Zoological Society Meeting Room,
London Zoo. The aim of the conference, organised by Avian
Research Associates Ltd., is to generate, for their mutual benefit,
an exchange of information between the two fields. The pro¬
gramme will cover avian nutrition and deficiencies, drugs, avicul¬
ture legislation, husbandry, diseases (e.g. psittacine beak and
feather syndrome) and the role of aviculture in veterinary science.
Speakers will include Gerry Dorrestein (Association of Avian
Veterinarians), Alan Jones, David Alderton, Roger Wilkinson,
Fiona Fox, David Parsons and Andrew Gresham.

Detailed proceedings will be available not only to delegates but
also to those unable to attend the meeting. The papers are expected
to be entertaining, informative and stimulating. Further informa¬
tion may be obtained from the Conference Administrator, Patricia
Brewerton, c/o SBS, QMW, Mile End Road, London, El 4NS
(telephone 071-975-5289; fax 081-983-1288).

* * *

Why should you
subscribe to a
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Because what you
don't know
CAN hurt you!

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interesting, accurate and up to date articles of interest to aviculturists. If
you want to know more about nutrition, feather loss, feather-picking,
viruses, sanitation, parasites, color mutations, taming, behavior, incuba¬
tion, hand-rearing, crop problems, then you need to read BIRD WORLD.

Find out why more veterinarians write for BIRD WORLD than for any
other U.S. avicultural publication, and why more than 2,000 veterinarians
SUBSCRIBE TO BIRD WORLD!

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International Zoo News — the zoo
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I.Z.N. was founded in 1951 to give the
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exchange of information, news and ideas.
With contributors in six continents, and
subscribers in more than 40 countries, it
is still the only specialist journal which
covers all aspects of the international zoo
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from foreign publications), as well as numerous shorter news
items from zoos in Britain and overseas. Other regular features are
book reviews, conservation news, a free service for advertising
surplus and wanted stock, profiles of famous animal collections,
and reference lists of important articles in other zoo publications.

INTERNATIONAL

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International Zoo News is published eight times a year, annual
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THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

The Avicultural Society was founded in 1894 for the study of British
and foreign birds in freedom and captivity. The Society is international
in character, having members throughout the world.

Membership subscription rates per annum forl992 as for 1991 : British
Isles £18.00: Overseas £21.00 (plus £6.00 for airmail). (U.K. funds
please). The subscription is due on 1st January of each year and those
joining the Society later in the year will receive back numbers of the
current volume of the AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE.

Subscription, changes of address, orders for back numbers etc. should
be sent to:

THE HON. SECRETARY AND TREASURER, THE AVICULTURAL
SOCIETY, c/o BRISTOL ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, CLIFTON,
BRISTOL, BS8 3 HA, ENGLAND.

THE AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE welcomes original articles that have
not been published elsewhere and that essentially concern the aviculture
of a particular bird or group of birds, or that describe their natural history.
Articles should be preferably typewritten, with double spacing, and the
scientific names as well as the vernacular names of birds should be given.
References cited in the text should be listed at the end of the article. Line
drawings should be in Indian ink on thick paper or card; black and white
photographs which illustrate a particular point in the article will be used
where possible and should be clearly captioned. If authors wish their
eventual return, they must say so when submitting the article and write
their name on the back of each photograph.

ADDRESS OF EDITOR

Professsor J. R. Hodges, Hon. Editor, The Avicultural Magazine,
Weaver Barn, Cotswold Meadows, Great Rissington, Cheltenham,
Glos., GL54 2LN, England.

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new members. An Australian Society catering for all birds both in
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AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE back numbers. Large stock available
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please apply to the Hon. Secretary, Avicultural Society, c/o Bristol
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Published by the Avicultural Society, England.
Printed by W.B. Harris Printing Company, Bristol, England.

QL

S2T VICULTURAL
MAGAZINE

VOLUME 98
No. 4
1992

CONTENTS

Officers and Council 1992 . 146

Memories of the Bird House, London Zoo

By Malcolm Ellis . 147

Methods used to Collect Data on Parentally raised African Grey
Hornbills Tockus Nasutus

By Michael E. Mace . 155

Breeding Pesquet's Parrot

By Rosemary Low . 163

Management of a Silver Gull Colony at St. Louis Zoological Park
By Bruce W. Bohmke and Martha T. Fisher . 173

Display and Attempted Breeding of the Lesser Bird of Paradise

By Lawrence Kuah . 178

The President's Garden Party . 182

Breeding Activities in the Bird Collection of the Zoological
Society of San Diego 1991

By Alan Lieberman, Cynthia Kuehler, William Toone and

David Rimlinger . 182

The Society Meeting at Rode - 1992 . 194

News and Views . 195

Apology . 198

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 4 All rights reserved

ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

The Avicultural Society

FOR THE STUDY OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIRDS
IN FREEDOM AND CAPTIVITY

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL
1992

President

Miss RUTH EZRA

Honorary Vice-Presidents
Prof. J. R. HODGES
Mr. D. H. S. RISDON
Mr. R. C . J. SAWYER

Honorary Editor
Prof. J. R. HODGES

Honorary Secretary-Treasurer
Mr. G. R. GREED

Honorary Assistant Secretary
Mrs. J. SHERBORNE

Members of Council

Mr. D. ALDERTON
Mr. J. B. BLOSSOM
Mr. M. CURZON
Mr. K. T. DALTON
Mr. M. W. ELLIS
Mr. R. H. GRANTHAM
Mr. A. V. GRIFFITHS

Mr. R. T. HARVEY
Mr. N. R. HEWSTON
Mr. K. J. LAWRENCE
Mr. R. E. OXLEY
Mr. S. PYPER
Mr. J. TROLLOPE
Dr. R. WILKINSON

Mrs. R. WISEMAN

Avicultural Magazine

THE JOURNAL OF THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY

Vol.98 - No 4 All rights reserved ISSN 0 005 2256 1992

MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

By Malcolm Ellis
(Wadebridge, Cornwall)

London Zoo's large red-brick Bird House was built originally
for reptiles but proved unsuitable and, on completion of the present
Reptile House during 1927-28, it was stripped and refitted with
aviaries, a new hot water heating system and electric light, etc.
Since then it has remained largely unaltered. According to the 1931
Zoo Guide, the large centre aviary (which retains the foundation of
what was an enclosure for, I think, crocodiles and the like) was
tenanted by birds such as kagus, birds of paradise and glossy
starlings. The Greater Bird of Paradise Paradisaea apoda, Hunstein's
Magnificent Diphyllodes magnificus hunsteini , Lesser Superb
Lophorina superba minor , Red P. rubra , Wallace's Semioptera
wallacei , the Six-plumed Parotia lawesii, now often called Lawes'
Six-wired Parotia or simply Lawes' Parotia, the Twelve-wired
Seleucidis melanoleuca , King Cicinnurus regius and Violet Manu-
code Phonygammus ' jamesi ", which appears now to be treated as a
race of the Trumpetbird P. keraudrenii , were all listed as living in
the Bird House.

Not that I was there then. I was born in wartime London, almost
literally within a stone's throw of the zoo. We were bombed out of
our first home and moved to another not far away, just along the
street from the house which had been the home of the eccentric
Victorian naturalist Frank Buckland and which was owned previ¬
ously by Dickens' father-in-law George Hogarth. It was in the mid
1950s that I went to work in the Bird House, where I started off
doing the 'long side and ends', in those days twenty-two aviaries
which lined three sides of the house. They housed mainly a variety
of toucans and hornbills. The first bird I was introduced to was a
Red-billed Toucan Ramphastos tucanus. When I first met the

148

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THEBIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

toucan it seemed to have a rather threatening demeanour but I soon
learned that it took exception to the aviary cleaning equipment and
otherwise was perfectly tame. Named 'Bill', it often was taken out
to sit on a visitor's arm to be photographed and ever so gently it
would take a grape held between the lips. There also was a pair of
young Red-billed Toucans, a Toco R. toco , an Ariel R. ariel and a
Sulphur and White-breasted Toucan R. vitellinus (though the latter
name seems perfectly adequate, this toucan tends now to be called
the Channel-billed). Added shortly afterwards were a pair of
Chestnut-eared Aracaris Pteroglossus castanotis, a Sulphur-breasted
or Keel-billed Toucan R. sulfuratus and, in 1961, a pair of Green¬
billed or Red-breasted R. dicolorus and a Curl-crested Aracari P.
beauharnaesi , a species new to the collection. It was thought to be
only the second to be kept, the first having arrived early the
previous year at New York Zoo.

There were two small African Hornbills Tockus spp., the
slightly bigger Piping Hornbill Bycanistes fistulator, ranging up to
the Black and White-casqued B. subcylindricus , Yellow-casqued
Ceratopgymna elata and Great Indian Buceros bicornis, not con¬
fined to India and therefore more properly called the Great Pied, or
better still, the Great or Giant Hornbill. The latter, a young male,
replaced 'Baby', a female of that species which had died a year or
so earlier after 32 years in the Bird House. 'Baby' was renowned for
perching on the keeper's arm and taking a grape held between his
teeth. The Black and White-casqued species had lived there since
1935 (a distinction it shared with a Common Hangnest Icterus
icterus , until the latter died in 1961). Later additions were a
Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus, a Plicated or Blyth's R.
plicatus jungei; and, later still, a pair of Black-casqued Hornbills
C. atrata. The female was tame and with jesses on was taken to
functions in the Fellow's Restaurant at the zoo. On one such
occasion I was asked "Is it a cormorant?" and, on another, a woman
guest asked "How do they reproduce, do they lay eggs like budg¬
ies?" In this country it is common to see large hornbills which have
lost the tip of one or both mandibles, presumably as a result of the
tips getting broken off. Why does this happen? Invariably these
birds are in outdoor aviaries. Are these accidents caused by the
types of wire mesh used on aviaries which are large enough for the
hornbills to fly but not for them to manoeuvre properly? This did
not happen in the Bird House, where the mesh size is too small for
them to get their bill through and is a springy chain-link type of
wire that the birds tend to bounce off. The Avicultural Magazine ,

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

149

1958, 64, 5:125 - 126, published the account of the fitting of an
artificial tip to the bill of a Ground Hornbill Bucorvus abyssinicus ,
which lost part of its lower mandible, probably as a result of being
frightened and hitting the wire netting at Blijdorp Zoo, Rotterdam,
Holland.

Other inhabitants of the 'long side and ends' included a trio of
Yellow-billed Oxpeckers Buphagus africanus , a group of five
Tawny Frogmouths Podargus strigoides , a male Greater Bird of
Paradise and a White-necked Picathartes Picathartes
gymnocephalus. I was fortunate enough on a few sunny spring
mornings to see the bird of paradise perform its display. It would
call loudly, the call described as a repeated deep "wank” or "wonk"
(Cooper and Forshaw, 1977) and dance back and forth excitedly
along the perch. The performance culminated with the male
leaning forward, bringing forward his outstretched wings, and
'throwing' up over his back his golden plumes in a spectacular
though fleeting climax. Sadly, there were no females to court.
When the plumes began to be moulted, the male's food (diced fruit
and an insectile mixture with which was mixed a small quantity of
minced meat) was liberally dosed with a creamy liquid called, as I
recall, 'Scott's Emulsion'! In August 1957 Wilfred Frost returned
from the Far East with a varied collection (see News and Views,
1957, 63,6:209) which he housed at the zoo. Included were four
male Greater Birds of Paradise, their long plumes stained red-
brown by the wood shavings on the floor of their crates. No one
here was willing to pay what Frost wanted for them and I believe
that all four went to Holland. They were probably the last of their
kind seen in Britain. It was Frost's fifty-third and final collecting
expedition. He died, aged 82, after leaving for Borneo on yet
another collecting trip. I can recall reading in an obituary how,
when the Japanese invaded, I think, Singapore, he was interned
there and helped feed his fellow prisoners by trapping rats and
catching snakes, and how he had his appendix removed in a
primitive operation, performed with a knife and fork, if I remember
rightly! It was Frost who was commissioned by Sir William Ingram
to collect from the Aru Islands Greater Birds of Paradise for release
on the West Indian island of Little Tobago, which Sir William
purchased when he feared that this species might be exterminated
by the millinery trade's demand for its plumes. Forty-eight were
released there in 1909 and in 1912 a further three were introduced.
A small population still exists on Little Tobago. In 1957 Sir
Edward Hallstrom presented London Zoo with thirteen birds of

150

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

paradise from New Guinea but, rather than being the supposed
immature males, several proved later to be old females. That was
more than made up for when, in 1965, he sent over a magnificent
collection. Writing of Sir Edward Hallstrom's generous gift of
twenty-four birds of paradise, John Yealland (1965) noted that it
included five Ribbon-tailed Birds of Paradise Astrapia mayeri ,
which he described as a species of special interest to members of
this Society, for it is named after Fred Shaw Mayer. He became a
Life Member of the Avicultural Society in 1922 and, before the
war, brought to London a number of rare and beautiful Papuan
birds. A. mayeri remained undescribed until 1939. It was Shaw
Mayer who first produced tangible evidence of the existence of this
bird of the central highlands in the form of a pair of the male’s very
long black-tipped white central tail feathers.

Sometimes ignoring the toucans and hornbills, several tanagers
and kingfishers, the first Emerald Starlings Lamprotornis iris seen
alive outside Africa, and lots of other colourful species, in the mid
1950s, the bird which many visitors came looking for lacked bright
colours and possessed a bald head! Bald that is except for some
barely visible tiny filoplumes along the hind forehead and crown.
Taken as a nestling and handreared in West Africa by the Bird
House Head Keeper Alf ('Timber') Woods, who some older mem¬
bers may remember, this fascinating bird, the first White-necked
Picathartes, back in the days of black and white television, featured
in the TV series 'Zoo Quest to Sierra Leone', introduced by David
Attenborough. Visitors to the Bird House had difficulty in remem¬
bering the bird's unusual name, and even greater trouble in pro¬
nouncing it. In spite of that I feel that the name picathartes gives
these strange birds a deserved air of mystique. I much prefer it to
the practise now of calling this species the Guinea Bare-headed
Rockfowl, and the other the Cameroon Bare-headed Rockfowl P.
oreas. Calling them rockfowl, gives, I feel, quite the wrong
impression of them. When I saw David Attenborough describe the
picathartes as thrush-like, it caused me to raise my eye-brows, but
I realised quickly what he was getting at. Although they are a little
larger than the average thrush and have a moderately long neck,
legs and tail, giving them an overall length of about 35 cm (14 in),
their general shape, posture, and the ways in which they move and
behave are noticeably thrush-like. Picathartes do not readily fly
and instead progress over the ground by a series of long, very light,
springy hops. I remember most the zoo bird's big dark 'button' eyes,
how exceptionally alert the bird always was, and the keen interest

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUE, LONDON ZOO

151

it showed in all that happened around it. The two species at present
are placed in the Babbler family Timaliidae , which includes the
Laughing Thrushes Garrulax spp., with which they share some
characteristics, but differ markedly by being almost totally silent.
It has been noted that they bear a resemblance to the Malaysian
Rail-Babbler Eupetes macroceus and its kin. The 'Zoo Quest' bird
was joined in 1957 by a second (a photo of it appeared in the
Avicultural Magazine , 1957, 63, 5: facing 170), which was
handreared by Jim Menzies in Sierra Leone. Unfortunately, after
only four months, it died from tuberculosis, which the bird may
have contracted before leaving Africa. The same year two small
nestlings were sent from Ghana. They thrived at first, but failed to
develop further than the nestling stage. These days now handrearing
has progressed so far, it is of great concern to look back and
remember that we had no tried and tested rearing formula or plan,
but simply relied on whoever had time, feeding the nestlings with
the standard insectile mixture and mealworms.

Living in the Bird House also was a Grey-necked Picathartes, or
Cameroon Bare-headed Rockfowl, the very first example of this
subfamily Picathartinae ever seen alive outside Africa. Brought
from the Cameroons, in 1948, when probably already an adult, it
lived in the Bird House for some ten years. Even more curious with
a blue and carmine red bare head, this bird received scant attention,
though considered rarer than the other and with a remarkable
history. Quite miraculously for such a slender-limbed species, it
was caught uninjured in a snare set to catch a porcupine. This rare
bird, of a species now considered vulnerable, was destined for
someone's cooking pot but luckily instead was offered to Cecil
Webb who happened to be in the area catching animals to help
restock the war-depleted zoo collection. How secretive these birds
are can be judged by the fact that neither the boy who snared the
picathartes nor several old woodcutters, who had spent most of
their lives in the forest, had ever before seen such a bird. Although
a large reward was offered, nobody could lead Webb to a nest site.
An expert naturalist, he initiated his own search and close to where
the bird was caught, to his great surprise and joy, found concealed
by vegetation, an almost inaccessible rock face with the remains of
six nests. During a whole month in which the rain hardly ceased,
he searched without ever seeing a picathartes, until eventually his
exceptional perseverance was rewarded by a fleeting glimpse of a
single bird and on a later occasion a pair of Grey-necked Pica¬
thartes. That exciting episode was described by Cecil S. Webb in

152

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

A Wanderer in the Wind , subtitled The Odyssey of an Animal
Collector (Hutchinson, 1953). Webb acknowledged how when
writing that book he had drawn freely on articles he wrote for this
magazine. His obituary appeared in the Avicultural Magazine ,
1964, 70, 5: 173 - 176.

For those who do not know, both species build a mud nest
resembling that of a Swallow Hirundo rustica. That in itself is not
especially remarkable, what is, being that these are inhabitants of
the forest floor, is the fact that they attach their nest to the roof of
a cave or the side of a huge rock face deep in the rainforest. In the
latter case, the nest is built beneath an overhang, so that it is
sheltered from the rain, which would of course cause it to disinte¬
grate. In November 1960, when the late Ray Shingler and I
travelled to Sierra Leone on a collecting expedition, Jim Menzies
kindly let us base ourselves with him at Bo School. On 13th May
1961 he took us to a picathartes' nest site. After a hard climb, we
came to a gigantic boulder, with four complete nests, two lined and
two unlined, plus the remains of four old nests. Two nests were
quite low down. Ray also visited an extensive nest site in the Gola
Forest near the Sierra Leone and Liberia border. I have some notes

Malcolm Ellis

P. gymnocephalus has a creamy yellow-buff head with black 'ear-muffs'.

P. oreas has the front of the head blue, and the back part carmine red.

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

153

from a long forgotten source, that in Sierra Leone new nests are
made at the end of the dry season, i.e. about April, and eggs are laid
through the rainy season, i.e. May - October, when there is approx.
241 cm (95 in) of rainfall. Normally there are two clutches, each
of two eggs. Apparently, adults commonly return to roost on the old
nests, where they are easily trapped.

Both species have since been kept in other collections, mainly
in Holland, Germany and the USA, and breedings have been
recorded, though, unfortunately, not in this magazine. Trapping
for "zoos and private collectors" invariably is at least partly blamed
for their vulnerable or endangered status. The numbers kept though
have been relatively small, especially in the case of P. oreas, and
can only have had a marginal effect. With the scarcity of suitable
nest sites, the greatest threat must be from deforestation. However,
new sites continue to be discovered and their ranges are proving to
be not quite so restricted as was thought. A year or so ago on a
wildlife radio programme, I heard a representative from an inter¬
national bird preservation organisation talking about recently dis¬
covered nest sites in Nigeria with maybe 500 P. oreas present, and
nest sites have been found in Gabon.

One other bird I want to mention is the Bird House's male Cock-
of-the-Rock Rupicola rupicola, which was among a collection of
animals brought back from what is now Guyana, by another of the
'Zoo Quest' expeditions mounted jointly by BBC Television and
London Zoo. The male spent most days crouched on the ground
close to the wire at the front of its aviary. With its eyes almost
closed and its head drawn down onto its shoulders, it would slowly
turn its head to one side and the front of its erect fan-like crest
would hide its beak, making it difficult to be sure which was the
front of its head and which was the back. Puzzled visitors would
ask "Where's its beak?" There were even some who wanted to
know, did the bird have a beak and how did it feed? Almost the only
way to get a glimpse of the bird perched normally, was to tip-toe
into the house when it was empty, for as soon as the male heard
anyone approaching, he dropped to the ground, onto a small area
that had become cleared of the sand used to cover the floor. The
Cock-of-the-Rock's behaviour attracted the attention of Colin
Harrison, who (Harrison, 1961) published a detailed description
with sketches illustrating different aspects of the male's behaviour.
The bird was handreared in South America and, he suggested that
it was so heavily imprinted, it was performing a courtship display
directed at the humans all around it. Little was known of the Cock-

154

ELLIS - MEMORIES OF THE BIRD HOUSE, LONDON ZOO

of-the-Rock's behaviour and display. The only first hand account
he could find was in the 1910 Avicultural Magazine by the
aforementioned Wilfred Frost. Shortly after Harrison’s account,
the results of a study in the wild were published by Gilliard (1962),
which were referred to by Snow (1982), who also studied this
species. Obviously the zoo male regarded the clear area on the
aviary floor as his 'court'. In forested mountainous areas, at what
apparently is a traditional display ground or 'lek', a number of
males gather and each has a 'court', which it watches over. When
a female comes into sight, or perhaps merely when sunlight strikes
the 'court', the male flies down onto it, landing with a loud squawk
and whirr of white flashing wings, produced by the white base of the
primaries and narrowed end of the 10th one. On the 'court' it
crouches motionless "often for minutes on end" and, probably
depending on the position of the female, moves its head to where
she gets the best view of his splendid crest. It can be seen that the
zoo male's behaviour was an exaggerated form of that display.
When a female was introduced, Harrison believed that the male
ignored her and continued to posture to passers-by. My memory is
of both birds perched uneasily at opposite ends of the aviary, with
the male unsettled and occasionally threatening the nervous fe¬
male, otherwise the two gingerly edged around each other. Not
helped by being in a small aviary without any cover, they remained
so uneasy in each other's presence, that after a week orso the female
was removed. It is likely that the male and female Cock-of-the-
Rock come together only fleetingly, probably on the male's 'court',
after which the female makes the nest, incubates the two eggs for
27 - 28 days and, lacking evidence to the contrary, it seems sensible
to presume that she also rears the young on her own.

REFERENCES

COOPER, W.T. and FORSHAW, J. M. (1977). The Birds of Paradise and Bower
Birds . Collins, Sydney and London.

GILLIARD, E.T. (1962). On the breeding behaviour of the Cock -of-the-Rock
(Aves, Rupicola rupicola ). Bulletin American Museum Natural
History, 124: 35 - 68.

HARRISON, C.J.O. (1961). Display from a Captive Cock-of-the-Rock.
Avicultural Magazine , 67, 3: 102 - 106.

SNOW, D. (1982). The Cotingas. British Museum (Natural History) and Oxford
University Press. London and Oxford.

YEALLAND, J.J. (1965). London Zoo Notes.

Avicultural Magazine , 71, 4: 131 - 132.

METHODS USED TO COLLECT DATA ON
PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY
HORNBILLS TOCKUS NASUTUS

155

By Michael E. Mace (San Diego Wild Animal Park)

Introduction

There has been limited information available on the breeding
biology of hornbills in the wild (Moreau, 1937; North, 1942; Kemp,
1976; Johns, 1982) and few observations have been made in
captivity (Encke, 1970; Choy, 1980; Reilly, 1988). Collecting data
on chick development has been difficult because of the family’s
Bucerotidae unusual nesting behaviour. Typically, the female is
sealed in the nest for weeks at a time during incubation and partial
rearing of the chicks. Although behavioural studies have been
done, little has been documented concerning developmental as¬
pects involving the chick's growth rate. This is most likely because
of the difficulty in having access to the chicks in the plastered or
mudded up nest without harming them and the hen or upsetting the
male.

This paper describes the methodology used with a relatively
common species over a two year period using the African Grey
Hornbill Tockus nasutus as a model. In the first year the data
collected was in the passive or more traditional manner, i.e. the
nestbox was inspected periodically and a hands off approach
towards the eggs and chicks was used. In the second year of the
study an invasive approach was used which entailed actually
removing the eggs and chicks from the nestbox. Once removed the
eggs and chicks were measured or weighed and then placed back in
the nest.

The African Grey Hornbill occurs in woodlands consisting of
large mature trees and in sub-Saharan savannas of thorn scrub in
central to southern Africa. In the wild these hornbills are primarily
arboreal often hawking insects or picking fruits directly from the
trees. They have also been observed to follow troops of Olive
Baboons Papio cynocephalus anubis in the hopes of catching
insects flushed by the troops' gregarious activities (Gore, 1981).

The birds are dimorphic with the adult males having white
patches at the base of the upper maxilla. Ridges extend from the
base of the lower mandible and cover approximately one third of
the surface of the bill. The adult female is smaller in size and her

156 MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFTRICAN GREY HORNBILLS

bill is distinctive in that its colour is red and there are ridges of pale
yellow extending across the upper and lower mandibles. The San
Diego Wild Animal Park has maintained this species since 18th
July 1985, when two pairs arrived. One pair was sent subsequently
to another collection on 23rd September 1986.

Data Collecting Method

Female hornbills typically are sealed inside the nest during
incubation and partial chick rearing. Because of this nesting
behaviour, there were inherent problems which had to be addressed
before the hen was sealed in. When the hen is sealed in the nestbox
it is very difficult even to look inside without causing undue stress
to the female and hatchlings.

Once the female was inside the nestbox the objective was to
gather data on the eggs and chicks. The information which was
required from this study specifically was the egg laying intervals,
the incubation period and the growth rates of each developing chick
from hatching to fledging, Three factors had to be addressed before
collecting information could be attempted. First, a nestbox (see
diagram) had to be designed with an inspection hole in the side so
that the eggs or chicks could be extracted for measurements,
photographs, etc. Secondly, a means had to be developed to
exclude light during the procedure so that the hen would not overact
to the presence of a hand. By covering the entrance hole with a
sheet of black polyurethane and draping additional polyurethane
over the inspection hole the desired results were attained, thereby
making the inside of the nestbox as dark as possible. This method
has been used to hold birds in transport carriers and has been a most
effective procedure. Most birds tend to "freeze" when the sur¬
rounding area is darkened making them easy to handle. Lastly, a
protocol had to be developed to determine the inspection intervals
during the egg laying process and chick development. The timing
had to be determined by the incubating or brooding hen. Her
reaction to the procedures would be the deciding factor throughout
the study.

To determine the egg laying intervals the nest box was inspected
on a daily basis once the hen was sealed inside the box. The
entrance and the inspection holes were covered with polyurethane
and a small flashlight was used. The hen would move off the eggs
but would not crawl up to the resting shelf. Once the clutch was
completed the daily inspections were discontinued.

To determine the incubation period, nestbox inspections were
resumed three days before the end of the twenty-eight day incuba-

MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLS 157

tion period based on field observations (Kemp, 1976) of the closely
related T. erythrorhynchus . Again daily inspections of the nestbox
were resumed until all of the eggs hatched. Subsequent nest box
inspections to collect chick measurements were conducted on a
weekly basis. The hornbill female made no attempts to move when
a hand was gently placed under her as one might do with an
incubating or brooding domestic hen.

Enclosure

The pair of African Grey Hornbills are the only birds to occupy
their aviary. However they are bordered on either side by other
birds including another species of hornbill. The enclosure is 6. 1 m
long 2.1 m high and 1.2 m wide and is covered by a wire mesh 2.54
cm by 1.27 cm. Food and water are placed near the access door
which is sheltered from bad weather. The nestbox is placed under
a second shelter at the opposite end of the aviary. Perches placed
at both ends of the aviary encourage the hornbills to fly the entire
length of the flight. Above the aviary is a manually operated
misting system which provides periodic simulation of rainfall at
various times during the day. The only vegetation provided in the
flight is a Lemon Bottle-brush Callistemon citrinus. A hole is dug
by the fresh water dish and filled with soil with a high content of
clay. The clay serves as one of the components of the plaster used
by the hornbills. When the water dish is emptied daily, the water
is poured onto the clay keeping it moist. This makes the clay easier
to manage by the birds when the plastering phase of nesting begins.
Nestbox

We have used identically sized nestboxes at the Wild Animal
Park for Penelopides panini manillae, Tockus deckeni, T. jacksoni,
T. f. flavirostris, T. /. leucomelas, and T. erythrohynchus. They
measure 33 cm x 30 cm x 61 cm and are constructed of CDX exterior
plywood 1.27 cm in thickness. The entrance hole is 10 cm in
diameter and cork bark is added around the opening to provide a
thicker, more substantial base for the mud plaster which the birds
apply when nesting occurs. Experience at the Wild Animal Park
with other reproducing species of hornbills (Bucorvus abyssinicus,
B. leadberti, Buceros bicornis, Anthracoceros malabaricus,
Penelopides panini manillae , Tockus deckeni, T. jacksoni, T. f.
flavirostris, T. f. leucomelas , and T. erythrohynchus) suggests that
the size of the entrance hole is important. The entrance hole should
be only large enough to allow the female to squeeze into and out of
the nestbox. It is important that efforts are not wasted by the birds
trying to close an oversized nest hole as other hornbill species in

158 MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLS

our collection have done. In addition, an oversized nesthole may
disrupt courtship and make plastering difficult. Nest entrance
measurements collected at the Wild Animal Park in 1991 on the
much larger species of hornbill, the Javan Rhinoceros Hornbill
Buceros rhinoceros silvestris , showed that when she emerged from
the nestbox, the size of the exit was 26.8 cm by 12.4 cm, which is
a fairly small hole considering the size of the species. By compari¬
son the aperture measurements of the African Grey Hornbill after
she emerged from the nest were 7.3 cm by 3.1 cm. The thickness
or depth of the plaster around the entrance was from 6.2 cm. to 3.1
cm. A resting shelf is provided in the corner of the nest box
opposite the entrance which the occupants use when they feel
threatened by intruders.

4

1

Entrance

61

Q

11

0

1<

J

-30

Front view
-20 -

30 - 1

Top View

Left side view

Tockus Species Nestbox
(All measurements in cms)

Pine shavings about 6-8 cm deep are placed inside the nestbox.
Hornbills may remove some of the shavings to alter the depth.
However, we have seen the birds collect leaves and pieces of bark
and deposit them in the nestbox (Kemp, 1976). Adding nest
material by the birds may accomplish three purposes. First, the
fresh nest material may aid in nest sanitation. By laying down a

MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLS 159

new layer of material the eggs and chicks are raised above the
previous seasons contaminated nest material. Secondly, the decay¬
ing new leaf litter may help to regulate the humidity inside the
nestbox. Thirdly, certain species of plants have been shown to help
suppress invasion by ectoparasites (mites, lice, etc.) which can be
detrimental to the nestbox inhabitants (Bucher, 1988).

After a clutch of chicks had been hatched and the chicks fledged
the nestbox contents were examined. The leaf litter was arranged
in a cup shaped configuration with a depression in the centre of the
nest floor. At the shallow point, the detritus was 33 mm deep
whereas around the perimeter of the nest floor it was 58 mm deep.
The nest was also littered with moulted flight feathers from the
female during her incarceration. Minute egg shell fragments were
also found. The nest was fairly clean considering it housed the hen
and three chicks at a time. All species of hornbills eject debris
through the nest entrance to maintain sanitary nest conditions.
Egg laying

Once the African Grey Hornbill is successfully mudded inside
the nestbox, she begins to moult her remiges and rectrices before
laying the first egg (Kemp, 1976, personal observation, 1991).
These feathers will have grown back before she re-emerges from
the nest. The dates of laying the first egg in the two breeding
seasons in this study were, 19th May, 1990 and 19th April, 1991.

In the 1991 season, on the eighth day after the hen was sealed
inside, the first egg was seen. The eggs are chalk white in colour
and their surface is slightly pitted. During the course of incubation
the eggs become soiled from detritus, food, faeces, etc. The
average dimensions of four eggs laid in 1991 were 34.85 mm x
23.45 mm. The clutch size reported in the wild is 3 - 5. The pair
in this study layed a single clutch yearly. Each clutch consisted of
four eggs, laid on alternate days. Three eggs hatched in 1990 and
two in 1991.

Incubation commences with the first egg (Kemp, 1976). We
were unable to determine which eggs actually hatched and can only
speculate within a few days as to the incubation period. However,
it was between 22 - 28 days based on the dates on which the first egg
was layed and the first chick hatched. Marking the eggs would have
been fruitless because they are destroyed beyond recognition dur¬
ing the hatching process. The females of this species of hornbill
must possess an ability for sperm storage. For example, if the
female were to copulate with the male and seal herself in the
nestbox on the same day, her first egg may not be layed for eight

160 MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISEED AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLS

days (Kemp, 1976 and personal observation, 1991). Since the
maximum clutch size for this species is five eggs, layed at two day
intervals, it is evident that the hens can store viable sperm for up
to sixteen days.

Chick Development

The male makes continuous trips to the nest entrance providing
food for the female and their brood. Food such as assorted fruits
and high protein items supplemented with vitamins and minerals
were offered to the adults. However, the adults fed the chicks a
high protein diet exclusively consisting of mealworms, crickets,
newborn mice, and dogchow.

The African Grey Hornbill chicks hatch asynchronously, are
featherless and their eyes are closed. The skin is pink on the head,
body, legs, wings as well as on the beak. By the third day the young
can be heard vocalizing at a distance of up to twenty feet from the
nest. At day twenty, the chick's eyes are still closed. The skin of
the chicks remains pink in colour as does the beak.

Day/Age

The growth rates of two African Grey Hornbill chicks hatched in 1991.

One chick died in the nestbox. Note the weight loss of the other chick prior to fledging.

In 1991, on the twenty-sixth day after the first chick hatched, the
hen was heard pounding inside on the mudded entrance. The next
day she had escaped from the nestbox and the chicks proceeded to
reseal the entrance (Kemp, 1976, and personal observation, 1991).

MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY HORNBILLS 161

Unfortunately, one chick was found dead a day later. In 1990 the
female came out of the nestbox twenty six days after the first chick
hatched. In the wild the average emergence time reported for T.
nasutus is twenty-one days (Kemp, 1976). A necropsy, performed
by San Diego Zoo pathologist, Dr. M. Anderson, on the deceased
chick revealed that the chick died at least one or two days before
the female left the nest. The cause of death was lack of food. There
was no evidence of adipose tissue and only scant gastro-intestinal
contents. The oldest chick continued to develop normally and by
the twenty-seventh day the feathers on the head, wings, back and
tail were beginning to emerge. The eyes opened and the colour of
the bill and legs began to change to black. At day thirty-four, the
feathers were about half developed and there was no additional
change in the bill colour.

At this point in the study (day forty-two) the method was re¬
evaluated concerning the benefit of continued nest inspections.
The concern was to avoid causing the chick to fledge prematurely.
In the best interest of the chick, nest inspections were terminated.
The chick fledged at fifty-seven days of age. From the period of the
heaviest recorded weight of the chick in the nestbox (day 42) until
the chick fledged (day 57) the chick lost 28.7% of its body weight.
A weight loss of 15% was observed in other hornbill species ( T .
nasutus , flavirostris, erythrorhynchus) fledglings in the wild
(Kemp, 1976). Each of the three chicks in 1990 fledged every other
day (fifty-three days of age). The plumage was similar to that of
the adults but not as colourful. The colour of the bill was like that
of a male but it was shorter in length than in either parent. The
parents were very attentive to the chick and at least one of them was
always nearby. Both parents continued to feed the chick for
fourteen days before the chick began to eat portions of food
unassisted.

Summary

The African Grey Hornbills were studied for a two year period.
By comparing female emergence intervals and fledgling periods
during passive (1990) and invasive (1991) methods we concluded
that the procedure used to collect data on this species of hornbill did
not alter the normal emergence or fledgling period. The emergence
period or time measured from the hatching of the first chick until
the hen escaped from the nestbox was twenty-six days in 1990 and
twenty-seven days in 1991. In the wild the reported emergence
period is twenty-one days (Kemp, 1976). The manipulations of the
chick(s) did not seem to interfere with the fledgling periods. The

162 MACE - DATA ON PARENTALLY RAISED AFRICAN GREY BHORNBILLS

fledgling period for the three chicks in 1990 was fifty-three days
and fifty-seven days for the single chick in 1991. The overall
fledgling period in the wild is 45 1 6 days for T. nasutus, flaviros-
tris, erythrorhynchus (Kemp, 1976). There was a dramatic weight
loss by the chick which fledged successfully. Its weight fell by
28.7% before it fledged. Growth rate information such as this can
be used when the need arises to hand-rear hornbill chicks
(Cunningham-van Someren, 1977). Techniques similar to these
can be used to collect information on the more endangered species
of hornbills and may help us in our understanding of the biology of
the hornbill taxa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. David Rimlinger, Assistant Curator of Birds,
San Diego Wild Animal Park for his constructive comments on an
earlier draft of this manuscript. My sincere thanks are due to the
dedicated members of the Wild Animal Park bird keeper staff for
their collective efforts in working with this species.

REFERENCES

BUCHER, E. H. (1988). Do Birds Use Biological Control Against Nest Parasites?,
Parasitology Today , Vol. 4, Issue 1.

CHOY, P.K. (1980). Breeding the Great Indian Hornbill Buceros bicornis
at Jurong Bird Park, Int. Zoo Yearbook, 20: 204 - 206.
CUNNINGHAM-VAN SOMMEREN (1977). Some Observations on the Captive
Grey Hornbill, Tockus nasutus. Scopus I: 52 - 53.

ENCKE, W. (1970). Breeding the Red-billed Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus
at Krefeld Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearbook 10: 101 - 102.

FRY, C. H., URBAN, E. K., KEITH, S. (1988). Birds of Africa, Vol. 3: 399 - 403.

Academic Press.

GORE, M.E.J., (1981). Grey Hornbills Accompanying Olive Baboons, EANHS
Bulletin Nov. / Dec.

JOHNS, A. D. (1982). Observations on Nesting Behaviour in Rhinoceros Hornbill,
Buceros rhinoceros, Malay. Nat. J. 35: 173 - 177.

KEMP, A. C., (1976). A Study of the Ecology, Behaviour and Systematics of the
Tockus Hornbills, Transvaal Museum Publishing, Pretoria.

MOREAU, R. E., (1937). The Comparative Breeding Biology of African Hornbills
(Bucerotidae, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.

NORTH, M. E. W. (1942). The Nesting of some Kenya Colony Hornbills, The Ibis,
Vol. VI. 1942.

REILLY, SHARON E. (1988). Breeding the Rhinoceros Hornbill at the Audubon
Park and Zoological Garden, International Zoo Yearbook, 27: 263 - 269.
ROOT, J. and ROOT, A. (1969). Inside a Hornbill's Walled-up Nest, National
Geographic Magazine, 136: 846 - 855.

163

BREEDING PESQUET’S PARROT

By Rosemary Low

(Curator, Breeding Centre, Palmitos Park, Gran Canaria.)

Pesquet's Parrot Psittrichas fulgidus is a large red and black
parrot which measures about 46 cm and weighs 670 to 800g. Its
most distinctive feature is the head which is narrow with the
forepart covered in tiny hairs, not feathers. In appearance, behav¬
iour and feeding behaviour it is totally unlike any other parrot.
Homberger (1981) studied the morphology and feeding behaviour
of Pesquet’s and a number of other parrots and found that: "...
unlike any other parrot, Psittrichas does not "chew" the food
morsel before swallowing it." Unlike any other larger parrot, it is
therefore unable to eat seed and must be fed mainly on soft fruits.
Captive History

This species was extremely rare in aviculture until the early
1970s when a number reached Europe, South Africa and the USA.
I believe that at least 100 were exported from New Guinea during
this decade. Alas, most proved short-lived, and Pesquet's is again
very rare in collections. The only breeding successes reported in
the avicultural literature are those of de Jager (1976) in South
Africa (one parent-reared chick died at 12 weeks), J. Docters van
Leeuwen of the Netherlands (Low, 1980, 1986 and 1991), San
Diego Zoo (Low, 1980, 1986 and 1991), Los Angeles Zoo (Thursland
and Paul, 1987; Cunningham, 1990) and Loro Parque, Tenerife
(Low, 1990a, 1990b and 1990c).

I left Loro Parque in February 1989 for Palmitos Park where I
have again been extremely fortunate to be involved in the rearing
of this unique and rare parrot. Of the more than 200 parrot species
I have been privileged to care for, this is my favourite, being
endowed with exceptional personality and intelligence.

On 2nd June 1990 a male Psittrichas was obtained from
Switzerland as a mate for the single female in the collection which
is a wild-caught bird. The male had been imported by the Zoologi¬
cal Museum of Zurich in 1972. Over a year after his arrival in our
breeding centre I discovered from Dr. Christian Schmidt that
during the period the male had been in Zurich Zoo, from 1987 to
1989, its female had produced eight eggs, of which one was
infertile, five contained chicks which died within the shell and two
were destroyed.

164

LOW - PESQUET'S PARROT

Husbandry

The male was caged in a quarantine area until 18th August. It
was in excellent condition and the long quarantine period was a
precautionary measure only. After this period the female's aviary
was divided by a wire partition across the centre to give two
sections, each about 2.3 m long, 1.95 m wide and 2.6 m high. Like
most large parrots, they feel more comfortable if they are in an
enclosure high enough to look down on people. The aviary is in a
block of 14 of a similar size. There is a wide service passage, of
which the roof is of welded mesh and is covered with bamboo cane
for shade. The aviary roof is also constructed of welded mesh,
except 1 m at the back which is solid. There is also a wall 1 m wide
at the back of the aviary which forms a shelter but the Pesquet's
have never used this section.

On 18th August the male was placed in the front section of the
aviary and the female in the rear section. The two birds showed
immediate interest in each other and spent much time clinging to
the wire partition. The latter was not removed until 1st December,
when a television observation camera was set up against the wire
mesh of the front of the aviary, covering all the interior. Later a
second camera was installed in the centre of the aviary so that the
activities of the pair at the nest could be observed more easily.
During their first day together the male was possessive regarding
the perch in what was formerly his territory. In two or three days,
however, they seemed completely compatible and occasionally
preened each other's heads.

In captivity the preferred feeding method of this species seems
to be to take halved fruits such as apple and pear, or banana with
the lower half of the skin intact, which have been spiked on a nail.
If the same items are placed in a feeding tray and spiked on to nails,
the latter are always eaten first, in my experience. Favoured foods
are ripe (not over-ripe) banana, apple, pear, guava, papaya and
carrot. Available for about three months of the year are the fruits
of Opuntia (prickly pear cactus) which are relished. Also eaten are
Swiss chard, grapes, soft fresh corn, pomegranate and calabacina
(the Spanish variety of courgette). A rearing food made in the park
from hard-boiled egg, carrot, whole grain bread and non-fat cheese
is also eaten. I have seen Pesquet's fed on quite different diets,
including Lory nectar and chopped fruit only, or nectar, rice, fruit
and dog chow.

Nesting

On 17th December the female was seen in the nest for the first

LOW - PESQUET’S PARROT

165

time. The nest, an un-excavated 2.4 m high palm log, was placed
at the back of the aviary in the left hand corner. On 19th December
the observation monitor revealed that the male was feeding the
female. Within a few days both birds were spending long periods
inside the log, excavating. Every day the aviary floor was littered
with the soft pieces of palm fibre. By 1st January they had
excavated to a depth of 50 cm, by 5th January to 65 cm and by the
7th to 75 cm. At this stage I became concerned about the female;
she was spending long periods inside the log and for a day was
coughing constantly, no doubt because of the fine particles in¬
gested during excavation. Therefore, wood shavings were placed
in the nest and dampened with a bucket of water. This solved the
problem.

By 19th January the pair had excavated the log to a depth of 1.1
m and all the wood shavings had been taken out. These and the palm
fibres were carried out of the nest in the feathers. Male and female
would shake their feathers and a cloud of shavings or fibres would
fall to the ground. On some days, some areas of the aviary floor
were completely carpeted. The depth of excavation was 1.25 m by
24th January and 1.4 m by 1st February. Then they had almost
reached the bottom of the log which had been solid except for a very
small indentation when they started work. The finished surface was
neat and even.

Observation of the monitor revealed the first attempted mating
on 5th January. It was totally unsuccessful and I believe this to be
due to the male’s inexperience despite the fact that he had already
fertilised eggs. It was not until 22nd January that I observed a
possibly successful mating. It lasted no more than 30 seconds but
copulation in this species is of much shorter duration than in other
large parrots. Copulation usually occurred early in the morning or
during mid to late afternoon.

On 4th February the female slept in the nest for the first time.
Her first egg was laid the next day. On the following day an
inspection door was made in the log at the level of the nest. This
might have been judged to be taking a risk which could have caused
the female to desert the nest but I was fairly confident that this
would not occur because of her calm temperament. I watched the
proceedings on the monitor and saw that she returned to the nest and
entered within five seconds of the completion of the work which
had taken 20 minutes.

Throughout the incubation period the female would leave the
nest very briefly, for no more than one minute, on two or three

PARROT

166 LOW -PESQUET'S

Rosemary Low

The palm log excavated by the breeding
pair

to below the level of the inspection door.

LOW - PESQUET'S PARROT

167

occasions daily. She was never seen to feed herself; the male would
enter the nest to feed her. The nest was inspected on one occasion
and the discovery made that one egg was fertile. The normal
incubation period of this species is, I believe, 29 days. The first egg
was therefore due to hatch on 6th March and the second on the 9th.
On the latter day the behaviour of the male changed. He spent long
periods on the nest log perch, something he had not done before. On
one occasion when the female left the nest for a slightly longer
period than usual I saw him place one leg on the female’s back as
though he wished to mate with her. However, she returned to the
nest. On the following day the male again spent long periods on the
nest log perch, sometimes peering inside. On one occasion when
the female left the nest, he went inside. His behaviour seemed to
indicate that he knew when the egg was due to hatch. However,
next day the female left the nest at 8 am and it was obvious that she
did not intend to return. The inspection door was removed with the
palm fibre which was packed against it. Inside was one egg and the
remains of dried yolk from the other. The egg contained a chick
which had died about four days before it was due to hatch. The
unabsorbed yolk was cultured. Enterobacteria were present but
these were probably not harmful.

The pair soon commenced to excavate the nest again. As there
was not much more that they could do, bucketfuls of wood shavings
dampened with water were placed inside. The female had deserted
the nest on 1 1th March. Mating was observed on 22 March and then
occurred daily. The female roosted in the nest on the night of 29th
March and the egg was laid then or during the next morning. Next
day her behaviour gave cause for concern for she was spending
much time out of the nest. At 3 pm the egg was cold. Although the
female did not look ill, I suspected that something was wrong and
removed the egg to the incubator and the female to the clinic. She
was given a low perch in a compartment about 1.2 m above floor
level. A thick layer of wood shavings was placed on the floor of the
compartment. She did not appear sick and laid the second egg at
7.30 pm, next day 1st April. I transferred it, still warm, to the nest
of an incubating Umbrella Cockatoo Cacatua alba and the cocka¬
too's single egg was placed in the incubator. This precaution was
taken because I did not want both eggs in the same location, also
because I prefer that eggs removed as soon as they are laid
(emergency procedure only, as chicks are parent-reared wherever
possible) are initially incubated by birds.

After two weeks the egg under the Umbrella Cockatoo was

168

LOW - PESQUET'S PARROT

transferred to the incubator. Unfortunately, the embryo died after
20 days. The cause may have been very slight damage to the shell
which occurred when the egg was laid or perhaps the jolt that the
contents received, or it may have been unconnected with this
incident. The other egg developed normally and was removed to
the hatcher on 26th April, where the humidity is much higher than
in the incubator (which usually is running dry). The chick could not
hatch unaided, perhaps because the incubator was too dry for this
species and so I removed the chick from the egg on 28th April. I
was certain that this was the day the chick would have hatched and
hence the incubation period was either 29 or 30 days.

Hand-rearing of the chick is described below. Meanwhile, the
female was reunited with the male on 3rd April, in apparently
perfect health, and nest excavation commenced immediately. The
first egg of the third clutch was laid on 25th April and the second
probably on the 28th but the nest was not checked until 30th April.
Alas, on 5th May the male entered the nest and ate both the eggs.
At least one of the eggs was fertile since part of the shell of one egg
was found with the arteries of the developing embryo attached to it.

As the female had laid three clutches in as many months, I did
not want her to nest again immediately and therefore the male and
female were separated by the wire partition on 6th May. It was the
intention to keep them apart for several weeks but both birds spent
much time clinging to the wire partition and obviously wanted to
be reunited and so on 17th May the partition was removed. Exca¬
vation recommenced and, again, wood shavings were placed inside
the log and then dampened with water. The first egg was laid early
on the morning of 15th June and eaten at once by the male. I had
feared that this would occur but was reluctant to remove the male
because the female was dependent on him for food. The second egg
was laid early on 18th June and removed before it was fully light
and placed in the incubator. Plastic pigeon eggs were substituted.
Unfortunately, the embryo in the second egg died after a few days.

After some days the female pushed one of the plastic eggs to one
side but was diligently incubating the other. On the morning of
13th July, at 11 am, when making a routine inspection of the aviary,
I found the female crouched on the floor and the male standing
menacingly nearby. Her mouth and the skin below her beak were
bleeding where she had been bitten by the male. Fortunately, she
had retaliated by biting him below the beak (not severely) and this,
perhaps, saved her from further injury. She was suffering slightly
from shock and did not protest (as she would have done normally)

LOW PESQUET'S PARROT

169

when I picked her up in a towel and took her to the clinic. After
cleaning her mouth it was evident that her injuries were less serious
than the appearance suggested. Three days later she was moved to
a small outdoor aviary and 12 days after that she was returned to the
breeding aviary, separated from the male by a strong partition of
double welded mesh. As a number of instances are known where
the male Pesquet's has fatally attacked the female, we considered
we were very fortunate that the injuries suffered by the female were
not more serious. As it happened, it was not through observation
of the monitor that I was aware that the female had been attacked;
nevertheless I believe that when this species is kept in captivity, an
observation monitor is absolutely essential to safeguard the life of
the female. (This also applies to certain cockatoos.)

On being reunited, although separated by the division, both
birds became very noisy, making the loud rasping call which seems
to come from deep within them. They spent much time clinging to
the wire, obviously wanting to be together. At the time of writing
(13th October) they remain separated.

Development of Young

This did not vary from the development, described in detail, in
Vol. 29 (pp 103 - 4) of International Zoo Yearbook, of the young
hand-reared at Loro Parque. Weights of the young Pesquet's,
before and after the first feed of the day, are shown in the accom¬
panying table.

Chick at 21 days old.

Rosemary Low

170

LOW - PESQUET'S PARROT

Day

Weight g.

Day

Weight g.

hatched

18

24

180/206

1

17/19

25

190/212

2

18/20

26

196/224

3

20/22

27

208/230

4

23/25

28

224/252

5

25/28

30

260/284

6

29/32

32

280/326

7

33/35

34

318/358

8

38/41

36

348/396

9

46/51

48

572/not recorded

10

49/52

50

606/662

11

56/60

52

642/694

12

63/68

54

652/716

13

66/74

56

670/730

14

68/74

58

666/706

15

74/88

60

676/720

16

88/102

70

682/718

17

100/112

80

676/682

18

110/122

90

680/690

19

122/134

100

710/722

20

120(some food

110

678

in crop -

given Ringers only)

148

718

21

128/144

166

702 - still being spoon¬

22

140/158

fed once daily

23

158/182

NB The female parent weighs 675 g.

Weights in grams of Pesquet's Parrot hatched at Palmitos Park on 28th April 1991
and hand-reared from the egg.

Weights shown are those before and after the first feed of the day, i.e., at about 7 am.

Hand-rearing

The chick was hand-reared on papaya, carrot, wheat germ
cereal, Milupa baby cereal, Nekton-Lori and Nekton-MSA (cal¬
cium and minerals in powder form) liquidised with bottled water.
A liquid sweet-tasting calcium preparation was added to the food
(after heating) once daily until the young bird was about two
months old. It was spoon-fed as soon as the crop emptied (about
every two hours) between 7 am and 10 pm. At about nine weeks it
started to nibble at papaya and to drink the warm rearing food from

LOW- PESQUET'S PARROT

171

a small container, held in front of the beak. The manner of feeding
was to lap the food quickly with the beak open. (Homburger, 1981,
has described how the manner of feeding of this species is totally
different from that of any other parrot.) At three months the young
bird was nibbling soft fruits, also carrot, and taking large quantities
of food from the spoon five times daily. At the end of August, when
still being fed three times daily, it was moved to a long cage in front
of her parents' aviary so that she could observe their behaviour. On
the first day the cage was placed inside the female's aviary but she
clung to the wire all day, apparently afraid of the young one, and
so the cage and youngster were removed that afternoon. On 10th
October the young Pesquet's, which was still being spoon-fed once
daily, was moved to a small outdoor aviary to obtain wing exercise.

Rosemary Low

Young bird 20th October 1991.

172

LOW - PESQUET'S PARROT

At this stage ’’she” was calm and affectionate, could be readily
handled by me and enjoyed having her head scratched. Her reaction
to other people varied from friendly to aggressive, depending on
the disposition of the person! She was extremely sensitive to what
one might describe as the "vibrations” which people emit. For me,
there can be no greater pleasure than the rearing of this unique and
wonderful species!

PRODUCTS MENTIONED IN THE TEXT

NEKTON-LORI AND NEKTON MSA: manufactured by Nekton-Produkte, 7530
Pforzheim, Germany.

REFERENCES

CUNNINGHAM, M., 1990. The Pesquet's Parrot, The AFA Watchbird,

XVII (2): 56 - 7.

HOMBERGER, D. G. 1981. Functional morphology and evolution of the feeding
apparatus in parrots, with special reference to the Pesquet’s Parrot Psittrichas
fulgidus (Lesson), in Conservation of New World Parrots, ed. R. Pasquier,
ICBP Tech. Pub. No. 1.

de JAGER, S., 1976. Breeding the Pesquet's Parrot Psittrichas fulgidus. Magazine
of the Parrot Society, X (6): 127 - 9.

LOW, R., 1980, 1986 and 1991, Parrots their care and breeding, Blandford Press,
Poole and London, 1st, 2nd and 3rd editions.

1990a, Breeding Pesquet's Parrot Psittrichas fulgidus at Loro Parque, Tenerife,
International Zoo Yearbook, 29: 102 - 8.

1990b, Rearing Pesquet's Parrots at Loro Parque, The AFA Watchbird,

XVII (2): 58 - 62.

1990c, Breeding Pesquet's Parrot Psittrichas fulgidus at Loro Parque, Tenerife,
Australian Aviculture, 44 (7): 195 - 203.

THURSLAND, D. and PAUL, L., 1987* Parent-reared Pesquet's parrots at the Los
Angeles Zoo. Int. Zoo Yb. 26: 208 - 212.

MANAGEMENT OF A SILVER GULL COLONY
AT ST. LOUIS ZOOLOGICAL PARK

173

By Bruce W. Bohmke and Martha T. Fisher
(St. Louis Zoological Park, Missouri, USA.)

The Silver Gull Larus novaehollandiae occurs in the wild along
the coastal regions of southern Australia and Tasmania (Pizzey,
1980). Often found on outlying islands or on large inland water¬
ways, this gregarious species can occur in colonies as large as
100,000 birds (Gibson, 1979).

The St. Louis Zoo has exhibited Silver Gulls since 1969 when
two males were imported from the wild. In 1981 an additional
captive born female was introduced. Two other gull species, the
Grey GullL. modestus and the Band-tailed Gull L. belcheri were
also present in the collection. In 1985 a hen Silver Gull and a cock
Band-tailed Gull paired, successfully hatching two chicks. At this
point a decision was made to acquire more Silver Gulls and manage
a single species group. The two hybrid chicks, the Band-tailed Gull
and the Grey Gull were removed from the collection. Silver Gulls
have hybridized with Black-billed Gulls L. bulleri in the wild
(Harrison 1983). It should be noted that hybridization can occur
and, therefore, mixing of gull species should be avoided.

Since 1981 one wild hatched and five captive hatched birds have
been introduced into the Silver Gull colony and fifteen successful
hatchings have occurred. Currently the St. Louis Zoo exhibits a
productive colony of four male, four female and four unsexed birds.
Exhibit

The Silver Gull colony at the St. Louis Zoo is exhibited in a large
open flight display which houses thirty species of birds. The
exhibit measures 70 m x 26 m x 15 m high with an elevated (1.8 m)
observation walkway dividing the structure lengthwise. Within the
enclosure, Black Alder trees Alder nigra provide shade and roost
sites for the birds. The substratum throughout the structure is
gravel. Three pools averaging 80 cm in depth make up approxi¬
mately one third of the aviary ground level.

The Silver Gulls are offered four wooden nesting shelters along
the perimeter of the exhibit. The A-frame shelters measure 40 cm
x 60 cm x 40 cm high. The gulls have access to the entire aviary.
Generally, the birds tend to gather in one corner of the aviary which
includes the nesting area.

174

BOHMKE & FISHER - SILVER GULL COLONY

The gull colony is housed in the open flight exhibit all year. The
annual temperature range is from - 24 °C to 38 °C. No adverse
effects resulting from climatic extremes have been noted. Unlim¬
ited water and plenty of shade are available in cases of extreme
heat. Shelter from the wind and warmth from heat lamps is
provided in the winter.

Diet

The Silver Gull colony is offered a diet consisting of krill
Euphasia superba , capelin Mallotus villosus and Bird of Prey diet,
and is supplemented with Sea World Marine Vitamins. Food is
offered in metal pans daily at 0900 h and 1500 h. Four feeding sites
are spread throughout the aviary to reduce competition. Sufficient
food is provided so that a small amount remains at the next feeding.
There is no seasonal variation in the diet components.

Banding System and Records

Numbered aluminium butt-end leg bands are used for each bird
to provide permanent identity. Plastic coloured bands are used for
identification at a distance. The colony's activities during the
breeding and hatching season are recorded. Additionally, indi¬
vidual records are kept for each bird which include data on pairing,
egg laying and hatching, and medical problems.

Reproduction

The reproductive season for Silver Gulls at the St. Louis Zoo
begins in late February and continues until July, with eleven of the
fifteen successful hatchings occurring in the months of April, May
and June. Nest sites are loosely grouped in one corner of the aviary
and may be as close together as 1.5 m. The gulls in this colony
prefer to nest adjacent to a log, shrub, or nest box. Studies have
revealed that Silver Gulls in the wild generally select nest sites
under trees and bushes to protect the birds from heat stress and
predation (Burger and Gochfeld, 1987). These structures may
function to provide shelter from wind or precipitation. In addition
they may serve as visual barriers and allow the gulls to nest in closer
proximity with less agonistic encounters. Nest material is not
provided but birds have been seen to collect twigs and rocks to line
the nest scrape.

Each pair of gulls may lay multiple clutches. As many as three
have been recorded in one season. Average clutch interval for six
recorded double clutches was calculated to be 53 days. The average
clutch size of 20 nesting attempts is 1.85 eggs, with a range of
clutch size from one to three eggs.

Average incubation for four recorded clutches was 24 days with

BOHMKE & FISHER - SILVER GULL COLONY

175

a range from 23 to 26 days. Three additional clutches removed for
artificial incubation approximately one week into incubation had
incubation periods of 14, 17, and 18 days.

Chicks leave the nest at three to four weeks of age although
independence is achieved gradually at eight to twelve weeks.
Hand-rearing

Natural incubation by the parents is encouraged at the St. Louis
Zoo. However, in 1987 two Silver Gull eggs were artificially
incubated and successfully hatched. APetersime Model 1 incuba¬
tor was set at a temperature of 37.5 °C and humidity of 29 °C wet
bulb. The eggs were automatically turned every two hours.

Upon hatching the chicks were placed in a brooder at 35 °C. The
temperature was gradually reduced to 29 °C by 21 days of age. A
diet consistingof soaked trout chow, krill, capelin, and Bird of Prey
diet was offered six times daily. Small pieces of food were offered
to the chicks using forceps. Dicalcium phosphate and Sea World
Marine vitamins were added to the diet daily. As the chicks
increased in size the frequency of feeding declined. The amount
offered per feeding increased and the chicks were encouraged to
pick up food on their own. Table 1 presents an example.

TABLE 1

Age in
days

Number of
feedings per day

Total intake
per day (g.)

Body

weight (g.)

2

6

9.6

24.8

7

5

26.7

62.8

12

3

29.2

116.0

17

3

74.0

180.5

22

3

118.0

270.0

This chick would pick up food by itself when it was eight days old.

The chicks' weights, shown in Figure 1, and food intake were
monitored daily for 28 days. The hatching weight was 26.1 g for
chick 1 and 19.5 g for chick 2. Average daily weight gain for the
chicks during the first 28 days was 11.8 g and 9.3 g respectively.

BOHMKE & FISHER - SILVER GULL COLONY

176

FIGURE 1

Growth curve for two hand-reared Silver Gull chicks
to 28 days of age.

Health and Longevity

The Silver Gull colony at the St. Louis Zoo has experienced no
medical problems in the last six years. Since 1987 five deaths have
occurred. Of these, three have been the result of trauma most likely
due to aggression between species. The causes of the remaining
two deaths, one of which occurred shortly after hatching, were
undetermined. One bird in the colony is over 30 years old. Three
other birds of which the dates of hatching are unknown were a
minimum of 19, 18, and 15 years of age at death. Each of these birds
was involved in reproductive efforts during the year before its
death.

Conclusion

Silver Gulls have been shown to be easily managed in captivity.
They exhibit longevity of over 30 years and have few health
problems. Mortality causes include trauma and problems associ¬
ated with hatching. Silver Gulls may be maintained in a colony

BOHMKE & FISHER - SILVER GULL COLONY

177

setting and will reproduce successfully without human interven¬
tion. If necessary, eggs can be hatched artificially and chicks can
be reared with few problems. Inter-species aggression may be a
problem in mixed species displays. Hybridization between gull
species is possible. Silver Gulls have proven to be adaptable to
climatic extremes and need little in the way of protection from heat
or cold.

PRODUCTS MENTIONED IN THE TEXT

NEBRASKA BRAND BIRD OF PREY DIET: manufactured by Central Nebraska
Packing Inc., PO Box 550, North Platte, Nebraska 69103, USA.

PETERSIME MODEL 1 INCUBATOR: manufactured by Petersime Incubator
Company, 300 North Bridge Street, Gettysburg, Ohio 45328, USA.

SEA WORLD MARINE VITAMINS: multi-vitamin, distributed by Sea World Inc.,
7007, Sea World Drive, Orlando, Florida 32821, USA.

TROUT CHOW: manufactured by Purina Mills, 1401, South Hanley, St. Louis,
Missouri 63117, USA.

REFERENCES

BURGER, J. and GOCHFELD, M (1987. Colony and nest-site selection in Silver
GullsLaras novaehollandiae in Queensland, Australia, Bird Behaviour 7:1 - 21.
GIBSON, J. D. (1979). Growth in the population of the Silver Gull on the Five
Islands Group, New South Wales. Corella 3, 103 - 4.

HARRISON, Peter. (1983). Seabirds: an Identification Guide. Beckenham, Kent:
Croom Helm.

PIZZEY, Graham, (1980). A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press.

178

DISPLAY AND ATTEMPTED BREEDING OF THE
LESSER BIRD OF PARADISE

By Lawrence Kuah (Singapore)

Before the CITES (Convention on the International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna) agreement or Wash¬
ington Convention was signed by Singapore in 1986, small numbers
of various species of Birds of Paradise Paradisaea were occasion¬
ally available from commercial dealers. It was during this time that
I obtained my group of Lesser Birds of Paradise Paradisaea minor
with several other species of this genus, including some of Diphyl-
lodes, Cicinnurus, Seleucidis and others, like rubra , in the same
group. They have all been placed under Appendix II and are
protected under international law, even in their native Indonesia,
where they are known as Cenderawasih or Manuk Dewata (birds of
the gods). This extremely fascinating genus of birds has long been
held in awe and wonder. Trends in fashion during the nineteenth
century required huge amounts of skins from various Paradisaea
species and it was because of this trade in skins that Birds of
Paradise became endangered species.

The Lesser Bird of Paradise is smaller than the closely related
Greater Bird of Paradise Paradisaea apoda from the Aru Islands.
It also has more yellow on its back, stripes of yellow on the wing
coverts and plumes of a different structure. These beautiful birds
are found in the Indonesian half of Irian Jaya and on the islands of
Misool and Japen in Geelvink Bay. Another population of these
birds of a different sub-species finschi is found in the other half
belonging to Papua New Guinea. The island of New Guinea, being
the largest island in the world and so isolated, has enabled nature
to do her best at evolution in producing such a bizarre and unique
group of birds as the Birds of Paradise.

Initially, an attempt was made to keep my birds in a mixed
collection and to stimulate their display behaviour by providing a
communal display tree. A large aviary of dimensions 30' x 12' x 8'
high was used and the display tree was a stunted guava situated
somewhere in the middle. Some other species were present, prior
to the introduction of the group of eight male and three female
Lesser Birds of Paradise and no problems were experienced. There
were nine Rothschild’s Mynahs Leucopsar rothschildi, 14 Red-
fronted (Javan) Laughing Thrushes Garrulax rufifrons, 3 Blue¬
faced Honeyeaters Entomyzon cyanotis and ground birds including

KUAH - LESSER BIRD OF PARADISE

179

a pair of Rusty-naped Pittas Pitta oatesi , a pair of Malay Peacock
Pheasant Polyplectron malacense, one Mountain Peacock Pheasant
Polyplectron inopinatum and four Victoria Crowned Pigeons
Goura victoria.

It was not very long before all of these had to be removed
because of the highly aggressive nature of the Birds of Paradise.
Anyway, the aviary was rather crowded. When the Birds of
Paradise were first introduced, there was immediate conflict with
the Honeyeaters and the Crowned Pigeons. The former fought
viciously and matched every sound that their aggressors made. The
Crowned Pigeons, on the other hand, struck out viciously with their
wings not allowing any Birds of Paradise to roost near them. They
were removed as were the Peacock Pheasants which were rare and
valuable especially the Mountain Peacock Pheasant. Incidentally,
the Malay Peacock Pheasants bred for the first time almost imme¬
diately after being removed from the communal aviary. There was
a very unfortunate incident which necessitated the removal of the
other species in late September 1989, when two Rothschild's
Mynahs, which were bred by myself in previous years, died sud¬
denly from coccidiosis. All the large passerine species were
transferred to individual box cages and treated with Baycox (Bayer
Products, Germany) as recommended by the manufacturer. After
treatment for nearly six weeks cultures of the birds' excreta were
free from protozoa. The aviary was disinfected and 14" of topsoil
was dug out and replaced with well draining gravel. It was very
unfortunate that I lost the pair of Rusty-naped Pittas which were
among my favourite birds. (I must stress that Rothschild's Mynahs
and, to a lesser extent, Birds of Paradise are extremely susceptible
to coccidiosis and die quickly without proper treatment.)

During the time of treatment and separate caging all the male
Birds of Paradise became fully plumed. In some of the older birds
the plumes were of incredible length and trailed out when they
perched. It was then that I decided to devote the entire aviary to
them, as they greatly fascinated me with their incomparable beauty.
They were at their most active in the morning, particularly in the
early dawn, when one could make out only their faint silhouettes in
the cool and moist mist around their aviary. The females were
observed to be actively persecuting each other and, at times, the
fights were so fierce, that all I could make out of them , was a
violently, shrieking shape in which they were furiously damaging
each other with their beaks and nails. Two females were removed
leaving behind the largest and most formidable looking. Previ-

180

KUAH - LESSER BIRD OF PARADISE

ously, I had read Kerry Muller's account of the breeding of the
Raggiana Bird of Paradise Paradisaea raggiana at the Taronga
Zoo in the International Zoo Yearbook. No reasons were given for
his conclusion that "females must never be housed together." Now,
I know why.

The group appeared to have settled down well and at all times
of the day, far sounding, unmistakable calls of the birds could be
heard throughout the compound. These calls sounded like Wonk!
Wonk! Wah! Wah! Wonk! Wonk! Wonk! Wonk! sometimes repeated
two or three times in succession. The female also contributed to the
total amount of noise created. This was when I started to observe
the wonderful, captivating courtship displays of the males. One of
the most frequently seen was performed by several males flying to
and fro simultaneously, sometimes gliding with half-spread wings,
flitting about like enormous flame-yellow and chocolate-brown
butterflies. The female, to my surprise, appears unmoved by all
these displays and moves around actively, focusing her attention on
mealworms or other foods provided for birds in the adjoining
aviaries. When she finally pays attention, or at least feigns it, by
flying to the far end of the guava tree, opposite the "dancing arena",
the males work themselves into a frenzy, literally, throwing them¬
selves upon the low, wide-spreading branches and dancing. Ini¬
tially, it is not usually directed at the female, for this seems to cause
the female to move away. They start simply, by calling excitedly,
clapping their bills together and with thrusting motions shaking
their fantastic plumes into place and exhibiting the most brilliantly
coloured portions of the flank. This is often accompanied by wing
flapping and "freezing" along the branch at an angle of nearly 90
degrees. Every hop is carefully executed and the plumes wave
violently at each exertion. Now, it seems that all the birds are in
some sort of trance, oblivious to what is happening around them
Once they have "danced" their way closer and closer to the female,
they take turns doing lateral displays facing her with their lemon
yellow eyes, and iridescent, emerald green throats and then, with
their backs towards her, with their long "wires" dangling and
vibrating and their wings fanning with rhythmic movements. Very
rarely, if the female is actually interested in the bizarre display, one
or two males, which she appears to have selected move nearer and
nearer to her, as if given a cue. If any other male which she regards
as not captivating enough sidles up, she flies off and the whole
dance comes to an abrupt end and the male birds wake up out of
their entranced state. The successful males, when they reach her,

KUAH - LESSER BIRD OF PARADISE

181

feverishly flap their wings and often, "slap" her as their movements
get more and more excited and they begin to overwhelm her.
Pecking takes place when this state is reached and the intensity of
the display ends in a few seconds of copulation, usually repeated,
before she flies away.

These birds are maintained on a daily diet of fruit, usually
bananas and papayas offered every afternoon. A staple diet,
available at all times, is a commercial poultry crumble (18 to 20%
protein) and on odd days, about 5 grams of ground raw beef or 20
meal worms for each bird. A vitamin supplement like Nekton T and
Bio (Nekton products, Germany) is given once a week on the fruit
and once monthly a calcium supplement is mixed with the crumble.
Cooked, unpolished rice is occasionally mixed into the crumble and
kitchen scraps like meat off the soup bones or pulverised egg or
vegetables are often added. Powdered glucose is sprinkled on some
foods in which the birds might not show an active interest. These
birds resemble shrikes in some ways and when offered skinks
(lizards) or young mice, they bring their prey up to the perches and
behave very skilfully like shrikes or butcherbirds, using their feet
like hands and eating their meat leisurely. The female has made at
least two attempts to lay her eggs after copulation and many
attempts to build a nest. She stripped living foliage from the other
small bushes and built her nest at the extreme end of the aviary.
However, the nest was always mysteriously torn into pieces and the
eggs suspected to be in them were eaten. I have learned recently
from Dr. K. C. Searle, Honorary Zoological Curator at the Hong
Kong Zoological & Botanical Gardens, who bred and reared suc¬
cessfully several young from the Raggiana Bird of Paradise Para -
disaea raggiana augustvictoriae that the males must be removed
after successful copulation and the female left alone, unmolested,
to incubate her egg and raise her chick. I have taken his advice and
hope that breeding this wonderful species in captivity will soon
become a reality and that I shall be able to report about Bird of
Paradise chicks in the future. However, in conclusion, I should
mention that a colony of Birds of Paradise can not always be kept
together for this particular female has lost the sight of one eye
which was punctured by a male's foot during a fight. The aviary for
these birds must be heavily shaded and planted, as the yellow on the
head and shoulders soon fades to a pale cinnamon if they are
exposed frequently to strong sunlight.

Careful and close supervision of the birds is advised for avicul-
turists intending to breed Birds of Paradise in a lek, display colony.

182

I should be grateful if other aviculturists, who have had similar or
better successes in managing and breeding these birds, would
contact me in Singapore.

Correspondence should be addressed to Mr. Kuah c/o the Avi-
cultural Society at Bristol, and this will be forwarded to him.

Ed.

* * *

THE PRESIDENT S GARDEN PARTY

I was delighted to be one of about a hundred Avicultural Society
members and guests who attended the President's Garden Party at
Chestnut Lodge, Cobham on Sunday, 31st May 1992. We were
received and welcomed by our President, Ruth Ezra, with her
characteristic charm and were conducted around the gardens and
aviaries by Raymond Sawyer with his boundless, infectious enthu¬
siasm. We were shown many species of beautiful, mostly rare and
frequently unusual foreign birds in superb condition. Housed,
usually in pairs, in well designed and beautifully planted aviaries,
many were breeding successfully, some species for the first time in
captivity. The avicultural ambience was quite unique and illus¬
trated Raymond Sawyer's considerable flair for combining birds
and plants with remarkable artistry. It also demonstrated his real
love for birds and dedication to aviculture. Tea in the sun on the
lawn in the lovely gardens provided us with an opportunity to thank
our hosts for their kind and generous hospitality. It is a pleasure for
me to express here our gratitude again.

Ed.

BREEDING ACTIVITIES IN THE BIRD
COLLECTION OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY
OF SAN DIEGO 1991

183

By Alan Lieberman

(Curator/Ornithology, San Diego Zoo),

Cynthia Kuehler

(Zoologist, Zoological Society of San Diego),
William Toone
(Curator/Ornithology,) and
David Rimlinger
(Assistant Curator/Ornithology,)

(San Diego Wild Animal Park).

The 1991 breeding season for the combined bird departments of
the Zoological Society of San Diego attained new levels for our
institution and perhaps for aviculture as well. The number of
species bred, chick survivability and first breedings have resulted
in a most satisfying season. The following table provides a
summary of all species bred, number of chicks hatched, method of
rearing (parent vs. artificial) and survivability of all chicks hatched
(>30 days).

To summarize the 1991 breeding efforts of the San Diego Zoo
and the San Diego Wild Animal Park (the two facilities comprising
the Zoological Society of San Diego), there was a total of 163
species bred; 120 species at the Zoo and 58 species at the Park. (The
sum of these two subtotals is actually 178, indicating that there
were 15 species bred which were common to both collections).
There was a total of 523 chicks hatched and reared utilizing
artificial incubation and hand-rearing techniques and of 404 chicks
hatched and reared naturally under their parents. Of these hatchlings,
394 chicks survived more than 30 days in the former and 302 chicks
survived in the latter category.

In the Avian Propagation Centre (APC), where the majority of
artificial incubation and hand-rearing takes place, a total of 558
eggs were set, of which 424 were fertile (76% fertility). Of these,
285 chicks hatched (67% hatchability). This figure represents the
total number of eggs, whether cracked, in poor embryonic condi¬
tion, suspected dead upon arrival, excessively cooled (abandoned),
etc. Discounting those eggs which were fertile, but not potentially

184 LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

hatchable, the calculated hatchability would be much higher.

Of special note in 1991 was the breeding success of a number of
species. In particular, were the Mantell's Brown Kiwi (5th year in
a row), Milky Stork (3rd year in a row), 16 species of duck,
California Condor (3rd year in a row), African Pygmy Falcon (3rd
year in a row), Congo Peacock, White-bellied and Buff-crested
Bustard, Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse, 31 species of pigeon, Guam
Kingfisher, 9 species of Babbler, Oriole Warbler ( moho ), Mala¬
chite Sunbird, 9 species of tanager, 5 species of starling, Thai Black
Drongo and Malayan Crested Jay. Many of these breedings were
the first for our institution and were perhaps the first in captivity.

In addition to the above breedings, much effort was dedicated to
the recovery programme of the San Clemente Island Loggerhead
Shrike Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi. Now numbering less than 25
individuals, restricted to San Clemente Island 1 12 km off the coast
of San Diego, this subspecies of shrike is the object of an intensely
managed recovery effort funded and coordinated by the U.S. Navy.
The Zoological Society in 1991 developed the protocols for the
incubation and the artificial rearing of the mainland subspecies L.
1. gambeli of shrike as well as the endangered island subspecies.
These protocols will be used in 1992 to incubate eggs artificially
and hand-rear neo-natal shrikes removed from wild nests in an
effort to produce double and triple clutches of the island shrikes.

Two species bred at the Park were particularly notable. The
Wild Animal Park has always been known for its breeding of large
birds (herons, cranes, condors, waterfowl, etc.) but in 1991 two
species were bred which belong to the other end of the avian
spectrum, the Oriole Warbler Hypergerus atriceps and the Thai
Black Drongo Dicrurus microcercus thai. Both species bred on
exhibit in large mixed-species aviaries.

One pair of Oriole Warblers built their nest in an enclosed
natural fibre basket that resembles their suspended nest in the wild.
The nest basket was located about 1.5 m. high and was lined
primarily with jute. Several two egg clutches were laid, of which
only one clutch of two chicks was successfully hatched and reared.
The eggs were light blue with light brown spots. Both parents
participated in incubation and the rearing of the young. The chicks
were raised mainly on mealworms and crickets. At fledging the
youngsters were simply smaller, duller, essentially tail-less ver¬
sions of the adults (details of this breeding will be published later).

A pair of Thai Black Drongos nested in a large walk-through
aviary. Their bulky cup nest was built over water in a Ficus tree

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TO ONE & RI MONGER - SAN DIEGO

185

approximately 7.5 m. high. Incubation and feeding were shared by
both parents and two chicks successfully fledged. Only mealworms
were observed being fed to the young but other insects were
probably caught in the exhibit. In the past, the adult drongos have
been observed catching bees from a natural hive inside the exhibit.

In 1992 , the goals of the combined bird departments of the
Zoological Society include continued work with the shrike and
California Condor recovery programme, as well as the Andean
Condor recovery programme in Colombia, a new programme focus¬
ing on the recovery of the endangered California Clapper Rail and,
as always, the challenge of breeding new species. Not overlooked
is the need to concentrate on those species that have already been
bred in captivity but are in need of continued captive propagation
to ensure their presence in aviculture. Of primary importance in all
of these goals is to organize and share the information gathered in
each of these programmes. It remains a key goal of the Zoological
Society of San Diego to document all of our activities in order that
we can duplicate our successes, avoid unnecessary failures, and
assist others in doing the same.

Ron Garrison

The Grey-winged Trumpeter, Psophia crepitans, is a species which has bred very well at
both the San Diego Wild Animal Park and the San Diego Zoo.

101 chicks have been hatched since 1985, from three different sets of parents. Breeding
units were either in pairs or in a trio (2.1)

186 LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

BIRDS HATCHED AT THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
SAN DIEGO IN 1991

Column 1 shows the numbers hatched by the parents, 2 those
hatched artificially and 3 the total numbers. Figures in brackets
represent chicks which did not survive for 30 days.

1 2 3

Mantell's Brown Kiwi

Apteryz australis mantelli

0

2(1)

2(1)

Eastern Brown Pelican

Pelecanus o. carolinensis

3(1)

0

3(1)

African Darter

Anhinga rufa

0

1(1)

1(1)

Goliath Heron

Ardea goliath

2

3

5

Honduran Boat-billed Heron
Cochlearius c. ridgewayi

3(1)

8

11(1)

Milky Stork

Mycteria cinerea

1

2

3

Hermit Ibis

Geronticus eremita

13(3)

0

13(3)

Hadada Ibis

Hagedashia h. nilotica

2

2(1)

4(1)

Roseate Spoonbill

Ajaia ajaja

1(1)

0

1(1)

Crested Screamer

Chauna torquata

1(1)

1

2(1)

Magpie Goose

Anseranas semipalmata

0

3

3

Swan Goose

Anser cygnoides

0

1

1

E. Indian Whistling Duck
Dendrocygna a. arcuata

0

7(2)

7(2)

White-faced Whistling Duck
Dendrocygna viduata

0

74(13)74(13)

Mandarin Duck

Aix galericulata

0

6

6

Red-billed Pintail

Anas erythrorhyncha

0

6

6

Falcated Duck

Anas falcata

2(2)

0

2(2)

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

187

Baikal Teal

Anas formosa

0

4 4

Hottentot Teal

Anas punctata

0

25(2) 25(2)

South African Black Duck

Anas s. sparsa

0

6(1) 6(1)

Ringed Teal

Callonetta leucophrys

0

8(2) 8(2)

Marbled Teal

Marmaronetta angtirostris

1(1)

0 1(1)

Hooded Merganser

Mergus cucullatus

0

2(2) 2(2)

Red-crested Pochard

Netta rufina

0

4(1) 4(1)

Common Shelduck

Tadorna tadorna

0

5(1) 5(1)

California Condor

Gymnogyps californianus

0

4 4

King Vulture

Sarcorhamphus papa

1

0 1

Andean Condor

Vultur gryphus

0

1 3

Hooded Vulture

Necrosyrtes monachus

0

1 1

New Hebrides Peregrine Falcon

Falco peregrinus nesiotes

3

3

African Pigmy Falcon

Polihierax semitorquatus

4(1)

3(2) 7(3)

Crested Guan

Penelope p. purpurascens

0

2 2

Congo Peacock

Afropavo congensis

1

0 1

Arabian Red-legged Partridge
Alectoris m. melanocephala

0

13(1)13(1)

Arabian Sand Partridge

Ammoperdix heyi intermedia

0

34(5)34(5)

Chestnut-bellied Hill Partridge
Arborophila javanica

0

11(3) 11(3)

Ferruginous Wood Partridge
Caloperdix oculea

0

4(1) 4(1)

Blue Eared Pheasant

Crossopdlon auritum

0

18(3) 18(3)

188

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMUNGER - SAN DIEGO

Himalayan Impeyan Pheasant
Lophophorus impeyanus

0

18(3) 18(3)

Palawan Peacock Pheasant
Polyplectron emphanum

0

2(1)

2(1)

Crested Wood Partridge

Rollulus rouloul

0

24(12)24(12)

Cabot's Tragopan

Tragopan caboti

0

1

1

Temminck’s Tragopan

Tragopan temminckii

0

11

11

Manchurian Crane

Grus japonensis

0

1

1

Grey-winged Trumpeter

Psophia crepitans

0

10

10

Guam Rail

Rallus owstoni

15(3) 3

18(3)

Sun Bittern

Eurypyga helias

1

3(3)

4(3)

White-bellied Bustard

Eupodotis senegalensis

0

6(1) 6(1)

Buff-crested Bustard

Lophotis ruficrista

0

9

9

Cream-colored Courser

Cursorius c. cursor

0

3(2)

3(2)

Crowned Lapwing

Vanellus coronatus

0

2

2

Red-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus indicus

0

3

3

Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse
Pterocles exustus

0

4

4

Nicobar Pigeon

Caloenas n. nicobarica

4

0

4

Green-winged Dove

Chalcophaps i. indica

2(1)

0

2(1)

South African Speckled Pigeon
Columba guinea phaenota

5

1

6

White-headed Pigeon

Columba leucomela

0

1

1

Ashy Wood Pigeon

Columba pulchricollis

3(1)

0

3(1)

Picui Dove

Columbina p. picui

1(1)

0

1(1)

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMUNGER - SAN DIEGO

189

Pied Imperial Pigeon

Ducula b. bicolor

6

0

6

Luzon Bleeding-heart Dove
Gallicolumba luzonica

0

1

1

Western Golden-heart Dove
Gallicolumba r. rufigula

2

4

6

Bar-shouldered Dove

Geopelia humeralis

2

1

3

Papuan Mt. Pigeon

Gymnophaps albertisii

1

0

1

Wonga Wonga Pigeon

Leucosarcia melanoleuca

1(1)

2

3(1)

Bare-faced Ground Dove

Metriopelia c. ceciliae

3

2

5

Black-winged Ground Dove
Metriopelia melanoptera

8(1)

0

8(1)

Green-naped Pheasant Pigeon
Otidiphaps n. nobilis

0

11(2) 11(2)

Squatter Pigeon

Petrophassa scripta

14(6)

13(11)27(17)

Black-backed Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus cinctus albocinctus

0

2(1)

2(1)

Coronated Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus coronulatus geminus

4(2)

5(2)

9(4)

Orange-bellied Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus iozonus

2(1)

0

2(1)

Jambu Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus jambu

4(3)

9(6)

13(9)

Black-chinned Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus 1. leclanckeri

1(1)

0

1(1)

Yellow-breasted Fruit Dove
Ptilinopus occipitalis

0

1(1)

1(1)

Pink-spotted Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus perlatus

3

5(2)

8(2)

Beautiful Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus pulchellus

5(4)

5(3)

10(7)

Superb Fruit Dove

Ptilinopus superbus

0

8(7)

8(7)

Philippine Turtle Dove

Streptopelia b. dusumieri

9(3)

0

9(3)

Red-eyed Dove

Streptopelia semitorquata

3

0

3

190

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

Senegal Dove

Streptopelia s. senegalensis

6(1)

0

6(1)

White-faced Cuckoo Dove

Turacoena manadensis

2

0

2

Black-billed Wood Dove

Turtur abyssinicus

7(3)

0

7(3)

Galapagos Dove

Zenaida g. galapagoensis

5(3)

4(1)

9(4)

Stella's Lory

Charmosyna papou stellae

0

3

3

Red-flanked Lorikeet

Charmosyna p. placentis

1

1(1)

2(1)

Black-winged Lory

Eos Cyanogenia

3

2

5

Musschenbroek's Lorikeet
Neopsittacus musschenbroekii

2

0

2

Perfect Lorikeet

Trichoglossus euteles

1

0

1

Goldie's Lorikeet

Trichoglossus goldiei

1

0

1

Red-collared Lorikeet

Trichoglossus h. rubritorquis

1

1

2

Iris Lorikeet

Trichoglossus i. iris

3

2

5

Leadbeater's Cockatoo

Cacatua /. leadbeateri

5

0

5

Slender-billed Cockatoo

Cacatua t. tenuirostris

1

1

2

Red-tailed Black Cockatoo

C alyptorhynchus magnificus

1

0

1

Rose-breasted Cockatoo

Eolophus r. roseicapillus

5

0

5

Cockatiel

Nymphicus hollandicus

10

0

10

Kea

Nestor notabilis

0

1(1)

1(1)

Black-cheeked Lovebird

Agapornis nigrigenis

5

0

5

Black-winged Lovebird

Agapornis taranta

2(1)

2(2)

4(3)

Yellow-headed Amazon

Amazona ochrocephala oratrix

0

2

2

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

191

Hyacinth Macaw
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus
Blue & Gold Macaw
Ara ararauna
Scarlet Macaw
Ara macao
Red-bellied Macaw
Ara manilata
Golden Conure
Aratinga guarouba
Grand Eclectus
Eclectus r. roratus
Bronze-winged Parrot
Pionus chalcopterus
Hooded Parrakeet
Psephotus dissimilis
Derbyan Parrakeet
Psittacula derbiana
Desmarest's Fig Parrot
Psittaculirostris d. desmarestii
Thick-billed Parrot
Rhynchopsitta p. pachyrhyncha
Thailand Bay Owl
Phodilus b. badius
Spectacled Owl
Pulsatrix p. perspicillata
White-backed Mousebird
Colius colius
Speckled Mousebird
Colius striatus
Guam Kingfisher
Halcyon c. cinnamomina
Blue-breasted Kingfisher
Halcyon malimbica
Indian Roller

Coracias benghalensis indica
European Roller
Coracias g. garrulus
Abyssinian Ground Hornbill
Bucorvus abyssinicus
Northern Red-billed Hornbill
Tockus e. erythrorhynchus

0 1 1

2 0 0

2 0 2

0 1(1) 1(1)

0 13(3) 13(3)

2 0 2

0 3 3

8 0 8

1(1) 0 1(1)

0 1 1

5 0 5

0 2 2

0 3(2) 3(2)

2(1) 0 2(1)

2 0 2

0 5(2) 5(2)

1(1) 0 1(1)

4 0 4

2 2 4

0 3 3

3 0 3

192

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLFR, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

African Grey Hornbill

2

0

2

Tockus nasutus

Black-spotted Barbet

2

0

2

Capito n. niger

Double-toothed Barbet

6

0

6

Lybius b. bidentatus

Crested Barbet

2(1)

0

2(1)

Trachyphonus v. vaillantii
Loggerhead Shrike

0

12(2) 12(2)

Lanius ludovicianus gambeli

San Clemente Loggerhead

Shrike

0

4

4

Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi
White-crowned Robin Chat

4

0

4

Cossypha albicapilla

White-browed Robin Chat

8(2)

0

8(2)

Cossypha heuglini

Ground-scraper Thrush

1

0

1

Turdus litsipsirupa

Orange-headed Thrush

2

1(1)

3(1)

Zoothera citrina

White-throated Laughing

Thrush

5(1)

1(1)

6(2)

Garrulax albogularis

Black-throated Laughing

Thrush

13(6)

0

13(6)

Garrulax chinensis

Yellow-throated Laughing

Thrush

4(2)

4(2)

8(4)

Garrulax galbanus

Red-tailed Laughing Thrush

5(2)

0

5(2)

Garrulax milnei

White-browed Laughing

Thrush

5(1)

0

5(1)

Garrulax sannio

White-necked Laughing

Thrush

1(1)

0

12(1)

Garrulax strepitans

Red-faced Liocichla

2(1)

0

2(1)

Liocichla phoenicea
Chestnut-backed Scimitar

Babbler

2(2)

0

2(2)

Pomatorhinus montanus

Striated Yuhina

1

0

1

Yuhina castaniceps

LIEBERMAN, KUEHLER, TOONE & RIMLINGER - SAN DIEGO

193

Oriole Warbler

Hypergerus a triceps

3(1)

0

3(1)

Malachite Sunbird

Nectarinia famosa

5(5)

0

5(5)

Orange-billed Sparrow

Arremon aurantiirostris

6(1)

2(2)

8(3)

Yellow-faced Grassquit

Tiaris o. olivacea

13(4)

0

13(4)

Golden-browed Chlorophonia
Chlorophonia o. callophrys

0

3(3)

3(3)

Black-faced Dacnis

Dacnis lineata

1

0

1

Yellow-throated Euphonia

Euphonia hirundinacea

6(2)

0

6(2)

Spot-crowned Euphonia

Euphonia imitans

7(2)

0

7(2)

Violaceous Euphonia

Euphonia violacea

1(1)

1(1)

2(2)

Spangle-cheeked Tanager

Tangara d. dowii

1(1)

0

1(1)

Silver-throated Tanager

Tangara i. frantzii

9(4)

0

9(4)

Golden-masked Tanager

Tangara larvata

6(3)

2

8(3)

Turquoise Tanager

Tanager m. mexicana

2

0

2

Golden-crested Mynah

Ampeliceps coronatus

12(2)

0

12(2)

Celebean Mynah

Basilornis celebensis

0

1(1)

1(1)

Emerald Starling

Lamprotornis iris

2

0

2

Rothschild's Mynah

Leucopsar rothschildi

.3(3)

0

3(3)

Grosbeak Starling

Scissirostrum dubium

12(4)

4

16(4)

White-collared Starling

Streptocitta albicollis

0

7

7

Thai Black Drongo

Dicrurus macrocercus thai

2

0

2

Asiatic Azure-winged Magpie
Cyanopica cyana swinhoei

0

9(6)

9(6)

Crested Jay

Platylophus gallericulatus

0

1(1)

1(D

* * *

194

THE SOCIETY MEETING AT RODE - 1992

On Sunday 29th March 1992 members and their friends were
invited by Donald and Betty Risdon and Mike and Norma Curzon
to visit the Tropical Bird Gardens, Rode, Somerset. Despite a damp
morning and a wet evening the duration of the visit for about 65
people was dry. Since the last Avicultural Society visit in the
Spring of 1985 improvements and rebuilding have occurred during
each winter. The most notable change occurred in January 1990
when the hurricane force winds uprooted or brought down over 100
trees several of which were over 100 years old. This resulted in the
construction of a new range of aviaries for Owls.

The early time of our visit meant that some softbills were still
in their winter quarters but the majority of the birds are out all the
year with appropriate shelters beingavailable in all the aviaries and
enclosures. A new very large aviary has been built for a pair of full
winged Secretary Birds which have a pair of Red-billed Blue
Magpies for company. (The magpies have in fact bred this sum¬
mer). We were able to view three East Africa Crowned Cranes bred
last year which were still some way from obtaining their adult
plumage.

In 1991 a pair of Golden-breasted Mynahs reared a single chick
which is believed to be a first breeding in Great Britain. A Red¬
faced Liocichla may also be a first breeding. Parrots play an
important part in the scene at Rode and last year three different
species of Amazons were bred, Double Yellow-headed, Orange¬
winged and two pairs of Blue-fronted. The colony of Peach-faced
Lovebirds is self sustaining. How nice to view this species as it
looks naturally and not the mutations which are now so common.

Rode is world famous for its Macaws especially those at liberty
and we were able to watch some of them in flight. Blue and Gold
Macaws still reproduce annually. A recent feature at Rode has been
the inter-change of birds with other collections which has enabled
pairs to be made up. Surgical sexing also made a great contribution
during the 1980's enabling "pairs" to be sexed and arrangements
made to exchange/sell accordingly. Some of the uncertainty has
thus been removed.

Hopes for 1992 are high especially with three species. A pair of
Trumpeter Hornbills have been mudded in for the last three years
but never any chicks or their remains have been found when the nest

195

is examined. Scarlet Macaws are very difficult to breed in compari¬
son with Blue and Gold Macaws. The adult pair of Secretary Birds
have laid but never hatched. Perhaps 1992 will bring success.

Already in 1992 Speckled Mousebirds have reared two young
and this in the coldest spell during January and various waterfowl
and pheasants were starting to lay.

Stewart Pyper

* * *

NEWS AND VIEWS

The first African Verreaux's Eagle to be bred in Captivity is
thriving on a diet of minced rats, baby chicks and quail at the
National Birds of Prey Centre in Newent, Glos. (Daily Telegraph,
15th May 1992).

Peter Olney, Curator of Birds and Reptiles at London Zoo, who
was for several years a member of the Council of the Avicultural
Society, has been appointed Director of the Federation of Zoologi¬
cal Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland.

In 1991, a Jambu Fruit Dove was reared by a wild-caught pair of
this very attractive species which has been in the Tropical House at
Harewood Bird Garden since 1987.

Why is it that many avicultural writers, who should know better,
persist in using "specie" as if it were the singular of "species" and
"psittacine" as if it were a noun?

*

* *

The Rothschild's Grackle studbook reports that, in 1991, more
deaths occurred than there were chicks hatched and that the total
number of birds of this species in aviaries in the United Kingdom

196

NEWS AND VIEWS

has fallen to about a hundred. In this context it is interesting to note
that one of our overseas members has fifteen pairs in his aviaries!

* * *

Recently, I received photographs of a lovely little bird owned by
Lawrence Kuah, a member in Singapore. He had obtained several
specimens from a collector working in Timor. It looks like some
sort of Parrot Finch. The beak is black, the head and breast are
cobalt blue, the flanks and abdomen are a lighter shade of blue, the
wings are green, the tail coverts are bright red and the tail is
maroon. Mike Fidler and Derek Goodwin recognised it immedi¬
ately as the Tri-coloured Parrot Finch Erythrura tricolor which, in
my ignorance, I had always believed to be one of the many races of
the Blue-faced Parrot Finch E. trichroa. However, E. tricolor is
described clearly on page 68 in Parrot Finches by Evans and
Fidler. It appears that the species exhibits marked sexual dimor¬
phism, the underparts of the female being turquoise fading to grey
in the centre of the breast and abdomen. In Parrot Finches which
was published in 1990 it is stated that the species is unknown to
aviculture. Not any more! It is breeding successfully in aviaries
in Holland at the present time.

* * *

Chicks have been hatched at Birdland, Bourton-on-the-Water
by a pair of Kelp Geese brought from the South Atlantic soon after
the end of the Falklands war. This is probably the first occasion on
which this species has been bred in captivity anywhere in the world.

* * *

Last year eleven pairs of Californian Condors in the Los Angeles
Zoo and the San Diego Animal Park laid a total of 22 eggs, 13 of
which hatched successfully. The Condor population is now 50 in
captivity and two released into the wild.

* * *

It is a long time since the Kagu has been seen in any European
aviary although Zoo specimens have been known to thrive for
twenty to thirty years. This remarkable member of the many
unusual species of birds of New Caledonia is about the size of a

NEWS AND VIEWS

197

bantam. Its plumage is mainly bluish-grey with the undersides of
the wings, which it shows in aggression or display, striped red,
white and black. Both sexes have attractive crests. It is now a
seriously endangered species as a result, particularly, of deforesta¬
tion and predation by introduced mammals. A conservation project
in New Caledonia is being run by the International Council for Bird
Preservation. A captive bred pair which reared a chick in 1988 was
presented by the project team to the Nogeyama Zoo in Yokohama
where their breeding attempts in 1989 were unsuccessful but
successful again in 1990 when they produced two chicks one of
which, a male, was hand reared and the other, a female, reared by
its parents.

The Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust continues to be success¬
ful in breeding the very rare and endangered Mauritius Pink Pigeon
and last year (1991) 15 young birds were reared. The programme
for their reintroduction to their natural habitat is well under way.
It has been found already that the return of mature birds is fraught
with problems because they are inclined to panic and get lost. On
the other hand, young birds released in small groups tend to stay
together close to the release aviaries until they become accustomed
to their new environment and capable of finding wild food for
themselves. Some are breeding already although only three chicks
were known to have been reared successfully last year probably
because of nest predation by rats.

It is now about two years since Harry Horswell and his wife,
Mary, died and Geoffrey Greed took over as Secretary of the
Avicultural Society. The Society was then in a parlous state and its
survival has been dependent almost entirely upon the financial and
practical assistance given by Bristol Zoo, its Director Geoffrey
Greed and some members of his staff. This is an appropriate time
to record our sincere thanks to them for their efforts to ensure the
continued existence of the Avicultural Society and the publication
of its magazine.

Ed.

198

APOLOGY

Robin Restall has drawn my attention to errors in his article
entitled "Observations on the Grey-headed Mannikin Lonchura
caniceps and the Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura Castane-
othorax in the Port Moresby Area" which appeared in volume 98
number 2 pages 51 - 57 of the Avicultural Magazine for which the
editor offers his sincere apologies.

They were as follows:

1. Page 55 The first paragraph is misplaced and should appear
between ....plumage." and "Despite Immelmann’s ..." on line 25 of
that page.

2. Page 56 The following eight lines were missing from the top
of the page "...they were bedding down for there was much
muttering of soft mewing wee notes and others including the zeet-
a-zeet song referred to above. They roosted by their own biological
clock and not because I covered them up, in fact I had not altered
the lighting in the room.

Comparative Comments

There is a school of thought that believes the Chestnut-breasted
Mannikin and the Grey-headed Mannikin are conspecific. They ..."

He has asked for the addition to the same article of the following
references:

DIAMOND, J. M. and LECROY, M., 1979. Birds of Karkar and Bagabag Island,
New Guinea. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 164: 467 - 531.

JONKERS, B., and ROERSMA, H., 1990. New Subspecies of Lonchura spectabilis
from East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. Dutch Birding 12 (1) 22 - 25.

* * *

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world’s zoos a regular medium for the
exchange of information, news and ideas.
With contributors in six continents, and,
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AVICULTURAL SOCIETY NEW MEMBERS IN 1992

UNITED KINGDOM OVERSEAS

Mr. P. J. Cleeton

North Wales

Mr. M. P. Gaborek

U.S.A.

Mr. R. J. Fisher

Norwich

Mr. A. Gabriele

Italy

Mr. M. G. Klak

Reading

Dr. A. A. S. Mirdad

Saudi Arabia

Mr. M. R. Low

Luton

Mrs.K.L.Motkowski

U.S.A.

Mr. K.S.M.Pearman

London

Mr. R. 0sterballe

Denmark

Mr. R. G. Sweeney

Bordon

Mr. P. Taplin

Cobham

Mr. M. Tiley

London

Mr. P. White

Taunton

DONATIONS RECEIVED IN 1992

The Society is most grateful to the following members for their generous
support:-

Mr. T. E. Broderick

Mr. J. F. Harris

Dr. H. Quinque

Mr. R. H. Cattermole

Prof. J. R. Hodges

Mr. R. L. Restall

Mr. F. & Mrs. D. Cooke

Mr. F. S. Hogg

Mr. B. C. Riley

Mr. K. W. Dolton

Mr. H. Kapyla

Mr. D. P. Shearing

Mr. R. E. D'Erlanger

Mr. B. R. Kyme

Mrs. G. J. Stevens

Mr. E. H. Down

Mr. D.A.Jenkinson

Mr. J. G. Thurlow

Ms. W. Duggan

Mr. C. A. Joseph

Mr. J. Trollope

Mr. C. M. Fountain

Mr. F. B. Lake

Capt. F. J. Turner

Mr. R. H. Grantham

Mrs. S. S. Lawton

Mr. J. Vaughan

Mr. A. Greenwood

Mr. W. L. Lodge

Mr. J. K. Watson

Mr. A. V. Griffiths

Mr. R. E. Oxley

Mr. P. J. Pheby

Mrs. R. Wiseman

* * *

MEMBERS' ADVERTISEMENTS
(lOp per word. Minimum £3.00)

AMERICAN PHEASANT AND WATERFOWL SOCIETY. You are
invited to jon the Society and receive ten issues of the Society’s magazine
yearly. Informative and interesting to people rearing waterfowl, pheas¬
ants and miscellaneous birds. Deals with incubation, diseases, and other
factors in rearing birds. Annual Dues: 25 US dollars. Lloyd R. Ure,
Secretary/Treasurer, W2270 US, Hwy 10, Granton, WI 54436.

AMERICAN CAGE-BIRD MAGAZINE has been. publishing monthly
since 1928. It features timely and informative articles on parrots,
canaries, finches, budgerigars and cockatiels. These are written by
leading breeders and bird fanciers. Subscription: 26.00 US dollars per
year (US funds please) to AMERICAN CAGE-BIRD MAGAZINE, 1
Glamore Court, Smithtown, N.Y. 11787, U.S.A.

THE AVICULTURAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND Inc. welcomes
new members. An Australian Society catering for all birds both in
captivity and in the wild. We publish a bi-monthly magazine on all
aspects of aviculture and conservation. Anyone interested in member¬
ship, please contact : The Secretary, The Avicultural Society of Qld. Inc.,
P.O. Box 414, Red Hill, Qld. 4059, Australia.

AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE back numbers. Large stock available
including some early issues. Sales by post only. List in preparation,
please apply to the Hon. Secretary, Avicultural Society, c/o Bristol
Zoological Gardens, Clifton, Bristol, BS8 3HA, England.

Published by the Avicultural Society, England.
Printed by W.B.Harris Printing Company, Bristol, England.

1 317 SI XL
09/93 198115

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